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DICTIONARY
7
T5?*
OF
ARTS  AND SCIENCES.
                BY G. GREGORY, D. D.

DOCTOR IN PHILOSOPHY AND THE ARTS, AND HONORARY MEMBER OF THE IMPERIAL UNIVERSITY OF VVILNA; MEMBER OF THE
   MANCHESTER AND NEWCASTLE LITERARY AND PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETIES; HONORARY MEMBER OF THE
       BOAD OF AGRICULTURE; DOMESTIC CHAPLAIN TO THE LORD BISHOP OF LANDAFFJ
          AUTHOR OF ESSAYS HISTORICAL AND MORAL, THE ECONOMY OF NATUKK.
                           »
                     Sec &c.
IN THREE VOLUMES.
     VOL. I.
FIRST AMERICAN, FROM THE SECOND LONDON EDITION,
    ^CONSIDERABLY IMPROVED AND AUGMENTED.
           PHILADELPHIA:
PUBLISHED BY ISAAC PE1RCE, No. 12 SOUTH FOURTH STREET,
              1815.   / 
	MeM'tf.
03£	Aci
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&<*xi<J	/ Wit / v.1
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TO THE RIGHT HONOURABLE
                  THOMAS, LORD ERSKINE,

    BARON ERSKINE OF RESTORMEL CASTLE, IN THE COUNTY OP CORNWALL

            LORD HIGH CHANCELLOR OF GREAT BRITAIN, &c.

  MY LORD,
                    THOUGH a Dedication is in general an expression
of gratitude from an Author to his Patron, or of friendship from one lit-
erary character to another, yet I  cannot  but be of  opinion, that there
should be some accord between the character of the  Work  and that of
the Patron to whom it is presented.

  In this point of view the world will see the propriety of a Work which
professes to  treat of the Sciences and the Arts in general, being inscribed
to a nobleman  who  unites in himself more various, as well  as more
splendid talents, more general knowledge, and more diversified taste, than
any other public character of the present age;  who, deservedly filling the
chair of Bacon, possesses  the same excursive and expanded genius; but
whose public duties, being more onerous than  they were in the  time of
that great man, alone preclude  him from -gratifying and enlightening the
Public by researches out of the line of his  profession.

  If a private  sentiment might  be indulged on  such an occasion, the
Editor would add,  that your Lordship's unremitted zeal for true Religion,
and your tried and disinterested Patriotism, must for ever  endear the
name of Erskine to every friend of liberty, piety, and active virtue. 
1V                           DEDICATION.
  That your Lordship may long continue to serve your country, and pro-
mote the best interests of humanity, in the arduous situation to which the
Divine Providence Jias been pleased to call you, is the fervent prayer  of,

              My Lord,

                  Your Lordship's

                      Ever faithful humble servant,

                                                   G. GREGORY.
 West Ham, Jan. 20,1807. 
PREFACE.
     FROM the time of Chambers, Dictionaries of Arts and Sciences have been increasing in magnitude, without,
it is to be feared, a proportionable increase of utility.   The authors appear to have regarded it as a kind of sac-
rilege to retrench,  while they have equally thought it their duty to add every thing that came within their reach*
Hence not only obsolete terms, but obsolete sciences, as magic, alchymy,  and astrology, have been retained even
in works of high character, and otherwise of distinguished merit.   Hence, that which was new even in the  living
sciences, has been combined with what had been long since exploded: a practice calculated not only to confuse
but to mislead.

   It was upon this view of the subject it occurred  to the editor of this work, that in framing a new Dictionary,
selection was a more urgent duty than accumulation ; that perspicuity, not less than convenience, would be con-
sulted by reducing the  size ; and that whatever is practically useful in  science and in art might be compressed
within a smaller compass than had been commonly imagined.   However deficient he may have been in the execu-
tion of his plan,  he has the satisfaction to say, that  in this idea he was not deceived or disappointed.

   A dictionary of this kind is intended for  two purposes: first,  as a book of reference, to lie on the table of a
man  of letters, for occasional consultation where recollection has  failed,  or  where a subject occurs in reading or
conversation which had not previously come within the course of his studies.   The second is,  to serve as an intro-
ductory or elementary  work for students, or for those who may not have leisure to bestow on the great works of
science, or to travel through the many volumes which at this time almost every branch of knowledge includes.

   The first of  these ends, it is  humbly presumed, will be sufficiently answered by the present publication.  Most
of the technical terms in science and the arts, are inserted with a proper definition or explanation, in the alphabet-
ical order; or should there be a casual omission, the word will still be found under the head of the science to  which
it belongs, and probably in the index to the treatises at the end of each  volume.  To some sciences it was found
necessary  to attach a glossary.   The technical phrases, however,  in anatomy, surgery, &c. are generally referred
to those branches of  science expressly treating of them,  that nothing may appear, on casually opening the book,
to offend the most modest or delicate  reader.  Terms also which  now constitute a part of common colloquial lan-
guage, and which, therefore, every person must understand, have been  omitted.

   With respect to the second object,  no pains have been spared in preparing  those articles which treat  of the
respective sciences.  In a work of this nature it cannot be expected that the whole should be original,  nor could
it in  that case answer so well the ends for which it is designed.   An Encyclopedia is in its nature a compilation ;
and  its  best commendation is,  that it amasses together the best information  from the best sources.   Yet  in this
work there is much original composition ; and such is the progress of science, that it contains scarcely any articles
of importance which are to be  found in any similar publication.

   In order also to  facilitate  as much as possible the study of the sciences,  every attention,  consistent with  the
nature of the work, has been paid to method;  and the  student will not be much at a loss to distinguish the order
in  which the several parts of each science are  to be read.  Thus,  under Natural History, he will find a synopsis 
PREFACE.
of the several branches, the classes and orders,  and under these the names of the genera; under Zoology,  again,
he will not only meet the classes and orders, but also an  immediate reference to the  genera.  Under Chymistry,
he will find the  outlines of the science, and references to the different branches,  which are treated more at large
in other parts of the work.   Thus under Furnace and Laboratory, is included the whole of the apparatus ;  and
he will then turn to Air,  and the simple substances as they stand enumerated there,  or under the word Elements.
Astronomy and Mineralogy, he will see, have similar references.  Electricity,  Hydrostatics, Hydraulics, Mag-
netism,  Mechanics, Meteorology, Optics, Pneumatics, and the Medical Branches,  are complete in themselves.
Those articles which relate to the Arts are also complete.   Those  which treat of the different subjects of Trade
and Commerce are also complete, and  contain all the new information which could be obtained on those important
topics.

  The Editor cannot conclude this address without frankly stating,  that whatever may be thought of the merits of
the new Dictionary of Arts and Sciences, they are more to be attributed to the very able assistance with which he has
been favoured from different quarters, than to his own exertions.  He wishes he could make his acknowledgments
in terms equal to his sense of the obligation.  To his industrious and truly  able coadjutor, the Rev. Mr. Joyce,
he is indebted for much general assistance, and for the exclusive superintendence of all the mathematical and as-
tronomical articles.  A similar acknowledgment  is  due to his friend and  neighbour, Luke Howard, Esq. particu-
larly for his attention to all those articles connected with the almost new,  and important science, Meteorology.

  The public will estimate better than he can point out the extent of his and their obligations to Mr. Grellier, of
the Royal Exchange Assurance Office, when he mentions, that all  the  articles relative to Trade, Commerce,
Political Economy, Finance, and Revenue, were drawn up by that gentleman.

  The Medical and Physiological articles  were  written by Dr. Uwins,  of  Somers Town; Husbandry and Sur-
veying by Mr. Crocker, of Froome;  Rhetoric by  Dr. Thomson,  well  known as the  Continuator of Watson*s
History ; Architecture by Mr. Henderson,-the plates by Mr. Moore;  Exchanges by Mr. P. Hamsbrow ; Farriery
by Mr.  Lawrence; and Anatomy by Mr.  A. Walker.

  Those articles which are connected with History and Antiquities, have been  furnished by a distinguished
scholar, as will be  easily  perceived; those relative to the  Fine  Arts,  by a gentleman well known in the literary
world;  Poetry by a lady, who, like Vida,  has asserted her title to the character of a critic,  by having excelled in
the art itself; the Military articles are the production of a literary gentleman who was educated in that profession;
and some of the  principal Law articles are by a member of one of the  inns of court.   Besides these, the editor has
been favoured with single communications from Dr.  Mavor, Mr.  M. Smart, and several  correspondents who desire
their names to be concealed. 
A
ARTS   AND
                       ABA

 A9  the first letter of the alphabet, is used, on many oc-
 casions, as a mark, or abbreviation.   Thus, in the calen-
 dar, it is the first of the dominical letters : among logicians,
 it denotes  an universal  affirmative proposition; as a nu-
 meral, A signified one among the Greeks 5 but among the
 Romans it  denoted 500,  and with a dash  over it, thus, a,
 5000.  The Romans also used it on public occasions for
 antiquare, to antiquate  or reject a proposed law ; as did
 the judges of the same people for absolvo, I absolve or
 acquit; whence it had the name of litera salutaris.   A
 is frequently also met  with, denoting Aulus, Augustus,
 Ager, Aiunt, &c. A.A. stands for Augusti; A.A.A. for
 aurum, argentum &es;  and, among chymists, for amal-
 gama.  A.M. is used for anno mundi, artium magister,
 or ante meridiem ; A.A.U.C. for anno ab urbe condita;
 A.B. for alia bona, or artium baccalaureus ; A.C.  for
 acta causa, alius civis, or ante Christum; and A.D. for
 anno domini.   On ancient medals, A. stands for Argus,
 and sometimes for Athens ; but on French coins of modern
 date, it is the mark of  the mint of  Paris.  A, o, or aa,
 among physicians, denotes ana,  or an equal weight or
 quantity of several ingredients.  The  letter A is also used
 by merchants, to signify accepted.
   A AM, a measure of capacity used by the Dutch, oth-
 erwise called h.aam ; it contains 128 mingles, or 288  En-
 glish pints.
   A AVORA, a fruit of  a kind of palm tree, found in the
 West Indies and in Africa.  It is of the  size of a hen's
 egg, and is  included with others in  a large  shell.  In the
 middle of the fruit there is a hard  nut, which contains a
 white almond, very astringent,  and  used in cases of diar-
 rhoea.
   AB, in the  Hebrew chronology,  the eleventh month of
 the civil, and  the fifth of the ecclesiastical year; it com-
prehended  part  of July and August, and contained thirty
 days.
   ABACATUAIA.   See Zeds.
   ABACK, a  sea term, which signifies  the situation of
the -ails in  a ship, when the surfaces are  driven bv  the
   voi. .            2
OF
SCIENCES.
                       ABA

 wind flat against the mast.  They may be brought aback
 by a sudden change of the wind, or an alteration in the
 ship's course.
   ABA COT, the name of the ancient coronet, or cap of
 state, worn by the English kings, the upper part of which
 was made up in the  form of a double crown.
   ABACTORS, drivers away and  stealers of cattle in
 herds, or great numbers.  In  Spain  this  crime  is  very
 common, and the punishment severe.
   ABACUS, in  architecture, the uppermost  member of
*the capital of a column.  In the Tuscan, Doric, and Ionic
 orders, the  abacus  is flat and square; but in the richer
 orders, its four sides, or faces, are arched inward,  with
 some ornament, as a rose or ether flower, in the middle of
 each arch, and its four corners cut off.
   According to Vitruvius, the abacus was originally in-
 tended to represent  a square flat tile, laid  over an urn or
 a  basket.  The invention is  ascribed  to  Callimachus ;
 who observed a small basket covered with a tile, over the
 root of an acanthus  plant which grew on the grave  of a
 young lady ; the plant shooting up encompassed the bas-
 ket, till, meeting the tile, it  turned back in  the  form of
 scrolls.  The philosopher took the hint, and executed a
 capital on this plan, representing the tile by the abacus,
 the leaves of the acanthus by the volutes, and the basket
 by the body of (he capital.  See Architecture.
   Scamozzi  also uses abacus for a concave moulding in
 the capital of the Tuscan pedestal.
   Abacus, or Abaciscus, in the ancient architecture,
 likewise denoted  certain compartments in mosaic pave-
 ments, and the like.                             ,
   Abacus, among the ancient mathematicians, was a table
 strewed over with dust, or sand, on which they  drew their
 figures or schemes.
   Abacus, an instrument for facilitating the operations of
 arithmetic, by means of counters.  Its form is various;
 but that chiefly used in Europe, is made by drawing par-
 allel lines, distant  from each other at least twice the diam-
 eter of a counter ; which placed on the lowermost line,
 signifies 1 ; on the second, 10; on the third, 100; on the 
ABA                                                ABB
 fourth, 1000 ; and so on.  Again, a counter, placed in the
 spaces between the lines, signifies only the half of what it
 would do on the next superior line.  According to this no-
 tation, the same number, 1806 for example, may be repre-
 sented by different dispositions of counters.  See A and
 B, in Plate  IX. fig. 1.
   Abacus pythagoricus, a multiplication table, or a table
 of numbers ready-  cast up, to  facilitate operations in
 arithmetic.
   Abacus logisticus, is also a kind of multiplication table,
 in form of a right angled triangle;  each side contains the
 numbers from 1 to 60, and its area the product of  each
 two opposite numbers.
   ABAFT, in sea language, a term applied to any  thing
 situated toward the stern of a vessel:  thus, a thing is said
 to be abaft  the  foremast, or  mainmast, when placed be-
 tween the foremast, or mainmast, and the stern.
   Abaft the beam, denotes the relative situation of any
 object with the ship, when it is  placed in  that part of the
 horizon which  is contained between a line at right angles
 with the keel, and that  point of  the compass which  is di-
 rectly  opposite to the ship's course.
   ABAGI, a silver coin, current in Georgia, worth about
 18 pence.
   ABARCA,  a kind of shoe, made of raw hides, formerly
 worn by the peasants of Spain.   Some mention another
 kind of abarca,  made of wood,  like the French sabots.
   ABAS, a Persian weight, used in weighing pearls.  It
 is one eighth less than the European carat.
   ABASED, abaisse,  in  heraldry, is  said of the wings
 of eagles, &c.  when the tip inclines downward to the
 point of the shield ;  or when the wings are shut; the nat-
 ural way of bearing them being spread.   A chevrond,
 pale, bend, &c. are also said to be abased, when their points
 terminate in or below the centre of the shield.  Lastly, an
 abased ordinary, is one placed below its due situation.
   ABASSI, or Abassis, a silver coin, current in Persia,
 worth from 16  to 18 pence English.   It derives its  name
 t>om Shah Abbas II. under whom it was first struck.
   ABATE, in the manege.  A  horse is said to abate or
 take down his  curvets, when he  puts both  his hind legs to
 the  ground at  once, and observes the same exactness in
 all the  times.
   Abate, in law, signifies to overthrow, demolish, or de-
 stroy.  It is likewise used to denote the act of him  who
 steps into an estate, void by the  death of the last possess-
 or, before the heir can  enter, and by this means keeps
 him out.
   AB ATELEMENT, is used for a prohibition of trade to
 all French merchants in the ports of the Levant, who will
 not stand to their bargains, or refuse to pay their debts.
   The  abatelement is a sentence of the French consul, and
 must be taken off before they can sue  any  person for the
 payment of their debts.
   ABATEMENT, in law, signifies the rejecting a suit,
 en account of some fault either in the  matter, or proceed-
 ing.   Hence, plea in abatement is some exception alleged,
 and  proved, against the plaintiff's writ, declaration, &c.
 and praying that the plaint may abate  or  cease; which
 being granted, all writs in the process must  begin de novo.
   Abatement is also  an irregular entry  upon houses or
lands, and in this sense, is almost synonymous  with intru-
 sion.
   Abatement, in  heraldry, a mark which is attached to
a coat of arms, in order to lessen its true dignity, and point
out some imperfection or stain in the character of the per-
son who bears it.  Abatements are either made by rever-
sion or diminution ; the whole escutcheon being turned up-
side down, or another inverted one added, in the former
case; and  as  to diminutions,  they  are either a delf,  a
point, a point dexter, a  point champain, a plain point, a
goar sinister, or two gussets.
   Abatement,  in commerce, is a discretionary allowance
for damage of goods  sold, for a defect of weight or measure,
on account of bad markets, &c.
   Abatement in the customs, is an allowance made on the
duty of damaged goods, upon the judgment of two mer-
chants upon oath, and  ascertained by  a certificate from
the surveyor and landing waiter.
   Abatis, in a military sense, is formed by cutting down
many entire tree9,  the branches  of  which are turned
toward  the enemy,  and  designed  to guard  entrench-
ments, to cover the  passage of a river, to block up roads,
&.C.
   ABATOR, in law, one who enters into a  house or lands,
void by the death of the last possessor, before the true
heir; and thereby keeps him out till  he brings the writ
intrusione.
   ABB, in our old writers, is used for the yarn of a weav-
er's  warp; and hence the wool of which it was  made, had
the name of abb wool.
   ABBA, a Syriac  term  literally signifying father, and
used as a title  of respect and  honour.   Slaves were not
allowed the use of this term, which explains the meaning
of St. Paul, Rom. viii. 15.  The Jews assumed the name as
a title of dignity ; and in many of the  eastern churches
it  is  the title which the people give to  their bishops. But
the bishops themselves bestow it particularly on the pa-
triarch of Alexandria.
   ABBE', the denomination of a class of persons in France,
who have not obtained any fixed settlement in the churches,
but are expectants  of one that may happen to  become
vacant.  Their dress is that of an academic, rather  than
of an ecclesiastic.                                v
   ABBESS, the superior  of a convent of  nuns.   The
abbess enjoys the same  privileges, and has the same au-
thority over her nuns,  that the abbots have over their
monks; spiritual functions only  excepted, of  which the
sex renders her incapable.
   ABBEY, the name of such religious houses as are gov-
erned by a superior, under the title  of abbot or abbess.
Abbeys  differ in nothing from priories, except that the
latter are governed by priors, instead of abbots.
   The  abbeys of England, at  their dissolution  under
king Henry VIII.  became lay  fees :  no  less than  190
were then dissolved, of between 200/. and 35,000/. yearly
revenue, which at a medium amounted to 2,853,000/. per
annum; an immense sum in those days.
   The  abbey lands  before this  dissolution  were chiefly
tithe free;  and these exemptions were continued to the
lay possessors by the act 31 Hen. VIII. c. 13.
   ABBOT, the superior, or governor of a monastery of
monks erected into an abbey or prelacy.
   The abbots of the primitive monasteries, from the pov-
erty they professed, and commonly practised, had no other
claim to superiority or respect than what arose from the 
ABB
ABC
 sanctity of their lives; 'but  afterward, affecting not only
 pre-eminence over each other, but even to be independ-
 ent of the bishop, there arose new species  and  distinc-
 tions of abbots into mitred and not mitred, croziered and
 not croziered, and oecumenical abbots.
   Abbots, 'Mitred, were  those who were privileged  to
 wear a mitre, and  besides enjoyed the  full episcopal ju-
 risdiction of their several precincts.  Among us, these
 were called abbots sovereign, or abbots general, and were
 lords of parliament:  they were twenty-seven in number,
 besides two mitred priors.   The unmitred abbots contin-
 ued subject to their diocesan bishop.
   Abbots, Croziered, were  those entitled to carry acro-
 zier, or pastoral  staff.
   Abbot, Oecumenical, the same  with  universal, was  a
 title assumed among the Greeks, in imitation of  the pa-
 triarch  of Constantinople: nor  have those  of the Latin
 church been backward in this respect; some having call-
 ed themselves abbas abbatum, or the abbot of  abbots;
 and others assumed the  title of cardinal abbot.
   Abbots, however, are chiefly distinguished, at present,
 into  regular  and commendatory;  the  former  being real
 monks or religious, and the latter only seculars or laymen.
 These last, notwithstanding that  the  term  commendam
 seems to signify the contrary, have the  perpetual enjoy-
 ment of the fruits  of their abbeys.   Anciently the cere-
 mony of creating an abbot consisted in clothing him with
 the habit called cuculla, or  cowl; putting the pastoral
 staff into his hand, and the shoes called pedales, on his feet;
 but at present, it is only a simple benediction, improperly
 called, by some, consecration.
   Abbot is also a  title given to others besides the supe-
 riors of monasteries: thus bishops, whose sees were for-
 merly abbeys, are called abbots; as are the superiors of
 some congregations of regular canons, particularly that of
 St. Genevieve at Paris,  and  among the Genpese the chief
 magistrate of their republic formerly bore the title of abbot
 of the people.   It was likewise usual, about  the  time  of
 Charlemagne, for  several lords to assume  the  title  of
 count abbots, abba comites ; and that for no other reason,
 but because the superintendency of certain  abbeys was
 committed to them.
   ABBREVIATE of adjudication, in Scotch law, is an
 abstract or abridgment of a decree which is recorded in a
 register kept for that purpose.
  ABBREVIATION, is a  contraction of a word or pas-
 sage, made  by dropping some letters, or by substituting
 marks or  characters in their place.  Abbreviations are
 employed in language three ways; in terms, in sorts  of
 words, and in construction.  Lawyers, physicians, chym-
 istsj"&c. use many abbreviations.
  Abbreviation of fractions, is the reduction of them
                    24   8   2       9abx   3ax.
 to lower terms thus, — = — = —, and —— =     .
                    36   12   3       36c     c
  ABBREVIATORS, a  college of 72 persons  in the
 chancery of Rome, whose  business, according to Cham-
pini,  is to draw up the pope's briefs, and reduce the pe-
 titions granted by him into proper form.
  The abbreviators are  divided into two parts, or ranks ;
 the out' called abbreviatores de parco majore, who are
 twelve in number, and all prelates ; the other abbreviatQ'
res de parco minore, called also cxaminatorea, Mho mav
be all laymen.
   ABBREUVOIR,   in  masonry,  certain indentures
made with a  hammer, in the joints and beds of stones, in
order that the mortar, being received into these, may bind
them the  more firmly together.
  ABCEDARY,  Abcedarian, or Abecedarian, an
epithet given to compositions, the parts of which are  dis-
posed in the order of the letters of the alphabet: thus, we
say abcedarian psalms, lamentations, hymns.
  These are met with chiefly among Hebrew writers, and
as they have but 22 letters In  their alphabet,  poems of
this kind consist of 22 lines, or systems of lines or periods.
and every line or period begins with each letter in its order,
The cxixth Psalm  is a  very remarkable instance of this
kind.  Psalms cxi. cxii.  and Lam. iii. are perfectly alpha-
betical, in which every line is marked by its initial letter.
There are others,  as Psalms xxv. xxxiv. xxxvii. cxlv.
&c. in which the stanza only is distinguished.   This was
a contrivance probably intended to assist the memory, and
was employed in subjects of common use,  as maxims of
morality and forms of devotion.
  ABD ALS, in the Asiatic customs, a kind of furious en-
thusiasts, whose madness impels them frequently to  run
about the streets and kill all they meet of a different re-
ligion  from  what they profess : this our sailors call run-
ning a muck, from the name of the instrument, a sort of
poniard.
  ABDEST, among Mahometans, a kind of washing or
lotion  practised both by  Turks  and Persians, before
prayer, entering the mosque, or reading the alcoran.
  ABDICATION, the act of a magistrate, who relin-
quishes or divests himself of an office.  It differs from res-
ignation, as this last is done in favour of some other per-
son ; whereas abdication is done without  any such view.
In this sense, Dioclesian is  said to have  abdicated the
crown; but Philip  IV. of Spain resigned it.  The parlia-
ment of England voted that James II. having endeavoured
to subvert the constitution of the kingdom, had abdicated
the government, and that the throne was thereby vacant.
  Abdication is  also  used by civilians, for  a father's
discarding his son.  This, called likewise  a/ami/ta alien-
atio, was  different from exheredation, or disinheriting,
as being done in the father's life time; whereas exhere-
dation never took place till his death :  so that an abdicated
son was actually disinherited, but not vice versa.
  Abdication, among the Romans, was also used for a
citizen's renouncing his liberty, and voluntarily becom-
ing a slave.
  ABDOMEN, the lower part of the trunk of the body
reaching from the  thorax  to the bottom  of the pelvis.
See Anatomy.
  For diseases and  wounds of the abdomen.  See Medi-
cine and Surgery.
  ABDUCTION,  in logic, a form of reasoning  called by
the Greeks apagogue; by  which  from a  certain or un-
deniable proposition, we infer the truth of something sup-
posed  to be  contained  in  that proposition :  thus in this
syllogism:
  Whatever God has revealed is certainly true :
  Now, God has revealed a future retribution;
  Therefore a future retribution h certainly true. 
ABE                                                 ABE
   In arguments of this  kind,  it is always necessary to
 prove the minor proposition to be contained in the major, or
 uudeniable one, otherwise, the reasoning loses all its force.
   Abduction, in surgery, a kind of fracture, wherein
 the bone being entirely broken near a joint, the two stumps
 recede considerably from each other.  See Surgery.
   ABDUCTION,  in law, is the act  of carrying  off a
 woman, and marrying her against her will, (a)
   ABDUCTOR,  or Abducent, in anatomy, a  name
 given to several muscles on  account of  their serving to
 withdraw, open, or pull back the parts to  which they are
 fixed.  See Anatomy.
   ABEL  TREE.  See Populus.
   ABELONIANS, a sect ofiieretics, called also abelians
 and abeloites, whose distinguishing doctrine was to marry,
 and yet live in professed abstinence ; a tenet which, ac-
 cording to some authors, they founded on that text, 1 Cor.
 vii. 29.  Let them that have wives be as though they had
 none.  To perpetuate the sect, they allowed  each man
 and woman to adopt a boy and girl, who were to be  their
 heirs, and who were to marry under the same obligation of
 continence.
   ABERRATION, in astronomy, an apparent motion of
 the celestial bodies, occasioned by the progressive motion
 of light, and the earth's annual advance in her orbit.
   This effect may be explained by the motion  of  a line
 parallel to itself, in a way similar to the explanation of the
 composition and resolution of forces in mechanics.  Let the
 proportion of the velocity of a ray of light, to that of the
 earth in her orbit, be as BC (see Plate XIV. figure  2.) to
 the line AC ;  then, by the composition of these two mo-
 tions, the ray will seem to describe BA or DC, instead of
 its real course BC, and will appear in  the direction AB,
 instead of its true direction  CB.  Therefore if AB rep-
 resent a tube, carried with a parallel motion by an observer
 along the line AC, in the time that a particle of light would
 move over the space BC, the different places of the  tube
 being AB, ab, cd, CD; and when the eye, or end of the
 tube, is at A, let a particle of light be supposed  to  enter
 at  B;  then when the tube is at ab, the particle will be at
 e, in  the axis of the  tube ; and when the  tube is at cd,
 the particle of light  will be at/;  and  when the  tube has
 arrived at CD, the particle will be at C, and will appear
 to come in the direction DC of the tube, instead of the
 true direction BC.   Thus one particle succeeding anoth-
 er, forms a continued stream of light in the apparent di-
 rection DC.   So that the apparent angle made  by the
 lay of light with the line AE, is the  angle DCE, instead
 of the true angle BCE ;  and the difference BCD, or ABC,
 is the quantity of the aberration.
   We  are indebted  for  this great discovery to the late
 Dr. Bradley, astronomer  royal, who was led to it by the
 result of observations made with a vie# of determining the
 annual parallax of the fixed stars, or  that  which arises
 from  the motion of the earth in its annual orbit about the
 sun.  See Parallax.
   Aberration of the planets, is equal to the geocentric
 motion of the planet, or the space it appears to move as
 seen from the  earth, during the  time that  the lisjht em-
 ploys in passing from the planet to the earth.   Thus in
 the sun, the aberration in longitude is constantly 20"; that
being the space moved by the sun, or, which is the same
thing, by the earth, in eight minutes  and seyen  seconds,
which is the time that light takes  in passing from the sun
to the earth.   Hence the aberration of the other planets
is found:  for knowing the distance  of the sun from the
earth, it will  be by common proportion, as  the  distance
of the earth from the sun is to the distance of the planet,
so is 8' 7", to  the time of light's passing from  the planet  to
the«earth ; then computing the planet's geocentric motion
in this time, that will be the aberration of the planet, whether
it be in longitude, latitude, right ascension, or declination.
  The aberration will be  greatest in  the longitude, and
very small in latitude, because  the planets de\iate very
little from the plane of the  ecliptic ; so that the aberration
in the latitude of the planets may be neglected as insen-
sible, the greatest in Mercury being  only 4"£, and much
less  in the other planets.  The aberration in declination
and right ascension, depend on the situation of the planet  in
the zodiac.  The aberration in longitude,  being equal  to
the geocentric motion, will be  more or less, according  as
that  motion may be. It will be least  when  the planet is
stationary ; and greatest in the superior planets, when they
are in opposition;  but in the inferior  planets the aberra-
tion  is greatest  at the time of their superior conjunction.
The maxima of aberration for  the several planets, when
their distance from the sun is least, are as follow:
       Saturn                        27'   0
       Jupiter                        29   8
       Mars                          37    8
       Venus    -         -     -    43   2
       Mercury  -    -              59   0
       The Moon      ...     0  40
  Between these numbers and nothing, the aberrations  of
the planets in longitude vary according to their situations.
But that of the sun is always 20":  the  sun may, however,
alter his declination by a quantity which varies from 0  to
nearly 8",  being the greatest  about  the equinoxes,  and
vanishing in the solstices.
  Aberration, in optics, a deviation  of the rays of light,
whereby they are prevented  from meeting  in  the same
point.
  Aberrations are of two kinds ; one arising from the fig-
ure of the reflecting body, the other from the different
refrangibility of the rays themselves :  this last is called the
Newtonian aberration, from the name of the discoverer.
  With regard to  the  former species of aberration,  or
that  arising from the figure, we may observe, that if rays
issue from a point at a given distance, then they will be re-
flected into the  other focus of an  ellipse, when the lumi-
nous point is  in one focus ; or directly  from the other
focus of an hyperbola, and will be variously dispersed by
all other figures.   If the luminous point is infinitely dis-
tant, or the incident rays  parallel, then they will be re-
flected by a parabola into its focus.   These figures being
difficult to form, curved  specula are commonly made
spherical; the figure of which is generated by the revolu-
tion  of a circular arc, which  produces an aberration of all
rays, whether they are parallel or not :  and therefore it has
no accurate geometrical focus, which is common to all rays.
  Aberration,, crown of, is a luminous circle about the
real disk of the sun* and depending on the aberration of the
solar rays, by which his apparent diameter is enlarged.
  ABETTOR, or  Abbettor, the person who promotes
a crime or procures it to be  committed : thus, an abettor
of murder is one  who commands or  counsels another to 
AB L
ABO
 commit it.   An abettor, according as he is present or ab-
 sent, at the time of committing the fact, i3 punishable as
 a principal or accessory.
   An abettor is the same with one who is deemed art and
 part by the law of Scotland.
   ABEYANCE,  Abeiance,  or Abbayance,  in  law,
 the expectancy of an estate  or  possession: thus, when a
 parson dies, the fee of the glebe belonging to his church is
 said to be in abeyance during the time the parsonage is void.
   It is a fixed principle of law, that the fee simple of all
 lands is in somebody, or else in abeyance.
   ABHORRERS, a name given to  a party in England
 about the 1680, in opposition to those who petitioned for
 a redress of grievances.
   ABIB, the first month of the ecclesiastical year among
 the Hebrews.  It  was  afterward called Nisan, and an-
 swered to our March.
   ABIGEAT, abigeatus, the crime of stealing or driving
 off cattle in  droves, otherwise  called abactus.   It was
 more severely punished than simple  theft, vis. by con-
 demnation to the mines, banishment, or even death.
   ABILITY, in a law  sense, is the power of doing  cer-
 tain actions, principally with regard to the acquisition or
 transfer of property.   Every person is supposed to have
 this power, who is  not disabled by any specific law.
   ABJURATION, in law, is used  for renouncing,  dis-
 claiming and denying the Pretender to have  any manner
 of right to the throne of these kingdoms; and that upon
 oath, which is required  to be taken upon divers occasions
 under certain pains and penalties by many statutes,  par-
 ticularly 1  W.  and M.  13.  VV. III.   1 Anne.  1 Geo. I.
   Abjuration, in our ancient customs, was an oath taken
 by a person guilty  of felony, and who had fled to a place
 of sanctuary, to leave the world for ever.   This is much
 the same with what in Scotland is called  signing  an act
 of banishment.
   ABLATIVE, in Latin grammar, the name of the sixth
 case, which is peculiar to that language.   The ablative is
 opposed to the dative ;  the latter expressing the action of
 giving, and the former that of taking away ; thus, ablatum
 est a me, it was taken  from me.   It is sometimes  called
 the comparative case, as being much  used in comparing
 things together: thus, dulcior melle, sweeter than honey.
   Ablative absolute, among  Latin  grammarians, is so
 called, because governed by no other word.
   ABLECTI, in Roman antiquity, a select body of sold-
 iers, chosen from among those called extraordinarii.
   ABLEGMINA, in Roman antiquity,  choice parts of
 the entrails of victims.  The  ablegmina  were sprinkled
 with flour,  and  burnt on the altar; the  priests pouring
some wine on them.
   ABLUENTS, diluting medicines, or such as dissolve
and carry off acrimonious and stimulating matter, in  any
part of the body, especially the stomach and intestines.
  ABLUTION, in a religious  sense, a ceremony in use
among the ancients, and still practised by the  Mahome-
tans ;  it consisted in washing the body, which was always
done before sacrificing, or even entering  their temples.
This custom was probably derived from the Jews.
   Ablution, in the church of Rome,  a small quantity of
wine and water, which the communicants formerly took
to wash down, and promote the  digestion of, the host.
They also use this term for the water with which the priest
 washes his bands after consecrating the host.
   Ablution, among chymists and ap6thecaries,  i> used
for washing away the .superabundant salts of any body;
an operation otherwise called edulcoration.
   ABOLITION, in lav?, denotes the repealing of any
law or statute,  or prohibiting some  custom, ceremony,
Sec. sometimes also it signifies leave granted by the king,
or a judge, to a  criminal accuser to forbear any further
prosecution.
   Abolition, is also used by ancient civilians and law-
yers, for desisting from, or annulling, a legal prosecution ;
for remitting the punishment of a crime; and for cancell-
ing or discharging a public debt.
   ABOLLA, a military garment, worn by the Greek and
Roman  soldiers : it was lined, or  doubled, for warmth.
   ABOMASUS, Abomasum, or Abomasius, in com-
parative anatomy, names used for the fourth stomach  of
ruminating beasts, or such as chew the cud.   These have
four stomachs, the first of which i3 called venter; the sec-
ond, reticulum;  the third, omasus ; and the fourth, abo-
masus.   It is in the  abomasus of  calves and lambs that
the runnet is found, used for curdling milk.
   ABORTION, an untimely or premature birth of a foetus,
otherwise called a miscarriage; if this happens before the
second month of pregnancy, it is called a false conception.
   Abortion, which is always a dangerous, and but too oft-
en a fatal  accident,  may be  owing to a multiplicity  of
causes ; but the most frequent ones are immoderate fluxes
of any kind, violent passions of the mind, stimulating med-
icines, strong purges  or vomits, sudden commotions of the
body, as running, leaping, falls, blows, &c.  to which we
may add a too frequent use of venery, copious bleed-
ing in the foot, a debility or laxity of the  womb,  and a
plethoric habit of body:  this  last  is often  the cause of
abortion in young women, pregnant of their first child.
   In order therefore to prevent abortion, Ihe above causes
must be carefully guarded against.  It is  likewise condu-
cive to the same end, to bleed at  proper times; as also
to use strengthening  and attemperating medicines.   It
ought however to  be carefully attended to, not to give any
thing restringent  either internally or  externally,  when
the abortion is become unavoidable.  The signs of an ap«
proaching or threatened abortion  are, a sudden flaccidity
of the breasts, a constriction or subsiding of the belly, a
pain in the#head and eyes, grinding pains in  the stomach,
coldness of the extremities, faintings,  shiverings, &c.
  As to the immediate forerunners of an abortion, they are
these : violent pains in the loins and hips, a dilation of the
orifice of the womb, the formation of waters,  an eruption of
the same, a discharge of pure blood, or blood mixed  with
the waters.  When  these symptoms appear, immediate
delivery becomes absolutely  necessary, without  waiting
for strong pains, which seldom return after the flooding is
grown so excessive.  This is performed in t he same manner
as for a  timely birth.   See Midwifery.
  ABOU-HANNES,  or Father John,  the name of  a
bird found in Ethiopia, and supposed to be the Ibis, which
the Egyptians formerly held in high veneration, but whicii
no longer exists in that country, (a)
   ABOUT, in sea language,  the situation of a ship im-
mediately after she has changed her course.   About ship,
is the order to the ship's crew for tacking.
   About, in military language, expresses the  movement
by which a body  of troops changes its front, by facing ac-
cording to any given word of command. 
ABR
ABS
  ABRA, a  silver4 coin in Poland, nearly equivalent to
the English shilling.   The abra is current through all the
dominions of the grand seignior, where it passes for a fourth
part of the Dutch dollar, called assani in the Levant*
  ABRAHAMIANS,  or   Abrahamites, in  church
history, heretics who renewed the doctrines of the Pau-
licians; a sect, who, to the principles of the Manichees,
added an abhorrence of ths cross, which they are  said to
have employed in the most servile offices.  The term is
also used  for  another sect, who suffered death for the
worship of images.
  ABRAUM, a name by which some call adamic  earth,
a kind of clay used by cabinet makers to give a red  colour
to new mahogany.  It is found in the Isle of Wight, also
in some parts of Germany and Italy.
  ABRAXAS, a word denoting a power which presides
over 365 others, the  number of days in  a year.   It is
thought to be made up of the  Greek numerals  A, 1 ; /3,
P,  100; A, 1; S, 60; A, 1; 2, 200:  which added to-
gether make the number of 365.
  Abraxas,  a mystical term  expressing the  supreme
God, under whom the Basilidians supposed 365 dependent
deities.
  It was the  principle of the  Gnostic hierarchy, whence
sprang their multitude of aeons.  From abraxas proceeded
the  primogenial  mind; from  the primogenial mind,  the
logos, or  word; from the logos, the phronesis, or  pru-
dence ; from phronesis, sophia and  dynamis, or wisdom
and strength; from  these  two  proceeded  principalities,
  Eowers, and angels ; from these other angels, to the num-
  er of 365, who were supposed to have the government of
bo many celestial orbs committed to their care.
  Abraxas, among antiquaries, an antique gem or stone,
with the word abraxas engraven on it.  There  are many
kinds of them, of various figures and sizes, mostly  as  old
as the third century.  They were used as amulets, and
were supposed to have great efficacy in driving away flies.
  ABREAST, a sea term,  expressing the  situation of
two or more ships, that lie in a parallel direction.   When
the line of battle at sea is formed abreast, the whole squad-
ron advances uniformly, the  ships being equally  distant
from and parallel to each other.
  ABRIDGING, in algebra, is the reducing a compound
equation to a more simple form.
   This is done to save room, or to simplify the expression.
                        —            a0
Thus the  equation x2 -f- o + 6 X  x-----= 0, by put-
                                      c
                        ab
ting p = a + b and q = —, becomes x* +px — q — 0.
                         c
  ABRIDGMENT, signifies  much the same with an
epitome, or abstract of a large work.
  The perfection of an abridgment consists in taking only
what is material and substantial, and rejecting all super-
fluities, whether of sentiment or style.  It is very seldom,
however, that a good work will  bear this retrenchment ;
and above all, the practice of teaching by abridgment is
reprehensible.  It is a practice which has unfortunately
been too common in schools; and is calculated to make
smatterers, and not  scholars.  Abridged  history, for in-
stance, can only give a dull chronology of events, without
the manners, sentiments, character^ the  knowledge of
human nature in short, which  well written  history is in-
tended to convey; and abridged geography  supplies only
acknowledge of the latitude and longitude, or at most of
the relative situations of places, with a few  charges upon
the memory, the least improving parts of the study.  The
climate, soil, the productions, the manners of the country,
its commerce and political relations,  are only to be learn-
ed from larger works.   But the worst effect is, that when
the pupil has committed a few barren facts to memory, he
concludes himself master of the science; even his curiosity
is blunted, and his desire of acquiring knowledge anticipat-
ed ; and the great probability is, that he never afterward is
sanguine enough to open a work of real information on the
subject.
  Abridgment, in law, is the shortening  a count or dec- ■
laration: thus,  in  assize, a  man is said  to abridge  his
plaint, and a woman her demand in action  of dower, if
any land is put  therein, which  is not in the tenure of the
defendant;  for on a plea of non-tenure, in abatement of the
writ, the plaintiffmay leave out those lands, and pray that
the tenant may  answer to the remainder.   The reason is,
that these writs run in general, and therefore shall be good
for the rest.  Cowel.
  ABROMA, in botany, a genus of the polyadelphia do-
decandria class and order.   The corolla  consists of five
petals larger than the calyx: and the essential character
is, pistils 5; capsule five celled one valved, gaping at top ;
seeds  subovate, incompletely arilled.
   We know of only two species :  the one  abroma angus-
ta, a native of New South Wales, and the Philippine isles;
the other of the East Indies.  The former is a tree bear-
ing a  purple flower, the other only a shrub  in its native
climate.  With us, the  abroma angusta  is  treated as a
stove  plant, and may  be  propagated by cuttings ; the
abroma Wheleri is not known in Europe.
   ABRUS, in  botany and the  materia medica, a genus
of plants of  the class  and  order  diadelphia decandria,
called vulgarly  the wild liquorice.   The  essential  char-
acter  is, the calyx obscurely four lobed,  the  upper lobe
broadest.   Filaments  nine,  united  in a  sheath at  bot-
tom,  gaping at the back.  Stigma blunt, seeds subglo-
bose.
   We know of but one  species of this elegant plant, which
grows wild  in both Indies, Guinea and Egypt ; and pro-
duces those beautiful red seeds resembling  beads with a
black spot or eye at the end annexed to the pod, which have
been  so much admired.  They have been worn in many
countries as ornaments.   They are  eaten in Egypt, but
are the most unwholesome and indigestible of the pulse
tribe ; one  variety produces white,  and  another yellow
seeds, but  otherwise  they are  not  essentially  different.
The abrus is with us a stove plant, raised from  seeds sown
in light earth, and  plunged in  a hot bed.  It sometimes
ripens seed in England.
   ABSCESS, an inflammatory tumour, containing puru-
lent matter, pent up in a fleshy part.
   Abscess is synonymous with apostem, imposthume, and
imposthumation ; and is always the effect of an inflamma-
tion, which frequently may be discussed  without coming
to a suppuration, or before an abscess is formed.   See
Surgery, &c.
   ABSCISSE, in conic sections, the part of the diameter
of a  curve line intercepted between the vertex of that 
ABS
ABS
 diameter, and the point where any ordinate or semi-ordi-
 nate to the diameter falls.
   From this definition it is evident, that there are an in-
 finite number of variable abscisses in the same curve,  as
 well as an infinite number of ordinates.   In the parabola,
 one ordinate has but one abscisse; in an ellipsis, it has
 two; in an hyperbola consisting of two parts, it  has also
 two ; and in curves of the second and tnird order, it may
 have three and four.  In the  parabola, the abscisse is a
 third  proportional  to  the parameter and semi-ordinate.
 In the  ellipsis, the  square of the semi-ordinate is equal
 to the  rectangle of the parameter into the abscisse, sub-
 tracting another  rectangle of the same abscisse into  a
 fourth proportional to the axis, the parameter, and abscisse.
 In the hyperbola, the squares of the semi-ordinates are to
 each other as the rectangles  of the abscisse, into a line
 composed of the  same abscisse  and the transverse  axis.
 See Conic Sections.
   ABSCISSION, in rhetoric, a figure of speech, whereby
 the speaker stops short in the middle of his discourse :  e. g.
 " One of her age  and beauty,  to be seen alone, at such an
 hour, with a man of his character ! I need say no more."
   ABSCISSION,  in surgery,  is  used  to express the
 cutting away any unsound and soft part of the body;
 while amputation is the cutting away of bones.  See Sur-
 gery,  (a)
   ABSINTHIUM.   See Artemisia.
   ABSOLUTE number, is the known quantity which pos-
 sesses one side of an equation ; thus, in x3 + 12 x = 24,
 the absolute number is  24, which is equal to the square
 of x added to 12  times x.
   Absolute equation, in astronomy, is the sum of the
 optic and eccentric equations.  The apparent inequality
 of a planet's motion, arising from its not  being  equally
 distant  from the earth at all times, is called its optic equa-
 tion ; this would  subsist  if the planet's real motion  was
 uniform.   The eccentric  inequality  is  caused  by the
 planet's motion not being uniform.
   ABSOLUTELY, among  divines, is  used for com-
 pletely, or with full power and effect, independently of
 any thing else : thus catholics hold that  the priest for-
 gives sins absolutely ; whereas protestant divines do it
 only declaratively.
   Absolutely, in  grammar;  a word is taken absolutely
 when it has no government: thus, in te Pray without ceas-
 ing ;"  the  word pray  is taken absolutely, as it governs
 nothing.
   ABSOLUTION, among civilians, is used for a defini-
 tive sentence, declaring the accused person innocent, and
 releasing him from all further prosecution.
   Absolution, among catholics, is a pretension  assumed
 by the priests to forgive sins absolutely, that is, by virtue
 of a power inherent  in  themselves.  By stat. 23  Eliz. to
 procure absolutions  from  Rome is declared to  be  high
 treason. Protestant divines pretend to no such power,
 but only declare the scripture terms of pardon.
   Absolution, in  the Scotch presbyterian church, is
 chiefly  used for a sentence of the church judicatories, re-
leasing a man from excommunication, and  receiving  him
again into communion.
  Absoldtio ad cautelam,  is a provisional absolution,
granted to a person who has appealed from a sentence of
excommunication.
   ABSORBENTS, are such medicines as have the pow-
 er of drying up redundant  humours, whether applied to
 ulcers, or inwardly taken.                '
   Absorbent Vessels, in anatomy, is a name indiscrim-
 inately given to the lacteals, lymphatics, and inhalent ar-
 teries.   See Anatomy.
   Absorbent Vessels is also a name used by some nat-
 uralists for the fibres of the roots  of plants,  which  draw
 nourishment from the surrounding earth. See Physiology
 of Plants.
   ABSORBING,  the  swallowing up or imbibing any
 thing: thus black bodies are said to absorb the rays of
 light; luxuriant branches to absorb or waste the nutritious
 juices, which should feed the fruit of trees, &c.
   ABSORPTION, the effect of absorbing: thus we
 read of absorptions of the earth, when large tracts of land
 have been swallowed up.
   Mount Vesuvius has in the course of time lost half its
 height;  the upper part having been  undermined by the
 fire beneath, and falling in, has been absorbed by the un-
 der part and the sea.  In the year 1646,  during the ter-
 rible earthquake in the kingdom of Chili,  several whole'
 mountains of the Andes disappeared, and were one  after
 another wholly absorbed in the'earth.
   Absorption.  It  is a well known  chymical fact, that
 inmost cases of the  combination  of gaseous substances.
 either with other gases, or with liquids and solids, a  very
 considerable diminution of the volume is experienced.
 This  effect is called  absorption.
   ABSTEMII, a name given to persons who could not
 partake of the cup of the  eucharist, on account of their
 natural aversion from wine.
   ABSTERGENTS, medicines  proper  for cleansing
 the body from  concretions  and other impurities, not to
 be effected by simple abluents.
   ABSTINENCE,  the abstaining or refraining from cer-
 tain enjoyments;  but  more  especially from  excessive
 eating and drinking;  thus, it has always been a  practice
 to abstain from  a  luxuriant diet at stated  times, as well
 out of a religious view, as to confirm and preserve health.
   Abstinence is highly extolled by some physicians ; and
 that justly, when  no  more is meant by it than a proper
 regimen; but it must have bad consequences, when prac-
 tised without a due regard to the constitution, age, strength,
 &c. of the  person who  uses it.   There  are many in-
 stances of the cure of disorders, and of protracting the
 term of life,  by means of a strict and  well regulated ab-
 stinence.  Cornaro, a nobleman of Venice, after all other
 means had been tried in vain, recovered, and lived to the
 age of a hundred'years, by rigid abstinence only.  Many
 of the early Christians who retired from persecution into
 the deserts of Arabia, lived to  a very advanced age upon
 bread and water  only.  St. Anthony lived 105 years;
 James the hermit 104; Arsenius  120; Epiphanius  115
 &c.   The records of the  Tower mention a Scotsman im-
 prisoned, and watched six weeks,  during which he  took
no sustenance whatever; and on this account he obtained
his pardon.
  ABSTRACT idea, among logicians, the idea of some
 general quality or  property considered simply  in itself,
 without any respect to a particular subject;  thus, magni-
 tude,  equity, &c.  are abstract ideas,  when  we consider
them as detached from any particular body or person. 
ABU
A C A
  It is generally allowed, that there are no objects in na-
ture corresponding to abstract ideas; nay, some philoso-
phers, and particularly lord Bolingbroke, dispute the ex-
istence of abstract ideas themselves, thinking it impossi-
ble for the human mind to form any such.
  Abstract ideas are the same with those called universal
ones;  ;u I the manner of forming them, according to mod-
ern philosophers, is  this: we  readily observe a resem-
blance among some of our particular ideas, and  thus form
a general notion applicable to  many individuals.  Thus,
horses are found to  resemble each other in  shape, voice,
and  the general configuration  of  their parts.  Now, the
idea which takes in this resemblance,  excluding what is
peculiar to each individual, becomes of course common
to this whole family or class of animals, and is  therefore
called a general, universal, or abstract idea.
  Abstract is an epithet given to several  other things,
on account of their purity or universality;  thus, we say
abstract numbers, abstract mathematics, &c.
  ABSTRACTI, a name given to a sect of Lutherans,
who asserted that Christ was to be adored not only in the
concrete, as the son of God, but that his flesh  in the  ab-
stract  was an object of adoration.
  ABSTRACTION, in logic, that operation of the mind
whereby it forms abstract ideas.
  According to Mr. Locke, abstraction  is performed three
ways.   First, when the mind considers any one part of
a thing by itself, without attending to  the whole; as the
arm, leg, &c. of a man's body.   Secondly, by consid-
ering the mode of a substance, without taking in the idea
of the substance itself: thus, geometricians  consider the
properties of lines, or the length of bodies, without attend-
ing to  their breadth or depth.   Thirdly, by generalizing
our  ideas  in  the manner  mentioned  under Abstract
idea.
  This doctrine,  however,  of abstraction,  is denied  by
Berkeley, bishop of Cloyne, who owns that he can  im-
agine a man with two heads, or the upper part  of a man
joined to the body of a horse ; ''nay," adds he, " I can
consider the hand, the eye, the nose, each  by  itself, ab-
stracted or separate from the rest  of the body;  but then,
whatever hand or eye I imagine, it must  have some par-
ticular shape and colour; likewise the  idea of a man that
I frame to myself, must be either of a white or a  black,
or a tawny,  a  straight or a crooked, a  tall or a low, or a
middle sized man. Neither can I, by any effort of thought,
conceive an absolutely abstracted  idea of motion, for in-
stance, distinct from  the  body  moving, and  which is
neither swift nor slow, curvilinear nor rectilinear; and the
like  may be said of all abstract ideas whatsoever.1'
  Abstraction, in chymistry, is the evaporating or draw-
ing off, by means of heat, one part of a compound from
the other.  If the part abstracted  is collected, it is called
distillation or sublimation,  according as the  process is
wet or dry.
  ABUCCO, Abocco, or Abocchi, a weight used in the
kingdom of Pegu, equal to twelve teccalis and a half.
Two  abuccos make  an agiro, or giro; two giri make
half a bisa, which  weighs  100  heccalis  (2  pounds 5
ounces) the heavy weight, or 3 pounds 9 ounces light
weight, of Venice.   See Weight.
  ABUNDANT numbers, those whose  aliquot parts
 added together make more than the whole number :  thus
 the parts of 20 make 22, vis. 1, 2, 4, 5, and 10.
   ABYSS has been used by some philosophers, particu-
 larly Dr. Woodward,  to denote a vast  cavity filled  with
 water, which they supposed, but with little argument, to
 exist in the centre of  the earth.   Conformably  with this
 idea, it has been  imagined by some writers, that there is
 a communication between the Caspian sea and the ocean,
 by means of a subterraneous  abyss; and to this it is at-
 tributed that the Caspian sea does not overflow, notwith-
 standing the number  of large  rivers that run into it, of
 which Kempfer reckons fifty in the extent of sixty miles.
 But the daily evaporation is by others thought  sufficient
 to account for this fact.
   Abyss is  also  used for several other things,  as  the
 cavernous bowels of a mountain,  or hell, or the bottom-
 less  pit, the centre of an escutcheon, a gulf, &c.
   ABYSSINIAN  church, that established  in the em-
 pire of Abyssinia.   It makes but a branch of  the Cophts
 or Jacobites, a sect who admit only one  nature in Jesus
 Christ.
   ACACIA, in botany, a name applied, but erroneously,
 to several sorts of shrubs and trees.   See Guilandia,
 Guiacum, Mimosa, Poinciena, and Spartiom.
   Acacia,  in the materia medica of  the ancients, a gum
 made from the Egyptian thorn, and thought to be  the
 same as our gum-arabic.
   Acacia Germanica, an inspissated juice, made of wild
 sloes,  hardly ripe.  The  true acacia is said  to be very
 scarce in the shops, where the German acacia is used in
 its  stead, both being  powerful astringents,  and  conse-
 quently good in haemorrhages, and all kinds of fluxes.
   Acacia, Akakia,  a roll or  bag represented on the
 medals of the Greek and Roman emperors ; some think
 it is  only a  handkerchief, which they used as  a signal;
others take it for a  volume, or roll of memorandums or
petitions; and finally,  others  suppose  it to be a purple
bag filled with earth, to remind the prince of his mortality.
  ACACIANS, the name of several sects of  heretics,
some of whom maintained that the Son was only of a like,
not the same substance with the Father; and others,  that
he was not only of a distinct, but also of a dissimilar  sub-
stance.
   ACADEMIC, or Academician, a member of some
 academy.
   Academics is a term more particularly used for a sect
 of ancient philosophers,  the followers  of Socrates  and
 Plato, who maintained that all things were uncertain, and
 consequently that men ought to doubt  of  every thing.
 They even went so far, as to doubt whether or not they
 ought to doubt, it being a received maxim among them,
 se nil scire, ne hoc quidem. quod nihil sciunt.
   Of this sect, however,  Cicero, who was  an academic
 philosopher  himself, gives a more favourable  account.
 He tells us, that all  the difference between the academics,
 and  those  who imagined themselves possessed  of the
 knowledge  of things,  consisted in this:  that  the latter
 were fully persuaded of the truth of their opinions ;  where-
 as the former held many things to be only probable, which
 might very well  serve to regulate their conduct, though
 they could not  positively assert  the  certainty of them.
 " In this," says he, "  we have  greatly the advantage of 
AC A
ACA
the dogmatists, as being more disengaged, more unbiassed,
and at full liberty to determine as our judgment shall di-
rect.   But the generality of mankind, I know not how, are
fond of error, and choose rather to  defend with the ut-
most  obstinacy the opinion they have  once embraced,
than with candour and impartiality examine which senti-
ments are most agreeable to truth."
   ACADEMY, in Grecian antiquity, a large villa in one
of the suburbs of  Athens, where  the sect of philosophers
called Academics held their assemblies.  It took its name
from Academus or Ecademus, a citizen of Athens, as our
modern academies take theirs from it.
   Academy was  also used metaphorically, to  denote the
sect of academic philosophers.
   Academy, in a  modern sense, signifies a  society  of
learned men, established for the  improvement of arts  or
sciences.  Hence,
   Academies of antiquity, are those designed for the
illustration of whatever regards antiquity ; as medals, coins,
inscriptions, &c.
   There are several academies of this kind in  different
parts of the world, as at Upsal in  Sweden, at Paris, and at
London.  These two last are called the academy of in-
scriptions and belles-lettres, and the antiquarian society.
   Academies of architecture.  See Academies of Paint-
ing, infra.
   Academies of belles-lettres, those chiefly designed for
the  cultivation of eloquence and poetry.  Besides the
academy of belles-lettres at Paris, and one  at Caen, there
are several in Italy, vis. one at Florence, and two at Rome.
   Academies chirurgical,  those established for the im-
provement of surgery.
   Academies cosmographical,  those which make geog-
raphy and astronomy the chief objects of their researches.
Such is that called the Argonauts, at Venice.
   Academies  of dancing.  Of this  kind there was one
instituted by Louis XIV. with ample privileges, worthy of
the nation!
   Academies ecclesiastical, those  which employ their
studies in illustrating the doctrines, discipline, ceremonies,
&c. that obtained  in  each age of the church.   Such  is
that of Bologna.
   Academies historical, those erected for the improve-
ment  of history.   Such are  those at Lisbon and Tubingen.
   Academies of languages, those established in many
parts of Europe, for refining and ascertaining the language
of each country;  thus the Paris academy was designed
to illustrate and polish the  French, that of Madrid the
Spanish or Castilian,  &c.   But besides these, there are
others in Italy, Germany, &c.
  Academies of law :  such are those  of Bologna  and
Beryta.
  Academies medical, those instituted with a view to
promote medical knowledge and improvements.  Such is
that of W^'Natura  Curiosorum, in Germany, and those
of Venice, Geneva, Palermo, &c. to which  some add the
colleges of physicians at London  and Edinburgh.
  Academies musical ;  these are frequent in most parts
of Europe, but more especially in France and Italy.
  Academies of painting, sculpture, and  architecture.
There is one of these at Paris, and another at Rome.
  The royal Academy of arts was instituted in  London
for the encouragement of designing, painting, sculpture,
  vol.  i.              3
&c. in the year 1768.   It has for its patron the king, and
is under the direction of forty artists of the  first rank in
their profession.  It furnishes living models to draw and
paint after.  Nine of the academicians are annually elect-
ed to attend and set the figures, to examine the perform-
ances of the students, and to give them the necessary in-
structions.  The admission to this academy is free to all
students qualified to reap advantage from the studies cul-
tivated in it.  There are professors of painting, architec-
ture, anatomy, and perspective,  who annually read lec-
tures on the subjects of their several departments.
   The Academy of arts at Petersburg was established
by the empress Elizabeth.  The scholars are  admitted
at the age of  six, and continue  twelve  years; they are
lodged, clothed, boarded, and taught at the expense of
the crown.  Besides this, there is the imperial  academy
of sciences at Petersburg, the transactions of  which were
formerly entitled Commentarii  Academic? Scientiarum
Imperialis Petropolitana, but now are called Nova Acta
Acad. Scient.  Imp.  Petrop.
   Academies of sciences, those  chiefly designed for the
improvement  of natural history  and mathematics, with
their numerous branches, botany, chymistry,  mechanics,
astronomy, geography, &c.
   There are many other academies in different countries :
as at Cortuna, for the  study of Etrurian antiquities; at
Florence and Milan, for painting, &c. the American, of
arts  and sciences ; the royal Irish, &c.
   Academy is also more particularly used with us for a
kind of schools,  where youth  are  instructed in various
branches of learning.   Of this kind we  have two royal
ones, vis. one at Portsmouth, for teaching navigation, draw-
ing, &c. which may be called  a naval or maritime acad-
emy ; and another at Woolwich, where youth are  taught
fortification, gunnery, &c. which may be  styled  the mili-
tary  academy.  Besides these, there are numerous acad-
emies, especially in London, for teaching mathematics, lan-
guages, writing, accounts, drawing, and other branches of
learning.  The dissenters have likewise their academies
for teaching philosophy, divinity, &c.  See University.
   Academyfigure, in painting, a draught or design, made
after a model,  with a crayon or pencil.
   ACjENA, a genus  of the  tetrandria  monogynia class
and order of plants.   Its essential character is, the calyx
four  leaved ;  corolla four petalled; berry dry, inferior,
one  seeded, with spines bent backward.  We know of
only one species, the acsena elongata, which is a Mexican
shrub of about two feet high.
  ACAJOU, the cashew nut  tree.   See Anacardium.
   AC ALYPH A, in botany, a genus of the monoecia mo-
nodelphia class and order.  The essential character is,
in the male blossoms, calyx three or four leaved ; corolla
none; stamina eight to sixteen.  In the female, calyx
three leaved;  corolla none; styles three ;  capsule three
grained, three  celled ; seed one.
  There are fourteen species of this plant, some  of them
annual, and resembling the broad leaved pellitory of the
wall; some of them  are shrubs, but none appear to have
either beauty or utility to recommend their cultivation.
  ACANACEOUS plants, those which are prickly, and
bear their flowers and seeds on a kind of heads.
  ACANGIS, in Turkish military affairs, the name of a
kind  of light armed horse. 
ACC
ACC
  ACANTHA, the prickles of a thorny plant.
  Acantha  is also used by zoologists for the  spines of
certain fishes, as those of the echinus marinus, &c.
  ACANTHACEOUS, an epithet given  to all  plants of
the thistle kind, on account of the prickles with which they
3rc beset
  ACANTHOPTERYGIOUS fishes, one of the gener-
al classes or families of fishes; distinguished by having
the rays of their fins bony, and some of them prickly at
the extremities.
  ACANTHUS, bear's breech,  in  botany, a  genus of
plants of  the class  and order didynamia angiospermia.
The essential character  is, calyx two leaved, bifid; corol-
la one lipped, bent down,  trifid; capsules  two celled.
See Plate Nat. Hist. fig. 1.
  There are about ten  species, only four of which are
exotic and  tender.   The  acanthus  mollis,  or smooth
leaved acanthus, is that  which  was formerly used in med-
icine, though, we  apprehend, with little effect, as it seems
to differ very little in its medical virtue from the altheas,
and other mucilaginous vegetables.   It is  also the plant
which is said to have afforded the hint to Callimachus for
the invention of the Corinthian capital.  The Gothic sculp-
tors are supposed to have adopted for their ornament the
leaves of the  acanthus spinosus.
  ACARUS, the tick or mite, a numerous  genus of in-
sects, of the order of aptera, or those which have  no wings.
The acarus has eight legs;  two eyes, one on each side of
the head ; and two jointed tentacula.   They are in general
very prolific.  The eggs of the cheese mite hatch in about
fourteen days in summer, but in winter take more. Ninety
millions of these eggs may be comprehended in the size
of a pigeon's.   The acarus will live seven months without
food.  There are thirty-five  species.  See Plate Nat.
Hist. fig.  1—3.
  ACATALECTIC, a term in ancient poetry, applica-
ble to such verses  as  have all their feet and syllables,
without any defect at the end.  In the following lines of
Horace, the first  two are acatalectic, the last catalectic:
           Solvitur acris, hyems, grata vice
           Veris et Favoni;
           Trahuntque siccas machine carinas.

   ACATALEPSY, among ancient philosophers, the im-
possibility of comprehending something.   The distin-
guishing tenet of the pyrrhonists was, their  asserting an
absolute acatalepsy with regard to every thing.
   ACATERY,  or  Accatry, an  officer of the king's
household, designed to  be a check between the clerks of
the kitchen and the purveyors.
   ACATIUM, in antiquity, a kind of boat or pinnace
used in military affairs.   The  acatium was a species of
the naves actuarial.
   ACAULOSE, or Acaulous (Acaulis) among botan-
ists,  a term used for such plants as have no  caulis, or
stem.
   ACCALIA, in Roman antiquity, solemn festivals held
in  honour of Acca Laurentia,  Romulus's  nurse; they
were otherwise called Laurentalia.
   ACCAPITARE, in  our old law books,  the act of be-
coming a vassal, or paying homage to some lord.  Hence
   ACCAPITUM, signified the money paid by a vassal,
upon such an occasion,
  It is likewise used for the relief due to the chief lord.
See Relief.
  ACCEDAS ad curiam, in  law, a writ lying where a
man has received or fears false judgment  in  a  hundred-
court, or court-baron. It is issued out of the Chancery, and
directed  to  the sheriff;  but  returnable in the  King's
Bench or Common Pleas.  It lies also for justice delayed,
and is said to be a species of the writ Recordare.
  ACCELERATION,  in mechanics,, denotes the aug-
mentation or  increase of motion in accelerated bodies.
The accelerated motion of falling  bodies is produced by
the impulse  of gravity, which keeps  continually acting
upon them, and thereby communicates a new augmenta-
tion of motion every instant.   If this increase is equal in
equal times, the motion is said to be uniformly accelerated.
See Mechanics.
  Acceleration, in astronomy, is a term  applied to the
fixed stars.    The  diurnal acceleration is the time by
which the stars, in one  diurnal revolution,  anticipate the
mean diurnal revolution of the sun ; that is, a star rises or
sets, or passes the meridian, about 3' 36"  sooner each day.
This apparent acceleration of the stars is owing to the real
retardation of the sun, which depends upon his  apparent
motion toward the east, and that is at  the rate of 59' 8^"
daily:  therefore to find the acceleration we say,  As 360":
59' 8-i" :: 24h.:  3 min. 56 sec. nearly,  the  acceleration
required.
  This acceleration serves to regulate the length and vi-
brations of  pendulums.   If, for instance,  the pendulum
marks 9h. 6m. when a fixed  star sets or  passes behind
any object one day ; and  on the next, the eye being pre-
cisely in the same situation, the same appearance occurs at
9h. 2ra. 4s. by the pendulum;  it may be inferred,  that such
a pendulum is truly regulated, or measures time accurately.
  Acceleration of the  moon, is a term used to express
the increase of the  moon's mean motion from  the sun,
compared with the diurnal motion of the earth, which is
said  to be about 10' in a hundred years.  This by some is
thought to be occasioned by the sun's becoming less, from
the particles of light continually flowing from  it, which
renders the motion  of the earth slower ; or if the earth's
by any means be increased, the motion of the  moon will be
accelerated.  This acceleration is shown by M.  La Place
to arise from the action of the sun upon the moon, combined
with the variation of the eccentricity of the earth's orbit.
  ACCENDENTES, or Accensores, in the church of
Rome, a lower rank of  ministers, whose  business it is  to
light, snuff, and trim the  candles and tapers.
  ACCENDONES,or Accedones, in Roman antiquity,
a kind of officers in  the gladiatorian schools, who excited
and animated the combatants during the  fight.
  ACCENSI, in the Roman armies, certain supernume-
rary soldiers, designed to supply the place  of those who
should be killed, or anywise disabled.   Accensi also de-
noted a kind of inferior officers, appointed  to attend the
Roman magistrates.
   ACCENT,  in a general sense, denotes a certain tone
or manner of speaking peculiar to some nation, country,
or province ; thus we say, the Scotch accent, the Irish ac-
cent, &c.   Among grammarians, it is the raising or low-
ering the voice in pronouncing certain syllables.
  We have three kinds of accents, viz. the acute,  the
grave, and  the circumflex.  The acute accent, marked 
ACC
AC C
 thus ('), shows that the voice is to be raised in pronounc-
 ing the syllable over which it is placed.  The grave ac-
 cent is marked thus (N), and points  out  when the voice
 ought to be lowered.   The circumflex is compounded of
 the other two, and marked thus (" or  a) : it denotes a qua-
 vering of the voice, between high and low.
   Some call the long and short quantities of syllables ac-
 cents, but erroneously.  See Quantity.
   Accents not only give a pleasing variety and beauty to
 the modulation of the  voice, but  serve to ascertain the
 true meaning  of the word, as in present and  to present.
 The Chinese  are remarkable for the use they make of  ac-
 cents : thus the word ya, according  to the way in  which
 they place the accent, signifies God, a wall, an elephant,
 stupidity, and a goose.  The Hebrew likewise abounds
 with them; there being no less than  twenty-five tonic  ac-
 cents, showing the proper tone  of the syllables over or
 under which they are placed ; besides four euphonic ones,
 serving to render the pronunciation more sweet and agree-
 able.  It is generally allowed, however, that the accents
 now in use were unknown to the ancient Hebrews.
   Concerning the antiquity of the Greek accents anthors
 are not agreed;  some making them of modern date,  and
 others contending for their having been known to the  an-
 cient Greeks.
   Accent, in music, a certain modulation or warbling of
 the sounds, te express  passion; either naturally by the
 voice, or artificially by instruments.  Every bar or meas-
 ure is divided into the  accented and unaccented parts;
 the former being the  empbatical,  on which the spirit of
 the music depends.  The harmony  ought always to be
 full, and void  of discords, in the accented part of the
 measure.
   ACCENTOR, in the old music,  denotes  one of the
 three singers in parts, or the person who sung the predom-
 inant part  in a trio.
   ACCEPTANCE, in common law, the tacitly agreeing
 to  some act before done  by another, which might have
 been defeated without such acceptance.  Thus if a hus-
 band and wife seized of land in right  of the wife, make
 a joint lease of feoffment, reserving rent, and the husband
 dies ; after which the widow receives  or accepts the rent;
 such receipt is deemed an acceptance, confirms the lease
 or feoffment, and bars her from bringing the writ cui in vita.
   Acceptance, among merchants, is the  act  by which
 the party on whom a  bill of exchange  is drawn, makes
 himself liable to the amount.  An acceptance may be ab-
 solute to the bill itself at all events ; or it may  be partial,
 that is, to pay a certain part of it; or it may be conditional,
 that is, upon the  performance of a certain condition ; in
 which last  case, when the condition is performed, the ac-
 ceptance becomes absolute.  An acceptance may also  be
 collateral, as an acceptance upon protest.
  An acceptance may be given either verbally or in writ-
 ing; the latter, however, is the most regular and custom-
 ary.  But any thing tending to show that the party means
 to be bound by his undertaking; such as the signature of
 the initials, or the day of the month, keeping the bill long-
er than iiMial, or any verbal promise  or agreement; will
be an acceptance.
  Bills payable at sight are not accepted, because they
must either be paid on being presented, or  else protested
for  u*;;t of payment.   The acceptance of bills payable
                  3*
 at a fixed day, at usance, &c. needs not be dated;  be
 cause the time is reckoned from the  date of the bill;  bu1
 it is necessary to date the acceptance of bills payable at
 a certain number of days after  sight, because the time
 does not begin to run till the next  day after that accept-
 ance.  This kind of acceptance is made thus : Accepted
 such a  day and year, and signed.
   In general, he to whom a bill of  exchange is made pay-
 able ought to demand the acceptance of the person on
 whom it is drawn, and that in  the full extent of the terms
 of the bill, and on refusal of acceptance to return  it with
 protest.  This  he  ought to do for his own security,  as
 well as  for that of the drawer.  Thus, if the bearer of a
 bill consents to an acceptance at twenty days sight, instead
 of eight days  expressed in the bill, he runs the risk of
 the twelve days prolongation ;  so that he can have no rem-
 edy against the drawer, should the acceptor break  in that
 time.  Again, if a bill is  drawn for  three thousand pounds,
 and the bearer agrees to take an acceptance for two only,
 and should receive  no more than that sum, the remaining
 thousand would be at the hazard of the bearer, as well as in
 the former case.
   If, therefore, a bill is only accepted in part, or for  a
 longer time than that expressed  in ft, the bearer ought to
 protest it, at least for the sum not accepted.  Again, if
 the acceptor breaks, or refuses  to make payment when
 the bill becomes due, it is necessary  to get the bill  im-
 mediately protested by a public notary, to be sent along
 with the protest  to  the  remitter,  to procure satisfaction
 from the drawer.
   By statute, inland bills of exchange must be accepted
 by signing or endorsing  in writing, and protested for re-
 fusal of such acceptance, otherwise the drawer is not  lia-
 ble to costs;  it must likewise  be returned to the  drawer
 within fourteen days.  Such protest, however, is not nec-
 essary,  unless the value is acknowledged in the bill to be
 received, and unless the bill is drawn for 201. or upward.
   A bill drawn on two jointly must  have a joint accept-
 ance, otherwise be protested; but if on two or either of
 them, the acceptance of one is sufficient.
   Acceptance, among civilians, denotes the consenting
 to receive something offered to us, which by our refusal
 could not have taken effect; or acceptance is the  actnal
 concurrence of the will of the donee, without which the
 donor is at liberty to revoke his gift  at pleasure.
   Acceptance, in  the  church  of Rome, is particularly
 used for the receiving the pope's constitutions.
   The  acceptance of the constitution unigenitus has oc-
 casioned, and still continues to excite, a world of  confu-
 sion in the popish countries, but more especially in France,
 where many of the clergy refuse to accept it.
   ACCESSARY, or Accessory, in law, a person who
 is in anywise aiding in the commission of some felonious
 action.
   By statute, he who counsels, abets, or  conceals, the
committing of such an action, or the person who has com-
mitted it, is deemed  an accessory.
  There are two kinds of accessories, vis. before the fact,
and after it.  The first is he who commands or procures
another  to commit felony, but  is absent when it is done;
for if he is  present, he is  a principal.  The accessory
after the fact is one who receives, comfortF,  or  assists,
the felon ; knowing him to be such. 
ACC
ACC
   In the highest crimes, as high treason, &c. and the low-
 est, as riots, forcible entries, &c. there are no accessories,
 but all concerned are principals.
   It is a maxim among  lawyers, that  where there is  no
 principal, there can be no accessory ; so that it is neces-
 sary the principal be first convicted,  before the accesso-
 ries can be  arraigned.  If, however, the principal cannot
 be taken, the accessory may be prosecuted  for a misde-
 meanor, and punished by fine, imprisonment, &c.  Acces-
 sories in petty treason, murder, and felony, are not allowed
 their clergy.
   A wife may assist her husband, without being deemed
 accessory to his crime ; but not e contra.   A servant as-
 sisting his master to  escape, is reckoned an accessory;
 also furnishing others with weapons, or lending them  money,
 &c.  will  make persons accessories.  Persons buying  or
 receiving stolen goods, knowing them  to  be  such,  are
 deemed accessories to the felony.  Also if the owner of
 stolen goods, after complaint made to a justice, takes back
 his goods, and consents to the escape of the  felon, he be-
 comes accessory after the fact.
 .  ACCESSION, a term of various import; thus among
 civilians, it  is used for  the property acquired in such
 things as are connected  with  or appendages  of other
things ; among physicians, it signifies the same with what
is  more usually called paroxysm ; among politicians, it is
used for a prince's agreeing to and becoming a party in a
treaty before concluded between other potentates, or it more
particularly denotes a prince's coming  to the throne by
the death of the preceding king ; and lastly, it is used by
 Romanists for a peculiar way of electing  a pope, which is,
 when one candidate has got two  thirds of the votes, the
 rest are enrolled by accession.
   ACCESSORY nerves, or par Accessorium, a pair
 of nerves of the neck : which arising from the spinal mar-
 row  in the vertebrae of the neck, enters the cranium by the
 great foramen in the os occipitis.  Here it is joined by the
 par vagum, and coming out of the cranium again  by the
 same aperture, it recedes from the par vagum, and is bent
 back to the trapezius, a muscle  of the  shoulder.  See
 Anatomy.
   ACCIACATURA, is a term in music, which denotes
 the putting down with any interval the half note below  it,
 and  instantly taking off the finger which has struck the
 lowest of the two notes, continuing the sound of the other
 note till the  harmony is changed.
   ACCIDENS, per, is used to denote what  does not fol-
 low from the nature of a thing,  but from some accidental
 qualities of it, in which sense it stands opposed to per se,
 which denotes the  nature and essence  of a thing; thus
 fire is said to burn per se ; but a piece of iron made hot,
 only burns per accidens, by a quality accidental to it.
   ACCIDENT, among logicians, is used  in a  threefold
 sense.  1. Whatever does not essentially  belong to  a
 thing, as  the clothes  a man wears, or the money  in his
pocket.   2. Such properties in any subject as are  not es-
 sential to it;  thus  whiteness in  paper is an accidental
 quality.  3.  In opposition to substance, all qualities what-
ever are called accidents, as sweetness, softness, &c.
   Accident absolute is used by the Romish church for
an accident  which may possibly  subsist, at least miracu-
lously, without any subject; an absurdity which has been
 strenuously maintained by many of their casuists, and even
 solemnly decreed by some of their councils.
   Accident,  in heraldry, an additional note or mark,
 in a coat of arms, which may be either omitted or retained,
 without altering the essence of the armour.
   ACCIDENTAL, in philosophy, is applied to that ef-
 fect which proceeds from a cause occurring by accident,
 without  being subject to general laws or regular returns.
 In this sense  accidental is opposed to constant.  The
 sun's greater or less altitude  is the constant  and  chief
 cause of the heat in summer and cold in winter ;  but wind,
 snow, or rain, are accidental causes.
   Accidental colours,  are  those  which depend  upon
 the affections of the eye,  in contradistinction  to such as
 belong to the light itself.  The impressions made on  the
 eye by looking steadfastly on objects of a particular colour,
 frequently give a false  colouring to other objects which
 are viewed during their continuance.
   Accidental point,  in perspective, that point in  the
 horizontal line, where all lines parallel  among themselves
 meet the perspective plain.  See Perspective.
   Accidental,  in music, is  an  epithet  added to  such
 sharps, flats, and naturals, as do not  occur in the clef, and
 which imply some change of key or modulation different
 from that in which the piece began.
   ACCIPENSER,  in  ichthyology,  a genus  of fishes,
 belonging to the order of nantes, and class of amphibia, in
 the Linnaean system.  The accipenser has a single linear
 nostril:  the mouth is in  the under  part of the  head, and
 contains  no teeth; the cirri  are below the snout, and
 before the  mouth.   There are three species  of this
 genus, vis.
   1. Accipenser Huso has  four cirri; the body is  na-
 ked, i.e.  has no prickles  or protuberances.  The skin of
 the huso  is so tough and strong, that it is employed to
 draw carts and other wheel carriages; and the ichthyo-
 collo, or isinglass of the shops,  is made  from its sound or
 scales.   The huso is the largest of the genus, and grows
 to 24 feet in length.  It inhabits the  Danube and the riv-
 ers of Russia.
   2. Accipenser Ruthenus has  four cirri, and fifteen
 squamous protuberances.  It is a native of Russia.
   3. Accipenser Sturio, or the sturgeon, has four cirri,
 and 11 squamous protuberances on  the  back.   This fish
 annually ascends our rivers, but in no great numbers, and
 is taken by accident  in the salmon nets.  It seems a spir-
 itless fish, making no manner of resistance when entang-
 led, but  is drawn out of the water  like a lifeless lump.
 It is seldom taken far out at sea, but frequents such parts
 as are not remote from the actuaries of great rivers.  It is
 admired for the delicacy  and firmness of its flesh, which
 is white as veal, and extremely good when roasted'.  It is
 generally  pickled.  The  greater part of what we receive
 comes either from the  Baltic  rivers or North  America.
 Great numbers are taken  during summer in  the slake
 Frischehaff, and  Curisch-haff  near  Pillau, in large  nets
 made of small cord.  The adjacent  shores are formed  in-
 to districts, and  farmed  out to companies of fishermen
 some of which are rented for 6000 guilders,, or  near 300l'
per annum.  They are found in  vast abundance in the
American rivers in May,  June, and  July ; at which time
they leap some yards out of the water, and, falling on thei- 
ACC
ACC
 sides, make a noise to be heard in-still water at an immense
 distance.  Caviare is made of the rows of this, and also of
 all the other sturgeons, dried, salted, and packed up close.
 Isinglass is likewise made of the sound of this fish, but
 in very small quantities.   The  sturgeon  grows  to the
 length of 18 feet, and the weight of TOO pounds; but it is
 seldom taken  in our rivers of that bulk.  In the manner of
 breeding, this fish is an exception among the cartilaginous
 kind; being,  like the bony fish, oviparous, and spawning
 in water.  See Plate Nat. Hist. fig. 4—6.
   ACCIPITRES,  the name of a whole order of  birds,
 the distinguishing characteristic of which  is,  that  they
 have a hooked or crooked beak.
   This  order comprehends four genera, vis. the vulture,
 falco, strix, and lanius kinds ;  and 72 species.
   ACCLAMATION, in Roman antiquity, a shout raised
 by the people to testify their applause, or approbation of
 their princes,  generals,  &c.   Such is that of Ovid, Fast.
 I. 613.  Augeat imperium nostri ducis, augeat annos.
   The acclamations of  the  theatres, which were at first
 confused and  tumultuous shouts, became in process of
 time a kind of regular concerts.  When Nero played in
 the theatre, a signal was given, and upon this 5000 sold-
 iers began to chaunt  his praise, which the spectators
 were obliged to repeat.   The honour of acclamations was
 chiefly bestowed on the emperors; but sometimes it was
 conferred on their children and favourites, and on magis-
 trates who presided at their games.
   The Greeks were accustomed to practise acclamation,
 an instance of which is  mentioned by Plutarch, in conse-
 quence of Flaminius's restoring liberty to Greece, when
 the shouts were so loud, that it was hyperbolically said,
 the birds fell from the sky with the noise.
   Acclamations which were at first practised in the  thea-
 tre, passed to the senate, and other departments of civil
 society,  and were at length admitted into the  acts of coun-
 cils, and the ordinary assemblies of the church.  Chry-
 sostom checked  acclamations of this kind, but Augustin
 received them very willingly.  Sermons were applauded
 with hands and feet, by leaping up and down, and exclaim-
 ing "orthodox," and by shaking the loose garments, and
 waving handkerchiefs.  These were some of the ancient
 forms  of acclamation: of the Hebrews, "Hosanna;" of
 the Greeks, Aya0*j Ta;^, good luck ; of the Romans, Dii
 te nobis  servent, may the Gods preserve you! To the
 disgrace  of the famous French convention in 1792, it may
 be  added, decrees were voted in a legislative assembly,
 not upon discussion, but  "by acclamation."
   Acclamation medals, among antiquaries,  those where-
 on the people  are represented as  expressing their joy by
 acclamation.
  ACCOLADE,  in  ancient customs, the  ceremony of
 conferring knighthood, by the king's laying his arms about
 the young knight's neck, and embracing him.
   ACOLLE'E,  in heraldry,  a term  used in  different
 senses; sometimes it  denotes  the same with accolade;
 sometimes two things joined together; at other times, an-
imals with collars, or crowns about their necks ; and final-
ly,  battons, or  swords placed  saltierwise  behind the
shield.
  ACCOMMODATION, or Accommodating, in geome-
 try, is  the fitting a line or figure into a  circle, &c. agree-
 ably to the conditions of the problem; and in philosophy;
 is the application of one thing by analogy to another.
   ACCOMPANIMENT, in music, is  used for  the  in-
 struments  which accompany a voice, to make the music
 more full.  Among the moderns, the accompaniment fre-
 quently plays a different part or melody, from the song it
 accompanies; but authors are not agreed, whether or not
 it was so among the ancients.
   Accompaniment, in heraldry, denotes any thing added
 to a shield by way of ornament, as the belt, mantling, sup-
 porters, &c.  It is also used for several bearings  about a
 principal one; as a saltier, bend, fess, &c.
   ACCOMPLICE, in  law, a person who is privy to, or
 aiding in,  the perpetration of some crime.   It is general-
 ly applied to such accessories as are admitted to give evi-
 dence against fellow criminals.   By the law  of Scotland,
 accomplices cannot be prosecuted till the principal  offend-
 ers are convicted.
   ACCORD, in music, the same with what  is more usu-
 ally called  concord.  See Concord.  It is sometimes
 used for chord.
   Accord, in law, a  verbal agreement  between two  or
 more, where any one is injured by a trespass, or other of-
 fence committed, to make satisfaction to the injured par-
 ty ; who, after the  accord  is performed,  will  be barred in
 law from bringing  any new action  against the aggressor
 for the same trespass.   It is  safest, however, in pleading,
 to allege satisfaction,  and  not the accord alone; because
 in this  latter case, a precise execution in  every part must
 be alleged; whereas,  in the former, the defendant needs
 only say, that he paid the plaintiff such a sum in full sat-
 isfaction of the accord which he received*
   ACCOUNT, or Accompt, in a general sense, is used
 for all arithmetical  computations, whether of time, weight,
 measure, money, &c.   Account is also used  collectively,
 for the books in which merchants, traders,  and bankers
 enter all their business, traffic, and bargains with each oth-
 er.  See Book-kkeping.
   Account, in  law, is a writ or action, which lies against
 a person, who, because of his office, or business, is obliged
 to render an account to another, but refuses to do it; as a
 bailiff, for instance  to his lord.   It is now seldom used.
   Accounts, Chamber of, in the ancient French  polity,
 a sovereign court, answering nearly to our exchequer.
   ACCOUNTANT  general, in the court of  chancery,
 an  officer  appointed  by act of parliament to receive  all
 monies lodged in court, and convey the same to the bank
 of England for better security.   The salary of this officer
 and his clerks is to be paid out of the interest  made of part
 of the money ; it not  being allowable to take fees in this
 office.
   ACCOUNTS, public,  commissioners o/, are commis-
 sioners appointed, with handsome salaries, to  examine and
 state in  what manner, and at what times,  the  receipts, is-
 sues, and expenditures of the public monies are accounted
 for; and to consider and report, by what means and meth-
 ods the public accounts may in future be passed, and the ac-
countants compelled to pay the balances due from them, in
a more expeditious, effectual, and less expensive manner.
   ACCRETION, in natural history,  the  increase  or
 growth of a body by an  external addition of new parts ;
 thus it is salts, shells,  stones, &c. are formed. 
ACC                                                ACE
   Accretion, among civilians, a term used for the prop-
 erty acquired in a vague or not occupied thing, by its ad-
 hering to or following another thing already occupied;
 thus, if a legacy is left to two persons, and one of them
 dies before  the testator, the legacy devolves  to the sur-
 vivor by right of accretion.  Alluvion is another instance
 of accretion.
   ACCROCHE',  in  heraldry, denotes one thing being
 hooked into another.
   ACCRUED, in heraldry, a term applied to a tree full
 blown.
   ACCUBATION, the posture used among the Greeks
 and Romans at table: which was with the body extended
 on a couch, and the head resting on a pillow, or on the el-
 bow supported by a pillow.
   Pitiscus tells  us the manner in which the guests were
 disposed, which was this: a low round table was placed in
 thedining room, about which stood sometimes two, butmore
 usually three beds or couches ; from the number where-
 of the dining room got the name of biclinium or triclini-
 um.   These couches were covered with richer or plainer
 cloths, according to the quality of the person, and furnish-
 ed with quilts and pillows.  Each couch usually contain-
 ed three persons; it being deemed sordid to crowd more.
 The first lay at  the head of the bed, with his legs extend-
 ed behind the second, who lay in the same manner to the
 third.  The middle place passed for the most honourable.
 However, before placing themselves, they always took
 care to pull off their shoes, aud put on what was called the
 vestis canatoria, or the dining garment.
   ACCUMULATION, among lawyers,  denotes the
 concurrence of several titles to the same thing,  or of sev-
 eral circumstances or proofs  to make out one fact.
   Accumulation  of  degrees, in an university, the
 taking several of them together, or at smaller  distances
 from each other than usual, or  than the rules allow of.
   ACCUSATION, among civilians, the bringing a crim-
 inal action  against any  person.   The ancient  Roman
 lawyers  distinguished  between  postulatio,  delatio, and
 accusatio.  For, first, leave was desired to bring a charge
 against one, which was called postulare: then he against
 whom the charge was laid, was brought before the judge;
 which was called  deferre, or nominis delatio: lastly, the
 charge was dpawn up and presented, which  was properly
 the  accusatio.   The accusatio properly commenced, ac-
 cording to Peedianus, when the reus  or party charged,
 being interrogated, denied he was guilty of the crime, and
 subscribed his name to the delatio made by his  opponent.
 In England, by  Magna Charta, no man shall be imprison-
 ed or condemned on any accusation, without trial by his
 peers, or  the law; none  shall be vexed with any accusa-
 tion,  but according to  the law of the land; and no man
 may be molested by petition to the king, &c. unless it be
 by indictment or presentment of lawful men, or by proc-
 ess  at common  law.  Promoters of accusations are  to
 find surety to pursue them; and if they do not make them
 good, shall pay damages  to the party accused,  and also a
 fine  to the king.  No  person  is obliged to answer upon
 oath to a question  whereby he  may accuse himself of any
 crime.
  ACCUSATIVE, among Latin grammarians,  the fourth
 case, which is always governed by an active vepb or prep-
osition, expressed or understood; thus, amo  Deum, I love
 God; to Londinum, ».e. to ad vel versus Londinwn>l
 am going to London, or I am on my way to London.   In
 the English noun there is no difference between the nomi-
 native and accusative, except that the former precedes
 and the latter follows the verb.
   ACER,  the maple  tree  in botany.  It is of the class
 and order polygamia monoecia.   The essential character
 is, calyx five cleft;  corolla five petalled; stamina eight or
 ten;  gerraen  two,  or  three, superior;  stylus  simple;
 capsule  two, sometimes three, with one seed in each ter-
 minated by a wing.   The male blossoms are without ger-
 men or stylus.
   The maple genus consists entirely of trees,  and em-
 braces twenty species.  The acer pseudoplatanus or great
 maple, vulgarly called the sycamore tree, or mock plane,
 and in Scotland the plane tree, is too well known to  re-
 quire a description.   Before earthen ware came into com-
 mon  use, the wood of this tree was in great request  for
 trenchers; and it  is still much used by the turners  for
 bowls, dishes, &c.  It  is of quick growth, but not of long
 duration.  In  spring and autumn the wounded  stem  of
 this tree will,  like the birch, pour forth a saccharine juice,
 from  which wine  may be made.   There  are two vari-
 eties  in  the nurseries,  one with very broad  leaves,  the
 other variegated ; both very ornamental for large planta-
 tions.
   The acer campestre  is also well  known, growing very
 commonly in our woods and hedges.   It is much culti-
 vated in some parts of the kingdom for hop poles. The
 scarlet maple  is  also propagated with us for its beautiful
 scarlet flowers.
   The acer saccharinum, or American sugar maple, how-
 ever,  is perhaps the most distinguished of the tribe.   It
 grows  to the  height of forty feet; and large tracts  in
 North America  are  covered with  it.  The sugar is pro-
 cured by tapping,  or wounding, the tree with an augur
 about the months of February, March, or April, when the
 sap is rising ; and from 23 gallons one quart of sap drawn
 from two trees in twenty-four hours, 4 pounds 13  ounces
 of sugar  have been obtained;  and in some  cases one
 pound of sugar from every 3 gallons of sap.  The sugar
 thus obtained  is grained, clayed, and refined in every re-
 spect as that from the cane in the West Indies, and is of a
 very  excellent quality.  There is no doubt that it might
 be cultivated with great advantage in this country ; since
 the Indians of Canada have  practised the  making of  su-
 gar from the maple, time out of mind, even in that  ungeni-
 al climate.
   ACERRA, in antiquity, a kind of altar erected near the
 bed of a  dead person,  on which incense and other per-
 fumes were burnt till the time of the burial.
   Acerra  also denoted  the pots wherein the incense
was burnt; hence we read of plena acerra, a full acerra.
   ACETABULUM, in antiquity, a kind of utensil where
 in sauce was served to table, and not unlike our  salts or
 vinegar cruets. K
   Acetarulum was also a Roman measure, used as well
 for dry things  as liquids; and equal to a cyathus  and a
 half.
   Acetarulum, in anatomy, avhollow cavity in the heads
of certain bones serving to  receive the protuberant heads
of others, and  forming the articulation called cnarthrosig.
 See Anatomy. 
ACH
ACI
  AC-ETIAM, in law, a clause devised by the officers
of the king's bench, and added to  the  usual complaint of
trespass.  This is done in some cases  to save the suitors
the trouble and expense of suing out special originals.
  ACETIC ACID differs from acetous acid, by having
a larger proportion of oxygen.  See Acetous Acid and
Chymibtry.
  ACETITE of Potash.   This salt occurs native in the
sap, and some other vegetable juices, and also in the urine
of quadrupeds.   It is prepared artificially by adding car-
bonate of potash to distilled vinegar, till the liquor contains
a slight excess of acid;  if the salt is wanted in a solid state,
it may be  obtained by evaporation.  It has a strong affin-
ity for water, and deliquates readily in the air.  For this
and the other acetites,  see Chymistry.
  ACETOUS ACID, a  transparent colourless fluid,
obtained from distilled  vinegar, in the  proportion of 7  or
8 per cent, to  the distilled  vinegar.  See  Chymistry.
This acid forms an important article in the materia medica.
Common vinegar, which is this acid in an  impure state,
is also much used in food, and for the  preservation of an-
imal and vegetable substances.
  ACETUM rosatum, vinegar of roses, is made of rose
buds infused in vinegar five or six weeks;  the roses are
then pressed out, and the vinegar preserved.  It is used
in cases of headache.
  Acetum  prophylacticum, is  a preparation of acetic
acid, camphor, flower of lavender, &c.  It is called also
the vinegar of the four thieves, who during the plague at
Marseilles plundered the sick, the dying,  and the  dead,
and escaped unhurt by the use of this preparation.
  ACHALALACTLI.  See Alcedo.
  ACHANE, in Persian antiquity, a corn measure equal
to forty-five attic medimni.
  ACHANIA, a genus of the monodelphia polyandria
class, and  the natural order of columniferae.   The essen-
tial character is, calyx  double; outer many leaved; co-
rolla convolute, berry five seeded.
  The achania genus includes three species, all  exotics,
and cultivated,  chiefly  from cuttings, as stove plants.
  ACHERNER, a star of the  first  magnitude, in  the
southern extremity of  the constellation Eridanus; invis-
ible in our latitude.   See Eridanus.
  ACHERSET, an old English measure of corn, prob-
ably the same  with our quarter, or  eight bushels; the
monks of Peterborough had,  among other things, an allow-
ance of 12 achersotes defrumento.
  ACHIAR, a Malayan word, signifying a mixture of all
sorts of fruits and roots, pickled with vinegar and spice.
The Dutch import this pickle from Batavia.
  ACHILLEA, a genus of plants comprehending the
millefolium and ptarmicaof Tournefort.  It is of the class
and order  syngenesia polygamia superflua.  The corolla is
compound radiate: and the essential character is, calyx
ovate, imbricate ; florets of the ray about four; down none ;
recept. chaffy.
  It includes twenty-seven species, most of them hardy,
though natives  of the south of Europe, only two being in-
digenous here.   The achillea ptarmica, or sneezewort, is
of this description.   It is used in medicine as a sternuta-
tory ;  and in Siberia ia decoction,  to stop haemorrhages.
A beautiful double variety  is cultivated in our  gardens,
under the name of white bachelors' buttons.  The- other
English milfoil is the yarrow, well known in our meadow s.
This  has also  by some been recommended in haemor-
rhages, dysenteries, &c.
  ACHILLES, an  appellation  sometimes given to the
principal argument made use of by each sect of ancient
philosophers, in defence of their system.  It has obtain-
ed this name in allusion to the strength of Achilles ; and
is particularly used for Zeno's argument against motion,
which consisted in making a comparison between the swift-
ness of Achilles and  the slowness of a tortoise  ; whence
he inferred that a  slow body,  if but ever so small a dis-
tance before a swift one, could never be overtaken by it.
  Achilles, tendon of  See Anatomy.
  ACHIMBASSI,  the name  of an officer who presides
over the practice of medicine at Cairo.
  ACHIROPOETOS, in church history, a name given
to certain pictures  of Christ, supposed to have been paint-
ed in  a miraculous  manner.
  ACHOR, a  kind  of running ulcer on the face, chiefly
infesting children,  but  sometimes also grown persons.
  ACHRAS, the wild pear tree, a genus of plants of the
class  and order hexandria monogynia, the flower of which
consists of five erect petals, of a cordated shape; and the
fruit is an oval berry divided into ten cells.   The essen-
tial character is, calyx six leaved ; corolla ovate, sexfid,
with six scales alternate, more within; pome celled; seeds
solitary.  There  are four  species, and they are  called
mammee, sapoti, and bully  tree.   They are all natives of
the West-Indies, where the fruit is eaten.
  ACHROMATIC, a term used to denote telescopes
contrived to  remedy the aberration in colours.  See Op-
tics.
  ACHTELING, a measure for liquids used in Germany.
  ACHYRANTHES, a genus of the pentandria mono-
gynia class of  plants,  belonging  to the  natural order of
misal lanese, Linn.   The characters are ; the calyx is a
double perianthium ; the exterior one consisting of three
lanced acute leaves,  which are persistent; the interior of
five leaves, also persistent.   No corolla ;  the nectarium is
five valved, surrounding the germen, bearded at the top,
concave, and falling off.  The stamina consist of five fila-
ments the length of the corolla ; the anthers are  ovate and
incumbent.   The pistillum has a top shaped germen ;  the
stylus is filiform, and the length of the stamina; the stig-
ma is villous, and divided into two segments.  The peri-
antbium is a roundish one celled capsule, not gaping. The
seed  is  single and oblong.   Of this genus eleven species
are enumerated ; but the character of the genus does  not
agree in them all.  They are all natives of the Indies. On-
ly one of them, the altissima, is commonly cultivated in  bo-
tanic gardens, and that more for the sake of variety than
beauty.   It grows to the height of three feet, with oblong
pointed  leaves.  The flowers come out in long spikes,
from  the extremities of the branches, and appear in July,
the seeds ripening in September. Plants of this kind must
be reared in a hotbed, and may be transplanted, when
they  have acquired  sufficient  strength.   If  kept  in pots,
and sheltered  during  the winter in a warm greenhouse,
they will live two  or three years.
   ACIA,  a genus of  the  monadelphia dodecandria class
and order, and natural order of pomaceae.  The essential
character is, calyx five parted; corolla five petalled, une-
qual  ; drupe full of chinks.  We know of only one species, 
ACI
ACI
a native of Guiana, which rises to a tree of sixty feet in
height.   The fruit is eaten by the Creoles, and account-
ed pleasant.
  ACICULiE, certain small spikes, or prickles, in form
of needles, wherewith nature has armed several  animals,
as the hedgehog, echinus marinus, &c.
  ACID, in chymistry.   The word acid, originally sy-
nonymous  with sour, and applied  only to bodies distin-
guished by that taste, has been gradually extended in its
signification by chymists,  and now comprehends under it
all substances possessed of the following properties  :
  1. When applied to the tongue, they excite that  sensa-
tion which is called sour or acid.
  2. They change the blue colours of vegetables to  a red.
The vegetable blues employed for this purpose are gener-
ally tincture  of litmus and  syrup of violets or radishes,
which have obtained  the  name of re-agents or tests.  If
these  colours have been previously converted to a  green
by alkalies, the acids restore them again.
  3. They unite with water in almost any proportion.
  4. They combine with all the alkalies, and most  of the
metallic oxides and  earths,  and form with them  those
compounds which are called neutral salts.
  It must  be remarked, however, that every acid does
not possess all these properties, but  they all possess a
sufficient  number  by which they  may be distinguished
from other substances.
  The acids are by far the most important class of bodies
in chymistry.  It was by their means indeed, by studying
their properties, and by  employing them as instruments in
the examination of other bodies, that men  of science laid
the foundation of chymistry,  and  brought  it to that state
in which we find it at present.  The nature and composi-
tion of acids, therefore,  became a very  important point of
discussion, and occupied the attention of the most eminent
cultivators of the science.
  Paracelsus  believed that there  was only one acid prin-
ciple  in nature, which communicated taste and solubility
to the bodies in  which it was combined.  Beccher em-
braced the same opinion ;  and added to it, that this acid
principle  was a compound of earth and water, which  he
considered as two elements.  Stahl adopted the theory
of Beccher, and endeavoured to prove  that this acid prin-
ciple  is sulphuric acid; of which,  according to him, all
the other acids are mere compounds.   But his arguments
were  only conjectures or  vague experiments, from  which
nothing could be  deduced.  Nevertheless, his  opinion,
like every other which  he advanced in chymistry, con-
tinued to have supporters for a long time, and was even
countenanced by Macquer.   At last its defects  began to
be  perceived : Bergmann and  Scheele declared openly
against it: and their discoveries, together  with  those of
Lavoisier, demonstrated the falsehood of both parts of the
theory, by showing that  sulphuric acid does not exist in
the other acids ; and that  it is not composed of water and
earth, but of sulphur and oxygeH.
  The  opinion, however, that acidity is owing  to some
principle  common to all  the salts, was not  abandoned.
Wallerius, Me^yer, and  Sage, had advanced different the-
ories  in succession about the nature of this principle; but
as  they were founded rather on  conjecture and analogy
than direct proof, they obtained but few advocates.   At
last Mr. Lavoisier, by a number of ingenious and  accurate
experiments, proved that several combustible substances
when united with oxygen form acids ;  that a great number
of acids contain oxygen; and  that when this principle is
separated from them,  they lose their  acid  properties.
Thus phosphorus, charcoal, and sulphur, being separately
inflamed in oxygen  gas, combine with its base  ; acquire
an additional weight, equivalent to that of the  air consum-
ed, or absorbed ; and are converted into phosphoric, car-
bonic, and sulphuric acids.
  The Lavoiserian theory is further supported by exper-
iments,  in which the  known  acids are decomposed into
oxygen and one or more combustible bases.  If purified
nitre (nitratof potash,)  previously deprived of its water of
crystallization, is exposed in a silver retort to a low red heat,
a large  quantity of gas, consisting of oxygen and azote,
in the proportion of four of the former to one of the latter,
will, be  given  out, and pure potash will remain  in the re-
tort; the weight of which, with that of the gases, will be
equivalent to  that of  the original nitre.  But  force the
gases into union, by means of the electric spark, their vol-
ume is gradually diminished, and at length the whole is
reduced  to  an acid liquor, possessing all  the qualities of
nitrous acid; if this, and the potash remaining in the first
process, are mixed together, chymical union immediately
ensues, and nitre is reproduced. He concluded, therefore,
that the acidifying principle is oxygen, and that acids are
nothing but combustible substances  combined  with oxy-
gen, and  differing from one another according to the na-
ture of the combustible base.
  This conclusion,  as  far as regards the greater number
of acids,  is  certainly true.  All the simple combustibles,
except hydrogen,  are  convertible into acids; and these
acids are composed of  oxygen and the combustible body
combined.   This is the case also with four of the  met-
als.  It must not, however, be admitted without some limi-
tation.
  1. When it is said that oxygen is the acidifying princi-
ple, it is  not meant to affirm that oxygen possesses the
properties of an acid, which would be contrary  to truth;
all that can be meant is, that it enters as a component part
into acids, or that acids contain it as an  essential ingre-
dient.
  2. But,  even  in this  sense, the assertion cannot be ad-
mitted : for it is not true  that oxygen is an  essential in-
gredient in all acids, or that no body possesses  the prop-
erties of an acid unless  it contains oxygen.  Sulphurated
hydrogen, for  instance, possesses all the characters of an
acid, yet it contains no oxygen.
  3. When it is said that oxygen is the acidifying princi-
ple, it cannot be meant to affirm  that the combination of
oxygen with bodies produces  in all cases  an  acid, or that
whenever a body is combined with oxygen the product is
an  acid;  for the contrary  is  known  to every cbymist.
Hydrogen,  for instance, when combined with oxygen,
forms not  an acid,  but pure water, and the greater num-
ber of metallic bodies form  only oxides.
  All that  can be meant, then, when it is said that oxy-
gen is the acidifying principle,  is merely  that it exists as
a component part in the greater number of  acids ; and that
many acids are formed  by combustion, or  by  some equiv-
alent process.  The truth is, that the class of acids is al-
together arbitrary;  formed when the greater number  of
the  bodies arranged under it  were unknown, and before 
ACI
ACO
any precise notion of what ought to constitute the charac-
teristic marks of an acid had been thought of.  New bodies,
when they were discovered, if  they possessed any prop-
erties analogous to the known acids, were referred without
scruple to the same class, how much soever they  differed
from then in other particulars.   Hence we find, under the
head of acids, bodies which have scarcely a single prop-
erty in common, except that of combining with alkalies and
earths.
  From what has been stated, however, it follows, that the
acids are compound bodies, and almost all of them form-
ed by the union of some other substance with oxygen : this
substance is called the base or radical.  In some cases the
radical has never been found in a separate state, when it is
said to be unknown.  See  Acidifiable  base.

  The acids  as combined with oxygen may be arranged
as follows:
  States of Oxygenation, according as the compound
contains less or more oxygen.
                        *.            A........„,
With simple
 radicals.
   Bases.
[  Sulphur
|  Azote
J  Phosphorus
>\  Carbon
f  Arsenic
1  Molybdena
V^Chrome
   1st.
Sulphureous
Nitrous
Phosphoreous
3d.
Aisenious
With double
 radicals.  ^
Carbon and
hydrogen in  t
different pro-*>
portions.
f
Acetous
                                       2d.
                                   Sulphuric
                                   Nitric
                                   Phosphoric
                                   Carbonic
                                   Arsenic
                                   Molybdic
                                   Chromic
                                   Acetic
                                   Tartaric
                                   Citric
                                   Oxalic
                                   Malic
                                   Gallic
                                   Benzoic
                                   Succinic
                                   Saccholactic
                                   Formic
                                   Sebacic
           {Carbon,                  {\™»ic
           Hydrogen,                lj,th,c
           and
           Azote.
With un-   s-                        Muriatic  Oxymuriatic
known radi- 3                        Fluoric
cals.       c                        Boracic
   See. Chymistrt.
   ACIDIFIABLE base, or radical, is any substance,
whether simple  or  compound,  that is capable of uniting,
without decomposition, with such a quantity of oxygen as
to become possessed of acid properties.   Almost all the
acids agree with each  other in containing oxygen, but
they differ in their radicals-; of course the acidifiable base
or  radical  determines  the species of  acid.   Sulphur
combined with oxygen, forms  sulphuric  or vitriolic acid.
Almost all substances  will  combine with oxygen, but
they are not all  acidifiable bases.   That the process of
acidification may take place, a large proportion of oxy-
gen  is necessary, otherwise the result  is only an oxyd.
See Chvmistry.
   ACIDOTUM, a genus of  the  monoecia polyandria
class and order.   The essential character is : male, calyx
five leaved;  corolla none;  stamina  fixed to a  globular
receptacle.   Female, calyx six leaved;  corolla none;
style  trifid; capsule three grained.   One species only is
noted of this  plant, which is a native of Jamaica.  But of
its qualities little seems to be known.
   ACIDULJE, a term used for the cold mineral waters*
distinguished by their sparkling appearance when poured
   vol.  i.            I
 from one vessel to  another, and by their brisk acidulous
 taste.   They contain a  considerable quantity  of free
 carbonic acid.
   ACIDULUM, a term to express a kind of native com-
 pound salts, in which the  alkaline base is supersaturated
 with  acid; these are employed in chymical  processes,
 and for economical purposes as acids.   The two species
 already known are,  the tartareous acidulum or acidulous
 tartrite of potash; and the oxalic acidulum, or acidulous
 oxalat of potash.
   ACINACES, a kind of cutlass, or cimeter, in  use
 among the Persians.
   ACINUS, a name given to grapes or berries growing in
 clusters, in opposition to baccae, or  such  berries as grow
 single.
   ACKLYS,  in medicine, signifying dimness of sight,
 or blindness, arising from opacity of the cornea,  (a)
   ACLIDES, in Roman  antiquity, a kind of missive
 weapon, with  a thong fixed to it, whereby it might be
 drawn back again.
   Most authors describe the aclides, as a  sort of dart or
javelin;  but Scaliger makes it roundish, or globular, with
 a wooden stem to poise it by.
   ACNIDA,  Virginian  hemp,  a genus  of the dioecia
 class, and pentandria order of plants.  The characters
 are; in the male, the calyx is a perianthium consisting of
 five leaves, ovate,  concave, acute,  and  membranous on
 the  margin.  No corolla.   The stamina  consist of  five
 very  short capillary filaments; the anthers are versatile,
 two celled, and forked at both ends.   Female on a sepa-
 rate plant, of  which the calyx consists of an involucrum
 many leaved, linear, and deciduous ; and a perianthium
 two leaved, very small and persistent.   No corolla.  The
 pistillum has an ovate germen;  the styli  are five, long,
 reflected, and  downy $ the  stigmata are simple.  The pe-
 ricarpium is an egg shaped fruit, compressed, many an-
 gled, sulcated, and covered with a succulent calyx.   The
 seed  is solitary, round, and compressed.   There is only
 one species of it,  vis. the acnida cannibina.  It is a na-
 tive of Virginia, but rarely cultivated in Europe, except
 for the sake of variety.  It has little beauty, and at pres-
 ent is applied to no useful purpose.
   ACNUA, a measure of land, among  the ancient  Ro-
 mans, containing about a quarter of an acre.
   ACOEMETI, a  kind of ancient monks, who perform-
 ed divine worship night and day in their churches.  They
 divided  themselves  into three classes, each of which of-
 ficiated  in their turn, and relieved others, so that their
 churches were never silent, night or day-.
   ACOLUTHI, or Acolythi, denote candidates for the
 ministry, so called  from their continually  attending the
 bishop.  It is  a term applied to persons  who are stead-
 fast and immoveable in their resolutions.
   Acoluthi,   is used for the body guards who attended
 the emperors of Constantinople.
   Acolcthi,  is  also  an appellation given  to the stoics,
 on account of their  steady adherence to what they had
 once resolved.
   ACOLYTHIA, in the Greek church, denotes either
 the order of divine service, or the book containing it.
   ACON, an  instrument used in ancient exercises, like
 the dircus ; a  name likewise given to an ancient order of
 knighthood. 
ACQ
A C R
  ACONITI, an appellation given to some of the ancient
athleta,  who anointed their bodies with  oil, instead of
covering them with dust $  or who overcame their antago-
nists with ease.
  ACONITON,  signifies not plastered, and is a name
applied to vessels  not lined within.
  ACONITUM,  wolfsbane, or monks-hood, a genus of
plants of the class and order  polyandria trigynia.   The
essential character is, calyx none ; petals five, the highest
arched ; nectaries two, peduncled, recurved; capsules
three or five.
  Nine species, all hardy herbaceous perennials,  are enu-
merated of this genus, which  has received  the  name of
monks-hood from its flower,  being composed of five irreg-
ular petals, resembling in some measure a man's head with
a helmet or hood' on it.   The upper petal represents the
hood or helmet; the two  lower ones stand for that part
which  covers the  lower jaw;  and  the two  wings  seem
adapted for covering the  temples.   From the centre of
the flower there arise two pistils, resembling feet, and re-
ceived into the hollow of  the upper petal, or hood; as is
also another pistil, which finally becomes a fruit,  compos-
ed of several membranaceous vaginae collected into a head,
and usually containing angular and wrinkled seeds.
  AH the species  of aconite are extremely acrimonious,
occasioning mortal convulsions, or inflammations that end
in a mortification.  It is even said  that some persons by
only smelling at the flower  of the  common monks-hood
have been seized  with swooning fits, and lost their sight
for two or three  days. Like other poisons, however, it
has been used as a medicine in small  doses, particularly
in rheumatisms  and intermittents.
  Acontias is used for a kind of meteor, with a roundish
or oblong head, and a long slender tail, resembling a javelin.
  ACONTIUM,  in Grecian antiquity, a kind of dart or
javelin, resembling the Roman pilum.
  ACORN, a little ornamental piece of wood, in  the
shape of a cone, fixed on  the top of the  spindle on  the
mast head, above the vane, to keep  it from coming off the
spindle in a whirlwind.
  ACORUS, calamus, aromuticus, sweet flag,  or sweet
rush, a genus of the monogynia order, belonging to  the
hexandria class of plants,  and  ranking in the second nat-
ural order, piperita.  The characters are, the calyx is a
cylindric simple spadix covered with florets; there is no
spatha, nor perianthium ; the corolla is composed of six ob-
tuse, concave, loose petals  ; the stamina consist of six thick-
ish filaments, somewhat longer than the corolla; the an-
therae are thickish  and didymous; thepistillum has a gib-
bous oblong germen the length of the stamina, no stylus,
the stigma a prominent point;  the pericarpium is a short
triangular, obtuse three celled capsule, attenuated at both
ends ; the seeds are numerous, and of an oblong egg shape.
There are two species : the acoros calamus  grows  natu-
rally in shallow standing waters, and is found wild in riv-
ulets and marshy places about Norwich and other places
in this  island, in the canals of Holland, in Switzerland,
and in other countries of Europe.   The shops have been
usually supplied from the Levant with dried roots, which
do not appear to be superior to those of our own  growth.
The root of this plant has  a very agreeable flavour, which
is greatly improved by drying.  It  is reckoned carmina-
 tive  and stomachic,  having a warm, pungent, bitterish
 taste, so is frequently used as an  ingredient in bitters.
   Acorus, a blue coral,  found on the  coasts of  Africa,
 from Rio del Re,  to the river  Camarones.   It grows  in
 form of a tree, on a rocky bottom.
   ACOUSMAT1CI, in Grecian antiquity, such disciples
 of Pythagoras as had not finished  their five years proba-
 tion.
   ACOUSTICS, the science of hearing, or  of sounds in
 general.  See Pneumatics.
   Acoustic duct, in  anatomy, a name sometimes  given
 to the external passage of the ear, mere usually called
 meatus auditorius.  See Anatomy.
   Acoustic instrument, or  ear  trumpet,  one contrived
 to assist hearing.   It  is fashioned in manner of a  horn,
 with a perforation in the smaller  end, which  is fitted  to
 be put into the ear.
   ACQUEST, or Acquits,  in law, denotes goods not
 descended by inheritance, but acquired by purchase  or
 donation.
   ACQUIETANDIS plegiis, in law, a writ which lies
 for a surety against a  creditor, who refuses to acquit one
 after the debt is paid.   Cow til.
   ACQUIETANTIA de shires et hundredis, a freedom
 from suits and services in shires and hundreds.
   ACQUITTAL, in law, is  a deliverance or setting free
 from the suspicion of guilt.
   Acquittal is either in fact, or in law ;  in fact, it is where
 a person, on a verdict of  a jury, is found not guilty:  in
 law, it is when two persons are indicted, one as a princi-
 pal,  &c. the other as accessory :  here if the former is dis-
 charged, the latter of  consequence becomes acquitted.
   It is also used for a freedom from entries and molesta-
 tions of a superior  lord, on account of services issuing out
 of land.
   ACQUITTANCE, a discharge in writing for a sum of
 money, witnessing that the party has paid the same.
   Every man is obliged to give an acquittance on receiv-
 ing  money ;  and  a servant's acquiltance for money re-
 ceived for the use  of his master, shall bind him, provided
 the servant  used  to receive  his  master's rents.  An ac-
 quittance is a full discbarge, and bars  all actions, &c.
   ACRE, a measure of land containing four square roods,
 or one hundred and sixty square poles.
   The arpent, or  French acre, is equal to 11 of  the En-
 glish acre.   That of Strasburg  is only  about one half
 of the English acre.  The Scotch acre is  to the  English
 acre by statute, as 100,000 to 78,694.
   We have computations of  the number of acres contain-
 ed in several countries ; thus,  England is said to contain
 forty-six millions and upward  ; and the United Provinces
 about four and one third millions.
   Acre tax, a tax levied upon lands, at a certain rate by
 the acre, otherwise called acre shot.
   ACRID, an appellation given to such matter as is of a
 sharp or pungent taste.
  Ancient naturalists  distinguished  two  kinds of  acrid
tastes; one proceeding from  hot  and  dry, as in pepper*
the other from hot  and moist, as in garlic.               '
  ACRIFOLIUM, signifies any prickly leaved plant
  ACROATIC, in the  Aristotelian schools,  a denomina-
 tion  given to such  lectures as  were  calculated only for 
AC R
A C R
the intimate friends and disciples of that philosopher; be-
ing chiefly employed in demonstrating some speculative or
abstruse part of philosophy.   Acroatic is aUo used, in a
more general sense, for any thing  that is  sublime or ab-
struse; thus we read of an acroatic philosophy, theology,&c.
  ACROATICI, an appellation given to such of Aris-
totle's disciples as were instructed in his acroatic, or sub-
lime philosophy.  The acroatic lectures stood contradis-
tinguished from the exoteric, which were adapted to a com-
mon auditory.
  ACROBATICA, or Acrobaticum,  in Grecian anti-
quity, an engine on which people were raised aloft, that
they might have the better prospect.
  ACROCHIRISMUS, in Grecian antiquity, a kind of
gymnastic exercise  performed  with the fists, without clos-
ing at all.
  ACROCHIRISTES, in Grecian antiquity, one who
practised, or excelled at, the  exercise  called acrochiris-
mus.
  ACROCHORDUS, or Warted Snake, a genus of snake,
with body and tail completely  covered with warts:  there
are three species ; 1st,  the Acrochordus Javanicus, which
is whitish beneath, with the sides marked by dusky spots.
The remarkable snake  which gave rise to the institution
of this new genus, is a native of the island of Java, and
was first described by Mr. Hornsted in the Swedish trans-
actions for the year 1787.   It was  found in a large pep-
per ground near Sangasan, in the year 1784, and measured
about eight feet in  length;  the thickness of the neck be-
ing six inches,  that of the largest part of the body ten
inches, and  that of the tail an inch and an half: the col-
our of the upper part  of the  animal was blackish, and
of the under part whitish; the sides marked with dusky
spots:  the head truncated, depressed,  and scaly:  the
jaws equal,  the superior being  emarginated  beneath;
the inferior  curved : the eyes lateral, on the fore part
of the  head;  the  irides lived: the  nostrils  circular,
small,  approximated,  and situated above  the  tip of the
snout: the rictus or gape rather small for the size of the
body:  the teeth  in both jaws  subulate, very sharp, and
reversed, without any appearance of fangs, and accompa-
nied by a double row  of very small teeth in the palate:
the tongue thick at the base,  the forked part black and
slender: the body  entirely covered, as well  as the tail,
with rough  tricarinated warts: the vent small,  the body
very suddenly  tapering toward the tail.   This snake was
secured by a Chinese,  by means of a split bamboo applied
over its neck, and thus carried to Batavia, where, on be-
ing skinned and opened, exclusive of a quantity of indi-
gested fruit, were found five  completely formed young,
measuring nine inches  each; the flesh of the  animal was
eaten by the Chinese people, who affirmed that it was ex-
cellent food, and  the skin, being preserved in spirits, was
brought over to Europe by Mr. Hornsted, and deposited
in the museum of the king of Sweden.
  •idly, Doubtful or Brown Acrochordus, with carinated
abdomen, and  sides spotted with  black.  In its general
appearance a»»d proportion so very nearly does  the pres-
ent serpent  resemble the preceding, or Javan  species,
that one  description might almost serve for both, except
that the  head in this is covered with very minute  rough
jv warted scales, differing in  size  alone from those  on
other parts of t he animal; whereas, if we may rely on the
accuracy of Mr. Hornsted's description and figure of the
Javan Acrochordus, that part is covered with flat, ovate
scales, and of a far different appearance from the muricat-
ed or wartlike scales  on every other part.   The  size of
the present specimen also falls much short of the former,
measuring only about three feet in length: its colour is an
obscure brown, with some  ill defined clouds and patches
of a darker colour dispersed along the sides and abdomen;
the shape of the vent, thickness of body, and sudden con-
traction at the beginning of the tail, as well as the compar-
ative size and shape of that part are exactly  similar : the
abdomen, however, in this serpent is slightly carinated be-
neath toward the tail, which is a circumstance not particu-
larized in Mr. Hornsted's description of the Javan species.
The present specimen is in the British  Museum, and the
engraving which accompanies this article will show in the
most satisfactory manner the resemblances and discrep-
ances between this and the former animal.  Its native place
is not particularized.  See Plate Nat. Hist. fig. 7.
  3dly, Fasciated Acrochordus, with carinated abdomen,
and whitish ascendent lateral bands.  This is so much al-
lied to the preceding, that it may  perhaps  be doubted
whether  it really differs in any other  respect  than age,
size, and cast of colours, measuring about  18  inches in
length,  and being of a dusky brown colour,  with several
paler fasciae which take  their rise from  the abdomen, and
ascend on the sides;  the abdomen is carinated, as in the
former.  This is certainly the Hydrus  granulatus of Mr.
Schneider, who, in  his  work on the Amphibia,  describes
it as a water snake, though, seemingly,  without any other
foundation than its having a carinated abdomen; its other
characters by no means agreeing with those  of  the genu-
ine Hydri.
  ACROMION, or Acromium, in anatomy, the name of
the upper part of the scapula, or  shoulder  blade.  See
Anatomy.
  ACROMONOGRAMMATICUM,  a kind  of poem,
wherein  every  verse  begins  with  the  same  letter  with
which the preceding verse terminates.
  ACROSPIRED, in malt making, a term used for  such
grains'6t barley as shoot or sprout out at the blade end, as
well as at the root end.
  ACROSTIC, in poetry, a kind of poetical composition
disposed in such a manner, that the initial letters of the
verse make some person's name, title, motto, &c.
  ACROSTICUM,  Wall Rue, the name given by Lin-
naeus to a distinct genus of fern, of the class and order
crytogamia Alices, formerly called ruta.  The generic
character is, that the fructification covers the  whole under
the surface of the frond.  The species are 44 in number,
two only of which are natives of Britain.
  ACROSTOLIUM,  in the naval architecture of the
ancients, the extreme part of  the  ornament  used on the
prows of their ships.  This was of various forms; some-
times in the shape of a buckler, helmet, animal, &c. but
more frequently circular, or spiral.  It was  usual to tear
the acrostolia from the prows of vanquished ships, as a
token of victory.  Authors, not unfrequently, confound the
acrostolia with  the  decorations of the poop,  as also with
the rostra; from which, however, they are very distinct.
  ACROTELEUTIC, among ecclesiastical writers, an
appellation given to any thing added at  the end of a psalm
or hymn; as the gloria  Patri, or doxology. 
ACT
ACT
   ACROTERIA, in  architecture, small pedestals upon
 which globes, vases, or statues,  stand at the ends or mid-
 dle of pediments, or frontispieces.  The height of  those
 at the extremes should be only half that of the tympanum;
 whereas that in the middle ought to  be one eighth part
 more.
   Acrotkria likewise denotes the figures placed  as or-
 naments, or crownings, on the tops of churches; and some-
 times sharp pinnacles standing in ranges about flat build-
 ings, with rails and balusters.
   Acroteria, among ancient physicians, a term used to
 denote the larger extremities of the body, as the head,
 hands, and feet.
   Acroteria is also used for the tips of the fingers, and
 sometimes for the eminences of the bones.
   ACT, among logicians, denotes an operation of the hu-
 man mind; in which sense comprehending, judging, will-
 ing, &c. are called acts.
   Act, among lawyers, is used for an instrument or deed in
 writing,  serving to prove the truth of  some bargain or
 transaction.   Thus, records, certificates, &c. are call-
 ed acts.
   Act is also used for the final resolution, or decree, of an
 assembly, senate, council, &c.
  Acts of parliament are called statutes; acts of the roy-
 al society,  transactions; those of the French academy of
sciences, memoirs; those of the academy of sciences at Pe-
tersburg, commentaries ; those of Leipsic, acta erudito-
 rum;  the decrees of the lords of session at Edinburgh,
 acta sederunt, &c.
   Act, in the universities,  a thesis maintained in public
by a candidate for a degree.  At Oxford, the term when
masters or doctors complete their degrees, is called the act,
which is held with great solemnity: at  Cambridge, it is
 called the commencement, as being the commencement of
 the long vacation.
   Act of faith, auto daft, in the church of Rome, a kind
 of jail  delivery, for burning or setting at liberty the pris-
oners of the inquisition, or heretics, as they are called.
   An act of faith  is the utmost exertion of brutal tyranny,
 and a reproach to humanity  itself; the tragical  part of
which is thus  described by those who have seen it.  The
prisoners being clothed in peculiar habits, are carried in
solemn procession to the place of execution; where there
are as many stakes  set up as  there are prisoners to be
burnt, with a quantity of dry furze  about them.   Those
who make  profession of  dying in the communion of the
 church of Rome, are first  strangled,  and then burnt to
ashes; but those who persist in their heresy, are chained to
stakes about four feet high, a board being fixed on the top
of the  stake, on which the victim is seated.   This being
 done, the Jesuits,  after repeated exhortations to be recon-
 ciled to the church,  deliver  them over  to the devil, who
 they tell them is standing at  their elbow to receive their
 souls, and carry them  with him into  the flames of  hell;
which instance of popish charity  is followed by  loud
 shouts from the deluded mob,  exclaiming let the dogs'
 beards bt  singed; this they  do by holding a bush of
flaming furze,  fastened to a pole, to their faces, till they
 are burnt to a coal.   At last, fire is set to the furze at the
 foot of the stake; but the unhappy sufferers are placed so
 high,  that the flame seldom reaches  above the seat on
 which they sit, so that they seem rather roasted than burnt.
   Such is the wretched death these poor victims suffer,
and that for no other reason (for crime it certainly is not)
than that they do not believe all the absurdities of pope-
ry ! There cannot be a more lamentable spectacle ; yet it
is beheld by both sexes, and by persons of all ages, with
transports of joy and satisfaction.   How shocking is the
practice!  how detestable, beyond expression, are  the au-
thors and promoters of  it!  From such a religion, and such
diabolical maxims, will not every protestant most fervent-
ly pray God to deliver us ?
   As to those who escape the flames, some are imprison-
ed, and others obliged to do penance during their lives.
   ACTA denoted,  among the Romans, a pleasant garden
formed near the bank of a river, in which they gave them-
selves up to all kinds of pleasure.
   ACTAEA, or herb Christopher, a genus of the polyan-
dria  monogynia class and order.  The essential charac-
ter is, calyx four leaved  ; corolla four pet ailed ;  berry one
celled ; seeds semiorbicular, in two rows.
   The genus includes four  known species;  one of  which,
the actaea spicata, grows wild in England, and  is some-
times used in medicine as a powerful repellent.   Caution,
however, is necessary in employing if.   The  actaea race-
mosa  is an American plant, and is called black snakeroot,
to distinguish it from the common snakeroot.   It is  used
in that country as an antidote against several kinds of an-
imal poisons, and particularly that of the rattlesnake.
   ACTS, in  dramatic  poetry,  are  certain divisions,  or
parts  of a play, designed to give some respite both  to
the actors and spectators.   The acts  are always  five in
regular and  finished pieces: a rule not unknown  to the
Romans, as appears from Horace.

          Neu brevior quinto,  neu sit productior, acta.

   According to some critics, the first act, besides intro-
ducing upon the stage the principal characters of the play,
ought to propose the argument or subject of it;  the  sec-
ond, to bring this into  action;  the third, to raise obsta-
cles and difficulties ;  the fourth, to find remedies for these,
or to raise new ones in  the attempt; the fifth concludes
the piece by  introducing some  incident to unravel the
whole plot.
   ACTIAN games, in Roman antiquity, those  instituted
in commemoration of the victory at  Actium.  Strabo,
whose opinion is now generally "followed, tells us,  that
they returned only every fifth year, and were  sacred  to
Apollo, thence called actius.
   Actian years, an era, or  series of years, commencing
from the battle of Actium,  and  otherwise called the era
of Augustus.
   ACTINIA, a genus  of the mollusca order of worms j
its body is rough and wrinkled, furnished with eccentric
cirri and with a single terminal  aperture; it attaches  it-
self  to rocks and other substances, among  which  it is
found.  These animals are  called urtica marina, sea ane-
monies  and  nettles; the latter  appellation is given from
the painful sensation experienced when they are handled.
They are viviparous, and feed on shell fish.   There are
five species.
   ACTION,  in mechanics and  physics, is the pressure
or percussion of one body against another.  It is  one of
the laws of nature,  that  action and re-action are  equal •
that is, the resistance of  the body moved is always equal 
ACT
ACT
 to the force  communicated to it; or, which is  the same
 thing,  the moving body loses as much of its force as it
 communicates to the body moved.   See Mechanics.
   Action, in rhetoric, may be defined, the accommodation
 of the voice, but more especially the gesture of an orator,
 to the subject  he is  upon.  It is chiefly directed to the
 passions of the audience.
   The power of action  has been  known  at  all  times.
 Cicero tells us, " That it does not so much matter what an
 orator says,  as how he says it."  Horace, in  his Art of
 Poetry, is no less explicit in  setting forth  its vast influ-
 ence on mankind.

          With those who laugh, oar social joy appears ;
          With those who mourn, we sympathize in tears.
          If you would have me weep, begin the strain ;
          Then I shall feel your sorrows, feel your pain.

 After all, the utility, and even morality, of studied action
 is controverted.  It is certainly enough if an orator studies
 sufficient of external grace that there shall be nothing dis-
 gusting in his manner or delivery.  In truth, the attempts
 at theatrical action in some young orators, and particularly
 in the pulpit, are calculated to make themselves, and what
 they say, ridiculous, rather than respected,  in the eyes of
 all judicious persons.
   Action, in poetry, denotes much the same with the fa-
 ble or subject of an epic or dramatic poem;  only that the
 former may be real,  whereas the latter is always feigned.
   It is  necessary to  the perfection of an action that it be
 but one, that it be entire, that it be important or affecting,
 and that it have a suitable duration without being inter-
 rupted.  It is no breach, however, of the unity or integrity
 of the principal action, that there are  subordinate ones,
 serving to obstruct the hero's measures.
   Action, in a theatrical  sense, is nearly the same with
 action among orators ; only the actor adapts his action to
 an assumed character, whereas the orator is supposed to
 be in  reality what his action expresses, whether joyful,
 grieved, &c.   The perfection of theatrical action consists
 in imitating nature, or expressing, in a lively manner, the
 behaviour of a man of the assumed character and circum-
 stances.
   Action, in painting and sculpture, denotes the posture
 of a statue or picture, serving to express some passion, &c.
   Action  of the mouth, in the manege, signifies a horse's
 champing upon the bit of  the bridle, thereby emitting a
 ropy foam ; which is looked upon as a sign of health, vig-
 our, and mettle.
   Action, in law, denotes either the demanding, in a le-
gal manner, what is any man*s due; or the process brought
for recovering the same.   The suit, till judgment, is prop-
erly called  the action; but not after; and therefore a re-
lease  from  all actions is no bar to execution.   Co. Lilt.
281.
   Actions are either  criminal or civil.
   Criminal actions are to have judgment of death, as ap-
peals of death, robbery, &c. or only judgment for damage
to the injured party, fine to the king, and imprisonment.
Under the  head of criminal actions may likewise be rank-
ed penal actions, which lie for some penalty or punishment
on the party sued, whether corporal or pecuniary.
  Actions upon the statute are also brought on breach of
any statute, or  act of parliament, by which  an action is
 given that did not lie before; as where a person commits
 perjury to the prejudice of another, the injured party
 shall have an action upon the statute.  And, lastly, popu-
 lar actions, so called, hecause any person may bring them
 on behalf of himself and the crown, by information, &c.
 for the breach of some penal statute.  These are called
 qui tarn actions, from the words of the writ.
   Civil actions are divided into real, personal, and  mixed.
   Action, real, concerns only real or  landed property,
 for that is the only property which our ancestors account*
 ed real.  It is therefore that whereby a man claims  a title,
 lands, tenements, &c. in fee, or  for life ;  and this action is
 either  possessory,  or  ancestral; possessory, when the
 lands are a person's own  possession or seisin;  ancestral,
 when they were of the possession or seisin of his ancestors.
   Action, personal,  is  one brought upon any contract
 for money or  goods, or on account of trespass, or other
 offence committed;  and thereby the debt, goods, chattels,
 &c. claimed.
   Action, mixed, is one lying as well for the real proper-
 ty demanded  as against the person who  has it, and on
 which the thing is recovered with damages for the wrong
 sustained: such is an action of waste, sued against a ten-
 ant  for life, the place  wasted being recoverable, with
 treble damages for the wrong done.
   All actions seem to.be temporary and limited.   A real
 action may be  prescribed against, in  five years after a fine
 levied, or recovery suffered.  Writs of formedon for any
 title to lands in being, must  be  sued out  within twenty
 years.   Actions of debt, account,  detinue, trover, and
 trespass, are to be brought within six years, of assault and
 battery within four years, and of slander within two years,
 after cause of action, and not afterward.
   It ought, however, to be observed, that the right of ac-
 tion in these cases is saved to infants, feme  coverts, and
 persons in prison, or beyond sea, &c. provided they com-
 mence their suits within the time limited after their inabili-
 ties are removed.
   Actions may be brought by  all persons whatever, but
 those attainted of high treason  or felony.   An outlawed
 or excommunicated person,  &c. cannot bring any  action
 till pardoned, absolved,  &c.  A feme  covert must sue _
 with her husband, and infants by their guardians.
   Action upon the case, is a general action which lies
 for the  redress of wrongs and injuries done without force,
 and  which  by law are not specifically provided against.
 This at present is the most frequent of all actions, being
 brought in all eases where no certain form has been  estab-
 lished ; and the reason why it  is called an action upon the
 case, is because the whole cause or case is set forth  in the
 writ.   It may be brought as well where there is another
 action as where no other lies. .
   Action  upon the case for words, is  brought where a
 person  is injured in his reputation j  and for words  which
 affect the life, office, trade, &c. or tend to the loss of pre-
 ferment  in  marriage, or otherwise; or to the disinherit-
 ance, or other damage of a person.
   Action prejudicial, otherwise called preparatory, one
 which  arises from some doubt in the  principal; as,  where
 one sues his younger brother for lands  descended from
 the father, on which it is objected to him that he is a bas-
 tard.   Here this point of bastardy is to be first tried or
judged, before  the principal cause can proceed. 
ACT
ADA
   Action of a writ, is when a person pleads some -/ut-
ter, by which is shown, that the plaintiff*had no c^nse to
have  the writ brought;  though, perhaps, he may have
another writ for the same matter.  It is hence called, a plea
to the action  of  the writ, in contradistinction from a plea
to the action.
   Action,  among physicians.  The  actions of the hu-
man body are divided into the vital, animal, or natural ones.
   Vital actions  are  those, without which life could not
be maintained: such is the motion of the heart and lungs.
   Under  animal actions  are comprehended the senses,
imagination, judgment, and voluntary  motions, without
which we could not live comfortably.
   Lastly, nalural actions are those which, though not so
immediately necessary to life,but that we may live some
time at least without them, yet are absolutely necessary
to our well being: such is digestion.
   Action, in commerce, a terra used abroad for a certain
part or share of a public company's capital stock.   Thus,
if a  company has  400,000 livres capital stock, this may
be divided into 400 actions, each consisting of 1,000 livres.
Hence, a man is said to have two, four, &c. actions, ac-
cording as he has the property of two, four, &c. thousand
livres, capital stock.
   The transferring of actions, abroad, is performed much
in the same manner as stocks are with us.
   ACTIONARY, or Actionist, in commerce,  a term
used  among foreigners, for the proprietor of an action, or
share of a public company's stock.
   ACTIVE, among grammarians, an appellation given to
words expressing some action, as  I write, I read, &c.
   These are denominated verbs, or active verbs, from the
Latin verbum, a word.
   ACTOR, in a theatrical sense, is a man who acts some
part or character in a play.
   Actors were at first few in number, one or two persons oft-
en acting all the characters in a play. At present, however,
their number is not limited:  a circumstance which creates
such  a diversity as must greatly  interest the spectators.
   It is remarkable with what difference actors were treated
among the anc ients.  At Athens they were held in such es-
teem, as to be sometimes appointed to discharge embassies,
and other negotiations : whereas, at Rome, if a citizen be-
came an actor, he forfeited his freedom. Among the mod-
erns,  actors are best treated in England ; the French hav-
ing much the same opinion of them as the  Romans had.
   Actor was the name of a person who had the superin-
tendence  of all  the goods of a Roman citizen.  He was
called actor bonorum.
   Actor summarum, a slave,  to whom was committed
the office of cash keeper.
   Actor, among civilians, the proctor or advocate  in civil
courts or causes.
   ACTORUM tabula, tables instituted by ServiusTul-
lius, in which the births of children were registered.
   ACTUARLE  naves, in Roman antiquity, a kind of
ships designed chiefly for expedition.
   ACTUARIUS, an officer, cr rather notary, appointed
to write down the proceedings of a court.
   Actuarii were  also officers who kept the military ac-
counts, and distributed the corn to  the soldiers.
   ACTUS, in  antiquity, a measure of length, containing
one hundred and twenty Roman feet.
   The square of the actus, was just half of  the Roman
acre or jugerum.
   ACULEATE, or Aculeated, an appellation given
to any thing  that has aculei, or prickles :  thus fishes are
divided into those with aculeated, and not aculeated fins.
   ACULER, in the manege, is said of a  horse, when
working  upon volts, he  does  not go far enough forward,
at every time or motion ;  so that his shoulders embrace or
take in too little ground, and his croupe comes too near
the centre of the volt.
   ACUMINA,  in  antiquity,  a kind of military  omen,
taken from the points or edges  of spears, sword3, &c.
   ACUPUNCTURE, in the  Chinese and Japanese sur-
gery, a method  of  curing several disorders, by pricking
the part affected with a needle.
   This operation is performed with a gold or silver nee-
dle, which they  strike  into the body with their hand, or
with a hammer provided  for that purpose.   Not only the
legs, arms, and the like parts, are pricked in this manner,
but likewise the head and abdomen.
   They  have recourse to acupuncture in  the head for
headaches, lethargies, epilepsies,  convulsions, diseases of
the eyes, &c. and in the abdomen  for colics, dysenteries,
want of appetite, surfeits, &c.
   ACUTE, an appellation given  to such things as termi-
nate in  a sharp point or edge : thus, we say, an acute an-
gle, acute angled triangle, &c. See Geometry.
   Acute diseases,  among physicians, those which sud-
denly rise to their crisis,  and  terminate in  a few  days.
They are extremely dangerous, as not affording time to
administer proper medicines.
   Acute, in  music, an  epithet given to  sharp or shrill
sounds, in opposition to those called grave.
   ACUTIATORES, in antiquity, a kind of smiths re-
tained in the ancient armies for sharpening the arms.
   ACUTITION, in grammar, the pronouncing, or mark-
ing, a syllable with an acute accent.
   AD, a Latin preposition, expressing the relation of one
thing to another.
   It is frequently prefixed to other words : thus,
   Ap bestias, in antiquity, a kind of punishment, which
consisted in throwing the criminal to wild beasts.
   Ad hominem, among logicians, an argument drawn from
the professed belief or principles of those with whom we
argue.
   Ad libitum,  at  discretion, in music, the same with
piace, or si piace.
   Ad ludos,  in  Roman antiquity, a kind of punishment,
whereby the criminals entertained the people, either bv
fighting with wild beasts,  or with each other.
   Ad  metalla, in Roman antiquity, the punishment of
such  criminals as were  condemned to the  mines, and
therefore called  metallici.  A piece of  excellent policy,
thus to make the punishment of rogues doubly subservient
to the good of the commonwealth.
   Ad valorem, among  the officers of the kind's revenue
a  term  used   for such duties,  or customs, as are paid ac-
cording to the value of the goods  sworn to by th«3 owner
   ADACTED, in military affairs,  is  a term applied 1o
stakes, or piles, driven into the earth by large malls shod
with iron, as in securing ramparts or pontoons.
   ADAGIO, softly, leisurely, in music, a term used to
denote  the slowest  ef all times, the  grave only excepted 
ADD
IDE
Sometimes it is repeated, adagio adagio, to signify a still
greater retardation of time.
  ADALIDES,  in Spain, officers of justice for matters
that tespect the military forces.
  ADAMANTINE spar.   See Mineralogy.
  Adamantine,  terra1, the sixth order of earths; to this
order belongs the  corundum.
  ADAMI pomum, in anatomy, a prominence in the fore
part of the throat; so called from an  idle notion, that a
piece of the forbidden apple stuck in Adam's throat, and
occasioned this tumour, which in reality is only the con-
vex part of the first cartilage of the larynx.
  ADAMIC, earth,  terra adamica,  a name by  which
some call the common red clay supposed to be the ada-
mah, or ruddy earth, of which the first man was formed.
  ADAMITES, a sect of heretics who went naked ; pre-
tending that mankind were restored to the original state
of innocence, wherein  Adam was created.
  ADANSONIA, Ethiopian  sour  gourd, or  monkey's
head, is a genus of the monadelphia order and polyandria
class, called after the famous French traveller in Senegal,
Adanson.   The essential character is,  calyx simple,  de-
ciduous $ style very long ; stigmas many; capsules woody,
ten celled, with farinaceous pulp, and many seeds.
  We  know  of but one  species, the  adansonia digitata.
In its native country, Africa, it grows to a very large tree.
Its  height however is  not above twelve or fifteen feet, but
its  circumference  is  often  sixty or seventy feet.   The
fruit is pleasant, of an acid flavour, and eaten with sugar.
The pulp, or a syrup  made of it, is used in putrid fevers;
and at  Cairo the pulp reduced to a powder is administer-
ed  in fluxes, dysenteries, &c.   It has  grown, from seeds
sown in a hotbed, to  the height of eighteen feet in our
stoves.
  ADAR, in Hebrew chronology,  the twelfth month of
the ecclesiastical, and the sixth of the  civil year.  It has
only twenty-nine  days, and answers to the last half of our
February and the first part of March.
  ADARCON, a coin mentioned in the Scrip  ures, usu-
ally of gold, worth about fifteen shillings.
  ADARME, in commerce, a small Spanish weight used
in America, and nearly equivalent to our dram.
  ADCRESCENTES milites, under the Roman empe-
rors, a kind of junior  soldiers, not unlike our cadets.
  ADDER.  See Coluber.
  ADDEXTRATORES,  the pope's mitre bearers; so
called, according to Ducange, on account of their walk-
ing at the pope's  right hand, when  he rides to visit the
churches.
  ADDICTI, in Roman antiquity,  slaves who were re-
duced to that state because they could not satisfy some
creditor;  whose slaves they became till they  could pay
or work out  the debt.
  ADDICTION, addictio, among the Romans, was the
making over of goods  to another, whether in the way of
sale, or by sentence of court: the goods so delivered were
called bona addicta.
  Debtors were  sometimes delivered over in the same
manner, and thence called servi addicti, as above.
  ADDITION,  in arithmetic, the first of the four funda-
mental rules of that art :• for this, and addition of fractions
and decimals, see Arithmetic
  Addition,  in algebra, is  the connecting or putting t<>
gether all  the  letters or numbers to be added,  with their
proper signs + or —.   See Algebra.
  Additions, in law,  denote all manner of designations!
given to a man, over and above his proper name and sur-
name, to  show what estate, degree, mystery, place  of
abode, &c. he is.
  Additions of degree, are the same with titles of hon-
our, or dignity ; as knight, lord, earl, duke, &c.
  Additions of estate, are yeoman,  gentleman, esquire,
&c.
  Additions of mystery or trade, are carpenter, mason,
painter, engraver,  &c.
  Additions of place or residence, are London, Edin-
burgh, Bristol, York, Glasgow, Aberdeen,  &c.
  Tnese additions  were ordained to prevent one man's
being grieved, or molested, for  another ; and that every
person might  be  certainly known,  so as to bear his own
burden.
  If a man is of different degrees, as  duke, earl, &c. he
shall have the most worthy ; and the title of  knight,  or
baronet, is part of the party's name,  and therefore ought
to be rightly used ;  whereas that of esquire, or gentleman,
being as people please to call them,  may be used or not,
or varied at pleasure.
  An earl of Ireland is  no addition of honour here ; nay,
the law addition to the children of British noblemen  is
only that of esquire, commonly called lord.
  Writs without  the  proper additions, if excepted to,
shall abate; only where the process of outlawry does not
lie, additions are not necessary.  The addition of a parish
not in any  city, must mention the county, otherwise  it is
not good.
  Addition of ratios, the same with  what  is otherwise
called composition of ratios.
  Addition,  among distillers,  a general  term for such
things as are added to the wash, or liquid,  while ferment-
ing, with  a view to increase the vinosity and quantity  of
the spirit, or to give it  a particular flavour.
  Addition,  in heraldry,  something added to a coat of
arms, as a  mark of honour;  and therefore  directly oppo-
site to abatement.   Among additions we reckon a border,
quarter, canton, gyron,  pile, &c. In this manner the arms
of a kingdom or state have been added to those of noble-
men ; as happened to the dukes of Boufflers and Richlieu
in the Italian war, who, by a decree of the senate of Ge-
noa, were permitted to add the ensigns of that republic to
those of their families.
  Addition,  in music, a dot marked on the right side of a
note, to signify that it is to be sounded  or lengthened half
as much more as it would have  been without such mark.
  ADDUCTOR, in anatomy, a general name for all such
muscles as serve to draw one part of the body  toward an-
other.  See Anatomy.
  ADEB, in commerce, a weight used in Egypt, princi-
pally for  weighing  rice.  It is about two drams less than
an English pound.
  ADELIA, a genus of the diocecia  monadelphia class
and order.  Its essential character is, male blossom ; ca-
lix three parted ;  corolla none ; stamina many, united at
the base.   Female, calix five parted ; corolla none, styles
three torn, caps, tricoccou*. 
A D I
AD J
  There are three species of shrubs which bear this name,
all of them natives of Jamaica.  We do not find them re-
markable for any particular quality, and therefore, as their
flower  has  no beauty,  they are seldom cultivated here.
They may, however, be raised from seed, and treated as
stove plants.
  ADELPHIANI, a sect of heretics, who always fasted
on Sundays.
  ADEMPTION,  among civilians,  denotes the revoca-
tion of some donation or favour.
  The ademption of a legacy may  be done either in ex-
press terms, or indirectly by disposing of it otherwise.
  ADENANTHERA, a genus of shrubby  plants of the
class and order decandria raonogynia.  The flower is com-
panulate; and the essential character is, calyx five toothed,
petals five, globose glands affixed to the  outer tip  of the
anthers, whence its name, legume membranaceous.
  Three species are at present known, but the adenan-
thera pavonina is the only one which has been as yet cul-
tivated in  England, where, however, it has not flowered.
The seeds, which are obovate, rounded, and convexly
lens shaped, are very beautiful, and from their equality
in weight, being each four grains, are used by goldsmiths
and  jewellers ; they are also eaten by the common peo-
ple in   India,  and  form a cement when beaten up with
water and borax. It is one of the largest and handsomest
trees in the East Indies, and commonly lives 200 years.
The wood is solid and durable. With us it forms a hand-
some shrub for the decoration of our stoves.
  ADENOS, a kind  of cotton, otherwise called  marine
cotton.  It comes  from Aleppo  by way of Marseilles,
where it pays twenty per cent. duty.
  ADENOSE, abscess, is used for a hard tubercle, diffi-
cult to be discussed, and resembling a gland.
   ADESSENARIANS, a sect of Christians, who main-
•tain that Jesus  Christ is  really present in the eucharist,
though not by way of  transubstantiation.
   The adessenarians  differ among themselves, some of
them  holding  that the body  of Jesus  Christ is  in the
bread; others, that it is about the bread; others, that it
is with the bread ; and others, that it is under the bread.
   ADFECTED equations, in algebra, those wherein the
unknown quantity is found in two or more different pow-
ers: such is xs—ax 2 -\-bx — a2b.
   For the solution of  these and other equations, see Al-
gebra.
   ADFILIATION, a Gothic custom, whereby the chil-
dren of a former marriage are put upon the same footing
With those of the  second marriage.   This is otherwise
called unio prolium, and still retained in Germany, under
the name einkindschafft.
   ADHESION,  in physiology, is  used  to denote the
sticking together of two bodies.  Muschenbroek has given
many curious experiments  on the adhesion  of  bodies,
which he properly attributes to attraction.
   Adhesion, in medicine and anatomy.  There are fre-
 quent instances of the adhesion of the lungs to the pleura
 and diaphragm, which occasions many disorders.
   ADHIL, in astronomy, a star of the sixth magnitude,
 upon the garment of Andromeda, under the last star in her
foot.
   ADIANTUM,  maidtnhair, in  botany, a genus of
plants of the cryptogamia class, and of the order of Slices.
The generic character is, the fructifications collected in
oval spots under the reflected tops of the fronds.
  There are thirty-nine species, but only one, the adian-
tum capillus  Veneris, is a native of Great  Britain, and
even that is found only in a few places in Scotland and
Wales.   Like the other plants of this  class it  has  no
visible flower ; the seeds being contained in capsules.
placed in the sinuses and folds of the leaves, and surround-
ed each with an elastic ring, which contracting, bursts the
capsule and scatters the minute seeds :  as, however, the
leaves of all the species of maidenhair have one general
appearance, it  is easy to distinguish  them  from other
plants of the fern kind.
  Maidenhair was once highly esteemed as an expectorant,
but is now generally rejected.  Indeed, it  has been well
remarked, that if the syrop of capillaire, which is pretend-
ed to be  made from it, has any virtue,  it is derived from
the orange flower  water, which is also an ingredient.
  ADIAPHORISTS, or Adiaphorites, names given
to the modern Lutherans, in the sixteenth century.  The
name imports lukewarmness,  or indifference ; being com-
pounded of the privative a,, and <h«<$opo?, different.
  ADIAPHOROUS, an epithet given by Mr. Boyle to a
spirit distilled from tartar and some  other vegetable bod-
ies  : it is said to be neither acid nor urinous, and in many
respects different from any other spirit.
  ADJECTIVE, a  word expressing some quality, or
other accident, of the  substantive with which it is joined:
thus, in the phrase, pure gold, the word purt is an adjec-
tive, showing the quality of  the gold.  When the quality
is the subject whereof we speak, it becomes a substantive;
thus  if we say, good is  always  to  be chosen, the word
good is  a  substantive; but in the phrase, Peter is a good
man, the word good is evidently an  adjective, expressing
the character of Peter.
  AD INQUIRENDUM, in law, a writ commanding in-
quiry to  be made concerning something connected  with a
cause depending  in the king's courts; as of bastardy, or
the like.
   ADJOURNMENT, in law, the putting off a court, or
meeting, to another time or place.
    Adjournments of parliament  differ  from  proroga-
tions, in being  not only for a shorter time,  but  also each
house has the privilege of  adjourning itself, whereas a
prorogation can only be the act of the king.
  ADIPOCIRE, is a term that denotes a body converted
from a muscular to a waxy substance.    See Chymistry.
  ADIPOSE, in a general sense, denotes  something  be-
longing to the fat of the body; and  is a term chiefly used
by physicians and anatomists, in  whose writings we read
of  adipose cells,  adipose  ducts, adipose membrane, adi-
pose vessels, &c.
   ADJUDICATION, is sometimes used for transferring
the property of a thing sold by auction to the highest bid-
der.
   ADJUNCT, among philosophers, something  added to
another,  to  which it  does  not naturally  -belong : thus
water in a sponge is an adjunct to  it; so are clothes  to a
 man.  Adjuncts  are what we commonly call circumstan-
 ces ; these, in ethics, are commonly reckoned seven, quis,
 quid, ubi, quibus, auxiliis,  cur, quomodo, quando!
    Adjuncts, in the Paris academy of sciences, are a set
 of members attached to the study  of some particular 
ADM
ADM
science.  They are twelve in number; two for geometry,
two for astronomy, two for anatomy, two for mechanics,
two for chymistry, and two for botany.
  AD JURA REGIS, in  law, a writ which lies for a
clerk  presented to  a living by the king, against those who
endeavour  to  eject him, to the prejudice of the king's
title.
  ADJUTAGE,  or  Ajutage, in hydraulics, the tube
fitted  to the mouth of a jet d'eau.
  It is through the adjutage that water is played and di-
rected into any desired figure; so that the great diversity
of fountains consists chiefly in  the different structure of
their adjutages.
  ADJUTANT,  in  the  military art, an officer whose
business it is to assist the major, and  therefore sometimes
called the aid  major.
  Each battalion of foot, and  regiment of horse, has an
adjutant, who receives the  orders every night from the
brigade major, and after carrying, them to the colonel, de-
livers  them out to the Serjeants.   When  detachments
are to be made, he gives  the number to be furnished by
each  company, and assigns the  hour and place of rendez-
vous ;  he also  places the guards; receives and distributes
the ammunition to the companies; and by the major's or-
ders regulates the price of bread, beer, &c.
  Adjutants general, among the Jesuits, were a select
number of fathers who resided with the general of that
order;  they had each a  province  or  country assigned
them,  as England, Germany, &c. and their business was
to inform the father general  of state occurrences in such
countries.
  ADLEGATION,  in the customs of Germany, a right
claimed by several princes of that empire to send plenipo-
tentiaries, conjunctly with those of the emperor, to all  ne-
gotiations wherein the empire in general is concerned.
  The emperor disputes this privilege of adlegation, but
allows them to send ambassadors about their own private
affairs.
  ADMANUENSES, in our  old law books, a term de-
noting laymen, who swore  by  laying their hands on the
book ; whereas the clergy were  forbidden to swear on the
book, their word being deemed equal to an oath.
  ADMEASUREMENT, in  law,  a writ for adjusting
the shares of something to be divided.  Thus,
  Admeasurement of dower takes place when the wid-
ow of the deceased claims more as her dower than what
of right belongs to her. And,
  Admeasurement  of pasture  may be obtained when
any one of the persons who  have right  in a common pas-
ture, puts more cattle to feed on it than he ought.
  ADMINICULATOR,  in church history, an officer
otherwise called advocate of the poor.
  ADMINISTRATION, in law, the office of an admin-
istrator.  See Administrator.
  Whenever a man dies intestate, letters of administration
are taken out in the prerogative  court.
  Administration is also used for the management of
the affairs of a minor, lunatic, &c.
  Administration, among ecclesiastical writers, denotes
the power wherewith  a parson is invested; and that as
well in regard to the temporalities of his cure, as to its spir-
itualities, vis.  the power of excommunicating:, of adminis-
tering the sacraments, &c.
  vol. i.             5
  Administration,  among anatomists, denotes the an
of properly dissecting the parts of the  human body, and
particularly of the muscles.
  Administration, in commerce, a regulation at Calao,
a city of Peru, obliging all ships allowed to trade on the
coast, to unload their European goods, and pay certain du-
ties.
  ADMINISTRATOR, in law, the person  to whom the
goods, effects, or estate, of one who died intestate, are
intrusted; for which he is  to  be  accountable,  when  re-
quired.
  The bishop of the diocese where the party dies, is reg-
ularly to grant administration; but  if  the intestate has
goods in several dioceses, administration must be granted
by the archbishop in the prerogative court.
  The persons to whom administration is granted, are a
husband, wife, children whether sons or daughters, the fa-
ther or mother, brothers or sisters, and,  in general,  to
the next of kin, as uncle, aunt, cousin ; then to a creditor.
  An action lies for and against an administrator, as for and
against  an  executor; he is accountable, however, no fur-
ther, than to the  value of the goods.
  Administrator is also used in several other senses,
as for an advocate of a church ;  for a person appointed to
receive and manage the revenues of an hospital or relig-
ious house;  for  a prince who enjoys the revenues of a
secularized bishopric;  and lastly, for the regent of a state
during a minority, or a vacancy of the throne.
  ADMIRAL,  in  maritime affairs, a great  officer, who
commands the naval forces  of a kingdom or state, and de-
cides all maritime causes.
  According to Ducange, the Sicilians were the first, and
the Genoese the next, who gave the name of admiral  to
the commanders of their fleets; deriving it from the Ara-
bic amir or emir,  a designation  applicable to any com-
manding officer.
   For some time  past, we have had no lord high admiral
in Britain;  that office being executed by a certain number
of commissioners, called lords of the admiralty.
  Admiral also denotes the commander in chief of a single
fleet or squadron ; or, in general, any flag officer whatever.
  In the British navy,besides the admiral who commands
in chief, there are the vice admiral, who commands the
second  squadron; and the rear admiral, who commands
the third division.   The admiral carries his flag at the
main topmast head; the vice admiral at the fore  topmast
bead ; and  the rear  admiral at the  mizen topmast head.
  The admiral when on shore, is entitled to receive mili-
tary honours, and ranks with generals in the army.
  Admiral, Vice, likewise denotes  an officer invested
with the jurisdiction of an admiral, within a certain  coun-
ty or  district.  There are  upward  of  twenty such vice
admirals in Great  Britain; but an appeal  lies from their
sentence or determination, to the admiralty court in Lon-
don.
   In France the  admiral  is one of the great officers of the
crown, general of the marine, and of all the naval forces of
the kingdom.  From  him  the captains and masters of
trading vessels are obliged to take their licenses, pass-
ports, commissions, and safe conducts.
   The tenth of all prizes belongs to him, and the whole of
all  fines adjudged  in  the courts  of admiralty.  Tie also
has the duty of anchorage,  tonnage, &c. 
ADM
ADO
  Admiral  is also an appellation given to the most con-
siderable ship of a fleet of merchantmen, or the vessels
employed in the cod fishery of Newfoundland.  This last
has the privilege of choosing what place he pleases on
the sandy shore, to dry  his fish.  He also gives prop-
er orders, and appoints the fishing places to those who
come  after him; and as long as the fishing season contin-
ues, he carries a flag on his mainmast.
  Admiral, in conchology, the name of a beautiful shell
of the volute kind, much admired by the curious.
  There are  four species of this shell, vis. the grand ad-
miral, the vice admiral, the orange admiral, and the extra
admiral.   The first is extremely beautiful, of an elegant
white enamel, variegated  with bands of yellow, which
represent, in  some  measure, the  colours of the flags in
men of war.  It is of a very curious shape,  and  finely
turned about the head, the clavicle being exerted;  but its
distinguishing character is a denticulated line,  running
along the centre of the large yellow band ; by this it is dis-
tinguished  from the  vice  admiral, the head of which is
also less elegantly formed.
  The orange admiral has more  yellow than any of the
others,  and the bands of the extra admiral run into one
another.
  ADMIRALTY,  properly signifies the office of lord
high admiral,  whether discharged by one, or several joint
commissioners called lords of the admiralty.
  In Holland there are five admiralties, boards, or cham-
bers, composed of the deputies of the nobles,  the  prov-
inces, and towns; who have the care of fitting out fleets,
and in general, of all maritime affairs.
  Admiralty Court, or court of admiralty, in the Brit-
ish polity, a sovereign court, held by the lord high admi-
ral, or the commissioners of the admiralty*
  This  court  has cognisance in all maritime affairs, civil
as well as criminal.
  All crimes  committed on the high seas, or in great riv-
ers, beneath  the bridge  next  to  the sea, are cognisable
only in this  court}  which, by statute, is obliged to try
the same by judge and jury.  But in civil causes  it  is
otherwise,  these being all  determined according to the
civil law;  the reason of which is, that the sea is without
the jurisdiction  of the common law.
  In case any person is sued in the admiralty court, con-
trary to the statutes, he may have the writ of supersedeas
to stop further proceedings,  and also an action for double
damages against the person suing.
  Subordinate to this court there is another  of  equity
called court merchant; wherein all causes between mer-
chants are decided, agreeably to the rules of the civil law.
  ADMIRATION, in a general sense, denotes the act of
being much  delighted with, or highly prizing, some rare
excellence; and sometimes the astonishment conceived at
some extraordinary event.
  "It is obvious," says Dr. Cogan," that  the range  of
admiration is from  the simple approbation of the mind,
up to the most lively sensation, according to our concep-
tions of the extent of excellence,  and also the degrees of
our interest in its effects.  It is also blended with various
other emotions  according to different circumstances at-
tendant upon the passion.   It is frequently introduced by
surprise! when,  for  example, the discovery of these ex-
cellencies is sudden and unexpected, and then it becomes
a vivid emotion.  It is generally connected with some de-
gree of wonder; as we are frequently  ignorant of the
causes which enabled any one greatly to excel ourselves
or others; but as it is always excited by the real discove-
ry of some  qualities, it is not to be  confounded with an
emotion that proceeds from ignorance and embarrassment
previous to  the discovery."  Grammarians  have a char-
acter for expressing this affection or state  of  mind, called
a point of admiration, and marked thus (!)
  ADMISSION, among ecclesiastical writers, denotes
the act  of a bishop's admitting or allowing a clerk to be
able, or qualified for serving a cure.  This is done after
examination, by pronouncing the formula admitto te ha-
bilem.  If  any person  presume to be admitted, who has
not episcopal  ordination, he shall forfeit  100/.   No per-
son is to be admitted into a benefice with a cure of 30/. per
annum in  the king's books, unless he is a bachelor hrdi-
vinity at least, or a preacher lawfully allowed, or licensed
by some bishop.
  ADMITTENDO clerico, a writ granted to a person
who  has recovered his right of presentation in the com-
mon  pleas: by which  the bishop or metropolitan, is or-
dained to admit his clerk.
  Admittendo in socium, a writ associating certain per-
sons, usually knights, and other gentlemen of the county,
to the justices of assize already appointed.
  ADMONITIO fustium, among the Romans, a military
punishment, not unlike  our whipping, only that it was per
formed with vine branches.
  ADMONITION, in church history,  a part of disci-
pline, which consists chiefly in warning an offender of the
irregularities he is guilty of, and advising him to amend.
  By the ancient canons, nine admonitions were required
before excommunication.
  ADMORTIZATION, in the feudal customs, reducing
the property of lands or tenements to mortmain.
  ADNATA,  in anatomy, one of the tunics or coats of
the eye, otherwise called conjunctiva and albuginea.
  It h? the same part with what is called  the white of the
eye, formed by the tendinous expansions of the muscles
which move the eye.   See Anatomy.
  Adnata, or Adnascentia, among gardeners,  terms
used for such offsets, as by a new germination under the
earth, proceed from the lily, narcissus, hyacinth, and oth-
er flowers; and afterward grow to the roots.  These by
the French are called cayeux.
  Adnata  is also a term  used for such things as grow
upon  animal or vegetable bodies, whether inseparably, as
hair, wool, horns, &c. or accidentally, as the  several epis-
itical plants.
  ADNOUN, or Adname, terms sometimes used to de-
note an  adjective.
  ADONIA, festivals  kept in honour of Venus,  and in
memory of her beloved Adonis.
   The  adonia  lasted two days, on the first of which the
images of  Venus and  Adonis were  carried with great so-
lemnity, in  manner of a funeral; the women cryin« all
the while, tearing their hair, and  beating their breasts.
On the  second, changing their note, they sung his praises,
and made  rejoicings, as if Adonis had been raised to life
-again.
   The adonia were celebrated by most ancient nations as
the  Greeks, Egyptians,  Syrians,  Lycians, &c.  The 
ADO
ADO
prophet Ezekiel, c. viii. verse 14. is thought to allude to
these festivals.
  ADONIC, in ancient poetry, a kind of verse consisting
of a dactyle and spondee or  trochee.  This kind of verse
had  its name  adonic, on account of its being originally
used in the lamentations for Adonis.  However, its prin-
cipal use among poets, is to serve as a conclusion to each
strophe of  sapphic verse.
  ADONICUS, a name given by the Arabs to the sun,
under  which appellation they worshipped  him,  by daily
offering him incense and perfumes.
  ADONIDES, an appellation given to such botanists as
have given descriptions or catalogues of the plants culti-
vated in some particular place.
  ADONIS flos,  a genus of plants,  called in English
pheasant's eye.  It is of the class and order polyandria
polygynia ; and  the essential character is,  calyx five
leaved; petals, five  or more without a nectary; seeds
naked.
  The genus includes six species, much resembling  the
anemone in appearance,  only smaller.  The adonis  au-
tumnalis, an annual plant, is common in our gardens, and
even in  the fields  about London.   Its flowers  are of a
bright  scarlet, with a black spot or eye at the bottom.
The adonis vernalis is also cultivated in our gardens;  but
though a native of Switzerland and Germany, we have
observed that it is  somewhat tender,  probably  from its
shooting so  early in the spring;  it has a large yellow
flower.
  ADOPTIANI, a sect who maintained that Christ, with
respect to his human  nature, was not the  natural,  but
adoptive son of God.
  ADOPTION, a solemn  act,  whereby one man  made
another his heir; investing  him with all the rights and
privileges of a son.
  Adoption was in frequent use  among the Greeks and
Romans, who had many regulations concerning it.  The
Lacedemonians, in order to prevent inconsiderate  adop-
tions, had a law, that they should be transacted, or at least
confirmed, before their kings ; at Athens, slaves, madmen,
and persons under age, were  incapable of adopting; and
at Rome, adoptions were confirmed before the praetor, in
an asse.nbly of the people, or by a rescript of the empe-
ror.  Young men were not permitted to adopt their eld-
ers ; on the  contrary,  it was necessary that the adopter
should be eighteen years older than his  adopted son, to
give an appearance of probability of his being the natural
father.  Children,  thus  adopted, were invested with all
the privileges, and obliged to perform all the duties, of
legitimate children, even to the assuming the  names of the
pers6n who adopted them : and being thus provided for in
another family, they ceased to have any claim for inherit-
ance, or kindred, in the family they had left, unless they
first  renounced their adoption ; which, by Solon's laws,
they were not permitted to do, till they had begotten chil-
dren to bear the name of their  adopted father.  On the
other hand, the person  who had  once adopted children,
was not permitted  to marry afterward,  without express
leave from  the magistrate; whom it  was  usual to petition
for such a licence,  in case the adopted children acted an
ungrateful part.
  Among the Romans, before adoption could take place,
the natural  father was  obliged to  renounce all authority
                  5 *
over his  son,  and with great formality consent that  h*
should be translated into the family of the adopter.   The
adoption  of a person already free was called  adrogation.
The  ceremonies of adoption being various, have  given
rise to a great many different  kinds of it: thus, we read
of adoption by testament, when a man adopted another  by
his last will; adoption by arms, or presenting the adopted
son with a suit of armour; adoption  by cutting off the
hair;  adoption by matrimony, or adopting the children
of a wife  by a former husband.
   By the Gentoo laws, information must be given to the
magistrate, by the person  who  is desirous of adopting a
child, and a sacrifice  performed, and  he is also to give
gold and  rice to the father of the child.  A woman is not
allowed  to adopt a child without her husband's  order;
and he who has no  son, or  grandson,  or  great grandson,
has liberty to  adopt one  son, but no more.  Among the
Turks, the ceremony of adoption is performed  by oblig-
ing the person adopted to pass  through the shirt of the
adopter.   Hence among that people, to adopt is expressed
by the phrase, " to draw another through my shirt."
  Adoption is also used in speaking of the admission of
persons into certain hospitals, particularly that of Lyons :
sometimes the  term is used  in the sense of incorporation;
thus the  French academy of Marseilles was adopted by
that of Paris.
  ADOPTIVE arms, in heraldry, those enjoyed by the
concession of  another, which  the adopter is obliged  to
marshal  with  his own, as  being the  condition of some
honour or estate left him.
   Adoptive  is sometimes  also used for borrowed  or
foreign;  thus,  besides  their domestic gods, the Romans
had a  multitude of adoptive deities, borrowed from foreign
nations.
   ADORATION denotes the act of worshipping  God,
or a being supposed to be  God.  The word comes from
ad, to; and os, oris, the mouth;  and imports, to kiss the
hand, this being universally acknowledged to be a mark
of great respect.  Among the  Jews, adoration consisted
in kissing the hands, bowing, kneeling, and even prostra-
tion.  Hence,  in their  language,  the word kissing is used
for adoration.   As  to  the ceremony of adoration among
the Romans, it was performed with the head veiled,  or
covered ; the devotee applying his right hand to his lips,
the fore finger  resting on the thumb, which wan erect; and
then bowing, he turned himself  round from left to right.
The Gauls,  on the contrary, thought  it more religious  to
turn from right to left; and  the  Greeks, to worship with
their heads uncovered.  The Christians follow  the  Gre-
cian rather than the Roman mode, by uncovering, when
they perform any act of adoration.
   Adoration, barbarous,  denotes that used by heathen
nations.  The  Phenicians adored the winds, on  account
of the terrible effects produced by  them.   The  same
practice  was adopted  by the Greeks, Persians, Romans,
&c.   The Troglodytes adored tortoises ; the Scythians,
swords ;  the Romans,  axes ; and the Arabs,  stones ; the
Indians adored vipers; the  Bengalcse  and the Canadians,
the sun.   The Manta, a Peruvian people, anciently ador-
ed a huge emerald, by offering to it emeralds of a lesser
size;  all  of which the priests kept for their own  use.
   Adoration is also used, in a civil sense, for any ex-
traordinary homage or respect paid by one man  to anoth- 
                        ADS

 er.   Thus  th« Persians adored their  kings, by  falling
 prostrate before  them, striking the earth with their fore-
 heads, and kissing the ground.   This was an act of servil-
 ity, which Conon, a citizen of Athens, refused to comply
 with, when introduced to Artaxerxes; neither would  the
 philosopher Calisthenes  perform  it to  Alexander  the
 Great, as judging it impious and unlawful.   The Roman
 emperors were  adored,  by bowing or kneeling at their
 feet, laying hold of  their purple robe, and immediately
 withdrawing the hand, and kissing it.
   Adoration is more particularly  used for the ceremony
 of paying homage to the pope, by kissing his  feet; which
 not  only the people, but the greatest prelates, and even
 princes, make no scruple of performing.  Protestants have
 hence taken occasion, and not without  reason, to charge
 the  popes with excessive pride, and even impiety.
   Adoration is still more particularly used for a method
 of electing a new pope, when the cardinals, instead of pro-
 ceeding in  the usual way,  unanimously fall down and
 adore one of  their own  number.   Adoration is the last
 ceremony of a regular election,  but here it is the election
 itself, or rather supersedes it.
   Adoration, perpetual, in the church of Rome, a kind
 of religious society,  frequent  in the popish countries;
 which consists of  devout persons,  who, by regularly  re-
 lieving each other, keep constantly praying before the  eu-
 charist both day and night.
   ADOREA, in Roman antiquity,  a word used in differ-
 ent  senses; sometimes for  all  manner  of grain ; some-
 times for  a kind of cakes made  of fine  flour,  and offered
 in sacrifice; and, finally, for a dole or distribution of corn,
 as a reward for some  service :  whence, by metonymy, it
 is put for praise or rewards in general.
   ADOSSEE, in heraldry, a term used for two rampant
 animals,  placed back to back.   It also denotes any other
 figures, as axes, keys, &c. placed with their heads facing
 different  ways.
   ADOXA, a genus  of plants, of the class and  order of
 octandria tetragynia.   The  essential character is, calyx
 bifid, inferior; corolla four or five cleft, superior; berry
 four or five celled, united with the calyx.
   We know of but one species ; the adoxa moschatelina,
 so called from its smelling like musk.  It is otherwise call-
 ed bastard fumitory, and grows wild in shady places, as in
 Hampstead and Charlton woods.
   AD PONDUS OMNIUM, among physicians, denotes
 that the last mentioned ingredient ought  to weigh as much
 as all the  rest put together.
   AD QUOD DAMNUM, in law, a writ which ought to
 be issued  before the king grants certain liberties, as a fair,
 market, highway, &c.  ordering  the  sheriff to inquire  by
 the  country what damage such a grant  is likely to be  at-
 tended with.
   ADRIFT, in sea language, denotes the state of a ves-
 sel broken from her moorings, and driven by the wind or
 waves.
   ADSCENDENS caulis, denotes, in botany, a stalk or
 branch inclining upward.
   ADSENTIRI, a term used to  express the assent of the
Roman soldiers to any propositions that  were made  to
them by their  commanders,  which  they  did by lifting
up their hands with acclamation, and striking their buck-
lers against their knees.
                       AD V

   ADSIDELLA, in  antiquity, the table  at which the
 flamens sat during the sacrifices.
   ADSTRICTION, among physicians, is used to denote
 the too great rigidity and  closeness of the emunctories of
 the body,  particularly the pores of the skin ; also for the
 styptic quality of medicines.
   AD TERMINUM  qui prateriit, in law, a writ of en-
 try, that lies for the lessor  or his heirs, if after the expi-
 ration of a term  for life or years, granted by lease,  the
 tenant or other occupier of  the lands,  &c. withholds the
 same from  such lessor.
   ADVANCE, in the mercantile style, denotes money
 paid  before goods are  delivered,  work done, or business
 performed.
    To pay a note of hand,  or bill, by advance, is to pay
 the value before it becomes  due ; in  which case it is usual
 to allow a discount for  the time it is preadvanced.
   Advanced ditch, or moat, in fortification, is that drawn
 round the  glacis or esplanade of a place.
   Advanced guard,  or  Vanguard, in the art of war,
 denotes  the  first line  or  division of an army,  ranged or
 marching  in order of  battle;  or it is  that part which is
 next  the enemy, and marches first toward  them.
   Advanced guard is more particularly used for a small
 party of horse stationed before the main guard.
   ADVANCER, among sportsmen, denotes one of the
 starts or branches of a buck's attire,  between the back
 antler and  the palm.
   ADUAR, in the Arabian and Moorish customs, a kind
 of  ambulatory village,  consisting  of tents;  which  these
 people remove from one place to  another, as suits their
 convenience.
   ADVENTITIOUS, among civilians, denotes all such
 goods as are acquired accidentally, or by  the liberality of
 a stranger, &c.
   Adventitious fossils, the  same with extraneous or
 foreign ones, found embodied in other fossils :  such are
 shells, bones, &c. in stone.
   AD VENTREM inspiciendum, in  law, a  writ by
 which a  woman  is to be  searched whether  she be with
 child by a  former husband, on her withholding lands from
 the heir.
   ADVENTURE, bill of, among  merchants, is a writ-
 ing signed  by a merchant, testifying that  the goods men-
 tioned in it to be shipped on board a certain vessel,  be-
 long  to  another person, who is to run all  hazards;  the
 merchant only obliging himself to account to him for the
 produce of them, be it what it will.
   ADVENTURER,  in  a  general  sense,  denotes one
 who hazards something.  By statute 13. Geo. II. c. 4. ad-
 venturers may obtaiu a charter for whatever settlements
 in America they shall take from  the enemy.
  Adventurers, or merchant Adventurers, a company
of merchants formerly erected for the discovery of lands
trades, &c.
  ADVERB, in grammar,  a word joined to verbs, ex-
pressing the manner, time, &c. of an action: thus, in the
phrase, it is conducive  to  health to rise early, the word
early  is an  adverb ; and so of others.
  Adverbs are also added  to nouns, and even to other ad-
verbs, in order  to modify  or ascertain  their  meaning
whence some grammarians call them  modifications:  thus
in the phrase, he prayed very devoutly,  the word devout 
A D  V
AD V
ly qualifies the action of prayer, and the word very does
the same in regard to devoutly.
   Adverbs, though very  numerous, may  be reduced to
certain classes; the principal of which are  those of order,
of place, of time, of quantity, of quality, of manner, of af-
firmation, doubting, comparison, interrogation, diminution,
&c.
   Mr. H. Tooke has shown, in  his Eirt* Tlrifoivret, that
most of the English  adverbs are either  corruptions of
other words,  or abridgments of sentences: thus the ter-
mination ly is the corruption of likt, as honestly is honest-
like.  Lo is the imperative of look, &c.
   By others  adverbs are derived from three sources: 1,
from a species of interjection, denoting an impulse of the
mind, as now, then, not ; 2, from a composition of two or
three words into one,  as always,  altogether, &c. and, 3,
from adjectives, by adding  a  syllable void of signification
itself, but which seems to denote that the word has chang-
ed its state into that of an adverb, as greatly.   The last
syllable, however, was originally a  contraction of some
word that denoted similitude, or participation; and indeed
if we could examine language critically, we have no doubt
that Mr. Tooke's theory might be demonstrated, and all
of them proved to  be originally words with a full mean-
ing.
   In  the  Hebrew, most adverbs, particularly  those of
quality, are expressed by nouns,  both substantives  and
adjectives, either simply, or connected  with  a prepo-
sition.
   ADVERSARIA,  among the ancients,  was a book of
accounts, not unlike  our journals, or  day books.  The
word is more particularly used, among men of letters, for
a kind of common place book, wherein they enter whatev-
er occurs to them worthy of notice, whether in reading
or conversation, in the order in which it occurs : a meth-
od which some persons prefer  to  that of  digesting them
under regular heads.
   ADVERSATIVE, in  grammar, is a word expressing
some difference between what goes before and what follows
it.  Thus, in the phrase, he  loves knowledge but has no
application, the word but  is  an adversative conjunction;
between which and a disjunctive  one there is this differ-
ence, that the first sense may hold good without the sec-
ond opposed to it, which  is otherwise in  regard to  dis-
junctive conjunctions.
   Mr. Tooke,  in  the  book above quoted, observes well,
that there  are  two senses  to the word  but; in  the first,
it is a corruption  of bot, the imperative of the Saxon verb
botan, to boot, superadd  or  supply; and in the second,
it is a contraction of be-utan,  to be out ; in illustration of
this theory is given the following couplet:

         "But thy work shall  endure ia laude and glorie,
         But spot or faulte condigne eterne memorie."

   The meaning is " superadd (to  something said before)
thy work shall endure in laude and glorie ;  bt outov with-
out spot or faulte."
   ADVERSATOR, in antiquity, a servant who attended
the rich in returning from  supper, to give them  notice of
any obstacles in the way, at which they might  be apt to
stumble.
  ADVERTISEMENT  is  particularly used for a brief
account of an  affair inserted in the daily or other public
papers, for the information of all concerned, oi who maj
find some advantage from it.  By the statute  law the
penalty of 50/.  is inflicted on persons advertising  a re-
ward with «'»o questions to be asked," for the return of
things lost or stolen.  The same penalty attaches to the
printer.
   ADVICE, or letter of Advice, a letter missive, by
which a merchant, or banker, informs his  correspondent,
that he has  drawn a bill of exchange, that his  debtor's
affairs are in a bad state, or that he has sent a quantify of
merchandise,  whereof the invoice is  usually annexed.
A letter of advice for the payment of a  bill of exchange
should mention the name of the person for whose account
it is drawn; the day, month, and  year; the sum drawn
for; the name of him from whom the value is received ;
and the person's name to whom it is payable.
   For want of such  advice  it is very allowable to refuse
accepting a bill of exchange.
  Advice boat, a small vessel employed to carry expresses
or orders with despatch.
   AD VITAM aut culpam, denotes an office to be held
quamdiu  se bene gesserit, that is, till the death  or  some
delinquency of the possessor.
   ADULT,  among  civilians, denotes a youth  between
fourteen and twenty-five years of age.
   ADULTERATION, in a general sense, denotes the
act of debasing, by an improper mixture, something that
was pure and genuine.  Thus,
   Adulteration of coin, is the casting or  making it of
a metal inferior in  goodness to the standard, by using too
great a proportion of alloy.  This is a crime which all na-
tions have made capital.
   Adulteration, in pharmacy, is the using ingredients
of less virtue in medicinal compositions, to save expense;
a practice with which the dealers in medicine and drugs
are but too well  acquainted.
   Adulteration, among distillers, vintners, &c. is the
debasing of brandies or wines, by  mixing them with  some
improper  liquor.
   By stat. 1. W. and M. c. 34. whoever sells adulterated
wine, is to forfeit three hundred pounds.   We have law?
also against the adulteration of coffee,  tea, tobacco,  snuff,
beer, bread, wax, hair powder, &c.
   ADULTERY, the crime of married persons, whether
husband   or wife,  who are guilty of a violation of their
marriage vow.
   By  the  law of Moses, both man and woman, who had
been guilty of adultery, were put to death.  The ancient
Romans had  no formal law against adultery; Augustus
being  the first who  made it punishable  by  banishment,
and in some cases by death.  By an  edict however of
Antoninus, a husband  could not  prosecute  his wife for
adultery,  unless he  was  innocent himself.   And by the
regulations of Justinian,  at the instance of his wife Theo-
dora, the  punishment of adultery in the woman was miti-
gated ; whipping,  ami shutting up in a convent for two
years, being deemed sufficient,  after which time, if the
husband   did  not take back his wife, she was shut up for
life.   Among the Greeks, adultery was punished various-
ly ; sometimes by fine, and at others by what they called
paratilmus:  nay,  the  Lacedemonians are  even said  to
have permitted it.  Adultery among European nations is
reckoned  a private oflence,  none  but the husband  being 
A DV
£DI
suffered to intermeddle in the affair; and what is no less
remarkable, though the husband be guilty of adultery,
the wife, except in Scotland, is not allowed to prosecute
him for the same.
  In England  adultery is  accounted a spiritual offence,
and therefore the injured party can have no other redress
but to bring an  action of damages against  the adulterer;
and to divorce and strip the adulteress of her dower, is all
the punishment she incurs.  And, indeed,  it must be
owned,  that the laying a heavy fine upon the man, and
punishing the woman in the manner just mentioned,  is as
likely, if not more so, to prevent the frequency of adulte-
ry, as more severe methods.
  Adultery is also used for any kind of unchastity; in
which sense  divines understand the  seventh  command-
 ment.
  Adultery, in the Scripture language, is likewise  used
for idolatry, or  forsaking the worship of  the true God for
that of a false one.
  ADUMBRATION,  in  heraldry, denotes the shadow
of any beast or  charge outlined, and painted of a darker
colour than the field.
  ADVOCATE, advocatus, among the Romans, a per-
son who undertook the defence of causes, which he pleaded
much in the same manner as our barristers  do  at present.
  Advocates were held in  great honour during the first
ages of the Roman commonwealth, being styled comites,
honorati,  clarissimi, and even patroni.  The term advo-
cate is  still retained in all countries where the civil law
obtains.   In Scotland there is a college of advocates, con-
sisting of  one  hundred and eighty persons, appointed to
plead in all actions before the lords of session. In France
there are two kinds of advocates ;  or those who plead, and
those who only give their opinions, like our chamber coun-
sellors.
  Advocate,  lord, one of the officers of state in Scot-
land, who pleads in all causes of the crown, or wherein the
king is concerned.  The lord advocate sometimes  hap-
pens to be one  of the lords of session ; in which case he
only pleads in the king's causes.
   Advocate, fiscal, fisci advocatus, in Roman antiquity,
 was an officer of  state under the Roman  emperors, who
 pleaded in all causes wherein the^iscus, or private treasu-
 ry, was concerned.
   Advocates consistorial, officers of the consistory at
 Rome, who plead in all oppositions to the disposal of ben-
 efices in that court: they are ten in number.
   Advocate of a city, in the German polity, a magis-
 trate  appointed, in the emperor's name,  to administer jus-
 tice.
   Advocate, among ecclesiastical writers, a person who
 undertook the  defence of a church, monastery, &c. Of
 these there were several kinds;  as elective advocates, or
 those chosen by the chapter, bishop, abbot,  &c. nomina-
 tive advocates, or those appointed by the emperor, pope,
 &c. military advocates, those who undertook the defence
 of the church rather by arms than eloquence, &c. There
 were also feudal advocates, supreme and  subordinate ad-
 vocates ; and matricular advocates, or those of the mother
 or cathedral church.
    ADVOCATION,  among civilians, the act of calling
 another to assist in  pleading some cause.
    Advocation, letters of, in the law of Scotland, a writ
issued by the lords of session, advocating, or calling, a
cause from an incompetent judge to themselves.
   ADVOCATIONE decimarum, a  writ  which lies for
claiming  a fourth part of tithes  or  upward belonging to
any church.
  ADVOWSON, in law, is the right of  patronage, or
presenting to a vacant benefice.
  Advowsons are either appendant, or in gross. Append-
ant advowsons  are  those which depend on  a manor or
lands, and pas3 as appurtenances of the  same ;  whereas
advowson in gross is a right of presentation subsisting by
itself, belonging to a person, and  not to lands.  Whenever
the property of an advowson has been  once separated
from the  property of the manor by legal conveyance, it
never can afterward be re-united, but remains forever an
advowson in gross.  In either case, advowsons are no less
the property of the patrons than  their landed  estate :  ac-
cordingly, they may be granted away by deed or will, and
are assets in the hands of executors.  Papists, however,
and  Jews, seized of any advowsons,  are  disabled from
presenting; the right  of presentation being in  this case
transferred to the chancellors  of the universities,  or  the
bishop of the diocese.
   ADYTUM,  in pagan  antiquity, the most retired and
sacred place of  their temples, into which none but  the
priests were allowed to enter.  The term is  purely Greek,
signifying inaccessible.
  ADZE, a kind of  crooked ax,  used by coopers, &c.
otherwise called addice.
   jEACEA, in Grecian antiquity,  solemn festivals and
games celebrated at iEgina, in honour of iEachus ; who,
on account of his justice upon earth, was thought to have
been appointed one of the judges in hell.
   iECHMALOTARCHA, in Jewish antiquity, the title
given to  the principal  leader or governor of the Hebrew
captives  residing in Chaldea, Assyria, and the neighbour-
ing countries.   The Jews themselves call this magistrate
Rosch-galuth, i. e. chief of the  captivity.   Basnage  as-
sures us,  that there was no sechmalotarch before the end
of the second century :  and Prideaux says, that  the sech-
malotarch, at present, is only  the head of their religion,
like the episcopus Judozorum, in England,  the altarch at
Alexandria, and the ethnarch at  Antioch.
   jEDES, in Roman antiquity,  signified an inferior kind
of temple, consecrated indeed to some deity, but not by
the augurs.  There were a vast number  of  these in an-
cient Rome ; thus we read of the cedes fortunes,  cedes pa-
 ds, (zdes Her cutis, &c.
   iEDICULA,  a term used  to denote the inner part of
 the temple, where the altar and statue of the deity stood.
   VEDILE, in Roman antiquity, a magistrate whose chief
 business  was  to superintend buildings of  all kinds,  but
 more especially public buildings  ; as temples, aqueducts,
 bridges, &c.
   To the aediles likewise belonged the care  of  the high*
 ways, public places, weights and measures, &c. They also
 fixed  the prices of provisions, punished lewd  women  and
 such persons as frequented gaming houses.  The custody
 of the Plebiscita, or  orders of the  people, was likewise
 committed to  them.   They had the inspection of come-
 dies, and other theatrical pieces ; and were obliged to ex-
 hibit  magnificent games to the  people at  their ewn ex-
 pense, whereby many of them were ruined. 
JEGl
JSIN
  At first the sediles were only two in number, and chosen
from among the common people ;  but these being unable
to support the expense of the  public shows, two  more
were created out of the patrician order: these last took
upon themselves all the charges of the games, and were
called cediles curules, or majores, as the two plebeians
were denominated minores.
  Julius Caesar, in order to ease these four, created two
others, who were called adiles Cereales, as having the in-
spection of all manner of grain committed to their care.
  There were also sediles in the municipal cities, who had
much the same authority as those in Rome.
  iEDlLITlAN tdict, among the Romans, was particu-
larly used for the aedile's sentence, allowing redress to the
purchaser of a beast or slave that had been imposed on.
  iEDITUUS, in Roman antiquity, an officer belonging to
temples, who had the charge of the offerings, treasure, and
sacred utensils.  The female deities had a woman officer
of this kind, called seditua.
  jEGAGROPILA, or ^Egagropilus, in natural histo-
ry, a ball composed of a substance resembling hair, gen-
erated in the stomach of the chamois goat.  It is a kind
of bezoar, called besoar germanicurii, and  is possessed of
no medicinal virtue, any more than the balls of the  same
kind formed in the stomachs of cows, hogs, &c.  See Be-
zoar.
  iEGIAS,  among ancient physicians, a white speck  on
the pupil of the eye, which  occasioned a dimness of sight,
and was otherwise called aigis and aiglia.
  iEGICERAS,  a genus  of the  class and order of the
pentandria monogynia.   The essential character is, calyx
bell shaped, half five cleft;  capsule bow shaped, one cell-
ed, gaping on the convex side ; seed inverted.  It is found
in the Molucca islands, and in  Ceylon.   There are two
species, the majus and minus.
  iEGILOPS, an abscess  in the corner of the eye, next
the nose ; or, according to Heister, a small tumour caused
by an inflammation or abscess, which in time, by the acri-
mony of its purulent  matter, erodes  the external  skin,
lachrymal ducts, and fat round the  ball of the eye; some-
times it  renders the neighbouring bones carious to a dan-
gerous degree.
  As to the method  of treatment, the surgeon is first to
endeavour to disperse the  tumour, by moistening it sev-
eral times a day with spirit of vitriol; but if he finds this
impracticable, he is  to  forward the suppuration as much
as possible, lest an obstinate fistula, or worse consequen-
ces,  should  be the effects of two long delay.  For this
purpose a plaster of diachylon with the gums, or emollient
cataplasms,  may be used.   When fully ripe, the tumour
is to be laid open with a lancet or scalpel, and the ulcer
cleaned or healed in the  ordinary way.  See Surgery.
  ^Egilops, a genus of  the polygamia and monoecia class
and order, and  of the natural order of grasses.   The es-
sentia] character is, calyx a glume, subtriflorous, cartilag-
inous ; corolla a glume  terminating in  a threefold awn;
stamina  three ;  styles two;  seed one..
  There are four species of this grass, all of which seem
to be annual.  They grow in the southern parts of Eu-
rope.
  yEGIPHILA, a genus of the tetandria monozynia class
and order, and  the natural order of vitices.  The corolla
is salver shaped : and the  essential character is,  calyx
 four toothed; corolla  quadrin'd; style  semibitid: betiy
 four seeded.
   There are four species; one a native of Martinico, the
 others  of Jamaica.   They are all shrubs of a mcdeiate
 height.
   JfcGlS, in heathen mythology, is particularly used for
 the shield or cuirass of Jupiter and Pallas.
   iEGOMANTIA, a species of divination performed by
 means of a goat.
   JEGOPHTHALMUS,  the goat's-eye stone, in  natur-
 al history, a name indifferently given to any of the semi-
 pellucid gems, with circular spots in them, resembling the
 eye of a goat.
   /EGOPODIUM,  or goat wted, herb gtrard, or wild
 masterwort, a genus of the pentandria digynia class and
 order,  and of the natural order of umbellatee, or umbelli-
 feree.   The characters are, the universal calyx is a mani-
 fold  convex umbel;  the  partial one, consimilar and flat;
 there is no  involucrum, and the proper perianthium is
 scarcely discernible : the universal corolla is uniform, the
 florets all fertile ;  the  proper one has five inverse,  ovate,
 concave, equal petals, inflected at the  top; the stamina
 consist of five simple filaments twice the  length of the co-
 rolla:  the antherae  roundish;  the pistillum has a germen
beneath ; two purple erect styles the  length  of the co-
rollet; the stigmata are headed ;  no pericarpium ; the fruit
is  ovate, striated, and bipartite; the  seeds are  two,
ovate,  on one side convex and striated,  and flat on the
other.
   There is but one Bpecies, a native of England, and oth-
er parts of Europe.  It  is  very common under hedges and
about gardens;  the leaves resemble those of angelica, and
it bears small  white flowers.
   jEGOPRICON,  a genus of the  monoecia monandria
class and order, the characters of which are : the calyx
both of the male and female is a tubular perianthium  of one
leaf divided into three  segments; corolla wanting in both;
 the stamina consist of  a single erect filament longer than
 the calyx, with an ovate anthera;  the pistillum has an
ovate germen, three divaricated styli,  the simple persist-
ent stigmata, the pericarpium  is a globular berry, three
 grained within, and three celled : the seeds are solitary,
 and angular on one side.
   There is but one species, which is a branching tree, a
native of Surinam.
   jEGYPTIACUM, the name of several detergent oint-
ments, used for eating off rotten flesh, and cleansing foul
 ulcers.
   The segyptiacum, as  ordered in the Edinburgh dispen-
satory,  is  a  composition  of verdigris, reduced  to fine
powder, five ounces; of honey,  fourteen ounces ; of vine-
gar, seven ounce§: all which are to be boiled over  a gen-
tle fire, to the consistence of an  unguent.
   jEGYPTILLA,  in the natural history of the ancient9,
a stone  variegated with  veins  of a black, blue, or red
colour; and said to be capable of giving water the coloui
 and taste of wine.
   The stone  to which they  ascribed this imaginary virtue,
 seems to have been a kind of onyx, or sardonyx.
   M1NAXJTJE, in antiquity, a denomination given to the
 senators of Miletus,  from holding their deliberations  on
board a ship, and never returning to land till matters had
been agreed on. 
M © L
A E  R
  ./ELURT53,  in Egyptian mythology, the deity or god
of cats ;  represented sometimes like a cat, and  at others
like a man with a cat's head.
  JENEA.TORES, in Roman antiquity, a  general name
for the musicians of an army, vis. those who played on
trumpets, horns, litui, buccinae, &c.
   .^EVIGMA,  denotes  any dark saying  or   question,
wherein some  well  known  thing is concealed  under ob-
scure language.
  The parable, gryphus,  and rebu3, are by some account-
ed three  species, or branches, of senigma.  To compose
an aenigma, two things  are to  be  chosen which bear some
resemblance to each other, on which some perplexing and
intricate  question, description, or prosopopoeia, is to be
founded.   This last is most pleasing, as it  gives life and
action to things destitute  of them.
  Painted aenigmas are representations of  some object,
whether of nature or art, concealed under the human fig-
ure.
  iEOLIC, in  a general sense, denotes something belong-
ing to JEolia or JEoIis.
  JEtOLic dialtct,  among grammarians,  one of the five
dialects of the Greek tongue, agreeing in most things with
the Doric dialect.
  tEolic verse, in  prosody, a kind of verse, consisting of
an iambus or spondee, then of two anapaests separated by
a long syllable.  Such is,

                 O stelliferi conditor orbis!

  tEOLIPILE, a hollow metalline ball,  in which is in-
serted a slender neck or pipe; whence, after the vessel
has  been partly filled with water, and heated, issues a
blast of vapour with great vehemence.
   Great  care should be  taken that  the aperture of the
pipe be not stopped when the instrument is put on the fire,
otherwise the  aeolipile will burst with a vast  explosion,
and  may occasion no little mischief.
   The aeolipile is sometimes placed on a small carriage,
and  a cork thrust into the extremity of the  pipe.  When
the vapour is sufficiently heated,  it  rushes out with the
cork in one  direction, while  the carriage moves the con-
trary way.
   jEOLUS's  harp, an instrument so named from its pro-
ducing an agreeable harmony, merely by the action of the
wind.  The construction of the instrument is as follows :
Let a box be made of as thin deal as possible, its length
exactly answering to the width of the window in which it
is to be  placed; it must be five or six inches deep, and
seven or eight  inches wide.  Across the top,  and about
four inches from each end, glue  a piece of wainscot half
an inch high,  and a quarter of an inch thick, to serve as
bridges for the strings to be stretched over, by means of
pins inserted into holes a little behind the bridges, nearer
the ends; half the  number being at  one end, and half at
the other.   These  pin3  are  like those of a harpsichord ;
and, for  their better support in the thin deal, a piece of
beech, about an inch wide, is glued on the inside of the
lid,  immediately under  the place of the pins,  the  holes
for receiving them  being  bored through this piece.  It is
strung with fine catgut, or blue  first fiddle strings,  more
or less, at pleasure, on the outside and lengthwise of the
lid, fixing one end  to one of the small pins, and twisting
the other end about th" opposite or stretching pin.   Two
sound  holes are cut in the lid, and the thinner this is the
better  will be the performance.
  When the strings are tuned in unison, and the instrument
placed with  the stringed sTde outward, in the window  to
which it is fitted, the air will cause the instrument to give
a sound like a distant  choir, increasing and decreasing ac-
cording to the strength of the wind.
  jEON  properly  signifies the age  or duration of any
thing.  Mon, among  the  Platonists,  however, was used
to denote any virtue, attribute, or perfection : hence they
represented the Deity as an assemblage of all possible
aeons, calling it pleroma or fulness.
  iEORA,  among  ancient physicians, a peculiar kind of
exercise,  which consisted in being carried about in a lit-
ter  or other vehicle.   Sometimes  the patient's bed was
hung by  ropes, in  the manner of a  hammock, and moved
backward and  forward.   Travelling  in a chariot, or on
board a ship or boat, were also accounted so many kinds
of aeora.
  iERA, in chronology, a series of years, commencing
from a certain fixed point of time, called an epocha:  thus,
we  say  the Christian aera, that is, the number of years
elapsed since the birth of Christ.
  The generality of authors, however, use the terms oera
and epocha  in  a  synonymous sense,  or  for the point of
time from which the computation commences; making no
other difference between them, except that  the former is
chiefly used by the vulgar, and the latter by chronologers.
  .fl&RARIUM,  in Roman antiquity,  the  treasury,  01
place where the public money was  deposited.  jErariuin
and  fiscus are sometimes used in a synonymous sense;
though the  latter,  strictljT speaking, contained only the
money belonging to the emperor.
  jErarium sanctius, an appendage added to the for-
mer, for  containing the monies arising from the twentieth
part of all legacies, which was kept for the extreme ne-
cessities of the state.
  ^Erarium privatum, was the emperor's privy purse,
or place  where the monies arising from his private patri-
mony were deposited.
  --Erarium Ilithioz,  or Junonis Lucina, one where the
monies were  deposited, which parents paid  for the  birth
of each  child.   There are several  other treasuries men-
tioned in historians, as  the uzrarium juventutis", Veneris,
Sec.
  ^ERARIUS was used by the Romans for a degraded
citizen, whose  name had been struck off the list of his cen-
tury.  The ararii were so called on account of their be-
ing liable to all the taxes and other burdens of the state,
without enjoying any of its privileges.  Hence, inter ara-
nos referri was a great deal more severe punishment  than
tribu moveri.
  AERATION  of soils denotes  the impregnation  of
them with air, by means of ploughing, harrowing, and other
means of pulverization, which serve to introduce the air
into the  pores of the earth.
  AERIAL ACID, a name given by Bergmann to carboa-
ic acid gas.   (a)
  AERIANS, a branch  of Arians, who to  the doctrines
of that  sect added some peculiar  dogmas of their own •
as,  that  there is  no  difference between  bishops  and
priests;  a doctrine maintained by many modern divines
particularly of the presbyterian and  reformed  churches' 
iESU
JETH
  AEROLOGY is a scientifical account of the  nature
and less obvious properties of air.  See Air.
   AEROMETRY, the  art of measuring  the  motion,
gravity, elasticity, rarefaction, condensation, &c. of air;
in which sense aerometry is synonymous with pneumatics,
a term in more common use.  See Pneumatics.
  AERONAUTICA denotes the art of sailing through
the air, as a ship in the sea.  This, however fanciful it
was  formerly accounted,  has been  lately reduced  to a
reality.   See Air Balloon.
  AEROPHOBIA, among physicians, signifies the dread
of air, which is a symptom of phrensy.  Dr. Franklin says
he has sometimes been seized with aerophobia, but expe-
rience soon convinced him that fresh air is eminently con-
ducive to health. Any  air, he says, is preferable to that
of a close chamber, which has been  again and again re-
spired without change.
  AEROPHYLACEA, a terra used by some naturalists
for certain caverns or reservoirs of air, supposed to exist in
the bowels of the earth,  by means of which they account
for the origin of springs.
  AEROSTATION.   See Air Balloon.
  iERUGlNOUS, an epithet given to such things as re-
semble, or partake of the nature of,  the rust of copper.
Thus, an seruginous colour is green, or that of verdigris.
  tERUGO salis, a kind of reddish slimy matter, separ-
ated from the Egyptian natrum ; probably a mixture of
bitumen and a red earth.
  .ERUSCATORES,  in antiquity, a  kind of strolling
beggars, not unlike  gypsies,  who drew money from the
credulous by fortune telling and juggling.
  The priests of Cybele were called ceruscatores magna
matris, on account of their  begging  in  the  streets; for
which  purpose  they had little bells thereby to  draw
people's attention to them, much like some orders of men-
dicants abroad.
  JEruscatores was also a denomination given to griping
exactors, or collectors of the revenue.
  JES, properly signifies copper, or  money coined of
that  metal. Authors speak of tes rude,  ces grave, and ces
signatum.  Some suppose the two  former to denote the
same thing, viz. money  paid by  weight  and  not by tale,
as the cbs signatum, or coined money, was. Others again
consider the ces grave to have been large pieces of coined
copper, containing a whole as, or pound weight.   Kuster,
on the other hand, thinks that o?sgrave was used to denote
any kind of copper  money, in opposition to  that made of
gold or silver, which was light.
  JEsflavum, yellow  copper, among the Romans, an ap-
pellation given  to the coarser kinds of brass,  the  finest
being called orichalcum.  See Brass and Orichalcum.
  JEris^os, among ancient  alchymists, a kind of small
scales  procured from melted copper, by exposing it to a
vehement heat:  but among the  moderns  it is sometimes
used for cerugo or verdigris.
  JEs  tistum, among chymists,  a preparation of  copper,
otherwise called ces veneris, ces crematum,  &c.   There
are several ways of making it; but the most frequent  is,
by exposing  plates  of copper in a reverberatory furnace
till they will crumble  into a powder, which  is called res
nstum : this is extremely drying  and detersive, and there-
fore used for  eating off dead flesh, and cleansing foul ul-
  vol. i.             0
cerS ; and either sprinkled on the part in powder, or mix-
ed in ointments.  It is also used for colouring glass.
  JEs.   Per ces el libram, was a formula in the Roman
law, by which purchases and  sales were ratified.   Tht
phrase was originally  used in speaking of things sold by
weight,  or by scales,  but  it was afterward used on other
occasions.  Hence, in adoptions, the formula expressed
that the person adopted was bought per ces et libram.
  JESCHYNOMENE, or Bastard Sensitive Plant.
a genus  of the  class and order diadelphia decandria.   The
corolla  is papilionaceous; and the essential  character is,
calyx bilobate, legume with truncate one seeded joints.
  It is a shrubby plant, and includes eight  species, all
exotics.  Four species, the JE. aspera, Americana, Indica,
and pumita, are annual  plants.  Only two of the species
appear to be sensitive, vis. the  JEt. Americana and sensi-
tiva.  The others are  chiefly cultivated for their beautiful
flowers;  the legumes of  some of the species are a foot
and a half, and two feet long.  The JE. cannabina, which
is a native of the East Indies,  treated as hemp, may be
used as  such.   They  are all very tender stove plants in
this country.
  -33SCULUS, horse chesnut, a genus of the heptandrhi
monogynia class and order, or the natural order of trihi-
latae.  The essential character  is, calyx one leafed, five
toothed, ventricose; corolla five petalled, irregularly col-
oured, inserted into the calyx;  capsule three celled.
  The genus  embraces  three  species.  The  common
horse  chesnut is well known.  On its first  introduction
into  this country, rather  more than a century ago,  from
its very quick  growth, it was more cultivated than it de-
served.   It is  now found that it will seldom resist a great
storm of wind; and the  very short time its leaves con-
tinue, renders  it unsightly a great part of the year; yet it
must be confessed that its form is regular, and its  blos-
soms beautiful.  The  wood is of little use but for burning,
though it is said that it is now  employed by the turners.
The nuts are  eaten by  deer, and Hanbury  affirms that
hogs will fatten on them : Haller also relates, that sheep
have been fed with them  whole, and poultry with them
when boiled.   The yellow and scarlet horse chesnut are
cultivated for the beauty of their flowers.
  -33TATE probanda, in  law, a  writ which  formerly
lay to inquire whether the king's  tenant was of full age;
but now disused, since the abolition of wards  and liveries.
  ./ETHER, a term used by some  philosophers for the
most subtile of all fluids, which,  commencing from the
limits of our atmosphere, was thought to pervade the vast
expanse of heaven.
  Authors differ widely with respect to its nature; some
making it a finer kind of air, others a kind of fiery effluvium
from the sun and fiery  stars, and others a fluid sui generis.
  JEther is supposed by some philosophers not only to
fill  up  the  intermediate  space between  the heavenly
bodies, but to permeate all bodies whatever; also to be
the medium of light;  and, lastly,  that it was the cause of
gravity in the earth and other celestial bodies, assisted in
the action of burning,  and in the dissolution of other
bodies, by menstruums.   After all, modern philosophers
make it a question whether there is any such fluid.
  ./Ether or Ether, is more particularly used for an ex-
tremely  volatile spirit,  made by  distiliins  alcohol with 
^TH
jET H
an  acid,  and then  precipitating  the acid gas with  an
alkali.
  The properties of the aether  obtained are supposed to
vary a little according to the acid employed: accordingly
every particular kind is distinguished by the acid employ-
ed in its preparation.   Thus the aether obtained by means
of sulphuric acid is  called  sulphuric  ather; that by
means of nitrous acid, nitrous ather.
  1. Sulphuric aether is usually prepared by the following
process :  A mixture of equal parts of alcohol and sulphu-
ric acid is put into the retort, to which a large receiver is
then luted.   It  is proper to surround the receiver with
ice, or at  least with cold water.   Heat is applied; and as
soon as the mixture  boils,  the  aether comes over and is
condensed, and runs in large striae down the sides of the
receiver.   As soon as it amounts to one half of the alcohol
employed, the process  must be  stopped.  The aether
thus obtained is not quite pure, almost always containing
a little sulphureous acid.
  This acid may be separated by pouring  the aether on a
little  potash, and  distilling it over  again  by means of a
moderate  heat.   Mr.  Dize affirms  that black oxide  of
manganese produces this effect still more completely than
potash.   All that is necessary is, to mix a quantity of
this black oxide in powder with the impure aether, and to
let  it remain for  some  time, agitating  it occasionally.
The sulphureous acid is converted into sulphuric, and
combines  with  the manganese.  The aether is then to be
distilled over by the heat of a water bath.
  The separation of the liquid from the sulphureous acid,
with which it is mixed, is  called  the rectification of the
ather.   The usual method, and we  may add the best, is
the following,  first employed by Mr. Woulfe : Fill three
fourths  of a bottle  with the impure aether,  add a little
ivater, and a portion of  slacked lime.   Agitate the bottle
with violence, and keep it for some time in water before
taking out the cork.  If the smell of the acid is not re-
moved, add a little more lime, and agitate a second time.
Decant off the aether into a retort, and distill it over.
  2. vEther  thus obtained is a  limpid and colourless
liquor, of a very fragrant smell, and a hot, pungent taste.
Its specific gravity is only 0.7581.
  It is so volatile that it can scarcely be poured from one
vessel  to  another without losing a  considerable portion of
it by evaporation.  When  poured out in the open air, it
disappears in an instant, and during its evaporation pro-
duces a very considerable degree of cold. Jf a glass vessel
containing water, and  surrounded with a cloth, is dipped
into aether two  or three  times, and the aether each  time
allowed to evaporate from the cloth, the water in the glass
freezes.   In the open air aether boils  at 98°, and in a va-
cum at — 20°.   Were it not, therefore, for the pressure of
the atmosphere, it would always exist in the gaseous state.
  It is exceedingly inflammable, and when  kindled in the
state of vapour, burns with rapidity, with a fine white
flame, and leaves behind it  a  trace of charcoal.   During
its  combustion carbonic acid is  generated.   How  well
soever it  has been rectified, it always exhibits traces of
sulphuric  acid.
  When  aether  in the state of vapour  is  made to  pass
through a red hot porcelain tube,  it is decomposed com-
pletely, and a great quantity of carburated hydrogen gas
is obtained.
   jErher, when  exposed to a cold of—46°, freezes  and
crystallizes.
   3. Mther is soluble in 10 parts of water, according to
the count de Lauraguis.
   4. When aether is admitted to any gaseous body stand-
ing over mercury,  it always doubles the bulk of the gas,
as Dr. Priestley first observed.   If  oxygen gas, thus  ex-
panded by aether,  is presented to a lighted candle,  the
aether  burns with great rapidity, but produces no explo-
sion.   But if one part in bulk of this expanded oxygen is
mixed with three parts of pure  oxygen gas, and kindled,
a  very loud  explosion  takes  place: the products   are
water and 2-\ parts of carbonic acid,   Mr. Cruikshank, to
whom  we are indebted for this instructive experiment, as-
certains, that one part of the vapour of aether takes  6.8
parts of oxygen gas to consume it completely; and from
the relative proportions of the two products, he has shown
that the carbon which aether contains is to its hydrogen
as 5 to 1.
   5. The  action of the simple combustibles on aether has
not been tried, if we except  phosphorus, which it is capa-
ble of  dissolving  in small proportion.  The  solution is
transparent;  but  the addition of a little alcohol to it ren-
ders it milky.   This  furnishes  us with  a  method of
ascertaining whether sether is sophisticated with alcohol.
   6. iElher has no action on metals ;  but  it revives sev-
eral of the metallic oxides when mixed with their solutions
in acids.   It  takes gold  from its solution in nitro muri-
atic acid.
   7. It is probable  that it has no  action on fixed alkalies
and earths; but  it combines, or at  least mixes readily,
with ammonia.
   It absorbs nitrous gas in considerable quantity.
   8. Sulphuric acid seems capable of converting it into *
peculiar kind of oil, known by the name of sweet oil of wine.
   If we fill a bottle,  capable of holding  three or four En-
glish pints, with oxymuriatic acid  gas, taking care to ex-
pel the water  as  completely as possible, and  then throw
into it about a dram or half a dram of  good aether, covering
its mouth immediately with a piece of light wood or paper,
in a few seconds  white vapour will be perceived moving
circularly in the bottle: this will be soon followed by an
explosion ^ accompanied with flame; at the same time a
very considerable quantity of charcoal will be  deposited,
and the bottle  will be found to contain carbonic acid gas.
  iEther is capable of dissolving the  volatile oils.  It
combines with alcohol in  almost any  proportion.
   The method of preparing  nitrous ather, proposed by
Navier, was this: twelve parts of alcohol  are put into a
strong  bottle,  which is kept surrounded  with  water, or
rather  with ice :  eight parts of nitric acid are poured  in at
intervals, the mixture being agitated  after every addition
The bottle is then well  corked,  and  the cork secured by
father.  .Ether  gradually  forms at the surface of the
liquid.  After five or six days, when the formation is sud-
posed  to be over,  the cork is to  be pierced with a needle
to allow a quantity of nitrous gas to escape,  which would
otherwise carry the aether along  with it.   The cork U
then to be drawn; the whole liquid is to be poured into a
funnel, and by means of the finger the liquid below is al
lowed  to run out while the aether is retained.
  This method is somewhat hazardous; for the quantitv
of nitrous gas evolved is so great as often to burst  the 
iETH
M  TN
bottle.   Dr. Black substituted in place of it a very inge-
nious process.   He put into a glass phial the proper quan-
tity of nitric acid; over this was poured gently a stratum
of water, and  the  alcohol  wa3 poured over  all.  Thus
there were three strata of liquids in the vessel; the acid
lowermost,  and the alcohol uppermost, separated from
each other by the water.  The acid and alcohol gradual-
ly combined with the water,  and  coming into  contact
acted on each other without violence ; and thus the aether
was formed without risk.
  Dehne has given another process  for obtaining nitric
aether exceedingly tedious, but not attended with any risk.
The  alcohol  is put into  a tubulated  retort, to  which a
large receiver is luted : one 48th part of nitric acid is to
be added every  four  hours, drop by drop, till it amounts
to about  one half of  the weiglit of alcohol; then the mix-
ture becomes hot, and aether passes over into the receiv-
er.   After this a little  more nitric  acid is to be added
every morning and evening.  iEther gradually forms on
its surface.   The acid is to be added till it falls  down to
the bottom of the retort in the form of green globules, in-
dicating the formation of perfectly saturated nitrous acid.
This is a proof that no more aether will be formed.
  Various other methods of preparing nittous aether have
been proposed by chymists; as the distillation of a mix-
ture of sulphuric acid, nitre, alcohol, &c.  But. the proc-
ess preferred  by artists is  that of Chaptal as corrected
by  Proust.   A large retort is luted to a glass globular ves-
sel  furnished with a  tube of safety.  From  this globe  a
tube passes to a second, likewise furnished with a tube of
safety ; and to  this  last  vessel are  connected three
Woulfe's bottles in the usual way, which must behalf full
of alcohol.   A mixture of 32 parts  of alcohol and 24 of
acid, of the  specific  gravity 1.3, is put into  the retort.
The heat  of  a  chafingdish  is  applied, and  removed as
soon  as  the effervescence begins.   The greatest part of
the aether is detained by the alcohol  in the first Woulfe's
bottle.   This mixture is  to be saturated with an alkali,
and the aether separated by distillation.
  Nitrous aether, by  whatever process  it is procured, is
never pure at first,  holding  always in solution a consider-
able porl ion of nitrous gas: hence its extraordinary vola-
tility.  It  contains also a certain portion of  nitric acid,
and a little  oil to which it owes its yellow  colour.   The
nitrous gas separates  spontaneously  when the  aether is
mixed with a considerable portion of water.   By distilling
it repealedly from potash or sugar, the oil may be abstract-
ed ; and  when kept for some time,  the nitric acid is de-
composed,  and a little water and oxalic acid formed, which
sink to the bottom of the vessel.
  Nitric  aether,  ?s far as is  known,  agrees  very nearly in
its properties  with  sulphuric aether: it is equally fluid,
light, and combustible : its state and odour are nearly the
*ame, but  not quite  so pleasant, owing most probably
io the foreign  bodies, from which it  cannot easily  be com-
pletely freed.
  According to Mess'rs. Fourcroy and Vauqulin, aether is
composed of the same ingredients as alcohol, but combin-
ed in different proportions.  According to them, aether
contains a greater, proportion of dydrogen and oxygen,and
a smaller proportion of carbon, than alcohol.
  .ETHIOPS, or .Ethiops  mineral, or Hydrargy-
kus  cum sulphure, a  preparation of mercury, made by
                  6*
rubbing in a marble  or  glass mortar, equal quantities ot
quicksilver  and  flowers of  sulphur,  till  the  mercury
wholly disappears,  and there remains a fine  deep black
powder,  whence it has got the name of aethiops, and it is
much used in medicine.   The name is changed in modern
pharmacy to that of hydrargyrus cum sulphure.
  jEthiops antimonialis, a combination of the sulphu-
rets of antimony  and mercury ;  it is prepared by fusing
crude antimony in an earthen crucible, and when it is on
the point of fixing, add to it an equal weight of hot mer-
cury :  the mixture at first becomes more fluid, and after a
while solid: when cold it must be  levigated in a mortar
?nd washed.  The medical effects of  this preparation  in
small quantities are sudorific; in  larger doses it is a pur-
gative  and emetic.
  ./Ethiops vegetabilis is prepared by burning the sea
wrack or sea oak in the open air,  and then reducing it in-
to a black  powder.   It is used to  reduce  scrofulous
swellings, and in cleansing the gums and teeth.
  iETHUSA, a genus of the pentandria digynia class
and order, belonging  to  the natural  order of umbellata? or
umbelliferae.
  The calyx is an universal umbel expanding, the interior
rays shorter by degrees; with a partial umbel, small and
expanding.  There is no universal  involucrum ; the par-
tial one is dimidiated with three or  five leaflets,  and pen-
dulous ; the proper  perianthium  scarcely discernible.
The universal corolla is uniform,  with fertile florets; the
partial one has five heart inflected unequal petals.  The
stamina consist of five simple filaments,  with roundish an-
thers?.   The pistillum is a germen beneath, with two re-
flected styli; the stigmata obtuse.  There is  no pericar-
pium ;  the  fruit is ovate, striated,  and  tripartite.  The
seeds are two, roundish, and striated.  There is but one
species, vis. the aethusa synapium, fool's  parsley, or less-
er hemlock, a native of Britain, which grows in corn
fields and gardens.  This plant, from its resemblance  to
common parsley,  has sometimes been mistaken for it; and
when eaten, it occasions  sickness.  If the curled leaved
parsley only was cultivated in our  gardens, no such mis-
takes would happen in future.   Cows, horses, sheep, goats,
and swine, eat it.   It is noxious to geese.
  AETIANS,  in church history, a branch of Arians,
who  maintained  that the  Son  and Holy Ghost  are in all
things dissimilar to the Father.
  ^ETIOLOGY is a figure of speech, whereby, in relat-
ing an event, we at the same time  unfold the causes of it.
  iETUVE,  or  tEtites,  a name  given to  pebbles or
stones  of any  kind, which  have a loose nucleus rattling
within  them,  and called in English the eagle stone.  So
far from being a particular genus of fossils themselves, we
find aetitae among very different genera, but the most val-
ued is  that formed of the several varieties of our common
pebbles.  As  to the  formation of aetitae, the naturalists ac-
count for it  from this consideration, that as the nuclei are
coarser and more debased by earth than the rest of the
pebble, they shrink and contract  themselves into a small-
er size; by  which means they will be separated from the
surrounding crust, and become loose.
  JETNA, a famous volcanic or burning mountain in Sic-
ily.   It  is  one of the highest mountaius of the whole
island, and situated on the eastern coast, not far from Ca-
tania. 
A F F
A F F
  The height of this mountain  is said to be above ten
thousand feet above the surface of the sea, audits circum-
ference at the base one hundred and eighty miles.  This
may probably be exaggerated; but over the sides there
are seventy-seven cities, towns, and villages, and allowing
from twelve to fifteen hundred persons to each, the num-
ber of inhabitants of mount ^Etna will be from 92,400 to
115,500.  The ascent of this mountain is tedious, diffi-
cult, and dangerous.  From Catania to the summit, the
distance is about thirty miles, and the traveller must pass
through three distinct climates,  which may properly be
denominated the torrid, the temperate, and the frigid.    .
  -Etna salt,  a name  used by some writers for saline
substances, found near the openings of mount iEtna, and
other volcanos; being a concrete of sulphur and nitre, sub-
limed together.
  JETOLARCHA, in  Grecian  antiquity, the principal
magistrate or governor of the ^Etolians.
  AFFA, a weight used on the gold coast of  Guinea, and
equal to an ounce.
  AFFECT 10 bovina, a  disorder incident  to cattle,
occasioned by a small worm, which eats its way all over
the body.
  AFFEERERS, or Affeerors, in law,  persons ap-
pointed in courts  leet,  courts baron, &c. to settle upon
oath the fines to be  imposed upon those who have been
guilty  of  faults which have no express penalty assigned
by  statute.
  AFFETTUOSO, or con Affetto,hi the Italian mu-
sic, intimates that the part to which it is added ought to be
played in a tender, affecting way; and consequently rath*
cr slow thsin istst*
  AFFIDATIO DOMINORUM, in old law books, de-
notes an  oath of allegiance, taken by the lords  in parlia-
ment.
  AFFIDAVIT is an oath in writing, taken before some
person who is legally authorized  to take the same.
  In an affidavit, the time, place of habitation, and addi-
tion, of the person who makes it, are to be inserted.
  Affidavits should set forth the matter of fact to be prov-
ed, without taking any notice of the merits of the cause.
They  are read in  court upon motions, but are not admit-
ted in  evidence at trials.
  By  statute, the judges of the courts at Westminster
may commission  persons in the several counties in En-
gland to take affidavits relating to any thing depending in
their several courts; but there is an affidavit office  in the
court of chancery, under the direction of a master.
  AFFINITY, affinitas, among civilians,  denotes  the
relation of each of the parties married to the kindred of
the other.  Affinity is distinguished into three kinds: 1.
Direct affinity,  or that subsisting between the  husband
and his wife's relations by blood, or between the  wife and
her husband's relations by blood.  2. Secondary affinity,
or  that which  subsists between the husband and his wife's
relations  by  marriage.   3.  Collateral affinity, or that
which  subsists between the  husband and the relations of
his wife's relations.   The  degrees of affinity are always
the same with those of consanguinity.   Hence, in whatever
degree of consanguinity the  kindred of one of the parties
married are, they are in the  same degree of affinity to the
other.
  By the canon law, direct affinity renders marriage unlaw-
ful to the fourth generation, inclusive ; but the case is oth-
erwise with respect to the secondary and collateral kinds.
It is likewise to be observed, that the affinity contracted
by a criminal commerce, is an impediment to marriage so
far as the second  generation: thus, a man is not allowed
to marry the  sister of a woman he has lain with.  Nay,
with regard to contracting marriage, affinity is not dissolv-
ed by  death; for, though  a woman  may be admitted a
witness  for  the brother  of her deceased husband, she is
not allowed to marry him.
  In the Romish church, a kind of spiritual  affinity is
supposed to  be contracted by  baptism; so that it is not
deemed lawful for a god-father to marry  his god-daughter
without  a dispensation.
  AFFINITY, chymical, denotes an  attractive power
by  which substances  of different natures will  combine
with others.   It is sometimes called elective attraction, or
elective  affinity.   See Chymistry.
  AFFIRMATION is used for the ratifying or confirm-
ing the  sentence or decree of some inferior court: thus,
we say, the house of lords affirmed the decree of the lord
chancellor, or the decree of the lords of session.
  Affirmation  also denotes a solemn attestation of the
truth of some fact which the quakers are allowed to make
instead  of an oath.  This sect hold all kinds of swearing
to be unlawful; and therefore the legislature has appoint-
ed the following affirmation to be taken instead thereof,
vis.  I,  A. B. do sincerely, solemnly, and truly declare
and affirm, &c.   This affirmation is  by statute put upon
the same footing with an oath;  every person  convict-
ed of affirming a falsehood,  being liable to  the penalties
provided against  wilful and corrupt perjury.  It is also
deemed equivalent to an oafh^ except in criminal cases,
upon juries, and in places of profit or trust under the gov-
ernment.
  AFFIRMATIVE, in the Roman inquisition, is a des-
ignation given to such heretics as openly avow the opin-
ions they are charged with.
  AFFIX, among grammarians, denotes much  the same
with prefix.   In the Hebrew  language there are  a multi-
tude of  affixes, i.t. single letters or syllables, which, be-
ing prefixed to nouns and verbs, serve instead of pronouns
and particles, and contribute greatly to the brevity of that
language.
  AFFLATUS, among  heathen mythologists and poets,
denotes  the  actual inspiration  of some divinity.  Thus
Virgil:
                 Afflata est numine quando
              Jam propriore Dei.
  Tully, however, must be understood to  extend  the
meaning of the word  further, when he attributes all great
actions  to a divine afflatus.
  AFFRAY, or Affrayment, in law, formerly signified
the crime of affrighting  other  persons, by  appearing  in
unusual armour, brandishing a weapon,  Sec.  But at pres-
ent, affray denotes a  skirmish or fightjng between two or
more ;  and there must be a stroke give'n, otherwise it is no
affray.   It must also be public, for in private it is not an
affray but an assault.
  An affray is a common injury, punishable by 1 he justices
of the peace in their sessions, by fine and imprisonment. 
AG A
A G A
   A constable may also seize and carry affrayers before a
justice, or confine them till they provide sureties for the
peace.  Any  private person may also part an affray, or
bring the  parties before a magistrate.
   AFFRONTE'E, in heraldry, an appellation given to
animals facing one  another on  an  escutcheon, a kind of
bearing which is otherwise called confront^, and stands
opposed to adossee.
   AFFUSION, in medicine, a term at present much used
to express a very efficacious method of applying cold, by
dashing cold  water, lately recommended and practised
with  success, for allaying feverish heat, by Dr. Wright
and Dr. Currie.   (a)
   AFRICA, one of the quarters of the world.  See Ge-
ography.
   AFRICAN company, a society of merchants establish-
ed by king  Charles II. for trading  to Africa: which
trade is now laid open to all his majesty's subjects, paying
ten per cent, for maintaining the  forts.
   African association, was formed in 1788, with a view
of promoting the discovery of the interior parts of  Africa.
Mr. Mungo  Parke,  among others, was employed in this
important work.
   AFT, in the sea language, the same  with abaft.
   AFTER birth, in midwifery, the  membranes which
surrounded the  infant  in the womb, more usually called
the secundines.   See Midwifery.
   After math, in husbandry, signifies the  grass which
springs or grows up after mowing; or the grass or stub-
ble cut after corn.  In some counties  it  is called rowen.
   After pains.  See Midwifery.
   AG A, in the Turkish language, signifies a great lord or
commander.   Hence the aga of the  janizaries is the com-
mander in chief of that  corps ; as the general of the horse
is denominated spahiclar aga.   The  aga>of Algiers  is pres-
ident  of the divan or council.
   AGAP^E, or Agapes, love feasts kept by the ancient
Christians as tokens of brotherly charity and mutual be-
nevolence.
   AGAPANTHUS, a genus of the hexandria monogy-
nia class  and  order.   This is the African tuberose hya-
cinth, or African blue lily, with an umbellated flower.  The
corolla is one petalled and funnel shaped, hexapetaloid,
regular, and this forms its essential character.
   We have only one species, the flowers of which are ab-
solutely those of the  hemerocallis, but this genus is dis-
tinguished by its spathe.  It is a native of the  Cape of
Good  Hope, was cultivated at Hampton court in 1692;
but now forms a frequent and most  beautiful ornament of
our green houses.  It  flowers in September, and  contin-
ues a  long time in bloom.
  AGAPETJE, an  order of nuns  among the primitive
Christians, who  attended on and served the clergy.   At
first there was  nothing  scandalous in these societies,
though they gave great offence afterward, and were whol-
ly abolished by the  council of Lateran,  in 1139.
  AGA PIS lapis,  a name given by ancient writers to a
stone  of the colour of the lion's skin; it was held in great
esteem in many nations on account of its supposed  vir-
tues.
  AGARICUS, the mushroom, a genus of the cryptoga-
mia class and order of fungi.  The generic character is a
pileus, or  cap with gills underneath: gills differing in sub-
stance from the rest of the plant, composed of two laminae:
seeds in the gills.
  Authors have enumerated no less than 634 species of
this fungus, and Dr. Withering gives 213 as British spe-
cies.  The agaricus campestris, or common mushroom, is
cultivated  with great success and  profit  in the gardens
about London.  The spawn is usually found in old hot
beds, or horse dung, where the animals have been fed on
a pasture; in which case it is supposed that the invisible
seed  which is  scattered from the gills of the mushroom,
is eaten with  the grass  by the cattle, and deposited un-
hurt in their  excrements.  There it vegetates, and forms
those white fibrous radicals producing tubercles like pota-
toes,  and which are called the spawn.  The spawn  may
easily be known by the smell, which resembles that of the
true  mushroom, and  which, if planted in a bed of fresh
hot dung, and kept moderately dry, will soon produce a
crop.  It is  the  agaricus orcades, another of this genus,
which produces the fairy rings so frequently observed in
pasture fields.  The agaricus caesareus, the most spendid
of all the genus, is eatable, but is rarely found in Britain.
It was made the vehicle for conveying poison to Claudius
Caesar by his wife Agrippina.
  AGATE,  in natural  history,  a  genus of semipellucid
gems, variegated with veins and clouds, but no zones, like
the onyx.
  The Iceland agate is found either in detached masses, or
forming a part of rocks.   It has the  appearance of black
glass.  It is usually invested with a gray or opaque crust.
Its  specific gravity is 2,348; colour black,  or grayish
black; when  in very thin pieces it  is green.   It is  com-
posed, according  to Bergmann, of
                       69 silica
                       22 alumine
                        9 iron
                      100

It is found in Iceland, Italy, and other places.
  Agate is also the name of an instrument used by flu
gold wire drawers ; so called from the agate in the middle
of it, which forms its principal part.
  AGATHOPHYLLUM,  a genus of the class and or-
der dodecandria monogynia.   The  essential character is,
calyx superior, very short, toothless; corolla six petalled,
somewhat villous; stamina alternately inserted into  the
calyx and petals; drupe juiceless with a half six celled
nut, and one seed.
  There is but one species, a large tree, a native  of Mad-.
agascar, where the nut and leaves are used as  spice.
  AGAVE,  a genus of  the hexandria monogynia class
and order, called  also the American aloe.
  The corolla is  funnel shaped, and the essential charac-
ter  is, corolla erect,  superior; filaments longer  than the
corolla, erect.   The species are six, including some vari-
eties with striped leaves, of which the most remarkable is
agave Americana, or great American aloe.   It is  a vulgar
notion  that this plant does not flower in less  than a hun-
dred years.  The fact is,  that its flowering depends upon
its  growth.  In hot climates therefore it is known  to
bloom much sooner, and in  thi3 country, if it was kept in a
dry stove instead  of a green  house, we have no doubt that
it would flower  earlier than it doe«=,   It is chiefly remark-. 
AGE
AGE
able for  the height to which the stem shoots up wheji it
blooms, from  twenty  to  thirty feet,  for in  our opinion
(here is no  beauty whatever in the flower.   Cortusus is
iaid to be the first European who possessed this plant in
1561.  It flowered  in  England about  the year 1698, and
now scarcely a summer passes  without one  flowering in
some of the nurseries about London.  In the course of the
year 1805, one of the  striped leaved, said to be the first
which ever flowered in England of that variety, was exhib-
ited by Mr. Smith of Dalston.
  In Spain  and Portugal there are hedges of the great
agave.  The leaves are said to answer all the purposes of
soap, and are also  good for  scouring pewter and other
utensils;  the inward spongy substance of the dried stalks
may be used for tinder; and the fibres of the leaves, when
washed, dried, and beaten, will make  a strong thread for
common purposes.
  AGE is sometimes used in the same sense as generation,
for  a period of 30 years.
  Age, in chronology, denotes certain periods of the  du-
ration of  the  world.  Thus, among Christian chronolo-
gers, we meet with the age of the law of nature, which
comprehends the whole time between Adam  and Moses;
the  age of the Jewish  law,  which includes the time from
Moses  to  Christ; and, lastly, the age of grace, or the
number of years elapsed since the birth of Christ.
  Among ancient historians, the duration of the world is also
subdivided into certain periods, called ages; of which they
reckon three: the first, reaching from the creation to the del-
uge which happened in Greece, during the reign of Ogyges,
is called the obscure or uncertain age;  the history of man-
kind, during that period, being altogether uncertain. The
second, called the fabulous or heroic, terminates at  the
first olympiad;  where  the  third, or  historical age, com-
mences.   The  ancient poets also divide the duration of
the  world into four ages, or periods; the first of which
they called  the golden  age, the  second the  silver  age,
the third  the brazen  age, the fourth  the iron age.  Not
unlike these are the four ages of the world, as computed
by  the  East Indians, who extend them to a  monstrous
length.
  Age also denotes certain degrees or periods of human
life, commonly  reckoned four, vis. infancy, youth, man-
hood, and old age : the first of which extends to  the four-
teenth year; the  second, to the  twenty-fifth year;  the
third, to the fiftieth year; and the  fourth to the seventy-
fifth year, or rather as long as a man lives.   Shakespeare
divides the term of life into seven ages.
  Age, in law, signifies certain periods of life, when per-
sons of both sexes are enabled to do  certain acts, which
for  want  of years and discretion they were incapable of
before : thus a  man at twelve years of age, ought to take
the oath of allegiance to the king; at fourteen, which is
his  age of discretion, he may marry, choose his guardian,
and claim his lands held in socage.  Twenty-one is called
full age, a man or woman being then capable of acting for
themselves, or  managing their affairs, making contracts,
disposing of their estates, &c. which before that age they
could not do.   By  the  marriage act, no person, man or
woman, can marry before 21, without the consent of pa-
rents or guardians.  A woman is dowable at nine years of
age, may marry at twelve,  with  consent of parents or
guardian, and at  fourteen choose her guardian.   If a man
or woman acts in any of the above mentioned capacities,
before the time prescribed by law, he or she may retract
at that time, otherwise they are supposed to agree to it
anew, and it shall be deemed valid.   Thus, if a man mar-
ries before fourteen, or a woman before twelve, they may
either agree to the marriage, or not, at these several ages 5
and so in other cases.  At fourteen a person may dispose
of a personal estate by will, but not of lands.
   Age prier, atatem precari, is  when an action being
brought  against a  person under age, for lands descended
to him, he, by motion or petition, shows the matter to the
court,  praying the action may be staid to his full age: to
which  the court  generally agrees.  As a purchaser, how-
ever, a minor shall not have his age prier ;  nor in any writ
of assize, of dower, or petition ; but he may in any action
of debt.  By the  civil law  the case  is otherwise, an in-
fant or minor being obliged to answer by his tutor or cu-
rator.
   Among the Romans it was unlawful to offer for any pub-
lic office or magistracy, unless the candidate had attained
to a certain  age;  which differed according to the offices
sued for.  Hence the phrases consular age, praetorian age,
&c.
   Age of the moon, the time elapsed since her last con-
junction with the sun.  See Astronomy.
   AGEMA, in Macedonian antiquity, was a body of sold-
iery, not unlike the Roman legion.
   AGEMOGLANS, Agiamoglans,  or Azamoglans,
in the Turkish  customs, Christian children raised every
third year, by way of tribute, from the Christians tolerat-
ed in the Turkish empire.   The collectors of this odious
tax used  to  take one child out of three, selecting always
the handsomest.
   AGENTS, among physicians and chymists, an appel-
lation given to all kinds of menstruums.
  Agents of bank and exchange, in the  commercial
polity  of  France,  are  much the same with our exchange
brokers.
   Agent and patient, in law, is said of a person  who is
the doer of a thing, and also the party to whom it is done.
Thus,  if a man who  is indebted 1o another, makes his
creditor  his  executor, and dies, the executor may retain
so much  of the  goods  of the deceased, as will satisfy bis
debt;  by which  means he becomes agent  and patient;
that is, the person to whom the debt is due, and the per-
son who pays it.
   AGENTES  in rebus,  in  antiquity, signifies officers
employed under the emperors of Constantinople, and dif-
fering only in name from the frumentarii, whom they suc-
ceeded.                                        J
   AGER  in Roman antiquity, a certain portion of land
allowed to each citizen.   It is also used, in middle age
writers, for an acre of land.                           fe
   AGERATUM, a genus of the class and  order svnee-
?nrm  ^{f™ **"a"8;   ™e  corolla is compound uni-
form;  and the  essential character is, receptacle naked  ;
down five awned; calyx oblong, subequal; iorollets quad-


rh^Vh6 tW° TtheS5 na,i.Ve? °f Sou,h A,11erica and
   irVp a^ttq6!      desc"Ption of tender annuals.
   AGERATUS lapis, a  stone used by  the  anc enls
in dy.ngand dressing of leather :  possibly a species of py 
A G I
AGO
  AGGER,  in  the  ancient military art, a bank or ram-
part, composed of various  materials, as earth, boughs of
trees, &c.   The agger of the ancients was of the same
nature with what the moderns call lines.
  Agger was also used in several other senses:  as for a
wall or bulwark, to keep off the sea: for  the middle part
of a military road, usually raised into a  ridge;  and some-
times for the heaps of earth raised over graves, more com-
monly called tumuli.
  AGGLUTINANTS, a class of  strengthening medi-
cines, of a glutinous or viscous  nature ; which, by readily
adhering to  the  solids, contribute greatly to repair their
loss.  They may be divided  into  two kinds: 1. Good
nourishing  food,  especially jellies, whether of hartshorn,
veal, mutton, &c. 2. Medicines, properly so called.
  AGGLUTINATION, among physicians, signifies ei-
ther the adherence of new substance, or the giving a gluti-
nous consistence to the animal fluids, by which  they were
supposed  to become more  fit for nourishing the body.
  Agglutination is also a term used by astronomers to
denote the meeting of two or more stars in the  same  part
of the zodiac, or the  seeming coalition  of several stars.
It is more peculiarly  understood  of the  seeming coalition
of several stars, so as to form a nebulous star.
  AGGRAVATION in the Romish canon law  is used
for an ecclesiastical censure, threatening excommunication,
after three admonitions used in vain.  From aggravation,
they proceed to  re-aggravation, which is the last excom-
munication.
  AGGREGATE  terra, the  seventh order  of earths,
comprehending those that  are formed  of the aggregate
earths of the preceding orders.   To this order  belong the
granites, gneissura, porphyrias, amygdalites, breccia, and
arenarius.
  AGGREGATE, a term used in botany to express those
flowers which are composed of parts or florets, so united
or incorporated  by means either of the receptacle or ca-
lyx, that no one of them can be taken away without de-
stroying the form of the whole.
  AGGREGATION, in  natural philosophy,  denotes a
species of union, by which several things, nowise  connected
by  nature, are collected together, so as to form one whole.
  AGIADES, in the Turkish armies, a kind of pioneers,
employed in fortifying camps, &c.
  AGILD, or Agilde, in old  law books, denotes a per-
son of so little account, that whoever killed him was liable
to no fine for so doing.
  AGIO, in commerce, a term chiefly used in Holland and
at Venice,  where it denotes the difference between the
value of bank stock, and the current coin.
  Money in bank is commonly worth more than specie :
thus,  at Amsterdam, they formerly, before the barbarous
French  invasion, gave 103 or  104  florins for  every 100
florins in bank.  At Venice, the agio was fixed at 20 per
cent.
  The agio of the bank of Hamburg is about 14 per cent.
which is the supposed difference between the good stand-
ard money of the state, and  the clipped, worn, and dimin-
ished currency poured info it from neighbouring states.
  Agio is also sometimes used for the profit arising from
the  discount of a note, bill,  &c.
  Agio of assurance, the  same  with what we call policy
of assurance,
  AGIOSYMANDRUM, in the Greek church,  subject
to the Turks, a  wooden machine, used instead of bells,
the use of these being prohibited.
  AGISTMENT, Agistage,  or Agistation,  in law,
the taking in other people's cattle  to graze, at so much
per week.
  The term is  peculiarly used for the  taking in of cattle
to be fed in the king's forests, as well as for the profits
thence arising.
  Agistment  is  also used for a tax, burden, or charge,
levied for repairing the sea banks in different parts of En-
gland.
  Agistment  lithe, is a small tithe paid to the rector or
vicar for pasturage of cattle, horses, or sheep.  It is, how-
ever, understood to be payable only for dry or barren
cattle, and not for cattle that are nourished for the plough
or pail, because the parson has tithe  for them  in other
kind.  It is paid by the occupier of the ground, and not
by the person who may happen to put  his cattle there to
graze at a certain hire per head.  It is commonly estimat-
ed at 2s. in the pound, according to the value of the land.
See Burn's Eccl. Law, tit. Tithes.
  AGISTOR, or Agistator, an officer belonging to for-
ests, who had the care of the cattle taken in  to be grazed,
and levied the monies due  on that account.
  AGMEN, in the Roman art of war,  denoted an army,
or rather a part of it, in march: thus we read of  the pri-
mum agmen, or van guard ; medium agmen, or main body ;
and the postremum agmen, or rear guard.  We also meet
with the  agmen  pilatum,  which was a part  of the army,
drawn up in form of an oblong parallelogram, and answer-
ing to what the moderns call column.   The  agmen quad-
ratum, however, or square form, was that mostly practised
in the Roman armies.
  AGNOETiE, a sect of heretics, so  called on  account
of their  maintaining that  Christ was  ignorant  of many
tilings, and particularly of the day of judgment: an opin-
ion which they built upon the text, Mark xiii. 32.
  AGNOMEN, in Roman antiquity, a kind of fourth or
honorary name given to a person on account of some ex-
traordinary action, virtue, or other accomplishment.  Thus
the agnomen Africanus was bestowed upon Publius Corne-
lius Scipio, on account of his great achievements in Africa.
In cases  of adoption, it was usual to  retain their former
cognomen, or family name, by way of agnomen : thus Mar-
cus Junius Brutus, being  adopted by  Quint us Servilius
Caepio, called himself Quintus  Servilius Caepio Brutus.
  AGNUS dei, in the church of Rome, a cake of wax,
stamped with the figure of a  lamb supporting a  cross.
These being consecrated by the pope with great solemni-
ty,  and  distributed among the people, are  supposed to
have great efficacy : as to  preserve those who carry them
worthily, and with faith, from all manner of accidents ; to
expel evils spirits, &c.  It is also a popular name  for that
part of the  mass,  where  the  priest  strikes his  breast
thrice, and says the prayer  beginning with  the words ao*-
nus dei.
  AGONALIA, festivals celebrated in honour of Janus,
or of the god Agonius, whom the Romans invoked before
undertaking any affair of importance.  They  seem to
have been kept  three times in the year,  vis. on the 5th of
the ides of  January, on the 12th of the calends of June.
and on the 3d of the ides of December. 
A G  R
AG \
  AGONISTICI, a name given by  Donatus to such of
his disciples as he sent to fairs, markets, and other public
places, to preach and propagate his doctrine.
  AGON1UM, in Roman  antiquity,  was used for  the
day on which the rex sacrorum sacrificed a victim, as well
as for the place where the games were celebrated, other-
wise called agon.
  AGONOTHETA, or Agonothetes, in Grecian an-
tiquity, was the president or superintendant of the sacred
games; who not  only defrayed the expenses  attending
them, but inspected the  manners and discipline of the ath-
letae, and adjudged the prizes to  the victors.  At first
there was  only one agonotbeta in the Olympic games;
but several colleagues were afterward joined  with him,
three of whom had the direction of the  horse  races,
three others of the pentathlon, and the re3t of the other
exercises.
  AGONYCLITiE, or Agonvclites, a sect of Chris-
tians, in the seventh century, who prayed always standing,
as thinking it unlawful to kneel.
  AGORANOMUS, a  magistrate of Athens who had the
regulation of weights and measures, of the prices of pro-
visions, &c.   The  agoranomus answered in part to the
sedile of the Romans.
  AGOSTUS signifies  the part of the arm from the fin-
gers to the  elbow: also the palm or hollow of the hand.
  AGRARIAN stations,  agraria stationes, in the Ro-
man art of war, were a kind of advanced guards, posted in
the fields.
  Agrarian  laws,  among the same people, were those
relating to  the division and distribution of lands; of which
there were  a great number:  but that called the  agrarian
law by way of eminence, was published by Spurius Cas-
sius, about the year of Rome  268, for dividing the con-
quered lands equally among all the citizens, and limiting
the number of acres which each citizen might enjoy.
   AGREEMENT, in law, signifies the consent of persons
to any thing done, or to be done.
   There are three kinds of agreement; first, an agreement
already executed at  the  beginning;  as  when money is
paid, or other satisfaction made for the  thing  agreed to.
Secondly,  an agreement after an act done by another,  to
which a person agrees : this is also executed.   Thirdly, an
agreement  executory, or to be executed in time to come.
   An  agreement  is  generally made preparatory to some
more formal instrument of conveyance.  On breach of an
agreement  there is a remedy either at common law, or in a
court of equity.   But when the matter is merely in dam-
ages, there the  remedy is at  law; because the damages
cannot be  ascertained by the conscience of the chancel-
lor, but by the verdict of a jury.   All agreements to be
valid ought to be on a stamp, or at least duly stamped  at
the stamp office within the time limited by law, vis. twen-
ty-one days after the date of the agreement.
   AGRICULTURE.  See Gardening and Husband-
RV.
   AGRIMONIA, a genus of the  dodecandria  digynia
class and order of plants, with  rosaceous flowers, the cup
of which at length becomes an  oblong echinated fruit, con-
taining one or two oblong seeds.  The essential character
is, calyx  five cleft, fenced with one another; petals five;
seeds two,  at the  bottom of the calyx.
  There are five species ;  two, the A. rupatoria, or com-
mon A. and the A. odorata, natives of Great  Britain.
The leaves of the common agrimony make a very  pleas-
ant tea, said to be good in the jaundice, in cachectic  cases,
and in obstructions of the liver and spleen.  The country
people also formerly used it, by way of cataplasm, in con-
tusions and fresh wounds.
  AGR1PPA, a denomination given by ancient as well as
modern physicians, to children born with the feet fore-
most.   See Midwifery.
  AGROSTEM A, a genus of decandrious plants, accord-
ing to Linnaeus; but comprehended  among the lychnises
by Tournefort.
  The class and order is decandria pentagynia.  The co-
rolla is wheel shaped ; and the essential character is,  ca-
lyx  one leaved, coriaceous ; petals five, clawed ; border
obtuse, undivided ;  capsule one celled.
  There are four species, all well known as highly orna-
mental to  our fields and  gardens.   The  A.  githago, or
corn cockle, though a troublesome weed to  the farmer, is
beautiful to the eye.   It is an annual plant, and flowers in
June and July.   The agrostema coronaria, or rose  campi-
on, has  long been an inhabitant  of our gardens, and  the
double variety  is particularly handsome.  It is biennial,
and sometimes perennial,  though apt, in the  gardener's
phrase, to fog off after it has flowered.  The A. flos Jovis
is more rare, but is an elegant perennial.  The A. cceli
rosa is an annual, very delicate and beautiful.
  AGROSTIS,  a  genus of triandrious plants,  called in
English bent grass.   It is of the class and order triandria
digynia.  The essential character is, calyx bivalve, one
flowered, a little less than the corolla ; stigmas longitudi-
nally shaped.
  There are not less than 35 species of this grass; most
of them are foreign, and some only annual.  About eight
species are enumerated as natives of Britain.
  AGROSTOGRAPHIA  signifies the history or  de
scription of  grasses.   Such  is  that  of  Scheuzer, con-
taining an  accurate description of several  hundred species
of grass.
   AGROUND,  expresses the  situation  of a ship, the
bottom of which rests on the ground.
   AGRYPNIA, denotes  much the same with watchful-
ness, or an inaptitude to sleep; which is a very trouble-
some symptom of feverish, and other disorders.
   Agrypnia, in the Greek church, the vigil of  any of
the greater festivals.
   AGUE,  a general name  for all  intermittent fevers,
which,  according to the  different times of the return of
the feverish paroxysm, or fit, are denominated quotidian,
tertian, or quartan agues.   See Medicine.
   AGURAH, in Jewish  antiquity,  the  name of a silver
coin, otherwise called gerah and keshitah.
   AGUSADURA, Agusage, in  our old  customs, a
certain fee paid by vassals to their lord, for the sharpening
ot their plough tackle.                 '         l    a
   AGYNEIA,  a genus  of the monoecia monadelphia
class and  order.   The essential character is,  calyx  six
leaved; corolla none   In the male flowers the anthers
are three, growing to the rudiments of the  style   In  the
female  the germ  is perforated at top, without' stvlp nr
 sterna.                                         " 
A I R
A I R
   The genus comprehends two shrubs, natives of China,
 hut of little note.
   AGYNIANI, a sect of heretics who condemned all
 carnal commerce with women.
   AHEAD,  refers to any object that lie3 immediately
 before a ship, or toward that point of the compass to which
 her prow is directed,  used in opposition to astern.
   AHULL,  denotes  the situation of  a ship, when all
 her sails are furled, on account of the violence of a storm,
 and when, having lashed her helm to the lee side, she lies
 nearly with her side  to the wind and sea, her head being
 somewhat inclined to the direction of the wind.
   AID, in law, denotes a petition made in court to call in
 help  from another person, who has  interest  in land, or
 other  thing contested.   This is called aid prier, which
 not only strengthens the party that prays for the aid, but
 gives the other person an opportunity of avoiding the prej-
 udice that might otherwise accrue to his own right. Thus,
 a  tenant for life may pray aid of the person in  reversion;
 and a city or borough that holds a free farm of the king,
 if any thing is demanded of them, may pray for aid of the
 king.
   Aid, auxilium, in  ancient customs, a subsidy  paid by
 vassals to their lord on certain occasions.
   Such were  the aid of relief, paid upon the death of the
 lord mesne, to his heir; the aid cheval, or capital aid, due to
 the chief lord on several occasions ; as to make his eldest
 son a knight, to make up a portion for marrying his daugh-
 ter, and so in  other cases.
   AIGHENDALE, the name of a liquid measure used in
 Lancashire, containing seven quarts.
   AIGUILLE,  an  instrument  used  by engineers to
 pierce a  rock for the lodgment of powder; as in a mine,
 or to mine a rock, so as to excavate and make roads.
   AIGUISCE', Aiguisse', or Eguisce', in heraldry, de-
 notes  a  cross  with its  four ei.ds sharpened, but  so as to
 terminate in  obtuse  angles.  It differs  from the cross
 fitchee, inasmuch as the latter goes tapering by degrees to
 a point, and the former only at the ends.
   AILANTHUS denotes, in Amboyna, the tree of heav-
 en, so called on account  of its lofty growth; a genus of
 tree, the  class and order  of which are  not ascertained:
 some accounting it polygamia monoecia, and some dioecia
 decandria.  It has male, female, and hermaphrodite flow-
 ers.  It  is  a  native of China, but grows very fast in our
 climate, and is recommended for ornamental plantations.
 If the bark is  wounded, a resinous juice flows out, which
 hardens in a few days.   The wood is hard, heavy, glossy,
 resembling satin.   We know of only one species.
   AILE, orAiEL, in  law, a writ which lies where a per-
 son's  grandfather,  or  great grandfather, being seized of
 lands,  &c. in fee simple the day that he died, the  stranger
 abates or enters the same day, and dispossesses the heir
 of his inheritance.
   AIM FRONTLET, a piece of wood, hollowed out to
 fit the muzzle  of a gun, to make it of an equal height with
 the breech, formerly made use of by the gunners to level
 and direct their pieces.
  AIR.   The most important discoveries of modern phi-
 losophy are those which relate to the composition of flu-
 ids, and of the elastic or aerial fluids in particular.  The
 restricted form of a dictionary, which is confined to the
alphabetical  arrangement, renders the development of
  rOL. I.              7
seience, so as to meet and satisfy the ideas of the youu;
student, in some measure difficult.  We shall depart from
it in this instance, in order to render clear, if possible, the
present most  important article, which may serve  in some
measure as a key to the most valuable discoveries of mod-
ern science.
  The air, even of the atmosphere, was formerly account-
ed an  elementary  principle.  It never entered into the
minds of philosophers that  it was of a compound nature.
It is indeed somewhat extraordinary that they never were
led to investigate  the  causes  of fluidity  itself, or to in-
quire what  were the circumstances which constituted a
fluid substance.
  Previous  to the grand discovery of Dr. Black, Boer-
haave, Hales, and some other philosophers, had suspected
that  the presence of heat, or the elementary matter of fire,
was the efficient cause of fluidity.  The melting of tallow,
wax, and metals, by the application of heat, and the con-
densation of water into ice, by the withdrawing of it, had
led them  insensibly to  this conclusion; which was con-
firmed on finding that mercury, which  has so strong an at
traction or affinity for the matter of heat  or fire, that it
remains fluid in the usual temperature of our atmosphere,
became a solid metallic  mass,  ductile, and possessing all
the  qualities  of a metal, in a certain degree of cold, be-
yond what is common in these  climates.
  The indefatigable Dr. Black, on investigating fully the
nature of heat, or elementary fire, found that the first ef-
fect  of its admission in  a larger quantity than usual to
solid bodies was to expand them; that the  next effect
was to reduce  them to a fluid state; and that the last  ef-
fect  was to present them in a  state of  an elastic or aerial
fluid.  Thus,  water, in what  may be called its  natural
state, is ice; by the application of a higher degree  of heat,
above  32 degrees of our thermometer, it becomes fluid:
and by increasing the heat to above 212 degrees, it is con-
verted  into vapour, which  is an elastic or compressible
fluid.  Hence it was concluded, that heat, elementary fire,
or,  as  it is called in modern chymistry, caloric, is the
only permanent fluid in nature, and the cause  of all fluidi-
ty in all other substances whatever.   It was found also,
that certain substances had a stronger attraction for  calo-
ric than others; hence  it was  accounted for why  certain
matters continued in a fluid state, and some even in that
of elastic fluids, in the ordinary  state of our atmosphere.
See Caloric  and Fluidity.
  Some of these aeriform fluids are found to  retain their
elasticity only in a very high temperature.   Such is the
vapour from common water; such as forms smoke,  clouds,
&c. and such  are the vapours which arise in distillation,
and which are condensed as soon as the superfluous calo-
ric, or heat, is  withdrawn; See Distillation; while oth-
ers retain their aerial form in all the varieties of our atmo-
sphere.  Hence arose a distinction between elastic fluids
and permanently elastic fluids.   These latter, for a rea-
son that will be presently assigned, were  called gases.
Some of these will be  found  to be sbnple, that is, when
caloric is united with some simple elementary substance ;
others will be found of a compound nature, when two ele-
mentary substances are  held suspended in a  mixed  state
by the matter of caloric; and  such is our common atmo-
spheric air, which consists of two elementary  substances ;
oxygen in the proportion of about one fourth, and atote 
A I R
A  I R
 about three fourths, suspended in a mass of caloric.  See
 Oxygen, Azote, &c.
   Hence it is evident that the aeriform fluids differ from
 each other,  according  to  the  nature of the elementary
 principles which form their respective bases.  This was,
 however, a matter which did not strike the early chymists.
 Though they perceived that those fluids which were oc-
 casionally  raised  in their processes, were permanently
 elastic, and different in their nature from common air, they
 did  not  inquire into their different properties, contenting
 themselves with giving them a name which meant nothing,
 denominating them, in general, spiritus sylvestris.
   Van Helmont distinguished  them by the name of gas,
 which he defined to  be  a spirit, or incoercible vapour, as
 the  word gas, or rather ghoast, in the Dutch language,
 signifies.  He supposes the gas to have been retained by
 the substances from  which it is extracted, in a fixed or
 concrete form.  He asserts,  that sixty-two pounds of
 charcoal contain sixty-one of gas, and only one of earth,
 and  attributes the fatal effects which workmen experience
 occasionally  in  mines  to  the emancipation of this spirit.
 On  the  same principle he accounts for the eructations
 from the stomach and bowels, and for  the  floating of
 drowned bodies; and he concludes by determining, that
 this  gas is a fluid of a  nature quite different from that of
 our common air.
   The existence of two  different kinds of vapour or elas-
 tic fluids, had been previously observed in mines and coal
 works : the one was observed to affect animals with a sense
 of suffocation, and to extinguish life, and it therefore ob-
 tained the name  of the  choke damp ; the other, from the
 dangerous property of catching fire when a candle or any
 ignited body was brought in  contact with it, was termed
 the fire damp.
   A specimen of the fire damp, or inflammable air, was
 collected from a coal mine of sir James Lowther, in Cum-
 berland, and brought up in bladders to be exhibited to the
 Royal Society  at  London, in the year 1733;  and in the
 year 1736 Mr. John  Maud procured, from the solution of
 iron  in oil of vitriol, a quantity of the very same spe-
 cies  of inflammable air, and demonstrated that the same
 might be procured from  most of the metals  in certain cir-
 cumstances.
   The experiments of Van Helmont were greatly improv-
 ed upon by the sagacious Boyle.   He changed the name
 of gas to that of  artificial air;  he demonstrated, that
 this  artificial air was not always the same ; for instance,
 that  the air produced by fermentation is essentially differ-
 ent  from that  which  is formed from  the explosion  of
 gunpowder.   He was the first who perceived that the vol-
 ume of air was diminished by the  combustion  of certain
 substances.
   This last observation of Mr. Boyle seems particularly to
 have attracted the attention of Dr.  Hales, and he inventr
 ed instruments for  determining the quantities both  of the
 air, which was on some occasions produced, and on other
 occasions absorbed,  by different substances.  These ex-
 periments deserve the  attention of every philosopher,
 and  for  accuracy or  ingenuity have never  been  ex-
 ceeded.
   Among other circumstances which were particularly re-
 marked by Dr. Hales, was the great quantity of air contain-
ed io the acidulated mineral waters, and to thh air he sus-
 pected they were  indebted for their sparkling and bright-
 ness,  and some other of their peculiar qualiies.  In ob-
 serving the absorption of air by bodies in combustion, he
 saw that this absorption had its limits :  he remarked also,
 in some cases, the alternate production and absorption of
 air, as for instance in respect to the air which he produced
 from the  burning  of nitre, which air,  he observed,  was
 very soon diminished in bulk, though  he did not perceive
 that the  absorption was owing to the water, which he al-
 ways used in his experiments.   The production of an air
 capable of inflammation from the distillation of certain sub-
 stances did not escape  his observation; and he has ad-
 vanced, that the augmentation of  weight in  the  metallic
 calces was in some degree owing to the air which they im-
 bibed.  That the phosphorus of llomberg diminishes the
 air in  which it is  burned;  that nitre cannot explode in
 vacuo; and that air is in general necessary to the crystal-
 lization of salts; are among the facts, which are noticed
 by this philosopher.
   From the uncertainty, however, of Dr. Hales and his pre-
 decessors, with regard to several material circumstances,
 of which  they appear to have had some casual glimpses,
 and from their  total ignorance of others, the doctrine of
 the aerial fluids was but in a state of infancy, till the deci-
 sive experiments of Dr. Black, Mr. Cavendish,  and Dr.
 Priestley, furnished us with a new system in this import-
 ant department  of natural history.
   The first of these philosophers observed, that lime and
 magnesia, in their mild stale, consist of an union of a certain
 aerial fluid with the earthy base ; that this  aerial matter
 is actually extracted by the operation of burning, which re-
 duces ordinary calcareous earth to the state of quick lime ;
 and that it is afterward reabsorbed by the quick lime when
 exposed to the air.  On this principle he was able, not  only
to account for the loss of weight by the burning of limestone,
but to estimate  to the greatest nicety the additional weight
 which it could acquire from the atmosphere.   He extract-
ed the  gas, to which he ga\e the name of fixed or fixable
 air, also by another process,  namely, by  dissolving the
calcareous earth in acids ;  he found that the  causticity of
lime depended upon its  violently attracting  from  vegeta-
ble and animal matter a portion of that air of which it had
been deprived,  and  that  upon this principle he was ena-
bled to render caustic the  alkaline salts.
  To Mr. Cavendish the second place in the order of this
history belongs.  He pursued  the experiments  of Dr.
Black,  and  ascertained the quantity  of fixed air which
could be retained by the fixed and volatile alkalies.  He
accounted for the nature of acidulated waters, by the fix-
able air which they contained.   He  procured a  species
ot inflammable air  from solutions of iron and  zinc in vitri-
olic acid ;  and he was the first who remarked, that a solu-
tion of copper in spirit of salt, instead of yielding inflam-
mable air, like that of iron or zinc, afforded a particular spe-
cies of air,  which  lost its  elasticity by coming in  contact
 with water.
  Dr. Priestley commenced  his  philosophical career by
some experiments  upon fixable air: and the first of his
and now commonly practised in the imitations of the arid'
ulated  mineral  waters.  The doctor tried the power of 
A I  R
A I R
 fixable air   ,)w i animal and vegetable life, and found it
 fatal to both.
   The indefatigable mind of Dr. Priestley was not, how-
 ever, to be satisfied with the investigation of a single ob-
 ject.  He next turned his attention to the nature of atmo-
 spheric air.   He observed, after Dr. Hales, its diminution
 by different processes,  as by combustion,  &c. but differs
 as to the cause.  Dr. Hales supposed the specific gravity
 of the air to be increased; but Dr. Priestley judged, that
 the denser part of the air is precipitated, and that the re-
 mainder is actually made lighter.  The discovery that
 the atmospheric air  is purified by vegetation is also Dr.
 Priestley's.
   On pursuing the experiments of Mr. Cavendish on in-
 flammable air, the  doctor found that  it was not only pro-
 ducible from  iron and  zinc, but from every inflammable
 substance whatever.
   Dr. Priestley discovered the cause that air, which has
 been respired, is fatal to animal life, to be, that it becomes
 impregnated with something stimulating to the lungs, for
 they are affected in the same manner as  when exposed to
 any other kind of noxious afa.
  But his most important discovery was, that the nitrous
 air which he  procured from the solution of metals in the
 nitrous acid, had the property of destroying the purest
 part of the  common air.  On  pursuing his experiments
 Dr. Priestley  found, on extracting airs from different sub-
 stances, that the air produced from calcined mercury, was
 of  a purer nature, and more  favourable to animal life and
 combustion, than common atmospheric air : it was, in truth,
 the  same with the pure part of the air which was destroy-
 ed  by the nitrous gas, as well as by  breathing and com-
 bustion.  He  therefore denominated  it pure or vital
 air, and this was afterward found to be what is now call-
 ed oxygen  air or gas, the  basis of which is oxygen, al-
 ready  noticed under the article Acid.
  Dr. Priestley continued  his experiments on inflamma-
 ble  aii, and found that all the metals which  yield it  when
 dissolved in acids, yielded it  by means of heat alone ; his
 mode  of extracting it was by subjecting  the filings  of
 the different metals in vacuo to the action of a burning
 glass.
  The next remarkable, and  perhaps the most important
 discovery, was that of Mr. Cavendish, which has explain-
 ed  to  us the nature and composition of water.  Mr. Cav-
 endish was  led to this great  discovery by  an experiment
 of Mr. Warltire, related by Dr. Priestley, in which it was
 found, that on inflaming a mixture of common and inflam-
 mable  air by the electric spark, a loss  of weight always
 ensued, and  that the inside  of the vessel in which it was
 fired became always moist or dewy, though ever so care-
 fully dried  before.  On repeating the  experiment, Mr.
 Cavendish did not perceive the diminution of weight which
 Mr. AVarltire  supposed  to take place, but the latter ef-
 fect was completely exemplified.  In prosecuting the ex-
 periment, it appeared that it was only the pure or empy-
 real part, that is, about one fourth, of the common air
 which  was consumed, and the water produced was per-
fectly tasteless and  pure; on mixing vital with inflamma-
ble  air in a due proportion, and passing through them an
electric spark, the whole portion lost its elasticity, and
 was  condensed into water.
                    7*
   Mr. Cavendish pursued his experiments with remarka-
ble success, to ascertain the constituent principles  of
what  was then called phlogisticated air, or that which
constitutes  the impure and unrespirable portion of the
atmospheric air;  and by  passing  the   electric  spark
through common air, and through a certain mixture of vi-
tal and phlogisticated airs, he was  able totally  to con
dense the latter, and to ascertain its constituent principle
to be the same with that of nitrous acid, with, as he then
thought,  a small portion of inflammable  matter.   In this
latter opinion, however, he has since been corrected by La-
voisier, and other modern  chymists, who have proved that
azotic, or phlogisticated air,  as  it is called  by the En-
glish chymists, is  no other than the  basis of the nitrous
acid.
   In Mr. Cavendish's experiment, as he  probably  used
air which had been rendered impure by combustion, some
small portion of charcoal, or other inflammable  matter,
might be contained in the air.
   Some gases  exist in nature without the aid of art, and
may be collected; others are only  producible by artificial
means.  The principal airs,  or gases, noticed in modern
philosophy are,
Oxygen gas or air.
Nitrogen gas or air.
Hydrogen gas or  air.
Ammoniacal gas or air.
Carbonic acid gas.
Phosphorated hydrogen gas.
Nitrous gas or air.
Sulphureous acid gas.
Gaseous oxyd of azote.
Muriatic acid gas.
Carbonated hydrogen gas.  Oxygenated muriatic acid gas.
Sulphuratedhydrogengas.  Fluoric acid gas.
  Air vital, or Oxygen gas, formerly termed also dephlo-
gisticated and  empyreal  air: is a  substance  destitute
both of taste and smell, but possessing  in an eminent de-
gree the power of increasing and supporting animal life
and  combustion.   It  is heavier at the same time than at-
mospheric  air,  in  the proportion of 103 to 100, and the
latter maintains life only in consequence of the quantity
of this fluid it contains.  This proportion is rated an 27 in
100.
  This  air changes the colour  of animal and vegetable
substances.  It is a  composition of oxygen and caloric.
Combustion by it  is rendered amazingly intense; and its
powers, when urged by the blow pipe, far exceed the pow-
ers of any burning lens.
  A lighted wax taper, fixed to an iron wire, and let down
into a vessel of this gas, burns with an inconceivable bril-
liancy.  If the taper is blown out, and let down  into a
vessel of the  gas, while the snuff remains  red hot, it in-
stantly  rekindles.  A red  hot  piece  of charcoal  im-
mersed in this gas, throws out beautiful sparks.  In this
gas thin iron wire will burn with beautiful effect.  During
every combustion  in oxygen gas, the gas suffers a materi-
al diminution;  and all bodies by  combustion in it acquire
an addition to their weight.
  Oxygen, or the basis of oxygen gas, is naturally or arti-
ficially  combined  with  a great  variety of substances.
From some of these it may be detached by the simple ap-
plication of heat, since  it has a remarkable attraction
for caloric, or  the matter  of  fire, with which when  it
unites, it becomes  expanded, and assumes the form of jras
or air. 
AIR
A I R
  The substances from which it may be  most easily ex-
tracted, by means of heat, are red lead, calcined mercury,
nitre, and manganese.   Dr. Priestley exposed a quantity of
red lead in the focus of a burning glass twelve inches in
diameter.   A quantity of fixed  air, or carbonic acid gas,
as it is now called, was always produced at first; but after
that  was separated, the remainder  was found to  support
flame,  and to sustain  animal  life, much more vigorously
than common air, and to have all the characters of dephlo-
gisticated air, or oxygen gas.
  By  various  succeeding experiments of Dr. Priestley
and others, it however appears,  that dephlogisticated or
oxygen air, may  be obtained not only by means of heat,
but also by the action of the vitriolic and nitrous acids
upon a number of mineral aud metallic substances.
  This kind of air may also be obtained  by the same
process, from the native oxyd,  or calx of manganese, or
from minium  or red lead, which, it is well  known, is an
oxyd of lead, or lead united with oxygen.
  The better to understand these effects, it  must be ob-
served, that  this  fluid is not found in these substances in
an entire state; they only contain the basis of it, which
is the  oxygen ; for metals neither calcine nor burn, but
in consequence of their combination with oxygen, which
by that means becomes solid, and joins  its weight with
theirs.  This oxygen is then expelled by the application
of heat or caloric,  which, combining with if, causes it to
pass into the  state of an clastic fluid ; during this process,
the metal, losing  the  oxygen which had reduced it to the
state of an oxyd or calx, assumes its metallic  properties,
and loses the weight which  it had acquired  in becoming
oxidated.
   There is, however, a method by which oxygen gas may
be obtained with  less heat and g -eater facility, and it is as
follows : put  some red lead into a bottle, together with
some good strong oil of vitriol,  but without any water.
Let the red lead  fill about a  quarter of the bottle,  and the
vitriolic  acid be  about  the  same quantity, or very little
less; then  apply a bent tube to  the bottle, by inserting it
through a cork,  and having  inverted another bottle filled
with water in a basin about half filled also with water,  di-
rect the other end of the crooked tube into the bottle in-
verted  in  the water.  In this  stage of the  process  we
must observe, that without heat,  this mixture of red lead
and vitriolic acid will not afford  any oxygen air, or a very
inconsiderable quantity; it is necessary, therefore, to ap-
ply the flame of a candle or wax taper to the bottle con-
taining the ingredients,  while the crooked  tube  opens  a
communication between this bottle and that inverted in
the water.   In this manner the red lead will yield a quan-
tity of elastic fluid, which will pass through the  crooked
tube into the inverted bottle, and as the quantity  of oxy-
gen air increases  in the inverted bottle, the water  in it will
be seen to subside; this air  will not be all pure,  because
a considerable quantity of fixed  air enters with it.   In or-
der to separate the fixed from the  pure air, the inverted
bottle,  when filled with the  compound of both,  must be
agitated in a basin of lime  water, by which  means  the
lime water will absorb the whole quantity of fixed air, and
leave the dephlogisticated air or oxygen gas by itself.
   Oxygen gas may also be obtained in considerable quanti-
ties from the decomposition of water, especially from pump
water, which, when exposed to the sun, emits air slowly ;
but  after it  has remained so for a considerable  time,  a
green matter adheres  to the bottom and sides of the glass
vessel in which it remained; afterward it emits pure oxy-
gen  air in great quantities,  and continues to do so for  a
long time after the green matter has exhibited symptoms
of decay by turning yellow.
  Dr. Ingenhousz rightly  supposed this green matter to
belong  to  the vegetable kingdom, and procured pure air
by putting the leaves of plants into water,  and expesing
them to the  sun.  He observes  that of land  vegetables
the fittest for this purpose  are the poisonous plants, such
as byoscyamus,  lauro  cerasus, nightshade,  &c.   But he
extracted the purest air from some aquatic vegetables, and
from turpentine  trees,  but especially from the green mat-
ter he collected from a stone trough, which had been kept
filled with water from a spring near the high  road.
  While Dr. Priestley was engaged in a series of experi-
ments to enable him to purify contaminated air, he discov-
ered that vegetables answered this purpose most effectual-
ly.   The experiment by which he illustrates his assertion
was this : having rendered a «<uantity of air very noxious,
by mice breathing and dying in  it, he divided it into (wo
receivers inverted in water, introducing a sprig of mint in-
to one of them, and keeping the other receiver with the
contaminated air in it  alone.  He found,  about eight or
nine days after, the air of the receiver, into  which he had
introduced the  sprig of mint, had become respirable ; for
a mouse lived very well in this, but died immediately upon
being introduced  into  the other receiver, containing the
contaminated air alone.
  It has since been  observed,  that several animal sub-
stances, as well as vegetables, have a power of  separating
dephlogisticated  air, or oxygen  gas,  from  water, when
exposed to the  action of the sun for a considerable time.
  The  ingenious count Rumford  observed, that raw silk
has a remarkable power of producing pure air.   He found,
that  by introducing thirty grains of this  substance, first
washed in water,  into a thin glass  globe four inches and a
half  in  diameter, having a cylindrical  neck  three fourths
of an inch wide and twelve inches long, inverting the globe
into ajar filled with the same kind of water, and exposing
it to  the action of the  sun in the  window, in less than ten
minutes the silk became covered with an infinite number
of air bubbles, gradually increasing in  size, till  at the end
of two hours  the silk was buoyed  up, by their means, to
the  top of the  water.   They separated  themsehes by
degrees, and formed a collection of air in the upper part
ot the  globe, which,  when  examined  by Ihe  established
test, appeared to be very pure.   In three days he collect-
ed three and three fourths of a cubic inch of pure air, in-
to which a wax taper being introduced, that had just be-
fore  been blown  out, the wick only remaining red, it in-
stantly  took, fire, and  burned with a bright  and enlarged
flame.   The water in  the globe had acquired the smell of
raw ?1ik, ,t lost  something of  its transparency, and assum-
ed a faint greenish cast.

made^t^? °tbser*cd' fthat. vvhen ™* experiment was
made in the dark,  only a few inconsiderable  bubbles were
formed, which remained attached to the silkTno^ wasTt
otherwise when the glass globe was removed intoaGe-
man stove.   In the latter case, indeed, some single bubbles 
AIR
A I R
 had detached themselves  from the silk, and ascended to
 the fop, but the air was in too small a quantity to be either
 measured or proved.
   In these experiments, the  oxygen or  pure air was ex-
 tracted by an actual decomposition of a part of the water,
 by means of a  capillary attraction, aided by the solar in-
 fluence ; and in effect  the  same philosopher  was enabled
 to extract it, though in a smaller quantity, by means of a
 number of very minute glass tubes immersed in  water, and
 exposed to the  sun.
   The reason that pure air is the most essential of all the
 fluids to the support of life is, probably, because a great
 quantity of  heat  is necessary for this purpose,  and  be-
 cause this  fluid contains it in great quantity,  and parts
 with it very freely when it meets with any substance with
 which it has an affinity.  But as its basis,  oxygen, com-
 bines itself very easily  with  the  basis of coal  which is
 found in the blood and lungs, and during this combination,
 loses part of its caloric, or heat, which goes to the  support
 of life, the remainder of the caloric and  oxygen, combin-
 ed with the coal, form the acid carbonic gas or fixable air,
 which is always found to exist in a larger quantity in air
 which has  been respired, than in atmospherical air which
 has not been subservient to that function.  Of this a very
 easy experiment affords  sufficient proof; it is founded on
 the  property which the carbonic gas  has of  rendering
 lime  water turbid.   A crooked tube open at both ends is
 partly filled  with lime water ; a person applies his mouth
 to one end of the  tube, and inspires, by drawing  the  air
 through the lime water contained in if.   By this  the trans-
 parency of the lime water is not affected ; but it becomes
 turbid as soon as the person expires, which is owing to the
 carbonic acid formed  in  the  lungs.  It is therefore the
 great attraction which exists  between the matter of coal
 and  the basis of pure air which renders this fluid so prop-
 er for breathing.   The pure air which  we breathe per-
 forms two  functions equally necessary  to our  preserva-
 tion; it carries off from the  blood that matter of coal,
 the  superabundance of which would  be  pernicious,  and
 the  heat which  this combination  deposites in  the lungs
 repairs the  continual loss of  heat which we  experience
 from surrounding  bodies.   According to Dr. Priestley,
 and  others, the basis of oxygen gas is  also absorbed  by
 the blood.
   Since, therefore, a great quantity of heat is disengaged
 from pure air in respiration, it follows, that this fluid must
 be very pernicious  to animals  who breathe this air alone
 for a considerable  time; which is consonant with  the ob-
 servations of physicians, who  have  attempted  to  cure
 phthisics by the respiration  of vital air.
  The basis of this empyreal  or pure air, or oxygen gas,
 as the French chymists term it, is one of the constituent
 parts of water.  It has been mentioned, that it is also the
 matter which gives  the acid character to the acids;  sul-
 phur,  for instance,  is a very innoxious, insipid body, till
 by burning,  that is by absorbing oxygen, it becomes vit-
riolic acid.   Whether  the basis of this empyreal air is a
 simple or compound substance,  we are unable  to  deter-
mine ; in the  present  state,  however,  of  philosophical
knowledge,  we  are justified in  considering it as a simple
elementary body, for it  has never yet been decomposed.
  Air Asotic, or Nitrogen  gas, named also mephitis, is a
substance unlike the former,  being incapable  of support-
 ing animal life.  It extinguishes flame, and is only chaiac
 terized by possessing none of the distinguishing qualities
 of the other known airs.  It is lighter than common air, in
 the proportion of  985 to 1000.  It may be considered in-
 deed as the residue of common air, when vitiated by com-
 bustion.  It is easily disengaged from animal matters, by
 a slight increase  of temperature ; but different parts  of
 animals  afford different  proportions of it,  and the con-
 crescible fibrous matter the most.  The portion of it they
 in general afford is proportioned to their quantity of vola-
 tile alkali.
   Azotic or nitrogen gas may be  procured by mixing
 equal  weights of  iron filings and sulphur into a paste with
 water, and placing the mixture  in a proper  vessel over
 water.  Then invert over it a jar full of common air, and
 allow it to stand  exposed  to the mixture a day or two.
 The air  contained in the jar will gradually diminish, as
 will  appear from  the  ascent of the water within the jar,
 till at last only about three  fourths of its original bulk re-
 main.
   This gas is  not  absorbed by water: it immediately ex-
 tinguishes a lighted candle, and other  burning substances :
 it is  fatal to animals confined in it : plants, however, live
 and flourish in it :  by it  delicate blue colours are slightly
 reddened ; and when mixed with oxygen gas, in the pro-
 portion of three or four parts of azotic gas to one of oxy-
 gen, it  composes  a mixture resembling  atmospheric  air.
 Its basis is azote,  an elementary substance, which is also
 the basis of nitrous acid  or aquafortis.  Its combination
 with oxygen gives  it  the acid character.  In this  state it
 is combined with  that substance.  In the state of atmo-
spheric air it is only mixed.
   A i r, Inflammable, or Hydrogen gas.  This air, named
 also  fire damp, is peculiarly  distinguished  by its great
 levity  and inflammability.  It is the lightest substance
 whose  weight  we  are able to estimate.   When pure, it is
 thirteen times lighter than atmospheric air,  and it imme-
 diately explodes on mixture with oxygen.   It is formed
 by the union of hydrogen and  caloric.  Its lightness is
 particularly evinced by its use in balloons.  Plants grow
 in this fluid without impairing its inflammability.   Water
 imbibes about  one thirteenth part of  it ; and  when again
 expelled,  it is as inflammable  as ever.   By this addition
 both its bulk and specific gravity are increased ;  for it oc-
cupies one eighth  more space by its combination, and  its
weight is increased, so as to be only one tenth lighter than
common air.
  Hydrogen  gas  is thus procured:  let sulphuric acid,
diluted with five or six times its  weight of water, be pour-
ed on iron filings in a glass bottle or small retort.   An ef-
fervescence will ensue, and the gas which  escapes is  in-
flammable air  or  dydrogen  gas.  This effect is produced
by the  decomposition of the  watery  parts of the acid;
the oxygen is absorbed  by the metal, and with the sul-
phur forms a solid  saline  mass; martial vitriol, or copper-
as.  The  hydrogen  which  enters into the composition of
the water is disengaged in the  form of hydrogen gas.
   According to M. Lavoisier,  water is composed of eigh-
ty-five parts  of oxygen  and  fifteen parts  of hydrogen.
This philosopher has instructed us in (he following method
of obtaining this gas by heat only.
   Let  water  pass  drop  by drop through the barrel of a
 gun, while it remains red hot  amidst  burning coals;  let .-> 
AT R
A 1 R
crooked tube be placed at the end of this iron, and bent,
so that it  may be  passed into a glass vessel full of water
inverted  in the pneumatic apparatus.  There will  then
pas3 into the glass vessel an aeriform fluid, which is in-
flammable air or hydrogen gas.   In this process the water
suffers a decomposition,  and  while  the hydrogen  passes
into the glass receiver, the oxygen  unites with  the sub-
stance of  the gun barrel, and oxydates or rusts its internal
surface.
   The  electric  spark also, taken in any species  of oil,
produces  hydrogen or inflammable air, this substance be-
ing a constituent part of all the  oils.   The same may be
said of selher, and  alcohol or spirit of wine, which contain
a great proportion  of hydrogen.
   Mr. Cavallo informs us, that he has procured this kind
of air from the ponds about London, in the following man-
ner : fill a wide mouthed bottle with pond water, and keep
it  inverted in it;  then with a stick stir the  mud  at the
bottom of the pond just under  the inverted bottle, so as
to permit  the bubbles of air which rise to be received in the
inverted bottle ; and this air  will be found to be  inflam-
mable.
   The ignes fatui are supposed to proceed from the  inflam-
mable air which abounds in  marshy grounds, and to be
set on fire by electric sparks.
   The most remarkable properties of this  gas are, 1st, its
great inflammability, which arises from its propensity to
unite with oxygen and form water.   2dly,  Its extraordina-
ry levity, as already noticed.   3dly, Metals are very easi-
ly revived or reduced  from a calx or oxyd to the  metal-
lic state  when heated in a receiver  filled with this air.
This also arises  from  its attraction for oxygen,  which in
this case  is expelled from the calx; and, uniting with the
hydrogen in the receiver to form water, leaves the metal
pure, and in its natural state.   4thly, Plants vegetate in
this fluid without  impairing  its inflammability.  5thly,
Water will imbibe about l-13th of its bulk of this gas.
   6thly, A very clear sound resembling that of the seolian
harp, is  produced  by placing a tube of glass or earthen
ware over this gas while burning.  The sound may be va-
ried at pleasure, by raising or lowering the  tube,  or by
using those of different dimensions.   What renders this
most extraordinary is peculiar to the  burning of hydrogen
gas.  («)
   This gas remains permanent over water; it is inflamma-
ble.  Fill a small jar or  common phial with  the gas, and
holding it with  its mouth downward, bring the gas into
contact with the flame of a candle;  the air will take fire,
and burn silently with a bluish flame.   In a strong phial
mix equal parts of  hydrogen gas and common air, and ap-
ply to the mouth a lighted candle, and it will burn with a
sudden and loud explosion.  One part of oxygen gas, and
two or three of hydrogen gas, will give a  report equal to
that of a pistol.
   Hydrogen gas has an unpleasant smell;  it extinguishes
burning bodies:  it is fatal to animals;  and  is, as  we have
observed, considerably lighter than atmospherical air.
   These  then are the three simple or original gases, from
which, variously modified, all the rest are  produced; and
the first of these productions is  universally diffused, and
of the first importance to life, constituting an essential part
of what we constantly breathe,  and by which we are sur-
rounded, atmospheric air.
   Air, combined, or atmospheric gas, is a mixture of two
 or three substances in the elastic state.   By the powers
 of chymistry this  fluid,  when  examined, is found to con-
 sist  principally of oxygen air, azote, and carbonic acid
 in certain proportions.  From the abundant production of
 inflammable air,  or  hydrogen gas, at the surface  of the
 earth, in consequence of the corruption or decomposition
 of animal and vegetable  matters, this fluid must  also be
 generated ;  yet its extreme  levity will naturally  carry it
 to the higher regions, so that, though a part of the atmo-
 sphere, it is placed in a situation beyond the examination of
 chymists.
  To a mixture then of oxygen  and azotic air, with car-
 bonic  acid,  the term  atmospheric air is applied ; and this
 mixture is in the proportion of 27 parts of oxygen air, 72
 of azotic, and one of carbonic acid gas.
  The proofs of this  composition of atmospheric air were
 first offered  by Mr. Scheele, who found,  on its exposure
 to certain substances, that it  suffered a diminution of vol-
 ume, and that by this diminution it was rendered unfit for
 the  support of life.   This  abstracted   part, therefore,
 could not fail  to  be  oxygen or  vital air ; and from this
 mixture of oxygen and  azote, he naturally inferred that
 atmospheric air came  to be formed.   This he further coo-
 firmed by restoring oxygen to it,  in consequence of which
 it regained all  its  properties of atmospheric air.  On the
 same subject he was succeeded by  Lavoisier, who, in ad-
 dition to these facts, showed  that the oxygen, or attracted
 part, was received by the substance producing the change,
 and  could be often recovered again from  it.
  But though  the composition  of  atmospheric air has
 been thus ascertained, something still remains  wanting to
 complete it; and this is, the manner of combining by ex-
 periment its parts.  Hence it is doubted whether its parts
 exist naturally in a state of chymical combination, or of
 mechanical mixture.   That the latter takes place appears
 probable from the  different proportion of oxygen which  it
 is found to contain in  the higher  and lower regions, it be-
 ing always greater toward the surface of the earth; and
 from the unlimited proportion in  which these airs can be
 mixed, while  the  different matters  present in the atmo-
 spheric regions may tend strongly to prevent their separa-
 tion.  At the same time, as a proof of its  simple mixture,
 it is  soluble  in 30 times its weight of water.
  From this knowledge of the composition of atmospheric
 air, an attempt has been  made to ascertain its  purity, or
 its relative capability of supporting animal life in different
 situations.   This is effected by eudiometry, or measuring
 the exact quantity of oxygen  the air contains.
  To do this it requires to add to  the air some body capa-
 ble of combining with its oxygen, and from the diminished
 volume of air, the quantity of oxygen is inferred.
  Different  substances have  been employed for this pur-
 pose, and each preferred  by different chymists.
  The  first  eudiometer  was  made in consequence of Dr.
 Priestley's discovery, that when nitrous gas is mixed with
 atmospheric air over water, the bulk of the mixture dimin-
ishes rapidly ; in consequence of  the combination of the

of Z' n'/^  OX^   f    'aT01} air' and lhe ^sorption
ot tne nitric  acid thus formed by the water
  When nitrous gas is added to nitrogen gas, no diminu-
tion  takes place ; hut when it is mixed with oxygen o-as in
proper proportions, the  absorption is complete.   Hence 
A I R
\ I R
 it is evident, that in all cases of a mixture of these two
 gases, the diminution will be in proportion to the quantity
 of the oxygen.   Of course, it will indicate the proportion
 of oxygen in atmospheric air, and, by mixing it with dif-
 ferent proportions of air,  it  will  indicate the  different
 quantities of oxvgen which  they contain, provided the
 component parts  of air are susceptible of variation.
   Dr. Priestley's method was, to mix together equal quan-
 tities of  air and nitrous gas in a low jar, and then transfer
 the  mixture into a narrow graduated  glass tube,  about
 three feet long, in order to measure the diminution of bulk.
 He  expressed this  diminution  by the  number of hun-
 dredth parts of nitrous gas and  common air:  and if the
 sum total was 200,  or 2.00 ; suppose the residuum, when
 measured in the graduated tube, to amount to 104, or 1.04,
 and  of course, that 96 parts of the whole had disappeared,
 he denoted the purity of the air thus tried by  104.
   Atmospherical air is wilhout  taste,  and for the most
 part without smell.  It is invisible, transparent, necessary
 to the support of combustion, vegetation, and animal life,
 particularly respiration.   It is absorbed in a certain quan-
 tity  by wafer, and again expelled by boiling, or by the air
 pump removing pressure.
   Ai a, alkaline, or ammoniacal  gas.   This air possesses
 a  strong  pungent smell, and is even capable of inflaming
 the  skin  of animals.  Its lightness  is  next to that of  in-
 flammable air,  and in specific  gravity it falls short of  at-
 mospheric air,  in the proportion  of 600 to 1000, and it is
 incapable of  supporting animal life,  and also combustion,
 though the flame of a candle enlarges before  it is  extin-
 guished  by it.    It is proved to  be a compound of azote
 and  hydrogen, 1000 parts of it  containing 807 of azote,
 and 193 of hydrogen.  This air has a strong attraction  for
 water, and is rapidly absorbed by it.   When  dissolved
 with water it produces heat;  and when  dissolved with ice
 it  produces cold.
   Ammoniacal gas was first discovered  by Dr. Priestley:
 it  is nowhere found in a  natural state, but must be pro-
 duced by an  artificial process.   To obtain it, put into a
 retort a certain quantity of  liquid ammonia, and heat the
 bottom of the retort, and having suffered  some air to es-
 cape from the retort  and the tube, the gas may be collect-
 ed in vessels filled with mercury.  This gas, which seems
 to be nothing but  ammonia deprived of water, is perfectly
 absorbable by water, and the solution forms liquid ammo-
 nia,  the  same  which is vulgarly called sal volatile and
 spirit of hartshorn.   It is the lightest of all the saline gases,
 has a penetrating odour, and gives a strong tint of green
 to blue vegetable colours.  It combines rapidly with car-
 bonic,  muriatic,  and sulphureous acid  gases,  and forms
 neutral salts, throwing out a great deal of heat, which arises
 from the free state of the caloric  that had been combined
 with these gases.
   Ammoniacal  gas suffocates animals,  and extinguishes
 burning bodies;  but  it is so far inflammable,  that it  in-
 creases the flame of a taper before it extinguishes it.
   Carbonic acid gas is  the first elastic aeriform fluid,
 different  from common air, that was known.   We are in-
 debted to Dr. Black, of Edinburgh, for a knowledge  of
 some of its most remarkable properties.   In the year 1755
 he discovered the affinity between it and the alkalies ; and
Bergmann, in 1772, proved that it  was an acid.
   Carbonic acid gas cannot support flame, nor animal life .
 its taste is acid.  Neither light nor caloric seem  to pro-
 duce any effect upon  it, except that  the  latter  dilates it.
 It is absorbed by water.  These two fluids, after consid-
 erable  agitation, at last  unite, and  form an acid fluid.
 The  colder the water,  and the greater the pressure  ap-
 plied, the more carbonic  gas it will  absorb.  Water, so
 impregnated, sparkles upon agitation ; it has an  acidulous
 taste, and reddens tincture of litmus.   Heat disengages
 the  gas from the water.  Carbonic acid gas precipitates
 lime from its solution  in water.  It is eagerly attracted by
 the alkalies.  Its specific weight isto that of atmospheric air,
 as 1500 to 1000.  It may be poured  from one vessel into
 another.
   Of all the bases of the gases, that  of carbonic acid gas
 is diffused in the greatest abundance throughout  nature.
 It is found in the state of gas, and also in combination with
 a great variety of bodies.
   It may be  easily obtained as follows:  Put into a com-
 mon  retort a little marble, chalk, or  limestone,  and pour
 on it sulphuric acid,  diluted  with about  six  times  its
 weight of water ; an effervescence will ensue, and carbon-
 ic gas will be disengaged,  which  may be collected over
 mercury; but a mercurial apparatus is not absolutely nec-
 essary, since the gas may be collected over  water, if it h
 to be used immediately.
   Marble, limestone, and chalk, consist  of this matter and
 lime.  On presenting  to it sulphuric acid, a decomposition
 takes place;  the sulphuric  acid having a greater  affinity
 to the lime than the carbonic acid has.   It therefore unites
 to it, and  forms sulphate of  lime, disengaging, at the same
 time, the carbonic acid  in the state of gas.
   Carbonic  acid gas is  often found in the lower parts of
 mines,  caverns, tombs, and such  other subterraneous
 places as contain  materials  for producing  it:  it is then
 called the choke damp.  The grotto Del Cane, near Na-
 ples, has long been famous for the quantity of this gas pro-
 duced there, which is so great, that it  runs out at the open-
 ing like a stream of water.   A dog, or  any  other animal,
 is immediately killed, if its nose is thrust into  the lower
 part of the cavern.  But  the upper part of  the  cavern is
 quite free from the gas, as it does  not rise high enough to
 mix with the atmospheric air.
   Carbonic  acid gas is  likewise formed during fermenta-
 tion.   On  account of its great  weight,  it  occupies  the
 empty space of the vessel in which the  fermenting proc-
 ess is going on.  It may, in this  case,  be  collected  by
 plunging a vessel into  it.
   Light  carbonated hydrogen gas, is hydrogen gas
 holding in solution carbon or charcoal.   There are several
 kinds of it obtained by different processes, which differ in
 their  properties, and in the proportions of their constitu-
 ent principles.
   Light  carbonated  hydrogen gas  has  a   disagreeable
 smell.  It is neither absorbed nor  altered by water.   It
 is  very  inflammable, and burns with a denser and  deeper
 coloured flame than pure hydrogen gas.   Its specific grav-
 ity is greater than that of hydrogen gas, or of common
 air.
  This gas is produced from animal,  vegetable,  and min-
eral  substances.   It is found very commonly in marshes
and  ditches,  on the surface of putrid water, in burving 
A I R
AI R
places,  common  sewers,  and in those situations  where
putrid  animal  and vegetable matters  are accumulated.
It is also generated  in  the intestinal canal of living ani-
mals.
  It may be  plentifully obtained from  most stagnated
waters.   To  do this, fill a  wide mouthed  bottle with
water, and keep it inverted with a funnel in its neck : then
stir the mud with a stick at the bottom just under the fun-
nel, so as to collect the bubbles of air which rise in various
places :  as soon as the bottle is  filled with gas, it must be
corked undeV water.
  It may also be obtained during the distillation of animal
and vegetable  matters.   Let shavings of wood or sawdust
be put into a  retort, and  apply  a gradual heat till the re-
tort  becomes red hot:  a  great quantity of gas will be dis-
engaged, which may be collected over water.  On exam-
ining this gas, it  will be found to consist of carbonic acid
gas and carbonated hydrogen gas.  In order to obtain the
latter in a pure state,  the whole must be mixed with lime
water, or with caustic  alkali dissolved in  water.   The
carbonic  acid gas will be absorbed, and the carbonated
hydrogen gas left behind.
   Heavy carbonated hydrogen gas is not absorbed
by water.  It has an  odour different from that of light
carbonated hydrogen gas.  It burns with a strong flame,
similar to that of a resinous oil.   When mixed with oxy-
genated muriatic acid gas, its bulk is  diminished, and oil is
formed.   When the mixture of these two gases is explod-
ed, a quantity of charcoal is immediately deposited in the
form of fine  soot.   When burned  with oxygen gas, or
when passed through a red hot  tube filled with any oxyd
from which  oxygen  is  procured, carbonic  acid  gas is
formed.
   This gas is obtained by decomposing spirit of wine, by
sulphuric acid in  a great  heat.   It is also obtained abund-
antly, when  alcohol is passed through  a red hot earthen
tube.   Sulphuric sether, mixed with sulphuric acid, and
subjected to  heat, also affords it.
   Let four parts  of sulphuric acid, and one of highly rec-
tified ardent spirit, be mingled together gradually in a glass
retort: heat  will  be disengaged, the mixture will become
brown, and heavy carbonated hydrogen gas will  be  ex-
tricated.  When heat is applied, the action is very vio-
lent, and thegas  is procured very copiously, and may be
received over water.  The gas so obtained is mixed with
a considerable quantity of sulphureous acid gas, from
which it may be freed, by agitating it  with lime water, or
a solution of potash.
   Sulphurated htdrogen gas has the properties of an
acid; for when  absorbed by water, its  solution  reddens
vegetable blues.   It combines  also with alkalis,  earths,
and with several  metallic oxyds.  Sulphurated hydrogen
gas has  an extremely offensive  odour, resembling that of
putrid  eggs.  It kills animals,  and  extinguishes burning
bodies.   When  mixed with oxygen gas, or  atmospheric
air,  it is  inflammable.
   To obtain it, take dry  sulphuret of potash, put it into a
tubulated retort in a sand bath;  or, supported over a lamp,
direct the neck of the retort under the receiver placed in
a pneumatic trough; then pour gradually upon the sul-
phuret  diluted sulphuric acid:  a  violent effervescence
will take place, and sulphurated  hydrogen gas will be dis-
engaged.  When no more gas is produced, apply heat
by  degrees  till it  boils, and gas  will again be procured
abundantly.
  The water employed for receiving it should be heated
to about 80 or 90 degrees : at this temperature  it dissolves
little of the gas j  whereas, if cold water  is used, a vast
quantity of it is absorbed.
  Water  impregnated with  sulphurated  hydrogen gas,
slightly reddens blue vegetable colours.
  It is this gas  which gives to the mineral waters of Har-
rowgate and Aix-la-Chapelle their peculiar smell.  Such
waters may therefore be artificially imitated,  by impreg-
nating common water with this gas, and adding the other
constituent parts to it.
  This gas acts strongly on most metallic oxyds.
  Dip a slip of paper into a solution of lead, and expose il
to the action of sulphurated hydrogen gas; and the paper
will instantly  become  blackened.  Writing   performed
with this solution is invisible when dry, but becomes visi-
ble when immersed in a bottle filled with this gas.
  In this instance, the hydrogen of the gas takes the ox-
ygen from these  bodies, and causes them to  reapproach
the metallic state; at the same time, the sulphur contain-
ed  in the  gas combines with the metal thus regenerated,
and converts it into a sulphuret.
  Phosphorated hydrogen oas consists of  phosphorus
dissolved in hydrogen gas.
  It is the most combustible substance in nature.  It is
distinguished from all other gases by the property of tak-
ing fire immediately when brought in contact  with atmo-
spheric air.   When mixed with oxygen gas, or with oxy-
genated muriatic  acid gas, it burns with great violence.
When bubbles of it are  suffered  to pass through  wa-
ter, they take fire in succession as they reach  the surface
of the fluid.  It  has an insupportable odour, similar to
that of putrid fish.
  To obtain it, take a small  retort, put into it  one part of
phosphorus and ten of concentrated solution  of potash;
make the mixture boil, and receive the gas over mercury,
or, if it is  intended for immediate use, it may be collected
over water.   In this process a decomposition of the water
takes place.   Its oxygen unites to part of  the phosphorus,
forming phosphoric acid,  which joins to  the  potash, and
forms phosphate of potash.   The hydrogen of the water
dissolves another part of the phosphorus, and is converted
into phosphorated hydrogen gas.
   In preparing this gas the body of the retort should be
filled as nearly as possible with the mixture, otherwise the
first portion of gas which is produced inflames in the  re-
tort, a vacuum is formed, and the water is forced up into
the retort, which  endangers  the bursting of it.
   Phosphorated hydrogen gas is also formed by nature.
The air which  burns at the surface of certain springs, and
forms what is called burning springs, and the ignis fatuus,
jacko'lantern, which glides along burying grounds, consists
of this gas.
   If  the  bubbles of air which  come from the retort are
suffered to  escape into the atmosphere,  they will burst
with a slight explosion, and produce flashes  of  fire.  A
circular dense white smoke rises like a ring, enlarging it-
self continually in an extremely  beautiful manner, if the
air is perfectly tranquil.
   This gas burns with a green light, in nascent oxygenat-
ed muriatic acid  gas,  under the surface  of water.  Put 
A I R
A I R
 into a deep glass some phosphoret of lime, broken into
 pieces of the size of a pea, and add half as much oxygenated
 muriate of potash.  Fill the vessel with water,  and bring
 into contact with  the materials at the bottom of the fluid
 some concentrated sulphuric acid.   This maybe most
 conveniently done, by  letting the acid fall through a long
 funnel reaching to the bottom of the vessel.   A soon as
 the decomposition of the water, and  that of the oxygenat-
 ed muriate takes place, flashes of fire dart from the fluid,
 and illuminate  the bottom of the vessel with  a beautiful
 green light.
   A riband, impregnated with a solution of gold, may be
 gilt  by the  action of phosphorated hydrogen gas.
   Nitrous gas.  This name  is given  to an aeriform
 fluid,  consisting of a certain quantity of nitrogen gas and
 oxygen; first described by Priestley, but in some measure
 known before to Hales.
   It is colourless, having no sensible taste, and is neither
 acid nor alkaline:  it cannot be respired.   The greater
 number  of combustible bodies cannot burn in it.  It is
 nevertheless capable  of supporting the combustion  of
 some bodies.   Phosphorus  burns in it, when  introduced
 in a state of inflammation ; pyrophorus takes fire in it
 spontaneously.
   To obtain it, put into a small retort some pieces of cop-
 per, and pour on  them nitric acid diluted with water;  an
 effervescence takes place,  and nitrous gas "will  be pro-
 duced.   After having suffered the gas  to escape for a few
 minutes, on account of the common air contained  in the
 retort, collect  the  gas  in  the  water apparatus as  usual.
 In order to obtain this gas  in a pure  state, it  should  be
 shaken for some time in contact with water.
   We have seen before, that water was decomposed  on
 bringing in contact with it a metal and  an acid.   But here
 the case  is  different; the water suffers no  alteration;  on
 the contrary, the acid undergoes a partial decomposition ;
 the  metal robs the nitric acid of the greatest part of  its
 oxygen,  and becomes  oxydated.  The remainder of  the
 acid having lost so much of its oxygen, becomes  so altered,
 that, at  the usual temperature, it can exist no longer in
 the liquid state, but instantly expands, and assumes  the
 form of gas, ceasing at the same time to be an acid.
   It was mentioned before, that nitrous gas greedily  at-
 tracts  oxygen  gas from  atmospheric  air.  During this
 union an acid is produced.
  Pass up into a tall cylindrical glass  vessel over water,
 about  one  part of nitrous  gas and  two of  common air.
 The two fluids  will speedily unite, red fumes will be pro-
 duced, and the  volume of the two  combined gases will  be
 diminished.   A considerable degree  of  heat will  be per-
 ceived,  the wafer will rise in the vessel, and  absorb  the
 red vapours.  When the two gases have mixed in proper
 proportion, nothing remains  at last but the nitrogen  gas of
 the atmospheric air.
  Usually sixteen  parts of common air are requisite  to
 destroy  completely seven of nitrous gas; this, however,
 varies according to the purity of the  atmospheric air.
  The  nitrous ga.»:,  in  this  experiment, decomposes the
 atmospheric air;  it lakes the oxygen gas from the nitro-
gen gas,  unites with it, and forms nitrous acid.   The ni-
trous gas is therefore left behind ; the heat which is gene-
rated, is  that which kept the gases  in  solution, which is
now  set free.
  vol. i.             8
  If, instead of atmospheric air, oxygen gas is used, this
experiment will be still  more striking, and the gases will
almost entirely disappear.
  Upon this property which nitrogen gas has, of absorbing
the oxygen of the atmosphere, Priestley formed the eudi
ometers, already mentioned.
  Gaseous  oxyd of azote,  or nitrous oxtd.  The
union of azote, or nitrogen and oxygen, which we consider-
ed before under the name of nitrous gas, does not consti-
tute the first degree of oxygenation of nitrogen.  There is
another degree below this.  This was formerly calleddeph-
logisticated nitrous gas, but now gaseous oxyd of nitrogen,
or nitrous oxyd.  It was first discovered by Priestley.
  Professor Davy has examined with great accuracy  the
formation and properties of all  the substances concerned
in its production;  and to him we are indebted for a thor-
ough  knowledge of this gas.  We shall describe its prin-
cipal properties as we find them in his Researches.
  Gaseous  oxyd of nitrogen is a permanent gas.   A cau-
dle burns in it with a brilliant flame and crackling noise :
before its extinction the white inner flame becomes sur-
rounded with  a blue one.  Phosphorus introduced to it
in a state of inflammation burns with increased splendour,
as in oxygen gas.  Sulphur introduced into it when burn-
ing with a feeble blue flame, is extinguished ;  but when in
a state of vivid inflammation it burns  with a rose coloured
flame.   Lighted charcoal burns in it  more  brilliantly than
in atmospheric air.  Iron wire  with a small piece of wood
affixed to it,  and  introduced  inflamed into a vessel filled
with this gas,  burns rapidly, and  throws out bright scin-
tillating sparks.
  Nitrous oxyd is  rapidly absorbed by water which  has
been boiled ;  a quantity of gas equal to rather more than
half the bulk of the  water may be thus made to disap-
pear ;  the water acquires a sweetish taste, but its other
properties do  not differ perceptibly  from  common water.
The whole gas may be  expelled again by heat.   It does
not change blue vegetable colours.   It  has a sweet taste,
and a faint but agreeable odour.
  This gas explodes wifh hydrogen,  when electric sparks
are made to pass through the mixture.
  Animals, when confined wholly in this gas, give no signs
of uneasiness at first, but they soon become restless,  and
then die.
  When it is mingled with atmospheric air, and then re-
ceived into the lungs, it generates highly pleasurable sen-
sations: the effects it produces on the animal system  are
very extraordinary.  It  excites the body to action,  and
rouses the faculties of the mind, inducing a state of great
exhiliration, an irresistible propensity to laughter, a rapid
flow of vivid  ideas, and unusual vigour  and fitness for
muscular exertions,  in some respects resembling the sen-
sations attendant on intoxication, without any languor, de-
pression of spirits, or disagreeable feelings afterward,  but
more  generally followed by vigour,  and a disposition fo
exertion, which gradually subsides.  The  accounts of
these wonderful effects, which, when first announced, were
scarcely credited, have been confirmed by a variety of ex-
periments, so as to be past all kind of doubt.
  This gas is  produced when substances,  having a strong
affinity with oxygen, are added to nitric  acid, or to ni-
trous   gas.   It may therefore be  obtained   by  various
methods, iu whrch nitrous gas or nitric acid is decomposed 
A I R
AIR
by substances  capable of attracting the greater part of
their oxygen.   The  most commodious and expeditious,
as well as the cheapest mode of obtaining it, is by decom-
posing nitrate of ammonia by heat in the following manner:
   Put into a glass retort some  pure  nitrate of ammonia,
and apply to it an Argand's lamp:  the salt will soon lique-
fy, and when it begins  to boil gas will be evolved.  In-
crease the heat gradually, till the body and neck of the
retort become  filled with a milky white vapour.  In this
state the temperature of the fused nitrate is between 340
and 480 degrees.   After the decomposition has proceed-
ed for some minutes, so that  the gas, when examined,
quickly enlarges the flame of a taper, it may be collected
over water.  Care should be taken during the whole proc-
ess  uever to suffer the temperature of the  fused nitrate
to rise above 500 degrees Fahrenheit, which may be easi-
ly judged of from the density of the vapours in the retort,
and from  the quick  ebullition of the fused nitrate ; for if
the heat is increased beyond this point, the vapours in the
retort acquire a reddish and more transparent appearance,
and the fused nitrate begins to rise, and occupy twice the
bulk it did before.   The nitrous oxyd, after its generation,
should stand over water for several hours, and is then fit
for respiration,  or other experiments.
   To experience  its effects  in breathing  it, put about a
gallon into  a large  bladder,  or oiled silk  bag,  having a
tube attached to it of three fourths of an inch in diameter.
First, the common air must  be expelled from the lungs,
before the tube is received into the mouth,  and  the nos-
trils must be accurately closed with the hand.   It must
-then be breathed backward and forward into the bag for a
few minutes.
   Sulphureous acid gas is no where found in a natural
state, and is entirely a production of art.
   It is obtained by exposing to heat in a retort, sulphuric
acid, while it is exercising an action on some combustible
body, such as oil, charcoal, mercury, &c. in a word, on such
bodies as can take up a portion of the oxygen combined
with the sulphur  contained  in that acid.   It is  sulphur
combined with a less quantity of oxygen than that which
is  necessary to make it  sulphuric acid; the combustible
body, therefore, takes a part of its oxygen from the sul-
phuric acid, which, by these means, becomes sulphureous
acid ; and caloric combining with this acid, causes it to as-
sume the gaseous form.   This process requires a mercu-
rial apparatus, because this gas is entirely soluble in water.
   Sulphureous  acid  gas is more than twice as  heavy as
atmospheric air.  It extinguishes burning bodies,  and
suffocates animals immersed  in it.  It first reddens, and
then destroys most of the vegetable colours.  It has the
property of whitening silk, and giving it a lustre.
   Sulphureous acid gas combines with alkalies, and forms
with them neutral salts,  which differ from those produced
by the sulphuric acid and the same alkalies, in their form,
their savour, and particularly their property of being de-
composed  by the weakest acids,  and even the  acetous
acid.
   Muriatic acid gas  is obtained by exposing to heat
fuming muriated acid, put into a retort, the beak of which
is introduced below a bell filled with mercury, and placed
on (he shelf of a mercurial pneumatic apparatus.
   You may obtain it  also with the same apparatus,  if,  in-
stead of muriatic  acid,  you  expose to heat a mixture of
muriate of soda,  or  marine salt and sulphuric acid; the
sulphuric  acid combines with the soda the base ot the
marine  salt, and  the muriatic acid remaining free, passes
into the state of muriatic acid gas.
  Muriatic acid gas is perfectly soluble in water, and in a
very short time.  If you therefore introduce into the bell
in which the gas has been collected,  a small quantity of
water, the  latter, by its relative lightness, will rise to the
surface of the mercury; the gas will be immediately ab-
sorbed entirely, and dissolved in the water;  the mercury
will  ascend toward  the  top of the bell; and the liquor
found above the mercury will be  real muriatic acid, more
highly concentrated, according as there is  more gas and
less water.
  Muriatic acid gas, therefore,  is nothing  else than the
muriatic acid itself deprived of water; that is  to say, as
much concentrated as possible, and combined with caloric,
which causes it to assume the gaseous form.
  Muriatic acid  gas has a  sharp pungent odour.  If a lit-
tle of it is mixed  with  atmospheric air, it  produces, like
the muriatic acid, white fumes or vapours,  occasioned by
the combination of the  gas  with the moisture of the air.  ,
  The base of the muriatic acid gas  i3 strongly combined
with oxygen, for which it has  so great an  affinity, that it
cannot be  separated  from it.  The nature of this base  is
therefore unknown.  Its affinity for oxygen is so strong,
that  it can even  combine itself  with a larger quantity of
oxygen  than is necessary to constitute an acid, and it then
appears in the form of oxygenated muriatic gas.
  This  gas is  much heavier  than atmospheric air.   It
gives the same signs of  acidity as  the muriatic acid itself;
and this indeed ought to be the case, as it is the same sub-
stance.  It reddens blue vegetable colours, but it destroys
neither  them nor any of the other colours,  as the oxyge-
nated muriatic gas does.
  It combines with all the alkaline bases, and forms with
them muriatic salts.  If it is mixed with ammoniacal gas,
it combines with  it, and forms muriate of ammonia.
  It suffocates animals immersed in it, and  extinguishes a
lighted taper ; but it first enlarges its flame,  and makes it
appear of a green or bluish  colour at the edges.
  Oxygenated  muriatic acid gas.  The dephlogisti-
cated muriatic acid of Scheele, under a gaseous form,  is
the muriatic acid gas surcharged with oxygen.
  This  gas is obtained by  exposing  the muriatic acid to
heat and evaporation, whilst it is acting on  a substance
which contains oxygen ; such, for example, as the native
oxyd of manganese: if you therefore  put  black oxyd of
manganese and muriatic acid into a  glass retort, and ex-
pose  them to heat, a strong fermentation will be excited,
during which the  muriatic acid will be converted into gas,
but  surcharged  with oxygen, which  is taken from the
oxyd of the manganese, because it has a greater  affinity
for that substance.
  It may be prepared in the water apparatus, though it  is
absorbable by water, if care is taken to fill the bells or air
jars, completely with the gas, and to leave no water in them.
   Oxygenated  muriatic gas  is  not invisible, like the
other gases;  it is of a greenish yellow colour, which ren-
ders it very perceptible.
  This  gas destroys vegetable colours entirely.  All flow-
ers, and t he green leaves of plants, are rendered white by it,
and alkali is not capable of  restoring their colours. 
AIR BALLOON.
   This effect  can only be ascribed to the absorption of
 oxygen.  This gas, which contains oxygen  in  excess,
 gives up a part, which  vegetable substances absorb with
 avidity,  and by this absorption lose then) colour.   The
 oxygenated muriatic acid gas then becomes converted in-
 to common muriatic acid gas.
   This property has given rise to a new method of bleach-
 ing, which  has proved successful.  The  application  of
 the  oxygenated  muriatic acid,  either  in the gaseous  or
 the  liquid state, has assisted the  process of  whitening
 thread, cotton, linen,  wax, &c. in a  surprising degree,
 and it is now very generally employed for this purpose.
   To  show its effects  in bleaching, suspend  some un-
 bleached calico, or linen, moistened with  water, in a jar
 filled with the gas; the natural colour of  the  cloth will
 soon begin to fade, and at last totally  disappear.   If dif-
 ferent coloured patterns of printed calico are  immersed
 for a few minutes in the gas, their colours will soon be de-
 stroyed, except those which are  yellow.
   Though oxygenated  muriatic acid gas is exceedingly
 noxious to life, it does  not extinguish  combustion.   If a
 burning taper,  fixed to  a wire, is immersed in  it, the ta-
 per burns of a red colour, and more vividly than in atmo-
 spheric air : a greater quantity of smoke is  emitted at the
 same time.
   Fill a  tall receiver,  furnished with a ground stopper,
 with oxygenated muriatic  acid  gas over  water, and let
 fall  into it  copper, in  thin leaves, called Dutch  gold.
 The leaf, before it reaches the bottom of the receiver,
 will burn with a pale green light.
   Gold leaf may be burnt in the same manner.  Copper
 wire, when heated to  redness, also takes fire when intro-
 duced into the gas in that state.
   Fluoric  acid gas.   The radical of fluoric acid gas is
 unknown.  It may be obtained  by decomposing fluate  of
 lime, Derbyshire Bpar, by means of sulphuric acid.   For
 this purpose, put one part of powdered fluate of lime into
 a leaden retort, and pour over it two or three parts of sul-
 phuric acid.   A violent action  ensues, and  fluoric  acid
 gas is  extricated, which must be collected over  mercu-
 ry, either in a leaden or tin vessel, or  in a glass receiver
 covered within with a coat of varnish or wax.   When no
 more gas is produced, the action of the acid must be as-
 sisted by a gentle heat.
   The most remarkable property of this gas is its power
 of dissolving silex: it therefore  dissolves glass crystals,
 and  various precious  stones.  It is heavier than common
 air.  It does not maintain combustion, nor can animals
 breathe it.  It  is absorbed  by water,  and forms with it
 liquid fluoric acid.   It  has a penetrating odour.  It cor-
 rodes animal and vegetable substances.  Light  has no ef-
 fect upon it.  It emits white fumes, when in contact with
 moist atmospheric air.   It reddens blue vegetable colours.
 With ammonia,  it forms a concrete body.   It has no ac-
 tion  upon platina, gold,  silver, mercury, tin, lead, antimo-
 ny, cobalt, nickel, or bismuth;  but it  corrodes iron, ar-
 senic, and manganese.
  The property of dissolving silex has  caused it to be
 applied to etching on glass, which is done either  by means
of the fluoric acid gas, or liquid fluoric acid.
  AIR BALLOON, a general name given to bags  or
other light substances filled with an aerial fluid.   The art
of flying, or of imitating  the feathered tribe, has  long been
the objeot of earnest desire amongst men.  Cars, artificial
birds, wings, and  other mechanisms for flying, generally
absurd, and always insufficient, have frequently been ex
hibited  to  the  undistinguishing eye of the vulgar; but
the strictest inquiry into the accounts of authentic histo-
ry, finds no mention of any success having ever attended
the  attempts of this nature previous to the year 1782.
The recent discoveries made on the nature and proper-
ties of aerial fluids, by the industry of Black, Priestley,
Cavendish,  and others, suggested, some time before the
above mentioned year, the practicability of forming  ma-
chines sufficient to elevate considerable weights into the
regions  of the atmosphere.  Mr. Cavendish  was the first
who ascertained the specific gravity of hydrogen gas, then
called inflammable air, and found it to be a  vast deal light-
er than common air.  His experiments on this subject are
published in the Philosophical Transactions for the year
1766.   In  consequence of  this discovery*, it was natural
to conclude, that if a large bladder, or other envelope,
was filled with hydrogen gas, and that if the weight of the
envelope added to that of the contained gas, was less thau
the weight of an equal bulk of common air, the apparatus
would mount up into the atmosphere, for the same reason,
and  in the same manner,  as a cork would rise from  the
bottom toward the  surface of the sea,  supposing the cork
was left at liberty in the former place.
   Dr. Black of  Edinburgh thought of filling the  allantois
of a calf with hydrogen gas, for the purpose of showing at
his lectures that such a body would ascend into the atmo-
sphere ; but he never put the project to the test of  actual
experience.
   Early in the year 1782, Mr. Cavallo made the first at-
tempts  to  elevate  a bag  full of hydrogen gas  info  the
surrounding air, and an account of his experiments  was
read at a  meeting of the Royal Society on the 20th of
June, 1782.
   The  weight of hydrogen gas,  the mean weight of at-
mospherical air, and the weight of the  substance of  which
the  vessel or bag is to be formed, being ascertained, it is
easy from those particulars to determine  by calculation
the dimensions  of a vessel, which, when filled with hydro-
gen gas, might  be  lighter than an equal bulk of common
air.
   Upon this principle  Mr. Cavallo  tried bladders,  the
thinnest and largest that could be procured.   Some of
them were  cleaned with great care, removing from them
all  the  superfluous  membranes,  and other  matter that
could possibly be  scraped off; but notwithstanding  all
those precautions, he found  the  largest and lightest of
those prepared bladders to  be somewhat too heavy for the
purpose.  Some swimming bladders of fishes were also
found too heavy for the experiment; nor could he even
succeed to make any durable light balls by blowing hydro-
gen  gas into a thick solution of gums,  thick  varnishes,
and  oil paint.   In short, soap balls,  inflated with hydro-
gen gas, were the only things of this sort which he could
elevate in air; and these perhaps were the first air balloons
that  were ever constructed.
   Not long after this, news was received from France of
the success  which had  attended an experiment of  a simi
lar nature made at  Avignon, by Stephen Montgolfier; but
the bag was not filled with hydrogen gas.  It was filled
with air rarefied by heat, which of  course  was  light ci
» '; 
AIR  BALLOON.
 than  an equal bulk of common air of the usual temper-
 ature.
   It  is said  that the  two brothers, Stephen  and John
 Montgolfier, began to think on the experiment of  the ae-
 rostatic machine as early  as the middle or latter end of
 the year 1782.  The natural ascension of smoke, and of
 the  clouds in the atmosphere, suggested  the first idea;
 and to imitate those bodies, or to enclose a cloud in a bag,
 so that the latter might be elevated by the buoyancy of
 the former, was the first project of those celebrated gen-
 tlemen.
   Stephen Montgolfier, the eldest of the  two brothers,
 made  the first aerostatic experiment at Avignon, toward
 the middle of November,  1782.  The machine consisted
 of a bag of fine silk,  in the shape of a parallelopipedon,
 open on one side, the capacity of which was equal to about
 40 cubic feet.  Burning paper,  applied to its aperture,
 served to rarefy the air, or to form the cloud; and, when
 sufficiently expanded, the machine ascended rapidly to
 the ceiling of the room.  Thus the original  discovery was
 made,  which was afterward confirmed, improved, and di-
 versified, by   different persons in different parts of  the
 world.
   As soon as  the news of Mr. Montgolfier's successful ex-
periment reached Paris, the scientific persons of that cap-
ital, justly concluding that a similar experiment  might be
made by filling a bag  with  hydrogen gas, immediately at-
 tempted to verify the supposition.  A subscription for
 defraying the expenses that might attend the accomplish-
 ment of the project, was immediately opened ; persons of
 all ranks ran with eagerness to sign their names, and the
 necessary sum was  speedily raised.  Mess'rs. Roberts
 were appointed to construct the machine, and Mr. Charles,
 professor of experimental  philosophy, was appointed to
 superintend the work.
   The obstacles,  which opposed the accomplishment of
 this first attempt, were many ; but the two  principal diffi-
 culties were to produce a large quantity of hydrogen gas,
 and to find a substance sufficiently light to make the bag
 of, and at  the same  time impermeable to the gas.   At
 last  they constructed a  globular  bag of a sort of silk
 stuff, called lutestring; which, in order to render it im-
 pervious to the gas,  was covered with a certain varnish,
 said  to consist of dissolved elastic gum.   The  diameter
 of this bag, which, from its ball  like shape, was called a
 balloon, and  from this the name air balloons was derived,
 was 12 feet two inches French,  or  about 13 feet English.
 It had only one aperture,  like the neck of a bladder, to
 which a stop  cock was adapted.   The weight of the bal-
 loon,  when empty, together with the stop cock,  was 25
 pounds.
   The attempts to fill this bag commenced on the 23d of
 August,  1783.  But  the  operators met with many diffi-
 culties and disappointments, from inadvertences, want of
 materials, want of precaution, &c. so much so, that the
 accomplishment of the experiment, vis. the actual ascent
 of the balloon, did not take place before the 26th of  the
 same  month.  On the mocning of that day  the inflated
 balloon, having a small cord fastened to its neck, was per-
mitted to rise only to the height of about 100 feet; but at
 five o'clock in the afternoon of the 27th, the balloon was
 disengaged from its fastenings, in the Champ de  Mars, and
 rose  majestically in the atmosphere before the eyes of a
great many thousand  spectators, and amidst a coPIO"s
shower of rain.  In about two minutes time it rose  to tne
height of about 3128 feet.   After remaining in the atmo-
sphere only £ of an hour, this balloon fell in  a field near
Gonesse, a village about 15 miles from Paris.  Its fall was
attributed  to a rupture that  was found  in  it, and  it was
reasonably imagined, that the expansion of the hydrogen
gas, when the balloon had reached a much less dense part
of the atmosphere, had burst it.  When this balloon went
up, it was found upon trial to be 35 pounds lighter than an
equal bulk of common air.
   Thus in the years 1782 and 1783, it was  ascertained
that bags full of hydrogen gas, or of rarefied common air,
either of which is lighter than common air  in its  usual
state, would  ascend into the atmosphere, and that they
might take up considerable weights.
   Soon after the  success of the first  attempt, the Mont-
golfiers repeated the experiment in the open air, and with
bags of different sizes;  but their first grand and public ex-
hibition in the presence of a very  respectable and numer-
ous assembly, was made on the 5th of June, 1783, with an
aerostatic machine or bag that measured 35 feet in diame-
ter.  The machine, inflated  by the rarefied air, ascended
to a considerable height, and then fell at the distance of
7668 feet from the  original place of ascension.   This ex-
periment was described and recorded with great accuracy;
and  accounts of it  were immediately forwarded to the
court of France, to the academy of sciences, and almost
as far as literary and entertaining correspondence  could
reach.   The younger  Montgolfier, arriving at Paris not
long after the above mentioned public exhibition, was in-
vited by the academy of sciences to  repeat his singular
aerostatic experiment; in consequence of which invitation,
that gentleman began  to construct an aerostatic  machine
of about 72 feet in height, at the expense of the academy.
But while this operation was going on, and as a successful
experiment  with an inflammable  air balloon had already
been performed on the 27th of August,  the project of
making balloons became general^ and-those who wished
to make the experiment on the smallest scale soon  calcu-
lated the  necessary particulars, and found that the per-
formance of the experiment was far from being either dif-
ficult or expensive.  The Baron de Beaumanoir, at Paris,
by the suggestion of a  Mr. Deschamps, was  induced to
try gold beater's skin, and soon made  a balloon by  gluing
several pieces of  that skin  together.  This balloon was
no  more than 19 inches in  diameter; it  was of course
easily filled with hydrogen gas ; and on the 11th of Sep-
tember, 1783, it  mounted  with rapidity into the  atmo-
sphere.
   Mr. Montgolfier, having completed his large  balloon,
agreeably to the  desire of the academy, made a private
experiment with it on the 11th of  September, which sue
ceeded.  On the following day another experiment was
made with the same, before the commissaries of the acad-
emy, and a vast number of other spectators ;  but this ex-
periment, in consequence of a \ iolent shower of rain was
attended with partial success : and the aerostat was'con-
siderably damaged.
   A similar  machine was  speedily  constructed bv the
same Mi. Montgolfier, by whom the experiment was ner
formed at  Versailles on the 19th of September, before
the royal family of France, and an innumerable concourse of 
AIR  BALLOON.
 spectators.   The preparation for filling the machine with
 rarefied air consisted of an ample scaffold, raised some feet
 above the ground; in the middle of which there was a
 well  or chimney,  about  16  feet in diameter; in the low-
 er part of which, near the ground the fire was made. The
 aperture of  the balloon was  put round  the chimney or
 well, and the rest of it was laid down over the well and the
 surrounding  scaffold.  A3 soon as  the fire was lighted
 the  machine began to  swell,  acquired a  convex form,
 Btretched itself on every  side, and in 11 minutes time, the
 cords being  cut, the machine ascended, together with  a
 wicker basket or cage, which was fastened to it by means
 of a  rope, and  in which a sheep, a cock, and a duck, had
 been placed.  These were the first animals that ever as-
 cended with  an aerostatic machine.   The apparatus rose
 to the height of about 1,440 feet, and remained in the atmo-
 sphere during eight minutes;  then fell at the distance of
 about 10,200 feet from  Versailles,  with  the animals safe
 in the basket.
   After the success of this experiment with the animals,
 &c. and when ten  months had scarcely elapsed since Mr.
 Montgolfier made  his first experiment of  this sort, Mr.
 Pilatre  de Rozier publicly offered himself to be the first
 adventurer in the newly invented machine.   His offer was
 accepted, his courage remained undaunted, and on the
 15th of October, 1783, he actually ascended into the at-
 mosphere, to the astonishment of a gazing multitude.  The
 balloon  with  which he ascended was of an oval shape, its
 height being about 74, and its horizontal diameter 48 feet.
 The aperture or lower part of the machine had a wicker
 gallery  about three  feet broad, with a balustrade both
 within and without, about three feet  high.   The inner di-
 ameter of this  gallery, and of the  neck  of the machine
 which passed through it,  was nearly  16 feet.  In the mid-
 dle of this aperture an iron grate or brazier was supported
 by means of  chains, which came down from the sides of
 the machine.  In  this construction, when  the machine
 was  up  in  fhe air, with a fire lighted in the grate, it was
 easy for a person who stood  in  the gallery, and had fuel
 with him, to keep up the fire in the opening of the machine,
 by throwing the fuel on the grate through port holes made
 in the neck of the machine ; by  which means the machine
 might be  kept  up as long as  the  person in its gallery
 thought proper, or till he had no fuel to supply the fire with.
   The first aerial voyage with an inflammable air balloon,
 was performed subsequent to the above mentioned  exper-
 iment, vis. on the 1st of December, 1783.   Mr. Charles
 and Mr. Robert, who had constructed a balloon of this sort,
 as has been already mentioned, were the first adventurers.
 The balloon was globular, its diameter being  27£ feet.
 A net went  over  the upper hemisphere, and was fasten-
 ed to a hoop, which went round the middle  of the balloon.
 From this hoop  ropes proceeded, and were fastened to
 a boat which swung a few feet below the balloon.  In order
 to prevent the bursting of the machine by the  expansion
 of the gas in  an elevated  region, a valve was made on the
 upper part of it, which, by pulling a string, would open
 and let out part  of the gas.   There  was  likewise a long
 silken pipe, through which the balloon was filled.
  The apparatus for filling it consisted of several wooden
 casks placed  round a large tub full of water, every one of
which had a long tin tube, which terminated under a ves-
 sel or funnel, that was inverted into the water of the tub.
A tube then proceeded from this funnel, and communi-
cated with the balloon, which stood just over it.   Iron fil-
ings and diluted sulphuric acid were put into fhe casks; and
the gas.  which was extricated from those materials pash
ed through the tin tubes, then through the water of the tub;
and, lastly, through the tube of the funnel into fhe balloon.
See the Plate, fig. 1.
  When Mess'rs. Charles and Robert placed themselves
in the boat,  they had with them proper philosophical in-
struments, provisions, clothing, and some bags full of sand,
by way of ballast.   With this preparation they ascended
at three" quarters after  one o'clock.   At the time  they
went  up, fhe thermometer,  Fahrenheit's scale, stood at
52  degrees, the  mercury in the barometer  stood  at 27
inches, from which they deduced their altitude to be near-
ly 600 yards.   During the rest of their voyage the mer-
cury in the barometer moved generally between 27 inches
and 27,65;  rising and falling  according as part of  the
ballast was thrown out, or some gas escaped from the bal-
loon.   The thermometer stood generally between 53 and
57 degrees.
  Soon after their ascent they remained stationary for a
short  time; they then went horizontally, in  the  direction
of N.N.W. They crossed the Seine, and passed over sev-
eral towns and villages,  to the great astonishment  of the
inhabitants, who did not expect to see such a spectacle,
and who had perhaps never heard of this new sort  of
experiment.  This  delicious aerial voyage  lasted one
hour and three quarters.  At last they descended in a field
near Nesle, a small  town, about  27 miles  distant from
Paris; so that they had gone at the rate of about 15 miles
per hour, without feeling the least inconvenience ; and the
balloon underwent no other  alteration than what was oc-
casioned  by the dilatation and contraction, of the gas, ac-
cording to the vicissitudes of heat  and cold..
  The success  of the  experiments, which have been al-
ready described, spread a universal enthusiasm through-
out Europe;  and the aerostatic experiments,  both in the
diminutive and in the large way, were soon undertaken in
different  countries.  The first experiment  of  this kind
was exhibited in London on the 25th of November,  1783,
when  an inflammable air balloon, 10  feet in diameter, was
sent up by count Zambeccari, an Italian gentleman.   The
first aerial voyage undertaken in England, with an inflamma-
ble air balloon of 33 feet in diameter, made of oil silk, was
performed by Mr. Lunardi, another Italian, on  the 15th of
September, 1784.
  The abbe  Bertholon  seems to have been the  first per-
son who made  use of  small balloons for exploring the
electricity of the atmosphere, which must be  a very use-
ful  method, particularly in calm weather, when electrical
kites  cannot  be raised.  He raised several air  balloons,
to which long and slender wires were attached, the  lower
extremity of the wire being fastened  to a glass stick or
other insulated stand,  whereby he  obtained  from such
wires electricity enough to show its kind, and even sparks.
  On the 13th of January, 1784, an aerostatic machine, of
about 37  feet  in height, and 20  in diameter, was  launched
from the  castle  De Pisancon, near Romans, in Dauphiny.
It rose  with  surprising velocity, and «is  the wind was
north, it  went southward ; but when the machine had as-
cended to the height of about 1300 feet, it went back tow-
ard the north,  and  in less than five minutes  time  it a?- 
AIR BALLOON.
 ended to the height of above 6000 feet.   In less than ten
minutes it fell at the distance of nearly four miles.
  This experiment, and indeed the similar  success  of
many others, shows that there frequently are in the atmo-
sphere currents of air in different, and sometimes quite op-
posite directions; this, however, is  far  from being al-
ways the case.  If different currents could always  be met
with at different  heights above the surface of the earth,
the method of guiding balloons would be extremely easy;
for the aerial traveller would have nothing more to do than
to place himself in the favourable current,  which he
might  do by throwing out  either some ballast or some
inflammable gas, according as he wished to  go higher  or
lower.
  The largest  aerostatic machine ever made, and filled
with rarefied air, was launched at Lyons on the 19th of
January, 1784, with not less than seven persons in its gal-
lery,  amongst whom were Joseph Montgolfier and  Pila-
tre  de Rozier.  The  height of this machine was about
131  feet, and  its horizontal diameter about 104.   Its
weight, when it ascended, including passengers, gallery,
.Sec. was about 1600 pounds.
  This machine,  having suffered considerably in conse-
quence of previous trials, was by no means in a  perfect
state when it ascended ; nevertheless, when the action of
the fire had inflated it, the seven persons, who in spite of
every remonstrance had placed themselves in the gallery,
refusing  to relinquish their places, the  machine was re-
leased from the ropes which confined it, and ascended
majestically into the atmosphere.   At a  certain   height,
the wind turned it toward the west: but it afterward pro-
ceeded east-south-east, ascending at the same time,  until
it was at least 1000 yards high.
  The effect which  was produced on the spectators by
this spectacle is described as the most extraordinary that
was ever occasioned  by any production of human inven-
tion.   It was a  mixture of the strangest nature imaginable.
Vociferations of joy, shrieks of fear, expressions of ap-
plause, the sound of martial  instruments, and the discharge
of mortars, produced an effect more easily imagined than
described.  Some of  the spectators  fell  on their knees,
and others elevated their suppliant hands  to the heavens ;
some women fainted, and many wept; but the confident
travellers,  without  showing the least appearance of  fear,
were continually waving their hats out of the gallery.
  At about fifteen minutes after the ascent, the wind shift-
ed again; but it was so feeble that the machine stood  al-
most stationary for about  four minutes.  Unfortunately
about this time a rent was made in the machine, which oc-
casioned its descent; and  when it came  within 600 feet
of the ground, its velocity was considerably accelerated.
It is said that no less than 60,000 persons, besides the
Marechaussee,  ran to the spot, with the greatest appre-
hension for the  lives of the adventurous aerial travellers.
They were immediately helped out of the gallery, and
luckily no person had received any hurt, except Mr. Mont-
golfier an insignificant scratch.   The machine was torn in
several places,  besides a vertical rent of upward of 50
feet in length, which clearly shows how little danger is to
be apprehended from the use of those machines, espec-
ially when they are properly constructed and judiciously
managed.
  On the 5th of April, 1784, Mess'rs. de Morveau and Ber-
trand, at Dijon, ascended with an inflammable air balloon,
which, according to their barometrical observations, seems
to have reached the extraordinary height of 13,000 feet,
when the cold was so great that the thermometer stood at
25°.
  On the  15th of July, the duke de Chartres, the two
brothers Roberts, and another person, ascended with an
inflammable air balloon,  from the park of St. Cloud, at 52
minutes past seven in the morning.  This balloon was  of
an oblong  form,  its  dimensions being 55 feet by 34.   It
ascended with its greatest  extension nearly horizontal;
and after remaining in  the atmosphere about 45 minutes,
it descended at a small distance from its place of ascension.
But the incidents that occurred  during this aerial excur-
sion deserve particular notice, as nothing like it had hap-
pened before to any of the aerial travellers.  This  ma-
chine contained an interior small balloon, filled with com-
mon air; by which means it was supposed that they might
regulate the ascent and the descent of the machine, with-
out any loss of the hydrogen gas, or of ballast.   The boat-
was furnished  with a helm and oars, that were intended to
guide the machine, but  which were in this, as  well as in
every other similar attempt, found to be quite useless.
  On the level of  the sea, the mercury in the barometer
stood at 30,25 inches,  and at the placo of ascension it
stood at 30,12.   Three minutes after its ascension, the
balloon  was lost in  the clouds, and the aerial voyagers
lost sight of the earth, being involved in  a  dense vapour.
Here an unusual  agitation of the  air, somewhat like a
whirlwind,  in  a  moment turned the machine three timea
from the right to the left.   The violent shocks which the
adventurers suffered, prevented their using any of the means
prepared for the direction of the machine  ; and they even
tore away the silk stuff of which  the helm was  made.
Never, said they, a more dreadful situation presented it-
self to any  eye,  than that  in which they were involved.
An unbounded ocean of shapeless clouds rolled beneath,
and seemed to forbid their return to the earth, which was
still invisible.  The agitation of the balloon became great-
er every moment.   They cut the cords which held the
interior balloon, which consequently fell on the bottom of
the external balloon, just upon the aperture of the tube
tbat went down  to the  boat, and stopped that communi-
cation.  At this time the thermometer  was a little above
44<\  A gust of wind from below drove  the  balloon up-
ward, to the extremity of the vapour, where the appear-
ance of the sun  showed them the existence of nature;
but now both the heat of the sun, and the diminished den-
sity of  the  atmosphere, occasioned such  a dilatation  of
the gas, that the  bursting of the balloon was apprehended;
to avoid which, they introduced a stick through the tube,
and endeavoured  to  remove  the  inner  balloon, which
stopped its aperture within the external balloon • but the
dilatation of the gas pressed the inner balloon  so' forcibly
against that aperture, as to render every attempt ineffect-
ual.  During this time,  they continually ascended, until
 he mercury in the barometer stood not h>her than 24 Ifi
T^A S^ ""T* If1* hdSht above1he earthlo'be
about 5,100 feet.  In these dreadful circumstances they
thought it necessary to  make a hole in  the balloon  in or
der to  give exit to  the gas; and accordingly  the duke 
AIR  BALLOON.
 himself, with one of fhe spears of the banners,  made two
 holes in the balloon, which opened a rent of about seven
 or eight feet.  In consequence of this, they then descend-
 ed rapidly, seeing at first no object either on earth or  in
 the heavens; but  a moment  after,  they discovered the
 fields, and that they were descending straight into  a lake,
 wherein they would inevitably have fallen,  had they not
 quickly thrown over about 60 pounds weight of ballast,
 which occasioned their coming down at  about 30 feet be-
 yond the  edge of  the lake.   Notwithstanding  this rapid
 descent, none of the four adventurers received  any hurt;
 and it  is  remarkable, that out of six glass bottles full  of
 liquor, which were  simply laid down in the boat, one only
 was found broken.
   In the course of the summer of 1784, two persons, vis.
 one in Spain, and another near Philadelphia, in America,
 were very near losing their lives by going up with rarefied
 air  machines.  The  former,  on the 5th of June,  was
 scorched by the machine taking fire, and was hurt  by the
 subsequent fall, so that his life  was long despaired  of.
 The latter, having ascended a few feet, was wafted  by the
 wind against the wall of a house, and some part of the ma-
 chinery was entangled under the eaves, from which he
 could not extricate it.  At last the great ascensional pow-
 er of the machine broke the ropes or chains, and the man
 fell from the height of about 20 feet.  The machine pres-
 ently took fire, and was consumed.
   We shall now relate one of the most remarkable aerial
 voyages that were  ever made with an aerostatic machine.
 It is the crossing of the English channel in an inflammable
 air balloon of 27 feet  diameter.  The adventurer  in this
 dangerous voyage was Mr. Blanchard, an intrepid French-
 man, who had already made five other aerial voyages with
 the very same balloon,  both in France and in England.
 Mr. Blanchard is remarkable for having made  a greater
 number of aerial voyages in England, in France, and else-
 where,  both before and after the crossing of the English
 channel, than any other person recorded in the history  of
 aerostation.  The only trial worth remarking which Mr.
 Blanchard appears to have made in his aerial excursions,
 is the ineffectual use of oars, wings, &c. for directing the
 balloon.  Profit seems  to have been the principal,  if  not
 the sole object of his numerous excursions.
   On Friday the 7th of January, 1785,  being a  fine clear
 morning, after a sharp frosty night, and the wind being
 about N.N. W. though hardly perceptible, Mr. Blanchard,
 accompanied by Dr. Jeffries, an American gentleman,
 departed in the old balloon of 27  feet  diameter,  from Do-
 ver castle,  directing their course for the French  coast.
 Previous to the departure, the balloon, with the  boat con-
 taining the two travellers, several necessaries, and some
 bags of sand for ballast, were placed within two feet of the
 brink of the perpendicular  cliff before the castle.  At
 one  o'clock the intrepid Blanchard desired the  boat, &c.
 to be pushed off; but the weight being too great for  the
 power of the balloon, they were obliged to  throw  out  a
 considerable  quantity of ballast, in consequence of which
1hey at  last rose gently and majestically, though making
 very little way, with  only three bags  of ballast of  ten
pounds  weight each.   At a quarter after one o'clock, the
 barometer, which on the cliff stood at 29,7, was fallen  to
27,3; and  the weather proved fine and  warm.  Dr. Jef-
fries describes  with rapture the  prospect which at this
time was before their eyes.  The country to fhe back of
Dover, interspersed with towns and villages, of which they
could  count 37,  made  a  beautiful appearance.   On the
other side the breakers, on the Goodwin Sands, appeared
formidable.   Upon the  whole, they enjoyed a view per-
haps  more extended  and diversified than was ever be-
held by mortal eye.  The balloon was much distended,
and  at 50 minutes past  one o'clock was descending, in
consequence of which they were obliged to throw out one
bag and a half of sand.   They were at this time about one
third  of the way from  Dover, and had lost distinct sight
of the castle.  Not  long  after,  finding that the balloon
was  descending very fast,  all the remaining ballast was
thrown over, as also a parcel of  books, in consequence of
which the  balloon rose  again.  They were now at about
half way.  At a quarter past two o'clock, the rising of fhe
mercury in  the barometer showed that  they were  de-
scending; inconsequence of. which the remaining books
were thrown into the sea.  At 25 minutes after two, they
were at about three fourths of the way, and an enchanting
view of the French coast appeared before their eyes; but
the lower part of the balloon was collapsed, owing to the
loss or condensation of the gas, and the machine was de-
scending, which obliged them to throw over  provisions
for eating, the oars or wings of the boat, and other arti?
cles.   « We threw away," said Dr. Jeffries,  " our only
bottle, which,  in its descent, cast out a steam like smoke,
with a rushing noise; and when it struck the water, we
heard and felt the shock very perceptibly on our car and
balloon."  But the balloon still approaching the sea, they
began  to strip and cast  away their clothes.  They even
intended to  fasten themselves to the cords, and cut the
boat away,  as their last  resource;  but  at  this critical
point, they had the satisfaction to observe that  they were
rising; their distance from the French shore, which they
were  approaching very  fast, was about four miles.   Fear
was now vanishing apace;  the French land showed itself
every  moment more beautiful,  more  distinct, and more
extended; Calais, and above 20 other towns and villages,
were  clearly  distinguished.  Exactly  at three o'clock
they passed  over the high  grounds about midway between
Cape Blanc and Calais;  and it is remarkable that the bal-
loon at this time rose  very fast, and made a magnificent
arch; probably owing to the heat of the land, which rare-
fied in  some measure the hydrogen gas.  At last they de-
scended as low as the tops  of the trees, in the forest of
Guinnes, and opening the valve for the escape of the gas,
they soon after descended safe to  the ground, after hav-
ing accomplished an enterprise which will probably be re-
corded to the remotest posterity.
  The following is the melancholy account of  an  experi-
ment which was attended with the death of two aerial ad-
venturers, one of whom was Mr. de Rozier, the first person
that ever ascended with  an aerostatic machine.
  Mr.  Pilatre de Rozier, desirous of diversifying and im-
proving the new  method  of travelling  through  the air,
formed a plan of combining the two species of  aerostatic
machines, from which he expected to render  their joint
buoyancy more lasting,  and of course more useful.   His
plan was to place an inflammable  air balloon at top, and to
affix to it by means of ropes, a rarefied air balloon, so that
a space of several feet might intervene between the two.
The passenger or passengers were intended to take their 
AIR BALLOON.
places in  the gallery of the lower machine, whence they
could regulate  the fire, and might  by a proper manage-
ment of the fuel, elevate or depress the whole, without the
necessity of losing any inflammable  gas from the upper
balloon.                               ,
  Accordingly  this plan was put in execution.  The up-
per or inflammable air balloon  was of varnished silk, lined
with a fine membrane, like gold beater's skin.  The other
balloon  was of strong linen.   On the 15th of June,  1785,
at seven o'clock in the morning, every thing being ready,
Mr. Pilatre  de Rozier and a Mr. Romain, placed them-
selves in the gallery  of the balloon, with plenty of fuel,
instruments, and other necessary articles, and  rose in the
atmosphere.  The machine seemed to take the best possi-
ble direction, but the wind being both feeble and shifting,
they  changed their  direction two or  three  times; but
when they were at a considerable height, and not above
£ of a mile from  the place of ascension, the machine ap-
peared to be in flames, and presently the whole was pre-
cipitated down  to the  ground.   The unfortunate adven-
turers were instantly killed,  their bones disjointed and
dreadfully mangled by  the tremendous fall.
  How  this inflammable air took fire, is variously conjec-
tured ; but it is natural to suppose, that the sparks of fire
must have flown from the lower to the upper or inflamma-
ble air  balloon.  On the ground, the bag  of the upper
balloon  was in great measure burned or  scorched ; that of
the lower was entire.
  Omitting  the various uninteresting,  though not nume-
rous aerial voyages  undertaken  in various parts of the
world, during the 17 years subsequent  to the  above men-
tioned dreadful accident of Pilatre de Rozier and Mr.
Romain, we shall only  add the account of  two aerostatic
experiments lately performed in England by Mr. Garne-
rin, a French aeronaut.  The first of these is remarkable
for the  very great velocity of its motion ; the  second for
the exhibition of a mode of leaving the balloon, and of de-
scending with safety to the ground.
   On the 30th of June, 1802, the wind being strong, though
not impetuous, Mr.  Garnerin and  another gentleman as-
cended with an  inflammable air balloon from  Ranelagh
gardens on the southwest  of  London,  between four and
five o'clock in the afternoon; and in exactly three quar-
ters of  an hour (hey descended near the sea, at the dis-
tance of four  miles from  Colchester.   The distance of
that  place  from  Ranelagh is sixty miles: therefore they
travelled at the astonishing rate of 80 miles per hour.  It
seems that the balloon had power enough to keep them up
four or five hours longer, in  which time  they might have
gone safe to the continent;  but prudence induced them
 to descend when they discovered the sea not far off.
   The  singular experiment of  ascending info the atmo-
sphere with an inflammable air balloon, and of descending
with a machine called a parachute, was performed by Mr.
Garnerin on the 21st of September, 1802.  He ascended
from St. George's Parade, North Audley street, and de-
scended  safe into a field near the small pox hospital at
Pancras.
   The  balloon was of the usual sort, viz. of  oiled silk,
with a net, from which  ropes proceeded, which terminated
in or were joined to, a  single rope at a few feet below the
balloon.  To this rope the parachute was fastened in the
following manner.
  The reader may easily form to himself an idea of this
parachute,  by imagining a large  umbrella of canvas  ot
about 30 feet in diameter, but  destitute of the ribs and
handle.  Several ropes of about 30 feet in length, which
proceeded from the edge of the parachute, terminated ma
common joining, from  which shorter ropes proceeded, to
the extremities of which a circular basket was fastened,
and in this basket Mr. Garnerin placed himself.   Now the
single  rope, which has been  said above  to proceed from
the balloon, passed through a hole  in the centre of the
parachute,  also through certain tin tubes,  which were
placed one after the other  in the place of the handle  or
stick of an umbrella, and was lastly fastened  to  the bas-
ket; so that when the balloon was in the air, by cutting
the end of this rope next  to the  basket, the parachute,
with the basket, would be separated from the balloon, and,
in falling downward, would be naturally opened by the
resistance of the air.  The use of fhe tin tubes was to let
the rope slip off with greater certainty, and  to  prevent
its being entangled with any of the other ropes, as also to
keep the parachute at a distance from the basket.
  The balloon  began to be  filled at about two o'clock.
There  were 36  casks filled  with  iron filings  and diluted
sulphuric  acid, for the production  of the hydrogen gas.
These  communicated with  three  other  casks or general
receivers, to each of which was  fixed a tube that emptied
itself into the main tube attached to the balloon.
  At six, the balloon being quite full of gas, and the para-
chute, Sec. being attached to it, Mr. Garnerin placed him-
self in  (he basket, and ascended  majestically  amidst the
acclamations  of innumerable  spectators.  The  weather
was the clearest and pleasantest imaginable; the  wind was
gentle  and about west by south ;  in consequence of which
Mr. Garnerin went in the direction of about east by  north.
In  about eight  minutes time, the balloon and  parachute
had ascended to an immense  height, and Mr.  Garnerin, in
the basket, could scarcely be perceived. While  every
spectator was contemplating  the grand sight before them,
Mr. Garnerin  cut  the  rope, and  in an  instant he was
separated from the balloon, trusting his safety to the para-
chute.
   At first, vis.  before the parachute opened,  he fell with
great velocity;  but as soon as the parachute was expand-
ed, which took place a few moments after, the decent be-
came very gentle and gradual.  In fhis descent a remark*
able circumstance  was observed, namely, that  the para-
chute  with the appendage of cords and basket,  soon be-
gan to vibrate like the pendulum of a clock, and the vibra-
tions were  so  great, that  more  than once fhe parachute,
and the basket with Mr. Garnerin, seemed to  be  on the
same level, or quite horizontal, which appeared extreme-
lydangerous:  however, the  extent of the vibrations di-
minished as he came pretty near the ground.   On coming
to the  earth, Mr. Garnerin experienced some pretty strong
shocks, and when he came out of the basket, he  was much
discomposed ; but  he  soon  recovered his spirits, and re-
mained without any material  hurt.
   As soon as the  parachute  was separated from the bal-
loon, the latter ascended with great rapidity, and, being of
 an oval form, turned itself with its longer axis into an hor-
 izontal position.
   In  July, 1803, Mr. Garnerin  made his  thirty third
 aerial  excursion from  Petersburg, accompanied by Mrs 
AIR
A I R
 Garnerin, and his thirty-fifth from Moscow.  During the lat-
 ter, a huntsman, who spied him, fired at him, which induc-
 ed him to descend.  Omitting to notice several other ae-
 rial voyages undertaken since that time by different aero-
 nauts, several of whom were actuated by a zeal for ex-
 tending  scientific observation;  we will confine ourselves
 to two nocturnal excursions of the same  intrepid Mr.
 Garnerin.  He ascended from Tivoli, at Paris, on the 4th
 of August, 1807, at 11 o'clock in the evening, bearing the
 Russian flag, as a token of the peace that subsisted at that
 time between France  and Russia.   His balloon was illu-
 minated by twenty lamps, placed at such distance as  to ob-
 viate all danger from their communication with the hydro-
 gen gas.   He ascended to the height of 15,000 feet above
 the earth, and descended in seven hours and a half from his
 departure, near Loges, 45 leagues distant from Paris.
   Mr. Garnerin undertook a second nocturnal voyage, on
 the 21st. September,  of the same year,  in the course of
 which he was exposed to the most imminent danger.  Prog-
 nosticating an approaching storm, from the state of the at-
 mosphere, Mr. Garnerin refused to be accompanied, though
 earnestly solicited.   He ascended alone, from Tivoli, at
 10 o'clock, and was carried up with  astonishing rapidity
 to an immense height above the clouds.  The balloon was
 then dilated  to an alarming degree, and Mr. Garnerin hav-
 ing been prevented, by the turbulence of the mob, before
 his ascent, from regulating  those parts  of the  apparatus
 which were meant to conduct the gas away from the lamps
 on its escape, was totally incapable of managing the bal-
 loon.  He had no alternative left, therefore, but with one
 hand to make an opening  two feet  in diameter, through
 which the inflammable air was discharged in great quanti-
 ties; and, with the other, to extinguish  as many of the
 lamps as he could possibly reach.  The aeronaut was now
 without  a regulating  valve; and the balloon,  subject to
 every caprice of the  whirlwind, was tossed about  from
 current to current.   When the storm impelled him down-
 ward, he  was compelled to throw out his ballast, to re-
 store the ascending tendency.  In this forlorn  condition
 fhe  balloon  rose  through thick clouds,  and  afterward
 sunk, and the car, having struck against the ground, with a
 violent  impulse, rebounded  from it to a considerabbj^dti-
 tude. The fury of the  storm dashed him against the moun-
 tains ; and, after many rude agitations and severe  shocks,
 he was reduced to a state of temporary insensibility.   On
 recovering from  his perilous  situation, he reached  Mont
 Tonnerre, in a thunder storm.  A very short time after, his
 anchor hooked in  a tree ; and, in seven hours and a half,
 after a voyage which had nearly proved fatal to him, he
 landed at  the distance of 300 miles from Paris,   (a)
  We shall conclude this  article  with a  description of
 the several figures on the plafe, to  which we have before
 occasionally referred.    Figure 1 represents a balloon D F,
 suspended by means of (he poles G and H, and the  cord,
 for the purpose of being filled with gas.  It is kept steady
 and held down whilst filling by ropes, which are  readily
 disengaged.  A, A, are two fubs about three feet in diam-
eter, and two feet deep, inverted in larger tubs, B, B, full
of water.   At the bottom of each  of the  inverted tubs
there is a  hole, to which is inserted  a tin  lube; to  these
the silken tubes of fhe balloon are tied.  Each of the tubs,
B, is surrounded by several strong casks, so regulated in
number and capacity, as to be less than half full when the
  vol.  i.               0
materials are equally distributed.  In (he top of theo<
casks are two holes; to one of which is adapted a tin tube,
formed  so  as  to pass over the edge of  the tub B, and
through the water, and  to  terminate with  its aperture
under the inverted tub A.  The other hole, which serves
for supplying the cask with materials, is  stopped with a
wooden plug.  When the balloon is to be filled, the com-
mon air is first to be expelled,  then the silken tubes arc
fastened round the tin  ones: the iron filings are to be put
into the casks, then the water, and lastly the sulphuric
acid.  The balloon  will speedily be inflated by the hy-
drogen  gas, and support  itself without the aid of the rope
GH.  As  the filling advances, a net is adjusted about if,
the cords proceeding from the net are fastened to the hoop
M N, the boat I K is suspended from the hoop, and what-
ever is wanted for the  voyage is  deposited  in the boat.
When the  balloon is sufficiently full, the  silken tubes are
separated from  the tin tubes, their extremities are tied,
and they are placed  in the  boat.  When the aeronauts
are seated  in  the boat,  the ropes that held the balloon
down are slipped off, and the machine ascends in the air as
in figure 2.   In figure 3, is a representation of a  part of
Mr. Garnerin's balloon in its ascent, to which  is attached
the parachute, in its contracted state, and below is the
car.  Figure 4, shows  the manner in which Mr. Garnerin
descended  in the car by means of the expanded  parachute,
after he had detached it from the balloon.  In figure 5 is
represented an  apparatus as described by Mr. Cavallo,
for filling balloons of the size of two or three feet in diam-
eter with inflammable air,  after  passing it  through water.
A is a bottle with the ingredients ; B C D  a tube fastened
in the neck at B, and passing through C, the cork of the
other bottle, in which there is a hole made to receive the
tube, and to this the balloon  is tied.  Thus the inflamma-
ble air coming out of the tube D,  will pass first through
the water  of the  bottle E, and then into  the balloon.
Two small  casks may  be used instead of the bottles A
and E.
  To obtain the gas from the coarser kind of materials,
the following apparatus  may be  recommended.  Let a
vessel be made of iron  in  the shape of a  Florence flask,
figure 6. Put the substance into this vessel, so as to fill
about three fourths of its  cavity.  Lute a tube of brass to
the neck C of the vessel, and let the end D of the  tube be
shaped as in the figure, so that  going into  the wafer H I,
it may terminate under a sort of inverted  vessel, E F, to
the upper aperture of  which the balloon  G is adapted.
If now the part A B of the vessel is put into the fire,  and
made red hot, the inflammable air produced will come out
of the tube C D, and passing through the water will at last
enter into the balloon G.
  AIR GUN.   See  Pneumatics.
  AIR  JACKET,  a  sort  of jacket made of leather, in
which are  several bags,  or  bladders, composed  of the
same materials, communicating  with each  other.  These
are filled with air through a leather tube, having a brass
stop cock accurately ground at the extremity, by which
means the air blown in through the tube is confined to the
bladders. The jacket must be wet before  the air is biown
into  the bags, as otherwise it  will immediately escape
through the pores of the leather.  By fhe-help of these blad-
ders,  which are placed near the  breast, fhe person is sup
ported in the water, without  making  any effort to swim. 
AIR
A J U
   AIR  PIPES, an invention for drawing foul air out  of
 Bhips, or any other close places, by means of fire.   These
 pipes were first discovered by a Mr. Sutton, a brewer  in
 London ; and from  him have got the name of Sutton's Air
 pipes.  The principle on which their operation depends
 is no other than that air is necessary for the support  of
 fire ; and,  if it has  not access from the places most adja-
 cent, will not fail to come from those that are more re-
 mote.  Thus, in a common furnace, the air enters through
 the ash hole ; but if this  is closed up, and a hole made  in
 the side  of a furnace, the air will rush in with great vio-
 lence through that hole.  If a  tube of any length whatever
 h inserted in this hole, the air will rush through the tube
 into the fire, and of consequence there will be a continued
 circulation of air in  that place where the extremity of the
 tube  is laid.  Mr.  Sutton's contrivance then amounts to
 this.   As,  in every  ship of any bulk, there is already pro-
 vided a copper or boiling place proportionable to the size
 of (he vessel; it  is proposed to clear the bad air  by means
 of the fire already used under the coppers or boiling places
 for the necessary uses of the ship.   It is well known, that,
 under every such copper or boiler, there are placed two
 holes, separated by a grate;  the first of which  is  for the
 fire, and the other for the ashes falling from it;  and that
 there is also a flue from the fire place upward, by which
 the smoke  of the fire   is  discharged  at some convenient
place of the ship.  It is also well known, that the fire once
lighted in these fire places, is only preserved by the con-
 stant draught of air through these  two holes and flue ; and
that if the holes  are closely stopped up,  the fire, though
burning ever so briskly before, is  immediately put out.
 But if, after shutting up these holes, another hole is open-
 ed, communicating with any other room or airy place, and
 with the  fire, it is clear the fire must burn as before, there
 being a like draught of air through it as there was before
 the stopping up of the  first holes.   It is therefore propos-
 ed, that, in order to clear the holds of ships of the bad air
 contained in them,  the two holes above  mentioned, the
 fire place and ash place, be both closed up with substan-
 tial and  tight iron  doors, and  a copper or leaden pipe, of
 sufficient size, be laid from the hole into the asb place,
 for fhe draught of air to come in that way to feed the fire.
 And thus it seems plain, from what has been already said,
 that there  will be, from the hold, a constant  discharge of
 the air; and consequently, that air,  so discharged, must
 he as constantly supplied by  fresh air down the hatches
 or such other communications as are opened into the hold.
 And if into this principal pipe so laid into  the hold, other
 pipes  are  let  in, communicating respectively either with
 the well or lower decks, it must follow, that part of the
 air consumed in feeding the fire, mustbe respectively drawn
 out of all such places to which the communication shall be
 so made.
   AIR PUMP.  See Pneumatics.
   AIR SHAFTS, among miners, denote holes or aper-
 tures let down from the open air to meet the adits, and fur-
 nish fresh air. Sir Robert Murray describes a method, used
 in the coal mines at Liege, of working mines without air
 shafts.   When the  miners at Mendip have sunk a groove,
 they will not be at the charge of an air shaft till they come
 at ore; and for the  supply of air have boxes of elm exact-
 ly closed, of about  six inches in the clear, by which they
 carry it down about 20 fathoms.   They cut a trench at *
 little distance from (he top of the groove, covering it witn
 turf and rods disposed  to  receive the pipe* which they
 contrive to come  in sideways to their groove, four teet
 from the top, which carries down the air to a great depth.
 When they come  at ore, and need an air shaft, they sink
 it four or five fathoms distant, according to fhe convenience
 of the breadth, and of the same fashion with the groove, to
 draw as well ore as air.
   AIR THREADS, in natural history, a name given to
 the long filaments so frequently  seen in autumn floating
 about in the air.   These threads  are the work of spiders,
 especially of that species called the long legged field spi-
 der.  See  Aranea.
  AIR TRUNK, is a contrivance by Dr. Hales to pre-
 vent the stagnation of  putrid  effluvia in jails and other
 places where a great number of  people are  crowded to-
 gether, in a small space.   It consists only of a long square
 trunk,  open at  both ends; one  of which is inserted into
 the ceiling  of the room, the air of which is required to be
 kept pure; and the other extends a good way  beyond
 the roof.  The putrid effluvia, therefore, being lighter thao
 the pure air of fhe atmosphere, ascend, or are forced by it,
 through the trunk, and carried clear away.  The reason
 why vapours of this kind ascend more swiftly through a
 long trunk than a short one, is, that the pressure  of fluids
 is always according to  their different depth, without re-
gard to the diameter of their basis, or of the vessel which
contains them;  and, upon this principle,  a gallon of wa-
 ter may be made to split a strong cask.  When the column
 of putrid effluvia is long and narrow,  the difference be-
 tween  the  column of atmosphere pressing on fhe upper
 end of the trunk, and (hat which presses on the lower end,
 is much greater than  if the column of putrid effluvia was
 short and wide, and consequently the ascent  is  much
 swifter.  One pan of  a  single pair of scales, which was
 two inches  in diameter,  being  held within one of these
 trunks over the house of commons, (he force of the ascend-
 ing air made it rise so as  to require four grains to restore
 the equilibrium, and this when there was no person in the
 house; but  when  it was full, no less than twelve grains
 were requisite to restore  the equilibrium.
  AIR VESSELS are  spiral ducts in the leaves, &c. of
 plants, supposed to be  analogous to the lungs of animals,
 in supplying the different parts of a plant with air.  See
 Physiology of Plants.
  AITONIA, so named  in honour of Mr.  Aiton, his maj-
 esty's  gardener  at Kew, a genus of the class and  order
 monodelphia octandria.   The essential character is, style
 1, calyx four parted, corolla  four petalled; berry  dry,
 quadrangular, one celled, many seeded.
  There is but one species, a shrub found  at the Cape of
 Good Hope.  The segments of the calyx and the petals
 are red ; the fruit is also  red and  large.   It must  be kept
 in a good green house, or a moderate stove.
  A JUG A, Bugle, a  genus of the gymnospermia order,
 and didynamia class of plants; and in the natural method
 ranking under the 42d order, Asperifoliaj.  The characters
 are,  the calyx is a short  perianthium, monophyllous and
 persistent; the corolla is monopetalousand grinning- the
 stamina consist of four erect subulated filaments • the an-
 therae are dimidiated;  the pistillum has a four cleft ger- 
ALA
ALA
 men, a filiform stylus, and two slender stigmata;  there
 is  no  pericarpium ;  the calyx converging, and containing
 the seeds in its bosom:  the  seeds are four and oblong.
 There are six species, the principal of which are :
   1. A jug a genevensis, with woolly leaves and  hairy
 cups, a native of Switzerland, and of the southern parts of
 Europe.
   2. Ajuga orientalis, with inverted flowers, is  a na-
 tive of the East.
   3. Ajuga pyramidalis, or mountain bugle, with a
 square pyramidal spike and  blue flowers, a native of Swe-
 den, Germany, Switzerland  and England.
   4. Ajuga reptans, common or pasture bugle,  with
 creeping suckers, and blue, red, or white blossoms, a native
 of the southern parts of Europe, and is met with in woods
 and moist places in many parts of Britain.  The roots are
 astringent, and strike a black colour with vitriol of iron.
   AJUTAGE, or Adjutage, a sort of tube, fitted to the
 mouth, or aperture of the vessel, through which the water
 of a fountain  is to be played,  and  by it  determined into
 different figures.  It is indeed chiefly the diversity in the
 ajutages that constitutes the different kinds  of fountains.
 And hence, by having several adjutages to be supplied  oc-
 casionally, one fountain comes to have the effect of many.
 See Hydraulics.
   AIZOON, a genus  of the pentagynia order, and icos-
 andria class of plants, and in the natural method ranking
 under  the 13th order, succulentae.  The characters are:
 the calyx is a single leaved perianthium, divided into five
 segments, and persistent:  there is no corolla: the stamina
 consist of very numerous capillary  filaments; the anthe-
 rae are simple: the pistillum has a five cornered germen
 above, with five simple styli; and the stigmata are simple:
 (he pericarpium is a bellied, refuse, five cornered capsule,
 having five cells and five valves ; the seeds are many and
 globular.   There are ten species, of which,
   1. Aizoon Canariense, a native of the Canary islands.
   2. Aizoon Hispanicum,  a native of Spain ; and,
   3. Aizoon  Paniculatum,  a native of the Cape of
 Good Hope ; are the principal.   They may all be raised in
 this country in hot beds;  but they are not remarkable ei-
 ther for beauty or any other property.
   AKOND, an  officer of justice in  Persia, who takes
 cognisance of the causes of orphans  and widows, of con-
 tracts  and other civil concerns.  He is the head of the
 school of  law, and gives lectures to all the subaltern offi-
 cers.  He has  his deputies in all  the  courts of the  king-
 dom, who, with the second sadra, make all contracts.
   AL, an Arabic particle prefixed to words, and signify-
 ing much  the  same  with  the  English particle the:  thus
 they say,  alkermes, alkoran,  &c. i.e.  the kermes, the ko-
 ran, &c.
   ALA,  in botany, is used for the hollow of a stalk,
 which either the leaf, or the pedicle  of the  leaf, makes
 with it; or it is  that hollow turning, or sinus, placed be-
 tween the stalk or branch of a plant  and the leaf, whence
 a new offspring usually issues.   Sometimes it is  used  for
 those parts of leaves otherwise called lobes, or wings.
   ALABARDA, the name  of a spear anciently used by
 the Helvetians  and Germans.
   ALABASTER, in natural  history, a  species of that
genus of stones whose base is calcareous earth.  It differs
from marble in being combined, not  with the aerial, but
                    9 *
 with sulphuric acid; therefore when mixed with any acid,
 no effervescence appears.  It is soluble in about 500  times
 its weight of water at the temperature of 60.   It is fusible
 alone in a long continued porcelain heat, or by the blow
 pipe.   Specific  gravity 1.87.   Texture  granular,  with
 shining particles.  In composition, and consequently in its
 chymical properties, it does not differ from gypsum, selen-
 ite, or plaster of Paris.   The fineness and clearness of this
 stone render it in some measure transparent; whence it has
 been sometimes employed for windows. There is a church
 at Florence still illuminated, instead of panes of glass, by
 slabs of alabaster near 15 feet high, each of which forms a
 single window, through which the light is conveyed. The
 countries in Europe which abound most in alabaster are
 Germany, toward Coblentz; the province of  Maconnois,
 in the neighbourhood of Cluni in  France; Italy toward
 Rome, where that of Montaiout is particularly remarkable
 not only for its whiteness, but  also for the  size of its
 blocks,  some of which are so large, that statues as big as
 the life may be easily cut out of them.  A new manufac-
 ture of basso relievos, from a  singular species of factitious
 alabaster, was some time ago established by Mr. Letapie,
 at the baths of St. Philip  in  Tuscany.   The stream at
 these baths deposites a peculiar kind of sand, which, when
 collected and condensed in the cavities of any body em-
 ployed  to oppose its current, acquires the nature, hard-
 ness,  and colour, of alabaster, and assumes the forms  of
 those cavities in which it is thus lodged.  There are three
 species  of alabaster, vis.
   1. Alabaster,  the  snow white shining, or lygdi-
 num of  the ancients.  2. The variegated, yellow and
 reddish.  This species is the common  alabaster of the an-
 cients.   3. The yellowish, or phengites of Pliny,  is
 found in Greece, Germany,  France, and Derbyshire in
 England.  The alabasters are frequently used by statua-
 ries for  small statues, vases, and columns.  After being
 calcined and mixed with water,  they  may be cast in any
 mould like plaster of Paris.   See Gypsum and Miner-
 alogy.
   AhJE, in anatomy, a term applied  to the lobes of the
 liver, the cartilages of the  nostril, and sometimes to the
 armpits.
   Alm,  in  botany, the plural of Ala,  is used to signify
those petals of leaves of papilionaceous flowers, placed be-
tween those  others which are called the vexillum and ca-
 rina, and which  form the top and bottom of the  flowers.
 Instances of flowers of this structure are seen in those of
peas and beans, in which the top leaf or petal is the  vex-
illum, the bottom the  carina, and  the side ones the alaj.
Ala? is also applied  to those extremely slender and mem-
branaceous parts of some seeds  which appear as wings
placed on them; and likewise signifies those  membrana-
ceous expansions running along the stems of some plants,
 which are therefore called alated  stalks.
   ALAMODE, in  commerce, a thin glossy black  silk,
chiefly used for women's hoods and men's mourning scarfs,
commonly called mode.
   ALARAF,  in the Mahometan theology, the partition
wall that separates heaven from hell.
   ALARES,  in antiquity, are supposed by some authors
 to have  been a kind of militia or soldiers among the Ro-
 mans ; so called  from ala, a wing, because of  their  light
 ness and swiftness in the combat.  Others make them  a 
ALA
ALA
 people of Pannonia; but others,  with more  probability,
 take alarts  for an adjective, or epithet, and apply it to
 the Roman cavalry, because placed in two wings, or ala, of
 the army ; for which reason a body of horse was called ala.
   ALASCANI,  in church history,  a sect of antiluther-
 ans,  whose  distinguishing tenet,  besides their denying
 baptism, is said to have been this, that the words, This is
 my body, in  the institution of the eucbarist, are not to be
 understood of the bread, but of the whole action or cele-
 bration of the supper.
   ALAUDA Lark, in ornithology, a  genus of birds of
 the order of passeres ;  the  characters of which are, that
 the beak is  cylindrical, subulate, and straight, bending
 toward the  point; the mandibles are of equal size and
 opening downward at their base; the tongue is  bifid; and
 the hinder claw is straighter and longer than the toe.
   1. A. arvensis, the sky lark, the  specific characters of
 which are, that the two outermost quills of its tail are white
 lengthwise externally,  and the intermediate ones are fer-
 ruginous on the inside; the length is  about seven inches.
 The males of this species are somewhat browner than the
 females: they have a black collar, and more white on the
 tail; their size  is  larger, and their  aspect bolder; and
 they exclusively possess the faculty  of  singing.  When
 the female is impregnated,  she forms her nest between
 two clods of  earth, and lines it with herbs and dry roots,
 being no less attentive  to  the concealment than to  (he
 structure of it.  It sometimes builds its  nest among corn
 and in high grass.  Each female lays four or  five eggs,
 which  are grayish,  with brown spots ; and the period of
 her incubation is about 15 days.  The young may be
 taken out of the nest when they are a fortnight old,  and
 they are so  hardy that (hey may be easily brought  up.
 Some have said that she hatches three times in the year ;
 but this  must depend on the temperature of the climate.
 The parent is very tender of her young; and though  she
 does not always cover  them with her wings,  she directs
 their motions, supplies their wants, and guards them from
 danger. The  common food  of  the  young sky larks is
 worms, caterpillars, ant's eggs, and  even grasshoppers;
 and in maturity, they live chiefly on  seeds, herbage, and
 all vegetable  substances.  Those birds, it is said, that are
 destined for singing, should be caught in October  or  No-
 vember; and the males should, as much as possible, be se-
 lected : and  when they are  untractable they should be
 pinioned, lest  they injure  themselves by their violence
 against the roof of the  cage.   As they  cannot cling by
 the toes,  it  is  needless to place bars across their cage;
 but  they should have clean sand at  the bottom of  the
 cage, that they may welter in  it, and be relieved from  the
 vermin which torment them.
   The  lark is found in all the inhabited parts of both conti-
 nents, as far as the Cape of Good Hope ;  though Villault
 says  that it is not found  on the Gold coast; nor, according
 to Averroes,  in Andalusia.
   This bird,  and the wood lark, are the only birds which
 sing  whilst they fly.   The  higher  it  soars, the more it
 strains  its voice, and lowers  it till  it quite dies away in
 descending.  When it  ascends beyond our sight, its mu-
sic is distinctly heard; and its song, which is full of swells
and  falls, and thus delightful  for its variety, commences
before the earliest dawn.
   In a state of freedom, the lark begins its song early in the
spring, which is its  season  of pairing,  and continues 10
warble during the whole of (he summer.              ,
   2. A. pratensis, the tit lark, of which the specific char-
acters are, that  above it is greenish brown ; its two outer-
most tail quills are externally white, and it has a white line
on its eyebrows.  This bird is of an elegant slender shape,
five inches and a half long; its bill is black ; the  back and
head of a  greenish brown, spotted with black ; the throat
and lower part of the belly are white; the breast yellow,
marked with oblong spots of black;  the tail is dusky : the
exterior feather is varied by a bar of white, which  runs
across the end and  takes in  the whole outmost web ; the
claw on the hind toe is very long, and the feet yellowish.
The male has in general more yellow than the female, on
the throat, breast,  legs, and feet.  The tit lark is found
generally  in meadows and low marshy grounds ;  and, like
other larks, it makes its  nest among the grass, and lays
five or six eggs, which are roundish, of a dusky red col-
our, with many small spots.  While  the female  batches,
the male  sits on a  neighbouring tree, and rises  at times,
singing and clapping his  wings.   It feeds chiefly on the
worms and insects which it finds in new  ploughed lands;
and it will live for a long time on no other food than  small
seeds.  Like the wood lark, it sits on trees ; but it is flush-
ed at the least noise, and shoots with a rapid flight: it has
a very remarkable  fine  note, singing in all situations; on
trees, on the ground, while it is sporting in the air, and par*
ticularly in its descent.
   3. A. arborea, the wood lark of English writers, is  spe-
cifically characterized by a white annular  belt, encircling
its head.   This bird is smaller than the sky lark, and of*
shorter thicker  form ; the colours of the  plumage are pal-
er ; the first feather of the  wing is shorter than the sec-
ond ;  the  hind claw is  very  long and somewhat  bent; it
perches on trees; it haunts the uncultivated tracts  near
copses, without penetrating the woods, whence its name ;
its song resembles  more the  warble of the nightingale, or
the whistling of the black bird, than that  of the sky lark;
its note being less sonorous and less varied, though not less
sweet;  and it is heard not  only in  the  day but in the
night, both when it  flies and when it sits on a bough.
   This bird builds on  the ground, and  forms its nest on
the outside with moss, and on the inside with dried bents,
lined with a few hairs, and conceals it with a turf; and the
situation it selects is ground where the grass is rank, or be-
come brown.  It  lays four or five  eggs, which are dusky
and blotched with deep brown; its fecundity is inferior to
that of the sky lark, and its numbers are  not so  great: it
breeds earlier, since its young are sometimes flown in the
middle of  March, and therefore they pair in February, at
which time, and not before, they part with their last year's
brood;  whereas, the common lark does not hatch before
the month of May.   This  is  a very tender and delicate
bird ; so that it is impossible  to rear the  young taken out
of the nest ; but this is the case only in England  and  such
cold climates, for ,n Italythey are removed from  the nest,
and reared at first  .ke  the nightingale, and afterward fed
upon panic and millet.  The wood lark feeds on beetles,
caterpillars, and  seeds :  its tongue is forked; its stomach
muScU|ar  and fleshy ; and it  has no craw, but a moderate
dilatation of the lower part of the oesophagus; and  its
caeca 
ALA
ALB
 are very small.  It lives ten or twelve years.   The males
 are distinguished from the females by their larger size; the
 crown of the head is also of a darker colour, and the hind
 nail longer; its breast is more spotted, and its great wing
 quills edged with olive, which in the female is gray.  The
 wood lark mounts high, warbling its notes, and hovering
 in the air;  it flies in flocks during the  winter colds; it is
 found in Sweden and Italy,  and  is probably dispersed
 through the intervening countries, and  consequently over
 the greatest part of Europe.  It is also found in Siberia,
 as far as Kamtschatka, and in the island of Madeira.
   4. A. campestris, the meadow lark, is rather larger than
 the tit  lark, being six  inches and  a half in  length.  Its
 specific characters are,  that its tail quills are brown; the
 lower half,  except two intermediate  quills, white; the
 throat and breast yellow.   According  to Willughby, the
 meadow lark differs from the other larks by the blackness
 of its bill and feet; he adds, that its bill  is slender, straight,
 and pointed, and the corners of its mouth edged with yel-
 low ;  that it has not, like the wood lark, the first quills of
 the wings shorter than  the succeeding; and that  in the
 male  the  wings are rather darker than in  the  female.
 Though the males are hardly  to be distinguished from the
 females by their external appearance, yet if another male
 is presented, shut  up in a cage, they will instantly attack
 it as an enemy or a rival.  This bird has a slenderer body
 than  the  sky lark, and is  distinguished from it by the
 shake of its  tail, like that of the wagtail  and  tit lark.  It
 inhabits heaths and uncultivated tracts, and frequently the
 oat stubble,  after  the corn  is reaped, where birds of this
 species  gather  together in  numerous flocks.   In spring,
 the male perches to discover or woo his  mate, and some-
 times he mounts into the air, singing with all his might,
 and then descends quickly to pair on the ground.  When
 a person approaches the nest, the female betrays her fears
 by her cries; whereas, other larks are silent and unmoved,
 when danger is  apprehended.  They make their nest
 close to the ground, sometimes in furze bushes, and form
 it of moss, lined with straw and horse hair.
  5. A. trivialis, is distinguished by brown tail quills, the
 outermost half white, the  second white at its wedgelike
 tip, with a double  whitish  line on  the  wings.  The Ger-
 man epithet piep, and the English pippit, formed from the
 Latin pipio, which signifies to utter a feeble  cry like
 chickens, alludes  to the sibilous notes of this bird.  Its
 cry, especially in winter, is like that of the grasshopper,
 but stronger and shriller,  and it utters  this, both when
 perched on  the tallest  branches among the  bushes, and
 when it is  on the wing.  Its tones are soft,  harmonious,
 and  clear.   This  little bird  builds its  nest in solitary
 spots, concealed under a turf, and its young are frequent-
 ly a  prey  to the adders.    It lays five eggs, of a light
 grass green  colour, thinly sprinkled with deeper coloured
 specks.  The grasshopper  larks appear in England about
 the middle of September, and great numbers of them are
 caught in the environs of London.
  6.  A. cristata, is distinguished by black  tail quills, the
 two outermost white at their exterior edge, its head crest-
 ed, and  its  feet black.  Its length is about  six inches and
 three quarters.   It lives in  the meadows and fields, on the
sides  of ditches, and the backs of furrows :  it  is often seen
 at the margin of water, and on  the high roads, rarely in
 the skirts of woods, perched on a tree, and sometimes on
the tops of houses, and of abbeys, &c.  This lark, though
not so common as the sky lark, is found in most parts of
Europe,  in  Italy, France, Germany, Poland, Denmark,
Russia, Scotland, and does not change its abode in winter.
The song of the  males is loud, and yet mellow and pleas-
ant; and  their warbling is  usually  accompanied with a
quivering of the wings.
  The crested lark  is the only one that may be instruct-
ed ; in a month it learns many airs perfectly, which it re-
peats without  confusion, and retains nothing of its native
warble; and in these particulars it is superior to  the ca-
nary.
  The other species are, the alauda rufa, capensis, calan-
dra, alpestris, magna, minor, italica, ludoviciana, rubra,
mosellana, malabarica, gingica, tartarica, mutabilis, nemo-
rosa,  undata,  senegalensis,  testacea, lusitana, africana,
cinerea,  Novae Zeelandiae,  mongolica, sibirica, flava,  ob-
scura, most of them foreign birds.   In all, 33 species.
  ALBARIUM  opus,  in  the  ancient  building,  the  in-
crustation or covering of the roofs of houses with white
plaster,  made  of mere lime.  This is  otherwise called
opus album.  It  differs from tectorium, which is a com-
mon name given to all roofing or ceiling, including  even
that formed  of lime and sand, or lime and marble ;  where-
as albarium was restrained to that made of lime alone.
  ALBATROSSE.   See Diomedea.
  ALBE, a  small piece of money,  current  in Germany,
worth only a French  sol and seven deniers.
  ALBERNUO, a  kind  of camblet, brought from the
Levant by the way of Marseilles.
  ALBERTUS, a gold coin, worth about 14 French li-
vres :  it was coined during the administration of Albertus,
archduke of Austria.
  ALBIGENSES, in church history, a party of reform-
ers  about Toulouse and  the Albigeois in Languedoc, who
sprung up in the twelfth century, and distinguished them-
selves by their opposition to the  discipline and ceremo-
nies of the church of Rome.  This sect had their name,
it is supposed,  either because there were great numbers
of them  in  the diocese of Albi, or because they  were
condemned by a council held in that city.  In fact it does
not appear that they  were known by  this name before the
holding of that council.  The albigenses were also called
albiani,  albigesei, albii,  and albanensts, though  some
distinguish these last  from them.   The albigenses, by the
truth of their doctrines, and their vigour and energy in
propagating  them, became so formidable, that the  papists
agreed upon a holy league or crusade against them.   Th« v
were at first supported  by Raimond, count of Toulousv.
Pope Innocent III. desirous to put a stop to their progress,
sent a legale into  (heir country,  which failing, he  stirred
up Philip Augustus, king of France, and  the other  princes
and great men  of  the kingdom, to make  war upon them.
Upon this,  the count  of Toulouse, who had support-
ed them, made his submission to  the pope, and went over
to the Catholics; but soon after, finding  himself  plun-
dered by the crusaders, he declared war atruinst them, and
was joined by the king of  Arragon.  His army  wa3 de-
feated at the siege of Muret, where he himself was killed,
and the defeat followed by the  surrender of the citv of
Toulouse, and  the conquest of fhe greatest part of Lan-
guedoc and Provence.   His son Rainaond succeeded him ;
who agreed  with  the king and the pope to  establish the 
ALB
ALB
 inquisition in his estates, and to extirpate the Albigenses.
 In an assembly held at  Milan, the archbishop of Toulouse
 drew up articles; agreeable to which the count made a
 most ample declaration against them, which he published
 at Toulouse  in 1253.   From this  time the  Albigenses
 dwindled by little and  little, till the  times of the reforma-
 tion ; when such of them as were left fell in with the Vau-
 doN, and became conformable  to the doctrine of Zuingli-
 us and the discipline of Geneva.
   Albigenses is also a name sometimes given to the fol-
 lowers of Peter Vaud, or Waldo; and hence synony-
 mous with Waldenses, or poor  men of Lyons.  In this
 sense the word is  applied by Camerarius, Thuanus, and
 several other  writers.   The reason  seems to be, that the
 two parties agreed in their opposition to the papal innova-
 tions and encroachments,  though in  many other respects
 different.   The bishop of  Meaux labours hard to support
 a distinction between the two sects, alleging, that the Al-
 bigenses were heretics  and  Manichees ;  whereas  the
 Waldenses were only  schismatics, not  heretics,  being
 sound as to articles of faith, and only separating from the
 church of Rome on account of forms and discipline.  Dr.
Allix endeavours to  set aside the distinction;  and shows,
that  both of them held  the same opinions, and were equal-
ly condemned  and  held for heretics ; and this not  for
points of faith, but for declaiming against the papal tyran-
ny and idolatry, and  holding the pope to be the antichrist;
which last,  according to the bishop of Meaux,  constitutes
 little  less than Manicheism.   In this sense  the Lollards
 and Wickliffites in England were not only Albigenses but
 Manichees.
   ALBINOS, the name by which the Portuguese call the
 white moors, who are looked upon by the negroes as mon-
 sters.  They at a distance might be taken for Europeans;
 but,  upon  a near inspection,  their  white colour appears
 like that of persons affected with a leprosy.  In Saussure's
 Voyages dans les Alpes, is the following account of two
 boys, at Chamouni,  who have been called albinos: " The
 elder, who  was at the end of the year 1785 about twenty
 or twenty-one year3 of age, had a dull look, with lips some-
 what thick, but nothing else in his features to distinguish
 him  from other people.  The other,  who  is  two years
 younger, is rather a more agreeable figure :  he is gay and
 sprightly, and seems not to want wit.  But their eyes are
 not blue; the  iris is of a  very distinct rose colour:  the
 pupil too,  when viewed in the  light,  seems  decidedly
 red: which seems to demonstrate, that the interior  mem-
 branes are  deprived of the uvea,  and of that black mu-
 cous matter that should line them.  Their hair, their eye-
 brows, and  eye lashes, the down upon their skin, were all,
 in their infancy, of  the most perfect milk white colour,
 and very fine;  but their hair is now of a reddish cast, and
 has grown  pretty strong.   I am therefore of opinion that
 we may consider these two lads as true albinos: for if
they have not the thick lips and flat noses of  the  white
 negroes,  it is  because  they are albinos of Europe, not of
Africa.   This infirmity affects the eyes, the complexion,
and the colour of the hair;  it even diminishes the strength,
but does not  alter the conformation of  the features.  Be-
sides, there are certainly in this malady  various degrees :
some may have less strength,  and be less able to endure
the light: but these  circumstances in those of  Chamouni
are marked with characters sufficiently strong to entitle
them to the unhappy advantage of being classed with th
variety of the human species denominated albinos.
   ALBORAK,  amongst  the  Mahometan writers,  tne
beast on which Mahomet rode  in  his journies to heaven.
The Arab commentators give many fables concerning this
extraordinary vehicle.  It  is represented as of an  inter-
mediate shape and size between  an ass  and a mule.   A
place, it seems, was secured for it in paradise at the inter-
cession of Mahomet; which, however, was in  some meas-
ure extorted from  the prophet by Alborak's refusing to
let him mount him when the angel Gabriel was  come to
conduct him to heaven.
   ALBUCA, a genus of the hexandria  monogynia class
and order.   The essential  character is, corolla six petal-
led, inner ones difform, stamina  three of the six castrated
stigma, surrounded by six carps.  There are eight species,
rather tender,  but  may be  kept in  winter in a garden
frame.
   ALBUGINEA,  in anatomy, the outermost  coat or teg-
ument of the eye, otherwise  called adnata and conjunc-
tiva.
   ALBUGO, or Leucoma, is defined by physicians to
be a distemper occasioned  by a white opaque spot grow-
ing on the corner of the eye, and obstructing vision.  See
Medicine.
   ALBULA, in ichthyology,  a  genus  of fishes of the
truttaceous kind, having no teeth.  The principal specie!
are,                                                  >
   1.  Albula  indica, a small  fish  resembling  a  herring,
caught about the shores of  the East Indies, and called by
the Dutch the wit fish.
   2.  Albula  nobilis, a truttaceous fish  caught in great
plenty in the lakes of Germany and other places.
   Albula, in natural history, mineral waters of an alumi-
nous kind ;  hence endowed with an astringent quality, and
of use in wounds.
   ALBUMEN.  The eggs of fowls contain   two very
different substances : a yellow oily like matter, called the
yolk,  and a colourless glossy viscid liquid, distinguished
by the name of white.  This last is the substance which
chymists have  agreed  to  denominate  albumen.  The
white of an egg, however,  is not  pure albumen.  It con-
tains, combined, with it, some soda and some sulphur : but
as albumen is never found  except  combined  with  these
bodies, and as no method is known of separating it without
at the same time altering  the properties of  the albumen,
chymists are obliged to examine  it while in combination
with these bodies.
   Albumen  dissolves readily in  water, and the solution
has the property of giving a green colour to  vegetable
blues,  in consequence of  the  soda  which it contains.
When albumen is heated to  the  temperature  of  165°  it
coagulates  into a white solid mass; the consistency'of
which, when other  things  are  equal, depends,  in  some
measure, on the  time during which the heat was applied.
rhe coagulated  mass has precisely the same weight that
it  had while fluid.   This  property of coagulating  when
heated is  characteristic of albumen, and distinguishes it
trom other bodies.                            °

fllThr!.aS^10f1CuOagU,atew albumen is <luite Afferent from
that of liquid albumen; its  appearance, too, and its nron-
erties, are entirely changed ; for it is no longer soluble  a<
before, either in hot or in cold water.                ' 
                       ALB
                                                  J>
  The coagulation of albumen takes place even though
air is completely excluded;  and even when air is present,
there is no absorption of it, nor does albumen in coagulat-
ing change its volume.   Acids have the property of co-
agulating albumen, as  Scheele ascertained.  Alcohol also
produces, in some measure, the same effect.   Heat, then,
acids and alcohol, are the agents which may be employed
to coagulate albumen.
  Scheele and Fourcroy have ascribed the coagulation of
albumen to the addition of a new substance.   According
to Scheele, caloric  is  the  substance which is added.
Fourcroy, on the contrary, affirms that it is oxygen.
  Albumen then is capable of existing in two states; the
one before it has been coagulated, and  the other after it
has undergone coagulation.   Its  properties are  very dif-
ferent  in each.   It will be proper, therefore,  to  consider
them separately.
   1. Albumen, in  its natural state or uncoagulated, is a
glary  liquid,  having  little taste, and no smell.   When
dried spontaneously, or  in a low heat, it becomes  a brittle,
transparent, glassy  like substance,  which, when spread
thin upon plain surfaces, forms  a varnish, and is accord-
ingly employed by bookbinders for thai purpose.  When
thus dried, it  has a considerable resemblance to  gum-ara-
bic, to which also its taste is similar.  The  white of an
egg loses about four 5ths of its weight in drying.   It is still
soluble in water, and forms the same glary liquid as before.
 ' Uncoagulated albumen soon putrefies unless it  is dried;
in which state it does not undergo any change.
   2. When albumen is coagulated either by heat, alcohol,
or acids, it is an opaque substance of a pearl white colour,
tough, and of a sweetish mucilaginous  taste.  It  is no
longer soluble in water, and is not nearly so susceptible of
decomposition  as  uncoagulated  albumen.  Mr. Hatchet
kept it for a month under water, and yet it did not become
putrid.  If is to the experiments of this ingenious  chym-
ist that we are indebted for  almost every thing at present
known relative to  coagulated albumen.  By  drying it  in
the temperature of 212°, he converted it into  a brittle,
hard, yellow substance, semi-transparent like horn.
   These  properties  indicate  sufficiently that coagulated
albumen is a very different substance from uncoagulated
albumen.  During  the coagulation its component parts
must arrange themselves differently.
   From the effects of nitric  acid on albumen and its prod-
ucts,  when subjected  to destructive distillation, it has
been concluded that it consists of carbon, hydrogen, azote,
and oxygen, in unknown proportions.   As it yields more
azotic  gas to nitric acid, it has been considered as contain-
ing more of that principle than  gelatine.   It  is obvious,
however, that it does not differ  much from that body, as
nitric acid spontaneously converts it into gelatine.   Albu-
men forms the membranous parls of many shells, sponges,
&c.  It is, in short, one of (he most important and general
animal substances.
   The property which  albumen has of being coagulated
by heat renders it a very useful  substance for clarifying
fluids.  See Thompson's Chymislry.
   Albumen, vegetable.  This  substance was discovered
by Fourcroy.  who observed that the clarification of the
expressed juices of  antiscorbutic plants  was effected by
the spontaneous coagulation of their colouring matter,  at
the temperature of boiling water, on which account he was
                       A L C

led to examine  whether this property did not depend on
the presence of albumen.   He obtained the juice of two
pounds of young cresses, and filtered it while cold through
blotting paper,  and thus separated the grosser parts of the
colouring fecula; the liquor was still of a bright green, and
upon being exposed in a broad shallow vessel  to the air at
the temperature of 80° Fahrenheit, in  two hours it be-
came turbid,  and  deposited green matter, becoming itself
almost colourless; in this state it was exposed to the heat
of boiling  water,  and in a few minutes  there  separated a
quantity of whitish flocculent matter.  Another portion of
the same liquor exposed to the air,  deposited, at  the end
of two days,  a similar coagulum; and the same effect was
produced  on a  third portion by the addition of sulphuric
acid.  This substance exhibited all the properties of an
imal albumen.
  Albumen  has since been found  in the roots of  various
vegetables; also in wheat, and the farinaceous seeds; and
in general in all the green and succulent plants.  The acid
pulp of  fruits are  totally destitute of this substance, but
they abound with jelly; and it is supposed  that, in all
these cases, there is a conversion of albumen into jelly, by
the gradual evolution of the acid, and fixation  of oxygen.
  ALBURNUM, the soft white substance found  in trees
between the liber, or inner bark, and the true wood, and
which, in process of  time, is itself converted into that sub-
stance.  It  is  found in the  largest quantities in  trees
which are vigorous.  In an  oak of six inches in diameter
(his substance is nearly equal  in bulk to the wood.   In a
trunk of one foot diameter,  it is as one to three and a half;
of (wo and a  half feet diameter, as one to four and a half,.
&c. but these proportions vary  according to the health
and constitution of the trees.  The alburnum is frequent-
ly gnawed in pieces  by insects,  which lodge in this sub-
stance, and are  nourished from it.
   ALCA, or Auk, in ornithology, a genus of the  order of
anseres.  The  beak  of this genus is without teeth,  short,
convex, compressed, and frequently furrowed transverse-
ly : the inferior mandible  is gibbous near the  base; the
feet have generally three toes.  There are 12 species of
the alca, of which the most remarkable are,
   1.  Alca  alle, the little auk, or black and white diver,
with a smooth conical bill, a white streak  on the belly and
wings, and black  feet.  The size of Ibis species  exceeds
not that of a blackbird.  It is not very common in En-
gland.  It seems to be most plentiful  toward the north,
being met with in various parts as far as Spitzbergen.  It
is common in Greenland, in company with the black billed
species ;  feeds on the same food; and lays two bluish
eggs, larger than those of  a pigeon.  It flies quick, and
dives well; and is always dipping its bill into the water,
while swimming or at rest  on the water.   It grows fat in
the stormy  season,  from  the waves bringing plenty of
crabs and small  fish within its reach :  but from its size it
is less sought after  than the others.   In Greenland it  is
called  the  ice bird, being (he  harbinger of ice.   This
species is sometimes seen of a pure white.
   2.  A. Arctica,  known  in England by the  name of
puffin.   See Plate  Nat.  Hist.  fig. 8.   These birds are
 found upon  several of the rocky  coasts in  England,  in
 Ireland, North Britain, Iceland,  and Greenland.  They
 frequent  Carolina in America during  winter, and have
 been met with in Sandwich sound, where the natives or- 
                       A L C

nament the fore parts  and collar of their seal skin jacket
witn the be-fcs of them.   On  the coast of Kamtschatka,
and the Koriie i>'«nds, the inhabitants  wear the bills of
the artica about iheir necks, and their priests put them on
with a proper ceremony, in order to procure good fortune.
They arrive at their breeding places here about the first
week in May,  and endeavour  to  dislodge the rabbits to
sa*e the  troiible of making holes for themselves.  The
female lays bui one egg, and the young are hatched in  the
beginning of July, and about the middle of August they
take their flight.   The young  that are late hatched,  be-
come the prey of falcons, &c.   Notwithstanding their neg-
lect of the young at this  time, on every  other occasion
they are very attentive to them.  They will suffer them-
selves  lo  be taken  by the hand, and use every means of
defence in their power to save them;  and if held by the
wings,  will tear  their bodies, as if actuated by despair,
and  when released,  instead of flying away,  will hurry
again into the burrow to their young.
  3. Alca cirrhata, so called by Dr. Pallas, or tufted
auk, is somewhat bigger than the common puffin, and  the
colours much  the same: the  bill is  an inch and three
quarters in  length,  the same in depth at the base,  and
crossed with three  furrows:  over each eye arises a  tuft
of feathers four inches in  length, which falls elegantly on
each side of the neck, reaching almost to the back;  and
white as far as they are  attached to the head, but after-
ward of a fine buff yellow ; the legs are of a  bright red ;
the claws black.   The female is principally distinguished
by having the bill crossed only with two furrows instead
of three.  This species inhabits the shores of Kamtschat-
ka, the Kurile islands, and  those  intervening between
Kamtschatka and America.   In manners it greatly resem-
bles the puffin; living all day at sea, but at no great  dis-
tance from the rocks; it comes on  shore at  night;  bur-
rows a yard deep under  ground, and makes a nest  with
feathers and sea plants ;  is monogamous,  and lodges there
the whole night with  its  mate.   It lays one white egg in
the  end of  May or beginning of June, which alone is
thought fit to be eaten, the  flesh of the bird itself being
insipid and hard.   It  feeds on crabs, shrimps, and shell
fish, which  last  it forces  from the rocks with its strong
bill.
   4. Alca  impennis, the northern penguin, or great auk,
with a compressed  bill, furrowed on  each side, and an
oval spot on each side of the eyes.  According to  Mr.
Martin, this bird breeds on the isle of St. Kilda; appear-
ing there the beginning of May, and retiring the middle of
June.   It lays one  egg, which  is  six  inches long,  of a
white colour; some are  irregularly marked with purplish
lines crossing each other: if the egg is taken away, it
will not lay  another that season.  The length of this bird,
to the  end of its toes, is  three feet; but its wings are so
small,  as to be useless for flight; the length, from the tip
of the  longest quill  feathers  to the first joint, being  only
four inches and a quarter.   This bird is observed by  sea-
men never to  wander beyond  soundings; and according
to its appearance  (hey direct  their measures, being then
assured that land is  net very remote.   It walks ill;  but
dives well, and is taken  in the manner used for the razor
bill and puffin.  The skin between the jaws is blown  into
a bladder, and used for the darts of  the Greenlanders, as
is also that of some other birds.
                       A  LC

  3. Alca pica, or black billed auk, has the bill of the
same form with the torda, but is entirely  blacK.   nr.
Pennant observes, that it is sometimes found on our coasts;
but, according to Mr. Latham, it is in the winter season on-
ly, when the common sort has quitted them. They are said
to be met with on the coast of Candia, and other parts of
the Mediterranean.
  6. Alca psittacula, or perroquet auk of  Dr. Pallas,
is about the size of the little auk.  The bill is much com-
pressed on the sides, in shape convex  both above and be-
low, and of a bright red colour : from the remote corner
of each eye is a very slender tuft of fine  white  feathers,
hanging down the neck.  This  species is found at Kamts-
chatka, in the  isles toward Japan,  and on the  western
shores  of  America.  They are sometimes seen  in flocks,
but seldom far from land, except  when driven by storms.
During night they harbour in the crevices of rocks.   About
the middle of June they lay an egg,  almost the size of a
hen's, of a dirty white  or yellowish  colour, spotted with
brown, upon the bare rock,  or sand, for they make no neat.
Like most of the tribe, they are stupid birds, as is evinced
by  the method of  catching them.   One of the natives
places  himself under a loose garment of fur, of a particu-
lar make, with large open  sleeves, among  the  rocks  at
evening ;  when the birds, returning to  their lodging placet
at dusk, run under  the skirts, and up the arm holes, for
shelter during the  night, and thus become an easy prey.
Their stupidity likewise appears from their flying aboard
ships, mistaking them for roosting places.
  7. Alca torda, or the  razor bill, with four furrows on
the bill, and a white line on each side running  from the
bill to the eyes.   These birds, in company with  the guil-
lemot,  appear in our seas the beginning of February, but
do not settle  on their breeding places  till they begin to
lay, about the beginning  of May.   They  inhabit the
ledges of the highest rocks that impend over  (he sea,
where  they form a grotesque appearance ;  sitting close
together,  and in rows one above another.  They proper-
ly lay but one egg apiece, of an extraordinary  size for the
bulk of (he bird, being (hree inches long ;  i( is either white
or of a pale sea green, irregularly spotted with black.  If
this egg is destroyed, both  the auk and the guillemot will
lay another:  if that is taken, (hen a third: (hey make no
nest, depositing their egg  on the bare rock; and though
such multitudes lay contiguous, by a wonderful  instinct
each distinguishes its own.   What is  also matter of great
amazement, they fix their egg on  the smooth rock with so
exact  a  balance,  as to secure  it from  rolling  off; yet
should it be removed, and  then attempted to be  replaced
by the human hand, it is extremely difficult, if not impos-
sible, to  find its  former equilibrium.  According to Mr.
Latham,  it is by means of a cement (hat the bird fixes
its egg.
  ALCAIC, in ancient poetry, a denomination  given  to
several kinds of verse, from Alcaeus, their inventor.  1.
1 he first kind consists of  five feet,  vis. a spondee,  or
iambic; an iambic ; a caesura, and two dactyles  ; such is
tne following  verse ot Horace :

       Eheu! | fuga | ces,  | Postume, I Postume,
       Labnn tur an ni! | nee pie | tas raoram.
  2. The second kind  consists of two  dactyles and two
IrOCuCcS Z 39) 
AL C
A L  C
           Afferet, | indom | taeque J morti.

  3. Besides these two, which are called dactylic Alcaics,
there is another styled simply  Alcaic; consisting of an
epitrite, two choriambus, and a bacchius:  the  following
is of this species.

  Cur timet fla | vum Tiberim |  tangere, cur [ olivum?

  ALCAID,  Alcayde, or Alcalde, in  the  polity of
the Moors, Spaniards, and Portuguese, a  magistrate, or
officer of justice, answering  nearly  to the office of the
British justice of peace.  The  alcaid among the Moors
is  invested with the supreme jurisdiction, both in civil
and criminal cases.
  ALCANNA, in commerce, a  cosmetic powder prepar-
ed  from the leaves of the  Egyptian privet.  It is much
used by the Turkish  women to give  a golden  colour to
their nails  and hair.  There is also an oil extracted from
the berries of alcanna, and used in medicine as a quiescent.
  ALCANTARA, the  knights of,  a military order of
Spain, which took its name from (he above mentioned
city.   They make a very considerable figure in the his-
tory of the expeditions against the Moors.   After the ex-
pulsion of  the  Moors, and the  taking of  Granada, the
sovereignty of the  order of Alcantara and that of  Cala-
trava was settled in the crown of  Castile by Ferdinand
and Isabella.  In 1540  the knights of Alcantara sued for
leave to marry, which was granted  them.
  ALCAVALA, in  the Spanish  finances, was at first a
tax of 10 per cent, afterward of 14  per  cent, but is at
present of only 6 per cent,  upon the sale of every sort of
property, whether moveable or immoveable ; and it  is re-
peated every time the property  is  sold.  The levying of
this tax requires a multitude of revenue officers sufficient
to guard  the transportation of goods, not  only from one
province to another, but  from one shop to another.  It is
to  the alcavala, accordingly,  that Ultaritz imputes the
ruin of the manufactures of Spain.
  ALCEA, the Hollyhock :  a  genus of the polyan-
dria order, belonging to the monodelphia class of plants ;
and in the natural  method  ranking under the 37th order,
columniferse.  The characters are :  the calyx is a double
perianthium, monopbylions and  persistent; the exterior
one six cleft, the interior half five cleft: the corolla con-
sists of five petals, coalesced at the base, heart shaped in-
versely, and expanding:  the stamina consist of  numerous
filaments, coalesced below into a five cornered  cylinder,
loose  above, and inserted  into the corolla; the antherae
are  kidney shaped : the  pistillum has a roundish germen ;
a short cylindric stylus  ; and numerous bristly stigmata
the  length of the stylus : the pericarpium consists of many
arilli, jointed into a verticillum about a columnar depress-
ed receptacle; the seeds are solitary, reniform, and de-
pressed.   There are three species,  the  alcea ficifolia,
rosea, and africana.
  ALCEDO, or Kingfisher, in ornithology, a genus
of  (he order of  picae.  The  alcedo  has a long, straight,
(hick,  triangular bill; with a fleshy, plain, short, flat
tongue.   Of this genus there are many species, with one
or other of which  almost  every, part  of the world is fur-
nished.   Most of them  frequent rivers, and live on fish,
the  singularity of  catching which is admirable: some-
times hovering over the  water, where a  shoal of small
  vol. i.              10
fishes is  seen playing near the surface; at other  times
waiting with attention, on some low branch hanging over
the water, for the approach of a single fish which is so un-
lucky as  to swim that way; in either case dropping  like a
stone, or rather darting with  rapidity on  its prey ; when,
seizing it crosswise in its bill, it retires to a resting  place
to feast on it; which it  does piecemeal, bones and all,
without  reserve,  afterward  bringing up  the  indigestible
parts in pellets, like birds of prey.  The wings of  most of
the genus  are very short; yet the birds fly rapidly and
with great strength.  It may be remarked, that through-
out this genus, blue, in different shades, is the most pre-
dominant colour.   There are above 30 species of this ge-
nus, of which the following are the most remarkable, vis.
See Plate Nat. Hist. fig. 9 and 10.
   1. Alcedo galbula,  or green jacamar, is about the
size of a  lark.  The bill is black, of a square form, a little
incurvated and sharp at the point; the plumage, in gener-
al, in the upper part of the  body, is of a  most brilliant
green, glossed with copper and gold in  different lights.
This  species is found both in Guiana and Brazil, in the
moist woods, which it prefers to the more dry spots, for
the sake of insects, on which  it feeds.   Though  these
birds are solitary,  yet they are far from scarce, as many
may be  met with.  They are said  to  have a short and
agreeable note.
   2. Alcedo ispida, or common kingfisher, is not much
larger  than a swallow; its shape is clumsy; the bill dis-
proportionably long, it is  two inches  from the base to the
tip, the  upper chap black, and the  lower yellow.   But
the colours of this  bird atone for its inelegant form: the
crown of the head and the coverts of the wings are of a
deep blackish green, spotted with bright azure; the back
and tail are of the most resplendent azure;  the whole un-
der side of the body is orange coloured;  a broad mark  of
the same passes from the bill beyond  the eyes.   From the
diminutive size, the slender short legs, and the beautiful
colours of this bird, no person would be led to suppose it
one of the most rapacious little  animals that skims the
deep.  M. D'Aubenton  has  kept these birds  for several
months,  by means of small fish put into basins of water, on
which they have fed ; for on experiment  they have refus-
ed all other kinds of nourishment.
   3. Alcedo Paradise a, or paradise jacamar, is of the
same size  with the former,  and  has a similar bill; the
throat, fore part of the neck, and under wing coverts, are
white; the rest of the plumage is of a deep dull green, in
some lights appearing almost black, in others with a slight
gloss of  violet and copper bronze.   It inhabifs Surinam ;
and like (he galbula it feeds  on  insects; and  sometimes
frequents open places.   It  flies further  at a time, and
perches  on the tops of trees: it is frequently found with
a companion, not  being  quite so solitary  a  bird as the
other.
   4. Alcedo rudis, or Egyptian kingfisher, is  fhe size
of the Royston crow.  The bill  is  blackish, more than
half an inch broad at the base, and  two  inches in length ;
the head,  shoulders, and back,  are brown, marked with
oblong  ferruginous spots; the  throat is  of a  ferruginous
white;  the belly and thighs are whitish, marked with
longitudinal broadish cinereous spots;  fhe upper  tail cov-
erts quite white; the quills spotted with white on the  in-
ner webs,  chiefly at the  tips ; the tail  is ash coloured; 
                       A L C

the legs are of a pale green ; and the claws blackish.  It
inhabits  lower Egyp*» about Cairo; builds in sycamore
and  date trees; and feeds  on frogs, insects, and small
fish, which last  it meets with in the fields when they are
overflowed.
  5. Alcedo taparara of Buffon is about the size of  a
starling:  the hind part of the neck, the back, and scapu-
lars, are of  an  elegant  blue; the  rump, and  upper tail
coverts bright beryl  blue;  (he under parts of the body
are white ;  the wing coverts blue ;  and  the legs red.  In-
habits Cayenne and Guiana.
  6. Alcedo toro.uata, or cinereous kingfisher, is about
the size of a magpie.  The bill is three inches and a half long,
and brown;  the head  is crested;  the upper parts of the
head and body  are  bluish ash; the under parts chesnut;
the throat is whitish, descending down the neck, and pass-
ing behind like a collar, ending toward the back in a point;
the under tail coverts are of a pale fulvous, transversely
striated with black ; lesser wing coverts varied with blu-
ish, ash, black, and yellowish. It inhabits Martinico and
Mexico.
  ALCHEMILLA, or Ladies Mantle, a genus of the
monogynia order, and tetandria class of plant;  and in the
natural method ranking under the 35th order,  Senticosae.
The essential character is calyx 8 cleft, corolla none, seed
one.  There are 4 species, the principal are :
  1. Alchemilla  alpina,  or cinque  foil ladies mantle.
It is  a  native  of  the mountainous parts of Europe.
Goats and cows eat it; horses, sheep, and swine, refuse it.
  2. Alchemilla minor, or least ladies mantle. It grows
naturally in Sweden, Lapland, and other cold countries.
  3. Alchemilla vulgaris, or common ladies mantle,
with leaves plaited like a fan, and yellowish green blos-
soms.  It grows naturally in pasture lands in Ibis as in
most other countries in Europe.  The leaves discover to
the taste a moderate astringency ; and were formerly
much esteemed in some female weaknesses, and in fluxes
of  the body.  They are now rarely made use of,  though
both the leaves and roots might possibly  be of service in
cases where mild astringents are required.
  ALCHORNIA,  a genus  of the dioecia monodelphia
class and order.  The essential character is, male,  calyx
three, five  leaved; corolla none: female,calyx five tooth-
ed,  corolla none,  styli two  parted,  capsule berried, de-
corous.  There is one species of which little seems to be
known in this country.
  ALCHYMY, from al, the, Arab, and X>jjui#, chymistry,
that obsolete branch of chymistry  which had  for its prin-
cipal objects the transmutation of metals into gold ; the
panacea, or  universal remedy ; an alkahest, or universal
menstruum  ; an universal  ferment ;  and many other
things equally ridiculous.
  ALCOHOL, or Alkool, in chymistry, is used for any
highly rectified  spirit.  Alcohol is extremely light and
inflammable, is a strong antiseptic, and  therefore  employ-
ed to preserve animal substances.   See Chymistry.
  Alcohol, ardent  spirit.   The  term alcohol is applied
by modern  chymists to the  purely spirituous part of all
liquors that have undergone  the  vinous fermentation.   It
is certain, that the method of procuring ardent spirits by
distillation was known in the dark ages ;  and it is more than
probable that it was  practised in the north of Europe
much earlier.
                       A L  C

  Ardent spirits,  such as brandy, for instance, rura *nd
whisky,  consist almost entirely of  three  ^S^"1®""*
water, alcohol, or spirit of wine, to  which they owe  ineir
strength,  and a small  quantity of a  peculiar oil,  irom
which they derive their flavour.
  When these spirituous liquors are  distilled in a water
bath, the first portion that comes over is a fine light trans-
parent liquid, known in commerce by the name of rectifi-
ed spirits, and commonly sold under the denomination of
alcohol or spirit of wine.  It b not, however, as strong al
possible, still containing a considerable portion of water.
This water may be separated, and the alcohol obtained as
pure as possible, by the following process: Saturate the
spirit with a quantity of carbonate of potash, which has
just immediately before been  exposed for  about half an
hour in a crucible to a red heat, in order to deprive it of
moisture.   Carbonate of  potash in this state has a strong
attraction for water; it accordingly  combines with the
water of the spirit; and the solution of carbonate of potarit
thus formed sinks to the bottom of the vessel, and the al-
cohol, which is lighter,  swims over  it, and may easily be
decanted off; or, what is  perhaps better, the solution of
potash may be drawn off from below it by means of a stop
cock placed  at the bottom  of the vessel.   The  alcohol,
thus  obtained, contains a little pure potash  dissolved,
which may be separated  by distilling it in  a water bath
with a very small  heat.  The alcohol  passes over, and
leaves the potash behind.   It is proper not to distill to
dryness.
  Alcohol is a transparent liquor, colourless like water,
of a pleasant smell, and a strong, penetrating, agreeable
taste.   When swallowed it produces  intoxication.
  It  is exceedingly fluid,  and has  never been  frozen,
though  it has been exposed  to a cold so great that the
thermometer stood at—69°.
  Its specific gravity, when  pure, is only 0.800 ; but it is
seldom  obtained so low.   The specific gravity of alcohol,
as highly rectified  as possible, is 0.820;  that of the  alco-
hol of commerce is seldom less than 0.8371.  It is almost
unnecessary  to  remark, that  the diminution of  specific
gravity is always proportional to the purity of the alcohol.
  Alcohol is exceedingly  volatile, boiling at the tempera-
ture of 176° ; in which heat it assumes the form of an elas-
tic  fluid,  capable  of resisting  the pressure of the atmo-
sphere, but which  condenses a?ain into alcohol when that
temperature  is reduced.  In a vacuum it boils at 56°, and
exhibits the same phenomena;  so that was it not  for the
pressure of the atmosphere, alcohol would always exist in
th« form of an elastic fluid, as transparent and invisible as
common air.   It is exceedingly combustible; and when
set on fire,  it burns all away with a  blue flame,  without
leaving any residuum.  Boerhaave  observed, that when
the vapour which escapes during this combustion is col-
lected in proper  vessels, it is found to consist of nothing
but water.  Junker had made the same remark ; and Dr.
Black suspected, from his own observations, that'the quan-
tity of  water obtained, if properly collected, exceeded
(he  weight of the alcohol consumed.   This observation
was confirmed  by Lavoisier; who found that the water
produced during the combustion of  alcohol exceeded the
alcohol consumed  by about one-seventh part.
  Different  opinions were enter(ained by chymists about
the nature of alcohol; but Lavoisier was the first who at- 
A L  C
AL C
tempted to analyze it.  From his experiments it follows,
that 76.7083 grains of alcohol, consumed during the com-
bustion, were composed of
                  22.840 carooo
                   6.030 hydrogen
                  47.830 water
76.7
    Such were the consequences which Mr. Lavoisier drew
 from  his  analysis.  He acknowledged, however, that
 there were  two sources of uncertainty, which rendered
 his conclusions not altogether to be depended upon. The
 first was, that  he had no method of determining the quan-
 tity of alcohol  consumed,  except by the  difference of
 weight in the lara,p before and after combustion; and that
 therefore a quantity  migljit have evaporated without com-
 bustion, which, however, would he taken into the sum of
 the alcohol  consumed.   But this error could not  have
 been great; for if  a considerable quantity of alcohol had
 existed in the  state of vapour in the vessel, an explosion
 would certainly have taken  place.   The other source of
 error was, that  the quantity of water was not known by
 actual weight,  but by calculation.
   That alcohol contains oxygen,  has been  proved  hy a
 very ingenious set  of experiments performed by Mess'rs
 Fourcroy and  Vauquelin.  When equal parts of  it and
 sulphuric acid  are mixed together, the sulphuric acid suf-
 fers no change; hut the alcohol is  decomposed,  being
 partly converted info water and partly into  ether.   Now
 it is evident that the alcohol could not have been convert-
 ed into water unless it bad contained  oxygen.
   When alcohol, in the state of vapour, is  made to pass
 through a red  hot  porcelain tube, it is decomposed com-
 pletely.   Carbureted hydrogen gas and carbonic acid gas
 are disengaged ; water passes into the receiver, and on its
 inner surface are deposited a number of small brilliant
 crystals, which Vauquelin ascertained to be a concrete
 volatile pil.  The inside of the volatile tube is coated with
 charcoal in the state of a fine black.  This experiment
 was first made by Priestley;  but it was afterward repeat-
 ed with more care, and the nature of the products ascer-
 tained by the Dutch chymists.
   Alcohol has  a strong affinity for water, and is miscible
 with it in every proportion.  The specific gravity varies
 according  to the proportion of the two liquids combined;
 but, as happens in almost all combinations, the specific
 gravity is always greater than the mean of the two liquids ;
 consequently there is a mutual penetration: and as this
 penetration or condensation  varies also  with the propor-
 tions, it is evident that the specific gravity of  different
 mixtures of alcohol and water can only be ascertained by
 experiment.  As the spirituous liquors of commerce are
 merely mixtures of alcohol and water in different propor-
 tions, and  as their strength can only  be ascertained with
 precision by means of (heir specific gravity,  it becomes a
point of very great importance to determine with precision
the proportion of alcohol contained in a spirit of a given
specific gravity: and as the specific gravity varies with
the temperature, it is necessary to make an allowance for
that likewise.
  The importance of this object, both for the purposes of
revenue and  commerce, induced the  British government
to  employ sir Charles Blagden to institute a  very minute
               10*
 and accurate series of experiments.   An account of these
 was published by Blagden in the Philosophical Transac-
 tions for 1790; and a set  of tables, exhibiting the result
 of them, was drawn up by Mr. Gilpin, who had performed
 the experiments, and published in the Philosophical Trans-
 actions for 1794.
   The following little table constructed from Dr. Thom-
 son's  experiments will  enable the reader to ascertain  the
 proportion of  real  alcohol and water in mixtures.  Sup-
 pose alcohol at 0.800 to be pure; then alcohol of 0.813 is
 composed of 100 alcohol + 2 water.
 0818...........100 + 4
 0.825...........1004- 7.53  or
                                              93+ 7.
   Alcohol has no action upon sulphur while solid;  but
 when these two bodies  are brought together both  in  the
 state of vapour, they combine and form a reddish sulphu-
 ret, which exhales the odour of sulphurated hydrogen gas.
 This compound contains about 60 parts of alcohol and one
 part of sulphur.  The  sulphur is precipitated by water.
 Alcohol dissolves also  a little phosphorus when assisted
 by heat.   This phosphorized  alcohol exhales  the odour
 of phosphurated hydrogen gas.  When a  little of it is
 dropped into a glass of water, a flame instantly makes  its
 appearance,  and waves beautifully on the surface  of the
 water.  This  phenomenon, which is occasioned by the
 emission of a little  phosphurated hydrogen gas, can only
 be observed  when the experiment is performed in  a dark
 room.
   Alcohol has  no action upon charcoal, hydrogen gas,
 azotic gas, the metals, nor upon any of the metallic oxides.
   Alcohol dissolves the fixed alkalies vepy  readily,  and
 forms with them a reddish coloured acrid'solution.  It is
 from this solution only that these  alkalies can be obtained
 in a state of purity. When heat is applied to it, the al-
 cohol is partly  decomposed ;  but  the nature of the prod-
 ucts has  not been  accurately ascertained.   Ammonia
 also combines with alcohol  with  the  assistance of heat:
 but at a temperature somewhat belew  the boiling point  of
 alcohol, the ammonia flies off in the state of gas, carrying
 with it, however, a little alcohol in solution.
   None of the earths are acted upon by alcohol.   It ab-
 sorbs about its own weight of nitrous gas, which cannot af-
 terward be expelled by  heat.
   Sulphuric  acid, nitric acid, and oxymuriatic acid, de-
 compose alcohol; but all the other acids are soluble in it,
 except  the metallic  acids, phosphoric acid, and perhaps
 also prussic acid.
  Alcohol  is capable of dissolving a great many  saline
bodies.  A considerable number of these, with the quan-
tities soluble,  is  exhibited in the following tables :

      1. Substances  dissolved in large quantities.
Names of the substances.
Oxysulphate of iron
Nitrate of cobalt  .  ,
        copper .  .  .
        alumina  .  .
        lime . .  .  ,
        magnesia   ,
Tem-
pera-
ture.
54.5
54.5
54.5

180.5
240 parts of
alcohol dis-
solve
240
240
240
300
694
parts 
A  L C
Names of the substances.
Tem-
pera-
ture.
240  parts of
  alcohol, dis-
  solve.
Muriat of zinc .  .
        alumina
        magnesia
        iron .  .
        copper.
Acetat of lead . .
 54.5
 54.5
180.5
180.5
180.5
113
 240 parts
 240
1313
 240
 240
        copper ........
Nitrat of zinc decomposed
         iron decomposed
         bismuth decomposed

     2. Substances dissolved in small quantitits.
Names of the substances.
Muriat of lime   .   .
Nitrat of ammonia   .
Oxymuriat of mercury
Succinic acid .  .   .
Acetat of soda  .   .
Nitrat  of silver  .   .
Refined sugar .  .   .
Boracic acid  .  .   .
Nitrat  of soda .  .   .
Acetat of copper .   .
Muriat of ammonia  .
Arseniat of potash
Superoxalat of potash
Nitrat  of potash  .  .
Muriat of potash .  .
Arseniat of soda .  .
White oxide of arsenic
Tartrat of potash .  .
Nitrat of lead .  .  .
Carbonat of ammonia
240 parts of alco-
  hol, at the boil-
  ing   tempera-
  ture,  dissolve
240  parts
214
212
177
112
100
 59
 48
 23
 18
 17
   9
   7
   5
   5
   4
   3
   1
3. Substances insoluble in alcohol.
Sugar of milk
Borax
Tartar
Alum
Sulphat of ammonia
          lime
          barytes
          iron
          copper
          silver
          mercury
          zinc
Sulphat of potash
          soda
          magnesia
Sulphite of soda
Tartrite  of  soda  and
  ash
Nitrat of mercury
Muriat of lead
         silver
Common salt
Carbonat of potash
           soda
pot-
                    A L  C

ty of his alcohol; but as he compares it with that o   ac-
quer, we may suppose it nearly of the same streng  .   ■
the solubility of salts depends upon the  ■«*"*'V1**
alcohol employed, the experiments of these chymists must
be considered  as  defective,  because they have confined
themselves to one particular density.   This detect is m
part supplied by the following very valuable table of Mr.
Kirwan's, constructed from his own experiments.

Solubility of salts in 100 parts of alcohol of different
                      densities.
Salts.		Alcohol of			
	^0.900 :	0.872	0.848	0.834 1	0.817
Sulphat of soda	0.	0.	0.	0.	0.
Sulphat of mag-nesia	1.	1.	0.	0.	0.
Nitrat of potash	2.76	1.	■	0.	0.
Nitrat of soda	10.5	6.		0.38	0.
Muriat of potash	4 62	1.66		0.38	0.
Muriat of soda	5.8	3.67		0.5	
Muriat of am-monia	6.5	4.75	*•	1.5	
Muriat of mag-nesia, dried at 120°	21.25		23.75	36.25	50.
Muriat of bary-tes Ditto crystal-lized	1. 1.56		0.29 0.43	0.185 0.32	0.09 0.06
Acetat of lime	2.4		4.12	4.75	4.88
  These experiments were made chiefly by Macquer and
Wenzel.  The alcohol employed by Macquer was of the
specific gravity Q.840.   Wenzel does not give the densi-
  When alcohol, containing certain saline bodies in solu-
tion, is set  on  fire, its flame is often tinged of different
colours according to the body.   Thus nitrat of strontian
tinges it purple; boracic acid and cupreous salts tinge it
green ; muriat of lime gives it a red colour; nitre and ox-
ymuriat of mercury a yellow colour.
  The affinities of alcohol  are but imperfectly  known.
Those stated by Bergmann are water, ether, volatile oil,
alkaline sulphurets.
  Alcohol  is also used for a very fine, impalpable pow-
der, which women in the East make use of.   Dr  Shaw,
in his  Travels, speaking of the women in Barbary, says,
that none of these ladies  think themselves completely
dressed until  they have tinged their hair.and  edges of
Frl %  •    7 m al-ka-hol>th* Powder of lead  ore.
t rom this impalpable powder the name was transferred to

alted to its highest purity  and perfection
  ALCOR, in astronomy, a small star adjoining to ih* lanre
bright one in the middle of the tail of ursa^ajor TL wofd
is Arabic.   It  is a proverb among the Arabians,  *^™ed 
ALE
ALE
to one who pretends to see small things, but overlooks
much greater: Thou canst see Alcor, and yet not see the
full moon.
  ALCYON1UM, in  zoology, a genus of zoophytes, the
characters of which are, that the animal grows in the form
of a  plant: the  stem or root  is fixed, fleshy, gelatinous,
spongy, or coriaceous, with a cellular epidermis, penetrat-
ed with stellated pores, and shooting out tentaculated ovi-
parous hydrae.   There are  28 species, as A. arboreum,
with woody stem, obtuse branches, and pores in the form
of pimples, found in Norway, in the white and Indian seas,
sometimes of the human height.   A. digitatum, stemless,
oblong, coriaceous, and rugose,called also dead man's hand,
&c.  See Plate Nat. Hist. fig. 11.
  ALDEBARAN, in astronomy, a star of the first magni-
tude, called  in  English the  Bull's eye, being the eye of
the constellation Taurus. Long. 6° 32' 9" of Gemini. Lat.
5° 29'40" S.
  ALDER, in botany.  See Betula.
  ALDERMAN, among our Saxon ancestors, was a de-
gree of nobility answering to earl or count at present.  It
ranked inferior to atheling, but superior to  thane.  Alder-
man was also used, in the  time of king Edgar, for a jus-
tice or judge.  In modern  British policy, it implies a mag-
istrate subordinate to the  mayor of a  city or  town corpo-
rate.  The  number of these magistrates is  not limited,
but is  greater or less according  to the magnitude  of the
place.  In London they are twenty-six: each having one
of the wards of the cify committed to his care.  This of-
fice is for life.  When one dies or resigns, a wardmote is
called within three days, who elect another, and  return
him  to the court of aldermen, who are obliged  to admit
him  to supply  the  vacancy.   All the aldermen are jus-
tices of the peace by  a charter of 15 Geo.  II.   The al-
dermen of London, &c. are exempted from serving inferior
offices; nor can they be put upon assizes, or serve on ju-
ries, so long as they continue in office.
  ALDROVANDA, in  botany, a genus of the pentan-
dria class and pentagynia order of plants; of which there
is but one species.   The calyx is divided into five parts ;
the petals are five,  and the  capsule has five valves, with
ten seeds.  It is a native of Italy and  the Indies ; and has
no English name.
   ALE,  a fermented  liquor obtained from an infusion of
malt differing from beer chiefly in having a less proportion
of hops.   See Brewing.
  This  liquor,  the natural  substitute of wine  in such
countries as could not produce the grape, was originally
made  in Egypt.  The natives of Spain also, the inhabit-
ants of France,  and the aborigines of Britain, all used an
infusion of barley for  their  ordinary  liquor; and  it was
called by the various  names of calia  and   ceria in the
first country,  cerevisia in  the  second, and curmi in the
last, all literally importing only the strong water.
  The method in  which the ancient  Britons, and other
Celtic nations, made their ale, is thus  described by Isido-
rus  and Orosius:  "The  grain  is steeped  in water and
made to germinate, by  which its spirits are excited and set
at liberty ; it is then dried  and ground ; after which it is
infused in a cerfain quantity  of wafer, which being fer-
mented, becomes a pleasant, warming, strengthening, and
intoxicating liquor."
  There are  various sorts of ale known in Britain, partic-
ularly pale and brown: the former is brewed from in ait
slightly dried, and  is esteemed more viscid than the  lat-
ter, which is made from malt more highly dried or roast-
ed.  In Staffordshire they have a secret of fining ale in a
very short time.
   Ale is flatulent; and hence sometimes produces colics;
and the cholera morbus : it is acescent; but  it does  not
produce calcareous  diseases, as has been asserted.   It
malt liquor, of any degree of strength, is become flat and
tartish,  as it is used, it should  be drawn  out of the cask
into a jug, in which   as many drams  of powdered chalk is
put as there are to be pints of liquor : Ihusa new fermen-
tation will be raised, a sprightly taste will be restored to the
liquor, and its acidity will be destroyed. Tart liquors of this
kind are apt to produce a dysury, strangury, or a gonorr-
hoea; in which cases a small quantity of  brandy may be
taken.
   The consumption of ale  in these kingdoms is incredible.
It was computed thirty years ago at the value of 4,000,000/.
yearly, including Great Britain and Ireland.  The duties
on ale and beer make a principal branch of the revenue in
Britain. They were first imposed by lhe 12th of Car. II.
and have been  continued by several subsequent acts of
parliament to first Geo. HI. which lays an additional duty
of 3d. per barrel.  In the  whole,  the brewer of ale and
beer for sale shall pay 8s. for every barrel of either, above
6s. a barrel;  and for every barrel of 6s. or under, the sum
of Is. 4d.  Additional duties were  laid on in 1803.
   Ale  Gill, is  that in which the dried leaves of gill or
ground  ivy have been infused.  It  is esteemed abstersive
and vulnerary, and consequently good in disorders of  the
breast and obstructions of  the viscera.
   ALE CONNER,  an officer in  the  city of London,
whose  business  it is  to inspect the measures of public
houses.  Four of them are chosen or re-chosen annually
by the  common  hall; and whatever might  be their  use
formerly, their places  are now regarded only  as sinecures
for decayed  citizens.   They are the same as ale tasters,
 which see.
   ALE HOUSES  must  be licensed by justices of  the
peace,  who take recognisances of  the  persons  licensed,
and of their sureties, vis. 10/. each  that they will not  suf-
fer unlawful gaming nor other disorderly practices in their
houses. Every person, excepting  those who sell ale in
fairs, neglecting to procure a license, is liable to a penalty
of 20/.   The license is granted on the 1st September, or
within  twenty days  after, at a general meeting of the jus-
tices for the  division to which  he belongs, upon his pro-
ducing  a certificate to his character, unless, by living in a
city or  town corporate, this last circumstance is dispensed
with, and continues in  force for one  year only.  Alehouse
keepers selling ale in short measure, aro liable to a penal-
 ty not exceeding 40s. and not less than 10s.  and likewise
to a fine of 10s.  for permitting tippling, &c.  By  the 29th
Geo. II. c. 12. persons keeping alehouses in Scotland shall
be licensed as in England, and the justices there shall
 meet annually to license  alehouses; on  each of which
 licenses a fee of  Is.  is   payable   to the clerk of  the
peace.
   ALE TASTER, an officer appointed in every court
 leet,  and sworn  to look to the  assize and the goodness of
 bread and ale,  or beer, within the  precincts  of  that lord-
 ship.   Co'iiH. 
ALE
A L  G
    ALECTORIA, a stone said to be formed  in the gall
  bladders of old cocks, to which (he ancients a?  ribed many
  fabulous virtues.   This is otherwise called alectorius la-
  pis and altdorolithos, in English the cock stone.  Modern
  naturalists hold the  alectorius  lapis to be not generated
  in, but  swallowed down into, the stomach or  gizzard  of
  cocks and capons.   It is known that many fowls swallow
  pebbles, which are supposed to be of service in trituration,
  and digestion.
   A-LEE,  in  the sea language, a term only  used when
  the wind, crossing or flanking the line of  a ship's course,
  presses  upon the masts and sails so as to make  her incline
  to one side, which is called the lee side : hence, when the
  helm  is moved over to this side,  it is said to be Orlet- or
  hard a-lee.
   ALEGER, an inferior sort of  vinegar*  made of  aje or
  malt liquor instead of wine.
   ALEMBICK, a vessel formerly  used in distilling.
  They were  usually made of glass or copper,  The bofr
 tom, which contained the subject for distillation, was
 called,  from its shape, the cucurbit; the  upper  part,
 which received and condensed  the steam, was called the
 head,  the beak being fitted into  the neck of a receiver.
 Retorts, and the common worm still, are now more gener-
 ally employed.
   ALETRIS, in botany, a genus  of the monogynia order
 and hexandria class of plants; and in the natural method
 ranking  under the tenth  order, coronariae.  The charac?
 ters are: the corolla is monopetalous, funnel shaped, hex-
 angular, much corrugated, semiquinquefid,  and persistent;
 the stamina consist of  six subulated filaments,  the length
 of the corolla, and inserted into the base of the  division?
 of the  corolla; the antherse are oblong and  erect: the pis-
 tillum has an ovate germen ; the stylus subulated, and the
 length of the stamina; the  stigma  is trifid :  the  pericarpi-
 um is an ovated capsule,  triquetrous, pointed, and trilocu-
 lar: the seeds are  numerous.   There are  eight species,
 among which are, 1. Aietris capensis^a native of the Cape
 of Good Hope.   If is with us a stove plant,  fhe flower
 is pink.  2.  Aletris farinosa, a native of North America.
 This, though the most hardy plant of the genus, requires
 to be  sheltered under a frame.   The  flowers  appear in
 June or  July, of a whitish  green colour.  3. Aletris fra-
 grans, a  native of Africa, and, when placed in a stove, pro-
 duces  fine  spikes of  white  flowers  in  March  or April.
 4. Aletris  hyacinthoides, or Guinea aloe,  produces like-
 wise white flowers when kept in proper warmth by a stove,
 in the month  of July.  5. Aletris hyacinthoides, the
 Ceylon aloe, is with us also a stove plant.
   ALEXANDRIAN manuscript, a famous copy of the
 New  Testament.  This MS. is  now   preserved in the
 British Museum. It was sent as a present to king Charles
 1. fro.n Cyrillus Lucaris, patriarch of Constantinople, by
 sir Thomas Rowe, ambassador from England to  the Grand
 Seignior, about the year 1628.  Cyrillus brought it with
 him from Alexandria, where probably it was written.  In
 a schedule annexed to it, he gives  this account: That  it
 was written, as tradition  informed  him,  by  Thecla,  a no-
 ble Egyptian  lady, about 1300 years ago,  not  long after
 the council of Nice.   But  this  high antiquity, aud the
authority of the tradition to which the  patriarch refers,
have been  disputed; nor are the  most  accurate biblical
writers agreed about its age.  Grabe thinks that it might
 have been written before the end of the fourth  c«ilury I
 others are of opioid that it was not written tilI wear me
 end of  the fifth century, or somewhat later.  A  tac sunn*
 was published by the late Dr. Woide.
   ALEXANDRINE, a kind of verse borrowed from the
 French, first used in a poeaj called Alexander.  They
 consist, among the French, of twelve  and thirteen sylla-
 bles,  in alternate  couplets; and, among  us, of twelve.
 They are well characterized by Pope :

         Then, at the last, an only couplet fraught
         "With some unmeaning thing they call a thought,
         A needless Alexandrine ends the song,
         That, like a wounded snake, drags its slow length alonj;.
                                       Essay on  Criticism.

   ALEXIPHARMICS, in ancient medicine, were prop.
 erly remedies for expelling or preventing the ill  effects of
 poison; but some having imagined  that the animal spirits,
 in acute distempers, were affected by a malignant poison,
 the term has been understood to mean  medicines adapted
 to expel this poison by the cutaneous pores, in the form of
 sweat.   In this sense alexipharmics are the same as sudo-
 rifics.
   ALFECCA, in  astronomy, the  star otherwise called
 Alfeta and Lucida coronas.
   ALG^E, Flags, one of  the seven families or natural
 tribes, into which the whole  vegetable kingdom is divided
 by Linnaeus, in  his Philosophia  Botanica.  They are de-
 fined  to be plants, whose roof, leaf,  and stem,  are all one.
 Under  thi3 description are comprehended all   the  sea
 weeds, and some pther aquatic plants.  In the  sexual sys-
 tem  they constitute the third order of the twenty-fourth
 class  cryptogamia,  and  the fifty-seventh order in  Lin-
 naeui's Fragments of a Natural Method.
  ALGAROT, or Algarel, in chymistry,  an Arabic
 term for an emetic powder, prepared from regulus of anti-
 mony, dissolved in acids, and separated by repeated lo-
 tions in warm water.
  ALGEBRA, a general method of resolving mathemati-
 cal problems by means of equations: or, it is a method of
 performing the  calculations  of  all  sorts of quantities by
 means of general signs  or characters.  At first,  numbers
and things were expressed by their names at full length;
but afterward these  were abridged,  and fhe initials of the
words  used instead of  them ; and,  as  the art advanced
further, the letters of the alphabet came to be employed
as general representations of all kinds of  quantities ; and
other  marks were gradually introduced  to express the op-
erations  and  combinations, so as to entitle it to  different
appellations.
  It has been called specious arithmetic by Vieta  on ac-
 count of the species or letters of the alphabet, which he
 brought into general use;  and by sir Isaac Newton it was
 denominated  universal  arithmetic, from  the  manner in
 which it performs all arithmetical  operations by general
 symbols, or indeterminate quantities.
  Some authors define algebra  to be the art of resolvine
 mathematical problems : but this is  the idea of  analysis'
 or the analytic art in general,  rather than of algebra which
 is only one particular species of it.                '
  Indeed algebra properly  consists  of two parts- fW
 the method of calculating magnitudes or quantities, as rep- 
A L G
A L G
resented by letters or other characters; and secondly, the
manner of applying these calculations in  the  solun)on of
problems.
   In algebra,  as  applied to the resolution of problems,
the first business  is to translate the problem out of the
common into the algebraic language, by expressing all the
conditions  and quantities, both known  and unknown, by
their proper characters, arranged in an equation, or sever-
al equations if necessary, and treating the unknown quanti-
ty, whether it be  number or line,  or any other thing, in
the same way as if it were a known one: this forms the com-
position.  Then the resolution, or analytic part, is the dis-
entangling the unknown quantity from the several others
with which it is connected, so as to retain it alone on one
side of the equation,  while  all  the known quantities are
collected on the other side, and so giving the value of the
unknown one.  And as this  disentangling of the quantity
sought is performed by the converse  of the operations by
which it is connected with the others, taking them always
backward in the contrary order, it hence becomes a spe-
cies of the analytic art, and is called the modern analysis,
in contradistinction to the ancient analysis, which chiefly
respected geometry and its applications.
   There have arisen great controversies and sharp dis-
putes among authors concerning the  history of the prog-
ress and improvements of algebra, arising partly from the
partiality and prejudices which  are natural to all nations,
and partly from the want of  a closer examination of the
works of the older authors on this subject.   From these
causes it has happened  that the improvements made by
the writers of one nation have been ascribed to those of
another ; and the discoveries of an earlier author to some
one of much later  date.   Add lo this also, that the pecu-
liar methods of many authors  have been described so lit-
tle in detail, that our information derived from such his-
tories is but very imperfect, and amounting only to  some
general and vague ideas of the true state of the arts.
   It is highly probable that the Indians or Arabians first
invented the noble  art; for it may be reasonably supposed
that the ancient Greeks were ignorant of it, since Pappus,
in his mathematical collections,  in which he  enumerates
their analysis, makes mention of nothing like it; and he
besides speaks of a local problem,  begun by Euclid,  and
continued by Apollonius, which none of them could fully
resolve, a circumstance that could  not have occurred had
they been acquainted with algebra.
   Diophanfus was  the  first Greek  writer on algebra, who
published thirteen  books  about the year 800, though only
six of  them were translated into Latin in the year 1575.
This  algebra of Diophanfus only extends to the solution
of  arithmetical  indeterminate   problems.   Before  this
translation of Diophanfus came out, Lucas de Burgo, a
friar,  published  at Venice, in the year 1494, an Italian
Treatise on Algebra.  This author refers to others who
had preceded  him, and from whom  he had learned the art;
but their writings have not come down to us.   He also as-
sumes, that algebra came originally from the Arabs, and
never mentions Diophanfus, which makes it highly prob-
able that his  work was not even then known  in  Europe.
Burgo's Treatise goes no further than quadratic equations.
He was succeeded by Stifelius, who was a good author, but
did not advance the science. After him came Scipio Fer-
reus, Cardan, Tariagilla, and some others, who proceeded
to the solution of cubic equations.
  In 1590, Vieta introduced his specious arithmetic, to
which  we have already alluded, which consists in denot-
ing the quantities, both known and unknown, by symbols
or letters.  To Vieta we are indebted for the method of
extracting the roots Of equations by approximation, which
has been  since greatly improved by Raphson, Halley,
Maclaurin, Simpson, and others.
  Vieta was followed by Oughtred and Harriot; the for-
mer invented several compendious characters to show the
sums, differences, rectangles, squareB, cubes, &c. of any
given numbers; the latter  left behind  him his Analysis,
which  is highly esteemed at this day.  In 1657, Des Car-
tes published  his geometry, in which he made use of the
literal calculus, and the algebraic rules of Harriot: he ap-
plied his method to the higher geometry, explaining the
nature  of curves by  equations, and  adding  the  con-
structions of cubic, biquadratic, and other higher equa-
tions.
  The elements of the art  were  compiled and published
by Kersey,  in 1671, in which  specious arithmetic, and
the nature of equations, are largely explained and illus-
trated  by a variety of examples.  Sir Isaac  Newton's
Arithmetica  Universalis was published in  1707, which
abounds with useful and important instruction ;  and  since
bis time we have had a great number of excellent Ireatises
on Ihe subject, from almost any of which the science may
with very little difficulty be learned.
   Algebra, as has been already observed, is called an uni-
versal  arithmetic,  and  it  proceeds by  operations  and
rules  similar  to  those  in  common  arithmetic, founded
upon the same principles.   This, however, is no argument
against  its usefulness or evidence;  since arithmetic  is not
to be the less valued that  it is common, and is allowed to
be one of (he most clear and evident of the sciences.  But
as a number of symbols are  admitted  into this science,
being necessary for giving  it that  extent and generality
which is its greatest excellence;  the import of those sym-
bols is to be clearly stated, that no obscurity or error
may arise from the frequent use and complication of them.
Thus,

  The relation of  equality is expressed by the sign = ;
thus to express that fhe  quantity  represented by a  is
equal to that which is represented  by b, we write «=6.
But if we would express that a is greater than b, we write
a r* b ; and  if we  would  express algebraically that a is
less than b, we write a <3 b.
  Quantity is what is made up  of parts, or  is capable of
being greater or  less.   It  is increased by Addition, and
diminished by Subtraction; which are therefore  the two
primary operations  that relate to quantity.   Hence it is,
that any quantity may be supposed to enter  into algebra-
ic computations two different ways, which have contrary
effects ; either as an increment, or  as a decrement; that
is, as a quantity to  be added, or as a quantity to be sub-
tracted.   The sign -f, plus, is the mark of Addition, and
the sign —, minus,  of Subtraction.  Thus  the quantity
being represented by  a, or  -f  a, imports  that  a  is to
be  added, or represents an increment; but — a  imports
that a is  to be subtracted  and represents a decrement 
                        A L G

 Wh.-'ii several such quantities  are joined, the signs serve
 to show which are to be added, and which are to be sub-
 tracted.   Thus -+- a -\- b denotes  the quantity that arises
 when a And b  are both considered as increments, and
 therefore expresses the sum of a and b. But -f- a — b de-
 notes the quantity that arises when from the quantity a
 the quantity  6 is subtracted;  and expresses the excess
 of a above 6.  When a  is greater than b, then a — b
 is  itself an increment; when a = b, then  a — 6 = 0;
 and when a is less than b, then a — b is itself a decree-
 ment.
   As Addition and Subtraction are opposite, or an incre-
 ment is opposite  to a  decreement, there is  an analogous
 opposition between the affections  of quantities that are
 considered in the  mathematical sciences.   As between
 excess and defect; between the value of effects or money
 due to a man, and money due  by him; a line drawn tow-
 ard the right and a line drawn to the left; gravity and lev-
 ity ; elevation above the horizon and depression below it.
 When two quantities, equal in respect to magnitude, but
 of those opposite kinds, are joined  together, and conceiv-
 ed  to take place in the same subject, they destroy each
 other's effect,  and  their amount is nothing.   Thus 100/.
 due to a man, and 100/. due by  him, balance each other;
 and in estimating his stock may be both neglected.
  A quantity that is to be added is  likewise called a posi-
 tive quantity;  and a quantity to be subtracted is said  to
 be negative: they  are equally real, but opposite to each
 other, so as to take away each other's effect, in any ope-
ration, when they are equal as to quantity.   Thus 3— 3
 =  0, and a — a = 0.  But though + a and — a  are
equal as to quantity, we do not suppose in Algebra that
 -\-a =—a; because  to infer equality in  this science,
 they must not  only be equal as to quantity,  but of  the
 same quality, that  in every operation the one may have
 the same effect as the other.  A decreement may be equal
 to an increment; but it has in all operations a contrary
effect.   It  is on account of this contrariety that a nega-
tive quantity is said to be less than  nothing, because it is
opposite to the positive, and diminishes it when joined  to
it, whereas the addition of 0  has no effect.  But a  negative
 is  to be considered no less as a real quantity than the
positive.  Quantities that have no sign prefixed  to  them
are understood to be positive.
  The number prefixed to a letter is called  the numeral
co-efficient, and  shows  how often fhe quantity repre-
sented by  the letter is to  be  taken.  Thus 2a imports
that the qdantity  represented by a is to be taken twice ;
3a that it is to be taken thrice, and so on.   When no num-
ber is prefixed, unit is understood to be the co-efficient.
Thus 1 is the co-efficient of a or of  b.
  Quantities are said to be like or similar, that are repre-
 sented by the same letter, or  letters equally repeated.
Thus, + 3a and — 5a are like ; but a and b, or a and aa,
 are unlike.
  A quantity is said to consist of as many terms as there
are parts joined  by the signs + or —; thus a -f 6 con-
sists of two terms, and  is called a binomial;  a -f 6 +  c
consists of three terms, and is called a trinomial.   These
are called  compound quantities: a simple quantity  con-
sists of one term only, as -f- a, or -f ab, or + abc.
                       A L  G

                    OP ADDITION.
  Case I.  To add quantities  that are like  and have like,
                        signs.
Rule. Add together the co-efficients, to  their sum pre-
  fix the common sign, and subjoin the common letter or
  letters.
                     EXAMPLES.
       To -f 5a      to  — 66        to a + b
     Add  -f- 4a     add — 26      add 3a + 56
Sum + 9a    Sum —86      Sum 4a+66
               To 3a — 4x
               add 5a — Sx
                    Sum  8a — 12x

Case II. To add quantities that are like but have unlike
                        signs.
Rule. Subtract the lesser co-efficient from the  greater,
  prefix the sign of the greater to the remainder, and sub-
  join the common letter or letters.

                      examples.
             To — 4a    I     -{-  56 — 6c
            Add + 7a    \     —36 + 8c
     Sum -f- 3a     f       26 -f- 2c
  To   a + 6x — by + 8 I     2a — 26
Add — 5a — Ax + Ay — 3 |  — 2a -f 26
      Sum — 4a -f- 2x —  #4-5    0..0
  This rule is easily deduced from the nature of  positive
and negative quantities.
  If there are more than two  quantities  to  be added to-
gether, first add the positive together into one sum, and
then the negative, by Case I.  Then add these two sums
together, by Case II.
                               -f- 8abx
                               — 7a6x*
                               4- 10a bx
                               — V2abx

            Sum of the positive + 18a6.T
            Sum of the negative — 19abx

                  Sum of all    — abx

      Case III. To add quantities that are unlike,
Rule. Set them  all down  one after another, witfa their
  signs and co-efficients prefixed.
                     EXAMPLES.
          To + 2a
         Add 4- 36

      Sum 2a -f 36
  To  4a + 46 -f 3c
Add — Ax — Ay -f 3s
  4- 3a
  — Ax

3a —. 4X
Sum Aa + 46  + 3c — Ax — Ay +3* 
A L G                                               ALG
                  OF SUBTRACTION.
General Rule.   Change the signs of the quantity to be
  subtracted into their contrary signs,  and then add it so
  changed to the quantity from which it was to be sub-
  tracted (by the preceding rules:) the sum arising by
  this addition  is the remainder.  For, to subtract  any
  quantity, either positive or negative, is the same as to
  add the opposite kind.
           EXAMPLES.
   From -|- 5a
Subtract -f- 3a
8a —76
3a-f- 46
Remainder 5a — 3a, or 2a       5a — 116
             From   2a — 3a: -f 5y — 6
          Subtract   6a + Ax -f- 5y 4- 4
        Remainder — 4a — 7x   0  — 10
   It is evident, that to subtract or take away a decrement
 is the same as adding an equal increment.   If we take
 away  — 6 from a — 6, there remains a ; and if we add
 4- 6 to a — 6, the sum is likewise a.  In general, the sub-
 traction of  a negative quantity is equivalent to adding its
 positive value.

                  OP MULTIPLICATION.
   In Multiplication the general Rule for the signs is, That
 when  the signs of the factors are like (i.e. both +, or both
 —) the sign of the product is 4-; but when the signs of
 the factors are unlike, the sign of the product is —.
   Case I. When  any positive quantity, -f- a, is multipli-
 ed  by any  positive number, -{- n,  the  meaning is, that
 4 a is to be taken as many times as there are units  in n;
 and fhe product is evidently na.
   Case II.  When — a is multiplied by n, then — a is to
 be taken as often as there are units in n, and  the product
 must be —na.
   Case III.  Multiplication by a positive number implies a
 repeated  addition: but multiplication by a negative im-
 plies a repeated  subtraction.  And  when 4- a 's to be
 multiplied by — n, the meaning is, that  + a is to be sub-
 tracted as often as  there are units  in n.  Therefore the
 product is negative, being — na.
   Case IV.  When — a is to be multiplied by — n, then
 — a is to be subtracted as often  as  there are units in n;
 but to subtract — a is equivalent to  adding 4- a, conse-
 quently the product is 4- na'
   The lid and IVth Cases may be illustrated in the fol-
 lowing manner.
   By  the  definitions, + a — a = 0 ; therefore, if we
 multiply 4-  a — a by n, the product must vanish or  be 0,
 because the factor a —. a is 0.  The first term of the prod-
 uct is -f na  (by Case I.)  Therefore the second term of
 the product must be — na, which destroys -f na; so that
 the whole product must be -{- na — na = 0.   Therefore
 — a multiplied by -J- n gives ~— na.
   In like  manner, if we multiply 4- a — a by — n, the
 first term of the product being — na, the latter term of
 the product must be -f na, because the two together must
 destroy each other, or their amount be 0, since one of the
factors {viz. a — a) is 0.  Therefore —- a multiplied by
— n must give -f- na.
   vol. i.            11
  In this general doctrine the multiplicator is always con-
sidered  as  a  number.  A quantity of any  kind  may be
multiplied by a number; but a pound is not to be multi-
plied by a pound, or a debt by a debt, or a line by a line.
We shall hereafter consider the analogy that there is be-
twixt rectangles in geometry and a product of two factors.
  If the quantities to be multiplied are simple quantities,
find the  sign of the product by the last rule; after it place
the product of the co-efficients, and then set down all the
letters after one another, as in one word.

                     EXAMPLES.
             Mult. 4- a  I  — 2a  I    6x
               By + 6  J   + 46  I — 5a
Prod -f a6   — 8a6  — 30ax
 Mult.  — Bx    I   + 3a6
   By  — 4a    j   — 5ac
              Prod, -f 32ax     — 15aa6c
  To multiply compound quantities, you must multiply
every part of the multiplicand by all the parts of the mul-
tiplier  taken one after another, and  then collect all the
products into one sum:  that sum shall be the product re-
quired.
EXAMPLES.
Prod.
Mult,  a -f 6
   By  a + 6

§aa  +ab
I    +ab +
66
 2a—.36
 4a + 56

( 8aa — 12a6
I     +10a6 —1566
 Sum aa -f- 2a6 -f 66
Mult. 2a — 46
  By 2a -f 46
Prod.
4aa -— 8a6
+ 8a6 —1666
8aa		2a6		156
XX	—	ax		
X	+	a		
$ XXX		axx		
I	4	axx		aax
Sum 4aa • • 0 .   — 1666   xxx
           Mult, aa -f a6 -f- 66
            By   a —   6
0 .  —. aax
™d't    _aa6 — a66 — 666
Sum
aaa ••• 0 ••••  0*  —666
  Products that arise from  the  multiplication  of two,
three,  or  more quantities, as a6c, are said to be of two,
three, or more dimensions; and those quantities are call-
ed factors or roots.
  If all the factors are equal, then these  products are
called powers; as aa,  or  aaa, are powers of a.  Powers
are expressed sometimes by placing above the root to the
right  hand a figure expressing the number of factors that
produce them.  Thus,
                     ~~st ^\ power of the^j a
                      2d I  root a,  and 1 a*
                      3d > is shortly   >a3
                  >   4tb j  expressed   I a4
                     ^5thJ  thus,      J a'
a
a a
aaa
aaaa
aaaaa
inus,

[Z   2
J .3 
AL G
A L  G
  These figures, which express the number of factors that
produce powers,  are  called their indices  or exponents $
thus 2 is the index of a*.   And powers of the same root
are multiplied by adding  their exponents.  Thus a2 X
a3 = a1, a*  X a3 = a7, a3 X  a = a*.
  Sometimes it is useful, not actually to  multiply com-
pound quantities,  but to set them down with the sign of
multiplication (X) between them, drawing a line over each of

the compound factors. Thus, a -f 6 X a — 6 expresses
the product of a-f b multiplied by a — 6.

                     OF DIVISION.
  The same rule for the eigne is  to be observed in Divi-
sion  as in Multiplication; that is, if  the signs of the divi-
dend and divisor are like, the sign of the quotient must be
-f-; if they are unlike, the sign of the quotient must be —.
This will be easily deduced from the rule  in Multiplica-
tion, if you consider that the quotient must be such a quan-
tity as, multiplied by fhe divisor,  shall give the dividend.
  The general  rule in Division is, to place the  dividend
above a small line, and the divisor under it, expunging any
letters that may be found in all the quantities of the divi-
dend and divisor,  and dividing the co-efficients of all  the
terms by any common measure.   Thus, when you divide
10a6 4 15ac by 20arf, expunging  a  out of all the  terms,
and dividing All the co-efficients by 5, the quotient is
                      26 + 3c
                       ------5  and
                         4d
                 26) a& + 66 la -f 6
fa 4 6

\  2
12a6) 30ax — 5Aay /5x — 9y
■
                     26
4aa) 8a6 4 6ac /46 -f 3c
(
             2a
And 26c) 5a6c  /5a
/5a

\2
  Powers of the same root are divided by subtracting their
exponents, as they are multiplied by adding them.  Thus
if you divide a» by a8,  the quotient  is a5 — 2, or a3!
And 66 divided by  6*, gives  6« - «, or 63; and a7 b'»
divided by a* 63, gives a5  6* for the quotient.
  If the  quantity to  be divided is compound, then you
must range its parts according to the dimensions of  some
one of its letters, as in the following example.  In the
dividend a* + 2a& + 6a, they are ranged according  to
the dimensions of a,  the quantity a*, where a is of two di-
mensions, being placed first, 2a&, where it is of one di-
mension, next, and &>, where a h not at all, being placed
last.  The divisor must  be ranged according to the di-
mensions of the same letters; then you are to divide the
first term of the dividend by the first term of the divisor
and to set down the quotient, which in this example is a;
then multiply this quotient by the whole divisor, and sub-
tract the product from the  dividend, and the remainder
shall give a new dividend, which in this example is ab  4
6*,  thus,                                  r
a + b) a» + 2ao + 6* (a 4- &
       a* + ab
                          ab -f 6*
                          ab -f 6*

                          0    0
  Divide the firBt term of this new dividend by the first
term of the divisor, and  set down the quotient, which io4>
this example is 6,  with its proper sign.   Then multiply,
the whole divisor by this part of the quotient, and subtrtct
the product from the new dividend ;  and if there is no re-
mainder, the division is finished.  If there is a remainder,.
you are to proceed after the same manner till no remainder ^
is left, or till it appears  that  there  will be always a re-
mainder.
      Some examples will illustrate this operation.

                     EXAMPLE I.
                ei + 6)ax — 6* (a— 6
                      a* 4- a&
ab — b*
ab — b*
0
0
                   EXAMPLE II.
a — 6) aaa — 3aa6 + 3a66 — 666 (aa
       aaa — aa6
2a6 4 bb
2aab -f 3a66
2aa6 -f 2a&6
666
              a&6 _ 666
              a&& — 666

               0     0
         EXAMPLE  III.
a — 6) aaa — 666 (aa 4 a6 -f. 56
       aaa — aa6
aa6 — 666
aa6 — a66
abb — 666
a&& —- 666
0
0
EXAMPLE IV.
3a — 6) Qaaaa — 96 (2aaa + 4aa + 8a 4- 16
        Gaaaa — 12aaa
VZaaa — 96
12aaa — 24aa
24aa — 96
24aa — 48a
48a — 96
48a — 96 
A L G
A L  G
  It often happens that the operation may be continued
without end, and then you have an infinite series for the
quotient j  and by comparing the first three or four terms,
you  may find what  law  the terms observe; by  which
means, without  any more division, you may continue the
quotient as far as you please.   Thus, in  dividing 1 by
1 — a, you  find the quotient to  be 1 + a 4 aa 4  aaa
4 aaaa 4 &c.  which series can be continued as far as
you please, by adding the powers of a.

  ^             The operation is thus :
  ™       1 — a) 1 ( 1 -f o + on + aaa, &c.
                 1 — a
4-	a			
+	a	—-	aa	
		4-	aa	
		+	aa —	• aaa
 '                        -f- aaa
                          -j- aaa — aaaa

                                4 aaaa, &c.
              Another Example.
                        2xx   2x3   2x*
a + x) aa + xx (a —x -\---—----!-------&c.
       aa + ax           a      a*    as
ax -f- xx
ax — xx
t
-f- 2xx

+ 2xx +
2x
2x3	2x*	
a 2x3		
a	a*	
	2x* + — > a»	&c.
   In this last example the signs are alternately 4 and —,
the co-efficient is constantly 2 after the first  two terms,
and (he letters  are the powers of x and a; so  that the
quotient may be continued as far as you please without
any more division.
   But in division, after  you come  to a remainder of one
term, as 2xx in the last example, it is commonly  set down
with the divisor under it,  after the other terms, and these
together give the quotient.  Thus, the quotient in the last
                                  2x*
example is found to be a — x 4-      -. And  66 + ab,
                                 a + x
                                           2ab
divided by 6 — a, gives for the quotient 6 -f —.
                                         6—a
             11*
   Note.   The sign — placed between any two quantities,
expresses the quotient of the former  divided by the lat-
ter.   Thus  a 4 6 -r- a — x is  the quotient of a 4 & di-
vided by a — x.
                   OP FK ACT IONS.
   In the preceding page it was  said, that the quotient of
any quantity a divided by 6, is expressed by placing a
                                     a
above a small line, and & under it, thus —.   These quo-
                                     6
tients are also called fractions; and the dividend or quan-
tity placed above the line is called the numerator of the
fraction,  and the divisor  or quantity placed under  the
                                     2
line is called the denominator.  Thus, —  expresses the
                                     3
quotient of 2 divided by 3; and 2 is the  numerator and 3
the denominator of the fraction.
   If the numerator of a fraction is equal to the denomina-
                                             a
tor, then the fraction  is equal to unity.  Thus, —, and
 &                                           a
—, are equal to unit.  If the numerator is greater than the
 6
denominator, then the  fraction is greater than unit.   In
both these case-;, the fraction is caHed improper.  But if
the numerator is less than the denominator,  then the frac-
                                              5
tion is less than unit, and is called proper.  Thus — is an
                      3       2               3
improper fraction;  but — and — are proper fractions.
                      4       3
A mixt quantity is that whereof one part is an integer, and
                         4       2          a*
the other a fraction; as 3—, and 5 —, and  a -\---.
                         5       3           6

Prob. I.   To reduce a Mixt Quantity  to an Improper
                     Fraction.

   Rule.  Multiply the part that is an integer by the de-
nominator of the fractional part;  and to  the product add
the numerator; under their sum  place  the former denom-
inator.
   Thus 2},  reduced to  an improper  fraction, gives y;
     a*   a& + a*                a* — ax    a*—x*
a -\----=----—;  and a — x 4--------=-------
     6       6                      xx

Prob. II.   To reduce an Improper Fraction to a Mixl
                     Quantity.
   Rule.   Divide the numerator of the fraction by the
denominator, and the quotient shall give the integral part *
the remainder set over the denominator shall be the frac-
tional part.
         12      2   a&-fal          a»     ax +  2xx
   Thus, — = 2 —; -------= a -\-----;---------
         5      5ft             b      a + x
        x%    aa 4 xx              2xx
— x H-----;------= a 4- x -|—.—.
a + x
x
a — * 
A L G
A L G
PnoB. III.  To reduce Fractions ofdifftrent Dtnomina-
  tors, to Fractions of equal  Valut that shall have the
  same Denominator.
  Rile.  Multiply each numerator, separately taken in-
to all the denominators but its own, and the products shall
give the new numerators.  Then multiply all the denom-
inators into one another, and the product shall give the
common denominator.  Thus,
                 a   b  c
  The fractions  —,  —, —, are respectively equal to
                 bed
              acd bbd ccb
these fractions, —, —, —, which have the same denomi-
              bed bed bed
nator 6cd\  And the fractions!, | f; are respectively
equal to these  £$, £f, |V
     Prob. IV.  To Add and Subtract Fractions.
  Rule.  Reduce them to a common denominator, and
add or subtract the numerators;  the sum or difference set
over the common denominator, is  the sum or remainder
required.
         acd   adt + bct -f- d*b  a     c
  Thus,  — + — -}-  —  :=-------.----;-------=
         b    d      e         bdt        6       d
arf —6c  2    3     8+9     17        3     2
      »    4 —  = ————  = — = lTf;— —•    =
  6d    3    4       12       12        4     3
9—-8     1
12
12
5
x
A
x
16 — 15      1

  20       20
3x — 2x    x
             2     3       6         6
         Prob. V.  To Multiply Fractions.
  Rule.  Multiply their numerators one into another to
obtain the numerator of the product; and their denomina-
tors multiplied into one another, shall give the denomina-
tor of the product.
              a     c     ac  2    4     8
        Thus, —  X—  = —; — X — =—;
              6     d     6d  3    5     15
               0 + 6    a — 6     a* — 63
           and-----X ■-----=______.
                 c       d       cd
  If a mixt quantity is to be  multiplied,  first reduce it to
the form of a fraction, by  Prob. I.   And  if an integer is to
be multiplied by a fraction,  you  may  reduce it to the
form of a fraction by placing  unit under it.
                    examples,
       2    3     17    3     51       2    9     2
    5— X — =— X — = — ;9 X — = — X — =
       3434     12       313
18           ox   a    ba + bx     a      a*b + abx
- =  6;H-X- =----X- =------
3           a    x      a       x         ax
   ab + 6x         ab
=-----= & + -.
      x            x ♦
          Prob. VI.   To Dividt Fractions.
  Rule.  Multiply the numerator of the dividend by the
denominator of the divisor, their  product shall give the
numerator of the quotient.  Then multiply the denomina.
tor of the dividend by the numerator of the divisor, and
their product shall give the denominator.  Thus
  4\2/l0    3\5/35   c\a/ad  a  +  b\a — b

  T/li\l2,   7 ' 8*24' d/6\c6'a—  6/  a
/0« —2a6 4-6*
I-----------------•
v    a* + a6
  These last four Rules are easily demonstrated from the
definition of a fraction.
                                ace
  1.  It is obvious that the fractions —, —, —, are respec-
                                 b   d   f
              adf  cbf  ebd
tively equal to .----,----•,----; since,  if  you divide ait
              bdf  dbf fbd
by bdf, the quotient will be the same as of a divided by
6; and cbf divided by dbf, gives the same quotient as c di-
vided by d; and ebd divided by fbd, the same quotient
as e divided by^.
  2.  Fractions reduced to the same denominator are ad-
ded by adding their numerators and subscribing the com-
mon  denominator.  I say
 a    c    a -fc            a           c
---1---=------.  For, call — =  m,  and — = n, and
6     6      6               6           6
it will be a = mb, c  = rib, and m6 -f nb = a + c, andm
       a-fc          a   c     a + c
+ n  =----;  that is,---1-— =----. After the  same
         6             6   6      6
        a     c             a — c
manner,-------= m — n =----.
        6     6               6
           a    c                 ac
  3.  I say,  —-  x — (= m x n) = —; for bm — a, in
            b    d                bd
                                ac           a    c
= c; and bdmn = ac,  and mn  = —;  that  is,  __X -
                                bd           6   i
   ac

   bd'
           a             c     m        ad
  4. I say, — divided by —, or —, gives —; for nib =
           b             d     n        cb
a, and mbd = ad; nd= c,  and nbd = c&rtherefore
mba   ad         m    ad
---  = —;  that is, — = —.
nbd     cb           n    cb

Prob. VII. To find thtgrtattst common  Mtasure of two
  Numbers; t^ is, the greatest Number that can di-
  vide thtm both without a Rtmaindtr.

.„?? a Fir?t  dividC ^Gireater number h7 «he »esser,
and  if here  is no  remainder, the lesser number'is the
greatest common divisor required.  If there  is a remaH>
der,  div.de your last divisor by it; and  thus proceed con-
tinually  dividing the last divisor by its  remrfnte S 
A L G
A  L G
there is no remainder left, and then the last divisor is the
greatest common measure required.  Thus, the greatest
common measure of 45 and 63 is 9; and the greatest com-
mon measure of 256 and 48 is 16.
45) 63 (1
    45
48) 256 (5
   240
18) 45 (2
   36
16) 48 (3
    48
               9) 18 (2                   0
                 18

                  0
  Much after the same  manner  the  greatest common
measure of Algebraic  quantities is discovered ; only the
remainders that arise in the operation are to be divided
by their simple divisors, and the quantities are always to
be ranged according to the dimensions of the same letter.
  Thus, to find the greatest common measure of a* — 63
and a2 —2a6 + 62 ;
        a2— 62)a2 — 2a6  4 62 (1
                 a2 —6s
                    — 2a6 -J- 262 remainder,
which divided by — 26 is reduced to
                 a—6) a2 — b2 (a + 6
                       a2 —62
                         0   0
   Therefore a — 6 is the greatest common measure re-
 quired.
   The ground of this operation is, that any quantity that
 measures the divisor and the remainder, if  there is any,
 must also measure the dividend ; because the dividend is
 equal  to the sum of the divisor multiplied  into the quo-
 tient, and of the remainder added together.  Thus, in the
 last example, a — 6 measures the divisor a2 — 62, and
 the remainder — 2a6 4 26 ;  it must therefore likewise
 measure  their sum a2 — 2a6 -\- b%.  You  must observe
 in this operation, to make that the dividend which has the
 highest powers of the letter according to which the quan-
 tities are ranged.

 Prob. VIII.   To reduce any Fraction to its lowest
                       Terms.
   Rule. Find  the  greatest common measure of the nu-
merator and denominator ;  divide them by that  common
measure, and place  the  quotients in their room, and you
shall have  a fraction equivalent to  the given fraction ex-
pressed in the least terms.   Thus,
  256c.  75abc    3a    156aa -f  156a6
       J        =   >                  ==
  256c'  1256cx   5x    572aa—572a6
3a -f- 36
a2 — 62
a +6
 11a—116  a2— 2a6-f 62    a —6
a3—b*a    a* — 6a    a* — 64
a*4-2a64-6*     a 4-6
   a» + b*
a'62
   When unit is  the  greatest commcti measure  of the
numbers and quantities, then the fraction is already in "ifs
                   'Sab
lowest terms.  Thus,---cannot be reduced lower.
                   5d*c
   And numbers, whose greatest common measure is unit,
are said to be prime to one another.
   If it is required to reduce a given fraction to a fraction
equal to it that shall have a given denominator, you  must
multiply the numerator by the given denominator, and di-
vide  the product by  the former denominator,  the  quo-
tient, set  over the given denominator, is the fraction re-
               a
quired.  Thus — being  given, and  it being required to
               5
reduce it to an equal fraction whose denominator shall be
c ,* find the quotient of ac divided by 6, and it shall be the
numerator of the fraction required.
         OF THE INVOLUTION OF QUANTITIES.
   The products arising from  the continual multiplication
of the same quantity, were before called the powers of
that quantity.   Thus a, a2, a3, a*, &c. are the powers of
a; and a&, a262, a363, a464, &c. are the powers of a6.
And the rule given for the multiplication of powers of the
same  quantity was, to "-Add the exponents, and make
their sum the exponent of the product."   Thus a*  X a5
= a9 ; and a263  X a662 = a966.  In the  above  place
you have the rule for dividing powers of the same quanti-
ty, which is,  " To subtract the exponents, and make the
difference the exponent of the quotient."
        a6                      a'63
= a-
and-
=a» —463 —
a4
  Thus,---= a6
         a*
= a62.
  If you divide a lesser power by a greater, the exponent
of the quotient must, by this rule, be negative.  Thus,
a*                            a*    1              l
— = a4  — 6 = a —  3.   But — = —; and hence —
a6                            a«    a2           a1
is expressed also by  a* with a negative  exponent, or
a— *.
a
It is also obvious, that — = a1
                     a
a
= a«
1, and therefore a0  — 1.
                                           but—  =
                                               a
                                               1
                        After the same manner, —  =
                                               a
a°                   t    aa                   1

a                   aa    a*                  aaa
                                       1111
ac
                                              j3  a*
                                      a
  a'
— s
 i° — 3 = a — 3; so that the quantities a, 1, —, —, —,__5
                                        a a* a-
Sec. may  be expressed thus,  a1, a0, a — l, a
a  —  3, a — 4, &c.   Those  are called the negative
powers of a, which  have negative exponents; but they

are at the  same time positive powers of—, or a — l.
                                     a
  Negative powers, as well as positive, are multiplied by
adding,  and  divided  by subtracting,  their exponents.
Thus  the product of a — 2

    1                        7\
(or —) mulfipliedby a— 3 (or — ]  is a— s — 3 = a— f
   a2                       «3/ 
al a
 (or  — ) ; also  a - •  X a* = a      "*"'    = a -  s
     a* '

     1  V
 (or —);  and a— 3  X a3  = a0 = 1.  And, in  gener-
    as/
al, any positive power of a  multiplied by a negative
power of a of an equal  exponent, gives unit  for the pro-
duct ; for the positive and negative exponents destroy each
other, and the product gives a0, which is equal to unit.
A L G
Likewise
= a
= a
__ 3 __
and
a— *

a- *
1
— tl    I    —
a —
1
= a
= a3. But also,
  1              1
----; therefore ---
a—3          a—
= a!
 a- *       a *

. And, in  gener-
al, "any quantity placed in  the  denominator  of a frac-
tion, may be transposed to  the numerator, if the sign
                                1               1
of its exponent be changed."  Thus — == a — 3, and-----
= a3.                         a8             a— 3
  The quantity am expresses  any power of a in  general;
the exponent (m) being undetermined; and a — m expres-
    1
ses —, or a negative power  of a of an equal exponent:
   am
and a*» X a — m = a"»— m = a° = 1 is their product,  a"

              •          <•               "• 4-n -  i
expresses any other power of a; am X an = a     is the
product of the powers am and a", and am — n is their quo-
tient.
  To raise any simple quantity to its second, third, or
fourth power, is to add its exponent twice, thrice, or four
times to itself; therefore the  second power of any quanti-
ty is had by doubling its  exponent, and the third by treb-
ling its exponent; and, in general, the power expressed by
             a  -f 6 = Root.
          X  a  -f 6
a
2 4 ab
  + ab  4
m of any quantity is  had by multiplying the eXP°"ent
by m, as is obvious from the multiplication  ot powers.
                             multiplication

Thus the second power or square of a  is a      — a* >

its third power or cube is a  x *= a3; and the mth pow-

er of a is a "*  '    =  o«.   Also, the square of a4 is

a2  x 4=a8;  the cube-of a4 is a3 x 4= aix; and the

mth power of a4 is a4 X * • The square of a6c is a*6V,
the cube is a363c3, the with power a™bmc™.
  The raising of quantities to any power is called Involu-
tion; and any simple quantity is  involved by multiplying
the exponent by that of the power required, as in the pre-
ceding examples.
  The co-efficient must also be raised to the  same pow$r(
by a continual multiplication of itself by itself, as often a*!1
 unit is contained in the exponent of the power required." .
 Thus the cube of 3a6 is 3 X 3 X 3 X a36s = 27 a3K.M
   As to the signs, When the quantity to be  involved is
 positive, it is obvious that all its powers must be positive.
 And when the quantity to be involved is negative, yet all
 its powers whose  exponents are  even numbers must be .
 positive; for any number of multiplications of a negative,
 if fhe  number is  even, gives a positive; since — X —
 = 4-, therefore— X — X — X — = 4-  X  4  =4;
 and—  x —  X — X—  X —  X  — = 4 X  +X
 4=4-.
   The  power then only can be  negative when its expo-
 nent is an odd number, though the quantity to be involved
 be negative.  The powers of— a are — a, 4- a2, — a\
 4 a4, — a5, &c.   Those whose exponents are 2, 4, 6, &c.
 are positive; but  those whose exponents are 1, 3, 5,&c.
 are negative.
  The involution of compound quantities is a more diffi-
cult operation.  The  powers of any binomial a 4 6 are
found by a continual multiplication of it by itself, as fol-
 lows.
(
   a* -f- 2a6 -f  6* =  the Square, or 2d Power.
X  a  4-6
a3 +2a264  ab1
   4  o*6 4 2a6* +  63
   a3+3a*6 4-3a6*  4  63  = Cube, or 3d Power.
X  a +6
a4 -f 3a36+ 30*6"  4  ab3
   4  o36 4 3a*6» 4 3a63 + 64
a* 4 4a36 + 6a*6» 4 4a63 4 64 = Biquadrate, or 4th Power. 
A L  6
A  L €?
X  a  +b
	a'	+ Aa4 4 a'	'6 4	6a3 6Z 4a36J	4-4-	4a*63 6a*63	4-+	a6* 4a6*4	6«
X	a1 a	4 5a46+10a36* 4-0			4-10a»63		4- 5a64 4-		6' = 5th Poi
	a*	4 5a + «	*6-f •6 +	10a46J 5a 46*	4-+	I0a363 10a»63	+ 4-	5a36* 10aa64	+ ab' + 5a65 4 66
a6 + 6u*6-f 15a46a 4 20a'6» + 15a*6* 4 6a6* +b* = 6th Power, &c.
   If the powers of a — 6 are required, 4hey will be found
 the same  as  the preceding, only the  terms  in which the
 exponent  of  6 is an odd number will be found negative ;
 " because an  odd number of multiplications  of a negative
 produces  a negative."  Thus, fhe cube of a — 6 wrll be
 found to be a3 —3a *6 -f- 3a6' — 63; where the 2d and
 4th terms are negative, the exponent of 6  being an odd
 number in these  terms.  In general, "«he terms  of any
 power of a — 6 are positive and negative by  turns."
   It is to be observed, that " in the first term of any pow-
 er of a  -f- 6, the quantity a has the exponent  of the power
 required;  that in the following  terms, the exponents of a
 decrease gradually by the same difference, (vis. unit) and
 that in the last terms it is never found.  The powers of 6
 are  in the contrary order; it is not found in the first term,
 but its exponent in  the second  term  is unit, in the 3d
 term its exponent is 2; and thus its exponen* increases,
 till in the last term it becomes  equal to the  exponent of
 the  power required."
   As the exponents of a thus decrease, and  at the same
 time those of 6 increase,  " the sum of their  exponents is
 always the same,  and is equal lo the exponent of the pow-
 er required."  Thus in the 6th power of a  + 6, vis. a6
 4-6a56 4.  15a46l -f 20a363 4-  15a*64 4- 6a6* 4 &8, the
 exponents  of a decrease in this order, 6,5,4,3,2,1,0;
 and  those of 6 increase in fhe contrary order, 0,1,2, 3,4,
 5,6.  And the sum of their exponents in any term is al-
 ways 6.
   To find  the co-efficient of any term, the co-efficient of
 the  preceding term  being known; you are  to " divide
 the co-efficient of the preceding term by the  exponent of
 6 in  the given term, and to multiply the quotient  by the
 exponent of a in the same term, increased by unit." Thus
 to find the co-efficients of the terms of the 6th power of a
 + 6, you find fhe  terms are a*,a'b,a*b*, a363, a26*,a&5,
 b* ; and you know the co-efficient of the  first  term is unit,
 therefore, according to the Rule, the co-efficient of the
 second term will be
       1    ____
      — X^+l  =6;

 that  of the third term will be
       6  _____
      — X4 + 1 =3 X 5 = 15;
      2
 that of (he fourth  terra will be
     15  _______
    —  x 3 + 1 = 5  X 4 = 20; and those of the follow-
     3
ing terms will be 15,6,6, agreeable to the preceding table.
  In genera], if a -f 6 is to be raised to any power m, the
terms, without their co-efficients, will be, am, am — *b, am
— *6*, am— 3b*, «"»— 46*, am — '&', &c. continued till
the exponent of 6 becomes equal to m.
  The co-efficients ^of the respective terms, according to
the last Rule, will be
           m — 1        m — 1    m — 2
l9m} m  X        ,m X-----X      »
             2            2       3
         m — 1    m—2   m — 3
   m x-----  x----- x-----,
          2         3        4
         m—1     m—2  m — 3    m — 4
   m X-----  X----- X-----X-----,
           2        3 4        A         5
&c.  continued until you have one co-efficient more than
there are units in m.
  It follows therefore by these last  Rules, that  a-f hi "*
                             m — 1
= am  + mam — *6 -f  m  X ------x am— *6* ■+■ m
                               2
  m — Iw — 2                    m — 1  m — 2
X-----X-----X a" — 363 + m X ----- x——
      2
   m — 3
X    '   ■ X am — *b* -f, &c. which is the general the-
     4
orem for raising a quantity consisting of two te/ms to any
power m.
  If a quantity consisting of three or more terms is to be
involved, "you may distinguish if info two parts, consid-
ering  it as  a  binomial,  and raise it to any power by the
preceding  Rules; and  then by fhe same rules you may
substitule instead of the powers of these compound parts
their  values."  Thus,
a+6 + c  =  a+6+c  =  a + 6+2c  X a + 6
+ c» = a» -f 2a6 + &» + 2ac  -f 26c -f c*.   And a +
------3   -----3         -----3         ______
&+c  = a-f&-f3c  x a + 6-f-3c2  Xa-f6-fc3 =
a3 -f- 3a2& + 3a62 -f 63 + 3a*c + 6a6c + 36*c -f- 3ac» +
36c3 + c3.
  In these examples, a -f 6 -f c, is considered as compos-
ed of fhe compound part a + 6 and the simple pari c ; and
then the  powers of a -f  6 are formed  by the preceding
rules, and substituted for a-f-6 and a~4-63*

                   OF EVOLUTION.
  The reverse of Involution, or  the resolving of powers
into their roots, is called Evolution.   The roots of single 
                       A L O

quantities are easily extracted by dividing  their expo-
nents by (he  number that denominates the root required.
Thus, the square root of a8 is af =  a4 ; and the  square
root of a4 &•  c* is a»6*c.  The cube root of a6 6 3 is a f
6* = a* b; and the cube root  of  x'y's12 is x3y*s*.
The gi-ound of this rule is obvious from the rule for Inyo-
luii  n.  The powers of anv root are found by multiplying
its exponent by the index that denominates  the  power;
ond  therefore, when any power is given, the root must be
found by dividing  the exponent of the given power by the
number that denominates the kind of root that is required.
  It appears  from what was said of Involution, that "any
power that has a positive sign, may have either a positive
or negative root,  if the root is denominated by any even
number."  Thus the square root of + o* may be + a, or
— a, because -fax  4 a, or — a  X  — a gives 4 a2
for the product.
  But if a power have a negative sign,  " no root of it de-
nominated by an  even number can  be assigned," since
there is  no quantity that multiplied into itself an even
number of times can give a negative  product.  Thus  the
square root of ~-» a* cannot be assigned,  and is what we
call an " impossible or imaginary quantity."
  But if the root to be extracted is denominated by an
odd number, then shall the sign of the root be the same as
the sign of the given number whose root is required. Thus
the cube root of—a3 is --a, and the cube root of—- a663
is —• a*6.
  If  the number  that denominates the root required  is a
divisor of the exponent of the given power, then shall the
root be only a " lower power of the same quantity."   As
the cube root of ala is a4, the number 3 that denominates
the cube root being a divisor of 12.
  But if the number that denominates what sort of root is
required is not a  divisor of the  exponent of the given
power, " then the root required shall have a fraction for
its  exponent."  Thus the square root of a3 is a|;  the
cube root of a5 is af, and the square  root of a itself is a|.
  These powers that have fractional exponents are called
" imperfect powers or surds ;" and are otherwise expressed
by  placing the given power within the radical sign V    j
and  placing above the  radical sign  the number that de-
nominates  what kind of root is required.   Thus
                           m
a| = Va3)0^ ^^a* J and a7* == vV"-   ^nnumbers the
square root of 2 ia expressed by y/2, and, the cube root of
4 by ^4-
  These imperfect powers or surds  are " multiplied and
divided, as other powers, by adding  and subtracting  their
exponents."   Thus,
A L G
ai x af = af = a3;
«!
          X<4 = af4|=a4! = i*/a^n
         af    7—3
     and — —a-----= nf = a2.
         nf      2
  They  are  involved likewise,  and evolved after  the
same manner aa perfect powers.   Thus the square of af
  The square root of any compound  quantit&:*St *},
2a6+62 is discovered after  this manner.   '."•'*
                                                   4
                  ea  after this manner.   '* r*™\'    e.
care to dispose the terms according  to  the dimensions of
the alphabet, as in Division ; then find the square root of
the first term aa, which gives a for the first member of the
root.  Then subtract its square from the proposed quan-
fity, and divide the first term  of the remainder (2a6 -f.
6*) by the double of that  member, vis. 2a, and the  quo-
tient 6 is the second member of the root.  Add this  sec-
ond member to the double of the first, and multiply their
sum (2a 4 6) by the second member 6, and subtract the
product (2a6 + b2) from the foresaid remainder (2 «6 +
6*)and if nothing remains, then the  square root is obtain-
ed ; and in this example it is found to be a + b.
  The manner of the operation is thus:
               a* 4- 2a6 4- 62 (a  + 6
               a8
is a
X * = a* ; the cube of af is a *  X $
= a
T*
The
square root ofaf is a      = af, the cube root of af isaf.
2a 4-^
   X bj
2ab
2ab
+ 62
4&x
2a 4 26 + c\ 2ac + 26c + c *
         X c) 2ac -f 26c -f c*

                 0   .   0.0
               Another Example.
       xx — ax 4 iaa (x — fa
2x~
 X
~ia\—ax -f x
ax -f ±aa
                       0  .  0
  But  if there  had been a remainder, you must have di-
vided it by the double of the sum of the two parts already
found, and the quotient would have given the third mem-
ber of the root.
  Thus, if the quantity proposed had been a2 -f 2a&4
2ac 4 62 4 26c  -f-  c*, after  proceeding as above, you
would have found the remainder 2ac + 26c -f c2, which
divided by 2a -f 26 gives c to be annexed to a -f 6 as the
third member of the  root.   Then adding c to 2a -f 21,
and multiplying their sum 2tt -f 26  4 c by c, subtract the
product 2ac +26c + c* from the foresaid remainder: and
since nothing now remains, you conclude that  a -f b +c
is the square root required.
                The operation is thu3 :
    a2 + 2a6 4 2ac -f 63 -f 2 6c -f c9  (a + 6 -J- c
    a*

 2a 4 6\2a6 + 2ac 4  62 4 26c + c2
    X 6/2a6       +6*
  In general, to extract any root out of any riven quan-
tity, "First range that quantity according fofhe dimeo-
sions of its  letters, and extract the said root out  of the
first term, and that shall  be the first member of the root
required.  Then  raise  this root to a dimension lower by
unit than the number that denominates the root renuired
and multiply the power that arises by that number itself!
divide the second term  of the given quantify by the prod 
A L G
A L G
uct, and the quotient shall give the second member of the
root required."
  Thus, to extract the root of the 5th power out of a1 4
5a46 4. 10a36x  + 10a*6s -f 5a64 4- 6«, I find that the
root of the 5th power  out of a5 gives a, which I raise to
the 4th power, and multiplying by 5,  the product is 5a4;
then dividing the second term of the given quantity 5a46
by 5a4, I find 6 to be the second member; and raising a
4 6 to  the 5th power, and subtracting it, there being no
remainder, I conclude that a + 6 is the root required.  If
the root has three members, the third is found after the
same manner  from  the first two considered as one mem-
ber, as the second member was found from the first; which
may be easily understood from what was said of extract-
ing the square root.
  In extracting roots it will often happen that the exact
root cannot be found in finite terms; thus the square root of
                            x2   x*     x6    5x8
a  -f- x*  is found to be a +----------1--------------
+ &c#                      2a   8a1   16a5  128a'

                The operation is thus:
                     x*   x*     x*
       a* 4- x* (a 4--------1-------, &c.
                    2a   8a3    16as
       a1
      x\
2a-\---)  4- x*
      2a'
      x*.         x4
   X  —)  = x* +---
      2a'         4a2
     x-3    X4 v    x4
2a+-------)-----
      a    8a3/    4a*
      x4 N       x4     x6    a;8

     8a3'      4a*    8a4   64a«
                      x6     x8
                   +-------,&c.
                     8«4   64a6
  After fhe same manner, the cube root of a3 -f x3 will
                    x3    x6      5x9      lOx1*
be found to be a +-----------f-------.      +,
&c.                3az   9afi     81a8     243a1f
  "The general theorem which we gave for fhe involu-
tion of binomials, will serve also for their evolution;"  be-
cause,  fo extract any root of a given quantity, is the same
ihi!)'! as to raise that quantify Id a power whose exponent
is a (':  tction that has its denominator equal to the number
that expresses what kind of root is to be extracted. Thus,
fo extract fhe square root of a -f 6 is to raise a 4 6 to a
                                      -----m    m
power  whose exponent.is f.   Now, sine* a  + 6 = a
                       m — 1                 m — 1
-f mi x a'" — *  l> 4- m X------u7:l — * b2 4 m  x .------
   m — 2                '2                      2
X-------X «'" ~ :b3, Sec.
     • j
  VOL. !.           I 2
   OL. T.           V2
  •Supposing m = f, you will find a 46)* = «f 4 I X

a""H + fX — £Xa  ~* 62 + f X — f X — f a~*
                b      6*      63
63, &c.  = af 4---------+-------, Sec.
              2af   8af    16a£      ______i
  And after this manner you will find that o*+xM  = a 4-
X*    X4     x6
— —.-----1- ■  •   —, &c. as before.
2a    8a3   16a5
                   OF PROPORTION.
  When quantities of the same kind are compared, it may
be considered either how much the one is greater than the
other, and what is their  difference;  or, it may be consid-
ered how  many times the one is contained in the other,
or, more generally, what is their quotient.  The first re-
lation of quantities is expressed by their arithmetical ratio ;
the second by their geometrical ratio.   That term whose
ratio is  inquired into is called the Antecedent, and that
with which it is compared is called the Consequent.
  When of four quantities, the difference betwixt the first
and second is equal to the difference betwixt the third ancT
fourth,  those quantities are called  Arithmetical Propor-
tionals; as the numbers  3, 7, 12, 16 ;  and the quantities
a, a + 6, e, e -f 6.  But quantities form a series in Arith-
metical Proportion, when they "increase or decrease  by
the same  constant difference;" as these, a, a 4 b, a -f
26, a 4 36, a  -f-  46, &c.  x,  x — 6, x — 26, &c. or the
numbers 1,2,3,4,5, &c. and 10, 7,4, 1,-2, — 5, — 8,
&c.
  In four quantities arithmetically proportional, " the
sum  of the  extremes is  equal  to  the sum of the mean
terms."  Thus, a, a + 6, e, e + 6, are arithmetical pro-
portionals, and the sum of the extremes,  (a 4 e + 6) is
equal to the sum of the mean terms (o+6-f e.) Hence,
to find the fourth  quantity arithmetically proportional to
any three given quantities; "add the second and third,
and from their sum subtract the  first term, the remainder
shall give the fourth arithmetical proportional required."
  In a series of arithmetical proportionals, " the sum of
the first and last terms is equal to  the sum of any two
terms equally  distant from the extremes."   If the first
terms are  a, a + 6, a -f 26, Sec. and the last term x, the
last term but one will be x — 6, the last but two x —  26,
the last  but three x —  36, &c.  So that the first half of
the terms, having  those lhat are equally distant from the
last term set under them, will stand thus :
          a, a -f-  6, a -f- 26, a + 36, a -f- 46, &c.
            x — 6, x — 26, x — 36, x — 46,
      a -f- x, a 4- x, a -f x, a 4 x, a 4- x, &c.
  And it  is plain that if each term be added fo the term
above it, the sum will be  a -f x, equal to fhe sum of the
first term a, and the last term x.   From which it is plain,
that "the sum of all the  terms of an arithmetical progres-
sion is equal to the sum of the first and list I-hen half  as
often as there are term.-'," that is, the sum of an arithmet-
ical progression is equaltothesum ofthe f'r.st and last terms
multiplied  by half  the  number of tonus.  Thus, in the
preceding se;i«:s, if n be fhe number of terms, the sum of
all the terms will be a -f >•  x  li. 
A L  G
AL G
  The common difference of the terms being 6, and 6 not
being found in the first term, it is  plain that " its co-effi-
cient in any term will be equal to the number of terms that
precede that  term."   Therefore,  in the last term x, you
must have  n—1  X  6, so that x must be equal to a 4
             And the sum of all the terms being a + x X
                                              nb — 6
» — 1 X 6.
^, it will also be equal to 2an 4- n*b — nb
-, or to a 4
                                                2
 X n.  Thus, for example, the  series 1 +2+3+  4
 + 5, &c.  continued to a  hundred, must  be equal to
 2 X 100 + 10000 — 100
 -----------------------= 5050.
           2
  If a series have (0) nothing for its first term, then " its
 sum shall  be equal to  half the product of the last term
 multiplied by the number of terms."  For then, a being
 = 0, the sum of the terms, which is in general a + x X
 n, will in this case be ^£.   From which it is evident, that
 X                   2
 " the sum of any number of arithmetical proportionals
beginning  from nothing, is equal to half  the  sum of as
many terms each equal  to the greatest term."  Thus,
   0 + 1+2 + 3 + 4 + 5 + 6 + T + 8 + 9
   9 + 9+9+9+9+9+9 + 9+9+9    10X9

                   2                       2
  « If of four quantifies the quotient of the first and sec-
 ond be equal to the  quotient of the third and fourth, then
 those quantities are said to be in geometrical proportion."
 Such are  the numbers 2, 6, 4, 12; and the quantities a,
 ar, 6, 6r;  which are expressed after this manner j
                 2 :  6  :: 4 :  12.
                 a '.  ar \\ b \  br.
 And you read them by saying, As 2 is to 6, so is 4 to 12;
 or as a is to ar, so is 6 to br.
  In four quantities  geometrically  proportional,  "the
product of the  extremes  is equal to the product of the
 middle terms."   Thus, a X br  = ar X 6.  And, if it  is
 required to find a fourth proportional to any three given
 quantities, "multiply  the  second by the third, and di-
 vide their product by the first, the quotient shall give the
 fourth  proportional required."   Thus, to find  a  fourth
proportional to a, ar, and 6, I multiply ar by 6, and di-
 vide the product ar6 by the first term a,  the quotient br
 is fhe fourth proportional required.
  When a series of quantities increase by one common
 multiplicator, or decrease by one common divisor, they
 are said to be in " geometrical proportion continued."
                                             a   a
   ASjfl, ar, ar1, ar2, ar4, ars, &c.  or,  a,  —, ----,
 u     a    a                                r   ra

 r3   r4    r5
  The common multiplier or divisor is called their  "com-
 -ion ratio."
  In such a series, " the .product of the first and last is al-
 ways equal to the  product of the  second and  last but
 one, or  fo the product of any two terms  equally remote
 from the extremes."  In the series a, ar, ar*, ar3, &c.  if
 ■u be the last trvrn. then shall the four last terms of the se-
          y   y   y                       *,,--»*
ries be y, —, —,  —; now it  is plain that a X y — «r

   y           y       .    y
X — = ar» X  —- = a*"4  X —, &c.
   r           r*          r3
  " The sum of a series of geometrical proportionals want-
ing the first term, is equal to the sum of all but the last
term multiplied by the common ratio."
                               y     y     y
For  ar + ar%  +  ar3,  Sec. +— +----1----+ y =
                              /v.3    «• *     «•
                          y    y     y    y
r X a +ar+ ar%, Sec. -\------1-----1-----1----.
                          «>4    «r>3    jf.*     <f
  Therefore, if s be the sum of the series, s — a will be
equal to s—y X r; that is, s — a =  sr —yr, or sr —
                      yr — a
s = yr — a, and s  =
.#
r — 1
  Since the exponent of r is always increasing from the
second term, if the number of terms be n in the last term

its exponent will be n — 1^  Therefore y = ar      •
               n__l  + 1       n            /yr— a\
and yr  =  ar              —ar ; and s = [———.)
                                            W— 1'
    ar* — a
=---------.  So that having the first term of the series,
    r — 1
the number of the terms, and the common ratio, you may
easily find the sum of all the  terms.
  If it is a decreasing series, whose sum is to be found as
      y    y    y
of2/ H-----1-----1----> &c. + ar3  + ar2 + ar + a, and

the number of the terms be supposed infinite, then shall
a, the last term, be equal to nothing.  For, because n, and
              w—i                  y
consequently r     , is infinite, a =-----  = 0.  The
                                  rn—1
                            yr
sum of such  a series s  =-----; which is a finite stim,
                          r—1
though the number of terms be infinite.  Thus,
                                    1X2
     1 + 1 4 \ + | +tV, 4- &c = ,----= 2.
                                    2 — 1
                                    1X3
and 1 + f +  f + ,«T + Tlj. + Sec. =------ =  s,
                                    3—1
                   OF EQUATIONS.
  Definit. 1. An  Equation is a proposition asserting the
equality of two quantifies, and is expressed by placing the
sign =  between them.                       *
  Definit. 2. Equations  containing only one unknown
quantity and its powers, are divided into orders, accord-
ing to the highest power of the unknown quantity to be
found in any of its terms.

    See the  Rules under the next general head 
A L G
A L G
  If the highest power
of the unknown quanti-
ty in  any term be  the
The e-
quation
is called
Simple,
Quadrat,
Cubic, &c.
  But the exponents of the unknown quantities are suppos-
  ed to  be integers,  and the equation is  supposed to be
  cleared of fractions, in which the unknown quantity, or
  any of its powers, enter the denominators.   Thus, x  + a
     3x—6                             5
  =------- is  a simple  equation; 3x — — =  12, when
      c                               2x
  cleared of the fraction by multiplying both sides by 2x,
  becomes Qx* — 5 = 24x a quadratic ; x3 — 2a;4 = x*
  -—20  is an equation of the sixth order, &c.
    To  resolve an equation is to find the value of  the un-
  known term in known terms.
     OP SIMPLE EQUATIONS,  AND THEIR RESOLUTIONS.
    Rule 1.  Any quantity  may  be  transposed from one
  side of an equation to the other, by changing its sign.
        Thus, if  3x ~ 10  = 2x + 5
        Then,    3x — 2a? =  10 +5 or x =15
        Thus also, 5x +  6=  a  + 2x
        By transp. 3x =  a —  6.
  For equal quantities are thus added to or subtracted from
  both sides.
    Corol. The signs  of al! the terms of an equation  may
  be changed into the  contrary signs, and it will continue to
  be true.
   Rule 2. Any quantity by which the unknown quantity
 is multiplied maybe taken away, by dividing all the other
 quantities of the equation by it.
            Thus, if ax = 6
                         6

                         a
            Also, if mx + nb = am
                         nb
                    x -\---— a.
                         m
 For if  equal quantities are divided by the same quantity,
 the quotients are equal.
   Rule 3. If a term of an equation is fractional, its denom-
 inator may be taken away by multiply ing all the other terms
 by it.
           x                        6
   Thus; if— = b + c   Also, if a-----= c
           a                        x
           x = a6 + ac       ax — 6 = ex
              And by trans,   ax—ex = 6
                             6
           And by div. x =----.
                            a—^c
   For,  if all the terms of the equation are multiplied by
 the  same quantity, the quantities on each side will be
 equal.
  Corol. If any quantity be  found on both  sides of the
 equation, with (he same sign,  it may be taken away from
 both.
  Also, if all the terms in the equation are multiplied or di-
vided by the same quantity, it may be taken out of them
all.
                    12 *
                     EXAMPLE.
   If 3x + a = a + 6, then 3* = 6.
 If 2ax + 3a6 = ma + a8, then 2a? + 36 = m + a.
      x    4.    16
   If-------=  —, then x — 4 = 16.
      3    3     3
   By these  rules the unknown term  may be separated
 from the known, and the equation is resolved.
  Examples of simple equations resolved by these rules.
           If3x  +5 =x + 9
                  2x = 4
                       4
                  x = —- =  2.
                       2
             5x         4x
     U5x-----1- 12 =---f- 26
             2           3
             5x   Ax
       5x----------= 26 — 12 = 14
              2    3
      30a?— 15a; — 8a; = 84.
             Or   7x = 84
                         84
                    x = —  = 12.
                          7
             5     9
          If----1- — = 16
             x    A
                 20
                 ---h 9 = 64
                  x
                 20 + 9a? =  64a;
                       20 =  64* —. 9a; = 55a:
                             20     4

                             55     11
SOLUTION OP QUESTIONS PRODUCING SIMPLE EQUATIONS.
  General Rule.   The unknown quantities in the ques-
tion proposed must be expressed by letters, and the re-
lations of the known and unknown  quantities  contained
in it, or the conditions of it, as they are called, must be ex-
pressed by equations. These  equations  being resolved,
give the answer to the question.
  For example, if the question is concerning two numbers,
they may be called  x  and y,  and the conditions from
which they are to be investigated must be expressible by
equations.
Thus, if  it be required that the sum }
  of two numbers  sought be 60, that > a? + y = 60
  condition is expressed thus :    }
If their  difference must be 24, then
If their product is 1640, then
If their quotient must be 6, then
 x — y =24
xy = 1640
 x
 — = 6.
 y
Case 1.   When there is only one unknown quantify to be
                        found.
  Rule. An equation involving the unknown quantity
must be deduced  from  the  question; and  it is obvious, 
                      A L G

that, when there is only one unknown quantity,  there
must be only one independent equation contained in  the
question ;  for any other would be unnecessary, and might
be contradictory to the former.
  Ex. 1.  To find a number, to which if there be added a
half, a third part, and a fourth part of itself, the sum will
be 50.
                            S               2
  Let it be s: then half of it is —, a third of it is —, &c.
                            2               3
                 s     s    s
  Therefore, s  +----h — H---= 50
                 2     3    4
            24s + 12s + 8s + 6s = 1200
                              50s = 1200
                                s = 24.
   Case II. When there are two unknown quantities.
  Rule.  Two independent equations involving the  two
unknown quantities, must be  derived from the question.
A value of one of the unknown quantities must be derived
from each of the equations; and these two values being
put equal to each other, a new equation will arise, involv-
ing only one unknown quantity.
  Ex. 2. Two persons, A and B,  were talking of their
ages; says A to B, Seven years ago I was just three times
as old  as you were,  and seven years hence  I shall be
just twice as old as you will be.  I demand their present
ages.
  Let the ages  of A and  B be x and y, then seven years
ago their ages were  x — 7  and y — 7; and seven years
hence they will be x  + 7 and  y + 7;  therefore
         x — 7— ~y^~7 X 3 = 3y — 21
         .c+7=2/ + 7x2 = 2#+14
         x = 3y — 21 + 7 = 3y — 14
         x  =  2y+ 14— 7 = 2*/ +7
    Therefore  3y — 14 = 2y + 7
               y = 21, and
               x = 49
   Ex. 3.  A gentleman distributing money among some
 poor  people, found he wanted 10s. to be able to give 5s. to
 each; therefore he gives each 4s. only, and finds he has
 $s. left.   To find the number of shillings and poor people.
   If  any question such as this, in which there are two
 quantities sought, can be resolved by means of one letter,
 the solution is in general more simple than when two are
 employed.  There must be, however, two  independent
 conditions; one of which is used in the notation of one of
 the unknown quantities, and the other gives an equation.
   Let the number of poor  be s, then the. number of shil-
 lings will  be  5s —  10, and  also 4s + 5; therefore,
 5S _ 10  = 4s + 5
  s — 15, equal the  number of poor, of course the num-
 ber of shillings is 65.

 Case III. When there are three or more unknown quanti-
                          ties.
   Rule. When there are three unknown quantities, there
 must be  three, independent  equations arising from the
 question; and from  each  of these a value  of one of the
 unknown  quantities  must  be obtained.  By  comparing
 these three values, two equations will arise, involving only
 two unknown  quantities; and in like manner may the rule
                       A L G

be extended to such questions as contain four or' |"or*j" "
known quantities.  Hence it may be inferred,  V1" ™"
just as many independent equations may be  derrvea irom
a question  as  there are unknown quantities m if, inese
quantities may be found by the resolution of equ*t,ons-
  Ex. 4. To find three numbers, so  that the  first with
half the  other two, the second with one  third of the other
two, and the third with one fourth of the other two, may
each be equal to 34.                             .  ,
  Let the numbers be x, y, z, and the equations will be

          y + s
    x +  ----= 34
           2
          x + s
    y + ---- = 34
            3
          x + y
    s + _____= 34; then, by the first equation
            4
          68 —y — s
    x =------------ ', and by the second
                2
    x = 102 — 3y — s ; and by  the third
    x = 136 — A%—y; therefore
           68—y — s
          ------------=102 —  3y — 3
                2
          136 — s
    y =--------; and by the two latter equations
              5
           3s —34
    y =         ■■, therefore,
              2
     3s—.34    136 —s
       2         5
    15s —170 = 272 —2s
           17s = 442, or s =26
             y =22, and x = 10.
  On many occasions, by particular contrivances, the op-
erations by the preceding rules may be much abridged*
This, however, must be left to the skill and practice of the
learner.  A few examples are the following.
  1. It is often easy to  employ fewer letters than there
are unknown  quantities, by expressing some of them from
a simple relation to others contained in the conditions of
the question.
  2. Sometimes it is convenient to express by letters, not
the unknown  quantities themselves, but some other quanti-
ties connected with them, as their sum, difference, &c
from which they may be easily derived.
  3.  In the  operation, also, circumstances will suggest a
more easy road than that pointed out by the general rules.
Two of the original equations  may be added together, or
may be subtracted; sometimes they must be previously
multiplied  by some  quantity, to render  such addition or
subtraction effectual, in exterminating one of the unknown
quantities, or otherwise promoting the solution.  Substi-
tutions may be made of the values of quantities, in place of
quantities  themselves;  and  various  other such  contri-
vances may be used, which will render the solution much
less complicated. 
A L G
A L G
          GENERAL SOLUTION OF PROBLEMS.
  In the solutions of the questions  in the preceding part,
the-given quantities, being numbers, disappear in the last
codflusion, so that no  general rules for like  cases can be
deduced from them.  But if letters are used to  denote
the known quantities,  as  well as the unknown, a general
solution may be obtained, because,  during the whole
course of  the operation, they retain their original form.
Hence also the connection of the quantities will appear in
such a manner as to discover the necessary limitations of
the data, when there are any, which is necessary to the
perfect solution of a problem.
Ex. 1. To find two numbers, of which the sum and differ-
                   ence are given.
  Let s be the sum given,  and d  the given difference*
Also, let x and y be the two numbers sought.
                     x+y = s
                     a;—y = d

           Whence \*= !»7V
                   \x~ d + y
                 d+y=s—y
                   2y = s —- d
                         s — d
And x =
 2
8 + d
   Thus, let the gu/en sum be 100, and the difference 24.
                       s + d   124
             Then x =(----= —  = \62
                      V  2      2    /
                       (s — d   76   \
                       ----= —  = ]38
                         2     2/
         Equations are either pure or adfected.
   Definit.  1. A pure  equation  is that in which only one
power of the  unknown quantity is found.
   2. An adfected equation is that in which different pow-
ers of the  unknown quantity are found  in the  several
terms.   Thus,
ax
- m% + x5
                      , are pure equa-

;3 -\-x% =  17, are adfected equations.
a* + ax2 = ¥
tions.
x*— ax = &3,

           SOLUTION OF PURE EQUATIONS.
  Rule.  Make the power of the unknown quantity to
stand alone by  the rules formerly given, and then extract
the root of the  same denomination out  of  both  sides,
which will give the value of the unknown quantity.

                     examples.
If a1 + ax* =fts
        ax* = 6s —a*
              b3 —a2
        x* =-------
i=t/
/F~=V
axm — b = xm — c
axm — xm = b  — c
            b  —c

            a  — 1
a?= If
    SOLUTION OF ADFECTED QUADRATIC EQUATIONS
   An  adfected  quadratic  equation, commonly called a
 quadratic,  involves the unknown quantity itself, and also
 its square:
   Rule 1. Transpose all the terms involving the unknown
 quantity to one side, and the known terms to the other ;
 and so that the term containing the square of the unknown
 quantity may be positive.
   2. If the square of the unknown quantity is multiplied
 bf any co-efficient, all the terms of the equation are to be
 divided by if, so that the co-efficient of the  square of the
 unknown quantity may be 1.
   3. Add to both sides the square of half the co-efficient
 of the unknown quantity, and the side of the equation in-
 volving the unknown quantity will be a complete square.
   4. Extract the square root from both sides of the equa-
 tion, and by transposing the above mentioned half co-ef-
 ficient,  a value of the  unknown quantity is obtained  in
 known terms.
   The  reason of  this rule is manifest from  the composi-
 tion of the  square of a  binomial,  for it  consists of the
 squares of the two parts, and twice the product of the two
parts.
  The different forms of quadratic equations, expressed
 in general terms,  being reduced by the first and second
 parts of the rule, are these:
         1. x* + ax =  6*
         2. x* —ax —  6*
         3. x* — ax — — 6*
    Casel. x* +  ox = 6*
                       o2         aa
           x* + ax H---= 6* -J---
                       4          4
                        a*    a
        x — ±  V 6* 4-----
                        4    2
Case2. a;1 —aa; = 6*
                   a*         a*
       x* — aa? H---= bz -j---
                   4          4
             a         /""     a*
       *----= ±  V   o*4 —
             2                 4
             a         /^    a''
        x — —  4    y/   6s + —
             2                 4
Case 3.x* — ax = — b2
                 a2    a2
      x2— a2 -\---=----b2
     a         /a*
x----= ± V----b
     ^            4
a — l
     a      /^ar~
x" = — ± yf-----0a.
     2        4 
ALG
A L G
   1. Every quadratic equation  will have two roots, ex-
cept such of the third form whose roots become impos-
sible.
   2. In the  two first forms, one of the roots must be pos-
itive, and the other negative.
                        a2
   3. In the third form, if —, or the square  of half of the
                         4
co-efficient of the unknown quantity,  be  greater than b2,
                                                  a3
the known quantity,  the two roots will be positive.  If —

                                                a2
be equal to b2, the two  roots become equal; but if — is
                                                4
less than ft2,  the quantity under the radical sign becomes
negative, and the two roots are impossible.
  4. If the equation express the relation of magnitudes
abstractly considered, where a contrariety cannot be sup-
posed  to  take place, the negative roots cannot be of use,
or rather  there are no  such roots; for  then  a negative
quantity by  itself  is unintelligible,  and  therefore the
square root of a positive quantity must be positive only.

SOLUTION  OF QUESTIONS PRODUCING  QUADRATIC EQUA-
                       TIONS.
  The expression of the conditions of the question by
equations, or the stating of it, and the reduction likewise
of these equations, till we arrive at a  quadratic equation,
involving only one unknown quantity and its square, are
effected by the same rules which were given for the solu-
tion of simple equations.
  Ex. 1. One lays out a certain sum  of money in goods,
which he sold again for 241. and  gained as much per cent.
as the goods cost him: I demand what they cost him 1
  If the money laid out be y
  The gain will be 24 — y
  But  this gain is  ) 2400 — 100^
                    —————per cent.
(y I 24 — y  :
100)

Therefore by
  question
y =
 y
2400 — WOy
y
  And by mult, and tr. y2 + 100t/ = 2400
  Completing the > y2 +  lOOy + 56V = 2400
     square      $    + 25^0 = 4900
  Extract the root   y + 50 = _+ yMyoo = 70
  Trans.       -   y =* j4- 70 — 50 = 20, or — 120.
  The answer is 20/.  which succeeds.  The other root,
— 120, has no place in this example, a negative number
being here unintelligible.
  To find two numbers whose sum is 100, and whose prod-
uct is 2059.
  Ex.  2.  Let the  given sum 100  =  a, the  product
2059 = b, and let one of the numbers  sought be x, the
other will be a — x.  Their product is ax — x2.
  Therefore     ax — x2 = 6, or x* — ax =__6
                           a2   a*
  Compl. the sq. r* — ax H----=-----b,
                            4     4
  Ext.  V"~


  Transp.


  And the other
    number

  By inserting numbers,  x = 71 or 29, and a —x = 29
or 71, so that the two numbers sought are  71 and 29.
  Here it  is to be  observed, that b must not be greater
     a*
than —, else the roots of the equation would be impossi-
     4
ble ; that is,  the given product must not  be greater than
the  square of half the given sum of the numbers sought.
This limitation can easily be shown from other principles;
for the  greatest possible product of two parts into which
any number may  be  divided, is,  when each of them is a
                           a*
half of if.  If b be equal to —, there is only one solution,
                           4
         a                 a
and x = —, also a — x = —.
         2                 2
            OF INDETERMINATE PROBLEMS.
  It may be  observed, that if  there are  more unknown
quantities in a question than equations, by  which their re-
lations are  expressed, it is  indetermined.  In other cir-
cumstances, such problems are resolved by various meth-
ods, not to  be comprehended in general rules.
  Ex. 1. To divide a given square number into two parts,
each of which shall be a square number.
  There are  two  quantities sought in this question,  and
there is only one equation expressing their relation; but
it is required  also that they may be rational,  which cir-
cumstance cannot be  expressed by an equation ; another
condition therefore must be assumed, in such a manner as
to obtain a solution in rational numbers.
  Let the  given square be a2 ;  let one of  the
sought be x», the other is a8 —x*.
a side of the last square, therefore
               rax2  — 2rxa + a2
            squares
Let rx — a also be
By transp.
Divide by x

Therefore
r'x-
r2x
And
2r
rx
a =
r2 + 1
2ra
r2 + 1
 2 Let r therefore be  assumed  at  pleasure, and

-^-j--a, which must  always be rational, Mill be the sides

of the two squares required.
  Thus, if a2 = 100 ;  then, if r = 3, the sides of the two
squares are 6 and 8, for 36 + 64 = 100
  Also, let a2 = 64.   Then, if r = 2,' fhe sides of the 
ALG
ALG
            32     24      1024   576    1600
  squares are — and —; and —— +    . = ——. = 64.
            5      5        25     25     25
    The  reason of the assumption of rx — a as  a  side of
  the square a2 — x%, is, that being squared and put equal
  fo this last,  the equation  manifestly will be simple, and
  the root of such an equation is always rational.
    Ex.  2. To find two square numbers whose difference
  is given.
    Let x2  and y2 be the square  numbers,  and a  their dif-
  ference.
                s + V           S— V
           Put------=  x, and------= y
                   2                2
                   s2  -\-2sv + v2

                          4
                   s2 — 2sv + v2
                  --------------= 3,*
                          4
                   zv = x% — y2 = a.
   If a; and y are required  only to be rational, then take
                      a
 v at pleasure, and x = —,  whence x and y are known.
                      v
   But if x and y are required to be whole numbers, take
 for s and v any  two factors that produce a,  and are both
 even or both odd  numbers.  And this is possible only
 where a is either an odd number greater than 1, or a num-
 ber divisible by  4.
         S + V     3-- V
   Then -----and------are the numbers sought.
           2          2
   For the product of two odd numbers is odd, and that of
 two even numbers  is divisible by 4. Also if s and v are
                       S + V      3 --V
 both odd or  both even,------and------must be inte-
 gers.                     2          2
   Ex. 1.  If a = 27, take  v = 1, then  s = 27; and the
 squares are 196 and 169.  Or s may be 9, and v = 3, and
 then the squares are 36 and 9.
   2.  If a =  12, take v = 2, and s =' 6; and the squares
 are 16 and 4.

 OF THE ORIGIN AND COMPOSITION OF EQUATIONS ; AND OF
     THE SIGNS AND CO-EFFICIENTS OF THEIR TERMS.
   The higher orders of equations, and their  general af-
 fections, are best investigated by considering their origin
 from the combination of inferior equations.
   In this general method,  all  the terms of any  equation
 are brought to one side, and the equation is expressed by
 making them equal to 0.  Therefore, if a root of the equa-
 tion be inserted instead of (x) the unknown quantity, the
 positive terms will be equal to the negative, and the whole
 must be  equal to 0.
   Definit.  When any equation is  puf into this form, the
 term in which (ar) fhe unknown quantity  is of the highest
 power  h made fhe first, that in which fhe index of a; is less
 by 1 is the second, and soon, till the last  info which fhe
 unknown quantity does not enter, and which is called the
absolute  term.
   Prop. 1.   If any number  of equations be multiplied to-
gether, an equation will  be produced of which the dimen-
 sion  is equal to the  sum of the dimensions of the t^iia
 tions multiplied.
   If any number of simple equations be multiplied togeth-
 er, as a? — a = 0, a? — b = 0, x — c = 0, &c. the prod-
 uct will be an equation of a dimension, containing as many
 units as there are  simple equations.   In like manner, if
 higher equations are multiplied together, as a cubic and a
 quadratic, one of the fifth order is produced, and so on.
   Conversely.  An equation of any dimension is consider-
 ed as compounded either of simple equations, or of  other
 such that the sum of their dimensions  is equal to the di-
 mension of the given one.   By the resolution of equations
 these inferior equations are discovered, and by investigat-
 ing the component simple equations, the roots of any high-
 er equation are found.
   Cor. 1.  An  equation admits of  as many solutions, or
 has as many roots, as there are simple equations  which
 compose it.
   Cor. 2.  And conversely  no  equation  can  have  more
 roots than it has dimensions.
   Cor. 3. Imaginary or impossible roots must enter  an
 equation by pairs j for they arise from quadratics, in  which
 both the roots are such.  And an equation of  an even di-
 mension may have  all its roots, or any even  number of
 them, impossible; but an equation of an  odd  dimension
 must at least  have one possible root.
   Cor. 4. The roots  are either positive or negative, ac-
 cording as the roots of the simple equations, from which
 they are produced, are positive or negative.
   Cor. 5. When  one root of  an  equation is discovered,
 one of the simple equations is found, from which the given
 one is compounded.  The given equation, therefore, be-
 ing divided by this  simple equation, will give an equation
 of a dimension lower by 1.
  Prop. II. To explain the general properties of the signs
 and co-efficienfs of the terms of an equation.
  Let x — a = 0, x — &  = 0, x — c = 0, x — d= 0,
 &c. be simple equations, of which  the roots are any pos-
itive  quantities + a, + b, + c, + d, Sec.  and let x + m
 = 0, x + n = 0, &c.  be simple equations, of  which the
roots  are any negative quantities — m, — n, and let any
number of  these equations be multiplied together, as in
 the following  table:
     x — a = 0
   Xx — 6 =0
-ZZ+abl^O'*^"'"-
Xx — c  =0
= x3 —a}      + ab )
     — b > x x2+ ac> xx — abc = 0, a Cubic.
     — c)      + be 3

Xx — m = 0

^-ar*— a"\      + aM

     -c  rxa  4-6cl     ,+flfc,„ I  x'-«';?'

                _6m|      m bcmj  quadratic.
                — cm J 
ALG
ALG
  From this table it is plain,
  1. That in a complete equation the number of terms is
always greater by unit than the dimension of the equation.
  2. The co-efficient of the first term is  1.
  The co-efficient of the second term is the sum of all the
roots (a, b, c, m, Sec.) with their signs changed.
  The co-efficient of the third term is the sum of  all the
products that can be made by multiplying any two of the
roots together.
  The co-efficient of the fourth term is the sum of all the
products which can be made by multiplying together any
three of the roots with their  signs changed;  and so of
others.
  The last term is the product of all the roots, with their
signs changed.
  3. From induction it appears, that in any equation, the
terms being regularly arranged as  in the preceding exam-
ple, thereare as many positive roots as there are changes
iu the signs of the terms from + to —, and from — to +;
and the remaining roots are negative.  The rule also  may
be demonstrated.
  Note. The impossible roots in  this rule  are  supposed
to be either positive or negative.
  Cor. If a term of  an equation is wanting, the positive
and negative parts of  its co-efficient must then be equal.
If there is no absolute  term, some of the roots  = 0, and
the equation  may be depressed by dividing all the terms
by the lowest  power of the unknown quantity in any of
them.  In this case also, x — 0=0, x — 0 = 0, &c. may
be considered as so many of the component simple equa-
tions, by which  the  given equation being divided, it will
be depressed so many degrees.

       OF THE  TRANSFORMATION OF EQUATIONS.
  Prop. I.  The affirmative roots  of an equation become
negative, and the negative become affirmative, by chang-
ing the signs of the alternate terms, beginning with the
second.
  Thus the roofs of the equation x4 — x3 —19a?*  + 49x
— 30 = 0, are  + 1, + 2, + 3, — 5, whereas the roots
of the equation  x4 + x3 — 19x2  — 49x — 30  = 0, are
— 1, — 2, — 3, + 5.
  The reason of this is derived from the composition of
the co-efficients of these terms, which consist of combi-
nations of odd  numbers of  the roots, as  explained in the
preceding head.
  Prop. II. An equation may be transformed into  anoth-
er that shall have its roots greater or less  than the roots
of the given equation by some given difference.
  Let^e be the given difference ;  then y = x + e, and x
= V +_£_> and 'f f°r x  and its powers  in the given equa-
tion, y + e and its powers be inserted, a new equation will
arise, in  which the unknown quantity is y, and its value
will be a; + c.
  Let the equation proposed be x3 —px2 + ^x —r =0,
of which the roofs must  be  diminished by  e.  By insert-
ing for a- and  its  powers y + e and its powers, the equa-
tion required is,
— Tb
= 0.
  Cor. 1. The use of this transformation is to take away
the second,  or any other intermediate  term; tor as tHe
co-efficients of  all the terms of the transformed equation,
except the first, Involve the powers of e, and known quan-
tities only, by putting the co-efficient of any  term equal
to 0, and resolving that equation, a value of e may be de-
termined, which being substituted, will make that term to
vanish.
  Thus let the co-efficient 3* — p  — 0, and e = \p, which
being substituted for e, the new equation will want the
second term.  And universally the co-efficient of the first
term of an equation of n dimensions being 1, the second

term may be taken away, by supposing x = y ± —p.
                                              n
  Cor. 2. The second  term may be taken away by the
solution of a simple equation, the third by the solution of
a quadratic, and so on.
  Prop. III. An equation may be transformed into anoth-
er, of which the roots shall be  equal to the roots of the
given equation, multiplied or divided by a given quantity.
                      x
  Let y  = xe, or y = —.
                      e              y
  Then substitute for x and its powers, —• or  ye and its
                                      e
powers,  and the new equation  will have the property re-
quired.
  Cor. 1. An   equation,  in  which the co-efficient of fhe
first term is any known quantity, as a, may thus be trans-
formed into another,  in which the co-efficient of the first
term shall be unit.   Thus, let the equation be aa?3 — px1
+ qx — r = 0.
                           y
  Suppose y = ax, or x = —,  and for x and its powers
      y                    a                   if
insert — and its powers,  and the equation becomes ■——
      a                                        a2
py2   qy
—« H----— r = 0, ory3 —py2 + qay — a2r  = 0.
a2    a
  Cor. 2. If there are fractions in an equation, they may
be taken  away, by multiplying the equation by the denom-
inators, and by this proposition the equation may then be
transformed  into another,  without fractions, in which the
co-efficient of  the first term is 1.   In like manner may a
surd co-efficient be taken away in certain cases.
  Cor.  3. Hence also, if the co-efficient of  the second
term of a cubic equation is not divisible by 3, the fractia«t
thence  arising in the transformed equation wanting the
second term,  may be  taken away by the preceding corol-
 u  ' uBut the second term a'30 raa7 be taken away, so
that there shall be  no such fractions in the  transformed
                           % + V
equation, by supposing x =-------, + p being the co-
                             3             to
efficient of the second term of the given equation.   And
d the equation ax3 — px2  + qX ~ r  =  0, be  ?iven, ia

which;; is not  divisible by 3,  by supposing x = ~   --,

the  i
.        r                                       3a
he  transformer  equation reduced isc3 — 3tt*~'.  <)nn
:--2^» +9W-7«*r = 0;  v.--]„g the  ^cond ter
 X
I':'U< 
A L I
A L  I
 having 1 for the co-efficient of  the first term, and the co-
 efficients of the other terms being all integers, the co-effi-
 cients of the given equation being also supposed integers.

          General Corollary to Prop. I, II, III.
    If  the roots of any of these transformed equations be
 found by any method, the  roots of the original equation,
 from which they were derived, will easily be found from
 the simple equations  expressing their relation.   Thus,
 if 8 is  found to be  a root of the  transformed equation
                                    s+2
 z* + 23* — 696 = 0.  Since x =-------, the  corres-
                                      5
 ponding root of the given equation 5x3 — 6xx + 7x— 30
               8 + 2
[ = 0, must be      ■  = 2.  It is to be observed also, that
                 5
 the reasoning in Prop. II. and III. and the Corollaries, may
 be extended to any  order  of equations,  though in them
1 it is applied chiefly to cubics.
1   From the  preceding principles and operations,  rules
 may be derived for resolving equations of all orders.
    ALGENEB, a fixed star of the second magnitude, on
 the right shoulder of the constellation Perseus.
ic   ALGOL, the name of a fixed star of the second magni-
 tude in  the constellation  Perseus, otherwise called Medu-
'Fsa's head.
    This star has been subject to singular variations,  ap-
 pearing at different times of different magnitudes, from the
^fourth to the second, which is  its usual  appearance.  It
d has bsen  conjectured that the cause of  this variation is
& -owing either to the interposition of a Wge body revolving
 round Algol, or to some motion of its own, in consequence
 of which, part of its body, covered with  spots, is periodi-
itsjtalljr turned foward the earth.  The period of variation is
 said to be 2d. 20h. 49' 2''.
if   ALGOMEIZA, a name given to the star  Procyon.
    ALGOR, among medical writers, a term used to denote
 in unusual coldness  or dullness in any part of  the body.
=j,   ALGORAB, a fixed star of the third magnitude, in the
  ight wing of Corvus.
 lltt   ALGUAZIL, in the Spanish  policy,  an officer whose
lousiness it is to see the decrees of a judge executed.
|2A   ALH ABOR, among the Arabians, is the star which we
if^all Sirius.
.jg.   ALHIRTO, a fixed star of the third magnitude, in the
 :onstellation  Capricorn.  It is sometimes called rostrum
Ati,rallina'.   Near this star,  in the year 1600, appeared a
 .•riew star, which lasted 21 years, and then disappeared

..,   ALIAS, in law, a second  or further writ issued from
 J .he courts of Westminster after a capias, Sec. has  been
'"'.;'ued out without effect.
■"""   Alias Dictus, the legal description of a person known
 . >y two or more names.
5  ALIBI, denotes fhe absence of the  accused from  the
  dace where he is charged to have committed the crime.
°!.  ALIDES, among the Mahometans, a designation given
 : o the descendants of AH; between whom  and the Om-
 " liades there was a warm dispute about the kaliphate.
 ^ ALIEN, in law,  a person born in a strange country,
^ot within (he king's allegiance, in contradistinction from
-1''1  denizen, or a natural subject.   See Dem/.ew.
^'  VOL.  I.            13
  An alien is  incapable of inheriting lands  in  England,
till  naturalized by an act of parliament.  No alien is en-
titled to vote in the choice of members of parliament, nor
can enjoy an office, or be returned on  any jury, unless
where an alien is party in a cause; and then the inquest
of jurors shall be one half natives and the other aliens.
  The issue of an English woman,  by an alien,  born
abroad, is an  alien in law.  But if an  Englishman, liv-
ing beyond sea, marry a wife  there,  and have children
born abroad, they are denizens, and shall be heirs to their
father.
  Aliens  can  have no heirs, strictly  so called, because
they have not  in  them any heritable  blood; yet natural
born subjects may inherit as heirs to their ancestors, even
though their ancestors were aliens.
  If an alien is made a denizen by letters patent, and then
purchases lands, his son before his denization shall not in-
herit ; but a son born afterward may inherit, even though
the elder brother be living.  Blacks.
  Every foreign seaman serving on board an English ship
two years in time of war is naturalized.
  Masters of ships arriving from foreign parts are to give
notice at every port of the number and names of all foreign-
ers on board, under a  penalty of 10/. for each alien whose
name is omitted ;  33 Geo.  III. c. 4.  And by the 42d
Geo.  III. c. 22, commonly called the alien bill, his majes-
ty may issue  a proclamation  ordering aliens out of the
kingdom ; and in case of disobedience, the alien for the first
offence shall  suffer imprisonment for one month, and  for
twelve months for a second offence, being liable to trans-
portation for life for the third.   Secretaries of state may
grant warrants for conducting such aliens out of the king-
dom as they apprehend will not pay due obedience to the
proclamation.
  Alien duty, an impost laid on all goods imported by
aliens, over and above the customs paid for such goods im-
ported by British and on British bottoms.
  Alien priories, a kind of inferior monasteries, former-
ly very numerous in England, and so called from their be-
longing to foreign abbies.
  ALIENABLE, denotes something that  may be alien-
ated.
  AH estates are  alienable,  except those in  tail and  for
life : a bond too, with condition not to alien, is said to be
good.
  ALIENATION,  in law, denotes the act of making
over a man's property in lands, tenements, &c. to another
person.
  To alien or  alienate in fee, is to sell or convey the fee
simple of lands, &c.
  Alienation, in mortmain,  is making over lands, tene-
ments, &c.  to a body politic, or to a religious house,  for
which the king's license must first be obtained, otherwise
the lands,  &c. alienated will be  forfeited.  See Mort-
main.
  Alienation of crown -lands is always supposed  to  be
made under a faculty of perpetual redemption.
  A perpetual copy hold is also a kind of alienation.
  Alienation, in Roman antiquity, was used for a father's
discarding a son in his own life time.
  Alienation office, is that to which are carried all writs
of covenants and entry upon which fines are levied, in  ol-
der to have fines for alienation  set upon them. 
A L I
A L I
   ALIMENT,  among physicians, denotes  whatever is
 capable of nourishing the human body.   Aliment is either
 animal or vegetable, of an  attenuating or incrassating na-
 ture ; and with respect  to  the taste, is  sweet, fat, acid,
 astringent, 6alsuginous, bitter, and acrid.
  ALIMENTARY duct, a name by which some call the
 intestines, on account of  the food passing through  them.
 See Anatomy.
  Alimentary duct is sometimes also used for the thora-
 cic duct.
  Alimentary children, in  Roman  antiquity, an ap-
 pellation given to those educated in houses not unlike our
 hospitals, erected for that purpose.  There were  likewise
 alimentary girls, who owed their maintenance to the boun-
 ty of several empresses, as the boys did theirs to that of the
 emperors.
  Alimentary law, among the same people, that where-
 by  children were obliged to maintain their aged parents.
  ALIMONY, in law, denotes the maintenance  sued for
 by  a wife, in case of separation from her husband, where-
in she is  neither chargeable with  elopement nor adultery.
  Anciently  this was recoverable only in the  spiritual
courts, but at present may be obtained in chancery.
  ALIPILAKIUS, or Alipilus, in Roman antiquity, a
servant belonging to the baths, whose business it was,  by
means of waxen plasters, and an instrument called volsel-
la, to take off  the hairs from the  arm pits, and even arms,
legs, &c. this being deemed a point of cleanliness.
  ALIQUANT parts,  in arithmetic,  those which will
not divide or measure  the whole number  exactly.  Thus,
7 is an aliquant part of 16, for twice 7 wants 2 of 16, and
three times 7 exceeds 16 by 5.
  ALIQUOT part, is such part of a number as will di-
vide and measure it exactly, without any remainder. For
 instance, 2 is an aliquot part of 4, 3 of 9, and  4 of 16.
  To find all the aliquot  parts of a number, divide  it by
 its least divisor, and the quotient by its least divisor, until
you get a quotient not further divisible, and you will have
 all the  prime divisors or aliquot parts  of that  number.
 Thus,  60 divided by 2,  gives  the quotient 30, which di-
 vided by 2 gives  15, and 15 divided by 3 gives the indi-
 visible quotient  5. Hence the prime  aliquot parts are
 1, 2, 3, 5; and by multiplying any two  or three of these
 together, you will find the compound aliquot parts, vis.
 A, 6, 10, 12, 15,  20, 30.
  Aliquot parts  must  not be confounded with commensu-
 rable ones ; for though the former are all commensurable,
 yet these are not always aliquot parts : thus 4 is commen-
 surable with 6, but is not an aliquot part  of it.
  ALISMA, water plantain, a genus of plants of the class
 and order hexandria polygynia.   The essential character
 is, calyx three leaved ; petals three; seeds several.
   There are  nine species, most of which may  be found in
 England.  They are inhabitantsof watry places, bogs, &c.
  ALKAHEST, or Alcahest, among the old chymists,
 denotes an universal menstruum  capable of resolving all
 bodies info their first matter,  or ens primum ;  and (hat
 without suffering any change or diminution by so doing.
   Van Helmont  assures us in the most positive manner,
 that he  himself was master of such a menstruum.  But,
 in  this  enlightened period, when  chymical research has
 been extended further than it ever was before, the notion
 i* deservedlv ridiculed.
  ALKALESCENT denotes a substance slightly alka-
line, or in which  alkali is beginning to be formed, and to
predominate.  See the next article.
  ALKALI.   This word  is of Arabian  origin, and was
introduced into chymistry after it had been applied to fhe
plant which still  retains the  name of kali.   When this
plant is burnt, the ashes  washed  in water, and the wafer
evaporated to dryness, a white substance remains, which
is called  alkali.  This,  however, may be obtained from
other substances besides the kali : and the word alkali is
now applied to all bodies  which possess, 1, a caustic taste;
2, the properties of being volatilized by heat; 3, of being
capable of combining  with acids ; 4,  of  being soluble in
water, even when  combined with carbonic acid;  and,5,
capable of converting vegetable blues to green.
  The alkalies at present known are three in number: 1,
 Sotash ; 2, soda ; 3, ammonia.   The two  first are called
 xed alkalies ; they require a  red heat to volatilize them;
the last is called volatile  alkali, because it  readily assumes
a gaseous form,  and  consequently  is dissipated with a
moderate  degree of heat.
  Alkalies readily unite with sulphur, forming compounds
which have the property of absorbing the oxygen from
fhe atmosphere, and when moistened, of giving out a pecu-
liar and very fetid gas.   These compounds were formerly
called  alkaline hepars or livers; but according  to the
modern nomenclature,  they are denominated  sulphured.
The alkalies have a very powerful action on almost all veg-
etable and  animal  matters, producing speedy disorgani-
zation, and reducing them to a pulp.   With oils they form
a compound known  by the name of soap.  They unite
with all the acids,  and produce  neutral  salts of various
degrees of solubility ;  in which, when fbe  contents are
mutually saturated, the distinguishing  properties of both
acid and alkali are neutralized, and no longer fo be per-
ceived.   From their affinity to acids, alkalies  decompose
the acid  solutions  of  all metals and  most earths. See
Chymistry.
  Alkaline earths, are those earths which agree with
alkali in   rhe property of  solubility in water to  a certain
extent;  of changing blue  and red vegetable colours to
green; of  absorbing carbonic acid ;  and of possesiij
those acrid qualities that distinguish the  alkalies. Mag
nesia, lime, barytes, and  strontian,  are deemed  alkaline
earths;  but the  former  is very  imperfectly so, beins
scarcely more soluble in  water than silex.  Barytes and
strontian approach nearer to an alkali than lime, in bein?
largely soluble in water.
  Alkaline salts.  See Materia Medica.
  ALKEKENGI, winter cherry.  See Physaiis.
  ALKERMES, in pharmacy, a compound  cordial cor,
fection, made of various  ingredients, as rose water, sugar
cinnamon, aloes wood, &c. but  the principal one is kermes
It is now disused.
  ALKORAN, or Alcoran,  [from the  Arabic particle
al,  and coran, or koran,  derived from  the verb craoa oi
karoa, to read ; signifying the  readino-,  or  rather  fM
ivhich ought to be  read,]  the  scripture  or  bible of  ih«
Mahometans ; containing the revelations and doctrineso!
their pretended  prophet.
  The alkoran is divided into  114 larger portions of ver>
unequal lenglh, which  we call chapters, but the Arabians
sowar, in  fhe singular sura;  a word  rarely  used on  an* 
A L K
ALL
other occasion, and properly signifying a row, or a regular
series.  These chapters are not, in the manuscript copies,
distinguished by fheir numerical  order, but by particular
titles, which are  taken sometimes from a peculiar subject
treated of, or person mentioned in them, usually from the
first  word of note.   Some chapters have two or  more
titles, occasioned by the difference of the copies.   Some
of them being pretended to have been revealed at Mecca,
and others at Medina, the noting this difference makes a
part  of the title.  Every chapter is  divided into smaller
portions, of very unequal length also, which we  customa-
rily  call  verses; but  the Arabic word is ayal, signifying
signs or wonders.  Besides these unequal  divisions, the
Mahometans have also divided their  koran  into 60 equal
portions, each subdivided into four equal parts.  But the
koran is more usually divided into 30 sections only, each
of twice  the length of the former, and in like manner sub-
divided into four parts.  These divisions are  for the use
of the readers of the koran in the royal  temples, or  in the
adjoining chapels, where the  emperors and great men are
interred.
  There are 29 chapters of the koran which have thi3 pe-
culiarity, that they begin with certain  letters  of the  al-
phabet, some with a single one, others with more.  These
letters the Mahometans  believe to be the peculiar mark
of the koran, and to  conceal several profound mysteries ;
the certain  understanding of which  the more intelligent
confess has not been communicated to any mortal, their
prophet  only excepted.
  The koran is universally allowed to be written with the
utmost elegance and purity of language, in the dialect of
the tribe of Koreish, the most noble  and polite of all the
Arabians, but with some mixture, though very rarely, of
other dialects; and it is  confessedly the standard of the
Arabic tongue.
   The great doctrine of the  koran  is the unity of God;
to restore which, Mahomet pretended was the chief object
of his mission : that  there never was,  nor ever can be,
more than one true  orthodox religion; that,  though the
particular laws or ceremonies are only temporary, and sub-
ject  to alteration, according  to  the divine direction, yet
the substance of it being eternal  truth, is not liable to
change, but continues immutably the same ; and that, when-
ever this religion became neglected or corrupted in  essen-
tials, God had the goodness to re-inform and re-admonish
mankind thereof by several prophets, of whom Moses and
Jesus were the most distinguished, till  the appearance of
Mahomet, who is their seal, and no other to be expected
after him.
  The  most  excellent moral  in  the  whole  alcoran is
that  in the  chapter al alraf, viz. " Show mercy, do good
to all, and dispute not with the ignorant;" or, as Mr. Sale
renders it, Use  indulgence,  command  that which is just,
and  withdraw far from the  ignorant.   Mahomet, according
to the authors of the Keschaf, having begged of the angel
Gabriel a more ample explication of this  passage, received
if in  the  following terms: «' Seek him who turns thee  out,
i.'ive  to him  who takes from thee, pardon him  who injures
 Lee ; for God will have you plant in your souls the roots
uf his chief perfection."  It  is easy to see lhat this com
iiienfary  is borrowed from the Gospel.
  The caliph Hassan, son of Ali, being  at  fable, a slave
let fall a  dish of meat reeking hot,  which scalded him se-
verely.   The slave fell on  his  knees,  ichcarsin; these
                  13*
words of the alcoran : " Paradise is for those who restrain
their-anger."  " I am not angry with thee," answered the
caliph.  " And  for those  who  forgive  offences against
them,"  continues the slave.  " I forgive thee thine," re-
plies the caliph.  " But above all,  for those  who return
good for evil,  adds the slave.   " I  set thee  at liberty,"
rejoined the caliph ; "and I give thee ten dinars."
  It is the  common opinion that Mahomet,  assisted by
one Sergius, a monk, composed  this book ; but the Mus-
sulmen  believe  it  as an  article of their faith, that  the
prophet, who they say was an  illiterate man, had no con-
cern in inditing it; but that it was given him by God,
who, to that end, made use of the  ministry of the angel
Gabriel; that, however, it was communicated to him by little
and little, a verse at a time, and in different places, during
the course of 23 years.   " And hence, say they, proceed
that disorder and confusion visible in the work;" which? in
truth, are so great, that all their  doctors have  never been
able to adjust them.  The alkoran, while Mahomet lived,
was only kept in loose sheets: his  successor, Abubeker,
first collected them into a volume, and committed  the
keeping of it to Haphsa, the widow of Mahomet, in order
to be consulted as an original; and there being much diver-
sity between the several copies already dispersed through-
out the provinces, Othman successor of Abubeker pro-
cured a great number  of  copies  to be taken from that of
Haphsa; at the same time suppressing all the others not
conformable to the original.
  ALKUSSA,  a  name given  by the Swedes to  a  fish
which they also call a lake.  It is a species of the Silurus.
  ALL in the wind, a phrase  which expresses the state
of the ship's sails when they are parallel to the direction
of the wind.
  All  hands hoay! the phrase by which a ship's com-
pany  are summoned upon deck.
  ALLAMANDA, a genus of the pentandria monogynia
class  and order.  The corolla is monopetalous and  funnel
shaped; and the essential character  is, cor. contorted;
caps,  lens shaped, erect, echinate, one celled, two valved,
many seeded. There is only one species, the A. cat hart ica.
It grows wild in Guiana.  The leaves are cathartic, whence
the specific name; and are used at Surinam in the colic.
   ALLANTOIS, or Allantoides, in comparative an-
atomy, a vesicle investing the foetus of several animals, as
cows, sheep, goats, &c. and filled with an urinous  liquor
conveyed thither from the  urachus.   See Comparative
Anatomy.
   ALLAY, the same with alloy.
   ALLEGATA, in Roman antiquity, a kind  of subscrip-
tion used  by the  emperors, importing the writings fo be
verified.
   ALLEGATION, in law, signifies the producing instru-
ments or deeds, to authorize or justify something.
   ALLEGE AS,  a stuff manufactured in the  East  Indies.
There are two sorts; one of cotton, and the other of herbs,
which is spun like flax or hemp.
   ALLEGIANCE, in law, denotes the obedience which
every subject owes to his lawful sovereign.
   Allegiance, oath of, in the British policy, is that taken
in acknowledgment of the king, as a temporal prince; us
the oath of supremacy acknowledges him for  the supreme
head  of the church.
   This oath may  be  tendered  to  all persons above the
acre of twelve years, whether  natives, denizen?, or aliei.-, 
                       ALL

either in the court leet of the manor, or in the  sheriff s
court.  It  is a necessary preliminary to the holding of
any office of trust under the crown.
   ALLEGORY, in literature, a figure of rhetoric; also
a mode of writing, wherein something else is signified, than
the words in their literal  meaning express.  An allegory
may be considered as a series or chain of metaphors, con-
tinued through a great part of a discourse.   For example,
when the prophets represent the Hebrews under the alle-
gory of a vine planted, cultivated, and watered by the hand
of God, which, instead of producing good fruit, brings forth
verjuice and sour grapes.
  Allegories have entered  into most religions: the Hebrew
abounds with them, and it  is well known that some philos-
ophers of the Gentile world, undertaking to give a rational
account of  the many horrid absurdities  which the poets
had  introduced into their religion, found it  necessary to
maintain that these fictions contained mysteries, and  sig-
nified something very different from what they seemed to
express. Hence came the word allegory, or a discourse
that in its natural sense, otXXo otyofevei, signifies some other
thing than what seems intended to be meant.   See Rhet-
oric
  ALLEGRO, in music,  an  Italian word denoting that
the part is to be played in a sprightly, brisk} lively, and
gay manner.
  ALLELENGYON, in  antiquity, a tax  paid by the
rich for the poor, when absent in the army.
  ALLEMAND, a sort of grave solemn music, with good
measure and a slow movement.   It is also a kind of dance
very common in Germany  and Switzerland.
  ALLERION, or Alerion, in heraldry, a sort of eagle
without beak or feet, having nothing perfect but thewings.
  They differ from martlets  in  this, that their wings are
expanded, whereas those of the martlet are close ; and de-
note  imperialists vanquished  and  disarmed, for  which
reason they are more common  in French than in German
coats of arms.
  ALLEVEURE, the smallest  copper coin that is struck
in Sweden.   It is about 2£d. of English money.
   ALLEY, in perspective,  that which, in order to have
a greater appearance of length, is made wider at the en-
trance than at the termination.
   ALLIANCE, in the civil and canon law, the relation
contracted between two persons  or two families by marri-
age.
  An alliance is thus contracted  between the husband and
his wife's relations, between the  wife and her husband's
relations, but not between  the relations of the husband and
wife.
   Alliance is  also  used for a treaty  entered into by
sovereign princes and states, for their mutual  safety and
defence.
   In this sense,  alliances  may be distinguished into such
as are offensive, whereby the  contracting parties  oblige
themselves jointly  to attack some other power;  and into
defensive, whereby they bind themselves to support and
defend each other,  in case they are attacked by others.
Under this  head too may  be ranked treaties of subsidy,
which are well known to the English nation.
  ALLIGATI, in antiquity, the basest and worst kind of
slaver.  The Romans had  three kinds, or orders of slaves;
fhe first employed  ir.  the management  of their estates;
                       ALL

the second in the menial or lower functions of the family;
the third  called alligati, these were kept in chains and
dungeons.                                       .
  ALLIGATION,  in arithmetic, is the rule of mixture,
which teaches to compound several species of ingredients
or commodities together, according to any intent or design
proposed, and is either medial or alternate.  See Arith-
metic.                                  .
  ALLIGATOR, in zoology, the smaller kind of croco-
diles.  See Lacerta.
  ALLIOTH, a star in the tail of the greater bear, much
employed for finding the latitude at sea.
  The word is also  written alliot  or  aliot, denoting a
horse.   The  Arabs  give  this name  to  each of  the three
stars in the tail of the Great Bear, on account of their ap-
pearing like three horses,  ranged  for the drawing of the
waggon, represented by four stars, called Charles's wain,
  ALLITERATION, a figure or decoration of language,
chiefly used in poetry, and consisting in the repetition of
the same letter or letters  at certain intervals, whence iti
name is derived;  thus in Lucretius :
               ——— Adrerso /labra/eruntur
               illumine.
And in Shakespeare,
   Z/ad my  sweet /Tarry Aad but /talf their numbers,
   This day might I, hanging on .Hotspur's neck, Have talkfcd.
  ALLIONIA, a genus of plants of the class and order
tetandria monogynia.  The corolla is one petalled and fun-
nel shaped; and the essential character is, calyx  common.
oblong, simple, three flowered; proper obsolete,  superior:
corollures irregular : recept. naked.   There are two spe-
cies, both natives of South America.
  ALLIUM, Garlic,  in botany, a genus of plants, of the
hexandria monogynia class and order.  The corolla is six
petalled, and the  essential character is, corolla six part-
ed, spreading: spathe  many flowered:  umbel heaped:
capsule superior.
  This is a very extensive genus of plants, comprehend-
ing the A. porrum or  leek, the A. cepa  or onion, with all
their varieties, among which the A. canadense, or Canada
tree onion, which bears excellent eatable onions on the top
of the stalk, is most remarkable,  the eschalot or shallot,
the common garlic, the rocambole,  which resembles fhe
tree onion  in bearing the  garlic at the top of the stem as
well as at lhe root, fhe Moly's, and a considerable tribe
of flowering ornamental garlics.  There are in all 45 spe-
cies.   The A. ursinum or ransoms, is a  most disagreeable
weed,  on which if cows feed, their butter is not eatable.
The A. descendens  and triquetrum are very ornamental;
the latter  is  treated  as a green house  plant.   Garlic ia
used in many preparations in medicine and farriery.
  ALLOCATIONE facienda is a  writ directed to the
lord treasurer,  or barons  of the exchequer, commanding
them to allow an accountant such sums as he has lawfully
expended in the execution of his office.
  ALLOCATO  comitatu, a new writ of exigent allow-
ed, before  any other county court held, on  a former not
being complied with.
  ALLODIAL,  an  epifbet given to an inheritance held
without any acknowledgment to a lord or superior  in op-
position to feudal.
  Allodial lands  are  free lands,  for  which neither fees,
rents, nor services, are due. 
A L M
A L  M
   ALLODIUM  nobilt, that which  had also civil and
criminal jurisdiction annexed to it; in opposition to alio-
dium vUlanum, which had no such jurisdiction.
   ALLONGE, in fencing, denotes a thrust or pass at the
adversary.
   ALLOPHYLUS, a genus of the  octandria monogy-
nia class and order, and of the natural order of guttiferse.
The essential character is,  calyx four leaved, leaflets or-
biculate, two  smaller; petal four less than the  calyx;
germ, twin; stigma quadrifid.   There are 5  species; all
trees but one, which is a shrub.  They are natives of the
East and West Indies.
   ALLOTTING, or Allotment of goods, in com-
merce, is the dividing a ship's cargo into several parts,
which are to be  purchased  by several persons, whose
names being written upon as many slips of paper, are ap-
plied by an indifferent person  to the several  lots; by
which means the goods are divided without partiality, each
man having the parcel upon  which his name is fixed.
   ALLOTMENTS of land, are such portions of ground
as are granted to claimants on the division and enclosure of
commons and waste lands, and which are generally propor-
tionate to the extent of the  right which they enjoy upon
them.
   ALLOWANCES, at the custom house, to goods rated
by weight, are two, vis. draught and tare.
   ALLOY, or  Allay, a  proportion of  a  baser metal
mixed with a finer one.  Thus all gold coin  has an alloy
of silver  and copper, as silver coin has of copper alone; the
proportion in the former case, for standard gold, being two
carats of alloy in  a pound troy of gold ; and in the latter,
eighteen pennyweights of alloy for a pound troy of silver.
   According  as  gold or silver has  more or  less alloy
than that mentioned above, it is said to be coarser or finer
than the standard.  It ought, however, to be remarked,
that the  coin of different nations varies greatly in this re-
spect ; some using a larger,  and others a less proportion
of alloy, the original intention  of which was to give  the
coin a due degree of hardness.
   ALLUME'E,  in heraldry,  a term applied to the eyes
of a bear, or other beast, when they are drawn sparkling
and red.
   ALLUSION,  in rhetoric, a figure by which something
is applied fo, or understood of another, on account of some
similitude between them.  An allusion to words is trifling
and low,  making  what we commonly call a pun.  Allu-
sions, however, to some apophthegm, remarkable event,
or  generally received custom, are not only extremely
pleasing,  but approved by  the best writers, ancient as
well as modern.
   ALLUVIAL Limtstont, a sort of stone found in many
districts,  supposed to have  been formed  in the earliest
ages of the  world by the deposition of calcareous matters
held in the state of solution  in water.
   ALLUVION, among civilians, denotes the gradual in-
crease of land along the sea shore, or on the banks of riv-
ers.  This, when slow and imperceptible,  is deemed a
lawful means of acquisition ;  but when a considerable por-
tion of land  is torn away at  once, by the violence of  the
current,  and joined to  a neighbouring estate, it may be
claimed by the king.  2 Black-262.
   ALMADIE, a  kind of canoe or small vessel, about four
fathoms  long, usually made  of bark, and used by the ne-
groes of Africa.
  Almadie is also the name  of  a kind of Jo.'g boats, in
ted out at Calicut, which are eighty feet in length, and six
 or seven  in breadth.  They are exceedingly swift, and
are otherwise called cathuri.
  ALMAGRA, in natural history,  the  name of a fine
deep  red ochre,  with  a faint admixture of purple, used
both in painting  and medicine,  being an excellent  as-
tringent.  It is the same with what the ancients calledsiZ
atticum.
  ALMANAC, a table containing the calendar of days
and months, the rising and setting of  the sun, the age  of
the moon, &c.
  The first thing tq. be  done in the construction of alma-
nacs is to compute the  sun's and  moon's place  for each
day of the year, or it may be taken from some ephemeri-
des and entered in the  almanac ;  next find the dominical
letter, and, by means thereof, distribute the calendar into
weeks :  then, having  computed the time of Easter by if,
fix the  other moveable feasts; adding the  immoveable
ones, the rising and setting of each luminary, the length of
day and night, the aspects of the planets, the phases of
the moon, and the sun's entrance into the cardinal points
of the ecliptic, i.e. the two equinoxes and solstices.
  These are  the principal contents of almanacs; besides
which  there  are others of a  political nature, and conse-
quently different in different  countries, as the birth days
and coronation of princes, tables of interest, &c.
  Almanac, nautical and astronomical ephemeris,  is  a
kind of national almanac, published annually,  by anticipa-
tion, under the direction of the commissioners of longitude.
It contains among other things, the distances of the moon
from the sun and fixed stars, for every three  hours of ap-
parent time, adapted to the meridian of Greenwich ; by
comparing which with the distances carefully observed at
sea, the mariner may readily infer his longitude to a degree
of exactness, that is found sufficient for most nautical pur*
poses.
  ALMARIC heresy, one broached in France, in 1209,
the distinguishing tenet of which was, that no Christian
could be saved unless he believed himself to be a member
of Christ.
  ALME, singing and dancing girls in Egypt, who can
occasionally chaunt unpremeditated verse.   They derive
their name from having received a better education  than
other women, and they form  a celebrated society in the
country.  The qualifications for admission  are, a good
voice, a knowledge of the language and of the rules of po-
etry, and an ability to compose and sing couplets on  the
spot, adapted to the occasion.
  ALMEHRAB, in the  Mahometan customs, a nich in
the mosques, pointing toward the kebla, or temple of Mec-
ca, to which they are obliged to bow in praying.
  ALMEISAR,  a celebrated game among  the ancient
Arabs, performed by a kind of casting lots with arrows,
forbidden by Mahomet, on account of the frequent quar-
rels occasioned by it.
  ALMENE, in commerce, a weight of two pounds, used
to weigh saffron in several parts of the continent of the
East Indies.
  ALMENDINE, Almandine, or Albandine, a kind
of ruby, but softer and  lighter than the oriental ruby.
  ALMERICANS, followers of the Almaric heresy,
which see.
  ALMOND Tree, see Amvgdalus. 
                     A L N

   Almond,  in commerce, a measure by which the Por-
tuguese sell their oil: twenty-six almonds make a pipe.
   Almond krxace,  among  refiners, that in which the
=*1 i^s of litharge, left in refining silver, are reduced to lead
again, by the help of charcoal.
   Almo.no is aho a name given to a species of rock crys-
tal, which lapidaries  use in  adorning branch candlesticks,
&c. on account of the resemblance they bear to the fruit
of the same name.
   ALMONER, an officer appointed to distribute alms to
the poor.
   The lord almoner, or lord high almoner of England, is
an ecclesiastical officer, usually a bishop, who has the for-
feiture of all deodands, and the goods of all  felos-de-se,
which he is to distribute among the poor.
   By virtue of an ancient custom, the lord almoner may
give the first dish from  the king's table to whatever poor
person he pleases; or, in lieu of it, an alms in money.
   The parishioners  also of the  parishes adjacent to the
king's place of residence, nominate twenty-four poor men,
to whom the lord almoner distributes four pence a day in
money,  bread and small  beer.
   Almoner  is  sometimes also  used for a deacon of a
church, a chaplain, or even a legatee.
  Almoner is  also used for a person who left alms to the
poor, by his last will.  It is sometimes  used for a lega-
tee ; in this sense  the same person cannot be both almoner
and heir.
   ALMS,  a general term for what is given out of charity
to the poor.
   In the early ages of Christianity, the alms of the chari-
table were  divided into four parts, one of which was allot-
ted to  the  bishop, another  to the priests, and another to
the deacons and subdeacons, which made their whole sub-
sistence ; the fourth part was  employed in relieving the
poor, and in repairing the churches.
   Alms also denotes lands or other effects left to churches,
or religious houses, on condition of praying for the soul of
the donor.   Hence,
   Alms free, was that which  is liable to no rent or ser-
vice.
   Alms reasonable, was a  certain portion of the estates
of intestate persons, allotted to the poor.
   ALMUCANTARS, in astronomy, are the same with
respect to  the azimuths  and horizon, that the parallels of
latitude are with  regard to  the meridians and equator.
   ALMUTAZAPHUS, a magistrate of Aragon, whose
office it was to inspect measures and weights, and  search
houses  for  stolen  goods.
   ALNAGE,  or Adlnage,  in  the English polity, the
measuring  of woollen manufactures,  with an aul or ell, and
the other functions of the alnager.
   Alnage was at first intended as a proof of fhe goodness of
fhe commodity, and therefore  a seal was invented as a sig-
nal, that the commodity was made according to the stat-
ute.  But  now that these seals may be bought and affixed
to whatever commodity the  buyer  pleases, our rivals
have acquired an opportunity of supplanting our trade with
foreign  nations, to the great prejudice of our woollen man-
ufactures.
   ALNAGER, see article above.
   There were  three officers relating to the  alnage, name-
ly, a searcher, measurer, and alnager: all  which were
                       A  L O

aneiently comprised in the alnager; the office is now abol-
ished.                                       ,   .
  ALNUDE, a measure of liquids, the same with a inond,
  ALOA, in Grecian antiquity, a festival kept in honoar
of Ceres by the husbandmen, and supposed to resemble
our harvest home.                       #
  ALOE, in botany, a genus of plants  with a liliaceous
flower, consisting of only  one tubular petal, divided into
six deep segments at the edge :  its fruit is an oblong cap-
sule, divided into three cells, and containing a number of
angulated seeds.  It is one of the hexandria monogynia
class and order of Linnaeus.   See Plate Nat. Hist. fig. 12.
  Several species of this exotic plant are  cultivated in
the gardens  of  the  curious, where  they afford  a very
pleasing  variety, as well by the odd shape of their leaves
as by the different spots with which they are variegated.
The essential character i3, corolla erect with an expanded
mouth, and a nectareous base ;  filaments inserted into the
receptacle.
  Some  aloes are arborescent, or divided into a number of
branches, like trees; others are very small, growing clow
to the ground.   There are in all 14 species, with a great
number of varieties.  It is from two varieties of one of
the  tree aloes,  or  A.   arborescens, the  medicine of that
name is  produced.  The  hepatic  aloe  is  from  a  va-
riety  called  the Barbadoes aloe,  though  it grows in
most of the West India islands ; the succotrine, from the
aloe  of that  name, or sweet aloe.   We are, however, of
opinion, that  an  extract having the same properties might
be prepared  from most of the other species.  The par-
tridge breasted or variegata, and the mitriformis, are the
most elegant  in  their foliage.   But the humilis producei,
in our opinion, the largest and handsomest flowers.  It is
a native of the Cape of Good Hope.   Most of the  species
are best  treated as green house  plants ; and like all other
succulent plants, must be sparingly watered, especially in
winter.
  Aloe  or Aloes, in pharmacy, the inspissated juice of
the aloe, prepared  in the following manner:  from the
leaves fresh cut, is drained or pressed a juice, the thinner
and purer part of which is poured off, and set in the sun to
evaporate to  a hard yellowish substance  or extract.
  This extract is famous for its purgative virtues, being fre-
quently given in the form of a tincture in wine, which is call-
ed hiera  picra;  in a solid form called pil. de rufi,  &c.  and
in the popular quack medicine, called Anderson's Scotch
Pills.
  ALOE rosata, a preparation of succotrine aloes, which
being dissolved in the  juice of roses, or violets,  and  ex-
posed to the sun, or put upon  a slow fire, thickens to a
consistency proper for making pills.
  Aloes is accounted an excellent purging medicine, es-
pecially  to cold constitutions, a good stomatic, and, appli-
ed outwardly, is serviceable in  cicatrizing wounds.
  ALOEDARY,  among  ancient physicians, a purging
medicine, the chief ingredient of which was aloes.  It  is
also  used for a history of the class of plants, under the
denomination of aloes.
  ALOFT,  a  sea  term,  synonymous with "up  in the
tops," "at the masthead," or any where about the high-
er rigging.
  ALOGIANS, in church history,  a sect of ancient  her-
etics, who denied that Jesus Christ was the Logos,  or eter- 
ALP
ALP
 nal word; and consequently rejected the Gospel of St.
 John, as spurious.
   ALOGOTROPHIA, among physicians,  denotes  an
 unequal nutrition, or growth, in some part of the body, as
 is the case in the rickets.
   ALONG side, in sea language, expresses side by side,
 or joined to a ship,  wharf, &c.
   Along  shore, a  phrase expressing along the  coast,
 or a course which is in sight of, and nearly parallel to the
 shore.
   Along, lying, the state of a ship that is pressed down
 sidewise, by the weight of the sail.
   ALOOF, in sea  language, a  word of command to the
 man at the helm, to keep  the  ship near the  wind, when
 sailing upon a quarter wind.
   ALOPECIA, in medicine,  denotes a falling off of the
 hair, occasioned either by a defect of nourishment, or by a
 bad state of the humours.
   Some make a distinction between the alopecia and deflu-
 vium capillorum: as in the former, certain spots are left
 entirely  bald ;  whereas, in the latter, the hair only grows
 excessively thin.   They  likewise distinguish it from the
 ophiasis, as the baldness in this last creeps in spiral lines
 about the head, like the windings of a serpent.  The in-
 tention of cure, however, seems to be much  the same in
 them all, vis. to supply proper nourishment, where that is
 wanting; and to correct the bad qualities of the humours,
 where these are in fault.
   ALOPECURUS, fox tail grass, in botany, a dis-
 tinct genus of plants, the flower of which consists of only
 one hollow valve, with a long awn or beard inserted on its
 back part, near the  base :  it is one of the triandria digynia
 of Linnaeus.  The essential character is, calyx two valv-
 ed; corolla one valved.
   There are seven species.  The A. pratensis, or mead-
 ow fox tail, is esteemed by some farmers, but in our opin-
 ion its value has been overraled.   The A. arvensis, or
 field fox tail, is a smaller  plant of the same description,
 and  flowers early; but it is even less valuable than the
 preceding, and we believe is never cultivated.
   ALOUCHI, a sweet scented gum, which runs from the
 tree that produces white cinnamon.
   ALPHABET, in matters of literature, fhe natural or
 accustomed series of the several letters of a language.
   All the alphabets extant are charged by bishop Wilkins
 with great irregularities, with respect both to order, num-
 ber, power, figure, Sec.
   As to the order, it appears, says he, inartificial, preca-
 rious, and confused, as the vowels and consonants are not
 reduced  into classes, with such order of precedence and
 subsequence as their natures will bear.  Of this imperfec-
 tion the Greek alphabet, which is one of the least defective,
 is far from  being free: for  instance, the Greeks  should
 have separated the consonants from the vowels; after the
 vowels they should have placed the diphthongs, and then
 the consonants; whereas, in fact, the order is so perverted
 that we  find the  o the fifteenth letter, in  order  of the
 alphabet, and the  a, or long o, the twenty-fourth and last;
 the & the fifth, and the »j the seventh.
  With respect to number they are both redundant and
deficient; redundant, by allotting the same sound to sev-
eral letters, as in the Latin c and A;,/and ph; or by reck-
oning double letters among the simple elements of speech,
as in  the  Greek £ and \J/, the Latin q or cu, x or ex.  . nd
the j  consonant;  deficient in  many respects, particularly
with regard to vowels, of which seven or eight kinds are
commonly used, though the Latin alphabet takes notice
only of five.  Add to this, that the difference among them,
with regard  to long and short, is not sufficiently provided
against.
  The powers again are not more exempt from confusion ;
the vowels, for instance, are generally  acknowledged to
have  each of them several different sounds; and among
the consonants we need  only bring as evidence of their
different pronunciation, fhe letter c in the word circa, and
g in the word  negligence.  Hence it happens, that some
words are differently written, though pronounced in the
same manner, as cessio and sessio ;  and others are different
in  pronunciation which are the same in writing, as give,
dare,  and give, vinculum.
  Finally, the figures are but ill concerted, there being
nothing in the characters  of the vowels answerable to the
different degrees of apertion; nor in the consonants anal-
ogous to their agreements or disagreements.
  Alphabets of different nations  vary in  the number of
their  constituent letters.  The English alphabet contains
twenty-four letters, to which  if j  and  v consonants are
added, the sum will be twenty-six; the French twenty-
three  ; the Hebrew,  Chaldee, Syriac,  and  Samaritan
twenty-two each; the Arabic twenty-eight;  the  Persian
thirty-one; the Turkish thirty-three ; the Georgian thirty-
six ; the Coptic thirty-two; the Muscovite forty-three;
the Greek twenty-four; the Latin twenty-two; the Scla-
vonic twenty-seven ; the Dutch twenty-six ;  the Spanish
twenty-seven; the Italian twenty;  the Ethiopic,  as well
as Tartarian, two hundred and two; the  Indian of Bengal
twenty-one y the Baramos nineteen ; the  Chinese, proper-
ly speaking, have no alphabet, except we call  their whole
language their alphabet; their letters are words, or rather
hieroglyphics, and amount to about 80,000.
  If alphabets had been constructed by able  persons,
after a full examination of the subject, they would  not
have  been filled  with such contradictions between  the
manner of writing and reading, as we have shown  above,
nor with those imperfections that evidently appear in the
alphabets  of every nation.  Mr. Lodowic, however,  and
bishop  Wilkins, have endeavoured to obviate all these,
in their universal alphabets or characters.
  Dr. Franklin also spent much  time in  devising some
mode of improving the alphabet, though his plan is, in
many respects,  exceptionable.  But waving for  a mo-
ment  the  difficulty, not to say impossibility, of effecting
any change in  the established alphabet, however useful
that change may be; we have seen no  attempt, which
combines  greater advantages in its object, or deserves so
much attention, as the one lately  made by Thomas Em-
bree ; he has given us 33 characters with the appropriate
sound of each, so as to unite in every instance the orthog-
raphy, with the most approved pronunciation; but  our
limits will preclude an explanation of his plan; we refer
the curious to his  treatise upon the subject, entitled " Or-
thography corrected."   (a)
  ALPHERATZ, a  fixed star of the third magnitude, in
Aquarius.
  ALPHONSIN,  in surgery, an instrument  for extract-
ins bullets out of gunshot wounds. 
                       ALT

  This instrument derives its  name from the inventor,
Alphonsus Ferrier, a physician  of Naples. £ consists of
three branches, which are closed by a ring.  When closed
and  introduced into the wound, the operator draws back
the rin<* toward the  handle, upon which the branches
opening take hold of the ball;  and then the ring is P™™*
from the haft, by which means the branches grasp the ball
so firmly as to extract the ball from the wound.  See Sur-
G E R V •
  ALPINIA, a genus of the monandria monogynia class
and order.  The corolla is monopetalous and tubulose;
and the essential character is, calyx three toothed, equal,
tubulose; corolla three parted, equal; nect.  two lipped,
the lower lip spreading.                          .
  There is but one species, called after Prosper Alpmus,
a famous botanist.   It is a native of the West Indies.   It
is with us treated as a stove aquatic.
  ALQUIER, a liquid measure used in Portugal to meas-
ure oil, two of which make an almond.
  ALQUIFORE is a sort of mineral lead, very heavy,
easily reduced to powder, and difficult to fuse.  The pot-
ters use it to give their works a green varnish.  It is found
in Cornwall,  and called potter's ore.  It contains proba-
bly some mixture of cobalt.
  ABEAMECH, in  astronomy, the name of a star of the
first magnitude, otherwise called arcturus.
  ALSINE, chickweed, the name of a genus of plants,
of the class and order of pentandria trigynia.   The corolla
is five equal petals, which, with  the five leaved calyx and
a capsule one  celled, three  valved, form the  essential
character. Happily  for gardeners there are but  three
species of this vile weed, and but one in England.  This
however, though an annual, affords sufficient trouble.  It
appears to be of no use whatever, though it is called chick-
weed, from the notion that  chickens feed  on it, which
must be when they can get nothing else.
   ALSIRAT,  in the Mahometan  theology, denotes  a
bridge laid over the  middle of hell, the passage or path
whereof is sharper than the edge of a sword; over which,
however, every soul must pass at the day of judgment,
when the wicked will tumble  headlong into hell, whereas,
the good will fly over it.
   ALSTONIA, a genus of the polyandria monogynia
class and order.  The corolla is shorter than the  calyx;
aud the essential character is, corolla one petalled, eight
or ten cleft;  the clefts alternated.  There is only one spe-
cies, a shrub of South America, the leaves of which are
said to have the taste of tea.
   ALSTROEMERIA, a genus of plants of the hexan-
dria monogynia class and order, and of the natural order of
lilia.   The essential  character  is, corolla six petals, sub-
bilabiate ; the two lower petals tubulose at the base ; stam-
ina bending down.
   There are six species, all  natives of South  America.
 They are cultivated here  as  ornamental plants.  The A.
pelegrina and  ligtu  are the  most  beautiful  and the most
common.  The former will bear to be treated as a green
house plant, and some assert that it thrives best even in
a garden frame.
   ALTAR  THANE, in our old law books, an appellation
given to the priest, or parsoa of a parish, to whom the al-
 tarage belonged,
                       A  L T

  ALTARAGE, among ecclesiastical  writers, denotes
the profits arising to a priest on  account of the anar, as
well as the offerings themselves made upon it.
  ALTERANTS, or Alternative medicines, in pliar.
macy, such medicines as are supposed to correct the bad
qualities of the.blood and other animal fluids, without oc-
casioning any sensible evacuation.
  ALTERN Base, in trigonometry, a term used in con-
tradistinction to the true base.  Thus, in oblique trian-
gles the true base is either  the  sum  of the sides, and
then the difference of the sides is called the altern base;
or the true base is the difference of the sides, and then the
sum of the sides is called the altern base.
  ALTERNATE, in heraldry, is said  in respect  of the
situation of the quarters.
  Thus the first and fourth quarters, and fhe second and
third, are usually of the same nature, and are called alter-
nate quarters.
  Alternate,  such a disposition of the leaves of a plant,
that the first on one side of a branch stands higher than the
first on the other side, the second the same, and so on to
the top.
  Alternate allegation.  See Arithmetic.
  Alternate angles.  See Geometry.
  ALTHiEA, Marsh mallow, a genus of plants, with a
double calyx, the exterior one being divided into nine seg-
ments ; the fruit consists of numerous capsules, each  con-
taining a single seed.  It belongs to the monadelphia poly-
andria  class of Linnaeus.  The essential character is, ca-
lyx double, outer nine cleft; arils many, one seeded.
  There are seven species, of which the A. officinalis, ot
common marsh  mallow, is well known.   It was formerly
supposed to  possess  many medical virtues, but is  now
scarcely used in any preparation whatever.   The flowen
and seed  are  nearly the same with those of the malva, or
mallow.
  ALTIN, in commerce, a kind of money current in Mus-
covy, worth three copies.
  ALTITUDE, in  geometry, one of  the  three dimen-
sions of body ; being the same with what is otherwise call-
ed height.
   Altitude of a figure, is the nearest distance of its ver-
tex from its base, or the length of a perpendicular let fall
from the vertex to the base.
   Altitude, in optics, is the height of an object above
a line, drawn parallel to the horizon from the eye of the ob-
server, or the angle subtended between aline drawn through
the eye parallel to the horizon, and a visual ray emitted
from an object to the eye.   See Optics.
   Altitude of the eye, in perspective, is its perpendicular
height above the geometrical plane.
   Altitude ofastar,Sec. inastronomy, is an arch of a ver-
tical circle, intercepted between the star and the horizon.
   This altitude is either true or apparent, according as it
is reckoned from the rational or sensible horizon ; and the
difference between these is what is called by astronomers
the parallax of altitude.
   The true altitudes of the sun and fixed stars differ but
little from their apparent altitudes, because of their great
 distance from the earth, and  the smallness of the earth's
 semidiameter compared with it.   The quantity of refrac-
 tion is different at different altitudes, and the  parallax i* 
A L V
ALU
different, according fo the distance of  celestial objects;
in the fixed stars it is  too small to be observed with any
degree of certainty : that of the  sun is about 8-| sec. and
that of the moon 52 min.
  Sailors commonly take the altitude of stars with a quad-
rant, but as this method is liable to an error of six, seven,
or more minutes, from the motion of (he ship, as well as
the coarseness of their instruments, Mr. Parent has given
a new way of finding their altitudes, by means of a common
watch.  His  method  is this; having observed the differ-
ence of time between  the rising of two stars, the right as-
cension and declination of which are known from astronom-
ical tables, in the Nautical Almanac, it will be easy to dis-
tinguish that  part of the difference which arises from that
different position, from that arising from the obliquity of
the sphere.   Now this last  is precisely the  altitude of fhe
pole of the place of observation ; for as to the way the ship
may have made between the rising of the two stars, it is
so small as to be safely overlooked, or at most estimated in
tbe common way of reckoning.
  The ship changing place  between the two observations,
renders this method liable to some objection ; but the small
alteration either of  the ship's longitude or latitude will
make no sensible error, and if she happens to have run a
good distance between the observations, it is easy reckon-
ing how  much it is, and accordingly allowing for it.  See
Navigation.
  Altitude, accessible, Sec.  See Trigonometry. See
also Gnomon, Pin, Quadrant, &c.
  Altitude, refraction of, is an arc of a vertical circle,
by which the altitude  of a heavenly body is increased  by
means of refraction.   This is different at different altitudes,
bei<ig nothing at the zenith, and greatest at the horizon.
  Altitude, parallax of, the  difference  between the
true and apparent place of a star: it diminishes the alti-
tude of the star, or increases its distance from the zenith.
  Altitude of motion, according to  Dr.  Wallis, is  its
measure estimated in the line of  direction of the moving
force.
  Altitude, determinative, that whence a heavy body
falling,- acquires a certain velocity by its natural accelera-
tion.
  ALTO RELIEVO.  See Relievo.
  ALTO RIPIENO, in music,  the  tenor of the  great
chorus which sings or plays only now and then in some
particular places.
  ALVARID, in the history of Spain, a kind of magis-
trate or judge, differing very little from the alcaid.
  ALVARISTS, a branch of  thomists, so  called from
Alvares their leader, who asserted sufficient grace, instead
of the efficacious grace of the ancient thomists.
  ALUDE, a kind of sheep's leather, one side of which
has the wool  on,
  ALUDELS, in chymistry, are earthen pots ranged one
above another, for retaining the products which ascend in
the process of sublimation.
  The lowest aludel is fitted to a pot, placed in  the fur-
nace, in which is the matter to be sublimed; and at topis
a close head to relain the sublimates which ascend highest.
  ALVEAR1UM, among anatomists, denotes the hollow
of fhe auricle, or outer ear.
  ALVEHEZIT, denotes, anion* Arabian writers, v•': \t
we call falling stars.
  vor. i.           11
  ALVEOLATE, in botany, a (erm used in the same
sense as honey combed, to express something that is fur-
rowed by oblong depressions.
  ALVEOLUS,  in  anatomy, the  socket  like cavity in
the jaws, wherein each of the teeth is fixed.
  Alveolus,  in the history of fossils, a marine body, noi
known at present in its recent state, but frequently found
fossile.
  The alveoli are of a conic shape, and composed of a num-
ber of cells, like so many bee hives, jointed into one anoth-
er, with a pipe of communication, like that of the nautilus.
They are sometimes met with entire, but more frequent-
ly truncated, or wrlh their smaller ends broken off.
  ALULA notha, bastard or spurious wing, in ornitholo-
gy, is a  kind of appendage to the true and principal wing,
placed near its outer extremity, at the base of the primary
quill feathers, and consists of from three to five small feath-
ers of the quill kind.
  ALUM, a neutral salt, the base of which is aluminar ar-
gil, or clay, combined with sulphuric acid.
  Alum, ores of,  include all those minerals which either
contain  alum ready formed, or are capable of yielding this
salt  by manufacture : they may be divided,  1, into  the
saline, all the species of which are  almost wholly soluble
in wafer; 2, the earthy saline, the soluble particles of
which are diffused through a large proportion of earth ; 3,
the earthy, which  containing no alum,  but  the materials
of it, are insoluble, and destitute of that sweetish astrin
gent taste which characterizes the two former.
  There are  four  varieties  of  alum, which are all triple
salts; two  neutral, and  two in the state of super salts.
These varieties Dr. Thomson distinguishes by the follow-
ing names:
     1.  Sulphate of alumina and potash.
     2.  Sulphate of alumina and ammonia.
     3.  Supersulphate of alumina and potash-
     4.  Supersulphate of alumina and ammonia.
  The two last of these varieties are usually confounded
under the name of alum; the two first have been called al-
um saturated  wiih earths, or aluminated  alum.
   We owe the discovery of alum to the Asiatics, and it
continued to  be  imported from the East till the fifteenth
century, when a number of alum works were established
in Italy.  In the sixteenth century it was manufactured in
olher parts of the continent; and during the reign of
queen  Elizabeth an alum work was established in Eng-
land.
   The composition of alum has been but lately understood
with accuracy.  It has, indeed, been long known that sul-
phuric  acid is one of the ingredients, and it was  equally
certain  that alumina  is another.  But these are incapable
of forming alum.   The addition of potash, or of ammonia,
or of some substance containing these alkalies, is almost al-
ways necessary; and where these additions are not want-
ed, the earth from which the alum is obtained contains al-
ready a quantity of potash.   Hence it  appears that  alum
is properly a  triple salt, composed  of sulphuric acid, alu-
mina, and potash or ammonia united.
   Alum crysfalHzes in regular octahedrons, consisting of
two  four sided pyramids  applied base to base, the  sides
are  equilateral triangles.   Its  taste is  sweetish and  ver\
astringent.  It always reddens \ec;etable blues: its >pe-
cific gravity is 2.711 nearly.   At  the  tcmrtonfure M t'.n 
ALU
A M A
 degrees, it is soluble in from 15 to 20 parts of water, and
 three fourths of its weight in boiling water.  When expos-
 ed  to the air it effloresces slightly.  When exposed to a
 gentle heat it undergoes the watry fusion.   A very strong
 heat causes it to swell and  foam, and to lose 44 per  cent.
 of its weight, consisting chiefly of water of crystallization ;
 what remains is called calcined or burnt alum, and is some-
 times used as a corrosive.   By a still more violent  heat,
 the greater part of the acid may be driven off.
  There are three varieties of alum in commerce, 1, the sm-
persulphate of alumina and potash ; 2, supersidphate of al-
 umina and ammonia; and, 3, a mixture of these two, which
 contains both potash and ammonia.   This is the mo3t com-
 mon, because the manufacturers of alum use both urine and
 muriate of potash to crystallize their alum.  The first va-
 riety is composed of
                    49 Sulphate of alumina
                     7 Sulphate of potash
                    44 water

                    100.
           Crystallized alum contains,
                      17.66 acid
                      12.00 base
                      70.34 water
           100.
Burnt alum contains,
           36.25 acid
           63.75 base
100.
  When an unusual quantity of potash is added to alum
liquor, the salt loses its  usual form, and crystallizes in
cubes ; this is called cubic alum, and contains an excess of
alkali; and when  the potash is still further increased, the
salt loses the property of crystallizing, and falls down in
flakes: it then  consists of  sulphate of potash combined
with a small proportion of alumina.
  All the varieties of alum are capable of combining with
in additional dose of alumina, and forming perfectly neu-
tral compounds.
  Alum is of great importance as a mordant in dying; it is
used also in the manufacture of leather, it is employed by
calico printers, engravers, &c. and it is used in medicine,
in preserving animal substances from putrefaction, and in
preventing wood from taking fire.
  If three parts of alum, and one of flour or sugar be melt-
ed together in an iron ladle, and  the mixture dried till it
becomes blackish and ceases to swell;  if it be then pound-
ed small, put into a glass  phial, and placed in a sand bath
till  a blue flame issues from the mouth of the phial, and
after burning a minute or two be  allowed to cool,  a sub-
stance ii obtained call  Homberg's phosphorus, which has
the property of catching fire when exposed to the open
air, especially if it be moist.  See Thomson's Chymistry,
vol. ii.
  Alum, native, or fossile  Alum, that formed by nature,
without the assistance of art.
  There are still mines of native alum in the island of Chio,
consisting of a kind of vaults, or apartments crusted over
with alum, which  may be regarded as exfoliations from the
rock«.
  Alum, plumose, or plume Alum, a kind of natural alum,
composed of a sort of threads, or fibres, resembling leatfi-
ers; whence it has its  name.                  ,.  , .
  Alum, prepared, or purified Alum, that which is dig-
solved in hot rain water, and afterward made to crystallize,
by evaporating the water.
  Alum, Roman,'a sort of rock alum, of a reddish colour,
made in the country near Rome.
  Alum,  saccharine,  is a composition of common  alum
with rose water, and clarified by the whites of eggs, which
being boiled to  the consistence of  a paste, is formed in
the shape of a sugar loaf; hence it obtained its name: it ia
used as a cosmetic.
  ALUMINA derives its name from alum, of whichitis
the base.   It  is  the argilaceous part of common clay, or,
in other words, pure argil or clay, free from all impurities.
It is smooth and unctuous  to the touch, when pure, diffu-
sible in water, and adhering to  the  tongue.   Its specific
gravity is 200.  Its bulk is diminished by great heat, and
its hardness may be so increased  by baking as to enable
it to strike  fire with steel.   It forms a difficult combination
with the acids.  With  the  sulphuric it makes sulphaleof
alumina; but its crystallization is  difficult, both with the
nitre and muriatic.   It has a powerful attraction for lime,
The most  intense heat is not able to melt it alone, but it
is easily fusible when lime or an alkali  is  added to it,
By its mixture with water and silex it acquires great so-
lidity.
  ALUMINOUS waters, those impregnated either nat-
urally or artificially, with the virtues of alum.
  Of fhe former kind is the spa at Scarborough represent-
ed to be; and of  the  latter, the  aqua alaminosa of the
shops.
  ALUNGU is a name given by fhe  people of Malabar
to an animal resembling a  large lizard, except as to head
and tail, which are both pointed.  It is of the species of the
manis of Linnaeus, and  belongs to the family of ant  eaten;
which have no teeth, but a round tongue, with which they
catch ants.
  ALURNUS, a genus of insects of the order of coleop-
tera, with filiform antennae, six short feelers, and  a hornj
arched jaw.  Three species of them are found at the Cape
of Good Hope, vis.  A. grossus, femoratus, and dentipes.
See Plate Nat. Hist. fig. 13.
  ALWAIDID, a  sect of Mahometans, who believe all
great crimes to be unpardonable.
  ALYSSUM, or Alysson,  madwort,  in botany! «
genus of the tetradynamia siliculosa class and order, of the
natural order of siliquosae and cruciferse of Jussieu.  The
flower is of the cruciform kind, and consists of four petals;
the fruit is  a small roundish capsule, divided into twocellsf
in which are contained a number of small roundish seeds.
The essential character is, the shorter filaments  marked
with a toothlet; the silicle  emarginate.
  There are 17 species.   The A. palimifolium, or sweet
alyssum, is an annual  plant, chiefly  cultivated in gardens
for its fragrance.   The yellow alysson is  also very orna
mental, and is perennial.
  AMA, among ecclesiastical writers, denotes a vessel in
which wine or water was kept for the service of  the eu-
charist.
   Am a is  sometimes  also used for a wine measure  as a
pipe,&c.                                        * 
A M A
A M A
    AMABYR, or Amvabyr, a barbarous custom which
  formerly prevailed in Wales, and some other parts of the
  kingdom;  being a certain fine, or sum of money, paid to
  the lord, upon marrying a maid within his manor.
    AMADOW, a kind of black match, tinder, or touch-
  wood,  which  comes from Germany.  It is  made  from
  spongy  excrescences, which often grow on  old trees, es-
  pecially oaks,  ash, or firs.   This substance being boiled
  in common water, and afterward dried and well beaten, is
  then put into a strong ley prepared with saltpetre,  after
  which it is again put to dry in an oven, when it is fit for use.
    AMADOWRY, a kind of cotton, which comes  from
  Alexandria, by way of Marseilles.
     AMAIN,  or  Amatne,  in sea language,  a term im-
1  porting to lower something  at once.  Thus, to strike
  amain, is to lower, or let fall the topsails.
    AMALGAM, a mass of mercury united and incorporate
  ied with some other metal.
    Amalgams grow soft with heat and hard with cold ; and
  the metals amalgamated with mercury, assume a consist-
  ence harder or softer, iu proportion to the quantity of mer-
*  cury employed in the amalgam.
i    Amalgams are used either  to render a metal fit to be
it  extended  on some works, as in gilding ; or else to reduce
l  the metal  into  a very subtile powder.
ii    Thus gilders,  to lay gold on any other metal, dissolve
si  it in hot mercury ; which done, they apply the solution on
  the body to be gilt, then setting it over the coals, the mer-
i!i  cury evaporates, and leaves the gold  adhering to the body
  like a crust.
I    The amalgams of  gold, silver,  tin, lead, zinc, bismuth,
i  and copper, are  all white  ; and when the  proporfion of
  the quantity of the other metal to that of mercury is con-
|  siderable,  they form a kind of paste.
I    AMALGAMATION,  in  chymistry, the operation of
n  making an amalgam, or of mixing  quicksilver with some
I  metal, is performed by fusing, or at least igniting the metal,
I  and in this state  adding a proportion of mercury to it;
  upon  which they mutually attract and incorporate  with
  each other.
    Of all metals, gold unites with mercury with the great-
,  est facility ; next to that, silver;  then lead,tin, and every
,  metal, except iron and copper, the last of which incorpo-
  rates with  quicksilver with great difficulty, and the former
(  scarcely at all.
    The amalgam of gold is  thus made : take a  dram of
  gold, beat  it into very thin plates, and upon these, heated
  in a crucible red hot, pour an ounce of quicksilver; stir
  the matter with an iron rod,  and  when it begins to fume,
  cast  it into an earthen pan filled  with water, and it will
  coagulate and become tractable.   Gold  will retain about
  thrice its weight of mercury.
    To make an amalgam of  lead ; melt  clean lead in an
  iron ladle, add (o it an equal weight  of melted mercury,
  stir them together with  an iron rod,  then let them  cool,
  and you will have an uniform mass of a silver colour, some-
  what  hard, but growing softer and softer by trituration.
  Put this mass info a glass mortar, grind it, and mix with it
  any quantity of mercury at pleasure, and it will unite with
  it,  as salt with water.  '
    The amalgam of tin is made exactly in the same man-
  ner, and this also may he diluted by  the addition of mer-
  cury.
  To have an amalgam of copper, take a solution of pure
copper, made in aquafortis, so strong that the aquafortis
could dissolve no more of the metal; dilute the solution
with twelve times its quantity of water; heat the liquor.
and put into it polished plates of iron, and the copper will
be precipitated in a powder to the bottom, while the iron
will be dissolved: proceed thus till  all the copper is fall-
en, pour off the liquor, wash the powder with hot water,
till it becomes perfectly insipid ; then dry the powder, and
grind it in a glass mortar with an equal weight of hot quick-
silver, and they will unite into an  amalgam, which will
also receive a further addition of mercury.  An amalgam
of copper in any other way is very  difficult to make.
   Pure silver precipitated from aquafortis, may in the
same manner be made into an amalgam.
   From these operations  we  may perceive  that the mak-
ing of amalgams is  the foundation of the art of gilding,
both in gold and silver, and that metals by that art may be
mixed, confounded, and  secretly concealed  among one
another.
   Amalgams are also used in  electricity; the rubber be-
ing always prepared by  laying on it a small  quantity of
amalgam, which is in general made of zinc, triturated with
tallow.  See Electricity.   An amalgam  of  tin  and
mercury  is used for looking-glasses.  In this case, the
glass plate is laid  on an even board, on which is spread
very  evenly some tin  foil,  and on the tin  foil is spread
quicksilver :  the glass is then laid on  the quicksilver, and
a  number of leaden  weights,  covered with baize or flan-
nel, are laid upon the glass; in this state it remains sever-
al days, till the  tin and quicksilver, in the state of  amal-
gam, adhere firmly to the glass, by means of which it ac
quires the power of reflection.
   AMAN, a sort of blue cotton cloth, which comes from
the Levant by the way of Aleppo.
   AM AR ANT A, or Am ar ante, an order of knighthood,
instituted in 1653, by Christina, queen of Sweden, in
memory of a masquerade, in  which she had assumed that
name, which signifies unfading, or immortal.
   AMARANTHUS, in botany, the name  of a genus of
plants, sometimes  called prince's feather,  the  flower of
which is rosaceous, and its fruit an oval or roundish cap-
sule, containing only one large seed of a roundish  com-
pressed shape.   The characters are : the male calyx is a
five or three leaved perianthium, erect, coloured, and per-
sistent : there is  no corolla:  the stamina consist of five or
three erect capillary filaments, the length of the calyx;
the antherse are oblong and  versatile: the  female  calyx
the same as the male, and no corolla: the pistillum has an
ovate germen; the styli  are  three,  short and subulated;
the stigmata simple and persistent: the pericarpium is an
ovate capsule, three beaked,  unilocular, and cut round :
the seed  is  one, globular, compressed, and large.  Of
this  there are 29 species; the most remarkable of  which
are:
   Amaranthus bicolor, melancholicus, or  two  coloured
amaranthus.  This greatly resembles  the  tricolor  in its
manner of growth; but the leaves have only Jwo colours,
which are an obscure purple, and a bright crimson.  These
are so splendid,  as to set off each  other, and  when  the
plants are  vigorous,  make a fine appearance.   Amarau-
thus maximus, or tree like amaranthus, grows with a strong
stem to  the height of seven or ei^lit feet.   Amaranthus 
                        A  M  B

 oleraceus  with obluse  indented  leaves.  This has no
 beauty * but it is use(' DY the  Indians as a substitute for
 cabbage.  Amaranthus tricolor, or three  coloured ama-
 ranthus.  Thi3 has been long cultivated in gardens on ac-
 count of the beauty of its variegated leaves, which  are
 green, yellow, and red, very elegantly mixed.  The ama-
 ranths are all annual.
   AMARYLLIS, a genus of  the hexandria  monogynia
 class and order, of the natural  order of lilia, which in its
 flower it resembles.   The  essential character is, corolla
 hexapetaloid, irregular;  filaments inserted info the throat
 of the tube, bending down, unequal in proportion or direc-
 tion.   There are 29 species, all of them highly ornamen-
 tal,  but only one, the A. lutea, perfectly  hardy in  this
 country.  The A. regina, the  vittata, the jacobea, bella-
 donna,  and Guernsey lily,  are well known in the stoves
 and  green  houses of  the curious in plants.  To  describe
 them is impossible, but no flowers are more beautiful.
   AMASONIA, a genus of fhe didynamia angiospermia
 class and order.  The corolla is one petalled:  and the
 essential character  is  corolla tubulous; limb small, quiu-
 quefid : the seed is a nut,  ovate  and one celled.  We
 Know of but one species, the erecta, a native of Surinam.
 The stem is herbaceous, and grows to the height  of three
feef.
  AMAUROSIS, among physicians, a distemper of the
eye, otherwise called gutta serena.
  AMAUSA,  a  name given by chymists to  the pastes
used in counterfeiting  gems.
  AMAZONS, an ancient  nation of women, inhabiting
 that  part of  Lesser  Asia, now called Amasia.
  The Amazons are said  to have killed all their male chil-
 dren, and to have cut  off the right breasts of their females,
 to fit them for martial  exercises. The existence, howev-
 er, of such a nation  is  controverted by the most judicious
 authors, particularly Mr. Bryant, and defended by others,
particularly Mr. Petit, a French physician, who has pub-
 lished a dissertation on the  subject,  wherein are several
 curious inquiries concerning their arms, dress, &c.
   We also read of Scythian Amazons, of German Ama-
 zons, of Lybian Amazons, and Amazons of America, liv-
 ing on the banks of the great river which bears their name,
 who are  represented as governed by a queen, no men be-
 ing permitted to live among them;  only,  at a certain sea-
 son, those of the neighbouring nations are suffered to visit
 them.   The Amazons of Lybia are famous for their wars
 with another female nation, called  Gorgons.  The whole
 of these stories appear to us little better than fabulous.
   AMAZONE, a very fine antique statue, in Parian mar-
 ble, in the  gallery of  antiques at Paris.   There is  also a
 beautiful statue of the queen of the Amazons  at Wilton,
 represented in a warlike attitude, which was executed by
 Cleomenes.
   AM BE, among surgeons, an instrument for reducing
 dislocated  bones, consisting of  a horizontal lever, moved
 by a hinge,  upon a vertical standard or foot.
  Am he, among  anatomists, a term used for the super-
 ficial jutting out of a bone.
  AMBER is a bitumiuous concrete, of a yellow or brown
colour, and more or less transparent.   In  its colour, how-
ever, there  is considerable  variety ; some pieces  being
• lear and transparent, some opaque  and whitish,  some
dark coloured 5 the most valued specimens are of a pale
                        A  M  B

 yellow colour.  On being  slightly rubbed, it  acquires
 electric powers.   Only a small portion of it is dissolved
 by spirit  of wine.  It affords the  most remarkable pne.
 nomena when exposed to heat.   Being rubbed, tJie odoor
 of  it that exhales resembles the aromatic resinous sub-
 stances, and is increased.   In a greater beat it acquires a
 brown colour,  emits some steams,  and undergoes a state
 of fusion.  It then becomes quite dark and opaque, and is
 employed in  this state  in  the composition of some var.
 nishes.  In  burning  it emits  very penetrating vapour?,
 burns with a grayish flame,  and  leaves a coaly residuum.
  When this substance is distilled, the empyreumatie oil
  Eroduced is mostly thick,  and of a blackish colour, and
  as a heavy,  penetrating odour.   When it is  repeated!;
 distilled it becomes more fluid and transparent, and can
 be  rendered  quite limpid ;  in which state it  is said fo re-
 semble the finer kinds of petrolea, particularly the naph-
 tha.  It is then termed rectified oil of amber.
  The origin of amber has been much disputed, whether
 it is originally a fossil, or is produced from vegetable mat-
 ter.  The  only reason to imagine it  is entirely a fossil
 body is, that it is found at some depth below the surface
 under certain  strata.  The greatest  part that  we have
 comes from the Baltic.   A considerable quantity is found
 floating on the sea on these coasts, being washed out of the
 soil by the agitation of the  waves, when  they penetrate
 through different strata, first through one  containing fossil
 wood, variously compacted together ; under this a stratum
 of vitriolic minerals; below this the amber is found dispers-
 ed in various sizes ; but when it is examined, we find mani-
 fest proofs of its having  been  produced originally at the
 surface of the earth ; parts of vegetables, and even insects,
 being occasionally found  in it.
  Amber is  used for trinkets,  particularly in Turkey and
 the East;  but the finest specimens are in the cabinet of
 the king of Prussia.
  AMBERGRIS resembles amber in several cbymical
 qualities.  It  is a light  ash coloured  body found on the
 sea shores in the East  Indies.  It is opaque,  and of a
granulated  structure.  It has  a  light  agreeable odour;
 melts with a gentle heat, without suffering any  change;
 and, if further heated in close  vessels, it  gives an oil like
 that of amber.  It also  dissolves  in  spirit  of wine, by
 means of heat, and is used in composition of perfumes.-  It
is not affected by acids.
  The origin of this substance is uncertain.   It appears
to be somewhat similar  fo that of amber.  It is found  in
 masses, from one  to  a  hundred  ounces.  The  greatest
 quanlity is found floating in the Indian ocean ; but we alio
 meet  with it in  our own and in the northern seas. It is
found likewise adhering to the rocks, and  in the stomachs
 of the most voracious fishes; these  animals swallowing at
 particular times every thing they happen to meet with.
 It has been particularly found in  the intestines of the es-
 chalot whale,  and most commonly  in sickly fish, whence
 it is supposed either the cause or effect of disease.  We
 often  find in it relics of animal and vegetable substances,
 the bones  and beaks of birds  and insects; and as it  re-
 sembles beeswax, melting like it, it would appear that it
 has been  originally beeswax, which having  been buried
under  the surface of the  earth, or  having floated a long
trme on the ocean, has undergone a considerable change;
and we know the amazing quantity  of beeswax and honey 
A M  B
A 31 B
 that is sometiays collected by bees in their wild state, as
 in America.  In old trees quantities have been found, suf-
 ficient for  filling  several  hogsheads; and in rocks and
 caves along the sea shore,  quantities  may be  gathered to-
 gether ; and by being buried, or by floating on the water,
 they may undergo a change, so as to be converted info
 this substance.
   AMBIDEXTER,  a person who  can  use both hands
 with  the same facility, and for the  same purposes, that
 (he generality of people do their right hands.
    Was it riot  for education, some think that all mankind
 would be  ambidexters; and, in fact, we frequently find
 nurses obliged to be at a good deal of  pains before they
 can bring children to forego the use of their left hands.
 It is perhaps a pity fhat any of the'gifts of nature should
 be  thus rendered in a great measure useless,  as there are
 many occasions in life which require the equal use of both
 hands:  such are the operations of bleeding in the left arm,
 left ancle, &c.
   Amhidexteb, among lawyers, a juror or embracer, who
 accepts money of both parties for giving his  verdict ; an
 offence for  which he is liable to be imprisoned, for ever
 excluded from a jury, and  to pay ten times the sum he ac-
 cepted of.                                  *
   AMBIGENAL hyperbola, a name given by sir Isaac
 Newton to  one of the triple hyperbolas of the second or-
 der, having one of its  infinite legs falling within an angle
 formed by  the asymptotes,  and  the other falling without.
 See Conic Section. •
   AMBIGUITY, in rhetoric and  grammar, a defect of
 language, whereby words are rendered equivocal.
   AMBIT, in geometry, is  the same with what is other-
 wise called  the perimeter of a figure.
   AMBITUS, whence our word ambition, in Roman an-
 tiquity, the offering for  some magistracy or office, and for-
 mally going round the city to solicit the interest and vote
 of the people.
   On  these occasions it  was not only usual to solicit the
 interest of their friends and others,  with whom they  were
 personally acquainted; but the candidates, being attend-
 ed by persons of an extensive acquaintance, who suggest-
 ed to them  the names of the citizens, and thence called
 nomenclalores, or interpretes, made application fo all fhey
 met.  This method of suing for offices was deemed allow-
 able, and therefore never prohibited  by law; but to re-
 strain all undue influence, whether by bribery, or by ex-
 hibiting-games, shows, and the like, many laws were enact-
 ed, and severe fines imposed.
   Ambitus, in music, a name sometimes appropriated fo
 signify the particular extent of each tone,  or modification
 of grave and acute.
   AMBLE, in horsemanship, a peculiar pace by which a
 horse's two  legs of the same side move at  the same time.
   Many methods  have been proposed lo bring  a young
 horse  to amble: some try it by new ploughed fields;
 some endeavour to  bring him to amble from  the gallop;
 and many use weights:  some attempt to procure an am-
 ble in hand, ere they mount his back ;  others,  by the help
 of hind shoes, made on purpose; others, by  folding  fine
 soft lists about the gambrels of the horse;  and others by
 the tramel.
  All these  methods,  however, are attended with great
danger to thr horse; and the  best way is to try with  (he
 hand, by a gentle deliberate racking of the horse, by heir..
 ing him  in the weak part of the mouth with a smooth, big,
 and full  snaffle, and correcting him first on one tide,  then
 on the other,  with  fhe calves of the Tegs, and sometimes
 with  a spur.
   AMBLYGON, in geometry, denotes an obtuse angled
 triangle, or a triangle, one of whose angles consists of more
 than  ninety degiees.
   AMBO,  or Ambon, in ecclesiastical antiquity, a kind
 of pulpit, or reading desk, where that part of  (he divine
 service called the gradual was performed.
   AMBROSE, or St. Ambrose in the wood, an order of
 religious, who use the Ambrosian office, and wear an image
 of that saint engraven on a little plate : in other respects
 they  conform to the rule of the Augustins.
   AMBROSIA, the name of a distinct genus of plants,
 with  flosculous flowers, composed of several small infun-
 dibuliform floscules, divided  into five segments ; these,
 however, are barren ; the fruit, which in some measure
 resembles a club, growing on other parts of the  plant.
   This genus belongs to the monoecia pentandria class of
 Linnaeus.  The characters are : the male flowers are com-
 pound :  the common calyx is a single leaved perianthium,
 the length of the florets ; the compound corolla is*uniform,
 tubular,  flat, and hemispherical: fhe proper is monopeta-
 lous,  funnel shaped, and quinquefid : the stamina consist
 of five  very small filaments ; the antherae are erect, par-
 allel, and pointed: the pistillum has a filiform stylus, the
 length of the stamina ; the stigma, orbicular and membra-
 neous :  the receptaculum is naked.  Female flowers below
 the male ones, on the same plant, doubled:  the calyx is a
 single leaved perianthium, entire, with the belly quinque-
 dentated, one flowered, and persistent: there is no corolla ;
 the pistillum has an ovate  germen in the bottom of the
 calyx ;  a filiform stylus, fhe length of the calyx ; and tv.u
 long  bristly stigmata : the pericarpium is an ovate uniloc-
 ular nut; the seed is single and roundish.  Of this genus
 five species  are  enumerated;  one of which  is perennial,
 and may be propagated either by cuttings  or  by seed?.
 The  plants are  moderately hardy, so maybe exposed to
 the open air in the summer ;  and in winter may be shelt.v
 ed in  a common green house with myrtles, and other hardy
 exotic plants.
   AMBROSIAN office, in church history, a particular
 formula of worship in the church of Milan, which lakes its
 name from St. Ambrose, who instituted that office in Ihc
 fourth century.  Each church originally had its particular
 office ; and when the pope in after times  took upon him  to
 impose the Roman  office upon all the western  churches,
 that of Milan sheltered itself under the name and authori-
 ty of  St. Ambrose,  from which tune the Ambrosian ritual
 has prevailed in contradistinction from the Roman ritual.
   Ambrosian chant, in ecclesiastical  music, differs very
 little, if at all, from  the Gregorian chant.
   AMBROSIN,  a  coin formerly struck by the dukes of
 Milan, representing St. Ambrose on horseback, with a
 whip in his right hand.
   AMBROSINIA, a genus of the class and order of <y-
 nandria polyandria.  The essential character U, spafhe
 one leaved, separated by a partition ; stamina on the inner,
pistils on fhe outer side of if.   We know of but one spe-
cies, a native of Sicily.   It  requires  the  protection of u
green  house  in this country. 
                       AME

   AMBRY, a place  in which are deposited all utensils
necessary for housekeeping.
   In the ancient abbies and priories, there was an office
under this denomination, wherein were laid up all charities
for the poor.
  AMB UBAJ/E, in Roman antiquity, were immodest wom-
en who came from Syria to Rome, where <hey lived by
prostitution, and by playing on  the flute:  the word is de-
rived  from the Syriac abbub, which signifles a flute; al-
though others make it come from am and Baicz, because
Ihese  prostitutes often retired to Baiae.  According to
Cruquius, these  women used likewise to sell paint for or-
namenting the face, &c.
  AMBULANT, the name of brokers, or exchange agents,
who have not been sworn before magistrates.  They trans-
act brokerage business, but their testimony is not admitted
in (he courts of justice.
  AMBULATION, in surgery, a term  given  to  the
spreading of a gangrene or mortification.
  AMBULATORY, a term applied to such  courts as
were  not fixed,  but removed  sometimes to one place,
sometimes to  another :  thus  the  court of parliament and
court of king's bench were formerly ambulatory.
  Ambulatorv will,  is such a will as can be  at any
time revoked before the person's death.
  AMBULIA, a genus of fhe  didynimia angiospermia
class and order.  It grows in Malabar, has an aromatic
?mell, and is administered in  cases of fever in the form of
a decoction.
  AMBURBIUM, in Roman antiquity, a precession made
by the Romans  round the city and pomserium,  in which
they led  a victim, and afterward sacrificed it, in order to
avert some calamity that threatened the city.
  AMBURY,  or Anbury, among farriers, denotes a tu-
mour, wart, or swelling, which is soft to the touch and full
of blood.  See  Fakkiery.
  AMBUSTA,aterm used in surgery for a solution of con-
tinuity, caused by the application of heated substances.
  AME, a musical term used by  the French to denote
feeling and expression.
  AMEDIANS, in church history, a congregation of re-
ligious in Italy, so called from their professing themselves
amantes  Deum, lovers of God; or rather, amali Deo, be-
loved of  God.
  AMELLUS, starwort, a genus of the polygamia su-
perflua order, belonging to the syngenesia class of plants ;
and in the natural method ranking under the 49th order,
compositae oppositifoliae.  The characters are : the com-
mon calyx is imbricated and roundish:  (he compound co-
rolla is radiated; the hermaphrodite corollets  numerous
in the disk; the female  numerous in the ray : proper co-
rolla of the hermaphrodites  are tubular  and quinquefid;
of the females,  tongued, loose, and two or three toothed:
the stamina in the hermaphrodites consist of five short ca-
pillary filaments; the antherae cylindric and tubular: the
pistillum has an ovate germen, a filiform stylus the length
of fhe stamina,  and two filiform stigmata: there is no pe-
ricarpium, but the calyx unchanged : the seeds are ovate
and solitary;  the pappus is hairy;  the receptaculum chaf-
fy. Of this there are two species, tir. Amellus lynchni-
tis, wifh  one flower on each  foot stalk.   This is a native
of the Cape of Good Hope,  and a perennial plant.  The
                       AME

amellus umbellatus,  with flowers growing in umbels,, is a
native of Jamaica, and is extremely tender.
  AMEN, in scriptural language, a solemn formula, or
conclusion to all prayer, signifying so be it.
  The term amen is Hebrew, being derived from the verb
aman, i.e. to be  true, faithful, &c.  so that, strictly speak-
ing,  it signi6es  truth; and, used  adverbially,  as is fr«,
quently done in the Gospels, truly  or verily.  Sometimes
it is  repeated  twice  together, and then it stands for fhe
superlative, as Amen, amen, dico vobis.
  AMEND, or  Amende, in the  French customs, a pe-
cuniary punishment  imposed  by a judge for any crime,
false prosecution, or groundless appeal.
  Amende honourablt, an infamous kind-of punishment
inflicted in France upon traitors, parricides, or sacrilegious
persons, in the following manner : the offender being de-
livered into the  hands of the hangman, his  shirt is strip.
ped off, and a rope put about his neck, and  a taper in his
hand; then he is led into court, where he must  beg pai>
don of God, the  king, the court, and his country.  Some-
times the punishment ends here, but  sometimes it is only
a prelude  to death, or banishment fo the gallies.
  AMENDMENT,  in law, the  correction of  an error
committed in a  process, which may  be amended  after
judgment, unless the error  lies in  giving judgment, for in
that case it is not amendable, but the party  must bring a
writ  of error.
  A bill may be amended  on the file  at any time before
the plea is pleaded, but not afterward, without motion and
leave of the court.
  Amendment  of a bill,  in parliament, is some altera-
tion  made in the first draught of  it.   We even  read of
amendments.  However,  it  is to  be observed,  that ali
amendments ought to be made in  the house, whence the
the thing to be amended originally proceeded.
  Amendment, in husbandry, is  used for1 the  enriching
land  by laying manure on if.
  AMENTACEOUS, in botany, an appellation given to
such flowers  as have an aggregate of summits  bangisg
down in form of a rope, or cat's tail,  which is called M
amentum or catkin.
  AMENTUM, in Roman  antiquity,  a thong tied about
the middle of  a javelin or dart, and fastened to the fore
finger, in order to  recover the weapon as soon  as it  was
discharged.   The ancients  made  great use of  the amen-
(um,*thinking  it helped to enforce the blow.  Amentum
also  denotes a latchet that bound their  sandals.
  AMERCEMENT,  or Amerciament, in law, a pecu-
niary punishment imposed upon offenders at  the mercy of
the court.
  Amercements differ from fines, the latter  being certain
punishments growing expressly from some statute, where-
as the  former are imposed  in proportion  to  the fault.
Besides, fines are assessed by the court, but  amercements
by the country.
  A  court of record  only can fine,  all others  can only
amerce.
  Sheriffs are amerciable for the faults of their officers, and
clerks of the peace may be  amerced in the  king's bench
tor gross faults m indictments removed to that court
  A town is subject to amercement for the escape'of  a
murderer  in the  day time; and if  the town is walled  it is 
AME
A  M  I
subject to amercement whether (he escape happens by day
or night.
  The statute of Magna Charta ordains that a freeman is
not to be amerced for a small fault, but  in proportion  to
the offence, by his peers and equals.
  AMERICA,  one  of the four grand divisions of the
earth.   See Geography.
  AMER1MNUM,  a genus of the diadelphia  decandria
class and order, of the natural order of the papilionacese
or leguminosae.   The essential character is, calyx two
lipped; legume compressed,  leafy, two valved,  gaping;
seeds few and solifary.  There are two species:  the one
a shrub ; and the  other, A. ebenus, a tree which rises  to
14 feet high, with a very thick stem.  It is common in the
West Indies, where the wood is cut and sent to England
under the name of ebony.
  AMETHYST, amethystus, in the history of precious
stones, a gem of a purple colour, which seems compound-
ed of a strong blue and a deep red; and  according as ei-
ther of these prevails, affording different  tinges  of purple,
sometimes approaching to violet, and sometimes even fad-
ing to a pale rose colour.
  The amethyst on analysis is found, according to Rose,
to contain
           97.50 silica
            0.25 alumina
            0.50 oxyde of iron and manganese
98.25
   Though the amethyst is generally of a purple colour, it
 is nevertheless sometimes found naturally colourless, and
 may at any time  be easily made so by putting it info the
 fire;  in which pellucid or colourless state, it  so well imi-
 tates the diamond, that its want of hardness seems the only
 way of distinguishing it.
   Some derive the name amethyst from its colour, which
 resembles  wine mixed  with water  ; whilst others, with
 more probability,  think it got its name from its supposed
 virtue of preventing drunkenness ; an opinion which, how-
 ever imaginary, prevailed to  that degree among the an-
 cients,  that it was  usual  for  great  drinkers  to  wear  it
 about their necks.
   Be this as it will, the amethyst is scarcely inferior to any
 of the gems in the beauty of its colour; and in its purest
 state is of  the same hardness, and at least of  equal value
 with the ruby and sapphire.   It is found of various sizes,
 from that of a small vetch, to an inch and a half in diame-
 ter, and often to much  more than  that in length.  Its
 shape  is extremely various,  sometimes roundish,  some-
 times oblong, and at others flatted, at least on one side;
 but its most common appearance is  in a crystalliform fig-
 ure, consisting of a thick column, composed of four planes,
 and terminated by a flat  and short pyramid, of the same
 number of sides ;  or else, of a thinner and longer hexan-
 gular  column, and sometimes of a long pyramid  without
 any column.   It makes the gayest  figure  in  the last of
 these states, but is hardest and most  valuable in the round-
 ish and pebble like form.
  The  amethyst is found in the East  and West Indies,
and in  several parts of  Europe ; the  oriental  ones,  at
least some  of the  finer specimens,  being  so hard and
bright  as to equal any of the coloured gems in value.
 However, by far the greater number of amethysts fall u.
 finitely short of these, as all the European ones, and not a
 few of those brought from the East and West Indies, r.re
 very little harder than common crystal.
   Amethyst,  in  heraldry, a  term  for Ihe purple colour
 in the coat of a nobleman, in  use with those who blazon
 by precious stones instead of metals and colours.  This in
 a gentleman's escutcheon is called Purpure, and  in those
 of sovereign princes, Mercury.
   AMETHYSTEA, a genus  of the diandria monogynia
 class and order, of the natural order of verticilhtae  and
 labiatae.  The  characters are : the calyx consists of a
 single leaved perianthium, bell shaped, angular, semiquin-
 quefid, and persistent: the corolla  is monopetalous; the
 border quinquepartite, the lowest division  more  expand-
 ing: the stamina consist of two slender filaments  approxi-
 mated : the anthera? are simple and roundish: the pistil-
 lum has a four cleft germen ; stylus, the size of the stami-
 na; stigmata two,  acute :  no corolla:  the seeds four, gib-
 bous,  and  shorter than the calyx.   There is only  one
 known species: it is a native of Siberia.   It is an annual
 plant, with an upright stalk, which rises about a foot high.
 Toward  fhe top it puts forth  two or three small lateral
 branches, garnished with small trifid leaves,  sawed  on
 their edges, of a very dark  green  colour.   The flowers
 appear in June or July, and are produced in small umbels
 at  the extremities of the branches.  They  are of  a  fine
 blue colour, as are also the upper part of the branches,
 and the leaves immediately under the umbel, so that they
 make a fine  appearance.  The seeds of the ametbystea
 should be sown in autumn, as they  are apt to remain a
 whole year in the ground.
  AMETHYSTINE, a term  applied to a kind of purple
 garment dyed of the hue of  amethyst. This colour is a
 medium between the tyrian and hyacinthine.
  AMIABLE, or Amicable  numbers,  such as  are mu-
 tually equal to  the  sum of one another's aliquot parts, as
 the numbers 284 and 220.   Thus the aliquot parts of 220,
 are 1,2,4,5, 10,11,20,22, 44,55, 110, and  these added
 together are equal  to 284; and the aliquot parts of 284,
 are 1, 2, 4, 71, 142, and these added together are equal to
 220.
  Van Schouten was the first who gave this name  fo such
 numbers, of which  it is easily apprehended, there are but
 very few at least to be set down and manageable by  us;
 for 284 and 220 are the two least, and the two next great-
 er are 18416  and  17296; the  third pair of numbers  are
 9363584 and 9437056.
  AMIANTHUS, a fibrose, flexile, and elastic mineral
 substance, composed of short and abrupt filamoits.
  There are  several species of amianthi; that  of a gray-
 ish  green colour, with short, abrupt, and interwoven fila-
 ments, is the same  wifh fhe plumose alum of the shops.
  The properties of the amianthtis  are very wonderful.
 They will neither give  fite with steel, nor ferment with
aquafortis;  and  if thrown* info  fhe  fire, will endure  (he
most extreme heat without the least injury to their lex
fure.  Amianthus threads are  sometimes used  as perpet-
ual  wicks for lamps ;  they require occasional clean'm?
from the soot; and by great beat they are apt to run k,
gether in a state of semifusion, so  as fo prevent  th? due
supply of oil.   The amianthus and all the varieties of as-
bestos, are classed by  Mr. Kjrwan  among the  magn*;s'a& 
                      A M M

< ;«rli:s as fhcv contain abont a fifth part of that substance.
See Asbestos and Mineralogy.
  AMICABLE benches, in Roman antiquity, were, ac-
cording 'o Pitiscus, lower and less  honourable  seats al-
lotted for the inferior judges, who, upon being admitted of
the emperor's  council, were dignified by him with  the
lifle atuiri.
  A31 ICTUS, among ecclesiastical writers,  the upper-
most garment  anciently worn  by the clergy; the other
five being the alba, singultus, stola, manipulus, and plane-
fa.  The amictus was  a linen garment, of a square figure,
covering the head, neck,  and shoulders,  and buckled, or
clasped, before the breast.  It is still  worn by the relig-
ious abroad.
  AMICULUM, in Roman antiquity, a woman's upper
garment, which differed from the palla, as we learn from
Livy;  but  in  what that difference  consisted we are at a
loss to know,  unless  that it was shorter than the palla.
The amicuium was worn both by matrons and courtesans.
  AMICUS  curiae, a law term, to denote a bystander,
who informs the court  of  a matter in law that is doubtful
or mistaken.
  AMIESTIES, cotton  cloths, which  come from  the
East Indies.
  AMIRANTE,  in fhe Spanish polity,  a great officer of
state, answering to our lord high admiral.
  AMITTERE legem terr;e, among lawyers, a phrase
importing the loss of the liberty of swearing in any court.
The punishment of a  champion overcome or yielding in
battle, of jurors found  guilty in a writ of  attaint, and  of a
person outlawed.
  AMMAN, or  Ammant, in the  German and  Belgic
policy, a judge who has the cognisance of civil causes.
  Ammant is also  used  among the  French for  a  public
notary, or officer who  draws up instruments and deeds.
  AMMANNIA, in botany, the name of a genus of plants,
belonging to the (etrandria  monogynia  class and order of
Linnaeus; the flower of which is composed of four oval
patent  petals growing  within the cup; and its fruit is a
roundish capsule covered by the cup,  and containing four
cells ;  and  this description  forms  its essential character.
There are seven species, all of  which  seem to be annual,
and being natives of hot  climates most  of (hem require
protection in this country.
  AMMI, bishop's weed, in botany,  a genus of umbellife-
rous plants, belonging to the pentandria digynia class and
order of Linnaeus; the flower of which is rosaceous  and
composed of heart  like petals; and its  fruit is a small
roundish and  striated capsule,  containing two striated
seeds,  convex on one side.  There are three  species, all
annual.
  AMMOCHRYSOS, in natural history, (he name of a
stone common in Germany, being a  species of mica, with
gold  coloured spangles.  Reduced  to powder, it is  used
to strew over writing.
  AMMODYTES,  the  name*of a genus of fishes, of
which only a single species has hitherto been discovered.
The head is compressed, narrower than  the body;  upper
lip doubled, lower jaw narrow  and  pointed ; teeth sharp ;
Sill membrane of seven  rays; body lon^  square ; tail fin
distinct.  It inhabits  ihe  sandy shores  of the northern
seas, and it takes its name from its  quality of diving into,
or burying  it<clf under the sand.   It is usually from  nine
                      A M M

to twelve inches in length.   It is silvery white, and green-
ish on the back.
  AMMONIA, or Volatile Alkali, is distinguished
from the fixed alkalies by a very sharp irritating pungent
smell, and by its great volatility.
  Ammonia may be procured by the following process :
   1. Put  into a retort a  mixture of three  parts of  quick
lime and one part of sal ammoniac  in  powder.  Plunge
the beak of the retort below the mouth of  a glass jar fill-
ed with mercury, and standing inverted in  a basin of mer.
cury.  Apply  the  heat  of a lamp  to the retort;  a gag
comes over, which displaces the mercury and fills the jar.
This gas is ammonia.   It was known by the name of vola-
tile alkali; it was  also called hartshorn,  because it waj
often obtained  by distilling the horn of the hart; spirit of
urine, because it may be obtained  by  the same process
from urine ; and spirit of sal ammoniac,because it maybe
obtained from that  salt.   Dr. Black first pointed out the
difference between ammonia and carbonat of ammonia, or
ammonia combined with carbonic acid ; and Dr. Priestley
discovered the method of obtaining it in a  state of purity,
by the process already described.
  2. Ammonia in the state of gas is transparent and col-
ourless like air; its taste is acrid and caustic like that of
the fixed alkalies, but  not  nearly so strong, nor does it,
like them* corrode those animal bodies  to  which it is ap-
plied :  its smell is  remarkably pungent, though not un-
pleasant when sufficiently diluted.  Its  use as a stimulant
to prevent  fainting is well known.
   Animals cannot breathe  it without  death.   When i
lighted candle  is let down into this gas, it goes out three
or four times successively;  but  at each time the flame is
considerably enlarged by the addition of another flame o;
a pale yellow colour, and at last this flame descends from
the top of the vessel to the  bottom.
   Its specific gravity is 0.000732.  Its weight is to thato:
common air as 3 to 5.
   When exposed fo a cold of—45° it is condensed iotoa
liquid, which again  assumes the gaseous  form when the
temperature  is raised.   When  passed through a red ho;
tube of porcelain or glass,  it is totally  decomposed and
converted  into hydrogen and azotic gas.  That this e*
periment may succeed, the  diameter of the tube must not
be too great.
   3. It combines very rapidly with water.  When a piece
of ice  is brought into contact with this gas,  it melts and
absorbs the ammonia, while at the same  time its tempera
ture is diminished.   Cold water  absorbs this  gas almost
instantaneously, and at the  same time heat is evolved, and
the specific gravity of fhe water is diminished.   Water  is
capable of absorbing and condensing more than a third  of
its weight of ammoniacal  gas.   The specific gravity  of
the  saturated solution is 0.9054. It  is in this  state "tW
ammonia is usually  employed by chymists.   The term
ammonia, indeed, almost ajways means fhis liquid solution
of ammonia in water.  When  heated to the temperature
of about 130°, the ammonia separates under fhe form  of
gas.   When   exposed  to  the  temperature of —46°  it
crystallizes; and when  suddenly cooled down to  —68°,
it assumes the appearance of a thick jelly, and  has scarce-
 ly any smell.
   It follows from the experiments  of Mr. Davv  that I
saturated solution of ammonia is composed of 
A M  M
A M M
74,63 water
25.37 ammonia
                 100.00
  The following table,  drawn up by the same ingenious
chymist, exhibits the proportion of wafer and ammonia
contained in 100 parts of liquid ammonia of different spe-
cific gravities.
Specific grav.	Ammonia.	Water.
0.9054	25.37	74.63
0.9166	22.07	77.93
0.9255	19.54	80.46
0.9326	17.52	82.48
0.9335	15.88	84.12
0.9435	14.53	85.47
0.9476	13.46	86.54
0.9513	12.40	87.60
0.9545	11.56	88.44
0.9573	10.82	89.18
0.9597	10.17	89.83
0.9619	9.60	90.40
0.9684	9.50	90.50
0.9639	9.09	90.91
0.9713	7.17	92.83
  4. Ammoniacal  gas  is not altered  by light; but when
electric sparks are made to pass through it, the  bulk of
the gas is considerably increased, and it is converted into
hydrogen gas and azotic gas.  Hence it follows, that it is
composed of hydrogen and azote.  By this process Ber-
thollet converted 1.7 cubic inches of ammoniacal gas into
3.3 cubic inches.
  5. This gas has no effect upon oxygen gas while cold ;
but when a mixture of the two gases is made to pass through
a red hot porcelain tube, a detonation takes place, water is
formed, and  azotic  gas is  emitted.   Hence we see that
ammonia is partly combustible.  Its  hydrogen combines
with the oxygen, and  forms water, while the azote makes
its escape in The form of a gas.   If the proportion  of oxy-
gen gas is considerable, nitric acid is also formed in con-
sequence of the combination of the azote with the super-
abundant oxygen.   The same decomposition and  detona-
tion take place if common air is used instead of oxygen gas.
  6- Sulphur is the  only one of the simple combustibles
that combines with ammonia.   Hydrogen produces no
change  upon  it whatever; but phosphorus and charcoal
act with considerable effect in high temperatures.
  It combines with  sulphur  in  the state of vapour, and
forms a sulphuret which decomposes  water, and forms hy-
drogenated sulphuret of ammonia, known formerly by the
name of fuming liquor of Boyle, because it was first de-
scribed by that philosopher.  It is  commonly prepared
by distilling a mixture of five parts of sal ammoniac, five
parts of sulphur, and six of quick lime.  It is a liquid of
:i red or rather deep  orange colour, and exhales a fetid
odour in consequence  of an excess of ammonia which  it
contains.  Its nature was first pointed out by Berthollet.
  Phosphorus produces no  change  on ammoniacal gas
while cold;  but when this  gas is made to pass through
phosphorus in a red hot porcelain tube, it is decomposed,
  vol.  i.            15
and phosphnreted hydrogen gas, and phosphureted azofir
gas, are formed.
  Charcoal absorbs ammoniacal gas, but does not alter its
properties while cold.  But when the gas is made to pass
through red hot charcoal, part of the charcoal combines
with it, and forms a substance known by the name of prus-
sic acid.
  7. Ammonia is not acted on by azote ; but it combines
rapidly with muriatic acid, the two gases concreting into
the solid salt called muriat of ammonia.
  8. Ammonia does not combine  with the  metals; but it
changes some of them into oxides, and then dissolves them.
The oxidizement is evidently in consequence of the de
composition of part of the water with  which the  ammonia
is combined; for hydrogen gas is emitted during the  solu-
tion.  Copper and zinc are oxidized by the action of ammo-
nia : as are also tin  and iron*  though only superficially.
Scarcely any of the other metals are altered by its action.
  Liquid ammonia is capable  of dissolving the oxides of
copper, iron, tin, nickel, zinc,  bismuth, and cobalt.  When
digested upon the oxides of mercury, lead, or manganese,
it is decomposed, water is formed by  the union of the by
drogen of the ammonia with the oxygen  of the oxides, and
azotic gas is emitted. If a considerable beat is applied,
nitric acid is formed at the same time with water.  Sever
al other oxides  are also partly deoxidized when  ammonia
is poured into their solutions in acids.  The ammoniacal
solution of the peroxide of copper is of a fine blue colour.
and, according to Sage, capable  of crystallizing.  When
heat is applied, the ammonia is  partly driven off, and partly
decomposed, by the  combination of its hydrogen with the
oxygen of the oxide.
  9. Ammonia combines readily with the peroxides of gold
and silver, and forms with them two compounds, formerly
known by the names of fulminating gold and fulminating
silver; because  when heated or rubbed, they explode
with great violence.  It combines also with the red oxide
of mercury.
  10. The affinities of ammonia are the same with those of
the fixed alkalies.
   11. As ammonia has the  property of detonating with ni-
tre, chymists had unanimously agreed  that  it contained
phlogiston.   Scheele first demonstrated, that when it is
decomposed by means of the oxides  of manganese, arsen-
ic, or gold, azotic gas is set at liberty, while the oxide is
reduced.  Hence he concluded, that it was composed of
azote  and phlogiston; and Bergmann coincided with him
in opinion.   Dr.  Priestley discovered, that when electric
explosions are  made to pass  through this gas, its bulk is
gradually augmented to thrice the space which it formerly
occupied; and a quantity of hydrogen gas is produced.
 The same ingenious philosopher applied heat to the red
 oxides of  mercury and lead confined in ammoniacal gas.
 The  oxides were reduced, water was evolved, the am-
 moniacal gas disappeared, and instead of  it, there was
 found a quantity of  azotic gas.  These experiments, and
 those of Scheele, led to  the conclusion, that ammonia is
 composed of azote and hydrogen;  a conclusion  which was
 fully  established by the experiments of Berthollet, pub
 lished in the Memoirs of the French Academy for 1785.
 This acute philosopher  repeated  the experiments  of
 Scheele and Priestley, and applied to  them the theory of 
A M O
A M  O
 Jffr. Lavoisier, and added also several very decisive ones
 of his own. The most important of these is fhe mutual de-
 composition of ammonia and oxymuriatic acid.  When so-
 lutions of these bodies in water are mixed togefher, an ef-
 fervesence lakes place, azote is disengaged, a quantity of
 water formed, and the oxymuriatic acid is converted into
 common muriatic acid.   Now the substances mixed were
 ammonia and oxymuriatic acid, which is composed of oxy-
 gen  and muriatic acid; the products were, muriatic acid,
 azote, and water, which is composed of oxygen and hydro-
 gen.   The oxygen of the wafer was furnished by the acid;
 the other  products must have been furnished by the am-
 monia, which had disappeared.   Ammonia, therefore, must
 be composed of azote and hydrogen. It follows from Mr.
 Bertholtet'S experiments, that  ammonia is composed of
 121  parts  of azote and 29 of hydrogen.  According to
 Dr.  Austin, it is composed of 121 parts of azote and 32 of
 hydrogen.  Hence 100 parts of ammonia are composed of
 about 80 parts of azote and 20 of hydrogen.   The experi-
 ments of Berthollet have been  still further confirmed by
 those made more lately by Mr. Davy.
   Ammonia, liquid, is formed by the solution of ammoni-
 acal  gas in water, which takes place  very rapidly.
   AMMONIAC, or Gum Ammoniacum, in the materia
 medica, a gum, or more properly a  gum resin, extracted
 from an umbelliferous plant,  growing in  some parts of Af-
 rica  and Asia.  It is brought to us  in drops or granules,
 and sometimes in large masses, composed of a number of
 these granules connected together by other matter of the
 same kind.
   The best ammoniac is always  most free from dross, of a
 yellowish colour  without and white within, of a bitterish
 taste and castor smell.
   Ammoniac, sal.   See Muriate of Ammonia, in Chym-
 istry.
   AMMONIACAL gas, an  elastic fluid, as transparent as
 air, but Iktle more than half as heavy.  Its smell and taste
 are sharp and caustic.   It destroys  animal and*vegetable
 life,  and extinguishes  flame.  TTie  electric  spark sepa-
 rates it into its constituent principles, hydrogen and azotic
 gas.   On being mixed with acid gases, clouds are  produc-
 ed by the formation of neutral ammonial salts.
   Ammoniacal preparations.   See Pharmacy.
   AMMONITE, in natural history, the same with the
 cornua ammonis, or snake stones.
   AMMOSCHISTA, a genus  of stones of  a laminated
 structure,  and splitting  only  horizontally, or into flat
 plates.
   AMMUNITION, a general term  for all warlike provi-
 sions, but more especially powder, ball, &c.
   Ammunition, arms, utensils of war, gunpowder, import-
 ed without license from his majesty, are, by the  laws of
 England, forfeited and triple  the value.
   And again, such license obtained,  except for furnishing
 his majesty's public stores, is to be void, and the  offender
 to incur a premunire,and be disabled from holding any of-
 fice from the crown.
   Ammunition bread, shoes, &c. such  as  are served
 •ut to the soldiers of an army or garrison.
   AMNIOS, a thin pellucid membrane, which surrounds
 the fetus.   See Anatomy and Physiology.
   AMOEBCEUM, a  poem, or rather composition,  in
which two parties speak alternately in the same number of
 verses, but so as that he who answer*, either goes beyond
 or contradicts the other; such are the third and seventh
 Eclogues of VirgJI.
   AMOGABARI, ancient Spanish soldiery greatly cele-
 brated for bravery.
   AMOGLOSSUS, a name of a peculiar kind of flat fish,
 something resembling a soal, and called also a lantern.
   AMOK, a term used as a catch word among the slaves
 in Bafavia; who, when they consider themselves as aggriev-
 ed, sally forth, shouting out  amok, amok, and murder all
 they meet.
   AMOMUM,  a genus  of  the monandria  monogynia
 class and order.  The characters are  : the calyx is an ob-
 scure three toothed  perianthium, above: the corolla ia
 monopetalous, the tubes short, the limbus tripartite: the
 stamina is an oblong filament, with the anthera adjoining;
 the pistillum has a roundish germen, beneath; the style is
 filiform, the stigma  obtuse;  the pericarpium is leathery,
 subovate, trigonous, frilocular, and  three valved; the seeds
 are numerous.   Of this genus there  are  12 species, the
 principal of which are,
   1.  Amomum Zinziber, or common  ginger,  a  native of
 the  East,  and  also of some  parts of the West Indies;
 where it grows naturally without culture.   The roots are
 jointed, and spread in the ground;  they put out many
 green, reed like stalks in the spring, which rise to fhe
 height  of two feet and  a half, with narrow leaves.   The
 flower stems rise by the side of these immediately from
 the root: these  are naked, ending with an oblong scaly
 spike.  From each of these  scales is produced  a single
 blue  flower, whose petals are but little  lower than the
 squamous covering.  All the species are  tender, and re-
 quire a stove to preserve them in this country.  They are
 easily propagated by parting the roots in the spring.  '
   2. Amomum Zerumbet, or  wild ginger, also a native of
 India*  The roots are larger than those of the common
 ginger, but  are jointed  in  the same manner.   The stalks
 grow from three lo near four feet.high, with oblong leaves
 placed alternately.   The  flower stems arise  immediately
 from  the root:  these are  terminated by oblong, blunt,
 scaly heads; out of each scale is produced a single white
 flower,  whose petals extend a considerable length beyond
 the scaly covering.
   3. Amomum Cardamomum,  or cardamom, is a native of
 India, but  is  little known in this country except by its
 seeds, which are used in medicine. Of this there is a va-
 riety, with smaller fruit, which makes the distinction info
 cardamomum inajus and minus.
   4.  Amomum Grana Paradisi, is likewise a native of the
 East  Indies.  The fruit containing the grains of paradise
 is about the size  of a fig, divided into three cells, in each
 of which are contained two small  seeds like cardamoms.
 They are somewhat more grateful, and considerably mott
 pungent, than cardamoms.
   The dried roots of the  1st  species   are  of great use In
 the kitchen, as well as in medicine. They furnish a con-
 siderable export from some of the American islands.   The
 green roots, preserved as a sweetmeat, are preferable to
 every other. The Indians mix them wi(h (heir rice, which
 is their common food, to correct its natural insipidity.   Gin-
ger is a very useful spice in  cold  flatulent colics, and in
laxity and debility of  the  intestines:  it does not heat ro
much  as those of the pepper kindr but  its effects are mucB 
A M P
AMP
 more durable.   The  cardamoms and grains of paradise
 have the same medicinal qualities with ginger.
    Amomum, in the materia medica, a name  given to the
 seed of an aromatic plant, esteemed a powerful  diuretic,
 and aperient; and consequently thought  good in nephritic
 cases, obstructions  of the viscera, and suppression of the
 menses.  It is now  disused.
    AMOPHILA, a name proposed for a new genus of hy-
 menopterous insects, with beak conic, inflected, conceal-
 ing a bifid, retractile, tubular tongue.
    AMORPHA, in botany, a genus of plants, belonging to
 the diadelphia decandria class and order of Linnaeus; the
 flower  of which consists of one  petal vertically ovated,
 hollow and erect; and the fruit is a lupulated pod, of a com-
 pressed form, and covered  with tubercles, in  which are
 contained two seeds,  of  an oblong  kidney like shape.
 The essential character is : standard of the corolla ovate,
 concave: wirgs none, calyx none.   We know of but one
 species, a very elegant shrub, vulgarly called bastard in-
 digo, as formerly in Carolina a coarse sort of indigo was
 made from  the young shoots.   With us it  is  perfectly
 hardy.
    AMORTIZATION, in law, the alienation of lands or
 tenements to a corporation or fraternity  and  their succes-
 sors.
    Amortization also denotes the privilege of taking lands,
 &c. in mortmain, for which purpose the king's  consent must
 first  be  obtained.  This  license is granted upon paying
 (o (he  king  and  the superior a certain sum  to indemnify
 them for several incidental dues, which in the  common way
 would have fallen to them, but by the amortization are cut
 off.
   AMPELIS, in zoology, the chatterer, a genus of birds
 belonging to  the  order of passeres; the distinguishing
 characters of which are, (hat the tongue is furnished with
 a rim or margin  all round, and  the  bill is conical  and
 straight.  There are seven species,  all natives of foreign
 countries, except the garrulus, which is a native both of
 Europe and  the West Indies.   In the former, the native
 country of these birds is Bohemia; whence they wander
 over  the rest of Europe, and were  once superstitiously
 considered as presages of a pestilence.  They appear an-
 nually about Edinburgh in February, and feed on the ber-
ries of  the mountain ash.   They also appear as far S. as
 Northumberland ; and, like the fieldfare,  make the berries
 of the white  (horn their food.  It is but by accident that
 they  ever appear further  south.  They are gregarious;
 feed on grapes, where  vineyards are cultivated; are easi-
 ly tamed, and are esteemed delicious food.  This species
 is about the size of the blackbird ;  the bill is short, thick,
 and black ; on (he head is a sharp pointed crest  reclining
 backward ; the lower part of the tail is black, the end of a
 rich yellow ;  (he quill  fealhers are black, the three first
are tipped with white,  (he six next have half an inch of
 their  exterior margin edged with fine yellow, (he interior
with while.   But  what distinguishes this from  all  other
birds*, are the thorny appendages from the tips of seven of
the secondary feathers, of the colour and  gloss of the best
red wax.  See Plate, Nat. Hist. fig. 15*, 16*.
  AMPELITES, Cannel coal, in natural history, a solid,
dry, opaque fossil, very hard, not fusible, but easily inflam-
mable,  and  burning with  a bright, vivid, white flame.
This mineral  is found in Lancashire, and in different parts
                    15*
of Scotland, where it is known  by fhe name of Parrot
coal.   Colour black; structure sometimes slaty.   It burns
like a candle, and lasts but a short time.   It does not cake,
and leaves a stony or sooty residuum.
  A specimen of Lancashire cannel coal, analyzedby Mr.
Kirwan, contained
                75.20 charcoal
                21.68 maltha
                3.10 alumina and silica
                99.98
   Cannel coal is susceptible of polish, and, like jet,is fre
 quently wrought into snuffboxes, and other trinkets.
   AMPHERES, in antiquity, a kind of vessels, wherein
 the  rowers plied two oars at the same time, one with the
 right hand, end the other with the left.
   AMPHIARTHROSIS, in  anatomy, a term under
 which some comprehend all those junctures of the bones,
 which have a manifest motion, and which differ from the
 several articulations of  the diarthrosis either in regard to
 their figure or motion.
   AMPHIBIA, (he third class of animals in the Linnsan
 system, including those which possess, in  a  certain de-
 gree, the power of respiraf ion, and are thereby enabled to
 live either in water or on land.  This class  is  subdivided
 into four orders, vis. 1st, Amphibia reptiles, 2d, Amphi-
 bia  serpentes,  3d, Amphibia nantes, and 4th, Amphibia
 meantes.  The  distinguishing characters of  (his class  are
 these ;  they have either naked or scaly bodies, and sharp
 pointed  fore teeth, but without grinders, or dentes mola
 res: to which add, that they have no radiated fius.  The
 class includes the tortoise, the frog  kind, and the lizard
 and  serpent kinds: 289 species.
   Anatomists observe, that the lungs of amphibious ani-
 mals are so formed, that though respiration is necessary to
 them, yet  it is not requisite to be performed at  short in-
 tervals.  Hence it is, that they can remain a long time
 under wajer without being suffocated, and many of them
 even a considerable  part of their lives.
   Amphibious, a term descriptive of the class Amphibia ;
 it also applies, however,  to the otter, seal, beaver, and
 some animals of the other classes, who live  on the land,
 and occasionally go into the water in search of prey.
   Most  of the amphibious animals  of  this  description
 have peculiar provisions in their  structure  to fit them for
 their mode of living, particularly in the heart, lungs, fora-
 men ovaje, &c.  There are two very curious and impor-
 tant disquisitions by Dr. Parsons on this subject, in the
 56th vol. of the Phil. Trans, the substance of which is as
 follows.  Dr. Parsons classes  amphibious animals  under
 two divisions: 1. Such  as enjoy their chief functions by
 land, but occasionally go into the water. 2. Such as chief-
 ly inhabit the water, but occasionally go on shore.
   Of fhe first he particularly considers the.phocai or seal
 tribe;  and endeavours to show,  that none  of them  can
 live chiefly in the water, but that their chief enjoyment of
 the functions of  life is on shore.  These animals,  he ob-
 serves,  are really  quadrupeds;  but as their chief food is
 fish, they are under the  necessity of going out  to sea to
 hunt their prey, and to great distances from shore ;  taking
care that,  however great the distance, rocks or  smaH
 islands are at hand, as resting places  when (hey are tired,
 or when their bodies become too much macerated in the 
                       AMP

water.  He proceeds:  It is well known, that the only es-
sential difference, as to the general structure of the heart,
between amphibious and  mere land animals, or such as
never go into the water, isr that in the former the oval hole
remains always open.  Now, in such as are without this
hole, if they were to be immersed in water but for a little
time,  respiration  would cease, and the animal must die.
There are three necessary and principal uses of respiration
in all land animals, and in those kinds that are counted am-
phibious.   The first is, that of promoting the circulation of
the blood through  the whole body and extremities.  In
real fishes,  the force of the heart is atone capable of send-
ing the blood to every part, as they are not furnished with
limbs or extremities;  which being so remote from the
heart, have need of such  assistance, otherwise  the cir-
culation would be very languid in these parts.  Thus we
see, that in  persons subject to  asthmatic complaints, the
circulation  grows languid, the-legs grow cold and {edema-
tous, and other parts suffer by the defect in respiration.
A second use of breathing is, that, in  inspiration, the va-
riety of particles, of different qualities, which  float always
in the air, might be drawn into the lungs, to be insinuated
into the mass of blood, being highly necessary to contem-
perate and cool the agitated mass, and to contribute refined
pabulum to the finer parts of it, which, meeting with the
daily supply of chyle, serves to assimilate and more inti-
mately mix the mass, and render its constitution the fitter
for supporting  the life of the  animal.  Therefore it is,
that  valetudinarians,, by changing foul or unwholesome
air for a free, good, open air, often recover from lingering
diseases.   A third principal use  of respiration is,  to pro-
mote the exhibition of  voice in animals; which all those
that live on the land do according to their specific natures.
From  these considerations it appears, that the phoca; of
every kind are under an absolute  necessity of making the
land their principal residence.  But there is another very
convincing argument why they reside on shore the greatest
part of their time, vis. that the flesh of these creatures is
analogous to that of other land animals;  and therefore, by
over long maceration, added to the fatigue of their chasing
their prey, they would suffer such a relaxation as would de-
stroy  them.  It is well known,, that animals which have
Iain long under water, are reduced to a very lax and even
putrid state ; and the phoca must bask in the air on shore.
 Let us now examine by what power these animals are ca-
pable of remaining longer under  water than land animal?.
All these have the oval  hole open between the right and
left auricles of the heart, and in many the canahs arterio-
sus  also;  and while  the phoca remains under  water,
 which he may continue an hour or two, more or  less, his
 respiration is stopped ; and the blood, not finding the pas-
 sage through the pulmonary artery free, rushes through
 the arterial canal, being a short passage to the aorta, and
 thence to every part of the body, maintaining the  circula-
 tion ;  but  upon rising  to come ashore, the blood finds its
 passage again through the lungs  the moment he respires.
 Thus the foetus in utero, during its confinement, having the
 lungs compressed, and consequently the pulmonary arte-
 ries and veins impervious, has the circulation of the blood
 carried on through the oval hole and the arterial canal.
 Now so far the phoca in the water, and the foetus in utero,
 are  analogous; but they differ in other material  circum-
                       A MP

stances.   One  is, that  the fetus having never respired,
remains sufficiently nourished by the maternal blood cir-
culating through him, and continues to  grow till the time
of his birth, without any want of respiration, during nine
months confinement;  the  phoca having  respired  the
moment of his birth, cannot live very long without it^ for
the reasons given before; and this hole and canal would
be closed  in them, as it  is in land animals, if the dam did
not, soon after the birth of the cub, carry him so veryfre-
quently into the water to teach him ; by which  practice
these passages  are kept open during life, otherwise they
would not be capable of attaining the food designed for them
by Providence.   Another difference is,  that the phoca?, as
was  said  before, would be relaxed by maceration in re-
maining too long in the water;  whereas the foetus in utero
suffers no injury from continuing its full number of months
in the fluid it  swims in : the  reason is, that water is a
powerful solvent, and penetrates the pores of the skins of
land animals, and in time can dissolve them; whereas the
liquor amnii is an insipid soft fluid, impregnated with par-
ticles more or less mucilaginous, and utterly incapable of
making the least alteration in the cutis  of the fetus.  Ot-
ters, beavers, and some kinds of rats, go occasionally'into
the  water for  their prey,  but cannot remain very long
under water. " I have often gone to shoot otters, says our
author, and watched all their motions ;  I have seen one of
them go softly, from a bank into the river, and dive down;
and in about two minutes rise, at  10 or 15 yards from the
place he went in,  with  a middling salmon  in his moutb,
which he brought on shore :  I shot him, and saved the fish
whole.*'  Now, as all fetuses have these  passages open,
if a whelp of a true water spaniel was, immediately after
its  birth, served as the phoca does her  cubs, and immers-
ed in water, to stop respiration for a little time everyday,
it is probable that the hole and  canal would be kept open,
and the dog be made capable of remaining as long under
water as  the  phoca.  Frogs,  how  capable soever of re-
maining in the  water, yet cannot avoid  living on  land, foi
they respire; and if a frog is (hrown into a river, he makes
to the shore as fast as he can.   The lizard kind, such as
may be called water lizards, are all obliged to come to
land, in order to deposite their eggs, to rest, and to sleep.
Even the crocodiles, who dwell much in rivers, sleep and
lay their eggs on shore;  and, while in the water, are com-
pelled to rise to the surface to breathe; yet from the tex-
ture of his scaly covering,  he  is capable of remaining in
the water longer by far than  any species of the phoca,
whose skin is analogous to that of a horse or cow.  The
hippopotamus, who wades  into  the lakes or rivers,  is a
 quadruped, and  remains under the water  a considerable
 time; yet his  chief residence is upon  land, and he must
 come on  shore  for respiration.  The  testudo, or sea
 tortoise, though he goes out to  sea, and is often found far
 from land, yet being a respiring animal,  cannot remaia
 long under water.   He has indeed a power of rendering
 himself specifically heavier or lighter than the  water, and
 therefore  can  let himself down  to avoid  an enemy or a
 storm: yet he is under a necessity of rising frequently to
 breathe,  for reasons given before; and his  most usual sit-
 uation while at sea, is upon the surface of the water, feed-
 ing upon the various substances that float  in great abun-
 dance every  where about him.  These  animals sleep 
AMP
A M P
 securely upon the surface, but not under water, and can
 remain longer at  sea than any other of this class, except
 the crocodile, because, as it is with the latter, his cover-
 ing is not in danger of being too much macerated.
   The second  division of amphibious animals, according
 to  Dr. Parsons, comprehends such as chiefly inhabit the
 waters, but occasionally go on shore.  These are but of
 two kinds, the  eels, and water serpents, or snakes of
 every kind.  It is their form that qualifies them for loco-
 motion on the land, and they know their way back to the
 water at will; for  by their structure they have a strong
 peristaltic motion, by which they can go forward at a pret-
 ty  good  rate ;  whereas all other kinds of fish, whether
 vertical or horizontal, are  incapable of a voluntary loco-
 motion on shore; and therefore, as  soon as such fish are
 brought out of the water, after having flounced a while,
 they  lie motionless,and soon die.  Let us now examine in-
 to  the reason why these vermicular fish,  the eel and ser-
 pent  kinds, can live a considerable time on land, and the
 vertical and horizontal kinds die almost immediately when
 taken out of the water; and,  in this research, we  shall
 come to know what analogy there is between land  animals
 and those of (he waters.  All land  animals have lungs,
 and can live no longer than while these are inflated by the
 ambient air, and alternately compressed for its expulsion ;
 that is, while respiration is duly carried on, by a regular
 inspiration and expiration of air.  In like manner,  the fish
 in general  have, instead of lungs, gills or bronchia>:  and
 as, in land animals, the lungs have a larger portion of the
 mass  of blood circulating through them, which must be
 stopped if the air  has not a free ingress  and  egress into
 and from them ; so, in fish, there is a great number of
 blood vessels that pass through the bronchia?, and  a great
 portion of  their  blood  circulates through  them, which
 must  in like manner  be totally stopped,  if the bronchia;
 are not perpetually wet with water.   So that, as  the ah;
 is to the lungs in  land animals, a constant assistant to the
 circulation; so is the water to the bronchia; of those of the
 rivers and seas : for when these  are out of the water, the
 bronchia; very soon grow crisp and dry, the blood  vessels
 are shrunk, and the blood is obstructed in its passage; so,
 when the former are immersed in water, or otherwise pre-
 vented from having respiration, the circulation ceases, and
 the animal dies.   Again, as land animals would be destroy-
 ed  by too much maceration in water, so fishes would, on
 the other hand, be ruined  by too much exsiccation ; the
 latter being, from  their general structure and constitution,
 made  fit to bear and live in the water ; the former, by their
 constitution and form, to breathe and dwell in the air.  But
 it may be asked, why eels and water snakes are capable
 of living longer in  the air than the  other kinds of fish?
 This is answered, by considering the providential care of
 the great Creator for these and every one of his creatures;
 for  since they were capable of locomotion by their form,
 which they need not be if they were never to go on shore,
 it seemed necessary that they should be rendered capable
 of living a considerable thue on shore, otherwise their lo-
 comotion would be in vain.  How is this provided  for ?
 Why, in  a most convenient manner; for this order of
fishes have their bronchia; well covered from the external
drying air : they are also  furnished with a slimy  mucus,
which hinders their  becoming crisp and dry for many
hours  f and their very skins always emit a.mucous liquor,
 which keeps them supple and moist for a long time ; where
 as the bronchia? of other kinds of fish are much exposed
 to the air, and want the slimy matter to keep them moist.
 Now, if any of these, when brought out of the water, were
N laid in a vessel without water, they might be  preserved
 alive a considerable  time, by  only keeping the gills  and
 surface of the skin constantly wet, even without any watw
 to swim in.
    Some kinds of insects, and some birds, are amphibious.
 The term has been applied to  men who have the faculty
 of living long  under water.  The divers employed in
 the pearl fisheries possess this  power in an eminent de-
 gree.
   AMPHIBOLOGY, in  grammar and  rhetoric,  a term
 used to denote a  phrase  susceptible of two  different in-
 terpretations.
    AMPHIBRACHYS, in ancient poetry, the name of a
 foot consisting of three syllables, whereof that in the mid-
 dle is long, and the other two short.
   AMPHICTYONS, in Grecian antiquity, an assembly
 composed of deputies from the different states of Greece,
 and resembling, in some measure, the diet of  the German
 empire.
   The amphictyons met regularly at Delphi, twice a year,
 vis. in spring and autumn, and decided all differences be-
 tween any of the Grecian states, their  determinations be-
 ing held sacred and inviolable.
   AMPHIMACER,. in ancient  poetry, a foot  consisting
 of three syllables, whereof the  first and last are long, and
 that in the middle  short.
   AMPHIMASCALOS, a tunic, or coat, worn by  the
 Greeks, with  two  short sleeves, so as to cover part of  the
 arm to the elbow.  The coats of freemen were amphi-
 mascalos, those of slaves had only one.
   AMPHIBOLES, (he principal magistrates of Syracuse,
 in Sicily, called archons at Athens.
   AMPHIPPII, in Grecian antiquity, soldiers, who in
 war used two horses without saddles, and were dexterous
 enough to leap from one to the other.
   AMPHIPRORjE, in the naval affairs of the ancients,
 vessels with a prow at each end.  They were used chief-
 ly in rapid  rivers and narrow channels, where it was not
 easy to tack about.
   AMPHISBiENA, in zoology, a genus of serpent, so
 called because it  moves with either  end forward.  The
 body of the amphisbaena has a number of circular annuli,
 surrounding it from the head to the extremity of the tail;
 so that it  seems  composed of a number of narrow and
 somewhat rounded rings applied close to one another, and
 having deep furrows between them.
   Only two species of this genus have hitherto been dis-
 covered, the white and the black.  The white is from 15
 to 18 inches long  ; it is found preying on insects, worms,
 &c.  It is harmless, but on handling it, the skin becomes
 affected with a slight itching, accompanied with small pus-
 tules.  The other is rarely so large, and is equally harm-
 less.  The  skin of the amphisbaena is strong and tenacious,
 and of a smooth glossy surface ; and it  is probable that
 they are enabled with facility lo perforate the ground in
 the manner of earth worms,  in order to obtain occasional
 supplies of  food.  See Nat. Hist. fig. 14*.
   AMPH1SCII,  among geographers, a name  applied to
 the people who inhabit the torrid zone. 
A M P
AMY
   Amphiscii, as the word imports, have their shadows one
 part of the year toward the north, and at the other tow-
 ard the south, according to the sun's place in the ecliptic.
 They are also called Ascii.
   AMPHITAPA, in antiquity, a garment frized or  shag-
 ged on both sides, which was laid under persons going to
 sleep.
   AMPHITHEATRE, in antiquity, a spacious edifice
 built  cither round or oval,  with a number of rising seats,
 upon  which the people used to sit and behold the combats
 of gladiators, of wild beasts, and other sports.
   Amphitheatres were at first only of wood, and it  was
 not till the reign of Augustus, that Statilius Taurus built
 one for the first time  of stone.   The lowest part was of an
 oval figure, and called arena, because, for the conveniency
 of the combatants, it was usually strewed with sand ;  and
 round the arena were vaults styled cavecz, in which were
 confined the wild beasts appointed for the shows.   Above
 the caveae was erected a large circular peristyle  podium,
 adorned with columns.  This was the place of the empe-
 rors,  senators,  and other  persons of  distinction.  The.
 rows of benches were above the podium.   Their figure
 was circular, and they were entered by avenues, at the
 end of which were gates,  called vomitoriae.  The most
perfect remains  we now have of ancient amphitheatres
are that of  Vespasian, called the coliseum, that at Verona
 in Italy, and that al Nismes in Languedoc.
  AMPHORA, in antiquity, a  liquid measure  in  use
 among the  Greeks and Romans.  The  Roman amphora
contained forty-eight  sextaries, and was equal to about
seven gallons one pint,  English  wine  measure; and the
Grecian, or attic amphora, contained one third more.
  Amphora, was a dry measure,  likewise in use among
the Romans, and contained  three bushels.
  Amphora, among  the Venetians, the largest measure
used for liquids.   It contains four bigorzas, the bigorza be-
ing four  quarts,  the  quart  four sachies, and each sachie
four leras;  but  by wholesale the amphora  is 14 quarts,
and the bigorza three quarts and a half.
  AMPHORARIUM vinum, wine  that is drawn into
pitchers, distinguished from  cask wine.  The Romans
 had a method of keeping wine in amphora; for many years
 to ripen, by  fastening the  lids down  with pitch or gyp-
 sum,  and  placing them  either under ground,  or  in  the
 smoke.
  AMPHOTEROPLON, a  kind  of  naval  insurance,
 where insurers run the risk  both in the going out,  and re-
 turn of the  vessel.
  AMPHOTIDES,  in antiquity, a kind of armour  or
 covering  for the ears,  worn by  the  ancient  pugilists,  to
 prevent their adversaries from laying hold of this part.
  AMPLIATION,  in Roman antiquity, was the defer-
 ring to pass sentence  in  certain causes.   This the judge
 did, by pronouncing the word amplius ;  or by writing the
 letters N. L. for non liquet; thereby signifying,  that as
 the cause was not clear, it would be necessary to bring
 further evidence.
  AMPLITUDE, an arch of (he horizon intercepted be-
 tween the east or west point, and the centre of the sun, or
a planet at its rising and setting,  and so is either north and
 south, orortive and occasive.
  The sun's amplitude,  either rising or setting, is found
by the globes, by bringing the sun's place fo the horizon.
 either on the east or west side, and the degrees from the
 east point, either  north or south, are the amplitude re-
 quired.  To find the amplitude  trigonometrically, say, as
 the cosine of the latitude : radius :: sine of the present de-
 clination:  sine of the amplitude.  This problem  is use-
 ful in navigation, to  find the variation* of the compass.
   Amplitude Magnetical, the different rising or setting
 of the sun,  from the east  or west points of  the compass.
 It is found by observing the sun, at his rising and setting,
 by an amplitude compass.
   Amplitude of the range of a projectile,  the horizon-
 tal line, subtending the path in which the projectile mov-
 ed.
   AMPULLA, in antiquity, a round  big  bellied vessel,
 which the ancients used in their baths, to contain oil for
 anointing their bodies.  Ampulla was  also a cup made of
 glass,  and  sometimes of leather,  for  drinking  out of at
 table.
   AMPUTATION, the cutting off a limb, or other part
 of the body.  See Sdrgerv.
   AMPYX, among  the ancients, a kind of  golden chain
 which served to bind the hair of the  horses on the fore-
 head.   The term was  afterward used  to denote a fillet
 which formed part of their dress; this was frequently en-
 circled with gold and precious stones.
   AMSDORFIANS, a sect  of protestants, in  the 16th
 century, who took their  name from Amsdorf, their leader.
   They maintained, that  good works  were not only un-
 profitable,  but even  opposite and pernicious to  salvation.
   AMULET, a charm or preservative against mischief,
 witchcraft, or diseases.
   Amulets  were made of stone,  metal, simples, animals,
 and in a word, of every thing which fancy or caprice sug-
gested ; and sometimes they consisted of words, charac-
 ters, and sentences,  ranged  in a particular order, and en-
graved upon wood, &c.  and worn about the neck, or some
other part of the body.
   At other  times they were neither written nor engraved,
but prepared  with many superstitious  ceremonies,  great
regard being usually paid to  the  influence of the  stars.
The Arabians have  given  to this species of amulet the
name of  talisman.
  All nations have been fond of amulets: the Jews were
extremely superstitious  in  the use of them to expel dis-
eases : and the Misna forbids them, unless received from
an approved man,  who had cured at least  three persona
before, by the same  means.
  Even amongst  the Christians of the early times, amu-
lets were made of the wood of the cross, or ribands with
a  text of Scripture  written  in them,  as preservatives
against diseases;  and therefore  the council of  Laodicea
forbids ecclesiastics to make such amulets, and orders all
 such as wore them to be cast out of the church.
  AMUSETTE, an instrument of war, mounted  like a
 cannon, and fired off  like a musket.
   AMY, in law, the next friend or relation to be intrust-
 ed tor an infant.
   AMYGLADOIDES lapis, in natural history, a fossile
 body, resembling the kernel of an almond in shape, being

 urchin5.     8P,°e    SPCC,eS °f €CkinUS mar"™*>™ sea
 'AMYGDALUS,  the Almond and Peach: a genus of
 the monogynia order, belonging to the icosandria class of 
AMY
ANA
 plants; and in the natural method, ranking under the or-
 der pomaceae.   The  characters are :  the calyx is a single
 Leaved perianthium beneath, tubular, and quinquefid; the
 corolla  consists of five oblong petals, which are inserted
 into (he calyx:  lhe stamina of SO slender erect filaments,
 half the length of the corolla, and inserted into lhe  calyx;
 the antherse are simple: the pistillum has a round  villous
 germen above; a simple stylus, (he  length of the stami-
 na;  and (he stigma  headed:  the pericarpium is  a large
 roundish villous  drupa, with a longitudinal  furrow : the
 seed is an ovate compressed not perforated in the pores.
 The nut of the almond is covered with a dry skin, that of
 the peach and nectarine with a soft pulp.  The nectarine
 again is smooth, the peach downy.
   There are 7 species  with innumerable varieties, the
 principal of which are :
   1. Amygdalus communis,  or  common almond, a native
 of Africa, grows to near 20  feet high.  The white flow-
 ering almond is a variety of this species, and is cultivated
 for the sake of the flowers and the fruit, though the flow-
 ers  are inferior to the  red.
   2. Amygdalus  nana, the dwarf  almond, is a native of
 Asia Minor.  Of this shrub  (here are two varieties, the
 single and the  double.  Both  grow to about four or five
 feet high, and are in the first esteem as flowering shrubs.
   3. Amygdalus Persica, or the Peach, is said to be a na-
 tive of Europe;  but of what place  is  not known.  Culti-
 vation has produced many varieties of this fruit; of which
 the following are the most esteemed :
   1. Admirable.   2. Beautiful Chevreu.se.   3. Bellegarde.
 4. Bloody Peach.  5. Bourdine.  6. Catharine.   7. Chan-
 cellor.   8. Early Purple.  9. Great French Mignon. 10.
 La(e Admirable  11. Lale  Purple.  12. Malta.  13.
 Monstrous Pavy.  14. Montauban.  15. Nivette.  16.
 Old Newington.   17.Persique.   18. Portugal.  19. Ram
 bouillet.  20. Red Magdalen.   21. Red Nutmeg.  22.
 Rossanna.  23. Royal.  24.  Small Mignon.  25. Smith's
 Newington.  26.  Venus's  Nipple.   27.  Vineuse.  28.
 White Magdalen.  29. White Nutmeg.  30. Yellow Al-
 berge.   31. Noblesse.  32. Double Montagne.
   4. Amygdalus  nuci  Persica,  or lhe  Nectarine.   Of
 this many varieties are now cultivated; and the following
 are some of the most esteemed.
   1. EIruge.  2.  Golden.  3.  Italian.  4. Murrey.  5.
 Newington.  6.  Roman.   7. Scarlet.  8. Temple's.  9.
 Clermont's.   10. Fairchild's early.
   The good  kinds of  all these  species are propagated by
 budding or inoculation.   They will  thrive and bear a-
 gainst any wall but one with a north aspect, but the  best
 aspect is south.   In the pruning, care must  be  taken to
 leave enough of the young bearing wood, and not  lay ia
 (he branches too close, or to cross each other.
  AMYRIS, a  genus of (he oclandria monogynia class
 and order^and of the natural order of terebintacea?.   The
 calyx is a small single leaved  perianthium, four toothed
 and  persistent: the corolla consists of four  oblong petals,
 concave and expanding: the stamina consist of eight erect
 subulated filaments : the anthera? are oblong, erect, and the
 length of (becorolla; the pistillum has an ovate germen
 above; a thickis-h stylus the length of the stamina; and a
 four cornered stigma : the pericarpium is a round drupa-
 ceous berry  : the seed is a globular glossy nut.  There
are nine species: the most  remarkable are:
   1.  Amyris balsamifera, or rose wood, is found on grav«
 elly hills in Jamaica and others of the West India islands.
 It rises to a considerable height, and the trunks are re-
 markable  for  having large protuberances on them.  The
 leaves are laurel shaped ; the small blue flowers are on a
 branched spike; and  the berries are small and black.
   2.  Amyris  elemifera, or shrub which bears the gum
 elemi, a native of South America.  It grows to the height
 of about six feet.
   3.  Amyris  Gileadensis, or opobalsamum,  is an ever-
 green shrub,  growing  spontaneously in  Arabia Felix,
 from  whence  the opobalsam,  or  balm of Gilead, is pro-
 cured.
   4.  Amyris toxifera, or poison wood, is a small free, with
 a smooth  light coloured  bark.   From the trunk of this
 tree distills a  liquid as  black  as ink.  Birds feed on the
 fruit f particularly one called the purple grosbeak, on the
 mucilage that covers the stone.   It grows usually on rocks,
 in Providence, Ilathera, and others of the Bahama islands.
   AMZEL, in ornithology, the name of  a bird of the
 merula or blackbird kind, of which there are two species;
 the ring amzel or merula torquata, and the merula montana,
 called simply the amzel.   The ring amzel is a little larger
 than  the  common  blackbird.  Its  back is of a  dusky
 blackish brown, and its  throat  and breast are beautifully
 variegated with spots and streaks  of white; and the low-
 er part of the throat is adorned with a fine broad  white ring,.
 whence the bird has its  name.   This  ring is of a lunated
 shape,, the  points ending at the sides  of the neck.  The
 wings and tail are blackish, but in the female  variegated
 with white.  This bird feeds on insects and berries, and is
 common about the peak of Derbyshire, where  it is called
 the Rock Ouzel.
   AN jour and waste,  in law, signifies a forfeiture of
 lands  for a year and a day to  the king, by persons com-
 mitting petit treason  and  felony,  and afterward the land
 falls to the lord.
  ANA, among physicians, denotes an equal quantity of
 the ingredients which immediately precede it in prescrip-
 tions:  it is  written by abbreviation a or  aa; thus, R.
 thur.  myrrh,  alum, aa, i B :  that is, take  frankincense,
 myrrh, and alum, each a scruple.
   Ana, in matters of literature, a Latin termination added
 to the titles of several books in other languages.
   They are collections of the  conversation and memora-
 ble sayings of  men of wit  and  learning : the Scaligeriana
 was the first book that  appeared  with a title in ana, and
 was afterward followed by the  Perroniana, Tbuana, Nau-
 daeana, Menagiana,  and  even by Arlequiniana, in ridicule
 of all books in ana.
   ANABAPTISTS, in church history, a sect of protes-
 tants, which sprung up in Germany, in 1521, immediately
 after the rise of Lutheranism.  At first, they preached up
 an entire freedom from all  subjection to the civil as well as
 ecclesiastical power; but the tenet  from  whence  fhey
 take their  name, and which they still maintain, is their
 re-bapfizing all new  converts to their sect, and condemn-
 ing infant baptism.
  Great troubles were  occasioned  in Germany by this
 sect;  but of all places where they prevailed, none suffer-
ed so  much by them as the town of Munster.   The ana-
baptists, however, of Holland  and Friesland disapproved
 the seditious behaviour of  their brethren of Munster: and 
ANA
ANA
 at present, though this sect still subsists as well in Britain
 as abroad, yet they no longer pretend to be divinely in-
 spired, they no longer oppose magistrates, nor preach up
 a community of goods, &c
   The anabaptists support their principal doctrine upon
 those words of our Saviour, « He that believeth, and is
 baptized, shall be saved."  Now, as adults, or grown per-
 son?, are alone capable of believing, they argue, that none
 but adults are fit to be baptized.  This doctrine is oppos-
 ed  by  alleging the  contrary practice  of the primitive
 church, as well  as from  Scripture, which tells us,  that
 children are capable of the kingdom of heaven, and at the
 same time assures us, that "except a  man be baptized, he
 cannot enter into the kingdom of God."
  ANABATA, a cope or sacerdotal vest, to cover the
 back and shoulders of the priest.
  ANABATHRA, in antiquity, a kind of stones erected
 by  the sides of highways, to assist  travellers to  mount
 their horses.
  ANABIBAZON, in astronomy, a name given to the
 northern node of the moon, or dragon's head.
  ANABLEPS, in ichthyology, a genus of malacoptery-
gious fishes, with  six bones  in the branchiostege  mem-
brane, and only two small fins at the extremity of the back.
Of this genus there  is  only one known species.  It in-
habits the sea shore of Surinam.
  ANABOLjEUM, or Anabole,  in  antiquity, a kind of
great or upper coat, worn over the tunica.
  ANABOLEUS, in  antiquity, an appellation  given to
grooms of the stable, or equerries, who assisted their mas-
ters in  mounting their horses.
  As the ancients had no stirrups, or instruments that are
now in use for mounting a horse, fhey either jumped upon
his back, or were aided in  mounting by anabolei.
  ANACALYPTERIA, in  antiquity, festivals among
 the  Greeks on the day that  the bride was permitted to
lay aside her veil, and appear in public.   The  word is de-
 rived from a verb which signifies to uncover.
  ANACAMPTERIA,  in  ecclesiastical antiquity,  a
 kind of little edifices adjacent to the  churches,  designed
 for the entertainment of strangers and poor persons.
  ANACARDIUM, or Cashew nut tree : a genus of
 the monogynia order, belonging to  the decandria class of
plants; and in the natural method ranking under  the 12th
 order, holoraceae.  The characters are: the  calyx is di-
 vided into five  parts,  the  divisions ovate and deciduous:
 the  corolla consists of five  reflected petals, twice the
 length of the calyx :  the stamina consists of ten capillary
 filaments  shorter than the calyx, one  of them castrated;
 the antherae are small and roundish:  the pistillum has a
 roundish germen;  the stylus is subulated, inflected, and
 the length of the corolla;  the stigma oblique:  there is no
 pericarpium ; the receptaculum is very large and fleshy :
 the seed is a large kidney shaped nut, placed above the
 receptaculum.  Only one species is known, vis.
  Anacardiuni  occidentale.    It grows  naturally in the
 West Indies, and  arrives at the height of 20 feet in those
 places of which it is a native.  The fruit of this tree is as
 large as an orange; and  is full of an acid juice, which is
 frequently made use of  in making punch. To  the apex
of this fruit grows  a nut, of the size and shape of a hare's
kidney, but it is much larger at the end which is next to
the fruit than at the other.  The shell is very hard.; and
the kernel, which is swtset and pleasant, is covered with i
thin film.  Between this  and the shell is lodged a thick,
blackish, inflammable  liquor, of such a caustic  nature m
the fresh nuts, that if  the lips chance to touch it, blisters
will immediately follow.  The  kernels  are eaten raw,
roasted, or  pickled.   The caustic liquor just mentioned
is esteemed an excellent cosmetic with  the West India
young ladies, but they must certainly suffer a great deal of
pain in its application.  The. milky juice of this tree will
stain linen of a good black, which cannot be washed out.
This plant is easily raised from the nuts, which  should be
planted  each  in  a separate  pot  filled  with  light sandy
earth,  and plunged  into a good hot bed of tanner's bark;
they must also be kept from  moisture till the plants come
up,  otherwise  the  nuts are  apt to rot.   If the nuts are
fresh,  the plants will come  up in about a month; and in
two months more they will  be four or five inches high,
with large leaves : from which quick progress many peo-
ple have been  deceived, imagining fhey  would continue
the like  quick  growth afterward ; but with all the care
that can be taken, they never come to any kind of perfec-
tion  even in our best stoves.  See Plate Nat.  Hist. fig.
14.
   ANACHORET, in church history, denotes a hermit,
or solitary monk, who  retires from the society of mankind
into some desert, with a view to avoid  the temptation^
the world, and to be  more at leisure for meditation Ifjd
prayer.                                           •*
   ANACHORITA, a name given to the cells of recluses;
by lhe ancient canons, no  anachorita could be erected
without the  consent of the bishop.
   ANACHRONISM, in matters of literature, an error
with respect to chronology,  whereby an event  is placed
earlier than  it really happened.   Such is 1 hat  of Virgil,
who placed  Dido in Africa at the  time of iEneas, though
in reality she did not  come here  till 300  years after the
taking of Troy.
   ANACLASTICS, anaclastica, that part  of optics
which  considers the refraction of light.
   Anaclastic glasses, a low kind of  phials, which haw
the property of being flexible, and  emitting a  vehement
noise, by the application of the human breath.   They are
made of a fine glass, with flat bellies resembling inverted
funnels, with bottoms almost as thin as the  skin of an onion.
The bottom which is convex, by the action of inspiration
will be drawn in with  a prodigious crack, and from con-
vex  becomes concave; on the contrary,  by expiring or
breathing gently into them, the bottom returns to its place
with the same noise.
   ANACLETICUM, among the ancients, a particuto
blast of the trumpet, by which the fearful and flying sold-
iers were rallied and  recalled  to the combat.
   ANACREONTIC  verse, in ancient poetry, a kindof
verse,  so called  from its being much  used  by  the poei
Anacreon.  It  consists of three feet and a half,  usuallj
spondees and iambuses, and sometimes anapsests ; such is
that of Horace,
                    Lydia die per omnes.
   ANACYCLUS,  a genus of the syngenesia polygtn>i»
class and order.  The essential character is, recent, chaffy:
down  emarginate: seeds solitary with membranous wing*
1 here are 4 species, all annuals, and somewhat resemble
the chrysanthemum  in the flower,  foliage,  and habits. 
ANA
ANA
  ANADEMA, in antiquity, denotes fhe fillet which lhe
kings of Persia wore  round their  heads.   Anadema de-
notes also a kind of ornament which women wore on their
heads like a garland.
  ANADIPLOSIS, in rhetoric and  poetry, a repetition
of the last word of a line, or clause of a sentence, in the
beginning of the next: thus,
            Pierides, vos hsee facietis maxima Gallo :
            Gallo, cujus amor, &c.
            Et matutinis accredula vocibus instat,
            Vocibus instat, et assiduas jacit ore querelas.
  Among physicians, the renewal of a cold fit, in a semi-
tertian fever, before the fit is entirely ended.
   ANADROMOUS,   among  ichthyologists,  a  name
given to all fish which, at stated seasons, go from the fresh
waters  into the sea, and  afterward  return  back again.
Such are lhe salmon, and some other truttaceous fishes.
  ANiEDEIA, in Grecian antiquity, a stool whereon the
accused person was placed to make hi3 defence.
  ANAGALLIS, in botany, a genus of plants belonging
to the pentandria  monogynia  class and order.   The  es-
sential character is, corolla rotate  ; capsule opening hori-
zontally.  There  are 7 species.  The  A. arvensis,  or
common pimpernil, is a beautiful little  scarlet flower well
known in our  fields, and called the poor man's  weather
glass,  from its property of opening  in fair weather, and
shutting up on the  approach of rain.  There  are some
foreign species with  larger flowers, cultivated in our gar-
dens ;  particularly the A. fruticosa,  a beautiful flower,
figured in Curtis's Magazine, vol. 21. p. 331.
  ANAGLYPHICE, the art of embossing.
  ANAGNOSTA, or Anagnostes, in antiquity, a kind
of literary servant, retained in the families of persons of
distinction, whose  chief business was to read to them dur-
ing meals, or at any other time when they were at leisure.
  ANAGRAM, a transposition of the  letters  of some
name,  whereby a new word is formed, either to the advan-
tage or disadvantage of the person or  thing to which the
name  belongs: thus, from Galenus  is formed Angelus ;
from James, Simea; and so of others.  A miserable spe-
cies of false wit.
  AN AGROS, in commerce, a measure  for grain used in
some cities of Spain, particularly  at  Seville.  Forty-six
anagros make  about 101- quarters of London.
  ANAGYRIS,  Bean trefoil, in botany, a  genus of
plants  with papilionaceous flowers, the vexillum  of which
is shorter  than any of  the other  petals,  and its fruit  an
oblong pod, containing kidney like seeds; to this is to  be
added, that three leaves stand on every petal.   It be-
longs to the decandria monogynia  class and order of Lin-
naeus.   There are three species.
  ANALEMMA, in geometry, a projection of the sphere
on the phine of the  meridian, orthographically  made by
straight lines and ellipses, the  eye being supposed at an
infinite distance, and in (he east or west points of the ho-
rizon.
  Analemma denotes likewise an instrument of brass or
wood,  upon which this kind of projection is drawn, with
an horizon and cursor fitted to  it, wherein the  solstitial
colure, and all circles parallel to it, will be concentric cir-
cles ; all circles oblique to the eye, will  be ellipses; and
all circles whose planes pass fhrough the eye, will be right
linen.
  vol. i.            16
  The use of this instrument is to show  the  common as-
tronomical problems, which it will do, though not very ex-
actly, unless it be very large.
  ANALEPTICS, in pharmacy, restorative medicines.
  ANALGISTA, among civilians, denotes a tutor who is
not obliged to give an  account of his conduct.
  ANALOGY, in literature, a certain relation and agree-
ment between two or more things, which  in other respect*
are entirely different:  thus  the  foot of a mountain  bears
an analogy to the foot of an animal, although they are two
very different things.
  There is likewise an analogy between beings  that have
some conformity or resemblance  to one  another: for ex-
ample, between animals and  plants, and between metals
and vegetables;  but the analogy is still stronger between
two different species of certain animals.
  Analogy enters much into all our reasoning, and serves
to explain and illustrate, but not to demonstrate.   Reason-
ing by analogy, however, may sometimes induce to error:
thus, the analogy between the  constellation  called Leo,
and the animal of that name, has given room to some as-
trologers to imagine that children born under that  constel-
lation were inspired with a martial spirit.
  Analogy, in botany, is a term that has been used fo
denote the resemblance which plants bear to each other,
with regard to their medical properties and uses.
  Analogy, among geometricians, denotes a similitude of
ratios.
  ANALYSIS,  among logicians, is a method of tracing
things backward to their source, and of resolving knowl-
edge into its original principles.
  It is also called the method of resolution, and sfands op-
posed to the synthetic method, or method of composition.
  The art of this method  consists chiefly in  combining
our perceptions, and classing  them together with address;
and in contriving a proper expression of  our  thoughts, so
as to represent their  several divisions, classes, and rela-
tions.   This is clearly seen in  the manner of computing
by figures in arithmetic, but more particularly in the sym-
bols applied in resolving algebraical problems.
  Analysis, among mathematicians, the art of discover-
ing the truth or falsehood of a proposition, or its possibili-
ty  and impossibility.   This is  done by  supposing the
proposition, such as it is, true; and  examining what fol-
lows from thence, until we arrive at  some evident truth,
or some impossibility, of which the first proposition is a
necessary consequence;  and from thence  establish the
truth or impossibility of that proposition.
  The  analysis of the ancient geometricians  consisted in
the application of the propositions of  Euclid, ApoUonius,
&c. till they  arrived,  proceeding step by  step, at the
truth required.   That of fhe moderns, though  not so ele-
gant, must, however,  be allowed more ready and general.
By this last, geometrical  demonstrations are wonderfully
abridged, a number of truths are frequently expressed by
a single line, and whole sciences may  sometimes be learn-
ed in a few minutes,  which otherwise would be  scarcely
attained in many years.
   Analysis is divided, with regard to its object,  into that
of finifes and infinites.
   Analysis of finite  quantities, is that  which is  called
specious arithmetic.
   Analysis of infinites, is the same with fluxions.
>L,' I.
I fj 
A  N  A
ANA
  Analysis, in chymistry, the reduction of a mixed body
into its principles.   This is the chief object of chymistry,
and is effected by means of heat and mixture.
  Analysis of powers, is the operation of resolving them
info their roots, olherwise called evolution.  See  Alge-
bra.
  ANAMORPHOSIS, in perspective  and painting, a
monstrous projection, or  representation of an  image on
a plane  or curve surface, which, beheld at  a proper dis-
tance, shall appear regular and  in proportion.  See Op-
tics.
  ANANAS, the trivial name of a species of the pine ap-
ple.   See Bromelia.
  ANANCITIS,  in antiquity, a kind of figured stone,
otherwise called synochitis,  celebrated  for its magical
virtue, of raising the shadows, umbrae, of the infernal gods.
  ANAPAEST, anapestus, in ancient poetry, a foot con-
sisting of two short syllables and one long.  It is just the
reverse  of the dactyle.
  ANAPHORA, in ancient  astronomy, an ascension of
the twelve signs of the zodiac from the east, by  fhe daily
course of the heavens.
   Anaphora, in  rhetoric,  the repetition of the same
word or words in the beginning of a sentence or verse :
thus Virgil :
          Pan etiam Arcadia mecum se judice certet,
          Pan etiam Arcadia dicat se judice victum.
  Anaphora,  among ancient physicians,  denotes the
throwing up of purulent matter by the mouth.
  ANAPLASIS, among ancient physicians, the replac-
ing of a fractured bone in the same situation it obtained
before it was broken.
  ANAPLEROSIS, among surgeons,  expresses  the re-
storing  deficiencies; and  in this sense is the same with
prosthesis.
  ANAPLEROTICS, in pharmacy, such  medicines as
promote the growth of flesh in wounds and ulcers.
  ANARRHICHAS, the name of a genus of  malacop-
lerygious fishes, called by other writers lupus marinus,
the sea  wolf.   See Plate Nat. Hist. fig. 15.
   ANAS, in  zoology, a genus of birds of the order of an-
seres, according to Linnaeus, the beak of which is convex,
with an obtuse point, and the whole verge furnished with
transverse lamellose  teeth; the tongue is obtuse and cili-
ated.   The nostrils  are small and oval; the toes are four
in number, three are placed before, one behind, and the
middle one is the longest. See Plate Nat.  Hist. fig. 16.
There are a great many species of this genus, amounting
to at least 98, besides many varieties.  The most noted
species are:
   1. Anas Aborea, or black billed whistling duck of Ed-
wards.   It is a native of America, and makes  a kind of
whistling noise.
   2. Anas acuta, pin tail, or sea pheasant of Ray.  These
birds, it is said, are found in great abundance in Connaught
in Ireland, in the month of February only; and are much
esteemed for their delicacy.
   3. Anas Americana, American wigeon, is rather bigger
than  our wigeon.   It inhabits North  America,  from
Carolina to Hudson's Bay ; but  is no where a common bird.
   4.  Anas Anser, the goose.  Of this species there are
several varieties, of which we shall only mention  two :
the anser ferus, or wild goose,  and the anser mansuefus,
or tame goose.                             .
  5. Anas bernicla is of a brown colour, with the head,
neck, and breast, black ; and a white collar.   These birds,
like lhe bernacles, frequent our coasts in winter; and are
particularly  plenty, at times, on  those of Holland and
Ireland, where they are taken  in  nets  placed across the
rivers.
   6. Anas  boschas,  common  wild duck, or  mallard.
They abound particularly in Lincolnshire, the great mag.
azine of wild fowls in this kingdom ; where prodigious num-
bers are taken annually in the decoys.
  7. Anas Canadensis, is  found during the summer in
Hudson's Bay, and parts  beyond;  also  in  Greenland;
and, in the  summer months, in various parts  of North
America, as far as Carolina.  This species is now pretty
common, in  a tame  state, both on the  continent and in
England, where they are thought a great ornament to the
pieces of  wafer in many gentlemen's seats.
  8. Anas Candida, the snow goose, the general colour
of whose plumage is snow white, except the first ten quills,
which are black with white  shafts; they are very numer-
ous at Hudson's bay ; they  visit the Severn in  May, and
stay a fortnight; but go further north to breed.
  9. Anas Casarca, or ruddy goose,, is found in all the
southern parts of Russia and Siberia in plenty.  In winter
it migrates into India, and  returns northward in spring.
They have been attempted  to  be domesticated, by rear-
ing  the young under tame  ducks ;  but without success,
as they  make  their escape  the  first opportunity.  The
flesh is thought very delicate.
  10. Anas Clangula, or golden eye of  Ray, is not unfre-
quent on  our  sea  coast in  winter, and appears in small
flocks ;  but passes to the north in spring, in order to breed
  11. Anas Clypeata, or shoveller, of Ray, is sometimes
met with in England, though not very  commonly.  It is
said they appear in France in February, and that some of
them stay during summer.
  12. Anas Creca, or common teal, is frequent in the Lon-
don markets, along with the  wild duck.   It is found to the
north as high as Iceland.
  13. Anas cursor,  the race horse or  loggerhead goose,
inhabits the Falkland Islands, Staaten Land,  Sec.  They
are mostly seen in pairs, though sometimes in large flocks.
From the shortness of the wings they are  unable to fly;
but in the water they seem to  run, at least fhey  swim,
with the assistance of the legs used as cars, at an incredi-
ble rate.
  14. Anas  cygnoides, is  the swan goose of Ray, from
Guinea, and there is likewise a variety of this species ofa
less size,  called the goose of Muscovy.  They are suffi-
ciently common in Britain,  and readily  mix with the com-
mon goose; the breeds uniting as freely,  and continuing
to produce as  certainly, as  if no such mixture  had taken
place.
  15. Anas  cygnus, or the  swan.  Of this species there
are several varieties, of which we shall  only mention two,
vis. the ferus and the mansuefus.
   16. Anas Erylhropus, or laughing  coose of Edwards,is
a native of Europe  and America.   These visit the fens
during winter,  in small flocks,  and disappear by the mid-
dle of March.                               J 
ANA
A N  A
  17. Anas  fabalis, fhe bean goose, arrives in Lincoln-
shire in autumn,  and retreats to the north of Europe in
May.  It  is called the bean  goose,  from the  likeness of
the nail of the bill to a horse bean.
  18. Anas ferina, pochard, or red headed wigeon of Ray,
frequents the fens in the winfer season, and is brought up to
the London  markets sometimes in considerable  numbers,
where  they  are  known  by the name of Dun Birds, and
are esteemed excellent eating.
  19. Anas  filigula, or tufted duck of Ray, in the winter
months is not unfrequent in England;  it is common also
throughout the Russian empire, going northward to breed.
  20.  Anas fusca,  the brown, or  velvet duck, frequents
Hudson's "bay in summer,  where it  breeds.  It feeds on
grass, and retires south in Winter;  when it is frequently
seen as far south as New York.   It  is now and then seen
on the coasts of England.
  21.  Anas  galericulata, or Chinese teal of Edwards.
  This most singular and elegant species is a  native of
China  and Japan, where it is kept by the inhabitants for
the sake of its beauty.  See Plate, Nat. Hist. fig. 17.
  22. Anas  glacialis,  or long failed  duck, breeds in the
most northern parts  of the  world; and only visits our
coasts  in the severest winters.
  23. Anas hisfrionica, or dusky spotted duck of Edwards,
inhabits from Carolina to Greenland.  In winter it seeks
the open sea, flies high and swiftly, and is very clamorous.
  24.  Anas magna, the great goose, is of a  very  large
size, weighing near 25 or 30 Russian pounds.  It is found
in the east of Siberia, from the Lena to Kamtschatka.
  25.  Anas  maula,  or scaup duck,  is less than the  com-
mon duck.   These  birds are said to take their name from
feeding on scaup, or broken shell fish.   They  differ infi-
nitely  in  colours, so that  in a flock of forty or fifty there
are not two  alike.
  26.  Anas  mersa, or Ural duck of Pallas, is  somewhat
bigger than  the  common teal.   It is  not  seen on the
ground, as  from the  situation of its legs it  is  unable to
walk ;  but it swims very well and quick.
  27.  Anas  minufa, or little white and brown duck of Ed-
wards.   This and the former, according to Latham, are
found both on the old and new continents.
  28.  Anas  mollissima, or eider duck, is double the size
of the common duck.  This species is found in the West-
ern Isles of Scotland,  and  on the  Farn Isles;  but  in
greater numbers in Norway, Iceland,  and Greenland;
whence a vast quantity of the down, known by  the name
of eider or edder, which these  birds furnish, is annually
imported.  Its remarkably light, elastic, and warm quali-
fies, make it highly esteemed for  coverlets.   This down
is produced  from the  breast of  the  birds in the breeding
season.  It lays its  eggs among  the  stones or plants near
the shore; and prepares a soft bed for them, by plucking
the down from its own breast.  The  natives watch the op-
portunity, and take  away  both  eggs and nest :  the duck
lays again, and repeats the plucking of its breast: if she is
robbed after that, she will still  lay; but the drakes  must
supply the down, as her stock is now exhausted: but if
her eggs  are taken a third time, she wholly deserts the
place.
  29. Anas  Moschata, or Muscovy duck of Ray, has a
naked papilloiis face, and is a native of India.   This spe-
cies  is pretty common  in a domesticated slate  in almost
              16*
every nation.  The male will not unfrequently asaocutr
and produce a mongrel  breed with the common  duck
The name arises from their exhaling a musky  odour.
which proceeds from the gland placed on the rump in com-
mon with other birds.
  30. Anas  nigra, the black goose, or scoter, is  totally
black,  and has a gibbosity  at the base of the bill.   It is
the lesser black diver of Ray, and measures  in length 22
inches.  These birds are found on the northern coasts of
England and those of Scotland in the winter season;  but
no where so  common as on the French coasts, where they
are sometimes  seen  in prodigious numbers.  Their chief
food is a glossy bivalve shell, near an  inch  long, called
by the French vaimeaux.   See Plate Nat. Hist. fig. 18.
  31. Anas  querquedula, garganey, or first teal of Aldro-
vandus.  In many places  it  is called the summer teal.
  32. Anas  ruficolis, or red breasted  goose.   This most
elegant of geese is found to breed from  the  mouth of the
Ob, along the coasts of the Icy Sea, to that of the Lena.
  33. Anas  spectabilis,  is  common in Greenland, where
the flesh is accounted excellent.  It produces a down as
valuable as the eider; and the skins sewed together make
very warm garments.
  34. Anas  sponsa, or  summer duck of Catesby, is a
most elegant species.  It inhabits  Mexico, and  some of
the West  India isles, migrating  in the  summer season as
far north as 40 degrees, or a little beyond.
  35. Anas strepera, or gad wal, has the wings variegated
with black,  white, and red.  It inhabits  England in  the
winter months, and  is also found at the same season in va-
rious parts of France and Italy.
  36. Anas  tadorna, or  shieldrake,  has a flat bill, a com-
pressed forehead, a  greenish black head, and the body is
variegated with white.  This species is found as far north
as Iceland.  It breeds in deserted rabbit holes, or occu-
pies them  in the absence of the owners, who rather than
make an attempt at dislodging (he intruders, form others;
though, in defect of  ready made quarters, these birds  will
frequently dig holes for themselves.  They lay 15 or 16
roundish white eggs.  This species,  Mr. Latham informs
us, may be  hatched under  a tame duck, and the young
readily brought up; but are apt after  a few  years, to at-
tempt the mastery over the rest of the poultry.
  37. Anas  tetrax,  or campestris, is of the size of a pheas-
ant, and of the nature of the bustard,  having no hinder
toe.  It runs very swiftly,  and sits  on the ground as the
duck does in the water, whence it has its name Anas.
   ANASARCA, in medicine, a species of dropsy, where-
in the skin appears puffed up and swelled,  and yields to
the impression of the fingers like dough.  See Medicine.
  AN ASTATIC A, in botany, the name of a genns of le-
tradynamious plants of the order siliculosa,  called in  En-
glish,  the  rose of Jericho : its flower consists of four
roundish petals, disposed in the form of a cross; and its
fruit is a short biocular pod, containing in each cell a sin-
gle roundish seed.   Two species annual.
  Anastatica, a species of vorficella, in the fifth order
of vermes, infusoria. It  is  compound, with bell  shaped
flowers, foot stalks scaly  and rigid.   This is the  second
species of clustering polypi  described by Trembley.
  ANASTOMASIS, or Anastomosis, in anatomy, the
opening of the  mouths of vessels, in order  to discharge
their contained fluids.  It likewise denotes  the communt- 
ANA
A M B
  cafion of two vessels at their extremities; for example,
  the inosculation of a vein with a vein, of an artery with an
  artery, or of an artery with a vein.
    ANASTOMATICS, in pharmacy, medicines suppos-
  ed fo have  the power of opening the mouths of vessels,
  and promoting the circulation of the  blood.
    ANASTROPHE, in rhetoric and grammar, denotes
  the  inversion of the natural  order of the words:  such is
  Saxa peret scopulos, for Per saxa et scopulos.
    ANATHEMA, among ecclesiastical writers,  imports
  whatever is set apart, separated, or devoted ;  but is most
  usually meant to express the cutting  off a person from the
  privileges of a society  and  communion wifh the faithful.
  The anathema differs from  excommunication in the cir-
  cumstance of being attended wifh curses and execrations.
    Several councils  have pronounced  anathemas against
  such as they thought corrupted the purity of the faith.
    There  are two  kinds of anathemas, the one judiciary,
  and  the other abjuratory.  The former can only be de-
  nounced  by  a council,  a pope, or  a bishop; the latter
  makes a part of the ceremony of abjuration,  the convert
  being obliged to anathematize the heresy he abjures.
    Anathema, in heathen antiquity, was an offering or
a  present made to some deity, so called from its being hung
  up in the  temple.
    Whenever  a person  left off his  employment, it  was
  usual to dedicate the  tools to the patron deity of such a
  trade.  Persons too who had escaped some imminent dan-
  ger, as shipwreck and the like, or had met with any other
  remarkable instance of good fortune, seldom failed to tes-
  tify their gratitude by some present of this kind.
    ANATINUS, in conchology, a species of solen, found
  on the  sandy shores of the Indian  ocean.   It is  also a
  species of the mytillus common in the rivers of England,
  and known by the name of duck, or small horse muscle.
    ANATIS, a  species of pediculus insect,  that infests
  the wild duck.  It is the name also of another  creature
  that is found  in the intestines of the velvet duck: and a
  species of arcaris, of the order intestina in  the vermes
  class.
    ANATOMY is the science which teaches us the inter-
  nal  conformation of the human  body, both the solids and
  fluids of  which are its particular objects.
    The solids of the human body consist of,
    1. Bones, which give support to the other parts of the
  body.
    2. Cartilages,  which are  much softer than the bones,
  and also flexible and elastic.
    3. Ligaments, which are more flexible still, and connect
  the ends of the bones to each other.
    4. Membranes, or planes of minutely interwoven fibres.
    5. Cellular substance, which is formed of membranes
  minutely interwoven with each other.
    6. Muscles, which are soft and contractile bundles of
  fibres.
    7. Tendons, which generally form the harftand inelas-
  tic terminations of muscles.
    8. Viscera, which are  portions  of the body loosely
  contained in great cavities.
    9. Glands, which separate  various  fluids  from  the
  blood.
    10. Vessels, which are membranous canals  dividing into
  branches and transmitting blood and other fluids.
   11. Adipose substance, an animal oil contained in the
cells of the cellular membrane.                  ..
   12. The cerebral substance, which is of a peculiar na-
ture.                                    .
   13. Nerves, which  are  bundles of white  cords  con-
nected by  one end  to the brain or spinal  marrow, and
thence expanded over every part of t he body in order to
receive  impressions from external objects, or to produce
muscular motion.
  The fluids of the human body are,
   1. Blood,  which circulates  through the  vessels  and
nourishes the whole fabric.
  2. Perspirable matter,  excreted by the vessels of the
skin.
  3. Sebaceous matter, by the glands of the skin.
  4. Urine, by the kidneys.
  5. Ceruminous  matter,  secreted by  the ceruminous
glands of the external ear.
  6. Tears, by the lachrymal glands.
  7. Saliva, by the salival glands of the mouth, &c.
  8. Mucus, by the mucous glands of the mouth, &c.
  9. Pancreatic juice, by the pancreas.
   10. Bile, by the liver.
  11. Gastric juice,  by the stomach.
  12. Oil,  by fhe vessels of the adipose membrane.
  13. Synovia, by the synovial glands of the joints.
  14. Seminal fluid, by the testes.
  15. Milk, by fhe mammary glands.
  Anatomy, therefore, from the names of the parts which
it considers, is divided into
   1. Osteogeny, which is the doctrine of the growth of
the bones.
   2. Osteology, or the doctrine of adult bones.
   3. Chondrology, or the doctrine of cartilages.
   4. Syndesmology, or the doctrine of ligaments. '•'.*'•■
   5. Myology, or the doctrine of muscles.
   6. Bursalogy, or the doctrine of the bursae mucosae,
   7. Splanchnology, or the doctrine of the viscera.
   8. Angiology, or the doctrine of the vessels.
   9. Adenology, or the doctrine of the glands.
   10. Neurology, or the doctrine of the nerves, &c.

                     OSTEOGENY.
   Osteogeny treats of ossification, or the growth of bones.
  It takes  place in the flat bones of the  head in the form
of radii, which  diverge from a  common centre. In  the
middle  of  the cylindrical bones,  it takes place in  the
form of a flat ring, surrounding the internal, and  surround-
ed by the  external periosteum or membranes of the bone.
In irregular bones, it commences by a number of minute
points.

                      OSTEOLOGY.
   This division of anatomical science treats of  fhe adult
or full grown bones.
   It is at present taught in the medical schools of London,
that bones consist of fibres and lamellae.   The doctrine is
nevertheless a false one, for  the celebrated  Scarpa of Pa-
via has several years since demonstrated that a cellular, re-
ticular, and vascular  parenchyma constitutes (he basis io
which are secreted the earthy matters, to which bones owe
their solidify,  and that consequently their intimate struc-
ture is the same wifh that of the soft parts of the body 
AN  A
ANA
   The long cylindrical or triangular bones consist of two
epiphyses, which form their termination, and are internal-
ly spongy, and of a diaphysis, or middle portion, which is
placed between the two epiphyses, and is externally of a
compact structure, and internally reticular, where its net
work supports the bags of the manow.  The  broad or
flat  bones  of lhe  body are extremely irregular in their
form.
   The periosteum of bones is that membrane which covers
them,  gives attachment fo fheir ligaments,  and  muscles,
and  conducts to them vessels and nerves.
   The marrow of  bones is  an oleaginous fluid contained
within the membranous bags, occupying their cells; but
its use is totally unknown.
   Numerous blood vessels pass into bones by small holes on
fheir surface  ; and the minute manner in which these vessels
are  distributed is  beautifully demonstrated by observing
the red tinge which  they assume in animals with whose
food madder  is mixed.
   In considering the individual  bones of the human body,
it is proper to commence with those of the head, which are
generally  arranged into bones of the skull, and  bones of
the face.   The bones  of  lhe skull are eight in  number,
namely, the os front is, the two ossa parietalia, the os oc-
cipitis, thejwo ossa temporum,  theos sphenoides, and the
os elhmoides.  The two last of these are said to be com-
mon to the head and face, because fhey constitute a part
of both.  We shall proceed to consider them in the or-
der in which  they are here enumerated.
   The os frontis is placed in the fore part of the skull, and
forms  fhe  brow and  the upper part of fhe orbits  of the
eyes.  It  is  convex  externally,  and  concave internally,
and  has a  serrated semicircular edge, which is turned up-
ward, while its lower part is extremely irregular.   It bears,
in form, a great likeness to the shell of fhe common cockle.
In children,  and sometimes  in women, it  is divided down
the  middle by a longitudinal suture, or serrated junction.
   The ossa parietalia form all the superior, and some of
the lateral parts of fhe skull.  They are convex external-
ly, concave infernally, and  of an irregular quadrangular
form.  Their sides  are anterior, posterior, superior, and
inferior, which last is of a semicircular form. Their angles
are posterior superior, posterior inferior, anterior superi-
or, and anterior inferior; which last  is produced info a
process.
  The osoccipitis is situated in (he lower and back part
of the skull.  It is convex externally,  concave internally,
and  irregularly rhomboidal in its form.
   The ossa temporum are situated at lhe lower part of the
sides and base of the cranium,  and are of a very irregu-
lar figure.  Their  upper part,  named  os  squamosum,  is
externally smooth, and has  a thin semicircular edge; their
posterior part, called pars mammillaris, is thicker and less
regular; and  their inferior part becoming smaller, and ex-
tending horizontally inward and forward, obtains the name
of os petrosum, from its excessive hardness.
   The os  sphenoides is situated in the middle of the base
of the skull, and extends across it from one temple to fhe
other.   It  is extremely irregular in its figure, and is di-
vided info  a  body placed in the middle, two ala? on (he
sides, and two pterygoid processes projecting downward
from the junction of the body and alas.
  The os ethmoides  is placed in the middle of the fort
part of the  basis of the cranium.   It consists of a cribri
form  portion, which is placed horizontally ;  a nasal  por-
tion, which, passing downward, contributes to separate the
nares ; two ossa turbinata, which are  external fo lhe lasf;
the cells  of lhe bone, which are placed still more exter-
nally; and the ossa plana, which are most external, and
assist in the formation of the inner sides of (he orbi(s.
  These bones of the cranium are connected by certain
sutures or serrated junctions : which are, fhe coronal, as-
cending over the fore part of the skull; the  lambdoidal,
placed at its posterior part ; the sagittal, joining these two
in the middle of the upper part of the skull; fhe squamous,
which are placed on each  side; and the sphenoidal and
ethmoidal, surrounding the bones of the same name.
  The bones of the face are fourteen in number; and of
these
  The ossa nasi constitute the arch of the nose.
  The ossa lachrymalia are placed at the fore part of the
inner edge of the orbits of the eyes.
  The ossa malarum,  of  an irregular square form, consti-
tute (he prominencies of the cheeks.
  The ossa maxillaria superiora  are of a very irregular
form, constitute the upper  jaw, and  contain  the sixteen
upper teeth.
  The ossa palati are also very irregular, and situated at
the posterior part of the palate, nares and orbit.
  The ossa turbinata inferiora very much resemble those
of the ethmoid bone.
  The vomer is a thin plate of bone, which contributes to
complete the septum narium, or division of the nares.
  The maxilla  inferior  is, as  its name  indicates,  the
bone  of the  lower jaw, and contains the inferior sixteen
teeth.
  The teeth are thirty-two  in number, internally compos-
ed of a bony substance, harder in  its texture than com-
mon bone,  and covered at their greater extremity with a
tortex or enamel, which is  much harder still.  External-
ly each tooth consists of a head, a neck, or narrow place
immediately  below (he head, and one or  more fangs or
roots, which are sunk in the jaws.   They consist of three
classes, vis. four incisores,  fhe front teeth of each jaw  ;
two cuspidati, placed on each side of the former: four bi-
cuspides  behind the last;  and six molares behind  these.
The last of the molares, from the lateness of the period at
which it makes its appearance, is termed dens sapientia?.
  The os  hyoides,  or bone of the tongue, resembles in
form the Greek v, whence its name. It consists of a body,
two cornua, and two appendices.
  The bones of the trunk consist of those of the spine, the
pelvis, and the  thorax.
  The spine consists of twenty-four true or moveable, and
five false or immoveable vertebrae, likewise denominated the
os sacrum, and of one small bone named os coccygis.  The
true vertebrae consist of a body, a  ring placed behind the
body transmitting the spinal marrow, and of seven  proces-
ses, four of which are articular, or serve to connect the ver-
tebrae with each other; and three  are for lhe purposes of
muscular attachment: of  these two are termed transverse,
from their projecting laterally; and one spinous, from its
forming fhe ridge or spine of the back. The true vertebrae
are also divided into classes, from their situation in the cer- 
A  N A
ANA
 vix or neck, in lhe dorsum, or back, and in the lumbar re-
 gions or loins.  The first class is the cervical, including the
 first seven ; the first of which is termed atlas, from its sup-
 porting the head; and the second dentatus, from its hav-
 ing a tooth like process, which passes upward into the for-
 mer, and all of which have their transverse processes perfo-
 rated by a hole for transmitting the vertebral arteries to the
 head.   The second class is the dorsal, consisting of twelve,
 which are larger than the cervical, and are distinguished
 by having their sides and  transverse processes depressed
 for connection with the ribs.  The third class is the lum-
 bar, consisting of five,  which  are larger than any of the
 superior ones.  The  os sacrum resembles a pyramid re-
 versed,  somewhat  concave  internally and convex exter-
 nally.  It constitutes the posterior part of the  pelvis,  and
 in the young animal consists  of five different portions, re-
 sembling considerably the true vertebrae, whence its name
 of false vertebrae.   The os coccygis, in form,  very much
 resembles the os  sacrum, of which it is merely an appendix
 fixed to its lower part.
   The pelvis, or inferior cavity of the trunk, in addition
 to the two bones last mentioned, consists of the two ossa
 innominata.  These,  in the young subject, are formed of
 three distinct bones, vis.  the ossa ilium or haunch bones,
 which are placed at their upper  part,  the ossa pubis or
•share bones, which compose their fore part, and the ossa
 ischium which constitute their inferior part.
   The thorax, or superior cavity of the trunk, in addition
 to  lhe vertebrae,  is formed anteriorly by a long narrow
 bone, named sternum, and laterally as well as in some meas-
 ure anteriorly and posteriorly by the twenty-four ribs,
 which are  long, narrow, and curved bones, attached by
 their heads or posterior ends to the vertebrae, and by their
 anterior cartilages either  to the  sternum or each other.
 The  upper seven, from their being attached  in  the  for-
 mer way, are  named true  ribs; the inferior five are term-
 ed false.
   The bones of the upper extremities are generally dv
 vided into those  of the  shoulder, arm, fore arm, and hand.
   The shoulder consists of two bones, vis. the clavicula
 and the scapula.  The clavicula or collar bone, is situat-
 ed between the top of the sternum or breastbone and the
 extremity of the shoulder,  and  sometimes  resembles in
 form an italic/.   The  scapula is a triangular  flat bone
 ■which forms the greatest part of the shoulder.   It is in some
 measure situated behind the  upper part of the thorax.  Its
 superior  and inferior sides  are denominated  costae ; its
 posterior side is  called  its base.
   The arm has only  one bone, termed the os humeri, the
 .upper part of which forms around head, which is received
 by the scapula, and its  lower part terminates  in two con-
 dyles, giving attachment to muscles, and a  trochlea or
 pulley between them, for articulation  with  the following
 bones:
    The fore arm  consists of two bones, vis. the radius and
 ulna, the latter of which'is placed on  the inside of the  fore
 arm, and chiefly allows of flexion and extension, while at
 the same lime it serves as an axis to lhe radius, which so
 revolves around  it as to effect  that which is called the su-
 pination and pronation of the hand.
    The bones of the hand  are divided into those of the car-
 pus, metacarpus, fingers and thumb.   The carpus consists
w»f eight small irregular bones, named schaphoides, lunare,
cuneiforme, and piziforme, which form the first row, and
trapezium, trapezoides,  magnum, and  unciforme,  winch
form the second.  The metacarpus consists ot tour bones,
having  broad bases attached to the carpus,  and  round
heads for articulation with the fingers.   Each of the fin.
gers, as well as the  thumb, Consists of three bones; all of
which, except the terminating ones, possess  a head and
base tipped with cartilage for articulation with its fellowa.
  The  bones of the lower extremities consist of those of
the thigh, leg, and foot.
  The thigh has only one bone, termed os femoris, the up.
per part of which forms a round head, received by a cup
like cavity,  called  acetabulum, of the  os innominatum,
Below this is the neck of the bone, and at if s  base two protu-
berances called trochanters, into which are fixed the mus-
cles which rotate the thigh.   The  back  of  the bone ii
marked by a rough line which divides into two at its lower
part,  and terminates in the condyles of the bone;  which
inferiorly are joined to the  tibia, a bone of the  leg, and lat-
erally give attachment to various muscles.
  The  bones of the leg are three in number,  vis. the p».
tella or  knee pan, a  small round bone requiring no partic-
ular description; the tibia, which is superiorly large, hat
a triangular body, and terminates inferiorly in the malleo-
lus  internus,  or inner  ankle;  and the fibula, a long trian-
gular bone, placed  on the outside of the  leg,"articulated
above to the tibia, and below terminating in the malleolus
externus, or outer ankle.
  The bones of the foot are divided into those of the tarsus,
metatarsus, and toes.  The tarsus consists of seven bone?,
named astragalus, os calcis, naviculare, cuboides,  cunei-
forme externum, medium, and internum.   The metatarsus
is composed of five bones, having broad bases and round
heads.   The phalanges of the toes are three in number;
each of their bones are shorter than those of the  finger,
and the great toe possesses only two.

                    CHONDROLOGY.
  Under this head it is only necessary to state that, in
the recent subject,  all  the articular surfaces of bones are
covered by  cartilage.   Interarticular cartilages are also
placed  in some of  them, as in the joint of the lower jaw,
of the clavicle and sternum, of the knee, &c.

                    SYNDESMOLOGY.
  Capsular ligaments  surround all the  joints, but those
which possess the hinge like motion have also lateral liga-
ments to  render them firm, and to  prevent their moving
from side to  side, while those possessing motion in every
direction have generally ligaments internal  to the capsular,
&u  u-6 -r°Und nSament of the  hiP j°inf.  the beginning of
the bicipital tendon in the  shoulder, the perpendicular lig-
ament of the processus dentatus, &c.

                      BURSALOGY.
  The  mucous bags, called  bursae mucosa;,  are  placed
wherevec tendons pass over each other,  or over an{' solid
part, and serve the purpose of lubricating (hese tendons.

                       MYOLOGY.
     Of the muscles of the  teguments of the cranium.
   The  skin that covers the cranium is moved  by a single
broad digastric muscle, and one small pair.           = 
ANA
A N A
   1. The occipilo frontalis arises from the transverse pro-
 tuberant ridge of the os occipitis ; thence it comes straight
 forward by a broad thin tendon, which covers the upper
 part of the cranium  at each side; when it comes  as far
 forward as the hair of the front, it  becomes fleshy, and
 descends fo be inserted into the orbicularis palpebrarum
 of each side.  Its use is to pull the skin of the head back-
 ward.
   2. The corrugator supercilii arises from the  infernal an-
 gular process of the  os frontis, and is  inserted into (he
 inner and inferior fleshy part of the occipilo frontalis mus-
 cle.  Its use is fo draw the eyebrow of that side toward
 the other.

                Of the muscles of the ear.

   The muscles of lhe ear may be divided into three clas-
 ses, vis. the common, proper, and  internal.   The common
 move the whole ear,  the proper only affect lhe particular
 parts of it to which they are connected,  and the internal
 the small bones within the  tympanum.
   The common muscles are,
   1. The atlollens aurem arises from the tendon of theoc-
 cipito frontalis, and is inserted into the upper part of the
 ear, opposite to the antihelix.  Its use is to draw the ear
 upward.
   2. The anterior auris arise near the posterior part of the
 zygoma, and is inserted into a small eminence on the back of
 the helix.  Its use is to draw this eminence a little forward
 and upward.
   3. The refrahenfes auris arise from fhe root of the mas-
 toid process, and are inserted into that part of the back of
 the ear which is opposile to the septum conchae.   Their
 use is to draw the ear back.
   The proper muscles are,
   l.Thehelicis major arises from the acute process of
 the helix, and is inserted a little above.  Its use is  to de-
 press that part from which it arises.
   2. The helicis minor arises from the inferior and anterior
 part of the helix, and is inserted into the cms of the helix
 near its fissure.  Its use is to contract the fissure.
   3. The tragicus arises from the root of lhe tragus, and
 is inserted into the point of the tragus.  Its use is to  pull
 the point of the tragus a little forward.
   4. The antitragicus arises from  the internal part of fhe
 antitragus, and is inserted  into the tip of the antitragus..
 Its use is to turn fhe tip of the antitragus outward.
   5. The transversus auris arises from the prominent  part
 of the  concha on  the dorsum of the  ear; and is inserted
 opposite info the contiguous part of the antihelix.  Its use
 ^ to draw the parts fo which it is connected toward  each-'
 other.
   The muscles of fhe infernal ear  are three :
   1. The laxafor tympani arises from the spinous process
 of the sphenoid bone, and passes through the fissura glas-
 seri to be inserted info ihe long  process  of the malleus.
 Its use  is to draw the malleus obliquely forward.
   2. The tensor tympani arises from the  cartilaginous ex-
 tremity of the eustachian tube, and spinous process of the
 sphenoid bone, from thence running backward through its
 osseous semicanal, it is inserted into the  posterior part of
 fhe handle of the malleus.   Its use is 11  pull the malleus
 and membrana tympani inward.
   3. The stapedius  arises from a little cavern in the pos-
terior part of the tympanum, and is inserted into the po3-
terior part of the head  of the stapes.   Its use is to draw
the stapes obliquely upward.

             Of the muscles of the eye lids.
   The palpebrae, or eyelids, have one muscle common to
both, and the upper eyelid one proper fo itself.
   l.The orbicularis  palpebrarum arises  from  the outer
edge of the orbitar process of the superior maxillary bone,
and from a tendon near  the inner angle of lhe eye; then
surrounding the eye, and covering the eyelids, it is insert-
ed into the nasal  process of the superior  maxillary bone.
Its use is to shut the eye.
   2. The levator palpebrae superioris arises from the upper
part of the foramen opticum, and is inserted into the tar-
sus of the upper eyelid.   Its use is to open the eye.

                Muscles of the eye ball.
   The muscles which move the globe of the  eye are six,
vis. four straight and two oblique.
   The four straight  muscles  very much resemble each
other, and arise from  the bottom of the orbit around  the
foramen  opticum  of the sphenoid bone.   They are insert-
ed at the fore part of the globe of the eye into the ante-
rior p?rt of the tunica sclerotica, and under the tunica ad-
nata, at  opposite sides, which indicates both their names
and use; so that they  scarcely require any further  de-
scription, but to  name them  singly.  They are  the le-
vator oculi, depressor oculi, adductor oculi,  and abducfcr
oculi.
   The oblique muscles are two:
   1. The obliquus superior, or trochlearis, arises from the
edge of the foramen opticum at the bottom of the orbit,
between the levator and adductor; hence it runs through
a cartilaginous trochlea on the inside of the internal angular
process  of the os frontis, and is inserted into the tunica
sclerotica,between the attollens and optic nerve.   Its use
is to roll  the globe of the eye, and to turn lhe pupil down-
ward and outward.
   2. The obliquus inferior arises from the outer edge of
the orbitar process of (he superior maxillary bone, and is
inserted into lhe sclerotica, between the abductor and op-
tic nerve.  Its use is  to oppose the superior.

               Of the muscle of the nose.
   There is only one muscle on each side that can be call
ed proper to the nose, though it is affected  by several mus-
cles of the face.
   The  compressor naris arises  from the root of the ala
nasi externally, and  is  inserted slightly into the anterior
extremity of the os nasi,   Its use is to  compress the ala
toward the septum nasi.

             Muscles of the mouth and lips.
   The moufh has nine pair of muscles, which are inserted
into the lips, and a common one formed by the termination
of these, vis. three above, three below,  three outward,
and the common muscle surrounding the mouth.
   The three above are,
   1. The levator anguli oris arises  from a hollow of the
superior  maxillary bone,  and is inserted into the anHe of
the mouth.   Its  use is to draw the comer of the mouth
upward.
   2. The levator labii superioris alacque nasi arises by two-
origins ;  the  first from  the external part  of the  orbitar  . 
A N  A
ANA
 process of (he superior maxillary bone. The first and short-
 est portion  is inserted into the upper lip and orbicularis
 labiorum; the second and  longest into the upper lip and
 outer part of the ala  nasi.   Its  use is to raise the upper
 lip and ala nasi toward the orbit, and a little outward.
   3. The depressor labii superioris alaeque nasi arises an-
 teriorly from (he os maxillare superius, and is inserted in-
 to the upper lip and  root of the ala  nasi.   Its use is to
 draw the upper  lip and ala nasi downward and backward.
   The three below are,
   1. The depressor anguli oris arises from the lower edge
 of  the maxilla inferior, and  is inserted into the  angle of
 the mouth.   Its use  is to pull  down the' corner of the
 mouth.
   2. The depressor labii  inferioris arises from the inferior
 part of the lower jaw, and is inserted into the edge of the
 under  lip.   Its use is to pull the under lip and skin of the
 chin downward and outward.
   3. The levator labii inferioris arises anteriorly from the
 lower jaw, and is inserted into the under  lip and skin of
 the chin.  Its use is  to pull the parts into which it  is in-
 serted upward.
   The three outward are,
   1. The buccinator arises from the lower jaw, as far back
as the last dens molaris and root of the coronoid process ;
from the  upper jaw, between  the last dens molaris and
 pterygoid process of the  sphenoid bone; and is inserted
into the angle of the mouth.   Its use is to draw the angle
of the mouth backward, and to contract its cavity.
  2. The zygoraaticus major arises from the os mala?, near
 the zygomatic suture, and is inserted into the angle of the
 mouth.  Its use is to draw the corner of the mouth up-
 ward and outward.
   ?. The zygomaticus minor arises above the origin of the
 former, and  is inserted near the corner of the mouth.  Its
 use is to draw the corner of the  mouth outward and up-
 ward.
   The common muscle is,
   The orbicularis oris.  This muscle is, in a great meas-
 ure, formed by the muscles that move the lips,  and sur-
 rounds the mouth like a sphincter.  Its use is to shut the
 mouth.
               Muscles of the lower jaw.
   The lower jaw has four pair of muscles for its elevation
 or lateral motions, vis. two which are seen on the side of
 the face, and two concealed by the angle of the jaw.
   1. The temporalis arises from a semicircular ridge of the
 parietal bone, and  from all the temporal fossa of the crani-
 um, and is inserted into the coronoid process of the lower
 jaw.   Its use is to pull the lower jaw upward.                I  ti,0 =»<..„„  u   i
   2. Themasseter irises from the inferfor and interior part  about the c  r il^inous Z^*'  t l"\  ^ &*
 of the zygoma, and is inserted  into the outside of the an-  " "^ ?-!-"- *S    ' "'remit j of the first rib, and is in-
 gle of fhe lower jaw.  Its  use is to pull  the lower to the
 upper jaw.
   3. The pterygoideus internus arises from the pterygoid
 fossa, and is inserted into the angle of the lower jaw  inter-
 nally.   Its  use  is  to draw the jaw upward and toward
 the opposite side.
   4.  The pterygoideus externus arises chiefly from the
 outer side of the external pterygoid process, and is inserted
 into the  fore part of the condyloid process.  Its  use is  to
 pull the lower jaw forward and to the opposite side.
 The muscles which appear about the  anterior part of
                       the  neck.
   On the side of the neck are two muscles or layers :
   1. The  musculiis  cutaneus vulgo platysma  myoides
arises from the cellular  substance  (ha/  covers the upper
parts of the deltoid and pectoral muscles, and is inserted
into the integuments  covering the side of the  lower  jaw.
Its use is  to corrugate the integuments to which  it is at-
tached.
   2. The sterno cleido mastoideus arises by two  distinct
origins; the  anterior from  the top of the sternum; (he
posterior from the upper and anterior part of the clavicle;
both unite  to  be  inserted into the mastoid process.  Its
use is to turn the head to one side, and bend it forward.

Muscles  situated  between  the lower jaw and os hyoides,

   There are four layers before and two muscles at the side.
The four layers are,
   1. The digastricus arises from the fossa at the  root of
the mastoid process of the temporal bone, becomes tendi-
nous, runs through the stylo  hyoides,  is fixed by a Iiga-
ment to the os  hyoides, and then runs forward and is in.
serted  into a  roughness at  the inferior edge of the chin,
Its use is to open the  mouth, or fo elevate the larynx,  &c.
  2. The mylo hyoideus arises from all the inside of the
lower jaw, and is inserted into the  basis of the os hyoides.
Its use is to pull the os hyoides forward, upward, and lat-
erally.
  3. The  genio hyoideus arises from the middle of the
lower jaw internally, and is inserted into the basis of the
os hyoides.  Its  use  is  to draw this bone forward to the
chin.
  4. The genio hyo glossus arises from the inside of the
middle of the lower jaw, and is inserted  into all the length
of the tongue, and base of the os hyoides.   Its use is, ac-
cording to the direction  of  its  fibres,  to  depress  the
tongue, or to draw (he os hyoides forward.
   The two muscles at the side are,
   1. The hyo glossus arises from the base, cornu,  and ap-
pendix of the os hyoides, and  is inserted info  the side of
the tongue.  Its use is  to pull the tongue inward and down-
ward.
  2. The lingualis arises from the root  of the tongue  lat-
erally, and is inserted into the tip of the tongue.   lis use
is to contract the substance of the  tongue.

   Muscles situated between the os hyoides and trunk.
   These may be divided into  two  layers.  The first  lay-
er consists of two muscles :
serted into the base of the os hyoides.  Its use is to pull
tne os hyoides downward.
  2. The omo hyoideus arises from the superior costa of
 he scapula, near the semilunar notch, and is inserted into

\Z« w-   !,  T  Y° ?'  ItS Use is to Pul1 ^e os hyo-
ides obliquely downward.                           J
  The seeond layer consists of three muscles •
  1. The  sterno thyroideus arises from the inner edge of
 he uppermost bone of the sternum, and is inserted into
the rough line at the inferior edge of the thyroid cartilage
Its  use is to draw the larynx downward        cartilage. 
ANA
A tt A
   2. Thyreo hyoideus arises from the rough line opposite
 to the former,  and is  inserted into part of the basis, and
 almost ail the cornu of the os hyoides.   Its use is to pull
 (he os hyoides downward, or ihe thyroid cartilage upward.
   3. The crico thyroideus arises from  the side and  fore
 part of the cricoid cartilage,  and is  inserted by two  por-
 tions; the  first into the lower part of the thyroid carti-
 lage; the second into its inferior cornu.   Its use is to pull
 forward and depress  the thyroid, or to elevate and draw
 backward the cricoid cartilage.

 Muscles situated between the lower jaw  and os hyoides
                       laterally.
   They are five  in number.  Three proceed from the
 styloid process of fhe temporal bone, from which they have
 half of their names ; and two from the pterygoid process of
 the sphenoid bone.
   The three from the styloid  process are,
   1. The stylo glossus arises chiefly from the styloid proc-
 ess,  and is inserted into the  root,  side  and tip  of the
 tongue.   Its use is to draw the tongue laterally and back-
 ward.
   2. The stylo hyoideus arises from the  inferior part of
 the styloid process, and is inserted into  the os  hyoides
 between its base and cornu.   If** use  is  to pull  (he os hy-
 oides (o one side and a little upward.
   3. The stylo pharyngeus arises from  the root  of the
 styloid process, and is inserted into  the side of the  pha-
 rynx and back of the thyroid cartilage.
   The two  from (he pterygoid process are,
   1. The circumflexus, or tensor palafi, arises chiefly from
 the  spinous process of the sphenoid  bone, then runs over
 the  hook of the internal pterygoid  process, and spreads
 into a broad membrane, which is inserted into the velum
 pendulum palati.  Its use is to stretch the velum.
   2. The levator palati arises chiefly from the extremity
 of the pars petrosa of the temporal bone, and is inserted
 into (he  velum pendulum palati.  Its use is to  draw the
 velum upward and backward.
     3Iuscles situated about the  entry to  thefauets.
   There  are two  on each side,  and a single one in the
 middle.
   The two  on  each side are,
   1. The constrictor isthmi faucium arises from the side of
 the tongue; thence running upward before the amygdala,
 it is inserted into the middle of the velum  pendulum pala-
 ti.   Its use  is to draw the velum toward the root  of  the
 tongue.
  2. The palato pharyngeus arises chiefly from the mid-
 dle of the velum pendulum palati; thence passing within
 the posterior arch behind the amygdala, it  is inserted into
 the edge  of the upper and back part of the thyroid  carti-
 lage. Its use  is to draw the uvula and velum downward
 and backward.
  The one in the middle is,
  The azygos uvulae arises from the extremity of the su-
 ture, which joins the palate bones, and is inserted into the
lip of the  uvula.  Its use is to raise the uvula upward and
forward.

 Muscles situated on the posterior part of the pharynx.
  Of these there are three pair.
  1. The  constrictor pharyngis inferior arises from  the
  vol. i.           17
 side of the thyroid, and from the cricoid cartilage, and is
 inserted into the white line on the middle of the pharynx.
 Its use is to compress  that  part  of the pharynx which it
 covers.
   2. The constrictor pharyngis medius'arises chiefly from
 the appendix and cornu of the os hyoides, and is inserted
 into the middle of the cuneiform process of the os occipitis,
 and is joined to its fellow at a white line in the middle back
 part of the pharynx.  Its use  is to  compress  that part
 of the pharynx which it covers.
   3. The constrictor pharyngis superior arises above from
 the cuneiform process of theos occipitis lower down, from
 the pterygoid process of the sphenoid bone, and from the
 upper and under jaw, near the last dentes molares.   It  is
 inserted into a white line in the middle of the  pharynx.
 Its use is to compress the upper part  of the pharynx.
          Muscles situated about the glottis.
   They consist generally of four pair of small muscles,
 and a single one.
   1. The crico arytaenoideus posticus arises in the back
 part of the cricoid  cartilage, and is inserted into the pos-
 terior part of the base of the arytenoid cartilage.  Its use
 is to open the rima glotlidis.
   2. The ci ico arytaenoideus lateralis arises from the cri-
 coid cartilage laterally, and is inserted into the side of the
 base of the arytenoid cartilage.  Its use is to open the ri-
 ma glottidis.
   3. The thyreo arytaenoideus  arises from the under and
 back part of the middle of the thyroid cartilage, and is in-
 serted into lhe arytenoid cartilage, higher up than the cri-
 co arytaenoideus lateralis.  Its use is to pull the arytenoid
 cartilage forward.
   4. The arytaenoideus obliquus arises  from  the base of
one arytenoid cartilage, and  crossing its fellow, is inserted
near the tip of the other.  When both act, they pull the
arytenoid cartilages toward each other.
   The single muscle is,
   The arytaenoideus transversus arises* from  the side of
one arytenoid cartilage, and is  inserted in the same man-
ner into the  other.  Its  use is to  shut (he  rima glotti-
 dis.
   Besides these there are  a few disgregated  muscular
fibres on each side, which, from their general direction, are
named the thyreo epiglottidei, and arytaeno epiglottidei.
   Muscles situated in the fore part  of the abdomen.
   These consist of three broad layers on each  side;  al-
ways a long one, and generally also a short one, on each
side the linea alba.
   The three layers are,
   1. The obliquus  descendens externus arises by eight
heads from the lower edges of an equal number of inferior
ribs at a little distance from their cartilages, and is inserted
into the whole length of the linea alba, and info the ante-
rior extremity of the os  ilium.  Its use is to  support and
compress the abdomen, and to bend the leins.
   2. The obliquus ascendens internus arises from all the
spine of the ilium, from the os sacrum, the three under-
most lumbar vertebra?, and from Poupart's ligament.  It is
inserted into the cartilago ensiformis, and into  the carti-
lages of the seventh and those of all  the false ribs.  Its use
is to assist the former, but to bend the trunk in an opposite
direction. 
ANA
A N A
    3. The transversalis  arises from the inner  part  of the
  cartilages of fhe seven lower ribs, from the spine of the os
  ilium internally, and  from the tendon  of the external ob-
  lique muscle.  It  is inserted into the cartilago ensiformis,
  and into the whole length of the linea alba.  Its use is to
  compress the abdominal viscera.
    The long muscle in the middle is
    The rectus abdominis, which arises from the symphysis
  pubis, and  is inserted into the cartilages of the three infe-
  rior true ribs.  Its use is to compress  the fore part of the
  belly, and to bend the loins.
    The short muscle in the middle is the pyramidalis aris-
  ing along with the rectus, and inserted into the linea alba,
  halfway between  the os pubis and umbilicus.   Its  use
  seems to be to assist the rectus.

       Muscles about the male organs of generation.

    Each of the testes has one muscle.
    The cremaster arises from the lower part of the internal
 oblique, and  after  having pierced lhe ring of the external,
 descends upon lhe spermatic chord, and is inserted into
 the tunica vaginalis of the testis.  Its use is to elevate that
 gland.
   The penis has three pair of muscles.
   1. The erector penis arises from the tuberosity of  the
 ischium, and  is inserted into lhe membrane covering  the
 corpora cavernosa  penis.  Its use is to compress the crus
 penis.
   2. The accelerator  urinse, or ejaculator seminis, arises
 from the sphincter ani and  membranous part of the ure-
 thra, and from the  crus penis.  It is inserted into a line in
 the middle  of the bulb.  Its use is to drive the urine or
 semen  forward.
   3. Transversus perinei arises from the tough fatty mem-
 brane covering the tuberosity of the ischium, and is chief-
 ly inserted into the accelerator urinse.  Its use is to dilate
 the bulb.
   There is often a.fourth muscle named
   4. Transversus  perinei alter, which arises  behind  the
 former, runs more  forward,  and is inserted into the fore
 part of  the accelerator  urinse.  Its use is to assist  the
 former.

                  Muscles  of the anus.
   The anus has  a  single  muscle, and one pair.  The sin-
 gle muscle is
   The sphincter ani, which arises from the skin  and  fat
 surrounding the verge of the anus, and is inserted, before,
 into the perineum,  acceleratores urinse, and transversi  pe-
 rinei ; behind, into the extremity of the os coccygis.   Its
 use is to close the anus.
   The levator ani arises extensively within the  pelvis, and
 is inserted info the sphincter ani, &c.   Its chief use is to
 draw the rectum upward.

      Muscles of the female organs of generation.
   The clitoris has one  pair.
   The erector clitoridis arises internally from the crus of
the ischium, and  is inserted into the crus  and body  of
the clitoris.   Its use is to draw the clitoris downward and
backward.
  The vagina has one pair.
    The sphincter raginie  arises from the sphincter ani,
  and from the back of the vagina, and is inserted  into the
  crus and body of the clitoris.  Its use  is to contract the
  mouth of the vagina.
    The transversus  perinei, sphincter ani, and levator ani,
  in the female, almost precisely resemble  the same muscles
  in the male.
            Muscles situated  within the pelvis.
    Of these there are two pairs.
    1. Obturator  internus arises from the infernal circum-
  ference of the thyroid foramen, and is inserted into the fop
  of the trochanter major.   Its use is to roll the  os feuaoris
  obliquely outward.
    2. The coccygeus arises from the spinous  process of
  the os ischium, and is inserted into the end of the sacrum,
  and  into the os coccygis.  Its use is  to move the os coc-
  cygis forward.

    Muscles situated within the cavity of the abdomen.  ,  I
    They  consist of a single muscle and four pairs.
    The diaphragm is a broad thin muscle forming a septum
  between  (he  thorax and  abdomen, concave below and
  convex above.   It is  commonly  divided  into  two  por-
  tions.
   1. The superior or greater muscle of the diaphragm arises
 from the  cartilago ensiformis, from the  cartilages of the
 seventh and all the inferior ribs, and is inserted intoaten-
 don situated in  the middle of lhe septum.
   2. The inferior or lesser muscle of the diaphragm arises
 from  the  second, third, and fourth lumbar vertebise, by
 eight heads ;  of which two in the middle, called  its crura,
 are the longest : and is inserted into the posterior part of
 the middle tendon.   Its chief use is as a principal agent is
 respiration.
   The four pairs  are,
   l.The quadratus lumborum  arises from the  posterior
 part  of the spine of the ilium,  and is  inserted into the
 transverse processes of the lumbar vertebise, into-the last
 rib, and into fhe last dorsal vertebra.  Its use is to move
 the loins to one side.
   2. Psoas parvus arises from fhe sides  of the two upper
 lumbar vertebrse, and is inserted into the brim of the  pel-
 vis.   Its use is to assist the psoas magnus in  bending the
 loins.
   3.  Psoas magnus  arises  from the side  of the body  and
 transverse process of the last  dorsal vertebra, and in the
 same manner from all the lumbar.  It is  inserted into the
 trochanter minor.  Its u=e is to bend lhe thigh.
   4.  The iliacus internus arises from the transverse proc-
 ess  of the last vertebra  of the loins, from the crista, and
 from the hollow part of the ilium.  It is inserted alongwith
 the former.  Its use is to assist the psoas.

         Muscles on the fore part of the  thorax.
   These  consist of two layers, and  the first layer of one
 muscle.
   The pectoralis major arises from the extremities of the
fifth and sixth ribs, from almost all the sternum, and from
half the anterior part of the clavicle.  It is inserted  into
the outside of the groove of the biceps.  Its use is to more
the arm forward and upward. 
ANA
ANA
   The second layer consists of three muscles.
   1. The subclavius arises from  the  cartilage of the first
 rib, and is inserted into the inferior part of the clavicle.
 Its use is to pull the clavicle downward and forward.
   2. The pectoralis minor arises from the  upper edge of
 the  third, fourth, and fifth ribs, near their cartilages, and
 is inserted into the coracoid process of the scapula.  Its
 use  is to bring the scapula forward  and downward.
   3. The  serratus magnus arises from the nine superior
 ribs, and is inserted into the whole base of the scapula in-
 ternally.   Its use is to move that bone forward.

            Muscles placed between the ribs.
   These are  the  intercostales externi et interni, which,
 arising in two  layers from the lower edge  of one rib, are
 inserted into the upper edge of another, and whose  use is
 to approximate the ribs.
   The muscles within the thorax are one pair.
   The triangularis, or sterno costalis, arises from the car-
 (ilago ensiformis laterally, and from the inferior part  of the
 edge of the  middle bone of the sternum.  It is inserted
 into the lower edge of fhe  cartilages of the third, fourth,
 and fifth ribs.   Its use is to depress these cartilages.

 Muscles on the fore part of the neck, close to the vertebral.
   They consist of one layer, formed by four  muscles.
   1. Longus colli arises from (he three superior dorsal ver-
 tebrae laterally, and from the transverse process of the
 third, fourth, fifth, and sixth cervical.  It is inserted into
 the  fore part of the verfebrse of the neck.  Its use is to
 bend the neck.
   2. The  rectus  capitis internus  major arises  from lhe
 transverse processes of the third, fourth, fifth, and sixth
 cervical vertebise, and is  inserted into the cuneiform proc-
 ess of the os occipitis.  Its use is to bend  the head for-
 ward.
   3. Rectus capitis internus major  arises from the body of
 fhe  atlas, and is inserted into the condyloid process of the
 os occipitis.   Its use is to nod the head forward.
   4. The rectus capitis lateralis arises from the tip of (he
 transverse process of (he atlas,  and is inserted into the os
 occipifis external  to (he  foramen magnum.  Its  use is to
 bend fhe head to one side.
   On  (he side of (he neck,
   1. Scalenus  anlicus arises from  the  fourth, fifth, and
 Mxlh transverse processes of the neck, and is inserted into
 (he upper side of the first rib.
   2. Scalenus medius arises from the transverse processes
 of the  cervical verfebrse, and is inserted  into  the  first
 rib.
   3. Scalenus posticus  arises  from (he fifth and  sixth
 transverse processes of  the cervical vertebrae, and is in-
 cited into the upper edge of fhe second rib.  The use of
 the three scaleni is  fo bend the neck to one side, or  to el-
 evate the ribs and dilate the thorax.

        Musclts situated on the back of the  trunk.
   The following muscles  are described  as they appear on
 dissection.
   1. The trapezius, seu cucularis,  arises from the protu-
 berance of the  os occipitis, and  from the rough line that
extends from it toward the temporal bone, runs down along
fhe nape of the neck, where  it seems to arise from  its fel-
                    17*
low ;  arises also from the spinous processes of the two in
ferior cervical, and from those of  all the dorsal vertebrae.
It is inserted into the posterior half of the clavicle, into the
acromion, and into  almost all  the spine  of the scapula.
Its use is to move the scapula according to the three differ-
ent directions of its fibres.
   2. The latissimus dorsi arises from the back of the spine
of the ilium, from all the spinous processes of the sacrum
and lumbar vertebrae, and from the  seven inferior ones of
the verfebrse of the back : also from the extremities of the
three or four inferior  ribs.  It is  inserted into the inner
edge of the groove of the tendon of the biceps.  Its use is
to pull the arm backward and downward, and to roll the os
humeri.
   3. The serratus posticus inferior  arises from the spinal
processes of the two inferior dorsal vertebrae, and from the
three superior lumbar.   It is inserted into the  lower edges
of the four inferior ribs.   Its use is to depress the ribs into
which it is inserted.
   4. The rhomboideus is divided into two portions.  1 -
The rhomboideus major,  which arises from the spinous
processes of the five superior verfebrse of the back, and is
inserted into all the basis of the scapula  below its spine.
Its use  is to draw the  scapula obliquely upward and  di-
rectly inward.  2. Rhomboideus minor, which arises from
the spinous processes of (he (hree  inferior vertebise  of
the neck, and from the ligamentum nuchse.  It is inserted
into the base of the scapula, opposite to its spine.  Its use
is to assist the former.
   5. The serratus superior posticus, arises from the spi-
nous processes of the three last vertebise of the neck, and
the two uppermost of the back.  It is inserted  into the
second, third, fourth, and fifth ribs.   Its use is to elevate
the ribs and dilate the thorax.
   6. The levator scapulae arises from the  transverse proc-
esses of lhe five superior vertebi se of the neck.  It is in-
serted fleshy into the superior angle of the scapula.   Its
use is to pull the scapula  upward and forward.
   On the neck,
   1. The splenius arises  from the four superior spinous
processes of the vertebrae of the back, from the five infe-
rior of the neck, and adheres to the ligamentum nuchse.  It
is inserted  into  the  five  superior  transverse processes of
the cervical verfebrse, into the back of the mastoid process,
and into the  os occipitis.  Its use  is to  bring the head
backward laterally.
  2. The complexus arises from the transverse processes
of the seven superior vertebi se of  the back, and four infe-
rior of the neck; it  also receives a slip from  the spinous
process of the first vertebra of lhe back.  It is  inserted
into the protuberance of the os occipitis,  and inlo part  of
its transverse  ridge.   Its use is to draw (he  head back-
ward laterally.
  3. The (rachelo mastoideus arises from the transverse
processes of the  three uppermost dorsal  and five lower-
most cervical  vertebise.   It is inserted into (he back of
the mastoid process.  Its use is to  assist lhe  complex-
us.
  4. The transversalis colli arises  from  the  transverse
processes of the five uppermost vertebrae of (he back.   It
is inserted info the transverse processes of all the cervical
vertebrse, except the first and the last. Its use is  to turn
the neck obliquely backward and to one side. 
ANA
ANA
   5. The rectus capitis posticus major arises from the spi-
 nous process  of  the dentata.   It is inserted into the os
 occipitis.  Its use is to pull the head backward.
   6. The rectus capitis posticus minor arises from the back
 part of the atlas.   It is inserted behind the foramen mag-
 num.  Its  use  is to assist the rectus major.
   7. The obliquus capitis superior arises from the trans-
 verse  process of the atlas.  It is inserted into the os oc-
 cipitis, behind the back of the mastoid  process.   Its use
 is (o draw the head backward.
   8. The obliquus capitis inferior arises from the spinous
 process of the denlata,  and is inserted into the transverse
 process of the atlas.  Its use is to rotate the head.
   On the back near to the spine :
   1. The sacro lumbalis arises  in  common with the lon-
 gissimus dorsi, inserted into the curve of all the ribs. Its
 use  is fo pull (he ribs down, and assist to erect the trunk
 of (he body.
  2. The Iongissimus  dorsi  arises from the side, and all
 the spines of the sacrum ; from the posterior  spine of the
 ilium, from the spines, and from the transverse processes
 of the lumbar verfebrse.   It is inserted into the transverse
processes of the dorsal vertebrae, and into the lower edge of
all the ribs except fhe  two inferior, near their  tubercles.
Its use is to extend (he (runk.
  3. The spinalis  dorsi arises from the spines of the two
uppermost lumbar  verfebrse,  and the three inferior dorsal
verfebrse.  It is inserted into the spines of the nine upper-
most dorsal vertebrae, except the first.  Its use  is to fix
the vertebrae, and  to assist in raising the spine.
  4. The  semispinalis  dorsi arises  from the transverse
processes ef the seventh, eighth,  ninth, and tenth dorsal
 vertebrae, and is inserted into  the spines of all the dorsal
 verfebrse above the eighth,  and into the two lowermost
 cervical verfebrse.  Its use is to extend the spine oblique-
 ly backward.
  On the neck:
  1. The semispinalis colli arises from the transverse proc-
 esses of the six uppermost vertebrae of the back.   It is in-
 serted into the  spines of all the cervical vertebrae, except
 the first and last.  Its use is to extend the neck obliquely-
 backward.
  2. The multifidus spinse arises from the side and spine
 of the sacrum, and from the posterior part of the ilium;
from all the oblique and  transverse processes of the lumbar
 vertebrae;  from all the  transverse processes of the dorsal
 vertebrae;  and from those of lhe cer\ i< al, except the three
 first.  It is inserted into all the spines of the  lumbar, dor-
 sal, and cervical vertebrae, except the first.   Its use is to
 extend the vertebise backward.
   l.The interspinals colli arise from the spine of the in-
 ferior  vertebrae of the  neck, and  ascend to  be inserted
 into the spine of the superior vertebise.   They are five in
 number.   Their use is to draw these processes  nearer to
 each other.
  2. The intertransversales colli arise  from  the  inferior
 transverse process of each vertebra of  the neck, and first
 of the back, and  are inserted  into the  superior trans-
 verse processes.   Their  use is to draw these processes
 toward each other, and  turn the neck to one side.
  3, 4, and 5.  The interspinales dorsi el lumborura, and
the intertransversales dorsi, are rather small tendons than
muscles, serving to connect the spinal and transverse proc-
esses.
   6. The intertransversales lumborum are four distinct
 small bundles which fill up the spaces between (he trans-
 verse processes of the lumbar vertebrae, and serve to draw
 them toward each other.
                Muscles on the shoulder.
   1. Deltoides arises from  the  clavicle, processus aero-
 mion and spine of lhe scapula.  It is inserted into the  an-
 terior and middle part of the os humeri.  Its use is to raise
 the  arm.
   2. Supraspinal us arises from the basis, spine, and upper
 costa of the scapula.  It is inserted into a large tuberosi-
 ty at the  head of the os humeri.   Its use is to raise the
 arm.
   3. Infraspinatus arises from the basis and  spine of the
 scapula.  It is inserted into the  upper and middle part of
 the tuberosity.   Its use is to roll the os humeri outward.
   4. Teres minor arises from the  inferior  costa of (he
 scapula.  It is inserted into the lower part of the tuberot-
 ity,  and rolls the humerus outward.
   5. Teres major arises from  the inferior angle, and cos-
 ta of the  scapula.   It is inserted into  the ridge at the n.
 ner  side of the groove formed for the long head of the bi-
 ceps.   Its use  is to assist  in the rotatory motion of fhe
 arm.
   6. Subscapularis  arises from the basis,  superior and in-
 ferior costa? of the scapula.   It is  inserted into the upper
 part of a  small tuberosity  at  the head of the os humeri.
 Its use  is to roll the arm inward.
   7. Coraco brachialis arises from the coracoid process^
 the scapula.   It  is  inserted into  the inner side of the os
 humeri.  Its use is  to rake the arm  forward and upward.

                  Muscles  on the arm.
   1. Biceps flexor  cubiti arises by two heads, one from
 the  coracoid process, and the other, or longhead, fioinlhe
 upper and outer edge of the glenoid ca\ity of lhe scapu-
 la.   It  is  inserted into the tuberosity at the upper end of
 the  radius.   Its use is to bend the fore arm.
   2. Brachialis inlernus arifees from the os humeri, below,
 and  at each side of the tendon of (he deltoides.   It  is in-
 serted into a small tuberosity at the fore part of the coro-
 noid process of the  ulna, and into  the upper  and outer
 part of  the olecranon.  Its  use is to assist in bending the
 fore arm.
   3. Triceps extensor cubiti arises  by three heads: the
 hist from  (he  inferior costa of the  scapula; the second
 from the upper  and outer part of the os  humeri: andtbe
 third from the back part of  that bone.

               Muscles on the fore arm.
   1. Supinator  longus arises from the ridge and anterior
 surface  of the os humeri, a little above its  outer condyle.
 It is inserted into the radius near its styloid process.  Id
 use ,s to assist in fuming the palm of the hand upward.
  2  Extensor carp, radialis longus arises immediately be
 ow  the origin of  the supinator longus.   It is inserted^
 he upper part of the metacarpal bone of the middle fi7ger.
 its use  is  to assist the extensor longus
  3  Extensor carpi radialis brevis ar'ises from the outer
 andlowerpartof the outer  condyle and the upper part
 of the radius.   It is inserted into the back part of all the
bones of the four fingers.  Its use is to extend the fing » 
ANA
Ai\  A
  4.  Extensor digitorum communis arises from the outer
condyle of (he os humeri.  It is  inserted into the back
part of all (he bones of the four fingers.
  5. Ex(ensor minimi digiti arises  from the outer condyle
of fhe os humeri.   Il is inserted into the bones of the lit-
tle finger.  Its use is to extend the little finger.
  6. Extensor carpi ulnaris  arises from  the condyle of
the os humeri.  It is inserted into  the  metacarpal bone of
the little finger.  Its use is to assist in extending the wrist
  7. Anconaeus arises from lhe outer condyle of the os
humeri.  It is inserted into the outer edge of the ulna.
Its  use is to extend the fore arm.
  8. Flexor carpi ulnaris arises from the inner condyle of
the os  humeri, and anterior edge of the olecranon.   It is
inserted into the os pisiforme.  Its use  is to assist in
bending the hand.
  9. Palmaris longus arises from the inner condyle of the
os humeri.   It is inserted into the  internal annular  liga-
ment.   Its use is to bend the hand.
  10. Flexor carpi radialis arises from the inner condyle
of the os humeri.   It is inserted  into the metacarpal bone
of the fore finger.   Its  use is to bend the hand.
  11. Pronator radii brevis arises  from the outer condyle
of the os humeri, and coronoid process of  the ulna.   It is
inserted into the anterior and convex edge of  the radius,
near its middle.   Its use is to roll  the hand inward.
  12. Flexor  sublimis perforatus  arises  from the  inner
condyle of the os humeri, inner edge of the coronoid proc-
ess of the  ulna, and  upper and anterior  part of the ra-
dius.  It is inserted into the second bone of each finger.
Its  use is to bend fhe second joint  of the fingers.
  13. Supifiator radii brevis arises from the outer condyle
of the os humeri, the posterior surface and outer edge of
the ulna.  It is inserted  into  the anterior, inner,  and up-
per part of the radius.   Its use is to roll the radius  out-
ward.
  14. Abductor pollicis longus arises from the middle and
back part of the ulna, interosseous  ligament,  and  radius.
It is inserted by  two tendons into the  os  trapezium, and
first bone of the  thumb.  Its use  is to stretch  the  first
bone of the thumb  outward.
  15. Extensor  minor pollicis arises from the  back part
of the ulna, and interosseous  ligament and radius.   It is
inserted into the convex part of the second  bone of the
thumb.   Its use is to extend the second bone of the thumb
obliquely outward.
  16. Extensor major pollicis arises from the  back part
of the ulna and interosseous ligament.  It is inserted into
the third and last bone of the thumb.  Its  use is to stretch
the thumb obliquely backward.
  17. Indicator arises  from the middle of  the ulna.   It is
inserted into the metacarpal bone of the fore finger.  Its
use is to extend the fore  finger.
  18. Flexor  profundus  perforans  arises from the upper
and fore part of the ulna, and interosseous  ligament.  It is
inserted into the fore part of the last bone of each of the
fingers.   Its use is to bend the last joint of the fingers.
  19. Flexor  longus pollicis arises from  the upper and
fore part of the radius.   It is  inserted into the last  joint
of lhe thumb. Its use  is to bend the  last joint of the
thumb.
  20. Pronator radii quadratus arises  from the inner and
lower part of the ulna.   It is inserted into the radius, op-
posite  to  its origin.   Its use is to roll the radius inward,
and, of course, to assist in the pronation of the hand.
                Muscles on the hand.
  1. Lumbricales arise from the tendons of the perforans.
They are inserted into the tendons of the extensor digito-
rum communis.  Their use is to bend the first, and to ex-
tend the two last joints of the fingers.
  2. Abductor brevis pollicis arises from the  fore part of
the internal annular ligament, os  scaphoides,  and one of
the tendons ofi the abductor longus pollicis.   It is insert-
ed into  the outer side of the  second bone of  the thumb,
near its root.  Its use is to move  the thumb from the fin-
gers.
  3. Opponens pollicis arises from the inner and anterior
part of the internal annular ligament, and from the os sca-
  fhoides.  It is inserted into the first  bone of  the  thumb.
  ts  use is  to move the thumb inward, and to turn it upon
its axis.
  4. Flexor brevis pollicis arises  from the os trapezoidesr
internal annular ligament, os magnum, and os unciforme.
It is inserted into the ossa sesamoidea and second bone of
the thumb.
  5. Abductor pollicis arises from the metacarpal bone of
the  middle  finger.    It is inserted into  the basis of the
second bone of the thumb.  Its use is to bend the second
joint of the thumb.
  6. Abductor indicis arises from the inner  side of the
first bone of the thumb, and from the os trapezium.  It is
inserted into the first bone of the fore finger posteriorly.
Its  use is  to move the fore finger  toward lhe thumb.
  7. Palmaris brevis  arises from the internal annular liga-
ment, and aponeurosis palmaris.   It is inserted into the os
pisiforme, and the skin covering the abductor minimi di-
giti.  Its  use is to contract the palm of the hand.
  8. Abductor minimi digiti arises from the internal annu-
lar  ligament and os pisiforme.  It is inserted into the side
of the first bone of the little finger.  Its use is  to draw the
little finger from the rest.
  9. Flexor parvus minimi digiti arises from the os  unci-
forme, and internal  annular  ligament,  h is inserted into
the first bone of the  little finger.   Its use is to bend the
little finger.
  10. Abductor metacarpi minimi digiti arises from tbeos
unciforme,  and internal annular ligament.   It  is inserted
into the metacarpal bone of  the little finger.   Its use is to
move that bone toward the rest.
  11.  Interossei interni, situated between the metacarpal
bones.  They are  inserted  into the  roots of  the fingers.
Their use is to extend the fingers and move them toward
the thumb.
   12.  Interossei externi, situated between  the metacarpal
bones  on the back of the hand.   They are inserted into
the roots  of the fingers.  Their  use is to extend  the fin-
gers; but the  first draws the middle finger  inward, the
second draws it outward, and the third draws  the ring fin-
ger inward.
         Muscles on  the upper part of the  thigh.
   1.- Glutaeus maxiraus arises from the spine of the ilium,
posterior sacro ischiatic ligaments, os sacrum, and os coc-
cygis.  Inserted into the upper  part of the linea aspeia
of the os  femoris.  Its use is to extend the thigh and draw
it outward. 
ANA
ANA
   2. Glutaeus medius, arises from the  spine and superior
 surface of the ilium.   It  is inserted into the outer and
 back part of the great trochanter.   Its use is to draw the
 (high outward and a little backward, and when it-is bend-
 fd, to roll it.
   3. Glutaeus minimus, from the outer surface of the ilium,
 and the  border of its great niche.   It is inserted into the
 upper and interior part of the great trochanter.  Its use is
 (o assist  the former.
   4. Pyriformis arises from the anterior part of the os sa-
 crum.  It is inserted in(o a cavity at the root of the tro-
 chanter major.  Its  use is to roll the thigh outward.
   5. Gemini arises  by  two portions, one from the outer
 surface of the spine  of  the ischium, the other from the tu-
 berosity of the ischium, and posterior sacro ischiatic  liga-
 ment.  It is inserted into the same cavity as the pyrifor-
 mis.  Its use is to roll  the thigh outward, and likewise to
 confine (he tendon of  the obturator internus, when the
 latter is in action.
   6.  Obturator internus arises from  the  superior half of
 the inner border of  the  foramen thyroideum.   It is insert-
ed into lhe same cavity with the former.   Its use is to
 roll the thigh outward.
   7. Quadra!us femoris arises from the tuberosity of the
 ischium.   It is inserted into a ridge between the trochan-
ter major  and trochanter minor.  Its use is  to move the
 thigh outward.
                 Muscles on the thigh.
   1. Biceps flexor cruris arises by two heads; one from
 the tuberosity of the ischium,  the other from the linea as-
pera, near the insertion  of the glutaeus maximus.  It is in-
serted into the upper and back part of the fibula.  I(s use
 is to bend the leg.
   2.  Semitendinosus arises from the tuberosity of the is-
 chium.   It is inserted into lhe upper and inner part of the
 tibia.  Its use is to bend and draw the leg inward.
   3.  Semimembranosus arises  from  the tuberosity of the
 ischium.   I(  is inserted into the upper  and back  part of
 the headj>fthe tibia.  Its use is to bend the leg.
   4. .Tensor*vaginae femoris arises from the superior and
 anterior spinous process of the ilium.   It is inserted into
 the inner side of the fascia lata,  which covers the outside
 of the thigh.  Its use is to stretch the fascia.
   5. Sartozius arises from lhe superior and anterior spi-
 nous process of the  ilium.  It is inserted into the upper
 and  inner part of the tibia.  Its use  is to bend the leg in-
 ward.
   6.  Rectus arises by two tendons;  one from the anteri-
 or and inferior spinous process of the ilium, the other from
 the posterior edge of the cotyloid cavity.  It is inserted
 into the upper and fore part of the  rotula.  Its  use is to
 extend the leg.
   7. Gracilis arises from the fore part of the  ischium  and
 pubis.  It is inserted into the upper  and inner part of the
 tibia.  Its use is  to bend the leg.
   8. Vastus exlernus  arises from the anterior and lower
 part of the great trochanter,  and the outer edge of the li-
 nea aspera.   It is inserted info the  upper and  outer part
 of the rotula.   Its use is to extend the leg.
   9. "Vastus internus arises from the inner edge of the li-
 nea aspera, beginning between the fore part of the os fe-
moris and the root of the lesser trochanter.  It is insert-
 ed into the outer and inner part of the rotula.   Its use is
 to extend the leg.
   10. Cruraeus arises from the outer and anterior part of
 the lesser trochanter.   It  is inserted into the  upper part
 of the rotula.   Its use is to extend the leg.
   11. Pectinalis arises  from  the anterior edge of the os
 pubis.  It is inserted into  the upper and fore part of (he
 linea aspera.   Its use is to draw the thigh inward, upward,
 and to roll it a little outward.
   12. Adductor longus  femoris arises from the upper and
 fore part of the os pubis.  It  is inserted near the middle
 and back part of the linea aspera.   Its use is to draw the
 thigh inward, upward, and to roll it a little outward.
  13.  Adductor brevis  femoris arises from the fore part
 of the ramus of the os pubis.   It is inserted into the inner
 and upper part of the linea aspera.
  14.  Adductor magnus femoris arises from the lowerand
 fore part of the ramus of the os pubis.   It is  inserted  into
 the whole length of the linea aspera.
  15.  Obturator externus  arises from part of the obturator
 ligament, and  the inner half of the circumference of  the
 foramen  thyroideum.  It is inserted into the os femoris,
 near the root of the great trochanter.  Its use is to move
 the thigh outward in an oblique direction, and likewise to
 bend  and draw it inward.

                  Muscles on the leg.

  1. Gastrocnemius externus  arises by two heads; one
from the inner condyle, the other from fhe outer condyle
 of the os femoris.   It is inserted by a great round tendon,
 common to this and  the  following  muscle.  Its use is to
extend the foot.
  2. Gastrocnemius internus arises by  two  heads; one
from the back  part of the head of the fibula,  the  other
from the upper and back part of the tibia.   It is inserted
 by a large tendon, (the tendo Achillis,) common  to this and
the former muscle, into the lower and back part of the os
 calcis.  Its use is to extend the foot.
  3. Plantaris arises from  the upper and  posterior part of
 the outer  condyle of the os femoris.  It is inserted into
 the inside of the back part of the os calcis.   Its use is to
 assist in extending the foot.
  4. Popliteus arises from the  outer condyle  of the thigh.
 It is inserted into the upper and inner part of the tibia.
 Its  use is to assist in bending the leg and rolling  it in-
 ward.
  5. Flexor longus digitorum pedis arises from  the upper
 and inner part of the tibia.  It is inserted by four tendons,
 which, after passing through  the perforations in those of
 the flexor digitorum brevis, are inserted into the last bone
 of all  the foes,  except the great toe.  Its use  is to bend
 the last joint of the toe.
  6. Flexor longus pollicis pedis arises from the back part,
 and a little below  the  head of  the  fibula.  It is inserted
 into the last bone of the great toe.   Its use is to bend the
 great  toe.
  7. Tibialis posticus arises from the back part and out-
 er edge of  lhe  tibia,  and likewise  from the  interosseous
 ligament and  adjacent  part of the  fibula.  It is  inserted
 into the inner and  upper  part of the os navicular,  and
 side of the os cune.forme medium.   Its use is to move tire
 toot inward. 
ANA
ANA
  8. Peroneus longus arises from the outer side of the
head of the tibia,  and also from  the  upper anterior and
outer part of the fibula,  to which it adheres for a consid-
erable way down.   It is  inserted into the metatarsal bone
of the great toe.  Its use is to extend and to move the foot
outward.
  9. Peroneus brevis arises  from the outer and fore part
of the fibula.   It is  inserted into the metatarsal bone of
the  little  toe.   Its use  is to assist the  last described
muscle.
  10.  Extensor longus digitorum pedis arises from the up-
per, outer, and fore part  of the tibia, interosseous ligament,
and  inner edge of the fibula.  It is inserted by four ten-
dons into  the first joint of the  smaller toes.   Its use is to
extend the toes.
  11. Peroneus tertius arises from the fore part of the low-
er half of the fibula, and from the in(erosseous ligament.
It is inserted into the metatarsal bone of the little toe.  Its
use is to bend the foot.
  12. Tibialis anticus arises from the upper and fore part
of the tibia.  It is inserted  into the os cuneiforme  inter-
num.  Its use is to bend the foot.
  13. Extensor proprius pollicis pedis arises from the up-
per and fore part of the tibia.  It is inserted into the con-
vex surface of (he bones of  the great toe.  Its use is  to
extend the great toe.

                  Muscles on the foot.
  1. Extensor brevis digitorum pedis arises  from the up-
per  and anterior part of the os calcis.  It is inserted by
four tendons; one of which joins the tendon  of the exter-
nus longus pollicis, and the other three (he (endons of (he
extensor digitorum longus.   Its use is to extend the toes.
  2. Flexor brevis digitorum pedis arises from the  lower
part of the os calcis.   It is inserted  by four  tendons,
which, after affording a passage to those of lhe flexor lon-
gus, are inserted into the  second phalanx of each of the
small toes.   Its use is  to bend the second joint of the
toes.
  3. Abductor pollicis  pedis  arises from the inner and
lower part of  the os calcis.  It is  inserted into  the first
joint of the great toe.   Its use is to move the great toe
from the other toes.
  4. Abductor minimi digiti arises from the outer tuber-
cle of the os calcis, the root of the metatarsal bone of the
little toe, and also from  the  aponeurosis  plantaris.   It is
inserted into the outer side of  the first joint of the little
toe.  Its  use is to draw  the little toe outward.
  5. Lumbricalis  pedis   arises from  the  tendons of the
flexor longu3 digitorum pedis.   It is inserted into the ten-
dinous expansion, at the part of the toes.   Its use is to
draw the  toes inward.
  6. Flexor  brevis  pollicis pedis arises from  the inferior
and  anterior part of  the  os calcis, and also from the infe-
rior part  of the cuneiforme externum.  It is inserted by
two tendons into the first joint of the great toe.  Its use
is to bend that joint.
  7. Adductor pollicis  pedis arises from near the  roots
of fhe metatarsal bones  of the second, third,  and fourth
toes.  It  is inserted into the outer sesamoid  bone, or first
joint of the great toe.   Its  use is  to draw the great toe
nearer (o the rest, and also to bend it.
  8. Transversales pedis arises from the outer and under
part of the anterior end of the metatarsal bone of the lit-
tle toe.   It is inserted into the inner os sesamoideum and
anterior end of the metatarsal bone of the great toe.   Its
use is to  contract the foot.
  9. Flexor brevis minimi digiti pedis arises from the ba-
sis of the metatarsal bone of the little toe.   It is inserted
into the first joint of the little toe.   Its use is to bend  fhe
little toe.
  10. Interossei pedis interniet externi, situated between
the metatarsal bones.
  Splanchnology explains the doctrine of the viscera.
These are, according to their situation, divided into tho-
racic, abdominal, and  pelvic.  The cavity of the thorax
is divided into five lesser  cavities, vis. the anterior cavity
of the mediastinum, the posterior cavity of the mediasti-
num, the cavity of the pericardium, and the right and left
cavities of the thorax.   The  contents of the  ihorax are
the pleura, pericardium,  heart, lungs and bronchiae, thy-
mus gland, cesophagus, thoracic  duct,  arch of the aorta,
descending cava, venaazygos, par vagum, and great inter-
costal nerve.   The pleura is, from its situation, lining the
ribs, or covering the lungs, divided into pleura pulmonalis.
and costalis.   The pericardium, or  capsule  of the heart,
exhales from  its  internal surface  a  vapour  which in the
dead subject forms the aqua pericardii.   The  heart  con-
sists of a base, sides, and an apex;  its right side being
also anterior, and its left  posterior; the auricles are  plac-
ed toward its base, the ventricles extend to its apex ;  the
last mentioned cavities contain the columnae carniae and
chordae lendineae, give exit  to the great arteries, and  are
separated from the auricles by the tricuspid valves, while
the mouths of the arteries are protracted by the semilu-
nar valves; the right auricle contains the musculi pectina-
ti, tuberculum Loweri, fossa ovalis, Eustachian valve,  and
opening of the coronary  vein,  as well as  the terminations
of the venae cava?; the  left auricle  contains lhe openings
of the pulmonary veins : the  auricles are  separated by
the septum  auriculorum, the  ventricles  by the septum
ventriculorum.   The  lungs consist  of  a  right  and  left;
the right having three   lobes, the left  only  two;  the
bronchiae continued from the trachia, and consisting of
smaller cartilaginous circles, divided into capillary tubes,
which terminate in the vesiculae bronchiales; the combi-
nation of these vesicles form the lobuli, which are connect-
ed by  the interlobular substance.   The  fhymus gland is
peculiar  to the fetus,  nor has its duct been discovered.
The cesophagus is a membranous and muscular canal, re-
quiring no particular description; and the thoracic  duct,
arch of the aorta, &c. as well as the minutiae of the thora-
cic viscera  in general,  are described elsewhere.   The
mammae  on  the  external part of  the  thorax consist of a
body containing the mammary gland and lactiferous ducts,
an areola, and a papilla or nipple.
  Before describing the abdominal viscera, we may  enu-
merate the salival glands, as they also are refcrrible (o the
article splanchnology.  They are the parotid, maxillary,
sublingual, thyroid,  molar, buccal, labial, lingual, amyg-
daline, palatine, uvular, arytenoid, &c.  the names of most
of which explain their   situation.  The  mouth, fauces,
pharynx, and  oesophagus, are the  continuations of  one
cavity.
  The abdomen is divided into the epigastric, hypochon-
driac,  umbilical, epicholic,  hypogastric,  and  inguinal 
region-
t
                       ANA

          Its contents are the peritoneum and its produc-
 es (he stomach, the small and large intestines, the liver
and "all bladder, the spleen and the pancreas, the kidneys,
ureter*,  &c.  The chief productions of the peritoneum
are (he'great and small omentum and the mesentery, sup-
porting and  conveying the vessels to the intestines.  The
Bio-inch consists of a great and small curvature, a great and
small  extremity, one orifice named cardiac, and another
terned pylorus.  The *;aall intestines consist of the duode-
num, distinguished by its valvulae conniventes and glandulae
Brumeri, the jejunum, remarkable for its ligamentary band,
vnlvuhe conniventes, and plexus glandulosi Peyeri, and the
ileum,distinguishedalso by its ligamentary band,but having
less prominent valves and glands.  The great intestines con-
sist of the cajcurn,  which possesses an appendix, andl has
upon  it the commencement of three ligamentary bands  of
the colon, consisting of an ascending, transverse, and de-
scending portion, and having externally appendices epi-
ploicse, and  strong ligamentary bands, and internally val-
vule conniventes forming between them the cells of the co-
lon,  and that valve  which  has  been  called  the  great
valve of  the colon,  caecum,  or ileum, and of the  rectum
terminating  in  the  anus.    The  liver consists of two
great  and one small lobe, termed lobulus Spigellii; it has
a middle, right, left,  and  a round ligament} its internal
structure is  composed of the penecilli, or  terminations of
the venae portae, the pori biliarii, in which the  bile is se-
creted, and the hepatic ducts, which terminate in one
trunk, and convey the bile from the liver.  The gall blad-
der consists of a fundus, a body, and a neck, which termi-
nates in lhe duct called cysticus, and  this joining the he-
patic, they form together the ductus communis choledochus.
The spleen is not properly understood, either in its struc-
ture or uses.  The pancreas resembles in  structure the
salivary glands, and possesses a duct which  terminates  to-
gether with the ductus communis choledochus, in the duo-
denum.   The kidneys are placed  behind the peritoneum,
 and consist internally of a papillary,  and externally of a
cortical substance,  while  their middle  part is striated;
 their internal cavity  is called pelvis,  and opens into  the
 ureter.  The renal capsules are placed at the upper part
 of lhe kidney, and their uses are unknown.
   The pelvic viscera consist of the urinary bladder, and
 the male and female organs of generation.  The bladder
 consists of  a fundus or bottom, a body,  and a neck;  its
 coats are a muscular, a cellular, and a villous.  The male
 organs of generation consist of the testis, which has three
 coals, the tunica vaginalis, the  cremaster,  and the tunica
 albuginea, the internal structure of which consists of deli-
 cate tubes, membranous  septa, cells, and semeniferous
 ducts, terminating in the epididymis.   This convoluted
 vessel afterward  assumes the name  of vas deferens, and
 opens within the  prostate gland along with the vesiculae
 seminales, which  are apparently cellular,  but in reality
 tubular bodies, placed between the rectum and  inferior
 part of the bladder.  The  prostate  gland  is situated be-
 tween the  neck of the bladder and  the  bulb of the ure-
 thra; the small  projection on its inner surface is  named
 caruncula, or verumontanum, and on each side of it sev-
 eral ducts  open from the gland.   The penis itself consists
 of fhe corpora cavernosa  on each side,  the urethra infe-
 riorly, the corpus spongiosum surrounding the former, the
 glaus penis terminating the corpus spongiosum, and the in-
 teguments and preputium, which invest the whole.  The
                       A N A

female organs of generation consist of the Pu^'crura an(j
Veneris, the labia, the clitoris consisting oi x      llw»thi*
a body, the nymph* internal to the labia..the  uretfcri
much shorter than that of the male, and having similar la-
cunoand the vagina, which in virgins contains  the ny.
men or circulus membraneus, and in married women lb
remains called carunculae myrtiformes.    lnese  are the
external parts of generation in the female.  The internal
are the uterus and  its appendages.   The uterus consists
of a neck, a body, and a fundus, and has  a triangular cav-
ity within it; its  inferior aperture *  called  os, tme*.
The liaamenta lata tie the uterus to the sides of the pel.
vis.  The ovaria are fixed by the round  ligaments to iti
corners, and the Fallopian tubes proceed from its fundus
toward the sides of the pelvis, terminal ing in a fimbriate.
manner, and being enveloped,  as well as  the ovaria, in the
broad ligaments.
   ANGioLOGY,or the doctrine of  the vessels of the body,
from otyyuov, a vessel, and Koyas, a discourse, is divided in-
to three parts, one which  treats of the absorbents, another
the arteries, and a third of the veins.
               Of the absorbent systtm.

  For the discovery of  the principal parts of this system,
we are chiefly  indebted to Asellius, Pacquet,  Rudbect>
Jolyffe, and Bartholin.   Some of the  vessels of which it
consists had indeed been seen  and mentioned by their pre-
decessors, but it was in too cursory a manner to give then
any title to the discovery.
  Thus the lacleals had been seen in kids by Erasistratus,
who calls them arteries, as we are informed by Galen: and
the thoracic duct had been seen by Eustachius, who speak*  ■
of it as a vein of  a particular  kind.
  In 1622, Asellius discovered those vessels on the mesen-
tery, which, from their carrying  a milk white fluid, he de-
nominated lacteals.   This  discovery being made by open-
ing a living  dog,  anatomists  were  thence encouraged to*
make experiments on living animals; and Pacquet, on open-
ing a dog, in the year 1651, found a white fluid mixed with
the blood in the right anricleof the heart : suspecting this
fluid to be chyle, he endeavoured to determine botf it ij$ot
from the lacteals into the heart.  This he found  wasbj
means of the ductus thoracicus, which  he traced from lhe
lacteals to the subclavian vein; and thus he clearly proved
the existence of that duct which we now consider as the
trunk of the system.  Just before this  time, the lacteal?
had been supposed to terminate  in the liver, conformably'
to  the idea  which  the physiologists of that period had
adopted about the use of this organ, which, from  the au-
thority of the older anatomists, they believed was the vis-
cus haematopoeticum, or received  the chyle from the in-
testines  to convert it into blood.
   In the years  1651 and lft52,  Rudbeck, Jolyffe, and
Bartholin, discovered the other parts of this system, which,
from their carrying a transparent and  colourless fluid, are
 called the lymphatic vessels.   Thus there was proved to
 exist in the animal body a system of small vessels, contain-
 ing fluids very different from the blood, and opening int»
 the sanguiferous  vessel * at the left subclavian vein.
   After this period, Nuck added to our knowledge of tbi*
 system, by his injections of the lymphatic glands: Ruysch,
 by his description of the valves  of the lymphalic vessefci
 and Dr. Meekel, by his accurate account of the whole sf* 
ANA
ANA
 tern, and by tracing those vessels in  many parts where
 they had not been before described.
   Besides these, doctors  Hunter and Monro have called
 the attention of the public to this part of anatomy in their
 controversy concerning the discovery of the office of the
 lymphatics.
   When the lymphatic vessels were first seen and traced
 into the thoracic duct, it was natural for anatomists to sus-
 pect, that as the lacteals absorbed  from the cavity of the
 intestines, the lymphatics, which are similar in figure and
 structure, might possibly do the same office with respect
 to the  other parts of the body.   And accordingly, Dr.
 Glisson, who wrote in 1654,  supposed  these vessels arose
 from cavities, and  that  their  use was to absorb.  And
 Frederick Hoffman has very explicitly laid down the doc-
 trine of the lymphatic vessels being a system of absorb-
■ ents.   But anatomists in general have been of a contrary
k opinion ; for from experiments, particularly such as were
1 made by injections,  they have  been persuaded that the
 lymphatic  vessels did not arise from cavities,  and did not
 absorb, but were merely  continuations from small arteries.
 The doctrine therefore that the lymphatics, like the lac-
 teals, were  absorbents,  as had been suggested by Glisson
" and by Hoffman, has been revived by Dr. Hunter and by
 Dr Monro, who have controverted the experiments of fheir
'! predecessors in anatomy, and have  endeavoured to prove
:- that the lymphatic vessels are not continued from arteries,
 but are absorbents.
   To (his doctrine, however, several objections were start-
$ ed, particularly by Hallerj and it was found, before  the
: doctrine of the lymphatics being a system  of  absorbents,
 could be established, it was first to be  determined wheth-
 er this  system existed in other  animals besides man and
,quadrupeds.   Mr. Hewson claims the merit of having
I proved the affirmative of this question, by discovering the
i, lymphatic system in  birds, fish, and amphibious animals.
jThe celebrated Soemmerring  has observed,  that  these
^vessels are more than proportionably larger in  tall men,
, and more than proportionably less in men of inferior stat-
jUre.
"f   The absorbent system consists of the lacteals, the lym-
 phatic  vessels, their common trunk, the thoracic duct, and
 the glands called conglobate.
   The lacteals begin from the  intestinal  tube,  and can,
 for the most part, be seen in a dog, or other large  quad-
 ruped,  that is killed two or three hours after eating, when
 they appear filled with a white chyle; but they do not al-
 ways convey a fluid of this colour ; for even in  a dog, if
 opened long after a meal, they are found distended with a
'liquor that is transparent and colourless, like the lymph ;
and in birds  the chyle is never found white,  but always
'transparent.  These vessels therefore might, with as  much
propriety, be called the lymphatics of the intestines.
   The  lymphatic vessels are small pellucid  tubes, that
liave now been discovered in most parts  of  the human
body.   The fluid they contain is generally as colourless
as water; a  circumstance which procured them at first the
name of ductus  aquosi, and  afterward that of vasa lym-
phatica.  The course of the lymph, like that of the chyle,
is from the extreme parts of the body toward the centre;
and many of the lymphatic vessels lie close to the large
blood vessels.  If, therefore, a ligature be thrown round
the large blood vessels of lhe extremities of a living animal,
  vol.  i.           in
or of one just dead, that ligature, by embracing the lym
phatics, will stop the course of the lymph, which, by dis-
tending the vessels, will make them visible below the liga*
ture.
   All the lacteals, and most of the lymphatic vessels,
open into the thoracic duct, which  lies upon the spine,
and runs up toward the neck of the animal, where it com-
monly opens into the  angle between the internal jugular
and subclavian veins of the left side:  and thus both the
chyle and the lymph are mixed with  the blood.   If there-
fore a ligature be thrown round the  thoracic duct imme-
diately after killing an animal,  not only the lacteal, but
also the lymphatic vessels in the abdomen and lower ex-
tremities, become distended with their natural fluids.
   The lacteals,  the lymphatics, and the thoracic duct, all
agree in having their coats thinner and more  pellucid than
those of the blood vessels.  But although their coats are
so thin, they are very strong: as we  daily see on injecting
them with mercury,  since they  resist  a column of that
fluid whose weight would make  it  burst  through blood
vessels, the coats of which are many times thicker than
those of the lymphatic system.
   The thinness  of  the coats prevents our dividing  them
from one another, and thereby ascertaining  their number
as  we do those of the blood  vessels.   But as the blood
vessels have a dense internal coat, to prevent transudation,
we have reason to believe the  lymphatics have the same.
And as the blood vessels  have a muscular  coat, which as-
sists in the circulation, so may the lymphatics.   This is
rendered probable from what Dr. Haller says of his hav-
ing found them irritable in his experiments, and also from
what is observed on seeing them in living animals distend-
ed  with their lymph, in which case they appear of a con-
siderable size; but upon emptying them of their contents,
they contract  so much as  not to be  easily distinguished.
This experiment, Mr. Hewson informs us, he frequently
made in the trunk of the  lacteals in a goose, and on the
lymphatic vessels on its  neck; both of which, when dis-
tended  with  their natural fluids, are as large as a  crow
quill; but upon  emptying them in the  living animal,  he
has  seen  them  contract so much, that it was with the
greatest  difficulty  he  could  distinguish them  from the
fibres.
  The coats of  lymphatic vessels have, in common with
all other parts of the  body, arteries and  veins for their
nourishment.   This is rendered  probable by their being
susceptible of inflammation; for they are frequently found
in the form of a cord, painful to the touch, and extending
from an ulcer to  the next  lymphatic  gland.  These pain-
ful swellings of lymphatic  vessels  likewise show that their
coats have sensibility, and therefore  that they have nerves
as well as  arteries  and veins.  Besides, we can clearly
trace in different parts of the body, blood vessels running
along their surfaces.
  The lymphatic system in most  animals, but particular-
ly  in man and  quadrupeds,  is  full of valves.  These
valves have been painted by the celebrated Nuck, Ruysch,
and others, and are much  more frequent than in the  com-
mon veins; and  thence these lymphatics have sometimes
been distinguished  by the name  of valvular lymphatic
vessels. ^ Those valves are generally two  in number, are
of a semilunar shape, and one  is sometimes much larcei-
than the other.  In some  parts of the body, the«-o wives 
                       ANA

are so numerous, that  there are three or four pair in an
inch of space; hot  sometimes there is no more than one
pair,  sometimes several  inches  of a lymphatic  appear
without a valve.   They are less numerous in the thoracic
duct  than  in  the branches of the system.  Thence  it
night be supposed,  that in  proportion as we  go from the
trunk to the branches,  we should  find  them  thicker set.
But this is  not  always true; for Mr. Hewson observed
them more numerous in the lymphatic vessels  of the thigh
than on those of the leg.  When the vessels  are distend-
ed with lymph, they appear larger on that  side of the
valves next  the heart,  which sometimes gives a lymphat-
ic vessel an  appearance of being made of a chain of vesi-
cles ;  as such (bey are  represented by some authors; but
it is an appearance tha( very seldom occurs in the human
body.   In quadrupeds, however, this appearance  is very
remarkable.  Wherever  a  lymphatic vessel enters the
thoracic duct, we find»either one or two valves which pre-
vent the return of the lymph.
  Lastly, the  lymphatic system  in  different parts of its
course has the glands, called conglobate or lymphatic.
These glands are so placed, that  the vessels come in on
one side, and pass out  on the other, in their way to the
thoracic duct.   They are commonly of an oval,  though
sometimes of a  round  shape, and frequently somewhat
flattened, and of various sizes; some being no larger than
a millet seed, while others are almost an inch  in diameter.
They vary in  colour in  different parts of the body, and
at different times of life.  In young people they are gen-
erally of a reddish or brown colour, but become paler with
age.  They have a shining external surface, which is ow-
ing to a smooth dense coat that covers them.  Like other
glands, (hey have arteries, veins, and nerves,  which enter
into their composition; but with  respect to the  rest  of
their structure,  anatomists  are  much divided in  opinion.
Soemmerring has endeavoured to prove that they are part-
ly cellular and partly  vascular.   That  these glands are
wanting in some animals is now known.
  The  absorbent system,  besides the glands, is  divided
into three parts, vis.  the lacteal,  the  lymphatic vessels
and the lacteal sac,  and the lymphatic duct.  The  lacteals
belong  to the intestinal  tube, the lymphatics to all lhe
other parts  of the body, and the lacteal sac and thoracic
duct is the common trunk which receives both the  lacteals
and lymphatics.  We  shall  give  a particular description
of the latter from the celebrated Monro, as being that part
of the absorbent system which is most important, both to
the general reader and to the medical student.
   " The receptaculum chyli, or saccus lacteus, is a mem-
branous, somewhat pyriform bag, two  thirds of  an inch
long, one third of an inch over in its largest part when col-
lapsed ; situated on the first  vertebra of the loins of the
right of the aorta, a little higher than the right emulgent
artery, behind the right inferior muscle of the diaphragm ;
it is  formed by the union of three tubes,  one from under
 the aorta, the second from  the interstice of the aorta and
cava,  the third from  under  the  emulgents of the right
 side.
   "The lacteal sac becoming gradually smaller toward  its
upper part, is contracted into a slender membranous pipe,
of  about a line  diameter, which  is generally named  the
thoracic duct.   This passes betwixt the  muscular appen-
dices, or inferior muscles of the diaphragm, on the right of
                       ANA

and somewhat behind the aorta; then being lodged in the
cellular substance, behind the pleura, it n10""1*  betweLe«>
the aorta and the vena azygos, as far as the fifth  vertebra
of the thorax, where it  is hid by the azygos, as  this vein
rises forward to join the descending or superior cava; af.
ter which the duct passes obliquely over to lhe left side
behind the cesophagus,  aorta  descendens, and the great
curvature of the aorta, until it reaches the left carotid ar-
tery; behind which, on the left side of  the cesophagus, if
runs to the interstice of the first and second vertebra of
the thorax, where it begins  to  separate  from the carotid,
stretching further toward the left internal jugular vein by
a circular turn, w hose t onvex part is uppermost.   Af the
top of this arch it splits into two for a line and a half; the
superior branch receiving into it a large lymphatic vessel
from  the  cervical  glands.  This lymphatic  appears, bj
blowing air and injecting liquors into it, to have few valves.
When the two branches are again united, the duct contin-
ues  its  course  toward the  internal jugular  vein, behind
which it descends, and immediately at the left side of the
insertion of this vein, enters the superior posterior part of
the left subclavian  vein, whose internal membrane dupU-
cated forms a semilunar  valve, lhal is convex externally
and covers  two thirds  of the orifice of the  duct; imme
diately  below this orifice, a cervical vein from the muscn-
li scaleni enters the subclavian.
  "The coats of  the  sac and duct are thin transparent
membranes, from the inside  of which, in the duct, small
semilunar valves  are produced most commonly  in pairs,
which are so situated, as to allow the passage of liquor up-
ward, but oppose its return in an opposite course. The 4
number of these is generally ten or twelve.
   " This is the most simple and common course, situation,
and structure, of the receptaculum  chyli,  and  thoracic
duct."
        Of the heart, lungs, and arterial system. "
   Previous to describing the^arterial system  of the hu-
man body, it will be necessary to give a general account
of the thorax and its contents.
   By the thorax we commonly understand all that part of
the body  which answers to the extent of the sternum, ribs
aud vertebrae of the back, both outwardly and inwardly.
   The  thorax is divided into the anterior  part, called
commonly the breast; the posteri6r part called the baej,
and the lateral parts called the right and leff sides.
   The internal parts of the thorax are contained in the
cavity of the portion of the  trunk, which is named the
cavity of the breast.  This cavity is lined by a membrane
called pleura, which forms the mediastinum, and contahf
it which go the contents of the abdomen.
  Cavity of the thorax.  The hard parts which form the
siues of this cavity, are the  twelve vertebra; of the bacM
all the ribs, and the sternum.  The soft parts, which com-
plete the sides, are,  the  membrane called pleura, which
lines  the  cavity,  and  the  rousculi  intercostales, sterno
costales, and diaphragma, already described.
  All these hard and soft pwts taken together represent,*
kind of cage,  in some measure of a conical figure, flatted
on the fore side, depressed on the back side, and in a mm-
ner divided into two nooks,  by the figure of the vertebf* 
ANA
ANA
of the back,  and terminated below a broad arched basis,
inclined backward.   The intercostal muscles  fill up the
intestines betwixt the ribs, and  so  complete the sides of
the cavity.   The basis is the diaphragm ;  and the pleura
not only covers the whole inner surface of the cavity, but
by forming the mediastinum, divides it into two, one on
the right, the other on the left.

               Pleura and  mediastinum.
   The pleura is a membrane which adheres very closely
to the inner surface of the ribs, sternum, and  musculi in-
tercostales, sub costales, and  sterno costales, and to the
convex side of the diaphragm.  It is of a very firm  tex-
ture, and is supplied with blood vessels and nerves, in all
which it resembles lhe peritonaeum ; and likewise in that it
is made  up of an inner true membranous lamina,  and a
cellular substance on the outside.
   Each side of the thorax has its particular pleura entire-
ly distinct from  the other: and  making, as it were, two
great  bladders, situated  laterally  with respect to each
other in the great cavity of  the breast;  in such a manner
as to form a double septum, or partition, running between
the vertebrae and the sternum, their other sides  adhering
to the ribs and diaphragm.
   This particular duplicative of the two pleurae is termed
mediastinum: the two laminae of which it  is made up are
closely united  together  near  the sternum and verfebrse;
but in the middle, and toward the  lower part of the fore
side, they are separated by  the pericardium and heart, as
we shall see hereafter.  A little  more backward they are
parted in a tubular form by the oesophagus, to  which they
serve  as a covering; and  in the most posterior part a tri-
angular  space  is left between the vertebi83 and the two
pleurae from above  downward, which is filled chiefly by
the aorta.
   Before the heart, from the pericardium to the sternum,
the two laminae adhere very closely, and (here the me-
diastinum is transparent, except  for a small space near (he
upper part, where the thymus gland is situated, so that in
this place there is naturally  no interstice, or particular
cavity.   The apparent separation is owing entirely to the
common  method of raising the  sternum, as was plainly
demonstrated by Bartbolinus in his treatise  of the dia-
phragm, published at Paris in 1676.
   The mediastinum does not  commonly terminate  along
the middle of the inside of  the sternum,  as  the common
opinion  has  been.   Muslow demonstrated, in  the year
 1715,  to the Royal Academy  of Sciences,  that from
above downward, it inclines toward the left side; and that
if before the thorax is opened, a sharp  instrument be run
through the  middle of the sternum, there will be almost
the breadth of a finger between  the instrument and  the
mediastinum, provided that the sternum remain in its nat-
ural situation, and the cartilages of the ribs be cut at the
distance of an inch from it on each side.
   From all this, we see not only that the thorax is divid-
ed into two cavities, entirely separated from  each  other
by a middle septum, without any  communication, but also
that by the obliquity of this partition, the  right cavity is
greater than  the left; but  there are exceptions  to the
above  descriptions.  Lientand says he has met with sev-
eral subjects in which the mediastinum  descended  along
the middle of (he sternum; and others,  where it was in-
             1U*
dined  to  the  left side.  Sabatier observes this is rare;
but he has likewise met with several examples,  where an
instrument thrust through the middle of the sternum, got
into the left cavity of the thorax.  And he has sometimes
seen the right lamina of the mediastinum fixed to the mid-
dle of the sternum, while the left  one was fixed opposite
to the articulation, with the cartilages of the ribs ; a space
being left  between the two, which  was filled with cellular
substance  intermixed with fat.
   The pleura is connected  to the membranous portion of
the sternum, ribs, and muscles;  to  the diaphragm, peri-
cardium, thymus  gland, and vessels: and, in a word, to
whatever lies near its convex side.
   The surface of the pleura turned to the cavity of the
breast, is continually  moistened  by a  lymphatic serosity,
which  transudes  through the  pores of the membranous
portion.   This fluid is said  to be secreted by impercepti-
ble glands ;  but  the  existence of  these  glands has not
been hitherto  demonstrated.
   Ust.  The pleura serves  in general for an inner integu-
ment to the cavity of  the thorax.   The mediastinum cuts
off all communication between the two cavities,  and hin-
ders one lung from  pressing on the other when we lie on
one side*  It likewise forms receptacles for the heart, per-
icardium,  oesophagus, &c.  and  it is continued  over the
lungs in the manner which shall be  explained hereafter.
   Before we leave the pleura it  must be observed, that it  ^
adheres firmly to the ribs.  This adhesion  keeps  the
pleura stretched, and hinders  it from  slipping, or  giving
way.   It  likewise renders (his membrane extremely sen-
sible of the least separation,  caused by  a  coagulable
lymph or accumulated blood; the nervous filaments being
likewise in this case very much compressed in inspiration
by the swelling of the intercostal muscles.

                    Pericardium.
   The heart, with all the parts belonging to it, is contained
in a membranous  capsula, called  pericardium,  which is, in
some measure, of a conical figure,  and somewhat  bigger
than the heart; but the difference must be less duringlife,
when the  heart is  full of blood.  It  is not fixed to the
basis of the heart, but  round  the   large veins above the
auricles, before they send off fhe ramifications, and round
the large arteries before their division.
   The pericardium is made up of three lamina; ; fhe mid-
dle and chief of  which is composed of very fine tendinous
filaments, which  are  best  seen in  old persons;  they  are
closely interwoven, and cross each other in  different di-
rections.  The internal lamina seems  to be a continuation
of the outer coat  of the heart, auricles, and great vessels.
The trunks of the aorta  and  p'ulmonary artery have one
common coat, which  contains  them both,  as in a sheath,
and is lined  on the inside by a cellular substance, chiefly
in that space  which lies between  where  the trunks  are
turned to  each other and the sides  of  the sheath.   There
is but a very small portion  of the vena cava contained in
the pericardium.
   It is the middle lamina which chiefly forms the peri-
cardium ;  and the figure of this bag is not simply conical,
its apex or point being very round, and the basis having a
particular elongation, which surrounds the great vessels,
as has  been  already said, as amply as the other portion
surrounds the heart.
'o 
                       ANA

   The pericardium is closely connected to the diaphragm,
 not at the apex, but exactly at that place which answers
 to the flat or lower side of the heart; and it is a very
 difficult matter to separate it from the diaphragm in  dis-
 section, (he tendinous fibres  of the one substance  inter-
 mixing  with those of the other.  This adhering portion is
 in some measure of a triangular shape, answering to that of
 the lower side of the  heart ;  and the rest of the bag  lies
 upon the diaphragm, without  any adhesion.
  The external lamina, or common covering, as it may be
 called more properly, is formed by the duplicafure of the
 mediastinum.  It adheres to the proper bag of the pericar-
 dium by the intervention of the  cellular substance in that
 duplicafure, but leaves it  where the pericardium adheres
 to the  diaphragm; on the upper  surface of which it is
 spread, as being a continuation of the pleura.
  The  internal lamina is perforated by an infinite number
 of very small holes through which a serous fluid  continually
 transudes, in the same manner as in the peritonaeum, there
 being no glands for this purpose, as some have supposed.
 This  fluid being generally collected after death,  makes
 what is called aqua pericardii, which is found in consider-
able quantities in opening  dead bodies while fhey remain
fresh.   Sometimes  it  is of a  reddish  colour, which may
be owing to a transudation of  blood through the fine mem-
brane of the auricles.

                     Of the Heart.
  Situation in general, and conformation.  The heart is a
 muscular body situated in  the cavity of the thorax on  the
 anterior part of the diaphragm between the two laminae of
 (he mediastinum.  It is  in  some  measure of a conical
 figure flatted on the sides, round at the top, and oval at the
 basis.   Accordingly we consider in the heart, the basis ;
 the apex;  two edges, the  one right and the  other left;
 and two sides, one of which is generally flat and inferior,
 the other more convex and superior.
  Besides the muscular body, which forms what we chief-
 ly call the heart, its basis is accompanied by two appendi-
 ces called auriculae, and by large blood vessels; of which
 hereafter: and all these are included in  the pericardium.
   The heart is  hollow within,  and divided by a septum
 which runs between the edges into two cavities called ven-
 tricular, one of which is thick and solid, the other thin
 and soft.  This latter is generally termed the right ventri-
 cle, the other the left ventricle ; though in their natural sit-
 uation,  the right ventricle  is  placed more anteriorly than
 the left, as  we shall see hereafter.
  Each ventricle opens to the basis by two orifices;  one
 of which answers to the auricles,  the other to the mouth
 of a large artery; and accordingly, one of them may be
 termed the  auricular orifice,  the other the arterial orifice.
 The right ventricle opens  into the  right auricle, and into
 the trunk of the pulmonary  artery; .the left into the  left
 auricle, and into the great trunk of  the aorta.   At  the
 edges of these orifices are found several moveable pellicu-
 la?, called valves, of which some are turned inward toward
 the cavity of the ventricles  called the tricuspid; others
 are turned  toward  the great  vessels, called  semilunar, or
 sigmoid.  The tricuspid valves of the left ventricle  are
 likewise termed mitral.
   Ventricles.  The inner surface of the ventricles is very
 uneven, many eminences  and cavities being  observable
                        ANA

therein.   The  most  considerable eminences  are  thick
fleshy productions, called column»carni»,flesny column*
To the extremities  of these  pillars  are fastened several
chorda; tendiwe,  tendinous cords, the other ends of which
are joined to the valvulae tricuspides.   There are likewise
other  small short tendinous ropes along both edges of the
septum, between the  ventricles.   These small cordsJij
in an obliquely transverse situation, and form a kind of net
work at different distances.
  The cavities of the inner surface  of the ventricles are
small deep fossula; or lacuna; placed very near each other,
with small prominent interstices between them. The great-
est  part of these lacunse are orifices of the vernal duct, to
be described hereafter.
  Structure of the ventricles.   The  fleshy or muscular
fibres  of which  the  heart  is  made up, are disposed in a
very singular manner,  especially those  of the right or^an-
terior ventricle, being either bent into arches or foldedtinto
angles.                                          •<"-.
  The fibres which are folded into angles are longer
those which are  only bent into arches.   The middle of
these arches and the angles of the folds are turned toward
the apex of the heart, and the extremities of  the fibres
toward the basis.   These fibres differ not only in length;
but in  their directions, which  are very  oblique in all,  but
much more so in the long or folded fibres than in the short
ones which are simply bent.
  It is commonly  said, that this  obliquity represents  the
figure 8; but  the  comparison is very false, and can only
agree to some  bad drawings made by persons ignorant of
the laws of perspective.
  All  these fibres, regard being had  to their different ob-
liquity and length, are disposed  in such a manner as that
the longest form partly the most external strata of the con-
vex side of the heart, and partly  the  most internal on the
concave side, the middle of the arches and the angles meet-
ing obliquely and successively to form the apex.
  The fibres situated  within these long ones, grow gradu-
ally shorter and straighter all the way to the basis of the
heart,  where they are very short and very little incurvated.
By this disposition, the sides of the ventricles are very
thin near the apex of the heart, and very thick toward the ,'
basis.
  Each ventricle is composed of its proper distinct fibres;
but the left ventricle  has many  more than the right, -its
substance being considerably thicker.   Where the  tm
ventricles  are joined, they form  an impervious septum
which  belongs equally to both.   Opposite to this septs?
a groove is seen on the outside of  the heart, one runninf
longitudinally  on the upper, the other on  the under  sur-
face ;  in these grooves the great branches of the coronal^
arteries and veins are lodged.                      ( *'
  There is this likewise peculiar to the left ventricle, that
the fibres which form  the innermost septum of its concave
side, form the outermost stratum of the whole convex side of
the heart, which consequently is common to both ventricles;
so  that by carefully unravelling all the  fibres of the heart,
wefind it to be made up of two bags contained in a third.
  The anterior or right ventricle is somewhat larger than a
the posterior or left, as well observed by the ancients,and
clearly demonstrated by M. Helvetius.
  The left is a little longer than  the right,  and in some
subjects they end exteriorly in a kind of double apex. 
ANA
ANA
 But it appears from experiments, that the inequality be-
 tween the parts  of the right and those of the left side of
 the heart, is not so great during life as after death ; for in
 the hearts of animals killed by cutting across the vessels of
 the neck, and in those of persons who have died in battle
 from a wound in the vena cava, or pulmonary artery, the in-
 equality  is  less than we commonly perceive.  This was
 first observed by M. Vieussens, professor of anatomy at
 Altorf.
 '.- Sabatier has made several experiments on animals, the
 result of which is nearly the same with that mentioned
 above.
   All the fibres are not directed the same way, though
 they are all more or less oblique:  for some end  toward
 the right hand, others toward the left, some forward, some
 backward, and others in the intermediate places;  so that
 in  unravelling them, we find that they cross each other
 gradually, sometimes according to the length of the heart,
 and sometimes according to its breadth.
   The tubes  which cross each  other transversely, are
 much more numerous than those which cross  longitudinal-
 ly : which ought to be taken notice of,  that we may recti-
 fy  the false notions that have been entertained concerning
 the motion of the heart; namely, that  it is performed by
 a contortion or twisting like that of a screw, or that the
 heart is shortened in the time of contraction, and lengthen-
 ed in dilation.
   The fibres  which compose the inner  or concave surface
 of the ventricles do not  all reach to the basis; some of
 them running into the cavity and there forming the fleshy
 columns  to which  the loose floating portion of the tricus-
 pidal valves is fastened by tendinous cords.
   Besides these fleshy  pillars the  internal fibres  form a
 great  many eminences and  depressions, which not  only
 render the inner surface of the ventricles uneven, but give
 it a great extent within a small compass.  Some of these
 depressions are the orifices of the venal ducts, found in the
 substance of the ventricles, which have been already men-
 tioned.   The circumference of the great openings of the
 basis of the heart are tendinous, and may be  looked upon
 as the common tendon of all the fleshy fibres, of which the
 ventricles are composed.
   Valves.  The valves at the orifices of the  ventricles
 are of two kinds ; one kind allows  the  blood to enter the
 heart, and hinders it from going out the same way; the oth-
 er kind allows the blood to go out of the heart, but hinders
 it from returning.   The valves of the first kind terminate
 the auricles; and those  of  the second  lie in the openings
 of the great arteries.  The  first are termed  semilunar  or
'sigmoid valves ; the others tricuspidal or mitral.
  The tricuspidal valve of the right ventricle is of a circu-
 lar form, and is fixed to the opening of the auricle, while
 the other end is attached fo the internal surface of the ven-
 tricle.  The  circular membrane  of the valve soon di-
 vides into many parts, three of which are more  considera-
 ble than the rest ; and these have got lhe name of tricus-
 pid valves, though  (hey  are  now generally considered as
 forming one.   That which is next the mouth of the pulmo-
 nary artery is (he largest, and is  said by some to prevent
 the blood from gefling into the artery, while  the ventricle
 is filling.  It has lhree triangular productions, very smooth
 and polished, on that side which is turned toward the auri-
 cle  ; and on the side next the cavity of the ventricle, they
have several membranous and tendinous expansions, and
their edges are notched or indented.  The valve of the
auricular orifice of the left ventricle is of the same shape
and structure, but it is only divided  into two parts; and,
from some small resemblance to a mitre, has been named
mitralis.  That which is next the mouth of the aorta is the
largest.                                             *
  The semilunar valves are six in number, three belonging
to each ventricle, situated at the mouths of the great arte-
ries, and they may be properly enough named valvulae ar-
teriales. Their concave sides are turned toward the cavity
of the arteries, and their convex sides approach each other.
In examining them with a microscope, we find fleshy fibres
lying  in the duplicafure of the membranes of which they
are  composed.
  They are truly semilunar, or in form of a crescent on
that side by which they adhere;  but their loose edges are
of a different figure, each  of them representing two small
crescents; the two extremities of which meet at the mid-
dle  of  this edge, and there form a kind of small papilla,
first described by Arantius, and  afterward by Morgani,
and therefore named from them.
  The great artery that goes out from the left ventricle is
termed aorta.  At the beginning of the aorta, and behind
the semilunar valves, three elevations are observed on the
outside ;  these correspond to an equal number of pits on
the inside, which from the discoverer have been called si-
nuses of Valsolva.  Their use  is not  well known.
  The trunk  of the artery which goes out from the right
ventricle is called arteria pulraonaris.   This trunk, as it
is naturally situated in the thorax, runs first of all directly
upward for a small space, then divides laterally into two
principal branches, one for each lung; that which goes to
the right lung being the longest, for a reason that  shall  be
given hereafter.
  Auricles.  The auricles are  muscular bags situated  at
the  basis of the heart, and their capacities are in proportion
to those of their respective ventricles ; one toward the right
ventricle, the other toward the left, and joined together by
an inner septum, and external communicating fibres, much
in the same manner with the ventricles ;  one of fhem being
named the right auricle, the other the left.  They  are very
uneven  on the inside, but smoother on the outside, and
terminate in a narrow, flat, indented edge, representing a
cock's comb, or  in some measure the ear of  a dog; this
properly gets the name  of auricle, the larger  and smooth
part of the cavity being called sinus venosus; but as the
two parts make one general cavity, the name of auricle is
commonly applied to the whole.   They open info the or-
ifices  of each ventricle, which I name auricular orifices;
and they are  tendinous at  their openings, in the  same
manner as the ventricles.
  The right  auricle is larger than the left, and joins the
right ventricle by a common  tendinous  opening, as has
been already observed.  It has two other openings united
into one, and formed by two large veins which meet and
terminate  there almost in a direct line, called vena cava,
superior  and inferior.   Highmore has  described an emi-
nence in form of a valve, pfaced  between the  mouths  of
the two venae cava;: this he supposed  directs the blood
from the veins into the auricle ;  afterward Lower describ-
ed and delineated it; and other anatomists have  called it
tuberculum Loweri, till Morgagni denied  its existence iu 
A N A
ANA
  the human subject.   At the  mouth of the inferior cava,
  we find a membrane in form of a crescent, described  by
  Euitachius,  and named from him.  Its  convex edge is
  fixed fo (be union of (he vein and right auricle, while its
  concav e edge is turned upward over the mouth of the vein.
  It i* most complete  in the fetus; but it is found likewise
  in a person of advanced age, though it sometimes from use
  has  a  reticular appearance.   It is said  to prevent  the
  blood in the  auricle  from returning into the cava;  but it
  has a different use in the fetus,  lhe notched edge of this
  auricle  terminates obliquely in  a  kind of obtuse point,
  which is a small particular production of the great bag,
  and is turned toward the middle of the basis of the heart.
   The whole inner surface of the right auricle is uneven,
  by reason of a great number of prominent lines which run
 across  the sides of it, and communicate  with each other
 by smaller lines which lie  obliquely in the intestines be-
 tween the former.  The lines  of the  first kind represent
 trunks, and the other  small branches run  in  an  opposite
 direction to each other: these are called musculi pectina-
 ti.  In the interstices between these lines the sides of the
 auricle are very thin and almost transparent, seeming to
-be formed merely by  the external  and internal coats  of
 the auricle joined together, especially near the point.
   The left auricle is in the  human body a kind of muscu-
 lar bag or reservoir of a pretty considerable thickness,
 and unequally square, into which the four veins open call-
 ed venae pulmonares,  and which has a distinct  appendix
 belonging to it like a third small auricle.   This bag is very
 even on both surfaces,  and is therefore called sinus ve-
 nosus;  but to distinguish it from the one on the right side,
 it is called sinus  venosus sinister.  However, the bag and
 appendix have but one common cavity, and therefore may
 •till  be  both  comprehended under the common name  of
 left  auricle.   In  men  the small portion may likewise  be
 named  the appendix of  the left auricle; but in other ani-
 mals the case is  different.
   This small portion or appendix of the left auricle is of a
 different structure from  that of the bag or  large portion.
 Exteriorly  it resembles a small oblong bag bent different
 ways, and indented quite round the edges.   Interiorly it
 is like the  inside  of the right auricle.   The whole common
 cavity of  the left auricle is smaller  in an adult subject
 than that of lhe right; and (he fleshy fibres of the left
 auricle cross each other obliquely in strata differently dis-
 posed.
   Coronary arteries  and veins.   Besides the great com-
 mon vessels, the heart has vessels peculiar to itself call-
 ed the coronary arteries and veins, because they in some
 measure crown the basis of the heart.  The coronary arte-
 ries, which are two in number,  go out from the beginning
 of the aorta, and  afterward spread themselves round the
 basis of the heart, to the substance of which they send nu-
 merous ramifications.
   Vieussens believed  that some of  the branches of the
 coronary artery opened into the cavities of the ventricles and
 auricles ; for by throwing a tine injection into these arteries,
 he found it run out into all sides of the right ventricle and
 auricle.  Thebesius of Allemand being nearly of the same
 opinion, endeavoured to prove that there were veins which
 carried part of the blood from the coronary arteries immedi-
 ately into the cavities of the heart; and these have there-
 fore got the name of veins of Thebesius, though he is not
 the first discoverer.  Winslow, Haller, and several other*
 describe such veins; but Duverney,  after injecting (De
 heart of an elephant,  doubts of their  existence.   Sens f
 who has paid much attention to  this subject,  denies it ah'J
 together; and Sabatier coincides with  him in  opinion.'*? '
   There are seldom more than two arteries, of which one
 lies toward the right hand, the other toward the left of it
 anterior third part of the circumference of the aorta. The
 right coronary artery runs in between  the basis and right]
 auricle, all the way to the flat side of the heart, andse1
 goes half way round.  The left artery  has  a  like course
 between the basis and  left auricle, and before it  turns oa
 the basis,  it sends off a capital  branch which  runs in be.
 tween the two ventricles.  Another principal branch goes
 off from the union of the two arteries on the flat side of the
 heart, which running  to  the apex, there joins the other
 branch.
   The coronary veins  are distributed  exteriorly much a j
 fhe same  manner.  The  largest opens into the posterior
 inferior part of the right auricle, by an  orifice which is fur;
 nished with a valve first described by Eustachius.  Besic
 the coronary  veins, the  heart  has other anterior veins, r
 which have been called by Vieussens,  venae innominata. \\
 Some of them go into the right auricle, others  end in the
 right ventricle; and there are  other veins still  smaller,
 which are found in the substance of the heart, and which,
 terminate in the right sinuses and auricle.
   Particular situation of the  heart.  The heart lies almost
 transversely on  the diaphragm,  the greatest part ofijL.
 being in the left cavity of the fhorax, and the  apex beinA
 turned toward the bony extremity of the sixth true rib. The
 basis is toward %the right cavity; and both auricles, espfc'*
 cially the right, rest on the diaphragm; but the  situation"
 of the  heart  during life changes a  little,  according to the
state of respiration, and fo the posijion of (he body.
   The origin or basis of the  pulmonary artery is, in this
natural situation, the highest part of the heart  on the fore
 side;  and the trunk of  (his ar(ery lies  in a perpendicular -
plane,  which may  be perceived to pass between the ster-
num and spina dorsi.  Therefore some part of the basi$of
the heart is in the right cavity of (he thorax; and the rest,,.
all the way to (he apex, is in the left cavi(y ; and it is  for-.
 this reason that the mediastinum is turned toward (hat
side.
   According to this true and natural situation of the hearty
the parts are commonly said  (o be on  (he right  side, or
rather  anterior,  and  (hose  on (he lef( side posterior; and
that side of the heart which is though! to  be the fore side,
is  naturally the upper side, and the back side consequent-
 ly the  lower side.                                     -
   The lower side is very flat, lying  wholly  on the dia- ,
p&ragm; but the upper side is  a Utile convex  through its ,
whole length, m  fhe direction of the septum, between  the
ventricles.
   Uses in general.   The  heart, and parts belonging to it,
M  a   £unC'paI ,nstruments of (he  circula(ion  of  the
 blood.  The two ventricles ought to be considered as two
syringes, so closely joined together as to make but one
 body , and furnished Wlth 8uck      ,aced

m,id isU H '"^ ?theV° that ^ dra™S one of them a
Hmd is let in, and forced out again by the other. 
ANA
ANA
                       Lungs.
  Situation and general figure.   The lungs are two large
spongy bodies, of a reddish colour in children, grayish in
adult subjects, and bluish in old age ;  filling the whole cav-
ity  of the thorax, one being seated in the right side, the
other in (he left,  parted  by the  mediastinum and  heart;
and of a figure answering to that of the cavity which con-
tains them;  that  is, convex next (he ribs,  concave next
the diaphragm, and irregularly flatted and depressed next
the mediastinum and heart.
  Division  and figure  in  particular.  They are  distin-
guished into the right  and left lung; and each of these
into two or three portions, called lobes, of which the right
lung has commonly three, or two and a  half, and the  left
lung two.   The right lung is generally larger than the left,
answerably  to the cavity of the breast,  and to the obliqui-
ty of the mediastinum.
  In the lower edge of the left lung there  is an indented
notch or sinus, opposite to the apex of the heart, which is
therefore never covered by (hat lung, even  in the  strong-
est respiration;  and consequently  the  apex of the heart
and pericardium may always strike  against the ribs, the
lungs not surrounding the heart in the  manner commonly
taught.
   Structure.   The substance of the lungs is almost all
spongy, being made of an infinite number of membranous
cells, and  of different sorts of vessels spread among the
cells in innumerable ramifications.
   Coats.   This whole  mass is covered by a membrane
continued from each pleura, which is commonly said to be
double; but what is looked upon as the inner membrane,
is only an expansion  and continuation of a cellular sub-
stance, which shall be spoken of after  we have described
the vessels  of the viscus.
  JJronchia.  The vessels which compose part of the sub-
stance of the lungs are of three or four kinds ; the principal
of these are air vessels and blood vessels.  The air  ves-
sels make the chief part, and are termed bronchia.
   These bronchia are conical lubes, composed of an infi-
nite number of cartilaginous fragments, like so many irreg-
ular arches of circles, connected together by a ligamenta-
ry  elastic  membrane; and disposed in  such a manner,
that the lower easily insinuate themselves within those
above them.
   They are lined on the inside by a very fine membrane,
which continually discharges a mucilaginous fluid; and in
the substance of the membrane are a great number of small
blood vessels,  and on its convex  side many longitudinal
lines, which appear to be  partly fleshy, and partly made
up of an elastic substance of another kind.
   The bronchia are divided, in all directions, into an in-
finite number of ramifications, which diminish gradually in
size ; and as they become capillary, change their cartilag-
inous structure into that of a membrane.  Besides these
very small extremities of fhis numerous series of ramifi-
cations, we find  that all the subordinate trunks, from the
greatest to  the smallest, send  out  from all sides  a  vast
number of short capillary lubes of the same kind.
   Vesiculaebronchiales.  Each of these bronchial tubes  is
widened at the extremity, and  thereby formed into a
membranous cell, commonly called a vesicle.   These cells
or  folliculi are  closely connected  together  in bundles;
each small branch producing a bundle proportionable to its
extent, and the number of its ramifications.
  Lobuli.  These small vesicular or cellulous bundles are
termed lobules ;  and as the great branches are divided into
small rami, so the great lobules are divided into  several
small ones.  The cells or vesicles  of each  lobule have a
free communication with each other, but the several lob-
ules do not communicate so readily.
  Interlobular substance.  The lobules appear to be dis-
tinctly parted by another  cellular substance, which sur-
rounds each of them in proportion  to fheir extent, and fills
up  the interstices between  them.  This  substance forms
likewise a kind of irregular membranous  cells, which are
thinner, looser, and broader, than the bronchial vesicles.
  This substance is dispersed through every part of the
lungs, forms cellulous or spongy vaginae,  which surround
the ramifications of the bronchia and blood vessels, and is
afterward spread over  the outer  surface  of each  lung,
where it forms a kind of fine cellular coat, joined to the
general covering of that viscus.
  When we  blow into this  interlobular substance, the air
compresses and  flattens the lobuli;  and when we blow into
the bronchial vesicles they presently swell; and if we con-
tinue to blow with force,  the air passes insensibly into the
interlobular substance.   We owe  this observation to M
Helvetius.
   Vascular texture. All the bronchial cells are surround-
ed  by a very fine reticular texture of the  small extremi-
ties of arteries  and  veins, which communicate every way
with each  other.   The  greatest  part of this  admirable
structure is the  discovery of (he illustrious Malphigi.
   Blood vessels.  The blood vessels of  the lungs are of
two kinds ; one common, called  the pulmonary artery and
veins; the other proper, called  the bronchial arteries and
veins.
   The pulmonary artery goes out  from the right ventricle
of the heart; and its trunk, having run directly upward as
high as the curvature of the aorta, is  divided into two lat-
eral  branches,  one going  to the  right  hand, called the
right pulmonary artery; the other to the left, termed the
 left pulmonary  artery.   The right artery passes under the
 curvature of the aorta, and is consequently longer than the
 left.  They  both  run  to  the lungs,  and are dispersed
 through their whole substance by  ramifications nearly like
 those of the bronchia, and  lying in the same direction.
   The pulmonary  veins having been distributed through
 the lungs, in the same manner go  out on  each side by two
 great branches, which open laterally into the reservoir or
 muscular bag of the right auricle.
   The ramifications of these two  kinds of vessels in the
 lungs, are surrounded every where by  the  cellular  sub-
 stance already mentioned, which likewise  gives them a
 kind of vagina; and the  rete  mirabile of Malphigi, de-
 scribed above,  is formed  by the  capillary extremities of
 these vessels.  It must be observed, that the ramifications
 of the arteries are  more  numerous and larger than those of
 the veins, which in all other parts of the body exceed the
 arteries both in number and size.
    Bronchial  arteries and   veins.   Besides  these capital
 blood vessels, there are others  called fhe bronchial  arte-
 ries and veins, which are very small, but they follow the
 bronchia through all their ramifications.   They commu- 
ANA
ANA
 nicale with  the pulmonary arteries  and veins in many
 places, likewise with the arteries and veins of the oesopha-
 gus, and with branches of the coronary artery and vein.
 These are nutrient vessels of the lungs.
    Ligaments.   Under the root of  each lung, that is, un-
 der (lint part formed by the subordinate  trunk of the pul-
 monary artery, by the trunks of the pulmonary veins, and
 by the trunk of the bronchia, there is a pretty broad liga-
 ment,  which  ties the posterior edge of each lung to the
 lateral parts of the  vertebrae of the back from the root all
 the way to the diaphragm.
    Trachea  arteria.  The  bronchia, already described,
 are branches or ramifications of a large canal, partly car-
 tilaginous, and partly membranous, called trachea, or as-
 pera arteria.  It is situated anteriorly in the lowerpartof
 the neck, whence it runs down into the thorax between the
 two pleurae through the upper  space left between the du-
 plicafure of  the mediastinum, behind the thymus.
    Having reached as low as the curvature of the aorta, it
 divides into  lateral parts, one  toward the right hand, the
 other toward the left, which enter the lungs, and are dis-
 tributed through them in the manner already said.  These
 two branches are called  bronchia;  and that on  the  right
 side is shorter than that of the left, whereas the right pul-
 monary artery is the longest.
   The trachea is made up of segments of circles of carti-
 laginous hoops, disposed in such a manner as to form a
 canal, open on  the back part of the cartilages, not going
 quite round: but this opening is filled by a soft glandular
 membrane, which completes the circumference of the ca-
 nal ; but  this  cannot  be to give way to the cesophagus:
 for, instead of descending immediately upon the middle of
 that canal, the trachea inclines a little to the right side;
 and the same structure is formed in the back part of the
 bronchial vessels, which are at some distance from the ceso-
 phagus.
   Each circle  is  about  the twelfth  part  of an inch in
 breadth,  and  about a quarter of that space  in thickness.
 Their extremities are round;  and fhey are situated hori-
 zontally above  each  other, small interstices being left be-
 tween them,  and the lower edge of the  superior segments
 being turned toward the  upper edge of those next below
 them.
   They are  all connected by a  very strong elastic mem-
 branous ligament fixed to their edges.
   The trachea is  covered externally with a quantity of
 cellular substance, which unites it to the  neighbouring
 parts, and it is lined on the inside by a particular membrane;
 which appears  to be partly fleshy or muscular, and partly
 ligamentary,  perforated  by an  infinite number of small
 holes,  more  or  less  imperceptible, through which a mu-
 cilaginous fluid continually passes, to defend the inner sur-
 face of the trachea against the acrimony of the air which
 we breathe.
   This fluid  comes from small glandular bodies dispersed
 through the  substance of the membrane, but especially
 from glands  something larger  than the former, which lie
 on the outer  or posterior surface of that strong membrane
 by which the circumference of the canal is completed.
 The same structure is observable  in the ramifications of
 the trachea, from the greatest to the smallest.
   All the vessels of which the lungs are chiefly composed,
that is, fhe air vessels or bronchia, and the blood vessels
 or the pulmonaryand bronchial arteries and veins, accom-
 pany each other through this viscus.
   They  are disposed commonly in such a manner, even
 to the  last ramifications, as that a subordinate trunk or
 branch of the bronchia lies between the like trunks or
 branches of the pulmonary artery and vein ; the bronchial V"
 vessels  being immediately joined to the bronchia.  In  '
 some places these three kinds of vessels touch each otheip*"
 in such a manner as to have a triangular space in the mid- H
 die.
   The bronchia are divided into a very  great  number oftT
 ramifications;  and the last rami are the  pedicles or foof.f,
 stalks of the small lobuli.   AH the lobuli are  angular, ob-
 long, broad, thin, &c.   The footstalks  send  out other
 smaller membranous pedicles, which are very short, and ter- *i
 minate  in the bronchial  vesicles or cells, of which they are \
 continuations.   The subordinate trunks and rami detach a .•,
 great number of these pedicles from their convex surface.  " "T!
   When we blow into the lungs, the bronchial cells near- J
 est their outer surface appear like small portions of round
 vesicles; and from this appearance all the bronchial cells
 have got the name of vesicles, though they are all angu-
 lar, except those which we have now mentioned.         .
   When we examine a lung without blowing it up, we find
 that the cartilaginous segments of the bronchia lie so near
 as to be engaged in each other; and in  drawing out any
 portion of the bronchia by  two ends, these segments  are
 parted, and the whole canal is increased in  length;  but
 it contracts again, by meafis  of its elastic membrane, as
 soon as that force is taken off.
   When we open lengthwise any portion of the pulmona-
 ry artery and vein in the same lung, we meet with a great
 number of transverse rugae, which are  destroyed when
 these vessels are elongated.   This is an observation made
 by M. Helvetius.
   By virtue of this structure, all the ramifications, both of
 the bronchia and pulmonary arteries and veins, have con-
 stantly the same direction, whether the lung be inflated or
 collapsed: and they contract in length without being con-
 torted or folded.  In expiration these vessels  are elongat-
 ed, and shortened in inspiration.
   These three vessels  lie in  a sort of cellular vagina,
 which accompanies  all their ramifications, and is a con-
 tinuation of their interlobular cells.  The pellicula; which
 compose it are, however, there disposed in a more regular
 manner, and more longitudinally than in other places, and
 thereby appear to form  a true vagina.
   When we blow through a pipe, introduced so far as to
 touch immediately a trunk  of the blood  vessels or bron-
 chia, the air runs through all the cells that lie nearest that
 trunk or its branches; but if we continue to blow, it insin-
 uates itself through the whole interlobular substance.
   Bronchial glands.   At the angle of the first ramification
of the trachea arteria, we find on both the fore and the back
sides  certain soft, roundish, glandular  bodies, of a bluish
or blackish colour, but reddish in a child ; in size they va-
ry from that of a  field bean  to  that of a millet seed.
 1hrough these the lymphatic vessels of the lungs pass in
their way to the thoracic duct.
   The trachea has several coats, as has been already ob-
served.   The outermost or common  covering surrounds
that part of the trachea  which lies in the thorax; but out
of the thorax this first coat is derived from the aponeurotic 
ANA
ANA
expansions of the  muscles of the neck ; and it is between
this and  the  following covering that the glands, already
mentioned, are situated.
  The second is a proper coat, being a continuation of the
cellular covering of the lungs ; the pellicula? of which, near
the cartilaginous segments, serve them for an external per-
icardium.  The third  membrane lies  on the inside, ad-
hering closely to  the  same cartilages, and supplying to
these  (he place of  an internal pericardium.
  The fourth membrane is that  which completes the cir-
cumference of the  cartilaginous  circles of the trachea.   It
consists chiefly of two laminae or strata, partly muscular
and  partly tendinous: the  external or posterior lamina
being made up of longitudinal fibres;  and the internal  or
anterior of transverse fibres.  The membrane is perforat-
ed  by the small ducts of the  above  mentioned glands,
which discharges a fluid when pressed; and being exam-
ined through a microscope, they appear vascular or folli-
culous, much like that of the stomach.
  The ligaments between the cartilaginous circles are very
strong and elastic,  and each of them is confined to two car-
tilages, without communicating  with  any  of  the  rest:
being fixed to  the edges of these cartilages much in the
same  manner as  the intercostal muscles are inserted in the
ribs.
   As the bronchia penetrate into  the substance  of the
lungs, they gradually lose  their cartilages, till at last they
become purely membranous; but the muscular lines of M.
Morgagni appear as much, and  sometimes more than be-
fore.   The two planes above mentioned continue likewise
to be visible; and we observe very distinctly sometimes,
even  without a microscope, a great many small holes in the
pellicles of  the lobuli,  and bronchial vesicles or cells,
which open from wfthin outward.

               Of the  arteries in general.
   The arteries  are  long elastic and  pulsating tubes, the
diameters of which decrease according to  the  number of
branches which they give off.
   The coats of the arteries are three in number: an exter-
nal or cellular coat, a  middle or muscular coat, and an  in-
ternal or smooth membranous coat.
   The use of the arteries is to convey blood from the heart
through  the lungs, throughout the system in general, or the
heart itself.
   The origin of the two great trunks  from which they all
arise  has already been explained, and of these two all the
rest are  branches.

              OF  PARTICULAR  ARTERIES.
                       The aorta.
   The large  arteries,  termed aorta, open with a wide ori-
fice from the superior and posterior side of the left ventri-
cle of the heart.   Its roots seem incorporated with the very
substance of the heart;  as it is  not  only intimately united
with  its internal surface, but some  muscular striae of the
ventricle are also  mixed with the white" line, which is call-
ed tendo arteriosus, and which indicates  the  commence-
ment  of  the artery.   Some transverse fibres of the heart
are united to the  exfernal part of the aorta, and cover it
for a  line and a half.   Having left the heart, the aorta is
immediately  expanded; nor does it again recover its  di-
   tol. i.            19
ameter till it sends off the subclavian artery of the righl
side.
  In its ascent, it is first inflected to the right, behind and
beyond fhe  pulmonary artery; it gradually  inclines itself
to the left, till, having formed a transverse arch, it  is seen
projecting behind  the  lungs  at the left side of the verfe-
brse. Supported by these it descends in the  same straight
line with themselves: till having, at last, entered the ab-
domen, it again begins to turn toward the right, and rests
upon the middle of the vertebrae.
  By the arch of the aorta is meant its  parabolic flexure,
the right  pillar of  which first stretches to the right, and
then to the left, while the left advances almost in a straight
line.
  In considering the whole extent of the arch, we observe
that it springs from the ventricle at the  inferior margin of
the third rib, ascends by an oblique and winding course to
the lower margin  of the first;  its exterior and right ex-
tremity corresponding to the middle of the cartilages of
the ribs ;  and its left  extremity, being concealed  by the
left lobe of the lungs, proceeding onward, and in like  man-
ner corresponding to the vertebral extremity of the ribs.

                  FIRST SUBDIVISION.
          Branches from the arch of the aorta.
  I. The two coronary  arteries of the  heart,  vis. the
right or inferior, and left or superior, which being  sent off
above the interior  and posterior semilunar valves, form, in
returning to the  heart, an  acute  angle  wifh the rising
trunk.  II.  The innominata.   HI. The  left  common caro-
tid.   IV. The left  subclavian.
  The three last arise at distinct branches from the great-
est convexity of the arch.  The first of  them passes ob-
liquely upward, and to  the right  over the  trachea; and
having advanced about two inches, divides at its right ex-
tremity info the right common carotid, and the right  sub-
clavian.  The other  two branch out from the aorta near
the former,  and are also similar to them.
   I. The right coronary is larger than the left.  Covered
with fat,  it  runs between the auricle and ventricle  to the
flat surface  and apex of the heart, inosculating freely with
the left coronary, both by its branches, and  the extremity
of its trunk.
   II. The left coronary, after going out between the pul-
monary artery and left auricle, divides  into  two branches.
   III. The right subclavian.  For the description of this
and the left one, see below.
   IV. The common carotid has on each side a similar dis-
tribution  of its branches, though the right be a little larg-
er  than the left.   It  lies  on  the anterior surface of the
vertebrae, and is united by a cellular membrane  to the in-
tercostal  nerve, the par vagum beneath, and the internal
jugular vein above.  It thus ascends one continued trunk
parallel to the trachea, a3 high as  the  superior margin of
the thyroid cartilage.  It there divides into branches of
equal size ;  the anterior of which is called the external, and
the posterior the internal or cerebral.

          Distribution of the  common carotid.
   I. The external or superficial  carotid.  This  artery
has scarcely arisen, when  it  advances forward,  and di-
vides into eight branches variously distributed. 
ANA
ANA
   1. The superior thyroid, issuing near the origin  of the
 trunk, and descending windingly to the superior margin of
 the  thyrbid gland.
   2. The lingual or sublingual artery, winding above the
 os hyoides, forward, upward and inward, to the tongue.
 Al its commencement, it either passes over, or is covered
 by,  the hyo glossus;  then is concealed by the genio glos-
 sus.
   3. The internal maxillary, labial, angular, or facial. Con-
 cealed at  its origin by  the stylo hyoideus, and the ten-
 don of the digastric.   Ascends tortuously forward, through
 the depression of the sub-maxillary  gland,  and, winding
 over the maxilla, follows the anterior margin of the mas-
 seter; afterward branches out under the zygomatic mus-
 cles, in serpentine windings, upon the face  and the sides
 of the mouth and of the nose.
   4. The ascending pharyngeal of Haller arises from the
 back part of the trunk, near the lingual, or from the bifur-
 cation of the carotid.  The auricular excepted, it is the
 smallest of the branches.  It ascends upon the long ante-
 rior  rectus muscle to lhe foramen lacerum, through  which
 it  passes, to be lost in the dura mater.
   5. Occipital artery passes transversely before the jugu-
 lar vein,  above  the  rectus lateralis, proceeding between
 the transverse process of the atlas and mastoid process to
 the back part of the neck, and ascends, in  widely spread-
 ing branches, to the occiput.   In its course it is covered
 by the digastric,  the  trachelo mastoid, the  splenius, and
 the complexus; and becomes subcutaneous as it approaches
 the occiput.
   6. The posterior auricular, or stylo mastoid,  rises from
 the trunk in the parotid gland, above the digastric muscle,
 and before the styloid process, then passes transversely to
 the ear.  As it curves behind the ear, it  also inclines to
 the posterior part of  the  squamous bone, inosculating with
 the temporal and occipital arteries.
   7. The superficial temporal.  This artery, concealed at
 first  in the parotid gland, stretches above the zygomatic
 arch, between the jaw and meatus auditorius,and is  at last
 extensively ramified over the side of the head.
   8. Internal maxillary.   This artery, larger than the tem-
 poral, rises about the middle  of the  ramus of the inferior
 maxillary bone, before the external pterygoid ; and, bend-
 ing inward,  forward, and downward,  is concealed by the
 maxilla.   It  then rises obliquely upward and forward to
 the spheno maxillary  fissure.
   II. The internal carotid  or  cerebral artery.   This ar-
 tery, in rising to its canal, is connected before to the  par
vagum and intercostal nerves; and behind  to the rectus
anticus  muscle.  Sometimes it forms above the  vertebise
a larger or smaller projecting curvature.  In this course
no branches are, in general, given off.  At last it enters the
 foramen carotideum ;  and passing along this canal, under-
 goes many remarkable inflections.   On  its  first entering
the foramen, it proceeds  upward,  inward, and a little  for-
ward.  It then rises from the canal forward and  upward at
a very obtuse angle.  Having at last reached  the poste-
rior part of the sella Turcica, it bends in the  cavernous si-
nus, so as fo run in an horizontal direction to the anterior
clinoid process.  It here rises perpendicularly, perforates
the internal surface of the dura mater, and proceeds near
the bottom of the brain backward to the cerebrum.
   Its most remarkable branches are,
   1. The othalmic artery, rising in the angle where the ca-
 rotid artery  leaves the  sphenoid bones near its anterior
 clinoid processes,  and  running with the nerve which ac-
 companies  and rests  upon  it, through lhe optic hole, to
 the orbit.  Lying  by the external side of the optic nerve,
 it passes obliquely forward over it; and reaching  the in.
 ternal angle of the  eye above its adductor, divides  it  into
 two branches.
   2. The communicating artery.  This,  along wifh (he
 deep branch of the vertebral artery of the cerebrum, forms
 the circle of  Willis.  It proceeds straight backward and
 inward, near the infundibulum, where it reaches the arte-
 ry already mentioned, and  there  seems an obtuse angled
 quadrangle.
   3. The anterior  carotid artery, or arterial callosa.  The
 internal carotid at that place where the anterior lobe of the
 brain is separated  from  the posterior, divides into  two
 branches of nearly equal size ; of which the anterior pro-
 ceeds immediately  inward, and a little forward ; then bends
 above the corpus callosum, between the hemispheres, to
 the  posterior  lobes of the brain.
   4. The posterior carotid, or the artery of the fossa  syl-
.viana, enters the fossa sylvii, and  gives to each numerous
 superficial and deep seated branches to both lobes of  the
 brain.

 Distribution  of the subclavian artery and its branches*
   The division of the right and left subclavian artery  dif-
 fers only in this respect, that  the right subclavian is much
 larger, passes obliquely over the  trachea,  and  sends off
 the common carotid. 'Having left this branch at the side
 of the  trachea, it  is now more  properly lhe right sub-
 clavian ; and, still continuing larger than the left, proceeds
 nearly in a transverse direction.   The left subclavian, on
 the other hand, while it gradually ascends from the in-
 clining part of the  arch, passes on to its place of destina-
 tion with a more rapid and extensive curvature.
   These two  arteries run in such  a direction above the su-
 perior margin  of the first rib, as fo be concealed for  some
 time by the clavicle.   They then proceed with  the bra-
 chial plexus, across that space lying between the first  and
 second scalene muscles; and being covered by the flat-
 tened extremity of  the clavicle and pectoral muscle, bend
 to the axilla?,  where they take the name of axillary arte-
 ries.   The branches of the subclavian arteries, and their
 ramuli, present so many varieties, that  no description, ei-
 ther as to their number or their direction, can in every re-
 spect correspond with nature.  In general,  however,  the
 four first branches  arise before the artery sinks under  the
 scalenus, while the  rest are sent off beyond the margin of
 this muscle.   These are,
   1. The internal mammary, going off from the lower and
 anterior part of the  trunk at the highest part of the pleura,
 where ascending gradually, and again bending downward
 to the sternum, it reaches the margin of  the first rib,  un-
 der which it passes,* and running  between the pleura  and
 middle  part of the cartilages of  fhe ribs, descends  be-
 tween the internal  intercostal and their sternocostal mus-
 cles, as far as lhe  diaphragm.  It then passes between  the
 diaphragm and the  ribs, and dividing into  many twigs, it is
 osf  under lhe rectus of  the abdomen, from its origin to
 the third rib.  It bends toward the  sternum, then gradually
 inclines outward.                             a 
ANA
ANA
   2. The inferior  thyroid or anterior cervical artery, ris-
 ing from the fore part of the trunk, near the mammary and
 vertebral arteries; and being covered by the sterno mas-
 toid, and bent a little upward and outward, immediately
 divides into four principal branches; the transverse sca-
 pular, the transverse cervical, the ascending thyroid, and
 the thyroid  branch of the thyroid.
   3. The superior intercostal arlery rises more externally
 than the vertebral, from the upper and posterior surface of
 the trunk, then  ascends with it to the  hollow, then it is
 formed by  the  anterior scalenus, the surface  of the first
 rib, and bodies of the vertebra?.   It is there suddenly re-
 flected, and proceeds to the roots of the first and second
 ribs within the thorax.
   4. The vertebral artery, larger than the former, rises
 from the superior side of the subclavian; and ascending a
 little backward, covered by the ganglions of the intercos-
 tal and cellular membranes, reaches the perforations of
 the transverse processes of fhe cervical verfebrse \ through
 these it penetrates,  and rising perpendicularly from  the
 sixth or sometimes from the fifth or fourth opening, reaches
 the aperture of the atlas, where it bends a little outward,
 and having passed through, undergoes  another more ex-
 tensive flexion backward and inward,  by  which it  is car-'
 ried transversely in a groove  between the occipital bone
 and the atlas, to the foramen magnum.  Through this open-
 ing having at last entered the cranium, it proceeds upward
 and forward, and at the basilar apophysis, under the  me-
 dulla oblongata, meets at an acute angle with the vertebral
 artery of the opposite side, forming the basilar artery, to
 be distributed to the cerebrum and cerebellum.
   The basilar artery, being formed as above, occupies the
 depression in the middle of the tuber annular, and at its an-
 terior part divides into four parallel branches, proceeding
 from the trunk at right angles.  Of these the posterior go
 to the cerebellum,  and  the two anterior, ramified on  the
 cerebrum, unite with communicating arteries of the caro-
 tid, and form the great circle of Willis.
   5. The deep  or posterior cervical arlery, irregular in
 its origin, size, and extent, and like fhe superficial cervical
 or transverse  scapula of the thyroid, spreads sometimes
 more  and sometimes less  extensively  with its branches.
 We have sometimes observed it  the smallest of all, and
 proceeding from fhe superior intercostal, it generally is-
 sues from fhe  subclavian, beyond  the margin of the scale-
 nus, though  sometimes sooner under this muscle.  It then
 winds upward and backward between  the deep muscles of
 the back and the sixth  vertebrie; and  is at least so dis-
 persed  among the  muscles as  to  bestow its  ultimate
 branches on the complexus near the occiput.
   6. The superficial cervical rises about half an inch or an
 inch from the first scalenus at the upper and anterior side
 of the subclavian, where it begins to bend downward, and
 immediately hides  itself among the brachial nerves; and
 spreading out afterward  toward the superior costa scapula,
 divides into  many irregular branches.

          Distribution  of the axillary  artery.
  The subclavian artery, as it bends from its  first  situa-
 tion between the breast  and scapula,  to the humerus, as-
 sumes  the name of axillary.   Passing out under the arch
of (he clavicle, it is surrounded by the nerves  of the bra-
chial plexus, the veins, glands, and a quantity of fat; lies
                    19*
in the hollow of the axilla, between the subscapular and
serratus major; and protected externally by the pectoral
muscles, it soon approaches forward  to  the arm and inte-
rior margin of the biceps.  At last, proceeding from the
axilla to  the inferior border of the  tendon of the  latissi
mus dorsi, it takes the name of  the humeral artery.  It
sends off,
  1. The thoraeics.
  2. The inferior scapular, or infrascapular, or subscapular,
rising in the inferior margin  of the  subscapular muscle,
divided into  conspicuous branches,  which run in various
directions.
  3. The posterior circumflex artery, issuing between the
subscapular and teres major;  it sinks between them, winds
roimd the neck of the humerus, under the long extensor,
and afterward bends transversely under the deltoid, back-
ward and outward from the inner side of the arm. It some-
times gives rise to the anterior circumflex, and the deep
branch of the humerus or humeral profunda.
  4. The anterior circumflex artery, of smaller size, sent
out  near the  former, above the teres  major, proceeds
round the humerus, under the biceps and coraco brachial
to the outer part of the arm, where it either disappears un-
der the deltoid, or enters this muscle.

     Distribution of the brachial or humeral artery.
  The axillary artery is first known by the  name  of the
humeral or brachial, where it proceeds from  the axilla  to
the internal side  of the arm.  Having left  the cavity  of
the axilla, and passed to  the  internal surface of the ten-
don  of the teres major,  it continues  its course  above
the internal brachial to the inner  side of the  biceps, and
gradually runs along the middle of the arm  to the an-
terior surface  of its extremity;  where at last, concealed
under the  aponeurosis of the biceps, it  divides near the
bend of the fore arm into the ulnar and radial arteries.
  1. The deep branch of the humerus, the large collateral,
or large humeral profunda, sometimes double, rising from
the inner side of the trunk, at the inferior margin of the
teres major; but sometimes sooner, from the inferior sca-
pular, or posterior circumflex.
  It proceeds backward  with a  gentle curve; and, ac-
companying the extensor, runs to the cavity  between the
anconei muscles, where, in the passage of the spiral nerve,
it divides into two branches,  at the upper junction of the
external anconeus and internal brachial.
  2. The large  anastomafic, rising sometimes  double
from the  internal  side of the trunk, a few inches  above
the joint; but immediately dividing, it  passes in a trans-
verse course upon  the  surface of the internal brachial to
fhe flexor condyles, where, perforating the intermuscular
ligament, it runs upward  to the cavity,  between the con-
dyle and olecranon, covered by the tendon of the biceps
and the ulnar  flexor of the carpus.
  The ulnar artery. The  humeral artery sometimes un-
dergoes  the  division already mentioned at the middle of
the humerus, or even higher.   This, however, is the larg-
est artery  which arises from  the  trunk at the bend of the
arm.   Scarcely has it arisen, when  it sinks  deep info the
cavity  that is occupied by the tendon of the biceps, the
nerve, blood vessels, and fat.  It then bends near the  in-
terstice of the bones, under the pronator teres, radial flex-
or, palmaris longus, and  sublimis, to the  lunar side of the 
                       ANA

fore arm, proceeding gradually with many deflections be-
tween the sublimis, the profundis, and ulnar flexor, to the
wrist.   Passing over the wrist, it forms the superficial arch
of the hand, which gives beautiful arteries to the fi°g«^s»
and finally inosculates at the palm with the radical.   The
chief branch is,
   1. The common interosseal, rising at the higher extrem-
ity of the profundus, running on the interosseous ligament,
between the flexor pollicis  and profundus, toward the
pronator quadratus.
   The  radial artery,  the  smallest of the two branches
which proceed from the division  of the humeral.  It runs.
down in a straight  line upon  the surface of the pronator,
and gradually inclines toward the radius, between the long
supinator and radial flexus, resting on  the  flexor of the
thumb.   At the lower extremity of the radius, where it is
easily felt between the styliform process and the trapezi-
um, on the back of the hand, it bends under the abductor
and extensor of  the thumb, near the first radial extensor;
then penetrating the abductor, or semi-interosseus of the
fore finger, between the metacarpal bone of the fore fin-
ger and thumb, bends, while there concealed, to the palm
between the  fibres of the adductor pollicis, and  forms, in
the hollow of the hand, under  the flexors, and above the
interosseous muscles,  the deep volar  arch, in which.it ter-
minates.
                SECOND SUBDIVISION.
         Branches from the descending aorta.
   It appears, from the general  description of the  aorta,
that, after the formation of the arch, it bends gradually be-
hind the lungs  to  the left side of the vertebral column;
and lying close upon this column, penetrates, in a straight
line, behind the pleura, through the cavity of the  thorax,
to the  muscular  crura  of the  diaphragm,  directing  its
course in the abdomen to the inferior lumbar vertebrae.
   Anatomists have therefore  properly divided the  de-
scending aorta into the thoracic and  ventral, whose  limits
are defined by the diaphragm, which allows,  by the sepa-
ration of its crura, a convenient passage for  the descend-
 ing trunk.
           Distribution of the  thoracic aorta.
   Through its whole descent, the thoracic aorta  inclines
 to the  left;  though near the lesser or inferior  diaphragm
 it seems gradually to approach the  middle of the verte-
 bra?.  The numerous branches which it sends out, though
 not large, are yet worthy of notice.   These  are, the peri-
 cardiac, bronchia], oesophageal, and aorta, or inferior inter-
 costal arteries.
           Distribution of the ventral aorta.
    The ventral  or abdominal aorta, is  the  lowest part of
 the common trunk.   It passes from  the  thorax, through
 the inferior muscle of the  diaphragm, to the right side of
 the cesophagus, in a  straight direction, inclining rather to
 the left,  and proceeds  gradually through the abdomen
 upon the surface of the vertebral column to the fifth lum-
 bar vertebra,  and to the thick ligament  connecting  the
 fourth and fifth.   The inner or long crura of the diaphragm,
 variously interwoven behind the oesophagus, separate an-
 teriorly on the  aorta, allowing a passage through  which it
 descends, resting posteriorly  on the  vertebral  column.
                        ANA

This passage is considerably larger than the trunk, loose
cellular  substances, connecting the pleura and penlone
um, being interposed.   The aorta at this place is separat-
ed from the vena cava by the left lobe of the liver, a part
of the diaphragm, and a large quantity of cellular sub-
stance; but in  the space between the kidneys and  the
liver, these two vessels approach so near, that the margin
of the artery is partly covered by  the vein that afterward
sends some of its branches anteriorly across.
   The ventral aorta is divided at the vertebra mentioned
above, into two branches of equal size,  forming an acut«
angle  as they  run forward to the  brim  of the  pelvis,
These anatomists have called  ilia  communes, or common
iliacs.  The branches of the ventral aorta are best describ-
ed in the order in which they occur.
   1. The phrenic artery, right and left, very irregular in
origin and division.   Sometimes  a single  trunk  arising
above the  cceliac, divides info  the  right and left phrenic:
sometimes, again, and indeed most frequently, the right
rises from the cceliac, and the left from the aorta ; while, at
other times, they have been observed rising together, both
from the cceliac, or both from the aorta.   Sometimes lhe
single trunk or common phrenic, being larger than usual,
> constitutes the fourth branch of the cceliac ;. and  thei
forms the superior  coronary branch of  the  stomach,
 There are sometimes three or four phrenic arteries, which,
 as soon as they arise,  tend obliquely outward  before the
 crura of the diaphragm to the  inferior  margin of its tendi-
 nous alae; and, while  they here wind tortuously under the
 fleshy fibres, distribute various twigs, upward, outward, in-
 ward, and downward.  Bending at last to the external margin
 of the tendon, and passing between the  muscular layers,
 they run forward, and inosculate, upon the costal muscles,
 with the thoracic vessels and the artery of fhe opposite side.
 At the bend of the artery, however,  they send a large
 branch  to the posterior and  inferior portion of the  dia-
 phragm* as it rises from the ribs.
    II. The cceliac  artery, short, but of large diameter,
 rising between the  aorfa  of  the diaphragm,  above the
 eleventh  dorsal vertebra, from  the  anterior part of the
 aorta, and at  the superior margin of the pancreas, betweea
 the papillary  lobule,  or lobule of Spigelius,  and the left
 side of  the lesser arch of the stomach.  It then descends
 in a tortuous  manner forward, and to  the right,  and  run-
 ning about the third of an inch, ultimately  separates inta
 three branches in such  a  manner, that  the two on the
 right seem to arise from the  common  base ; while the left
 is more distinct at its origin.   These are,
    1. The superior coronary, or great left gastric, or supe-
 rior or left gastro hepatic, smaller lhan the other branches
 if reflected only to the stomach ;  but  almost equal in size
 to the splenic, if, as sometimes happens,, it sends a branch
 also to the liver.   It appears sometimes to issue from the
 splenic, ascends to lhe left, and forward to the cardia and
 lesser arch of the stomach ;  then bending downward and
 to fhe right, reaches  lhe margin of the stomach,  where it
 distributes extensively its circuitous branches, forming a
 corona  to both sides of the stomach.
    2.  The hepatic.   This artery, which in adults is small-
 er than the splenic,  but in children larger, rises  from the
 right side of lhe cceliac, or,  as sometimes happens, fron
 the superior mesenferic, when, turning upward near tbi
 outer point of the  lobule of Spigelius,  it is concealed bj 
ANA
ANA
the pancreas; then  proceeding forward,  upward,  and to
the right, behind the  right extremity of  the stomach and
duodenum, it observes  the same obliquity as the lesser
arch; and after running an inch or an inch and a half, di-
vides  below the  neck of the gallbladder  into the right
transverse and  left ascending hepatics;  entering at last,
with the  other hepatic  vessels, the  transverse fissure or
fossa of the liver.   Enclosed in the capsule of Glisson, it
occupies a middle space between the biliary ducts and the
vena porta.
  3. The splenic.  While this artery runs along the  up-
per surface of the pancreas, and passes transversely  to
the depression of the spleen, it exhibits  large and repeat-
ed flexions upward and downward, bending  in a circular or
spiral form.  Approaching the  substance of the spleen, it
divides into many branches, which  are equally tortuous;
and of those that sink into the  spleen, some  smaller ones
return through the substance of the diaphragm or stomach.
   III. The superior mesenteric, the largest of the abdom-
inal or ventral branches, rising between  the  crura of the
diaphragm, three or four lines  below the cceliac, from the
anterior part of  the aorta,and under the lower edge of the
pancreas, proceeds between  the gland  and the inferior
transverse flexion of the duodenum.  Passing over  this'
portion of the intestine, it bends to the right under the
mesocolon,  where, received near  the vertebra  into  the
folds  of  the mesentery, it first inclines to the  left and then
to the right, where the whole artery,  advancing to  the
right ilium, assumes  the form  of the Roman S, with  the
concave side of  its large curvature  looking to the right.
After giving off smaller branches,  the trunk sends from
its right side only  two branches to the large intestines;
but from the left it  gives a greater number  of branches to
the smaller intestines.
   These, from twelve to twenty, rise close to one another
from the left convex side of the superior mesenteric, distrib-
uting ramuli to the ileum and jejunum.   Of these  the
superior are short and slender,  the middle long and thick,
the inferior shortest, and the last branch of all, as observed
above,  inosculates with the ileo colic.  Running near and
parallel  to each other, they first proceed transversely;
then, rising between the layers of the mesentery, divide into
smaller branches, which so diverge, that in whatever direc-
tion they go, they are soon after divided into two.  These
branches, as they meet, form  various arches, from whose
convex  margin  new parallel branches arise, which again
soon dividing, inosculate with the adjacent branches, form-
in» smaller  and more numerous  arches.   From  the con-
veVity of these arches other  branches  arise,  forming a
third series of arches, and where the branches are longest,
even  the fourth or fifth  series,  till the last branches near
the intestines, dividing  into anterior and posterior, encir-
cle these viscera, and gradually  penetrating Iheir coats,
form most beautiful arborescent ramifications  on the cellu-
lar membrane.  These arches, by  means  of their twigs,
not only form various inosculations among themselves, but
also with  the arborescent  ramifications of the  two  sur-
faces.   The inner intestinal coat is so covered by these
branches and the veins, as to give it the appearance of be-
ing wholly  vascular.  The trunks of these  arborescents
lie on the roots of the valvule?.  The arches are polygons ;
and the first series larger fhan  the  rest.   The lymphatic
glands and coats of the  vessels are surrounded with nu-
merous and various twigs as variously described.
  IV. The inferior mesenteric or left colic.  This artery
rises between the venal and common iliacs, from the ante-
rior and  left  side of the aorta, descends behind the peri-
toneum to the left side of the trunk ; and  having reached
that  place where the aorta divides into  two remarkable
crura forming the iliacs,  sends off a large branch ; and af-
ter passing the iliac  artery, sinks behind  the rectum into
the pelvis.  As it here  rises  forward  and to the right, if.
enters the duplicature of the  meso rectum, and accompa-
nies the intestine as far as its internal sphincter.
   V. Capsular or atrabiliary, right and left.  These arc
distinct  small arteries,  which,  though never wanting, as
they distribute many  branches to the  capsular gland, yet,
in almost every individual, they present  irregularities in
number,  size, or direction.  They do  not, like the vein,
issue from one common trunk, but from various branches,
coming near together  nigh the seat of the  gland.
   VI. The renal or emulgent artery, right and  left.  If is
unnecessary to enumerate the varieties w hich  anatomists
have  observed  as to the  number, origin, and magnitude of
this arlery.   It generally rises single from the side of the
aorta between the superior and inferior mesenteric artery,
from  which it  descends transversely  at  less than a right
angle.   The left, which is rather shorter than the right,
and more posterior in its origin, turns,  near the kidney,
over  its  concomitant vein; while the right, which is long-
er, is covered by its concomitant vein.  Approaching the
renal  depression, it   divides  into  two or four branches,
which, sinking  separately before and behind the pelvis of
the kidney, are again divided, and. distribute their spread-
ing branches-fo  the   papillary ones,  These, as they en-
circle the convex margin of the papillae,  form arches with
the adjoining branches,  and seem to  separate the cortical
from the tubular substance.  From the convex and con-
cave margin  of each arch rise innumerable small arteries,
of which the former encircle the cortex,  and with some of
their branches, pass  through  its substance, and disappear
on the fat; while the rest are  chiefly dispersed and ex-
hausted on the tubular part.  Before  entering the kidney,
 the renals give out.
   VII.  The spermatic artery, right and left.  Thisaitery
is very slender,  but, considering the  smallness of  its di-
ameter,  is the longest that rises from the lateral part of
the aorta.  It generally has  its origin between the  renal
and mesenteric_arteries, though the  right and left do not
always  issue from the  same place j  the left often rising
higher,  and  proceeding frequently from  the renal or the
inferior capsular.  I  have  observed at times, two on each
side.  It descends from the aorta somewhat tortuously, at
a very acute angle, behind the peritoneum, and passes be-
fore the vena cava on the right  side.   It  is more tortuous
in women than in men,  in whom it passes through the ab-
dominal ring.  It joins its concomitant \cin upon the sur-
face of  the  psoas rau3cle.  Received by  the spermatic
cord, it  is divided, at  some inches before reaching the tes-
tes,  into five branches :   two of which  go to the head and
upper extremity of  the epididymis;  while the rest run-
ning down to the testicle itself,  penetrate lhe tunica albu-
ginea, and send off new  branches in ev<jry new direction ;
which, proceeding in a winding course, and reduced to the 
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 inferior ma;^iii of the testes, are partly exhausted on its
 substance, and partly on the convolutions of the seminif-
 erous ducts.
   VIII. The lumbar arteries, right and left, five in num-
 ber ;  issuing  frorn  the  lateral and posterior part of the
 aorta, at nearly a right angle.  The  first runs transverse-
 ly under the  first vertebra of the loins ;  the fifth, between
 the last  vertebra and os sacrum; and  the rest between
the vertebral intestines : while all of them, after being re-
 flected round the spine, sink into the intervening spaces of
 the vertebrae.  The right are longer than the left.   The
 superior proceed in a straight line, while  the inferior in-
 cline a little downward.  Two sometimes arise from a sin-
 gle trunk,  and all except the first  are covered by the
 psoas muscle.
                 THIRD SUBDIVISION..
 Branches from the termination of the  aorta.   Distribu-
              tion of the common iliacs.
  The  common iliacs  exhaust  the whole of the aorta-
 The right  iliac crosses the  lower part of the vena cava,
 near the origin of the iliac  vein.   The left  leans on the
 outside of  its concomitant vein, but does not cover it.  A
 little  below,  each  divides into  two branches:  the  one,
 named the  internal iliac or hypogastric, sinks into the cav-
 ity of the pelvis ; the other, called the external iliac,
 passes to the thigh, where it receives the name of the fe-
 moral.  The sacro median, and,  at times, some minute ar-
 teries, are  in general the only  branches of the common
 iliacs.
   The sacro  median,  similar in  size to  the lumbar, is an
 azygous artery; and, rising from the bifurcation, or a lit-
 tle higher from the middle of the aorta,  or from one of the
 lumbars, or  sometimes from one of the  common iliacs,
 runs down  along the middle of the anterior surface of the
 sacrum, as far as the coccyx, where it  forms with the sa-
 cro laterals, an arch whose convexity is downward.
   I. The internal iliac or hypogastric,  five times larger
 in the fetus  than the external; but, after a year, only
 equal in size; for while the  umbilical exhausts almost the
 whole blood of the trunk, it seems continued  into this ar-
 tery, forming an arch convex downward, from whose cir-
 cumference the other small arteries of the pelvis are sent
 off.   When passing the brim of the pelvis, behind the per-
 itoneum, it lies, with a more obtuse angle, in the middle,
 between the ileum and sacrum;  thence bending gradually
 downward, between  the pelvis and its viscera.  When
 the umbilical  artery decays, the trunk  distributes its nu-
 merous branches  in  directions  so various, that none of
 them seem to follow its bourse.  As the common pudic
 and ischiadic, however, run most directly downward, they
 have generally been considered  by  anatomists as its con-
 tinuation.  Its branches, though constant in their destina-
 tion, are irregular in  their origin ; some being distributed
 to the pelvic viscera, while others run to the external and
 adjoining parts.
   I. The  sacro lateral arteries,  irregular in origin  and
 number.   Sometimes only one,  sometimes more, even to
 five, come off from the trunk, from  the posterior iliac, or
 the ileo lumbar.   If  only one be present, it  goes down,
 near the foramina of the sacrum  as far as the  coccyx, and
 there forms the arch already mentioned.  If more, the su-
perior inosculate  among  themselves; while  the  inferior
terminates in the sacro median.              c    ,
   2. The obturator artery, rising sometimes trom the epj.
gastric branch of  the external iliac, and running toward
the pelvis; more frequently, issuing from the trunk of the
hypogastric, the posterior  iliac, the ischiadic or ileo lum.
bar.  It  runs downward and forward,  connected to the
bones of the pelvis by cellular  membrane, following (he
superior   edge of  the  obturator internus: and  passing
through  the sinuous depression of the thyroid hole, runs
to the thigh with its concomitant nerve and vein.
   3. The posterior iliac, or gluteal, the largest of all the
arteries,  issuing from  the hypogastric.  It rises from the
back part of  the trunk, soon after the sacro lateralis and
obturator; passes,  deeply upward  and backward, to the
superior  edge of the pyriform muscle,  till concealed by
the two origins of the  ischiadic  nerve,  it leaves  the pel-
vis ; then winding externally around the pyriformis, it dis-
tributes its branches among the gluteal muscles.  Within
the pelvis, it sometimes gives rise to the  ileo lumbar,  obtu-
rator, sacro lateralis, ischiadic, and common pudic.
   4. The ischiadic, smaller than the former artery, but
observing  the same  course  with the  hypogastric. It
passes from the pelvis, between the lower edge of the py-
riformis and the levator ani, and descends under the great
gluteus, parallel with the larger ischiadic ligament.  We
have observed  the  trunk divide into two, sending off the
middle haemorrhoidal and pudic.
   5. The common  pudic, the pudic, circumflex, internal,
middle,  or external pudic; rising  often from a common
trunk with the  ischiadic,  but easily distinguished by its
smaller size, by its bending more forward and inward  while
in the pelvis, by its passing out  between the pyriformis
and the posterior part  of the levator ani, and by its great-
er distance from that  extremity of  the  pyriformis which
is attached to the sacrum.
   Having passed from the cavity of the pelvis, it is con-
cealed by the great sacrosciatic ligament, under which it
runs to the spine of the ischium, and enters the space be-
tween the lesser and greater sacro sciatic ligaments.  Hav*
ing passed the spine, it next runs to the internal surface
of the tuberosity of the  ischium, where,  being attached to
the bone by the aponeurosis of the  obturator internus, it
follows the curved margin of the  ischium,  and bends for-
ward to the ramus.  The artery is here exhausted by two
branches  sent off near  the transverse muscle of the peri-
neum.
   II. The external iliac, the other branch of the common
iliac, after it  has  divided  into  two  branches,  near, or a
little below, the junction of the sacrum and  ileum.  It ob-
serves the same oblique direction outward as the common
iliac.   Having passed obliquely  over  the inner edge of
the psoas, and running behind the peritoneum, upon thii
muscle and the tendinous portion of the iliacus, it passei
to the thigh under  the  Fallopian ligament,  along with the
vein covering it before, and the  crural nerve attached to
its external side.  Having passed Poupart's ligament, it
becomes the common  femoral.   The branches of this ar«
tery are,
   I. The epigastric, rising at an acute angle, from the in-
ner side of the trunk,  near the external lateral margin of
the abdominal ring, and the inferior part of the Fallopia* 
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 ligament.  It first descends ; then, being immediately re-
 flected, proceeds inward, behind the internal and posterior
 surface of the spermatic cord and epigastric vein.  Now
 rising a little higher, and resting  upon the peritoneum as
 it lines the abdominal muscles, it passes the outer and up-
 per commissure of the abdominal ring, and then proceeds
 inward under  the inferior part of the transverse muscle,
 bending to the rectus,  behind which it ascends to the um-
 bilicus.
   2. The circumflex  iliac, abdominal, or small external
 iliac, generally smaller than the  last,  and sent off a little
 lower  than the external side of the trunk; passes  upward
 and outward, in  a retrograde course, under the periton-
 eum;  reaches the crest of the ileum; and bending, par-
 allel to the arched circumference of this bone, proceeds be-
 tween the extremity of the iliacus internus and transver-
 salis, as also betwixt the transversalis and obliquus internus,
 where it is finally expended among the abdominal muscles.

          Distribution of the common femoral.
   The common femoral, a continuation of the external ili-
 ac, runs without the Fallopian ligament in the groin.  The
 femoral vein under which it lies, conceals its internal mar-
 gin, while the whole is covered by a large quantity of cell-
 ular substance, fat, inguinal glands, and the fascia of the
 thigh.   Advancing about two inches, it divides on the in-
 ferior  part of the  iliacus internus, into  two arteries  of near-
 ly equal size.  Of these, the continuation of the trunk is
 called the superficial femoral;  and that which  rises from
 the back part of lhe  trunk, the deep  femoral or  femoral
 profunda.   From the common trunk generally arise,
   I. The  deep femoral concealed at its  origin  by  the
 superficial femoral, the glands, and a quantity of fat, lies
 in the  deep triangular cavity, between the iliacus, pectine-
 us, and adductors; and  bending convexly outward, over
 the  united iliacus and psoas, runs backward  and down-
 ward, to the higher extremity of the vastus internus.  Hav-
 ing reached lhe bottom of the cavity, it again bends great-
 ly forward; and passing between the  long and short ad-
 ductors, and the vastus internus, runs, downward and back-
 ward,  near to the middle of the femur.  At last, enter-
 ing the space between  the long and short adductors, or
 perforating this last muscle, it reaches the adductor mag-
 nus, and passes through it with various branches, running
 among the posterior  muscles of the thigh.   The  first di-
 rection and size of the  trunk vary considerably, according
 as it issues, sooner or later, from the common femoral, and
 according to fhe number and size  of the branches which it
 sends off.  Of these some are of little consequence ; but
 there are some which merit attention.
   1. The external circumflex, a conspicuous branch, and
 often the first when it  arises from this artery ; though it
 sometimes issues  from  the  superficial femoral.  It bends
 outward, between the  iliacus infernns, fhe rectus and sar-
 torius, and between the tensor faciae and the anterior sur-
 face of the middle gluteus;  then passing transversely un-
 der the tendinous head of the vastus externus, disappears
 at last  near the root of the large trochanter.
   2. The internal  circumflex rises near the origin of the
 external, from the internal and posterior part of the trunk ;
passes  to the middle of the peclineus through the adipose
substance, between this muscle and the tendon of fhe psoas,
 and runs  deeply  backward above the  trochanter minor.
Concealed hereby muscles and fat, it divides into branches
between the short  and great adductor,  or between  the
adductor and pectineus.  Of these branches, the largest
approaches the neck of the  femur, acetabulum, and  ob-
turator externus,  and proceeding  outward and  backward
to the insterstice between the quadratus and adductor mag-
nus, divides into two branches;  and is partly  expended
on the muscles attached to the femur, and partly through
the interstice to the flexus of the thigh.
  3.  The perforants.
  II. The superior femoral artery, lying externally, and
covered through its whole course by  the broad facia, by
the inguinal glands above, and on the middle part by  the
sartorius, as it runs obliquely across  the femur.  It then
proceeds downward, inward, and backward, passing grad-
ually from the anterior  to the inner surface of the thigh,
and from that to the ham or poples.  At first it is separat-
ed from the deep femoral, by a quantity of fat, and by  the
glands; then lies upon  the vastus internus, and,  passing
along in a  declivity  between the vastus internus and  ad-
ductors, enters the oblique canal in the common tendon of
the adductors.  Having passed through this canal, it takes
the name of popliteal artery, where it runs from the inner
to the back part  of  the thigh.  Before reaching the  pos-
terior part,  it passes over two thirds of  the femur; and
though  the thigh  be here more slender than at  the supe-
rior part, it lies more deeply concealed among the  mus-
cles.
  1.  The large anastomatic branch, rising from the inner
surface of lhe trunk, at  the superior  margin of  the tendi-
nous canal; and, bending  downward, spreads, with many
serpentine ramifications, on the vastus internus, into which
it sinks.
  2.  The several perforants.
  The  popliteal  artery;  that part of fhe superficial fe-
moral which runs along the ham.   Its superior part is
bounded by the posterior margin of the tendon of the
triceps, and its inferior by the higher extremity  of the so-
leus muscle, under which it  divides  into the anterior and
posterior  tibial arteries.  Being  covered externally  by
the aponeurosis  which surrounds the joint, it runs  ob-
liquely  outward and  downward, through  the adipose sub-
stance, between the flexor tendons, passing into  the cavity
between the condyles and  the heads of the gastrocnemii.
As  it  proceeds over the joint of the knee, it lies upon fhe
capsules and afterward on the popliteal muscle.   The  nu-
merous branches  fo which,  in this course, it gives origin,
are divided into articular and muscular.
  1. The anterior tibial arlery, smaller than the posteri-
or, rises anteriorly from  the popliteal, at  the inferior mar-
gin  of the popliteal muscle, and,  perforating the interose-
ous ligament, runs to the anterior part of lhe leg.  It de-
scends on the ligament,  at first between the tibialis anticus
and common extensor, then between fhe anticus and exten-
sor longus of the great toe.   In this  course it lies nearer
the fibula than the  tibia;  but gradually  separating  from
the ligament, it turns forward and inward the further it
descends ; and passing over the lower extremity of  the
tibia and the tarsus,  along with the extensor tendons, un-
der the crucial  ligament, divides between lhe first and sec-
ond metatarsal bones into two branches; of which  one,
sinking between the  bones to fhe planta of the foot, inos-
culates with the branches of the posterior tibial, while the 
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   other,  pasting along  the  dorsum of the foot, runs to the
   great fop.
      II.  The posterior tibial, the other branch of  the pop-
   liteal, passes  down  under the soleus upon the posterior
   surface of lhe flexor  longus  and tibialis  posticus, to the
   lower extremity of the tibia, and  is afterward  inflected
   to (he sole of the foot, behind the internal ankle.  While
   (here covered by the*laciniated ligament and fat, it meets
   the broad extremity of the abductor pollicis, and divides
   into two branches : one of which passing to lhe great toe,
   is the internal plantar; the external plantar  runs to the
*   sole, between the flexor brevis  and longus, and under
   these, still deeper, to  the fifth metatarsal bone.  Here re-
   turning to the great toe,  by  an oblique  and  transverse
   flexion  under  the  tendons of the  flexor  longus, it forms
   the plantar arch.   Its chief branch is,
     1.  The common fibular or peroneal, very irregular in
   size and in the distribution of its branches.  It often equals
   in  dimension  the anterior  tibial; sometimes is entire-
   ly wanting, and at other  times is rather smaller than the
   posterior tibial.   Rising near the upper part of the tibialis
   posticus, it descends between the  muscle and the flexor
   pollicis, by which a little  lower it is covered;  and at last
   it touches fhe interosseous ligament.   Near the  inferior
   part of the bones, it divides into the anterior and posterior
   fibular.
                           Veins.
     Veins  are membranous canals, which either terminate
   in the  vena cava  superior, vena  cava inferior, or  vena
   portae.   Like the arteries, they also consist of three tu-
   nics, but they have no pulsation, collapse  when  divided,
   possess a greater diameter than the arteries,  have  more
   numerous  branches,  a more reticular  arrangement,  and
   run  more superficially.   Except the veins of the viscera
   and brain, these  vessels also possess valves.
     The veins of the external part  of (he  head and neck
   are the frontal, angular, temporal,  auricular,  lingual, oc-
   cipital,  and muscular.  All these  terminate in the exter-
   nal jugular, which opens into (he subclavian.   The  veins
   or sinuses of the  brain, vis. the  cavernous,  circular, pe-
   trosal,  occipital,  longitudinal, superior, and inferior, the
   lorcular herophili, and the lateral,  on the  contraiy, termi-
   nate in the internal jugular, which also opens into the  sub-
   clavian.   The vertebral veins returning from the brain,
   terminate semilaterally.
     The chief veins of the  upper extremities are  the  axil-
   lary in the axilla, the brachial in the arm, and the cephal-
   ic on the outside, the median on the middle, and the ba-
   silic  on the  inside, of the fore arm.   The cephalic and
   basilic  veins being joined by lhe  mediana cephalica and
   mediana basilica,  pass up (he arm.
     The veins of the thorax are the  internal thoracic veins,
   the  vena azygos, which returns the blood of the  intercos-
   tal veins, and the  two subclavian, of which the left is long-
   er than the right, on account of the situation  of the supe-
   rior cava toward the right side.
     The vena porlse, which is distributed through (he  liver,
   derives its blood from the mesenteric and splenic veins.
     Those of lhe loins and pelvis exactly correspond to the
   lumbar and pelvic arteries.
     The veins of the lower extremities are fhe vena saphena
   major,  which passes  up  the inside of the leg and thigh,
and  terminates in the groin ;  the vena  saphena  minor,
which passes up the outside of the leg, and  terminates in
the ham ; the popliteal and the crural veins, which accom.
pany their corresponding arteries.
  It must be observed that both in the leg and in the thigh,
each  deep seated artery is accompanied by two corres-
ponding veins, denominated venae sodales.

                      Of the eye.
  The principal and most essential part in each organ, is
the globe or ball of the eye ;  the others are partly exter-
nal and  partly  internal.  The external parts are the su
percilia,  or  eyebrows,  the  palpebrae,  or  eyelids, the
caruncula lachrymalis, and the puncta  lachrymalia ; and
the internal  parts are the muscles, fat, lachrymal  gland,
nerves, and blood vessels.

             The globe or ball of the eye.
  Composition.   The globe of the eye being the most es-
sential of all  the soft parts belonging  to the organ of sight,
and being likewise a part which we are obliged to mention
as often as we speak of the  other soft parts, must be first
described.  It is made up of several  proper parts; some
of which being  more or less solid,  represent a kind of
shell formed  by  the  union of several membranous strata,
called the coats of the globe of the  eye ; and the other
parts being more or  less fluid, and contained in particular
membranous  capsular, or  in the interstices between the
coats, are termed  the humours of the globe of the eye.
The coats of the globe of  the eye  are of  three  kinds.
Some form chiefly the shell  of the globe ;  some are ad-
ditional, being fixed only to a part of the globe ; and some
are capsular, which  contain the humours.   The  coats,
which form the globe of  the  eye, are,  the sclerotic, to
which lhe  convexity of lhe globe is owing; the cornea,
which forms the  anterior part of the  globe ;  the iris, or
circle, surrounding the pupil, choroides, and retina, or ex-
pansion of the optic  nerve.    The  additional is  the con-
junctiva, which covers the whole fore part of the eye, and
lines  the  eyelids.    The capsular tunicae are two,  the
vitreae and crystallina.
  The globe of the  eye thus  formed, receives from be-
hind a pretty large  pedicle, which is the continuation of
the optic nerve.    It is situated about the middle of the
orbit, in the  manner  which  we shall afterward see  ;  and
it is tied to it by the optic nerve,  by six muscles, by the
tunica conjunctiva, and by the palpebrae.  The back part
of the globe, the optic nerve,  and  muscles, are surround-
ed by a soft, fatly substance, which fills the rest of the
bottom of the orbit.   The humours are three in number:
the aqueous, vitreous, and  crystaline.   The first is  con-
tained in a space  formed in  the interstices of the anterior
portion of the coats.  The  second or vitreous humour, i»
contained  in a particular membranous capsula, and fills
above three fourths  of the shell or cavity of the globe of
fhe eye.   It has been named  vitreous, from ils supposed
Fesemblance  to  melted glass; but is really more like the
white of a new laid egg.  The crystaline  humour  is so
called from its resemblance to crystal, and is often named
simply the crystaline.   It is rather  a gummy mass than
an humour, of a lenticular form, more convex on the  back
than on the fore side, and contained in a fine membrane
called membrana or  capsula crystallina. 
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             The external parts of the eye.
  The supercilia, or eyebrows, are the two ridges cover-
ed with hair, situated  at the lower part of lhe forehead,
between the top of the nose and temples.
  The palpebrae are  a kind of veils or curtains  placed
transversely above and below the anterior portion of the
globe of the eye.   The  superior is the largest and most
moveable in man.
  The tarsi are thin cartilages forming  the principal part
of the edge of each  palpebra ;  and they are  broader at
the middle than at the extremities.  The broad ligaments
of the  tarsi are membranous  elongations  formed by the
union of the periosteum of fhe orbits,  and  pericranium
along both edges of  each orbit.  The lachrymal gland, the
use of which till of  late years was not known, is yellowish,
and  of the number of those called conglomerate  glands.
From this gland several small ducts go out, which run down
almost parallel to each other, through the substance of the
tunica interna or conjunctiva  of the superior palpebrae,
and afterward  pierce it inwardly near  the superior edge
of the  tarsus.
  The flat edge of  each palpebra is adorned with a row
of hairs, called  cilia,  or the  eyelashes.   Those  belong-
ing to lhe superior  palpebrae are bent  upward, and long-
er than those of the  lower palpebrae, which are bent down-
ward.
   Along the same border of the palpebrae, near the inter-
nal membrane, or toward the eye, we see a row of small
holes, which may be  named foramina,  or puncta ciliaria.
They are the  orifices  of the same number of small oblong
glands which lie in  the sulci, channels,  or grooves, on the
inner surface  of the tarsus.   Near the great and internal
angle of the palpebrae lachrymales, and ductus, two small
holes are very visible, commonly named puncta lachryma-
lia, being (he orifices of two small ducts called lachrymal,
which unite beyond the angle of the eye, and open a little
below (he upper end of a particular reservoir, termed sac-
culus lachrymalis.  The caruncula lachrymalis is a small
reddish,  granulated, oblong body, situated precisely be-
tween the infernal angle of (he palpebrae and globe of the
eye.   The fold which has the name membrana semiluna-
ris, appears most when the eye is turned toward the nose ;
it is shaped like a crescent, the two points of which answer
to the puncta lachrymalia, and conduct the tears into the
puncta.
  The vessels, nerves, and muscles of  the eye, are each
described in their place.
                     Of the nose.
  The parts of which the nose is composed may be de-
rived in two different  ways, vis. from their situation, into
external and internal parts; and from their structure, into
hard and soft parts.
  The external parts  are from the root of the nose, the
arch, the back or spine of the nose, the sides of the  nose or
of t he arch, the lip of  the nose, the alae, the external nares,
and (he part under the septum.
  The internal  parts  are the  internal  nares, the septum
nariura, the circumvolutions, fhe chonchae superiores, or
ossa spongiosa superior a, chonchae inferiores, the posteri-
or openings of (he internal nares, the sinus  frontales, si-
nus maxillares, sinus  sphenoidales, the ductus palatini.
The firm or hard parts are mostly bony, and  the rest car-
  vol. i.           20
tilaginous, vis. the os frontis, os ethmoides, os sphenoides,
ossa maxillaria, ossa nasi, ossa unguis, ossa palati, vomer,
chonchae inferiores, and  the  cartilages.   To these we
may add the periosteum and perichondrium, as parts be-
longing to the bones and cartilages.
  The soft parts are the  integuments, muscles, sacculus
lachrymalis  receiving the tears, membrana pituitaria lining
all the cavity of the nose, vessels, nerves, and hairs of the
nares.  The bony parts have been  all explained in the
description of the skeleton  ; and therefore we need only
in this place to set down the distribution and disposition
thereof, for  the formation  of some of  the principal parts.
The septum is formed  by the  descending lamina of the
os ethmoides, and by the vomer,  and it is placed in the
groove  formed by the crista; of the ossa  maxillaria, and
rising  edges of  the ossa palati.   The  fore part of the
nose is formed by the ossa nasi ; and  the sides by the su-
perior apophyses of the ossa maxillaria.
  The internal nares, or fhe two cavities of fhe nose, com-
prehend the whole space between  the external nares and
posterior openings, immediately above the arch of the pal-
ate, whence these cavities reach upward as far as the lam-
ina cribrosa of the os ethmoides, where they communicate
forward with the sinus frontales, and backward with the
sinus sphenoidales.  Laterally, these  cavities, are bound-
ed on the inside by the septum  narium ; and on the  out-
side, or that next the cheek, by the conchae, or ossa spon-
giosa, between which they  communicate with the  sinus
maxillares.
                     Of the ear.
  The external ear.  Two portions are  distinguished in
the external ear ; one large and solid,  called pinna, which
is the superior, more cartilaginous, and by much the greater
part; the other small and soft, called the lobe, which makes
the lower part.   We may likewise consider  two sides in
the outward ear,  one turned obliquely forward, and irreg-
ularly concave ; the other turned obliquely backward, and
unequally convex.
  The fore side is divided  into eminences and  cavities.
The  eminences are four in  number, called helix, antihe-
lix, tragus, and antitragus.  The helix is the  large folded
border, or  circumference of the great  portion of the ear.
The antihelix is the large oblong eminence, or rising, sur-
rounded by  the helix.  The tragus is the small anterior
protuberance below the anterior extremity of the helix,
which, in an advanced age, is covered wi(h hairs.   The an-
titragus is the posterior tubercle,below the inferior extrem-
ity of the antihelix.
  The  cavities on the fore side are four in number ; (he
hollow of (he helix, (he depression at the superior extrem-
ity of the antihelix, called fossa auricularis ;  the conchae,
or great  double cavity,  that lies under the rising termed
antihelix, the upper bottom  of which is distinguished from
the lower by a continuation of the helix, in form of a trans-
verse crista ; and lastly,  the meatus of  the  external ear,
situated at the lower part of the bottom of (he concha.
  The other parts of the external ear are ligaments-, mus-
cles, integuments, sebaceous, and ceruminous glands, ves-
sels, and nerves.
  The bony part of the organ of hearing may be divided
into four general parts.   1.  The meatus  auditorius exter-
nus.  2. The tympanum.  3. The labyrinth.  4.Themea- 
ANA
ANA
ius audiforius internus.   It may  likewise be divided  into
immoveable  or  containing parts, which  take  in all  the
four already mentioned ; and moveable or contained parts,
which are four little bones lodged in the tympanum, called
incus, malleus, stapes, and os orbiculare or lenticulare.
   The meatus externus is somewhat more than half an inch
in length, running obliquely from behind forward in a curv-
ed direction.  It terminates inwardly by an even circular
edge, which is grooved quite round, for the attachment of
the membrana tympani.
   The tympanum,  or drum of the ear, is a cavity some-
what spherical,  or rather hemispherical, the bottom of
which is turned inward, and the  mout,h joined to the circu-
lar groove already mentioned.  The remarkable eminences
are three in number;  a large tuberosity, lying in  the very
bottom of the tympanum, a little toward the  back part,
and a small irregular pyramid, situated above the tuberos-
ity, and a little more backward, the apex of which is per-
forated by a small hole.  In the third eminence is a cavity
situated at the upper end, a little  toward the anterior part
of the bottom of the tympanum.  This cavity  is part of a
half canal, which, in a natural state, has one of the muscles
of the malleus lodged in it.
   The principal  cavities  in the  tympanum are, the open-
ing of the mastoid cells,  the opening  of the Eustachian
tube, the bony half canal, the fenestra ovalis and rotunda ;
and to these may be added the small hole in the pyramid.
   The labyrinth is divided into three parts ; the anterior,
middle, and posterior ; the middle portion is termed ves-
tibulum, the anterior cochlea, and the posterior labyrinth
in particular, which comprehends the  three semicircular
canals.
  'The cochlea lies forward and  inward, toward  the  ex-
tremity of the pars petrosa ;  the semicircular canals back-
ward and outward, toward the basis of the process, and the
vestibulum between the other two.
   The meatus audiforius internus, is on the back side of the
pars  petrosa, in some measure behind the vestibule and
basis of the cochlea fossilise; one large and the other small.
   The-ductus auris palatinus, or  Eustachian tube, is a ca-
nal or duct, which goes from the tympanum to the  posterior
openings of the nares, and toward the arch of  the palate.
   The  membrana tympani is a thin, transparent, flatfish
pellicle, the edge of which is round, and strongly fixed in
the orbicular groove which divides the bony meatus of the
external ear from the tympanum,   or barrel.  The whole
internal cavity of the labyrinth is filled with a watery fluid,
secreted from the vessels, which are dispersed upon  the
periosteum.  This fluid transmits to fhe nerves the vibra-
tions it receives  from the membrane  situated between the
tympanum and labyrinth.
   The superfluous part of this fluid is supposed to pass off
through two small  canals, called aqueducts of  Cotunnius.
   The portio mollis  of  the auditory nerve ends, by its
trunk, at the great fossula of the  internal  auditory hole,
whence the filaments  pass through the  cochlea, the vesti-
bule, and the semicircular  canals, upon membranous ca-
aals, and bags disposed within them.
           Of the mouth, and organ of taste.
   The mouth may be distinguished into  external and in-
ternal ;  and the parts of  which it consists may  likewise
come under the same two general  heads.  The bony parts
 are the ossa maxillaria, ossa  palati,  maxilla  inferior, and
 the  teeth ;  to these we may add os hyoides, and the up-
 per vertebrae of the neck.
   The external parts  of the mouth are, the two lips, one
 upper the other under; the borders, or red part of the lips,
 the corners, or commissures of the lips ; the fossula of the
 upper lip, the basis of the under lip ; the chin, (he basis
 of the chin ; the skin ; the beard ; and even the cheekg,as
 being the lateral parts of the mouth in general, and of the
 lips in particular.
  The internal parts of the mouth are, the gums, palate,
 septum palati, uvula, amygdalae, the tongue, the membrane
 which lines  the whole cavity, the salival duct and glands,
 and the bottom of the mouth.
  The palate is that arch or cavity of the mouth, surround-
 ed anteriorly by the alveolar edge and teeth of the upper
jaw, and reaching thence to the great opening of the pha-
 rynx.  The arch is partly solid and immoveable, and part-
 ly soft and moveable.  The solid portion is  that which is
 bounded by the teeth, being formed by the two ossa maxil-
 laria, and two ossa palati.  The soft portion lies behind the
 other, and runs backward, like a veil fixed to the edge of
 the ossa palati, being formed partly by the common mem-
 brane of the whole arch,  and partly  by several muscular
 fasciculi, &c.
  The velum palati, terminates below by a loose floating
 edge, representing an arch,  situated transversely above
 the basis, or root, of the tongue.  The highest portion, or
 top, of this arch, sustains a small, soft, and irregularly con-
 ical glandular body, fixed by its basis to the arch, and its
 apex hanging down, without adhering to any thing, which
 is called uvula.   On each side of the uvula  there  are two
 muscular half arches, called  columnse septi  palati, which
 contain between them the glands called amygdalae.
  The tongue is divided into the basis  and  point, the up-
 per and under sides, and  the lateral portions,  or  edges,
 The basis is the posterior and thickest pari; the point the
 anterior  and thinnest  part.  The upper side is not quite
 fiat, but a little convex, and divided into two lateral halves,
 by a shallow depressed line,  called linea lingua? mediana.
 The edges  are thinner than the other parts, and a little
 rounded, as well as the point.   The lower side reaches
 only from the middle  of  the length of the tongue to the
 point.  Three sorts of papillae may be distinguished in the
 upper side of the tongue, capitalse, semi-lenticulares, and
 villosae.
            Of the skin, and organ of  touch.
  The common integuments are divided into cuticula, rete
 mucosum, cutis vera, and corpus adiposum.
  The outside of the skin is covered by a thin transparent
 insensible pellicle, closely joined  to it, which is called
 epidermis, cuticula, or scarf skin.
  Under the cuticle, we  meet with a substance of a gray-
 ish colour, which has got the name of corpus cuticulare,o»
 rete  mucosum ; it is of a soft, mucilaginous,  and viscid na-
 ture, and  fills up  the interstices of the fibres running be-
 tween the cutis vera and cuticula.  After raising the cuti-
 cle in a negro, where it is thickest and most distinct, this
 substance appears of a black colour, and is  composed of
 two layers.   It is this  that chiefly gives the colour to the
 skin,  for it is black in  the African, and white,  brown, or
 yellowish, in the European, 
A N  A
ANA
  The cutis vera, or skin, properly  so  called, is a sub-
stance of very large extent, made up  of several  kinds of
fibres, closely connected  together, and running in various
directions, being composed of the extremities of numerous
vessels and nerves.
  It is not easily torn, may be elongated in all  directions,
and afterward  recovers itself, as we see  in the persons, in
women with child, and in swellings ;  and it is thicker and
more compact in some places than in others.
  In different parts of the body, we meet with small glands,
or follicles, of an oval form, and seated chiefly under the skin
in the corpus adiposum.   These are called sebaceous and
miliary.
  The last universal integument of the human body is the
membrana adiposa, or corpus adiposum.
  The nails are productions of the epidermis.
  The hairs belong  as much to the integuments as the
nails.  Their roots, or bulbs, lie toward  that side of the
skin which is next the membrana adiposa.

                    Of the brain.
  This mass is divided into three particular portions ; the
cerebrum, or brain, properly  so called, the cerebellum, and
medulla oblongata.   To these three parts,  contained with-
in the cranium, a fourth is added, which fills the  great ca-
nal  of the spina dorsi, by the name  of  medulla spinalis,
being a continuation of the medulla oblongata.
  The meninges, or membranes of  the brain, are two  in
number ; one of which is very strong, and lies contiguous
to the cranium ; the other is  very thin, and immediately
touches the brain.   The first is named dura mater, the sec-
ond pia  mater.  The last is again  divided into  two, the
external  lamina  being  termed arachnoides,  the internal
retaining the common name  of pia mater.   From the for-
mer are the falx tentorium, &c. which are septa of the brain,
while the latter more immediately invest the cerebral mass.

                      Cerebrum.
  Situation and figure.   The cerebrum, properly so call-
ed,  is a kind of medullary mass, of a moderate consistence,
and of a grayish colour on the outer surface, filling all the
superior portion of the cavity of the cranium ; or that por-
tion which lies above the transverse septum.   The upper
part of the cerebrum is of an oval  figure.  It is flatter on
the  lower part, each lateral  half of which is divided into
three eminences, which correspond with the cavities at the
base of the cranium.
  Division and lobes.  The cerebrum is divided into two
lateral portions,  separated by the falx, or  great longitudi-
nal  septum of (he dura mater.  They are generally  term-
ed hemispheres, but they are more like quarters of an ob-
long spheroid.   Each of  these portions is divided into two
extremities, one anterior, and one posterior, which are term-
ed the lobes of the cerebrum, between which there is a
large inferior protuberance, which goes by the same name ;
so fhat in each hemisphere there are  three lobes, one an-
terior, one middle,  and one  posterior.   The anterior and
middle lobes of the cerebrum on each side are parted by
a deep narrow sulcus, termed fissura  magna sylvii.
  Sides and inequalities.  Each lateral portion of the ce-
rebrum has three sides, one superior,  which is convex, one
inferior, which is uneven, and one lateral, which is flat, and
turned to fhe falx.  Through the whole surface of  these
             20*
three sides,  we see inequalities, or windings, like the cii
convolutions of intestines, formed like weaving streaks or
furrows, very  deep and narrow, into which the septa, or
duplicatures of the pia mater, insinuate themselves, and
thereby separate these circumvolutions from each other.
  Near the surface of the cerebrum, these circumvolutions
are at some distance from each other, representing serpen-
tine ridges;  and in the interstices between them, the su-
perficial veins of the cerebrum are lodged.
  Substance.   The substance of the cerebrum is of two
kinds,  distinguished  by two different colours, one part of
it being of a grayish or ash colour, the other,  which is
somewhat firmer than the former, is remarkably white, but
redder in the fetus. The ash coloured substance lies chief-
ly on the outer part of the cerebrum, like a kind of cortex,
whence it has  been named substantia corticalis, or cinerea.
The white substance occupies the inner part, and is term-
ed substantia medullaris, or substantia alba.  This abounds
in greater quantity than the other,  and  in many places is
perforated with red arteries.
  Corpus callosum.  Having cut off the falx from the cris-
ta galli, and  turned it backward ; if we separate gently the
two lateral parts or hemispheres of the cerebrum, we see
a longitudinal portion of a white convex body,  which is
named corpus callosum.  Both extremities of this medul-
lary body terminate by a small  edge,  bent transversely
downward.
  Medullary arch  and centrum ovale.   The corpus cal-
losum becomes afterward continuous on each side, with
the medullary substance, which, through all the remaining
parts of its extent, is entirely united wilh the cortical sub-
stances, and together with the corpus callosum  forms a
medullary arch or  vault, of an oblong or  oval figure.  To
perceive this, the  whole cortical substance, together with
the medullary  laminae mixed wilh it, must  be cautiously
and dexterously cut in the same direction wilh the convexi-
ty of the cerebrum.
  Ventriculi laterales.   Under this arch are two lateral
cavities, much longer than they are broad, and very shal-
low, separated by a transparent  medullary  septum ;  of
which hereafter.   These cavities are generally named the
lateral ventricles of the brain.
   The lateral  ventricles are broad, and rounded at those
extremities  which  lie next the transparent septum.  They
go  from before backward, contracting in  breadth, and sep-
arating from each other  gradually in their progress.  Af-
terward they bend downward, and return  obliquely from
behind forward, in a course  like the turning of a ram's
horn, and terminate almost under their  superior extremi-
ties, only a  little more backward and outward.
   At the posterior part, where fhey begin  to bend down-
ward, there is on each side a particular  elongation, which
runs backward, and terminates in a triangular pointed cav-
ity, turned a little  inward, the twopoints  resembling horns.
These ventricles are  every where lined with a continua-
tion of the pia mater.
   Septum lucidum.   The  transparent  partition, or sep-
tum lucidum, as it is commonly called, lies  directly un-
der the raphe, or suture of the corpus callosum, of which
it is a continuation, and a kind of duplicafure.  It is made
up of two medullary laminae, more or less  separated from
each other by a narrow medullary cavity, sometimes filled
wifh a serous substance. 
ANA
ANA
   Fornix.  The septum lucidum is united by its lower
part, to the anterior  portion of the particular  medullary
body, called improperly the fornix with three pillars.  It
is in  reality nothing but the corpus callosum ; the lower
side of which is like a hollow ceiling, with three angles, one
anterior, and two posterior, and three  edges, two lateral,
and one posterior. The lateral edges are terminated each by
a large semi-cylindrical border, like two arches, which, unit-
ing at the anterior angle, form by their union what is call-
ed the anterior pillar of the fornix ; and as they run back-
ward separately toward the two posterior  angles,  they
have  then the  name of the posterior pillars.
  The anterior pillar being double, is larger than either
of the posterior ; and the marks of this duplicity always
remain.  Immediately below the basis of this pillar we ob-
serve a large, white, short medullary rope, stretched trans-
versely between the two hemispheres, and commonly call-
ed the  anterior commissure, of the  cerebrum.  It is  to
this pillar that  the septum lucidum adheres.   The posteri-
or pillars  are  bent  downward,  and continue through the
lower portions of the ventricles all the way to their cavi-
ties, resembling  a ram's  horn, which is a name that has
been given to  them.  They diminish gradually in thick-
ness during this course, and at their outsides have each a
small, thin, flat, collateral border, to which  the name of
corpora fimbriata is  applied.
  The posterior pillars of  the crura of the  fornix unite
with two  medullary protuberances, called pedes  hippo-
campi.   The  inferior surface  of the  triangular  ceiling,
which lies between these arches, is  full of transverse,
prominent, medullary lines; for which reason the ancients
called it  psalloides  and lyra,  comparing it to a stringed
instrument, something like what is now called a dulcimer.
   Under  the fornix, and immediately behind its anterior
crura, there  is  a hole, the foramen Monroi, of a considera-
ble size, by  which the two lateral ventricles communicate,
and another passage leads down from this under the differ-
ent appellations of foramen commune  anterius,  vulva,
iter ad infundibulum, but more properly iter ad  tertium
ventriculum.
  Eminences.   The fornix being cut off, and inverted, or
quite removed,  we see first of all a vascular  web, called
plexus  choroides,  and several eminences  more or less
covered by  the expansion of that plexus.  There are four
pairs of eminences, which follow each other very regular-
ly, two  large, and  two small.  The first two  great emi-
nences are named corpora striata, and the second thalami
nervorum  opticorum.  The four  small eminences are
closely united together; the anterior  being called nates,
and the posterior testes;  but  it  would be  better to call
them simply anterior and posterior tubercles.  Immedi-
ately before these  tubercles, there is  a single  eminence,
called glandula pinealis.
   Corpora  striata.   The corpora striata got that name,
because, by cutting them with  the knife, we meet with a
great number  of white and ash coloured lines, alternately
disposed, which are only the transverse section of the me-
dullary and cortical laminae,  mixed together, in a vertical
position, in  the basis of the cerebrum, as appears evident-
ly by incisions made from  above  downward.  These two
eminences are of a grayish colour on  the surface, oblong,
roundish, pyriform, and larger on the fore than on the back
part, where they are narrow and bent.
   They lie  in the bottom of the superior cavity of the
lateral ventricles, which they resemble in some measure
in shape, their anterior  parts being near the septum  luci-
dum, from which they separate gradually, as they run
backward, and diminish in size.  They are in reality the
convex bottoms of the ventricles ; and  it is at the lower
part of the interstice, between the largest portions of them,
that we observe the greatest transverse cord, termed the
anterior commissure of the cerebrum, which  we mention-
ed already  in describing the anterior pillar of the fornix,
This cord communicates more  particularly with the  bot-
tom of the corpora striata, by a turn toward each side.
  Thalami nervorum opticorum.  The thalami nervorum
opticorum are so  named, because these nerves rise chiefly
from them.   They are  two large  eminences  by the  side
of each other, between  the posterior portions or  the  ex-
tremities of the corpora striata.  Their figure is semi-sphe-
roidal, and a  little oval, and they are of a whitish colouron
the surface,   and  their inner substance  is partly grayish
and partly white; so that in cutting them we see streaks of
different colours,  like those of the corpora striata.
  These two eminences are closely joined together; and at
their convex part they are so far united, as really to become
one body; the whitish outer substance being continued
uniformly over them both.
  Third ventricle.   Immediately under the union, or be-
ginning of t he thalami nervorum opticorum, lies a particular
cavity, called the third ventricle of the cerebrum.  Thii
cavity communicates, at its upper and fore part, with  the
passage between the two lateral  ventricles,  and sends
down from its under and fore part  a passage  through  the
infundibulum.  It opens backward into the  passage called
the iter ad quartum ventriculum.
  Infundibulum.   Between the basis of the anterior pillar
of the fornix, and lhe anterior part of the union of the  op-
tic thalami, lies a  small medullary canal, named infundibu-
lum.   It runs down toward the basis of the  cerebrum, con-
tracting gradually, and terminates in a straight course by
a small membranous  canal, in a softish body, situated in
the sella Turcica, named glandula pituitaria.
  Plexus choroides.  The plexus choroides is a very  fine
vascular texture,  consisting of a great number of  arterial
and  venal ramifications,  partly collected  in two loose
vasculi, which lie  on each lateral ventricle, and partly ex-
panded over  the neighbouring parts, and covering in a par-
ticular manner the thalami nervorum opticorum, glandula
pinealis, tubercula, quadrigemina, and the other adjacent
parts, both of the cerebrum  and cerebellum,  to all which
it adheres.
  Glandula   pituitaria.   The pituitary  gland is a small
spongy body, lodged  in the sella Turcica,  between the
sphenoidal folds of the dura mater.  On the outside  it i»
partly grayish, and partly reddish, and white  within. It
is transversely oval  or  oblong ; and on the lower part, in
some subjects, is divided by a small notch in two lobes,
like a kidney bean.  It is covered by the pia  mater, as by
a bag, the opening of which is the extremity  of the infun-
dibulum : and is surrounded  by the small circular sinuses,
which communicate with the sinus of  the cavernosi.
  Tubercula.  The tubercles are four in number, two an-
terior  and  two posterior; adhering together, as if  tbej
made but one body, situated behind the union of the tha-
lami nervorum opticorum.  They are transversely oblong, 
ANA
ANA
the anterior being a little  more rounded, and broader, or
larger, from before backward than the posterior.  Their
surface is white, and their inner substance grayish.
   Directly under the place where the tubercles of one
side are united to those of the other side, lies iter ad quar-
tum ventriculum, which  communicates by  its anterior
opening with the  third ventricle, under the thalami nervo-
rum opticorum,  and  by  its posterior opening with the
fourth ventricle, which belongs to the cerebellum.
   Foramen commune posterius, where the convex parfs
of the  two anterior tubercles join these  posterior convex
parts of the  thalami  nervorum opticorum, an interstice,
or opening, is  left between these four  convexities , but it
does not  communicate with  the  third ventricle, for the
bottom of it is shut up by the pia mater.   It has got the
name of anus applied  to it.
   Glandula pinealis.   The  glandula  pinealis is  a small,
soft, grayish body, about the size of  an ordinary pea, ir-
regularly round, and sometimes of the figure of a pine ap-
ple, situated  behind  the thalami  nervorum  opticorum,
above the tubercula quadrigemina.  It is fixed like a small
button to the lower part of the thalami, by two very  white
medullary peduncui,  which at the gland are very near
each other, but separate transversely  toward  the thalami.
This gland is almost  always found to contain a peculiar
gritty substance: below  the glandula pinealis there is  a
medullary transverse cord, called the posterior commissure
of the hemispheres of the cerebrum.

                      Cerebellum.
   Situation and figure.  The cerebellum is contained un-
der the transverse septum of the dura mater, in the  under
and back par(  of the cranium.   It is broader laterally than
on the fore or  back sides, flatted on the upper side, and
gently inclined  both  ways, answerable  to lhe septum,
which serves it as a kind of tent or  ceiling.  On the low-
er side it is rounder;  and on the back side it is divided
into two lobes, separated by the occipital  septum of the
dura mater.
   Structure.   It is made up like  the cerebrum, of two
substances.  It has two middle eminences, called appen-
dices vermiformes : one anterior and superior, and turned
forward;  the  other  posterior  and inferior,  which goes
backward.  There are likewise  two  lateral  appendices,
both turned  outward.  They  are termed vermiformes,
from their resemblance  to  a large portion  of  an  earth
worm.
   Fourth ventricle.   When we separate the two lateral
portions or lobes, having first made a pretty deep incision,
we discover first of all the posterior portion of the me-
dulla oblongata, of which  hereafter : and in the posterior
surface of this portion, from  the  tubercula quadrigemina,
all the way to  the posferior notch, in the body of the ce-
rebellum ; and  a  little below that notch,  we  observe an
oblong cavity, which is called  the fourth ventricle; this
terminates backward,  like the  point of a writing pen.
Hence the under end of  it is called calamus  scriptorius.
If we  cut one lobe of the  cerebellum  vertically,  from
above downward, the  medullary substance  will appear to
be dispersed in  ramifications, through the cortical sub-
stance.  These ramifications have been named arbor vifae,
and (he two trunks, whence  these  different laminae  arise,
are called pedunculi cerebelli.
                 Medulla oblongata.
  The medulla oblongata is a medullary substance, situat-
ed from before backward in the michtle part of the basis
of the cierebrum and  cerebellum, without any discontinu-
ation between the lateral parts of both these bases.
  The chief  medullary productions are these ; the large,
or anterior branches of the medulla oblongata, which have
likewise  been named crura anteriora medulla? oblongata?,
and pedunculi cerebri; the transverse protuberance, call-
ed likewise  processus annularis,  or pons  Varolii; lhe
smaller posterior branches, called  pedunculi cerebelli, or
crura posteriora medulla? oblongata? ; the  extremity, or
cauda, of  the medulla oblongata, with two pairs of tuber-
cles; one of  which  is named corpora olivaria,  the other
corpora pyramidalia; and  to  all  these  productions we
must add a production of the infundibulum,  and (wo me-
dullary papillae.
                  Medulla spinalis.
  The medulla spinalis is only an elongation of the extrem-
ity of  the medulla oblongata, and it has its name  from its
being contained in the bony canal of the spina dorsi.   It is
consequently a continuation or common appendix of the
cerebrum and  cerebellum,  as  well because of the two
substances of which it  is  composed,  as because of the
membranes by which it is invested.

                     NEUROLOGY.
               Of the Nerves in general.
   The conlinuity of the cortex with  the medulla of the
encephalon and spinal marrow is observable with  the na-
ked eye, and is more distinctly seen with the assistance of
a microscope.  In dissecting the brain and cerebellum, we
see the small beginnings of the medulla  proceeding from
the cortex, and can  trace its gradual increase by the ad-
dition of more such white substance coming from the cor-
tex.   Both these substances are very succulent; for be-
ing exposed  to  the  air  to dry,  they lose  more of their
weight than'most parts of the body do.
   In several  places  we  can observe the  medulla to be
composed of fibres laid at each other's sides; and  it is em-
ployed in forming the  white  fibrous cords, which have
now  the name of nerves  appropriated to them.   Within
the skull we see the  nerves 1 o be the medullary substance
continued, and the spinal marrow is employed in  forming
all nerves.
   The common opinion concerning the use  of the nerves,
founded on a superficial inspection of those parts, is, that
the nerves are propagated from that side of the encepha-
lon at which they go  out of the skull.  But it having been
remarked, after a more strict enquiry, and preparing the
parts by maceralion in water, that the medullary fibres de-
cussate or cross each other in some parts of the medulla,
as, for example, at the corpus  annulare, and beginning of
the spinal marrow ; and  practical observations having re-
lated several  examples of people whose brain was hurt on
one side, while the morbid  symptoms, palsy, appeared on
lhe other side of tbe body, of  which we have seen some
instances; and experiments on brutes having confirmed
these observations, if has been thought that the nerves had
their rise from that side of the encephalon which  is oppo-
site to their egress from  the skull.   It may, however, still 
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ANA
be suud, that  this lust  opinion is not fully  demonstrated,
because a decussation  in  some parts is not a proof that it
obtains universalljy^and if there are examples of palsy of
the  6idc opposite  to where the lesion of the brain was,
there are  also others,  where fhe injury done to the brain
and fhe palsy were both on the same side.
  The nerves are composed of a great many threads ly-
ing parallel to each other, or nearly so, at their exit from
the medulla.   This fibrous texture is evident at the origin
of most of the nerves within fhe  skull; and in  the cauda
equina of the spinal marrow, we can  divide them info such
small threads, that a very  good eye can scarce perceive
them: but these threads,  when looked at with a micro-
scope, appear each to be  composed of a great number of
smaller threads.   How small one of these  fibres of the
nerve is, we know not; but when we consider that every,
even the most minute, part of the  body is sensible, and
that  this must depend upon the nerves, which, all conjoin-
ed, would not make  a cord of an inch diameter, being di-
vided into branches or filaments, to be dispersed through
all these minute parts, we must be convinced  that the ner-
vous fibrils are very small.   From the examination of the
minimum, visible, it is demonstrated, that each fibre in the
retina of fhe eye, or expanded optic nerve, cannot exceed
(he size of (he 32400th part of a hair.
  The medullary substance of  which the nervous fibrils
are composed,  is very tender,  and  would not  be able to
resist such forces as the nerves are exposed  to within the
bones, nor even  the  common force of the circulating flu-
ids, were not the pia mater and tunica  arachnoides contin-
ued  upon them; the  former giving  them  firmness and
strength, and  the latter furnishing a cellular coat to con-
nect the  threads of  the nerves, to  let them lie soft and
moist, and to support the  vessels  which go  with them.
It is this cellular substance that is  distended, when air is
forced through a blow pipe  thrust into a  nerve; and that
makes a nerve appear all  spongy,  after being  distended
with air till it dries :  the proper  nervous fibrils shrivelling
so in  drying,  that  they scarce can be obser¥ed.  These
coats would not make the nerves strong enough to bear the
stretching and pressure they are exposed to in their course
to the different parts of the body;  and  therefore, where
the nerves go out  at the holes in the cranium and spine,
the dura mater is  generally wrapped  closely round them
to collect their  disgregated fibres into tight firm cords;
and that the  tension which  they may happen to  be expos-
ed to may not injure them before they have got this ad-
ditional coat, it is firmly fixed to the sides of the holes in
the bones through which they pass.
  The nervous cords, thus composed of nervous fibrils,
cellular coat, pia  and dura mater, have  such  numerous
blood vessels,  that after fheir arteries only are injected,
the  whole cord is  tinged of the colour  of  the injected
liquor; and if the injection is pushed violently, the  cellu-
lar substance of the nerves is at last distended with it.
   A nervous cord,  such as has been just now  described,
has very  little  elasticity, compared  with several  other
parts of the  body.   When cut out of the body, it does not
become  observably  shorter, while the blood vessels con-
tract three eighths of their length.
   Nerves are generally lodged  in a cellular or fatty sub-
stance, and have their  course in  the interstices of muscles
and other active  organs,  where they are guarded from
pressure ; but in several parts they are so placed, as if it
was intended that they should there suffer the vibrating
force of arteries, or the  pressure of the contracting fibres
of muscles.
  The  larger cords of the nerves divide into branches as
they go off to  the  different parts; the branches being
smaller than the trunk from which they come, though not
proportionally so; for, as  Soemmerring observes, they
rather form cones with apices toward the brain, and bases
toward the superficies of the body.   Where  the nerves
separate, they generally make an acute angle.
  In several places different  nerves unite into one cord,
which is commonly  larger  than any of the nerves which
form it.  Several nerves,  particularly  those which  are
distributed to the bowels, after such union, suddenly form
a hard  knot,  considerably larger  than  all the nerves of
which it is made.  These knots were called corpora oliva-
ria, and are now generally named ganglions.   The gangli-
ons have thicker coats, more numerous and larger blood
vessels, than the nerves ;  so that  they  appear more red
and muscular.  On dissecting the ganglions, fibres are seen
running longitudinally  in  their axes, and other fibres are
derived from their sides in  an oblique direction to  the lon-
gitudinal ones.   Commonly numerous small nerves, which
conjunctly are not equal to the size of  the ganglion, are
sent out from it, but with a structure no way different from
that of other qerves.
  The nerves sent to the organs of the semen lose there
their firm coats, and terminate in a pulpy substance.  The
optic nerves  are expanded into the soft tender webs, the
retinae.   The auditory nerve has scarce  the  consistence
of mucus in the  vestibulum, cochlea, and semicircular ca-
nals of  each ear.  The papillae of  the nose,  tongue, and
skin, are very soft.   The  nerves of muscles can likewise
be traced till  they  seem to lose their coats by becoming
very soft;  from  which, and what we observed  of the sen-
satory  nerves, there  is reason to  conclude, that the mus-
cular nerves are also pulpy  at their terminations, which we
cannot  indeed prosecute  by dissection.  It  would seem
necessary that the  extremities of the nerves shonld con-
tinue  in this soft flexible state in  order to perform their
functions right;  for,  in proportion as parts become rigid
and firm by age, or any other  cause, they lose their sensi-
bility, and their  motions are more difficultly performed.
  Though the fibres in a nervous coat are firmly connect-
ed, and frequently different nerves join into one trunk, or
into the same ganglion, yet the sensation of each part of the
body is so very  distinct, and we have so much the power
of moving the muscles separately, that,  if the nerves are
principal agents in these two functions, we have reason to
believe that there is no union, confusion, or immediate
communication of the proper nervous fibrils, but that each
fibre remains distinct  from  the origin to its termination.
  Many experiments and observations concur in proving,
that when nerves are  compressed, cut, or any other waj
destroyed, the parts  served by  such nerves,  further from
the head or spine than where the  injuring cause has been
applied, have their  sensations, motions,  and  nourishment,
weakened or lost, while no such effects are seen in the parts
nearer to the origin of those nerves ; and in  such experi-
ments, where the cause impeding the nerves from  exerting
themselves could be removed, and the  structure of the
nerves not injured; as, for example, when a ligature made 
ANA
ANA
upon a nerve, and stopping its  influence, has been taken
away ; the motion and sensation of the parts soon were re-
stored : from which it would appear, that the nerves are
principal instruments in  our sensations and motions ; and
that this influence of the nerves is not inherent in them, un-
less the communication between these cords and their or-
igin is preserved.
  Experiments and observations show,  too, that when
parts of the encephalon or spinal marrow have  been irri-
tated,  compressed, or destroyed, the parts of the body,
whose nerves had their origin from such  affected parts of
the encephalon or spinal  marrow,  became  convulsed,
paralytic, insensible, or wasted; and in such cases, where
the injuring cause could be removed from the origin of the
nerves, the morbid symptoms  observed in the parts to
which  these nerves were distributed, went off upon the
removal of that  cause ;  from  which  it is thought reason-
able to conclude, that the nerves must  not  only  have a
communication  with their  origin, but that the  influence
they have upon the parts they are distributed to, depends
upon  the influence which they derive from the medulla
encephali and spinalis.
  If such causes produce constantly such effects in us and
other creatures  living in nearly the  same circumstances
as we do, the conclusions already made must  be good,
notwithstanding the examples of children and other crea-
tures being born without brains or spinal marrow, or not-
withstanding that the  brains of adult  creatures  can be
much changed in their texture  by diseases, and that  tor-
toises  and some other animals continue to move a consid-
erable time after their beads are cut off.   We may be ig-
norant of the particular circumstances requisite  or neces-
sary to the  being or well being  of this or that particular
creature, and we  may be  unable to account for a great
many  phenomena; but  we must believe our eyes in the
examination of facts ; and if we see  constantly such con-
sequences from such actions, we cannot  but conclude the
one to be the cause and the other the effect.   It would be
as unjust to deny the conclusions just now made, because
of the seemingly preternatural phenomena mentioned at the
beginning of this head, as it would be to deny the necessity
of the circulation of the blood in  us and most quadrupeds,
because a frog can jump, or a tortoise can walk about after
all fhe bowels of its thorax and  abdomen are taken out,
or because the different parts of a worm crawl afler it has
been cut into a great many pieces.   It is therefore almost
universally allowed, that the nerves are  principal  instru-
ments in our sensations, motions, and nourishment; and
that the influence which they have, is communicated from
their origin, the encephalon and medulla spinalis.  But
authors are  far from agreeing about the  manner in which
this influence is communicated, or in what way nerves act
to produce their effects : some  alleging  that the nervous
fibres are all solid cords,  acting by elasticity or vibration ;
others maintaining that these fibres are small pipes convey-
ing liquors, by means of which their effects are produced ;
and certainly very considerable objections may be made
to both doctrines.
                Of particular  nerves.
  It is generally said, that  there are forty pair of nerves
in all ; of which ten come out from the encephalon,  and
the other thirty have their origin from the spinal marrow.
  Of the ten pair of nerves which come from the ence-
phalon, the first is the olfactory, which long had the name
of the mamillary  processes of the  brain, because in the
brutes, cows  and sheep, which were more commonly dis-
sected by the ancients, the anterior venfricles of the brain
are extended forward upon  these nerves, and adhere so
firmly to them, that they seem to make the  upper side of
the nerves.   Each of them is  large  where it  begins
to stretch out, and gradually becomes smaller as it ap-
proaches the cribriform bone.
  The tender structure and sudden  expansion of these
nerves on such a large surface, render it impossible to trace
them far,  which has made some authors deny them to  be
nerves ; but when we  break the circumference of the cri-
briform lamella, and then gently raise  it, we may see the
distribution of the nerves some way on the membrane of
the nose, where they form  a beautiful network, which has
been  exquisitely  delineated  by Scarpa, in his treatise
De Olfactu et Auditu.
  The contrivance of defending these long soft nerves from
Being too  much pressed by the anterior lobes of the brain,
under which they lie, is singular ; because they have not
only the prominent orbitar processes of the frontal bone to
support the brain on each side, with the  veins going into
the longitudinal sinus, and other attachments bearing it up,
but there  is a groove formed in each lobe of the brain itself
for them to lodge in.   Their splitting into so many small
branches  before they  enter the bones of the skull is like-
wise peculiar to them ; for generally the nerves come from
the brain in disgregated filaments, and unite into cords, as
they are going out at the holes of the bones.  This contri-
vance is the best  for answering the purpose they are de-
signed for, of being the organs of smelling ; for had  they
been expanded upon the membrane of the nose into a me-
dullary web, such as the optic forms, it would have  been
too sensible to bear the impressions of such objects as are
applied to the nose ; and a distribution in the more com-
mon way of a cord sending off branches, would not  have
been equal enough for such an organ of sensation.
   The second pair of  nerves, the optic, rising from lhe
thalami nervorum opticorum, make a large curve outward,
and then run obliquely inward and forward till they  unite
at the  fore part of the sella Turcica ;  these soon divide,
and each runs obliquely forward and outward, to go out at
its prdper hole in the  sphenoid bone, accompanied with
the ocular artery to be extended to the globe of the eye,
within which each is  expanded into a very  fine cup like
web, that lines all the inside of  the eye, to within a little
distance  of  the  edge of the  crystaline lens, and is uni-
versally known by the name of retina.
   Though the substance of this pair of nerves seems to be
blended at the place where they are joined, yet observa-
tions of people whose  optic nerves were not joined, and
others who were blind  of one eye from a fault in the optic
nerve, or in those who had one of their eyes taken out,
make it doubtful whether there is any such intimate union
of  substance ; the optic  nerve of the affected side only
being wasted, while the other was large and plump.  In
many fishes indeed, the doctrine of decussation is favour-
ed ; for their optic nerves plainly cross each o(her, with-
out any  union at  the  part where they are joined in men
and most quadrupeds.
   Thpse people whose optic nerves were not joined, hav-
ing neither seen objects double, nor turned their cv e* dif 
ANA
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 fercnt ways, is also a plain proof, that the conjunction of
 the optic nerves will not serve  to  account for either the
 uniform motions of our eyes, or our seeing objects single
 iviih (wo eyes, (hough it may be one cause of the remark-
 able sympathy of one eye wi(h (he other in many diseases.
   The retina of a recent eye without any preparation, ap-
 pears  a very fine  web, with some blood vessels coming
 from  its  centre to be distributed on it ; but after a good
 injection of the arteries lhat run in the substance of this
 nerve, as is  common to other nerves, it is with difficulty
 tbaf we can observe its nervous medullary substance. The
 situation of these vessels in the central part of the optic
 nerve, (he want of medullary fibres here, and the firmness
 of this nerve  before it  is expanded  at its entry  into the
 ball of the eye, may be the reason why we do not see such
 bodies, or parts of bodies, whose picture falls on  this cen-
 tral part of the retina.  An inflamation in those arteries of
 the retina which several  fevers and an ophthalmia  are gen-
 erally attended with, may well account for the  tenderness
 of (he eyes,  and inability to bear the light, which peopH
 have in these diseases.  The over distension of these ves-
 sels may likewise serve to account for the black spots ob-
 served on bright coloured  bodies especially, and  for that
 smoky fog through  which all objects are seen by people
 in some fevers.  If these vessels lose their  tone, and re-
 main preternaturally distended,  no object affects our reti-
 na, though the eye externally appears sound; or this may
 be one cause of amaurosis or gutta serena.   From a par-
 tial distension of these vessels, or paralysis of part of the
 retina, the central part, or the circumference, or any other
 part of objects, may be lost to one or both eyes.
   The third rise from the anterior part of the  processus
 annularis ; and piercing  the dura mater a little  before and
 to a side of the ends of the posterior clinoid process of (he
 sphenoid  bone, run along  (he  receplacula or cavernous
 sinuses, at the side of the ephippium to get out at the fora-
 minalacera; after which each of them divides into branches,
 of which  one,  after  forming a little ganglion, is  distrib-
 uted to the globe of the  eye ; (he  others are sent to lhe
 muscular rectus of the palpebra, and to the attollens, ad-
 ductor, deprimens, and obliquus minor, muscles of the
 eyeball.  These muscles  being principal  instruments in
 the motions of the eyelid and eyeball, (his nerve has (here-
fore got the name of (he  motor oculi.   We have frequent-
 ly observed in convulsions that the eyelids widely opened,
 the cornea turned upward and outward, and  the eyeballs
 sunk in the orbit, which  well  described the  conjunct ac-
 tion  of the muscles which this pair of nerves serves. The
 distension of a considerable branch of the carotid which
 passes  over  this nerve near its  origin on each side, may
 possibly be the reason of the heaviness in the eyelids and
 eyes after drinking hard  or eating much.
   The fourth pair, which are the smallest nerves  of any,
 derive their origin from  the back part of the base of the
 testes  ; and then making a long course on the side of  the
 annular protuberance, enter the dura mater a  little  further
 back, and more externally, than  the third pair, to run also
 along the receptacula, to pass out at the foramina lacera,
 and to  be entirely spent on the musculi trochleares, or su-
 perior  oblique muscles of the eyes.   These muscles being
employed in  performing the rotary motions, and the ad-
vancement of the eyeballs  forward, by which  several of
our passions are expressed; the nerves that serve them
 have got the name of pafhetici.   Why these small nerves
 should  be brought so far  to  this  muscle, when it could
 have been supplied  easily by the motor oculi, we know
 not.
   The fifth pair are  large  nerves, rising from the annular
 processes, where the medullary processes of the cerebel-
 lum join in the formation of that tube to enter the dura
 mater, near the point of the petrous process of the tempo-
 ral bones ; and then  sinking close by the receptacula at
 the sides  of  the sella  Turcica, each becomes in appear-
 ance thicker, forms a  distinct  ganglion,  and goes out of
 the skull in three great branches.
   The first branch of  the fifth is the ophthalmic, which
 runs through the  foramen lacerum to the orbit, having in
 its passage thither a connection wifh the sixth pair.  It is
 afterward  distributed to the ball of the eye with the third;
 to the nose, along wifh the olfactory, which the  branch of
 the fifth (hat passes through the foramen orbitarium inter-
 num joins,  as was already mentioned in the descripfionof
 the  first pair.  This ophthalmic branch  likewise supplies
 the parts at the internal canthus of the orbit, the glandu-
 la lachrymalis, fat, membranes, muscles, and teguments, of
 fhe eyelids ; its longest furthest extended branch passing
 through the  foramen superciliare of  the  os frontis, to be
 distributed to (he forehead.
   The small fibres which this first branch of the fifth and
 third pair of nerves send to (he eyeball, being situated on
 the optic nerves, and after piercing the sclerotic  coat, run-
 ning along  the  clinoid coat, on the outside of the retina,
 in their course to the uvea  or iris, may be a cause of the
 sympathy  between the optic  nerve  and the  uvea, by
 which we  more readily acquire (he  habit of  confracting
 the iris,  and thereby  lessen the  pupil,  when too strong
 light is excluded;  and, on the contrary,  enlarge the pupil
 when the light  is  too  faint.  This,  with  the sympathy
 which must arise  from some of the nerves of the mem.
 brane of the  nostrils being  derived from the first branch
 of the fifth pair of  nerves, may  also be lhe cause why an
 irritation of the re(ina, by too strong light, may produce
 sneezing, as if a stimulus had  been  applied to the mem-
 brane of lhe nose  itself; why pressing the internal can-
 thus of the orbit sometimes  stops sneezing; why  irritation
 of the nose, on (he  other hand, causes the eyelids to shut
 convulsively, and makes the tears  to flow plentifully; and
 why  medicines put into the nose affect diseases of the
 eyes.
   The  second branch of the fifth pair of nerves may be
 called maxillaris superior, from  its serving principally the
 parts of  the upper jaw.   It goes out at fhe round hole of
 the sphenoid bone, and sends immediately  one branch in-
 to the channel on the  top of the  antrum maxillare; the
 membrane of which, and the upper teeth, are supplied by
 it in ifs passage.  As this branch is about to go out at the
 foramen orbitarium  externum, it  sends a nerve through the
 substance of the os maxillare to come out at Sferno's duct,
 to be distributed to the fore part of lhe palate; and what
 remains of it escaping at the external orbitar hole, divides
 into a great many branches  that supply the cheek, upper
 l«p, and  nostril.  The  next considerable  branch of the
 ITTa"!?   7 «™9 3/fer givin? Ranches which are
 reflected through the s.x.h hole of the sphenoid bone, to
£?!, ?i? inte™8taI "here * 's  passing through  lhe skull
 with the carotid artery,  and lhe porlio dura ofthe seventh 
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pair as it passes through the os petrosum, is sent into the
nose by the hole common  to the palate  and  sphenoidal
bone ; and the remaining part of this nerve runs in the pa-
lato maxillary canal, giving off branches to the temples and
pterygoid muscles, and comes at last into  the palate to be
lost.  Hence the ache in the teelh in the  upper jaw occa-
sions a growing pain deep seated in the bones of (he face,
with swelling in (he eyelids, cheek, nose, and  under lip ;
and, on (he other hand,  an inflammation in these parts is
often attended with sharp pain in the teeth.
   The third or maxillaris inferior branch of the fifth pair,
going out of the oval hole of the sphenoid bone,  serves the
muscles of  the lower jaw, and  the  muscles situated be-
tween the os hyoides  and jaw.   All the salivary glands,
the amygdales, and the external ear, have branches from
it:  it  has a large  branch  lost in the tongue,  and sends
another through  (he canal, in the substance of the lower
jaw, to serve all the teeth there,  and to come out at  the
hole in the  fore part of the jaw,  to be lost in the chin  and
under lip.   Hence a convulsive contraction of the mus-
cles of the lower jaw,  or the mouth's being involuntarily
shut, a great flow of spittle  or  salivation, a pain in  the
ear, especially in deglutition,  and a swelling all about the
throat, are natural  consequences of  a violent irritation of
the nerves of the lower  teeth in the toothache  ; and pain
in the teeth and ear is as natural a consequence of angina.
Perhaps the sympathy of the organs of tasting and smell-
ing may, in some measure, depend on their both receiving
nerves from the fifth pair.
   The six(h pair, which  is the smallest except the fourth,
rises from the fore part of the corpora pyramidalia :  and
each entering the dura mater some way behind lhe poste-
rior clinoid process of the  sphenoid bone, has a  long
course below that membrane, and within the receptaculum
at the  side of the sella Turcica, where it is immersed in
the blood of the receptacle.  It afterward goes out at the
foramen lacerum into  the orbit, to  serve  the abductor
muscle of the eye.  In  the  passage of this nerve below
the dura mater, if lies very contiguous to the internal ca-
rotid artery,  and  to  the ophthalmic branch of the fifth
pair of nerves.  At the place where the sixth pair is con-
tiguous to  lhe carotid, a nerve ei(her goes from each of
them in an uncommon way, to wit, wilh the angle beyond
where it rises obtuse  to  descend with the artery, and to
form the beginning of  lhe intercostal nerve, according to
the common description; or, according to other authors,
this nerve comes up from the great ganglion of the inter-
costal to be joined (o (he sixth here.
   The arguments for this latter opinion are, that, accord-
irg  to  the common doctrine,  Ibis beginning of (he inter-
costal nerve, as it is called, would rise in a manner not or-
dinary in nerves.   In the next place, if is observed, that
the sixth pair is larger nearer to  (he other  than it is before
it comes to the place  where  (his  nerve is said to go off;
and therefore it is said to be more probable (hat  it receives
an addition  there, rather than gi\es off a branch.  Lastly,
it is found that, upon cutting the  intercostal nerves of  liv-
ing animals,  the eyes  were  plainly affected; (hey  lost
lheir bright water ; the gum  or gore, as  we call if, was
separated  in  greater  quantity ; lhe pupil was  more con-
tracted ; the cartilaginous membrane, at (he in(ernal can-
thus, came more over the eye ; and the eyeball itself was
diminished.
   vol. i.           21
   To this it is answered, in defence of the more common
doctrine,  1st, That other blanches of nerves go oft in a
reflected way, as well as this does, supposing it lo be lhe
beginning of lhe intercostal; and that the rehection would
rather be greater, if  it is thought lo come up fiom the in-
tercostal lo the sixth.  2d, It is denied that this  nerve is
in oroinary thicker at its lore than  at  its back part;  and
if it was to be the thickest nearest to the orbit, the con-
clusion made above could not be drawn fiom this appear-
ance,  because olher  nerves enlarge sometimes where
there is no addition made  to  them, as in the instance al-
ready mentioned of the trunk of the fifth pair, while be-
low  the dura mater.   3dly, The experiments on living
animals show,  indeed, that  the eyes are affected upon cut-
ting the intercostal nerve ;  but, not in the  way which
might have been expected, if the intercostal had furnish-
ed such a share of the nerve that  goes to the abductor
muscle of the  eye: for  it might  have been thought that
this muscle would have been  so  much weakened  immedi-
ately upon cutting the  intercostal, that its antagonist, the
adductor, would have greatly prevailed over it, and have
turned the eye strongly in toward the nose ; which is not
said to be a consequence of this experiment :  so  that the
arguments are still equivocal; and more observations  and
experiments must be made before  it can be determined
with certainly whether the sixth pair gives or receives a
branch here.  In  the mean  time,  we shall continue to
speak about the origin of the intercostal with the general-
ity of anatomists.
   At this place, where the  intercostal begins, the fifth
pair is  contiguous, and  adheres to the sixth; and it is
generally said, that the ophthalmic branch of the fifth gives
a branch or two to  the beginning of the intercostal, or re-
ceives such from it.  Others deny any such communica-
tion between them ; and those who affirm the communica-
tion, confess that, in some subjects, they could not see it.
   The seventh or auditory pair comes out from the later-
al part of  the annular process, behind where the medulla-
ry process of the cerebellum is joined lo that tube;  and
each being accompanied with a  larger artery  than most
other  nerves,  enters  lhe  internal  meatus  audiforius,
where the two large bundles of fibres, of which it appear-
ed to consist within the skull,  soon separate  from each
olher : one of them entering by  several small holes into
the vestibule,  cochlea, and semicircular canal, is stretched
on the inner camera of the ear in a very soft pulpy  sub-
stance , and  being never  seen  in the form  of   a  firm
cord, such as the  other parcel of this and most other
nerves become, is called the portio mollis of the auditory
neive.
   The olher part of the seventh pair passes through Ga-
len's foramen  ccecum,  or Fallopius's  aqueduct, in  its
crooked passage by (he side of (he tympanum ; in which
passage a nerve sent to the lingual branch of (he inferior
maxillary nerve along (he  outside of the itba Eiislachia-
na, and across (he  cavity of (he fympanim,, where it has
the  name  of chorda tympani, is commonly said  to be join-
ed lo it.  The very acute angle which Ibis nerve makes
with the fifth,  or  (he sudden violent  reflection it would
suffer on the  supposition of its  coming from the fifth to
(he seventh, appears unusual; whereas if we suppose that
it  comes from  lhe seventh lo (he  fifth, its course would be
more in the ordinary way, and the chorda tympani would 
ANA
ANA
be esteemed a branch of the seventh pair going to join the
fifth, the  size of which is increased by this acquisition.
This smaller bundle of the seventh gives branches to the
muscles of the malleus, and  to the dura mater, while it
passes through  the bony crooked canal; and at last comes
out in a firm cord, named portio dura, at the end of this ca-
nal,between the styloid and mastoid processes of the tempo-
ral bone, giving immediately filaments to the little oblique
muscles of the head, and to those that rise from the styloid
process.  It then pierces  through the parotid gland, and
divides into a great many  branches, which  are dispersed
in the muscles and teguments that  cover all the side of the
upper part of the neck, the whole  face and cranium, as far
back as the temple,  including a  considerable part of the
external ear.   Its branches having thus a considerable con-
nection with  all the three branches of the fifth pair, and
with the second cervical, occasions a considerable sympa-
thy of those nerves with it.   Hence in the  toothache the
pain  is occasioned very little in the affected tooth, com-
pared to what it is all along the side of the head and in the
ear.   By this communication or connection possibly too it
is that a vibrating string held between one's teeth, gives a
strong idea of a sound to  the  person who holds it, which
nobody else can perceive.   Perhaps too the distribution
of this nerve occasions the head  to be so quickly turned
upon the impression of sound on our ears.
   The  eighth pair of nerves or par vagum rise from the
lateral bases of the corpora olivaria in disgregated fibres,
and as they  are entering the anterior internal part of the
holes common  to the os occipitis and temporum, each is
joined by  a nerve  which  ascends within the dura mater
from the tenth of the head, the first,  second, and  inferior
cervical nerves ; this every body knows has the name of
the nervus accessorius.  When the two get off the skull,
the accessorius separates from the eighth, and descending
obliquely  outward passes  through the  sterno mastoideus
muscle, to which it gives branches, and  afterward  termi-
nates in the trapezius muscle of the scapula.  In this course
it is generally,  more or less, joined by the  second cervi-
cal nerve.   Why this nerve, and several  others which
are  distributed to muscles, are made to pierce through
muscles, which they might have  only passed near to, we
do not know.
   The large eighth  pair,  soon after its exit, gives nerves
to the tongue, larynx, pharynx, and ganglion, of the inter-
costal nerve ; and being disjoined from the ninth and in-
tercostal,  to  which it adheres closely  some  way, runs
straight down the neck behind the internal  jugular  vein,
and  at the external side of the carotid artery.  As  it is
about to enter  the thorax, a large  nerve goes off from the
eighth of  each side; this branch of the right side  turns
round from the fore to the  back part of the subclavian arte-
ry, while the branch of the left side turns round the great
'-urve of the aorta; and both of them mounting up again at
lhe  side of the cesophagus, to which they giye branches,
are lost at last in the larynx.   These are called the recur-
rent nerves.  The  muscles of the larynx being in a good
measure supplied with nerves from the recurrent, it is to
be expected that the cutting of them will greatly weaken
lhe voice, though it will not entirely be lost, so long as lhe
superior branches  of the eighth pair are entire.  Why the
recurrent nerves rise so low  from the eighth pair,  to go
round a large artery, and to have such a long course op-
ward, we know not.
  The eighth pair above, and at or near the place where
the recurrent nerves go off from it, or frequently the recur-
rents themselves, send off small nerves to the pericardium,
and to join with the branches of the intercostal that are dis-
tributed to the heart;  but their size and situation are un-
certain.
  After these branches are sent off, the par vagum on each
side descends behind the great branch of the trachea, and
gives numerous filaments  to  the lungs, and  some to the
heart, in going to the  cesophagus.   The one of the left
side running on the fore part of the  cesophagus, communi-
cates by several branches with the right one in its descent
to be distributed to  the stomach; the right one goes be-
hind the oesophagus, where it splits and rejoins several
times before  it arrives at the  stomach, to which it sendi
nerves; and then being joined by one or more branches
from the left  trunk, they  run toward the cceliac artery,
there to join into the great semilunar ganglion  formed bj
the two intercostals.
  From the distribution  of the par vagum we may learn
how tickling the fauces with  a feather, or any such sub-
stance, excites a  nausea and inclination to vomit; why
coughing occasions vomiting, or vomiting raises a cough;
why an attempt to  vomit is sometimes in danger of suffo-
cating asthmatic people ; why the superior orifice of the
stomach is so  sensible  as to be looked on as the seat of the
soul by some ; why people subject to distentions of the
stomach have  so often  the sensation of balls in their breast
and throat ; why the globus hystericus is so often attend*
ed with a violent strangulation of the glottis.
  The ninth pair of nerves comes from the inferior part of
the corpora pyramidalia, to go out  of the skull at their
proper holes of the occipital bone.  After their egress they
adhere for some way  to the eighth  and intercostal;  and
then sending  a branch that, in many subjects, is joined
with branches of the first and second cervical nerves, to be
distributed to the thyroid gland and muscles on the fore
part of the trachea arteria, the ninth is lost in the muscles
and substance of the  tongue.   Some  have thought  this
nerve, and others have esteemed the third  branch of the
fifth pair of nerves,  to be the proper gustatory nerve. We
know no observation or experiments to prove either opin-
ion, or to assure us  that both nerves do not serve for tast-
ing  and for the motion  of the tongue.  May not fhe distri-
bution of this nerve to the muscles below as well as above
the os hyoides, contribute to their acting more uniformly
in depressing the lower jaw or head ?
  The tenth  pair rises in  separate threads from the sides
of the spinal marrow, to go out between  fhe  os occipitis-
and  first  vertebra of the neck.  After each  of them has
given branches to  the great ganglion of the intercostal,
eighth, ninth,  and first cervical nerves, it is distributed to
the straight, oblique, and some of the extensor muscles of
the head.   Whether the name of the tenlh of the head,or
of the first vertebral, ought to be given to this pair of nerves,
is of no such  consequence as f o deserve a debate, though
it has some of the marks of spinal nerves ;  to wit, its being
formed of  filaments, proceeding from both the fore  and
back part of the medulla ; and a little ganglion being form-
ed where these filaments meet. 
ANA
ANA
   In the description of the sixth pair we followed the usual
way  of speaking among anatomists,  and called that the
beginning of the intercostal nerve which comes  out of the
skull ; and shall therefore here subjoin a cursory descrip-
tion of this nerve, notwithstanding its  much  larger part is
composed of nerves coming out from the spinal marrow.
There is no greater incongruity in point of method to say,
that fhe nerve  we are describing receives additions from
others that have not been described, than it is to repeat in
the description of a great many nerves, that  each  of them
gives branches to form a nerve which we are ignorant of;
which is all the difference between describing the intercos-
tal before or after the spinal nerves.
   The branch reflected from the sixth pair, joined possi-
bly by some filaments of the ophthalmic branch of the fifth,
runs along with the internal  carotid artery,  through the
crooked canal formed for it in the temporal bone, where the
little nerve is very soft and pappy, and in several subjects
divides and unites again, and  is joined by  one or more
branches from the fifth, particularly of its superior maxil-
lary  branch, before it comes out  of the  skull.   May not
the compression of this nerve by the carotid artery, when
stretched during the  systole, contribute to the  diastole of
the heart ?  As soon  as the nerve escapes out of the bony
canal, it is connected a little way wilh the eighth and ninth ;
then separating from  these, after seeming to receive addi-
tional nerves from them,  it forms a large ganglion, into
which branches from the tenth of the head, and from the first
and  second cervical, enter.   From the ganglion the nerves
come out again small, (o run down the neck along with the
carotid artery, communicating by branches with the cervi-
cal nerve*, and giving nerves to (he muscles  (hat bend the
head and neck.  As the intercostal is about (o enter the tho-
rax it forms another ganglion, from  which nerves  are sent
to  the  trachea and to the heart ; those designed for the
heart, joining  with the branches of the eighth, and most of
them passing between the two great arteries and the auri-
cles, as the substance of that muscle.  The  intercostal
after this consisting of two branches, one going behind, and
the other running over, the fore part of the subclavian ar-
tery, forms  a  new ganglion where the two branches unite
below the artery ; and then descending along the  sides of
the vertebrae of the thorax, receives branches from each
of  the  dorsal  nerves ; which branches appearing to come
out between the ribs, have given fhe  name of intercostal
to the whole nerve^*H»oio ^hc addition is made to it from
the fifth dorsal nerve,abrancd goes off obliquely forward;
which being joined by such braifchetf-ft-wm *he sixth, sev-
enth, eighth, and ninth dorsal, (he anterior trunk is  formed,
and passes between the fibres of the appendix  mnsculosa
of the diaphragm to them, along with the other intercostal
and the branches of  the  eighth  pair, a large  semilunar
ganglion, situated between the cellular and superior me-
senteric arteries ; the roofs of which are as it  were involv-
ed in a sort of nervous network of this ganglion, from which
a great  number of very small nervous threads run out fo
be extended on the surface of all the branches of those two
arteries, so as  to be easily seen when any of the  arteries
are stretched,but not lo be raised from them by dissection;
and thus (he  liver,  gall bladder, duodenum,  pancreas,
spleen, jejunum, ilium, and a large share of the colon, have
their nerves sent from this great solar ganglion or  plexus.
May not the peristaltic motion of the intestines depend, in
some  measure, on the passage of the intercostal nerves
through the diaphragm ?
  Several fibres of this ganglion, running down upon  the
aorta, meet with other nerves, sent from  the posterior
trunk of the intercostal, which continues its course along
the sides of the vertebrae :  they supply fhe glandular re-
nales, kidneys, and testes in men, or ovaria in women; and
then they form a network on the inferior mesenteric artery,
where the  nerves of the two  sides meet, and accompany
the branches of this artery to the part of the colon that
lies in the left side of the belly, and to the rectum, as far
down as the lower part of the pelvis.
  The intercostal continuing down by the sides of the ver-
tebrae of the loins, is joined by nerves coming  from be-
tween these vertebrae,  and sends nerves to the organs of
generation,  and  others to the pelvis, being even joined
with those that are sent to the inferior extremities.
  The spinal nerves rise generally by a number of disgre-
gated fibres from both  the  fore and back part  of the  me-
dulla spinalis ; and soon after form a little knot or ganglion,
where they acquire strong coats, and are extended into
firm cords; but the ganglion is entirely  formed by  the
posterior bundle.   They are distinguished by numbers,
according to the vertebrae from between which they come
out;  the superior of the two bones forming the hole through
which they pass, being the one from which the number is
applied to each  nerve.   There are generally said  to  be
thirty pair of them ; seven of which come out between the
vertebrae of the neck, twelve between those of the  back,
five between those of the loins, and six from the false ver-
tebrae.
  The first cervical pair of nerves come out between the
first and second vertebise of the neck ;  and  having  given
branches to join with the tenth pair of the head, the second
cervical, and  intercostal,  and to  serve the muscles that
bend the neck, it sends its largest branches backward to
the extensor muscles of the head and neck; some of which
piercing through these muscles, run up on the occiput to
be lost  in the teguments here ;  and many fibres  of it ad-
vance so far forward as to be connected with the fibrils of
the first branch of the fifth  pair of the head, and of the por-
tio dura of the auditory nerve.  Hence possibly it is, that
a clavus hystericus changes suddenly sometimes, from the
forehead to a violent pain  and spasm  in the back part of
the head and neck.
  The second cervical is soon joined by some branches to
the ninth of the head and intercostal, and to the first  and
third of the neck ; (hen has a large branch (hat comes out
at the exterior edge of the sterno mastoideus muscle, where
it joins with the  accessorius of the eighth pair; and is af-
terward  distributed to  the  platysma myoides, teguments
of the side  of the neck  and head, parotid gland, and exter-
nal ear, being connected to the portio dura of the auditory
nerve, and to the first cervical.   The remainder of  this
second cervical  is spent on the levator scapulrcand  the
extensors of the neck and head.  Generally a large branch
is here sent off to join  the  accessorius of the eighth pair,
near the superior angle of  the scapula.   From the  irrita-
tion  of the branches of this nerve it probably  is, that
in an  inflammation of the parotid gland, the neck is pained
so far down as the clavicle, the head is drawn  toward the
shoulder of the affected side, and the chin is turned to the
other side. 
ANA
ANA
   The third pair of the neck passes out between the third
 and fourth cervical vertebrae; having immediately a com-
 munication with the second, and sending down a branch,
 which, being joined by a branch from the fourth cervical,
 forms the phrenic nerve.  This descending enters the tho-
 rax between  the  subclavian vein and artery; and then
 being received into a groove formed by it in the pericardium,
 it has its course along the capsula of the heart, till it is lost
 in the  middle part of the diaphragm.   The  right phrenic
 has a straight course; but ihe left one is obliged to make a
 considerable  turn outward, to go over the prominent part
 of the  pericardium, where the point of (he heart is lodged.
 Hence in violent palpitations of the heart, a pungent  acute
 pain is felt near the left orifice of the  stomach.   The mid-
 dle of  the diaphragm scarce could have been supplied by
 any other  nerve which could have  had such a straight
 course as the  phrenic has.
  The other branches of the third cervical nerve are dis-
 tributed to (be muscles and teguments at the lower part of
 the neck and top of the shoulder.  No wonder then that an
 inflammation  of the liver or spleen, an abscess in the  lungs
 adhering to the diaphragm, or any other cause  capable of
 irritating the  diaphragm, should be attended with a sharp
pain on the top of the shoulder, as well as  wounds, ul-
cers, &c. of  the  muscle itself.  If the irritation of the
 muscle is very violent, it may occasion that convulsive con-
traction of the  diaphragm which is called an hiccough.
  The  fourth cervical nerve, after sending off that branch
which  joins with the  third to  form the phrenic, and be-
 stowing twigs in the muscles and glands of the neck, runs
to the armpit, where it meets with the fifth, sixth, and sev-
 enth cervicals, and first dorsal, that escape in the inter-
 stices of the musculi scaleni to come at the armpit, where
they join,  separate, and rejoin, in a way scarcely  to be
rightly expressed in words ; and, after giyjng several con-
siderable nerves to the muscles and teguments which cover
 the thorax, they divide  into several  branches, to be dis-
tributed to all the parts of the superior extremity.   Sev-
eral of these branches we  shall describe under particular
 names.
  1. Scapularis runs straight to the cavitas semilunata
of the upper  coats of the scapula, which is  a hole in the
recent  subject,  by a ligament being extended from one an-
gle  of the bone  to the other ; giving nerves,  in its way, to
 the muscles of the scapula.   When it has passed this hole
 it supplies the supraspinatus muscle,  and then descending
 at the  anterior  of the spine of (he scapula, it is lost in the
 other muscles that lie on the dorsum of that bone.
  2. Articularis sinks downward at the axilla, to get below
 the neck of the head of the ob humeri, and fo mount  again
 at the back part of it ; so that it almost surrounds the ar-
 ticulation, and  is described in the muscles that draw the
 arm back, and to those lhat raise it up.
  3. Cutaneous runs down the fore part of the arm, near
 the skin, to which it gives off branches ; and then divides
 on the  inside of the fore arm into several nerves which sup-
 ply the teguments (here, and on the palm of the hand.  In
 opening the basilic vein of the arm, at the usual place, the
 same symptoms are sometimes produced as in opening lhe
 external jugular vein, and from a like  cause ; to wit, from
 hurting a branch of this  cutaneus nerve with the lancet.
  4. Musculo  cutaneus,  or  perforans  easseri, passes
 through the coraco brachialis muscle;  and after supplying
 the biceps, flexor cubiti, and brachialis  internus, passes
 behind the tendon of the biceps,  and over lhe  cephalic
 vein, to be bestowed on the teguments on lhe outside of
 the fore arm and back of the hand.   This nerve is some-
 times hurt in opening the cephalic vein, and  causes pain
 and numbness for a short time.
   5.  Muscularis has a spinal course from the axilla, under
 the os humeri, and backward to the external  part of that
 bone j supplying by the way the extensor muscles of the
 fore arm,to which it runsbetween the two brachial muscles,
 and within the supinator radii longus.   At the upper part
 of the fore arm, it sends off a branch which accompanies the
 supinator longus, till it comes near fhe wrist; where it passea
 obliquely over  the radius,  to be  losf in the back of the
 hand and fingers.  The principal part of this nerve pierces
 through the  supinator radii  brevis,  fo serve the muscles
 that extend the hand and fingers, whose actions are not in-
jured when the supinator acts.   Part of this nerve seemi
 to be lost upon the ligament of the wrist.
   6. Ulnaris is  extended along the  inside of the arm, to
 give nerves to the muscles that extend t he fore arm, and
 to the teguments of the elbow :  toward the lower part of
 the arms it slants a little backward to come at the groove
 behind the internal condyle of the os humeri,through which
 it runs to the ulna.  In its course along this bone it serves
 the neighbouring muscles and teguments ; and as it comes
 near the wrist, it  detaches a branch obliquely over the ulna
 to the back of the hand, to be lost in the convex part of the
 several fingers*   The larger  part of the neri e goes forward
to fhe internal side of the os pisiforme of the wrist; where
it sends off a branch, which sinks under  the large  tendons
in the palm to go across to the olher side of the wrist, serv«
ing the musculi lumbricales and interossei, and af last ter-
minating in the short muscles of the thumb and fore finger.
What remains of the ulnar nerve after supplying the short
muscles of (he little finger,  divides into three branches:
whereof two are  extended along lhe sides of the sheath of
the tendons of the flexors of the little finger, to furnish the
concave side of that finger;  the third branch  is disposed
in the same way  upon the side of the ring finger, next to the
 little finger.
  When we lean or press upon the internal condyle ofthe
os humeri, the numbness and pricking we frequently feel,
point out the course of this nerve.  We have seen a weak-
ness and strophy in the parts  which  we mentioned this
nerve to be sent to, after a woVMKWw-U^mternal lower part
ofthe arm.                       «*^r-^
  7. Radius accompanies tfie humeral artery to.the bend-
ing of the elbow, serving the  flexor of 1 he cubit in its way;
then passing through  the pronator radii teres muscle, it
gives  nerves to the muscles on the  fore part of the
fore arm, and continues its course  near to the  radius, be-
stowing branches on the circumjacent muscles.  Near the
wrist it sometimes gives off a nerve which is distributed to
the back of the  hand, and the convex part of the thumb,
and several of the fingers, instead of the branch ofthe mus-
cular.   The large part of the nerve passing behind the an-
nular  ligament of the  wrist, gives nerves  to the short
muscles ofthe thumb; and afterward  sends a branch along
each side of the shealh of the tendons of the flexors of the
thumb, fore finger, middle finger,  and one branch of the
side ofthe ring finger, next to the middle  one, to be loftt
on the concave side of those fingers. 
ANA
ANA
  Though the radial nerve  passes  through the pronator
muscle, and the muscular nerve seems to be still more un-
favourably placed  within  the  supinator brevis; yet the
action of these muscles  does not seem to have any effect
in hindering the influence of  these nerves; for the fingers
or hand can be bent while pronation is performing vigorous-
ly, and they can be extended while supination is exercised.
  The manner of the going offvof these nerves of the fin-
gers, both from the ulnar and  the radial, is, that a single
branch is sent from the trunk lo the side of the thumb and
little finger furthest from the other fingers; and all the
rest are supplied by a trunk of a nerve,  which splits into
two in some way before it comes as far as the end of the
metacarpus, to run along the sides of the different fingers
that are  nearest to each other.
  It might have been observed, that in describing the pos-
terior branches of  the  ulnar and muscular nerve,  we did
not mention the  particular fingers, to the convex part of
which they are distributed.  The reason for this omission
is, the uncertainty of their distribution; for though some-
times these  posterior branches go to the  same fingers, to
the concave part of which the anterior branches of the ul-
nar and radial are sent, yel frequently they are distribut-
ed otherwise.
   The twelve dorsal nerves of each side, as soon  as they
escape from between the vertebra?, send a branch forward
to join the intercostal, by which a communication  is made
among them  all; and they  soon likewise  give branches
backward to the muscles that raise the trunk of  (he body,
their principal trunk  being  extended outward (o come at
the furrow in the lower edge  of each rib; in which (hey
run toward  (he anterior  part of (he thorax, between the
internal  and  external  intercostal  muscles,  giving  off
branches in their course to  the muscles and teguments of
the thorax.
  . The first dorsal, as  was already observed, is particular
in this, that it contributes to form the brachial nerves; and
that the two branches of the intercostal which comedown
to the thorax form a considerable ganglion wilh it.
   The sixth lower dorsal nerves give branches to the dia-
phragm  and abdominal muscles.
   The twelfth  joins with the first lumbar, and bestows
nerves on the musculus quadratus lumborum and  iliacus
internus.
   May not the communications of all these nerves be one
reason why  the parts  (hey serve act  so  uniformly and
conjunctly in respiration, and conspire  together in the
convulsive motions of coughing,  sneezing, &c? _
   The communications of these lower ones with  the in-
tercostals, may serve to explain the violent efforts of the
abdominal muscles in a tenesmus, and in childbearing.
   As  the intercostal  is  larger  in  the thorax than any
where else, and seems to diminish gradually as  it  ascends
and descends, there is cause to suspect  that this is the
trunk from which the  superior and inferior parts  are sent
as branches.
   The five lumbar nerves on each side, communicate with
the intercosfal and  with  each other, and  give branches
backward to the loins.
   The  first communicates with the  last dorsal,  sends
branches to  the abdominal  muscles, to the psoas iliacus,
and to the teguments and  muscles of the fore parts of  the
thigh ; while  its principal  branch  joins  with the other
nerves, to form the crural nerve.
  The second lumbar  nerve passes  through the psoas
muscle, and is distributed nearly in the same way as the
former; as is also the third.
  Branches of the second, third, and fourth, make up one
trunk which runs along the fore part of the pelvis, and
passing in  the notch  at the fore part of the great hole,
common to the  os pubis and ischium, is spent on the ad-
ductor muscles, and on the teguments  on the inside of the
thigh.  This nerve is  called the obturator or posterior
crural nerve.
  By uniting branches from the second, third and fourth
lumbar nerves, a nerve  is formed that passes along the
psoas muscle, to escape with the external iliac vessels out
ofthe abdomen, below the tendinous arcade of the exter-
nal oblique  muscle.   This nerve which is named the an-
terior crural, is distributed principally to the muscles and
teguments of the fore part of the thigh.   A branch how-
ever of this nerve  runs  down the leg  to the upper part of
the foot, keeping near the vena saphena ; in opening of
which with a lancet at  the ankle, the nerve is somewhat
hurt, and occasions sharp  pain  at the time of operation,
and afterward numbness.
  The remainder of the fourth lumbar and the fifth, join
in composing the largest nerve of the  body, which is soon
to be described.
   Whoever attends to the course of these lumbar nerves*
and of (he spermatic vessels and nerves upon the  psoas
muscle, with the oblique passage of (he ureter over that
muscle, will not be surprised that when a slone  is passing
inth*i3 canal, or even  when it is inflamed, the trunk of the
body cannot be raised  erect without great pain, or thut
(he skin of the thigh becomes less sensible, and the  Ihigh
is drawn forward, and that the testicle often swells, and j_
drawn convulsively toward the ring of the abdominal mu"
cles.
   The sixth pair of  the false  verfebrse consist each of
small posterior branches sent to the hips and large anteri-
or  branches.
   The first,  second,  and third, after coming through  the
three  upper holes of the os sacrum, join together with  the
fourth and fifth of the loins, to form  the largest nerve of
the body, which is well known by the name of schiatic or
 ischiatic nerve: ihis, after sending large nerves to the dif-
ferent parts of the pelvis, and to the external parts of gen-
eration and the povex, as also to the muscles ofthe hips,
passes behind  the great tuber of the os ischium, and then
over the  quadrigemini  muscles to run down near to  the
bone of the thigh at its back part, giving off nerves to  the
neighbouring muscles and teguments some way above the
ham, where  it  has the name of popliteus nerve, it sends
off a large branch that passes over the fibula, and sinking,
among the muscles on the anterior external part ofthe leg,
runs down to the foot to be  lost in the upper part of the
 larger toes, supplying the neighbouring muscles and tegu-
 ments every where in its passage.  The larger  branch of
 the schiatic, after giving branches to  the muscles and teg-
 uments above the ham and  knee, and  sending a large cuta-
 neous nerve down the calf of the leg to be lost at last on
 the outside of the fool, and the upper part of lhe lesser
 toes,  sinks below  the gemellus muscle, and  distributes
 nerves lo the muscle  on the back of the leg, among which
 it continues its  course (ill passing behind the malleolus in-
 ternal, and  in the internal hollow of the  os  calcis, it di-
vides into the two external and internal plantar nerves.  The 
ANA
ANA
internal is distributed to the toes in the same manner that
the radial nerve of the hand  serves the  concave side of
the thumb and fingers; and the external plantar is divided
and distributed to the sole of the foot and toes, nearly as
the ulnar nerve is in the palm of the hand, and in the con-
cave part of the fingers.
  Several branches of these nerves that serve the inferior
extremities, pierce through muscles.
  The fourth, which with the two  following, is  much
smaller than the three superior, soon is lost in the vesica
urinaria and intestinum rectum.
  The fifth comes forward to the extremity of the os sa-
crum and coccygis to be distributed  principally to the le-
vatores ani.
  The sixth may be considered as the termination of a
substance called ligamentum denticulatum.  For the uses
of the  various parts of the human  body,  see the article
Physiology.  See also Comparative Anatomy.
EXPLANATION OF THE ANATOMICAL PLATES.
EXPLANATIONS OF THE BONES.
	FIG I.	15.
J.	The Cranium.	16.
2.	The cervical Vertebra.	17.
3.	The Clavicles.	18.
4.	The Acromions.	19.
6.	The Humerus.	r.
7.	The Radius.	s.
8.	The Ulna.	
9. 10 11	The Carpus. The Metacarpus. 12. The Sternum.	t. u. 20.
13	. The Ribs.	21.
a.	The true Ribs.	22.
c.	The false Ribs.	23.
e.	The transverse processes of the lumbar Vertebrre.	i 24. 25.
14	. The lumbar Vertebrae.	26,
The os Sacrum.
The ossa Innominata.
The ossa Ilii.
The ossa Pubis.
The ossa Ischii.
The brim of the Pelvis.
The foramen Thyroide-
 um.
The trochanter Major.
The trochanter Minor.
The Femur.
The Patella.
The Tibia.
The inner Ankle.
The Fibula.
The Astragalus.
27, 28, 29. The Tarsus.
30. The Metatarsus.
          FIG.  II.
1.  The Cranium.
2.  The os occipitis,
4.  The os Temporis.
5.  The os Sphenoides.
6.  The Scapula.
7.  Its Spine.
8.  The Humerus.
9.  The Radius.
10. The Ulna.
11. The Olecranon.
12. The Carpus.
13. The Metacarpus.
14. The cervical Vertebrae,
15. The Clavicles.
EXPLANATIONS OF THE MUSCLES.
f *&g. i. Superficial Muscles.
' r   Platystica Myoides.
 b.   Deltoides.
 c.  Biceps.
 d.  Pronator Teres.
 e.  Supinator Longus.
/.  Flexor Radialis.
 g.  Palmaris Longus.
 h.  Flexor Ulnaris.
 i.  Pectoralis Major.
 k.  Obliquus Externus.
 I.  Linea Semilunaris.
 m. Linea Alba.
 n.  Abdominal Ring.
 o.  Sartorius.
 p.  Tensor Femoris Vaginse.
 q.  Long head of theTriceps.
 r.  Pectinalis.
          FIG. I.
1.  The Liver.
2.  The round Ligament.
3.  The Gall Bladder.
4.  The Pancreas.
5.  The Spleen.
6.  The Kidneys.
7.  The Aorta.
 s. Short head of Triceps.
 t.  Great head of Triceps.
 u. Obturator Externus.
 v. Fascia of the Thigh.
 w. Rectus Cruris.
 x. Its termination in the Pa-
   tella.
          FIG. II.
 a. Sterno Cleido Mastoideus.
 b. Sterno Hyoideus.
 c. Biceps.
 d. Flexor Digitorum.
 e. Pectoralis Minor.
/.  Serratus Magnus.
 g. Transversalis.
 h. Pyramidalis.
 i.  Obliquus Internus.
 k. Pectinalis.
/.  Obturator Externus.
ni. Triceps Brevis.
n. Triceps Magnus.
o. Triceps Longus.
p. Vastus Externus.
q. Cruralis.
r. Vastus Internus.
s. Ligament of the Patella.

          FIG. III.
a. Trapezius.
b. Lafissimus Dorsi.
c. Deltoides.
d. Triceps Cubiti.
e. Gluteus Magnus.
/. Biceps Cruris.
g. Semitendinosus.
h. Semimembranosus.
a,a. The Spines of the cer-
     vical Verfebrse.
p.  The Ribs.
16. The lumbar Vertebra.
17. The ossa Innominata.
18. Their Spines.
19. The ossa Pubis.
20. The os Sacrum.
22. The Femur.
24. The trochanter Minor.
25. The Patella.
26. The Tibia.
27. Fibula.
28. The os Calcis.
a, b, c,-d, t. The bones ofthe
     Foot.
          FIG. IT.
a. Levator Scapula.
b. Supra Spinatus.
c. Infra Spinatus.
d. Rhomboideus Minor.
e. Rhomboideus Major.
/. Triceps Cubiti.
g. Serratus Inferior Posticus
Ii. Gluteus Minimus.
i. Obliquus Internus.
k. Biceps.
I. Gracilis.
m. Semitendinosus.
n. Planfaris.
o. Soleus.
p. Serratus  Superior  Posti-
     cus.
EXPLANATIONS OF THE VISCERA.
8.  The Vena Cava.
10. A Probe  passed under
   the inferior Mesenteric
   and spermatic Vessels,
   and  above the Ureter,
   Aorta, and Vena Cava.
11. The parieties of the Ab-
    domen.
12. A portion of the same
    reflected.
13. The Rectum.
14, The Bladder.
FIG. II.
1.
The  Vertebrae
  Neck.
        2.  The Jugular Veins.
        3.  The Subclavian Veins.
        4.  The descending Cava.
        5.  The right Auricle.
        6.  The right Ventricle.
        8.  The Aorta.
of the  9*  T^e pulmonary Artery.
        10, 11. The Lungs. 
ANA
A NA
13. The Liver.
14. The broad Ligament.
15. The Gall Bladder.
1 6 The Stomach.
17. The Intestines.
18. The Spleen.
         FIG. III.
1,1. Apart of the Aorta.
2.  The Caeliac Artery.
3.  The Superior Mesenteric
4.  The  Renal.
5.  The Spermatic.
6.  The branches of  the Su-
    perior Mesenteric..
          FIG. IV.
1. The right Ventricle.
2. The right Auricle.
5. The branches of the pul-
     monary Arlery.
6. The descending Cava.
7. The Aorta.
8. The  trunk of  the pulmo
     nary  Artery.
9. The Ductus Arteriosus.
          fig. v.
a. The anterior lobes of the
     Brain.
b. The  middle lobes of the s.
     Brain.                 x,
c. The Cerebellum.
d. The Medulla Oblongata,  y.
e. The pituitary Gland.
g. The Corpora Olivaria.
h. The olfactory Nerves.
i. The optic Nerves.
k, m, n, o. Branches of the  »
     basilary Artery.
p. The  seventh  pair  of
     Nerves.
q. The eighth pair.
r. The accessory Nerve.
 The Corpora Pyramidalia.
 Branches of the carotid
  Artery.
 Fissura Sylvii

       fig. vi;
a. The convolutions of the
  Cerebrum.
c. The Dura  Mater  re-
  flected.
d. The Piamata and Tuni-
  ca  Ara.chnoidea, cov-
  ering the Cerebrum.
EXPLANATIONS OF THE ARTERIES, VEINS, AND ABSORBENTS.  ANATOMY, PLATE VI.
     fig. i.  Arteries.
I.  Aorta.
2.  Trunk ofthe coronal Ar-
     tery.
3.  Ligamentum Arteriosum.
4.  Subclavian Artery.
5,5. Carotid Arteries.
6,6. Vertebral  Arteries.
7, 7. Arteries of the  lower
     part of the face.
8, 8. Temporal Arteries.
10, 10. Trunks   to the fora-
       mina narium.
11, 11. Occipital Arteries.
12, 12. Arteries to the fauces.
13, 13. Contortions of  the
       Carotids.
14,14. Carotid Arteries.
15. Contortions of the Ver-
     tebrals.
16. Vertebrals  on the Me-
     dulla oblongata.
18. Arteries within the Skull.
19. Arteries of the Larynx.
20, 20. Arteries to the mus-
    cles ofthe Neck scapula.
21, 21. Mammary Arteries.
22. Arteries to the Muscles
     of (he os humeri.
23, 24. Divisions of the Ar-
       teries of the arm.
25,25. Branch of Artery not
       always found.
26,26. External Artery  of
       the Cubitus.
27, 27. Arteries of the hand
       and  fingers.
29. Bronchial Artery.
30. Descending Aorta.
31. Intercostal  Arteries*
34. Gall Bladder, on which
  the arteria cystica ramifies.
35. Lower  Coronary Arlery.
36. Pyloric Artery.
37. Epiploic Artery.
38. Ramifications of the Cor-
    onary Artery.
FIG. II.
a, a.
          Veins.
Vena Cava.
39. Upper Coronary Artery.
40, 40. Phrenic Arteries.
41. Splenic Artery.         ym Oescending  trunk of i
43. Upper Mesenteric Ar-      Cava.
       j *                   /*■  .A.scGndiBff ti*u nk
44. Superior branches of the d*d# Subclavians. "
    Mesenteric.            c  Vena azygos.
45. Lower Mesenteric  Ar- ^ Intercostal Veins.
    teiT*  .          .     g. Mammary Veins.
49, 49. Emulgent Arteries,  f i# ,nterna, Jugulars.
50. Vertebral Arteries of the, j ExternalJugulars.
    Loins.
51. Spermatic Arteries.
52. Arteria Sacra.
53, 53. Iliac Arteries.
54, 54. Iliacus Externus.
55, 55. Iliacus Internus,
56, 56. Umbilical Arteries.
57, 57. Epigastric Arteries.
60. Arteries to the Penis.
61. Artery of the  urinary
    Bladder.
    Arteries of the Puden-
    dum.
    Penis.
    Glans Penis.
65. Upper part of the Dor-
    sum Penis.
66. Corpora Cavernosa Penis.
67* Arteries of the Penis.
68. Septum ofthe Corpora
    cavernosa.
69. Crural Artery.
70. Arteries to the Muscles
    of the thighs and Tibiae.
62.

63.
64.
m. Right axillary Vein.
n. Cephalic.
o. Basilic.
q. Phrenic.
s, s. Emulgents.
w. Internal Iliacs.
1. Vena Sacra.
2. Spermatic Veins,
3. Epigastric.
4. Saphena.
   Fro. irr.  Absorbents.
1. The Neck.
2, 2.  Jugular Veins.
3. Vena Cava.  Superior.
4, 4.  Subclavian Veins.
5. Beginning of Aorta, pull-
   ed on one side to show the
   thoracic duct.
6. Branches.
7. Carotid Artery.
9. Trachea.
10. Spine.
11. Vena azygos.
71. Part ofthe Crural Artery.12#  Descending Aorta.
72. Three trunks of the Ar-  13#  Caeliac Artery, dividing
    teries of the Leg.
73. Arteries of the foot.
A.  Semilunar Valves.
B, B. Small portions of the
      basis of the Skull.
C.  Pituitary Gland.
D, D. Opthalmic Arteries.
E, E. Arteries of the Cere-
    bellum.
    into three branches,
14. Superior  Mesenteric
    Artery.
15. Right Crus, Diaphragma
    tis.
16, 16. Two Kidneys.
17. Right Emulgent Artery.
18. External Iliac Arteries.
19. Internal Jliac Artery. .
20. Cavity of the Pelvis.
21, 21. Spine of theos Ilium.
22, 22. Groins.
23. A Lymphatic gland in
     the groin, receiving lym-
     phatics from the lower
     extremity.
24, 24. Lymphatics  of  the
     lower  extremities.
25. A plexus of Lymphatics
  on the  side of the pelvis.
26, 26. Musculi psoae.
27. A plexus of Lymphatics,
    which having passed over
    the brim of the pelvis at
    (25,)  and having entered
    the cavity of the pelvis,
    next ascends and passes
    behind  the Iliac  Artery
    to (29.)
28. Lymphatics of the  left
    side passing over the up-
    per part of the os sacrum,
    to meet those ofthe right
    side.
29. Right psoas, with a plex-
    us of Lymphatics on its
    side.
31. Spaces occupied by lym-
    phatic glands.
32. Trunk of the Lacteals.
33. The  same  dividing into
    two branches.
34. Thoracic duct.
35. Duct passing under the
    crus  diaphragmatis, and
    under the right emulgent
    Artery.
38. Thoracic duct,  passing
    under the curvature of the
    aorta, to be inserted into
    fhe left subclavian Vein.
39. A plexus of Lymphatics
    passing upon the trachea
    from the thyroid gland to
    the thoracic duct. 
A N  C
AND
   ANATROPE, a relaxation of the stomach,  attended
 nith loss of appetite, vomiting and nausea.
   ANAUMACHON, among the ancients, fhe  crime of
 refusing to serve in  the fleet, the punishment of which
 was infamy.
   ANCHILOPS, in medicine, a small tumour in  the great
 angle of the eye, frequently degenerating into an abscess,
 or fistula lachrymalis.
   ANCHOR,  in  maratime affairs, is  a very large and
 heavy iron instrument, with a double hook at one  end, and
 a ring at the other, by which it is fastened to a cable.  It
 is cast into the bottom of the sea, or rivers, where taking
 its hold, it keeps  ships from  being drawn away by the
 wind, tide, or currents.
   There are several kinds  of anchors : 1. the sheet an-
 chor, which is the largest, and  is never used but in violent
 storms, to hinder the ship from being driven ashore.  2.
 The  two bowers, which are  used for  ships to ride in a
 harbour.   3. The stream anchor.  4. The grapnel.  The
 iron of  which  anchors are made, ought  neither to be too
 soft nor too brittle.  In order to give them a proper  tem-
 per, it is the practice to join brittle with soft iron, and for
 this reason the Spanish and Swedish iron ought to be pre-
 ferred.
   The shank of an anchor is to be three times the length
 of one of its flukes, and a ship of 500 tons has her sheet
anchor of 2000  weight;  and so proportionably for others
smaller or greater.
   The anchor is said to be apeak, when the cable is per-
 pendicular  between the hawse and  the anchor.   An an-
 chor  is said to  come home  when it cannot hold the ship.
 An anchor is foul, when  by the turning of the ship, the ca-
 ble is hitched about the fluke.  To  shoe an anchor,  is  to
 fit boards upon the flukes, that it may hold the belter  in
 soft ground.  When the anchor hangs right up and down
 by the ship's side, it is said to be a  cock  bell, upon the
 ship's coming to an anchor.
   Hiding at anchor, is the state of  a vessel moored and
 fixed by her anchors.  Dropping an anchor, imports the
 letting it down into the sea.  In some cases it is necessary
 to drop two anchors opposite to each other ; one to  keep
 the ship firm against the  tide or flow, the other against the
 ebb.   Weighing anchor, is  the recovering it into the ves-
 sel in order for sailing.  The anchor  is ordinarily weighed
 by means of a windlass.
   Anchor, in  architecture, a sort of carving, something
 resembling an anchor.   It  is commonly  placed as  part
 of the enrichments of the boultins of capitals of the  Tus-
 can, Doric, and Ionic orders,  and also of the boultins of
 bed mouldings ofthe Doric, Ionic, and Corinthian cornices;
 anchors and eggs being carved alternately through the
 whole building.
   Anchors,  in heraldry, are emblems of hope,  and are
 taken for such in a spiritual as well as in a temporal sense.
   ANCHORAGE,  or  Anchoring Ground,  a  place
 where a ship may cast anchor.
   The best anchoring ground is stiff clay or hard sand ;
 and the best  place for riding at anchor,  is where a ship
 is land locked and out of the tide.
   Anchorage, in law, is a duty taken of ships for the use
 of the port or harbour.
   ANCHOVY, in ichthyology and commerce,  a species
 of clupea, with the upper jaw longest.   See Clupea.
  The anchovy is so like the common sprat, another spe.
cies of clupea, that it is no wonder this fish is often pick-
led and sold under its name.
  The fishing for anchovies  is carried on chiefly in fa
night time; when a light being put on  the stern oftfo
vessels, the fish flock round,  and are caught in the nets.
  ANCHUSA, Alcanet, or  Bugloss : a  genus of He
monogynia order, belonging to lhe pentandria  class of
plants.  The  calyx  is a quinquepartite perianthium, ob.
long and persistent :  the corolla is monopetalous  and fun-
nel shaped, the throat closed  with scales : the stamina
consist  of five short filaments; the antherae obloogaud
covered : the pistillum has four germina, a filiform stylus,
and obtuse stigma^: there is no pericarpium, the calyx con-
taining the  seeds in its bosom : the seeds are four, oblong,
gibbous, and engraven at the  base.   There are eight spe-
cies, all of which may be propagated by seeds.
  ANCHYLOSIS, in surgery, an immobility of the joints.
This term is used  when any  joint of the body becomes,
whether from external or internal causes, stiff and inflexible,
  ANCISTRUM, a genus of the diandria monogynia class
and order,  and of the natural order of rosacea?.  Thees-
sential character is,  cal. four leaved ; cor. none : stigma,
many parted :  drupe, dry, hispid, one celled.
  There are three species, but scarcely deserving notice,
  ANCLE.   See Talus in Anatomy.
  ANCON, in anatomy, the gibbous eminence, or flexure
of lhe arm, the middle ofthe eminence on which we rest
when we lean.   See  Anatomy.
  ANCONES, in architecture, the  corners or coins of
walls,  crossbeams, or  rafters.   Vitruvius calls  the con-
soles, which are a  sort of shouldering pieces, by the name
ancones.
  ANCONY, in mineralogy, denotes a piece of iron fash-
ioned into a flat bar, about three feet long, with a squire
rough knot at  each end.
  ANCRE'E, in heraldry, the same with anchored.
  ANCYLE, in antiquity, a  kind of shield which fell, ai
was pretended,  from heaven, in  the reign of NumaPom-
pilius; at which time, likewise, a voice was heard, declar-
ing that Rome  should be mistress of the world as long as
she should  preserve  this holy buckler.
  Ancyle, in  surgery, a distortion of the joints, caused
by  a settlement of  the  humours, or a distention of the
nerves ; in which cafse  remedies of a mollifying and relax-
ing nature are  required.
  ANCYLOQLOSSUM, a contraction ofthe ligaments of
the tongue, hindering speech.  This happens, either whes
the membrane which supports the tongue is naturally im-
perfect, or of  too hard substance, or  is occasioned by »
preceding ulcer, and  a hard cicatrix left under the tongue.
It is to be cured  only  by manual operation by the sur-
geon.
   ANCYLOTOMUS, a knife for loosening the tongue.
It is applied also to all crooked bladed knives.
   ANDABATjE, in antiquity, a sort of gladiators, who,
mounted on horseback, or in  chariots, fought  hoodwinked
having a helmet that covered  their eyes.
   ANDAMENTO, in music, the movement in giving out
the subject of a fugue;  a theme, longer, and more im-
portant than a point.
   ANDANTI, in music, signifies, especially in thorough
basses, that the notes are to be played distinctly. 
AND
A N  E
   ANDIRA, a tree in the Brazils, the wood of which i3
 well adapted for building.   It is a genus ofthe diadelphia
 decandria class and order.  It is scarcely known in Europe.
   ANDRACHNE,  in botany, the name given by Lin-
 naeus to a genus of plants, of the gynandria order, belong-
 ing  to the monoecia class of plants.  The characters are :
 fhe male calyx consists  of five leaves ; the  corolla  has
 five petals; and the stamina, which are also five in number,
 are  inserted into the stylus : the female calyx is divided
 into five leaves; there  is no corolla; the styli are three:
 and the capsule  is trilocular, containing three seeds. Three
 species of no account.
   ANDREW, or Knights of St. Andrew, an order of
 knights more usually called the order of the thistle.
   Andrew, knights of St. is also an order instituted by
 Peter lhe Great of Muscovy, in 1698 ; the badge of which
 is a golden  medal, on one side  whereof is represented St.
 Andrew's cross, and on the other are these words : Csar
 Pierre monarque de toute la Russie.
   ANDRIA, in Grecian antiquity, public  entertainments
 first instituted by Minos of Crete, and, after his example,
 appointed by Lycurgus at Sparta, at which a whole city,
 or a tribe, assisted.  They were managed with the  utmost
 frugality, and  persons of all  ages were  admitted,  the
 younger sort being obliged  by the lawgiver, to repair thith-
 er as to schools  of temperance and sobriety.
   ANDRAPODOCAPELI,  were dealers  in  slaves in
 ancient times.   At  Athens, several places in the forum
 were appointed for the sale of slaves.   Upon the first day
 of each month, the merchants  brought them into  the mar-
 ket, and exposed  them to sale, while the  crier, standing
 upon a stone erected  for that purpose, called  the people
 together.
   ANDROGYNA, in botany, plants bearing male and
 female flowers, with stamens only, and some with  pistils
 only on the same root :  such are the cucumber and melon.
   ANDROLEPSY,in Grecian antiquity,an action allowed
 by the Athenians,against suchasprotected persons guillyof
 murder.  The relations ofthe deceased  were empowered
 to seize three men in the city or house, whither the male-
 factor had fled, fill he were either surrendered, or satisfac-
 tion made some other way for the murder.
   ANDROMEDA, in  astronomy, a small  northern con-
 stellation, consisting of  twenty-seven stars, visible lo the
 naked eye;  behind Pegasus, Cassiopeia, and Perseus.
   Andromeda, in botany, the marsh cystus;  a genus of
 (he monogynia order, belonging to  the decandria class of
 plants ; and in lhe natural method ranking under the eigh-
 teenth order, bicornes.  The characters are : the calyx
 is a quinquepartite perianthium, small, coloured, and per-
 sistent : lhe corolla is  monopelalous, campanulated, and
 quinquefid,  wilh reflected  divisions: the stamina consist
 of fen subulated  filaments,  shorter than the corolla : the
 anlhera? two horned  and  nodding: the pistillum has a
 roundish germen, a cylindric stylus larger (han lhe stami-
 na, and  persistent, and an obtuse stigma : the pericarpium
 is  a roundish five  cornered capsule, with  five cells and
 five valves;  the  seeds are  very  numerous,  roundish, and
 glossy.   There  are twenty-five species, chiefly American
planfs and hardy.   They are planted in black  earth with
other bog plants, and are on the whole ornamental.
  ANDRONA, among the ancients, denotes  a street, or
public place, where people met and conversed together.
     vol. i.              22
 It is also used  for that part of churches destined for the
 men.
   ANDROPOGON, a genus of the polygamia monoecia
 class and order, and of the natural order of grasses.  The
 essential character is the same in the male as in the her.
 only in the former the styles are three; in the hermaph.
 the cal.is a glume; one flowered cor. glume, awned at both
 ends, except the A. nardus, which produces  three, styles
 two, seed one.
   There are thirty-five species, one deserving notice.
   Andropogon nardus, which produces the Indian nard,
 or  spikenard of the shops.   The spikenard, as brought
 from the East Indies, is a  congeries of small fibres issuing
 from one head, and matted close together, so as to form a
 bunch about the size of the finger, with some small strings
 at the opposite  end ofthe head.   The matted fibres, which
 are the parts chosen for medicinal purposes, are supposed
 by some to be  the head or spike of the plant, by others
 lhe root: they seem rather to be the remains of the with-
 ered stalks, or ribs of the leaves : sometimes entire leaves
 and pieces of stalks are found among them :  we likewise
 now and then meet with a number of these bunches issuing
 from one root.   Spikenard has a warm,  pungent, and bit-
 terish taste ; and a strong, not very agreeable smell.  It
 is stomachic and carminative; and said to be alexipharmic,
 diuretic, and emmenagogue ; ibut at present it is perhaps
 improperly very little employed.
   ANDROSACE, in botany, a genus of plants, the flow-
 er of which consists of one saucer like petal, very wide at
 the mouth, and  divided into five segments ; and its fruit is
 a globose, unilocular capsule, containing a number of small
 oval or roundish seeds, affixed  to a placenta.   This genus
 belongs to the pentandria monogynia class of Linnaeus, takes
 its name from the relief it  was supposed  to give mankind j
 being aperitive, and  good in the gout, dropsy, and reten-
 tion of urine.   There are seven  species, but now of little
 account.
  ANDRYALA, in botany, a genus of plants, fhe flower
 of which is monopetalous,  and  the  seed,  which is single,
 oval, and crowned with down, has no other cover but the
 cup.
  It belongs to the syngenesia polygamia class of Lin-
 naeus.   Six species.
  ANEE, in commerce, a measure for grain, used in some
 provinces of France.
  Af Lyons, it  signifies a certain quantity of wine, which
 is the load an ass can carry at once.   That load is fixed at
 eighty English quarts, wine measure.
  ANEMOMETER, among mechanical philosophers, an
 instrument contrived for  measuring the  strength  of the
 wind.  See Pneumatics.
  ANEMONE,  wind flower : a genus of  the polyga-
 mia order, belonging lo the polyandria class of plants ; and
 in the natural method ranking under the  twenty-sixth or-
 der, multifiliquse.  It has its name from the Greek avguo?, sig-
 nifying the wind; because lhe flower is supposed not lo open
 unless the wind blows.   The characters are : theie  is no
 calyx ; the corolla consists of petals of two or three orders
 three in each series, oblongish : the stamina consist of nu-
 merous  capillary filaments; the anther.t didymous and
erect.  The pistillum has numerous germina collected into
a head j the styli are pointed ;  the stigmata obtuse : there
is no pericarpium ; the receptaculum is globular : the seeds 
A N ET
A N  G
are very numerous.  Of this genus ffiere are twenty-eight
species ; but those  valuable on account of the beauty of
their flowers are the following :
   1. Anemone Appenina is a native of Britain, and grows
in woods.   The flowers of this species are sometimes sin-
<rle, and sometimes double; their colours are white, blue,
or violet.   They appear in April.
   2. Anemone Coronaria.  3. Anemone Hortensis. These
two are natives of the  Levant, particularly of the Archi-
pelago islands, where the borders of the fields are covered
with them  ofthe most beautiful colours.   When they
grow wild,  the flowers  are commonly single;  but by cul-
ture they are greatly improved : they become large and
double, making some of the greatest ornaments of gardens.
Their principal colours are red,  white, purple, and blue;
some of them are finely variegated with red, white, purple,
and many intermediate  shades of these colours.
   4. Anemone Nemorosa grows wild in the woods in many
parts of Britain, where it flowers in April and May.   The
flowers  are white, purple, or reddish  purple, sometimes
single, and  sometimes double,  so that they make a pretty
appearance.
   The hepaticas and pulsatillas are now classed among the
anemonies.   AH the single kinds are easily cultivated by
seed,  which must be sown in the spring in a wide  pot or
pan, and scarcely covered.  The pot must stand  out of
the way of  the sun, till the plants are strong, and they may
be planted  out in the autumn.  The double anemonies are
propagated by offsets.  All the sorts are considered as
among the finest ornaments of our gardens.
   ANEMOSCOPE, according  to  Virtuvius's  descrip-
tion, a machine showing from what point  of the  compass
the wind blows.
   This is done by means of an index moving about an up-
right circular plate, the index being turned by an horizon-
tal axis, and  the  axis by an upright  staff, at the  top of
which is the vane moved about by the wind.
   ANETHUM,  Dill, in botany, a genus of umbellifer-
ous plants, of the digynia order,  belonging to the pentan-
dria class  of plants.   The essential characters are : the
fruit is oval, compressed, striated;  and  the  petals, five,
are involute,  entire, and very short.   There are three
species.
   1. Anethum feniculum, or fennel;  of which there
are two varieties, the common  and the  sweet.  Both sorts
are cultivated in our gardens : the common is a  perennial
plant : the sweet fennel perishes, after it has given seed;
nor do its seeds come to perfection in this climate.
   2. Anethum graveolens, or dill,  is an annual plant.
   3. Finochio, a sallad herb.   Of the  first species, the
fennel, both the seeds  and roots are  used in medicine.
The seeds  of both the fennels have an aromatic smell, and
a moderately warm pungent taste : those ofthe sweet fen-
nel are in flavour  most  agreeable, and have also  a consid-
erable degree of sweetness ; hence  our colleges have di-
rected the  use of these only.  They are ranked among the
hot seeds, and are undeservedly looked upon as stomachics.
The whole of the genus are indeed only filthy weeds, un-
pleasant in the  taste, and causing the  breath  to smell of
those who are so indelicate as to eat them.
   ANEURISM, or Aneurysm, in surgery, a throbbing
tumour, distended with blood,and formed by a dilatation
or rupture of an artery.  See Surgery.
  ANGARIA, in Roman antiquity, a kind of public ser.
vice, imposed on the provincials, which consisted in pro-
viding horses and carriages for the conveyance of military
stores, and other public burthens.
  ANGEIOGRAPHY,  or Angeiology, among anafo-
mists, the description and history of the several vessels of
the human body, as the arteries, veins, lymphatics, &c.
  ANGEIOLOGY, the description ofthe vessels ofthe
body, which are concerne d in the circulation of the blood,
and in absorption. See Anatomy.
  ANGEL is a  title given to bishops of several churches,
In this  sense is  St. Paul understood by some authors,
where he says women ought to be covered in the church,
because of the angels ; and thus in fhe Revelations, (he
seven stars are  the angels, that is, bishops of the seven
churches.
  Angel, in commerce,  the name of an ancient gold coin
in England, of which some are  still to  be seen in the cabi-
nets of the curious.   It had its name from the  figure of an
angel, represented  upon  it.  It  was 23|  carats fine, and
weighed four pennyweights.  Its value differed in different
reigns.   In the reign of  Henry VI. it was 6s. 8d.  in the
1st  Henry VIII. 7s. 6d.  in lhe  34th Henry VIII. 8s. in
the 6th Edward VI. and  in the succeeding reigns of Mary
and Elizabeth, it was 10s.
  ANGELIC garment,  one which, among our ancestors,
was put on a little before their death, that they might have
the prayers ofthe monks.
  ANGELICA, a genus  ofthe digynia order, belonging to
the pentandria class of plants, and  in the natural method
ranking under the 45th order, umbellatse.  The essential
characters are:  the fruit is roundish, angled,  solid, with
reflecting styli;   the corolla?  are equal,  and jhe petals
incurvafed.   There are six  species.    The  angelica,
archangelica, safiva, or common angelica, which is culti-
vated in gardens for medicinal use, and likewise for a sweet-
meat, grows naturally in the northern countries.
  All the parts  of  angelica,  especially the root,  have a
fragrant aromatic smell, and a pleasant bitterish warm faste,
glowing upon the lips and palate for a long time after they
have been chewed.   The flavour of the seeds and leaves
is very perishable, particularly that of the latter, which,
on being barely dried, lose the greatest part of their taste
and smell: the roots are more tenacious of their flavour:
though even these lose part of it upon keeping.  Angelica
is one of  the most elegant aromatics of European growth,
though little regarded in the present practice.   The root,
which is the most efficacious part, is used in  the aromatic
tincture;  and the stalks  make an agreeable sweetmeat.
  ANGELICS, in church history, an ancient sect of her-
etics, supposed  by some to have gained this appellation
from their excessive veneration of angels, and by others
from their maintaining that the world was created by
angels.
  Angelics is also the name of an order of knights, insti-
tuted in 1191, by Angelus Flavius Comnenus,  emperor of
Constantinople.
  ANGELITES, in church  history, an ancient sect of
heretics,  whose distinguishing tenet was,  that the persons
ofthe Trinity have  no  distinct subsistence, but partake in
common of the same divine essence.
  ANGELOT,  in the  history of coins, a gold  coin struck
at Paris,  while subject  to the English, so called from lhe 
A N  G
A N  G
representation of  an angel supporting the arms of England
and France.
  ANGERONALIA, in antiquity, feasts celebrated at
Rome in honour of Angerona,  the goddess of silence and
patience.
  ANGINA, in  medicine, a violent  inflammation of the
throat, otherwise called quinsy.
 ■ Angina pectoris, a disease  so called  from  the seat of
the disorder, and  the sense of  anxiety and strangling with
which it is attended.  See Medicine.
  ANGIOSPERMIA, in the Linnajan system of botany,
denotes those plants of the didynamia class, which have
their seeds enclosed in a capsule, or seed vessel.
  ANGLE, in geometry, the inclination of two lines meet-
ing one another in a point, and called the legs of the an-
gle.   See Geometry.
  ANGLING, among sportsmen, the art of fishing with a
rod, to which are  fitted a line, hook, and bait.
  In angling  the  following rules are to be observed.  1.
To place yourself so that your shadow does not at any
time lie upon the water, if shallow.  2. To angle in a pond
near the ford  where  the cattle go to drink, and in rivers, in
Buch places as the  fish you intend  to angle for usually
frequent; as for breams,  in  the deepest water j for eels,
under banks;  for  chub, in deep shaded holes; for perch,
in scowrs; for roach, in  the  same places; for  trouts, in
quick streams.
  The best times for angling  are from April to October ;
for in cold stormy weather,  or bleak easterly  winds, the
fish will  not  bite.  The  time of the day,  in the  warm
months, is in  the  morning, about  nine o'clock, and in the
afternoon,  between  three  and  five.  In  order to attract
the fish to the place intended for angling, it  will be  prop-
er once in four or  five days to cast in some corn boiled soft,
garbage, worms chopped to pieces, or grains steeped in blood,
and dried; and if you fish in a stream, it will be best to
cast in the grains  above lhe  hook.
  The best way of  angling with the fly, is down the river;
and in order to make them rise freely, be sure to use such
flies  as you know they are  naturally  inclined  to, and in
such manner as they are accustomed to receive them.
  ANGON, in the  ancient military art, a kind of javelin
used by the French.  They darted it a considerable dis-
tance.  The iron head of this weapon resembled a flow-
er de luce.  It is  the opinion of some writers, that the arms
of France are not flowers, but  the iron point  ofthe angon,
or javelin of the ancient French.
  ANGUINUM, ovum, among ancient naturalists, a fabu-
lous kind of egg, said to be produced by lhe saliva of a clus-
ter of serpents, and  possessed  of certain magical virtues.
  This name is also given by Mercatus to the lapis scol
pendrites.
  ANGUIS, in zoology,  the name of a genus of serpents,
distinguished from the rest by having the belly and  under
part ofthe tail covered with  scales, like those on  the other
parts  of (he body.  The  body is shorter, and more uni-
formly cylindric,  than in  the genus ofthe coluber, and the
eyes are in general small, and the tail rather  obtuse.   No
poisonous  species  of anguis  has yet been  discovered.
There are  15 species ;  the most remarkable are :
  Anguis  bipes, or two footed snake ;  it is a native of the
Indies, and has two short feet, with two toes, near the
anus.   In every  scale of this  species  there is  a brown
point.  2. Anguis  cerastes, a native  of Egypt.  3. An-
guis  colubrina, an  inhabitant of Egypt.  4.  Anguis eryx,
a native of Britain,  and likewise  of America,  is  about
a span in length,  and  about  the  thickness of a  man's
finger.  One from  Aberdeenshire,  described by Mr. Pen-
nant, was fifteen inches long: the belly is of a bluish lead
colour, marked with  small while spots, irregularly dispos-
ed ; the  rest of  the body of a grayish brown, with three
longitudinal dusky lines; one  extending from the  head,
along  the back, to the point of the tail; the others broader,
and extending the  whole length of the sides.  5. Anguis
fragilis, see plate,  Nat. Hist. fig.  20,  or  Glass snake of
Catesby.  The skin is  smooth, with small scales, closely
connected.  A  small blow  with a stick will cause  the
body  to separate, not only at the place struck, but  at two
or three other places, the  muscles being articulated in a
singular manner quite through to the vertebra.  They ap-
pear earlier  in the spring than any other serpent, and are
numerous in  the sandy woods of Virginia  and Carolina.
6. Anguis jaculus,  or dart snake.   Anguis laticauda, a na-
tive  of  Surinam.    7. Anguis  lumbricalis,  a native  of
America.  8.  Anguis maculata,  a native of America.   9.
Anguis meleagris, is  a native of the  Indies.  10. Anguis
platura : the head  is oblong and without teeth; the body
is about a foot and a half long, black above and white be-
low.  11. Anguis quadrupes, or four fooled snake.  The
body  of this species is cylindrical, with 14 or 15 longitu-
dinal ash coloured streaks ;  the teeth are extremely small;
it has no ears : the feet  are at a great distance from each
other, very short,  with  five toes and small nails ; but  the
toes are so minute, that they can hardly  be numbered.   It
is a native of Java.   12. Anguis  reticulata, a native of
America.  13.  Anguis scytale, a  native of the Indies, is
white, interspersed  with  brownish  rings.   14. Anguis
ventralis, blind worm, or slow worm, grows to about  a foot
in length, and  to  the thickness of a man's little finger;
(he head is small;  the neck still more slender; from that
part of the  body  grows suddenly,  and continues  of  an
equal  bulk to the tail, which ends  quite blunt.  The col-
our of the back  is cinerous, marked with very small lines,
composed of minute black specks.  It resembles the  viper,
in the manner of producing its young, which are put forth
alive.  It is frequent with us  in  gardens  and pastures,
where it lives principally under ground, feeding on worms.
  ANGUIUM  lapis,  fhe  name of a supposed  stone in
Germany, which is cylindric, wilh a cavity capable of ad-
mitting lhe finger; of a yellow colour,  with variegations.
The  vulgar think  it  derives its origin from a serpent ant,
but it is certainly made of glass, tinged  with two or three
colours.   They were probably used for  the same pur-
poses with theanguinum ovum.
  ANGURIA, the  water  melon,  a genus of the diandria
order, belonging to  the monoecia  class of  plants, and in
the natural method ranking under the 34th order,  cucur-
bitacese.  The essential characters are these :  the male
calyx is quinquefid, and the corolla quinquepetalous: the
female calyx  and  corolla the same :  the pericarpium is a
pome beneath,  with two cells: the seeds are numerous.
Of this genus, Linnaeus reckons  three species, vis.
   1.  Anguria pedata; 2. Anguria  trifoliata ;  and, 3.  An-
guria  trilobata.  Of  these  only one species is known in
this country,  by the name of Cilrul.   The fruit is culti-
vated in Spain, Portugal, Italy, and other warm countries 
A N  I
ANN
of Europe; as also in Africa, Asia, and America, where it
is esteemed  on account  of its  cooling  quality; but  in
Britain it is deservedly held in little  estimation.
   ANGUSTICLAVIA, in Roman  antiquity, a tunic em-
broidered with little purple studs.   It was worn by the
Roman knights, as the laticlavia was by the senators.
  ANIMAL, in natural history, an  organized and living
body, which is also endowed with sensation : thus, miner-
als are said to grow or increase, plants to grow and live,
but animals alone to have sensation.
  The description, history, and classing of animals, makes
not only a considerable,  but the most excellent  part  of
natural history, known  by the  name  of zoology.  Differ-
ent authors have established different divisions or families
of animals ; but the most natural one seems to  be info
quadrupeds, birds, fishes, amphibious animals, insects, and
animalcules, visible only by the help of a microscope.
   Animals, in heraldry, are much used,both as bearings
and supporters.
  Animal manures, in agriculture, are  all such as are
formed  from  the decomposition of animal substances  of
any kind, as flesh,  blood, hair,  wool, bones, fat, &c. these
are generally  considered as more powerful in their effects,
in promoting  vegetation, than  such  as are derived from
vegetable bodies.
  Animal matter, in chymistry.  See Chymistry.
   Animal secretion, the separation of the several fluids
of the body from the blood.
   Animal system  denotes the whole class of beings en-
dowed with animal  life, otherwise called the animal king-
dom.
   Animal/ossi7c  substances, those  found buried in the
earth at various depths, and embed led among  various
strata: these  are principally, 1, sea shells: 2,  the teeth,
bony palate, and bones of fishes  ; 3,  the bones of land an-
imals ; 4, complete fish.
   Animal economy, the structure and uses of  the differ-
ent parts of lhe body.
   ANIMALCULE, an  animal  so  minute in its  size, as
not to be the immediate object of our senses.
   Animalcules are  seen only  by fhe assistance of micro-
scopes, and are perhaps  more numerous than any other
part of the animal creation ;  but the species, on a close
examination, are found to be but few,  in proportion to the
number  of individuals.   The most  obvious  distinction
among them is, that some have*  and others have not tails ;
and that some have, and others have not visible limbs.
According, therefore, to these  characters, they are arrang-
ed under three  classes,  distinguished by  the names  of
gymnia,  cercaria,  arthronia ;  the first  containing  those
which have  no visible limbs,  nor any tail ;  the  second,
those which have tails; the third,  those which have visi-
ble limbs.
   Animalcules are discovered by the microscope in most
 liquors, as  water, wine, vinegar, &c. in several chalybeat
 waters, in oats, barley, &c. and in the pustules of the itch.
 See Microscope,
   ANIMATED power, in mechanics, denotes a man, or
other animal, in opposition to weights, &c.
   ANIMATION, suspended.  See Drowning.
   AN1ME, or Gum anim^e, in  natural history and phar-
macy, a kind of gum,\)r rather resin, being a friable sub-
stance, inflammable, and soluble in highly rectified spirit.
There are two kinds, the oriental and occidental:  fhe orien-
tal is a dry resin, brought in large casks, and of a very uncer-
tain  colour, some being greenish, some reddish, and some
of the colour of myrrh.  See Hfmbn^a.
  The occidental is a yellowish  white, resembling frank-
incense in colour.   Both kiuds  are used in  perfumes,  and
in medicine externally.
  Ani me', in heraldry, a term used when the eyes of  any
rapacious creature are borne of a different tincture from
the creature itself.
  ANIMELL^E, the  glands under  the  ears, called also
lacliinea.
  ANINGA, in commerce, a root which grows in the An-
tilles islands, and is pretty much like the China plant.  \{
is used by sugar bakers for refining the sugar, and is more
effectual and less dangerous than the sublimate of mercu.
ry and arsenic.
  ANISE, anisum, in the materia medica, a small seed
of an oblong shape,  ending each way in  an obtuse point,
with a surface very  deeply striated, and of a lax and brit-
tle substance.   For the plant which produces it, see Pim-
pinella.
  ANKER, a  liquid measure at Amsterdam.  It contains
about thirty-two gallons English measure.
  ANKLE.   See Talus in Anatomy.
  ANN ALE,  in the  church of Rome, a term applied to
the masses celebrated for (he dead, during a whole year,
  ANNALS, a species of  history, which  relates events
in the chronological order wherein they happened.
  ANNATES, or  first fruits, a year's income of a spirit-
ual living.
  These were, in ancient times, given to lhe pope through-
out all Christendom, upon the decease  of any bishop,  ab-
bot,  or parish  clerk, and were  paid by his  successor.  In
England, (he pope claimed (hem first of such foreigners as
he conferred benefices upon,   by way of  provision; but
afterward they were demanded of all olher clerks on (heir
admission to benefices.  At  the reformation they were
taken from the pope, and vested in the king ; and finally,
queen Anne restored them  to  the church,  by appropriate
ing them to lhe augmentation of poor livings.
  ANNEALING,  or Nealing, as  it  is called by  the
workmen, is a process  particularly employed in the glass
houses, and consists in putting the glass vessels as sooDas
they are formed,  and  while they are yet hot,  into a fur-
nace or oven, not so hot as to remelt them, and in which
they are suffered  to cool gradually.   This is found fo pre-
vent their breaking so easily as  they otherwise would, and
particularly on  exposure  to heat.  There is also this  dif-
ference between annealed and unannealed glass, that when
the latter is broken  it  often flies into small powder, as is
remarkably exemplified in the little glass bubbles sold in
the streets, and  called Prince  Rupert's drops, which are
drops of common bottle glass  which fall from the rods on
which bottles  are made, into water, which  suddenly cools
them.   See Rupert's Drops.  Various  theories have
been started to account for these phenomena, but none of
them quite satisfactory, and all  that can be  said is, that by
gradually cooling, the  glass becomes perfectly  chrystal-

  A similar process is  used for  rendering cast iron vessels
less  brittle, and the effect depends probably on the same
principles. 
ANN
A  N  N
   ANNEXATION,  in  law, a term used to imply lhe
 uniting of lands or rents to (he crown.
   ANNONA, in Roman  antiquity,  denotes provision for
 a year of all sorts, as of flesh, wine,  &c. but especially of
 corn.
   Annona is likewise the allowance of oil, salt, bread, flesh,
 corn, wine, hay, and  straw, which was annually provided
 by contractors for the maintenance of an army.
   Annona, or Custard Apple, a genus of the polyandria
 polygynia class and order.   The  characters are :  the ca-
 lyx is a triphylous perianthium:  the corolla  consists of
 six heart shaped petals:  the  stamina have scarcely any
 filaments; the antherse are numerous, silting  on  the re-
 ceptaculum :  the  pistillum has a roundish  germen; no
 styli: the stigmataob(use and numerous: (he pericarpi-
 um is a large roundish unilocular berry, covered with a
 scaly  bark: the seeds are numerous.  There are 10 spe-
 cies ;  (he most remarkable are :
   1. The annona muricata, or sour sop, which rarely rises
 above 20 feet high: the fruit or apple is large, of an oval
 shape, irregular, and pointed al (he lop, of a greenish yel-
 low colour,  and full of small knobs  on the outside :  the
 pulp is soft, white, and of a sour  and sweet  taste  inter-
 mixed, having many  oblong,  dark  coloured  seeds.   It
 much  resembles the black currant, and is a native of the
 West Indies.   2.  The annona palusfris, or water apple,
 grows to lhe height of 30 or 40 feet; the fruit is seldom
 eaten  but by negroes, and (he tree grows in moist places
 in all the West India  islands.  3. The annona reticulata,
 or custard apple, is  also a native of the West  Indies,
 where it grows to the height of 25 feet; the  fruit is of  a
 conical form, as  large  as a tennis ball, of an orange colour
 when ripe, having a soft, sweet, yellowish pulp, of the con-
 sistence of a custard,  whence it has its name.   4. The an-
 nona triloba, or North American annona, called by  the in-
 habitants papaw, is a native of the  Bahama islands, and
 likewise of Virginia  and  Carolina.  The  trunks  of  the
 trees are seldom bigger than the small part of a man's leg,
 and are about 10  or  13 feet  high.  The  fruit  grows in
 clusters of 3 or  4 together: when ripe, they  are yellow,
 covered  wilh a thin smooth skin, which  contains a yellow
 pulp  of  a sweet  luscious taste.   All  parts  of the  tree
 have a rank, if not a fetid, smell ; nor is  the fruit relished
 by many except negroes.   This last sort will thrive in lhe
 open air in England, if it is  placed in a warm and shelter-
 ed situation; but the plants should be trained up in pots,
 and sheltered in winter  for 2 or 3 years till they have ac-
 quired strength.   The seeds  frequently remain a whole
 year in the ground ; and  therefore the  earth  in the pots
 ought not to be disturbed, though the plants do not come
 up the first year.  All the other sorts require to be kept
 In a warm stove.
   ANNONjE PRiEFECTUs, in antiquity, an extraordinary
 magistrate, whose business it was to prevent a scarcity of
 provision, and  to regulate the weight and fineness of bread.
  ANNOTATION, in matters of literature, a brief com-
 mentary  or  remark upon  a book  or writing,  in order to
 clear up some passage, or  draw some conclusion from if.
  ANNOTTO, in commerce, a kind of red dye, brought
from the West Indies.  Il is procured from lhe pulp of
the seed  capsules of a tree called bixa in South America.
 See Bixa.
  The annofto is prepared only by  fhe  Spaniards ; the
mode is as follows : the contents of the fruit  or  capsule
are thrown into a wooden bowl, where as much hot water
is poured on them as is  necessary to suspend the matter
or pulp.  When the seeds are left quite naked, they  are
taken out, and the  wash  is left  to  settle.  The  water is
then poured off,  and the sediment dried by degrees in lhe
shade, after which it is made into balls or cakes for expor-
tation.
   ANNUAL, an appellation given fo  whatever  returns
every year : thus we say, the annual motion of the earth.
annual plants, &c.
   Annual, or Annuel, in the  Scotch law, any yearly rev-
enue, or  rent, payable  at the two great terms, Whitsun-
tide, and Martinmas.
   Annual plants, called also simply  annuals, are such
as only live  their year, i.e. come up in the spring,  and die
again in the  autumn.
   Annual leaves, are  such as come  in the  spring, and
perish  in autumn.
   ANNUENTES musculi, in anatomy, the same with
recti inteini minores.
   ANNUITIES, periodical payments of money amount-
ing to a fixed sum in each year, and continuing for a cer-
tain period, as for 10, 50, or 100 years, or for an uncertain
period, to be determined by a particular event, as on the
failure of a life, or for an indefinite term  ; which latter are
called  perpetual annuities.   The times of payment are
either yearly, half yearly, quarterly, weekly, or  at  any
other intervals that maybe determined on previous lo the
commencement ofthe annuity, or regulated during its con-
tinuance.
   All  calculations  relating to annuities  are made on the
principle of improving money at Compound Interest, and
are generally for an annuity of 11. from which the value of
any olher annuity is easily derived.   Let r represent the
amount of 1/. in one year ; that is, one pound increased
by a year's interest, then r», or r, raised  to the power
whose exponent  is any given number of years, will be the
amount of 1/. in  Ihose years; its increase in lhe same time
is rn—1 ; now the interest for a single year,, or  the  annuity
answering to the  increase, is r—1; therefore, as r—1 is to
r«—l, so is u, any given annuity, to  a its amount.  Hence
we have          -------
                 u X r"—1
by which the amount of an annuity for any number of years
at any given rate of interest is found.   In lhe same man-
ner the present value of annuities is obtained ; for, as 1/.
is the  present value r», its amount in n years, and as the
present  value of any other amount,  and consequently

       u  X /•" — 1
°f----------must bear the same  proportion to that
        r— 1      _______
amount, we have         1            u
                u  X 1----u-----
                       r«         rn
               ------;----, or-------=».
                    r— 1         r— 1    ^
From these theorems,  the other cases relating fo annuities
may be easily deduced ; but as the involution of high pow-
ers is  a  tedious operation by common arithmetic, most
questions relative to annuities  may be more  conveniently
answered by the  help of  logarithms.   It  is  however, 
A N IS
ANN
seldom necessary to have recourse to either of these meth-
ods, as very accurate tables of the amount and present
worth of annuities have  been calculated by Mr. J. Smart
and others, and are inserted in most books that treat of
Compound Interest or Annuities.

                     TABLE  I.

Showing the'Amount of an Annuity of ll, in any Number
  of Years, not exceeding 100,  when improved at 5 per
  Cent, per Annum, Compound Interest.
Yrs	. Amount.	Yrs	Amount.	Yrs.	.\ mount.
1	1,0000	35	90,3203	69	559,5510
o	2,0500	36	95,8363	70	588,5285
3	3,1525	37	101,6281	71	618,9549
4	4,3101	38	107,7095	72	650,9027
5	5,5256	39	114,0950	73	684,4478
6	6,8019	40	120,7998	74	719,6702
7	8,1420	41	127,8398	75	756,6537
8	9,5491	42	135,2317	76	795,4864
9	11,0266	43	142,9938	77	836,2607
10	12,5779	44	151,1430	78	879,0738
11	14,2068	45	159,7002	79	924,0274
12	15,9171	46	168,6852	80	971,2288
13	17,7130	47	178,1194	81	1020,7903
14	19,5986	48	188,0254	82	1072,8298
15	21,5786	49	198,4267	83	1127,4713
16	23,6575	50	209,3480	84	1184,8448
17	25,8404	51	220,6154	85	1245,0871
18	28,1328	52	232,8562	R6	1308,3414
19	30,5390	53	245,4990	87	1374,7585
20	33,0659	54	258,7739	88	1444,4964
21	35,7192	55	272,7126	89	1517,7212
22	38,5052	56	287,3482	90	1594,6073
23	41,4305	57	302,7157	91	1675,3377
24	44,5020	58	318,8514	92	1760,1045
25	47,7271	59	385,7940	93	1849,10si8
26	51,1135	60	353,5837	94	1942,5653
27	54,6691	61	372,2629	95	2040,6935
28	58,4026	62	391,8760	96	2143,7282
29	62,3227	63	412,4698	97	2251,9146
30	66,4388	64	434,0933	98	2365,5103
31	70,7608	65	456,7980	99	2484,7859
32	75,2988	66	480,6379	100	2610,0252
33	80,0638	67	505,6698		
34	85,0670	| 68	531,9533		
                     EXAMPLE.

  To what sum will an annuity of 421. amount in 30 years,
at 5 per cent,  compound  interest?  The  amount in  the
Table against 30 years is  66,4388, which multiplied by
42, gives the answer 2790/. 8s. 7d.

                    TABLE II.

Showing the present Value of an Annuity of 11. for  any
  Number of Years, not exceeding  100,  at  5 per Cent.
  per Annum, Compound Interest.   By the help of these
  tables many practical problems, which are daily occur-
  mg, may be worked by any persons versed in common
  arithmetic.
Yrs	Value.	Yrs.	Value.	Yrs. 69	Value.
1	,952361	35	16,374194		19,309810
2	1,859410	36	16,546852	70	19,342677
3	2,723248	37	16,711287	71	19,373978
4	3,545950	38	16,867893	72	19,403788 *
5	4,329477	89	17,O'704l	73	19,432179
6	5,075692	40	17,159086	74	19,459218
7	5,786373	41	17,294368	75	19,484970
8	6,463213	42	17,423208	76	19,509495 *»■■?
9	7,107822	43	17,545912	77	19,532853
10	7,721735	44	17,662773	78	19,555098
11	8,306414	45	17,774070	79	19,576384
12	8,863252	46	17,880066	80	19,596460
13	9,393573	47	17,981016	81	19,615677
14	9,898641	48	18,077158	82	19,633978
15	10,379658	49	18,168722	83	19,651407
16	10,837770	50	18,255925	84	19,668007
17	11,274066	51	18,338977	85	19,683816
18	11,689587	52	18,418073	86	19,69887S
19	12,085321	53	18,493403	87	19,713212
20	12,462210	54	18,565146	88	19,726869
21	12,821153	55	18,633472	89	19,739875
22	15,163003	56	18,698545	90	19,752262
23	13,488574	57	18,760519	91	19,764059
24	13,798642	58	18,819542	92	19,775294
25	14,093945	59	18,875754	93	19,785994
26	14,375185	60	18,929290	94	19,796185
27	14,643034	61	18,980276	95	19,805891
28	14,898127	62	19,028834	96	19,815134
29	15,141074	63	19,075080	97	19,823937 .
30	15,372451	64	19,119124	98	19,832321 •
31	15,592810	65	19,161070	99	19,840306.
32	15,802677	66	19,201019 :100		19,847910
33	16,002549	67	19,239066		
34	16 19\>904	68	19.275301		
                      EXAMPLE.
  What is the present worth of an annuity of 30/. to con-
tinue for 16 years, at 5 percent, compound interest? The
value in the Table against 16 years is 10,83777, which mul-
tiplied by 30, gives the answer 325/. 2s. 7d.
  Reversionary Annuities are  those  which do  not com-
mence till after a certain number of years, or till (he de-
cease of a person, or some other future event, has happen-
ed.  The present value of an annuity which is not to com-
mence till the expiration of a certain period, may be found
by Table II, by deducting  from the  value of an annuity
for the whole period, the value of an annuity to the time
at which the reversionary annuity is to commence.
  Example. What  is  the  present value, at 5  per cent.
compound interest, of 50/. per annum for 20 years, com-
mencing at the  end of 7 years from  the present time?
The value of an annuity  for 27 years  is  14,643034, and
the value of an annuity for 7 years is 5,786373,  the latter
deducted from the former leaves  8,856661, which multi-
plied by 50, gives 442/. 16s. 7d.  the  value of the rever-
sionary annuity.
  For the  value of Annuities  on Lives,  and of Rever-
sionary Annuities on Lives or Survivorship, see  Lifb
Annuities.                              l

   a wvi?lSVP"W^  SeC Nat,onal D«bt and Funds.
^ i V T^» '"J^* r°ntract  ver^ disti™t from a
rent charge, with which it  is frequently confounded : a rent
charge being a burthen imposed upon, and issuing out of 
A N  O
ANT
ands, whereas an annuity is a yearly sum, chargeable only
ipon the person of the granter.   Therefore, if a man by
ieed grant to another the sum of 20/. per annum, without
jxpressing out of what lands it shall issue, no land at all
shall be charged wi h it ; but it is a mere personal annuity,
which is of so little account  in the law, that if granted to
in eleemosynary corporation, it  is  not within the statutes
af mortmain ; and yet a man may have a real estate in it,
though  his security is merely  personal.  Blacks. Com.
b. ii. chap. 3.
  For  the provisions respecting grants of annuities for
lives, see Life Annuities.
  ANNULAR, in anatomy, something in the form of, or
resembling a ring.   Hence, the annular cartilage is the sec-
ond cartilage of lhe  larynx ; annular ligament that which
encompasses the wrist, and  binds the  bones of the arm to-
gether  ; annular process, or protuberance, a part of the
medulla oblongata.  The sphincter muscle of the anus is,
from its figure, called the annular muscle.
  Annular eclipse.  Sp<» 4«TRnvnMV.
  ANNULET, in  architecture, a small square member
in the  Doric capital, under the quarter round.   Annulet
is also  a narrow flat  moulding, which is  common to divers
places  of the columns, as in the  bases, capitals,  &c.  It is
the same  member which Vitruvius calls a fillet ; Palladio
a listel or cincture ; Scamozzi and Mr. Brown, a super-
cilium, list, tinea, eyebrow, square and  rabbit.
  Annulet, in heraldry, a mark of distinction which the
fifth brother of a family ought to bear in his coat of arms.
  ANNULLING, a term sometimes used for cancelling
or making void a deed, sentence, or the like.
  ANNULUS, a ring, in geometry, the area of which is
equal to the difference of the areas of the outer and inner
circles : or  it may  be found by  multiplying the sum of
their diameters by the difference, and the product by 7854.
   ANNUNCIADA, Annuntiada, or Anncntiata, an
order of knighthood in Savoy, first instituted by Amadeus
I. in fhe year 1409.
   Annunci a da, is also the title of several religious orders
instituted at different times, and at different places, in
honour of the Annunciation.
   ANNUNCIATION, the tidings brought by the angel
Gabriel  to  fhe Virgin  Mary ; a festival  on the 25th of
March, vulgarly called lady day.
   In the  Romish church, on this feast, the pope performs
the ceremony of marrying  or cloistering a certain number
of maidens, who are presented  to him in the church della
Minerva,  clothed in white serge, and  muffled up from head
to foot : an officer stands by, with purses containing notes
of fifty crowns for  those  who  make  choice of marriage,
and notes of an hundred for those who choose  the veil.
   ANNUNTIATOR, the name  of an  officer in  the
church of Constantinople.  It  was his business to inform
the people of the festivals that were to be celebrated.
   ANODYNE,  in pharmacy, a term applied to medi-
cines which mitigate pain.
   A\OLYMPIADS,*v*Av/a*WW, in Grecian antiquity,
an  appellation given by the Elaeans to such  Olympic games
as had been celebrated under the  direction of other states
besides themselves.
   Anomalistical year, in astronomy, the fime fhat the earth
takes to pass through her orbit: it is also called the peri-
odical  year.  The  space of time belonging to this year ia
greater than the tropical year, on account of the preces-
sion of the equinoxes.
  ANOMALOUS verbs,  in grammar,  such as are not
conjugated conformably to the paradigm  of their conjuga-
tion.                            .       .
  ANOMALY, in astronomy, an irregularity in the mo-
tion of the planets, whereby they deviate from the aphe-
lion or apogee; which inequality is either mean, eccentric,
or coequate and true.   See Astronomy.
  ANOMIA,  in conchology, the name  of an extensive
genus of bivalves, defined as inequivalve, one valve gib-
bous toward the beak, the other flat and perforated near
the hinge.   The animal, which is but imperfectly known,
is described :  body thin  and slender,  emarginafed, and
fringed ; the hairs affixed to the upper valve ; and it has
two arms, which are  linear and longer  than the  body.
Some conchologists  separate the fossile kinds from those
which are found in a recent state.  There are 25 species,
among which is the anomia terebratula.   See Plate V II.
Nat. Hist, fig. 21.
   ANOMOEANS, a sect of Christians, who  asserted
that the Son was of a nature different from, and in nothing
like to that of the  Father.  This was the name  by which
the pure Arians were distinguished, in contradistinction to
 the semi Arians, who acknowledged a likeness of nature in
the Son, at the same time that they denied, with the pure
 Arians,  the consubstantiality of the Word.  The semi
 Arians condemned the Anomceans in the council of Seleu-
 cia ;  and the  Anomoeans in their turn condemned the semi
 Arians in the  council of Constantinople.
   ANOMORHOMBOIDIA, in natural history, a genus
of crystaline  spars, of no determinate form, easily fissile,
 but cleaving  more readily in an horizontal than in a per-
 pendicular direction, their plates being composed of irreg-
 ular arrangements of  short and thick rhomboidal concre-
 tions.  See Mineralogy.
   ANON IS,  rest harrow, in botany,  a genus  of  plants,
 the flower of which is papilionaceous, and its fruit a turgid
 villose pod, containing a few kidney like seeds.
   This genus belongs to the  diadelphia  decandria class of
 Linnaeus, who calls it ononis.  The essential character is,
 calyx quinquepartite; segments linear;  vexillum striated ;
 legumen turgid and sessile ;  filaments coatited, without a
 fissure.
   ANSiE, in astronomy, the parts of Saturn's ring, which
 are to be seen on each side of the planet,  when  viewed
 through a telescope, and the ring appears somewhat open.
 They are so  called because  they are like handles  to the
 body of the planet.
   ANSEL weight, the same with auncel weight.
   ANSER, the trivial name of the common goose.   See
 Anas.
   Anser, in  astronomy, a *tar of the fifth or sixth magni-
 tude, in the milky way, between the swan and  eaale.
   ANSPESSADES, in the French armies, a kind of in-
 ferior officer  in the foot, below the corporals, but above
 the common  sentinels.  There  are usually four or fi\e of
 them in a company.
   ANT, in entomology, a well  known  insect, much cele-
 brated for its industry and economy.   See Formica and
 Termes.
    ANTA, in the ancient architecture, a square  pilaster,
 placed at the corners of buildings.  Anfa is used by M. 
A  N  T
ANT
Le Clrrc for a kind of shaft  of a pillar, without base or
capital, and even without any moulding.
   ANTACIDS, in pharmacy, an appellation given fo all
medicines proper to correct and  resist acid, or sour hu-
mours.   See Materia Medica.
  ANTAGONIST,  muscles, in  anatomy,  those which
have opposite functions, as flexors and extensors,  abduc-
tors and adductors, &c.  See Anatomy.
  ANTALKAL1NES, in the materia medica, signifying
medicines fitted to  correct alkaline salts, or alkaline mat-
ters in the whole body.
  ANATANACLASIS, in  rhetoric, a figure which re-
peats fhe same word, but in a different sense, as dum viv-
imus, vivamus.  And the English, Let the dead bury the
dead.
   ANTANAGOGE, in rhetoric,  a figure by  which,
when the accusation of the adversary is unanswerable, we
load him  with the same or other crimes.  This is usually
called recrimination.
  ANTANISOPHYLLUM, in botany.  See Boerhaa-
VIA.
   ANTARCTIC, in the general sense,  denotes some-
thing opposite to the arclic, or northern pole.  Hence,
   Antarctic circle, in geography and astronomy, is one
of the lesser circles of the  sphere, and distant  only 23°
30' from the south  pole, which is likewise called antarctic,
for the same reason.
   ANTARES, a  star ofthe  first magnitude, otherwise
called the Scorpion's heart.   See Scorpion.
   ANTE', in heraldry,  denotes that lhe pieces are  let
into one  another in such form as  is there expressed ;  as,
for instance, by dove  tails, rounds, swallows' tails, or the
like.
   ANTEAMBULONES, in Roman antiquity, servants
who went before persons of distinction to  clear the way
before them.  They used this formula, Dale locum domi-
no meo ; i. e. make way for my master.
   ANTECEDENT,  in grammar, the word to which a
relative refers : thus, God whom we adore, the word God
is the antecedent.
   Antecedent, in logic, is  the  first of the two proposi-
tions in an enihymema.
   Antecedent, in mathematics, is the first of two terms
of a ratio, or that which is compared  with the other, as in
the ratio of 2 to 3, or a fo 5,2 and a are each antecedents.
   Antecedent signs, in medicine, such as are observed
before a distemper is so formed as to be reducible to any
particular class, as a bad disposition of the blood.
   Antecedent  term,  in mathematics, the first one of
any ratio : thus, if the ratio be a : b, a is the antecedent
term.
   ANTECEDENTIA, in astronomy, an apparent mo-
tion of a planet toward the west, or contrary to fhe order
ofthe sims, viz. from Taurus toward Aries, &c.
   ANTEDATE, among lawyers, a spurious or false date,
prior fothe true date  of a bond, bill,  &c.
   ANTEDILUVIAN,  whatever existed before Noah's
flood : thus, the generations from Adam fo Noah are called
the antediluvians.  There have been great  disputes among
philosophers about fhe form, constitution,  figure, and situ-
ation of  the antediluvian earth.    Dr. Burnet contended
that it was only a hollow crust, with an uniform equable sur-
face, without mountains  and  without seas, and in all re-
spects  different  from what we  now  find it to be.  Dr,
Woodward undertook to prove that its appearance was lhe
same as at present; that it had  the  same position in re-
spect of the sun, and consequently the same \ icissitudci
of seasons: and  Mr. Whiston imagined that the chaos of
which our earth was formed, had been the atmosphere of
a comet;  that the annual  motion of  the  earth began as
soon as it assumed a new form ;  but that the diurnal mo-
tion did not take place till the fall of Adam; that before
the deluge the year began at lhe autumnal equinox;  that
the orbit  ofthe earth was a perfect circle ;  and that the
solar and  lunar years were the  same, each consisting of
just three hundred and sixty days. The state of the antedi-
luvian philosophy has  been the  subject of much debate
among authors, and so also has the state of the population,
   ANTEJURAMENTUM, by our  ancestors called
juramentum calumnioz, an oath  which anciently both ac-
cuser and  accused were to take  before any trial or pur-
gation.
   The accuser was to awpar ihat hp would prosecute the
criminal ; and the accused to make oath, on lhe day he
was to undergo the ordeal,  that he was  innocent of the
crime charged against him.
   ANTELOPE, in zoology, a genus  of quadrupeds.
The generic character is, horns hollow, wilh a bony core,
pointing upward, annulated or wreathed, permanent; front
teeth,  in the lower jaw,  eight; no canine teeth.' Ante-
lopes have but lately been included in a separate genusj
fhey were formerly placed under that ofthe goaf.  They
form a link  indeed between the  goat and deer kind, but
possess sufficiently  distinctive  marks to entitle them to
stand apart from them both.   They are in general natives
ofthe  hottest part ofthe globe, and peculiarly of A>ia and
Afiica, Europe  having  but  two species, and  America
none.
   Antelopes have a slender elegant make, and are singu-
larly agile and swift in their  motions : they  are restless,
timid, vigilant,  and full of animation.   Their chase is a
favourite amusement in the east;  and  such is their speed,
that the  fleetest  dogs  cannot overtake them; on which
account falcons are trained fo assail them, and by pecking
at their eyes, to  check their course, and throw ihem into
confusion.  A species of leopard is employed also fo steal
upon them unawares, and seize them by a few bounds.
   Antelopes have the singular property of sometimes stop-
ping short, and  gazing at  their pursuers.   The beauty of
their eyes affords a favourite object of comparison to eastern
poets. They usually prefer hilly countries,and associate in
numerous herds. They graze on herbage, or crop the shoots
of trees, and their flesh is generally of a very delicate fla-
vour.  There are twenty-eight species of the antelope.
   1.  Oryx, or  Egyptian  antelope.  The Egyptian ante-
lope, or pasan,  is more  easily  distinguished than  many
others in  this extensive race ;  the horns affording a char-
acter  perfectly  clear and constant;  they are almost en-
tirely  straight, nearly three feet in length, very slender in
proportion to their length, annulated  at the lower part or
toward the base, the remainder smooth and gradually '»"
pering fo  the point.   The size of the  animal is somewhat
superior to that of a deer.
   The pasan is nearly four feet high, measured from the
top of the shoulders to the ground : it is found about the
Cape of Good Hope, as well as in olher parts of Africa. 
                      ANT

  2. Leucoryx, or white antelope.  The leucoryx is en-
tirely milk white, except the  markings on the face  and
limbs: these  are  described as of a red colour,  and not
black, as in the pasan; the nose is thick and  broad,  like
that of a cow; lhe ears somewhat  slouching; the body
heavy ;  the limbs somewhat less so ; the horns very long,
very slightly  incurvated, slender,  and annulated about
half way  upward; their  colour is  black,  and they are
sharp pointed ; the hoofs are black,  and the tail somewhat
flocky, or terminated by  loose hairs.   The  size of  this
species  is compared by Mr. Pennant to that  of a Welch
runt.  It is an inhabitant of an island called Gow Bahrein,
in the gulf of Bassora.
   3.  Antilope  gazella, or algazel.  This species is a na-
tive of India and Persia, and  is also found in many parts
of Africa.  It is about the size of a fallow  deer, and  is of
a reddish or  bright bay colour, with a  white breast:  the
horns are very long, thin, and  black, nearly upright, bend-
ing inward at their extremities; they are nearly smooth ;
the rings with  which they are marked being very slight,
except near  the base, where they are somewhat more dis-
tinct : they are almost three feet  in length.
   In celerity and  general  manners this  species  agrees
with many others of its tribe, and is said to be easily tamed.
   4. Oreas, or Indian antelope.  This is one of the  larg-
est of the whole genus, and is  found both in India and Af-
 rica, living in numerous herds.  It  is not much inferior in
size to a cow, and is of a bluish gray or slate  colour,  with
the head of a  bright boy.  Along  the upper part of the
neck and a part ofthe back, runs a coarse black mane : on
 the breast is a very  large pendent tuft ofhair, as in the
 nilghau: the tail is also tipped with long black hairs  ; the
 horns are  extremely stout, straight, sharp pointed, and
marked wilh two very thick prominent wreaths or spires :
 they are sometimes above two feet in  length, and  are of a
 blackish  colour.  The  oreas is said lo be an animal of
 great strength, and it has  been thought not impracticable
 to train il  to agricultural purposes,  in lhe same manner as
 the horse or ox.    It is said  sometimes to grow extreme-
 ly fat,  so as  to be easily run down.   The flesh is reckoned
 extremely good ; and the skin is very  strong  and service-
 able for lhe  purpose of leather.  The  female is said  to be
 horned like  the male.
    5. Antilope ourebi, or ourebi.   This is described by
 Mr. Pennant as lhe  antelope  with  small  straight horns,
 small head,  long neck, long pointed ears :  colour above a
 deep fawny, brightening toward the sides, necfc, head and
 legs; lower  part  of breast, belly,  buttocks,  and inside of
 thighs, white: fail only three  inches long, and black: hair
 on The  body short, under  the chest long  and whitish, on
 each knee a (uft ofhair.  The females are hornless : length
 three feet nine inches to the  tail:   inhabits  the country
 very remote from the Cape of  Good Hope.   Seldom more
 than two are seen together.   They generally haunt the
 neighbourhood of fountains surrounded with reeds j are
 excellent venison.
    6. Antilope oreotragus, or  klipspringer.   This species
 is to be numbered among the  late  acquisitions in natural
 hisloi v, having been first described by Dr. Forster.
    7. Scripta, or harnessed antelope.   This, which is num-
 bered among the smaller antelopes, is  of an elegant fawny
 chesnut colour both  above and below, each side of the
 body being marked by two longitudinal bands of white,
    vol. i.              23
                       ANT

cro3sed,at nearly equal distances, by two transverse ones :
the rump is also marked on each side  by two  white de-
scending stripes ; and the thighs are variegated with seven
or eight roundish  white spots:  the cheeks have a while
spot or patch beneath the eye, and the under part of the
throat is of the same colour :  lhe tail measures ten inches,
and is covered  with long and rough hair : the horns point
backward, and are nine inches long, of a black colour, and
marked by two spiral ribs or wreaths.   This  elegant  spe-
cies is a native of Senegal, living in woods in  large herds.
   8. Grimmia, or Guinea antelope.   The Guinea antelope,
or grimm, is  considerably smaller than a roebuck,  and is
of an elegant and lively aspect.  Its colour on all parts
except the throat, abdomen, and insides of the thighs, w here
it is pale cinereous, is a beautiful light yellowish or tawny
brown.  Like most other quadrupeds, however, it differs
as to the intensity of its colour.  The  horns are very
short, thick at lhe base, very slightly annulated toa small
distance beyond, and are sharp pointed, smooth, and black:
the limbs are slender ; the tail rather short, blackish above,
white below, and is somewhat flocky or loose haired: but
what principally distinguishes this species is  an upright
 pointed tuft of strong black hairs  rising from  the top ot
 the forehead, between  the horns, to the height of about
 two inches and a half:  the sinus lachrymalis, as in many
 other ?ntelopes, is extremely conspicuous.  The gi irrm is
 found in several  parts of Africa, extending,  according to
 Dr. Pallas and Mr. Pennant, from  Guinea lo lhe Cape of
 Good  Hope; residing principally in  places  overgrown
 with brushwood, into which it may retire on the appioach
 of danger.
   9. Pygmcea,or pigmy antelope.  This beautiful and di
 minutive species appears to have been  frequently con-
 founded with  the moschus pygmaus, or pygmy  musk,
 which it resembles in size as well as in colour and  man-
 ners.  It is a native of the hottest parls of Africa,  and is
 easily tamed, but is of so tender a nature as  not to admit
 of being brought in a living slate into Europe.  So re-
 markable are  its powers of  activity in its native regions,
 that it is said to be able to leap over a wall of twelve feet
 high.   Its colour is a bright bay, paler  beneath, and on
 the insides ofthe limbs ; and its height  not more than nine
 inches.  The horns are straight, short, strong, sharp
 pointed, smooth, and perfectly black. The legs are scarce-
 ly thicker than a quill, and have been used for similar pur-
 poses with those of the moschus  pygmceus.  The female
 is said to be hornless.
    10.  Antilope  picta, or nilghau.  The nilghau, or white
 footed antelope, is a large and  beautiful species, known
 only within  the  space of a few years past.  It  has of late
 years been  often imported  into Europe, and has bred in
 England.    In confinement it is generally pretty gentle,
 but is sometimes seized with fits of sudden caprice, when
 it will attack with great violence the objects of its dis-
 pleasure.  When the males fight, they drop on  their knees
 at some distance from each other, and gradually advance
 in that attitude, and at length make a spring  at each other
 with their heads bent low.  This  action, however,  is not
 peculiar to  the  nilghau, but is observed in many  others
 of the antelope tribe.  See Plate VII. Nat. Hist. fig. 2'2.
    11.  Tragocamelus, or Indostan antelope.  The Indos-
 tan antelope is of a far less  elegant appearance than the
 rest of the  antelopes,  and seem? to  partake, in some 
ANT
ANT
degree, ofthe form ofa camel, having a strong bending neck,
and a large elevation or protuberance over the shoulders.
Along fhe neck runs a short mane;  and the  protuberance
before mentioned is covered or tufted with  long hair : the
breast is furnished with a kind of dewlap, or loose pendent
skin, resembling that  ofa cow:  the  hind part ofthe  ani-
mal is small in proportion to the fore ;  the limbs are slen-
der, and fhe tail is nearly two  feet in length, and terminat-
ed by  a hairy tuft.  This highly singular  animal is a na-
tive of India, and in its habits and manner of lying down is
said to resemble a camel.
  12.  Bubalis, or cervine antelope.   This  species is  said
to be common in Barbary, and in all the  northern parts of
Africa.  It is also found, though less frequently, in many
other parts of that continent,  and even  extends as  far as
the Cape of Good Hope.  It is supposed lo have been the
bubalas of the ancients, instead of the common  buffalo, as
sometimes erroneously imagined.   In  its general form it
seems to partake  of the stag and heifer, having a large
bead, like that of an ox; and a thick  broad nose.   The
height of the animal, when measured  to the top of the
shoulders, is about 4 feet;  the general colour a reddish
brown,  white about the rump, iusides  ofthe limbs,  and
lower part of the belly ; the upper part of the fore legs is
marked in front by a dusky patch, as is also the hind part
of the thighs; and on the upper part ofthe back is a stripe
of (he same colour.  The horns  bend outward and back-
ward,  and  are very strong and black,  thickly or coarsely
annulated toward (he base,  and seated pretty close to
each other on the head ;  they are about 20 inches in length,
and 11 inches round at the base ; the teeth are large,  the
lower lip black, wilh a sort of tuft of bristles on each side ;
along the snout and forehead  runs a black band, terminat-
ed at the forehead by a tuft ofhair between the horns.
   13.  Strepsiceros, or striped  antelope.   The striped
antelope is a native ofthe country about the Cape of Good
Hope, where it is said to be called  coedoes.   It is one of
the larger  kinds of antelopes, measuring near 9 feet in
length, and  being 4 feet high.  Its colour is a rufous gray,
with the face brown, marked by two white lines, each pro-
ceeding from the corner ofthe eye, and uniting in a  point-
ed form on the top ofthe nose, which is smooth and black ;
down the forehead runs a broad dusky  stripe, and a streak
of the same colour is continued down the upper  part ofthe
neck; the lower part ofthe back  is marked by a  white
stripe,  from  which proceed several others,  each about an
inch broad, down the sides ofthe animal, three or four of
them falling over the upper part of the thighs:  the female
of this  species is said by Mr. Pennant  to be destitute of
horns, but Dr. Pallas affirms that it is horned like the male.
The number of white stripes in this animal seems to vary.
   14.  Rupcapra, or common antelope.  Of this numerous
tribe there is perhaps no species more truly elegant in its
appearance than the present, which is a native of many
parts of Africa, as well as of India.   It is particularly  fre-
quent in Barbary.  Its  general size  is  somewhat smaller
than  that of a fallow deer, and its colour is a reddish
tawny brown above, and white below ;  the insides of the
limbs are white, and on the head, back, and outsides ofthe
limbs, the  hair is darker than on other parts :  the  orbits
of the eyes  are white, and this colour is  generally continu-
ed into a white spot or patch  on each side the forehead ;
the muzzle is black;  the horns are of a peculiarly beauti-
 ful form, having a double flexure, first inward and agm,
 outward: their colour is black, and they are very eleganj.
 ly and  distinctly marked throughout almost their  whofc
 length  by  numerous prominent rings.   Their  general
 length is about fourteen inches, and they are about sixleea
 inches distant from each other at the tips.  See Plate VI],
 Nat.  Hist. fig. 23.
   lb. Lerwia, or Gambian  antelope.   This seems a spe-
 cies not very  distinctly understood.
   16. Antilope  saiga, or saiga.   The saiga, or Scylbiu
 antelope, is an inhabitant of all the deserts  from the Dan-
 ube and the Dnieper  to the river  Irtish, but not beyond;
 nor is it ever seen to  the north of 54 or 55 degrees of lati-
 tude.    It is therefore found in  Poland, Moldavia, about
 Mount  Caucasus, and the Caspian Sea, as well as io the
 dreary open deserts of Siberia, where  salt springs abound,
 feeding on the salt,  acrid, and aromatic plants of those
 countries.
  Tne females of this species go with young the whole
 winter,  and bring forth in  the northern deserts in Mar,
 producing only one young at a birth, which  is covered
 with a soft curling fleece, like that  of a new fallen lamb.
 It is said that  a flock of saigas  seldom lies down all at once,
 some  always acting as a kind of sentinels, and being relieved
 in their turn by others; and thus they preserve themselves
 from  the attacks both of wolves and  hunters.   They are  i
 so extremely swift as easily to outstrip the fleetest horse,
 but cannot  run for any great length of time in this  manner
 without stopping, as  if to lake  breath.  If bit by a dog,
 tbey  instantly fall down, without attempting to rise, being
 entirely disabled through extreme (error.   In their flight
 they  appear to incline to one  side, and their couise is so
 rapid, that  they scarcely seem  to touch the ground ffilb  <
 their feet.  When taken young they may be easily  tamed;
 but when caught at full age, are so wild and obstinate a»
 to refuse all kinds of food.
  These animals  are  hunted for the  sake of their flesh,
 horns, and skins,  which latter are said to be excellent for
 gloves,  belts,  &c.   The hunters are  careful to approach
 them  against the  wind, lest the animals should perceive
 them  by their smell: they also avoid putting on  red or
 white clothes, or any coloijrs which  might attract their
 notice.  They are  both shot and taken  with dogs, and
 sometimes by  a species of eagle trained to this kind of fal-
 conry.
  \7- Gutturosa, or Chinese antelope.  This is a  species
 which is said to abound in the southern parls of the des-
 erts between Tibet and China, and in the country of th«
 Mongol Tartars, frequenting principally the dry and rocky
 plains and hills of those regions, and feeding on the finer
 and more aromatic plants.   It is said to be so  averse to
 water, lhat it will not  go into it even to save its life, whe»
 driven by dogs to the brink  of a river. If taken young it
 may be  easily  tamed.  Its flesh is much esteemed as a food,
and the horns  are in great request among the Chinese fo»
various  purposes.  The female has no horns.
  18.  Subgutturosa, or Guldensted's antelope.   Thtf
 species  was first described  by Mr. Guldensled, in th«
 Petersburg Transactions.   Il  is  found in Persia, between
 the Caspian and the Black Seas ;  its size and general ap-
pearance is that ofa roebuck, ofa grejgariou*nature,andil
reeds  principally on the arfemisia pontica.
  1f9. Antilope euchore, or springer. 
ANT                                                 ANT
  "This elegant species weighs  about fifty pounds, and
is rather less than a roebuck; inhabits the Cape of Good
Hope ; called there the spring bock, from the prodigious
leaps it takes on the sight of any body. When alarmed it has
the power of expanding the while space about the tail  into
the form of acircle, which returns to its linear form when the
animal is tranquil.  They migrate annually from the inte-
rior  parts in small herds, and continue in the  neighbour-
hood of the Cape for two or three months, then join com-
panies, and go off in troops, consisting of many thousands,
covering the great plains for several hours in their passage ;
are attended  in their migrations by numbers of lions, hyae-
nas, and other wild beasts,  which make great  destruction
among them ;  are excellent eating, and, wilh other ante-
lopes, are the venison of the  Cape.   They make period-
ical  migrations in seven or  eight years, in herds of many
hundred thousands, from the north, from the interior parts
of Terra de Natal.  They  are compelled to it  by the ex-
cessive drought which happens in that region, where some-
times there  does not fall a drop of rain for  two or three
years.   These animals, in thejr course, desolate Caffraria,
spreading over the whole country, and not leaving a blade
of grass.  Lions attend them: where one of those beasts
of prey are, the place is known  by  the vast void visible
in the midst of the timorous herd. On its approach to the
Cape, it is observed  that the  avant guard is very fat, the
centre less  so, and the rear guard almost starved, being
reduced to  live  on the  roots of the plants devoured by
those which went before; but on their return they become
the avant guard, and thrive in their turn on the renewed
vegetation; while the former,  now changed into the  rear
guard, are famished, by  being compelled to take up with
the leavings of the others.   These animals are quite fear-
less,  when  assembled in such mighty  armies ; nor can a
man pass through, unless he  compels  lhem lo give way
with  a whip or a stick.  When taken young, they are easi-
ly domesticated: the males are very wanton, and are apt
to butt at strangers with their horns."
  20. Antilope arundinacea, or ritbock.  The  ritbock, or
ritrebock, is so named from its chiefly frequenting reedy
places.   Its size is that of a  roebuck, and its colour a very
elegant pale gray, with the  'hroat, belly, hips,  and insides
ofthe limbs, white, but  without,any  dusky line of separa-
tion  along the sides of the body, as in many other ante-
lopes.
  21. Antilope sylvafica, or bosbock.  In its general form
this seems most allied to the  harnessed antelope, but is
said to be rather smaller.  Like  that  species, it inhabits
woods, and is found at a great distance above the Cape of
Good Hope.  'Itscolour is a dark brown above, and white
beneath; fhe head and neck having  somewhat of a rufous
cast,  and (he  thighs are  marked with several small round
tvhife spots.
  22. Eleotragus, or cinereous antelope.   This appears
lo be an elegant species, and is supposed to be  a native of
Africa.   The head, hind part, and sides of the neck, back,
iides, shoulders, and  thighs, of a most elegant grayish ash
colour;  front of the neck,  breast, belly, and  legs, pure
vhite ; horns marked with  spiral  wreaths.  Mr. Pennant
places it among those whose horns incline forward.
  23. Dorcas, or Barbary antelope.  This species is about
jalf the size ofa fallow deer ;  its colour is reddish brown
ibove,  and  white beneath; the  two colours being sepa-
                  23*
 rated by a dark or blackish lateral line or stripe ; on each
 knee is  a tuft of blackish hair; the horns are 12 inches
 long, of a round or cylindric form, and incline  first back-
 ward, then  bend in the middle, and lastly, revert forward
 at  their lips; they  are of a black  colour, and are  annu-
 lated with about 13 rings  on the lower part.
   24.  Kevella, or flat horned antelope.  This animal in
 its general appearance, so exceedingly resembles the Bar-
 bary antelope, that it might readily pass for a variety of lhe
 same species, was it not that the horns, instead of being
 round, are flattened on their sides, and marked by  some-
 what more numerous rings.  Its size is that of a small roe-
 buck,  and if is chiefly found in Senegal, but is  said to oc-
 cur also in Barbary and in Persia.   It lives in large flocks,
 and has  an odour resembling that of musk.
   25.  Pygarga, or white faced antelope.   So great  is fhe
 similitude  between  this species and the flat horned ante-
 lope, that  the chief difference appears to consist in size;
 this being larger than a fallow deer.  The horns resemble
 those of the animal before mentioned, and are  16  inches
 long, and about 5 between  lip and  tip;  they  are very
 strongly  annulated in the  male,  but said to  be nearly
 smooth in the female ; the face is white ; the cheeks and
 neck,  in the living animal, ofa bright bay;  the back and
 upper  parts of ferruginous brown, with a dark stripe  down
 the back:  the belly  and rump white, as is also, in the
 Leverian specimen, the lower half of the legs; the sides
 of the  body  are marked, as  in many others of this genus,
 with a dark  or blackish stripe; lhe  fail  is about seven
 inches long, covered with  black hairs, which extend some
 inches beyond the end.
  26.  Antilope corinna, or corine.   The corine is some-
 what smaller than a roebuck, and is a native of Senegal
 and other parts of Africa.
  27.  Sumatrensis, or Sumatran antelope.   The Soma-
 tran antelope was first mentioned by Mr. Marsden, in his
 account of that  island, under the name of catnbing ootan,
 or goat of the woods.
  28. Leucopbsea, or blue  antelope.  This is a species
 of very considerable size,  being larger than a fallow  deer,
 and from the form of its horns, and the length of its hair,
 may be said to connect, in some degree, the antelope with
 the goats.
  ANTENNAE, in the history  of insects, slender fila-
 ments with which nature has furnished the heads of these
 creatures, being the same  with what in English  are called
 horns or  feelers.
  The structure ofthe antennae in different insects is thus
 characterized.  Sefacese,  those which resemble a bris-
 tle : Filiformes, uniform, like a thread :  Moniliforms, like
 the  filiform,  but  consisting  of a series of round knots:
Clavatae, club shaped, increasing  from the  base to the
 extremity :  Capitals©, like  the former, but lhe  last  artic-
 ulation larger than the rest,  and forming a capital or head  :
 Fissiles are  capitals, but  have lhe  head divided horizon-
 tally into laminse: Perfoliate are likewise capitafie, but
 the head divided horizontally,  and connected by a kind
 of thread that passes  through the centre :  Pectinatae, re-
 sembling a comb or feather, having laferal appendages on
 both sides :  Aristatae, have a laferal hair, which is either
 naked or furnished wifh lesser hair.
  ANTEPAGMENTA, in the ancient architecture, the
jambs ofa door.   They are also ornaments in carved work. 
ANT
ANT
of men, animals, Sec. made either of wood or stone, and
set on the architrave.
  ANTEPE.VULTIMA, in  grammar, the last syllable
but fwo from fhe end of a  word.
  ANTEPREDICAMENTS,  among logicians, certain
preliminary  questions,  which illustrate  the doctrine of
predicaments and categories.   They  are  so  called be-
cause A-istotle has placed  them before the predicaments,
in order to treaf  that subject afterward without interrup-
tion.
  ANTESIGNANI, in the Roman armies, soldiers plac-
ed before the standards, in order to defend them, accord-
ing to Lipsius;  but Csesar and Livy mention the antesig-
nani as the first line,  or first body, of heavy armed troops.
The velites, who used to skirmish  before the army, were
likewise called antesignani.
  ANTE3INISTRA,  a  name given by the augurs  of
Rome to  thunderbolts, or birds, which proceeded from
the south and passed to the east, and were supposed to af-
ford unfavourable presages.
  ANTESTARI,  denoted to  bear witness against any
one who refused  to  make his  appearance in the Roman
courts of judicature  on the day appointed, according  to
the tenor of his bail.  He might then be brought by force
into court, some persons  being  called to bear witness of
the fact.
  ANTHELION, a mock sun,  or meteor,  seen through
the clouds, larger than  the disk of the sun.  In its most
refulgent state it is yellow as the sun, but the lucid tract
surrounding it is of a paler yellow, interspersed with red-
dish spots.
   ANTHELIX, in anatomy, the inward  protuberance
of  the external ear,  being a semicircle  within, and almost
parallel to the helix.
   ANTHELMINTICS,  medicines to  destroy worms.
 See Materia Medica.
   ANTHEMIS, chamomile,  a  genus of the polygamia
 superflua order, belonging to the syngensia class of plants ;
and in the natural  method ranking under the  49tb order,
composite discoides.  The essential characters are these ;
the receptaculum is  chaffy; there is no pappus;  the ca-
 lyx is hemispheric and subequal; and  the florets of the
 ray are more than  five.  Of this genus there  are 19 spe-
 cies, of which the most remarkable are the following:
   1. Anthemis  Arabica has a branching empalement.   It
grows near two  feet high, with an upright  stem, having a
single flower at the top, from whose empalement there are
two or three footstalks, each having a single flower smaller
 than the first, like the childing marigold, or hen and chick-
 en daisy.
   2. Anthemis  nobilis, or common chamomile,  grows  in
 plenty upon commons, and  other waste land.   There is a
 variety with double  petals.  Formerly this plant was used
 for planting of walks,,  which,  when mowed  and  rolled,
 looked well for some time ; but it  was subject to decay in
 large patches, and the walks became unsightly.
    3. Anthemis pyrethrum, or pellitory of Spain, is a pe-
 rennial plant, which grows  naturally in Spain and Portu-
 gal.   The branches trail upon the ground.   At the ex-
 tremity of each  branch is produced one large single flow-
 er, like chamomile, but  much larger; the rays of which are
 of a pure white  within, but purple on the outside.  The
 seeds will not come to perfection in this country.
  4. Anthemis tinctoria is a perennial plant, which flow.
ers  from June to November, and makes a very pretty ap.
pearance, some ofthe flowers being ofa white, others ofa
sulphur, and some ofa bright yellow colour.   Of these the
nobilis and the pyrethrum  are  chiefly used  in medicine,
They are  accounted carminative, aperient, emollient, and
in some measure anodyne.  These flowers are frequently
also used  externally in discutient and antiseptic fomenta-
tions, and  in emollient clysters.  An essential oil was for-
merly directed to be prepared from  them, but it is now
omitted.  A simple watery infusion of them taken in a le-
pid  state,  is at present  frequently  employed to promote
the  operation of emetics.
  ANTHERA, among  botanists, that part of the stamen
which is fixed on  the lop of the filamentum, within the
corolla; it contains the pollen  or  fine dust, which, when
mature, it emits for the impregnation of the plant.
  ANTHERICUM, spider wort, a genus of the mono-
gynia order, belonging to  the  hexandria class of plants;
and, in the natural method, ranking under the 10th order,
coronarise.  Tiie  essential character is, corolla of six ob-
long petals, expanding.   ThV pericarpium is an ovate tri-
sulcated capsule, with three cells and three valves.  There
are  39 species.  The anthericum frulescens was formerly
known among the gardeners near London  by the name of
onion leaved aloe.   It produces many ligneous  branches
from the root, each  supporting a plant  with long  taper
leaves, in shape like those of an onion, and full of a yellow
pulp very juicy.  The  flowers  are  yellow,  produced on
long loose  spikes.  It  is a  native of the  Cape of Good
Hope, and requires shelter in winter.
  The  anthericum  liliastrumis a perennial plant; it flow-
ers  in June and July,  and is known by the name of St.
Bruno's lily.
  ANTHESTERIA, in Grecian antiquity, festivals cel-
ebrated in the spring by the ancient  Athenians, in hononr
of Bacchus, during which fhe masters feasted their slaves,
as the Romans did in the time  of the Saturnalia.  It was
usual,during these feasts, toride in chariots, and pass jests
upon all that passed by.
  ANTHISTIRIA, in botany, a  genus of the trigynia
order, belonging to the triandria class of plants, and,in the
natural method,  ranking under the 4th  order, gramina.
The  essential character is: the  corolla, a two valved
glume,  cleft at the base into four divisions.  There is on-
ly one species of this grass, the ciliata or fringed antbisli-
ria, a native of India.
  ANTHOCEROS, or horn flower, a genus of the order
of algae, belonging to the cryptogamia class of plants, and,
in lhe natural method, ranking  under the 5f!h order, alg«-
The essential characters are: the calyx ofthe male is ses-
sile, cylindric, and entire ; the anthera, one, is subulated,
very long, and two valved ; the calyx of the female ismo-
nophyllous, divided  into six parts, and  expanding j ^
seeds  are  about  three, naked  and  roundish.  There are
only three species of the anthoceros, vis.
   1. Anthoceros levis* a native of Europe and America.
  2. Anthoceros  multifidus, a native of Germany, found
in moist shady places, and on heaths.
  3. Anthoceros punctatus, or spotted anthoceros, a native
of  Britain.
  ANTHOLOGION,  lhe title of  the service book used
in the Greek  church.  It  is divided into  twelve month 
ANT
ANT
containing  the offices sung  throughout  the year, on the
festivals of our Saviour, the Virgin, and other remarkable
saints.
  Anthology, «v6oAoyi<x, a  discourse of flowers, or of
beautiful passages  from any authors.   It is also the name
given to a collection of epigrams  taken  from  several
Greek poets.
  ANTHOLYZA,  mad flower, a genus of fhe monogy-
nia order, belonging  to the  triandria class of plants;  and
in the natural method ranking under the 6th order, ensatae.
The essential characters are; the calyx is tubular, irreg-
ular, and bent back; and the capsule is beneath the flow-
er.   There are 7 species:  the  most  remarkable  are; 1.
Antholyza ringens.   This has red, round, bulbous roots,
from which arise several red flowers. These  appear in
June, and the seeds ripen in  September.
  2.  Antholyza spicata,  with  narrow furrowed leaves, is
in shape and size like the vernal crocus.  Between these
arise the flower stem, which is  a foot and a half high : the
flowers  come out on one  side, and are of a  white colour,
appear in  May, and the seeds ripen in August. Both
these species are natives of Africa.  In  summer  they
may be placed in the open air, but in  winter they must be
placed under a hot bed frame, or in the greenhouse, where
they are a  great ornament when in flower.
  ANTHOMANIA, an extravagant fondness for curious
flowers.  A remarkable  instance  of this occurred in Hol-
land  last century, which ruined many individuals,  and
was obliged to be put a stop to by the magistrates.
  ANTHONY, or knights of St. Anthony, a military or-
der, instituted  by Albert duke of Bavaria,  Holland, and
Zealand,  when  he  designed  to  make  war against  the
Turks in 1382.   The knights  wore a collar of  gold made
in form of  a hermit's girdle, from which hung a stick cut
like a crutch, with a little bell,  as they are represented in
St. Anthony's pictures.
  Anthony's St. Fibe, a  name sometimes given to the
erysipelas.
  ANTHOSPERMUM, the amber tree, a genus of the
dioecia order, belonging fo the  polygamia class of plants,
and in the natural method ranking under the 17th order,
sfellatse.   The essential characters are;  the calyx of the
hermaphrodite  flower is  divided into four parts ;  there is
no corolla ; the stamina are four, and  the pistilla two; the
germen is beneath fhe flower.  Male and  female on the
same or separate plants.   Of this genus Linnseus mentions
three  species, vis.
  1. Anthospermum iEthiopica.  2.  Anthospermum  cili-
are;  and 3. Anthospermum  herbacea.  The first is most
generally known in the gardens  of the curious.   Its beau-
ty consists  in its small evergreen  leaves, which grow as
close as heath.  These being bruised  between the fingers,
emit a very fragrant odour;  whence tbe name amber  tree.
This plant  is easily propagated,  by cuttings  during any of
the summer months, in a border  of light earth, where they
will take  root in six weeks time, provided they are water-
ed or shaded  as lhe  season  may  require;  or  if they are
planted in pots plunged  in a moderate hotbed, they  will
lake root  the sooner,  and  there  will be a greater certainty
[>f their  crowing.  They must be  frequently renewed
by cuttings, as the old plants are very subject to decay.
  ANTHOXANTHUM, or vernal grass, a  genus of the
Jigynia order, belonging to  the diandria  class of  plants;
and in the natural method ranking under lhe 13th order,
gramina.  The essential  characters are; the calyx is a
bivalved gluma, with one flower; the corolla is bivalved,
obtuse, and without any  awn.   There are three species,
vis.
   1. Anthoxanthum Indicum, a native of India.
   2. Anthoxanthum  odoratum, or spring grass, a native of
Britain: it is one of  the earliest spring grasses, and is ex-
tremely common  in  our fertile pastures.  The delightful*
smell of new mown hay is chiefly from this plant.
   ANTHRAX, a Greek term, literally signifying a burn-
ing coal, used by the ancients lo denote a gem, as well as
a disease, more generally  known by the  name of carbun-
cle.  It  is sometimes  also used for lithanthrax,  or pit
coal.
   ANTHROPOGLOTTUS, among zoologists, an appel-
lation given to such  animals as have tongues resembling
that of mankind, particularly to the parrot kind.
   ANTHROPOLATRiE, in  church history, an appel-
lation given lo the Nestorians, on  account of their wor-
shipping Christ, notwithstanding that they believed him to
be a mere man.
   ANTHROPOL1TES,  a term  denoting the petrifac-
tions ofthe human body.
   ANTHROPOMANCY, a species of divination, per-
formed by inspecting tbe entrails of a human creature.
   ANTHROPOMORPH1TES, in church history, a sect
of ancient heretics, who taking every thing spoken of God
in tbe  Scripture in a literal sense, particularly that pas-
sage of Genesis in which it  is  said 'God made man after
his own image/ maintained that  God had a human shape.
   ANTHROPHAGY, the  act  of eating human flesh,
The origin of  this custom, barbarous as it is, some authors
tra.ce as high  as the  deluge.  In the southern part of Af-
rica, and in some parts of America,  this horrid practice is
said sfill to prevail.   Mr. Marsden, in his History of Su-
matra, informs us that the battas of that island are anthro-
pophagi.  They do  not eat human flesh  to  satisfy hun-
ger, but as a mode of showing an abhorrence of their ene-
mies.  The objects of this savage repast are prisoners
taken in war.  When sentence  is pronounced, the unhap-
py victim is tied to a stake,  and  when mortally wounded
by lances thrown at him by the assembled multitude, they
rush upon him, cut pieces from his body wilh fheir knives,
dip them in a dish, previously prepared, of salt and lemon
juice, slightly broil them over a fire, and then devour them
with savage enthusiasm.
   ANTHROPOSOPHIA, the  science of the nature of
man, his structure and composition, both internal and ex-
ternal.
   ANTHYLLIS, kidney vetch, or lady's finger, a genus
of the  decandria order, belonging lo the diadelphia class
of plants; and in  the  natural  method ranking under the
32d  order, papilionaceae.   The essential characters are ;
the calyx is   ventricose, and the legumen is roundish and
covered.  There are 17 species, of which the following
seem to be most worthy of attention.
   1. Anthyllis barba Jovis, or silver bush, has its name
from the whiteness of its leaves.  This  is a shrub which
often grows to- the height of 10 or  12 feet, dividing  into
many laferal branches,  with winged leaves.  The flowers
are produced at the extremities of the  branches,  collect-
ed into small heads, of a bright yellow colour. 
A  N T
ANT
   •2.  Anthyllis  cytisoides,  or  shrubby  woundwort,  has
 Jong  been known  in  the  English gardens.  It is a  low
 shrub, seldom rising  above two feet high, but sends out
 many slender branches, with hoary' leaves,  which  are
 sometimes single,  but  generally have  three oval lobes :
 the flowers  are  yellow.  This species and the barba Jo-
 vis may be propagated  by cuttings planted during any of
 the  summer months; they must  always  be  housed in
 winter.
   3.  Anthyllis  montana, or herbaceous  woundwort, with
 winged leaves, grows naturally  in  the mountains in  the
 Bouth of France, and in Italy.  The flowers are of a purple
 colour and globular  form.  They appear in June  and
July.
   4.  Anthyllis vulneraria, with unequal winged leaves, is
 a native of Spain and Portugal, as likewise of Wales.   It
 is a biennial plant,  and  the  flowers are of a bright scarlet
 colour.
   ANTI, a Greek preposition, which enters into the com-
 position of several words,  both  Lalin, French, and  En-
 glish, in different senses.  Sometimes it signifies before, as
 in anfichamber, and  sometimes opposite or contrary, as
 in the names of these medicines, antiscorbutic, antivene-
 real,  &c.
   ANTIBACCHIUS, in ancient  poetry, a foot consist-
 ing of three syllables; the two-first long,  and the last one
 short.
   ANTIBIBLOS,  in  the civil law, an  instrument by
Awhich the defendant owns he has received the libel,  or a
 copy of it, and notes the day whereon he received it.
   ANTICAUSOTICS,  denote medicines against burn-
 ing fevers.
   ANTICHORUS, in botany, a genus of the monogy-
 nia order, belonging  to the octandria class; of which the
 essential  characters are :  the calyx  is a four  leaved peri-
 anthium ; the corolla consists of four expanding  petals ;
 the pericarpium is a capsule, above, subulated, with  four
 cells, and  four valves;  the seeds  are   very  numerous.
 There is but one species, vis.
   Antichorus depressus, a native of Arabia.
   ANTICARDIUM, in  anatomy,  the hollow part under
 the breast, commonly  called the pit of  the stomach, the
 same with scrobiculum cordis.
   ANTICHRESIS, in civil law, a covenant, by which a
 person borrowing money of another  engages to make over
 his property  to the  creditor,  for  the interest of money
 lent.
   ANTICK, in sculpture and  painting, denotes  a fantas-
 tical composure of figures of different natures, sexes, Sec.
 It amounts to the same thing as the French call grotesque.
   ANTICLIMAX,  in rhetoric, is a figure by which the
 progress of a discourse descends from great to little.
   ANTICUM, in  architecture, a porch  before  a door;
 also that part of a temple  that lies between the body of
 the temple and the portico.
    ANTICUS, a term used by  anatomists, importing that
 the part  with which it is joined stands before  some others;
 serratus  anticus,  peronaeus anticus, tibialis anticus, &c.
 See Anatomy.
    ANTIDACTYLUS, a name to  a foot of poetry, the
 reverse of dactyl, consisting of three syllables,  the  first
 two short, and the last long.
   ANTIDESMA, in botany, a genus ofthe dioecia order,
belonging to the pentandria class of plan J.  The calyx
ofthe male is five leaved; there is no corolla: ine antoe.
rse are bifid ; the female calyx is five leaved ; the corolla
is wanting; the stigmata are  five; the berry is cylindric
and one seeded.  There are  three species, natives of In.
dia.                                        .
  ANTIDICOMARIANTES, in  church history, here-
tics who maintained that the Virgin Mary did not preserve
a perpetual virginity.
  ANTIDORON, a name given by the Greek  church to
the consecrated  bread,  part of which was  given to the
poor.
  ANTIENT, in a military sense, denotes either the en-
sign who carries them,  or  the  colours; in ships of war,
the streamer or flag, borne in the stern.
  ANTIHECTICS, medicines good in hectical disorders.
See Pharmacy.
  ANTILOGARITHM, the complement of a logarithm,
  ANTIMONY, in natural history,  one  of the  semi-
metals, separated by fusion from a very hard  and heavy
lead coloured substance, called  ore  of antimony : this ore
is composed of a  number of extremely  small sparkling
granules, which give  it the appearance of a lump of the
purest steel, when fresh broken.
  I. Antimony is of a  grayish  white  colour,  and  has a
good deal of brilliancy.  Its  texture is  laminated, and ex-
hibits plates crossing each other  in every  direction,and
sometimes assuming the appearance of imperfect crystal*.
Hauy has with great labour ascertained that  lhe primitive
form of these crystals is an octahedron, and  that the inte-
grant particles of antimony  have the figure of tetrahe-
drons.  When rubbed upon  the fingers, it  communicates
to them a peculiar taste and smell.  Its specific gravity is,
according to Brisson, 6.702 ; according to Bergmann, 6.86.
It is very brittle, and may be  easily reduced in a mortar
to a iine powder.   Its tenacity  has not been tried.  Whei
heated to 809 degrees Fahrenheit, or just  to  redness, it
melts.  If after this the heat ia increased, the metal evap-
orates.  On cooling,  it assumes fhe form of oblong crys-
tals, perpendicular to the internal surface ofthe vessels is
which it  cools.  It  is to this  cryslalization  that   the
laminated  structure  which antimony  always  assumes is
owing.
  II.  When exposed  to  the air, it  undergoes  no change
except the loss of its lustre.   Neither is it altered by be-
ing kept under water.  But  when steam  is  made lo pasi
oyer red hot antimony, it is decomposed so  rapidly that a
violent detonation is the consequence.
  When heated in  an open vessel, it  gradually combinei
with oxygen, and evaporates  in a white vapour.  This va-
pour,  when collected, constitutes a  white coloured oxide,
formerly  called argentine flowers of antimony.  When
raised to a white heat, and  suddenly  agitated, antimony
burns, and is converted  into  the  same white  coloured
oxide.
   III. Antimony  has  never been combined with carbol
 nor hydrogen.  When its oxides are  heated along with
 charcoal or oils, they are reduced, but imperfectly, unless
 some body, as potash,  be present to favour the fusion  of
 the metal.  The greater part  remains in a  state of black
spongy mass, which often  takes fire when exposed to tbe
air.  Antimony combines readily with sulphur and with
 phosphorus. 
ANT
ANT
    Sulphuret of antimony may be  formed by mixing  its
  two component parts together* and fusing them in a cruci-
  ble.   It has a dark bluish gray colour, with a lustre ap-
  proaching the metallic; it is much more fusible than anti-
  mony, and may  be crystalized  by slow  cooling.   It  is
  composed, according to Bergmann,of 74 parts of antimony
  and 26 of sulphur.   With  this  estimate -the late experi-
  ments of Proust  coincide almost exactly.   According to
  that  very accurate  chymist, sulphuret of antimony   is
  composed of
                     75.1 antimony.
                     24.9 sulphur.

                     100.0
    This substance is found native in great abundance, and
  indeed is almost  the only  ore of antimony.   It was to this
  sulphuret that the term antimony was applied by lue earlier
  chymists; the pure metal was called regulus of antimony.
    When equal parts of antimony  and phosphoric glass are
  mixed together with a little charcoal powder, and melted
  in a crucible, phosphuret  of antimony is  produced.   It is
  ofa white  colour, brittle, appears laminated when broken,
  and at the fracture a number  of small  cubic facettes are
  observable.  When melted it emits a green flame, and the
  white oxide of antimony sublimes. Phosphuret of antimo-
  ny may likewise  be  prepared by  fusing equal parts of an-
  timony and phosphoric glass,  or by dropping phosphorus
  into melted antimony.
    IV. Antimony does not  combine with azote, nor with
  muriatic acid.
    V. Antimony combines readily with most of the metals;
  but  the  greater  number  of its alloys have  not  been ap-
  plied fo any use.   Antimony  and gold may be combined
  by fusion, and forma brittle compound of a yellow colour.
  Great attention was paid  to  this alloy by the alchymists,
  who affirmed that the  quantity of gold might be increas-
  ed by alloying  it wilh antimony, and  then purifying it.
 Platina easily  combines   with antimony.   The  alloy is
 brittle,  and much lighter than  platina.   The antimony
 cannot afterward be completely separated by heat.   Sil-
 ver may be alloyed with antimony by fusion. The alloy
 is brittle, and its specific gravity, as Gellert has observed,
 is greater than  intermediate between the specific gravities
 of the two  metals which enter into it.  Antimony does not
 amalgamate with mercury while cold.  When three parts
 of mercury are mixed with one part of melted antimony,
 a soft amalgam is obtained, which very soon decomposes
 of itself.   Gellert also succeeded in forming this  amal-
 gam.  Copper combines readily with antimony by fusion.
 The alloy, when it consists  of equal parts of the two metals,
 is of a beautiful  violet colour,  and its specific gravity is
 greater than intermediate.  This alloy was called  regulus
 of Venus by the alchymists.   Iron combines wifh antimo-
 ny by fusion, and  forms a  brittle  hard alloy, the specific
 gravity of which is less than intermediate.  The magnetic
 quality of iron is much more diminished by being alloyed
 with antimony than  with most other metals.  This alloy
 may be obtained also  by fusing in a crucible two parts of
 sulphuret and one of iron.   It was formerly called martial
 regulus.  The alloy of tin and'antimony is white and brit-
tle ; its specific grarjfy  is  less than  intermediafe.   This
alloy is employed  for different purposes ;  particularly for
making (he plates  on which  music is engraved.  When
  equal quantities of lead and antimony are fused, the alloy
  is porous and brittle:  three parts of lead  and one of an-
  timony form a compact alloy, malleable, and much harder
  than lead : twelve parts of lead and one of antimony form
  an alloy very malleable, and a good deal harder than lead :
  16 parts of lead and one of  antimony form  an alloy  which
  does not differ from lead except in hardness.   This alloy
  forms printers' types.   Its tenacity is very considerable,
  and its specific gravity  is greater than the mean.  Zinc
  may be readily combined with antimony by fusion.   The
  alloy is hard and brittle, and has fhe colour of steel.  Its
  specific  gravity  is  less than intermediate.   Antimony
  forms a bri'tle alloy with bismuth; to manganese it unites
  but imperfectly :  the compounds which it forms with nick-
  el and cobalt have not been examined.
    VI. The affinities of antimony, and of its oxides, are,.
  according to Bergmann, as follows :

       Antimony.             Oxide  of Antimony.
         Iron,                 Muriatic,
         Copper,              Oxalic,
         Tin,                 Sulphuric,
         Lead,                Nitric,
         Nickel,               Tartaric,
         Silver,               Saclactic,
         Bismuth,             Phosphoric,
         Zinc,                 Citric,
         Gold,                 Succinic,
         Platina,               Fluoric,
         Mercury,             Arsenic,
         Arsenic,              Lactic,
         Cobalt,              Acetic,
         Sulphur.              Boracic,,
                              Pruasicj
                             Carbonic.

   ANTINOMIANS, in church history, certain heretics
 who first appeared about the year 1535 ; and so called, be-
 cause they rejected the law, as of no use under the Gospel
 dispensation.
   The name is now applied to a  sect of high Calvinists,
 who sprung up in England about the time of  Oliver Crom-
 well, and who are accused of maintaining  that the elect
 are  incapable of incurring guilt for whatever actual sins
 they may commit.
   ANTIPATHES, the name of  a genus in the zoophy-
 ta order of vermes: the  character is, animal growing in the
 form  of a plant; stem within horny, with  small spines:
 base expanded, the outside covered with gelatinous flesh,
 and  numerous  polypiferous  warts.-  There are several
 species,  as  spiralis, myriophylla, &c.  See Plate, Nat.
 Hist. fig. 24.
   ANTIPHONY, in music,  the name which the Greeks
 gave to that kind of symphony which was executed in oc-
 tave or double octave.   It is likewise the answer made by
one choir to another, when an. anthem is sung between
them.
  ANTIPHRASIS, in  rhetoric, a figure by  which in say-
ing one thing, we mean lhe contrary.
  This figure regards sentences, and not sicgle words.
  ANTIPODES, in geography,  a name given  to those
inhabitants of the globe that live diametrically opposite to
one another.  They lie under opposite parallels, and oppo-
site meridians.  They have the same elevation of their 
ANT
ANT
 different poles.   It is midnight  with one when it is noon
 with the other ;  the longest day with the one is lhe short-
 est with tbe other; and the length of the day wilh lhe
 one is equal to that of the night ofthe other.
   ANT1PTOSIS, in rhetoric, which  puis one case for
 ;i not her.
  ANTI&UARE, among Roman  lawyers,  denotes the
 rejecting a new law, or refusing to pass it.
  ANTIQUARY, a person who studies and searches af-
 ter monuments and remains of antiquity.
  The Society  of Antiquaries in London was  instituted
 in  the year 1751.  Every member pays five guineas as an
 admission fee,  and two  guineas a year, or an additional
 sum of twenty-one guineas.   They have weekly meetings
 every Thursday evening at their rooms in Somerset house.
 A  similar society was founded  in Edinburgh in 1780.
  Antiquary, is also used by ancient writers for the keep-
 er of a cabinet of antiquities.  John Leland was antiquary
 to  Henry VIII.
  ANTIQUE, in a general sense, something that is an-
cient ;  but the term is chiefly used  by sculptors, paint-
ers, and architects, to denote such pieces of their different
 arts as were  made by lhe  ancient Greeks and Romans.
 Thus we say. an antique  bust, an antique statue, &c. See
 Sculpture.
  ANTIQUITIES.   There is  scarcely a term, perhaps,
 in any language so thoroughly  comprehensive  as lhat now
 before us : since it implies all testimonies or authentic ac-
 counts lhat have come down to us, which illustrate either
 the particular or universal  history of ancient nations:  a
 science equally complicated as extensive.
   To enter elaborately  info the subject would be to re-
 write a hundred  treatises:  we  must  here content our-
 selves with an elementary survey ; and wifhout extending
 our views to those who have  written on more trifling ob-
 jects of inquiry, divide antiquities into  two grand classes,
 political  and monumental :  lhe first forming a genera),
 the other a particular study : the first embracing all lhat
 can increase our knowledge of  civil institutions, the lat-
 ter entirely confining itself to woiks of  art ;  and, togeth-
 er, affording the most effectual means of learning the genius
 and manners ofthe various nalions of lhe world.  For the
 latfer of these classes we shall refer to the respective arts
 whose investigation is concerned. But for the illustration
 of the former, we shall present  a general  view of ancient
 history, confining ourselves fo ihose which may be deem-
 ed either leading, or the parent,  countries of science, in the
 different periods : beginning our researches wilh the Jews,
 at a lime when  the history of every other country is in-
 volved in darkness and uncertainly ; proceeding with the
 Egyptians and the Indians, the  remnants of whose great-
 ness preserve the earliest relics  of profane history ; follow-
 ing them up with the Greek and Roman  antiquities; and
 concluding with the antiquities of Britain.  On the Egyp-
 tian and Indian  antiquities we shall be more circumstan-
 tial than on those of other Countries;  since  their history
 and remains present a field of inquiry still open to inves-
 tigation.
   The  history  of  a people  persecuted and scattered
 through  the  world,  yet whom no change of fortune has
 been  able to eradicate,  is a subject of consideration too
 deep  and too important to  leave a slight impression on the
 mind.   But the history  of  the Jews has even more to
boast: in lhe records of their nation they pass the general
flood, the boundary to the annals of every other people;
and fairly trace their ancestry back to the common father
of the human race.
  In the Bible we find the only authentic history of the
origin, ordinances, and vicissitudes, of  the nation: frora
that we learn, that their religious riles were divinely com-
municated.  Unlike  to every other people, Ihey have re.
mained distinct;  and are continued  so for greater ends
than the  meanness  of their present state  may  seem to
promise.
  Could we ascertain the antiquities of Egypt with pre-
cision, those of the Jews might be expected thence to re-
ceive collateral illustration ; since Moses, Iheir great law.
giver, was  confessedly educated in the  schools of Egyp.
lian learning and legislation:  and many even of the meta-
phors he uses in the Pentateuch are supposed fo bear some
connection with objects or symbols communicated lo him
by the Egyptian priesls.
  To the more enlightened nalions of antiquity, however,
their history and their religious customs were equally unin-
telligible.   The  Greeks, by a fabulous tradition, deduced
them from Jupiter and Saturn ; and the Romans, till Taci-
tus's time, knew little of them. Tacitus indeed charges the
whole nation with a sullen hatred of all mankind.  In one
or two cases he gives something that appears to border on
the truth.  But, in the general account, he relates the va-
rious opinions that were floating in the world, and leaves
the truth to rest on better authority : apparently thinking
that with regard to such a race minute inquiry was un-
necessary.  Though,  at this period, the page of Jewish
history was fully disclosed, and accessible to the curiosi-
fy of every Roman ; Josephus lived at Rome, under Ves-
pasian, Titus, and Domitian;  and under the last of those
emperors his Jewish Antiquities were given to the world.
   A sufficient knowledge of ihp general  antiquities of the
Hebrews may be obtained from the  Bible, Philo and Jo-
sephus, and the Talmud ; and, among the writers of more
modern  date,  Arias Montanus, Carpsovius, Maimonides,
Buxtoif, Reland, Leusden, Calmet, Witsius,Bucher,Ben-
zebus, Basnage, Hot linger, and  Mithaelis, may be deemed
the best.    Among  the English, Selden,  Godwyn, and
Lewis.  Calmet's Dictionary of the Bible also contains
many references for the curious reader; and those who
would know how far their ancient and  modern practices
agree, may consult Levi's Jewish Ceremonies.
   On the civil history of the Jews, Josephus may be con-
 sulted : with Struckford.and Prideaux's Connections. On
 the life  and death of Moses, however;  on the Exodus of
 the Israelites, and  their leaders; on the  Jewish kings;
 the Babylonish captivity ; and on the history and condi-
 tion of the Jews in different countries subsequent to their
 dispersion; the  writers are  extremely  numerous: and»
 complete catalogue of them may be found in MensefsBib-
 liotheca Hisforica.   On the destruction of Jerusalem, Jo-
 sephus  and Tacitus are the principal writers in  repute.
 And for the history of the Jews in England, Tovey's work
 may be referred  to.
    But the most copious work on  Jewish  antiquities«
 Ugolinus's Thesaurus, in thirty-four volumes, folio; the
 first bearing the  date of 1744, the*last 1769; contain")?
 all the best works which, previously to that time, had ap-
 peared, on the manners, laws, rites, and institutions of ll"* 
ANT
ANT
Hebrews: amounting in number to no less than four hun-
dred and eighty-eight distinct treatises.
  The most curious collection of Hebrew  manuscripts in
this  country which illustrate *he literary antiquities of
the Jews, may be found  in  the Bodleian Library at Ox-
ford.   Few of them,  in  point of age,  run beyond eight
hundred years; and the most  ancient,  we believe, were
brought by Dr. Pococke from Constantinople.
  We cannot  close  this part of our article  without rec-
ommending to  attentive perusal  the  late bishop Lowth's
Lectures  on the Poetry of the Hebrews, which afford a
better view than any ether work of  the taste and learning
of (hat extraordinary people.
  We now come to the Antiquities of Egypt:  a country
once as remarkable  for the  scheme of its laws, and the
dark oracles of its  priests, as for (he commerce of its
cities, the grandeur of its buildings, and the fertility of its
territory.  The earliest nations of  the world are emphat-
ically described by Dr. White to have been fed with the
produce of her soil, and  enriched  with the  Ireasures of
her wisdom; and not only the more civilized countries at
the present day, but the Arabs and the Indians, still view
the relics of her greatness with areverential regard.   In
1801, when General Baird led his army from lhe Red Sea,
a party of Seapoys, who saw  the hooded serpent upon
one of the aucient monuments of Egypt, fell  down and
worshipped it.
  The quarries of marble and porphyry of Upper Egypt
furnished the principal  materials with  which the first in-
habitants raised their most stupendous works of  art.  But
whence their oracular intelligence was drawn, it is impossi-
ble to say.   To II ermes Trismegistus, a sage as highly rev-
erenced among them as Zoroaster was among the Persians,
the Egyptians ascribed the  inventions of chief use to hu-
man life ; and  like  every people who are unable to settle
the antiquity of their origin, Ihey represented his works
to have outstood the shock  even of the universal  deluge.
They otherwise called hiiuThoth; and their  priests as
constantly maintained that from the hieroglyphic  charac-
ters upon the pillars he erected, and the sacred  books, all
the  philosophy  and  learning of the world have been  de-
rived.
  Both the earliest and the  latest writing of the country,
to the time of Cleopatra, appears to'have been symbolic;
and fhe use of hieroglyphic  characters  was  not only ap-
plied to sacred, but  to other uses; through  them alone
the avenues to knowledge  could  be opened; and their se-
cret appears principally to  have lain in certain analogies
and correspondences between the forms, actions, and qual-
ities of animals, and certain  facts in nature, morals or  his-
tory.  The animals which in lhe grosser periods of Egyp-
tian  history received  the  worship of the people, in fhe
first ages it is probable were only used to express the at-
tributes of lhe Egyptian gods;  and their regard for them
perhaps was much increased by their adherence  to  the
doctrine of transmigration.   A  black ox,  the  symbol of
the  sun, Mas sacred  to Osiris; and Isis typified the moon.
Isis and Osiris indeed  were  every where adored, though
differently represented; and the Mnevis, Apis,  and Men-
desian goaf, are looked upon by the best writers  but as
different symbols of the same deity, or as animals in which
lhe  same deity was  manifest.  Thebes was in early times
lhe grand deposifo of Egyptian mystery : it is mentioned
  VOL. /.            21
by Komer;  and exisfs in ruins to the present hour.   Den-
dera and Heliopolis present olher ruins.   To enter deeply
here either into the particular ceremonies,  or lhe mytho-
logical doctrines of  Egypt, to seek for the phenomena of
nature which were  allegorized in the history of Isis and
Orisis, or to detail  the  history of the  priestly  orders,
would be impossible.  Of (he latter, the  first after the in-
ferior degrees was the chief of the music band, who usual-
ly carried some musical instrument as the ensign of his
office; the next was the diviner, who in public processions
bore the symbols of astrology; the third was  the master
of lhe sacred wardrobe; and the fourth, or chief priest,
was the prophet, who inferpreted  the  laws of Hermes,
and presided over the ceremonies of  religion.  To these
exclusively the Hermaic doctrines were  accessible : and
upon them the constitution of their country  seems entirely
to have depended.
  In regard  to Egyptian history, its early chronology is so
perplexed, its facts  and fable so heterogeneously blended,
and  its vanity of  a  remote antiquity  so  great, that little
certain can be  collected.  Egypt  was anciently divided
into three parts.  Thebais was a distinct district; the dy-
nasty of Memphis was the upper Egypt; and that of He-
liopolis, comprehending  the  rest of the  Delta, the  lower
region.  From  Menes the Egyptian  priests were accus-
tomed to reckon no less than three hundred  and thirty
kings.  Like other  states, however, it had its revolutions;
and the three districts did not in every period of its his-
tory form separate states.   Under the  shepherd kings, fwo
of them were  united.  At a period  considerably lower,
Egypt became  a kingdom still more flourishing  than ever;
and increased gradually till Sesostris,  one of the greatest
of its sovereigns, erected  an universal empire.  At a pe-
riod still more subsequent, it was subjected  by Cambyses
to the Persian  empire; and to his ravages it appears that
Egyptian grandeur  was principally indebted for its fall.
   In the wreck of greatness  which  it  still  presents, the
following are  the principal remains :  the colossal sphinx,
and the pyramids among the level  plains  by Memphis;
the statues which bear  the name of  Memnon; the cata-
combs of Saccara;  tbe (ernples of Thebes, Tentyris, and
Apollinopolis;  and  the Needle of Cleopatra.  Pompey's
Pillar is undoubtedly a monument of subsequent erection.
One or two of the  ancient obelisks were  transported to
Italy at a very early period.  But the  finest remnants of
Egyptian grandeur, which have been brought away of late
years, are now  in tbe metropolis of England.  The sar-
cophagus of brecciated  marble, reputed to be Alexan-
der's tomb ;  and the triple inscription from Rosetfa, in the
hieroglyphic,  lhe  vernacular Egyptian, and  the  Greek
characters;  are undoubtedly the most curious.   The lat-
ter, when in possession of the French,   was  termed  the
gem of antiquity.
  To recite  even  the titles of the different works in which
the antiquities of  Egypt have been treated, would be end-
less.   Among the ancient writers, Herodotus,  Pausanias,
Strabo, Diodorus Siculus, and Plutarch, are the principal.
Herodotus,  Thales, and Pythagoras, it will be remember-
ed, were initialed among the Egyptian priests.  The best
work on the  mythology of Egypt  is Jablonski's Pantheon
Egyptiacum.   On its present remains, Pococke, Norden.
Niebuhr, Sonnini, and Denon, may be consulted : Greaves
and  Norden have  expressly written on  the pyramids 
ANT
ANT
Kircher on the mummies :  and all that  is material on the
subject ofthe obelisks, may be found in Zoega De Obe-
Mscorum Usu.   In the simple  and authentic narrative of
Dr. Whitman, modern readers will find  some facts worthy
of their attention, relative to the monumental remains still
existing in Egypt.
   For the illustration of the Antiquities of India our
accessible materials  are less numerous  and less  distinct.
The  light which  so strongly  radiates  from the page of
classical  antiquity upon  most  other abstruse  points of
literary research, casts but a glimmering ray on  this sub-
ject.   Wbalever genuine information may be obtained on
other points, its early history and literature can only be
acquired by the generality of readers through the medium
of faithful versions from the Sanscreet, the ancient origi-
nal language of the country, and the grand repository of
all its history and  sciences.
   So long ago as 1776, Mr. Halhed, in the Code of Gen-
too Laws, compiled  under the  direction of Mr.  Hastings,
gave the  first specimen which appeared of the early  wis-
dom of the Indians, and their extensive skill in jurispru-
dence.  But the  attention of the world was principally
roused  by the publication of  the Bhagvat Geeta,  edited
in 1785 by Mr. Wilkins.   It  was the  episode  only  of a
larger poem; but  its  theological, and  metaphysical  doc-
trines were of the  profoundest kind : it was represented
to contain all the grand mysteries  of the Hindoo religion ;
and laid claim to the venerable antiquity of four thousand
years.  The Heetopades,  the  Sacontala, and Ayeen Ak-
bery,  were the principal  succeeding  publications;  the
lights from which, added to those of the Asiatic Researches,
occasioned Mr. Maurice to give the antiquities  of India a
more deep and elaborate investigation than they  ever had
received  before.  Till this book appeared, the antiquities
of the Hindoos were considered  by  the generality of
readers as unfathomable;  and by the  skeptical philoso-
pher as affording arguments in respect to the age  of the
world,  which struck  at once  at  the root of the Mosaic
system.  With these authorities in hand, Mr. Maurice
proceeded to elucidate the obscure history of the Avatars,
or the ten descents of Veeshnu.   The persons who are
stated  by the Indian writers to have flourished so many
thousand years  in  the earliest ages, he supposes to have
been not  of terrestrial but celestial  origin; and  that their
empire was rather the empire  of  imagination in the skies
than that of real power on the earth.  He considers that
the year of ordinary reckoning, and the year of Brahma,
are ofa nature very widely different; and that the whole
jargon of yugs, or grand periods, ha3 no foundation but in
the great solar and lunar cycles, or  planetary revolutions.
In the Indian Antiquities  the  greater part of the prelimi-
nary ground, which  the student must of. necessity go over,
is cleared-  The  ancient  geographical divisions of India,
according to the  classical writers  of Greece and  Rome,
and of Hindostan, according to the Hindoos themselves,
are reconciled :  the analogies of the  Brahmanic with other
systems of theology considered;  and the grand code of
civil laws, the original form of government, and the vari-
ous and  profound literature of Hindostan, are  compared
throughout with the laws, government, and literature, of
Persia, Egypt, and Greece.
   But  after all, perhaps, the  clearest notions of what the
student may expecr to discover  in his Indian  inquiries,
may be gathered from the few papers  published in the
Asiatic Researches, by sir  William  Jones ;  written in
consequence of the institution  of  a society  for inquiring
into the history, civil and natural,  the antiquities, arts,
sciences, and literature, of Asia.
  His first dissertation was on  the orthography of Asiatic
words in Roman letters, a want of attention  to which had
occasioned great confusion in history and geography ; and
he proposed a system, which was not only at once useful
to the learned, and essential to the student, but the con-
venience of which had been proved by careful observation
and  long experience.   The  gods  of  Greece, Italy, and
India, were the next objects of attention; and in this dis-
sertation the general  union  or affinity between the most
distinguished inhabitants of the primitive world in regard
to  theological concerns, at  the  time  when they first
deviated from the  rational adoration ofthe true God, is
inferred.   The  general  character and affinities ofthe
ancient pantheon of India  ate considered with the best
attention.   Gaue->a,  the Hindoo  divinity of Wisdom, is
compared with the Janus of the Romans ; Menu, or Sat;-
vrata, whose  general  history  bears a strong resemblance
to Noah's, with Saturn ; the Lachsmi of the Hindoos, or
goddess of Abundance, with Ceres ; and  Zeus, or Jupiter,
in his various capacities, compared wilh the triple divinity
Veeshnu, Siva,  Brahma.  Others  of  minor  consideration
are also fully noticed, the  explanation  of whose various
attributes must be sought for in the dissertation itself: io
which it seems to be fairly proved, that  a connection sub- i
sisled between the old idolatrous nations of Egypt, India,
Greece, and Italy,  long before fhey migrated to their
several settlements,  and consequently before the birth of
Moses : a proposition, says sir William  Jones, which will ,
in no degree  affect the truth and sanctity of  the Mosaic
history.
  From Goverdhan  Caul, the  society already mentioned
received  a valuable communication  on the littraturtct
the Hindoos,  from a work in the Sanscrit.   It was trans-
lated, and a commentary added.   In the text, the Vedas
are  considered  by the  Hindoos  as  the  fountain  of ill
knowledge  human and divine ; and the  commentary con-
cludes with this remarkable expression, lhat if Europeans
wish to form a correct idea of Indian religion and litera-
ture, let them begin  with  forgetting all  lhat has been
written on  the subject by  ancients  or  moderns, before
the publication ofthe Gila.
  From sir William Jones's fourth  anniversary Discourse,
delivered to the Asiatic Society in  1786,  we may form
Borne notion of the  various discoveries to  which future
exertions may give rise, not only in the literature, but the
history, sciences, and  arts of Asia.
  India on  its most enlarged scale, in which the ancient!
appear to  have understood it, comprises an area of oe»f
forty-degrees on each side ; it  is divided on the west from
Persia by the Arachosian mountains; limited on the east
by  the  Chinese part of the further peninsula; confi^
on the north by the wilds of Tartary; and  extending to
the south as far  as the isles of  Java.  By India, in short,
is meant that whole extent of country in which the primi-
tive religion and language of  the Hindoos prevail at this
day with  more or less of their  ancient  purity;  and in
which the  Nagari letters are still  used  with more or less
deviation from their original form.   Its inhabitants ba*« 
ANT
ANT
no resemblance either in their figure or manners to any ofthe
nations contiguous to them ; their sources of wealth are still
abundant: in their manufactures of cotton they surpass  all
the world ; and though now degenerate and abased, there
remains enough to show that in some early age they were
splendid in arts and arms,  happy in government, wise in
legislation, and eminent in various knowledge.  The San-
scrit language, whatever may be its  antiquity, is of a won-
derful structure ; more perfect than the Greek, more copi-
ous than the Latin, and more exquisitely refined than either,
yet bearing to both of them a stronger affinity, both in the
roots of verbs  and in the forms of grammar, than could
possibly have been  produced by accident.  The charac-
ters, as we have already mentioned,  are Nagari.  Of the
Indian religion enough has been already said.  Of their
philosophy, sir William Jones observes, that  in the more
retired  scenes, in groves and in seminaries of learning,  we
may perceive the Brahmans and the  Sarmanas of Clemens
disputing in the forms of logic, or discoursing on the van-
ity of human enjoyments, on the immortality of the soul,
her  emanation  from the eternal  Mind, her debasement,
wanderings,  and final  union with her  source.  The six
philosophical schools, whose  principles  are explained in
the Dersana Sastra, comprise all  the metaphysics  of the
old  Academy,  the  Stoa, the Lyceum  : nor is it possible
to read the Vedanta, or the many fine compositions in the
illustration of it, without  believing that Pythagoras and
Plato derived their sublime theories from the same foun-
tain with the sages of India.  The remains of architecture
and sculpture seem to  prove an early connection between
India and Africa. Of their ancient arts  and manufactures,
little but the labours ofthe Indian loom and needle are at
this day known ; but from a curious passage  in one of their
sacred law tracts relating to the extraordinary interest of
money,  in regard to maritime concerns, it should seem
that they were in  the early ages a commercial people.
The Hindoos are said to have boasted of three inventions,
all of which are indeed admirable ; the method of instruct-
ing  by apologues,  the decimal scale,  and the  game of
chess:  and  could  their numerous   works  on  grammar,
rhetoric, and music, which are now extant, be explained
in some language generally known, it would be found that
they had still higher pretensions to  the praise of a fertile
and inventive genius.  Their lighter poems are lively and
elegant; their epic  magnificent and  sublime.  Their most
ancient medical book, entitled Chereca, is believed to be
the work of Siva:  for each of the divinities in their triad
has at  least one sacred composition  ascribed lo him.   On
history  and  geography their works are  few; and th<?ir
astronomical and mathematical writings are still secret.
   Cursory as the observations  are which have been here
brought together,  their expansion  and illustration would
require volumes.
   Ofthe Avatars, or descents of the Deity in  his capacity
of preserver, we have little to say.   The three first, says
sir William Jones, apparently relate to some stupendous
convulsion of our globe from the fountains of the deep;
and  the fourth exhibits the  miraculous  punishment of
pride and impiety.  The three first, he thought, related
fo the  same  event, shadowed by a moral, a metaphysical,
and  an astronomical allegory ; and  all  three, connected
with the hieroglyphical  sculptures of the old Egyptians,
The fourth avatar was a lion issuing from a bursting column
             24*
of marble  to devour a blaspheming monarch,  who  would
otherwise  have slain his religious son ; and of the remain-
ing six he says, not one has the least relation to the deluge.
The tenth avatar, we are told, is yet to come; and is ex-
pected to  appear mounted, like the crowned conqueror in
the Apocalypse, on a white  horse, with a cimeter blazing
like a comet to mow down all incorrigible and impenitent
offenders who shall be then on earth.
  Among the  most curious of the existing monuments of
ancient India,  we must reckon the sculptures and ruins of
Mavalipuram, a few miles north of  Sadras, and known to
seamen by the name of  the Seven Pagodas; the vast ex-
cavations of Canarah; the various temples and images of
Buddha;  and the  idols which are continually dug up at
Gaya, or in its vicinity.
  The principal of the  Hindoo  excavations have been
engraved and  published by Mr. Daniel; and deserve the
closest attention from  all who are studious ofthe antiqui-
ties of India.
  "The first  accounts  of  Greece,"  says Mr.  Mitford,
"are derived from ages long before the common use of
letters in the country."  But so mysterious are  the  ages
of antiquity,  and  so precarious are traditions, that we
scarcely .know by what  method to distinguish where fable
concludes, or truth begins.  Certain however it is, that
from the Phenician and Egyptian colonies the  Greeks first
received  lhe  culture  of humanity.   By  the Phenicians
they were undoubtedly instructed in  trade, navigation,
and the use  of letters ; and  by the  Egyptians in  civil
wisdom, the politer sciences and religious mysteries.  The
antiquities of such a  country then, which was afterward
so  singularly  illustrious  in  the annals of mankind,  the
introduction of its institutions, and the invention or intro-
duction of its arts,  must surely carry with them an interest
still more striking than those either of Egypt or India. Its
antiquities, of course,  in every accessible period have been
more carefully and more minutely inspected ;  and have
received  such deep  and extensive investigation,  thai to
attempt a summary here would be impossible.   We shall
only observe, that the Athenians were the first civilized
people  of Greece; and that in all the greatness  of the
Grecian states they still retained the highest polish.
  Gronovius has given a collection ofthe chief writers on
the  antiquities of Greece,  to  which  we shall  refer the
reader once for all; and Rouse, Pfeiffer, Bos, and bishop
Potter, have given shorter systems;  the last of which is
certainly  esteemed  the best, and which no  scholar's
library should be without. In what relates to the religion,
lhe gods, vows, and temples of Greece, it  has been deem-
ed^too summary ; but in the military affairs and miscella-
neous customs it remained till lately without  a  rival.  A
work which supersedes it,  and perhaps all others in the
English language, for  accuracy and  completeness, has just
made its  appearance  from  the pen  of Mr. Robinson of
Ravenstondale.
   On the gods, temples, oracles, and priests of Greece,
the writers are extremely numerous :  on  the public weal
and magistracy of Greece, Stephanus, Laurenfius,  and
Van Dale, of modern writers,  have perhaps  the greatest
share of  credit; on  the court of  Areopagus, Meursius,
and Freher;  on the laws  and punishments of Greece,
Prafeius,   Meursius,  and Petit; on military  concerns,
Arrian, Polysenus, and iElian; on the gymnastic art, and 
ANT
ANT
 exercises of the  Greeks,  Hieronymos Mercurialis,  Jou-
 bert, Faber, and Burette ; on  the theatres  and scenic
 exhibitions, Donatus,  Scaliger, Brindin, and the abbe
 Barthelemy; on  their entertainments, luxury and baths,
 Cornarius, Meusonius, Gedoyn, Du Choul, Ferrarius, and
 Kuhn; on their marriages and institution of their children,
 besides the general writers, Hauptmann,  Junius, Stisser,
 and Zeibich, are the more particular; and on their fune-
 rals, Nicolai, Langius, and Eckhard.
  The best relics which still mark  the former splendour
 of the Grecian states have been preserved by Stuart in his
 Athens; in the  Ionian  Antiquities, published under the
 direction  of the Dilettanti society ; in the Voyage Pitto-
 resque de la  Grece ;  and in the Museum Horsleyanum.
 The best relics of its  sculpture in this country are to be
 found among lhe  Townley marbles ; and  of  its beautiful
 coinage, in the cabinet of  Dr.  Hunter.
  Poetry, sculpture, architecture,  and painting, perhaps
 attained  the  summit of perfection  under the respective
 cultivation of Homer, Phidias, Praxiteles, and Zeuxis.
  Nothing, says Dr. Adams, has more engaged the atten-
 tion of literary men, since the revival of learning, than to
 trace from ancient monuments the rights and  customs of
 the Romans, comprehended under the  general name of
 Roman Aiytiquities.  This branch of knowledge, he
 observes, is not only curious in itself, but absolutely nec-
 essary for understanding the classics, and for reading wilh
 advantage the history of that celebrated people.  And it
 is particularly requisite for such as prosecute the study of
 the civil law.
  Scarcely on  any  subject have more  books been writ-
 ten,  and  many  of them  by persons of  the  most distin-
 guished credit.   Among the oldest  of the good writers
 may be reckoned Dionysius Helicarnassus,  who  traced
 the origin of (he Romans, with the utmost fidelity, back
 to the  remotest ages.   His accounts are generally prefer-
 red  to Livy's.   They are  more  ample, and his  facts
 described with more particulars; and on their ceremonies,
 worship, sacrifices, manners, customs, discipline, policy,
 courts, laws, &c. he is perhaps the most authentic writer.
  A body of the authors on the Roman antiquities was
 published by Grcev ius in the Thesaurus; and Danet and
 Piliscus  published lexicons of them.   For the most part
 however they are too voluminous, not only to be generally
 useful, but even to refer the studious reader to, except on
 single points.  On this account a number of abridgments
 have been published; of which, till of very late years,
 those of Kennet  and Nieuport  were esteemed the best.
 The latter was written in  Latin, but it abounded in diffi-
 cult  phrases, and was deficient  in  one  or two  material
 parts,  which  were supplied by Kennef.  Both, however,
 have been since  superseded by the work of Dr. Adams,
 which of all the  abridgments is the best adapted lo illus-
 trate the classics.  It is sufficient fo say that he has bor-
 rowed  with freedom from all hands whatever he judged
 fit for his purpose; and the enumeration  of  his sources
 will prove the best  aid to an  inquiring reader.  He was
 chiefly indebted to  Manutius, Brissonius, and Middlefon,
 on the senale : to Pignorius on slaves ; lo Sigonius and
 Grucchius, Manutius, Huber,  Gravina, Merula, and Hei-
neccius, on the assemblies of  tbe  people, the rights of
 citizens, the laws and judicial proceedings; fo Lipsius on
the magistrates, tbe art of war, shows of the  circus, and
 gladiators ; to Sheffer  on naval affairs and carriages;  fe
 Ferrarius on the Roman dress ; to Kirkmannus on funerals;
 to  Arbuthnot  on coins; to Dickson on  agriculture;  t0
 Donatus on the city ; to Turnebius, Abrahamus, Rossinus,
 Salmesius,  Hottomanus,  Giseius and Gronovius, iMont-
 faucon, Piliscus Ernesti,  and particularly Gtsner, in dif-
 ferent parts ofthe work.
   On the antiquities  of ancient Rome, the works of Pub.
 litis Victor,  Fulvius,  Fabricius,  Onuphrius  Panviniut
 Boissard, and Adler, are  perhaps the best: on its ancient
 edifices, the work of  Desgodetz, in which the views are
 given  from actual  measurement ; Venuti's  Descriaione
 Topografica  delle Antichita  di  Roma ;  and  D'Over.
 beke's Restes de  PAncienne  Rome: on its  public ways,
 its walls, aqueducts, and bridges, Bergier, Gautier, and
 D'Anville,  may be referred to :  while the statues aod
 other  works of art with  which Rome and her provinces
 abounded have frequently fuinished subjects for separate
 disquisitions.                                          '
   The arts it should  seem in fhe best periods  of the Ro-
 man history flourished in  the greatest perfection at Rome;
 where  the specimens  which remain are still  viewed
 with singular  veneration.   Among  lhe  best of them are
 the columns of Antoninus and Trajan ; the statue of Mar-
 cus Aurelius; the arches of Septimius Severus and Con-
 stantine ; the amphitheatre;  the  theatre of Marcellw;
 and the different  baths.  The  columns of  the temple
 of  Concord are  the  only eminent  specimens in Rome
 of the  Ionic order, where fhe volutes of the capital stand
 in a diagonal direction ; and the first  and purest specimen
 of  tbe Corinthian order is exhibited in the three columns
 of the  campo  vaccino,  supposed  lo have belonged to the
 temple of Jupiter Slator.
   A correct view ofthe Antiquities of Britain from
 the earliest period to  (he end of Htm y the Eighth's reign,
 may perhaps be best collected from Dr. Henry's History.
 The writers he refers to will present the  reader with all
 the most authentic sources of inquiry.
   Of what relates to the  early Britons,  however, much
 that has been written  is  two nearly connected  with the
 fabulous ; and  instead of seeking  for information on Dru-
 idical history, where it was  most likely to be obtained
 correctly, the generality of our writers have been looapt
 to busy themselves with theory and etymology.   " Dru-
 idism," says one, " was palpably  Phenician.   The Dm-
 idical system was taught the Gauls  by Pythagoras /" The
 opinion,  however, which  in Caesar's time was generally
 entertained  in Gaul,  has been overlooked.   Cajsar evi-
 dently took considerable pains fo learn every particular
 relating to the Druids ;  and he  states it to have been the
 received opinion lhat Druidism originated in Britain. And
 in corroboration of this idea, it has been both strongly-ari
 correctly urged,  that there is not a single authority for
 the existence  of Druidism  any where but in Celtic Qd
 and part of England.   Caesar, however,  did  not himself
 witness its existence in Britain: Tacitus is tho first, and,
 we  believe, lhe only author who  notices  it; for lhe Ro-
 mans did not meet with  it till they had advanced far into
 Wales.  Caesar,  Dio Cassius, and Tacitus, are the prin-
 cipal authorities in regard to British history.   On the re-
 ligious system, and the mysteries of Druidism, the writ-
ers are more  numerous;  but Cssar, Diodorus  SiculuJ,
./Elian, Strabo, Tacitus and Pliny, are perhaps the moil j 
ANT
ANT
  valuable ofthe ancients.  Cluverius's Germania Antiqua,
  and the works of Pezron and Pelloutier upon lhe Celts,
  are however more recent authorities.
    Of the structures which the Britons erected, the remains
  are few : Abury  a id Stonehenge may be  deemed  the
  principal.    On  the vast tracts  of solitary  down  with
  which  our  island  abounds,  relics of a smaller kind are
  continually discovered.  Rowbright in Oxfordshire affords
  the best, perhaps; and they are very numerous in Angle-
  sey.  On these Stukeley and Rowland  are  perhaps the
  best authorities: for tbe history of the Britons under the
  Roman government, we refer to Horsley's Britannia Ro-
  mana.   Antonine's Itinerary preserves the names of the
  towns and stations on the Roman  military ways, with the
  number of miles between each town.
    On the antiquities of our Saxon ancestors there is more
  to say; and we can trace their history with tolerable cer-
  tainty.  Tue devastations of the Danes, however, proved
  a great destruction to their  monuments; and though the
  Normans were  the descendants  of the same  ancestors,
  they were not less  injurious to the institutions ofthe peo-
  ple who had gone before them. The best of their remains
  of art  were  evidently fabricated  upon Roman  models.
  Their architecture exhibited, as its leading feature, a bad
'  imitation of the  Roman  arch ; and  their coins had Latin
  inscriptions.  The little science  they possessed during
  the middle and  latter periods  of  their existence, though
  originally perhaps  obtained  from  abroad,  was cultivated
  wilh uncommon zeal: and Alciin, Bede, and Alfred, are
  names in the  history of their literature that will never  be
  forgotten.   The illuminations  of  the  Saxon manuscripts
  are the best records of their manners in the different cen-
  turies ;  and the most curious information relating to them
  will be found in the elaborate works of Mr. Struft and Mr.
  Turner.  In  this branch of our  antiquities  the  field  of
  investigation  is still open.   They have never yet been
  viewed  upon that enlarged  scale  on which Ihey deserve
  to be considered.  The best  collection of Saxon coins is
  that which  is  now  deposited in  the  British Museum.
  Their  remains of art are numerous, but for (he most part
  undecided :  the  Normans having imitated their exertions
  with little other difference than an occasional enlargement
  ofthe scale.  Of Saxon manuscripts, the best collection
  will be found in the library ofthe  British Museum, and in
  the Bodleian Library at Oxford.   Mr. King has treated
  Iheir military antiquities in his History of Castles, and Dr.
  Hickes's Thesaurus may be viewed as the grand reposito-
  ry of fheir general literature.
    Of the English nation at nearer periods, our documents,
  as may be naturally expected,  occur in still greater varie-
  ty.   There is scarcely a  county history but sets our an-
  cient manners in  new points of view.   They have been
  often and systematically treated; and the names of Cam-
  den, Henry, Strutt,  and Gough,  are  sufficient to  be
  noticed.
    Thus much may suffice as  an  outline of the national
  antiquities of lhe more considerable people of the world,
  though there  is scarcely a nation  under heaven but lays
  claim to a greater degree of antiquity iban the rest of  its
  neighbours.   The  Scythians,  the  Phrygians, (he  Chal-
  deans,  Egyptians,  Greeks,  and Chinese, pretend each to
  have the honour of being the first inhabitants of lhe earth;
  and even so  far have folly and etymology in these  re-
searches borne each other company, that GoropiusBecanns
asserted high Dutch to have been the primitive language
of the world.
  To go further in this extensive science here, or to treat
every class of antiquities which writers  have separately
considered,  would  be  endless.  Reland has expressly
treated on sacred antiquities;  Fabricius on Hebrew and
ecclesiastical antiquities; Bingham on Christian antiqui-
ties ; bishop Stillingfleet on the antiquities of the British
churches; Cave on apostolical antiquities;  Consingicus
on academical;  Heineccius on such of lhe Roman as il-
lustrated  the  civil  law; Mallet on northern, and bishop
Kennet on parochial antiquities.  Under the title  of anti-
quities however, it  may be proper we should notice that
industry has sometimes  been  exerted upon the  pettiest
trifles ;; and not unfrequently on objects the most frivolou?
and absurd.
  ANTIRRHINUM, snapdragon, or calves  snout :
a genus of the angiospermia order, belonging  lo the didy-
namia class of plants ; and  in  the natural method ranking
under  the 40th  order, personata?.   The essential chacac-
ters are these : the  calyx  consists of five leav es :  the ba-
sis ofthe corolla  is bent backward, and furnished with pec-
toria;  the capsule is bilocular.  There are 52. species of
the antirrhinum ; the most remarkable  are :
  1. Antirrhinum arvense, the corn blue toad flax.
  2. Antirrhinum cymbalaria, the ivy  leaved toad grass
  3. Antirrhinum elatine, the sharp pointed fluellin.
  4. Antirrhinum linaria,  the common yellow toad flax.
It is said to be cathartic  and diuretic, but is not used in
the shops.
  5. Antirrhinum majus, the greater snapdragon.
  6. Antirrhinum minus, the least toad flax.
  7. Antirrhinum monospermum,  the  sweet smelling toad
flax.
  8. Antirrhinum orontium, the least snapdragon.
  9. Antirrhinum repens, the creeping toad flax.
  10. Antirrhinum spurium, the round leaved  fluellin.
  The snapdragon is an old inhabitant of  our gardens, and
we have hardly yet a more beautiful  flower.   The  scar-
let and crimson  kinds are particularly ornamental, espec-
ially upon walls, where they will thrive best.
  ANTI-SABBATARIANS, a  modern  religious sect,
who oppose the observance of the Christian sabbath.
  ANTISCII, in geography, people who live on different
sides of the equator,  whose shadows  at noonjare project-
ed opposite ways:  the people of the north are antiscii to
those of the south*
 ^ ANTISEPTICS, among physicians,  a denomination
given to all substances lhat resist putrefaction.
  •Concerning these, which are extremely numerous, we
have several  curious observations  in sir John Pringle's
Diseases of the  Army.   The  following table exhibits  a
comparative  view of the  antiseptic virtue of salts,  the
common sea salt being reckoned equal lo unity.

       Sea salt          1   Saline  mixture
       Sal gemmae       1   Nitre
       Tartar v ifriolat.  2   Salt of hartshorn
                          Salt of wormwood
                          Borax
                          Salt of amber
                          Alutn
Spirit, minder.
Tartar solub.
Sal diuret.
Sal ammoniac.
 3
 4
 4
 4
12
20
30 
AP  A
A P H
   Some resinous, and other substances, were found to be
 twelve times more antiseptic than  sea salt:  such  are
 myrrh, asafoetida, snakeroot, pepper, ginger, saffron, con-
 traycrva root, &c.
   ANTISPASMODICS, medicines proper for the cure of
 spasms and convulsions.  See Materia Medica.
   ANTISTASIS,  in  oratory,  a  defence of an  action,
 from the consideration that if  it had been omitted, worse
 would have ensued.
   ANTISTROPHE,  among  lyric poets, that part of a
 aong and dance in use among the ancients, which was per-
 formed before the altar, in returning from west to east, in
 opposition to strophe.
   ANTITACTiE, in church history, a branch of gnos-
 tics,  who  held  that God was good  and just, but that a
 creature had created evil; and, consequently, that it is our
 duty- to oppose this  author of evil, in order to avenge God
 of his adversary.
   ANTITHESIS,  in rhetoric, a contrast drawn between
 two things, which serve as shades to  set off the opposite
 qualities of each other.
   ANTITRAGUS,  or Antitragicus  musculus,  in
 anatomy, a muscle ofthe ear.
   ANTLER, among  sportsmen, a start or branch of a
 deer's attire.
   ANTOECI, in geography, an appellation given to those
 inhabitants of the earth who live  under the same meridi-
 an, but on different  sides of the equator, and at equal dis-
 tances from it.  The antoeci having the same longitude, and
 equal degrees of  latitude, one north and the other  south:
 their hours of day and night are the same, but they have
 opposite seasons, of course  the longest day to the one is
 the shortest to the other.
   ANTONOMASIA, in rhetoric, a figure  by which  the
 proper name of one thing is applied to several others;  or,
 on the contrary, the name of several things  to one.   Thus
 we call a cruel person a Nero; and we  say the philoso-
 pher, to denote Aristotle.
   ANTRUM, among anatomists, a term used to denote
 several cavities of the body: as the antrum gense, or that
 in the cheek bone.   See Anatomy.
   AORIST, among grammarians, a tense peculiar to fhe
 Greek language,  comprehending all the tenses; or rather
 expressing an aclion in an indeterminate  manner, without
 any regard to past, present, or future.
   AORTA, in anatomy, called also  arteria  magna, a large
 artery arising with a single trunk from the left ventricle of
 the  heart  above  its valves,  called  semilunares,  which
 serves to convey the mass of blood  to all parts of the
 body.  See Anatomv.
   AOUTA, the name of the paper mulberry tree af Ota-
 heite, from which cloth is manufactured and worn by the
 principal inhabitants.  The bark of the trees is stripped
 off, macerated and reduced to a fine pulp : it is then drain-
 ed, and the  fibres will adhere together in a piece.  It is
 afterward to be beaten till it becomes as thin as muslin,
 when it is dyed red or yellow.
   APACTIS,  in botany, a  genus of the dodecandria
 monogynia class  and order.  The essential character is,
 corolla four  petalled:  calyx none.  There is  only one
species, a tall tree, a native of Japan.
   APANAGE,  or Ape^nage, in  the French customs,
 lands assigned by a sovereign for the subsistence of hh
 younger sons.
   APARGIA, a genus of the class ai d order  syngenesia
 polygamia  aequalis.   The essential  character  ii, calyx
 subimbricate, with linear, parallel, unequal scales; down
 plumose, subsessile; recept. naked, subvillose.  There
 are seven species, much  resembling the dandelion, with
 which they were formerly confounded.
   APATIT, a mineral divided by  the German mineralo-
 gists, into two varieties, the crystalized and earthy.  It jg
 the phospholite of Kirwan.
   APATURIA, in Grecian antiquity, an Athenian feifj.
 val kept in honour of Bacchus.
   It  was during  this  solemnity,  that the  young people
 were registered in the respective wards of their fathers.
   APAUME, in heraldry, expresses a hand open and ex-
 tended,  so  that the  full  palm  appears,  as is seen by tbe
 hand of Ulster, borne by the baronets of  England.
   APELLITES, Christian heretics in the second centu-
 ry, who  affirmed  that  Christ received a body  from the
 four  elements, which  at his death he  rendered back
 to tbe world, and so ascended into heaven without a body,
   APEPSY, in medicine, denotes crudity or a bad diges-
 tion,  arising from a rawness of the  stomach, and a want
 of concoction of the aliments.   See  Medicine.
   APERIENTS, in the materia medica, an appellafioB
 given to such medicines  as  facilitate the circulation bj
 removing all obstructions.   See Materia Medica.
   APERTURE,  in geometry,  the  space  between two
 right  lines which meet in a point and form an angle.
   Aperture, in optics,  a round hole in a turned bit of
 wood or plate of tin,  placed withinside of a telescope or
 microscope, near to the object glass,  by  means of which
 more rays-are admitted, and a more distinct appearanceof
 the object is obtained.  According lo Huygens,  the best
 aperture for an object  glass of thirty £eet, is as thirty to
 three ; that  is, as ten  to one, so is the square root of the
 focal  distance of any  lens, multiplied by  thirty, to itl
 proper aperture.   Mr. Auzout says,   he found by experi-
 ence, that fhe proper apertures of telescopes ought to be
 nearly in the snbduplirate ratio of their length.  It is cer-
 tain that object glasses will admit of greater apertures,-if
 the tubes are  blackened wifhinside, and their passage fur-
 nished with  wooden rings.
   Apertures, or Apertions,  in architecture, are used
 to signify doors, windows, chimnies,  outlets and inlets for
 light, smoke, &c.   They  ought to be as  few  in  number,
 and a« moderate in dimensions, as possible, and never made
 too near the angles of the walls.
   Apertura tarularum, in  law books,  fhe  breaking
 open a last will and testament.  See fhe article  Will, &c.
   Apertura feudi, in tbe civil law, signifies the loss of
 a feudal  tenure, by default of issue  to him to whom tbe
 feud was first granted.
  APETALOUS, among botanists,  an appellation given
 to such plants as have no flower leaves, or corolla.
  APEX, in antiquity, the crest of  a helmet, but more
 especially a kind of cap worn by the  flamens.
  APHiERESIS, in grammar, a figure by which a lettef
or syllable is cut off from the beginning of a word.
  APHANES, a genus of the  monogynia order,  and te-
tandria class of plants;  and in the natural  method ranking 
A P H
A P I
under  the 35th order,  senticosae.  The essential charac-
ters are : the calyx  is divided into eight parts ;  fliere is
no corolla; the seeds are two and naked.   There is only
one species, vis.
  Aphanes arvensis, or pensley piert, a native of England.
It is common in  corn fields.  The stalks  rise 5  or 6 to-
gether ; the flowers are of a greenish white.
  APHELIUM, or  Aphelion, in astronomy,  is  that
point  in any planet's orbit, in which it is furthest distant
from the sun ; being that end of the  greater axis of the
elliptical orbit of the planet, most remote from the focus
wherein the sun is.
  The times of the aphena ofthe primary planets, may be
known by their  apparent  diameters appearing least  ; as
also, by their moving slowest in a given lime.  They may
likewise  be found  by calculation,  the method of doing
which is delivered in most astronomical writers.
  APELLAEV, fhe  name ofa bright star in Gemini.
  APHIS, in entomology, the puceron, vine fretter,or plant
louse, an  extensive  genus of the hemiptera order.  The
character is : beak inflected; sheath of five articulations,
with a single bristle: antenise setaceous and longer than
the thorax ; either four erect wings or none; feet  formed
for walking;  posterior part of tbe abdomen  usually fur-
nished with two  little horns.  There  are  many  species
which infest an endless variety of plants, and it is probable
that each species is particularly attached to one or a few
kinds of vegetables only: on  this account each kind has
been  usually named  after the plants on which it feeds.
The aphides are known by the indiscriminate name of plant
lice;  they abound with a grateful moisture, and are eagerly
sought for by ants, and many other  creatures, or  ihey
would become  very probably more destructive lo the
whole vegetable  creation than any other race of insects
whatever.   Linnaeus enumerates 33 species.
  The extraordinary nature of these insects has for some
time past justly excited the  wonder and attention of natur-
alists.  They were ranked  among the  animals which had
been  classed with (he true androgynes spoken of  by  Mr.
Breynius, till Mr. Bonnet seemed to have  cleared it up in
the affirmative, by taking and shutting up a young aphis at
tbe instant  of  its birth, in  perfect solitude, which  yet
brought forth in his sight 95 young ones.  The same ex-
periment being made on one of the individuals of this fam-
ily, soon after it was produoed, the new hermit soon mul-
tiplied like  its  parent; and one of this third generation,
in like manner brought up in solitude, proved no less fruit-
ful than the former.  Repeated experiments, in this respect,
as far as the fifth or sixth generation,  all  uniformly pre-
senting {he observer wilh fecund  virgins, were communi-
cated to the Royal Academy of Sciences; when an un-
foreseen and very strange  suspicion,  imparled by  Mr.
Trembley to Mr. Bonnet, engaged him anew in a series of
experiments.  Mr. Bonnet therefore reared to the amount
ofthe  tenth generation of solitary  aphides, and had the
patience to keep an  account of the  days and hours of the
births  of each  generation.    In  short  it was discovered,
that they are really  distinguished  by sexes; that there
are  males and females amongst them, whose amoursare the
least equivocal of any in the world:  that  the males  are
produced only in the tenth generation, and are  but few in
number : that these, soon  arriving at their full growth,
copulate with (he females : that the virtue of this  copula-
tion serves for ten generations; that all these generations
except the first, from the fecundated eggs, are produced
viviparous; and all the individuals are females, except
those ofthe last generation, as already observed.  These
circumstances have been confirmed by other naturalists.
In particular, we have a curious  and accurate  detail  of
them by Dr. Richardson of Rippon, in the  Philosophical
Transactions,  vol. xi. art. 22. the perusal of which we
earnestly recommend to our readers.
  APHORISM, a maxim or  principle of a science, or a
sentence which comprehends a great deal in a few words.
The term is seldom used but in medicine and  law.
  APHRACTI, in the maritime  affairs of  the ancients,
were open vessels without any decks.
  APHRODISIA, in antiquity,  festivals kept in honour
of Venus, the most  remarkable  of which  was  that cel-
ebrated by the Cyprians.
  APHRODIT A, in zoology, one ofthe naked sea insects,.
of an oval shape, and aculeated, with a perforation in the
middle ofthe back.
  APHTHiE, in medicine, small, round, and superficial ul-
cers, arising in the mouth.  The principal seat of this dis-
ease, is the extremity of the excretory vessels, salival
glands, and in short all glands  that furnish a humour like
the saliva, as the lips, gums, &c.
  APHYA cobites, in ichthyology, a species  of gobius,
called in English the sea loch.
  APHYLLANTHES,  leafless  flower,  or  blue
montpelier pink : a genus ofthe monogynia order, be-
longing to the hexandria class of plants: and in the natural
method ranking under the 5th  order, telrapelaloida?.  In
character it differs not from thejuncus or rush, but in hav-
ing a calyx of six petals, whereas the juncus has no calyx.
There is only  one species ; vis.
  Aphyllanthes Monspeliensis, a native of France.  The
root consists ofa number of slender fibres :  the radical
leaves are very numerous, two inches long.   The stalk is
round, smooth, without a joint or  knot, naked, and tolera-
bly firm ; at its top stands a single  and  very beautiful blue
flower, but for which it would be a rush*
  APIARY, a place  where bees are  kept, which should
be properly defended from high winds, as well as from
poultry, hogs, &c. whose  dung is extremely  offensive  to
the bees.
  APIS, the bee, in zoology, a genus of insects  belonging
to the order of insecta hymenoptera.  The mouth is fur-
nished wilh two jaws, and a proboscis infolded in a double
sheath.  The wings are  four in number, the two foremost
covering those behind when at rest; in the anus or tail  of
the female or working bees, there  is a hidden sling. These
insects are distinguished into several species,each of which
has its peculiar genius, talent, manners, and disposition.
Variety prevails in the order of their architecture, and in
the nature of their materials.   Some  live in society, and
share their toils ; such are the common bee.  Others dwell
and work in solitude, building the  cradles of their families,
as the leaf cutter bee does with the rose tree leaf, the up-
holsterer with  tbe gaudy  tapestry of the corn  rose, lhe
i:uu jr. bee with a plaster, the  woodpiercer with sawdust.
All are  employed in their little hermitage,  with lhe  care
of providing for their offspring.  The species enumerated
by Linnreus, are no fewer than fifty-five; of which the fol-
lowing are the most remarkable : 
A P I
A P I
   1.  Apis Brasilianorum, or pale red hairy bee, with the
basis of the fhighs black.  This is a very large bee, every
where covered with a testaceous skin.   It is a native of
America.
   2. Apis cariosa is a yellowish hairy bee; and the feet
and front are of a bright yellow  colour.   It builds in the
rotten frees of Europe.
  3. Apis centuncularis, leaf cutter, or black bee, having
its belly  covered with yellow down.  The nests of this
species are made with leaves, curiously plaited in the form
ofa matt or quilt.  There are several varieties of the leaf
cutting -bees, all equally industrious.  They dig into the
ground and build their nests, of which some have the form
and  size of thimbles  inserted one within  another; others
the size and shape of goose quills.   These nests are com-
posed of pieces of leaves.   Each sort of bees cuts into its
own materials; some the  rose tree leaf, others the horse
chesnut.    A careful observer may  discover  rose tree
leaves, cut as with a pinking iron ; and there he may pro-
cure himself the pleasure of seeing with what dexterity a
bee, destitute of any mathematical instrument,  cuts out a
circular piece, fit to be either the boltom or the lid of one
of those nests; others it cuts out into ovals and semi-ovals,
which form the sides of the nests, into each of which it de-
positesone egg wifh ready prepared victuals.
  4. Apis dentata, or shining green bee, with black wings,
and a kind  of teeth on the hind thighs.   The  tongue of
this bee is as long as its body.
   5. Apis ferruginea, or smooth black bee,  with the feel-
ers, mouth, belly,  and feet, of an iron colour.  This is a
small bee, and supposed to be of  an intermediate kind be-
tween the bee and wasp.   It is a native of Europe.
   6.  Apis florisomnis, or black bee with a cylindrical
incurvated belly, having two tooth like protuberances at
the  anus, and a kind of prickles on the hind legs.   This
bee sleeps in flowers ; whence the name.
   7.  Apis lapidaria, or red hairy bee, with a yellow anus,
builds in holes of rocks.
   8.  Apis muscorum, or yellow hairy bee with a white
belly, builds in mossy grounds.  The skill displayed by
these builders is admirable.    In order to enjoy the pleas-
ure of seeing their operations, let a nest be taken to pieces,
and the moss conveyed to a distance.  The bees will be
seen to form themselves into a chain, from their nest lo the
place where the  moss has been laid.  The foremost lays
hold of some with her teeth,  clears it bit  by bit with her
feet, which circumstance has also procured them the name
of carding bees, then, by the help of her feet,  she drives
the unravelled moss under her belly;  the second, in like
manner, pushes it on to the  third.  Thus there is formed
an uninterrupted  chain  of moss,  which is wrought and in-
terwoven with the greatest dexterity by those  that abide
by the nest; and that  their nest may not be the sport of
the winds, and may shelter fhemfrom rain, they throw an
arch  over it, which they compose with a kind  of wax,
which dissolved in oil of turpentine, maybe  used in taking
off impressions.
   9.  Apis rostrata is distinguished by the upper lip being
inflected  and ofa conical  shape, and  by  the belly being
invested with bluish belts.    They build their nests in
high, sandy grounds,  and there is but one young in each
nest.
   10.  Apis terrtstris is black and  hairy,  with a  white
belt round the breast, and a white anus ; it builds its ne5(
very deep in the earth.
   If. Apis  variegata: the breast and  belly are varie.
gated with white and black  spots ; the legs are of an iron
colour.  In Plate VII. Nat. Hist. fig. 25. is represented
the hirsuta ; fig. 26 and 27 the nidulans with a section of
their hive :  and fig.  28, Plate  X.  represent  the a^it
socialis.
   12. Apis  violacea  is a red  bee, and very hairy, will
bluish wings.  The violacea is  said to perforate trees,
and hollow them out in a longitudinal  direction; they be-
gin to build their  cells at the bottom  of  these holes, and
deposite an egg in each cell,  which  is composed of tbe
farina of plants,  and honey or a kind  of gluten.  Plate!
Nat. Hist. fig. 29.
   13. Apis  mellifica, the  domestic honey bee.  This
wonderful insect  requires a threefold description; under
its various characters of queen bee, drone bee, and work-
ing bee ; for though this last kind is, strictly speaking, the
only honey bee,  yet all the three kinds are found and
seem to be necessary in every community or hive of beei.
The drones may easily be distinguished fiom the commoi
or working bees: they are both larger and longer in the
body : their  heads are round, their eyes are full,  and their
tongues short.  The  form  of the belly differs from those
of both  queen  and common bees ; and  their colour it
darker than  either.  They have no sting, and they make
a much greater  noise  when flying, than either the queen
or the  common bees; a peculiarity of itself sufficient to
distinguish them.   If a hi\e is opened in the beginning of
spring,  not a single drone  will  be found  in it;  from tbe
middle of May till the end  of  June,  there will be found
commonly from 200 or 300 to 1000; but from August lo
lhe following spring it  would be in vain to seek for them.
They go not out till 11 in the morning, and  return before
six in lhe  evening.  But their expeditions are not those
of industry.  Their rostrum and  feet aie nol adapted for
collecting wax and honey,  nor indeed are ihey obliged to
labour.  They  only  hover upon flowers to extract the
sweets, and all Iheir business is pleasure.  Their office ia
thought to be to impregnate the ea;gs of the queen after they
are deposited in the cells ; and while their presence is thus
necessary, they  are suffered to enjoy life ; but as soon as
they  become useless in the hive, the working bees declare
a war of extermination against them.  This war affects not
only  the  drones already in life, but  even the eggs and
maggots in lhe  drone cells; for after the season proper
for increasing the number of bees is past, every vestige of
the drones  is destroyed, to make room for honey.  Mr.
Bonnet, however, one of the latest and best writers on the
subject, doubts the long established doctrine ofthe fecun-
dating powers of the drones.   He urges the following,
among many, arguments : « That the queen stands in  no
need  of their assistance lo fecundate or impregnate her,
appears from this consideration ; that she lays eggs, whici
produce young  bees, without having had  any previous
communication  with  tbe  drones.  I  will not,  however,
suppose that the  drones  are of no use in the hive; bot
that  fhe  queen lays eggs which produce young  bee«,
without so much as seeing a drone, I can with the utmost
confidence affirm.   The  advocates  for the old doctrine,
lhat the drones are males, allege, that ihev impregnate the
queen, before their brethren kill them.  According lo &- 
A P 1
A P 1
 theory, she should continue for no less a period than 7 or
 8 months,  with  about 12,000 impregnated eggs in her
 ovarium, which  would certainly  make her appear  very
 large during the whole of lhat period.  But it is unneces-
 sary  to waste arguments in refutation of this doctrine, as
 I have  repealedly had queens breed and  lay eggs,  and
 those eggs become bees, although these queens weie bred
 7 months after all the drones were dead, and some weeks
 before any new ones were hatched.   These experiments,
 I think, are sufficient to silence all the arguments advanced
 by the advocates for the  drone system.  Mr. Debraw,
 indeed, creates little drones, and gives them power to live
 all the year, and  to impregnate the  queen at pleasure.
 But  as room does  not permit me (o narrate the experi-
 ments whereby he  attempts to prove this, I shall content
 myself with slating his sentiments in as few words as pos-
 sible. He asserts, that, besides the common large drones,
 which every person acquainted wilh bees,  knows, at first
 sight, there  is a small kind of drones, which  are, to  all
 appearance,  like the common bees, there being no visible
 difference, except that they have no sting, which  he dis-
 covers  by immersion in  water, and pressure.  After re-
 lating an experiment on this head, he says, * I once more
 immersed  all the bees, of a small swarm,  in water,  and
 when they appeared to  be in a senseless state, I gently
 pressed every one of them between my fingers, in order lo
 distinguish those armed with stings from those lhat had
 none, which last I might suspect (o be males.   Of these  I
 found fifty-seven  exactly  of the  size of common bees,
 yielding a  little whitish liquor on being pressed between
 the  fingers.'  In answer to this, I  shall here  narrate an
 experiment I made several  years  ago.  On the 1st of
 Sept. 1788,  I took all tbe  bees out of a hive lhat  was
 breeding very fast, and in which 1 found only four drones:
 these I killed. I put lhe bees into a hive lhat had nothing
 in it  but  empty  combs.  Alter  waiting  ten days, upon
 looking belween lhe combs, I found maggots, newly sealed
 up, in the cells.   I then took out all the bees, and shook
 them info a tub  full of water, from which immersion I re-
 covered them gradually, and while doing this, I pressed
 each bee individually, to try if I could discover any of
 those stingless little drones;  but not one  appeared, all of
 them having  stings, to the  number of three  thousand.
 After this  I searched the old  hhe 1 had  taken them out
 of, and cut out all fhe combs that had eggs or young in
 them ; among which I found some cells lhat bad new eggs
 in (hem ;  others whose eggs were converted into a small
 worm, and  other  some  with maggots in them.  I then
 restored the queen and all the bees, putting them into the
 same hive  again, but  without leaving a  single egg in it.
 During the succeeding 20 days, I inspected the hive,  and
 found the bees, in fine weather, working with great alacri-
 ty, a sure sign thai (he queen  was breeding again.  After
 this,  on turning up lhe hive,  and  cutting  out one ofthe
 brood combs, I found new laid eggs in some of them ; oth-
 ers containing maggots ; besides some young bees, almost
 ready fo emerge from their cells.  I made another exper-
 iment, about the same time, upon  a hive that had some
 brood combs, but had not had a large drone for several
 weeks preceding.   This hive  did not  contain  above five
hundred bees, a circumstance lhat was  in my favour; as
being less  numerous, the trouble was proportionally  less.
 I carried the hive into a close room in my house, (hat not
  voi,. i.           25
a single bee might escape me ; Lit affer repeating lhe for-
mei exj.enmcnt of hxniei^ng  them in  water, recovering,
and pressing (hem one by one, 1 found lhat every one  of
them had a sling.
   " The queen," adds Mr. Bcnnef, " is easily distinguish-
ed fiom ail the other bees in the hive, by the form, size,
and colour of her body.  She  is considerably longer, and
her  wings are  much shorter  in proportion to her body,
than those of the other bees.   The w ings of bolh common
bees and  drones cover their whole bodies, whereas (hose
of the queen scarcely reach beyond  the middle, ending
about the third ring  of her belly.  Her hinder part is far
more tapering than those of the olher bees : her belly or
legs are yellower, and her upper parts of a much darker
colour  than theirs.   She  is also  furnished with a sting,
though some authors  assert that she has none, having been
induced to form this opinion, because she is extremely
pacific ; so much so, indeed, lhat one nay handle her, and
even tease her  as he  pleases, without provoking her re-
sentment.   For my  part, 1 never can excite a queen bee
to draw her sling, nor could I even get a sight of it, but
when I  pressed her body.  A young queen is a great deal
smaller in size  than a full  grown one, being no! much
longer than a common bee,  and is  therefore not so easily
observed when sought for.   When only three or four
days old, she is very quick in  her motions, and runs very
fast ; but  when pregnant  with eggs,  she becomes very
large, and her body  is heavy.   Almost all  writers are of
opinion that the queen lays  three different kinds of eggs,
vis. one kind for the production of a queen bee, another
species for that ofthe woiking bee, and a third  for produc-
ing the  drones.  It was also long a received opinion, that
no queen could lay  eggs lhat  were capable of producing
bees, without 'he assistance of drones.  Schirach refutes
this doctrine, and entirely denies such an use of the drones.
He advances this opinion, that  * the queen lays eggs which
produce young bees, without any communication wilh the
diones ; and affirms  that all fhe working bees  are females
in disguise ; every one of whom, in an early stage of her
existence, was  capable of becoming  a  queen ; from  a
knowledge of which fact, swarms may artificially be ob-
tained from the early months  of spring,  and in any suc-
ceeding month, even lo November.'  He asserts, which
is indeed tbe grand and decisive proof, that' the practice
of this art, of raising  artificial queens, has  already extend-
ed itself through upper Lusatia,  the Palatinate, Bohemia,
Bavaria, Silesia, and  several parts of Germany, and even
of Poland."
   These  experiments  were repeated by  Mr.  Bonnet,
and the result of them  is summed up in  the  following
words:
   •' Having repeated the  experiment again and again,  I
can now affirm, wilh  the utmost confidence and cerlainty,
that the  common or  working bees, are endowed with the
powerful faculty of raising a queen bee from  an egg  in a
common cell, when their community stands in need of one.
Their method is this: they make choice ofa common cell
with an  egg in it, and inject some white liquid matter from
their proboscis, of a tbickish substance.  They then be-
gin to build upon the edges of the cell, and enlarge it. On
the third day it appears fairly on the outside of the comb,
in the form of a royal cell, and may now  be properly so
denominated.  On the fifth day,  the cell being now great- ' 
A P I
A P I
ly enlarged, and a great deal ofthe whitish matter thrown in-
to it, the royal mi^got appears in the form of a semicircle,
not unlike  a  new moon, being biggest in the middle part,
and  small  at each end.  In this form it is to be seen for
two  days swim ning on the top, and in the midst of the
mutter in the cell;  and on the seventh day it is sealed up.
D iring this period she un lergoes variois metamorphoses.
I nave opened the royal cell on the 10th day, and have
found the  naggot still on the top of the white liquor; and
having taken  it into rny hand to show it to any friend, it
would move for a short time, although at this period it had
not the smallest resemblance to a bee, being still only a
maggot.  But on the 14th or 15th  day, the metamorpho-
sis is so complete, that instead of a gross  white worm, it
comes forth a charming young queen bee."
   When a queen dies  by any  accident, the bees of her
hive immediately cease working, consume their own honey,
fly about   their own and other  hives at unusual  hours,
when other bees are at rest, and pine away if not soon sup-
plied with  another sovereign.   Her loss is proclaimed by
a clear and uninterrupted humming. This sign should  be
a warning to  the owner of the bees to take what honey re-
mains in the hive, or to  procure them another queen.   In
this  last case the flock instantly revives, and pleasure and
activity are apparent through the  whole hive.  The dis-
section of  the queen bee shows  evidently that she  lays
many thousand eggs.   It is computed that the ovaria ofa
queen bee  contain more than 5,000 eggs at one time ; and
 therefore it is not  difficult to conceive that a queen bee
 may produce 10,000 or  12,000 bees, or even more, in  the
 space of two months.
   •'The working,or common bee," says Mr. Bonnet, " is
 smaller than either the queen or the drone  bee.   They
 have four  wings fastened to their  middle part, by which
 they are not only enabled to fly with heavy loads,but to make
 those well known  sounds and humruings to each other,
 which are  supposed to be their only form of speech.  They
 have also six legs fastened to their middle.  The two fore-
 most of these are (he shortest,  and with these they unload
 themselves of their treasures.  The two in the middle are
 somewhat longer, and  the two last are longest.  On the
 outside of the middle joint of these last,  there is a small
 cavity in  tbe form ofa marrow spoon, in which the bees
 collect by degrees those loads  of wax they carry home to
 their hives : this hollow groove is peculiar to the working
 bee.   Neither the queen nor the  drones have any resem-
 blance of it.  Each  foot terminates in two hooks,  with
 their points  opposite to each other; in the middle of these
 hooks there is a little thin appendix, which when unfolded
 enables the insects to fasten themselves to glass or the most
 polished bodies. This part they likewise employ for trans-
 mitting the small particles of crude wax which they find up-
 on flowers, to the cavity in their thighs. The honey bladder
  is a reservoir, in which  is deposited the honey lhat the bee
  sips from  the cups of the  flowers,  after it has passed
  through the  proboscis, and through fhe narrow pipes lhat
  connect the  head, breast, and belly ofthe bee.  This blad-
  der, when full, is ofthe size ofa small pea, and is so trans-
  parent that  the colour  of the honey can be distinguished
  through if.  The sting is situated at the extremity of the
  belly, and the head or root of it is placed contiguous to the
  small bladder that contains the venom.  It is connected fo
  the belly  by certain small muscles, by means of which the
bee can dart it out and draw it in with great force and qrjlck.
ness.   In length it is about the sixth part of an inch.  It
is ofa horny substance ; is largest at the root, and (aperi
gradually toward the point, which is extremely small and
sharp; and when examined by  the microscope, appears fo
be polished  exceedingly smooth.  It is hollow within lftc
a tube,  that  the venomous liquor may pass through it
when it strikes any animal, which it does the very instant
that the sting pierces the skin, and insinuates itself in|0
the wound, which proves  mortal to many small insects, as
well as lo the  bee herself  when she leaves her sling in
the wound ; as it draws after it  the bladder, and sometimes
part of the entrails of the bee.   These working bees mav
be said to compose the whole community,  except in lhe
season of the drones, which hardly lasts three months.  Dur-
ing all the other nine months, there  are no other bees in
the hive, except them and the queen."
  In the Philosophical Transactions, No. clxxii. vol. i. we
have an account ofa species of honey  bee  found in some
parts of A nerica, very  different in form and  mannera from
the common bee of E irope.   Their combs  are composed
ofa series of s-n.-dl bottles or bladders of wax, ofa dusky
brown or blackish colour; and  each nearly of the size and
shape of a Spanish olive.  They hang together in cluster?,
almost like  a bunch of  grapes, and  are so contrived that
each of them  has its  aperture, while the bees are at work
upon it; but as soon as it is filled with honey, this aper-
ture is closed, and the bees leave it and go  to work upon
another  vessel.  Their lodgings are usually taken up in
the hollow of an old tree, or in some  cavity of a rock by
the sea side.    They are sagacious in  choosing  lhe most
secure retreats, because their  honey is so delicious a bait
that they are hunted after by  many animals; and they
have no power of defending themselves, having no stingsai
our bees have.  The combs are  brittle, and the honey is
clear and liquid like rock  water.  Ii is used by lhe natives
rather as a  drink  with  their food lhan as honey.  They
use it also in medicine as  a purge, drinking half a pint of it
in the morning fasting.
   With regard to  the  age of bees,  the drones lire but a
little while, being destroyed without mercy by the work-
ing bees, probably to save honey.  As to the age of tbe
working bees, writers are  not agreed.  Some maintain
lhat they are annual, and  others  suppose  that they live
many years.  Many of them, it is well known, die annuallf
of hard  labour; and though  they  may be preserved by
succession in  hives or colonies for several years, the most
accurate observers are of opinion  that  fheir age is but a
year, or no more than two summers at  the utmost.
   These industrious insects, Mr. Bonnet remarks, "bave
 their vices  as  well as their virtues."   The most savage
 Indian tribes  do not  wage more deadly wars, than the bees
 of different hives, and sometimes ofthe same hive, occa-
 sionally do.   Their fighting and plundering one aDothet
 ought chiefly to be imputed, as Mr. Thorley observes, to
 their perfect  abhorrence  of  sloth and idleness, or to their
 insatiable thirst for honey ; for when, in sprin? or autumn,
 the weather  is fair, but no honey  can he  collected from
 plants, and is to be found only in the hives  of other beesf
 Ihey will venture  their lives (o  get it  there.  Sometimes
 one of the queens is killed in battle.  In this case the bees
 of both hives  unite as soon as her death is generally know"
 among them. 
A P I
A  P I
    The command which some persons have obtained over
  bees  is very  extraordinary.  Mr. Wildman, some years
  ago, surprised the whole  kingdom.   He caused swarms
  to light where he pleased almost instantaneously: he or-
  dered them to settle  on his head, then  remo\ed  Ihem to
  his hand, and  commanded them  to depart and settle on a
  window, (able, &c. at pleasure.   We subjoin (his method
  of performing these feats, in his own words : " Long expe-
  rience has taught me, lhat as soon as I turn up a hive, and
  give it some taps on the sides  and bottom, the queen  im-
  mediately appears lo know the cause of Ibis alaim; but
  soon retires again among her people.  Being accustomed
  to see her so often, I readily perceive her at  first glance;
  and long practice has enabled  me to seize her instantly,
  with a tenderness lhat does not in the least endanger her
  person.  When  possessed of her, lean without  injury to
  her, or exciting that degree of resentment that may tempt
  her lo sting me,  slip  her into my other hand, and, return-
  ing the hive to  its place, hold her there, 1 ill lhe bees missing
  her, are all on wing,and in the utmost confusion.  When
  the bees are Ihus distiessed, 1 place the queen wherever I
  would have (he bees lo settle.  The moment a few of them
  discover her, they give notice lo those near then', and those
  to the rest; lhe knowledge of w hicb soon becomes so gener-
  al, that  in a few minutes they all collect themselves round
  her;  and are so  happy in  hav ing recov ered this sole sup-
  port of  their state, that ibey will long remain quiet in their
  situation.  Nay, the scent of her body  is so  attractive of
  them, that the slightest touch  of her, along any place or
 substance, will attach lhe  bees to it, and induce them to
 pursue any path  she takes."
   When the bees begin to work  in their hives, Ihey are
  said to  divide themselves  into four companies; one  of
  which roves in the fields in search of nateiials ;  another
 employs itself in laying out the  bottom and  partitions of
 their cells ; a third is employed in making the inside smooth
 from  the coiners and angles; and lhe  fourth  company
 brings food for the rest, or relieves those who return with
 their respective burdens.   But they are not kept conslant
 to one employment;  they  often change the tasks assigned
 them ; those that have been at work being permitted logo
 abroad,  and (hose 1ha( have been in (he fields already, take
 I heir places.   They  seem  even  to have signs by which
 they understand  each olher; for when  any  one of them
 wants food, it bends down its trunk lo the bee from whom
 it is expected,  which then  opens ils honey  bag, and lets
 some drops fall info fhe other's  mouth, which is at that
 time opened  to receive it.  Their  diligence and labour
 are  so great, lhat, in a day's lime, they are able to make
 cells, which lie upon each other, numerous enough to con-
 tain a,000 bees.
   As the combs would be apt. when full, to overcome by
 (heir weight all the security which the bees can give them
 against falling, those who prepaie hives set  in them cross-
 wise, sticks, which serve as props lo  the  combs, and save
 lhe bees great  labour.
   The habitations of bees ought lo be  very close ; and
 what their hives want from the negligence or mindfulness
of man, these animals supply by their own industry.  For
this purpose they make  use ofa resinous gum,  which  is
more tenacious than wax, and differs zi eat ly from  it.  This
t]m ancients called  propolis.  It will giow o-nxiderublv
h;ird in the hive, though it  will in  f-ome measure soften by
 heaf, and is often found different  in consistence, colour)
 and smell.   It has generally an agreeable aromatic odour
 when it is warmed ; and by  some it is considered as a most
 grateful  perfume.  When lhe bees begin lo work wilh if,
 it is soft; but it acquiies a firmer consistence  every day,
 till at length it assumes a brown colour, and becomes much
 harder lhan wax.  The bees carry it on their hinder legs;
 and some think it is met with on the birch, the willow, and
 poplar.
   Bees anxiously provide against  lhe entrance of insects
 into the hi\e, by gluing up with wax or propolis lhe small-
 est holes  in it.  Some stand as  sentinels al lhe mouth of
 the hive,  lo prevent  insects of any  kind from gelling in.
 But if a snail or other large  insect  should gel in, notwith-
 standing all resistance,  ihey sling it to  death; and then
 cover it  over with  a  coat of propolis, to prevent the bad
 smell or maggots which might proceed from lhe putrefac-
 tion of such a large animal.
   Bees seem to be  warned of lhe  appearance of bad
 weather  by  some particular feeling.   It sometimes hap-
 pens, even when Ihey are very  assiduous  and busy, that
 they on a sudden cease fiom their woik; not a single bee
 stirs out; and those that  are  abioad huny heme in such
 prodigious crowds, lhat the  doors of their  habitations are
 too small  to admit them.  On such occasions, if we  look
 up to the  sky, we shall soon discover some  of those black
 clouds which denote  impending rain.  So  correct is their
 instinct, lhat it exceeds lhe  sagacity of lhe  philosopher.
   When a hive of bees is become loo much crowded by
 the addition of lhe young brood, a part of  the bees think
 of finding themselves a more commodious  habitation, and
 with that  view single  out lhe most forward of the young
 queens.   A new swaim  is therefore constantly composed
 of one queen at least,  and of several  thousand working
 bees, as well as of some hundreds of drones.   The work-
 ing bees  are  some  old, some young.  Scarcely  has fhe
 colony arrived at its new  habitation,  when Ibe woiking
 bees labour w ilh lhe utmost  diligence lo procure materials
 for food and  building.  They make more wax during (he
 first fortnight, if the season is favourable, thai they do all
 the rest of the year.   Other bees are at  lhe same lime
 busy in stopping all  the holes and crevices they find  in
 (he new hive, in order (o guaid against (he entrance of in-
 sects which  covet  their honey, (heir wax, or  ibem-
 selves; and also to exclude the cold air, for it is indispen-
 sably necessary that Ihey  be lodged warm.   When (he
 bees first  settle  in swarming, indeed when they at  any
 time rest themselves, there is something very particular in
 the method of taking  their  repose.  It is  done by  col-
 lecting themselves in a heap, and hanging to each other by
 their feet.
   When a swarm divides info  fwo  or more bands, which
 settle separately, this  division is a sure  sign that (here are
 two or more queens among them.  One of  these clusters
 is generally larger than the other.  The bees of the small-
 er cluster or clusters  detach themselves  by little and lit-
 tle, (ill al last the whole, logelher with the queen, unite
 wilh the larger cluster.   As soon as the bees are settled
 the supernumerary queen or queens must be sacrificed to
 the peace and tranquillity of the  hive.   This execution
generally raises a consideiable ct mmolionIn  lhe I i\e ;  and
several olher bees,  a* well as lhe  queen, lose Iheii lhe*.
Their bodies may he  obseived on the  ground  rear thf- 
API
A P  I
 hive.  Tbe queen that is chosen is of a more reddish col-
 our than those  which are destroyed: so that fruitfulness
 seems to be a great motive of preference in bees; for the
 nearer they are to the time of laying their eggs, the big-
 ger, redder, and more shining are their bodies.
   Tie b.ills which we see attached to the legs of bees re-
 turning to the hives, are  not wax,  but a powder collected
 from the stamina of flowers, not yet brought to the state of
 wax.   The substance of these balls,  heated in any vessel,
 does not melt as wax would, but becomes dry, and hard-
 ens:  it may  even be reduced to a coal.   If thrown into
 water it will sink; whereas  wax swims.  To reduce  this
 crude substance into wax, it must first be digested in the
 body of (he bee.   Every bee, when  it  leaves the hive to
 collect this precious  store, enters into the cup of the  flow-
 er, particularly such as  seem charged with the  greatest
 quantities of  this yellow  farina.   As  the animal's body is
cohered over with hair, it rolls itself within the flower, and
quickly becomes  quite covered  with the dust, which it
soon after brushes off with  its two hind legs, and kneads
into  two  little  balls.  In the thighs of the  hinder  legs
there are two cavities, edged wilh hair;  and into these, as
into a basket, the animal  sticks its pellets.   Tnus employ-
ed, the bee flits from flower to h\owe; increasing its store,
and adding to  its stock of wax, until the ball  upon  each
thigh  becomes as big as  a grain  of pepper: by this  time
having got a sufficient load,  it returns, making the best of
 its way to the hive.  After the  bees  have  brought home
 this crude substance, they eat it  by degrees ; or,  at other
 times, three  or four bees come  and  ease the loaded bee,
 by eating each of them  a share,  the loaded  bee giving
 them a hint so  to do.  Hunger,  however,  is not the mo-
 tive of their  thus eating the balls of  waxy matter, espec-
 ially when a  swarm is first hived;  but it is  their desire to
 provide a speedy supply of real wax for making the combs.
 At other times, when there  is  no immediate want of  wax,
 the bees lay  this matter  up  in  repositories, to keep it in
 store; and it is then known by the name of bee bread.
   It is agreed by the most judicious observers  that the
 apiary, or place where  bees are kept, should face the
 south, and be  situated in a place  neither too hot nor too
 much exposed to the cold; that it  be  near the  mansion
 house, on account of the convenience of watching them;
 but so situated as not to  be  exposed  to noisome smells, or
 to the din of men or cattle; that it  be surrounded with a
 wall,  which,  however, should not rise  above  three feet
 high; that, if possible, a running stream be near them; or,
 if that cannot be, that  water be  brought  near them in
 troughs;  as they cannot produce either combs, honey, or
 food for their maggots, without water: and that the garden
 in which the  apiary stands, be  well furnished with  such
 plants as  afford the bees plenty  of good pasture.   Furze,
 broom, mustard, clover, heath, &c. have been found ex-
 cellent for this purpose.
   Hives  have been made of different  materials, and in
 different forms, according to tbe  fancy of people of differ-
 ent ages  and countries.  Not only  straw, which  experi-
 ence  now proves to be  rather  preferable to every thing
 else,  but wood, horn, glass, Sec. have  been used for the
 construction  of them.  Single box hives, however, when
 properly made,  answer  very well, and  when painted last
 long.  They have several advantages above straw hives  :
 they are quite cleanly, and always stand upright;  they are
proof against mice; and are cheaper in the end than straw
hives, for one box will last as  long as  three  of them.
They are, however, rather colder in winter; but a proper
covering will prevent all danger from (hat quarter.  Straw
hives are easiest obtained at  first, and ha\e been used and
recommended by  the best  of bee masters.   If the swarm
be early and large, it  will  require a large hive ; but if
otherwise,  the hive should  be proportionably less.  If the
bees appear to want more room, it can easily be enlarged
by  pulling a roll  or  two  below if; but  if it be heavy
enough for a stock hive, it will do, although it should no!
be quite full of combs.
  Any person, says Mr. Bonnet,  who intends to erect an
apiary,  must take  particular care to have it filled with
proper inhabitants.  He must be  peculiarly attentive to
this,  as all his future profit  and pleasure,  or loss and vexa-
tion, will, in general, depend upon if.  He must therefore
pay lhe utmost attention lo the choice of his stock hives;
for the man who takes care to  keep good stock hives will
soon gain  considerably by them ; but he who keeps  bad
ones, will, besides  a great deal of trouble,  and little or no
success, soon become a broken  bee master.  In Septem-
ber every stock  hive ought to contain as much honey as
will supply the bees with food till June following;  and as
many bees as will preserve heat in the hive, and thereby
resist the  severily of a cold winter, and act  as so many
valiant soldiers to defend the community from the inva-
sions of foreign enemies in spring.  They  should  be  full
of combs,  and well stored with bees and honey, and should
weigh at least 301b. each ;  if heavier, so  much the better;
for light hives run  a great risk of perishing by famine, un-
less  the  bees are  supplied with  food; whereas  a well
chosen hive of 301b. weight, allowing 121b. for fhe empty
hive, bees, combs,  &c. will contain 18lb. of honey, which
will  supply the bees with food till  June: a time  when, it
may  be  presumed, they will find abundance of provisions
for  themselves  among the   flowers.    When  a choice
can be  obtained,  the youngest  hive should always be
preferred,  because old hives are  liable  to vermin, and
other accidents.   But although a hive should  be four
or five years old,  it should  not be rejected, if it possess
these two essential qualities, plenty of bees, and abun-
dance of honey.
  Bees  first swarm in-May, or in the end of April, but ear-
lier or later according to the warmth of the season.  They
seldom swarm before ten in.the morning, and seldom later
than  three  in the  afternoon.  We may  know when they
are about  to swarm, by clusters of them hanging  on the
outside of the hive.  But  the most certain sign is, when
the bees refrain from going into the fields, though the  sea-
son be inviting.  Just  before they take  flight there is an
uncommon silence in the hive;  after this, as soon as one
lakes flight, Ihey all follow. Before lhe subsequent swarm-
ings  there is a great  noise in the bive,  which is  supposed
to be occasioned by  a contest, whether the young or the
old queen should go out.  When the bees of a swarm fly
loo high, they will  descend lower, upon throwing handfuls
of sand or  dust among them, which they  probably mistake
for rain.   For the  same purpose it is  usual to  beat on a
kettle or frying pan: this practice may  have  taken its
rise  from  observing  that  thunder, or any great noise,
prompts bees  in  the fields to return home.  As soon a»
the swarm is settled,, the bees which compose it should be 
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got into a hive with all convenient speed, to prevent their
taking wing again.   If they settle on a small branch of a
tree, easy to come  at, it may be cut off and laid upon a
cloth, lhe hive being ready immediately to put over them.
If tbe branch cannot be conveniently cut, the bees may be
swept from off it into the hive.  Lodge but the queen in-
to the  hive, and the rest will soon follow.  If the bees
must be considerably disturbed in order to gel them into
a hive, the mos( advisable way is to let them remain in the
place where they have pitched till the evening, when there
is less danger of their  taking  wing.  If it  be  observed
that  they still hover about the tree they first alighted upon,
the  branches may  be rubbed  with rue, elder  leaves, or
any other thing distasteful to them, to prevent their re-
turning to it.  The hive employed on this occasion should
be cleaned with the utmost care, and its inside rubbed
wilh fragrant herbs or flowers, the smell of which is agree-
able to the bees, or with honey.   The hive should not be
immediately  set on the  stool  where  it is to remain, but
kept near the place at  which the bees  settled, (ill the
evening,  lest  some stragglers should be lost.   It should
be shaded either with boughs or with cloth, that the too
great heat of the sun may not annoy the bees.  We some-
times see a swarm of bees, after having left their hive, and
even alighted upon a tree, return  to their first abode.
This never  happens but when  the young queen did not
come forth  with them,  for want of strength, or perhaps
courage to trust to her wings for the first  time ; or possibly
from a consciousness of  her not bein^ impregnated.
   When j» swarm is loo  few in number for a hive, another
may be added.   The usual  method of thus uniting swarms
is very easy.  Spread a  cloth  at night upon the ground
close lo the  hive in which the two casts or swarms are to
be united; lay  a  stick across this cloth; then  fetch the
hive with  the new swarm,  set  it over  the  stick,  give a
smart stroke  on the top of the hive, and ell  the bees will
drop down upon the cloth in a cluster.  'This done, throw
aside the empty hive, take the other from off the stool,
and set this last over the bees, who will soon ascend info it,
mix  wilh those already  there,  and become  one and the
same family.  Others, instead of striking  the bees  down
upon the cloth, place with its  bottom upmost the hive in
which the united  swarms are to live,  and strike the bees
of the other hive  down into it-  The  former of  these
hives is then restored to its natural situation, and the bees
of both hives soon  unite.  If some bees  still  adhere to
the other hive,  they may be brushed off on the cloth, and
they will soon join  their brethren.  Or we may take the
following  method, which gives  less  disturbance to the
bees.  Set with its mouth upmost the hive into which the
young swarm has been put, and set upon it the other hive.
The  bees in the lower hive, finding themselves in an in-
verted situation, will soon ascend into the upper.   A large
swarm may weigh 8lb. and so gradually less to lib : con-
sequently a very good one may weigh 5 or 6lb.   All such
as weigh  less than 4lb. should be strengthened, by uniting
to each of them a less numerous swarm.
  Providence ha9 ordained  that  insects which  feed  on
leaves, flowers,  and green succulent plants,  are  in an in-
sensible or forpid state, from  fhe time  lhat the winter's
cold   has  deprived Ihem of  the means of subsistence:
thus  the bees during fhe  winter are in so lethargic a  state,
that  little food supports them ; but as the weather is very
changeable, and every warm or sunny day revives tiiein,
and prompts them to return to exercise, food becomes nec-
essary on these occasions.   Many hives of  bees  which
are thought to die of cold in  winter, in truth die of  fam-
ine, when a rainy summer has  hindered the bees from lay-
ing in a sufficient store of provisions.   The hives should
therefore be  carefully examined  in autumn, and should
then weigh at least 18 pounds.  The common practice is,
to feed Ihem in autumn, giving fhem as  much honey as will
bring lhe  whole  weight of the hive  to  near 20 pounds.
The easiest and most rational method is,  to set under the
hive a plate of liquid honey,  with a paper pierced full of
holes, through which the bees  will suck the  honey with-
out daubing  themselves.  In  case honey cannot be pro-
cured, a mixture of brown sugar, wetted with strong beer,
will answer every purpose.   Another  circumstance which
may render  it very necessary to feed the bees is,  when
several days of bad weather ensue immediately  after they
have  swarmed; for then, being destitute of every supply
beyond  what  they  carried with  them, they  may be in
great danger of starving.   In this case, honey should be
given them in proportion  to the  duration  of the  bad
weather.
   In  this country it is usual, in seizing the stores of these
little  animals,  to rob them also of  their lives.  The com-
mon method  is,  lhat when those  which  are  doomed for
slaughter have been marked out, which is generally done
in September, a hole is dug near the hive; and a stick, at
the end of which is a rag that has been dipped  in melted
brimstone, being stuck in that hole,  the rag is set on  fire,
the hive is  immediately set over  it, and  the earth  is in-
stantly thrown up all around, so  that none of the smoke
can escape.   In  a  quarter of an hour, all the bees are
seemingly dead;  and they are rendered soon after ir-
recoverably so, by being buried in the earth that is re-
turned back into the hole.  By this last  means it is that
they  are absolutely killed; for  it  has  been found by ex-
periment, that all the bees, which have been affected only
by the fume of the  brimstone,  recover again,  excepting
such as have been singed or hurt by the flame.   Hence it
is evident, that the fume of brimstone might be used for
intoxicating  the  bees, with some few precautions.   The
heaviest and  the lightest hives  are alike  treated in this
manner; the former, because they yield the most profit,
with an  immediate return;  and the latter, because fhey
would not  be able  to survive the winter.   Those  hives
which weigh from 15 to 20  pounds are thought to be the
fittest for keeping.
   Mr. Wheler, in his Journey into Greece, p. 411. tells us,
that at Mount Hymethus they have  a method of saving
the bees, which is as follows :  The hives they keep the
bees in are made of willows or  osiers, fashioned like our
common dust baskets, wide at top and narrow af the bot-
tom,  and plastered overwith clay.  Tbey are set with the
wide end uppermost.   The tops are covered with broad flat
sticks,, which are also plastered over  with clay ; and,  lo
secure Ihem from  the  weather, they  cover  them  wilh a
tuft of straw, as we do.   Along each side of these  sticks,
the bees fasten their combs: so that a comb may be taken
out whole, without  the  least  bruising, and with the  great-
est ease imaginable.  To  increase Ihem in  spring time,
that is,  in  March or April, until  lhe  beginning of May,
they divide them; first separating the  sticks on which the 
A P I
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<x>mbs and bees are fastened,  from one  another, with a
knife ; so, taking out the  first comb and bees together on
each side, (hey put them into another basket, in the same
order as  ihey were taken  out, until they have equally di-
vided Ihem.  Aflcr  this, when ihey are  both again  ac-
••oruiijodated  wifh sticks  and plaster,  they set the new
basket in the  place of the old one, and (he old one in some
new  place.  All (his  (hey do  in  (he middle of (he day, at
Miicfai  (ime as lhe greatest part of the  bees are abroad-;
who, at their  coming home,  without much difficulty,  by
'his  means divide themselves equally.   This device hin-
ders them from  swarming and  flying away.  In August,
they take out their honey ; which ihey do  in the day time
also, while they  are  abroad;  the bees being thereby, say
they, disturbed least: at which time they  take  out  the
combs laden  with  honey,  as  before; that is, beginning at
each outside,  and so taking away, until they have left only
such a quantity of  combs, in  the middle,  as they judge
will be sufficient to maintain the bees in  winter; sweeping
those bees that  are  on the combs  into  the basket again,
and (hen  covering  it  with new  sticks and plaster.  Va-
rious methods have also been adopted in England, to at-
tain the desirable end of getting the honey and wax with-
out destroying the bees;  fhe most  approved of which is
Mr. Thorley's,  who  in his Inquiry into the Nature, Or-
der and Government  of Bees, thinks colonies preferable to
hives. He tells us,  that he has in some summers taken
two boxes filled wilh  honey from one colony ; and yet suf-
ficient store has been left for their maintenance during the
winter, each  box  weighing forty pounds.  His boxes  are
made of  deal, and  an octagon, being nearer to a sphere, is
better than a  square  form ; for as  the bees, in winter, lie
in a  round body near the centre of the hive, a due heal
is then conveyed lo  all the  out parts.  The dimensions
which Mr. Thorley, after many years experience, recom-
mends for the boxes, are (en  inches in depth, and twelve
or fourteen inches in breadth  in the inside.  The best and
purest honey is that which is gathered  in  the first  five or
six weeks; and  in boxes of less dimensions we may take
within a month,  provided the season be  favourable, a box
full of the finest  honey.  The top of the  box should be
made of an entire board, a full inch thick after it has been
planed;  and it should project on all sides, at least an inch
beyond the dimensions of the box.   In the middle of Ibis
lop there must be  a hole five inches square, for a commu-
nication between the boxes; this hole should be covered
with a sliding shutter* of deal or elm, running easily in a
groove over  the back  window.   Tbe eight pannels, nine
iuches deep, and  three quarters of an inch thick  when
planed, are to be let  into the top «o far as (o keep them in
their proper  places ; lo be  secured at the corners with
plates of brass, and lo  be cramped wilh wires at the bot-
tom  to keep Ihem  firm  ; for the  heat in summer will  try
their strength.   There  should be  a glass window behind
fixed in a frame, with a fhin  deal cover, two small brass
hinges, and a button to  fasten  it.  This window will be
sufficient for inspecting the progress of tbe bees.  Two
brass handles,  one on «ach side, are necessary to lift up
(he box ;  Ihese should  be fixed  in with  fwo thin plates of
iron, near three inches long, so as to turn  up and down, and
put three inches below  the top board, which is nailed close
down with sprigs  (o the other parts of the box.  Those
who  choose a  frame  within, to which the bees may fasten
their  combs,  need only use a couple of deal sticks  of an
inch  square,  placed across (Le box.  C'ne  thing more,
which perfects the work, is, a passage four or five inches
long,  and less than half an inch deep, for the bees lo go in
and out at  the bottom of  the box.  In keeping  bees in
colonies, a house is necessary, or at least a shade ;  without
which the weather,  especially the heat of lhe sun, would
soon rend the boxes to pieces.   The house may  be made
of any boards, but deal is the best; and it must be painted,
to secure it  from lhe weather.  The length of it for six
colonies, should be  full twelve and  a half feet,  and each
colony  should stand a foot  distant from the other. It
should  be three and a half feet high, to admit four boxes
one upon another; but if only three  boxes are employed,
two feet eight inches will be sufficient.  Its breadth in the
inside should be two feet.
  The best lime  to  plant the colonies is, either in spring
with new stocks full of bees, or in  summer with swarms.
If swarms are used, procure if possible two of the same
day:  hive them either in two boxes, or  in  a hive and a
box :  at night, place them  in the bee house,  oneo\erthe
other; and  with a  knife  and a little  lime and hair,  stop
close  the mouth ofthe hhe or upper box, so lhat not a bee
may be  able to go in and out but at the front door.   With-
in a week or ten days the combs will appear in the boxes;
but if if be an hive, nothing can be seen till the bees have
wrought down inlo  the box.   Never plant a colony with
a single swarm.   When the second box, or the box under
the hive, appears full of bees and combs, it is fime to raise
the colony.  This  should be done in  the  dusk of lhe
evening, and in  the  following manner.   Place the empty
box, with the sliding shutter drawn back, behind the house
near  the  colony that  is to be raised, and  at nearly the
height of  the floor:  then lifting up the  colony as quickly
as possible,  let  the  empty box be put in the place where
it is to sluiid, and the colony  upon it ; and  shut up the
mouth of  the Ihen upper box with lime and hair, as direct-
ed before.   When upon looking through  the windows in
the back of  the  boxes, the  middle  box  appears full of
combs, and a quantity of  honey sealed up  in it, the lowest
box half full of combs, and few bees in the uppermost box,
proceed thus.   About five o'clock P.M. drive close wilh
a mallet  the sliding shutter under lhe hive or box that is
to be  taken from the colony.  If the combs are new, the
shutter may  be forced home without  a mallet; but  be sure
it is close, lhat no bees may ascend  into  the hive or box
lo be removed.  After this shut close  the  doors of lhe
house, and leave the bees  thus cut off from (he rest of
their companions, for half an hour or  more.   In this space,
having lost their queen, they will fill  themselves wifh hon-
ey, and be impatfenl to be set at liberty.  If, in this in-
terval,  upon examining the box or boxes beneath, all ap-
pears  to  be  quiet in them,  it is a sign  that lhe queen is
there  and in safely.  Hereupon raise  the back part of lhe
hive or  box  so  far, by a piece of wood  slipped under it,
as to give the prisoners room  to come out, and they will
return to their  fellows : (hen lifting  the box from off (be.
colonv, and  turning its  bottom upmost,  cover it with a
cloth  all night;  and the next morning  when this cloth  is
removed, the bees that have remained in it will return to
tbe colony.   Thus a box of honey is procured, and all the
bees aie preserved.   If the  bees do not all come out  in
this manner,  Dr. Warder's method  may be  followed, es- 
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pecially if if be with a hive : vis. to place the hive with
the small end downward in a pail, peck, or flower pof, so
as to make it stand firm; then to take an empty hive, and
set it upon the former, and to draw a cloth tight round the
joining of the two hives, so that none of lhe bees may get
out: after this, to strike the full hive so smartly as lo dis-
turb the bees lhat are in it, but with such pauses  between
the strokes as to allow them time to ascend into lhe empty
hive; which  must be held  fast while this is  doing, lest it
fall ofTby the shaking of lhe other.   When  by the noise
ofthe bees in the upper hive, it is perceived  that they are
got into this last,  carry it to a  cloth  spread  for this pur-
pose before lhe colony, wilh one end fastened to the land-
ing place, and  knock them out upon il : they will soon
crawl up the  clolh, and join their fellows, who will gladly
receive  them.
   Mr.  Thorley's method of  preserving bees in common
hives, is incorporation, or uniting two stocks into one, by
the help of a peculiar fume or opiate, which  will put them
entirely in (he bee master's power for a time  to divide and
dispose of at  pleasure.  But as that dominion over (hem
will be of short duration,  he must be expeditious in this
business.  The queen is immediately lo be  searched for,
and killed.   Hives  which have  swarmed twice, and are
consequently reduced in their numbers, are the fittest to
be joined together, as this  will greatly  strengthen and im-
prove them.   If  a hive is both rich  in  honey and full of
bees, il is but dividing the bees into two parts, and putting
them  into two boxes instead  of  one.  Examine whether
the stock, to which  the bees of another are  to be joined,
has honey enough fo maintain  lhe bees of both :  it should
weigh full 20 pounds.  The narcolic, or sfupifying fume,
is  made with the fungus  maximus  or  pulverulenfus, the
large mushroom, commonly known by lhe name of bunt,
puck fist, or frog cheese.   Il is as big as a man's head, or
bigger when ripe  ; it is of a brown colour, turns to powder,
and is exceedingly light.   Put one  of  these pucks into a
large paper,  press it to two thirds or near half the bulk of
its former size, and tie it up very close; (hen put it into
an oven sometime  after lhe household bread  has been
 drawn,  and  let it  remain  there all  night: when it is  dry
enough to hold fire, il is fit for use.  The manner of using
it is this:  cut  off a piece of the puck, as large as a hen's
egg, and fix it in the end ofa  small  stick slit for that pur-
pose,  and sharpened at  fhe  other end;  which place so
that the puck may stand near the middle of an empty hive.
This hive must  be set with  the mouth upward, in a  pail
or bucket which  should  hold it steady, near  the stock
intended to be taken.  This   done, set fire to the puck,
and immediately  place the stock of bees over it, tying a
cloth round lhe hives, that no smoke may come forlh.  In
a minute or little more, the bees  will be heard falling  like
drops of hail  into the empty hive.  Then beat the top of
the full hive  gently, fo get out as many of them as possi-
ble : after this, loosing the cloth,  lift  the  hive off to a
table, knock it several times against  the   table, several
more bees will tumble out, and perhaps fhe  queen among
them.   She  often is one of the last that falls.  If she is
not there, search for her among the main body in the
empty  hive,  spreading them for this purpose on  a  table.
Proceed in the same manner with fhe other hive, with the
bee* of which these are to be  united.   One  ofthe queens
being  secured, put the bees of both hives together, min-
ele them thoroughly, and drop them among the combs of
The hive which they are intended to inhabit.  Then cover
it with a coarse cloth which will admit  air, and let ihem
remain shut up all lhat night and the next day.   It will
easily be known  when they  are  awaked from  this sleep.
The second  night after their union, in the dusk of  the
evening, gently remove the cloth from off the moifth ofthe
hive,  and  the bees  will immediately sally forth  wilh a
great  noise;  but being  too  late,  they will soon  return t.
then inserting two  pieces of tobacco pipes lo let in  air,
keep Ihem confined for three or four days, after which t\\r
door may be left open.  The best time for uniting  bees i = ,
after their young brood are all out, and before  they begin
lo lodge in the empty cells.  As to lhe hour  ofthe day,
Mr. Thorley advises young practitioners to do it  early in
the afternoon, in order lhat having the longer light, they
may the more easily find out the queen.   He never knew
such combined stocks conquered by robbers.  They  will
either swarm in the next summer, or yield an  hive full of
honey.
  Boxes  placed laterally will  answer every  purpose of
these of Mr.  Thorley, and tbey may be made square and
in the simplest manner.
   Bees have various enemies; mice should  be  guarded
against, by diminishing the  entrance info  the hives when
the cold comes  on, and lhe bees are less able to defend
themselves;  and the hives may be placed in such a man-
ner, that it will be impossible for the mice to reach them.
Spiders and caterpillars are very destructive to bees ; a spe-
cies of the latter, called (he wax worm,  or wax moth, be-
cause it feeds on wax, lays its eggs in the hive, which turn
fo maggots that are very noisome and prejudicial.  Hives
of bees that have swarmed  more than once, and  such as
contain little honey, are most exposed to these  insects ; for
the empty combs serve them for shelter, and the wax sup-
plies them with food.  These hives should be cleaned at
least once a  week ; and  the  stools on which they rest,
where the moths are laid by the bees, should be cleaned
every morning.   But they  cannot be entirely destroyed,
without taking away the infected hive, removing the bees,
and cleansing it of the moths, before it is restored to its
 former occupiers.   Bees are  often  troubled  with. lice,
 which may be destroyed by strewing tobacco over ihem.
 The depredations of birds, and particularly of the house
 lark and swallow, should  be carefully prevented.  Ants,
 woodlice, and earwigs, are also enumerated among the
 enemies of the bee3.  Mr.  Keys says, " the earwigs steal
 into the hives at night, and drag out bee  after bee, suck-
 ing out their vitals,  and leaving nothing but their  skins or
 scalps like so many trophies of their butchery."   Wasps
 and hornets  are, however,  the most formidable  enemies
 that bees have to encounter.
   Wasps  are very destructive to bees, on account of their
 superior  strength and prodigious numbers, especially in a
 year favourable to their breeding.  They  are most numer-
 ous in July and August.  Soon after that  the workers die ;
 but the mothers survive the winter, and commence breed-
 ing  about April.   If cold  and wet weather ensues, the
 greater part  ofthe brood are starved : because the work-
 ers cannot fly out for forage, and wasps never lay up any
 store.  Wet  is very injurious fo their nests, and therefore,
in a long  season of heavy rain,  few wasps will appear till
 September;  but a mild winter, succeeded by a hot spring 
API
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 tvill so favour fhe increase of wasps, that without the
 greatest vigilance many stocks  will fall victims to  their
 power.
   One wasp is a match  for  three bees.  They are  very
 bold, and frequently encounter lhe most evident danger,
 undauntedly opposing a host of bees, lo obtain a belly full
 of honey.  Therefore,  when  cold  weather  commences,
 knowing that the  bees keep no guard then, great numbers
 get quietly  in, and carry off abundance of  honey ;  and
 having once tasted ofthe sweets, they  will  not desist till
 fhey possess fhe whole.  Perhaps the same method of
 destroying them,  in this case, as directed for bee robbers,
would prove as effectual against wasps.
   In lhe spring  the  mofher wasps may be seen about old
 timber, with the splints of which they compose their nests.
 On the blossoms of gooseberries and raspberries they will
 be found often, and may easily be knocked down and de-
 stroyed.  Their  death, at that time,  will prevent a like
 number of nest3 from existing the next summer.   A nest
 of wasps is said to consist of 30,000.   Effectually to de-
 stroy a nest; in the  evening,  when the wasps  have  done
 labour, repair to the place, and stop all the holes  of their
 egress or  regress.  Introduce a squib  into  the chief pas-
sage, and instantly stopping it with a  sod, &c. they will
 presently  be suffocated.  Dig  the  nest up, and burn it.
Perhaps a wildfire of damp gunpowder placed on  a piece
 of wood, and introduced, would answer the same purpose.
   Hornets, in the spring, will watch the bees as they issue
 from the  hives.  When they are  seen about  lhe hives,
 they should be knocked down and trodden upon.  They
 may be trepanned,  by placing an empty hive, wilh its in-
 side smeared with honey, among the stocks.   Allured by
 this, the molher hornets will begin  to build in it.   In lhe
 evening lift  up lhe hive, which may be done wilh  safety,
 if the mother is there ; then  set  it  down again, and in
 about half an  hour after have  a  vessel  with water ready ;
 take  fhe  hive and plunge it a litlle way into the water;
 then strike smartly on the top of lhe hive, and the hornets
 will fall into the  wafer, and by a  pair of  longs  may be
 crushed (o death.  Or, the  hive may  be closely  slopped
 up till morning ; and Ihen taking it into a room, raise the
 edge next the window ; the  hornet  will fly directly  to it,
 and may readily be destroyed.  Their nests are usually
 hung on the rafters, beams, or roofs of barns, or out houses,
 or fixed  in  hollow trees.  They  resemble a globe of
 brownish  paper.
   The nest may  be taken by preparing a  large moulhed
 bag, with a running string to draw the mouth close.   On a
 rainy day, or in an evening, put on tbe  bee dress, and with
 great stillness approach the  nesf, and draw  the bag gently
 over it, instantly pulling the mouth  so close that not a
 hornet may escape.
   APIS, or McscA,in astronomy, a southern constellation,
 containing four stars.
   APIUM,  parsley, in botany, a genus  of (he digynia
 order, belonging  to the  pentandria class of plants; and in
 the natural method ranking  under the 45th order,  umbel-
 late.  The fruit is of an oval  shape, and streaked  ; the
 involucrum consists of one leaf;  and the petals are inflect-
 ed. There are only two species, the culture of which is
 well known, vis.
   1. Apium graveolens, or smallage, or celery, a native of
 England; and.
  2. Apium petroselinum, or common parsley, a native of
Sardinia.
  Smallage, when improved by culture, is termed celery,
and there is scarcely a more desirable root, especially as it
is a winter  sallad.   It is aperient and tonic.
  With respect to the 2d sort, the roots and seeds ofthe
petroselinum are used in medicine. The root of parsley ij
one of the  five aperient roots ; if  liberally used, it is apt
to occasion flatulencies ; and thus, by distending (he tjs.
cera,  produces a contrary  effect to  that  intended by if;
the taste of this root  is somewhat  sweetish, wifh a light
degree of warmth  and aromatic  flavour.  The  seeds are
an  ingredient in the electuary of bayberries, are  moder-
ately aromatic, and were  formerly used as carminatives,
The common parsley is  also  reckoned an  effectual cure
for  the rot  in sheep, provided they are fed with it  twicea
week for two  or three hours each time; but  hares and
rabbits are  so fond of this herb, that they will come from
a great  distance to feed upon it;  so that  whoever has a
mind to have plenty of hares in their fields, may draw them
from all parts of the country by tbe cultivation of parsley.
  APLANATIC, a term applied to that kind of refrac-
tion which  entirely corrects the aberration of the rays of
light,  and the colour depending  on it, in contradistinction
to the word achromatic, in which there  is only a partial
correction of colour.
  APLUDA,a genus of the monoecia order, belonging fo
the polygamia class of plants : and in  the natural method
ranking under the fourth order, gramina.   The calixis a
bivalved gluma: the floscules of  the female are sessile,
and the male floscules are furnished with  pedunculi; Ibe
female has  no calix;  (he corolla  has  a double valve; (here
is bu( one  stylus,  and one covered seed.    The male baa
three stamina.   There are 4 species.
  APOCYNUM, Kwo?, a dog,  because the ancient* be-
lieved this  plant would kill dogs, Dogsbane : Agenusof
the digynia order, belonging to the pentandria class of
plants ; and in  the natural method ranking under the 30th
order conlortse.  The essential characters are: fhe corol-
la is  bell  shaped : and the  filaments are  five, alternate
with the stamina.  Of this genus botanical writers enume-
rate 17 species; of  which the following are the most re-
markable :
  1. Apocynum cordatum and villosum,  natives of New
Spain, and  both climbers.
  2. Apocynum speciosissimum, a native of Jamaica and
of Savannah, whence it  has the name of Savannah  flower.
Il tises three or four feet high :  the flowers are  produced
from fhe sides ofthe branches, and are very large, and of
a bright yellow colour.
  3.  Apocynum ventum ; there are two varielies of this;
one with a purple, and the other with a white flower.  This
species is hardy enough to live in  England.
  All the species of this plant abound with  a  milky juice,
which flows out from any part of  their stalks and leavei
when they are  broken; this is generally supposed lobe
hurtful  if taken inwardly,  but does not  blister the skin
when applied to it as the juice of spurge and other acrid
plants do.  The pods of all the sorts are filled with seeds,
which have each a long plume of a cottony down fastened
to their crowns.  This down is in great esteem in  France,
for stuffing of easy chairs,  making quilts,  Sec. for  il is ex-
ceedingly light and elastic 
A P 0
A P  P
   APOCOPE,  among grammarians, a figure which cuts
 off a letter or syllable from the end of a word, as  ingeni
 for insrenii.
   APO( R1SIARIUS,  in antiquity, an officer  who de-
 livered the messages  of lhe emperor.  He became after-
 ward chancellor, and kept the seals.  It wa3  also a title
 given to a bishop's resident at court, to lhe pope's deputy
 at Constantinople, and to (he treasurer of a monastery.
   APOGEE, that point of the orbit of a planet,  or the
 sun, which is furthest from lhe  earth.
   APOLL1NARIAN games, in  Roman antiquity,  an
 appellation given (o certain theatrical entertainments, cele-
 brated  annually in honour of Apollo.
   APOLLINARIANS, or Apollinarists,  in church
 history, a sect of heretics who maintained, lhat  Jesus
 Christ  had neither a rational human soul, nor a true
 body.
   APOLLONIA, in antiquity,  an annual festival cele-
 brated by the iEgialians  in honour of Apollo.
   APOLLO   belvidere, a  very  celebrated antique
 statue, esteemed by artists the most excellent and sublime
 of all the ancient productions.   It was found  in the 15th
 century,  about 12 leagues from Rome, in the ruins of
 ancient Antium, and  purchased by pope  Julius II. who
 removed  it to  the Belvidere  of the "Vatican, whence it
 takes  its name,  and where  it  remained  three  hundred
 years, but it is now in the museum at Paris.  See Sculp-
 ture.
   APOLOGUE, in  matters  of literature, an ingenious
 method of conveying instruction by means of a feigned
 relation, called a moral fable.
   The only difference  between a parable and an apo-
 logue  is,  lhat  lhe former being drawn from what  passes
 among  mankind, requires  probability in  tbe  narration:
 whereas the apologue being  taken from  the  supposed
 actions of brutes, or even of things  inanimate,  is not tied
 down lo the strict rules of probability.  iEsop's fables are
 a model of 1 his kind of writing.
   APONEUROSIS, among  physicians,  a term  some-
 times used (o denote the  expansion of a nerve or tendon in
 the manner t,f a membrane ; sometimes for  the cutting off
 a nerve ;  and, finally, for lhe tendon itself.
   APOPHYSIS, in anatomy,  an  excrescence from the
 body ofa bone, of which it is a true continuous part, as a
 branch is  ofa free.  See Anatomy.
   APOPLEXY, a distemper in which the  patient is sud-
 denly deprived of fhe exercise of all the  senses,  and of
 voluntary motion; while a strong pulse remains with a
 »l< ( p respiration, attended wifh a sterfor, and the appear-
 ance ofa profound sleep.   See Medicine.
   APOSIOPESIS, in rhetoric, the suppressing or omit-
 ting to relate a  part of the subject: thus the  poet omits
 the circumstance of Dido's killing herself.

          Dixerat, atqiie illam media inter tallia feiro
          Collapsarv* adspiciunt.

   APOSTATE, among  the  Romanists, signifies a man
 who, without a  legal dispensation,  forsakes  a religious
 order of which he had made profession.   Hence,
   APOSTATA  capiendo, in  the English  law,  a writ
which  formerly lay against a person who, having entered
into some  order of religion, broke out again,  and wandered
up and down the country.
  vol. i.           26'
  APOSTILICI, an early sect of Christian?, who pre-
tended to lead (heir lives in imitation of lhe apostles. 1 hey
condemned marriage.
  APOSTROPHE,  in  rhetoric,  a figure  by which the
orator addresses a person either absent or dead as if he
was present;  or appeals to  angels and to men. to rock?,
groves, &c.   Thus Adam, in Milton's  Paradise Lost :
         O woods, O fountains, hillocks, dales, and bowers,
         With other echo, &c.
  Apostrophe, in grammar, a mark placed over a letter
to show  that a vowel is cut off, as call'd for called, <h'
audience, for (he audience.
  APOTACTITES, in church history, a name given to
tbe aposlolici, from the show they made of renouncing the
world more than other men.
  APOTHECARY, one who practises the art of phar-
macy.  In  London, lhe apothecaries  are one of the city
companies, and by an act which was made perpetual in the
ninth  year of  George I. are exempted from serving upon
juries, or in ward and parish offices.   They are obliged
to make  up their medicines according to the formulas pre-
scribed in lhe college dispensatory, and are liable to have
their  shops visited by lhe censors of the college, who are
empowered to destroy such medicines as they think not
good.
  APOTHEOSIS,  in antiquity,  a ceremony by  which
the ancient Romans  complimented their  emperors and
great  men after Iheir death, wifh a  place among the gods.
It is described as  follows.   After the body of the deceas-
ed had been burnt with lhe usual solemnities, an image of
wax,  exactly  resembling him,  was placed  on  an ivory
couch, where it lay for seven days, attended by  lhe sen-
ate  and  ladies of the highest quality in mourning ; and
then the  young senators and knights bore Ihc  bed of state
through the via sacra to the  old forum, and thence to the
campus Martius, where it was deposited upon an  edifice
built in form  of a pyramid.   The bed being thus placed,
amidst a quantity of  spices and other combustibles, and
the knights  having made a procession in solemn measure
round the pile, the new emperor, wifh a torch In his hand,
set fire to if,  whilst an eagle, let fly from the top of the
building, and  mounting  in  the  air with a firebrand, was
supposed to convey the soul of the deceased to heaven,
and thenceforward he  was ranked among the gods.
  APOTOME, in geometry, lhe difference between two
incommensurable  lines: such is fhe difference between 2
and 1, and such is the excess cf the diagonal  of a square
above its side.
  Apotome, in music, the  difference  between a greater
and lesser semitone, expressed by the  ratio  120 : 125.
  APPARENT, among mathematicians and astronomers,
denotes things as they appear  fo  us,  in contradistinction
from  real or true; thus  we  say, the apparent diameter,
distance, magnitude, place, figure, Sec. of bodies.
  APPARITION, in astronomy, Minifies a star or olher
luminary's  becoming  visible, which before was  hid.   It
stands opposed to occullalion.
  APPARITOR, among the Roman?, a general term to
comprehend  all attendants of judges  and  magistrates
appointed to receive  and execute  their orders.   Appari-
lor, with  us, is a messenger,  that serves lhe process of  a
spiritual  court, or a  beadle in an  university who carries
the mace. 
A  P P
A P P
   APPEAL, in law, the removal ofa cause from an infe-
 rior to a superior court or judge,  when  a  person thinks
 himself aggrieved by fhe sentence of the  inferior judge.
 Appeals lie from all the ordinary courts  of justice to the
 Jionse  of lords.   In ecclesiastical  causes, if an appeal is
 brought before a bishop, it may be removed to the  arch-
 bishop; if  before an  archdeacon to the court of arches,
 and (hence to the archbishops; and from  the archbishop's
 court to the king in chancery.
  Appeal, in our old common law, i3 taken for the accusa-
 tion  of a  murderer by a  person who had  interest in the
 party killed; of a felon by an accomplice; or for rape
 or mayhem  by the party injured.  It  was  prosecuted
 either  by writ or by bill: by writ, when  a writ was pur-
 chased out of the chancery by one person against another,
 commanding him to appeal some third person  of felony,
 and to  find pledges for  doing it effectually : by bill,  when
 the person  himself gave  in his accusation  in  writing,
 offering to undergo the burden of appealing the person
therein named. Tbe extreme nicety of conducting appeals
has caused them to be wholly disused, and the proceeding
is now always by indictment.  4 Blacks. 313.
  APPEARANCE, in law, signifies a defendant's  filing
common or  special  bail, on any process  issued  out of a
court of judicature.  In actions  by original, appearances
are entered with the philazer of the county ; and by bill,
 with the prothonotary.
  In perspective, appearance is the projection of a figure
 or body on lhe perspective plane.
  In astronomy it  signifies the  same  as phenomena cr
 phasis ; and in physiology, the same as phasmata.
  APPELLANTS, in church history,  an  appellation
 given to such of the Roman catholic clergy, as appealed
 from the constitution unigenitus, to a general council.
  APPELLATIVE,  in grammar, a noun which is appli-
 cable to a whole species or kind, as man, horse ;  in con?
 tradistinction to a proper noun.
  APPENDANT, in law, any thing that  is inheritable,
 belonging to some more worthy inheritance ; as an  advow-
 son,  common, or court, may be appendant to  a  manor,
 land to an office, &c.  but land cannot be appendant to
 land, for both are corporeal inheritances, and  one thing
 corporeal cannot be appendant to another.
  APPLICATION, in geometry, is used for applying
 one  quantity to  another,  whose areas, but not figures,
 shall be the  same; or for transferring a given line into a
 circle, or other figure, so that its end shall be in the pe-
 rimeter of the figure.
  By application it is proved  in Euclid's  elements that
 two friangles having two sides of one equal to two sides in
 the other, and the included angles equal, are  equal in all
 respects.
  Application is used in Arithmetic for division $ thus
 16 applied to, or divided by 4,  gives 4.
  Application, of one science to another, signifies the
 use that is made of the principles of the one for augmenting
 and perfecting the other.  Thus algebra has been applied
 to geometry, and vice versa, and both are made use of in
 illustrating and demonstrating the principles of mechanics,
 astronomv, navigation, Sec.  See Geometry.
  APPOINTEE, in heraldry, (he  same as aguisee :  thus
 we say, a cross appointee, to signify that which has two
 angles at the end cut off, so as  to terminate in points.
   APPORTIONMENT, in law, the division of a rent
 info parts, in the same manner as the land out of which it
 issues is divided: for  example, if a person leases three
 acres of land for a certain rent, and  afterward grants away
 one acre thereof to another, the rent shall be apportion-
 ed between them.
   APPOSAL of sheriffs, the charging them with money
 received on their accounts in the exchequer.
   APPOSITION, in grammar, the  placing two or more
 substantives together, in the same case, without any cop.
 ulative  conjunction between  them ; as  Ardebat Alexin)
 delicias domini.
   APPRAISING, the valuing or setting a price on goods,
 This is  usually done by a  sworn appraiser, who,  if he
 values fhe  goods  too high, is obliged to take them at the
 price appraised.
   APPREHENSION, in logic, denotes  the  simple at-
 tention of  the mind to  an object presented  either to our
 senses or our imagination, without passing a judgment,or
 making any inference.  The word is  also used  to express
 an inadequate and imperfect idea.
   APPRENTICE,  a young person bound by indenture
 to some tradesman, in order to be instructed in lhe myste-
 ry or trade.  By the laws of England, a master may be
 indicted  for not providing for, or for turning  away his ap-
 prentice : and upon complaint from a master, that he neg-
 lects his duty, an apprentice may be committed to Bride-
 well,  or  be bound over to the  sessions.   By 5 Eliz. no
 person  can exercise  any trade  in  any part  of England,
 without having served a regular  apprenticeship of at least
 seven years.  No trades, however, are held to be within
 t he statute but such as were in being at the making of it in   |
 the reign of Elizabeth.  Apprenticeships are not necessa-
 ry to carry on a trade in a country village.  And following
 a trade  seven  years,  either as master or servant, without
 effectual prosecution,  is sufficient without  an apprentice-
 ship.
  A duty of 6d in the pound is  granted for every sum of
 501. or under, and 12d in the pound for sums not exceed-
 ing 50/. given with all apprentices, except such as are
 placed out by church wardens,.&c.
  APPRISING, in Scofs law,  the name of an action by
 which a creditor formerly became invested with  the estate
 of his debtor for payment.
  APPROACH, curve of equable,  is of  such a nature,
 that a body descending in it by the  sole power of gravity,
 approaches  the  horizon  equally in  equal  times.   See
 Curve.
  APPROACHES,  method  of, in mathematics, a name
 given to a mode of resolving certain problems relating to
 square numbers,  by first  assigning  certain limits lo the
 quantities- required, and  then  approaching  nearer  and
 nearer till a coincidence is obtained.  The double rule of
 false position  may  be considered  as a method of ap-
 proaches.
  Approaches, in fortification,  the works  thrown up bj
 lhe besiegers,  in order lo get nearer a fortress,  without
being exposed  to the enemy's  cannon: such, in a more
 particular manner, are the  trenches, which should be con-
 nected by parallel?, or lines of communication.
  Approaching, in fowling a method of getting near tbe
birds by means of a machine, made of hoops and boughs
of trees, wi(hin which  the  sportsman conceals himself. 
A PT
ATT
    APPROPRIARE  communiam, in  law, is to discom-
  mon, or enclose any parcel of land  that before  was open
  and common.
    APPROPRIATION, the annexing a benefice to  the
  proper and perpetual  use of a religions house, bishopric,
  college, &c.  Where lhe king is patron, he may make ap-
  propriations himself;  but  in  olher cases, after obtaining
  his license  in chancery, the consent of the ordinary,  pa-
  tron, and incumbent, is requisite.   Appropriations cannot
  be  assigned  over,  but those to whom Ihey  are granted
  may make leases of the profits.  There  are  in England
  2345 impropriations.
   APPROVEMENT, in law,  is the enclosing  part of a
  common by the lord of the manor.
    APPROVER, in law,  one who  before imprisonment,
  confessing  that he has committed a felony, accuses one or
  more of his accomplices.  Approvers,  also, signify bai-
  liffs  of lords  in their franchises,  sheriffs,  and likewise
  such persons as have  tire  letting the king's demesnes in
  small manors.
    APPROXIMATION,  in  arithmetic and algebra,  fhe
  coming  nearer and nearer to a root or olher quantity
  sought,  without expecting  to be ever able to find it exact-
  ly.  There are  several methods  for doing  this,  to be
  found in mathematical books, being nothing but infinitely
  converging series, some approaching quicker, others slower
  toward the truth.
   By such an approximation the value of a quantity may
 be found, though  not  to the  utmost degree of exactness,
 yet sufficiently so for practice.   Thus v/2 = 1.41421356,
                                    4     1     4
 Sec. = the  approximating  series  1  -]-----1-----1------j-
    2                             1  10    100   1000
 --------K  &c. or  supposing x = —, equal to the series
  10000                          10
      4     14     2
 1 X —  -1----f — -|----+,  &c. =  x + 4x -1  -f
      X     X*    XB    X*
 x -2 -f- 4x -3 -f- 2x -* -f, &c.
   The most easy and general method of approximation,
 is perhaps  by the rule of  Double  Position, or, what is
 sometimes called, (he  Method of Trial and error;  which
 method  see  under its own name.   And  among all (he
 me(hods for fhe roots of pure powers, of which there are
 many, the best is that which was discovered by  Dr. Hut-
 Ion, and  given in  the first volume of his  Mathematical
 Tract1-, in point of ease, both of execution and for remem-
 bering it.   The method is this : if N denote any number,
 out of which  is to  be extracted  lhe root whose index is
 denoted by  r,  and if n be  the  nearest root first taken:
            r -f I.n -f  r — l.nr
 then  shall--------------------X  n be the required
            r — I.n -f- r -f 1 .nr
 root of N very nearly ; or as r — 1  times fhe given num-
 ber  added  to r + 1  times  the  given number added  to
 r —  1  times  the  nearest  power,  so  is  the assumed
 root 71, fo   lhe required root, very nearly. fc Then this
 last value  of the roof,  so  found, if one  slil nearer is
 wanted, is to be used for n in  the same theorem, to repeat
 fhe operation with it.  And  so on, repeating fhe operation
as often as  necessary.   Which theorem includes all the
rational formula? of Halley and De Lacnv.
             26*                   h "
   For example,  suppose if were required to double the
 cube,  or  to find fhe cube  root of the  number 2.  Here  v
 r =3; consequently  r -f- 1 =4,  and  r—  1  =2;  and
                                      4n 4- 2n3
 therefore  the  general theorem becomes ■ ■ <  >  •   X n or
  2n4->c3                             2n+4iis
 --------  X n for  the  cube root of N; or as  N 4- 2n:'
  n 4- *».3
  : 'is -f n3\'.n : the root sought nearly.  Now, in thh
 case, N = 2, and therefore the nearest  root n is 1, and its
 cube n3 = 1 also: hence  N 4- -n3 =2 + 2=4, and
 2N 4- n3  = 4 4- 1 =  5; therefore,  as 4 :  5::  1 : £ or
                                                   5
 1£ = 1.25 the first approximation.  Again, taking r — —,
           125                          250   378   4
 and r3 =  —; hence  n -f-  2n3 = 2 -}-----=---, and
           64                           64     64
                 125    381
 2n -f- n3 =4-|-----=---; therefore, as 378 : 381, or
                 64      64
              5    635
 as 126 : 127::— : ---=  1.259921, which  is the cube
              4     504                        635
 root  of 2,  true in all the figures.  And by taking---for
                                               504
 a new value of n,  and repeating the process, more figures
 may  be found.
   Approximation, of the roots of equation, by.   £ir
 Isaac Newton's method for approximating roots is this :
 first take a value of lhe root as near as  may be, by trials,
 either greater or less; then assuming another letter to de-
 note  the unknown  difference  between this and  fhe true
 value, substitute info the equation lhe sum  or difference of
 the approximate root and this assumed letter, instead ofthe
 unknown letter or root of the equation,  which will pro-
 duce a new equation having only the assumed small differ-
 ence  for its root or unknown letter; and, by any means,
 find, from this equation,  a near value of this small assumed
 quantify.   Assume fhen another letter for the small differ-
 ence  between this last value  and the true one, and subsli
 tufe the sum or difference of them  into  the last equation,
 by which will arise  a third equation, involving the second
 assumed quantity;  whose near  value is  found  as  before.
 Proceeding thus as far as we please,all the near values,con-
 nected together by their proper  signs,  will form  a series
 approaching still nearer  and nearer lo the true value of the
 root ofthe first or proposed  equation.    The approximate
 values of fhe several small  assumed differences,  may be
 found  in different ways :  sir I. Newton's method  is this •
 as the quantity sought is small, its higher powers decrease
 more  and more, and therefore neglecting  fhem will not lead
 to any material error.  He therefore neglects all the terms
having in them lhe second and higher powers, leaving on-
ly lhe first power and  the  absolute known term ; from
which simple equation he always finds the value of  (he  as-
sumed unknown lei(er nearly,  in a very neat and  easv
manner.
  For example,  let it be required to find  lhe root of the
equation x2 — 5x = 31, or  .r2  — hx  — 31 =0: Here
(he root x,   it is  evident, is nearly ^ 8;  for x therefore
fake 8 + :, and substitute 8  4-  3 for ar in fhe  -iveii e«ur.
lion, and fhe terms will be thus: 
A P P
A Q U
   X3 =   64 4- 16* -f- s2
— fyx = — 40 —  5s
_31 = — 31
          the sum is —  7 + 1 Is + s *  = 0.
Then,  rejecting  s2. it is lis — 7 =0, and s = 77T =
.6363, &c. or =  0 nearly.
Assume now s = .) 4- V '• then
       s* =  .36 4- i-fy+'y"
     lis = 6.6 + 11#
 the sum— .04 + \2.2y + y2 = 0,
               .04
   where # =---= .003278 nearly.
              12 2
Assume i* v = .003278 — v : then
      y*  '= .000010745284 — .006556v 4- v-
   12.2y  =.0399916       — 12.2--v
 — .04   = — 04
the sum  .000002345284 — 12.206556i; + v2 = 0,
            .000002345284
where v —------------= .000000192133.
              12.206556
Hence, then, collecting all  the  assumed differences, with
their signs,  it is found that i = 8-|-s-|-j/-i/=8 +
.6 4- .003278 — .000000192133 = 8.6003277807867 the
root of the equation required, by Newton's method.
   Example  2. Again, taking  the cubic equation ys — 2y
—. 5 = 0; Newton proceeds  thus:
\f is nearly = 2; take it therefoie y = 2 + p ;
     then 1/3=8+  12p + 6pa + p3
      — 2y = — 4 —  2p
      the sura —- 1 + lOp + 6p* + p3  = 0 ;
   hence p = T\ = .1 nearly.
\ssume Up = . 1 4- q;
   then p3 = 0.001 -f 0.03a 4- 0.3a2 + q3
    4. 6p* = 0.06  +1.2   +6
    -f. I0p = 1     +10
    —   1 = — 1
     the sum 0.061 + 11.23a + 6.3</2 + a3 =0;
     hence a = — 0.0054 nearly.
Assume it a = — 0.0054 + r ;
then a3 = —0.000000157464 + 0.00008748r, &c.
+ 6.3a2 = + 0.000183708   — 0.06804r, &c.
+ 11.239 = — 0.060642      + 11.23r
+ 0.061 = +0.061
   the sum + 0.000541550536 + 11.16204748r;
   hence r = — 0.000048517, &c.
 Hence, y =   2 + p + a + r
           =   2 + 0.1 - 0.0054 — 0.000048517
           =   2.094551483,
the root of the  equation y3 — 2y = 5.   And in the same
manner sir I. Newton performs the  approximation for the
roots of literal equations.
  APPUI,  in  the manege, the sense of the action of the
bridle in the horseman's hand.
  APPULSE, in  astronomy, the  approach of a  planet
toward a  conjunction with the sun, or any of tfte trxed
stars.                                     .
  APPURTENANCES,  in  common law, signify tbingi
corporeal and incorporeal that appertain to another thing
as principal; as  hamlets to a manor, and common of pas.
ture and fishery.  Things must agree in nature and quali-
ty to be appurtenant, as a turbary, or  a seat in a  church,
to a house.
  *A PRIORI, a kind of demonstration.
  APRON, in  gunnery, the piece of lead which covers
the touch hole of a cannon.
  APSIS, in astronomy, a term  used indifferently for ci-
ther of the two points of a planet's orbit, where it is at the
greatest or least distance from the sun or earth.  Hence
the line connecting these points is called the line of the
apsides.
  APTENODYTES,  in ornithology, a  genus of birds
that seems to hold the same place in the southern  parts of
the world as the awks do in the northern.   According to
Latham, this is  the genus penguin.  It is seen only in the
temperate and frigid  zones on that side of lhe  equator
which it frequents.  The same is observed of the awk in
opposite latitudes.   See Alca.
  APTERA, in the Linnaean  system of zoology, the
seventh and last order of insects, the distinguishing charac
teristic of which is,  that the insects comprehended in it
have no wings :  such  are the louse, the flea, the  podura,
the monoculus,  the acarus, the spider, the scorpion, and
the crab.
  APTOTE, among grammarians, an indeclinable noun,
or one which has no variation of cases.
  APUS, avis indica, a constellation of the southern hem-
isphere, near the pole, which, according to Bayer's cata-
logue, contains  12 stars: the largest is of the fifth magni-
tude.
  AQUA, water, a term frequently met with in the writ-
ings  of physicians, chymists, &c. for certain medicines or
menstruums, in a liquid  form, distinguished from each oth-
er by peculiar epithets,  as aqua alexileria, aqua aluminosa,
aquafortis, &c.  Though  formerly thought an  element,
pure or distilled water  is  now found to be a compound
body of three parts hydrogen and one of oxygen.  See
Air, Sec.
  Aqjjafortis, nitric acid.   See Chymistry.
  Aqua marina, or Aqua marine, a name by wbicbthe
jewellers call  the  bery  I, on  account of its sea green col-
our.
  Aqua regia, a combination of nitric and muriatic acids.
In the new nomenclature it  is called  nitro muriatic acid;
it is  called aqua regia, as the only acid formerly known to
dissolve gold.
  Aqua secunda, aquafortis  diluted with water,  and em-
ployed in (he ar(s.
  Aqua vital,  answers to the eau de vie of the  French,
usquebaugh of the  Irish,  whisky of the Scotch, and is a
name familiarly applied  fo native distilled spirits.
  AQUEDUCT, in hydraulics and  architecture, a con-
veyance made for carrying water from one place to anoth-
er.   Those  of the ancient Romans  were surprisingly mag-
nificent. ^That which Louis  XIV. built near Mainlenon,
for-carrying the Bucq to Versailles, is perhaps the great-
est now in  the  world: it is seven thousand fathoms lonz>
with  ls7o thousand  five hundred and  sixty  fathoms of 
A Q U
A R  A
elevation, and  contains two hundred and forty-two  ar-
cades.
   AQUARIANS, in church history, an ancient sect of
Christians, who, under pretence of abstinence, made  use
of water inslead of wine in the euchaiisl.
   AQUARIUS,  in  astronomy,  a  constellation, which
makes the eleventh  sign in the zodiac, marked  thus, m.
It consists of forty-five Btars  in  Ptolemy's  catalogue, of
forty in Tycho's,  and in the Britannic catalogue of 108.
   AQUART1A,  in  botany, a genus of  the class and or-
der, tetandria monogynia.  The essential character is, ca-
lyx  bell shaped,  corolla wheel" shaped,  with linear divi-
sions, berry many seeded.  There  is one  species, a na-
tive of South America.
   AQUAT1NTA,  a method  of engraving which very
much resembles drawing in Indian ink.  This process con-
sists in  corroding the copper with  aquafortis, in such a
manner, that an impression from it has the appearance of
a lint laid on the paper.  This is effected by covering the
copper with a substance, which takes a granulated form, so
as to prevent  the  aquafortis from acting where the parti-
cles adhere, and  by  this means  cause it to corrode  the
copper partially,  and in  interstices only.   When  these
particles are extremely minute,  and near to each other,
the  impression from  the plate appears to the naked  eye
like a wash  of  Indian ink.  But when ihey are larger, the
granulation  is more distinct; and as this  may be varied at
pleasure, it  is capable of being  adapted to a  variety of
purposes and subjects.
   The matter  generally used for (his purpose, is compos-
ed of equal parts of asphallum and transparent resin, re-
duced to powder and  sifted  on  the plate, which has been
previously  greased,  through a fine  sieve.   The plate is
.(hen heated so  as (o make the powder adhere, and the ar-
tist scrapes  it  away when a very strong shade is wanted,
and covers those  parts with varnish where he  wishes a
very strong light to appear.  The aquafortis properly di-
luted with water, is then  put on within a fence of wax, as
in common etching for engraving, and by repeated appli-
cations,  covering  the light parls  still with varnish, the ef-
fect is produced.
   AQUEOUS humour, in  anatomy, called also the albu-
gineous matter, is  the front of (he three humours of  the
eye, and fills up the  space between the  cornea and crys-
taline.
   AQU1LA, in astronomy, a  constellation of the north-
ern  hemisphere,  consisting of fifteen stars  in Ptolemy's
catalogue, of seventeen in Tycho's, and of seventy-one in
the Britannic catalogue.
   AQUILARIA, a genus of the class and  order decan-
dria monogynia.   The essential  character  is,  calyx  five
cleft; corolla, none ;  nectarium  pitcher  shaped,  half five
cleft with bifid  clefts; capsula superior,  woody, two cell-
ed, two valved  ; seeds solitary.
   There  is  only one species* a large tree, a native of the
mountains of Malacca and  Cochin  China.   The lignum
aloes, or aloes  wood,  is a resinous malter produced by a
disease in (his tree,  which finally kills  it.   The lignum
aloes is  highly esteemed  in  the east as a  perfume,  and
from lhe  bark of  (his tree is  made the common paper,
which the Cochin  Chinese use for writing.
   AQUILEGIA,  Columbine,  in botany, a genus of  the
nentaiynia order,  belonging to the  polyandria  clas* of
plants; and, in the natural method, ranking under lhe six-
teenth order,  multisiliqua?.   It has no calyx; the petals
are five, with a horn like nectarium inserted between each ;
and there are five  separate capsules.  There are  five
species:
   1. Aquilegia Alpina,  grows  naturally in Yorkshire.
The flowers are much larger than those of the garden co-
lumbine.
  2. Aquilegia Canadensis, or Canada columbine, flowers
almost a month before the other sorts.
   3. Aquilegia Inversa, vor garden  columbine.  Of Ihis
there are great varieties ; the colours are chesnut, blue,
red, and white, and some are finely variegated.
   4. Aquilegia Vulgaris, or wild columbine,  with blue
flowers, is found growing wild in some woods of England.
   5. Aquilegia, viridiflora.
   AQUILICIUM,  or  Aquiliciana, in Roman  antiquity,
saciifices performed  in times of excessije drought, to ob-
tain rain of the gods.
   ARA,  in astronomy, a southern constellation, contain-
ing eight stars.                                           »
   ARABESQUE, or  Moresque, denotes a style  of
painting, or of sculpture, so called from the  Arabians and
Moors, who  employed  certain ornaments for want of hu-
man and animal representations,  which their religion pro-
hibited them from using.
   ARABIC  characters or figures,  are  the  numerical
characters  made use of in all  our arithmetical  computa-
tions.
   Arahic,  gum, the name of  a gum which distills from a
species of mimosa.   It  is very  common  among  us, but
little  is  to  be met  with  genuine;  that is accounted the
best which  is in smaller pieces, and almost of  a white
colour.   It is useful in all kinds of fluxes, particularly ca-
tarrhs.
   ARABICI, a sect of Christians, who held that the
soul both dies  and rises again wilh (he body.
   ARABIS, bas(ard tower mustard: a genus of  the sili-
quose order, belonging to the tetrady namia class of plants ;
and in the natural method ranking under the 39th order,  si-
liquose.  The generic mark consists in 4 nectiferous glands
which lie on the inside of each leaf of the calyx.  There
are 14  species; but none  of them  remarkable for their
beauty or their properties.   Only one of these,  vis.
   Arabis thaliana, or the mouse ear, is a native of Britain.
It grows naturally on sandy ground, or old walls.
   ARACHIS, in botany, a genus of  tbe diadelphia de*
eandria class of plants, the flower of  which is  papiliona-
ceous, and  consists  of  three  petals; and  its fruit is  an
oblong unilocular pod, contracted in the middle.  There
are 2 species chiefly cultivated in Peru, Brazil,  and Caro-
lina, for the  seed, which constitutes  a considerable article
of food for the negroes.   This seed is a kind of  nut, which
is perfected in a most  extraordinary manner ; for as soon
as  the flower falls  off,  the germ thrusts  itself into  the
ground, and  there the pod is formed and  ripened, whence
the popular  name ground mils.
   ARACHNOIDES, in zoology, a  name given to those
echini marini, or sea hedgehogs, which are of a circular
form, but variously indented at the edges.
   Arachnoides, is also a species of Madrepora, found
fossile.   The  stars are very  small, crowded,  and flattened;
rays undulated, short and equal. 
A R  A
A R  A
   Arachnoides,  in anatomy,  an appellation  given to
 several different membranes, in the tunic of the crystal-
 ine humour of the  eye, the  external lamina of the pia
 mater, and one of the coverings of the spinal marrow.
   ARAEOMETER,  an  instrument to measure the gravi-
 ty of liquors,  which  is usually made of a thin glass ball,
 wifh a taper neck,  sealed at the fop, there  being first as
 much mercury put into  it  as will  keep it swimming in an
 erect posture.  The neck is divided into parts, which are
 numbered, lhat so  by lhe  depths of its descent into any
 liquor, its lightness  may be known  by these divisions, for
 that fluid in  which it sinks the  least, must be heaviest, and
 that in which it sinks lowest  is the lightest.  See Hydrom-
 eter.
  ARiEOSTYLE, in architecture,  a term  used by Vi-
 truvius, lo signify the greatest interval which can be made
 between columns, which consists of eight modules or four
diameters.
  ARAIGNEE, in fortification, signifies the  branch, re-
turn,  or gallery ofa mine.
  ARAL>IA, in botany,  a genus of plants with rosaceous
flowers, and succulent berries, containing each a single
oblong, and  hard seed.   It  belongs to the pentandria pen-
 tagynia class of Linmeus.  The essential character is flow-
ers, in an umbellule, with an involucrum; cal. 5 toothed
 superior ;  cor. 5 petalled ;  berry 5 seeded.  There are 9
 species, most  of them shrubs and natives of  China and
 America; some are hardy enough to stand our climate in
 sheltered situations.
   ARAMPO, or Man eater, a name given by fhe negroes
 on the coast of Africa, to a long slender animal,  in shape
 resembling a weasel, with along tail, and large  brush at its
 extremity.  It takes its name from digging up graves and
 devouring human flesh.
   ARANEA concha, the  spider  shell, a name given to
 several kinds of murex.
   Aranea, a genus of apterous insects,  well known by
 fhe common  name of spider.  The mouth is furnished
 with  short horny jaws ;  lip rounded at the apex ; feelers
 two,  incurved, jointed, very acute  at the tip, clubbed with
 the genitalia in the  male; no antennae; the eyes are  eighf,
 or rarely  six; feet  eight, the anus  furnished with papillae,
 or teats for  spinning.   They fix the ends of their threads
 by applying  these nipples  to any  substance, and  the
 thread lengthens in proportion as the animal recedes from
 it.  They can stop the issuing of the threads by contract-
 ing the nipples,  and reascend by means  of the claws on
 their feet, much in  the same manner as sailors warp up a
 rope.
   The darting out of long threads,  which has been observ-
 ed by naturalists, and by means of which some species of
 spiders can  convey themselves to great distances, deserves
 particular notice.  Dr. Lister tells  us, lhat attending close-
 ly to a spider weaving a net, he observed it suddenly to
 desist in the mid work; and turning its tail to the wind, it
 darted out  a thread with the violence and stream we see
 water spout out of a jet: this  thread, taken up  by the
 wind, was immediately carried to some fathoms long ; still
 issuing out of fhe  belly of the animal.   By  and by the
 spider leaped into  the air, and the  thread mounted her up
 swiftly.   After this discovery, he made the like observa-
 tion on near thirty  different species of spiders ; and  found
 the air filled with young and old, sailing on  their threads,
and doubtless seizing gnats and  other insects m their pa*.
sage, there being often manifest signs of slaughter, legs, and
wings of flies, &c. on these threads, as well as in their
webs below.   The matter of which the spider's threadg
are formed, is a viscid juice, elaborated in the body of lhe
animal.   The young no sooner quit their egg than they
begin to spin.  Indeed their threads can scarcely be per-
ceived,  but the webs  may; and no wonder,  there being
often  400  or  500 little  spiders concurring to the same
work.   There are some kinds of spiders so small at their
birth, that they are not visible without a microscope. There
are usually found an infinity of these in a cluster, and
they only appear like a  number of red points: and jet
there are webs found under them,  fhough almost imper-
ceptible.   What must be  the  tenuity of one of these
threads ? Mr. Lewenhock has computed that 100 of the
single threads of a full grown spider are not  equal to the
diameter of the hair of his beard; and consequently, if
the threads and hair are both round, ten thousand  such
threads are not'bigger than  such a hair.
  •Garden spiders, Plate  X. Nat. Hist. fig. 30. particular-
ly the  short  legged  species,  yield  silk which has been
judged  scarcely  inferior to  that of the silkworm.   Mr.
Bon of Languedoc, about 70 years  ago, contrived fo man-
ufacture from it a pair of silk stockings and mittens, ofa
beautiful natural gray colour, which were almost as hand-
some and strong as those made with common silk; and he
published a dissertation  concerning the  discovery.  But
M. Reaumur, being appointed by the Royal Academy to
make a further inquiry into  this new silk work, raised sev-
eral objections and  difficulties against it.   The sum of
which amounts to this.   The natural fierceness of the spi-
der renders them unfit to be bred and kept together* Four
or five thousand being distributed  into cells, 50 in some,
100 or 200 in others, the big ones  soon kill and eat the
less, so that in a short time there were scarcely left one or
two in each cell;  and to this inclination of mutually eating
one another M. Reaumur ascribes the scarcity of spiders,
considering the vast numbers of eggs fhey lay.  But he af-
firms, that  the silk of the spider is not one  fifth of the
strength of that ofthe silkworm.   Add to  this, that the
spider's thread cannot be  wound  off as that of the silk
worm may, but must of necessity  be  carded;  by which
means being torn in pieces, its evenness which contributes
much to the lustre, is destroyed.   Again, spiders furnish
much less silk than the  worms: fhe work of 12 spiders
only equals  that  of one silkworm;  and a pound of silk
will require at least 27,640 spiders.
   The species of aranea enumerated by  naturalists amount
to upward  of 50 ; of which it may here suffice to mention
a few of the most remarkable.
   1. Aranea  aquatica, or fhe water spider, frequents the
fresh waters of Europe.   But it is in some sort amphibi-
ous : for it can live  on land as  well as in the wafer, and
comes often on shore for its food; yet it  swims well io
water, both on its belly and back : it is distinguishable by
its brightness.  In  the  water its belly appears covered
with a silver  varnish, which is only a bubble of air attach-
ed to the abdomen by means of oily humours which trans-
pire from its body, and prevent the immediate  contact of
the water.   This bubble of air is  made the substance of
its dwelling,  which it constructs under wafer : for it  fives
several  threads of silk, or such  fine matter,  to  the stalk* 
A R  A
A R  B
of plants in the water; and then ascending to the surface,
thrusts the binder pari of its body above water, drawing
it back again with such  rapidity, that it attaches under-
neath a bubble of air, which it has the art of detaining
under water, by  placing it underneath the  threads, and
which it  binds like a covering almost all around  (he air
bubble.  Then il ascends again for  another air bubble ;
and thus proceeds until  it has constructed a large aerial
apartment  under water, which it  enlers into  or quits  at
pleasure.   Il  lodges during winter in empty shells, which
it dexterously shuts  up with a web.
   2. Aranea Avicularia, is a native of America, and feeds
upon small birds, insects, &c.   The bite of this  spider is
accounted as venomous as that of the serpent.
   3. Aranea  calycina, lives  in the cups of flowers, after
the flower leaves have fallen off; and  catches bees, and
olher flies, when they are in search of honey.
   4. Aranea Cucurbitina has a globular yellow  belly, wilh
a few black spots.  It lives in the leaves of trees, and en-
closes its eggs in  a soft net.
   5. Aranea  Diadema is the  largest spider which this
country produces.    The abdomen  is of  an  oval  form,
downy, and ofa ruddy yellow  colour.  The upper part is
beautifully adorned wilh black and white circles and dots,
having a longitudinal band in the middle, composed of ob-
long and oval shaped pearl coloured spots, so arranged  as
to resemble a fillet,  similar  to those worn by  the eastern
kings.   The legs are ofa fine pale green colour  ; annulated
with dark purple  or black.   It inhabits the birch,tree.
   6. Aranea Fasciata, wilh yellow bands round the belly,-
and  dusky  rings on the legs, is a native of Barbary, and
is as large as the thumb.  It inhabits hedges and thickets :
its webs have  large   meshes, and it resides in  the centre.
Twelve of these spiders, by way of experiment, were shut
up together ;  and, after a battle of eight days,  the strong-
est only remained alive.
   7. Aranea  Fimbriata, has a black oblong belly, with a
white line on each side, and dusky coloured  legs.  It lives
in  water,upon the surface of which it runs with great swift-
ness.
   8. Aranea Holosericea, has an oval belly covered wifh a
down, like velvet; at  the base, or under part, it has two
yellow spots.   It is found in the folded leaves of plants.
   9. Aranea  Labyrinthica, wilh a dusky  oval belly, a
whitish  indented line, and a forked  anus.  The web  of
this species is horizontal, with a cylindrical well or lube
in  the middle.
   10. Aranea Ocellaf a, has three pair of eyes on its thighs.
It  is about the same size with the tarantula, of a pale colour,
with a black ring round  the  belly, and two large  black
spots on the sides of the  breast.   It is a native of China.
   11. Aranea Saccafa, lives  in the ground, and carries a
sack wilh  its t^gs, wherever it goes.  This sack it  glues
lo  its belly, and will rather die than leave it behind.
   12. (1) Aranea Tarantula has the  breast  and belly  of
an ash  colour; fhe legs  are likewise  ash coloured, with
blackish rings on the  under pari; two of its eyes are larg-
er  than the other, red, and placed in the front; four  olher
eyes are placed in a transverse direction toward  the mouth.
It  is a native of Italy, Cyprus, Barbary, and the East In-
dies.  It lives in  bare  fields, where the lands  are fallow,
Luit not very hard.  Its dwelling is about four inches deep,
and half an  inch wide; at the  bottom it is curved, and
there the insect sits in wet weather, and cuts its way out
if water gains upon it.   It weaves a nest at the mouth ot
the hole.  These  spiders do  not live quite a  year.   In
July  they shed  their skin.   They by about  730 eggs,
which are hatched in the spring;  but  the parent does not
live to see her progeny, as she expires early in the winter.
The ichneumon fly is Iheir greatest enemy.
  The bite of the tarantula is said to occasion  an  inflam-
mation in the part, which in  a few hours brings on sick-
ness,  difficulty of breathing, and  universal fainfness ; lhe
same  symptoms return annually, in some cases, for several
years ; and at last terminate in death.   Music, it has been
pretended, is the only cure.   Such are the circumstances
that have been generally related, and long credited, con-
cerning the bite of this  animal.   But  it is now generally
agreed, that no such effects attend this bite; and lhat the
exhibitions of dancing to music by persons pretending to
be so affected, are only  villanous  deceptions to excite the
compassion  and extract the  money  of the spectators.
Plate X. Nat. Hist. fig. 31.
   13. Aranea Viatica, or wanderer, is generally ofa yel-
low colour, more or less deep. It  is  found upon plants;
and is a lively, active, indefatigable hunter.  Without any
motion of the head, which is furnished wilh immoveable
eyes, it perceives all the flies that hover round about, does
not scare (hem, but stretches over  Ihem its arms, furnished
with  feathers, which prove nets in which their  wings en-
tangle.  It is said to sit on its eggs ;  which,  however, it
often  carries  about wifh it, wrapped up in a ball of white
silk.
  Aranea, in mineralogy, a silver ore found only in the
mines of Potosi.  It owes its name  to tbe faint resemblance
it bears to a  cobweb, being composed of threads of pure
silver, which to the sight  appear  like silver lace, when
burnt to separate the silk from it.
  ARBITER, in civil law,  a judge nominated  by lhe
magistrate, or chosen voluntarily  by two parties, in order
to decide their differences according to law.
  The civilians  make this difference between arbiter and
arbitrator : though both ground their  power on the com-
promise of the parties, yet their liberty is different; for
an arbiter is to judge according to the usages of the law,
but the arbitrator is permitted to use  his own discretion,
and accommodate  the  difference  in the manner that ap-
pears to him most just and equitable.
  ARBITRATION, a power given by two or  more con-
tending parties,  to some person  or persons to  determine
the dispute between them.  Matters relating to a freehold,
debts due on bond, and criminal offences, are not (o  be
arbitrated.  If the party injured  by  a criminal act, how-
ever, proceeds by way of civil  action, as in assault or libel,
&c. the damages may be submitted to arbitration :  also in
case ofa breach  of promise of  marriage. The submission
(o arbitration given by the parlies must be an agreement
or bond upon a stamp, and must not be construed strictly
but largely according to the intent of lhe parties  submit-
ted.  It  commonly contains a clause to protect the arbi-
trators from any suit in equity  that  might  be brought
against them, in consequence of their award ; also one fo
enable Ihem in case they cannot  agree, to call in a third
arbitrator, by mutual agreement,  who  is called an umpire.
An action of debt may he brought for money adjudged to
be paid by arbitrator. 
ARC
ARC
       ARBOR, ia mechanics, the principal part ofa machine
    which serves to sustain fhe rest; also the axis or spindle
    on which a machiue turns, as the arbor of a crane, wind-
    mill, Sic.
      ARFORIBONZES, wandering priests of  Japan,  who
    subsist on alms.  They dwell in caverns, and cover their
    heads wifh bonnets made ofthe bark of trees.
      ARBUTUS, the strawberry tree, in botany, a genus of
    plants with a one  leafed bell fashioned flower, and a ber-
    ry or fruit resembling a large strawberry.  See  plate.
      The strawberry tree belongs to the decandria monogy-
    nia class  of Linnaeus.  The essential character is, calyx
    five parted ; corolla, ovate, diaphonous at the base; cap-
    sule five celled.  There are ten species of this  beautiful
    shrub, all of them tolerably hardy, -but  they will not bear
    fruit, except when they are sheltered from the cold winds.
    The fruit is eatable.
      ARC, in geometry, any part of fhe circumference of a
    circle, or curved line, lying from one point to  another,  by
    which the  quantity of the  whole  circle or line, or some
    other thing sought after, may be gathered.
      Arch of a Circle, the length of an arch may be found
    by this rule: as 180° is to the number  of degrees in  the
    arc, so is 3.1416 times the radius to the length :  for when
/   radius is 1 half, the circumference is 3.14159, &c. there-
         3.14159
    fore, ■-■■-, Sec. = .01745329, &c. = the length of an
           180
    arch of 1 degree.  Hence r X .01745,  &c. = the length
    of 1* to tbe radius r ; and therefore r  X  0.1745,  &c. X
    the number  of  degrees in  any arc =  the length  of that
    arch.
      The length of circular arches may be found in the fol-
    lowing manner :
      The radius ofa circle being 1 ; and of any  arc a, if the
    tangent be /, the sine s, the co-sine  c, and  the  versed sine
    v:  then the arc a will be truly expressed by several series,
    as follow, viz. the arc
          a = t — \t3+\t*—y  X\t> Sec.
                s        s3     s5        s7
          «='----^. —+-*.----}._&c.
               6        cs     es        c?
                    1         1.3        1.3.5
          « = s + — ss +  ----s*-f ------*' &c.
                   2.3      2.4.5      2.4.6.7
                             1   v     1.3    v2
          O = y/2v  X  (1 -f --.----f- ---- .---f-
                            2.3  2    2.4.5 22
                     1.3.5   v3
                    •-----. — &c.
                   2.4.6.7  23
               3.14159, &c.
         a = -----------d = .01745329, &c.  xd; where
                   180
   d denotes the number of degrees in the given arc.  Also,
       8c-— c
   « =------nearly ; where c is the chord  ofthe  arc, and
         3
   c the chord of half the arc ;  whatever the radius is.
     To investigate the length of the arc of any curve.  Put
   x = the absciss, y = the ordinate, of the  arc x, of any

   curve  whatever.   Put s — y"  x2 -f.  y* ;   then,  bv
 means of the equation of the curve, find tbe value of* jn
 terms of y, or of y in terms of x,  and  substitute that

 value instead of it in the above expression s = y/x2 +y*.
 hence, taking the fluents,  they will give the length of (he
 arc s, in terms of x or y.  See Fluxions.
   Arch of equilibration, is that which is in equilibrium in
 all its parts, having no tendency to break in one part more
 than  in another, and which is therefore safer and stronger
 than  any other figure.   Every particular  figure of the
 extrados, or upper side of the wall above an arch, requires
 a  peculiar  curve for the under side  ofthe arch itself, to
 form  an arch of equilibration, so that the incumbent pres-
 sure on every part may be proportional to  the strength or
 resistance there. When the arch is equally thick through-
 out, a case that  can  hardly ever happen,  then  the  cate-
 narian curve is the arch of equilibration; but in no other
 case ; and therefore it is a great mistake in some  authors
 to suppose that this curve is  the best figure tor arches in
all cases; when in  reality it  is  commonly the worst.
This  subject is fully treated in Dr. Hulton's Principlesof
Bridges, prob. 5, where the proper intrados is investigated
for every extrados, so as to form an  arch of equilibration
in  all cases whatever.  It there appears that when the
upper side of the wall is a straight horizontal line, as in the
figure, Plate XIV. fig. 3. the equation of the curve is thus
expressed,

                           a -u x -f- \/ ±ax -f- xx
                     log. of--------------------
                                     a
           y = h X--------------------------
                             a -f- r ■+- v1 2ar + rr
                      log. of----------:--------

where x = DP, y  = PC, r = DQ, h = AQ, and a =
DK.  And hence,  when a, h, r, are any given numbers,a
table  is  formed for the corresponding values of a; and y, by
which the curve is constructed for any particular occasion.
Thus, supposing a  or DK = 6, h or AQ, = 50, and r or
DQ, =  40;  then the corresponding values of KI and IC,
or horizontal and vertical lines, will be as in this table.

   Table for constructing the curve of Equilibration.
Value	Value	Value	Value	Value	j Value
of KI	oflC.	of KI.	oflC.	ofKI. 36	oflC.
0	6.000	21	10.381		21.774
2	6.035	22	10.858	37	22.948
4	6.144 1	23	11.368	38	24.190
6	6.324	24	11.911	39	25.505
8	6.580 j	25	12.489	40	26.894
'0	6.914 '	26	13.106	41	28.364
12	7.330 |	27	13.761	42	29.919
13	7.571 ;	28	14.457	43	31.563
14	7.834 '	29	15.196	44	33.299
15	8120 *	30	15.980	45	35.135
16	8430	31	16.8 1 1	46	37.075
17	8.766	32	17.693	47	39.126
18	9.168 ;	33	18.627	48	41.293
19	9-517 :	34	19.617	49	43.581
20	9.934	35	20.665	50	46.000
 
ARC
ARC
   Ancs,  similar.  If the arc of one  curve contains the
 same  number of degrees as the arc of another; or if lhe
 radius of  one curve is to the radius of another, as lhe arc
 of ono curve  is to  its corresponding one, then these two
 arcs are similar.
   Arcs, equal, those  which contain  lhe same number of
 degrees, and whose radii are equal.
   Arc,  diurnal, that part  of a circle  described by  a
 heavenly  body, between its rising and setting ; as the noc-
 turnal arch is that described between its setting and rising ;
 both these together are always equal.
   Arc of progression or direction, an arch of the zodiac,
 which a planet seems  to pass over, when its motion is ac-
 cording to the sit^ns.
   Arc of retrogradalion, an arch ofthe zodiac, described
 by a  planet,  while it  is retrograde, or moves contrary to
 the order of the signs.
   ARC A, in conchology, a genus of bivalves, (he animal of
 which i» supposed  to  be a  telhys : the valves are equal;
 and the hinge beset with numerous  sharp teeth, inserted
 between each other.   The species are  divided into two
 sections;  the first has an entire margin, and in the other
 the margin is crenulated.
   ARCADE, in architecture, is used to denote any open-
 ing in the wall of a building forming an arch.
   ARCH,  in architecture, a concave  building, with a
 mould bent in form of a curve, erected  to support  some
 structure.  See  Architecture.
   ARCHBUTLER, one  of the great  officers  of the
 German empire, who  presents lhe cup  to lhe emperor, on
 solemn occasions.   This  office belongs  to  the  king of
 Bohemia.
   ARCHCHAMBERLAIN,  an  officer of  lhe  empire,
 much the same with  the great chamberlain  in England.
 The elector of Brandenburgh was appointed,  by the gold-
 en bull, archchamberlain of the empire.
   ARCHCHANCELLOR, an high officer,  who, in an-
 cient  times,  presided  over the secretaries of the court.
 Under the two first races of the  kings of Fiance, when
 their   territories  were  divided info Germany, Italy,  and
 Aries, there  were three  archchancellors  ; and hence the
 three archchancellors still subsisting in Germany, fhe arch-
 bishop  of 31enfz being  archchancellor of Germany, fhe
 archbishop of Cologn of Italy, and  the  archbishop of
 Treves of Aries.
   ARCHDEACON,  an  ecclesiastical, dignitary or offi-
 cer, next  to a bishop,  whose jurisdiction  extends either
 over (he  whole diocese, or  only a part of it.  There are
 sixty  archdeacons in England.
   ARCHDUKE, a title given fo dukes of greater author-
 ity and power than other dukes.
   ARCHED legs, a fault in a horse, when his knees are
 bent prchwise.
   ARCHER, in the ancient  military art,  one who fought
 wifh bows and arrows.
   The English archers were esteemed the best in Europe,
 to whose prowess and dexterity the many victories  over
 the French were in a great  measure owing.
   ARCHERY, the art of shooting with a  bow and arrow.
This  art either as an  instrument in war or an object of
amusement, may  be traced in the history of almost every
country.   Our own was in  its earliest periods highly cel-
ebrated for its skill in  archery ; and  it appears that the
   vol. i.           27
 English monarchs took great pains to encourage the exer-
 cise oi fhe lonii bow.  Edward  III.  ordered a complaint
 lo be lodged against tbe sheriff of London, for permitting
 other useless games to be pursued,  when the leisure  time
 of his people upon holidays ought to be spent in the rec-
 reation-! ol archery.  In the reign of Ed. IV. an act was
 made that  every Englishman should have a bow of his
 ow n height to be made of yew, hazel, ash, &c. and mounds
 of earth were ordered to be made in e\ery township, and
 the inhabitants  to practise  archery, under certain penal-
 lies.  During the reigns  of  Henry VII. and VIII. arche-
 ry was also  encouraged ; in the  third of Henry VIII. a
 statute was  made commanding every father to provide a
 bow  and two  arrows  for his  son,  when he was seven
 years old.  By the founder of Harrow school, shooting
 with bow  and arrow was insisted upon as a fundamental
 part of the regulations.
  ARCHES, or Court of Arches, the supreme court be-
 longing to (he archbishop of Canterbury, to which appeal?
 lie from all (he  inferior courts within his province.
  ARCHIL, a moss of a gray colour, which grows on the
 rocks in many paffs of the Archipelago, and on the west-
 ern  coast of England.   It yields a  purple tincture,  fugi-
 tive indeed, but very beautiful, which is the best chymical
 tesf  for aciJs and alkalies,  and  is known  by the name of
 tincture of litmus.   By   the addition of tin it is rendered
 durable as a dye, and it   then approaches lo scarlet.  Ar-
 chil  is however most commonly used  to give a bloom to
 pinks and other colours.   It readily  gives out its  col-
 ouring ma((er to water or any spirit.
  ARCH1LOCHIAN,  a term in poetry applied to a sort
 of verses, of which Archilochus was the inventor, consist-
 ing of seven feet, the four first  whereof are ordinarily  dac-
 tyls, (hough sometimes spondees, the three last trochees:
 as in Horace,
          Solvitur acris hyems, grata vice veris et Favoni.

  ARCHITECT, Ap^»TgicT«w, of aCpxps chief, and tsjctwu,
 an artificer or builder, a   professor of the art of building.
 The architect's  business and his glory, is the designing of
 a work, and his  genius is  displayed, as well in the general
 symmetry, ornaments, and magnificence of his plan, as in
 the  useful arrangement of ils internal distribution.
  The necessary qualifications of a  great and perfect ar-
 chitect, are numerous and hard of attainment.  He should
 be profoundly skilled in  the knowledge of the properties
 of the materials he employs, the  strength and durability
 of them,   the method of  connecting  Ihem  together in the
 nearest direction to that  in  which they can be employed
 wilh their full strength ;  and this implies geometrical  skill
 as well as physical  knowledge.
  He should be skilled in perspective ; and it is necessary
 that he should be a quick and correct, though he may not
attain to be a fine, draftsman.   Some of lhe lime employ-
ed by young architects  in practising this art,  would be
 much more usefully spent in acquiring a general knowledge
of natural philosophy.
  He should have a full  knowledge of tbe  various prac-
 tised  modes of  combining together  the materials of his
 building ;  to guide  his mathematical reasoning, on the va-
riety of new combinations his own practice may acquire:
 he should not merely design his roof, and trust to the car-
penter for the judicious execution; nor  plan  the figure of 
ARCHITECTURE.
 his stair, and let the  mason find out the safe means of  sus-
 taining iis weight, with regular and proportionate solidity.
   In our climafe, he should perfectly understand the  best
 means of  generating, distributing, and retaining warmth in
 his buildini, and plan his apartments with this material ob-
ject in view.   He should be able to> direct the  unscientific
mere manufacturer, of grates and  contrivances to contain
the necessary fuel for this purpose.  He should  never
build an imperfect chimney to infest  his house with smoke
in the apartments, and counteract the tendency of the  fire,
fo carry it off into  the atmosphere.  In warmer regions
his *kill must be  displayed in arranging the facilities for
cooling his apartments.
   He should have a perfect knowledge of tbe proportions
of the beautiful models of antiquity, and genius to animate
and direct him in fhe application of his acquirements.
   Vitruvius, Palladio, Vignola, Inigo Jones,  de Lorme,
sir  Christopher Wren, fhe earl of  Burlington,  and  sir
William Chambers, were very celebrated architects.
   ARCHITECTURE, the art of building, or a science
which  teaches how lo erect buildings,  either for habita-
tion or defence.   Tne origin of this noble science may be
traced  in fhe  Indian's huf and  the  Greenlander's  cave;
they show the rude beginning from which if has grown to
its present perfection and magnificence.   It  is an art of the
first necessity, and almost coeval with the human species.
Man, from seeking shade and  shelter under the trees of
the  forest, soon felt  (he necessity and saw the  utility of
 bending them to more commodious  forms  than  those in
 which  he  found (hem disposed by  nature.  To huts made
 of trees and branches leaning together at lop, and forming
 a conical figure plastered with  mud, succeeded more con-
 venient, square, roofed  habitations.   The  sides of these
 habitations, and the  inner supports for the  crossbeams of
 the roofs, being trunks of  trees ; from them were derived
 those beautiful, symmetrical columns, the Orders of Archi-
 tecture.
   Though the art of building was cultivated  by (he an-
 cien( Egyptians,  Assyrians, and Persians, wi(h great suc-
 cess in the production of such gigantic  structures as  fhe
 pyramids of Egypt which exist lo this day, and the Laby-
 rinth seen by Herodotus,  wilh  other works of extraordi-
 nary and  vast magnificence; yet we  owe to  fhe Greeks
 the first structures, in which elegance and symmetry were
 combined with comfort and convenience  in  the plan.
   The established five orders of arcbitec(ure, (he Tuscan,
 the Doric, (he Ionic, (he Corinthian, and the Composite,
 were brought to perfection under the Greeks and Romans.
 Modern efforts have added litde or nothing (o (be beauty
 and symmetry of these columns, and the parts dependent
 on them ; but much has been done  in the internal improve-
 ment of mansions and bouses.
   Roman and Grecian architecture, which teaches  the
 proportions and arrangement of the orders invented  by
 them, being called ancient; modern, or practical archi-
 tecture, will chiefly  relate to the art of distributing tbe
 apartments with more attention to domestic economy, con-
 venience, and comfort.  And if we have not  surpassed
 the taste of (he ancients, in external design and ornament,
 nor equalled (hem in (he  durability  and vast  extent of
their buildings, (he ruins of which astonish us at this day ;
yet doubtless the  natural and first purposes of the art are
 more completely answered, and the people in general are
 more comfortably lodged.
   A practice of raising up houses of a too expensive and
 heavy solidity, is unfavourable to the general improvement
 ofthe art  in respect of domesdc economy  and conveni'.
 ence.   Accordingly the facility of procuring stone, and
 the want of brick earth, has produced in the capital of
 France, houses of  enormous  strength, and  the buildings
 last too long; while the slighter ones of London are more
 easily susceptible of the changes necessarily introduced
 by improvements in the arts, and  inventions for promof-
 ing domestic economy  and comfort.   The speculations of
 needy or avaricious builders, however, lead us into tbe op.
 posite extreme but too often, and  buildings are erected
 which very soon  after  they  are finished require essen-
 tial repairs to keep them up during the terms  of the leases.
   Besides ancient and modern architecture, a third style
 of building may be traced from the same  source with fhe
 former.  Amongst  the northern nations of  Europe origi-
 nated the style called Gothic ;  which after the destruc-
 tion of (he Roman empire by these people, (hey introduc-
 ed in Europe to the exclusion of the Greek and Roman
 manner  of architecture.  Like  (he  ancien( Egyptians,
 they sometimes seem to have been more studious to aston-
 ish the eye with great  and  vast  masses of stone, than to
 please by symmetry of design, or beauty  of ornament.
   But  there  are  (wo  species  of  Gothic; (he Saxon,
 heavy, plain, and robust, like the Tuscan;- the other, like
 Corinthian or Composite architecture,light,.airy, and orna-
 mental, received ils finish from the hand of lhe Normans,
 and was by ihem  introduced info this country.
   A grove of tall trees,  meeting at top wifh   interweaved,
 branches, is  fhe natural and beautiful model from which
 the aisle of (he Norman Gothic cathedral is  derived.
   A mistaken prejudice  has  prevented the  due study of
 this style of building,  though the most exquisite remains
 of if adorn our  island; in the  structures of which, much
 mathematical and geometrical  skill may be observed: and
 we cannot help observing with bishop Warburton, that
 "our Gothic ancestors  had jusfer and manlier  notions of
 magnificence on Grecian and Roman ideas, than those en-
 emies of laste,  who profess to  study only  classic ele-
 gance."
   Sir William Chambers remarks,  " that to  those usually
 called Gothic architects we are indebted for  the first con-
siderable  improvements in construction;"  "that there is
 a lightness  in their works, an  art and  boldness  of execu-
 tion, to which tbe ancients never arrived, and which the
 moderns comprehend  and imitate with difficulty."  But
 to (his manner of  building,  modern  improved distribution
 is not easily adapted; though  it seems peculiarly proper
 for religious edifices.

               OF  THE FIVE ORDERS.
                  The Tuscan Order.
   Although there are no ancient remains of  it,  this order
is generally  placed first on account of its  plainness ; and
 Vitruvius only mentions in an indistinct manner the gener-
al  proportions of it.  The Trajan and Antonine columns
at Rome are commonly called of  the  Tuscan  order,
though they have eight diameters for their  height, and the 
ARCHITECTURE.
 torus and capitals do not exhibit Tuscan plainness.   It is
 highly probable (he Tuscan is only a simplification of the
 Doric, of which there are so many very ancient remains ;
 but to Tuscany  it evidently owes its name, from  being
 employed there, in several large edifices.
    Its proportions are, fourteen modules or seven diame-
 ters for the  height of (he column ;  (hree modules  and a
 half for (he whole entablature, which being divided info
 ten equal parts, three are for the height of the  architrave,
 three for (he  frize,  and  four for (he cornice:  (he capital
 is  in  height one module.  The base, including, as  is  pecu-
 liar to the measurement of this order, the lower cincture
 of the shaft, is one module; and the shaft with its upper
 cincture and astragal is twelve modules.   For interior use
 the height of the column may be fourteen  modules  and a
 half, or fifteen  modules,  and the increase may be in the
 column only.  It is customary to diminish this order one
 quarter, but the  diminution of one  eighth or sixth would
 better accord with its character of strength.

                    The Doric Order.
    Of fhe Doric Order, the very ancient remains exhibit
 proportions  so  dissimilar to the practice of latter times,
 that  they must have been produced before experience had
 matured the rules of art.   In several parts of the  ruins of
 Athens, these columns are seen of a height not exceeding
 four  diameters, and  four and a half.  Strength was more
 regarded than elegance of design in these low proportions.
 Columns of near six diameters may  be  found in the (em-
 ples of Minerva and Theseus, at the same place;  and the
 columns of (he more ancient temple of  Apollo, a( Delos,
 have five diameters, and are fluted in (he neck, and on (he
 foot.   There are columns of  upward of six diameters in
 height found in other buildings at Athens; and the temple
 of Hercules at Cora,  has columns of eighi diameters and
 three quarters,  and  they are on bases,  uhich the others
 are not.
   Vilruvius, allowing if to be the most ancient order, as-
 cribes its origin lo Doius, who built a temple lo Juno, in
 the ancienl city of Argo«.  But afterward, Ion, who built
 a temple  fo Apollo in Am'*, fixed the proportions of this
 order; and being guided by the  example of nature in the
 structure of man,  gave six times  the length of the  foot, or
 diamelerof its base, for the behihf.
   The practice of lhe moderns allows eight diameters, with
 a base ;  an addition to the ancient plan of this column, no
 less useful than elegant.  Some of the   most ancient col-
 umns of (his order  are  fluted, and  some squared off, or
 wrought with pans instead of hollows.  The cracks, or di-
 visions, in the bark of lhe trees originally employed for
 pillars, very naturally  suggested fluting when any  orna-
 ment  was desired.
  The place and form of the triglyph, an ornament pecu-
 liar lo (his order, are  bolh evidently derived from the ends
 of projecting joints,  laid from fhe inner fo lhe outer  walls
 of buildings.  When as much of the limber as appeared
 unhandsome was cut  off, tablets like fhe triglyphs now in
 use were  fastened on  the  sawed ends,  and produced a
pleasing effect.   The triglyphs, interjoists, and  metope, in
 Doric work,  had their origin  from tbe disposition of the
timbers in fhe roof; afterward, in other works, some made
the rafters that were  perpendicular over the triglyphs to
project outward, and carved their projecture; hence as the
 triglyphs arose from  the  disposition of lhe joists, so the
 mulules under the corona were derived from the projec-
 tuie of the rafters ; wherefore  in  stone or marble  struc-
 tures, the mutules  are represented  declining in imitation
 ofthe rafters; and also on account of (he droppings from
 (he eaves, it is proper  ihey should have such  declination.
 This also explains the situation and form of the gultae or
 drops.   The ornaments on (he me(ope, or  space between
 the  trig'yphs, may have  been originally trophies of  the
 deity, or implements of sacrifice placed there : the bull's
 skull is peculiar to the Doric order.
   According to the modern  proportions of this order, let
 tbe height of  the column,  including its capital and base,
 be sixteen modules, the height of the entablature four mod-
 ules, which being divided into eight parts, two are for  the
 architrave, three  for the frize,  and three for the cornice :
 tbe base will be one  module in height, the capital  thirty-
 two minutes, or a little more.

                   The Ionic Order.
   To the before mentioned Ion, is ascribed by Vitruvius,
 the  origin of this more  delicate  or  feminine order; of
 which the volutes of the capital, ornamented with festoons,
 are like locks  of hair decorated with flowers.   Succeeding
 architects much approving the taste and ingenuity of  this
 design, allowed eight  diameters and a half to the  order.
 The celebrated Hermogenes, when building the temple of
 Baechus at Teos,  rejected lhe Doric after all the marbles
 were cut, and  adop(ed  (he Ionic  ins(ead.  And  indeed  (he
 difficulties of adjusting the mutules, metope, and triglyphs,
 wifh propriety in  Doric structures, and the massive  ap-
 pearance of the order,  caused a frequent preference  of the
 Ionic.  Denfeles belong to (he Ionic  cornice : (hey rep-
 resent the assers, or smaller rafters, supporting (he tiles.
   On (he antique Ionics, (he volutes are generally placed
 parallel, and to Michael Angelo  is attributed, as a new in-
 ven(ion, (he executing  them on an  angular plan,  though
 some ancienl  examples of this manner may be seen.   It
 has been attempted fo prove, that the  accidental pleasing
 forms of convolution in shells,  gave the first idea of  the
 Ionic volute.
   Eighteen modules are given, as a modern proportion  for
 the  height of (he  column of (his order; and for the  en-
 tablature, four  modules, or four and a half, which  is  less
 than the antique Ionics.  The  capital is twenty-one min-
 utes,  and fhe base thirty minutes  in  height; the shaft
 may be plain, or fluted  with twenty or twenty-four flufings,
 whose plan should be a trifle more  than a semicircle,  and
 the breadth of the  fillet between them should not be more
 than  one third of (he flute.  The  ornaments of the capi-
 tal are to correspond  wi(h the  flufings of the shaft,  and
 there must be an ove  above  the  middle of each  fluting.
The entablature being  divided into fen equal parts, three
 are for (he architrave, (hree for the frize, and four  for lhe
 cornice.   In interior work, where delicacy is required, (he
 height of the entablature  may be reduced  to one  fifth of
 the height of the column.

                The Corinthian Order.
  The Corinthian  order has arisen out of the two former
and has nothing but the capital peculiar to itself; of which
the origin, from the leaves of a  root of acanthus springing
round a basket, and curling  in the manner of a  volute 
ARCHITECTURE.
against a tile which covered it, which answers to the aba-
cus  is recorded by Vitruvius.   This pleasing accidental
combination, was copied by  Callitaachus ;  who saw if, and
was struck  wi(h (he elegance and novelty of (he effect.
The other members placed  on (he Corinthian pillar, are
common fo the Doric and  Ionic orders.
  The many examples existing  amongst the fragments of
antiquity, evince (he great prevalence of the Corinthian
order,  amongst the ancients:  but  the Romans annihilated
every vestige of it in Corinth, where it had its origin, in
their barbarous destruction of  that rival city.
  The moderns have adopted  these proportions:  tbe col-
umns are twenty modules in height; the entablature, five
modules;  (he base one module, and may be either attic or
Corinthian.   The capital  has  seven(y minutes in height  ;
the proportion of the members  in the entablature, is tbe
same as in  (he Tuscan and Ionic orders.   If (he entabla-
ture  is enriched,  the shaf( of  (he  column  may be fluted,
and the flufings m*y  be fitted to one third part of (heir
height with  cabling ; and in  very rich decorations, (he
cabling may  be composed of  reeds, husks, ribands, flow-
ers, &c.
  The capital is enriched with olive leaves,  as are almost
all the antiques of  this order at Rome ;Tfhe acanthus be-
ing seldom employed, but in the composite.   The entab-
lature  may  be reduced to  two  ninths or  one fifth of the
height of the  column: in which case it is  best to use the
Ionic entablature, or reduce the  denteles of the cornice.

                 The Composite Order.
   In a successful attempt at pleasing variety and novelty,
the Romans produced the composite order, by combining
the proportions and enrichments of the Corinthian, with
the angular volute of the  Ionic.
   The omission of the upper row of leaves in the capital,
and  the addition of the Ionic volute, give it a bolder as-
pect than  (he Corinthian:  uniting elegance  and a very
pleasing projection.   In  the  triumphal arches of Rome,
erected  at  the very height of its splendour, it was used
with a happy effect, as well as in many other examples in
 that city.
   The height of the column is twenty modules, according
 to modern proportions;  that of the entablature five mod-
 ules ;  the capital  has seventy minutes in height.  The
 base measures fhe  same as in the Doric and  Ionic orders;
and as the module  is less all its parts will be more delicate.
The shaft  may be enriched  with twenty or twenty-four
fiutings, and (he  principal  members of  the entablature
may have  the same proportions as  in the two former or-
 ders.
   If we class fhe orders of  architecture according to (heir
 destination, we shall limit (hem to three : the first  class, in-
 cluding the Tuscan and Doric, for supporting plain and mas-
 sy buildings ; one for buildings of a more elegant and light
 form,  and one between these two.  The Ionic and lhe Co-
 rinthian,  with their varieties, will compose the last classes.
   The cyma and cavetto are constantly used as finishings
 by the ancients, and never  applied  where strength is re-
 quired.  The ovolo and talon are always employed as sup-
porters to the essential members of (he composition, such
 as the modillions,  denteles,  and  corona.  The chief use of
 the  torus and ofthe astragal, is  fo strengthen the tops and
 bottoms of columns, and sometimes of pedestals,  where
 they are frequently cut in the form of ropes.  The scotia
is employed only to separate the members of °ases-  The
fillet is also used for this purpose in all kinds ot protiles,ai
well as in bases.
  An assemblage of essential parts and mouldings is call-
ed a profile :  the best are composed of few mouldings, v«.
ried in form and size, fitly applied ; (he s(raighi and curv-
ed ones placed alternately.  Every profile should have a
predominant member, which (he others should seem made
to support, fortify, or shelter from the injuries of lhe weath-
eY: as in a cornice, where the corona is principal, lhe cy.
ma  or cavetto cover it, and the modillions, denteles, orolo,
and talon, support il.
  When ornaments are employed to adorn the moulding!,
all of them must not be  carved, that lhe eye may finda
proper repose on the plain ones, or the figure of the pro.
file  will  be  lost.  The square  members being generally
either principal in the composition, or used  as boundaries
to other  parts, should rarely be carved.
  When mouldings of  the  same size and  form occur in
one profile, they should be enriched with the same kind of
ornament.  The addition of rusticated cinctures to col.
umns,  is an ungraceful  modern invention ; but rustic work
is introduced with great propriety and effect into gates,
large entrances,  grottos, baths or fountains, and for low
basement stories.
  To each order belongs  a particular base;  the Tuscan
has  only a torus and a  plinth : the Doric  base has an as-
tragal  more  than the Tuscan ;  the  torus  is  larger, on a
double  scotia, with two astragals  between  them on the
Ionic base.   The Corinthian base has  two  toruses, two
scotias, and two astragals; the Composite base has one as-
tragal less than the Corinthian.
  Columns are generally diminished one sixth part of their
lower diameter, which diminution begins at one third part
of their height.   Some  architects allow a small swell in the
lower part of (he  middle division of (he pillar.
  But in columns from fifteen  Io twenty feet high, the
lower  diameter being  divided  into six parts and a half,
lake five parts and a half  for  the  diameter a(  the top.
Columns from twenty  to thirty  feet  high are diminished
one seventh.   From thirty to forty  feet, the  lower diame-
ter being divided  into  seven parts  and a half, six and a
half may be taken for the upper diameter: and from forty
to fifty feet high, ihey may be diminished one eighth part,
and so on in proportion.
   Pedestals consist of three principal  parts, the base, the
dye, and the cornice, and are used only to elevate the col-
umns to a necessary height.  No particular proportions
can be assigned for them ; but it is common to give them
from one third to one quarter of (be height of (he column
and entablature, which being divided into nine parts, two
are for the base, one for the cornice, and six for the dye of
the pedestal, which is of equal  dimensions with the plinth
of  the column.  The enrichments are of  course regulated
by those of  the entablature  of the particular order which
the pedestal may carry.  One pedestal only is necessary
for two columns placed  together, and a continued pedes-
tal with  projections in  the  cornice, under each colamn,
must be used for a colonnade  or peristyle;  buf if other
circumstances permit, columns the whole necessary height,
without pedestals, should be used, and will always have a
more majestic appearance.
   Pilasters follow in their parfs the orders of columns, and
admit of a like diminution, but are square  instead of round 
ARCHITECTURE.
in fheir plan.  They are however to be seen, not diminish-
ed, in ancient and modern  works, and chiefly so, when
tbey occur on oner corners.
  Pilasters are employed in internal  decorations (o save
room, and seldom pioject  beyond  the solid wall, above
one quarter  of (heir diameter;  and  sometimes they are
seen on  the exlernal  par(  of buildings, alone and wilh
columns.  When placeo behind, and very near columns,
they need not project above one eighth  part of their diam-
eter.  Pilasters are adorned like columns, and  the profile
of their capitals is nearly the same.
  Attics.  In Athens, where it  was for many agee a rule
to conceal the roofs of buildings, attics had their origin.
A line of low columns and pedestals, or of  columns and
balusters may be  employed  for  (his purpose.   They
should be less in height  than one third of lhe order  on
which Ihey are placed, but not lower than one quarter. If
the attic is composed of a low order, the base and cornice
may have  lhe same mouldings  as the pedestals of the
columns, and with  the dye, bear the same proportion to
each other ; and when they form pilasters over the* col-
umns of  the building, the breadth  of the  bases must not
exceed  the upper diameter of the columns which they
surmount.
   Caryatides.  Representations  of the human figure, the
male called Persians, and the female Carians, or Caryatides,
have  been employed to support the entablatures of build-
ings.  These were invented and used  in  memory of the
captivity of  the Persians and Carians by  the Athenians.
The Persians may be of any size, wifh a Doric entablature,
bearing  (he same proporfion (o (he figure as to  columns of
the same height ;  but  fhe   Caryafides or  female  figures,
ought to have Ionic or Corinthian entablatures, and not lo
be larger than life.
  Termini, figures which  owe their origin to the  stones
used by  lhe ancients to distinguish the  limits of their pos-
sessions,  are  employed  (o support  the  entabla(ures of
monuments, chimney pieces, and such small compositions,
and as ornaments in gardens or fields.

             Ofthe temples ofthe ancients.
   Ofthe many remaining sacred  buildings ofthe ancients*
seven orders may be distinguished.
   Antis.  The  first order has antae or pilasters in front,
at the corners of the walls which form the cell, or enclosed
space within fhe walls,  and  between the pilasters in the
middle,  two  columns which  support  the  pediment  or
porch.
  The prostyle is the same as the antis, only columns are
added opposite (he pila>ters of each corner, which support
a chapiter or architrave, as in fhe anlis.
   The  amphiprostyle  has only  a postern, or back front
added, with columns and pediment, like the prostyle.
   The  peripteral  has  in  the front and hinder porch  six
columns, and eleven, including the corner ones  on each
side ; and these columns are placed with the space of an
iufercolumniation between  them and  the  wall  of lhe
building, leaving an ambulatory round the  cell ofthe edi-
fice.
  In the pseudo dipteral the columns are  so placed, that
in  front  and behind  there are eight, and on each side  fif-
teen with the corner columns; and the walls of the cell
must correspond with  the four centre columns  before and
behind, leaving the space of two infercolumniafions.  and
the (bickness of one  column between the walls  and the
outer column.
  The dipteral is octostyle, or eight columned before and
behind, but it  has  a double row of columns round the
cell.
  The hypelhral is decastyle, or ten columned before and
behind, having the other parts the same as the dipteral;
but it has a double row of columns within, all round,  one
above  another, resembling a  porch, which  is  called a
peristyle : the middle has no roof, and it has folding doors
before and behind.
  Of round temples.   Some are monopteral, without cells,
and built on columns; others are called peripteral, and have
an ascent of two steps, on which lhe  pedestals of the col-
umns are placed.   The wall of the cell is distant one fifth
part of the diameter  of the temple from the pedestals of
the columns.  The monopteral have  a  tribunal or throne,
and  are ascended by sleps; and the  columns placed on
pedestals are as high as the diameter  of the temple, taken
at the outside ofthe pedestals.
  On the proper disposition of  columns depend (he  ele-
gance and grantor of a building, for which Vitruvius lays
down the rulesWserved by the ancients, and admitted by
the moderns.
  The five species of buildings, according to  the disposi-
tion ofthe columns, are the pycnostyle, (hick  of columns;
the systyle, wilh columns wider apart ; the diaslyle, still
wider; the  arseostyle,  more distant  (ban is proper;  and
the eustyle, wilh  columns at a proper distance.
  In the pycnostyle, (he dis(ance of (he intercolumniation
is one  diameter and a half of the column.  The  syslyle
has two diameters.   The diastyle has  (hree diameters of
the  column for the intercolumniation, but the architrave,
on  account of the distance,  is  liable to break.  In lhe
arseostyle fhe  beams are made of durable timber.  The
eustyle is formed by allowing (he distance of two diame-
ters and a quarter for (he  inlercolumnia(ions, except the
middle one which must have (hree diameters.
  For (he eus(yle, (be rule is, (hat (he front of a building,
if it is (e(ras(yle, of four columns, is divided in(o eleven
parts and a half, withou( reckoning the projection of  the
base of the column.  If hexastyle, of six  columns,  into
eighteen parts.  If octostyle, of eight columns, into twen-
ty-four parts and a half.  Of  these  parts each  shall be
equal to  the diameter of a column.   Each intercolumnia-
tion must be two and a quarter of these parts;  but three
must be  allowed for the middle  one; and for the height,
eight diameters and a half.  The columns to the arfeostyle
should have for  their  thickness one eighth part of their
height.  For lhe diastyle, the height of the column is to
be divided into eight parts and a half, and one part taken
for lhe thickness  ofthe column.  For lhe systostyle, the
height must be divided into nine parts and a half; one
part being  the thickness of the column.   In the pycno-
style, the height shall be divided into fen parts, each equal
to  the diameter of the  column.   The enstyle is  also
divided into eight par(s and a half, like the diastyle.   As
the  space  between  the columns increases, so ought the
thickness of the columns.  If il  is  arseostyle,  and they
should have only a ninth or tenth part for their thickness,
they will appear fall and slender, on account of the breadth
of  the intervals.  If it is pycnostyle, and  the columns 
ARCHITECTURE.
 have an eighth part for their thickness, they will, on the
 contrary, have a heavy and ungraceful appearance.   The
 thickness of corner columns must be increased one fiftieth
 paif, for 'he great surrounding  space  will diminish  their
 effect on (he eye, and make them appear smaller than they
 really are.
   It must not, however, be omitted that the ancients did
 not always rigidly adhere to (hese rules of Vitruvius for
 (he disposition of columns, which therefore should not
 feffer the genius, nor hinder (he researches, of moderns.
   Of (he private buildings of the ancients, Vitruvius says,
 describing the bouses of persons  of distinction, fhe Greeks
 used no atrium or hall, but from the gate of entrance made
 a passage of no great breadth,  on one  side of which was
 the stable, and on the other lhe porter's rooms; and  these
 were terminated by the inner gate.  Passing on, was the
peristylium,  having  porticos  on  three  sides.   On  the
south side were two antae, which support and form a pas-
 sage,  within which, to fhe right and left, were  the  great
 ceci, in  which the mistress of the family and  the  work
 women  resided.   To the right  and left were cubiculi or
 chambers, of which one was called thalamus, the  olher
 amphithalamus; and under the porticos,jtf the  peristyle,
were the common dining rooms, cfaamber^p family rooms.
This part of the edifice was called gnyaecolritis.
   Through the passage, with (he antffi, was-a larger house,
wilh a more spacious peristyle, in which were four porti-
 cos of equal  height:  or sometimes  the  one which looked
 toward  the south bad higher columns, and this peristyle
 which  had  one portico higher than  the  rest was called
 Rhodian.   These houses had  elegant vestibules, magnifi-
 cent gates,  and the porticos of the  peristyle were orna-
 mented with stucco plaster,  and lacunariae compartments.
 In (he portico which looks to the north, were the Cyzican
 triclinium, and the pinacoetheca ; to the east the libraries;
 to the  west the exhedrse;  and in those looking to (he
 south, were (he square ceci for dining, and a spacious place
 for fhe  use of the games.  This peristylium and part of
 the house were called andronitides, because here the men
 only  were invited,  without being  accompanied  by (he
 women.
   On the right and left small houses were erected for the
 reception and  entertainment  of strangers  on  their  arri-
 val.
   The  usual mode of distribution ofthe  houses of magis-
 trates  among  the  Romans was;  from  (he  vestibulum,
 which we call portico, you entered  fhe atrium or hall, at
 the extremity of which was the tablinum, or repository for
 books  or records.   From  the sides  of the  atrium, yon
 passed  by alae or aisles, to Ibe cavseJimn, which was an
 open court,  surrounded by a portico or piazza, at the ex-
 tremity of which was the basilica or place to administer
 justice  in.   The triclinia or  dining rooms, wlih their pro-
 cceion,  ©r room for attendants,  the cubicula or chambers,
 with the baths, were  disposed on the sides  of \he cavse-
 diurn ;  also  on the side of the basilica were fhe  pinacse-
 theca, or rooms for pictures and library. Passing all these
 apartments, you  entered  the  peristylium, which was as
 spacious as  possible, surrounded with a portico or piazza ;
 this was always of an- oblong form.  At the extremity of
 the peristylium were the eeci or halls, of which Vitruvius
 mentions  the  Corinthian, the  tetrastyle, the Egyptian,
 aud the Greek or Cyzican
   The Corinthian ceci had columns placed either on the
 podium, dado, or on the floor, and above  have an arch*
 trave and cornice ; fhe Egyptian had lhe columns detach-
 ed from lhe wall,  in the manner ofa peristyle :  (he space
 be(ween (he  columns  and the wall formed a walk round.
 This range of columns supported an eutablalure, on which
 was placed another range of columns, one  fourth part
 smaller  than  the former, between  which  were (he win.
 dows.
   The Greek or Cyzican ceci were  situated toward the
 north,  and generally had a view of (he garden, with fold-
 ing doors (o the middle,  and to the right  and left.  The
 te(ras(yle ceci, from (he name, appear to  have had only
 four  columns, and were consequently of a less enriched
 form.
   Roman villas consisted of  three parts :  urbana,  where
 the master and his family dwelt; ruslica, for the uses of
 husbandry; and frucluaria, or receptacle for the fruits of
 the earth.   Having only the lapis specuterris, a species of
 talc,  and an expensive substitute for glass, fhe Romans
 wereaobliged  to be very particular in tbe choice of situa-
 tion and aspect for their buildings, that rooms unfurnished
 with this kind  of  expensive windows might be inhabitable
 in bad weather.
   Vitruvius says the winter dining room and bath should
 face the winter's  declining sun,  that they may have the
 benefit  of his  rays in the evening ;  but the bedchamber!
 and libraries should look to the east, for there the morning
 light is required,  and south and west rooms are more ex-
 posed to damps and worms,  whigh humid  winds generate
 and nourish.   The spring and autumn dining room should
 look  to the east,  for the windows being turned from lhe
 sun, these places will be temperate at the time they are
 used.  The summer dining room should look to the  noilh,
 that  it  may remain cool and  temperate for use.  To ibe
 same aspect,  the  pinacotheca,  picture rooms, should be
 disposed, to  preserve  the colours  from  the too strong
 effect of the sun's light.
   Some adequate idea of the extent, grandeur, and ac-
 commodation,  of the villas of fhe Romans,  may be formed
 from Pliny's description of his at Laurentinom, which was
 considered as  on a small scale, but would be called a man-
 sion  in modern language.  He  says,  "The  part  which
 first presents it-self is -the afrium, court yard, plain but not
 mean;  then (he  portico,  in  form of the letter 0,  which
 surrounds a small but pleasant area :  this  is an excellent
 retreat in-bad weather, being sheKered by glazed window*,
 but more by the projection of (he roof.   Beyond (he por-
 tico is a pleasant  cavaedium, open court, passing which i«
 a handsome triclinium, which advances upon the shore, so
 that it is gently washed by the waves when  the southwest
 wind  blows.   On every side there are folding  doors, or
 windows as large, so that from (he sides and front you en-
joy a prospect as  it were of three seas, and backward are
 seen the cavaedium, (he portico,  and (he area;  again (he
 portico and atrium terminated  by woods and distant moun-
 tains.   On the left of the  triclinium, but not so forward, ii
 a  large cubiculum, or chamber, and  then a smaller ooe,
 where one window admits the rising, and another the set-
 ting sun.  From here you view the sea, more  distant, but
 more securely.   This cubiculum and triclinium, by their
 projecture, form an angle, which not only retains, but aug-
 ments, the heat of the sun^ rays. 
ARCHITECTURE.
  14 Here is my hybernaculum, winter apartment, and lhe
gymnasium, place for exercise,  for my family, which is
never incommoded by any winds but such  as bring cloudy
weather, and destroy the otherwise serene situation of Ibe
place.  Adjoining to (his angle is a cubiculum, of a curved
or round form, the windows of which admit  the  sun, in
consequence, during its whole  course.   In the walls are
inserted library presses, furnished with  books, more for
amusement than study jclose to this is the dormifoiium,
sleeping room, separatedk^^a space having a  covering of
wood work, which collects and distributes the vapours to
the room in salubrious temperament.  The remainder of
this wing is^llotte,^ to servants and slaves.
  44 On the right side of the4riclinium is a  most^legant
cubiculum, with another  large cubiculum,  or moderate
coenatfon, common eating or supper room, which receives
light both from the sun and the sea; after this is a cubicu-
lum, wilh a procceton, servants' roTJm, for height a summer,
but  for shelter a winter apartment, being screened  from
all winds:  a wall only separates another  cubiculum, iilh
a procceton ;  there you enter the spacious and eiftenwive
cella frigidaiia ofthe bath, against the  walls of which are
two  projecting bapfisleria, sufficiently large  to swim in ;
joining this is the unctuarium, the hypocaustum,and prop-
nigeon of the baths, and two other cells  more elegan( than
sumptuous.  Skilfully contrived adjoins (he  callida pisci-
na, warm bath, where those who swim enjoy a view ofthe
sea ;  not far distant is the sphraeisteaum, tennis court, of
a circular form, which enjoys the warmest rays of the de-
clining sun.            fjj|
  44 Here rises a turris, jravilion or summer house, under
which are two disetpe, suite or  set of apartments, and also
two  above, besides a  coenatio, from which is a beautiful
prospect ofthe sea  ; there is also another (urris, confin-
ing a cubiculum, exposed to (he  rising and selling sun ;
behind this is  an apotheca, and horreum, cabinets or store
rooms, and under a triclinium, where the noise ofthe sea
is only faintly heard in  storms.  This looks on the gesfa-
tio, or place of exercise on horseback or in a carriage, and
the surrounding  garden.  The prospect  here, not  less
pleasant than (ha( of (he sea,  is enjoyed from a coena(io,
rather distant  from  the sea ; on the back it u encompassed
with  two  disetae, whose windows look to lhe vestibule of
the villa, and to a kitchen garden.
  44 Hence a  crypto porticus, a  long  enclosed room or
portico, extends, for size comparable to a public building,
with windows on both sides, those  next the sea the  most
numerous;  on the garden  side they are single, with fewer
in the upper row.  Before  the crypto porticus is a xystus,
a spacious place for exercise, or a terrace.
  44 At the  top ofthe xystus, projecting from the crypto
porticus, is the diaela of the garden.  In this is an helioca-
minus, an  apartment made  warm  by the sun ; from the
folding doors is seen the cubiculum, from  the windows the
crypto porticus ; on the side next the sea, and opposite the
wall, a very elegant zolheca, closet or small room, recedes,
to which a cubiculum  is either added or separated, by
means of glazed windows  and curtains.   Adjoining is  a
cubiculum for  night and sleep, protected from noise by
an andron,  an open court or space, which is between the
wall ofthe cubiculum, and that of fhe garden.
  "Close to the cubiculum is a small hypoqaustum, stove,
the heat from which, by a small window,  may be regulat-
ed at pleasure.   Thence a procceton and cubiculum ex-
tend into tbe sun."  These latter apartments were the
retiring places of the philosophic owner of the villa, where
he pursued his studies without interrupting the diversions
of his servanls, or being  disturbed by them. There are no
remains of this villa noi of others, lhe descriptions of which
have come down to us.

            REFERENCES TO  THE  PLATES.
  Plate I. Architecture, represents the Tuscan and Doric
orders,' the latter with the triglyphs and gutfse on the frize
and architrave, and an outline expressing the names ofthe
parts of (he orders.
  PlalelL represents the ancient Ionic order> with paral-
W volutes^  The disposition ofthe volutes ofthe modern
IoTiic is setn  in those* of the C^frosite order.
  The Corinthian order.    *
  The Composite order.
  The proportions of these columns are treated  of, under
tbe proper heads in the preceding pages.

      Of the amhiteclure commonly called Gothic.
  It is not nece^^^ to  seek abroad  for the origin of the
pointed arch, tn^Kdations of which we can distinctly trace
at home  in the tw^th century, that  age  of  improvement
and magnificence, and among people great in arts and arms.
About that time many illustrious Norman prelates, chiefly
in our own country, exhausted their talents and their wealth
in carrying the magnificence of their churches, and other
buildings, fo  (he highest degree.  But above all, our Hen-
ry of Winchester probably contributed most to the im-
provements which gradually  changed the early Norman
into the architecture commonly distinguished by the name
of Gothic.
  The Normans admired height no less than length in the
construction of their churches, and were  accustomed  to
pile  arches and  pillars on each other.  By way of orna-
ment and variety they often imitated these arches and pil-
lars on their walls, and (hey sometimes caused these plain
round arches to intersect each other, as on (he upper part
of the south  transept of Winchester cathedral, which is
probably the most ancient instance of this intersecting or-
nament to be met with in this kingdom. They were prob-
ably not then aware  of the happy effect of this  intersec
tion in forming the pointed or lancet  arch, until de Blois,
having resolved to ornament  the whole sanctuary  of this
cathedral with these intersecting semicircles, after ricbly
embellishing  them with  mouldings  and pellet ornaments,
conceived the idea  of opening them as  windows, to tbe
number of four above the altar, and of eight orr each side
of the choir, which  at once produced a series of highly
pointed  arches.   Pleased with this first essay at  the east
end, we may suppose he tried the effect of that form in
various other window* and arches, which we find amongst
many that are circular  in various parts of the church or
tower.   However that may be, and wherever the pointed
arch was first produced,  its gradual ascent naturally led to
a long and narrow form of window  and arch, instead of the
broad circular ones which had hitherto obtained.  It was
necessary that tbe pillars belonging to Ihem should be pro-
portionally tall and slender.   Hence the adoption of Pur-
beck  marble for  this purpose, and lhe  multiplication of
these slender columns, which was found necessary for sup- 
ARCHITECTURE.
porting the incumbent weight, produced the cluster column.
The windows being made very narrow al the first adoption
of the pointed arch, it became necessary  sometimes lo
place (woof (hem close (o  each olher.  This disposition
of fhe (wo lights  occasioning a dead space  be(ween (heir
head-, a  trefoil,  or  qtia(refoil,  one of the  simplest and
most ancient kinds of ornaments, was introduced between
them,  as in the west door of the  present church  of St.
Cross, near Winchester.  The happy effect of Ibis simple
ornament  caused the upper part  of it to be introduced
into the heads ofthe arches themselves,  so lhat there  is
hardly a small arch, or resemblance of an arch of any kind,
from  the  days of Edward  the  Second, down to (hose  of
Henry (he Eigh(h, which is no( ornamented in this man-
ner.   The trefoil by aneasy addition becaaje-a  cinqjp-
foil, and  being made u*8(fcn circle? add squafts, prouTlc-
ed fans and Catharine wTraRs.   In like manner, large east
and west windows beginning to  obtain, about the reign  of
Edward  the First, it  was  necessary they should have
numerous divisions, or mullions,  which, as well as the ribs
and transoms of the  vaulting, began to ramify into a great
variety of  tracery, according to the ai^Mect's taste; all
of them uniformly ornamented with tjflKefoil or  cinque-
foil head.  That  most  magnificent obj^a grove  of tall
trees, was  very naturally  aud beaufikWy imitated in the
aisles of (he cathedrals of  this light archi(ec(ure :  the ribs
ofthe vaulting, springing  from the tops ofthe tall pillars,
and meeting in (he pointed  arch in  the roof, produced a
happy effect;  and pursuing  ihis idea, the lightness of all
the parts,  and the rich  variety of  tracery, contributed  (o
make  (he  resemblance more perfect.  The painted win-
dows, the  gloom  and perspective of these  edifices, concur
in affecting the  imagination wi(h pleasure and delight,  in
filling it  with awe and devotion.   The aspiring  form  of
 the pointed arches, the lofty pediments, and the tapering
pinnacles, which adom our cathedrals, contribute lo pro-
 duce an effect of height beyond (heir real elevation.  In
 like manner (he  perspective of uniform columns, ribs, and
 arches, repeated at equal  distances, as they are seen in
 the aisles of these fabrics, produces  an artificial infinite in
 the mind of the  spectator,  when (he same extent  of plain
 surface would perhaps hardly affecl it.
   For a similar reason, (he effect  of ancient cathedrals is
 greatly  helped  by the variety  of (heir  constituent parts
 and ornaments,  though all finished  in one  uniform style:
 for  the  eye  is  quickly satiated by any  object, however
 great and  magnificent, which it  can take  in at once, as (he
 mind is wi(h  what it  can  completely comprehend ; but
 when (he former, having wandered through the intricate
 and  interminable  length of a pointed vault in an ancient
 cathedral, discovers two  parallel lines of equal length and
 richness ; thence proceeding discovers the transepts, the
 side chapels, the choir, the  sanctuary, and (he Lady chap-
 el, all equally interesting for their design and execution :
 the  eye  is  certainly much more entertained,  the  mind
 more dilated and gratified,  than  it could possibly be by
 any  single view.
   Durham cathedral, supported by massive columns and
 circular  arches, is the grandest specimen of the Saxon or
 early Norman manner, before the invention of the pointed
 arch introduced that exquisite  lightness to be seen in the
 west end ofthe cathedral  church of Westminster.  The
 sumptuous vaulting of the chapel of Henry the  Seventh
at fhe east end ofthe latter cathedral, enriched with cluj.
(ers of penden( ornaments, like the natural roof of a beam
tiful grotto, exceeds any olher specimen ofthe kind.
  The pointed arch, which may be described  from  rf0
centres,  taken at two  angles  of  an  equilateral Irian-
gle, was  well  adapted for (he raising tip of spiiestoi
great height, and generally for lofty buildings, as it rejguir.
ed little centering,  lighter keystones, and less#>ultafaent,
Indeed, in many instances,  n^stones  larger lhan a man
could  carry were  used f» aj^^ie same elevation waj
attained with much less labour and expense than it could
have been in the Grecian amp Roman manner.

      *           Of dontxs or cupolas.

  The Jowers which  the early architects of Christian
churches  wen  in the habit of raising over the intersection
of lhe  cross aisles of cathedrals, no doubt, suggested lot
sublime idea of raising  a vault or dome in the same place,
on churches built afte»tbe Grecian  or Roman  manner, in
or^rjp  preserve  an   uniform  character or style is the
bffWing.  This is an effort of architectural skill which we
have no reason to believe the ancients ever attempted;for
all the domes raised by them were directly sustainedbj
numerous arches and pillars, or placed  on circular wails,
Of domes raised in  tJui modern manner, those of St. Pe-
ter's at Rome, and SrTPaul's at London,  are the most cel-
ebrated.          *

          Of modern or pracM^il architecture.      \

   In considering architecture or building in its most prac-
tical and useful point of view, the situation of fhe edifice
presents itself first  to  our  attention.   A neighbourhood
where  cattle thrive, and where the inhabitants look ruddy
and  cheerful,  should be chosen.  For  the precise spot,
that which  is moderately elevated,  if it  be contiguous to
some river, will be  best adapted for health, pleasure, and
convenience.  It is injudicious lo build a country house
too near a fen or standing wafer, or close  to a great stream,
because unwholesome fogs and mists rise from large rivers,
early in  a morning, before daylight.  It is most.important
to choose a  good air and soil; and  always useful to look
toward the south.   The conveniences of water, fuel,and
ways fo arrive af fhe mansion, of easy access, are indispen-
sable.   A prospect not (oo  extensive, of land and water
■diversified", will most agreeably entertain  the sight. A fair
entrance, wifh an easy  ascent, gives grace fo a building;
and the hall should no! be too large, that the effect of the
capacity of the principal apartments may not be injured
by it.
   Having  fixed on a situation with  the assistance of
 some one who is acquainted wifh (he (heory and practice
 of building, ret a plan be made, with (he necessary eleva-
 tions.   For small buildings this may be a sufficient guide!
 but it is advisable for large buildings to have a perfect
 model ofthe intended structure, with all  its minute parts;
 and that this  model  be plain, without  colours, or other
 beautifying, that the pleasure of the eye may not prejudice
 the judgment.
   In the choice of the materials we must employ, we are
 necessarily  influenced by the circumstances ofthe situa-
 tion.  Wherg.stone is plenty, it  will be preferred in the
 construction ofa stately edifice ; for though bricks reta« 
ARCHITECTURE.
 their beauty longest, they do not easily admit of proper
 architectural ornaments.
   The circular form of building is strongest, but does not
 admit of a convenient distribution of light; and is besides
 more expensive and less commodious.  Though  there
 exists  at Caparole a celebrated building by Vignola, in tbe
 form of a pentagon,  the same objections apply to it,  and
 the architect had great difficulties to contend with.
   A rectangular, but not exactly square figure, is  useful
 in many  cases :  when rfltbngth  does not  exceed  the
 breadth more than one third, (he proportion is good.
   Mixed  figures, including,  uniformity and  variety, are
 most -applicjvleJfojE the plans of large  edifices: a centre
 and  principal part wilh wings, is a form J hat combira con-
 venience with elegance.      ,  £:)  '          *■
   When  houses are planned too rMrg, muchJtfongis con-
 sumed in passages;  and it is difficult to light them.  Sir
 William Chambers, in the plan of Somerset bouse, has
 succeeded very well in lighting and disposing of the pas-
 sages 4hat were necessary for the  t?asy communication of
 so many offices ; but his methods will seldom be appKcaole,
 except to public buildings of Ihe^ame naturg.   •
   Palladio says, the ground for the foundation should be
 penetrated  to a  sixth part  of the whole  height  of the
 building,  in  order to ascertain its' firmness;  which done,
 tbe  first course of stone or brick ^puU4*be laid, at least
 twice  the breadth or thickness of tne wall, a*id on a hori-
 zontal line and level surface.  «Jf the building has internal
 walls,  their  foundations must? Be level  wifh  the principal
 wall.   The  nature  and MJidity of the soil  will be best
 ascertained by the use of ^vell digger's borer.
   If the ground  is  sandy, or marshy,  or has been  lately
 dug  up, it will  be  necessary to take many  precautions.
 The loose earth either must  be dug away, till you come
 to sound ground ;  or if that is not to be  had, put pieces of
 good oak  across the breadth of tbe trench in which  the
 wall is to stand, at about two feet apart,  which being
 firmly bedded and rammed down, lay long planks on  them,
 about four inches  wider than the basis or first course of
 the wall is to  be, and spike them  down to the pieces of
 oak.
   If the earth is very bad, it will be  necessary to drive
 piles of such a length as will reach the  good ground ;  but
 if il  is  faulty  only here  and there,  arches may be turned
 over (he loose places.
  Sound ground, fit  to carry  a building, is of divers kinds ;
 in some places very hard, in others  very stiff: sometimes
 it is to be found blackish, and the whiter kinds  are account-
 ed the  weakest.   Some foundations are like chalk, others
 sandy: but of all these, that  is the best  which requires
 most labour  in cutting or digging,  and which-when wet,
 does not quite lose all consistency.
  In masonry, the stones must be so cut, as  to lie in the
 same direction as they did in the quarry, in order that
 their strength and solidify may be fully employed;  for if
 their position be changed, and they  are placed vertically,
 they are apt to split j and the smallest crevice in  the
 foundation will produce a great cleft in the superstructure
 ofa building.
  It  is  very useful always fo lay a platform of  good boards
in the trench  dug for the foundation; and quite necessary
 that  fhe first course of stone or brick should be laid close-
ly without mortar, for mortar  corrodes the timber.
  vol. i.            28
  The walls should -be of bound masonry or brick work,
standing perpendicularly, wifh the heaviest materials low-
est; and (hey must be judiciously diminished in thickness
as they rise.  Certain courses of more strength than (he
rest must be laid to help to  sustain the fabric, should a
faulty part give way; this is  done by bond timbers in
brick walls.   Particular attention  is necessary lo make
the angles firm, which is sometimes done in brick edifices
with great  neatness and effect,  by building the corners of
squared  stones.
  Walls, if not connected with others  at right angles, or
nearly so,y as the partition or separating walls of a house
stand in  respect to the front,  should have an angle set out
of about two feet, at every twenty feet  distance, which
vflML make  them stand  firmer than  if twice the materials
haPbeen used.                Jl
  In.building walls, the bricksfSnohM be laid, in summer
as  wet,  in winter as dry,  as possible;  that  in warm
weather  the mortar may not harden  too fast, and in winter,
care must be taken to protect them from rain, snow, and
frost.  They .should be laid point and joint in the wall, as
little as may be^hat the whole may be well bonded to-
gether.    '    4^
   It  is  not  advy^Bp to raise any wall above eight feet
high before the o^Bjoining  be wrought up to it; but the
front and  party walls should be carried up  as nearly a*
possible  together.
   When all lhe materials are ready, a good workman with
his labourer will in one day lay 1000 or 1200 bricks. Wralls
are less solid when the joints  of mortar  are  too large.
  Ofthe apertures in the walls, doors should be mention-
ed  first.   External doors should be as few in number a*
possible, and seldom  less than four feet  and  a half in
breadth,-in middling sized buildings, for the principal en-
trance.  Double doors, having a sufficient  space between
them to  allow them to open,  are essentially useful in pre-
serving  the temperature of a house, and  preventing  the
admission of cold winds.
  The modern  mode  of uniting when  necessary  fwo  or
more principal rooms of a good house into one, on fhe oc-
casion of entertainments, by throwing  back the folding
doors which separate  them, is a very great improvement.
For by this means a small house may have some part of
the convenience and magnificence ofthe largest ones, with
less expense of space  and materials.
  The hall  or entrance, the dimensions of  which are de-
termined by the scale of the building,  should always be
furnished with afireplace; and if it is connecfed with the
staircase, the warmth  produced there will tend very
strongly  and effectually to regulate the temperature of thV
whole house.
  Of the stairs in sumptuous buildings, the steps  should
not be less than four, nor more than  six  inches high;  not
more  than  eighteen nor  less  than  twelve  inches  broad;
not less than six feet, nor more  than fifteen feet long.   In
ordinary houses they may be somewhat higher and nar-
rower, and  they must be much shorter in general.  But
eight, or  even seven inches, is too high for an easy ascent;
and they ought never to be less than nine   or ten  inches
broad, nor  shorter than three feet.  The steps should  be
laid somewhat sloping, or a little higher behind, which is
found to  diminish in some degree the apparent labour of
ascending. 
ARCHITECTURE.
   The construction and placing of the stairs is one of the
most difficult works in building.  Sufficient ease of ascent
being obtained, (he admission of an ample portion of light
is a next consideration.  This is obtained most advantage-
ously in  houses  of a moderate size by  windows at  each
turning, which give an uniform light, and a more airy and
spacious appearance to the whole.  Well stairs, lighted by
a sky light in the roof, are only magnificent and convenient
in large mansions, and for the ascent (o (he first or princi-
pal floor, where  the light is not broken by a repetition of
the flight of steps to the next story.
  The small uniform modern ramp or hand rail is a  very
great  improvement and addition  to stairs, as well as the
light  iron work by which  the  rail is supported; this in
many cases  may be advantageously constructed  of ctM
iron.                •^                          "
   Ingenious architected a v% displayed their invention and
their skill in the construction of stairs more curious than
useful.  Double and quadruple winding stairs  have  been
buill, rising in parallel spirals ; so thai two or four persons
or companies may go up and down within the same stair-
case, and see one another without  meetjfc.
   It is an old fault in the distribution^^)dging rooms, to
dispose them so that,  when the do^H%re all open, one
may see through the whole house.  ^^ modern  mode of
placing a bed chamber and dressing room together, with a
door of communication  between them, each room having
besides only a door into the staircase or passage,  is much
more convenient and rational.   The drawing rooms  how-
ever should be disposed so  uniformly, as to be converted
into one room, on  the opening  of  folding doors between
them.   This contrivance,  so useful in small buildings, is
admissible in the largest.   If two or more rooms thus laid
into one, have in the middle of lhe wall al each end door
cases filled  with looking-glasses, placed in a true position
opposite each  other:   lhe appearance  of the apartment
will be artificially multiplied, and the effect when illumi-
nated very  splendid.
   This arrangement is not necessary for the dining rooms,
where we  have chiefly to  attend  to the convenience of
easy access  for servants who wait  at table: and  the fire-
place may be so disposed,  as to warm  the  room  as uni-
formly  as possible.
   In the building  of chambers regard ought to  be had
as well (o  (he place of the bed, which is generally six or
seven feet square, and lhe passage,  as (o the situation ofthe
chimney ;  which  for this consideration, ought not (o be
placed just  in the  middle^  but  distant from i( about (wo
feet, or (wo and a half,  (o the end  (ha( i( may  leave  room
for (he bed; and the  inequality is hardly discernible in
buildings of four and twenty feet within fhe work ; in such
houses it may be placed just in (he middle.
   All precautions should be taken to prevent as  much as
  ?ossible the communication of sound  (o  (he  bed rooms.
  \> (his end, (he best method is fo fill lhe space between
tbe joints of (he floor above (he bed room, if (here should
be any rooms there, wifh sawdust ; which must be sustain-
ed by short pieces of board nailed  between the joists, just
above the ceiling of the lower aparfmenf.
   In arranging  servants* rooms, we have only to consult
the facilities our general plan admits of;  and, if possible,
to make no chambers without fireplaces.
   In country mansions, we are generally  not confined in
placing the kitchen, aud  have only to contrive it as near
the dining  apartment as other circumstances will admit;
and to arrange it so lhat the effluvia produced by the cook.
ing may not be inclined (o  pene(rate to (he dining room,
by the covered  passage,  which should always form the
communication between these two apartments'.
  But in town houses, the  kitchen must  always be beneath
the parlour floor;  and  being nearer the  dining1 room than
we would place  it in a count ryniansion, and  on  a lower
level; the  lighter, warmed  ^pcharged  w»tn the smell
of the various operations of cookery, is  more apt to annoy
us.                           . •
  A separate funnel, like the kitchen Ajmney, carried up
in the jpack with the rest,  and next to that  of the kitchen,
will almost  always afford  an  effectual remedy against (his
inconvenience.  This funnel, (o be used only  for this pur-
pose, must  have its throat or opening  level with the ceil-
ing of the kitchen; and, of course,  higher than the mantle
of lhe fireplace  used  for  fhe  cooking.  The lighter air
charged with the vapoDrs  of the cooking will then pass off
into tbe atmosphere by this opening, instead of collecting
under the ceiling in the kitchen, and forming a stratum of
air, as low as the (op of (he kitchen door, and then passing
off, and  ascending through  (he house  by the stairs and
passages.  The  opening  of this funnel or pipe maybe
closed by a hingeti dmm, when no  operation is going on in
the kitchen, which can create a disagreeable smell.
  The modern improvement of traps,  made  of cast iron
and other materials, or pipes bent  down, so as to form an
elbow, which  always  containtfLand is  filled  in its whole
diameter by,  the last portion olfluid thrown down,,effec-
tually prevents the ascent of air charged with the noisome
effluvia of  drains, and courses for waste  water.  This
neater invention  renders  superfluous  (he advice  of the
Italian builders,  who  prescribe upright vents or channel!
rising through the house like  chimnies for  carrying off
these smells.  Upon  this principle is  the  invention of
water closets, which are now brought  to such perfection,
that they may be placed without  inconvenience in any
necessary part of a house, and are subject to no accidenti
except the  bursting of the water pipes  and basin belong-
ing lo them in frosty weather.  But this danger maybe,
in some degree,  removed, provided the whole buildingi»
planned wi(h  due attention (o fhe  economical distribution
of heat, and the pipes are so  disposed as to receive the
benefit of the  warmth ; which may easily be done.
   The offices  connected wifh lhe kitchen should generally
be  placed  toward the north ; in (own houses we  cannot
always do this, but are  governed by the circumstances of
the  situation.   The larder should  however be carefully
placed out- of the influence of the heat of the kitchen
sloves.
  In the plan  and construction  of fireplaces,  more atten-
tion should be paid to (heir  best  form for reflecting ioto
the apartments the heat generated in them, and carrying
off into lhe atmosphere the smoke  which arises from the
combustion of tne fuel, lhan to any proportions prescribed
by architects who had  nothing in view  but the symmetry
of the apartment  according to their  ideas.   Indeed a
neater form may  be obtained in  following  strictly tbe
rules founded on the rational theory, and accurate exper-
iments of lhe. count Rumford; and the  invention ofa
good architect will hardly stumble* at making  lhat low 
ARCHITECTURE.
 compact  dimension agree with the other members of the
 most magnificent apar(men(.
   The due inclination of the  inner sides of the jambs of
 the chimney,  forming a  very obtuse angle with the back,
 is most important, as well as the colour  and material of
 which (hose jambs are composed, for (he purpose of ob-
 taining aa much  reflected heat as possible from the com-
 bustion  of a  certain  quantity  of fuel.  The  breadth  of
 chimney fireplaces is not important, but (hey should not
 be narrow, that (he  sides may stand wifh (heir greatest
 power of  reflection  toward lhe  room.   But  the  height
 should seldom  exceed  two  feet six inches to lhe  under
 part  of  the mantle; (he whole  depth of the  chimney
 should not be more than  twelve or fourteen inches; and the
 throat, or opening where (he funnel begins, no( more lhan
 four inches wide,  with a part of the back  moveable to al-
 low of sweeping.  The  size of the flue or funnel should
 not be less than twelve inches in diameter; and circular is
 the best form, but most expensive in building.  The flues
 should never contract or taper as they rise, but rather in-
 crease in  internal capacity; and  (hey should always be
 made  wifh a view *o (he use of (he new machinery for
 sweeping,  approved of by the  Socie(y of Ar(s, and con-
 firmed by  experience.   S(one and brick are the  best pos-
 sible materials for the sides and  (he back of a  chimney
 fireplace.  Architects however do  not always  think it a
 pari of (heir business, or (heir doty, to enfer into the ar-
 rangement of these details, relative (o (he  internal comfort
 of a building.   If it were not so necessary to harmonize
 the whole  together, they present field enough for a sepa-
 rate profession; but the  possibility of comple(ing (hese es-
 sential,  (hough  minute parts,  upon the  principles of true
 philosophy and  experience, wifh a view to economy and
 comfort, will in  great measure depend on the general plan
 of (he building.
   Besides (he  precaution of double  external doors,  to
 preserve the internal temperature of a house, double win-
 dows, with a  certain  space  between, should  be used to
 wintei apartments; for  it is  no less useful to confine tbe
 heat generated by (he  fuel consumed in a  house, (han it is
 to place  it so that i( shall give out  in (he apartments its
 full portion of warmth.
   If is hardly necessary  to  say fhat windows should be
 made perpendicularly one above another, and not too near
 the angles  of a  building.  No particular proportions can
 be assigned for (hem;  buf (heir jambs should  be  bevelled
 off on  (he inside, so fhat  the full benefit  of  the real size of
 the window may be received,  in light spread  over the
 apartment.  A window so expanded will admit to diffuse
 in fhe room as much light as if its whole internal size had
 been equal to its increased  inner  breadth, gained by cut-
 ting off the right angular corner of fhe wall.
   Till lately architects have neglected (o avail themselves,
 by (his means, of the full benefit of the openings of (heir
 windows, and to admit as much light as possible, with as
 little  diminution of strength to (he wall.   The  immense
 thickness of the walls of old  Gofhic edifices  generally
 obliged fhe ancient architects to do  if; but in the more
modern brick buildings, which succeeded,  i( was omitted.
   Lofty windows, descending nearly to the floor, are most
graceful, noble,  and airy; and balconies, railed with cast
iron for buildings not of the most superb class, are a very
             28*
 great ornament and convenience.  Balusters of sfone may
 agree more (han iron railings for these projections, where
 the ornaments of tbe front are bold and solid.
   Sky lights, in our climate, so  subject to damps, driving
 rains, and to  snow,  are productive of many inconvenien-
 cies, and  should never be admitted but for stairs, halls,
 passages, or large public rooms.   Unless they are doubled
 by a horizontal  frame  of glass beneafh them, to produce
 a cavity of confined air, they waste the heat generated in
 a house very much; as without  this precaution (he warm-
 ed air of the house  escaping directly upward to the glass,
 easily mixes its acquired heat with th* cold external air of
 the  atmosphere.  To which operation  a  single pane of
 glass,  however thick,  though glass is  a bad conductor of
 heat, affords  but little retardation.
   When sky lights are necessary, (he apertures through
 the roof should spread as much as possible in descending,
 that (he rays of light may not be confined from spreading
 as they would be were (he sides vertical.
   For the form and proportion of rooms, we may observe
 that an oblong plan  is  most agreeable to the eye, and gen-
 erally more  convenient than a square, or any other form.
 The  length of a well  proportioned room should be equal
 to the breadthrttud  a half of  the same, and never more;
 and for the heigfii, take three fourths of the breadth.   An
 error in favour of height is  preferable to  making a room
 too low.
   The  height of rooms on the second story may be one
 twelfth part less than lhat of  (he chambers  below ; and if
 there is a third story,  divide the height of the second in
 (o twelve equal parts, of which take nine for the height of
 these rooms.
  The length of galleries may be five times their breadth;
 and a gallrry should rarely exceed eight times its width in
 length.
   When the  walls of a building  have been  raised to lhe
 desired height, the vaults  made, the  joists laid,  and the
 stairs brought up, then  the roof is to be raised ; which em-
 bracing every part of tbe building, with its weight equally
 pressing upon the walls, acts as a oand to all the work.
 lis weight, within certain limits,  is of service to the build-
 ing ;  but too much  charge  will make a house top heavy.
 which is a great fault.
  The pilch  of a roof is regulaled according to the climate
 we build in, and the materials employed to defend the tim-
 bers from the weather.  Roofs covered with lead maybe
 nearly flat :  but this  method is  not much  in use, and is
 very expensive.   For tiles a  roof must be higher than the
 pediment pitch, which is one fourth ofthe whole building.
 This pitch is rarely high enough for slates.   Copper cov-
 erings have  lately come much into use  in this country,
 and may be laid on  roofs of a low pitch.
  Whoever plans a  building to be erected within the limits
 of the building act, must necessarily consult it before be
 can arrange his design.
  Architecture,  aquatic.  See Bridge.
  Architecture,  military.  See Foktification.
  Architecture,  naval.  See  Ship hoilding.
  Architecture,  counterfeit: thai  which consists  of
projectures, painted in  black or white,  or  in colours,  after
 (he manner of marble, which is also called scene work in
the painting of columns, &c. for the decoration of theatre-*. 
                        ARC

  Architecture, in perspective,.a sort of  building,  the
members of which are of different modules,  and diminish
proportionably  to their distance,  in  order to make the
work appear longer to the view than it really is.
  ARCHITRAVE, in architecture, that part of  a col-
umn, or order of columns, which lies immediately upon the
capital, being the lowest member of  the entablature, and
so called from its representing the principal beam in tim-
ber buildings.   Over a chimney, this member is called the
mantlepiece ; and over doors or windows, the hyperthy-
ron.
  ARCHIVE, or archives,an apartment in  which are de-
posited the records,  charters, and other papers, of a state
or community.  The archives of the  court of chancery
are in the rolls  office.
  ARCHMARSHAL, the grand marshal of  the empire,
a dignity belonging to the elector of Saxony.
  ARCHON,  in Grecian antiquity,  the chief magistrate
of Athens, after the  abolishing of monarchy; and also the
appellation given to  several officers, both civil and relig-
ious, under  the Greek empire.   Thus we  read  of the
archon of the Gospel, the archon of the walls, &c.
  ARCHONTICI,  in church history, a branch of Valen-
tinians, who maintained that the world was not created by
God, but by angels called archontes.   <„
  ARCHTREASURER, the great treasurer of the Ger-
man empire, a dignity belonging to the duke of Brunswic,
king of Great Britain, but also claimed by the elector pal-
atine.
   ARCTIC, in astronomy, an epithet given tothe north
pole; and likewise  to a circle of the sphere, parallel  to
 the equator, and 23 degrees 28 minutes distant- from the
 north pole.
   ARCTIUM, burdock, a genus of the polygamia order,
 and syngenesia class of plants; and in the natural method
 ranking under the  49th order, compositae  capitals: : the
 calyx is globular, with scales having hooks reflected at the
 tops.  There are three species, vis.
    1.  Arctium lappa; 2. Arctium personata ; and, 3. Arcti-
 um tomentosum. They are all troublesome weeds. The ten-
 der stems of the lappa, or common burdock, however, depriv-
 ed of the bark, may be boiled, and eaten like asparagus.
 When raw,.they are good with  oil and vinegar. Boys catch
 bats by throwing the prickly heads of this species into the
 air.   The seeds, which have a bitterish subacrid taste, are
 recommended as very efficacious diuretics, given either
 in the form of emulsion, or in  powder, to the quantity ofa
 drachm.  The roots, which taste sweetish, with a slight au-
 sterity and  bitterishness, are esteemed aperient, diuretic,
 and sudorific ; and  said to act without irritation, so as to
 be safely ventured  upon in acute disorders.
    ARCTOMYS,  marmot, a genus of quadrupeds.  The
 generic character is; front teeth two in each jaw,  strong,
 sharp, and cuneated; grinders in the upper jaw  five on
 each side, in the lower jaw four; clavicles, or collar bones,
 in the skeleton.  The genus arctomys or  marmot differs
 from that of mus in so few particulars,  as to make it some-
 what doubtful whether it ought to be kept separate or not.
 These animals are of a thick form, with- large,  roundish,
 and  somewhat  flattened  heads, small mouths, the fis-
  sure having a somewhat  perpendicular appearance: ears
 very short, and sometimes none; a short villous tail;, te-
 tradactyle fore feet, with a very small  thumb, and penta-
                        A R C

dactyle hind feet:  the skeleton is furnished with clavicles,
or collar bones; andthecsecum  or appendicular intestine
is very large.   They are diurnal animals; and  teed  on
rools, grain,  &c.  which they  often  collect  into  heaps.
They reside in subterraneous holes or burrows, and sleep
during the winter.   There are 7 species, as follows*.
  1. Marmot alpine is a native of  the Alps and Pyrenean
mountains, and is most  frequent  in  those of Savoy and
Switzerland,  inhabiting  the higher regions, and feeding on
various  roots, plants,, insects,. &c.   It  climbs readily, and
can ascend the rocky eminences and fissures with greaf fa.
cility.   Its general size is somewhat larger than that of a
rabbit,  measuring  about 16  inches to  the  tail, which is
about six inches long.   The  colour of the marmot, on the
upper parts, is a brownish or rather tawny ash colour) the
legs and under parts being of a bright tawny or ferrugi-
nous tinge; tbe head is rather large, and flatfish ; the ean
short, and hid in the fur, and the tail thick and bushy.  It
is an animal which delights in the regions of frost and snow,
and is found only  on the tops of high mountains.  In such
situations several individuals  unite in forming a place of re-
treat,, which  is contrived with great ant, and consists of an
oval cavity or general  receptacle, large enough to contain
several of the animals,  and having a large canal or passage,
which divaricates in such a manner as to present two oof-
lets to the surface of  the ground.  These  recesses are
prepared on the declivities of elevated spots, and the cav-
ern or receptacle  is well lined with moss and hay, which
they prepare during summer, as if conscious of the neces.
sity of providing  for their long hybernal sleep.. In fine
weather they are seen sporting about the neighbourhood of
their burrows; and delight in basking in the sunshine,fre-
 quently assuming an upright pasture,, sitting on their hind
feet.  When assembled in this manner, it is observed, that
 one of the exterior  number seems to  act as a sentinel, and
 on the approach of any danger, alarms the fraternity by a
 loud and shrill whistle, on which they instantly retire to
 their cavern.  These  animals make no provision for win-
 ter; but as soon as the autumnal frosts commence, they
 carefully  stop up  the entrances to their mansions, and
 gradually fall into a state of  torpidity, in which  they con-
 tinue till the arrival of  spring, whea they again awake, and
 recommence their excursions.  Before  they retire to their
 winter quarters they  are observed  to  grow excessively
 fat; and, on  the  contrary, appear greatly emaciated on
 first emerging from them.  If carefully dug up  during tbe
 winter, from their holes, they may be conveyed away in
 their sleeping state ; and when brought into  a warm cham-
 ber, gradually awaken, nearly in the same manner as the
 hamster.  If  kept in a warm situation, they do not become
 torpid in winter.   They breed early ia  the summer^and
 the litter commonly consists of three  or four, the growth
 of which is observed to be very rapid.   See Plate X. Nat.
 Hist.  fig. 33.
    2. Marmot Maryland is a North American animal, and is
 principally  found in Virginia and Pennsylvania.   It also
 occurs in the  Bahama islands;  and in its way of life resem-
 bles the  European or  Alpine marmot, living on vegetable
 substances,  retiring into hollows under  the  roots of trees,
 &c. in winter, and falling into a temporary state of torpidi-
 ty ; it is doubtful,Jiowevcr, whether this is the case in those
 which are found in the Bahama islands.  The size of thii
 species is nearly that of the rabbit;  its  colour is a fer- 
ARC
ARC
 ruginous brown above, and paler or inclining to whitish be-
 neath ; the muzzle, as far as the eyes, is of a pale bluish
 ash colour;  the ears are  short and  rounded;  the eyes
 are rather large and black, and the  snout  sharpish; the
 tail is longer  than in others of this genus, being nearly half
 the length of the body, and covered with longish or rather
 bushy  hair,  of a deep brown  or blackish colour ; the
 feet are blackish, and are  furnished with large and sharp
 claws.
   3.  Marmot Quebec is said to be found in various parts
 of North America,  but it appears to be most frequent in
 Hudson's bay  and Canada. Its size is that of a rabbit,
 or rather larger,.and its colour is brown on the upper parts,
 undulated with whitish or pale gray, the tips of  the hairs
 being of  that  colour;:  the  legs and  under  parts of the
 body are  rufous or ferruginous; the face is^ dusky; the
 nose black and obtuse,  the cheeks gray, and the tail short
 and dusky, especially at the tip.   In its manners it is sup-
 posed to resemble the rest of its congeners.
   4. Arctomys bobac.   See Plate X. Natural History,
 figure 32. The bobac is of the size of the Alpine mar-
 mot, and is  a native of the high  but milder and  sunny
 sides of mountainous countries,  which abound with fissile
 or freestone rocks,  where it is found  in  dry situations,
 and such  as are full of springs, woods, or sand.  It abounds
 in Poland and  Russia, among  tbe  Carpathian  hills.  Its
 colour is gray above, with the throat,  insides of the limbs,
 and under parts of (he  body, fulvous or ferruginous ; the
 tail is short, rather slender, and full of hair..  Its manner
yf life extremely resembles that of the common or Alpine
 marmot, with which, indeed, it appears to have been some-
iimes  confounded  by  naturalists.  The holes or recepta-
 cles of  these animals are lined with the finest hay, and it is
 said that the quantity found in  one nest is sufficient for a
 night's  provender for a  horse.   They  are  fond of sport-
 ing about in the sunshine near their holes, like the common
 marmot, set up a similar whistle  when disturbed, and re-
 tire with precipitation to their receptacle.  They may be
 easily rendered  domestic, like that species, and are of  a
 mild  and  gentle disposition.  In  winter they lie torpid,
 unless kept in  warm rooms.  They  breed early in  the
 spring, and are said to produce six or eight young.
   5.  Arctomys  pruinosa, or hoary marmot.  This species
 is about the size of the  monax, or  Maryland marmot,  and
 i*6 of  a hoary ash colour; the hair, which is long and rath-
 er coarse, being  cinereous at the  roots, black  in  the
 middle, and  white  at the  tips;  the tip of the nose, legs,
 and tail, are black ; the cheeks whitish, and the top of the
 head  dusky,  with a ferruginous cast.   It is  a  native of
 North America.
   6. Arctomys maulina, or mauline  marmot.  This ani.
mal was discovered in  the province of Maule,  in  Chili,
where it inhabits woods.  It is said to be about twice  the
size of the common or Alpine marmot, nearly of  fhe same
colour,  but has pointed ears, lengthened nose, four rows
of whiskers, and a longer tail than the common marmot.
On each foot are also said fo be five toes.  It is represent-
ed as  a strong animal, and  not easily  conquered by dogs
which happen to attack it.
   7. Arctomys gundi, or gundi marmot.  This species is
a native of Barbary, toward mount  Atlas, near Masuffin.
It is about the size of a small rabbit, and is  entirely of a
testaceous  red colour; the  ears are truncated, with large
 apertures;  (he tail short, the upper teelh truncated, and
 lhe lower slender and pointed.   It is called by the Arabs
 gundi.   It»particular history seems as yet to be  not fully
 understood.
   Arctomys citillus, or variegated marmot.  Of all the
 marmots this is the most  elegant in its appearance,'exhib-
 iting generally a beautiful variegation of yellowish brown
 and white, the former constituting the ground  colour, and
 the latter the variegations,  which are sometimes in the
 form of spots, and sometimes of transverse  undulations ;
 the legs and under parts of the  body are of  a yellowish
 white;  the  tail is short,  well covered wilh  hair, and is
 brown above and ferruginous beneath:  there is scarce any
 appearance of external  ears,  but merely an edging to the
 auditory canal.   The length of the animal is about a foot,
 and of  the tail four inches and a half;  but this species va-
 ries as much in size as in colours, some of the varieties are
 scarce  larger than a water rat,  while others are nearly
 equal in size to the marmot.
    The variegated, marmot  inhabits Bohemia,  Austria,
 Hungary,  and  from the  banks of  the Volga to India and
 Persia,  through Siberia  and Great Tartary to  Kamtschat-
 ka, some of the intervening isles, and even the continent
 of America.  It  is  sometimes-found in woods, but seems
 principally  to delight in dry hilly places, where the herb-
 age is of short  growth.   They  form subterraneous bur-
 rows, in which they deposite  heaps of grain, roots, nuts,
 &c. for their winter food; for  it does not appear that they
 sleep during that period,  like some others of this genus.
 They breed in the spring, and produce from five to eight
 at a time.  They are  extremely  irascible and  quarrel-
 some among themselves;  their bite is very severe.  They
 are extremely cleanly,  and after feeding, generally wash
 their faces, like cats,  and clean their fur with the  greatest
 diligence.
   ARCTOPHYLAX, a constellation,  otherwise called
 bootes.
   ARCTOPUS, in botany, a  genus of the polygamia dice-
 cia class and order, and  in the natural method ranking un-
 der the 45th order, umbellatse. The umbella of  tbe male
 is compound ; the involucrum consists of five leaves ; the
 corolla  has five petals ; the stamina  are five ;  and two pis-
 tilli;  the umbella of the hermaphrodite is simple ; the in-
 volucrum is divided into four  parts, is spinous, large,  and
 contains many male flowers in the disk.  There is but one
 species of arctopus, vis.
   Arctopus eehinatus, a native of Ethiopia.
   ARCTOTIS,. in botany,  a  genus of the polygamia
 necessaria  order, belonging  to the  syngenesia   class of
 plants;  and in the natural method ranking under  the 49th
 order, composite discoites. The receptacle is bristly; the
 corona ofthe pappus  is  pentaphy lions;  and the calyx  is
imbricated <with  scales loose at  the top.  There are 11
species; natives of Ethiopia,  or the Cape of Good Hope.
Qfthese,                                           r
   1. Arctolrs angustifolia, with spear shaped leaves;  and
  2. Arctotis aspera,  with wingjshaped woollv leaves, are
most remarkable for their beauty.   They are "treated with
us;as green house plants.
  ARCTURUM, a small star, ofthe  seventh or eighth
magnitude to the  south of arcturus.                  =>
  ARCTURl S, a fixed star of the first magnitude, in lhe
skirt of  bootes. 
A R  D
A R  D
   ARCTUS, in astronomy, the Greek name for tbe ursa
major and minor, whence  the words arctic, arctic circle,
&c.
   ARCTATION, in gardening,  the raising of trees by
layers, which is done thus : strong mother plants, or s(ools,
must be planted in a clean border, and when (bey have shot
fi\e or six main branches from the  root, and as many col-
lateral branches, these main branches must be bent to fhe
ground ;  for which reason, some cut  them half through,
and peg  tbem fast down.  The small branches must be
covered three inches thick upon fhe joints, and have a large
basin of earth made round them to hold the water.  Some
persons give  the branches  a  twist, to make them root the
sooner.
   ARCUTIO,  a machine  consisting of hoops  used  in
Florence by nurses, in order to prevent the chUd from being
overlaid.  Every nurse is obliged to lay her child in an
arcutio, under pain of excommunication.
   ARDASSES, the coarsest of all the silks in Persia.
   ARDEA,  the heron,  a genus of  the  order of grallae.
The general characters of this order are;  the  bill  is
straight,  sharp,  long,  and somewhat  compressed, with a
furrow fhat runs from  the nostrils toward the point;  the
nostrils are linear, and the feet  have four toes. Under
this genus Linnaeus comprehends  the grus  or crane, the
ciconia or stork, and the  ardea  or heron.  There are 79
species, of which the following are fhe most remarkable.
   1. Ardea Americana, or  hooping crane of Edwards, is a
native of America.  The crown of the head  and temples
are naked and papillous; the forehead,  nape of the neck,
and prime wing feathers, are black, bu( (he body is white.
This  species is often  seen  at the mouths ofthe Savanna,
Aratamaha, and  other rivers near St. Augustin.  They
lay two white eggs, like those of the swan, and sit 20 days ;
the young are at first yellow, changing (o white by degrees.
   2. Ardea argil, or hurgil, of Ives, is a very large species ;
from  (ip to fip of (he  wings, measuring 14 feet 10 inches,
and from the tip  of fhe bill to  the  claws 7  feet and  a
half; the bill is 16 inches round at the base, of different
colours,  and nearly of a triangular shape; the  feathers
of the back and wings are of an iron colour., those of the
breast long; over the  belly a great  deal of down, ofa dijfy
white;  (he legs and half (he  (highs are naked ; (he naked
parts full three feet  in lenglh.   This  monster inhabits
Bengal.  On opening one of these, a lerrapine, or land tor-
toise, 1Q inches long, was found in its craw, and a large male
black cat was found entire in its stomach.  One of thege, a
young bird, about five feet in height, was brought up tame,
and presented  to the  chief of  the Bananas,  where Mr.
Sineathman lived; and being accuslomed (o be fed in (be
great hall, soon became familiar, duly attending that place
«t dinner time, and placing itself behind its master's chair,
frequently before any  of the guests entered. The servants
were  obliged  (o  watch it  narrowly,  and defend the pro-
visions with switches  in their hands ;  but notwithstanding
this, it would frequently sna(ch off somewhat;  and it once
purloined a whole boiled fowl,  which it swallowed in an
instant.   The individual  above mentioned used to fly
about the island, and roost very high among the  silk coKon
trees, whence af twe  or three miles distance it could spy
the dinner carrying across (he yard,  when,  darting from
its station, it would  enter promiscuously with Ibe women
who carried  in the dishes.  It sometimes stood foraear
half an hour after dinner, with the head turning alternately,
as if listening to (he conversation.
   3.  Ardea  ciconia,  or white stork of Ray, has naked
eyeballs, and black prime wing feathers.  The skin beju»
fhe feathers, as also (he beak, feet and claws, are of a blood
colour.  It  is a native of Europe, Asia, and Africa, and
feeds  upon amphibious animal.-.   It  i8 such an enemy j0
serpent-, (hat it is reckoned almost a crime fo kill a stork,
From this favourable  treatment, they are  seen in Holland
and the Low Countries walking unconcerned in the middle
of (he s(ree(s.   Storks are  birds of passage ; they spend
the summer in Europe, go off to Egypt, Ethiopia, &c. all
at once before winter, and do not return till about the mid.
die of March.
   4. Ardea garzetta, or egret, is crested behind ; the body
is white, the beak  black, and fhe feet greenish.  I|j8|
most elegant  bird.   It weighs about one pound, and  the
length is 24 inches, to the end of the legs 32.   It is a na-
tive  of fhe east.  But that formerly it  was very frequent
in Britain, appears by some ofthe old bill of fare.  In tbe
famous feast of archbishop Neville, we  find no less than a
thousand asterides, egrets or egrettes,  as the word is dif-
ferently spelled.
   5. Ardea grus, or  common  crane of English authors,
has a naked papillous crown; the  prime  feathers of the
wings are black ;  lhe  body is ash coloured.  This speciei
is far  spread, being  met with in great flocks throughout
northern Europe and Asia. It seems to  have been former-
ly a native of Britain.  They feed on reptiles of all kinds,
as well as on green corn, which last they  make  such hav-
oc k  of, as  to ruin (he farmers wherever flocks of (hen
alight.
   6.  Ardea herodias, or crisfata maxima of  Catesby, i»
crested behind, has a dusky  coloured back, reddish thighs,
and  the breast speckled wilh oblong black spots. It is four
feet  and  a half when erect.   Il is a native of Virginia,and
feeds upon fish, frogs, lizards, eels, &c.
   Ardea leucogeranos of Pallas,  or the Siberian crane of
Pennant, is four feet and a half when standing erect. The
bill is of a red colour;  the irides are white ; the plumage
4s white as snow, except tbe ten first greater quills, with
the-coverts of them, which are black ; the legs are Ion?
and  ;red.  This  species inhabits the  vast marshes and
lakes in Siberia.  It makes  its nest among the reeds, sel-
dom  accessible by man, upon rising green grassy tufts,
made up of herbs and  grass  heaped  together; md lays
two  ash  coloured eggs, spotted  with brown.  They are
shy birds, and always upon (heir  guard agains( an enemy;
having a sentinel to warn (hem  of an approach; on  lhe
least alarm fhey  cry  aloud, not unlike  the swan,  and fly
off directly.  The  sportsman finds, in course, much diffi-
culty in  approaching  (hem.  Sometimes  indeed  he  ap-
proaches (hem under (he cover of a  stalking horse, or
other objects ; at other (imes a small dog will divert their
attention, as  they will without fear attack the dog, while
his master gets within reach.  In breeding time, however,
they are more bold, as they will  then defend their young
even against men.
   8. Ardea major, or  common  heron, has a black crest
depending from the back part of the head, an ash coloured
body, and a black line and belt on the neck  and breast.
It is a native of Europe. It perches and builds in trees,
and  sometimes in high  cliffs over the sea, commonly  in 
A  R D
ARE
 company with others, like rooks.  It was formerly in this
 island game, heron hawking being a favourite  diversion of
 our ancestors. Not lo know the hawk from lhe heionsbaw
 was an old proverb, since absurdly corrupted  to ' He does
 not know  a  hawk from a handsaw,' taken originally Irom
 this diversion, but in course of time  served to express
 great ignorance in any science.  This  bird was formerly
 much esteemed  as food ; made a favourite dish at great
 tables, and was valued at lhe same rate as a pheasant.  It
 is said  to be very long lived ; by Mr. Keysler's account
 it may exceed CO years.
   9. Ardea  pavonia, or the crowned crane, has an erect
 bristly crest, wi(h the temples and two waKles naked.   It
 is a native of  Africa, particularly ofthe coast of Guinea,
 as far as Cape Verd ; at (his last place they are said to
 be exceedingly (ame, and will often come info  the  court
 yards (o feed  wi(h (he poul(ry.  Their chief  food is sup-
 posed  to  be worms, and such other insects as  the heron
 tribe usually feed on, with vegetables  of all  kinds.  See
 Pia(e X. Na(. Hist, fig. 34.
    10. Ardea slellaris, or (he bittern, has a smooth head,
 and is variegated through the body with dark coloured
 spots of different  figures and sizes.  It  is a native of Eu-
 rope, and  inhabits the fen countries. It will suffer persons
 to come very near it  without rising, and has been known
 to strike  at boys and at sportsmen, when wounded and
 unable to  make its escape.  It flies principally  about (he
 dusk of lhe  evening, and then rises in a very singular
 manner, by a spiral ascent, (ill it is quite out of sight.   It
 builds its nest wifh fhe leaves of water plants on some dry
 clump among the reeds, and lays five or six eggs of a cin-
 erous  green  co'our.  This bird and the heron are very
 apt to strike at the fowlei's eyes when only maimed. The
 food of (he bi((ern is chiefly frogs; not that it  rejects fish,
 for small trouts have been met with in (heir stomachs.  In
 the reign of Henry VIII. it was held in  much esteem  at
 our tables, and valued at one shilling.  lis flesh has (he
 flavour of a hare,  and nothing of (he fishiness of that  of
 the heron.
   11. Ardea violacea, or crested bittern of Catesby, has a
 white crest; the body is variegated with black and while,
 and bluish below.  These birds  are seen in Carolina  in
 the rainy seasons; but in (he Bahama  islands they breed
 in bushes growing among (he rocks in prodigious numbers.
 They are called  by the Bahamians crab catchers, crabs
 being what (hey  mostly subsist on; yet they are well
 tasted, and free from any rank or fishy savour.
   12. Ardea virgo, has a straight greenish bill and crim-
 son irides.  The crown  of (he head is  ash coloured ; the
 rest of the head, the upper, and all the under parts, to the
 breast,  black ; (be back, and  all  (he under part from the
 breast, ofa bluish ash colour; behind each eye  springs a
 tuft of long white feathers, which decline downward.  It
 is found in  many parts of Asia and Africa.  See Plate X.
 Nat. Hist.  fig. 35.
   ARDENT spirits, those distilled from fermented vege-
 tables, so called because they will take fire aud burn, such
 as brandy, rum, &c.
   ARDISIA,  a  genus of the tentandria monogynia class
 and order.   The essential character is, calyx five class,
 corolla one petalled, five parted, reflex, stigma simple, ber-
 ry round, one seeded.
   There are  seven species, all trees or shrubs, chiefly
natives ofthe West Indies.
   ARDUINA, a genus ofthe pentandria monogynia class
 and order.   The essential  character is ; corolla one pe-
 talled ; stigma bifid;  berry (wo celled; seeds  solitary.
 There is  one species,  a native of the Cape, which with us
 is treated as a green house plant.
   AREA, in geometry, denotes lhe superficial content of
 any figuie: thus, if we suppose  a parallelogram six inches
 long, and four broad,  its area will be 6  X 4 = 24 square
 inches.
   The method of finding the areas of different figures, as
 triangles, circles, &c.  will be given hereafter.
   ARECA, the  Fausei nut in  botany, a genus of (he or-
 der of the palms pennatifolhe.   The male has no calyx,
 but three petals, and nine stamina:  the  female has no ca-
 lyx ; the  corolla  has three petals,  and the calyx is imbri-
 cated.  There are three species, vis.
   1. Areca cathecu, a native of  India. It has no branches,
 but its leaves are very beautiful; they form a round luft
 at the top of the  trunk, which is as straight as an arrow.
 It grows to (he height  of 25  or 35 fee(, and is a great orna-
 ment in gardens.  The  shell which contains the fruit is
 smooth withou(,  but rough  and hairy within; in which it
 pretty much resembles the shell of the cocoa nut.   Its
 size is equal  to that of a  pretty  large walnut.  Its kernel
 semblance without, and has also the same whitish veins
 within when  cut  in (wo.   In (he centre  of fhe fruit, when
 it is soft, is con(ained a grayish and almost liquid substance,
 which grows  hard in proportion as it ripens.  The extract
 of  (his nut has been supposed to be tbe terra japonica of
 the shops: but according (o later observations, the genu-
 ine drug seems to be obtained from the mimosa catechu.
 The fruit when ripe is  astringent, but not unpalatable, and
 (he shell is yellowish.  Of (his frui(  (here is a prodigious
 consump(ion in the East Indies.  The chief use (hat is
 made of it is to chew it wi(h (he leaves of betel, mixing
 with it lime made of sea shells.
  2. Areca oleracea, Plate X. Nat. Hist. fig. 36, or true
 cabbage palm, is  the most beautiful,  and perhaps the tall-
 est, of  all trees.  The  trunk  is perfectly straight, and
 marked with  rings at the  vestigise ofthe footstalks of the
 leaves.   Near the ground it  is about seven feel in  circum-
 ference ; but tapers as  it ascends, and attains the height of
 170 or 200 feet.  The  bark  is of an ash  colour,  till within
 25  or  30 feet of the extremity  of (he  (ree;  when it
 alters at once to a deep sea green, which continues to the
 top.  About five feet  from the beginning  of the green
 part upward, the trunk is surrounded  with its numerous
 branches,  in a circular  manner;  all the lowermost spread-
 ing  horizontally wilh great regularity ; and tbe extremes of
 many of (he higher branches bend wavingly downward,
 like so many  plumes of feathers.  These branches, when
 full  grown, are 20 feet long, more or less; and are thickly
 set on (he trunk alternately,  rising gradually superior one
to another: (heir broad  curved sockets so surround the
trunk, (ha( the sight of it, whilst among these, is lost, which
again appears among the uppermost branches, and is there
enveloped in an upright  green conic spire,  which beau-
tifully terminates its great  height.  As there are many
thousand  leaves  upon one  tree, every branch  bearing
many scores upon it, and  every leaf  being set  at a small
and equal  distance from one  another, the beauty of such a
regular lofty  group of  waving foliage, susceptible of mo-
tion, by the most  gentle gale of wind, is not to be describ-
ed.   The middle rib, in each leaf, is strong and prominent, 
ARE
A R G
 supporting  it on  (he under  side, the upper appearing
 smooth and shining.   The  pithy part  of the leaf being
 scraped off, (be inside texture appears (o be so many lon-
 gitudinal threadlike filaments.   These, being spun in (he
 same manner as (hey do hemp, or flax, are used in  making
 cordage of every kind.  Upon removing the large  leaves,
 or branches, which surround (he top  of (he trunk, a little
 way above the beginning of the green bark, what is called
 the cabbage is discovered lying in many  thin, snow whife,
 brittle flakes, in taste resembling an almond, but sweeter.
This  substance, which cannot be  procured  without de-
 stroying (he tree, is boiled, and eaten wilh mutton  by the
inhabitants of the West Indies, in the  same manner as tur-
nips and cabbage are with us.  What is called the cabbage
flower, grows  from that part of the tree where the ash
coloured trunk joins the green part already described. Its
first appearance is a green husky spatha, growing to above
20  inches long, and  about  four broad. As  this  husky
spat ha is opening while thus young, the farinaceous  yellow
 seed  in embryo, resembling fine sawdust,  is  very  plenti-
fully dispersed among stringy filaments,  which answer the
use of apices in other more regular flowers : these filaments
being  cleared of  this dust, are pickled, and esteemed
among the  best pickles either in the  West  Indies or in
Europe.   But if  this spatha is not cut down and opened
 whilst thus  young; if it  be suffered to continue  on the
 tree, till it grows ripe  and bursts; then the enclosed part,
 which whilst young and tender  is fit for pickling,  will by
 that time  have acquired an additional hardness, become
 soon after ligneous, grow  bushy, consisting of very small
 leaves, and in time produce a great number of small oval
 thin shelled nuts, about the size of unhusked coffee ber-
 ries : these, being planted, produce young cabbage trees.
 The sockets or grooves, formed by the broad part  of the
 footstalks of the  branches, are used by  the negroes as
 cradles for their children.   On the inner side ofthe very
 young footstalks are tender pellicles, which when dried, il is
 said, make a writing paper.   The trunks serve as  gutter-
 ings;  the pith makes  a sort of sago; and the nuts yield oil
 by decoction.  In the pith also, after the trees are  felled,
 there breeds a kind of worm or grub, which is eaten and
 esteemed a great delicacy by the French of Marlinico, St.
 Domingo, and the adjacent  islands.
   3. Areca oryzoeformis.   This is  a  native of  Cochin
 China, Amboyna, &c.  It is  a slender elegant palm, and
 the fruit-is used for chewing wilh the  betel  leaf as  well as
 that of (he firs( species.
   ARENA, in Roman antiquity, a place where the gladi-
 ators fought:  so called from its being  always strewed with
 sand,  to conceal  from fhe view of lhe people lhe blood
 spilt  in the combat.
   Arena, in  architecture,  the  middle or body ofa tem-
 ple, that comprehends the whole space between the anfse,
 and the extreme wall  of the  building.
   ARENARIA, in ornithology, called tbe Turnstone or
 sea dotterel by English writers ; also a species  of tringa
 that inhabits the  sandy shores of Europe and the Caspian
 Sea.
   Arfkaria, in botany, sandwort: a genus ofthe  decan-
 dria trigynia class; and in the natural method  ranking un-
 der the 22d order, caryophylla.  The calyx has five open
 leaves; the petals are five and entire  ; the capsule is uni-
 locular, and contains  many seeds.   There are 20 species
 only  seven of which are natives of Britain, vis.
   1. Arenaria laricifolia, larch leaved sandwort.
   2. Arenaria peploides, sea sandwort.
   3. Arenaria rubra, purple flowered sandwort.
   4. Arenaria saxatilis, mountain sandwort.
   5. Arenaria serpylliTolia, least sandwort.
   6. Arenaria tenuifolia, fine leaved sandwort.
   7. Arenaria frinervis, plantain leaved sandwort.
   ARENARH, in  antiquity,  gladiators  who  combated
with beasts in  the arena  or amphitheatre.  They  were
slaves of the lowest order, and not capable of becoming
Roman citizens.
   ARENARIUM,  a cemetery or burying ground.  The
arenaria were a kind of pits in  which the ancient Chris-
tians buried their dead, and held their religious assemblies
in times of persecutions.
   ARENARIUS, in  ornithology, a species  of tetrao,
called also the sand grous, found only in the deserts toward
the Caspian Sea.  It is common about Astrachan in  sum-
mer, and passes tbe  winter in Persia.  They drink much
water, and go to the pools  thrice every  day ; when  they
are so eager, that they do not mind the sportsmen, though
at other times they are very shjr.
   ARENATION,  a  kind of dry bath, in which the pa-
lient sits with his bare feet on hot sand.
   AREOPAGUS, or Arreopagus, in Grecian antiquity,a
sovereign court at Athens, so  famous for the justice and
impartiality of its decrees, that the  gods  themselves are
said to have submitted their quarrels  to its determination.
   ARETHUSA, in bolany, a genus of the  gynandria
diandria class ;  and in  the  natural method ranking under
the seventh order,  orchidese.   The  generic character ii
taken from  the  nectarium, which is  tubular, situated at
the bottom  of the corolla, and the inferior labium fixed lo
the stylus.  There  are seven species,  all  natives of
America.
   ARETIA, hi botany, a genus of the pentandria mono-
gynia class ; and in the natural method ranking under the
21st order, pretiae. The corolla is divided  into five parts;
the tube of the  corolla is ovated ; and the capsule is glob-
ular, and consists but of one Cell. There are three species.
   ARGEA, or Argei, in Roman antiquity, thirty human
figures, made-of rushes, thrown annually by the priests, or
vestals,  into the Tiber, on the day of lhe ides of May.
   ARGEMONE, prickly poppy, a genus ofthe monogy-
nia order, belonging to the polyandria class of plants; and
in the natural method ranking under the 27th order, rbsea-
deae.  The  corolla consists of six  petals;  fhe calyx is
tryphillous ; and the capsule is semivalved.  Of this ge-
nus there are  three  species, one of  which is common in
many parts of the West Indies, and called by f he Spaniards
tbe devirVfig^ but they are of no use, and have very  little
beauty.
   ARGENT, in heraldry, the white colour in  (he coals
of gentlemen, knights, and baronets: the white in tbe
arms of  the sovereign  princes is called  luna, and that in
the arms of the  nobility, pearl :  this  is  expressed in en-
graving, by Ibe parts being left plain, without any strokes
from the graver.  See Heraldry.
   ARGENTEUS,  codex,  a MS.  of the four Gospels,
that derives its  name  from its  silver letters, supposed to
be a copy  ofthe Go(hic version made  by Ulphilas, (be
apostle of lhe Goths, in the fourth century.  It  is 4to. tbe
leaves violet colour  parchment ; and on  this ground tbe
letters, which are all capitals, were painted in silver, except 
A R  G
R  A  I
the initials, and a few passages, in gold.  It is now in the
university of Upsal.
  ARGENTINA, in ichthyology, a genus of fishes be-
longing to the order of abdominales.   The generic charac-
ters are these:  the teeth are  in the tongue, as well as the
jaws ; the branchiostege membrane has eight radii or rays ;
lhe anus i3 near lhe tail; and the belly fins consist of many
rays.   There are two species of argenlina, vis.
  1. Argentina Carolina has likewise 15 rays in  the fin near
lhe anus ; the  tail is forked,  and the  lateral lines are
straight.   It inhabits the fresh waters of Carolina.  See
Plate X. Nat. Hist. fig. 38.
  2. Argentina sphyrama has fifteen rays in the fin at the
anus; the air bladder of  this  species is conical on  both
sides,  and shines like silver: false pearls  are sometimes
made of it.
  ARGENTUM arborescens.  Most metallic substances
are capable of decomposing a nitric solution of silver.  The
separation of this metal by mercury, on account of the
phenomena which it presents, has been called the argenrum
arborescens, or more commonly  the  arbor Dianae.   It is
obtained by lhe following process: mix together six parts
of a solution of silver, and four of a solution  of mercury,
both made with nitric acid, and completely saturated ; add
to them a little distilled water, and put the mixture into a
conical vessel,  into which has been  previously introduced
Bix parts  of an  alloy made in the proportion of  seven parts
of mercury and one of silver.   At the end ofa few hours
therewill  be formed, at fhe surface  ofthe small mass of alloy,
a vegetation in the form ofa bush,  as in Plate X. Nat. Hist.
fig. 37.   To obtain  a beautiful specimen, it  is necessary
that all the  ingredients  be very pure:  the glass best
adapted to the purpose is conical  or cylindrical.
   ARGILLA,  clay, in natural  history.  See Chymis-
try.
  ARGO, in astronomy, a constellation of fixed stars in
the southern hemisphere : the  number of  stars in Ptole-
my's catalogue is 8, in Tycho's 11, and in Mr. Flam-
steed's 25.
   Argo, the vessel in which the  Argonauts, of whom Ja-
son  was  the chief, made an expedition in quest  of the
golden fleece.
   ARGONAUTA, in conchology,  the name of one of the
Linnsran  genera: animal a sepio  or clio; shell univalve,
spiral, involuted, membranaceous,  and containing only one
shell.  There  are two  species, the  most  remarkable of
which is the argonauta argo.  See Plate X. Nat. Hist. fig.
30.  The animal which  is the inhabitant of this shell at-
tracted the notice of (he earlies( writers on natural history.
It is a native ofthe Mediterranean and Indian  seas, and is
supposed  to have taught  mankind tbe  use of sails, and (he
ar( of navigation : it is the nautilus of English collectors.
When this  little creature intends to sail,  it discharges a
quantity of  water, by which operation its specific gravity
is rendered  less (han  that of sea  water;  and rising to (he
surface, erecis i(s arms, and expands a membrane between
them, by means of which it is  driven before the wind, like
a vessel under sail; at the same time that two  of its arms,
which hang over (he side of (he shell, serve  for oars and a
rudder.  In (his  manner i( sports  on the water in calm
weather;  but on the  first indication of a storm, it lowers
its sail, dra^s in its arms, fakes in  wafer, and sinks.
  ARGOPH V LLUM, in botany, white leaf.   A genus of
the monogynia order, belonejjjgjfl  the  pentandria class of
  vol. i.      ^— -'£9 *
plants.  The capsule is frilocular ; the uccfariuni is pyi >
midal, penlagonous, and the length of the corolla.   There
is but one species, vis.
  Argophvllum  nitidum, or fhe glossy argophyllum, a
native of New Caledonia.   This species has some  affinity
with the ivy.
  ARGUMENT,  arguraenlum, in rhetoric and logic, an
inference drawn from premises, the truth  of  which is in-
disputable ; or at least highly probable.
  Argument, in astronomy, denotes a known arch, by
means of which we  seek another one unknown.
  The  argument of (he moon's  latitude is her distance
from the node; and the argument of inclination is an arch
of a planet's orbit, intercepted between the ascending node
and the place of the planet  from the sun, numbered ac-
cording fo the succession of the signs ofthe zodiac.
  Argument of inclination, or argument of latitude, of
any planet,  is an arch ofa planet's orbit, intercepted be-
tween the ascending node and the place of the planet from
the sun, numbered according to the succession ofthe signs.
  Argument, menstrual, of latitude, is  the  distance of
the moon's true place from the sun's true place.   By  this
is found the quan(i(y of the real obscuration  in eclipses,
or how many digits are darkened in any place.
  Argument, annual, of the moon's apogee, or simply,
annual argument, is the  distance of (he sun's place from
(he place of fhe moon's  apogee ; tha( is, (he arc of fhe
ecliptic comprised between those two  places.
  ARGUS SHELL, a species of porcelain shell,  beauti-
fully variegated  with spots  resembling, in some measure,
those in a peacock's tail.
  ARGYTHAMNIA, in botany, a  genus of the class
and order monoecia lelandria ;  the essential character is,
male  cal. four leaved; cor.  four petalled; fern. cal.  five
leaved, cor. none,  styles dicchotomous, caps, nicoceous,
solitary seeds.   There is one shrubby species, a native
of Jamaica.
  ARIADNE, a beautiful statue of Parian marble, which
was  for nearly 300 years one of the chief ornaments of
Belvidere, where it was placed by pope Julius II.  It is
now in  the museum  of  Paris.   Ariadne is  represented
sleeping on  the rocks of  Naxos, where she has been  un-
gratefully left by Theseus.
  ARIANS, in church history, a sect  of ancient Christians
who denied (be (hree persons in (he   Holy Trinity to be
of fhe same essence, and  affirmed Christ to be a creature ;
that he  was inferior to the Father as to h'i3 deity;  that he
was  neither co-eternal, nor co-equal  with him ; also, that
the Holy Ghost was not  God, but a  creature of the Son.
In  (heir doxologies, Ihey ascribed glory to lhe Father in
the Son, through the Holy Ghost.
  The term Arian,  in modern times, is applied to all who
believe  in the pre-existence of Christ, but who consider
him  as  inferior and  subordinate lo the Father.
  ARIDAS, a kind of taffety,  manufactured in the East
Indies,  from a shining thread which  is got from  certain
herbs, whence they are styled aridas of herbs.
  ARIDED, a fixed star ofthe second  magnitude,  in the
extremity of tfje swan's tail.
  AR I DULL AM,  in natural  history, a kind of zarnich
found in the East Indies.
  ARIES, in zoology.   See Ram.
  Arif.s, or the Ram, in astronomy, one of the constella-
tions of the northern hemisphere, and  the first ofthe  old 
A R  I
A R  I
 twelve signs of the zodiac, and marked T in imitation ofa
 ram's head. It gives name to a twelfth part ofthe ecliptic,
 which the sun enters commonly about the 20th of March.
 The stars of this constellation, in Ptolemy's catalogue, are
 18; in Tycho Brahe's 21 ;  in Helvetius's  27 j  and  in
 Flamsfeed's 66: but they are mostly very small, only one
 being of fhe 2d magnitude, two of the 3d magnitude, and
 all the rest smaller.
  ARILLUS, in botany,  the proper  or exterior coat or
covering of the seed, which drying, falls off spontaneously.
 All seeds  have not this appendage.
  ARISH, a Persian long measure, containing about  38
 English inches.
  ARISTA, among botanists, a long needle like beard,
 which stands out from the husk of a grain of corn, grass, &c.
  ARISTEA, in botany, a genus ofthe triandria monogy-
 nia class and order.  The essential character is, petals
six, style  declinate, stigma funnel shaped gaping, capsule
 inferior with many seeds.  There is one species, a native
ofthe Cape.
  ARISTIDA, in botany, a genus ofthe class  and order
triandria digynia.   The essential character is, calyx two
 valved, corolla  one valved,  with three terminal  awns.
There are six species,  all of them natives of the East and
West Indies.
  ARISTOLOCHIA, birthwort, a genus  of the hexan-
 dria order, belonging to the gynandria class.of plants; and
 in the natural method  ranking under the 11th order, sar-
 mentaceae.  It has no calyx ; the corolla consists  of one
 entire petal ; and the capsule, which is below the  flower,
 has six cells.  The species are twenty-one ; but only the
 following merit description.
   Aristolochia Indica,  or contrayerva of Jamaica, is a
 native of lhat island, where its roots are used instead ofthe
 true contrayerva. It has long trailing branches, which climb
 upon the neighbouring plants, and sometimes rise to a con-
 siderable  height.   The  flowers  are  produced in  small
 clusters toward the upper part of the stalks,  which are of
 a dark purple colour.
 ,  Aristolochia serpentaria is a native of Virginia and
 Carolina, whence the radix serpentaria, or  snakeroot,  so
 much used in medicine, is brought over.  The leaves grow
 close to the ground on footstalks an inch long, of a  singu-
 lar shape, and of a dark purple colour.   A round canulated
 capsule succeeds the flower.  It is filled with seeds, which
 are ripe in May.  When planted in  gardens,  in countries
 where they are natives, they increase so much in two years,
 that one can scarce grasp the stalk ofa single one.   This
 pedes is usually found in woods near  the  roots of great
s
tree
  The usual price of the root, when  dried, is 6d. per lb.
both in Virginia and Carolina ; and the negro  slaves em-
ploy a great part of the time allowed them by their masters
in search after it.
  Another species is the clematitis, the root of which has
an aromatic bitterness, which is by no means  unpleasant.
This  root is deservedly esteemed as  a remedy in the ma-
lignant fever, and epidemic diseases of warm climates.  It
is given in  substance in doses of from ten to thirty grains,
and in infusions, from one to  two drams.
  ARITHMETIC is the science of numbers, and teaches
tne art of computing by (hem.
  At what  time this science was introduced into the world
cannot be  easily determined.  History fixes  neither the
author nor the time.  The Greeks very early made use of
the letters of the alphabet to  represent  their numbers.
The 24 letters, taken according to their order, at first de-
noted the numbers 1, 2, 3, 1, 5, 7, 8, 9, 10, 20, 30, 40,50
60, 70, 80, 100, 200, 300, 400, 500, 600, 700, and 800; f0'
which they added the three following, 7, V\  to represent
6, 90, and 900.
   The Romans followed a like method ; and besides char-
acters for each rank of classes,  introduced others for fire
fifty, and five  hundred.  Their method is still used for
distinguishing the chapters of books, and some other pur-
poses. Their numeral letters and values are the following
    I    V   X   L        C          D         Ar
   One, five, ten, fifty, one hundred, five hundred,  one thousand.
   Any number may be represented by repeating and com-
bining these according to the following rules.
   1. When the  same letter is  repeated twice, or offener
its value is represented as often.  Thus II signifies tiro'
XXX thirty, CC two hundred.  2. When a numeral letter
is placed after one of greater value, their values are added:
thus XI  signifies eleven, LXV sixty-five, MDCXXVlli
one thousand six hundred and twenty-eight.   3. When a
numeral letter is placed before one of greater value,the
value of the  less is taken from that of the greater: thus
IV signifies four, XL  forty, XC ninety, CD four hundred.
   Sometimes I3 is used instead of D for 500, and the value
is increased ten times by annexing 3 to the right hand.
         Thus, I3 signifies     500
                IQ3     -    5000
               lO30   "   50000
         Also, C13 is used for     1000
               CCjoq     for    10000
               CCCtq33  for   100000
   Sometimes thousands are represented by drawing aline
over the top  of the numeral, "V being used for five thou-
sand, L for fifty thousand, CC two hundred thousand.
   About the year of Christ 200, a new  kind of arithmetic,
called sexagesimal, was invented probably by Ptolemj, to
remedy the difficulties of the common  method, especially
with regard to fractions.  Every unit was supposed to be
divided into 60 parts,  and each of these into 60 others, and
so on.  Thus from one to 59 were marked in the common
way : then 60 was called a sexagesima prima, or first sex-
agesimal integer, and had one single dash over it; so 60
was expressed thus 1'; and so on to 59 times 60, or 3540,
which was thus expressed  LIX'.   He  now proceeded to
60 times 60, which he called a  sexagesima secunda, and
was thus expressed I",  In like manner,  twice 60 times
60, or  7200,  was  expressed by II"; and so on  till he
came to 60 times 3600,  which  was a third sexagesimal,
and expressed thus I'".  If any number less  than 60 was
joined with these sexagesimals, it was added in its proper
characters without any dash:  thus  I'XV  represented60
™i5* °r 75 ; J'VXXV is four times 60 and 25, or 265;
X II'XV is ten times 3000, twice 60 and 15, or 36,135)
&c.   Sexagesimal fractions were marked  by putting  the
dash at the foot, or on the  left hand ofthe letter: thus I,
or I; denoted i ; J,„ or "I,  7^ir, Sec.   So nearly did
the inventor of this method approach the Arabic, or com-
mon mode of notation ; instead of sexagesimal progres-
sion, it was required  only  to  substitute decimal, to make
the signs of numbers from 1 to 9 simple characters, and to
introduce the 0, a character which signifies noth'm* of H- 
ARITHMETIC.
 self, but which serves to fill up places.   Though the sexa-
 gesimal whole  numbers were soon laid aside after the in-
 troduction of the Arabic nolation,  sexagesimal"-fractions
 continued till the invention of decimals, and are even still
 used in the subdivisions of circular arcs and  angles.
   The method of notation, which we now use, came into
 Europe from the Arabians, by the way of  Spain.  The
 Arabs, however,  do  not pretend to be the inventors ofthe
 characters, but acknowledge that they received them from
 lhe Indians.   Some imagine that they were found out by
 the Greeks,  which is not probable; as Maxirnus Planudes,
 who lived toward the  close of lhe  13th century, is the
 first Greek who makes use of them : and Dr. Wallis is of
 opinion that these characters must  have been  used in En-
 gland at least as long ago as the year 1050, if not in ordina-
 ry affairs, at least in mathematical ones, and in  astronomi-
 cal tables.
    The oldest treatises extant upon the theory of arithme-
 tic, are the seventh, eighth,  and  ninth  books  of  Euclid's
 Elements, which treat of proportion  and  of prime  and
 composite numbers.   Nicomachus the Pythagorean, wrote
 a treatise on the theory of arithmetic, consisting chiefly of
 the distinctions and divisions of  numbers into classes, as
 plain, solid,  triangular, quadrangular,  and tbe rest of the
 figurate numbers as they  are called, numbers odd  and
 even, &c. with some of the more general properties of the
 several kinds.  His arithmetic was published at.Paris in
 1533.  The next remarkable writer on this subject is Boe-
 tbius, who is supposed to have  copied most of his  work
 from Nicomachus.
    From this time no  remarkable writer on  arithmetic ap-
 peared till about  the year 1200, when Jordanus of Namur
 wrote a treatise on this subject, which was published and
 demonstrated by  Joannes Faber  Stapulensis in the 15th
 century : and, as learning advanced in Europe, the num-
 ber of writers  on arithmetic increased.  About the  year
 1464, Regiomontanus, in his triangular tables, divided the
 radius into 10,000 parts instead of 60,000;  and thus tac-
 itly expelled  the sexagesimal arithmetic; which,  how-
 ever, still remains in lhe division of time.  Ramus, in his
 arithmetic, written about the year 1550, and published by
 Lazarus Schonerus in 1586,  uses decimal periods in car-
 ry ing on the square and  cube roots  to fractions.   The
 same had been done  before by our countrymen Buckley
 and Record ;  buf the first who published an express  trea-
 tise on decimals was Simon Stevinius, about the year 1582.
 Dr. Wallis is the first who took much notice of circulating
 decimals, and  fhe honour of inventing logarithms is un-
 questionably  due  to  lord Napier, baron of Merchislon in
 Scotland, about the end of the 16th or  beginning of the
 17th century.  Arithmetic has thus advanced to a degree
 of perfection which (he ancients could never have imagin-
 ed possible, much less hoped to attain ;  and it may now be
 reckoned one of those  few sciences which is in its nature
 capable of  little further improvement.
  The following marks  are used as abbreviations in arith-
 metic.
 = is the si gnof equality.
 -f signifies Addition;  thus  2 -f- 3 =  5, is 2 added to 3
       equal to 5.
— signifies Subtraction; thus 5 — 2 = 3, is  5 less 2equal
       to 3.
 X  signifies Multiplication; 9 X 5 = 45, is 9 multiplied
      by 5 is equaLto 45. *»

    :'                        \              ___________
-:- signifies  Division; 54 -— 9 = 6, is 54 divided by 9 is
       equal to 6.
\/   signifies the Square Roof, y~7 is the  square root of
       9, which is equal to 3.

             SOTATION AND MTMERATIOV.
  The first elements of  arithmetic are acquired during our
infancy : small  numbers are  most easily apprehended :  a
child soon understands  what is meant by two, or three, or
four, but has no distinct notion of twenty  or thirty.  Ex-
perience removes  this  difficulty, and enables us to form
many units into a class,  and several of these smaller classes
into one  of a higher kind, and thus to advance through as
many ranks of  classes as occasion requires.  If a boy ar-
range an hundred stones in one row, he would be tired be-
fore he could reckon them ;  but  if he place them in fen
rows of ten stones each, he  will  reckon an hundred with
ease ; and if he collect  ten such parcels, he will reckon a
thousand.
  There does not  seem  tobeanjr  number naturally adapt-
ed  for constituting a class of the lowest, or any higher
rank to  the exclusion  of others.  However, as  ten has
been generally  used for  this purpose by  most nations who
have cultivated this science,  it is probably the most con-
venient for general use.  Other  scales may be  assumed :
thus, if eight were the scale, 6 times 3 would be two classes
and two  units, and lhe  number of 18 would then be rep-
resented by 22. If 12 were the scale, 5 times 9 would be
fhree classes and nine units, and 45 would be represented
by  39, &c.  By not observing the same scale in the vari-
ous kinds of monies, weights, and the like, much of (he
difficulty in the practice of arithmetic arises.
  All numbers are  represented by the ten following char-
acters.
  123     456T890
 One,  two,  three,   four,   five,   six,  sevea,  eight,  nine, cypher.
  The nine first are  called  significant  figures or  digits
When placed singly, they denote the simple numbers sub
joined lo the characters.  When  several are placed to-
gether, the first or  right  hand figure only is to be taken for
its simple value: the  second  signifies so  many tens, the
third so many hundreds, and  the  others so many higher
classes, according to the order in which they stand.  And
the cypher in  any place denotes  the wani  of a number in
that place: thus, 20 denotes two tens and no units or sim-
ple  number.
  The following table shows the names and divisions  of
the  classes.
8.  4 3 7, 9 8  2. 5  6 4,  7 3 8. 9 7 2, 6 4  5
K)	03	tt) 95	en		OR	in	tft	<r.	xr.		V.	r.	■r.	en r. tn
c	3	C 3	C		3	3	3	3	3		-3	~Z	*T2	tJ = ."3
o	o	O O	o		O	O	O	c	O		3	3	3	oj - 3
i3	'"	13 3Z	^3		uz	izz	M	'JZ	izz		a	m	rs	
7^	~	—; ~	73		73	"	~	~	~		:i	EC	•j.	
^xj:a^					£	3	3	c	3		O	3	3 C	3
w O	Cm o ■a	-O "3 3 9) 09 —	3	'/j	O	o	~z	~	C	on		1	■^	—H 1—i
C X	s	3 3		►5	•	3		"a		fc	1.	H		
, 03	IS X	O =		0	«	X	x	~		O	.3			
	c -3	h =			o	3 o -a	h			!*?"<	H>4			
"O	i>				T3	3								
	H													
"2					"2									
3					3									.
					in									
 
ARITHMETIC.
234672
142131
223164
389879
796543
  The first six figures from tbe right hand are called the
unit period,  lhe  next six the million period, after which
the trillion, quadrillion,  quintillion, sexfillion, septillion,
octillion, and nonillion periods, follow in their order.
  The whole art of arithmetic is comprehended  in  two
operations,  Addition and  Subtraction.  But as methods
have been invented for facilitating these  operations,  and
distinguished by the  names of Multiplication  and Divi-
sion ; these four  rules are the foundation of all arithmeti-
cal operations.
                      addition.
  Addition  is that operation by which several numbers of
the same denomination are collected into one total.
                                             Example.
  Rule.  Write the numbers  distinctly, units  468632
under units, tens under tens, and so on.  Then  767345
reckon the  amount of  the right hand column.  If
it be under ten, mark  it down.  If it exceed ten,
mark the units only, and carry  the tens to the
next place.  In  like manner, carry the tens of
each column lo (he next, and mark down the  full
sum of the left hand column.
                                             3022366
  The best method of proving the truth of sums in Addi-
tion, is to add up the lines in a contrary direction :  thus, if
I begin at  the bottom of the lines, when the sum is done,
I add the figures again together,  beginning each line from
the top ; and if the total  in both cases correspond, it may
be supposed xight.
                 COMPOUND ADDITION.
   Compound  Addition teaches  to  collect  several  num-
 bers of different denominations into one total.
   Rule. (1)  Place the numbers so that those of the same
 denomination  may stand directly under each  other, and
 draw a line below  them.  (2) Add up the figures in the
 lowest denomination, and find how many ones of the  next
 higher denomination are contained in their sum.  (3) Write
 down the remainder,  and carry the ones to lhe next de-
 nomination ; with  which proceed  as  before;  and so on,
 through all the denominations to  the  highest, whose sum
 must be all written down;  and this sum, together with the
 several remainders, is the total sum required.
    The method of proof is the same as  in simple addition.
              I.   s.   d.      I.  s.   d.
34	15	2i	51	18	H
27	12	»4	15	9	*H
30	9	*H	76	4	9
79	15	*\	59	19	H
172	13	3|	203	13	I*
lb.	OS.	dwts. gr.	lb.	OZ.	dwts. gr.
45	11	19 22	51	9	17 15
53	9	17 15	97	8	15 7
24	10	18 23	41	3	19 23
99	9	10 8	88	11	7 16
       224   6    6   20     282  10    0   13
  Hence it  is evident,  that for a person to be expert in
compound addition  requires only a knowledge of the sev-
eral  tables of weights  and measures: if,  for  instance, I
have  to  pay for the  carriage of four  packages, marked
A, B, C, and  D ; A weighing 4 tons, 16cwt. 3qrs. R 1 ton,
14cwt. 2qrs.  24lb. C 12cwt. 3qrs. 25lb. and D 3 tons,
17cwt. Oqr. 261b. to be able to ascertain the weight ofthe
whole, it is necessary that I should know the Avoirdupoise
Table, of which a part is,  that 28lb. make 1 quarter of a
hundred  weight, 4 quarters 1 hundred  weight, and 20
hundred  1 ton ; then I proceed as follows :
                  Tons. cwt.  qr.  lb.
                    4    16  3    0
                    1    14  2    24
                    0    12  3    25
                    3    17  0    26
  The reason of this rule  is evident: for, in addition of
money, as 1 in the pence is equal to  4 in the farthings ; 1
in the shillings to  12 in  the pence;  and in the pounds to
20 hi  the shillings;  carrying as directed is nothing more
than providing a method of digesting the  money arising
from each column  properly in the scale of denominations :
and, this reasoning will  hold good in  the addition of  num-
bers of any denomination whatsoever.  Thus  to take an
example  in Troy  weight, where 24 grains make  a penny-
weight, 20 pennyweights one  ounce,  and 12 ounces a
pound.
                   11    1   2   19
And I now find fhat I have to  pay for 11 tons* lcwt. 2qr.
191b.
SUBTRACTION.
  Subtraction is  the  operation by  which we  take a less
number from a greater,  and find  their  difference. The
greater is called  the minuend, and the less the  subtra-
hend.
  If any figure of the subtrahend be greater than the cor-
responding figure of the minuend, and having found and
marked the difference, we  add one to the next place of
the subtrahend.   This  is called borrowing  ten,  because
adding one to the subtrahend produces the same effect as
taking one from the  minuend.
  Rule.  Subtract  units from units, tens from tens, and
so on.  If any figure of the subtrahend be greater than the
corresponding one of  the minuend, borrow ten.
      Example. Minuend    5173694     47386414
               .Subtrahend 2421453     23792352
               Remainder  2752241     23594062
  To prove subtraction, add the remainder and  subtra-
hend together;  if their sum be equal to the minuend, the
sum is right.
  Or subtract the remainder  from the minuend.  If the
difference be equal to the subtrahend, the sum is right.
  Rule for Compound Subtraction.   " Place like denom«
inations under like,  and borrow, when necessary,  accord-
ing to the value of the higher place."
           lb-,  os. dwts. gr.      I.
           45  8    14  15       95
           29  8    17  17       59
d.
s.
 7 6£
16 9|
10 8£
          15  11    16   22      35  .
  The reason for borrowing  is the same as in simple  sub-
traction.   Thus  in  subtracting pence,  we add 12 pence
when necessary  lo  lhe minuend, and at the next step, we
add one shilling to the subtrahend. 
ARITHMETIC.
  The learner should acquire the habit, when two num-
bers are marked down, of placing such a  number under
the less, lhat, when added together, the sum may  be equal
to the greater.  The operation is the same as subtraction,
though conceived in a different  manner, and is  useful in
balancing accounts,  and  on other occasions in  the con-
cerns of life.
                  MULTIPLICATION.
  Multiplication is  a compendious mode of addition, and
teaches to  find the  amount ef any given number by re-
peating it any proposed number of times.  Thus, 8 multi-
plied by 5, or 5 times 8, i3 40.  The given numbers, 8 and
5, are  called factors ; the first, 8, the multiplicand, the
second, 5, the multiplier; and the amount, 20, the prod-
uct.
    Ex.]  76859 mult, by 4, or 76859 added 4 times.
             4              76859
        -------              76859
        307436              76859

                           307436
   If the multiplier be 10, we annex a cypher to the multi-
plicand.  If the multiplier be 100, we annex two cyphers;
and so on.   The reason  is obvious,  from  the use of cy-
phers in notation.
   Rule.   Place  the multiplier  under  the multiplicand,
and multiply  the latter  successively by  the significant
figures of the former ; placing the right  hand  figure of
each product under the figure ofthe multiplier from which
:t arises; then add the product.
       Ex.] (a)  7329      37846       93956
                  365        235        8704
  36645      189230      375824
 43974      113538      657692
21987       75692      751648
            2675085     8893810   817793024
  A number which cannot  be produced by the multiplica-
tion of two others  is called a prime number; as 3, 5, 7,
11.
  A number which  may be produced by the multiplica-
tion of two or  more smaller ones, is called a composite
number.   For example, 27, which  arises from the multi-
plication of 9 by 3; and these numbers, 9 and 3, are call-
ed the component parts of 27.
  If the multiplier be a composite  number, we may mul-
tiply successively by the component parts.
       Ex.]   7638 by 45, or 5 times 9     7638
               45                          9

            38190                      68742
           30552                            5
           343710                      343710
  Because the  second product is equal to five times the
first, and the first is equal to nine times the multiplicand,
it is obvious that  the  second product  must be five times
nine, or forty-five times as great as the multiplicand.
  If the multiplier be  5, which is the  half of 10, we may
annex a cypher and divide by 2.  If  it be 25,  which is
fhe fourth part  of 100, we  may annex  two  cyphers, and
divide  by 4.   Other contractions of  the like kind will
readily occur to the learner..
  To multiply by 9, which is one less than 10,  we  may-
annex a cypher; and subtract the multiplicand from the
number it  composes.   To multiply  by 99,999, or any
number of 9's, annex as many cyphers,  and subtract the
multiplicand.  The  reason is obvious; and a  like rule
may be found, though the unit place be different  from 9.
  Multiplication  is  proved  by repeating the operation,
using the multiplier for the multiplicand,  and the multipli-
cand for the multiplier.   Or it may be done by casting out
the nines; that is, cast out the nines  of the multiplier and
multiplicand, and set down the remainders.   Multiply the
remainders together, and if the excess  of nines in their
product be equal to  the excess of 9's  in fhe  total product,
the work  may be deemed right :  thus, in Ex. (a) above,
the excess of nines  in the  multiplicand is 3, and in the
multiplier  it is 5, and 3 X 5 = 15,  or six above nine,
which I find is the excess of nines in the  total product.
The best method  of proving Multiplication is by Division ;
and if  that be adopted, the two rules must  be learned at
the same time.  Then the proof of each example in Mul-
tiplication becomes a sum in  Division, and vice versa.

             COMPOUND MULTIPLICATION.
   Compound Multiplication teaches to find  the amount of
any given number of different denominations, by  repeating
it any proposed number of times.
   Rule.  (1) Place the multiplier under the  lowest denom-
ination of the multiplicand.   (2) Multiply  the number of
the lowest denomination by  the  multiplier, and find how
many ones of the next higher denomination  are contained
in the  product.   (3) Write down  the excess,  and carry
the ones to the product of the next higher denomination,
with which proceed  as before ; and so on,  through all the
denominations to the highest; whose product,  together
with the several excesses, taken as one number, will be the.
whole amount required.
                 Examples of Money.
           9lb. of tobacco, at 4s.  S\d, per  lb.
                    4  8£
                        9
                 21. 2 4f the answer.
  The product of a number consisting of several parts, or
denominations, by any simple number whatever, will evi-
dently be expressed by taking the product of lhat simple
number and each part by  itself as so many distinct ques-
tions;  thus, 25/. 12s. 6d.  multiplied by 9, will be 225/.
108s. 54d.  =, by  taking the  shillings  from  the  pence,
and the pounds  from  the  shillings,  and placing  them in
the shillings and pounds respectively, 230/. 12s. 6d. which
is the same as the  rule; and this will  be  true when the
multiplicand is any compound number whatever.
  Case I.  If  the multiplier exceed  12,  multiply succes-
sively  by its component  parts, instead of the whole num-
ber at once, as in simple multiplication.
     Ex.]  16cwt. of cheese, at 1/. 18s. 8d. per cwt.
                     1/. 18s. 8rf.
                             4
7  14  8
       4
30/.  18s. 8d. the answer.
r 
ARITHMETIC.
  Case II. If Ihc multiplier cannot  be produced by the     When  there  are  cyphers annexed to the■«*"«<», cut
.nul.Hncation of small  numbers, find  the  nearest to it,   them off, and cut off an equal number of figures from the
cither creater or less, which can be so produced ;  then,   dividend ; annex these figures to th<e^ema,°°er"
multiply by the component parts as before, and  for the
odd parts add or subtract according as is required.
  Fr.' 17 ells of holland, at 7s. 8*d. per ell.
                      7s.
                          4
Hd.
1	10	10 4
6	3	4
	7	H
                6/.   lis.  0£d. the answer.

                      DIVISION.
  Division teaches to find how often one number is con-
tained in another of  the same denomination, and thereby
performs the work of many subtractions.
  The number to be divided is called the dividend.
  The number you divide by is called the divisor.
  The number of times the dividend contains the divisor
is called the quotient.
  If the dividend containsthe divisor any number of times,
and some part or parts over, those  parts are called the
remainder.
  Rule. (1) On the right and left of the dividend draw
a curved line, and write the divisor on the left hand, and
the quotient as it arises on the right.  (2) Find how many
times  the divisor may be had  in as many  figures  of lhe
dividend as are just necessary, and write the number in
the quotient.  (3) Multiply the  divisor by  the quotient
figure, and set the product under that part of the dividend
used.   (4) Subtract the last found product  from that part
ofthe dividend under which  it stands, and to  the right
hand of the remainder bring  down the next figure  of the
 dividend; which number divide as before;  and  so on, till
the whole is finished.
   When the divisor does not exceed 12, the whole com-
putation may  be performed without setting down any fig-
 ures except the  quotient.
         Ex.] 7)35868(5124     or    7)35368
                                       5124
  When the divisor  is a composite number,  and one of
the component parts also measures the dividend, we may
divide successively by the component  parts.
example i.
30114 by 63
    9)30114
EXAMPLE  II.
975 by 105 = 5 X 7 X 3
        5)975
      7)3346

Quotient 478
3)195

7)65
     .                         Quotient 9£.
  This method might be  also used, although the compo-
nent parts of the divisor  do not measure  the  dividend;
but the learner will not understand how to manage the re-
mainder till he be acquainted with the doctrine of vulgar
fractions.
           Ex.]  To divide 378643 by 5200.
               52|00)3786|43(72|fSS-
                     364

                      146
                      104

                       4243
  The reason will appear by performing the operation at
large, and comparing the steps.

                 COMPOUND DIVISION.
  Compound Division teaches to find how often one given
number is  contained  in another of different denomina-
tions.
  Rule. (1) Place the  numbers as in simple division. (2)
Begin at the left  hand,  and divide each  denomination by
the divisor, setting the  quotients under (heir respective
dividends.   (3) But if there be a remainder, after dividing
any of the denominations except the least, find how many
ofthe next lower denomination it is equal to, and add it to
the number, if any, which was in this denomination before;
then divide  the sum as  usual, and  so on till tbe whole is
finished.
  The method of proof is the same as in  simple division.
                 Examples of money.
                Divide 225/. 2s. 4d. by  2.
                  2)225/. 2s. 4d.
                    1121. lis. 2d. the quotient.
  Case I.  If the  divisor exceed  12, divide continually
by its component parts, as in simple division.
  Ex.]  What is cheese per cwt. if 16 cwt. cost 30/. 18«.

                    4)301. 18s. 8d.
                     4)71. 14s. Bd.

                      ll. 18s.  8d. the answer.
  Case II. If the divisor cannot be produced by the mul-
tiplicatien of small numbers, divide by it after the maimer
of long division.
         Ex.  Divide 74/. 13s.  Gd. by 17.
     17)74/. 13s. 6d.(4*. 7s. Wd. the quotient.
       68
174
170 
ARITHMETIC.
                     REDUCTION.
  Reduction teaches to bring numbers from one name or
denomination to another, without changing their value.
  Rule.  All great names are brought into smaller ones
by multiplying wilh so many ofthe next less as make one
of the greater, adding to the product the parts of the less
name, if the number  to be reduced be a compound one j
and all small names are brought into greater by dividing
by as many of the  less as make one of the greater.

                      EXAMPLES.
           1.  Reduce 255/. 6s. 9d. into pence.
                      20

                     5106
                       12

                    61281
  Here it is evident that 61281 pence is equal to 255/. 6s.
9d.
  2. How many pounds are there in 122562 pence  ?
                    12)122562
20)10213 — 6
            Answer   510/. 13a. 6d.

            THE  RULE  OF THREE DIRECT.
  The Rule of Three  Direct  teaches, by having three
numbers given,  to find a fourth, that shall have the same
proportion to the third as the second has to the first.
  Rule.  (1) State the question : that is, place the num-
bers so, that the first and third may be the terms of sup-
position and demand, and  the  second of the same  kind
with the answer required.  (2) Bring the first and third
numbers into the same denomination, and the  second into
the lowest name  mentioned.   (3) Multiply  the second
and third numbers together, and divide the product by
the first, and the quotient will be the answer to the ques-
tion, in the same denomination you left  the second number
in ; which may  be brought into any other denomination
required.
  The method  of proof is by inverting the question.
  Ex. If 12/6.  of cheese cost 9s. 6d. what will 4 cheeses
cost, each  weighing lqr. 6/6 ?
       If 12/6.  : 9s. 6d. ::  lqr. 5/6. X 4.
               12        28
114        33
            4

          132
          114

          528
        1452
12)15048

 12)1254 pence
20)104  6

    5hJt6rf<
  Note.  This rule, on account of its great and extensive
usefulness, is oftentimes called the Golden Rule of Pro-
portion ; for, on a proper application of it, and the preced-
ing rules, the whole business of arithmetic,  as well as eve-
ry mathematical  inquiry,  depends.   The rule  itself is
founded  on this obvious principle, that the magnitude or
quantity of any effect varies constantly in proportion to
the varying part of the cause ;  thus, the quantity of goods
bought is in proportion  to  the  money laid out; the space
gone over by an uniform motion is  in proportion to the
time, &c.   As the idea annexed to the term proportion is
easily conceived,  it would be more  perplexing  than in-
structive to explain, in this place, what is meant by it, in
a strict geometrical sense.   It  may be sufficient, there-
fore, to observe, that, independent of the precise meaning
of that word, and its deducible properties, the truth ofthe
rule, as applied to ordinary inquiries, may be made very
evident, by attending only to principles already explained.
It is shown in multiplication of money, that the price of
one multiplied by the  quantity is the price ofthe whole :
and in division, that the price of the whole divided by the
quantity is the price of one.  Now, in all cases of valuing
goods, &c. where one is the first term ofthe proportion, it
is plain that the answer found by this rule will be the same
as that found by multiplication of money:  and where one
is the last term of the proportion, it will be the same as
that  found by division of money.  In like  manner,  if the
first  term be any number  whatever,  it is plain that the
product of the second and third terms w ill be greater than
the  true answer required,  by as much as the price  in the
second term exceeds the price  of one, or as the first term
exceeds  an unit.   Consequently this product divided by
the first term will give the true answer required, and is the
rule.

            THE  RULE OF THREE INVERSE.
  The Rule of Three Inverse teaches by having three
numbers  given to find a fourth, that shall  have tbe same
proportion to the second as the first has to  the third.
  If more require more, or less require less, the question
belongs to the rule of three direct.
  But if more require less, or less-require more, it belongs
to the rule of three inverse.
  Rule.   (1) Stale and reduce the terms as in the  rule
of three direct.  (2) Multiply  the first and second terms
together,  and divide their  product by the  third,  and the
quotient is the answer to the question, in the same denom-
ination you left the second number in.
  The method of proof is by inverting the  question.
  Ex.]   What quantity of shalloon,  that is 3 quarters of
a yard wide, will line 7\ yards of cloth,  that is \\ yard
wide ?
           lyd. 2qrs. : 7yds.  2qrs. :: 3 qrs.
           4           4

           6          30
                       6

                  3)180

                   4)60

                      15  yards, the answer. 
ARITHMETIC.
   More requiring more, is when the third term is greater
 than the first, and requires the fourth term to be greater
 (han the second.
   And  less requiring  less, is when the  third term is less
 than the first, and requires the fourth term to  be less than
 the second.
   In like manner, more requiring less, is when the third
 term is greater than the first, and requires the fourth term
 to be less than the second.
   And less requiring more, is when the  third term is less
 than fhe first, and requires the fourth term to be greater
 than the second.
   The reason of this rule may be explained from the prin-
 ciples of compound multiplication and division, in the same
 manner  as the direct  rule.   For example: If 6 men can
 do a piece of work in 10 days, in how many days will 12
men doit?                          6  X 10
        As 6 men : 10  days: :12 men :     ■  ■ =  5 days,
                                       12
the answer. And here  the product of the first and second
terms, i.e. 6 times 10, or 60, is evidently the time in which
one man would perform the work: therefore  twelve men
will do  it in one twelfth  part  of that time, or 5  days;
 and this reasoning is applicable to  any instance whatever.
   Note.  Much of the difficulty, which presents itself to
the young student, in ascertaining whether a question be
direct or inverse, may  be  removed, by adopting  the fol-
 lowing rule ; which has recently been introduced in some
of our seminaries, and much used.
   Rule.   Of  the  three given numbers,  set that which is
 ofthe same name or kind as the term required or answer,
 for lhe third term ; Ihen consider whether the answer will
 be greater or less than  this third term; if greater, set the
 less of the two remaining numbers for the first term,  and
 the other for the second;  but if less, set the greater of
 those two numbers for the  first term, and the other for the
 second, and multiply and  divide as under direct propor-
 tion.
               COMPOUND PROPORTION.
   Compound Proportion teaches fo resolve such questions
 as require two or more statings by simple proportion ;  and
 that whether they are direct or inverse.
   Rule.  (1) Let  that term  be put in the second place
which is ofthe same denomination with  the term sought.
 (2) Place the terms of  supposition, one above  another, in
 lhe first place; and the  terms of demand,  one  above
another, in the third  place.  (3) The first and third term
of every row will be of one name, and must be reduced to
lhe same denomination.   (4) Examine every  row sepa-
rately:  by saying, if lhe first term give the second, does
the third require more or less ?  If it  require more, mark
 the less  extreme with a  cross; but if less, mark the greater
 extreme.   (5)  Multiply all those numbers together which
 are marked for a divisor, and those which are  not marked
 for a dividend, and the quotient will be the answer sought.
   Ao/e.  When the same numbers are found in the divisor
as in the dividend, they may be thrown out of both.  Or
any numbers  may be divided by  their  greatest common
 divisor,  and the quotients taken  instead of them.
   Ex.]  If 16 horses can eat up 9 bushels  of oafs in 6 days,
how many horses will eat  up 24 bushels in 7  days at the
same rate7
          -f 9 bushels : 16 horses :: 24 bushels
            6 days    ;---------:: 7 days +
     6 X  16 X 24                  2  X 16 X 24
     —■-----------, by contraction = ■        ----
        9X7                          3X7
       2 X 16 X  8    256
     =________-— =.---= 36^ horses, the answer.
         1X7        7
   The reason of this rule may be readily shown  from fhe
nature of direct and inverse proportion : for every row in
this case is a particular stating in one of those rules ; and
therefore if all the separate dividends be collected togeth-
er into one dividend, and all the divisors into one divisor,
their quotient must be fhe answer sought.   Thus in the
example :                             24 X  16
   As 9 bush. ! 16 horses .*:  24  bush. :---------by rule
                                         9
                             24 X 16
of three direct.  As 6  days '.---------horses:: 7 days;
24  X 16 X 6                    9
------------by rule of three inverse, which is the same
    9x7
as the rule.
                      PRACTICE.
  Practice is a contraction of the  rule of three direct,
when the first term happens to be an unit, or one :  and has
its name from its daily  use amongst merchants  and trades-
men, being an easy and concise method of working  most
questions lhat occur in trade and business.
  The method of proof is by  the rule of three  direct.
  An aliquot part of any number, is such a part of  it, as
being laken a certain number  of times does exactly make
the number.
                    General  Rule.
  1. Suppose the price ofthe given quantity to be 1/. or
Is. as is most convenient; then will the  quantity itself be
the  answer at the supposed price.  2. Divide the given
price into aliquot parts, either ofthe supposed  price, or of
another, and the sum of (he quotients  belonging to each
will be the  true answer required.
  Ex.] What is the  value of 526  yards of cloth, at 3s.
10ieZ. per yard.
                  526       Ans. at 1/.
3s. 4d. is £87 13  4   dilto at 0  3  4
   4d. is Tl7 8 15  4   dilto at 0  0  4
   2d. is f  4  7  8   ditto at 0  0  2
     £is£  0 10  ll£ ditto atO  0  0.!
                   *                At
            101 7  l'\ ditto at 0 3  10£ the full price.
  In the above example, it is plain that the quantity 526
is the answer at 1/. consequently, as 3s. 4d. is lhe ^ of a
pound, 4 part of that quantity, or 87/.  13s. 4d. is the price
of 3s. Ad. in like manner,  as 4d. is  the T»T  part of 3s. 4tf.
so-jk of 877..13s. 4d. or 8/. 15s. 4d. is the answer at 4d.
And by reasoning in this way 4/. 7s. Bd.  will  be shown to
be the price at 2d.  and 10s. U\d.  the price  at \.  Now
as the sum  of  all these parts is equal  to the whole price,
3s. lfiff. so  lhe sum of the  answers belonging to each
price, will be the answer at the full  price required.   Aud
the same will be true  in any example  whatever. 
ARITHMETIC.
                VULGAR FRACTIONS.
  In order fo understand the nature of Vulgar Fractions,
we  must suppose unity, or the number 1, divided into
several equal parts.   One or more of these parts is called
a fraction, and is represented by placing one number in a
smaller character above a line, and another under  it : for
example, a two fifth part is written thus, |.  The number
under the line, 5, shows  how many parts unity is divided
into, and is called the denominator.  The number above
the line, 2, shows how many of these parts are represented,
and is called the numerator.
  It follows from the manner of  representing  fractions,
that when the numerator  is increased, the value of the
fraction becomes greater; but, when  the denominator is
increased, the value becomes less.   Hence  we may infer,
that, if the numerator and denominator be both increased,
or both diminished,  in the  same proportion,  the value is
not altered; and, therefore, if we  multiply both by any
number whatever, or divide them by  any number which
measures both, we  shall obtain other fractions of equal
value.   Thus, every fraction may be expressed in a vari-
ety of forms, which  have all tbe same  signification.
  A fraction annexed to an  integer, or whole number,
makes a mixed number.  For example, five and two third
parts, or 5$.  A fraction, whose numerator is greater than
its denominator,  is called an improper fraction.  For ex-
ample,  seventeen third  parts, or y.  Fractions  of this
kind are greater than unity.  Mixed  numbers may be
represented in the form of improper fractions, and improp-
er fractions may  be  reduced to mixed numbers, and some-
times fo integers.  A whole number may be treated as  a
fraction by making its denominator unity.
  " To  reduce mixed numbers  to improper fractions:
multiply the integer by the denominator of the fraction,
and to lhe product  add  the numerator.  The sum is the
numerator of the improper fraction sought, and is placed
above the given denominator."
        Examples. 7£     :    8-f    :
                   4          5
Q1
                   29          43        19
   The answers are y,  y, and y.
   Because one is equal to two halves, or three third parts,
or  four  quarters,  and every integer is equal to twice as
many halves, or four times as  many quarters, and so on:
therefore, every integer may be expressed in the form of
an  improper fraction,  having  any assigned denominator.
The numerator  is obtained by  multiplying the integer
into the denominafor.   Hence  the reason of lhe foregoing
rule is  evident.   5,  reduced to an improper  fraction,
whose denominator is 3, makes y, and this added  to *
amounts to y.
  " To reduce improper fractions to whole or mixed  num-
bers : divide the numerator by fhe denominator."
          Examples,  y   :   fr    :   t»
             9)57      11)84      18)91(5f8
               ---        ---       90
                6|        7-f'T     —
                                     I
      The answers are 6|, 7TTT, and 5-^.
  This  problem is  the  converse of lhe former,  and the
reason may be illustrated in the same manner.
  "To  reduce fractions to lower terms:  divide  both
    vol. i.        .or>
numerator and  denominator by any number which meas-
ures both, and place the quotients in the form ofa frac-
tion."
       Examples.   \*          *_y         |™.
  The answers  are  y»  16 > |; for both  the  numerator
and denominator of the  first fraction is divisible by 3; of
the second by 16 ;  and  of the third by 90 : but the an-
swers are of precisely  the  same value as* the original
fractions.
  To find the greatest common measure of two numbers :
divide the greater by the less, and the divisor by the re-
mainder continually, till nothing remain ; the last divisor is
the greatest common measure.
  Ex. Required the greatest number which  measures
475 and 589 ?
475)589(1           Here  divide  589  by 475, and the
    475           remainder  is 114 ; then divide 475 by
    ---           114,  and the remainder is 19; then
    114)475(4     114 by 19, and there is no remainder:
        456       ftom which we infer than  19, the last
        ---       divisor, is  the greatest common meas-
          19)114(6 ure.
             114
  To explain the reason of this we must observ e, that any
number which  measures two others, will  also measure
their sum, and their difference, and will measure any mul-
tiple of either.  In the foregoing example, any number
which measures 589 and 475, will measure their difference
114, and will measure  456, which is a multiple of 114;
and any number which measures 475, and  456 will also
measure  their difference 19.   Consequently, no number
greater  than 19 can measure  589 and 475.  Again, 19
will measure them  both, for it measures 114, and there-
fore  measures 456, which is a multiple of 114 and 475,
which is just 19 more than 456 : and, because it measures
475, and  114, it will measure their sum 589.  To reduce
$1\ to the lowest possible terms, we  divide both numbers
by 19, and it comes toj-%.
  If there  be no  common measure greater than  1, thf
fraction is already in the lowest terms.
  If the greatest common measure  of 3 numbers be re-
quired, we find the greatest measure  of the  two first, and
then the greatest measure of lhal number, and the third.
If (here be more numbers we proceed in (he same manner.
  " To reduce fractious to others of equal value lhat hav*
(he same  denominator : 1st,   multiply  the numerator of
each fraction by all lhe denominators  except  its  own.
The products are numeiators to the  respective fraction^
sought."   2d, "Multiply all the denominators  into each
olher ; the product is the common denominator."
     Ex. 4 and ;  and | = **§ and f|° and |tf.
    4  X  9  x 8  = 288  first numerator.
    7  X  5  X 8  = 280  second numerator.
    3  X  5  X 9  = 135  third numerator.
    5X9X8  = 360  common denominator.
  Here we multiply 4,  the numerator of the  first fracliou
by 9 and  ii, (he denominators ofthe  two others ; and lhe
product  283 is the numerator of  (he  fraction  sought
eqimalenl to lhe first.  The olher numerators  are found
in like manner, and lhe  common denominafor, 360  is ob-
tained by multiplying the men denominr.Vr^ r  9' y  :-,•« 
ARITHMETIC.
 each other.  In the course ofthe whole operation lhe nu-
 merators and denominators of each fraction are multiplied
 by the same numbers, and  therefore their value is not al-
 tered.
           ADDITION OF VULGAR FRACTIONS.
   Rule. Reduce them, if necessary, to a common denom-
 inator ; add the numerators, and place the  sum above the
 denominator.
     Ex. 1. 8
         2.
   The numerators of fractions that have the same denom-
 inator signify like  parts; and the reason for adding them
 is  equally obvious, as that for adding shillings or any other
 inferior denomination.

         SUBTRACTION OF  VULGAR FRACTIONS.
   Rule. " Reduce the fractions to a common denomina-
 tor ; subtract the  numerator of the subtrahend from the
numerator of the minuend, and place  the remainder above
 the denominator.,,
  + *  —  »f X H = 2.Z.
5181  9  ___  440  _J.560  1567 — 157T
t ^ t ^  t^  —  B"S7  ^ rrs  i  vts — no '
Examples. Subtract 4 from
           ■H
11
T2>
and T*T from £.
11 X
 3 X
 7 = 77
12= 36

      41
3 X
5 X
 B
TT
11  = 33
 4 = 20
13 rem.
          12 X 7 = 84      4 X 11 = 44
             The answers are %\, and ft.
  To subtract a fraction from an  integer : Subtract the
numerator from the denominator, and place the remainder
above the denominator; prefix to this the integer diminish-
ed by unity.
      Ex.  Subtract 4 from  12.  Remainder llf.

        MULTIPLICATION OF VULGAR FRACTIONS.
   Rule. "Multiply the  numerators of  the  factors to-
gether for the numerator of the product,  and the denomi-
nators together for the  denominator of the product.'''
            Ex. 1st.  4 X  4  = ft
                    2X5  = 10 numerator
                    3 X  7  = 21 denominator.
            £x.2.8f X 7|  =  »»•» = 65/7
                       Q2  ._  42
                       °T  ~  T
                       71  = 31
                       42  X 31  = 1302
                        5X4=   20
  To multiply 4 by f- is the  same as to find what two
third parts of 4 comes to;  if one third part only had been
required, it would have  been obtained by multiplying the
denominator 7 by 3,   because  tbe value of fractions is
lessened when their denominators are increased ;  and this
comes to ¥*T; and, because two thirds  were required, we
must double that fraction, which is done  by multiplying
the  numerator by 2,  and comes to ft.   Hence we infer
that  fractions of fractions,  or compound fractions, such as
4 of |, are reduced to simple ones by multiplication.  The
same method is followed when the compound fraction is ex-
pressed in three parts or more.
  If a number be multiplied by any integer, its value is in-
creased.  If it be multiplied by 1, or taken one time, it un-
dergoes  no alteration.  If it be  multiplied  by a proper
fraction, or  taken for one half, two thirds, or lhe like, its
value is diminished, and the product is less than lhe num.
ber multiplied.

           DIVISION OF VULGAR FRACTIONS.

  Rule. (1)  " Multiply the numerator of the  dividend
by  the  denominator of the divisor.  The product is the
numerator of the quotient."  (2) "Multiply the denomi-
nator of  the  dividend  by  the  numerator of the divisor,
The product is the denominator of the quotient."
      Ex.  Divide | by 4.       Quotient ft.
                 2X9 = 18
                 5  X  7 = 35

  To explain the reason of this operation; suppose it re-
quired to divide 4 by 7, or to take one seventh part off
This is obtained by multiplying the denominator by 1,
for the value of fractions is diminished by increasing their
denominators, and it comes  to  -£y.   Again, because \ is
nine times less than seven, the quotient of any number di-
vided by 4 will  be  nine times greater than the quotient
of the same number divided by 7.   Therefore we multiply
■fj by 9, and obtain ft.
  If the divisor  and dividend have the same denominator
it is sufficient to divide the numerators.

            Ex. ft  divided by T3T  quotes 4.
  The  quotient of any number divided by a proper frac-
tion is greater than the dividend.  It is obvious,  that any
integer  contains more  halves,  more  third parts, and the
like, than it contains  units j and, if an integer and fraction
be divided alike, the quotients will have the same propor-
tion to the numbers divided ; but  the value of an integer
is increased when the divisor is a proper fraction; there-
fore  the value of a fraction in  the  like case  is increased
also.
  The foregoing rule may be extended to every case, by
reducing integers and mixed numbers to the form of im-
proper fractions.

                DECIMAL FRACTIONS.
  A decimal fraction is a fraction  whose denominator w
ten  or  some  power of  ten: but instead of writing down
the denominator, a comma is placed  before the number, to
mark the fraction;  and whatever  number of figures fol-
lows the comma, the  same is the index of the power of ten
in the denominator, or there must be  as many cyphers af-
ter unit in the denominator, as figures after the comma.
                 Thus 4}7 is 4 and  T7^.
      .47  signifies Forty-seven hundredth parts.
      • 047         Forty-seven thousandth parts.
      .407         Four hund. and 7 thousandth parts.
     4.07         Four, and seven hundredth parts.
     4.007          Four, and seven thousandth parts.

  To reduce vulgar fractions to decimal ones : "Annex
a cypher to  the numerator, and divide it by the denomi-
nator, annexing a cypher continually to the remainder." 
ARITHMETIC.
EXAMPLES.
rf = -16
           £i = .078125
75)120(16   64)500(078125
    75        443
450
450
520
512

  80
  64
160
128

 320
 320
4 = .666, &C.
 3)20(666
    18

     20
     18

     20
     18

      20
   The reason of this operation will be evident, if we con-
 sider that the numerator of a vulgar fraction is understood
 to be divided by the denominator; and this division is ac-
 tually performed when it is reduced to a decimal.
   Some vulgar fractions may be reduced to decimals, and
 are called finite decimals.  Others cannot be exactly re-
 duced, because the division  always leaves  a remainder;
 but, by continuing the division, we shall perceive how the
 decimal may be extended to any length whatever.  These
 are called infinite decimals.
  Lower denominations may be considered as fractions of
 higher ones, and reduced to decimals accordingly.
  The value of decimal places decreases like that of in-
 tegers, ten of the lower place in either being equal to one
 of the next higher; and the same holds  in passing from
 decimals to integers.  Therefore,  all the operations are
 performed in the same way with decimals, whether placed
 by themselves or annexed to integers, as with pure inte-
gers.   The  only peculiarity lies in  the  arrangement and
pointing of the decimals.
  In addition and subtraction,  " Arrange units under units,
tenth parts under tenth parts, and  proceed as in integers."
            Add  32.035      from 13.348
                 136.374      take   9.2993
                 160.63             _______
                  12.3645            4.0487
                341.4035
  In multiplication, "Allow  as  many decimal places in
the product as there are in both facfors.   If the product
has not so many places, supply them by prefixing cyphers
on fhe left hand."                              /l
           Ex.  1st.  1.37      2d.   .1572
                      1.8              .12
1096
137
.018864
                    2.466
  The reason of this rule may be explained, by observing
that the value of the product depends on the value ofthe
factors: and since each decimal place in either factor di-
minishes its value ten  times, it must  equally diminish the
value  of the product.
  To  multiply decimals by 10,  move  the decimal point
             30*                                *
one place  to  the right;  to multiply by 100, 1000, or the
like, move it as many places to the right as there are cy-
phers in the multiplier.
  In division, " Point the quotient  so  that there may be
an equal number of decimal places  in the dividend as in
the divisor and quotient togetner."
               Ex. Divide 14 by .7854.
             .7854)14.000000(17.82, &c.
                     7854

                    61460
                    54978
64820
62832
                       19880
  Therefore, if  there  be the same number of decimal
places in the divisor  and  dividend, there will be none in
the quotient.
  Ex. Divide .75  by .25.  Answer 3, which is a whole
number.
  If there be more in the dividend, the quotient will have
as many as the dividend has more than the divisor.  See
above.
  If there be more in the divisor, we  must annex, or sup-
pose annexed, as many cyphers to  the dividend as may
complete the number of decimals in the divisor, and all the
figures of the quotient are integers.
                Ex. Divide 8 by .125.
             .125)8.000(64 Answer in whole numbers,
                 7.50
500
500
   To reduce numbers of different denominations to their
equivalent  decimal values: Rule. (1) Write  the  given
numbers perpendicularly  under each other, beginning at
the least.   (2) Opposite each dividend, on  the left hand,
place such a number for a divisor  as  will bring it to tbe
next superior name,  and  draw a perpendicular  line be-
tween them.  (3) Begin with the highest ;  and write the
quotient of each division, as  decimal parts, on the right
hand of the dividend next below it, and so proceed to the
last; and the last quotient is the decimal sought.
     Ex. Reduce 15s. 9|d.  to the decimal  of a /.
 4
12
20
 3.
 9.75
15.8125
            .790625 the decimal required.
   To find the value of any given decimal in terms of the
integer.  Rule. Multiply the decimal by the numbei of
parts ki the ne\t less denomination, and  cut off as many
places for a remainder, to the  right hand, as  there are
places  in the  given decimal; and  so proceed with the
rest. 
ARITHMETIC.
Ex. What is the value of .375 of a I.
    .575
       20
s. 7.500
     12
           d. 6.000       Answer 7s. 6d.
  If the divisor leave a remainder, the quotient may be ex-
tended to more decimal places; but those are not regard-
ed in fixing the decimal point.  See above.
  The reason for fixing the decimal point as directed, may
be inferred from the rule followed in multiplication.   The
quotient multiplied by the divisor  produces the dividend;
and therefore  tbe  number of decimal places in the divi-
dend is equal to those in the divisor and quotient together.
  Some  decimals,  though  extended  to any  length, are
never  complete  ; and  others, which terminate  at  last,
sometimes  consist of so many places, that it would  be
difficult in practice to extend them fully. In these cases,
we may extend the decimal to three, four, or more places,
according to  the nature of the articles, and the degree of
accuracy required.  In  this manner we may perform any
operation with ease  by the common rales, and the answers
we obtain are  sufficiently exact for any purpose in busi-
ness.
           ON  THE  EXTRACTING  OF  ROOTS.
  The root is  a number, whose  continual multiplication
into itself  produces the power; and   is  denominated the
square, cube,  4th, 5th, root, &c.  according as it is, when
raised to the 2d,  3d, 4th, 5th, &c. power, equal to that
power.   Thus 2 is  the  square root of 4, because 2X2
= 4; and  4 is the  cube root of 64,  because 4X4x4
— 64; and so on.
   Although there  is  no number of which we cannot find
any power exactly, yet there may be many numbers of
which  a precise  root can never be determined.  But, by
the help of decimals, we can approximate toward the root,
to any assigned degree of exactness.
   The roots which  approximate are called surd roots, and
those  which are perfectly  accurate  are called rational
roots.
   Roots are  sometimes denoted, as in algebra, by writing
the character \/ before  fhe  power, with the index of the
root against  it: Ihus,  the  third  root of 70 is expressed
4/70, and the second root of it is  v70» tne index 2 being
always omitted when the square or second root is design-
ed.
  If the power be expressed by several numbers, with the
sign -f or— between them,  a  line is drawn from the top
ofthe sign  over all the parts of it; thus, the third root of
28 — 13 is £,*»—is  .
   -ometi'Mes  roots  are designed  like  powers, wilh  frac-
tional indices; thus, the square root  of 5 is 5\, the third
root of 19 is  194,  and tne  fourth root of 40 — 12  is
40 — 1-*' &c.
           TO EXTRACT THE  SQUARE ROOT.
  Rule. (1) Distinguish the given number info periods o^
1 wo fLures each, by putting a point over the place of units*
anofb*-. over the place of hundreds, and so on. (2) Find
a square number either equal to, or the next less than, the
first period; and put the root of it to the right hand ofthe
given number, after the manner of a quotient figure in di-
vision, and it will be the first figure of the root required.
(3) Subtract (he assumed square from  the first period,
and to the remainder bring down lhe next period for a div-
idend.  (4) Place the double of the  root  already  found,
on the left hand of the dividend, for a  divisor.   (5) Con-
sider  what figure must be annexed to the divisor, so  that
if the result be multiplied by it, the product may be equal
to, or the next less  than,  the dividend, and it will be tbe
3d figure of the root.  (6) Subtract the product from the
dividend, and  to  the remainder bring  down the next pe-
riod, for a new dividend.  (7) Find a divisor as before, bj
doubling tbe figures already in the root;  and from these
find the next figures of the root, as in the last article; and
so on through all the periods to the last.
   Note. If there are  decimals in  the given number, it
must  be pointed both ways  from unity, and the root be
made to consist of as many whole numbers and decimals
as there are periods belonging to  each ;  and  when  the
figures belonging to the given number are exhausted, the
operation may be  continued at  pleasure by adding  cy-
phers.
                      examples.
         Required  the square root of 5499025.

                5499025 (2345 the root.
                4
43)1*9
   129
464)2090
    1856
4685)23425
     23425
                     0

          EXTRACTION OF  THE  CUBE ROOT.
  Rule. (1) Find by trial the nearest rational cube tothe
given number, and call it the assumed cube.  (2) Then,
as twice the assumed cube added  to  the given number, is
to twice the given number added to the supposed cube, so
is the root ofthe supposed cube fo the root required near-
ly.   (3) By taking the cube  of the root Ihus found for the
supposed cube, and repeating the operation,  the root may
be had lo a still greater degree of exactness.
        Ex. 1. What is the  cube  root of 12484?
  By trial I find the nearer  root,  less than the given num-
ber, is 23, the cube of which is 12167.
       Then 12167 X 2 + 12484 = 36818, and
             12484 X 2 + 12167 = 37135.   Therefore
as 36818 :  37135: !23 ; 23.198, and 23.198 is the root re-
quired nearly.
            2. What is fhe cube root of 2?
  As the nearest rational root is 1,  we have 1X2 + 2
= 4, and 2 X 2 + 1 = 5.
         Then4 : 5.:i ; * = i.25 = roof near,y#
  Again, the cube of * =  ty,  therefore »»«  x  2 + 3
 : 3 x 2 + jy::t or y/  : ^.., . w J*.2599)£. 
A R I
ARM
   TO EXTRACT THE ROOTS OF POWERS IN GENERAL.
   Rule 1. Prepare the given number for  extraclion, by
pointing off from the units place as the  root required di-
rects.
   2. Find the first figure ofthe root by  trial, and subtract
its power from the given number.
   3. To the remainder bring down the first figure in the
next period, and call it the dividend.
   4. Involve the root  to  the next inferior power to that
which is given,  and multiply it by the  number denoting
the given power for a divisor.
   5. Find how many times the divisor may be  had in the
dividend, and the  quotient will be another figure of the
root.
   6. Involve fhe whole root to the given power, and sub-
tract it from the given number as before.
   7. Bring down the first  figure of lhe next period to the
remainder for a new dividend, to which find a new divisor,
and so on till the whole is finished.
       Ex. What is the cube root of 53157376

                 53157376(376
                 27= 33

    3» X  3 =27)261 dividend.
                  50653 = 373

   3s X 3 = 4107)25043 second dividend.
                 53157376

                     0
   The reason of the process in fhe Extraction of Roots
 may be seen in Algebra.
   Thus we have gone over all  the principal rules in com-
 mon arithmetic, giving  under each an  example or exam-
 ples, by the assistance of which the reader may invent any
 number of others for  his own  improvement in the branch
 of science.  We have not  touched upon  simple interest,
 discount, loss and gain,  Sec. because  these are but modifi-
 cations of the Rule of Three ;  and may be done either by
 the rules there given, or by Practice.  We doubt not that
 this arficle, if followed  by  that under the word Algebra,
 which  though first in  order in a dictionary  necessarily
 comes  last in practice, will be found sufficient for almost
 all purposes in common  life.
   Arithmetic,  decimal, that containing the doctrine
 of decimal  fractions.  See Arithmetic.
   Arithmetic of infinites, the doctrine of infinite series.
 See  Series.
   Arithmetic, instrumental,  that performed by means
 of instruments, as the abacus or counting board, Napier's
 bones,  &.c.
   Arithmetic, literal, the same with  specious.  See
 Algebra.
   Arithmetic, logarithmetical, that performed by means
of logarithms..  See Logarithm.
   Arithmetic, logistical,  the  same wifh sexagesimal.
  Arithmetic, sexagesimal, the doctrine of sexagesimal
fractions.
  Arithmetic, specious,  the  same  with  algebra. See
Algebra.
    ARITHMETICAL,  complement ofa logarithm, the
 sum or number which a logarithm  wants of  10,000000 :
 thus fhe arithmetical complement of the logarithm 8.154032
 is 1.845968.
    Arithmetical progression.  See Algebra.
    Arithmetical proportion.  See Algebra.
    ARITHMOMANCY, a species of divination perform-
 ed by means of numbers.
    ARLEQUIN, an English trivial name applied to some
 birds, insects,  shells,  &c. remarkable for  their striking
 colours.
    ARM, in respect of  fhe  magnet.   A  loadstone  is said
 to be armed when it is enclosed, capped, or  set in iron or
 steel, in order to increase its magnetic virtue.
    Arm, in  sea language.  A ship is said fo be armed when
 fitted out and provided  in all respects for war.
    ARMADILLO.  See Dysafus.
   ARMED, in the sea  language.  A cross bar shot is
 said to be armed when some ropeyarn or  tbe like is rolled
 about the end of the  iron bar  which runs through the
 shot.
    Armed,  in heraldry, is used when the horns, feet, beak,
 or talons, of any beast  or bird of prey, are of a different
 colour from the rest of their body.  He bears a cock or a
 falcon armed, &c.
   ARMENIANS, in   church history, a sect or division
 amongst the eastern Christians ; thus called from Armenia,
 the country anciently inhabited by them.  There are two
 kinds of Armenians; the one catholic,  and subject to the
 pope, having a patriarch in Persia and another in Poland ;
 the other makes a peculiar sect,  having two  patriarchs in
 Natolia.  They are generally accused of being monophy-
 sites, only allowing of one nature in Jesus Chrisf.  As to
 the eucharisf,  they, for the most part,  agree  with  the
 Greeks; they abstain rigorously  from eating of blood, and
 meats strangled, and are much addicted  to fasting-.
   ARMENTA.   See Bos.
   ARMIGER, an esquire, or armour bearer.
   ARMILLA membranosa, in anatomy,  is  that circular
 ligament which comprehends all  the tendons  belonging to
 the whole hand within a circle, in  the region of the car-
 pus.
   ARMILLARY, Armillaris, in a general sense, some-
 thing consisting of rings, or circles, from armilla, a brace-
 let.
   Armillary sphere, an artificial  sphere, composed of a
 number of circles, representing the several circles of the
 mundane sphere-, put together in their  natural  order,  to
 ease and assist the imagination in conceiving the constitu
 tionof the heavens, and the motions ofthe  celestial bodies.
 viT?enTrmilIary *Phere turns UP0«  its  axis P  p, Plate
 XIV. Miscel. fig. 4. within a silvered  horizon H O, which
 is  divided into degrees, and moveable every  way, upon a
 brass supporter.  E Q represents the equinoctial, and \ B
 the zodiac, which is a broad cirele divided info degrees
 and into twelve equal parts, marked with lhe  twelve signs
 r, 0,n,&c. PQ/> E, is  the meridian, likewise divided
into degrees.
  The other parts are the  two fropics, and two polar cir-
cles, both delineated in the figure.
  ARM1NIANS  in church history, a sect of Christians,
which arose  in Holland,  by a separation from the Calvin 
A R  M
A R R
 isis.   Thev are great asserters of free will.  They speak
 very ambiguously of the prescience of God.  They look
 on the doctrine of the Trinity as a point not necessary to
 salvation; and many of them hold there is no precept in
 Scripture by which we are enjoined to adore the Holy
 Ghost; and that Jesus is not equal to God the Father.
   AR3IOISIN, a silk stuff,  or kind of taffety,  manufac-
 tured in the East Indies, at Lyons in France, and Lucca
 iu Italy.   That of the Indies is slighter than those made
 in Europe.
   ARMONIAC.   See Ammonia.
   ARMONICA.   See Harmonica.
   ARMORIAL.   See Heraldry.
   ARMOUR denotes all such  habiliments as serve to de-
 fend the body from wounds, especially of darts, a sword,
 a lance, &c.   A complete suit of armour formerly consist-
 ed ofa helmet, a shield, a cuirasse, a coat of mail, a gaunt-
Jef, &c. all now laid aside.
   ARMS, charged, in heraldry, are such as retain their
 ancient integrity., with the addition of some new honourable
bearing.
   Arms,  canting or vocal, those in which there are some
 figures, alluding to the name of the family.
   ART\is,full or entire, such as retain their primitive purity,
 without any alterations or abatements.
   Arms,false, such as are not conformable to the rules of
 heraldry.
   Arms,  in falconry, the legs ofa hawk from the thigh to
 the foot.
   Arms,  king at,    "> see Herald.
   Arms,  herald at,   J
   Arms,  poursuivant at, see Poursuivant.
   Arms,  college of, see College of arms.
   ARMY.  An army is composed of squadrons and bat-
 talions, and is usually divided into three corps, and form-
 ed into three lines ; {he first line is called the van guard,
 the second the  centre  or main body, and the third  the
 rear guard, or body of reserve.  The  middle of each line
 is possessed  by the foot; the cavalry forms the  right and
 left wing  of each line; and sometimes they place squadrons
 of horse in the intervals between the  battalions.  When
 the army  is  drawn up  in order of battle, the horse  are
 placed at  five feet distance from each other,  and the foot
 at three.   In each line the battalions are distant from each
 other 180 feet, which is nearly equal to the extent of their
 front; and  the  same holds of the squadrons, which  are
 about  300 feet distant, lhe extent of their own front.
 These intervals are left for the squadrons and battalions
 of the second line to range themselves  against the inter-
 vals of the first, that both may more readily march through
 those spaces to fhe enemy : lhe  first line is usually 300
 feet distant from the second, and the second from the third,
 that there may be sufficient room to rally, when the squad-
 rons and  battalions are broken.
   An army sometimes acquires different appellations from
 fhe particular services in which it is employed. A covering
 army is that  which covers a place, by lyin:;-encamped for
 the protection of  the different  passes  which had to fhe
 principal  object of defence.   An army is said io  blockade
 a place when, being well provided with heavy artillery, Sec.
 it is employed to invest a town for (he purpose of reducing
 it by assault or famine. An army of observation is so called
 because,  by its advanced positions  and desultory move-
ments, it is constantly employed in watching the  enemy.
Such is a body of troops engaged by besiegers to  prevent
relief being brought into a place, or the seige being raised
by the enemy.  An  army of reserve  is a sort of general
depot for effective service.   In cases of emergency, the
whole, or part of an army of reserve, is employed to re-
cover a lost day, or to secure a victory.  A flying army \$
a strong body of horse and foot, usually  commanded by a
lieutenant general, which is always in motion, to cover its
own garrisons, or to keep the enemy in perpetual alarm.
   ARNICA, leopard's bane, in botany, a genus of thepo-
lygamia superflua order, belonging to the syngenesia class
of plants ; and in the natural method ranking under fhe for-
ty ninth order, compositae discoides.  The receptacle  is
naked;  the pappus is simple; and  the filaments are five,
without antherae.  There are twelve species, five of which
are European, and have been used  in medicine as discu-
tients in chronic rheumatism, lumbago, &c. also internally
in interraittents.
   ARNOLDISTS, in church history,  sectaries so called
from their  leader Arnold of Bresia, who was a great de-
claimer against the wealth and vices of the clergy; and
who is also charged with  preaching against  baptism and
the eucharist.
  AROLEC, an American weight, equal to twenty-five
of our pounds.
  AROMA, or the odorant principle of plants, is distinct-
ly characteristic in each  individual.  Water impregnated
with this principle, is termed the distilled  water  of the
plant; of these a great variety is used in pharmacy.
  AROMATICS, in pharmacy, substances that possess a
fragrant penetrating smell, a strong pungent  taste, and  a
considerable  stimulating power on  the system in general.
See Materia Medica.
  AROURA, a Grecian measure of fifty feet.  It was more
frequently  used for a square measure of half the plethroD.
The  Egyptian  aroura  was the square of one hundred
cubits.
  ARPENT, a term sometimes used to denote an  acre.
  ARRACHE'E, in  heraldry, a term applied to the rep-
resentations of plants  torn up by the roots.
  ARRACK, or Rack, a spirituous liquor imported from
the East Indies, used by way of dram and in punch. Tbe
word arrack, according to Mr. Lockyer, is an Indian name
for strong waters of all kinds ; for they call our spirits and
brandy English arrack.   But what we understand by tbe
name arrack, he affirms is properly no other than  a spirit
procured by distillation from a vegetable juice called toddy,
which flows by incisions out of the cocoa nut tree, like the
birch juice procured among us.  The toddy is a pleasant
drink by itself, when  new, but purges those  who  are not
used to it; when stale, it  is  heady, and makes good vine-
gar.   The English at Madias use it as leaven to raise their
bread with.
  There are, however, several kinds of arrack, distinguish-
ed by different names ; such  as Batavia arrack, a vinous
spirit obtained by distillation from rice and sugar ferment-
ed with  the juice of cocoa nuts.  It is a strong spirit; but
being made in copper stills, is not so  agreeabfe as  Goa ar-
rack.  Bitter, black, and  Columbo arrack, are  hot spirits
little valued, and seldom  imported  by Europeans.
  The manner of making the Goa arrack is this : The juice
ofthe trees is not procured in the  way of  tappimr, as *e 
A R  R
A R  S
do; but lhe operator provides himself wilh a parcel of earth-
en pots, wilh bellies and necks like  our bird bottles ;  he
makes fast a number of these to his girdle,  and anyway
else that he commodiously  can about him.   Thus equip-
ped, he climbs up the trunk ofa cocoa tree ; and when he
comes (o (he boughs, he takes out his knife, and cutting off
one of (he small knots or buttons, he applies the mouth
ofthe bottle to the wound,  fastening it  lo the bough with
a bandage; in  the same manner he cuts off other buttons,
and fastens on  bis pots, till the whole number is employed :
this done in  the  evening, descending from the tree,  he
leaves  them till the next morning; when he takes off the
bottles, which  are mostly filled, and empties the juice into
lhe proper receptacle. This is repealed every night,  till
a suflicifMit quantity is produced ; and the whole being
then put together, is left to  ferment, which  it  soon does.
When fhe fermentation is over, and the liquor or wash is
become a little tart, it is put into the still, and a fire being
made,  the still is suffered to  work as long  as  that which
comes over has any considerable taste  of spirit.  The
liquor thus procured i3 the  low wine of arrack ; and  this
is so poor a liquor, that it will soon corrupt and spoil, if
not distilled again, to separate some of its  watery  parts;
they therefore immediately after pour back this low wine
into the still, and rectify it to that very weak kind of proof
spirit,  in which state we find it. The arrack we meet with,
notwithstanding its being a  proof test, according to  the
way of judging by the crown of bubbles, holds but a sixth,
and sometimes but an eighth, part of pure spirit; whereas
our other spirits, when they show that proof, are generally
esteemed to be one half pure spirit.   There is a paper of
observations on arrack, in the Melanges d'Histoire Natur.
torn. v. p. 302.  By fermenting, distilling, and rectifying
the juice of the American maple, w hich has much the same
taste as that of the cocoa, the author says he made arrack
not in the least inferior to any that comes from the East
Indies; and he thinks the juice  of the sycamore  and of
the birch trees would equally answer the end.
   Arrack is not to be sold in Great Britain but in ware-
houses entered as directed by 6th of Geo. I. cap. 21. upon
forfeiture, and casks, &c.
   Arrack, tungusian, is a spirituous liquor made by  the
Tartars of Tungusia, of mare's milk, left  to sour, and af-
terward distilled twice or thrice belween two earthen pots
closely stopped, whence the liquor runs  through a  small
wooden pipe.  It is more intoxicating than  brandy.
   ARRAGONITE.  See  Mineralogy.
   ARRAIGNMENT, in law, the arraigning or setting a
thing in order; as a person  is said to arraign a writ of novel
disseisin, who  prepares and fits  it for trial.   It is most
properly used to call a person to answer in form of law
upon an indictment, &c. at  the suit of the king.
   ARRAY, in law, the  ranking or setting  forth ofa jury
or inquest of men empannelled on a cause.
  ARRENTATION, in  the forest law, is the licensing
an owner of lands in  a forest, to enclose thern with a low
hedge, and a small ditch, in  consideration ofa yearly rent.
  ARREST,  the apprehending and restraining a person,
in order to oblige him to  be  obedient to the  law;  which in
all cases, except treason, felony, or breach ofthe peace,
must be done  by virtue  ofa precept out of  some court.
Outer doors may be broken  open to  arrest a felon ;  but in
civil cases it is otherwise, unless it is in pursuit of one be-
fore taken.
  Attornies, Sec. maliciously causing any person to be ar
rested, shall forfeit ten pounds and treble damages.   The
same penalty is incurred for arresting a person,  except in
criminal cases, and an escape warrant, on Sundays ; but
arrests made in the night are equally lawful with those by
day.
  Peers of the realm, and  members of parliament,  may
not be arrested for debt; nor can any  other subject be
arrested for less than 10/. on a procees issued  out of a supe-
rior couTt, or 40s. in an inferior one.
  Arrest of judgment, the assigning just  reasons  why
judgment  should not pass ; as want of notice of the  trial,
a material defect in the pleading,  when the record differs
from the deed pleaded, when  persons are  misnamed, when
more is given by the verdict than is laid in the declaration,
&c. This may be done either in criminal or  civil cases.
  ARRESTANDIS bonis, Sec.  a writ  that lies for one
whose cattle or goods are taken by another,  who is likely
to carry them away before the contest is decided.
  ARRESTO facto super bonis, Sec. a writ brought by a
denizen against the goods of aliens found  within this  king-
dom, as a recompense for good* taken from  him in a for-
eign country.
  ARRH ABONARII,  a sect of Christians  who held that
the eucharist is neither the real flesh nor  blood  of Christ,
nor yet the sign of them, but  only the pledge or earnest of
them.
  ARRHEPHORIA, a feast  among the Athenians, in-
stituted in honour of Minerva, and Herse daughter of Ce-
crops.
  ARROBA,  a weight used in Spain, in Portugal, at Goa,
and throughout all Spanish America. The arroba of Por-
tugal is 32 Lisbon lbs. of Spain 25 Spanish lbs.
  ARRONDE'E, in heraldry, a  cross, the arms of which
are composed of sections ofa circle : not opposite to each
other, so as to  make  the  arms bulge out thicker in  one part
than another;  but the sections of each arm lying the  same
way, so lhat the arm is every where  of an equal thickness,
and all of them terminating at the edge of the  escutcheon
like the plain  cross.
  ARROW, in surveying, small  sticks shod with iron, to
stick into the  ground at the end ofthe chain.
   Arrow, in astronomy.  See Sagitta.
   ARSCHIN, in commerce, a long measure  used  in China
to  measure stuffs.   Four  arschins  make three yards of
London.
   ARSENIC, one ofthe semimetals, in a combined state,
or in the state of an ore, extremely fatal as a poison, whence
its  name: composed of cevqt, a man, and vmxu,  to  kill.  It
is commonly seen in the  state ofa calx, oxide, or  ore, the
natural colour  of which is white.
  The white oxide of arsenic, or what is known  in  com-
merce by the name of arsenic, is  mentioned  by Avicenna
in  the eleventh century;  but  at  what period the  metal
called arsenic was first  extracted from that oxide  is un-
known*  It was only in the year 1733 that this metal was
examined  with chymical precision.  This  examination,
which was performed by Mr. Brandt, demonstrated its pe-
culiar nature;  and since that time it has always been con-
sidered as a distinct metal, to which the  term arsenic has
been appropriated.
   Arsenic has a bluish white colour not unlike that of steel,
and a good deal of brilliancy.   It  has no  sensible  smell
while cold, but when heated it emits a strong odour of gar- 
A  R  S
A R S
 i«3 which is very  characteristic.   Its specific gravity is
8.31.   It is perhaps the most brittle of all the metals, fall-
ing to pieces under a very moderate blow of a hammer, and
admitting of being easily reduced to a very fine powder in
d mortar.   Its fusing point is not known, because it is the
most volatile ofthe metals, subliming without melting when
exposed  in close vessels to a heat of  540°.   When sub-
limed slowly, it crystalizes in  tetrahedrons, which Hauy
has demonstrated lo be the form of its  integrant particles.
It may be kept under water without alteration;  but  when
exposed  fo the open air, it soon loses its lustre, becomes
black, and falls into powder.
   Arsenic i- capable of combining with two doses of ox-
y^en, and  of  forming  compounds.  When exposed to a
moderate heal, in contact with  air,  it sublimes in the  form
ofa white powder, and  at the same lime emits a smell re-
sembling garlic.   If lhe  heal is increased, it burns  with
an obscure  bluish flame.  Arsenic, indeed, is one of the
most  combustible of the metals.  The substance which
sublimes was formerly called arsenic or white arsenic, and
is still known by these names in the commercial world.  It
is a combination  of arsenic and  oxygen;  and is now de-
nominated white  oxide of arsenic, and by  Fourcroy arse-
nious acid, because it  possesses several  of the properties
of an acid.  It is seldom prepared by chymists, because
it exists  native; and is often procured abundantly during
lhe extraction of the other metals from their ores.  When
obtained by these processes, it  is a white, brittle, compact
substance, of a glassy appearance.  It has a  sharp, acrid
taste,  which at last leaves an impression of sweetness, and
is one of the most virulent poisons known.   It has an alli-
 aceous smell.  It is  soluble in  80 parts of water at the
 temperature of 60  degrees, and  in 15 parts  of boiling
 water.  This  solution  has an acrid  taste,  and reddens
 vegetable blues.  When il is slowly evaporated, the oxide
 cryslalizos in regular  'tetrahedrons..  This oxide sublimes
 when heated  to 283 degrees:  if heat  is applied in close
 vessels, it becomes pellucid like glass  ; but when exposed
 to the air, it soon recovers its former appearance.   The
 specific  gravity of this glass is .5.000;  thai ofthe oxide,
 in its usual state, 3.706.   This oxide is  capable of com-
 bining with most  of  the  metals,  and in  general renders
 Ihem brittle.  From lhe experiments of Pi oust it appears,
 lhat this oxide is composed of . . . 75.2  arsenic,
                                   24.8  oxygen.
                                   100.0
  Arsenic is capable of combining with an additional dose
of oxygen, and of forming another compound, first discover-
ed by Scheele, known  by the name of arsenic acid.  The
process prescribed by Scheele is, fo dissolve three parts
of white oxide of arsenic in seven parts of muriatic acid,
lo add five parts of nitric acid, to put the mixture into a
retort, and  distill lo dryness.  The dry mass is to  be
merely brought lo a red heat, and then cooled  again.  It
is solid arsenic acid.
  Arsenic  does not combine with  carbon nor hydrogen.
This last substance, however, when in the gaseous state,
dissolves it; for when muriatic acid is boiled over arsenic,
that metal is gradually oxidized and dissolved, and at the
same time hydrogen gas is emilted, which has the smell
and the poisonous qualities of arsenic.  Sulphur combines
readily with arsenic   If we put a mixture of these two
bodies into a covered crucible and melt them, a red vitre-
ous mass  is obtained, which is  obviously a sul,..:ire| of
arsenic.   It may be formed also by healing  togelher the
white oxide of arsenic, or arsenic acid and sulphur.  But
in that case a portion of the sulphur absorbs the oxygen
from the arsenic, and makes its escape in the form of sul-
phureous  acid gas.  If  the  while oxide of arsenic is dis-
solved in muriatic acid, and a solution of sulphureled hj.
drogen in water is poured into the  liquid, a fine yellow
coloured powder falls  to  the bottom.   This powder it
usually called orpiment.   It  may be formed by subliming
arsenic and sulphur by a heat not sufficient to melt them.
This substance  is  also found  native.  It is composed of
thin plates which have a considerable degree of flexibility
Its specific gravity is 5.315.
   Arsenic combines readily with phosphorus.  Thepboi-
phuret of arsenic may be formed by distilling equal pans
of its ingredients over a moderate fire.  It is bla:k and
brilliant, and ought to be preserved in water.  It may be
formed likewise by putting equal parls of phosphorus and
arsenic into a sufficient quantity of water, and keeping lhe
mixture moderately hot for some time.
   Arsenic does  not combine with azotic  gas nor muriatic
acid ;  neither is it readily oxidized by the action of fhat
acid ;  but it unites with most metals, and in general ren-
ders them more brittle and  fusible.  Melted gold takes
up l-60th of arsenic.  The alloy is brittle and pale, and
much harder than gold.   The alloy of platina and arsenic
is brittle and very  fesibie.   The arsenic may be separat-
ed by heat.'   It is by fusing platina and  the white oxide
of  arsenic together lhat this un tract able metal is fornied
into the utensils required.   Tbe mixture, after fusing, ii
hammered at a fed heat  into bars.  The arsenic is gradu-
ally driven off, and  carries along  with  it  most of lhe
baser metals which happen lo be present.  The platina ii
then  sufficiently  ductile to  be wrought.   Melted silver
takes up l-14th of arsenic.   The uiioy is brittle, yellow
coloured, and useless.   Mercury may be  amalgamated
wilh arsenic by keeping them for some hours over fhe fire,
constantly agitaling the mixture.  The  amalgam is gray
coloured, and composed of five parts of mercury, andone
of  arsenic.   Copper may be  combined  with arsenic by
fusing them together in a close crucible ; while their sur-
face is covered with common salt to prevent the action of
fhe air, which would oxidize the arsenic.  This alloy ia
white and brittle, and  is used for a variety of purposes;
but it is usual to add  to it  a little tin or bismulh.  Il "
known by lhe names of  white  copper and  while tombac
When the  quantity of arsenic is small, the alloy is both
ductile and malleable.   Iron and arsenic may be alloyed
by fusion.  The alloy is white  and brittle, and may be
crystalized.   It  is found  native; and  is  known amou*
mineralogists by  the name of mispickel.   Iron is capable
of combining  wilh  more than its own weight of arsenic-
Tin and arsenic may be  alloyed by fusion.  The alloy »
white, harder, and more sonorous than  tin; and brittle)
unless the proportion of arsenic is very small.  An alloy.
composed of  15 parts of tin, and one of  arsenic, crystal-
izes in large plates like bismulh; it  is  more  brittle thai
zinc,  and  more  infusible than tin.  The arsenic may be
separated by long exposure of lhe alloy to heat in hV
open air.  Lead and arsenic may be combined by fusion-
The alloy  is brittle,  dark  coloured,  and  composed d 
ART
A  R  i
plafe*.  Lead  takes up  l-6th  of its  weight of  arsenic.
Nickel combines readily with arsenic, and indeed is sel-
dom found without being  more or less contaminated by
that metal.   The  compound  has a shade of red, con-
siderable hardness, and  a specific gravity considerably
under the  mean.   It is not magnetic.  Arsenic pos-
sesses  the  curious properly of destroying the magnetic
virtue of iron, and all  other metals susceptible of that vir-
tue.  Zinc may be combined with arsenic by distilling a
mixture of it and of white oxide of arsenic.   This alloy,
according to Bergmann, ia composed of four parts of zinc
and one of arsenic. Antimony forms with arsenic an alloy
which is very  brittle, very hard, and  very fusible ;  and
composed, according lo Bergmann, of seven parts of anti-
mony and one part of arsenic.  Bismuth may be combined
with about l-15th of  its weight of arsenic ; but the prop-
erties of ihis alloy have not been examined.
   The affinities of arsenic,  and of its oxides, are placed
by Bergmann in the following order :
         Arsenic.             Oxide of arseme.
     Nickel,                  Muriatic acid,
     Cobalt,                  Oxalic,
     Copper,                 Sulphuric,
     Iron,                    Nitric,
     Silver,                  Tartaric,
     Tin,                    Phosphoric,
     Gold,                   Fluoric,
     Platina,                  Saclactic,
     Zinc,                    Succinic,
     Antimony,              Citric,
     Sulphur,                 Lactic,
     Phosphorus.             Arsenic,
                             Acetic,
                             Prussic.
   ARSIS and Thesis,  in music.   A  point is said to
move per arsm et thesin, which rises in one part and falls
in anolher, and vice versa.
   ARSON,  in law,  the same with houseburning,  which
is felony at common law, and likewise by statute.
   ART and Part, in the law  of Scotland,  is applied to
an accomplice.
   ARTEDIA, a genus of the  digynia order, belonging to
the pentandria class  of plants, and in the natural method
ranking under the l.»th order,  nmbellatje.  The involucra
are pinna-tifid ;  the floscules of the disc are masculine ; and
the fmi' is hispid with scales.   There is but one species.
   ARTEL, a  name  given  to a commercial association,
consisting of a certain number of labourers, who voluntari-
ly  become responsible as  a body for the honesty of each
individual.  The separate earnings of each man are put
into a common stock ; a monthly allowance  is made for
his support ;  and at the end of the year the surplus  is
equally divided.  Hence arises the denomination of artel-
schisks,  persons  employed by the Russian merchants of
St. Petersburg  to collect debt?, &c.   These  are mostly
natives of Archangel of the lowest class, yet their fidelity
is rarely to be complained of.
   ARTEMISIA,  mugwort, southernwood,  and worm-
mood, a genus of the polygamia superfiua order, belonging
lo the syngenesia chss of plants, and in the natural meth-
od  ranking under the  49th order,  composifa? nucamenta-
ceee. The receptacle is either naked or a little downy ; it
has no pappus; the  calyx is  imbricated with  roundish
   vol. i.           31
scales ;  and the  corolla has no radii.  There are 44 spe-
cies, of which the following are the most rtmaikable,  vis.
  1. Artemisia abrofanum,  or southernwood,  which  is
kept in gardens fo. fhe sake of iis agreeable scent, is a low
shrub, seldom rising more than three or four  feet high,
sending out. lateral shrubby branches, growing erect, gar-
nished with five bristly leaver, having a strong scent when
bruised.
  2. Artemisia absinthium, or  common wormwood, grows
naturally in lanes and uncultivated places, and  is too well
known lo require any particular description.
  3. Artemisia arborescens, or  tree  wormwood, grow«
naturally in  Italy and the Levant, near the sea. It rises,
with a woody stalk, six or seven feet high, sending out
many Bgneous branches, with leaves somewhat like those
of the common wormwood, but  more finely divided, and
much whiter.
  4. Artemisia dracuncnhis,  or tarragon, is  frequently
nsed  in sallads, especially by the French, and  is  a  very-
hardy plant, spreading greatly by its creeping roots.
  5. Artemisia maritima, or sea wormwood, grows natur-
ally on ftte seacoasts- in most parts of  Britain, where there
art several varieties, ifnot distinct speeies to be found.
  6. Artemisia Pontica, or Pontic wormwood,  commonly
called Roman  wormwood, is a low herbaceous plant, whose
stalks  die in autumn, and new ones appear in the spring.
They are garnished with finely divided leaves, whose un-
der sides are woolly ; and fhe  irpperpart ofthe stalks are
furnished with globular  flowers  which nod on one  side,
having naked receptacles.
  7. Artemisia santonicum produces the semen santoni-
cum, which is much used for worms in children.  It grows
naturally in  Persia, whence the seeds are brought to Eu-
rope.  It has the appearance of our wild mugwort.
  8. Artemisia vulgaris, or common mugwort, grows nat-
urally on banks and  by the sides of foot paths in many
parts of Britain.   Most of these are easily propagated by
slips or cuttings.
  ARTERIOSE  canal,  a tube in the heart of a foetus,
that,  wifh  the foramen ovale, is of  use (o preserve th^
circulation ofthe blood, &c.
  ARTERIOTOMY, the opening an artery with design
to procure an evacuation of blood.
  This  operation is used  only  in extraordinary cases,  as
if is very dangerous ; and must be practised in the tem-
ples, the forehead,  or behind the ears, where the arteries
are easily closed again.
  ARTERY, in anatomy, a conical  tube or canal which
conveys the blood  from the heart to all parts of the body.
See Anatomy.
  ARTHRITIS,  gout.  See  Medicine.
  ARTHRODIA,  in natural history, a genus of imper
feet crystals, found always in complex masses;  and form-
ing long single pyramids,  with  very short and slender col-
umns.
  Arthbodia,  a  species of  articulation, wherein a flat
head of one bone is received into a shallow socket of an-
other.
  ARTICIIOAK.  SeeCiNARA.
  Artichoak, Jerusalem, a  species of sunflower.   See
II DI.EANTHUS.
  ARTICLE, in grammar, a particle in  most  languages
lhat serves to express lhe several cases  and  genders of 

                       ART

nouns, when the languages have not different terminations
to denote tbe different states and circumstances of nouns.
  The Latin has no article; but the Greeks  have their
o :  the eastern  languages have their he emphaticum ; and
most of the modern languages have had recourse  to  arti-
cles.   The  only articles made  use of in the  English
tongue, are  a and the; which, prefixed to substantives,
determine their general signification to some particular
thing.   The use of a is in a general sense,  and  may be
applied to any  particular person or  thing, and upon that
account  is called an indefinite article ; but the,  being a
determinate article, is called definite or demonstrative, as
applying the word to one individual.  The French have
three articles, le, la,  and les; the Italians have  their il,
lo,  and la;  and the Germans their der, das,and dat.
  Articles of war, are known regulations for the gov-
ernment of the army in the united  kingdom, dominions
beyond the  seas, and foreign parts  dependent upon this
country.  They may be altered at  the pleasure of the
sovereign ;  and in certain cases  they extend to civilians:
as  when by proclamation any place shall be put under
martial law, or when the people follow a camp  or army
for the sale  of merchandize, or serve in any menial capac-
ity.  It  is ordained that lhe articles of war shall be read
in the circle of each regiment  belonging to  the British
army every month, or oftener if thought proper.  A sold-
ier is not liable to be  tried  by a military tribunal unless
the articles of war have been read to him.
   ARTICULATE sounds are such  sounds  as  express
 the letters, syllables, or words,  of  any alphabet or lan-
 guage :  such are formed by  the human  voice,  and  by
 some few birds, as parrots, &c.   Other brutes cannot ar-
 ticulate the sounds of their voice.
    ARTICULATION, in anatomy, denotes the juncture
 of two bones intended for motion.
    Articulation is of two kinds : the first is called diarfhro-
 sis, being  that  which has a manifest motion: that which
 only admits of an obscure motion is called synarthrosis.
 The former is  subdivided into enarthrosis, arthrodia, and
 ginglymus.  The  latter is subdivided into  symphysis,
 ayntenosis, sutura, harmonia, syssarcosis, synchondrosia,
 and synneurosis. See Anatomy.
    Articulation, in botany, jointed as the culm or stalk
 of reeds, corn, &c.  It is also said  of pods, like  those  of
 the hedyrarum or French honeysuckle, which when ripe
 divide info so  many parts or joints.
   ARTIFICER, a person whose employment it is to man-
 ufacture any kind  of commodity, as in iron, brass, wool,
 &c.  such are  smiths, weavers, carpenters, &c.   If any
 »uch conspire  not to work under certain prices,  they are
 liable to divers penalties.  Persons  that contract  with ar-
 tificers in wool or metals to go out of the kingdom shall be
 fined  in any sum not exceeding 100/. and imprisoned for
 three months.   If artificers that are abroad do not return
 in six months after warning, they shall be deemed aliens,
 and be incapable of inheriting lands by descent.
    By several acts passed during the present reign, heavy
 penalties are inflicted  on masters of ships assisting to se-
 duce artificers to leave these realms.
    Artificer, in a military sense, he who prepares bombs,
 grenades, &c.
    ARTIFICIAL lines, on a sector or other scale, are
 certain lines, contrived to represent the logarithmic sines
                       ART

and tangents ; which, by the help of a line of numbers,
will solve questions in trigonometry, na\igation, &c.
  ARTILLERY signifies all sorts  of great guns or can-
non, mortars, howitzers^ petards, and (he like; together
with all the apparatus and stores thereto belonging, which
are not only taken into the field, but likewise to sieges,
and made use of both to attack and defend fortified places.
It signifies also the science of artillery or gunnery.
  Artillery, train of, consists  in an unlimited number
of pieces of ordnance ; such as 24 pounders, 18 pounders,
12,9,6, and 3 pounders; mortars  from  13 to 8 inches  i
diameter;  besides royals and cohorns; howitzers of eve-
ry  denomination, mounted on their  proper carriages and
beds, Sec. There is moreover attached to  the train'a suffi-
cient quantity of horses, spare carriages, spare  mortar
beds, &c.
   The  train of artillery is,  or should be,  divided into
brigades, to which belong not only the officers of the regi-
ments of artillery, but even  the civil  list, such as comp-
trollers, commissaries of stores, clerks of stores, &c. The
increase of artillery clearly demonstrates  its great utility;  ]
for in the year 1500, an  army of 50,000 men had only 40
pieces of cannon in the  field ; and  in the year 1757, the
same number of troops  brought 200 pieces into the field,
including mortars and howitzers.
   At the battle of Jemappe, which was  fought between
the French and Austrians on the  6th of November, 1792,
the latter had 120  pieces of cannon disposed along the
heights of Framery, whilst their effective force in men did
not exceed 17,000.  The French on this occasion brought
nearly lhe same quantity of ordnance, some indeed of ex-
traordinary calibre,  but  th/ir strength in  men was consid-
erably  more formidable.
   Artillery, brigade  of, generally  consists of 8  or 10
pieces of  cannon,  with  all the machinery and officers to
conduct them, and  all  the  necessary apparatus thereto
belonging.
   Artillery,  park  of, is  that  place appointed by the
general of an army to encamp the train of artillery, appa-
ratus, ammunition, as well as the battalions of the artillery,
appointed for its service and defence.  The figure ofthe
park of artillery is that  ofa parallelogram, unless the sit-
uation ofthe ground renders another necessary.
   The park of artillery  is generally placed in the centre
of the  second line of encampment, and sometimes in the
rear line,  or corps  of reserve.   In both places fhe muz-
zles of the guns are in  a line with  the fronts  of the Ser-
jeants'  tents of the regiments of  artillery and infantry.
Some generals choose to place the park about 300 paces
before  the centre of the front line of the army.  BotW
the situation be where it will, the manner of forming the
park is almost every where the same.  The most approv-
ed method is to divide the whole into brigades, placing the
guns of the first to the right of the front line, and their
ammunition behind them in  one or  more lines.  The dif-
ferent brigades should be all  numbered, as well as every
waggon belonging to  them.   This method will  prevent
confusion  in the forming and breaking up of lhe park,  »*
also on a march :  besides, according to  the numbers, t»*
stores therein  contained are known.
   Artillery, field, includes every  requisite to forward
the operations of an army, or of any part of an army acting
offensively or defensively in  the field.   Field artilW 
ART
A  RT
 may be divided into  two distinct classes: field artillery
 properly so called, and horse artillery.
   Regiments of artillery are always encamped half on the
 right and half on the left of the park.  The company of
 bombardiers, when they are formed into companies, always
 fakes the right of the whole, and  the lieutenant colonel's
 company the left ; next to the bombardiers, the colonels,
 the majors, &c. so that the two youngest are next but one
 to the centre or park : the two persons next to the park
 are the miners on  the  right, and  the  artificers  on the
 left.
   The colours are placed in the centre of the  front line
 of guns,  in the interval of fhe two alarm guns, in a line
 with the bells of arms ofthe companies.
   The lieutenant colonel's and  major's tents front the
 centres of lhe second streets from the right and left of lhe
 regiment.
   Artillery, march of.   The marches of lhe artillery
 are, of all the operations of war, the most delicate, because
 they must not only be directed on the object in view, but
 according to  the movements  the enemy make. Armies
 generally march in three columns,  the  centre  column of
 which is the artillery : should the army march in more col-
 umns, the artillery and heavy baggage march nevertheless
 in one or more of the centre columns : the situation of (he
 enemy determines this.  If they  are far from the enemy,
 the baggage and ammunition go before or behind, or are
 Bent by a particular road ; an army in such a case cannot
 march in  too many columns.  But  should  tbe  march be
 toward the enemy, the baggage must be all in the rear,
 and the whole  artillery form the  centre column,  except
 some brigades, one of which marches at the head of each
 column, with guns loaded, and burning matches, preceded
 by a detachment for their safety.  The  French almost
 invariably place their baggage in the centre.
   A detachment  of pioneers, with tools, must  always
 march at  the head ofthe artillery, and of each column of
 equipage  or baggage.
   If the enemy is encamped on fhe right flanks of the
 march, the  artillery, &c. should march to the left of the
 troops, and vice versa.    Should the enemy appear in
 motion, (he troops  front lhat way, by wheeling  to the
 right or left by divisions ; and the artillery  which "marches
 in a line with the columns,  passes  through their intervals,
 and forms at the head of the front line, which is formed of
 the  column  that flanked nearest the  enemy, taking care at
 the  same time that the baggage  be well covered during
 the  action.
   Artillery  company, a regular battalion of infantry
 under the command  of officers who are  annually elected.
 It consists of gentlemen of character and property, bound
 by solemn  declaration and obligation  of attachment and
 fidelity to the  king and constitution, and of readiness to
 join  in supporting the civil authority, and of defending the
 metropolis.  See the  History of this Company, by A.
 Highmore, Esq.
   ARTOCARPUS, from  apro?, bread, and Kocgiroe, fruit,
 lhe Bre vd  kruit  tree, a genus of the monandria order,
 belonging  to the monoecia class of plants.  It has a cylin-
 di ic amentum or catkin, which thickens  gradually and is
 covered with flowers:  the  male and female in a different
amentum.   In (he male the calyx is  (wo valved, and the
corolla is wanting.   In lhe iVmale, there is no calyx or
             31*
corolla:  the stylus is one, and the drupa is many celled.
There are two species, vis.
   1. Artocarpus inci*a.  Though this tree has been men-
tioned by many  voyagers,  particularly by  Dampier, by
Rumphius, and by lord Anson, yet very little notice seems
to have been taken of it, till the return of captain Wallis
from the South Seas.
   Captain Cook, in his Voyage, observes, that this fruit
not only serves as a substitute for bread among the inhab-
itants of Otaheite, and the  neighbouring islands,  but also,
variously dressed, composes the  principal part of their
food.  It grows  on a tree that is about the size of a mid-
dling oak;  its leaves are frequently a foot  and a half long,
of an oblong shape,  deeply sinuated like  those of the fig
tree, which they resemble in colour and consistence,  and
in the exuding of a milky juice upon being broken.   The
fruit is about the size and shape of a new born child's head,
and the surface  is  reticulated,  not much unlike a truffle;
it is covered  with  a thin skin, and  has a core about as big
as the handle of a  small knife.  The eatable part lies be-
tween the skin  and  tbe core; il is as white  as  snow, and
somewhat of the  consistence of new bread : it must be
roasted before it is eaten, being first divided into three or
four parts;  its taste is insipid, with a slight sweetness
somewhat resembling that of  the crumb of wheaten bread
mixed with  a  Jerusalem  artichoak.  This fruit is also
cooked in a kind of oven, which renders it soft,  and some
thing like a boiled potato; not quite so farinaceous as a
good one, but more so than  those ofthe middling sort.  Ot
the bread fruit they  also make three dishes, by pulling
either water or the milk of the  cocoa nut to it, then beat-
ing it to a paste with a stone pestle, and afterward mixing
it with ripe plantains, bananas, or the sour paste which
they call mahie.
  The unripe artocarpus mahie, is  likewise made fo  serve
as a succedaneum for ripe bread fruit before the season is
come on.   The fruit of the bread tree is gathered just be-
fore it is perfectly  ripe ; and being  laid  in heaps, is close-
ly covered  with  leaves : in this stale  it undergoes a fer
mentation, and  becomes disagreeably sweet ; the core is
then taken out entire, which is  done by gently pulling out
the stalk, and  the rest of the fruit is  thrown into a hole
which is dug for lhat purpose generally in  the houses, and
neatly lined on the bottom and side with grass :  the whole
is then covered wilh leaves, and  heavy stones laid upon
them ;  in this state if undergoes a second fermentation, and
becomes sour,  after which  it  will suffer no change for
many months.  It  is taken out ef the hole as it is wanted
for use ; and being made into balls,  it  is  wrapped  up in
leaves and baked :  after if  is dressed, il will keep for five
or six weeks.  It is eaten both cold and hot; and the  na-
tives  seldom make a meal without  it,  though to Europe-
ans the taste  h  as  disagreeable as that of a pickled olive
generally is the first time il  is eaten.
  To procure  this  principal article of their food,  costs
these happy people no trouble or labour,  excetpt climbing
up a tree :  the  tree  which  produces it does not indeed
grow  spontaneously; but if a man  plants ten of  (hem iu
his life time, which he may  do in an hour, he will as com-
pletely fulfil his duty to his own and future generations,
as the native of our  less temperate  climate can do, by
ploughing in (he cold of  winter, and reaping in the sum-
mer's heat, a* often as  these seasons return: . \en if after 
                       A R U

he has procured bread for his present household, he should
convert a surplus into money, and lay it up for his child-
ren.                 .                               .
  2. Artocarpus integnfolia, with entire leaves.   This is
called in the  Bast Indies the joccahee.   It bears  fruit
like the other, but it seems to be of an inferior kind.  It is
said there are above 30 varieties of this tree.
  ARTO TYRITES, in church history, a sect of Christ-
ians who used bread and cheese in the eucharist, or bread,
perhaps, baked with cheese; urging, in defence of this
practice, that in  the first  ages of the world, men offered
to God the fruits of their flocks, as well as  those of the
earth.
   ARTS are coiiraonly divided into liberal and mechani-
cal : the  former comprehending poetry, painting, sculp-
ture,  architecture,  &c.  and  the latter,  the  whole  body
of mechanical trades, as carpentry, masonry, turnery, &c
   Arts, fine,  a term synonymous with the French ex-
pression beaux  arts,  and perhaps imitated from it.  The
fine arts are painting,  sculpture,  architecture,  engraving,
drawing, and music; formerly classed under the more gen-
eral and appropriate description of the liberal arts.   See
Painting, Sculpture, &c.
   ARVALE3 fratres, in Roman antiquity, a college of
twelve priests, instituted by Romulus.
   ARUM, wakerohin,  or cuckow pint, in botany, a
genus ofthe  polyandria order, belonging to the gynandria
class of plants, and in the natural  method ranking under
the 2d order, piperita?.  The  spatha is monophyllous, and
cowl shaped: the spadix  is  naked above,  female below,
 and stamineous in  the  middle.  There are 32 species, of
 which the most remarkable are the following:
    1. Arum arborescens,  or dumb cane, is a native of the
 sugar  islands and warm parts of America, where it grows
 chiefly on  low  grounds.   All the parts of it abound with
 an acrid juice, so that if a leaf or part of the stalk  is broken
 and applied  to the tip of the tongue, it occasions a very
 painful sensation and  a  great  defluxion of saliva.  The
 stalks of this plant are sometimes applied to the  mouths of
 the negroes  by way of punishment.
    2.  Arum arisarium,  as  well  as the arum  proboscidium
 and arum tenuifolium, are all distinguished by the general
 name of friar's  cowl,  on account of  the  resemblance of
 their flowers to the shape of the cowls worn  by  friars.
 The flowers appear in April.
    3.  Arum  colocasia, as  well as the arum divaricarura, es-
 culenturn, peregrinum, and sagitf ifolium, have all mild roots,
 which are eaten by  the inhabitants of the hot countries,
 where they grow naturally.  Even the leaves of some of
 them, particularly those of fhe esculentum,  which they
 call Indian kale, in those  countries where many of the es-
 culent vegetables of England are with difficulty produced,
 prove a good succedaneum.
    4.  Arum  divaricatuin has spear shaped leaves.
    5.  Arum  dracunculus, or  the common  dragons, grows
 naturally in most of the southern parts of Europe.  It has
 a straight stalk, Ihree or four feet  high, which  is spotted
 like the belly of a snake: at the top it is spread out into
 leaves, which are cut into several narrow segments almost
 to the bottom, and  are  spread open like a hand; at the
 top of the stalk the flower is produced, which is in shape
 like the common  arum,  haTing a long spathe  of a dark
                       A R U

purple colour, standing  erect,  with a large pistil of fhe
same colour.
  6. Arum  Italicum  is a native of Italy, bpain,and Por-
tueal.  The leaves rise a foot and a half high, terminating
in a point;  they are  very large, and finely  veined with
white, interspersed with black spots, which, together with
the fine shining green, make a pretty variety.
  7. Arum maculatum, or  common wakerobin, grows nat-
urally in woods and on shady banks in most parts of Brit-
ain.  The  leaves  are halberd  shaped,  very  entire and
spotted ; the berries  numerous,  growing in a naked clus-
ter.  The  flowers appear  in April; and their wonderful
structure has given rise to  many disputes among tbe bot-
anists.  The  receptacle is long, in the shape of a club,
with the seed  buds surrounding  its base.  The chives are
fixed to the  receptacle amongst  the  seed  buds,  so that
there is no occasion for  the tips  to  be  supported upon
threads, and therefore they have none ; but they are 6xed
to the fruit stalk,  and placed between  two rows of ten-
drils: the point in dispute  is, what is the use of those
tendrils ?
   8. Arum trilobatum,  or arum of Ceylon, is a native of
that island and some other parts of India, and cannot bear
cold.  It is a  low plant; the flower rises immediately from
the root, standing on a very  short footstalk: the  spatha
is long, erect,  and of a fine  scarlet colour, as is also the
pistil.
   The  roots of the maculatum and dracunculus are used
in medicine, and differ  in  nothing but that the latter ia
somewhat stronger than the former.   This root is a pow-
erful stimulant and attenuant.  It  is  reckoned a medicine
of efficacy in some cachectic and chlorotic cases, and in
weakne&s of the stomach.   Great benefit has been obtain-
ed from it  in  rheumatic  pains, particularly  those of the
fixed kind, and which were sealed deep.  In  these cases
it may be given from  10  grains to a scruple of the fresh
root twice or  thrice a day, made into  a  bolus or emulsion
with unctuous and mucilaginous substances.
   ARUNDELIAN  marbles,  called  also  the  Parian
 Chronicle,  are ancient stones, on which  is inscribed  a
 chronicle of the city of Alliens,  supposed  to have been
 engraven  in  capital  letters, in tbe island  of Paros, 264
years before Christ.  They take  their name from the earl
of Arundel, who  procured  Ihem from  lhe  East, or from
 his grandson, who presented  them  to  tbe  university of
 Oxford.   The authenticity of  these marbles has  led to a
 controversy between Mr. Robertson, who in his 'Parian
 Chronicle'  questioned it, and Mr. Hewlett, who defended
 it  in <4 ' Vindication of the Authenticity of the Parian
 Chronicle,' which see.
    ARUNDO, in botany, the reed, a genus of lhe digynia
 order, belonging to the triandria class of plants, and in Ine
 natural method ranking  under  the fourth order,  gramma.
 The calyx consists of  two valves, and the floscules are
 thick and  downy.  There  are 14 species ; lhe  most  re-
 markable are :
    1. Arundo bambos, or the bamboo, a native of the East
 Indies and  some  parts of  America; where it frequently
 attains the height of 60 feet.  The  main  root   is  long?
 thick, jointed, spreads  horizontally,  and sends out many
 cylindrical woody fibres, of a whitish  colour, and many
 feet long.   From the joints of the main root spring several 
A S
A S B
round jointed stalks  to a prodigious height, and at about
10 or 12 feet fiom the ground send out at their joints sev-
eral stalks joined together  at their base: these run  up in
the same manner as those Ihey shoot out froai.  If any of
these is planted with a piece of the first stalk adhering to
them, they will perpetuate their  species.  They are arm*
ed at their joints with one or two sharp rigid spines, and
furnished  with oblong oval leaves,  eight or nine inches
long, seated on  short  footstalks.  The flowers resemble
those of the common reed.   The young shootb are cover-
ed with a dark green bark;  these when  very tender  are
put in vinegar, salt, garlic,  and the pods of capsicum, and
thus afford a pickle  which  is esteemed a valuable condi-
ment in the Indies, and is said greatly to promote the  ap-
petite and assist digestion.  The stalks  in their young
state are almost solid, and contain a milky juice :  this is of
a sweet nature; and as the stalks advance in age they  be-
come hollow except at the joints, where they are stopped
by a woody  membrane,  upon which this liquor lodges,
and  concretes into a substance called tabaxir, or sugar of
Mombu ; which was held in such esteem by the ancients
in some particular disorders, that it was equal in value to
its weight in silver.   The old stalks grow  lo five or  six
inches diameter, and are then of a shining yellow colour:
and are so hard and durable lhat they are used in buildings,
and  for making all sorts of household furniture; and  when
bored through the membranes at their joints, are convert-
ed into water pipes.  The smaller stalks are used for walk-
ing sticks, and the inhabitants of Otaheite make flutes of
them about a foot long,  with two holes only ;  which they
stop with the  first finger of the left hand and the middle
one ofthe right, and then blow through their nostrils.
  2.  Arundo  donax, or cultivated  reed, is  a native of
warm countries, but will bear  the  cold of our moderate
winters in the open  air.  The stalks of this are brought
from Spain and Portugal, and are used by tbe weavers, as
also for making fishing rods.
   3.  Arundo  orientalis is what  (he  Turks use as writing
pens; it grows in  a valley near mount Athos, as also on
the batiks of the river Jordan.
  4.  Arundo  phragmitis, or the common  marsh  reed,
grows by the  sides of our rivers, and in standing waters.
  The arundo versicolor,  or  Indian variegated  reed, is
supposed to be a variety of the donax, differing from it  on-
ly in having variegated  leaves; and the arundo picta, or
striped grass,  is a variety of lhe Canary grass.
  ARUSPICES, or Haruspices, an order of priesthood
among the Romans, that pretended to foretell future events
by inspecting  the entrails of victims killed in sacrifice.
  ARYTjENOIDES, in anatomy, the name of two car-
tilages, which, together with others, constitute the head
of the larynx.  It is also applied to some muscles of  the
larynx.
  AS, in antiquity, a particular weight, consisting of twelve
ounces, being  the  same with libra, or the Roman pound.
   is was also  fhe  name of  a Roman coin,  which wan of
different matter and weight, according to tbe  different ages
of the commonwealth.
  It is also used to signify an integer divisible into twelve
parts, from which  last acceptation it signified a whole in-
heritance.
  The as had several divisions ; the principal of which
were the uncia, or ounce, being the twelfth part of the  as ',
sextans, the  sixth part of the as; quadrans, the fourth
pari; triens, the third part $ and semis, half the as, or six
ounces.  Bis was two thirds of the as,  or  eight  ounces;
and dodrans, three fourths of the as.
  ASA, in the materia medica, a name given to two very dif-
ferent  vegetable productions, distinguished by epithets ex-
pressive of their smell.
  Asafcetida is  a very slinking gum, drawn, according to
Kempfer, from the root of an umbelliferous plant, which
grows* in the province of Chorasan in Persia.
  ASAPPES,  or Azapes, in  the Turkish armies, a name
given to the auxiliary troops  which they raise among the
Christians under their dominion,  and expose to  the first
shock of (he enemy.
  ASARUM,  As arabacca, a genus of the monogynia or-
der, belonging  to the  dodecandria class of plants.  The
calyx is trifid or quadrifid, and rests on the germen ; there
is no corolla; the capsule is leathery and crowned. There
are three species, vis.
  1. Asarum Canadense, a native of Canada.
  2.  Asarum Europaeum, grows naturally in some parts of
England.
  3. Asarum Virginicum, a native of America, has no re-
markable  properties.
  The principal use of this plant among us is as a sternuta-
tory.  The root of asarum is  perhaps the strongest of all
the vegetable errhines, white hellebore itself not excepted.
Snuffed up  the nose, in the quantity of a grain or two, it
occasions  a large evacuation of mucus, and raises a plen-
tiful spitting.   The  leaves  are  considerably milder, and
may be used to the quantity of 3, 4, or 5 grains.   Geoffe-
ry relates, that after snuffing  up a dose of  this errbine at
night,  he has frequently observed the discharge  from the
nose to continue for 3 days together, and that he has known
a paralysis of the mouth and tongue cured by one dose.
  ASBESTUS,  in  mineralogy.   This mineral was well
known to  the ancients.  They even made a kind  of cloth
from one of the varieties, which was famous among them
for  its incombustibility.  It is found abundantly in  most
mountainous countries, and no where more abundantly than
in Scotland.
  It is found in amorphous masses.   Its texture is fibrous.
Its  fragments often long, splintery.   Specific gravity from
2.995 to 0.6806.  Absorbs water.  Colour usually white
or green.   Fusible per se by  the blowpipe.
  1st. Common asbestus.  Specific gravity 2.547 (o 2.995.
Feels somewhat greasy.  Colour leek green ; sometimes  ol-
ive or mountain green; sometimes greenish or yellowish
gray.  Streak  gray.   Powder gray.
  Flexible  asbestus.   Amianthus.  Composed of a bun-
dle of threads slightly cohering. Fibres flexible.   Specif-
ic gravity, before it absorbs water, from  0.9088 to 2.3134 j
after absorbing  water,  from  1.5662 lo  2.3803.  Feels
greasy.   Colour grayish or  greenish while ; sometimes
yellowish or silvery white, olive or mountain green.
  Elastic asbestus.   Mountain cork.  This variety  has  a
strong resemblance to common cork.  Its fibres are inter-
woven.   Specific gravity,  before  absorbing water, from
0.6806 to 0.9933; after  absorbing  water,  from 1.2492 to
1.3492.   Feels meagre.  Yields to  the fingers like cork,
and is somewhat elastic.  Colour white ;  sometimes with
a shade of red  or yellow; sometimes of a yellow  or brown
colour 
A S C
A S  C
  Ligniform asbestus.   Colour wood brown, which passes
into yellow.  Opaque.  Very soft.   Somewhat flexible,
but not elastic.   Adheres to the tongue.  Feels harsh.
  A specimen of (he common asbestus, analyzed by Berg-
mann, contained
             63.9 silica
             16.0 carbonat of magnesia
             12.8 carbonat of lime
              6.0 oxyde of iron
              1.1 alumina
99.8
   A  specimen of the flexible asbestus yielded  to the
same chymist,
             64.0  silica
             17.2  carbonat of magnesia
             13.9  carbonat of lime
               2.7  alumina
               2.2  oxyde of iron

            100.0
  A specimen of fhe elastic asbestus contained, according
to the same analysis,
             56.2  silica
                   carbonat of magnesia
                   carbonat of lime
 26.1
 12.7
  3.0
  2.0

100.0
iron
alumina
   Twelve different specimens of asbestus, analyzed by
Bergmann, yielded the same ingredients, differing a lit tie in
their proportions.
                   Sp. 2.   Actinofe.
Strahlstein of Werner, except the  glassy; Rayonante of
   Saussure and  Brochanfe.   Acfinolite', asbestinite, as-
   bestoid of Kirwan.  Actinole of Hauy.
   This mineral occurs in the primitive rocks, and  is usual-
ly mixed  with those  stones which  contain a notable por-
tion of  magnesia.  It is  found both massive and crystal-
ized.  The primitive form of its  crystals, according  to
Hauy, is  a four sided prism whose bases are rhombs, and
which he presumes to be the same with the primitive form
of hornblende.   It occurs in six-sided prisms, in  needles,
and  in  small plates.  Colour most commonly greenish!
Texture radiated, rays  diverging from a centre. Frag-
ments  undeterminate.  Transparency  1; often  opaque.
Difficult to break.  Specific gravity 2.916 to 3.31.  Fu-
sible before  the blowpipe.  It is  divided into two  sub-
species.
   ASCARINE, a genus of the dioecia  monandria class
and order.  The essential character is, calyx ament, fili-
form : corolla none:  male,  anther  worm shaped: female,
style none : stigma three lobed drupe.   There is  one spe-
cies, a native of  the Society Isles.
   ASCARIS,  or Ascarides, a genus belonging to the
class of vermes, and the order of vermes intestinal.   These
insects  are found in  the bodies of animals ; have a round
and elastic body,  tapering toward  each extremity ; three
protuberances at  the head; the tail obtuse or subulate  •
 and the intestines spiral, milky white, and pellucid : they
 are of  the  two sexes,  and very prolific; but their origin
 is still  a matter of profound obscurity.   There are two
 species, vis.
   1. Ascaris  lumbricoides is about  the  same length with
 the lumbricus  terrestris,  or common earth  worm; but it
 wants the protuberant ring toward the middle of the body,
 the only mark by which they can properly be distinguish-
 ed.  The body of the lumbricoides is  cylindrical, and
 subulated at  each extremity; but  the  tail  is somewhat
 triangular.   The lumbricoides  is fhe worm which is most
 commonly found in the human intestines.   It is viviparous
 and produces vast numbers.
   2.  Ascaris vermicularis, see  Plate XV. Nat.  Hisf. fie,
 42, 43, wifh faint annular ruga?,  and the mouth transverse
 is about a quarter of an inch long, and thicker at one end
 than  the other.  It is found in  boggy places,  in fhe roots
 of putrid plants, and very frequently in the rectum of child-
 ren and horses.   It emaciates children greatlv,  and ia
 sometimes vomited up.
   ASCENDANT,  Ascendent, or Ascending  Line
 among  lawyers, is meant of ancestors, or such relations as
 are nearer the  root of the family.  Such are the  father
 grandfather, great uncle, &c. -Marriage is always  forbid-
 den between the ascendants and descendants in  a rHit
 line.
   ASCENDING, in astronomy, is said of such stars as
 are rising above  the horizon, in any parallel  ofthe equa-
 tor.  Thus  likewise, 1. Ascending latitude, is the latitude
 of a planet when going toward the north pole.   2. Ascend-
 ing node, is  that point of a planet's orbit, wherein it passes
 the  ecliplic, to proceed northward.  This is otherwise
 called the northern node, and represented by this charac-
 ter ft.
  Ascending  vessels, in anatomy, those which carry the
 blood upward^, as the aorta ascendens, and vena cava as-
 cendens.  See Anatomy.
  ASCENSION, in astronomy, the  rising of the sun or a
 star, or any  part of the equinoctial with it, above the hori-
 zon, is either right or oblique.
  Right ascension is fhat degree of the equator, reckoned
 from the beginning of Aries, which rises with  the sun or a
 star, in  a right sphere.  It is found by the following pro-
 portion: as  the radius, to lhe cosine of the sun or star's
 greatest declination, so  is Ibe tangent ofthe distance from
 Aries to Libra,  to the tangent of right ascension.
  Oblique ascension is  that degree  and minute  of the
 equinoctial,  counting from the beginning  of Aries,  which
 rises with the centre  of the sun  or a star,  or which comes
 to the horizon at the same time as the sun or star, in aa
 oblique  sphere.  In order to find  the oblique ascension,
 we  must find the ascensional difference.
  The arch of right ascension coincides wifh the right as-
cension  itself, and is the same in  all  parts of the globe.
The arch of oblique ascension coincides with  the oblique
 ascension, and changes according to the latitude of places.
  The sun's right ascension in time, is useful  to the prac-
 tical astronomer in observatories, who adjusts  his clock by
 sidereal time.   It  serves  to convert apparent to sidereal
 time; as that of an eclipse of Jupiter's satellites, in order
 to know at what time it  may be expected to happen by
 his  clock.   For (his purpose, the  sun's right  ascension at
 the preceding  noon, together  wifh the increase of right 
A S C
A SL
 ascension from noon, must be added  to the apparent time
 of the phenomenon set down in the ephemeris.  The sun's
 right ascension in time serves also for computing the appa-
 rent  time of a  known  star's passing  the meridian :  for,
 subtract the sun's right ascension in time at noon, from the
 star's rfght ascension in time, the remainder is the  appa-
 rent time ofthe star's passing the meridian  nearly ; from
 which the proportion at part ofthe daily increase of the
 gun's  right ascension from this apparent  time from noon,
 being subtracted, leaves  the correct  time  of the  star's
 passing the meridian.  The  sun's right ascension in time
 is also useful for computing the time of the  moon  and
 planets passing the meridian.
   ASCENSIONAL  difference, the  difference  be<-
 tween the right and oblique ascension of any point in the
 heavens; or it  is the space of time that the sun rises or
 sets before or after six o'clock.
   The ascensional difference may be found  by this pro-
 portion, vis. As the radius is to the latitude  of the place,
 so is the tangent of the sun's declination, to the sine of the
 ascensional difference; by subtracting of  which from the
 right ascension, when (he sun is in the  northern signs, and
 adding it when the sun is in the southern ones, you  will
 find the oblique ascension.
   ASCENT,  in logic, a kind of argumentation, in which
 we rise from particulars  to universals.
   ASCETICS, in church history, such Christians in the
 primitive church as inured themselves to great degrees of
 abstinence and  fasting, in order to subdue their passions.
 In short, every kind of uncommon piety laid claim to  the
 name ascetic.
   ASCII, an appellation given to those inhabitants ofthe
 earth, who, at certain seasons of the year, have no shadow :
 such are all the inhabitants of the torrid  zone, when the
 sun is \erlical lo them.
   ASCIDIA,  the name of a genus  of vermes, the body
 of which is fixed, roundish, and apparently issuing from a
 sheath; the  apertures  two, generally placed near  the
 summit, one below the other.  These creatures are more
 or less gelatinous, and have the power  of  contracting and
 dilating  themselves  at pleasure ; some of  them are fur-
 nished with a long stem, but most of them are  sessile.
 There are six species, as the papiliosa, &c.  See Plate X.
 Sat.  Hisf. fig.  40.
   ASCITjE, a sect of Christians in the second century,
 who introduced a kind of bacchanals into their assemblies,
 and danced round an inflated bag or  skin,  saying, " these
 are the new bottles, filled with new  wine," as referred to
 by Jesus Christ.
   ASCITES,   in medicine, the common dropsy.   See
 Mkdicine.
   ASCIUM, a genus of the polyandria monogynia class
 and order.   The essential character is, calyx five leaved,
 coriaceous; corolla five petalled ; berry one celled, many
 seeds.  There is one species, a tree of  Guiana.
  ASC'LEPIAD, in ancient poetry, a verse composed of
 four feet, the first of which is a spondee, the second a cho-
riambus, and the two last dactyls; or of four feel and a
cavsura, lhe first a spondee, fhe second  a  dacfyle,  after
 which comes the caesura, then (he two dactyls, as
                MxcenHS atavii edite regibus.
  ASCLEPIAS, swallow wort:  a genus of the digy-
nia order, and pentandria class of plants ;  and in the nat-
ural method ranking under the 30th  order,, contortce.
The generic character is  taken from five oval, concave,
hornlike nectaria, which are found in  the  flower.  There
are 34 species, of which  the following are the most re-
markable, vis.
   1. Asclepias alba, or common swallow wort, a native of
the south of France, Spain, and Italy.
   2. Asclepias Curassavica, or bastard  ipecacuanha, is  a
native of the warm^parts of America.   It rises  to the
height of five or six feet, with upright stems ;  the flowers
are ofa scarlet colour, and the  horny nectariums in the
middle are of a bright saffron, and there is a succession of
flowers on the same plant  from June  to October.  This
species is tender, and must be preserved in a stove room.
   3. Asclepias Syriaca, or greater Syrian dogsbane, is  a
perennial plant; the flowers are a bright purple colour.
   The root of the first species is used in medicine, and is
esteemed sudorific  and diuretic.   Its  sensible qualities
resemble those of valerian, which is preferred to it.  The
milky juice ofthe plant is considered as poisonous.
   ASCODRUTiE, in church history, a sect of gnostics,
who placed all religion in knowledge ; and under pretence
of spiritual worship, would admit of no external or corpo-
real symbols whatever.
   ASCOLIA, in Grecian antiquity, a festival celebrated
by the Athenian husbandmen in honour  of Bacchus, to
whom  they sacrificed a he goat, because  that animal de-
stroys the vines.  Out of the victim's skin, it was custom-
ary to make a bottle, which, being filled  with oil and wine,
fell as  a reward to him  who first fixed himself upon it with
one foot.
   ASCRIPTITI,  or  adscriptitii, were  a description of
villains, who, coming from abroad, settled  in the lands of
some new lord,  whose servants or subjects they became,
being  annexed to the lands, and like other villains trans-
ferred and sold wilh him.
   ASCYRUM, Peter's wort, a genus of the  polyandria
order,  and polyadelphia class of plants ; and in the natur-
al method  ranking  under the 20th order, rotaceae.  The
calyx consists of four leaves ; the corolla has four petals;
the filaments are numerous, and divided  into four bounda-
ries.   There are three  species, vis.
   1. Ascyrum crux Andreae.  2. Ascyrum hypericoides.
3. Ascyrum villosum :  all natives of the West Indies or
America.
   ASH.  SeeFRAxiNus.
   Ash, mountain.  See Sorbus.
   Ash, poison.  See Rhus.
   ASHES, the  earthy part of wood and other combusti-
bles, remaining  after they are consumed by fire.   These,
if produced from a vegetable, are of  a  white colour, and
saltish taste, a few instances excepted ;  and when boiled
with fair  water, yield a lixivium  of  an acrimonious, alka-
line, fiery, urinous taste.  The ashes of  all vegetables are
verifiable, and are found to contain some iron.
   Ashes  of all kinds contain an alkaline salt,  and are an
excellent manure for cold  and  wet ground.  They are
also of considerable use in  making lixiviums or  lyes,  for
the purposes of medicine, bleaching, and for sugar works :
and are distinguished by  various names; as  pot  ashes,
pearl ashes, wood ashes, and weed ashes.  See Potass, &c.
  ASLAM. in commerce, a  silver coin,  worth  from 115'
to 120  aspers.  See Asi-kr. 
ASP
ASP
   ASP in zoology.  See Coluber.
   ASP A LATH US, African broom: a genus of tbe de-
candria order, belonging to the diadelphia class of plants:
and in the natural method  ranking under  (he  32d order,
papilionacea?.   The calyx consists of 5 divisions :  the
pod is oval and contains 2 seeds.  Of this genus there are
37 species ; all of which are natives of warm climates, and
must  be preserved in stoves by those who would cultivate
them  here.  The rose  wood, whence*the oleum Rhodii is
obtained, is one of the species,  but  of which we have yet
had no particular description.  This wood was anciently
in much repute, as an astringent;  but it  is  now used
chiefly as a perfume.
  ASPARAGUS, a genus  of  the monogynia  order and
hexandria class of plants; and in the natural method,
ranking under  the  11th order, sarmentace«e.   The calyx
is quinquepartite,  and  erect;  the  three inferior petals
are bent outward;  the berry  has  three  cells, and  con-
tains  two seeds.   There  are 13 species; but the only
one cultivated in the gardens is  the common asparagus,
with  an  upright  herbaceous stalk, bristly  leaves, and
equal stipula.   The other  species are kept only for  the
■ake of variety.
  The garden  asparagus is cultivated from  seed.   The
manner of saving it is this:  mark with a stick some of the
fairesibuds; and when they are  run to berry, and  tbe
stalks begin to dry and  wither, cut  them up ; rub off the
berries into a tub, and pouring water upon  them, rub (hem
about with your hands; the busks  will break and let out
the seed, and will swim away wilh the water, in  pouring
it off; so that in repeating this two or t hree limes, the seeds
will be clean washed, and found at the bottom  of  the tub.
These must be dried, and in the beginning of February sown
on a  bed of rich earth.  They must not be sown too thick,
and must be trod into the ground, and the earth raked over
them smooth ; in October, when the stalks are withered and
dry,  a little rotten dung must be spread half an inch thick
over the whole surface of the bed.  Next spring, the plants
will be fit to plant out; the ground must therefore be pre-
pared for them by trenching it well,  aud  burying a large
quantity of rotten  dung in lhe f rem lies, so that it may lie at
least 6 inches below the surface of the ground:  when (his is
done level the  whole plot.  The asparagus is to be planted
out in the beginning of March, if the soil is dry, and the sea-
son forward ; but in a wet soil, it is better to wait till the be-
ginning of April, which is about the season that the plants are
beginning to shoot.  The season being now come, tbe roots
may  be placed two inches under the surface ofthe ground ;
and between every  four rows, a space of two  feet  and  a
half should be  left for walking in,  to cut  the asparagus.
The  second spring after planting,  some  df the young as-
paragus may be cut for the fable.   But the  larger shoots
should only be taken,  and these  should be  cut at  two
inches under  the  ground.   As some people however are
very fond of early asparagus, the following directions are
given, by which it may be obtained any time in winter:
plant some good roofs of one year old in a moist  rich soil,
about eight inches apart ; the second and third year after
planting, they will be ready to take up for hotbeds; these
 should be made pretty strong, about three feet thick, with
new  stable dung  that has fermented a week or more; the
 beds must be covered with earth six inches  thick; (ben
against a ridge made at one end, begin to lay in your plants
without trimming or cutting the fibres, and between every
row lay a little ridge of fine  earth, and  proceed thus tft
the bed is planted; then cover the bed  two inches thick
with earth, and encompass it wilh a straw band; and in a
week, or as the bed is in the temper, put on the frames and
glasses, and lay on three inches thick of fresh earth over
the beds, and give them air and add fresh heat to them a^
it requires.  These beds  may  be made from  November
till March.
  ASPECT, in astronomy, denotes the situation of planers
and stars, with respect  to each  other; whereof  we find
mention of five kinds: 1. Sexlile aspect is when the planets
or stars are 60 degrees distant, and marked thus *.  2. The
quarlile  or quadrate when they  are  90 degrees distant,
marked n.   3.  Trine when  120 degrees distant, marked
A-   4.  Opposition when  180 degrees distant, marked $,
Aud, 5.  Conjunction, when both in the same degree, mark-
ed d.
  Kepler, who added eight new ones, defines aspect to be
the angle formed  by  the rays of two stars meeting  on the
earth, whereby their good or bad influence is measured;
for it ought to be observed, that  these aspects being first
introduced by astrologers, were distinguished into benign,
malignant, and indifferent; the quarlile and opposition being
accounted malign, the trine and sextile benign or friendlr,
and the conjunction indifferent.
   Aspect,  double, in painting, is used where a single fig
me is so contrived, as to  represent two or more different
objects,  either by changing (he position of the eye, or by
means of angular glasses.
  Aspect, in a maritime sense, is  the view or profile of land
or coast, and contains tbe figure  or representation of the
borders of any particular part of the sea.  These figures
and  representations may  be found in  all the ruttiers or di-
rectories for the seacoast.  The Italians call them demon-
stratione.   By means of  this  knowledge you may ascer-
tain  whether fhe  land round the shore is high; if the coast
itself is steep or  sloping; bent in fhe  form  of an  arc,or
extended in straight lines; round at the fop, or risingtoa
point.   Everything, in  a word, is  brought  in a correct
state before  the eye,  as far  as regards harbours, bogs,
gulfs, adjacent churches,  trees, windmills, &c.
   Aspect, menacing.    An army is  said lo hold  a men-
acing aspect,  when  by  advanced movements or positions
it gives  the opposing enemy  cause to  apprehend offensive
operations.
   Aspect, military.  A country is said fo have a milita-
ry aspect, when  its general situation  presents appropriate
obstacles or facilities for an army acting on.the offensive
or defensive.
   Aspect, imposing.  An  army is  said to have an im-
posing  aspect, when it appears stronger than it really is-
This appearance is  often assumed for the purpose of de-
ceiving an enemy, and may not improperly be considered
as a principal feint in war.
   ASPEN tree.  See Populus.
   ASPER, in grammar,  an accent peculiar to the Greek
language, marked thus Q and importing that the letters
over which it is placed  ought to  be strongly aspirated,  or
pronounced as if an  h was joined with them.
   Asper, or aspre, in  commerce, a Turkish coin, tbree
of which make a medine, and wort!-  -ometbing more than
our  halfpenny. 
ASS
ASS
   ASPERIFOLIATE,orasper(/b!ii/s, among botanists,
 such plants as are rough leaved. Of this kind are bugloss,
 borage, &c.
   ASPERUGO, small wild bugloss, a genus ofthe pen-
 tandria monogynia class; and in the natural method rank-
 ing under (he asperifolise.   The calyx of (he fruit is com-
 pressed, with folds flatly parallel, and sinuous. There are
 two species, vis.
   1. Asperugo JEgyptiaca, a  native of Egypt.
   2. Asperugo procumbens, or wild bugloss, a native of
 Britain;  w hich is  eaten  by horses, goats,  sheep,  and
 swine ; but cows are not fond of it.
   ASPERULA, woodroof, a genus of the monogynia
 and  hexandria class of plants, and in  lhe natural method
 ranking under fhe 47th  order, stellatae.   The corolla is
 infundibuliform; and the capsule contains (wo globular
 seeds.  There are eleven species, (wo of which grow wild
 in England, vis.
   1. Asperula cynanchica, found on chalky hills.  The
 roots are used for dyeing red in Sweden.
   2.  Asperula odorata, a  low   umbelliferous  plant,
 growing wild in  woods and  copses, and flowering in May.
 It has an exceeding pleasant smell, which is improved by
 moderate exsiccation.  It  imparts its flavour to vinous
 liquors. Asperula is supposed lo attenuate viscid humours,
 and is recommended in obstructions in the liver and bilia-
 ry duels, and by some in  epilepsies  and palsies; modern
 practice has nevertheless rejected il.  The smell of it is
 said to drive away (icks and other insects.
   ASPHALTUM.  See  Bitumen.
   ASPHODEL US, asphodel, or king,s spear, a genus
 of the monogynia order, belonging to the  hexandria class
 of plants.  The calyx is divided into six  parts; and the
 nectarium consists of six valves  covering the nectarium.
 There are five species, vis.
   1. Asphodelus ramosus, or  white asphodel.  The
 leaves are long; lhe stalks rise to above three feet high,
 and divide into  several  spreading branches ; these are
 terminated by loose spikes of white flowers.
   2. Asphodelus luteus, or common yellow asphodel,
 has  strong round single stalks near (hree  feet high, with
 yellow star shaped flowers, which appear in June.
   3. Asphodelus^s/m/osms, or onion leaved asphodel, is
 an annual plant, (he flowers of which  are white.
   ASPIRATE, in grammar, denotes words marked wilh
 the asper.
   ASPIRATION, among  grammarians, is used to de-
 note  (he  pronouncing a  syllable  with some vehemence;
 as these words beginning with  the  letter  H, hear, heat,
 which are pronounced more softly without the H, as ear,
 eat.
   ASPIS.   See Coluher.
   ASPLENIUM,  milt waste or spleen wotl,  in botany,
 a genus of cryptogamious plants  ofthe order Alices,  the
 fructification of which is arranged in clusters, and disposed
 in form of straight lines, under the disk of fhe leaf.
   This genus comprehends  47 species, natives of different
 countries, some of which were formerly used in medicine,
 but are now rejected.
   ASS, feast of, a festival, celebrated during the dark
ages, in commemoration of the Virgin Mary's flight.  On
(his occasion, a young girl, richly dressed, with a child in
her arms, was set upon an ass.   The beast  was led to  lhe
  vol.  i.           32
altar, where  mass was said with great  pomp-   The  ass
was  taught to kneel, and a hymn was sung in his praise.
As soon as the ceremony was ended, lhe priest and lhe
people brayed in imitation of the ass.   This was esteemed
an act of devotion,  and performed  by authority of the
church.
  Ass, asinus, in zoology.  See  Equui.
  ASSARON,  or omer, a measure of capacity, in use
among the Hebrews, containing five pints.   It was lhe
measure of manna which God  appointed for every  Is-
raelite.
  ASSAULT, in law, a violent  injury offered fo a man's
person: it may  be committed  by offering a  blow, or a
threatening  speech.   In case a  person  threatens lo beat
another, or lies in wait to do it, if the other is hindered in
his business, and  receives loss, it will  be an assault,  for
which an action may  be brought,  and damages recovered ;
or the party threatening may be  bound over (o (he peace.
Not  only striking,  but thrusting,  pushing, casting stones,
or throwing drink in the face of any person, are deemed
assaults.
  In all which cases, a man may plead in his justification,
the defence of his person (but not of  his goods) or of  his
father, mother, wife,  child, master, Sec.
   ASSAYING,  is  the  art of-finding  how  much  pure
metal is contained in every ore,  or lhe'proportion of lhe
several ingredients of any mixed metal, which  is done in
the following manner:
   1. Gold.   To  obtain  pure gold we  have only to dis-
solve the gold of commerce in nitromuriatic  acid, and
precipitate the metal by  dropping in  a very diluted solu-
tion  of sulphat  of iron; the powder which precipitates,
after being well washed and dried, is pure gold.
  2. Platinum.  Platinum can scarcely be obtained per-
fectly pure in the metallic state, at least in any consider-
able quantity; because a sufficient heat for melting it can-
not be obtained.  But its oxide  may be procured quite
pure from the muriat of platinum and Ammonia, prepared
by the rules to be hereafter laid down.   This  salt is to be
decomposed by a violent heal, and the residuum, if neces-
sary, may be re-dissolved  in nitromuriatic acid, and pre-
cipitated with soda.
  3. Silver.   Dissolve  (he silver of commerce in ni(ric
acid, and  precipitate  with a diluted solution of sulphat of
iron.  The  precipitate  is  pure  silver.  Or  precipilate
wilh common salt ; form the precipitate into a paste with
soda; put it into a crucible lined with  soda,  and fuse it
with a brisk heat.  This process gives a button of pure
silver.
  4. Mercury may be obtained pure by distilling a mix-
ture of (wo parts cinnabar and one part of iron filings in
an iron retort.  The mercury comes over, and (he sul-
phuret of  iron remains behind; or the oxymuriat of mer-
cury may  be decomposed by ammonia, and the precipitate
heated either by itself or mixed with oil.
  5. Copper may be dissolved in muriatic acid, and the
copper precipitated  by a polished plate of iron ; or the
black oxide of copper, obtained by decomposing cuprated
ammonia, may be melted with its own weight of pounded
glass and pitch.
  6. Iron can scarcely be obtained  perfectly free from
carbon.  The processes for obtaining it as pure as possi-
ble will be given hereafter. 
ASS
ASS
   7. Tin may be  obtained  pure by  solution-  in s-trong.
nitric acid; lhe  white  oxide of tin is formed, which is
insoluble.   Let  it  be digested first with muriatic  acid,
and  afterward  with aqua  regia.   Mix  the  oxide thus
purified  with its  weight of pitch and a little  borax, and
melt it in a crucible.
   8. Lead may be obtained pure  from the carbonat  by
solution in diluted nitric acid and precipitation by a cylin-
der of zinc;  from the sulphuret by  solution in nitric acid,
mixing the solution with muriatic acid,  and crystalizing.
The crystals of muriat of lead are to be dissolved  in boil-
ing water, and then  evaporated to dryness.  The mass is
to be melted in a  crucible with 2\ times its weight of black
flux.
   9. Chymists have hitherto failed in their attempts to
obtain nickel in  a  state of  absolute purity.   The  great
difficulty is  to separate it from cobalt; upon which all re-
agents have nearly  the same action.  The following inge-
nious method  has been  lately proposed  by Mr. Phillips :
dissolve the  nickel of commerce in nitric acid to saturation.
Throw  down  the arsenic acid by nitrat of lead.  Then,
after filtration, add  an excess of nitric acid, and introduce
an iron  rod  into  the solution to throw down the copper.
After this,  precipitate  tbe whole by carbonat  of potass,
and digest the precipitate in liquid ammonia.  The cobalt
and nickel are taken up; the iron and lead remain. Dilute
the solution with  water;  add an excess of ammonia; then
pour potass into the solution.   The cobalt remains  in so-
lution, but  the nickel precipitates in  the state of a pure
oxide, and may be  reduced by exposure to a strong heat
with charcoal.
   10.  Zinc may be dissolved  in  sulphuric acid, and  a
plate of zinc allowed to remain for  a considerable time in
the solution.  It is then  to be filtered, and the zinc to be
precipitated with soda.  The precipitate, edulcorated and
dried, is to  be mixed with half its weight of pure charcoal,
and distilled in an earthen ware retort.   The zinc  is found
pure in the neck of the retort.
   11. Antimony may be dissolved in  nitromuriatic acid,
and precipitated by the affusion of water.   The precipi-
 tate is to be  mixed with twice its weight of tartar, and
 fused in a crucible.  A  button of  pure antimony is  ob-
 tained.
   12. Bismuth, if impure,  may be  dissolved in  nitric
 acid, and precipitated by water.  The edulcorated pre-
cipitate,  formed into a paste with  oil, and rapidly  fused
wifh black flux, gives a button of pure bismuth.
   13. Tellurium was  obtained pure  by  Klaproth,  by
forming its oxide into a paste  with oil,  and heating it to
redness in a retort.   The metal was rapidly revived.
   14.  Arsenic, in the  state  of  white oxide, may be
 dissolved in muriatic acid,  precipitated by  the  affusion
of  water,  re-dissolved,  and  a plate  of zinc inserted
 into the solution, mixing with it at the same  time a lit-
 tle alcohol.   The  arsenic is precipitated in the  metallic
 state.
   15. Cobalt  may be  obtained pure  in all likelihood by
following the  process  proposed by Mr. Phillips  for  the
purification of nickel.  The following is a much cheaper
process recommended  by Trommsdorf: mix  a pound of
the best smalt with four ounces of nitre and two ounces of
charcoal powder, and throw the mixture at intervals into
a red hot crucible.  This process is to be  repeated  three
times..  The nurture is then to be kept in a strong,heat
for an hour, stirred well, then mixed with four ounces of
black flux, and kept in the strong heat of a forge for an
hour longer. The cobalt, reduced by this treatment, is still
impure.  It is to be mixed again with thrice its weight of
nitre, and deflagrated in a red hot crucible by small por-
tions at a time.  By this process the iron is peroxidized,
and the arsenic acidified.   The mass is to be well washed,
and the oxide of cobalt separated by filtration.   This ox-
ide is to*be dissolved  in nitric acid,  and evaporated to
dryness.  A fresh portion of acid is to be added, and the
mass exposed to a moderate heat.   Dilute with water, and
filter to separate the remains of the iron.  Precipitate br
pure potass, and reduce the oxide.
   16. Manganese.   Digest the black oxide of manganese
repeatedly in nitric acid ; then mix it with sugar, and dis-
solve it in nitric acid.   Filter the solution, precipitate by
an alkali, form the  white oxide thus obtained into a paste
with oil, and put it into a crucible well lined witkcharcoal.
Expose the crucible for an hour to the strongest heat of
a forge.
   17.  Tungsten was  obtained by Elhuyart by heating
the yellow oxide violently in a crucible lined with char-
coal :  but this process  has not  succeeded with other
chymists.
   IB. Molybdenum may be  obtained by forming molyb-
die acid into a paste with oil, and heating it violently  in a
crucible lined with charcoal.
   19.  Uranium is procured by forming the yellow oxide
of that metal into a paste with oil,  drying it in a moderate
heat, putting it into a crucible lined with charcoal, with a
little lampblack strewed over it.   After luting on the
cover, it is to be heated at first gently, and then violently,
for three quarters of an hour.
   20.  Titanium^  in a very small  proportion indeed, was
obtained in the metallic state, by mixing  together  100
parts of the red oxide of the metal, 50 parts of borax, and
five parts of charcoal, and forming fhe mixture into a paste
with  oil.  This paste  was put into a  crucible lined with
charcoal, and exposed  for an  hour and a half to the violent
heat of a forge.
   21.  Chromium was obtained by Vauquelin in the me-
tallic state, by putting a portion of chromic acid into! '
charcoal  crucible, enclosed  in a common crucible lined
with charcoal, and exposing it for an hour to the violent
heat of a forge.
   Assayino of weights and measures, the examining the
common weights and measures  by the  clerk of  the  mar-
ket.
   ASSEMBLY, in  the  military  art, the second beating
of a drum before a march j at which  fhe soldiers strike
their tents, roll them up, and  stand to arms..
   ASSEMBLIES of  the clergy are called convocations*
synods, councils; lhe  annual meeting of the church of
Scotland is called a general assembly.
   ASSES, ovder  of,  a  denomination of Mathurins, of
Trinitarians ; so called because  they  were obliged, ■
travelling, to ride on asses, not horses.
   ASSESSOR, an inferior officer of justice,  appointed
chiefly to assist the ordinary judge with his  opinion and
advice.
   Assessor is also one who assesses or settles taxes,and
other public dues. 
ASS
ASS
   ASSETS, in law, goods or property in the hands of a
 person, with which he is enabled to discharge an obliga-
 tion imposed  upon him as executor, &c.  Assets may be
 real or personal.
   ASSIENTO,  a  Spanish word, signifying a farm, in
 commerce, is used for a bargain between the king of Spain
 and other powers, for importing negroes inlo the Spanish
 dominions in America, and particularly to Buenos Ayres.
 The first assiento was made by the French Guinea com-
 pany ; and by the treaty of Utrecht, transferred to the
 English, who were to furnish 4800 negroes annually.
   ASSIGN, in common law, a person to whom a  thing is
 assigned or made over.
   ASSIGNEE, in law, a person appointed by another to
 do an act, transact some  business, or enjoy a particular
 commodity.
   Assignees may be by deed or by law:  by deed, where
 the lessee ofa farm assigns the same  to another;  by law,
 where the law makes an assignee,  without any appoint-
 ment of the person entitled, as an executor is assignee in
 law to  the testator, and an administrator to an intestate.
 But when there is assignee by deed, lhe assignee in law is
 not allowed.
   It is most commonly applied to  those creditors  of a
 bankrupt who are appointed  by  the rest to  manage for
 them, and consequently have the bankrupt's estate as-
 signed over to them.
   ASSIGNING, in a special sense, is used to set forth
 and point at, as to assign an error,  to assign false judgment,
 (o  assign waste;  in which cases it must be shown where-
 in (he error is committed, where and bow the judgment is
 unjust, and where the waste is committed.
   ASSIGNMENT, in  law, differs from a lease  in this,
 that by a lease a man grants an interest less than his own ;
 in assignment he grants the  whole oroperty.   2 Blacks.
 32G.
   ASSIMILATION,in physics, is that motion by which
 bodies convert other  bodies related to them, or  at least
 such as are prepared to be converted, into their own  sub-
 stance aud nature.
   ASSISE, in old law books, is defined to bean assem-
 bly of knights and other substantial men, with the justice,
 in a certain place, and  at a certain time :  but the word in
 its present acceptation is used for the court,  place, or
 time when and where  the writs and processes, whether
 civil or criminal, are decided by judges and jury.  In this
 signification,  assise is eilher  general, when judges make
 their respective circuits, with commission to take all assise;
 or  special  where a commission  is  granted lo particular
 persons for taking an  assise upon  one or (wo disseisins
 only.   By .Magna Charta, justices shall be sent through
 every county, once a year, who, with the knights of the
 several shires, shall take assise of novel disseisin:  and as
 to the  general  assise,  all lhe counties  of England are
 divided into six circuits, and two  judges are assigned by
 fhe king's commission, to every circuit, who now hold the
 assises twice  a year,  in every county, except Middlesex,
 where the courts of record sit,  and the counties palatine.
 These judges have five several commissions :  1. Of oyer
 and terminer, by which they are empowered to fry trea-
 sons, felonies, &c. 2. Of gaol  delivery,  which empowers
 them to fry every prisoner in gaol, for whatever  offence
he be committed.   3. Of assise, which gives them   power
           32*
to do  right upon writs brought  by persons wrongfully
thrust  out of their lands and possessions.  4. Of nisi prius,
by which civil causes come to issue in the courts above,
are tried in lhe vacation  by a jury of twelve men, in the
county where the cause of action arises.   5. A commis-
sion of the peace, in every county of the circuit : and all
justices of .peace of the county and sheriffs are to attend
upon the judges, otherwise they shall be fined.
  Assise is used in several olher significations ; as, 1. for
a jury  where assises of novel disseisin are  tried, and the
pannels of assise shall be  arraigned.   See the next article.
2. For a writ for recovery of lhe possession of things im-
moveable, of which a person and his ancestors have been
disseised.  3.  For an ordinance or statute, as the assise of
the forest, a statute concerning  orders to be observed in
the king's forest.  4.  For a quantity of wheat, bread, &c.
prescribed by a statute;  as we say, when wheat is of such
a price, bread shall be of such an assise.
  Assise of novel disseisin is a writ that lies where a
tenant  in fee simple, fee tail, or for term of life, is put out
and  disseised  of his  lands, tenements, rents, common of
pasture, common way, &c.  A writ of assise may some-
times be had by  a person, when he cannot  have trespass
vi el armis ; as where  a lord enters on lands, and distrains
his tenant so often,  when  nothing is due, lhat the tenant
is disturbed in manuring  his lands ; in such case he may
have assise de souvent fois distress; but he cannot bring
trespass against his lord.
  Assise of mort d'anceslor is a writ which lies where a
person's father, mother, brother, &c. died seised of lands
and tenements in fee,  and, after either of their deaths,  a
stranger abafeth.
  Assise qfutrum lies for a parson against a layman, or a
layman against a parson,  for lands or  tenemenls doubtful
whether (hey are lay fee or free alms.
  ASSOCIATION of ideas is where two  or more ideas
constantly and immediately follow one  another, so (hat the
one  shall  almost infallibly produce the  other, whether
(here is any natural relation between (hem or not.
  Association,  in law,  is a  writ or patent sent by the
king, either of his own motion, or at the suit of tbe plain-
tiff, to  the judges of assise, to have others associated to
them, to take the assise, &c.
  ASSONlA,  in botany, a genus of the class and order
monadelphia  dodecandria. "The essentia!  character is
calyx double, outer one leaved or three leaved, inner one
leaved ; corolla five petalled, no f ube affixed to the pitcher
of stamens;  filament connected in form ofa pitcher, wilh
petal shaped straps between; style  one or five ; capsuii
five celled ;  seeds not winged.
  There are eleven species, the most remarkable of which
is the A. populnea, a middle sized  tree,  growing in the
isle of Bourbon, and resembling the hibiscus populneus.
The wood is sweet scented, and bine in the middle.
  ASSUMPSIT, a voluntary or verbal promise, where-
by a person assumes, or takes upon him to perform or pay
any thing to another.   All assumpsits must be for'sonic
valuable  consideration; and  they are either express or
implied.   Express is by direct agreement either by  word
or note without seal:  implied, when any person becomes
legally indebted  to another for goods sold, the law implies
a promise that he will pay his  debt;  and if he does not
pay it, the writ  indebitatus assumpsit lies against him: 
ASSURANCE.
and will lie for goods sold and delivered to a stranger, or
third  person, at the request  of the defendant : but the
price  agreed on  must be proved,  otherwise that action
does not lie.
  ASSUMPTIVE arms, in heraldry, are such as a per-
son has a right to assume, with the approbation of his
sovereign, and of the heralds.
  ASSURANCE, a contract by which  lhe assurer un-
dertakes, in consideration of a premium equivalent to the
hazard run, to indemnify lhe person assured against cer-
tain perils or losses, or against some particular event. The
practice of entering info such engagements, which origi-
nated  about the  year 1182, and has been greatly extended
as its  utilfy has become  more  understood, gives great
security to the fortunes of private  people, by dividing
among many that loss which would ruin an individual.
  The instrument  by which this contract of indemnify is
effected be!ween the assurer and the assured is  called a
policy; and is  not, like most  contracts,  signed  by both
parties, but only by lhe assurer, who on that account, it is
supposed, is denominated an underwriter.
  Assurances may  be distinguished inlo marine assurances,
assurances upon lives, and assurances against fire.
  Marine assurance is an indemnity against those perils
to which ships  and goods are exposed in the course of
their  voyage from one place  to another, whether arising
from the dangers ofthe seas, fire, capture by enemies or
pirates, detention by the government of any country, or
from any fraudulent act of the master or mariners, such as
running away with  the ship, carrying her a course  different
from  their orders, sinking her, deserting her, or embez-
zling  tbe cargo.  Assurances of this kind being of peculiar
importance to the commercial interests of this country, and
many frauds  having been committed in this business by
persons  receiving  premiums  who were totally unable to
fulfil  their engagements, an  act of parliament was passed
in the reign  of George I. establishing two corporations
with  adequate capitals for carrying on  this business, and
prohibiting any other society or  partnership whatsoever
from  making marine assurances or  lending money on bot-
 tomry.  The two  companies  are, fhe Royal Exchange
Assurance and the London Assurance, who both engage
 very extensively in this species of assurance; but as from
 their superior responsibility they generally require a some-
 what  higher premium  than  private underwriters, many
persons prefer  effecting their assurances with  the latter ;
this business, in London, is carried on chiefly in a set  of
rooms called Lloyd's  coffeehouse, over the Royal Ex-
change, where  four or five hundred underwriters assemble
daily. Persons having an assurance to make, generally em-
ploy  a broker,  who having prepared a policy, carries it to
 an underwriter, whom  he considers a responsible person,
 who  if he considers the risk offered an eligible one to un-
 dertake, signs his  name at the bottom of the policy, men-
 tioning the sum he agrees to be answerable for ;  it is then
 taken to another,  and so on till the whole sum mentioned
,in (he policy is completed.   The premium paid depends
 on the length of the voyage,  the condition of the vessel,
 lhe season ofthe year, peace or war, and many other cir-
 cumstances ; of course it is very  different at different
 periods.
   Life assurance  is a contract by  which the underwriter
 for a certain sum, proportioned to the age, profession, ancl
/.	s.	d.
1	17	0
2	19	10
5	IB	1
I.	s.	d.
1	12	1
2	9	4
5	2	4
other circumstances of the person whose life is the object
of assurance, engages that if such  person shall die within
the time limited in the policy, he will pay a sum of money
to him in whose favour the policy was granted.  The ad«
vantages resulting from such assurances are \ery numer-
ous, vis.                                        .
  Persons deriving life incomes from church preferment,
public offices, or any other civil or military employment,
may thus, by appropriating part of their income fo pro-
vide an annual payment, prevent the  distress which their
death would otherwise occasion to their family or depen-
dents.
  A person  whose income depends on the life of another,
may, by making an  annual  payment,  secure an adequate
sum to himself or representative,  at the death of another
person; or he may secure  such sum to be paid only In
case he survives such Other person.  For instance,
            A person aged  20 pays annually

                                                f 20
              to  secure 100?.  to  be paid him >n)J0
              case he survives another person aged J  fl

            A person aged  60  pays annually

                                                f 20
              fo  secure  100/. to  be  paid him in V.
              case he survives another person aged i  Q

  In cases, also, where a debtor cannot give adequate se-
curity to his creditor, an annual payment to the company
will enable the creditor to receive  his debt in  the event of
lhe death of the debtor.   Tenants for life may thus obvi-
ate  the difficulty of raising money  on securities which
must become void upon their decease.
   Persous holding offices  or employments  depending on
the lives of  others, may in  the same manner secure them-
selves from  loss  on the event of lhe  death of the  per-
son  on  whose life  their office  or  employments may de«
pend.
   Persons sinking a  sum  of money in the purchaseof an
employment or office, in  establishing a trade or .manufac-
ture, or in carrying on agricultural improvements, may se-
cure the repayment of such sura to their family or other
representatives.
   Persons entering into marriage, who, in consideration of
the fortune received, may be  required  to settle a sum of
money to be paid at their  decease, may, by  making an an-
nual or single  payment to the company, provide a fund for
a marriage settlement, and thus secure a provision  for»
widow or children.
   Persons holding  leases on lives  may  provide the  fine
payable on  the renewal of such leases.
   Persons who are entitled, by purchase or otherwise, to
an annuity on their own life, or the lives of others, or lhe
joint lives of themselves and  others,  may secure the full
value of such annuity, to be received at the death of the
parties on whose lives lhe annuity depends.
   Those who, on their  surviving anolher,  will become
possessed of an estate,  annuity, legacy,  office, place, ot
preferment, ecclesiastical, military, or civil, may  either
provide a more  adequate securily than they could other-
wise do for  money advanced, or may secure  an equivalent 
                                               ASSU]

•sum (o their family,  or other representative,  lo  be paid
in the event of such survivorship not taking place.
  The premium paid for assuring a life, is computed from
lhe probability of the  failure of such a life,  as deduced
from bills of mortality, and the rate of interest at which
money can be improved during  the  probable  continuance
of the life; those who wish  to  investigate this  subject,
may consult Simpson  on Annuities and Reversions, Dr.
Price's  Treatise on  Reversionary  Payments,  and the
Doctrine of Annuities  and Assurances on Lives, Sec. by
W. Morgan, actuary to lhe Society for Equitable Assur-
ance on Lives and  Survivorship.  The premium  for an
assurance for a certain term of years, or for the whole
continuance of life, is generally paid annually, but some-
times in a gross sum.   The following is a specimen of (he
annual premium required for assuring 100/. by most of the
societies (hat undertake this species of assurance.
Age.	One Year.			Seven Y		ears.	Whole Life.	
	1.	a.	d.	/.	a	d.	/.	*. d.
10	0	17	9	1	1	5	1	17 7
15	0	17	Ii	1	2	11	1	18 7
20	1	7	3	1	9	5	2	3 7
25	1	10	7	1	12	1	2	8 1
30	1	13	3	1	14	11	2	13 5
35	1	16	4	1	18	10	2	19 10
40	2	0	8	2	i	1	3	7 11
45	2	6	8	2	10	10	3	17 11
50	2	15	1	3	0	8	4	10 8
55	3	5	0	3	12	0	5	6 4
60	3	13	I	4	7	1	6	7 4
65	4	15	2	5	10	10	7	16 9
70	6	6	I	7	14	4	10	0 4
  Assurances on  the  lives of persons subject fo any pe-
culiar hazard ; such as persons  in the army and navy, or
going to foreign parts, are charged with an additional pre-
mium proportionate to the  extra risk.
  The foundation of  the  contract  for a life  assurance, is
generally, a warrantee that the life to be assured does not
exceed a given age, and is in good health at the time of ef-
fecting (he assurance.  There is also usually a stipulation
that the assurance  shall become void if  lhe person  whose
life is assured  shall depart beyond the  limits of Europe,
shall die upon the seas, or shall engage in any military or
naval service  without  the  consent of lhe assurers :  and
when it is an assurance made by a person on his own life,
it becomes void if he dies by  suicide, duelling, or the
hands of justice.
  Any person making an assurance on the life  of another
must be interested therein,  speculative assurances being
prohibited by 14 George III. c. 48.
  Assurances against fire, are  made upon houses, ware-
houses, and all olher buildings, household furniture, wear-
ing apparel, merchandise, utensils and stock in trade, ships
in harbour, in dock, or while building,  and  on all olher
properly liable to be  consumed by  fire ; except writing?,
notes, bonds,  money,  and a few other similar articles,
which lhe assurers could not undertake to be answerable
for, without rendering themselves  liable to be grossly de-
frauded.   Assurances  against fire  are made for a limited
period, usually for one or more years, and are distinguish-
ed by the usurers into three classes, vis.
  1. Common assurances are assurances on all manner of
ANCE.

building?, having the wails of brick or moik, and covered
with slate, tile, or metal, wherein no hazardous trades are
carried on,  nor any hazardous  goods  deposited,  and on
goods and merchandises not hazardous in such buildings.
   2. Hazardous  assurances are assurances on timber or
plaster buildings, covered wilh slate, tile, or metal, where-
in no hazardous trades are  carried on, nor any hazardous
goods are deposited ;  and on goods or  merchandises, not
hazardous,  in  such timber  or plaster buildings;  and also
on hazardous trades,  such as cabinet  and  coach  makers,
carpenters, coopers,  bread and biscuit bakers, ship and
tallow  chandlers, soap  makers,  innholders,  sail  makers,
maltsters, and stable keepers, carried on in brick  or stone
buildings covered with slate, tile, or metal;  and on hazard-
ous goods, such as  hemp, flax,  resin, pilch,  tar,  and tur-
pentine,  deposited in  such buildings;  (he slock in (radeof
apoJbecaries; also on ships, and all manner of water craft,
in harbour, in dock, or while  building, and on thatched
buildings which have  not  a chimney, and do not adjoin to
any building having a chimney.
   3. Doubly hazardous assurances are  assurances on any
of the aforesaid hazardous trades carried on, or hazardous
goods  deposited  in  timber or plaster buildings,  covered
wilh slate,  tile,  or metal; on  glass, china,  and  earthen
ware; also in thatched buildings or goods therein, except
as in (he preceding class ; and on saltpetre, wilh the build-
ings containing the same.
   Assurances  on buildings and goods are deemed distinct
adventures,  so lhat  the premium on goods, so far as it is
regulated by the sum assured, is not advanced by reason
of any assurance on  the  building  wherein  the goods are
kept, nor the premium on the   building by reason of any
assurance on the goods.
   The annual  premiums  usually  charged  for fire  assur-
ances are:  common  assurances  not exceeding 30002. two
shillings per cent ;  hazardous  assurances  not exceeding
2000/. three shillings per cent; doubly hazardous assur-
ances not exceeding 2000/.  five shillings per cent.
   In addition to this  charge of  the assurers,  government
have imposed a duty  of 2s. 6c/.  per cent, per annum on all
sums assured against fire.
   ASSUROR,  a  merchant or other  person who signs a
policy of assurance, and  thereby insures a  ship, house, or
the like.
   The assurer is not liable for what damages may arise
from the negligence or other faults of lhe masters or mari-
ners, or  even from any defect in the things assured.
   ASSURITANI, a branch of the Donalis(s,  who held
 that the Son  was inferior to the Father,  and the  Holy
 Ghost to the Son:  (hey  rebaptized those  who embraced
 (heir sect; and asserted  (hat good men only were within
 the  pale of (he church.
   ASTATI, a sect of Cbrislians, who being (he followers
 of one  Sergius, revived the erroneous doctrines of  lhe
 Manichees.  They  were remarkable for (he inconstancy
 of (heir principles.
   ASTER, in  botany,  star wort, a genus ofthe polyga-
 mia superflua order and syngenesia class of plants, and in
 lhe natural melhod ranking under (be 49(h order, compo-
 sili radiati.  Tbe receptacle is naked,  the pappus  is sim-
 ple, (be rays of  the corolla are  more than  ten, and  the ca-
 lyx is imbricated.  There  are  GO species.   All of them
 may be  raised from seed ;  but  lhe greatest part of them 
A S T
AST
•being perennial plants, and increasing at the roots, are gen-
 erally  propagated  by parting their rools early in the
 spring, and they will grow in  almost any soil or situation ;
 and (he larger sor(s increase so fast,  that, if not prevented,
 they will in a lifde time run over  a large space of ground.
 They grow best in the shade.   The  lower kinds do not run
 so much at (be root, but should be taken up and transplant-
 ed every other year, which will make them produce much
 fairer flowers.   Some few sorts, which are natives of warm
 climates,  will require artificial heat to raise them, if not to
 preserve  (hem.
   ASTERIA,  in na(ural history,  a beautiful  pellucid
 gem, of variable colours as viewed in different lights.: call-
 ed also oculus cati, or cat's eye.
   The variable  colours, which are a pale brown and white,
 seem lobe lodged deep  in  (he stone, and shift  about as
 lhat  is moved.   It  is nearly alb'ed to  the opals;  from
 which, however, it is distinguished  by its colour and su-
 perior hardness.
   Astf.rja is also the name of an extraneous fossil, called
 in English the star stone.
   ASTERIAS, starfish, or sea star, in zoology, a genus
 of the  order of vermes  mollusca.   It  has a  depressed
 body, covered with a coriaceous coat; is composed of five
 or more segments, running out from a central part, and
 furnished with numerous tentacula;  and has the mouth in
 the centre.  The conformation of the mouth is  this: the
 under part of each lobe runs  toward a point with the rest
 at the centre of  the body ; and these several productions
 of the rays make a sort of lips, the ends of each of which
 are armed with a number of sharp  teeth,  which serve to
 take and convey the  food  inlo the body.   From this
 mouth there goes a  separate canal  to all or many of the
 rays, which runs through  their whole length, and becomes
 gradually narrower as it approaches  the extremity.  The
 tentacula resemble the horns of  snails, but serve the ani-
 mal to walk with.  They are  capable of being contracted
 or shortened ; and it  is only at the creature's moving that
 they are seen of their full length :   at other limes no part
 of them is seen but the extremity of each, which is form-
 ed like a sort of button,  being somewhat larger  than the
 rest of the horn.  Aristotle  and Pliny called fhis  genus
 «S>jp,  and stella marina,  from their resemblance lo the
 pictured  form of the stars of heaven ; and they asserted
 that they were so exceedingly hot, as instantly to consume
 whatsoever they touched! The fossil world has been great-
 ly enriched by the fragments and remains of the several
 pieces of star fish which have been converted inlo stones.
 There are many species of this  genus:  some of 12,  13j
 and even 14 rays.  Most of them are found in our  seas.
 See Plate XV.  Nat. Hist. fig. 41.
   1. Asteeias caput Medusm,  or  arborescent  sea star,
 has five rays issuing from an  angular body: the rays  di-
 viding into innumerable branches, growing slender as Ihey
 recede from the base.  These the animal, in swimming-,
 spreads like a net lo their full length : and when he per-
 ceives any prey within them, draws them in again, thus
 catching it with all lhe dexterity of  a fisherman.   It is an
 inhabitant of every sea; and is called by some the Magel-
 lanic star fish and basket fish.  When it  extends its rays
 fully, it form> a circle of near  three feet in diameter.  The
 fragments of these rays furnish the fossil entrochi.   If we
drown this animal in brandy or spirit of wine, and keep
the rays flat and expanded  in the execution, it is easy to
extract by means ofa pair of forceps (he stomach of the
animal whole and entire through the meulh.
  2. Asterias clathalra,  or cancellated  sea star, with
five short thick rays, hirsute beneath, cancellated ahoie,
is found on our coasts, but is rare.
  3. Asterias decacnemos has ten very  slender rays,
with numbers of long beards on the sides  ; the  body is
small, and surrounded beneath with ten filiform rays.
  4. Asterias glacialis,  with  five  rays,   depressed,
broad  at  the base,  yellow,  and having a round  striated
operculum on the back, is  the most common:  it feeds on
oysters, and  is very destructive to the beds.   See Plate
Nat. Hist. fig. 42.
  5. Asterias hispida, with five rays, broad, angukted
at top, and rough with short  bristles, is of a brown colour,
and is found about Anglesea.
  6. Asterias oculata, with five smooth rays, dotted or
punctured, is of a fine  purple colour, and  is  also found
about Anglesea.
  7. Asterias placenta, wilh five very broad and mem
braneous rays,  extremely  thin  and flat, is found about
Weymouth.
  8. Asterias spherulata,  with  a pentagonal indented
body ; a small globular bead between  tbe base of each
ray ; the rays slender, jointed, taper, and hirsute on their
sides:  is found off Anglesea.
  ASTEROIDES, in  astronomy, a name  given by Dr.
Herschel lo (he new planets, or three small planetary
bodies, discovered by the foreign astronomers  Piazzi, 01-
bers, and Harding, which are defined as  " celestial bodies
either of little or considerable eccentricity round the sun,
the plane of which may be  inclined to  the ecliptic in any
angle whatever.  The  motion  may be direct or retro-
grade ; and they may or  may not have considerable at-
mospheres, very small  comas,  disks, or nuclei."  From
the observations already made on these bodies, they ap-
pear to partake of the  several properties by  which the
planets in general are known and described ;  and there-
fore, with justice, some  astronomers have objected to thii
new definition of Dr. Herschel.
  ASTEROPODIUM, a   kind of extraneous fossil* of
the same substance with  the asteriae,  or  star stones, to'
which  they serve as a base.
  ASTHENIA, in medicine, a term employed to denote
bodily debility.  See Medicine.
  ASTHMA, in  medicine, a painful,  difficult, and labo-
rious  respiration, occasioned by intolerable straitnessof
the lungs, which, as it disturbs  the  free circulation of the
blood through the lungs, endangers a suffocation.
  This disorder is attended with violent  motions of the
diaphragm, abdominal and intercostal muscles,  to the very
scapula and  pinnae  of the  nostrils.  It is usually divided
into pneumonic and convulsive;  and is also either  continu-
al, or intermitting and periodical,  and  returns commonly
when a sober regimen is not observed.
  This disorder proves most violent  while lhe patient is
in bed, and in a prone posture, as in that case the contenU
ofthe  lower belly bearing against the  diaphragm, lessen
the capacity of the breast,  and  leave fhe Inn's less room
to plaj'.   See M fiji ci x f. . 
AST
AST
   ASTRAGAL,  in architecture, a little round moulding,
 m form ofa ring, serving  as an ornament at the tops and
.bottoms of columns.  See Architecture.
   Astragal, in gunnery, a round moulding encompassing
 a cannon, about half a foot from its mouth.
   ASTRAGALUS, in  botany, milk vetch, or liquorice
 vetch, a genus of the decandria order and diadelphia class
 of plants; and  in  the natural method ranking under the
 32d order, papilionaceae; the pod is gibbous and bilocular.
 Of this genus there are 63  species.                   t
   Astragalus communis.  The common species grows
 wild upon dry  uncultivated places,  and is  recommended
 by Mr. Anderson  to be cultivated as proper food for cat-
 tle.
   The astragalus  tragacantha  is a  thorny  bush  growing
 in Crete, Asia, and Greece, which yields the gum traga-
 canth.   TBis is of  so strong  a body, that a drachm of it
 will give a pint of  water the consistence of a syrup, which
 a whole ounce of gum  arabic is  scarcely sufficient to do.
 Hence its use for  forming troches, and for similar pur-
 poses, in preference to the  other gums.
   Astragalus, in anatomy, called also the talus, is the
 superior and first bone of the foot.  See Anatomt.
   ASTRANTIA, masterwort, a genus of the  digynia or-
 der and pentandria class of plants; and  in  the natural
 method  ranking under the 45th order, umbellatae.   The
 involucrum is  lanceolated, open,  equal, and coloured.
 The species are five,  but possess  no remarkable  prop-
 erties.
   ASTRARIUS hceres, in law, is  where an ancestor, by
 conveyance, has settled  his  heir apparent and family in a
 house  in his life time.
   ASTRiEA, in astronomy, the same as Virgo.
   ASTRINGENTS, astringentia, in pharmacy, medi-
 cines of the corroborative class.  See Pharmacy.
   Astringents are  thought by some to act nearly in a sim-
 ilar manner on  the simple  or dead animal fibre as on the
 living  solid; in both  cases  thickening and  hardening :
 when applied to the living solid, they  produce increase of
 tone and strength,  restrain inordinate  actions, and check
 excessive discharges from  any vessels or cavities ; and to
 the dead fibre  occasion  that density,  toughness, imper-
 viousness to water in a greater or  lesser degree, and in-
 susceptibility to the  common causes  of putrefaction, in
 which consists the  process of tanning, or preparation of
 leather.   See Tanning.
   ASTRODICTICUM, an astronomical instrument, by
 means  of which many persons are able to view the same
 star at the same time.
   ASTROITES,  or star stone, in natural history, is so
 called  on account  of its resemblance to a star.  It is con-
 troverted among naturalists,  whether they are parts of a
 petrified marine animal, or, as is more probable, a species
 of coral buried in  the earth.  The corals  forming these
 stars are sometimes round, sometimes  angular, and their
 columns are sometimes  separated, and sometimes the stria;
 run into one another.
   ASTROLABE, the name  for a  stereographic  projec-
 tion of the sphere,  either upon the plane of the equator,
 the eye being supposed to be in the  pole of  the world ;
 or upon the plane of the  meridian,  when the  eye is sup-
 posed  in  the point of intersection of the equinoctial and
 horizon.
  Astrolahe  is also an instrument for taking the alti-
tude of the sun or stars at  sea,  being a large brass ring,
ACB D, Plate  XIV. Miscel. tig. 5. the limb of which,
or a convenient  part thereof A C, is divided into degrees
and  minutes, with a moveable index  F G,  which  turns
upon the centre, and turns two sights; at the zenith is a
ring  A,  to hang it by in time of  observation,  when you
need only to turn the index to the sun, that the rays may
pass freely through both sights, and the edge of  the index
cuts the altitude  upon  the divided limb.  This instru-
ment, though not much in use now, if well made, and of
great weight that it may hang the steadier,  is as good as
most instruments fhat are used at sea for taking altitudes,
especially between the tropics, when the sun comes near
the zenith, and  in calm weather.
  ASTROLOGY, a conjectural science, which absurdly
pretended to foretell future events by the situation and dif-
ferent aspects of the heavenly bodies.
  ASTROLUS, in natural  history, a name  given by  au-
thors to a white splendid stone,  small in  size, roundish,
and  resembling the eyes of fishes.
  ASTROMETEOROLOGIA, the art of foretelling the
weather and its changes from the aspect of the moon and
stars.  This is  sometimes called meteorological astrology.
There is however but little reason to  believe  that the
heavenly bodies  have any great  influence on  our atmo-
sphere.  See Meteorologv.
  ASTRONIUM, in botany, a genus of the  class and
order dioecia  pentandria.   The essential  character  is,
male, calyx five leaved;  corolla five petalled ; female, ca-
lyx five leaved; corolla five  petalled;  styles three ; seed
one.
  There is but  one species, a tree, a native of New Spain,
abounding in  a slight glutinous terebinthine juice, which
has,a disagreeable smell.
  ASTRONOMICAL place of a star  or planet, is  its =
longitude or place in the ecliptic, reckoned from the
beginning of Aries,  according to the natural order of the
signs.
   ASTRONOMY, is a mixed mathematical  science,
which treats of the  heavenly bodies,  their  motions, pe-
riods, eclipses, magnitudes, &c. and of  the causes on
which they depend.
  History of Astronomy.   The  origin of astronomy is
very obscure,  and  appears to  be also very ancient.
"There  is no doubt,"  says Cassini, "lhat astronomy was
known even  from the commencement of the  world.  It
was  not  only  curiosity which  led man to the  study of
astronomy, but  it may be said that necessity itself obliged
him to it.  For if be did not observe  the seasons which
result from  the apparent changes of  the  sun's  place, it
would be impossible to succeed in the practice of agricul-
ture and other useful arts."  But astronomy,  even if it
could be considered as useless to  man,  derives from  its
very nature a certain degree of dignity.   It is, moreover,
upon this that navigation, geography, and chronology,  de-
pend.  By its aid man passes the seas, and penetrates in-
to foreign climes, becomes  acquainted  with  those which
he inhabits, and regulates the dates of ages past.
  Hipparchus laid the principal  foundation of a methodi-
cal astronomy,  147 years before Christ.  When an oppor-
tunity was given  him  to  observe a new fixed star, he di-
rectly made a  list of  such  stars, so that in  the next age
 
.  ASTRONOMY.
 (hey were able to  know if one had appeared more  than
 usual.  Pfolemy, about 280 years afterward, added bis ob-
 servations to those of Hipparchus, and by the natural ad-
 vantage which he possessed over  his predecessor, he was
 enabled to rectify greatly the  observations  that he had
 made.
   Astronomy was  very  much neglected from this period
 till after (he  middle of fhe  13th century,  a( which time
 Alphonsus, king of  Caslile, formed tables more exact than
 (he preceding.   Indeed,  a celebrated astronomer  having
 at an early period been sufficiently attentive to observe all
 the  planets  in one night, found  not  one in the place of
 another, but all according to the  tables which  had  been
 made by order of lhe  king of Castile.   It was not, how-
 ever, till the  16th  century  that astronomy  derived fresh
 lustre from lhe  system of Copernicus,  published at Nu-
 remberg in 1543, and brought to perfection by Kepler and
 Galileo; a system  so  bold and daring, that it produced
 general astonishment, and yet its truth  has been confirm-
 ed by the observations of every  succeeding  age.   The
 surface of (he heavens seems lo us to be studded wilh stars;
 between the  fixed stars and us there  seem  to  be olher
 stars which change  their  situations  respectively one tow-
ard another, and these all astronomers have agreed in call-
 ing planets,  or  wandering stars.  The ancient philoso-
 phers, who knew  so very little  even of the movements of
 the planets, had no evident means to  know the true dispo-
 sition of their orbits;  and  this is the  reason that they
 vary so greatly in (heir opinions.   They  supposed, at first,
 the earth to be immoveable, as the centre of  the  universe,
 and  that all the celestial bodies turned about her; which,
 indeed, was natural for them to  believe, without having
 discussed the proofs fo the contrary.
   The Babylonians, however,  and afterward Pythagoras
 and his disciples,  are said to have considered the earth as
 a planet, and lhe sun as immoveable, and lhe  centre of our
 planetary system.  Plato was lhe reviver of the system
 of  the immobility of the earth, and  many  philosophers
 followed his sentiment; among others was Claudius Ptole-
 my, the celebrated  astronomer and mathematician of Pelu-
 siuni in Egypt, already  mentioned,  who lived in fhe be-
 ginning of the second  century of the Christian  sera.  It
 is, however,  incredible that the true system of the world
 having been once discovered, the hypothesis by which
 the  earth is supposed to be the centre of the  celestial
 movements should  have  again prevailed;  for though this
 hypothesis accords with appearances, and seems to a«ree
 at first with (he simplicity of nature, yet it is  impossible on
 that system to account for lhe celestial movements.  Ptol-
 emy, who has given the name to  this system, endeavours
 to prove that the earfh is truly immoveable as the centre
 of the universe ; and he places the other planets round
 about her in the following order, beginning by those which
 he believes the next (o (he Earth; fhe  Moon, Mercury,
 Venus, the Sun, Mars, Jiipiler, and Saturn,  till he comes
 at length to  the fixed stars.  His  principal reason for
 placing Mercury and  Venus  beneath  the  Sun, though
 they are often seen further from the  Earth than  from the
 Sun, was, without  doubt, because the  duration of Iheir
 revolution was shorter than the apparent  revolution of the
 Sun.  W hen, however, astronomers had besrun to observe
 the planets, they  remarked that Mercury a~nd Venus are
 sometimes nearer,  and sometimes further,  than we are
from the Sun ;  and that Venus never departs from the Sun
more than about 47 degrees and a half; and Mercury about
2B  degrees and a half, and sometimes much less.   Butitig
evident lhat if these two planets turned about the Earfh, ai
(hey suppose (he  Sun  himself turned, they would some-
times appear opposite  to  the Sun, or further from  him
than  180  degrees,  which  never happens.   This is (he
reason why (he Egyptians  regarded these two planets as
satellites of the Sun, and thought  that they turned about
him, their  orbits being carried  with  this star in his revolu-
tions about  the  Earlh.  They  therefore supposed  the
Earth immoveable, as fhe centre of  the system ; and they
supposed  (he  other  celestial  bodies  to  turn round her:
first,  the Moon ;  secondly, (he  Sun, about  which (be?
made Mercury and Venus turn, without ever touching the
Earth in their revolution, till they come to Mars, Jupiter
and to Saturn,  the whole of their movements being deter-
mined by the fixed stars.
  At the present day, when we know the immense distances
which separate these  stars, both of these  systems be-
come insupportable,  because of the prodigious  rapidity
which fhey require in the movements of the celestial bod-
ies  : for if we lake a view of these distances, it will be found
necessary for these stars to go through the whole courseof
their orbits in about 24  hours, and that the Sun should run
through, in a second of time, more than the space of 2500
leagues.  Toward the year 1530, Copernicus, with a view
of obviating the inconveniencies of the imaginary systems
that preceded  him, commenced at  first by admitting the
diurnal motion of the  Earth, or her motion round her own
axis; which rendered useless  that  prodigious celerity in
the motions of lhe heavenly bodies, of which  we have just
spoken, and by these means simplified the system.  This
motion being once admitted, it was  no violent step to ad-
mit a second motion of the Earth in the ecliptic.   These
two motions explain, with ^be utmost facility, the phe-
nomena ofthe stations and motion ofthe planets, Accord
ing to Copernicus, then, lhe  Sun  is (he centre  of our
planetary system, and the planets turn about him in tbe or-
der following; Mercury, Venus,  the Earth, Mars, Ceres,
Pallas, Juno, Vesta, and Jupiter, Saturn, the Herschel, at a
distance from the Sun nearly as the numbers 4, 7,10,15,
28,28,32, *,52,95,191.  The Moon also he supposed to he
carried round (he Earth, in an orbit which goes along wilh
(he Earlh  in her annual motion round (he Sun.   In like
manner about  Jupiler,  Saturn,  and  the  Herschel, are
the four satellites of the first, the seven satellites of the
second,  and the  six satellites of the third.  Although
the celestial  phenomena  explain  themselves with  the
greatest  facility according  to (he system of Copernicus,
and though observa(ion  and reason are equallv favourable
to if, yet he found  in his lime an  able  astronomer who re-
jected the  evidence  of his  discoveries.   TychoBrabe,
from the experiment lhat a stone thrown from"a high low-
er fell at its feet, argued  that  the Earth must be without
motion; never  reflecting  lhat (he Earth,   in  that case,ii
like a vessel  in full sail; where if a stone is thrown from
the mast, it will fall at (he foot of that  .vast, provided the
motion of (he vessel was neither accelerated nor retarded,
Tycho Brahe,  therefore, invented a system between that
of Pfolemy and (hat  of Copernicus.  He supposed lbs*
the Earth  was at rest,  and  that the  other planed turn
round the Sun, turning also wilh him  round the Earlbin 
ASTRONOMY.
 twenty-four hours.   It was toward the end of the sixteenth
 century that he  proposed his system.  He placed  tbe
 Earth immoveable as the centre,  and made the Moon turn
 round her, the Sun also, and the fixed stars: the planets,
 Vis. Mercury, Venus, Mars, Jupiter, and Saturn, turning
 round the Sun, in orbits which are carried with him in his
 revolution round the Earth.
    Celestial  Phenomena.   Upon examining the heavens,
 the first and most obvious phenomenon that presents it-
 self to observation, is the apparent diurnal motion of the
 sun, moon, and stars, or that by  which they are seen to
 rise and set  once in twenty-four hours.
    If, to consider more attentively the circumstances of
 this diurnal  motion,  we place ourselves in an elevated sit-
 uation, we shall  perceive a circle  terminating our view on
 all sides, by the apparent meeting of the earth  and  heav-
 ens.  This  circle is called  the  horizon:  it divides the
 heavens  into two parts; that  which is above the horizon
 only is visible ; and this appears to us like a  concave hemi-
 sphere, which we call the sky, in  which we see the  heav-
 enly bodies  move.  The sky is not a real substance; its
 blue colour is only owing to the refraction  of the rays of
 light which pass  through it.
    On considering with attention for one or more  nights the
 motions of the stars, we find each star describing a  circle
 in about twenty-four hours.  Those  stars that appear
 northward describe  smaller  circles than those that  are
 more to the  south.   If we  look toward the south, we ob-
 serve some  stars just appearing above the horizon, graz-
 ing this circle, but not rising above it, and then vanishing;
 others a little further from the south, rise above the hori-
 zon,  making a small arc,  and then go down; while some
 again  describe a larger arc, and take a longer time in set-
 ting.  If we  now  turn to the north, we shall find  that some
 just skim the horizon, mount  to  the top of the heavens,
 and then descend, and again touch the horizon, and mount
 without  ever disappearing.   Others, that are higher, de-
 scribe complete circles in the sky, without coming to the
 horizon ; and these  circles diminish, till at  last  we arrive
 at a star that scarcely seems to move from the point where
 it is stationed, the rest wheeling round it.
   It may  be easily  conceived, that as there is a hemi-
 sphere above, there is also another beneath, though invisi-
 ble ;  and  that, of course, the horizon is a great circle of
 the sphere, dividing  the  concave  heavens into two parts,
 the visible above, and  the invisible below.  The general
 appearance,  therefore, of the starry heavens, is  that of a
 vast concave  sphere  turning round two fixed points dia-
 metrical! v opposite to each other; the one in the north-
 ern hemisphere visible to us;  and the other in the south-
 ern hemisphere.
   The fixed points round which this sphere is supposed
 to turn, are  the  poles, and a line  drawn from one to the
 olher is called the axis of the sphere; and round this line
 the heavens seem to turn every day.
   To understand  (his  more clearly, we must have recourse
 fo a figure, or diagram.  Let H O, see Astronomy, Plate
 XII. fi£. 1, represent  fhe circle of  the horizon, seen edge-
 wise, when it will appear as a straight line; letHPFO
 R Q, be the complete  sphere of the heavens, of which we
 shall suppose H P E O to be the visible hemisphere, and
 H Q, R O (he invisible  hemisphere: then P will be the
 pole, or fixed  point, among the stars visible  to us, round
 which Ihey all appear (o turn, and R will be the opposite
   vol. i.         33   -—• - ****^
__^AA________A.______
 pole, or fixed point, in the sphere ; a line from P to R will
 be the axis of the sphere.  If through the centre of the
 sphere C, there is drawn a line Q E, it will represent the
 edge of a great circle, at equal distances from both poles,
 and at right angles to the axis, called the equator, because
 it divides the heavens into two equal parts.
   If H O be the horizon, the highest point, or that imme-
 diately over our heads, as M, is called the zenith; and the
 opposite point in the sphere, or lowest point N, is called
 the nadir.
   The rising and setting of  the sun are  the two most re-
 markable circumstances- to  be observed in the heavens.
 He rises in the east,  mounts  to the highest point in the
 arch which he describes, and descends in the  west.   The
 highest point to which he reaches, is naturally called the
 mid day point.  If a  great  circle  is traced  through this
 point and the zenith, it is called the meridian of the place;
 and all the stars must  cross this circle,  or meridian, twice
 in the twenty-four hours ;  but those that go below the ho-
 rizon are  seen only to cross it once, because when they
 cross it a second time they are invisible.
   Three great circles  are now established in the heavens;
 the horizon, the equator, and lhe meridian.  The first de-
 termines the rising and setting of tbe heavenly bodies ; and
 also  the altitude of any of  them,  at any time of their
 course.  For this purpose we must suppose another great
 circle to pass through the star and the zenith ;  it will con-
 sequently  be perpendicular  to the horizon.   This is call-
 ed a vertical  circle, and upon  this circle we reckon the
 number of degrees which the star is distant from the hori-
 zon.   The  quadrant is an instrument  for measuring the
 number of degrees of  altitude which  any body has.
   The three great circles already mentioned  form the ba-
 sis of all observations upon the heavenly bodies, and t*
 them all their situations must be referred. It is necessa-
 ry, therefore, to determine the  relative situations of these
 circles.  If the polar star had been accurately at the pole
 ofthe heavens, nothing more  would be necessary, in order
 to obtain the altitude of the pole, than to take the altitude
 of this  star; but this star is  situated  two degrees distant
 from the pole; two degrees  must  therefore be added to
 this altitude, to find that of the pole.
  The elevation of the pole being discovered, it is easy
 to find that of the  equator.   Thus, in the diagram, fig. 1.
 H M O, or  the  visible part of the  heavens,  contains 180
 degrees; but it is 90 degrees from the pole P, to E the
equator.  If we take away P E from  the semicircle H M O,
there remains  90 degrees for the  other two  arcs; or, in
other words, the  elevation of the pole and the equator,
are together equal  to 90 degrees ; so that the one being
 known, and subtracted from  90 degrees, it will give the
other; therefore, the elevation of the pole at any place,
 is  the complement of the elevation  of the equator, or
 what that elevation wants of 90  degrees. Hence it fol-
 lows,  that the elevation of the equator is equal to the dis-
 tance from  the pole to the zenith ; for  the elevation of the
 equator is the difference between that of the pole and 90
 degrees : the same  elevation subtracted from 90 decrees
gives  its distance  from the  zenith..  A little attention will
soon convince us that  the sun  does not always rise at the
same  point of the  heavens.  Thus, if we commence our
observations on the sun, for  instance  in the beginning of
March, we  shall find him appear to rise more to the north-
ward every  day,  to continue longer  above the horizon, 
ASTRONOMY.
and lo be more vertical or higher at mid day.  This con-
tinues till toward  (he  end of June, when he moves back-
ward in the same manner,  and continues this retrograde
motion  till near the end of December, when he begins to
move  forward, and so on.  It is from this change in the
sun's place, and from his height being so much greater in
summer than  in  winter,  that  the different length of the
days and nights, and the  vicissitudes of seasons, are ow-
ing.   We  cannot observe the sun's  motion  among  the
fixed stars, because he darkens the heavens by his splen-
dour, and effaces the feeble  light of those  stars that are
in his neighbourhood;  but we  can  observe the instant of
his coming to  (he meridian,  and his meridional altitude;
we  can also compute what  point of the starry heavens
comes to the  same meridian at the same time, and with
the same  altitude.   The sun must be at that point of the
starry heavens, thus discovered.   Or we can observe that
point in the heavens which comes to the meridian at mid-
night, with a declination  as  far from the equator on one
side as the sun's is on the other side; and it is evident the
sun must be in that part of the heavens  which is diametri-
cally opposite to this point.   By either  of these methods
we  may obtain a series of points in the heavens, through
which the sun passes, forming a  circle called the ecliptic.
This circle  has its  name from the circumstance, lhat all
the eclipses of the sun and moon are performed either ac-
tually in, or very near, the circumference of that circle.
  The ecliptic, or annual path of the sun, differs in situa-
tion from the equator;  for the sun rises above the equator
in summer, and does not  rise so  high  in  winter.'  The
points of the ecliptic where the sun is situated when he is
most distant from  the  equator, are called solstitial points ;
and the distance between  the equator and the ecliptic at
lhe  solstitial points,  is called the obliquity of the ecliptic ;
this is found  to  be about  twenty-three and a half degrees.
A B, fig. 1. represents the ecliptic,  inclined twenty-three
and a half degrees to the equator E Q.
  The equinoctial colure  is  the great circle which passes
at right angles to the equator, through those two points of
it that are intercepted  by the ecliptic, called lhe equinoc-
tial  points.  The solstitial colure is the  other great circle
at right angles to  the  equator, cutting  it in the solstitial
points.  It passes through the poles of  the  ecliptic.
   If smaller  circles of the sphere are  described touching
the  solstitial  points, and  at right angles to the axis, as
A C,  B D,  they are  tropics ; of which  that on the south
side of the equator is  called the tropic of Capricorn, and
fhat on the north side  of  fhe equator tbe tropic of Cancer.
The two polar circles  F G, I K, are at the  same distance
from the two poles as the tropics are from the equator; that
is, tv.entj -three and a  half degrees.
   It is necessary  here fo mention the difference between
what is  called  the sensible  and rational horizon.   If we
suppose that pari of the surface ofthe earth on which we
stand (o be a plane,  and to be extended every way till it
reaches  the heavens,  this plane forms the sensible hori-
zon.  The rational horizon is a circle, the plane of which
is parallel to the former, but passing through the centre
of  the earlh.  Though the globe of the earfh appears so
large to those who inhabit if, yet it is so small when com-
pared with the immense sphere of  the heavens, that the
distance between the sensible  and rational horizons is
nothing in comparison  with it.
  The zodiac  is a broad portion of the heavens, which
stretches about eight degrees on each side of the ecliptic •
it is divided into twelve parts, called signs ;  and each sign
into thirty parts, called degrees.  If we imagine a number
of great circles ofthe sphere standing at right angles to the
plane of the ecliptic, and consequently intersecting each
other in its poles, these are called circles of celestial loo-
gitude, and they  will divide the ecliptic into equal parfg.
Upon the ecliptic is reckoned the longitude of any fixed
star, beginning to reckon  at that point where the eclinfjc
and the equator intersect each other in the vernal equinox
called the  first point  of Aries; and  the arch of any of tbe
circles of celestial  longitude,  intercepted between a star
and the ecliptic,  is the latitude of that s(ar.  The equator
is divided  into degrees,  but  they are called  degrees of
right ascension, and from it to the  poles  the  degrees of
declination are reckoned upon the meridian ofthe place,
  Having now described  the principal lines and points on
the celestial sphere, as generated by (he apparent moliooi
of the heavenly bodies, in which we have supposed what
appears at first sight to be the  case,  vis, that  fhe earlh
stands still while all the heavenly bodies revolve round if.
This will make no difference  with regard (o (hese circle!
in (he heavens ; for it will be  fhe same thing with  respect
to them,  whether tbe earth is at rest, and fhe  heaTenly
bodies move round it, or  whether  the lafter remain still,
and the earth, as we  shall afterward see, moves round on
its axis once  every twenty-four hours.
  Ofthe Solar System.   If we examine the heavensina
clear  night,  we  shall discover some  sfars which have
brighter and steadier light than the rest; and if we continue
to observe  these for  several nights, we shall find that they
do not appear in  the  same place  among  fhe rest of tbe
stars every night, but that they have motions peculiar to
themselves.  All lhe rest  of  the stars, rising and setting
always exactly in the same places,  are called fixed stars.
Those wandering or  moving stars, are called  planets.
  It is now  fully proved, that these planets, with the
earth which we inhabit, and also the moon, revolve round
the sun, which is fixed in the centre  of the system. There
are two kinds of  planets,  primary  and secondary. The
first move  round the sun, and respect him  only as tbe
centre of their motions.   The secondary planets, called
also satellites or moons, are smaller planets,  revolving
round fhe primary ;  while they, with fhe primary planets
about which they move, are carried  round  the sun. The
planets move round the sun at various distances, some be-
ing  much nearer to him than  our earth, and  others being
much further off.
  Of these, our earth is accompanied by one moon, Jupi-
ter  has four moons, Saturn has seven, and the  Herschel
planet has six moons.  None of these moons, except oof
own, can  be seen without a good telescope.  The other
five planets do not appear to have any satellites or moons.
  There are eleven  primary planets, which are situated
with respect to their distances from the sun as follows:
Mercury $, Venus ?, the Earth 0, Mars 3, Ceres, Pal-
las  Juno, Vesta, Jupiter  %, Saturn T?, and the Herschel
or Georginm  Sidus #.  See Plate II. Solar System.
  All  the  planets move  round lhe sun from east to west,
and in the same direction do the moons revolve round their
primaries ; excepting those ofthe Herschel planet, which
seem  to  move m a  contrary direction.  The pathi i» 
ASTRONOMY.
which they move round  the  sun are called their orbits.
These orbits are elliptical; but  the  eccentricity of the
ellipses is so small, that they approach very nearly to cir-
cles.  They perform their revolutions also in very dif! r-
ent periods of time.  The time of performing their revo-
lutions is called their year.
TABLE OF  THE SOLAR  SYSTEM.
ll
	Apparent mean diameters, as	Mean di-	Mean distances			Inclination	Inelinatioii
		ameters in	from the Sun	Diurnal rotations, or	Time of revolving round	of the or-	oftheaxes
	seen from the	Knglish |	in round num-	round their own	the Sun.	bits of tht	to the or-
	Earth.	miles.	bers rf miles.	axes.		Ecliptic.	bits.
The Sun, Mercury,	32'.l",5 10"	813,246 3,224		25d. 14h. 8m. unknown.			82° 44 0"
			37,000,000		83d. 23h. 16m.	7° 0' 0"	unknown.
Venus,	58"	7,867	68,000,000	Od. 23h. 21m.	224 16 49	3 23 35	unknown.
The Earth, The Moon,			95,000,000 95,000,000	Id. 29d. I7h. 44m. 3s.	365 6 9		66° 32 0
	31 '.8'-	2,180				5 9 3	<]B ll 0
Mars,	27"	4,189	144,000,000	0 24 39 22.	686 23 30*	1 51 0	>9 22 0
Ceres Ferdinandea,	l''	160	260,000,000	unknown.	unknown.	10 37 56	unknown.
Pallas,	0",5	80	266.000,000	unknown.	1703d. 16h. 48m.	34 50 40	unknown.
Juno,	.	,i	300,000,000	---	2012 0 0	21 0 0	unknown.
							
Jupiter,	39"	89,170	490,000,000	Od. 9b. 55m. 37s.	4332 14 27	1 18 56	10° 0' o"
Saturn,	18"	79,042	900,000,000	0 10 16 2	10759 1 51	2 29 50	60 9 0
Herschel.	3". 54	35,112	1,800,000,000	unknown.	30737 18 0	0 46 20	unknown.
  The  planets are evidently opaque bodies,  and they
shine only by reflecting the light which they receive from
the sun ;  for Mercury and Venus, when viewed  by a tel-
escope, often appear  to be only  partly illuminated, and
have  the  appearance of our moon when she is horned,
having the illumined part always turned toward  us.  From
the appearance ofthe boundary of light and shadow upon
their surfaces, we conclude that they are spherical; which
is confirmed by most of them having  been found lo turn
periodically on their axes.
  Venus  and Mercury  being nearer to lhe  sun than our
earlh, are called inferior planets ; and all fhe rest, which
are without the earth's orbit, are called superior planets.
That the first go round  the sun is certain, because they
are seen sometimes passing between us and the  sun, and
sometimes they go behind it.  That their orbits are  within
that of the Earth is evident, because they are never seen
in opposition to the sun, that is, appearing to rise from lhe
horizon when the sun is setting.  On the contrary, the
orbits of all the other planets surround that ofthe  earth ;
for they sometimes are seen in opposition to the sun, and
they never appear fo be horned, but always nearly or quite
full, though sometimes they  appear a little gibbous, or
somewhat deficient from full.
  We mentioned above, that all the planets move round
the sun in elliptical orbits.  The  sun is situated in one
of the foci of each of Ihem. That focus is called fhe lower
focus.  If we suppose the plane of the  earth's orbit, which
passes through the centre of the sun, to be extended in
every direction, as far as the fixed stars, it will mark out
among fhem a great circle,  which  is  the ecliptic ; and
with this the situations of the orbits of all the other planets
are  compared.
  The planes of fhe orbits of all  fhe other planets must
necessarily pass through the centre ofthe sun; but if ex-
tended as  far as the fixed  stars, they  form circles  differ-
ent  from one  another, as also from lhe ecliptic;  one part
ofcachoibit beinsr on the north, and the other on the south
           "3* "
side of the ecliptic.  The orbit therefore of each planet
cuts the ecliptic in  two opposite points, which are called
the nodes of that particular planet, and different from the
nodes of another planet.   A line passing from one node of
a planet to the opposite node,  or  the line in  which  the
plane of  the orbit cuts the ecliptic, is called the  line of
nodes.  That  node, where the planet  passes from  the
south to the north side of lhe  ecliptic, is called  the as-
cending node,  and the olher is lhe descending node.  The
angle which the plane of a planet's orbit  makes with the
plane ofthe ecliptic, is called the  inclination of that plan-
et's orbit.  Thus, Astronomy,  Plate XII. fig. 2. where F
represents the sun, the  points A and B represent the
nodes, and the line A  B the line of nodes formed  by the
intersection of the  planes of the orbits C and D.  The
angle E F G is the  angle of inclination of the  planes of
the two orbits to each other.   The distance of either fo-
cus from the centre ofthe orbif, is called its eccentricity.
  The two points in a planet's orbit which are furthest
and nearest to the body round which it moves, are called
the apsides; the former of which is called fhe higher apsis,
or aphelion; the latter is called the lower apsis  or per-
ihelion.  The diameter which joins  these  two points, is
called the line of the apsides.  When the sun and moon
are nearest to the earth, they are said to be in perigee.
When at  their greatest distance from the earth, they are
said to be  in apogee.
  When a planet is situated so as lo be between the sun
and the earth, or so that the sun is between lhe earlh  and
the planet, then that  planet  is said to be in conjunction
with the sun.   When  the earth is between the sun  and
any planet, then that planet is said to be in opposition. It
is evident that fhe two inferior planets must have two con-
junctions with the sun; and the superior planets can have
only one, because they can never come between the earth
and the sun.   When a planet comes directly  between ua
and the sun, it appears to pass over the sun's disc, or  sur-
face, and this is called  the transit of the planet.  When a 
ASTRONOMT.
p.ane, move, from west .o e«., vi, according to the or-  %™$£**™ £^£>*fal£*?,
L ofthe aign., it i. sa.d to have dnct ^.on, or to be  .» »"™'*JjXnrlVJe force would have carried
in consequentia.  Its retrograde motion, or motion in an
tecedentia, is when it appears to move from east to west,
vis. contrary to the order of the signs.
  The  place  that any planet  appears to occupy in the
celestiaHbemisphere, when seen by an observer supposed
to be placed in the sun,  is called its heliocentric  place.
The place it occupies when seen from the earth, is  called
its geocentric  place.
  The planets do not move with equal velocity in every
part of their orbits,  but they move faster when  they are
nearest to the sun, and slower in the remotest part of their
orbits ;  and they all observe this remarkable law, that if a
straight line is drawn from the planet to the sun, and this
line is supposed to be carried along by the periodical mo-
tion of the planet, then the areas  which are described by
this right line and the path of the planet, are proportional
to the times ofthe planet's motion.  That is, the area de-
scribed in two days, is double that which is described in
one day, and a third part of that which is described in six
days; though the arcs, or portions of the orbit described,
are not in that ratio.
   The  planets being  at different distances from the sun,
perform their periodical revolutions in different times ; but
it has been found that the cubes of their mean distances
are constantly as the squares of their periodical times, vis,
 of the  times  of their performing their periodical  revolu-
 tions.
   These two last propositions were discovered by Kepler,
 by observations on  the  planets:  but sir  Isaac  Newton
 demonstrated, that it must have been so on the principle
 of gravitation, which formed the basis of his theory. This
 law of universal attraction,  or gravitation, discovered by
 Newton, completely confirms the system of Copernicus,
 and accounts for all the phenomena which were inexplica-
  ble on any other theory.
    The sun, as the largest body  in  our system, forms the
  centre  of  attraction, round which all the planets move;
  but it  must  not be  considered  as the only body endued
  with attractive power,  for all the planets also have the
  property of attraction, and act upon each other, as well as
  upon the sun.   The actual point, therefore, about which
  they move, will be the common centre of gravity of all the
  bodies which are included in our system; that is, the sun,
 with the primary and secondary planets. But because the
 bulk of the  sun greatly exceeds that  of all the  planets
 put together, this point is in the body of the sun.  The
  attraction  of the planets on each other,  also disturbs their
 motions, and causes some irregularities.
    It is this mutual attraction  between them and  the  sun,
  that prevents them from flying off from their orbits by the
  centrifugal force which is generated by their revolving in
  a curve;  while the centrifugal force keeps them from fall-
  ing info the sun by the force of gravity, as they would do
  if it were not for this motion impressed upon them. Thus
  these two powers balance each other, and preserve order
  and regularity in the system.
    It is an  established maxim in philosophy, that  if, when
  a body is projected in a straight line, it is acted  upon by
  another force, drawing  it toward a centre, it wi/1  be made
  to describe a curve, which will be either a circle or an
  ellipsis, according to the proporfion between the projectile
in the time that the projectile force would have carried it
from B to X, it will describe the curve B Y, by the com.
bined action of these two forces, in the same time that fhe
projectile force singly would have carried it from B toX,
or the gravitating power singly have caused it to descend
from B to y; and these two forces being  duly proportion-
ed, the planet,  obeying them both, will move in the circle
BTTV.
  But if, whilst the projectile force  would carry the plan-
et from B to b,  the sun's attraction should bring it down
from B to 1, the gravitating power would then be loo strong
for the projectile force, and would cause  the planet to de-
scribe the curve  B C.  When the planet comes to C, tbe
gravitating power, which always  increases as the square of
the distance from the sun S diminishes, will be yet stronger
for the projectile force, and by conspiring in some  degree
with it, will  accelerate the planet's motion all the way
from C to K,  causing it to describe the  arcs B C,CD,
D E, E F, &c. all  in equal times.
   Having its motion thus accelerated, it thereby acquires
so  much centrifugal force, or tendency to fly off at K, hi
the line K k, as overcomes the  sun's attraction j and the
 centrifugal force being too  great to allow the planet to be
brought nearer to  the  sun, or even to  move round him io
the circle k m n, &c. it goes off,  and ascends in the euro
K  L M  N, &c. its  motion decreasing as gradually from K
 to  B, as  it increased from B to K ; because the sun's at-
 traction now acts against the planet's projectile raotion,just
 as much as it acted with it before.
    When the  planet  has  got round to  B, its projectile
 force is as  much diminished from its mean state aa it wa«
 augmented at  K;  and so  the sun's attraction  being more
 than sufficient to keep the planet from  going off at B, it
 describes the same orbit  over  again, by virtue  of the
 same forces or powers.
    A double projectile force will always balance a quadru-
 ple power of gravity.  Let the planet at B, have twice as
 great an  impulse thence toward X, as  it had before; that
 is, in the same length of time that it was projected  fromB
 to b, as in the last example, let  it now be projected from
 B  to c 5 and it will require four  times as much gravity to
 retain it in its  orbit; that is, it must fall as far from B to4,
 in the  time that the projectile force would carry it from
 B to c, otherwise it would not describe the curve B D, as
 is evident from the figure.   But  in as  much time as th«
 planet moves  from B to C, in the higher part of its orbit,
 it  moves from I  to K, or from K to L, in the lower part of
 it; because from the joint action of these two forces,it
 must always describe equal areas in equal times through*
 out  its annual course.  These  areas are represented by
 the triangles B S C,  C S D,  D S E, E S F,  &c whos*
 contents are equal to one another from  the properties oi
 the ellipsis.
    We have now given a general idea ofthe solar system;
 and  shall next describe the bodies that compose it-
    Of the Sun.  The Sun is  considered, from its constat
 emanation of heat  and light, to be an immense globe of fire-
 When viewed through a telescope, several dark spots are
 visible on its surface, which  are of various sizes and dura-
 tion.  From the motion of these spots,  the Sun has been
 found to move round its axis  in  twenty-five days, which '* 
ASTRONOMY.
 two days less than its apparent revolution, in consequence
 of the Earth's motion in Us orbit in the same direction;
 and its axis is found to be inclined to the ecliptic, in an
 angle  of about eighty-two degrees and a half.
   Various  opinions  have bee» formed  respecting these
 Bpots; they have been  considered as opaque islands in
 the liquid igneous matter, and by some as pits or cavities
 in the body of the Sun.  But from whatever cause they
 may arise, they evidently adhere to its surface :  for if one
 of them appears upon the eastern limb or edge of the Sun's
 disc, it is seen to move thence toward the western edge in
 about thirteen days and a half, then the spot disappears,
 and in about the same time  it is  seen again upon the east-
 ern edge, and so continues to go round, completing its ap-
 parent revolution in twenty-seven days, during one half of
 which time we see it on the disc of the  Sun, and during
 the other half it disappears, which could not happen if the
 spots  did not adhere to the Sun.  The following particu-
 lars respecting the Sun are given by sir Isaac Newton.
   I. That the density of the Sun's heat, which is propor-
 tional to his light, is  seven times as great in Mercury as
 with us, and  that water there would be all  carried off in
 the shape of steam; for he found, by experiments  with
 the thermometer, that a heat seven times gi eater than that
 of the Sun's beams in summer will serve to make water boil.
   2. That the quantity of matter  in the Sun is to that in
 Jupiter nearly as 1100 to 1, and that the distance of that
 plarfet from the Sun is in the same ratio (o the Sun's semi-
 diamefer; consequently, that the centre of gravity of the
 Sun and Jupiter is nearly in the superficies of the Sun.
   3. That the quantity of  matter in the Sun is to that in
 Saturn as 2360 to 1,  and that the distance of Saturn from
 the Sun is in  a ratio but little less than that ofthe Sun's
 semidiameter. And hence the common centre of gravity of
 Saturn and the Sun is a little within the  Sun.
   4. By  the  same  method of calculation it will be found,
 that the common centre of gravity of all the planets can-
 not be more than the length of the solar diameter distant
 from the centre of the Sun.
   5. The Sun's diameter 13 equal to 100 diameters ofthe
 Earth, and  therefore its magnitude must exceed that of
 the earth one million of times.
   6.  If 360 degrees, the whole ecliptic, is divided by the
 quantity of the solar year, it will give 59y 8" which there-
 fore is the medium quantity of the sun's apparent daily
 motion ; hence his horary motion is equal to 2' 27".   By
 this method the tables of the Sun's mean motion are con-
 structed as found in astronomical books.
   Of the inferior  planets.   Mercury being the planet
 nearest to the Sun,  and the least in magnitude, is very
 seldom visible.   It never appears more than a few degrees
 from the Sun's disc, and is generally lost in the splendour
 of tbe  solar  beams.    On this account, astronomers have
 had few opportunities  of making accurate observations
 upon it; no spots have been observed  upon  it,  conse-
 quently the time of its rotation on its  axis is not known.
 Being  an inferior planet it  must show  phases like the
 moon,  Plate XII. fig. 7;  and it never appears quite full to
 us. It is seen sometimes passing over the Sun's disc, which
 is  called its  transit.
   Venus is the brightest and largest to appearance of all
 the planets, and is distinguished  from the rest by her
 superiority of lustre.   It is  generally called the Morning
or  Evening Star,  according as it precedes or follows the
apparent course of the Sun. Jfheve have been spots ob-
served on its disc, by different astronomers, changing their
position with respect to one another.   The time of its di-
urnal revolution about its axis is nearly 23h. 20m.  Venus
also appears with  phases;  and transits sometimes take
place, which are  of very  great importance in astronomy.
  The elongation of any  planet is its apparent distance
from the Sun.
  An inferior planet is at its greatest elongation, when a
line drawn from the Earth through the planet is a tangent
to the orbit of the planet;  when the planet is at M,  Plate
XII. fig. 4, being in conjunction with the Sun, it has no
elongation $ as  it  moves  from M  to V,  its elongation
increases till at  V, when  E V drawn  from the  earth
to  the  orbit of  the -planet is a  tangent to  that  orbit,
its  apparent place in  the  ecliptic  is  C,  and its  elonga-
tion is  S C, which is the  greatest  it can have, for in
passing from V to N it decreases,  and at N it is nothing.
From  N to U it  increases,  and at U the elongation is
again at the greatest.   This will  hold equally  in  ellip-
tical as  in  circular orbits.   If the orbits of the planets
were circular, the distance of each from the Sun would be
to the Earth's distance, as the Sua at its greatest elonga-
tion to the radius, that  is, as V  S to E S.   By examining
the figure  it will  be  seen,  that the  inferior planets are
never in opposition to  the Sun, and are never in quadra-
ture.   For in opposition, the Earth is between the Sue
and the  planets, which can never happen when the  orbit
ofthe planet M G B is included within that ofthe Earlh.
They are never in quadrature, because the greatest  angle
of elongation is contained by S  E and  E V, and if the an-
gle S E V  was a right  angle, E V would be a tangent at
E the Earth's orbit: but it is a tangent, as has been  seen,
to an orbit less than that ofthe Earth ; it therefore makes
an angle with S E, less than a right  angle.   Hence the
reason that the inferior planets never appear far from the
Sun ; and as the orbit of Mercury  is included within thr^t
of Venus,  the former must, when visible, always appear
nearer to the Sun, than the latfer.  We may also observe
that the apparent velocity of Venus is  greatest at the
times of conjunction.  Since the  plane of her  orbit  is
oblique to the Earth, those  parts of it which are viewed
by  a spectator directly, will  appear longer than  other
equal parts viewed obliquely.   Of course,"the  motions of
the planet, if uniform, will appear unequal.
  The time when an inferior planet will come again into a
given situation with respect to the Sun and the Eai\h, may
be thus found. Whilst Venu^ performs one revolution, the
Earth, whose periodical time is  longer than that of Venus,
will not have completed its revolution. Before  Venus'and
the Earth can be again in the inferior  conjunction, Venus
must, therefore, besides its entire revolution, describe an
arc equal to that whi.'h the Earth  has passed over: con
sequently,  the number of degrees passed over bv  each,
or their  angular motions, in the same time, will* be re-
ciprocally as their periodical times; that is, as the peri-
odical time of the E?rth is lo the  periodical time of Ve-
nus, so is  the angular motion  of  Venus, which  is  cpuM
to four  right angles added to the angular motion oMhe
Earth between two inferior conjuncti-:.s, fo the  an/uhr
motion  of fhe Earlh in the  same lime;  whence, Eh  V.
17. as the difference between the periodical times of the
Earlh and Venus, is to the periodical lime  of Venus so
are four right angles, or 360°, to t)ic  number  of  degrees
over which the E.u'h passes In  her pi bit from one inferior-
conjunction (o another.  This is only true  upon the sup- 
ASTRONOMY.
position that the planet* move in circular orbits, in which
case the following general rule would apply to the finding
the time from conjunction to conjunction, or from opposi-
tion  to opposition, of any two  planets.   " Multiply their
pei iodic times together, and divide the product by their
difference, and you have the time sought."   For let P —
the periodic  time  of the earth, p = that of the planet,
suppose an inferior, t = lime required :  then P . 1 day'.:
     360°
360°----, (he angle  described by the earth  in one day :
      P             360°
for the same  reason ----is fhe angle described by the
                      P
                       360°   360°
planet in 1 day : hence------------is the  daily angular

velocity of the planet  from the Earth.   Now if they set
out from conjunction,  they will return into conjunction
                                               360°
again, after the planet has gained  360°: hence-------
 360                       ?p                  P
----:  360°".: 1 day : t =----•  For a superior planet
  P                        P—p
     p P


   When the inferior planets are passing from their great-
est elongation V. fig. 4. through N their superior conjunc-
tion, lo their greatest elongation U, they appear to a spec-
tator on lhe Earth to  move from west  to east;  for when
 the planet is at G it  will appear to have moved from C to
 H,  and when at A  and B it will appear to have passed
 from II through L to a and b ; of course (he motion of the
 planet  is direct, or from west to east; but while it moves
 from U to V, its motion will appear to us retrograde or
 from east to west; for when it has passed from U to J and
 K, it will appear to  have  moved in lhe heavens from D
 through d to  b and  «, that is,  from east to  west.  When
 the inferior planets are at  their greatest elongation, they
 appear stationary ;  because when  the planets  are  at U
 and  V, the line drawn from E the  Earth to the  planet, is
 a tangent  to the orbit, which  so nearly coincides  with a
 small arc of the curve, that a spectator at the Earth can-
 not distinguish the tangent from the curve,  when the plan-
 et is at V and U, of course it will in those positions seem
 to be stationary.
   When Venus or Mercury is  in its superior conjunction,
 or at N, the whole  enlightened hemisphere is toward the
 Earfb, and its entire disc  is visible : as it  passes toward
 its  inferior conjunction, its enlightened hemisphere turns
 by degrees, from the Earlh, till at the inferior conjunction
 M, its enlightened part is  wholly turned from lhe Earfh,
 and the planet becomes invisible, unless it appears on the
 Sun's disc ;  it is then called a transit.
   Of the  Earth.  The Earth which we inhabit is a glob-
 ular body, as may be  proved from a variety of circum-
 stances, tbe chief of which we shall  here enumerate.  It is
 always observed by mariners, that  as they sail from any
 high objects, such  as  mountains, steeples,  &c.  they first
 begin to lose vuhf of  the lower part of those objects, and
 then gradually of the higher parts:  also, persons on shore
 first discover the upper parts of the masts of approaching
 vessels.  This could  not  be  the case,  if the Earth was a
plane; but is very easily accounted for, on the supposilios
of its being a sphere, as will be  easily understood by ex-
amining fig. 5.  Plate XII.  Various navigators have also
sailed  completely round the earth, by  continuing io the
same direction, at last coming to the  same place from
which  fhey  set out.
  The  Earth,  however, is not a  perfect sphere, but a
spheroid, having its equatorial diameter longer than fhe
polar diameter, or axis.  It is consequently flattest at (he
poles, and more protuberant at the equator.   The diame-
ter at the equator is 7977 English miles;  that at thepolei
is 7940 miles.  The surface of the Earth is much diver-
sified with mountains  and  vallies,  land  and water.  The
highest mountains in it, are the Andes in South America,
some of which  are about four miles in perpendicular alti-
tude.   About  two thirds of the globe are covered with
water.
   In consequence of  the Earth's  being  a globe, people
standing upon  opposite sides of it, must  have their feet
toward each olher.  Wrhen in this  situation they are call-
ed antipodes to each other.  Hence it appears that there
is no real  up or down ; for what is up to one  country, ia
down to another.   It must seem strange to those who are
ignorant of  the shape  of the earlh, to suppose that, if we
could  bore  a  hole  downward,  deep  enough,  we should
come to lhe other side of the world, where we should find
a surface and sky like our  own ;  yet if we reflect a mo-
ment,  we  shall perceive that this is perfectly  true.  As
we are preserved in our situations by the power of attrac-
tion, which draws us toward the centre of the earth, we call
that direction  down,  which tends to  the centre, and the
contrary.
   We  mentioned before, that fhe Earth has two motions;
the  one a diurnal motion,  round its own axis, in twenty-
four hours; the  other an annual motion, round the Sun,
in 365  days, 6  hours, 56  minutes, 4 seconds.   It is the
former which  causes  light and darkness, day and night j
for  when one side of the Earth is  turned toward the Sun,
it receives his rays, and is illuminated,  causing day: on
 the  contrary, when one side of the Earth is turned from
 the  Sun, we are in darkness, and then we have night.
By  the diurnal revolution of the Earth round its own axis
from west to east, lhe heavenly bodies appear to us to re-
 volve  in the same time from east to west.  And since the
 Sun and fixed stars are bodies  immensely larger than the
 Earth, and at  almost  inconceivably  great distances from
 it, we see upon how much more  simple principles the al-
 ternate succession of day  and night is effected by the
 revolution of lhe earth about its  axis, than by supposing
 the  Earth fixed, and  the  Sun and stars whirled round it,
 with an indefinite velocity.
   The natural days are not equal to one  another: for a
 natural day is  the time in  which fhe  Earlh performs one
 revolution round its axis, and such a portion of the second
 revolution, as is  equal to fhe space which fhe Sun has ap-
 parently travelled that day; but these spaces are unequal,
 therefore, the  additional portion of the second revolution,
 will be sometimes greater and  sometimes less, and conse-
 quently the times in which the natural days are complet-
 ed  will be unequal.  Hence arises the difference between
 a sundial and a well regulated clock, as  measures of lime;
 the former  measuring the length of the natural  day, lhe
 latter dividing  time  into  equal  portions (of twelve  houri 
ASTRONOMY.
each: the clock will be before the dial, when the natural
day is  more than twenty-four hours: and after  it,  when
the natural day is less than twenty-four hours ;  and (hey
will be together,  only when  the  natural day is exactly
twenty-four hours.
  The equation of time  is  the  difference between  the
mean length of the natural day, or twenty-four hours,  and
the length of any single day measured by the sun's appar-
ent motion, or between mean and apparent time.  And
the hour of the day by apparent time being known, in or-
der fo determine what is then true time, the equation is to
be added to apparent time, if the day by the clock is short-
er than the  day  by the dial: and the  equation is to be
subtracted from  the apparent time when the  day by the
clock is longer than the day by the sundial.   If  the natu-
ral day is twenty-four hours  three minutes long, the  day
by the clock being  twenty-four hours in length, it will be
12 by a good clock 3 minutes before it is 12 by the dial; in
this case mean time  precedes apparent.
   The difference between mean  and apparent time,  de-
pends  upon  two  causes: 1. the obliquity of the ecliptic
with respect lo lhe equator : and,  2.  the unequal  motion of
the earth in an elliptical orbit. The obliquity of  the eclip-
tic to the equator would make the sun and clocks agree on
four days of the year, vis. when  the sun  enters Aries,
Cancer,  Libra,  and Capricorn.    But  the other  cause
which arises from his unequal motion in his orbit  would
make the sun and clocks agree only twice a year, that is,
when he is in perigee, and  apogee ; consequently, when
these two  points fall in the beginnings of Cancer and Cap-
ricorn, or of Aries and Libra, they will concur in making
the sun and clocks agree  in  those points.  But the apo-
gee, at present, is in the ninth degree of Cancer, and the
perigee in the ninth degree of Capricorn;  and, therefore,
the sun and clocks cannot be equal at the beginnings of
these signs, nor,  indeed, at any time of the year, except
when the swiftness and slowness of the equation resulting
from one  of the  causes, just balances  lhe  slowness  or
swiftness arising from the other ; which happens about the
15th of April, the 15th of June, the 31st of August, and
the 24th of  December;  at  all other times the sun is too
fast or  too slow for equal time  by a certain number of min-
utes and seconds, which at the greatest is  16 minutes, 14
seconds, and happens about the first of November : every
other day  throughout the year having a certain quantity of
this difference belonging to it, which, however, is  not ex-
actly the same every year, but only every fourth year, for
which reason, it is necessary,  where great accuracy is re-
quired, lo have four tables of this equation, vis. one for
each of the  four years in  the period of leap year. The
following concise table, adapted to the  second year after
leap year, will always be  found within about a minute of
the truth, and therefore sufficiently accurate for common
clocks  and watches.
TABLE FOR THE  EQUATION OF TIME.
Months.	2"	F.quation in vlinutes. 1	Days. Months.	F.quation in Minutes. 1	Days. Months.	Equation in Minutes.
Jan.	1 3	4 + 5	Apr. 24 30	2— 3	Sept. 27 30	9— 10
	5 7	6 7	May 13 29	4 3	Oct. 3 6	11 12
	9	8	June 5	2	10	13
	12	9 1	10	1	14	14
	15	10	15	0	19	15
	18	11	*	—	27	16
	21	12	20	1 +	Nov. 15	15
	25	13 1	25	2	20	14
	31	14 j	29	3	24	13
Feb.	10	15	July 5	4	27	12
	21	14	11	5	30	11
	27	13 i	28	6	Dec. 2	10
Mar.	4	12	Aug. 9	5	5	9
	8	11	15	4	7	8
	12	10	20	3	9	7
	15	9	24	2	11	6
	19	8	28	1	13	5
	22	7	31	0	16	4
	25	6	#	—	18	3
Apr.	28 1 4	5 4 3	Sept. 3 6 9	1 — o 3	20 22 24	o 1 0
	7	2	12	4	#	__
	11	1	15	5	26	1 +
	15	0	18	6	28	2
	#	—	21	7	30	3
	19 1	1 —	24	8		
 
ASTRONOMY.
   Those columns lhat are marked -f-, show that the clock
 or watch is, or ought to be, before the sun ;  and those
 marked —, that  it is slower.  To regulate a clock or
 wafch on the first of January, the moment the sundial  is
 12, the clock or watch must be put 4 minutes after.   On
 the 13th of May, when the dial is 12, the clock to be right
 must want 4 minutes of  that hour.   See Ferguson's As-
 tronomy, ch. 13. Phil. Trans, vol. 54.
 * Twilight is owing lo the  refraction of the rays of light
 by our atmosphere, through which they pass ; and which,
 by bending them, occasions some to arrive at apart ofthe
 earlh that could not receive any direct rays from the sun,
 or so as to bring  him into sight, every clear day, before
 he rises in ihc horizon, and to keep him in view for some
 minutes after he is really Bet below it.  The effect of this
 refraction is about six minutes every day at a mean rate.
  From the same cause, the heavenly bodies appear high-
 er than they really are, so that to bring the apparent alti-
 tudes to the true ones, the quantity of refraction must be
 subtracted.  The  higher they rise  the less are the rays
refracted, and when the heavenly bodies are in the zenith,
they suffer no refraction, according to the principles of op-
tics hereafter to be demonstrated.  Tables of refractions
have  been calculated by various astronomers,  as  sir I.
Newton, Mr. Thomas  Simpson, Dr. Bradley,  Mr. Mayer,
&c.   The following specimen is taken from Dr. Bradley's
table, which is esteemed the  most  correct, and chiefly
used  by  astronomers.   For  the method of calculating
 these  tables, see  Mr. Simpson's  Dissert,  p.  46, 4to.
 Gregory's Astron. Vol. I. Pa. 66,  and Vince's Astron.
 Vol. 1.4to. ch. 7.
  MEAN  ASTRONOMICAL  REFRACTIONS IN ALTITUDE.
App	Refrac-	App.	Refrac-		App.	Refrac-
Alt	tion.	Alt. 22°	tion. 2'20"		Alt.	tion.
0°	33' 0"				44°	0'59''
1	24 29	23	2	14	45	0 57
2	18 35	24	2	7	48	0 51
3	14 36	25	2	2	50	0 48
4	11 51	26	1	56	52	0 44
5	9 54	27	1	51	55	0 40
e	8 28	28	1	47	58	0 35
7	7 20	29	1	42	60	0 33
8	6 29	30	1	38	62	0 30
9	5 48	31	1	35	65	0 26
10	5 15	32	1	31	68	0 23
11	4 47	33	1	28	70	0 21
12	4 23	34	1	24	72	0 18
13	4 3	35	1	21	75	0 15
14	3 45	36	1	18	78	0 12
15	3 30	37	1	16	80	0 10
16	3 17	38	1	13	82	0 8
17	3 4	39	1	10	85	0 5
18	2 54	40	1	8	88	0 2
19	2 45	41	1	5	89	0 1
20	2 35	42	1	3	90	0 3
21	2 27	43 |	1	1		
  Dr. Keill, m his Lectures on Astronomy, observes, that
it is entirely  owing  to  tbe atmosphere that the heavens
appear bright  in the day time.   For without it, only that
part of the heavens  would be luminous in which the sun
.' placed ; and if we could live  without air, and should
 turn  our backs to the  sun, the  whole heavens would in.
  Eear as dark as in  the night.  In this case also we should
  ave no twilight, but a sudden transition  from the bright-
 est sunshine to dark night immediately upon the settingof
 the sun ; which would be  extremely  inconvenient, if not
 fatal  to the eyes of mortals.   See Keill's Astron. Lect.xx,
   The twilight is longest in a parallel sphere, and shortest
 in a right sphere: and in an oblique sphere, the nearer the
 sphere approaches to  parallel, the longer is the twilight.
   In a parallel sphere, the twilight will  continue till th,
 sun's declination toward the depressed pole is 18°  : but in
 this sphere his declination is never more than 23£ degrees •
 whence  the  twilight will only cease, whilst the sun's dec-
 lination  is  increasing  from 18° to 23£ degrees, and de-
 creasing again till in its decrease it becomes 18 degrees.
 The  twilight  is  here  caused by  the  annual motion of  the
 earth.   In a right sphere, the sun appears to be carried
 by the daily motion of the earth, in circles perpendicular
 to the horizon j  whence it is carried directly  downward
 by the whole  daily motion, and  will arrive at 18 degrees
 below the horizon the  soonest possible ; whereas, in an  ob-
 lique sphere,  its  path is oblique to the plane of fhe hori-
 zon, and therefore will be longer before it  has descended
 18 degrees  below the horizon:  and the difference of the
 time of twilight  will increase wifh the degree of obliqui-
 ty.   As the sun  sets more  obliquely at some parts ef the
 year  than others, the twilight varies in its duration.
   Ofthe Seasons.   It is the annual motion of the earth
 round the sun, which occasions  the diversity of seasons.
 To understand this, it must be remembered, that the axis
 of the earth is inclined to the plane of  its orbit about 23J
 degrees, and it  keeps always parallel to  itself; that is,
 it is always  directed to the same  point of the heavens.
   The obliquity  of the ecliptic  is  not permanent, but is
 perpetually diminishing, by the ecliptic approaching near-
 er to a parallelism wifh  the equator, al the rate of about
 half a second in a year, or from   50 seconds to 55 seconds
 in a hundred years.  The inclination at this time is rather
 less  than 23 degrees, 28 minutes.  The diminution ofthe
 obliquity of the ecliptic to the equalor  is owing to the ac-
 tion of the planets upon the earth, especially the planeti
 Venus and Jupiter.   The obliquity of the ecliptic is found
 by observing with great accuracy  the meridian altitude of
 the sun's centre,  on the days of the summer and winjer
 solstice : then  the  difference  of  the  two,  will be the dis-
 tance between the tropics ; the  half of which is the obli-
 quity sought.
  Let Fig. 6. Plate XII.  represent the earth in different
 parts of  its elliptic orbit.
  In  the spring, the circle which separates the light from
 the dark side of the globe, called the terminator,  passes
 through  the poles  as  appears in  the  position A. The
 earth then, in its diurnal rotation  about  its  axis, has every
 part of its surface as  long in light as in shade; therefore
 the days are equal  to  the nights all  over the world,  fhe
 sun being at that time vertical to the equatorial parts of
 the earth.                                      *
  As the earfh proceeds  in its orbit, and comes into  the
 position B, the sun becomes vertical to those parts of  the
 earth under the tropic,  and the inhabitants of the northern
 hemisphere  will  enjoy summer, on account of fhe solar
rays fallingimore  perpendicularlv upon fh«m • they  will
also have their days longer than their nights, 'iu propo-- 
ASTRONOMY.
 tionas  they are more distant from fhe equator; and those
 within  the polar circle, as will be perceived by lhe figure,
 will have  constant daylight.   At the same time,  the  in-
 habitants of the southern hemisphere  have winter,  fheir
 days being shorter than their nights, in proportion as they
 are further from the  equator;  and the inhabitants of the
 polar regions will have constant ni2;ht.
   The earth then continues its course fo the position C,
 when  the  terminator again  passes through the poles, and
 the days and nights are equal.
   After this,  the earth advances  to fhe position D, at
 which  time the inhabitants of the northern  hemisphere
 have winter, and  their days are shorter than their nights.
   The positions B and D, are the solstitial points; and A
 and C, the equinoctial points; ihey are not  equidistant
 from each other, because the sun is not in the centre, but
 in (he  focus of the ellipsis.  In summer,  when the earfh
 is at B, the sun is  further from it than in the winter, when
 fhe earfh is at D ; and in fact,  the diameter of the sun ap
 pears longer in winter than in summer.   The difference of
 heat is not owing to  the sun's  being nearer to us, or  more
 remote, but to the degree of obliquity with which its rays
 strike any part of the earth.
   Of the Moon.  The moon is, next to the sun, the most
 remarkable of  the celestial objects. Its form  is spherical
 like that of the earth, round which it  revolves,  and by
 which  it is carried round the sun.   Its orbit is also ellipti-
 cal, having  the earth in one  of tbe foci of the ellipsis.
 The moon always keeps the same side toward the earth,
 showing only at one time a little more of one side, and at
 another time a little more of  the  other.   Hence as the
 moon revolves about  its  axis,  its  periodical time must be
 equal to that of its revolution in its orbit  round the earth.
 This is found to be the case with the fifth satellite of Sat-
 urn as it regards its  primary.   And though the year is of
 the same absolute  length, both  to the earth and moon, yet
 the number of days in each  is very different: the former
 having 365£ natural days in its year, but fhe latter has on-
 ly about 12£, every day and night in  the moon being as
 long as 29£ on  the earth.
   The face of fhe moon, as seen through a telescope, ap-
 pears  diversified  wilh hills and  vallies.   This is proved
 by viewing her  at any other time  than when she is full  ;
 for then there  is no  regular line bounding light and dark-
 ness;  but  the edge or border of the moon  appears jagged  ;
 and even in the dark part near the borders of the lucid sur-
 face, there are seen some small spaces enlightened by the
 sun's beams.
   Besides, if is  moreover evident, fhat the spots in the
 moon taken for mountains and vallies, are really such from
 Ibeir shadows.  For in all situations of the moon, the el-
 evated parts are constantly found to cast a triangular shad-
 ow in a direction from the sun ; and lhe cavities are al-
 ways dark on the side next to the sun, and illuminated on
 lhe opposite side.  Hence astronomers are enabled to find
 the height of  lhe  lunar mountains.  Dr.  Keill, in his As-
 tronomical Lectures, has calculated the height of St. Cath-
 erine's  hill to be nine miles.   Since, however,  the  loftiest
 mountains upon the earth are but abouf three miles in height,
 it has been long considered as very  improbable that those
of a planet so much inferior in size to the  earth should ex-
 ceed  in such vast proportion the highest of our moun-
tains.
   By fhe  observations of Dr. Herschel, made in Novem-
ber, 1779, and the four following months, we  learn,  that
the altitude of the lunar mountains has been very much
exaggerated.  His observations  were  made with great
caution, by means of a Newtonian reflector, six feet eight
inches long, and with a magnifying power of 222 times, de-
termined by experiment; and the method which he made
use of fo ascertain lhe altitude of those mountains which,
during that  time,  he had  an  opportunity of examining,
seems liable to no objection.  The rock situated near La-
cus Niger, was found  fo be. about one mile in height, but
none of tbe other mountains which he measured proved In
be more  than half that  altitude; and Dr. Herschel con-
cludes, that with a very few exceptions, the  generality of
the lunar mountains do not exceed half a mile in their per-
pendicular elevation.   See Keill's Astron. Leet. x. Phil.
Trans. Vol. lxx.
  To Dr. Herschel also we are indebted for an account
of several burning volcanoes,  which  he saw al  different
limes in tbe moon.  In the 7Tlh  vol. of the Phil.  Trans.
he says, " April 19, 10 hours, 36 minutes, sidereal time.
I perceive three volcanoes  in  different places of lhe dark
part of the new moon.  Two of them are nearly extinct  ;
or, otherwise, in a state of going to break out, which per-
haps may  be decided  next  lunation.   The third shows an
actual eruption of fire, or luminous matter."  On the next
night Dr. Herschel saw the volcano burn wifh greater vio-
lence (han on the preceding evening.  He considered  lhe
eruption fo resemble a small piece of burning charcoal when
it is covered by a  thin coat of white ashes,  which frequent-
ly adhere to it, when it has been some time ignited ; and it
had  a degree of  brightness about as strong  as (hat with
which such a coal would  be seen to glow in faint daylight.
It is generally admitted that the moon has  an  atmosphere.
  The moon is seen by  means of the  light which come»
to it from  the sun  being reflected from it.   Its changes or
phases depend upon  its  situation relatively  to the earth
and the sun.   When fhe moon is in  opposition to the sun
at A, fig. 7. Plate XH. the enlightened side is turned tow-
ard the earth, as a, and it appears full.  When the moon
is in conjunction at E with the sun, its dark side  is turned
toward us, and it  is invisible,  as  at e.  As if proceeds in
its orbit, as at F, a small part of the  enlightened side is
seen, and  then we have what is called a  new moon ; and
we continue to see more and more of the enlightened side,
as the moon  approaches  at G and H, to  fhe state of op-
position or  full moon.   The  waning or decreasing of the
moon takes place   in the same manner, but in a  contrary
order.  The earth must perforin fhe  same office fo the
moon that the moon does to us;  and it will appear to fhe
inhabitants of the  moon,  if there be any, like a very mag-
nificent moon,  being to them  about  thirteen  times as
large  as fhe moon  to  us, and it will also have fhe same
changes or phases.  Hence it is evident, that one half of
the  moon is never in darkness, fhe earth constantly afford-
ing it a strong light, during the absence of lhe sun ; but the
other half has a fortnight's light and darkness  by  furna.
  When the moon is near the first of  Aries, and movinv
toward  the  tropic of Cancer, (he  time of its rising will
vary  but little for several days  together.   If the moon
were to move in  the equator, its motion  in  its orbit, by
which it describes a revolution,  in respect of the sun, in
29 days, 12  hours, would  carry it every day eastward
from  the  sun about 12 degrees 11  minutes, whence its
time of rising would  vary  daily about 50 minute*.   But,
because the moon's orbit  is oblique to tbe equator, nearly
coinciding wifh the ecliptic, different parts of it make dif 
ASTRONOMY.
fercnf angles with  the horizon, as they rise or set; those
parts which rise with the  smallest angles setting with lhe
greatest, and the reverse.   Now lhe less this angle is, the
greater portion of the orbit  rises  in the same time.   Con-
sequently, when  the moon is in those  parts which rise or
Bet wifh fhe smallest angles, it rises or sets with the least
difference of lime, and the reverse.  But in northern lati-
tudes,  the  smallest  angle of  the ecliptic  and horizon  is
made when  Aries rises  and Libra  sets, and the greatest
when Libra rises and Aries sets;  and therefore, when the
moon rises in Aries,  it  rises wifh  the  least difference  of
time.  Now the moon is  in conjunction in or near Aries,
when the sun is in  or near Libra, that is, in the autumnal
months; when, the moon  rising in Aries, whilst the sun is
setting in Libra, the time  of its rising  is observed to vary
only two hours in  six days  in  (he  latitude of London.
This is called tbe harvest moon.
  This  circumstance takes  place every month; but as it
does not happen  at the time of full moon, there is no no-
tice taken of it.  When  the  moon's  right  ascension  is
equal to six signs, that  is, when  she is in or about the be-
ginning of Libra, there is the greatest difference of the
times of rising, vis. about  an hour and  15 minufes.^ Those
Bigns which rise with the  least angle set with the greatest,
and the contrary; therefore, when there is the least dif-
ference in the times of  rising, there is the  greatest in set-
ting, and vice versa.
  The following  table shows the daily mean difference of
the moon's  rising and setting,  on  the  parallel of  London,
for 28 days; in which lime  lhe  moon finishes her period
round the ecliptic,  and gets nine  degrees inlo  the  same
sign from the beginning of which she set out.
	c«	c	Rising	Diff.	Settin	;Diff.
Days.	«'	o				
	3	1 n n	H	M	H.	M.
1	23	13	1	5	0	50
2		26	1	10	0	43
3	£	10	1	14	0	37
4		23	1	17	0	32
5	1?	6	1	16	0	28
6		19	1	15	0	24
7	■/**.	2	1	15	0	20
8		15	1	15	0	18
9		28	1	15	0	17
10	m	12	1	15	0	22
11		26	1	14	0	30
12	t	8	1	13	0	39
13		21	1	10	0	47
14	V?	4	1	4	0	56
15		17	0	46		5
16	zx	1	0	40		8
17		14	0	35		12
18		27	0	30		15
19	K	10	0	25		1G
20		23	0	20		17
21	T	7	0	17		16
22	8	20	0	17		15
23		3	0	20		15
24		16	0	24		15
25		29	0	30		14
26	n	13	0	40		13
27		26	0	56		7
28	s	9	1	00		58
  The Moon's motion is subject to many irregularities, on
account of the inclination of its  orbit to the plane of the
ecliptic, and the attraction of the Sun and the other plan-
ets.
                Ofthe superior planets..
  Mars is not so bright as Venus,  nor even as Jupiter
though nearer  to  the sun.   Its colour is a little reddish!
Some spots have  been  observed upon its  surface, from
which its rotation round  its axis, and the inclination of its
axis to the plane of its orbit, have been determined.
  The following particulars respecting  Mars are given by
Dr. Herschel, after long and accurate observations.
  The axis of Mars is inclined to the ecliptic 59° 42.
  The node of the axis  is in  17° 47' of Pisces.
  The  obliquity of the ecliptic on the globe of  Mars in
28° 42'.
  The point Aries on the Martial ecliptic answers to our
19° 28'of  Sagittarius.
  The figure of Mars is that of  an oblate spheroid, whose
equatorial diameter is to the polar one as 1355 to 1272, or
as 16 to 15 nearly.
  The equatorial diameter of  Mars, reduced to lhe mean
distance of the earth from the Sun, is 9" 8'".
  And that planet has a considerable but moderate atmo-
sphere j so that its inhabitants, probably, enjoy a situation,
in many respects, similar to ours.
                         Phil. Trans.  Vol. Ixxiv. Part 2.
  Ceres Ferdinandea is a very  small planet, situated next
without Mars: it was discovered on the first day of the
present century by Mr. Piazzi, an Italian astronomer.
  Pallas is another very small planet,  discovered by Dr.
Olbers of Bremen,  on  the 28lh of March, 1802.  Juno is
likewise a very small planet, discovered by M. Harding,as
he  was engaged at Lilienthal,  in examining lhe catalogue
of the stars published  by  M. Lalande.  This planet and
the two former ones,  Dr. Herschel proposes to call aste-
roides,  because they are so much smaller than any of the
other planets.
  Juno is the twelfth  planet  discovered within these few
years.  Dr. Herschel discovered the planet that  goes by
his own name, March 18, 1781.  In January 1787 he per-
ceived that this planet had two satellites, and  some time
after he discovered four  others  belonging to his planet.
In the autumn of 1789  he observed two new satellites be-
longing to  Saturn.  The  Ceres  was discovered in 1801J
the Pallas  in 1802; and the Juno in 1804.
  Jupiter  is  the brightest planet next to Venus.   When
viewed by a telescope, several belts are observed across
its disc, parallel to its equator : these belts are variable,
and have  been supposed to be ranges of clouds in the at-
mosphere of the planet.   They are sometimes of different
breadths,  and  sometimes  nearly  of the  same breadth.
Large spots have been seen in these belts ,• and when one
of them vanishes,  the contiguous spots disappear with it.
Dr. Herschel has  paid attention to the rotation of these
spots, and  has found that the rotation of the same spot di-
minished;  thus in February 1778  one revolved in nine
hours fifty-five minutes and twenty seconds, but the sarne
spot in April revolved in nine hours fifty-one minutes and
thirty-five seconds.   This he observes  is agreeable to the
theory of equinoctial winds, as it may be some time before
the spot can acquire the velocity of the wind ;  and if Ju-
piter's spots should be observed in different'parts of its 
ASTRONOMY.
year  to be  accelerated and  retarded, it  would  almost
amount to a  demonstration of its monsoons, and their peri-
odical changes.  The ecliptic and equator of  Jupiter are
nearly parallel to each other, that is, the axis  of the plan-
et is nearly perpendicular  to its orbit, and on that account
its inhabitants experience  no sensible  change  of seasons.
This is a wise provision, for if the axis of Jupiter were
inclined any considerable number of degrees, just so many'
degrees round each pole would,  by turns, tap! almost six
years in  darkness.  Jupiter is surrounded.^ four moons
of different  sizes, which move about it in lEfferent  times.
These moons are  sometimes  eclipsed  by nhWshadow of
Jupiter falling upon them.   The eclipses have been found
of great use in determining the longitudes of places on the
earth.
   Saturn  can hardly  be seen by the naked eye.  When
examined by a  telescope, it  exhibits a \ery  remarkable
appearance.   It is surrounded by a thin, fiat,  broad lumi-
nous ring, which  surrounds the body of the  planet,  but
does not touch it.   This ring casts a strong shadow upon
the planet;  and  appears to be  divided into  two, by a dis-
tinct line in the middle of its breadth.   This ring is circu-
lar, but appears  elliptical  from its being viewed obliquely.
Besides  this ring, Saturn has seven moons  of different
sizes; and its body is surrounded also by belts, like those
of Jupiter.
   The Herschel, with its  six satellites, have  been entire-
ly discovered by Dr.  Herschel.   It cannot be seen with-
out  a telescope, but  it does  not require  a powerful one.
The satellites cannot be  seen without the  most powerful
telescopes.
   Having given  a brief account ofthe Sun and  planets, we
shall show by what means  we  can ascertain  their apparent
and  real  diameters.
   On the apparent and real  diameters  of the Sun and
Planets.  It is obvious from the principles of optics, that
the determination of the  real diameters of the  heavenly
bodies will depend conjointly on a knowledge  of their ap-
parent diameters,  and (heir real distances from the earth.
For, suppose A  P B, Plate XII. fig. 8. a section of such
body made by a plane passing  through/the place O ofthe
eye, and the centre C of the  body : then A O B  will be
the angle, which will measure the apparent diameter of the
body; this being known,  A O C, its half,  will be known.
And A O being  a tangent  to the  surface, the angle C A O
will be a right angle ; whence, cosine  A O C :  sine A O C
I: A O : A  C, the semidiameter  of the body.   Now A C
or O C, may be found by observation; or, when the body
is in opposition  or  conjunction  with  the Sun, by  taking
the difference or sum of its distance from the Sun, and the
earlh's distance from  that  luminary, according to  the re-
spective  cases ;  taking care to  attend  to the different
operations required for a superior and  inferior  planet.
And as to the apparent diameters, it may be worth while
to point out a few methods of ascertaining (hem.
   The Sun's vertical or perpendicular diameter may be
found by two observers taking, the one tbe  height of the
upper edge of the disc, the other lhat of (he lower, at the
same instant.  This is most conveniently done when  the
Sun  is at  or near the  meridian ; because there is then no
sensible change in his  altitude during the space of two or
three minutes.  The height of each edge must be correct-
ed, by allowing for parallax and refraction;  and the appa-
          34*
rent diameter will be equal to tbe difference of the cor-
rected altitudes of the  upper  and lower  edge.   This
method is  very simple, and gives the apparent diameter
with exactness proportional to (he accuracy of the instru-
ments made use of.
  Another method  of determining the Sun's  apparent
diameter, is to observe by a good clock the time in  which
the sun's  disc  passes over the plane of the  meridian, or
some  other hour circle.  Af, or very  near, one of th«
equinoxes, when the sun's apparent diurnal motion is in
the equator, or a parallel very near it, say, as the lime
between tbe Sun's leaving the meridian and returning to
it again ; 360° '.■'. the time in which he passes  over the
meridian . hi3  apparent semidiameter.   At any  other
time of the year, when (he Sun is  in a parallel  at  some
distance from the equator, his diameter measures a greater
number of minutes  and  seconds in that parallel, than it
would  do in a great circle, and  takes  up proportionally
more time in passing over the meridian ; we may then use
this analogy, as radius * cosine of the Sun's declination ::
the time in which the  Sun passes the meridian, converted
into motion, at the rate of four minutes in time fo 1 ° . the
arc of the great circle which measures the Sun's apparent
horizontal diameter.   This  method may be easily put in
practice by two observers ; or indeed by one, if he have an
half second pendulum placed near enough  for him to hear
the beats of it, whilst he observes  the transit. But the diam-
eters of the planets are best taken  by the micrometer, an
instrument so contrived that two parallel wires being placed
in the focus ofa telescope, one fixed and theother moveable,
or both moveable, they may be made to approach or recede
one from the other till they appear to touch exactly two
opposite  points in lhe disc of the planet, and  (hen (he
index shows (he apparent diameter in minutes and second-.
The apparent diameters ofthe planets when at about theii
respective mean distances from the earfh, are as we have
seen:  Mercury, 10"; Venus, 58"; Mars,27;"  Jupiter,
39";  Saturn, 18"; Georgium  Sidus, 3" 54'".  And from
these  apparent diameters, and the respective  distances
from the earth, the diameters ofthe Sun and  planets have
been determined in English miles as here slated : Mercu-
ry, 3224;  Venus, 7867; Mars, 4189; Jupiter, 89170;
Saturn, 79012;  the Herschel, 35112 ; (he Sun, 883246.
Observations upon the planets Herschel, Saturn, Jupiter,
and Mars, prove that there  is a sensible  difference b.
tween  their equatorial and  polar  diameters; and it  is
probable that there is a like difference between the diam-
eters of the other planets, but this has not yet been de-
termined by observation.
  Since the apparent diameters of distant bodies vary
inversely as their distances, we may, having lhe distance^
from the earth at which the respective planets subtended
tbe above angles, and knowing their mean  distances from
fhe Sun, find the mean apparent diameters  of all the plan-
ets, as seen from the Sun; they have been thus given :
Mercury,  20";  Venus, 30"; Earlh,  17"; Mars  10'/j
Jupiter, 37"; Saturn, 16"; Georgium Sidus, 4".
  To  measure  the quantity of matter in  distant bodies
appears a problem of insuperable difficulty:  but this has
been effected to a considerable degree, by the principles
of the Newtonian philosophy.  Since the quantify of mat-
ter  in  a globe  is proportional  to the mean density multi-
plied into  the cube of the diameter, and the diameters of 
ASTRONOMY.
 the planets are known, the mean densities are all that are
 required for fhe solution of lhe problem.   Now, in homo-
 geneous,  unequal, spherical  bodies, the gravities on their
 surfaces are as (heir  diameters,  when  (he  densities are
 equal; or the gravities are as (he densities, when the bulks
 are equal: therefore, in spheres of unequal magnitude and
 density, the gravity is in (he compound ratio ofthe diam-
 eters and densities; or the densities are  as  (he gravities
 divided by (he diameters.   But the diameters are known,
 and  the gravities at the surface are nearly found, either
 by means of the revolutions of the satellites, or by calcu-
 lations deduced from (he effects (he planets are found to
 produce upon  each other; consequently the relation of
 lhe densities becomes known.  The mean density of the
 earth was  calculated  by Dr. Hutton, from  observations
 made by Dr. Maskelyue at the mountain Schehallien ; he
 made it fo fhat of wafer as 9 fo 2, and to common stone,
 as 9 fo 5, on the supposition that  the  hill is only of the
 density of  common stone.   He  also  slates the  mean
 densities of fhe Sun and  planets to that of  water, ihus :
 Sun, 1T*V ;  Mercury, 9|;  Venus, 5||; Earlh, 4\ ;  Mars,
3£;  Jjpiter, 1,>T ;  Saturn, 0|| ; ami fhe Herschel 0T%%.
These densities are such as the bodies  would have if they
were homogeneal; and may be  admitted as a fair estimate
of the  whole,  although the density of each planet may
vary considerably at different distances from the  surface.
From the densities, as thus estimated,  and the  known
diameters,  we  may readily  find  the  proportions of the
quantities of matter; they are asunder: the Sun, 333928;
 Mercury, 1654 ; Venus, -8899 ; the Earth, 1 ; Mars, -0875;
 Jupiter, 312-1 ; Saturn, 97*76; Georgium Sidus, 16*84.

                    Ofthe Satellites.
   We have observed that Jupiter, Saturn, and fhe Her-
 schel planet, are attended by satellites;  of which Jupiter
 has four, Saturn  seven, and the Herschel six.   In order
 to arrive at certainty concerning the laws of these bodies,
 it is necessary to consider facts ; we therefore briefly de-
 scribe  the  chief  phenomena.   1. These  satellites  are
 sometimes to the eastward, sometimes to the westward, of
 their respective planets,  moving  successively from  one
 side to the other:  each at its greatest excursion, as ob-
 served  from the earfh, is nearly as  far distant from the one
 side as it was from lhe other, and is found on the same side
 again in much about the same interval of time ; from which
 it is inferred that the orbits of fhe satellites are curves re-
 turning into themselves.   2. All  the  satellites, except
 those of the Herschel, in going from  the western excur-
 hoii fo the eastern, are often hid by the planet's disc,  and
 consequently pass behind  it : sometimes one or other of
 them passes above  or  below,  but never on, the planet's
 disc.   On the contrary, in going from  fhe eastern excur-
 sion to the western, those  which passed behind, now pass
 over the disc ; and those which passed  above, now pass
 below, and  reciprocally ; which proves  that they move
 with the primary  as their centre.  3.  The paths of  the
 satellites being reduced to their respective planet's centre,
 sometimes appear in a right line passing through fhat cen-
 tre, and inclined in a certain direction to its orbit.   Af-
 terward, they ohange more and more into ellipses, during
one quarter ofthe  planet's annual revolution ; and all  fhe
superior conjunctions are then made above  the planet's
centre,  and the inferior conjunctions below it: during a
 second  quarter  of the  planet's revolution, these ellipses
 become narrower, fhe satellites are nearer fhe centre in
 their conjunctions, and at the end of a second quarter of
 the revolution, all the ellipses are again become right lines
 with equal inclination, but in a contrary direction.   In (he
 (bird quarter of the revolution, they are formed anew info
 ellipses,  the superior conjunctions are made below the
 centre, and  the inferior ones above; lastly,  in (he fourth
 quarter of (he revolution, when (he planet is returning to
 the same point of its orbit, these ellipses again decrease in
 breadth,  and all return to the first state.  4. The times of
 the superior and inferior conjunctions of the  satellites be*
 ing compared, their  intervals  are  nearly equal lo (heir
 semirevolution.
   Since,  then, (he  satellites  uniformly  describe  orbits
 nearly circular or elliptical, with their respective primary
 at (heir centre or  focus, they are probably  moved by a
 force of  the same nature with that  which  moves fheir
 planets round the Sun ; that is, they revolve about their
 primaries  in  consequence ofa central force, and ofa con-
 stant impulsive force: if so, which  indeed  observations
 render  certain,  they must follow   Kepler's  fwo  rules,
 namely, 1. the satellites must describe areas  of their or-
 bits proportional to the  times ;  2.  their mean distances
 from the centres  of their respective primaries, must be as
 lhe cube roots ofthe squares ofthe  times of their revo-
 lutions.
   The lime  ofa  synodic revolution  of a satellite maybe
 found in the  following manner :  Observe, when tbe prima-
 ry  planet is  in opposition, the passage of  a satellite over
 its  body;  and mark the time when it is half way between
 the two opposite edges of lhe planet's  disc, for then it
 will be nearly in conjunction with  the centre of the planet,
 and also in conjunction with  the Sun.   After a long space
 of  time, observe again when the primary  plane! is in op-
 position, and fhe  secondary in conjunction with its centre;
 and divide the intervening space of time between the tiro
 observations, by  the number of conjunctions of the Sunin
 that space, fhe quotient is the time  of a synodic revolu-
 tion.  Or, fhe same thing may  be found by means of the
 eclipses of the satellite :  Observe when the satellite enters
 the shadow of its primary, called  its immersion; or when
 it comes out  of the shadow, called its emersion; and after
 a very long interval of time, when an eclipse  happens as
 nearly as possible in the same situation bolh with respect
 to the node and to the place of the  primary planet, again
 mark the  time of the emersion  or immersion, which ever
 was used  in the former observation ;  and from the interval
 of these times, and the number of eclipses in lhat interval,
 the mean time ofa synodic revolution will be  obtained by
 division.
  To determine fhe time ofa periodic revolution, it must
 be considered, that in (he return of a satellite  to its mean
 conjunction,  it describes a revolution in its orbi(, together
 with the main angle m, described by the primary planet
 in  that  time: hence  this analogy, as  360° +m . 360::
 lime ofa synodic revolution  : the time ofa periodic revo-
 lufion.                                   r
  The distance of a  satellite from  its primary may be
 easily fol,nd  by means of its greatest  elongation,  as seen
from the earth, in  the following manner: lefS  Plate XW'
fig-  9, represent the Sun, E the  Earlh, P any  planet, one
of lis satellites at A, and  the angle of elongation  P E A» 
ASTRONOMY.
 maximum; then the distances  P E  and E S are known
 from the theory of the planet, and the time of observation ;
 and since the angle P  E A is  known in the right angled
 triangle A E P, also  the side P E, the side A P is readily ob-
 tained.   After the same manner, when the earth and plan-
 et are in any other situations, e, p, and the satellite at a at
 its greatest elongation, find e p by the theory of the earth
 and planet, and the given time, whence from (he  angle of
 elongation p t  a, determine  the distance p a.   Make  a
 series of such observations at  all suitable opportunities,
 and calculate a p or A  P from  each of them; for  thus we
 may ascertain the greatest and  least distance of the satel-
 lite from its primary, and half the difference of these will
 give the eccentricity of fhe orbit.  These elements, if not
 determined accurately, may  be corrected by subsequent
 observations.
   Tbe distances of a satellite  from the centre of its pri-
 mary may also be  found,  by measuring with a  microm-
 eter, at the time  of the  satellite's greatest elongation,
 its distance  from  the  centre  of the  planet, also  the
 semidiameter of the planet: for then the distance is known
 in terms of that semidiameter.   Or, if the planet  and sat-
 ellite cannot at  once be brought into  the field  of view
 of  a telescope,  which  may sometimes  happen,  the dis-
 tance  of the  satellite  may be measured,  at its  greatest
 elongation,  by observing the time of the passage of the
 planet's disc over a wire adjusted as an  hour circle in the
 field of a telescope ; and comparing it with the interval
 between the  passage of the planet's centre, and (hat of
 the satellite.  To give  (his method (he greatest degree of
 accuracy, the observations should be repeated so long as
 the interval from the passages of the planet to that of (he
 satellite continues  increasing; for when it  begins to de-
 crease, the  satellite will have  passed its greatest  elonga-
 tion.   The methods given in this article may also be ap-
 plied to the determination of  the distances when in the
 apsides, the eccentricity, and  lhe greatest equation, by
 means of a long series of observations.
   Or, when (he  periodic (imes of all  (he   satellites of a
 planet are known, and the mean distance of one of (hem ;
 the mean distances of the others may be found from the
 proportion between (he squares of the periodic times, and
 the cubes ofthe  distances.  And, on the contrary, if lhe
 relative distances of all fhe satellites from  their  primary
 be  known, and the periodic time of one of them, the  peri-
 odic times of the others may be found by the same pro-
 portion.
  The eclipses ofthe satellites are of considerable impor-
 tance to astronomy  and geography ;  it therefore becomes
 requisite to explain  them.  To this end, let S, fig. 10, be
 the Sun; E e  the orbit  of the Earth; P the place of tbe
 planet; v s o the orbit  ofa satellite; then,  it is  evident,
 that whenever the satellite, in its orbit, passes through the
 shadow of the primary, its light is obscured, and il be-
 comes eclipsed.   The duration ofthe eclipse will depend
 upon the obliquity of tbe satelli(e's  orbit lo (hat of (he
planet, and the distance of the satellite from the node : for,
fig. 11. a less proportion mn ofthe inclined  orbit will pass
through (he shadow O I mn, than if the orbif coincided
wilh O N ;  and in tbe nodes the satellite is both in its own
orbit, and that of the jdanet, and n 711 becomes equal to O I.
Now,'fig. 10, when the earth is at E before  the opposition
ofthe  planet, the spectator will see  the immersion  at t,
and in some particular instances, the emersion at o also :
when the earth is at e after opposilion, an observer will
see (he emersion at  o; but whether he sees lhe immersion,
will depend upon the position of the earth with respect fo
the plane  of the planet's orbit.   When lhe earth is at E,
lhe conjunction of the satellite happens later at the earth
than at the Sun ; but when it is at e,  the conjunction oc-
curs later at the  Sun than at the earth.   If the earth be at
e,  and the satellite at v, it cannot be seen by an observer
at  e, because the body of the planet intervenes ;  this is
not an eclipse but  an occultation.  In order to find the
diameter ofthe planet's shadow  at lhe distance of any of
the satellites,  let the time of an eclipse, that is, the time
occupied from the immersion to the emersion, be observed
when (he sa(elli(e  is in one of its  nodes ; for then the
satellite passes through the centre  of the shadow, and the
eclipse is called  central: then  use this analogy.   As  the
time ofa synodic revolution of (he satellite . the duration
of (he eclipse ::  360° ; (he diameter of the shadow, in de-
grees of the  satellite's orbit.  But should it so happen
fhat both the immersion and emersion cannot be seen when
the satellites are in the nodes, which is always the case
with the first and second of Jupiter's satellites, then it is
usual to compare the immersion some days before the op-
position of the planet, with the emersions some days after ;
aud  hence, knowing how many synodic revolutions have
been made in  the intervening time, the time of the  transit
through (he shadow, and consequently  the  corresponding
measure in degrees, become known.
   The eclipses of the satellites afford us a manifest proof
of the velocity of light.  For, if (he motion of light were
infinite, or  if it came to us  from immense distances in an
instant, it is evident we should see the  commencement of
an eclipse  of  a  satellite, at the same  moment, whatever
distance  we might  be from it;  but, on the contrary, if
light move progressively, then  it is equally evident, that
lhe further we are from a planet, the later it will be be-
fore we perceive  the beginning of an eclipse of one  of its
satellites,  because fhe light will occupy a longer time in
travelling to us.  M. Roemer was the  first who deduced
from actual observations, (he  real velocity of light:  he
found,  and  it has since been confirmed by repeated ex-
periments, that  when the earth is exactly  between Jupi-
ter and lhe Sun, his satellites are  seen  eclipsed about 8|
minutes sooner than they would be  according to the tables;
but that when  the  earth is at its greatest distance from
Jupiter,  these eclipses  happen about  81  minutes later
than the tables predict them.  Hence it follows that light
takes up about 16^ minutes of time  in  passing over  the
diameter ofthe earth's orbit, which is, at a  mean, 190 mil-
lions of miles; this  is very nearly  at fhe astonishing rate
of 200,000 miles in a second.  Dr.  Bralley found very
nearly the same velocity from observations on tbe fixed
stars.  Hence also it appears,  that  in determining the
time of an eclipse of a satellite as seen from the earth, an
allowance must be made, corresponding with tbe different
distances ofthe earth and plane!;  this allowance is called
the equation of light.
   The satellites of Jupiter, Saturn, and Herschel, are
subject to  changes in their orbits,  with  respect lo the
situation ofthe apsides and nodes, the  inclination of their
orbits, their eccentricity, &c. similar to  those of the moon,
and from  similar causes.  But in many  instances they 
ASTRONOMY.
prevail fo a greater degree, in consequence of the disturb-
ing forces of the satellites upon each other;  hence, there-
fore, a frequent revision ofthe tables is necessary.
   The satellites of Jupiter, being situated nearer to the
earth than  those of any other planet, and being of very
considerable  importance in astronomy and  navigation,
e regularly and carefully observed than the
 ; in consequence of which the elements of
have been more
other satellites;  in conseqi
their  orbits are  determined with  greater  precision than
those of the other satellites.  Tbe chief of these elements
as given by M. de Lalande, are exhibited in the following
table.
SATELLITES OF JUPITER.
Elements.	J.	11.	III.	IV.
Periodic revolution - - -	Id. 18h. 27m. 33s.	3d. 13h. 13m. 42s	7d.3h.42m. 33s.	16d. 16b. 32m. 8s.
Synodic revolution - - -	1 18 28 36	3 13 17 54	7 3 59 36	16 18 5 7
Distance in semidiam. %	5.67	9.00	14.38	25.30
Mean dist. at mean dist. % -	1'51 '	2' 57"	4' 42"	,8' 16"
Semid. shad, in time - - -	Ih. 7m. 55s.	lh, 25m. 40s.	lh. 47m. 0s.	2h. 23m.
	.9941	.9967	.9857	.9913
Semider. of eclipse 90° from				
node, when inelin. is least	lh. 3m. 45s.	lh. 16m. 5s.	lb. 3m. 40s.	Oh, 0m. 0s.
rv... „:,.„,.i ( greatest inelin. *or circular l 3 . i < mean -shadow ). (least ...	3° 18' 38". 3 18 38	3° 46' 0" 3 16 0	3° 25' 57" 3 18 58	2° 36' 0" 2 36 0
	3 18 38	2 46 0	3 2 0	2 36 0
For ellip. (greatest - - -	3 4 27	3 29 42	3 11 14	2 24 51
shadow I least ...	3 4 27	2 34 0	2 49 0	2 24 51
Epoch of conj. 1760, for merid.				
Greenwich ...	Od. 10h.35m.	ld.14h.49m. 36s.	2d. 5h. 32ra. 29s.	Id. 7h.20m. 50s.
Mean place node 1760 - -	10s. 14° 30'	10s. 13° 45'	10s. 14° 24'	10s. 16Q39'
Annual motion node - -	0 0"	2 3"	0 0"	4 19"
Diurnal motion satel. - - -	6 23 29 20	3 11 22 29	1 20 19 4	0 21 34 16
Secular motion - - -	7 25 31 13	3 23 10 39 j	1 22 9 19 |	6 29 50 29
                     Of Eclipses.
   The eclipses of the Sun and  Moon are phenomena
 that  command the  attention even  of the vulgar; who
 have always  retained a  superstitious veneration  for  the
 science of astronomy, chiefly on account of fhe means it
 affords of foretelling  events of this nature.  And though
 in reality the knowledge required in calculating an eclipse
 does not essentially  differ from that employed in deter-
 mining the  time of the rising and setting ofthe  Sun or
 Moon, yet there is no doubt that a more particular at-
 tention to  this subject will be acceptable to the read-
 er.
   As the shadows ofthe Moon and Earth are  the  causes
 of eclipses, it will be necessary first to determine the figure
 of those shadows.   Because the Sun, the Earth, and  the
 Moon are spherical bodies, if follows that fhe shadows of
 the iwo latter must be either conical or cylindrical; that
 is to say, fig. 12, Plate XIII. if  the Sun I K be less than
 the Earth C D, the shadow of the latter will be part of a
 cone, whose section is terminated by the lines C E, D F,
 and whose base is indefinitely distant: or, if the Sun A B
 be equal to the Earth C D, the shadow will be a cylinder
 between the lines C  G,D H, whose base is indefinitely
 distant.  In either case the  shadows ofthe Earth must
 occasionally fall upon and eclipse fhe  superior planets,
 when in opposition to the Sun.   But this never happens ;
 and therefore  the  Sun is neither less than, nor equal to,
 the Earth, but greater.  We know moreover,  from fhe
 Sun's parallax, that it is much greater than the Earth; be-
 cause the Sun's diameter seen from the Earth is about 32
minutes, whereas the Earth's diameter seen from tbe Sun
is only about 17 seconds, a quantity that may be regarded
as insensible or inconsiderable in many observations. Aod
since the Sun exceeds the Earth in so high a proportion,
it must of necessity be  yet greater with regard to the
Moon, because this Jtfst  js |egs fnan the Earth. Let AB,
fig. 13, represent  the Sun greater than the Earfh C D.
The  rays of light A C, B D, passing from the  extreme
edges of the Sun, and in contact with the Earth on tbe
same side, will afterward* meet or cross in the point K.
No part of the Sun's light will appear within  the coneC
K D; which is therefore the shadow in  which an observ-
er, being placed,  would be totally deprived of  the Sun.
But there will be  a partial  shadow or penumbra  between
those rays A D M, B  C L, that  pass from the extreme
edges ofthe Sun,  and touch the opposite extremes ofthe
Earth; that is to say, an observer between (he lines C L
and D M, but without the dark cone, C K D, will see only
a part ofthe Sun, the rest being hidden by the interposi-
tion ofthe Earth :  the quantity ofthe Sun thus obscured
will be greater, and the penumbra darker, the nearer the
observer is placed to the cone C K D.  Lastly, if the ob-
server be situated beyond the vertex ofthe dark shadow
K, between the lines K N, K O, formed by the continua-
tion ofthe extreme rays, he will behold the exterior parts
ofthe Sun forming a lucid ring,; environing lhe Earth ob
all sides.
  The angle C K D, at the vertex of the Earth's shadow,
is, by Euclid 1. 32, equal to the difference between the
diameter of the Sun seen  from the Earth, or ancrle A C B,
and the diameter of the Earth seen from the Su°n,  or angle
C B  D.   Or, if the earth's apparent diatrieter from tbe 
ASTR0N03IY.
 Sun be rejected  as inconsiderable, the angle of fhe shad-
 ow will he equal to the Sun's apparent diameter.
    The angle C I D, at the vertex of tbe  penumbra, is
 equal (o the sum of the diameter of the Sun seen from the
 Earth, or angle A C B, and the diameter of the Earth seen
 from the  Sun, or angle CAD: or, if tbe Earth's appa-
 rent diameter from the Sun be rejected as inconsiderable,
 the angle of the penumbra is equal to the Sun's apparent
 diameter.  Every thing thai has been here shown respect-
 ing the shadows ofthe  Earth, is true in like circumstances
 of tbe Moon.
    To apply these observations to the facts, let A B, fig.
 14, Plate XIII. represent  the Sun, C D  the Earth, and I
 K or L the Moon in its orbit K M N; let the Moon be at
 I K, between the Sun and the Earth ; its total shadow may
 then entirely deprive a part ofthe Earth at O of the Sun's
 light, and its penumbra will cause a partial  eclipse of the
 Sun to the inhabitants  between G  and H.   Again, sup-
 pose the Moon to be af L,  and it will  itself be eclipsed by
 the interposition of the  Earth between it and the Sun.  In
 lunar eclipses, the Earth's penumbra is not  attended to,
 because its effects  in  obscuring  the Moon cannot  be
 observed  with precision by  a spectator placed  on  the
 Earth.
    Eclipses can only happen when the Moon is near one of
 the nodes of its orbit.   Let A B M, fig. 15, represent the
 Sun, viewed from the earth ;  C D a portion of the eclip-
 tic, or Sun's apparent  path ;  and E F a part of the orbit
 of the Moon, which planet  is represented at different
 times by the  circles,   G, H,  I.  It is evident, that  the
 eclipse or obscuration of the Sun entirely depends on the
 position of the node N, and the angle of inclination F N D.
 If the angle of inclination remain unaltered while the node
 N is very remote from the centre K of the Sun,  the points
 K and L may be further apart than to permit any occul-
 tation or apparent contact; and it is clear, that an enlarge-
 ment ofthe angle F  N  D may produce the same effect :
 on the contrary, an approach or coincidence of N with K,
 or a diminution ofthe angle F N K, may cause an eclipse,
 the quantity of obscuration  in which will  be so much
 greater, as these circcumstances are more prevalent.
   The Sun's  place K in  the  ecliptic being known from
 fables, together  with the inclination ofthe Moon's orbit,
 the place of the node, and of the Moon itself, and likewise
 the apparent diameters of the  luminaries  respectively, it
 will be easy to find the  velocity of the Moon in elongation,
 and consequently the beginning, middle, end, quantity of
 obscuration, and other requisites, concerning the eclipse.
 If the computation be made from ^he tabular places of the
 heavenly bodies,  fhe result w ill give the eclipse as seen
 from the  centre  of  the Earth ; because, in all  tables
 where the earlh is spoken of, that centre is meant, except
 otherwise mentioned.   But it is required to determine the
 particulars ofthe eclipse for a given place on the Earth's
 surface, and this includes the  consideration of parallax.
 The Sun's parallax  being  very minute, may in this,  and
 most other cases, be rejected :  but fhe Moon's parallax is
 so great, that it is at least of as  much consequence as any
 ofher  element whatever.   For, on  this account, fhe
 Moon's apparent path,  as  seen from  the surface  of the
 Earth, is so different from that which it would have when
 beheld from the centre,  that the same conjunction  which
gives a total eclipse at  one place, shall not  occasion the
 smallest obscuration ofthe Sun when beheld at the sam-
 instant from another part of the Earth.
   We are now to consider an eclipse of the Moon. It is evi-
 dent, that the difference in the phenomena of a solar eclipse
 would not take place if the parallax of each luminary were
 the same; because, whatever mutation of place the  paral-
 lax might occasion in the one, the same would be produc-
 ed in the other, and they would neither approach nor re-
 cede from each other on that account.  Now the section of
 the Earth's shadow passed through by the Moon in a lunar
 eclipse, being at lhe same distance from the Earth as the
 Moon itself, must be subject to the same parallax  at equal
 altitudes; and since the individual points of immersion,
 emersion, or  other periods  of the eclipse,  must  in the
 shadow have the same altitudes as fhe parts of the  Moon
 they, as it were, lie on and obscure, the effects of parallax
 must be the sarne on both.   Rejecting, therefore, the con-
 sideration of  parallax, the Earth's shadow A B, fig. 16.
 may be taken to occupy a place in the heavens diametri-
 cally opposite fo the Sun, and having an equal and similar
 motion to the  apparent motion of that luminary : its  appa-
 rent diameter, seen from the Earth, will be equal fo the
 difference between lhe apparent diameters ofthe Earth
 and Sun, as seen  from the moon ; or it will  be equal to
 twice  fhe horizontal parallax of the Moon,  diminished by
 the subtraction of the Sun's  apparent diameter.  And if
 the inclination of the  orbit of  the Moon be found,  there
 will be a certain distance of the node N from the centre
 of the shadow C,  that will require the Moon near the
 opposition to pass through the Earth's  shadow, and be
 consequently eclipsed.  From the  greater or less distance
 of the  node N, or M, it will be determined whether the
 eclipse will be partial or total; and  from the  respective
 places, the quantity and direction  of the relative velocity,
 together with the apparent magnitudes ofthe shadow and
 the Moon, all  the particulars of the eclipse may be known
 without difficulty.
   It may with great reason be demanded, bow it happens
 that the Moon, which is affirmed to emit no light of  itself,
 but only by reflection of the Sun,  is nevertheless suffi-
 ciently luminous, even in the very middle ofa total eclipse,
 fo be distinctly  seen of a dusky  reddish colour.  The
 Earth's  atmosphere, or body of air that surrounds if, is
 the cause of this phenomenon.  In fact, the shadow ofthe
 Earth  if<?e!f never  extends so far  as fhe  Moon's orbit ;
 though the shadow  occasioned by the dispersion or reflec-
 tion of the light that falls on the atmosphere may, with a
 very small allowance, be taken for  the shadow which the
 Earth would have had if the light  had passed  close by it
 without interruption.   We cannot  with regularity explain
 the refraction of light in  this place.  It will therefore be
 sufficient to  observe, that in the event now under consid-
 eration the Sun's light falling obliquely on the atmosphere,
 is  bent or turned out of its course, so as to converge  soon-
 er to  a  point than it  would  otherwise  have  done; the
 spherical  atmosphere performing,  in some measure, the
office ofa large convex lens, or burning glass.   T he  morr
obliquely the rays fall,  the greater  is their deviation from
their original  course;  and those rays that pass close to
the Earth are  found, by observations on the setting Sun
and other heavenly bodies, to suffer a refraction of about
33 minutes of measure.  The laws of optics, hereafter to
be explained, require that they should undergo an  equal 
ASTRONOMY.
 refraction in passing out through the opposite part of the
 atmosphere.  Each exterior ray of lhe real shadow, will
 therefore pass 66 minutes within fhe rays fhat would have
 formed fhe  cone  C K D, fig. 13, and consequently, the
 angle af the vertex of the cone will be 132 minutes, or 2°
 12', greater than it would have  been;  that  is, it will  be
 equal lo the diameter of fhe Sun 32, added to 2° 12',
 which gives 2° 44'.  Hence the axis of lhe cone, or length
 ofthe shadow, is found fo be no more than 42 semidiame-
 fers of the  Earth ; whereas the radius of the Moon's or-
 bit, or mean distance of the moon, is about 60 semidiame-
 tersoflhe Earth.   In fhe space between  the penumbra
 and the Earth's real shadow, it is much darker than the
 penumbra, though that space is illuminated  by fhe rays of
 the Sun;  which are variously refracted, according lo the
 density of fhe  air  they pass through.  Many rays are
 reflected  back, and  the rays that go  forward are  such
 whose nature does not admit of their being easily reflect-
 ed.  Hence it is lhat the Moon in an eclipse appears red ;
 and a spectator  on the Moon would, after losing sight of
 the Sun, behold lhe  Earth environed with a narrow lumi-
 nous edge  of bright red  light, shaded  off with yellow on
 the outside.
                     Ofthe Tides.

  The first  person who clearly pointed out the cause  of
 the tides, and showed its agreement with lhe effects, wa9
 sir  Isaac Newton.   The Moon he presently saw was (he
 principal agent which produces these motions ofthe waters;
 and, by applying his new principles  of geometry and
 attraction,  he soon showed lhe manner in which they are
 effected.   To follow him through all his calculations and
 inquiries, would carry us beyond our limits.
   The ocean, it is well known, covers  more than one half
 the globe ;  and this large body of water is found to be in
 continual  motion, ebbing and flowing alternately, without
 fhe least intermission.  For instance, if tbe tide is now at
 high water mark, in any port or harbour which lies open
 to the ocean, it will presently subside, and flow regularly
 back for about six hours, when it will be found at low wa-
 ter mark.   After this, it will again gradually advance for
 six hours;  and then return back, in the same time, to its
 former situation, rising and falling alternately twice a  day,
 or in the space  of about twenty-four hours.   The interval
 between its flux and reflux is, however, not precisely six
 hours, but there is a little difference in each tide ; so fhat
 the lime of high water does not always happen at the same
 hour, but is about three quarters of an hour  later every
 day, for about thirty days, when if again recurs as before.
 For example, if it is high wafer today at noon, it will be
 low water at eleven minutes after six in the evening; and
 consequently, after two changes  more, the  lime of  high
 water the next  day will  be  at about three quarters of an
 hour after  noon ; the  day following it  will be at about
 half an hour after one, the day after that af a quarter  past
 two, and so on for thirty days ; when it will again be found
 to be high water at  noon, as on the day lhe observation
 was first made.   And this exactly answers  to the motion
 ofthe moon : she rises every day about three quarters of
 an hour later than upon the preceding one ;  and, by mov-
 ing in this manner round  the earth, completes her revolu-
tion in about thirty days, and (hen begins to rise again at
fhe same lime as before.
   To make fhe mailer still plainer ; suppose, at a certain
 place, it is high  water  at three o'clock in the afternoon,
 upon the day  of the new moon; the following day it will
 be high wafer at three quarters of an hour after three; (be
 day after lhat  at half an  hour past four; and so on till |{,e
 next new moon, when it will  again be high water exactly
 at three o'clock, as before.  And by observing the tides
 continually at  lhe same  place, fhey will always be found
 to follow the same rule; the time of high water, upon (he
 day of every new moon, being exactly at the same hour;
 and three quarters of an  hour later every succeeding day
   The nature of the tides is in such  exact conformity
 wilh the  motion of the Moon, that,  independent of all
 mathematical considerations,  a  considerate person would
 certainly be induced to look to her as their cause.
   Neglecting therefore,  for lhe present, all 9uch excep-
 tions as  affect not  the truth of the theory, we shall now
 proceed lo show,  from  lhe  Newtonian principles,  that
 these phenomena are occasioned principally by the 3Ioon'8
 attraction.
   The waters at Z on the side of the earth, ABCDEFGH,
 next the Moon M, fig. 17, are more  attracted than the
 central parts of (he earth  O, by the Moon,  and (be cen-
 tral parts are  more attracted by her than lhe waters on
 the opposite side of  the earth at n ; and therefore the dis-
 tance between the earth's centre and the waters on its sur-
 face under  and opposite to  the  Moon will be increased.
 For, let there be three  bodies at H, O,  and D; if they
 are all equally attracted by lhe body M,  they will all
 move equally fast  toward  if,  their mutual distances from
 each other continuing the same.  If the attraction of Mil
 unequal, then that body which is most strongly attracted
 will, move fastest, and (his  will increase its distance from
 the other body.  M will  attract H more strongly than it
 does O, by  which the distance between H and  0 will be
 increased,  and  a  spectator on O  will perceive H rising
 higher toward Z.   In like manner O being more strongly
 attracted than  D it  will  move further toward  M than D
 does; consequently the  distance between  O and D  will
 be  increased ;  and a spectator on O, not  perceiving his
 own motion, will see D receding further from him toward
 n ; all effects and appearances being the same, whether D
 recedes from O, or O from D.
   Suppose  now there is a number of bodies, as A, B, C,
 D, E, F, G, H, placed  round O, so as to form  a flexible
 or fluid  ring: then, as the whole is attracted toward M,
 the parts at H  and  D will have their distance from 0 in-
 creased : whilst the parts at B and  F being nearly at the
 same distance from M as O is, these  parts will not re-
 cede from one another; but rather by the oblique attrac-
 tion of M, they will approach near to O.  Hence, the
 fluid ring will form itself info an ellipse Z n L N, whose
 longer axis  n O Z produced, will  pass through M, and
 its shorter axis B O F will terminate in B  and F.  Let
 (he  ring be filled  with  fluid  particles,  so as  to form a
 sphere round O; then, as the whole moves toward M,tb«
 fluid sphere being lengthened at Z  and  n  will assume an
oblong or oval form.  If M is  the xMoon, O the Earth's
centre, A B C  D E F G  H the  sea covering the earth's
surface, it is evident, by  the above  reasoning, that whilst
lhe Earth by its gravity  falls toward fhe Moon, fhe wafer
directly  below  at  II will swell and rise gradually toward
her; also lhe  water al  D will  recede from the centre, 
ASTRONOMY.
 strictly speaking, the centre recedes fromD ; and rise on
 the opposite side of the Earth; whilst  the water at B and
 F is depressed, and falls below the former level.   Hence
 as the  Earth turns round its axis from the Moon to the
 Moon again in 2 t| hours, there will be  two  tides  of flood
 and two of ebb in that time, as we find by experience.
   That this doctrine may be still more  clearly understood,
 let  it be  considered,  that  although  the  Earth's diam-
 eter bears a considerable proportion to the distance of the
 Earth from the Moon, yet this diameter is almost nothing
 when compared to the distance of the Earth from the
 Sun.   The difference of the Sun's attraction, therefore,
 on the  sides of the Earth under and opposite to him,  will
 be much less than the difference of the Moon's attraction
 on the  sides of the Earth under and opposite to her; and,
 for this reason, the Moon  must raise the tides much high-
 er than Ihey can be raised by the Sun.  Newton has cal-
 culated the effect of the Sun's influence, in  this case, and
 found that it is about three times less than that of (he Moon.
 The action of the Sun alone would,  therefore, be suffi-
 cient to produce a flux and  reflux of the sea; but the ele-
 vations and depressions occasioned by this means would be
 about three times less than those produced by the Moon.
   The  tides, then, are not  the sole production of  the
 Moon,  but of the joint forces of the  Sun and Moon to-
 gether.   Or,  properly speaking, there  are two tides, a
 solar one, and a lunar one, which have a joint or opposite
 effect, according to the situation of (he bodies which pro-
 duce (hem.   When the actions of lhe Sun and Moon con-
 spire together, as at the time of new and full Moon,  the
 flux and reflux become more considerable; and these  are
 then called the Spring  Tides.  But one tends to elevate
 the waters, whilst the  other depresses  Ihem, as at  the
 Moon's first and  third quar(ers,  and then the effect will be
 exactly the contrary ;  the flux and reflux, instead of  be-
 ing  augmented, as before,  will  now be diminished; and
 these are called the Neap Tides.
   To explain this more  completely, let S  represent  the
 Sun, fig.  18, ZHR the Earlh, and F  and C lhe Moon at
 her full and change.  Then, because the Sun  S,  and the
 new Moon C, are nearly in the same  right  line with  the
 centre of the Earth O, their actions will conspire togeth-
 er, and  raise the  water above the zenith Z, or the point
 immediately under ihem, to a greater height than if only
 one of  these forces  acted  alone.  But it has been shown
 that when the ocean is elevated  to the  zenith Z, it is also
 elevated at the opposite point, or nadir, at the same time;
 and therefore, in  this situation of the Sun and Moon, (he
 tides will be augmented. And again, whilst the full Moon F
 raises the waters  at N and Z, directly under and opposite
 to her, the Sun S, acting in the same right line, will also
 raise the waters at (he  same  point Z and N, directly  un-
 der and opposite to him ;  and therefore,  in  this situation
 also, the tides will be augmented ; their joint effect being
 nearly the same at the  change as at the full; and in both
 cases (hey occasion what are called the  Spring Tides.
   On this theory,  lhe  tides ought to be  highest directly
under and opposite to the  Moon; that  is, when the Moon
 is  due north and south.   But we find that in open seas,
where lhe waters flow freely, fhe Moon is generally past
the north  and south meridian of the place where it is high
water.  The reason  is  obvious;  for (hough the  Moon's
attraction was to cease altogether when she was past the
   vol.  r.           35
 meridian, yet the motion of ascent communicated to the
 water before fhat  lime would make it continue (o rise for
 sometime after; much more must it do so when the attrac-
 tion is only diminished ; as a little impulse given to a inovin:;
 ball will  cause it still to move further  than  otherui c  it
 could have done ;  and as experience shows that lhe day
 is hotter about three in the afternoon, thau when the Sun
 is on  the  meridian,  because  of the  increase made to the
 heat already imparted.
   Tides answer not  always  fo the same distance of the
 Moon from the meridian at  the same places,  but are va-
 riously affected by the  action of  the Sun,  which brings
 them on sooner when the Moon is  in her first and  third
 quarters, and keeps  Ihem  back later  when she is in hn
 third and fourth ; because, in  the former case, the tide
 raised by the Sun alone would be earlier  than the  tides
 raised by the Moon; and in fhe latter case later.
   The Sun,  being nearer  our  hemisphere in  winter (han
 in summer, is of course nearer (o i( in February and Oc-
 tober (han in March and September,  and therefore the
 greatest tides happen not till some lime after the autumiuil
 equinox, and return a little  before the vernal.
   The sea, being put in  motion,  would continue to ebb
 and flow  for several times, even though the Sun and Moon
 were  annihilated, and their influence should cease;  as if
 a basin of water was agitated, the water would  continue to
 move for some time after the basin was left lo stand still;
 or like a pendulum, which  having  been put in motion by
 the hand, continues  to  make several vibrations  without
 any new  impulse.  When the Moon is in the equator, the
 tides  are equally high  in both parts of  the lunar  day, or
 time ofthe Moon's revolving from the meridian to  the me-
 ridian again,  which  is 24 hours 50 minutes.   But as the
 Moon declines from  the  equator  toward either pole, the
 tides  are alternately higher  and  lower at places  having
north  or south latitude.  For one of the highest elevations,
which is  that under the Moon, follows her  toward the
pole to which she is nearest,  and the olher declines  tow-
ard the opposite pole ; each elevation describing parallels
as far distant from  the equator, on  opposite sides, as the
Moon declines from it lo either side; and consequently
the parallels  described by those elevations of the water
are twice as many  degrees  from one another as the Moon
is from the equator; increasing their distance as the Moon
increases  her declination,  till it is at the greatest,  when
these  parallels are, at a  mean state, 47 degrees from one
another;  and on that day  the tides are most unequal in
their heights.  As the Moon returns toward fhe equator,
the parallels described  by the opposite  elevations ap-
proach toward each  other, until the Moon comes to the
equator, and then they coincide.   As the Moon declines
toward the opposite pole, at equal  distances, each eleva-
tion describes the same  parallel in the  other part of the
lunar  day, which its  opposite elevation  described before.
Whilst the Moon has north declination,  the great tides in
fhe northern hemisphere are when she  is above lhe  hori-
zon; and the reverse whilst her declination is south.
   In open seas the tides rise but to very small heights, in
proporfion to what they do in wide  mouthed rivers, open-
ing in the direction of tbe stream of tide.  For in channels
growing narrower gradually, the water is accumulated by
the opposition of the contracting bank ; like a gentle wind,
Hi tie felt on. an open plaiD, but strong and brisk  in a street; 
ASTRONOMY.
especially if the wider end  of the street is next the plain,
and in the way ofthe wind.
  The tides are  so retarded  in their passage through dif-
ferent shoals and channels* and  otherwise  so variously
affected by striking against capes and  headlands, that to
different places they happen at  all distances of the Moon
from the meridian, consequently at all hours of the lunar
day.  The tide propagated by  the Moon in  the  German
Ocean, when she is three  hours past the meridian, takes
twelve hours to come thence to London bridge, where it
arrives by the time that a new tide is raised in the ocean.
There are  no tides in lakes, because  they are generally
so small, that when the Moon is  vertical  she attracts
every part of them alike ; and therefore, by rendering all
the waters equally light,  no part of them can be raised
higher than another.   The Mediterranean and Baltic  Seas
suffer very small elevations, because the inlets by which
they communicate with the ocean are so narrow, that  they
cannot, in so  short a time, receive  or discharge enough
to raise or sink their surface sensibly.
   Air being lighter than wafer, and the surface of the at-
mosphere being nearer to the Moon than the surface of the
sea, it cannot  be doubted lhat tbe Moon raises much higher
tides in  the air than in the sea.  And therefore many  have
wondered why the mercury does not sink in the barometer
when the Moon's action  on the particles of air makes them
lighter as she passes over the meridian.  But we  must
consider, that as these particles are  rendered lighter, a
greater number of them is accumulated, until the deficien-
cy of gravity is made up by the height of the column;
 and then there  is an equilibrium,  and  consequently an
 equal pressure upon the mercury  as before; so that it can-
 not be  effected  by the aerial tides.   It it very proba-
 ble, however, that the  stars  which  are  seen through an
 aerial tide of this kind will  have their light more refracted
 than those which are seen through the common depth of
 the atmosphere; and this may  account for the supposed
 refractions by the lunar atmosphere that have been some-
 times observed.
   Of Comets.   Tycho Brahe and Cassini were the first
 among the modern astronomers who assigned these bodies
 a place in our system ;  but they appear to be  unacquaint-
 ed both with their motion round the  sun,  and tbe  true
 figure of their orbits.   These particulars were left for the
 determination of Newton,  who has  discovered the paths
 they describe,  and the laws to  which they  are subject.
 Their  revolutions are  now  known to be  performed in
 very long ellipses,  whose lower focus  is very near tbe
 sun ; being governed throughout by the same law,  of de-
 Bcribing equal areas in equal  times, which is known to reg-
 ulate the motions of all  the other bodies in the system. By
 observations of the parallax it is  also found, that at their
 first appearance (hey are nearer (o us than Jupiter; whence
 it is concluded  that they  are  in general less than  that
 planet; for if they were  as large they would be seen at
 as great a distance.  In their motions  round the sun they
 are also subject (o the  same  irregularities as (he planets ;
 but as their orbits  are  extremely eccentric,  those  varia-
 tions are much  more considerable.  When they are near
 the sun their motion  is very rapid, and in the more dis-
 tant  parts of their orbits  extremely slow ; so that their
 ▼icissitudes, in this respect,  are  as much in the extreme,
 9s what they must undergo from heat and cold.
  When a comet arrives within a certain distance  of the
sun, it emits a fume or vapour called i(s tail; which shows
that they con(ain a portion of ma(ter  considerably  more
rare and volatile than any on the earth ; for the tail begins
to appear when they are yet in a higher, and consequent-
ly a colder  regioo than Mars.   In every situation of the
comet, the tail is always directed (o that part of the heav-
ens which is nearly opposite to  the sun ;  and it is always
greater  after the comet has passed  its perihelium, (has
during i(s approach (oward it, being greatest of all when
it has just left that point.
  The celebrated Dr. Halley, from the theory of Newton,
has calculated fables for determining the  orbits  of the
comets, which in several instances have been found agree-
able to observation.  That remarkable comet  which was
observed in the year 1680, is shown  to be the same  with
the one  that  appeared in the year 1106, its period being
575  years.   The distance of this comet from lhe sun
when in its perihelium,  was to the distance of the earth
from the sun, as  6  to  1000; its heal,  (herefore, at  that
time, was to the heat of the summer's sun with us, in the
ratio of  about 28000 to  1;  so that, according to Newton,
the surface of this comet, supposing it to be composed of
a matter like our earth, would bave acquired a heat about
2000 times greater than that of  red hot iron ;  which  is so
intense, that vapours, exhalations,  and every, volatile
matter,  must have been immediately consumed and dissi-
pated.
  In order to describe the  course of a comet, let A B C,
fig. 19, be the very long orbit of a comet, in one of whose
foci S is placed  the  Sun;  the aphelium  in A; the peri-
helium in P.  The comet  is  not  visible to  us but when
it approaches toward B, and during the time which it passes
the arc from B to C of its orbit.   But the time is consid-
erably shorter than  that which it  employs to  pass the
other portion of its orbit CAB, for  these two reasons:
first, because the arc B P  C  is much shorter than the arc
CAB; and in the second  place, because  the comets, like
the  other planets, are slower in their course while  they
depart further from the Sun ; and on the contrary  thejr
are swifter as they approach the Sun.   It requires much
less time to  pass over the portion B P C of fheir  orbit
which is visible  lo us, than tbe other portion CAB.
  As the great eccentricity ofthe orbits of comets renders
them very liable to be disturbed by tbe attraction ofthe
planets  and other comets, it is probably to  prevent loo
great disturbances from these,  that while all the planet!
revolve nearly in the same plane, the comets are disposed
in very different cones, and disposed all over the heavens;
that when  at their  greatest distance from the Sun, and
moving slowest, they might be removed as  far as possible
out of the reach of each other's action.
  The  number of comets  belonging to our  system is un-
known; but  from the  accounts  of the ancients, and the
more accurate observations of the moderns, it is ascertain-
ed that  more than 450  had been  seen,  previous to the
year 1771, and  when the attention of  astronomers was
called to this object,  by the expectation of the return of
the comet of 1759, no  less than seven were observed in
the coarse of as many years.  Hence we may reasonably
conclude, that their number is  considerably  beyond an/
estimate that can be made  from  the observations of which
we are  now in possession.  For further information on 
ASTRONOMY.
comets, see vol. 3.  of Mott's  translation of Newton's
Principia.
  Of the fixed Stars.  The fixed stars are so called, be-
cause they are observed not to change their places in the
heavens as the planets do.  They appear of an infinite va-
riety of sizes, yet for convenience it is usual to class them
into six or seven  magnitudes : thus they are  called stars
of the  first,  second, &c. magnitude.   To the naked eye
they  appear  innumerable, but  this is only a deception,
caused probably  by  the refraction of our atmosphere.
The whole number of stars visible to the naked eye is
about 3186;  but seldom above one third of that number
can be seen by most people.
  Ursa minor
  Ursa major
  Draco
  Cepheus  -
  Bootes, Arclophilax  -
  Corona Borealis
  Hercules, Engonasin
  Lyra     -
  Cygnus, Gallina
  Cassiopeia
  Perseus   -
  Auriga  -
  Serpentarius, Ophiuchus
  Serpens -
  Sagitta
 Aquila, Vultur
 Antinous
 Delphinus
 Equulus, Equi sectio
 Pegasus, Equus
 Andromeda
 Triangulum
 Aries    ...
 Taurus   ...
 Gemini   -   -
 Cancer   ...
 Leo      -
 Coma Berenices
 Virgo    ...
 Libra, Cheloz
 Scorpio  -
 Sagittarius
 Capricornus
 Aquarius
 Pisces   -
 Ce(us   -     -
 Orion   -     -   -
 Eridanus, Fluvius -
 Lepus  -
 Canis major  -
Canis minor
Argo Navis
 Hydra -
Cra(er  ...
Corvus
Cen(aurus
 Lupus
 Ara        -
 Corona Ausfralis
 Piscis Australis  -
    35*
   The ancients, that they might the better distinguish the
 stars wilh regard to their situation in the heavens, divided
 them into several constellations, that is, systems of stars,
 each system consisting of such as  are  near each other.
 And to distinguish  these systems from one another, they
 gave them  the  names of such  men or things as they fan-
 cied the space  they took up in the heavens represented.
 To these, several new  conslellalions have been added by
 modern astronomers.
  The following table contains tbe names of the constella-
tions, and the number of stars observed in each by differ-
ent astronomers.
Contlel'atiom.	Ptolemy.	Tycho.	HeveHui.	Flanuteed.
The Little Bear	8	7	12	24
The Great Bear	35	29	73	87
The Dragon	31	32	40	80
Cepheus - - -	13	4	51	35
Bootes - -	23	18	52	54
The Northern Crown	8	8	8	21
Hercules kneeling	29	28	45	113
The Harp -	10	11	17	21
The Swan -	19	18	47	81
The Lady in her Chair	13	26	37	55
Perseus - -	29	29	46	59
The Waggoner	14	9	40	66
s Serpentarius	29	15	40	74
The Serpent	18	13	22	64
The Arrow	5	5	5	18
The Eagle > Antinous \	15	i"	23) 195	71
The Dolphin	10	10	14	18
The Horse's Head -	4	4	6	10
The Flying Horse -	20	19	38	89
Andromeda	23	23	47	66
The Triangle -	4	4	12	16
The Ram ....	18	21	27	66
The Bull ....	44	43	51	141
The Twins	25	25	38	85
The Crab	23	15	29	83
The Lion ) Berenice's Hair$	35	£30 (14	49	95
			21	43
The Virgin - -	32	33	50	110
The Scales	17	10	20	51
The Scorpion -	24	10	20	44
The Archer -	31	14	22	69
The Goat - -	28	28	29	51
The Water bearer -	45	41	47	103
The Fishes - -	38	36	39	113
The Whale - -	22	21	45	97
Orion -	38	42	62	78
Eridanus, the River -	34	10	27	84
The Hare	12	13	16	19
The Great Dog	29	13	21	31
Tbe Little Dog - -	2	2	13	14
The Ship - -	45	3	4	64
The Hydra - -	27	19	31	60
The Cup - -	7	3	10	31
The Crow - -	7	4	0	9
The Centaur - -	37	0	0	35
The Wolf - -	19	0	0	24
The Altar - - -	7	0	0	9
The Southern Crown -	13	0	0	12
The Southern Fish -	18	0	0	24
 
ASTRONOMY.
The New
Columba Noachi
Robur Carolinum
Grus
Phoenix  -
Indus
Pavo
A pus, Avis Indica   -
Apis, Musca  -
Chamseleon
Triangulum Australis
Piscis volans, Passer
Dorado, Xiphias
Toucan
Ilydrus
Southern Constellations.
 -  Noah's Dove
 -  The  Royal Oak   -
 .  The Crane
 .  The Pbenix
 -  The  Indian
 -  The  Peacock
 -   The Bird of Paradise
 .   The Bee or Fly   -
    The Chameleon
 -   The South Triangle
 -   The Flying Fish
 -   The Sword Fish
    The American Goose
-   The Water Snake
Lynx
Leo minor
Asterion Se Ghara
Cerberus
Vulpecula & Anser
Scutum Sobieski.
Lacerta
Camelopardalus
Monoceros
Sextans
Hevelius's Constellations made out of the unformed Stars.
                                               Hevelius.
                   -  The Lynx    -   -     -    19
                   -  The Little Lion  -
                   -  The Greyhound   -    -    23
                    -  Cerberus     ...     4
                   -  The Fox and Goose    -    27
                   -  Sobieski's Shield       -     7
                    -  The Lizard     -       -    10
                    -  The Camelopard       -    32
                    -  The Unicorn   -            19
                    -  The Sextant    -       -    11
10
12
13
13
12
11
11
 4
10
 5
 8
 6
 9
10
Flams teed.
   44
   53
   25

   35

   16
   58
   31
   41
  Stars not included in any constellation are called un-
formed  stars.   Besides  the names of the  constellations,
the ancient Greeks gave particular names to some single
stars, or small collections of stars: thus,  the cluster of
small stars in the  neck of the bull was called Pleiades ;
five stars in the bull's face the  Hyades; a bright star in
the breast of Leo, the Lion's  Heart; and a large star be-
tween the knees of Bootes, Arcturus.
   The  constellations may be represented  on two plane
spheres projected on a great circle, or on the convex sur-
face of a solid  sphere, as on the celestial globe,  or most
perfectly on the concave surface ofa hollow sphere.  If
the celestial globe is made use of, after rectifying it to the
time of the night, the stars may be found, by conceiving a
line drawn from the centre of the globe through any star
in the  heavens, and  its representation upon  the globe.
Greek letters have been added by Bayer lo stars in the
several constellations of his catalogue, a. being affixed to
the largest star, by means of which any star may be easily
found.
   Twelve  of these  constellations  lie  upon the ecliptic,
Including a space about  151, broad, called the Zodiac,
 within  which  all the planets move.  The constellation
Aries,  about 2000 years ago, lay in the first sign of the
ecliptic ; but, on account of the precession of the equi-
noxes, it now lies in the second. In the foregoing table, An-
tinous was made out of the unformed stars near Aquila :
and  Coma Berenices, out of the  unformed stars near the
Lion's Tail.   They are both  mentioned by  Ptolemy, but
as unformed stars.  The constellations as far as the  trian-
gle, with Coma Berenices, are  northern ; those after Pisces
are southern.
   The  fixed star* are  placed  at a  distance from  us so
great,  that  it cannot be  ascertained by any means yet
known ; hence they must shine by their own light, and
not by the light  which they receive from our sun, as the
planets do.   Though it has been said that the relative
situations of the fixed stars do not  vary, yet in the course
of several ages, some  variations  have been  observed
among them.  Some of the larger stars have not the same
precise situations  that ancient  observations  attribute to
them,  and new  stars have appeared, while some others
which  have been described are now no longer to be found.
Some stars are likewise found to have a periodical increase
and  decrease.   Many of the fixed stars, upon examina-
tion  with the telescope,  are found to consist of two.
  Besides the phenomena already mentioned, there are
many nebulre, or parts of lhe heavens, which are brighter
than lhe rest. The most remarkable of these is a broad ir-
regular zone or belt, called lhe milky way. There are others
much  smaller;  and some  so  small, that they can be seen
only by telescopes.   If the telescope is directed lo these
nebula?, they are resolvable into clusters of stars, which
appear as white  clouds in instruments of less force.
   Dr. Herschel has  rendered it  highly probable,  both
from observation and  well grounded conjecture,  that the
starry heaven is replete whh these nebulae or systems of
stars,  and that the milky way is that particular nebula in
which  our sun is placed.   Reasoning analogically from the
circumstances with which we are acquainted, we may de-
duce, that the universe consists of nebulas or distinct sys-
tems of stars ; that each nebula is composed of a prodig-
ious number of suns, or bodies lhat shine  by their own
native  splendour, and that each individual sun is destined
to give light to numbers of worlds that  revolve about it.
See  Vince's Astronomy, Gregory's Astronomy, &c. 
A T  C
A T  H
   ASTROSCOPE, an instrument composed of two cones,
havin" the constellations  delineated  on their  surfaces,
whereby the  stars may be easily known.
   ASTRUM,  a constellation or  assemblage  of stars.
This term is often applied  to tbe canis major, or rather to
the bright star in his mouth.
   ASTYNOMI,  in  Grecian  antiquity,  magistrates  in
Athens, corresponding to the aediles of the Romans ; they
were (en in number.
   ASYLUM,  a sanctuary or place of refuge, where
criminals sheltered themselves,from the hands of justice.
It is pretended that the first asylum was built at Athens
by the Heraclidse, as  a refuge  for those who fled from the
oppression of their fathers. Romulus, when he built Rome,
left a certain space as an  asylum to all persons, whefher
freemen or slaves.  The  Jews had their asyla, the most
remarkable of which were the six cities of refuge, the tem-
ple, and lhe altar of burnt offerings.  This  privilege be-
gan likewise  to be enjoyed by the Christian churches in
the reign of Constantine, at which lime the altar only and
the inward fabric ofthe church were  a place of refuge ;
but afterward the  whole precincts,  nay, even the graves
of the dead, crosses, schools,  &c. were comprehended in
that privilege.   As asyla  were not intended originally to
patronize wickedness, but  as a  refuge for the innocent, the
injured, and the oppressed, several crimes were excepted
by law, for which the church  could grant no protection ;
as, 1. Protection was denied  to public debtors.   2. To
Jews who pretended to turn Christians, in order lo avoid
suffering legal punishment for their crimes.  3. To here-
tics and apostates.  4. To slaves who fled from their roas-
ters.  And, 5.  to robbers, murderers, conspirators, rav-
ishers, &c.
   ASYMPTOTE, in geometry, a line which continually
approaches  nearer to another, but  though  continued
infinitely will never meet with  it; of these there are many
kinds.  In strictness, however, the terra   asymptotes is
appropriated to right lines, which approach nearer and
nearer (o  some curve, of  which they are said to be lhe
asymptotes;  but if they and their curve  are indefinitely
continued, they will never meet.  See Conic Sections.
   Concerning asymptotes  and  asymptotical curves, it may
be remarked, 1. that although such curves as have asymp-
totes are ofthe  number of those  which do not include a
space ; yet it is not true, on the other hand,  that w herever
we have a curve of that nature, we have  an asymptote
also.  2. Of these curves that have an asymptote, some
have  only one, as the conchoid, cissoid, and logarithmic
curve ;  and others too, as the  hyperbola.   3. As a  right
line and a curve may be asymptotical to one another,  so
also may  curves and  curves; such are two parabolas,
whose  axes  are in the same right line.  4.  No right line
can ever be an  asymptote  to a curve that is every where
concave to lhat right line.   5.  But a right line may be an
asymptote to a mixed curve, that is partly  concave, and
partly convex, toward the same line.  And, 6. all curves
that have one and the same common asymptote  are also
asymptotical to one another.
   ASYNDETON, in grammar, a figure which omits the
conjunction in a sentence.
 "ATCIIE,  in  commerce, a  small silver  coin  used in
Turkey, and worth only one  third ofthe English penny.
  ATC HIE YEMEN T, in heraldry, denotes the arms of
a person, or family; together with all  lhe exterior orna-
ments ofthe shield, as helmet, mantle, crest, scrolls,  and
motto,  together with such quarterings as  may have been
acquired by alliances, all marshalled in  order.  It is vul-
garly called hatchment;  and such are the arms which are
commonly hung up in the fronts of houses, and in churches,
on the  death of persons.
  ATHAMADULET,  the  prime minister of the Per-
sian empire, as the grand vizier is of the Turkish empire.
  ATHAMANTA, in botany, a genus of the pentandria
digynia class and order,  and in the natural method rank-
ing under the 45th order, umbellatse.  The fruit is oblong
and striated, and the petals are inflected and emarginated.
Of this genus there are nine species, but none of them
merit particular notice, except theathamanta cretensis, or
daucus creticus, which grows wild in  the Levant  and  lhe
warmer parts  of Europe.  The flower stalk rises about
(wo feet high,  sending out many branches.  These have
white flowers.   The seeds have a warm biting taste, w ith
an agreeable aromatic smell.  They are said to be carmin-
ative and diuretic,  but are little used in practice.
  ATHANASIA, goldilocks, a genus of the polygamia
sequalis order,  and  syngenesia class of plants; and in  the
natural  method ranking under the 49th order, composite
discoides.  The receptacle is chaffy ;  the pappus or down
chaffy,  and very  short; and  the  calyx is  imbricated.
There  are 20 species, all tender plants except one ; and
none of Ihem  possessed of beauty,  or  any remarkable
properly yet discovered.
  ATHANATJ, in Persian antiquity, a body of cavalry
consisting of 10,000 men, always complete.  They were
called athanali because when one of them happened to die,
another was immediately appointed  to succeed him.
  ATHANOR.  See Chvmistry.
  ATHELING,  adeling,  edling,  ethling, or etheling,
among  our Saxon ancestors, was a title of honour properly
belonging to the heir apparent, or presumptive,  to  lhe
crown.
  ATHENjEA, in botany, a genus ofthe class and order
octandria monogynia; the cal.  is coloured, five  parled;
corolla none; bristles eight, feathered between  the fila-
ments;  stigma five parled ; caps,  globose,  one  celled,
three valved;  seeds three to five.
  There is one species, a branching shrub of Guinea ;  the
bark, leaves, and fruit, are sharp and aromatic, called caf-
fe diable by the Creoles.
  ATHENAEUM, in antiquity, a public, place where  tbe
professors of  the  liberal arts  held their assemblies,  the
rhetoricians declaimed, and the poets rehearsed their per-
formances.   The  three   most  celebrated athenaea were
those at Athens, at Rome, and  at Lyons, the second of
which was built by the emperor Adrian.
  ATHERINA,  in ichthyology,  a  genus of abdominal
fishes,  distinguished by  having the upper jaw ralher flat,
six rays in the gill membrane, and a silvery stripe on each
side ofthe body.   There are five species of  this genus:
the most remarkable are ;
  1. Atherina  hepsetus, with  about 12 rays in the fin
next the anus.  It is found  in the  Mediterranean.  It  is
also very common  in lhe sea near Southampton,  where it
is called a  smelt.  The  highest season is from March to
the latter end of May,  or beginning of  June; in which
mouth it spawns.   It never deserts the place ; and is con- 
ATM
ATM
stantly taken,  except in hard frost.  It is also found on
other coasts of our island.  The length is above 4\ inches,
and  the tail is much  forked.  The fish  is semipellucid,
covered with scales ;  the colour silvery, tinged with yel-
low ;  beneath the side line is a row of small black spots.
  2.  Atherina menidea, has  24 rays in the  fin next the
anus.  This  is  a very pellucid  fish,  with  many  black
points interspersed ; it has many teeth  in the lips, but
none in the tongue or jaws.  It is found in the fresh waters
of Carolina, and  spawns in April.
  ATHEROMA, in medicine, a  tumour without pain or
discolouring of the skin; containing, in a membranaceous
bag,  mat(er Hke pap, intermixed wilh hard and s(ony cor-
puscles, &c.   Il is cured by incision.
  ATHEROPOOON, in botany, a  genus  of the class
polygamia, order monoecia ; there is  but one species, the
A. apludoides ; its essential character is, calyx one  valve,
two florets, corolla two valves, persisting; flowers in Sep-
tember.   It is a native of Pennsylvania,   (a)
  ATHLET J2, in antiquity, men of remarkable strength
and agility, disciplined to perform in the public games.
  ATLANTIDES, m astronomy, the same wilh Pleiades.
They are so called as being supposed by  the poets to be
the daughters of Atlas, who were translated  into heaven.
  ATLAS, in anatomy, the name by which some call the
first  vertebra of the neck; so called in allusion to  Atlas.
  Atlas denotes a book of universal geography, contain-
ing maps of all the known parts of lhe world.
  Atlas, in commerce, a sort of  silk or salin manufactur-
ed  in tbe East Indies,  in which  gold and  silk are so
wrought together, as no workman in Europe can imitate.
In China they weave long slips  of gilt paper  into their
Bilks. The  same slips of  paper are twisted  about silk
threads so artificially, as  to look  finer than  gold thread,
 though of no great value.
   ATMOSPHERE, a term used to signify  the whole of
the fluid mass, consisting of air, aqueous and olher vapours,
electric fluids, &c. which surrounds the earth to a consid-
 erable height  ; and partaking of all its motions,  both annu-
 al and diurnal.
   The composition of that part of our atmosphere prop-
 erly called air, was till within a few years but very Jittle
 known.   Formerly it was supposed (o be a simple, homo-
 geneous, and elemen(ary fluid ;  but the experiments of Dr.
 Priestley and others have discovered, lhat the atmospheric
 air is in reality  a compound, and may be artificially pro-
 duced by lhe union of two other kinds of air, viz. oxygen,
 or pure air, and nitrogen or azotic gas.  By  accurate ex-
 periments, the  air  that we usually breathe is composed
of only one fourth part of oxygen air, or perhaps less ;
 the  other three  parts, or more, consisting of  azotic gas or
 nitrogen.
   Atmosphere, uses of. The  uses ofthe atmosphere are
 so many and great, that it seems indeed absolutely necessa-
 ry,  not only to the comfort  and convenience of men, but
 even to the existence of all animal and vegetable life, and to
 the very constitution of all kinds of matter whatever, and
 without which they would not be what they are; for by it
 we live, breathe, and have our being;  and by  insinuating
 itself into all the vacuities of bodies, it tecomes the great
 spring of most of the mutations here below ;  as generation,
 corruption, dissolution, &c. and without which none of
 these operations could be carried on.
  By the mechanical force of tbe atmosphere too, as well
as its  chymical  virtues,  many  necessary purposes are
answered.  We employ it as a moving power, in the mo-
tion of ships, to turn mills, and for other such  uses. And
it is one  of the great discoveries of the  modern philos*.
phers, that lhe several motions attributed by the ancients
to a fuga  vacui, are really owing  to the pressure of fhe
atmosphere.   Galileo, having  observed  that there was a
certain standard altitude, beyond which no water could be
elevated by  pumping, took  an occasion then fo call in
question the  doctrine  of the schools, which ascribed the
ascent of water in pumps, to the abhorrence ofa vacoum,
and instead of it he happily substituted tbe hypothesis of
the weight  and pressure of the air. It was with him indeed
little  better  than  an hypothesis 5 since  it  had not tbei
those confirmations from experiment, afterward found out
by his pupil Torricelli, and other succeeding philosophers,
particularly Mr. Boyle.
   Atmosphere,  salubrity  of.  On  the tops of moire-
tains, the air is generally more salubrious than in pits or
very  deep places.   Besides the difference arising from
the mere difference of altitude, the  salubrity of the ata*
sphere  is greatly affected by many other circumstances.
The  air, when confined  or stagnant, is commonly more
impure than when  agitated and shifted : thus, «l.«aavi 1
places are  unhealthy ; and even the air in a bed chamber
is less salubrious in a morning, after it has been slept in,
than in  the  evening.   Dr.  White,  in  vol.  68. Philw.
Trans, gives an account of experiments on this qualityvf
fhe air; and remarks one instance  when  the air was par-
ticularly impure, vis. Sept. 13, 1777; when the barome-
ter stood at 30° 30', the thermometer at 69 degrees; the
air being then dry and sultry, and no rain having fallen
for more than two  weeks.  A slight shock of an earth-
quake was perceived  that  day.  In vol. TO of the same
Transactions, Dr. Ingenhousz gives an account of some
experiments  on this head, made in various places and A«  ,
uatioos : he finds, ««that the air at  sea, and close to H,kr I
in general purer, and fitter for animal life, than the aires  ■
the land ;" but lhe doctor did not find much difference be-
iween the air of the towns and ofthe country, nor between
one town and another.  The abbe  Fontana made nearly
the same conclusions, from accurate experiments, assert-
ing,  "that the  difference between the air of one country
and that of another, at different times, is  much less than
what is commonly believed; and yet that this difference
in the purity of the air at different times, is much greater
than the difference between the air ofthe different placei
observed by  him.',  Finally, M. Fontana concludes, that
" nature  is  not so partial as we commonly  believe. Shehas
not only given us an air almost equally good every where
at every time, but bas allowed us a certain latitude, or  *
power of  living  and being in health, in qualities of &* 1
which differ lo a certain degree.  By this it is not meant
to deny the existence  of certain kinds of noxious air in
some particular places; but to own that in general the**- .
is good every where, and  that the small differences are not"
lo be feared  so much as  some people would make us be-
lieve.   Nor  is  it meant  to  speak here  of  those vapoutf*
and  other bodies  which are  accidentally joined tot*f*
common air  in  particular places,  but do  not change ill
nature and  intrinsical  property.  This  state of tbe air
cannot be  known by the test of nitrous air; and those va- 
ATMOSPHERE.
pours are to be considered in the same manner as we
should consider so many particles of arsenic swimming in
the atmosphere.  In this  case it is the arsenic, and not
tbe degenerated air, lhat would kill the animals who  ven-
tured to breathe it."  See Chymistry.
   Atmosphere, figure of.  As the  atmosphere envel-
ops all parts of the surface  of our  globe, if they  both
continued at rest,  and  were not endowed with a diurnal
motion about their common  axis, then the atmosphere
would be exactly globular, according to lhe laws  of grav-
ity ;  for all the parts of the surface of a fluid in a state of
rest must be equally removed from ifs centre.  But as the
earlh and the  ambient  parts of the atmosphere revolve
uniformly together  about (heir axis, (he different parts of
both  have a centrifugal force; the tendency  of which is
more considerable,  and that of the centripetal  less, as the
parts are more remote from the axis; and hence the figure of
the atmosphere must become an oblate spheroid, since the
parts fhat correspond to the equator are further removed
from  the axis than the parts  which correspond to the
poles.  Besides, (he figure  of  (he atmosphere  must, on
another account, represent a flattened spheroid ;  namely,
because  the sun strikes more  directly the air which en-
compasses the equator, and is comprehended between the
two tropics, than that which pertains to the polar  regions ;
for from this it follows, that the mass of air, or part of the
atmosphere, adjoining to the poles, being less heated, can-
 not expand so much, nor reach so high.   And yet, not-
i withstanding, as the same force which contributes to ele-
 vate  the air diminishes its gravity and  pressure on the
i surface ofthe earth, higher columns of it about the equato-
> rial parts, all other circumstances being the same, may not
 be heavier than those about the poles.
   In the transactions of the Royal Irish  Academy for
ii 1788, Mr. Kirwin has  an ingenious dissertation on the
n figure, height,  weight, &c. of  the atmosphere.  He ob-
serves,  that in the natural state ofthe atmosphere, lhat
I is, when the barometer would every  where, at the  level
,|of the sea, stand at 30 inches, the weight of the  atmo-
[, sphere, at the  surface of the sea, must be equal  all over
j,the globe;  and in  order to produce this equality, as the
i weight proceeds from  its density and height, it  must be
I lowest where the density  is  greatest, and  highest where
 the density is least; that is,  highest at  the  equator and
'lowest at the poles, with  several intermediate gradations.
l!   Atmosphere, weight or pressure of.  It is evident
 that  (he mass of the atmosphere, in common with all other
' matter, must be endowed with weight and pressure; and
f this principle  was  asserted  by almost all philosophers,
'both ancient and modern.  But it was only  by means of
1 the experiments made with pumps and the barometrical
 tobe, by Galileo and Torricelli, that we came to the  proof,
"'not only that  (he  a(mosphere is endued  with a  pressure,
'but also what (he measure and quantily  of (hat pressure
*is.   Thus it is found that the pressure of the atmosphere
 sustains a column of quicksilver in the tube ofthe barom-
 eter, of about  30  inches  in  height; it therefore follows,
-that  the whole pressme of the  atmosphere  is  equal  to the
"weight of a column of quicksilver of an equal base, and
f'30 inches  height;  and because a  cubical inch  of quick-
 silver is found to weigh nearly half a pound avoirdu-
 poise, therefore the whole 30 inches, or  the  weight of
 the atmosphere on every square inch of surface, is  equal
to 15 pounds.  Again, it has been found that lhe pressure
ofthe atmosphere balances, in the case of pumps, &c. a
column of water of  about 341 feet high ; and  lhe cubical
foot of water weighing just 1000 ounces, or 62£ pounds,
34£ times 62^, or 2158/u.  will be the weight of the col-
umn of water, or ofthe atmosphere, on a base of a square
foot;  and consequently the 144th part of this, or 15/6. is
the weight of the atmosphere on a square inch, (he same
as before.  Hence Mr. Cotes computed, that the pressure
of this ambient fluid on the whole surface of (he earth, is
equivalent to that of a globe of lead of 60 miles in  diam-
eter.  And hence also it appears, that the pressure upon
the human body must be very considerable  ; for as every
square inch of  surface sustains a pressure of 15 pounds,
every square foot will sustain 144 times as much, or 2160
pounds;  then if the whole surface of a man's body is sup-
posed to  contain 15  square feet, which is  pretty near the
truth, he must  sustain 15 time3 2160, or 32400 pounds,
that is, nearly 14| tons weight, for his ordinary load.  By
this enormous pressure we should undoubtedly be crush-
ed in  a moment, if all parts of our bodies were not filled
either with air or some other elastic  fluid,  the spring of
which is  just sufficient to counterbalance  the weight of
the atmosphere.  But  whatever this  fluid  may  be, it is
certain that it is just able to counteract the weight of the
atmosphere, and no more ;  for if any considerable pressure
is superadded to that of the  air, as  by going into deep
wa(er, it is always severely felt, let it  be ever so equable,
at least  when the  change  is made suddenly; and if, on
the other hand,  the pressure of  the atmosphere is taken
off from any part of the human body,  as  the  hand for in-
stance, when put over an open receiver, whence the air is
afterward extracted, the weight ofthe external atmosphere
(hen  prevails, and we imagine  (he  hand  strongly sucked
down info the glass.
   The difference in the weight of fhe air which our bodies
sustain at one (ime more (han another, is  also very con-
siderable, from  (he natural changes in the state of the at-
mosphere.  This change  takes  place chiefly in countries
 at some distance from the equator; and as  the barometer
 varies at times from 28 to 31 inches, or about one tenth of
 lhe whole quantity, it follows lhat this difference amounts
 to  about  a  ton and a half  on the whole body of  a man,
 which he therefore  sustains  at one time more than at
 another.  On  the  increase of  this  natural  weight,  the
 weather is commonly fine,  and we feel ourselves what we
 call braced and  more alert and active; but on tbe contrary,
 when the weight ofthe air diminishes, the weather is bad,
 and  people feel a  listiessness and inactivity about them.
 And hence it is no wonder that  persons suffer very much
 in  their  health, from such  changes in the. at mosphere, es-
 pecially when they take  place very suddenly, for it is to
 this  circumstance  chiefly that a sensation of uneasiness
 and  indisposition is  to  be attributed:  thus,  when  the
 variations of the barometer and  atmosphere are sudden
 and great, we feel  the alteration and effect on our bodies
 and spirits very much; but when the change takes place
 by very slow degrees, and by a long continuance, we are
 scarcely sensible of it ; owing, undoubtedly, to the power
 with which the body is naturally endowed, of accommo-
 dating itself to this change in  the  sta(e of  (he air, as  well
 as lo the change of many olher  circumstances of life; (he
 body requiring a  certain  interval of time to effect the 
ATMOSPHERE.
alteration in its state, proper to that ofthe air, Sec.  Thus,
in going up lo the tops of mountains, where the pressure
of the atmosphere  is diminished two or three times more
than on fhe plain below, little or no inconvenience is felt
from the rarity  of lhe  air,  if it is not mixed with other
noxious vapours, &c. because in the ascent the body has
had sufficient time lo accommodate  itself gradually to tbe
slow variation in the state of (he atmosphere ; but when
a person ascends with a balloon very  r.ipidly to a great
heiiihf  in the atmosphere, he feels a difficulty in breathing
and an uneasiness of body ;  and the same is soon felt by
an animal when enclosed in a receiver, and the air sudden-
ly drawn or pumped out of  it.   So also, on the conden-
sation of the air, we feel III t Io or no alteration  in ourselves,
except when  the change  happens suddenly; as in  very
rapid changes in the weather, and  in descending lo great
depths in a diving bell.
  It is not easy to assign the true reason for the variations
that happen in the gravity  of fhe atmosphere in  the same
place.   One  cause of it, however,  either immediate or
otherwise, it seems, is the heat of fhe sun ; for where this
is uniform, the changes  are  small  and regular:  thus be-
tween  the tropics it  seems  the change depends  on the
heat ofthe sun,  as the barometer constantly sinks about
half an inch every day,  and  rises again to its former sta-
tion in the night  time; but in the temperate zones the
barometer ranges from 28 to near 31  inches, showing by its
various altitudes the changes that are about to take place
in the  weather.  If we could know, therefore, the causes
by  which the weather is influenced,  we should also know
those by which tbe gravity of the atmosphere is affected.
These may perhaps  be reduced to immediate ones, vis. an
emission of  latent heat from the vapour.contained in the
atmosphere, or of electric fluid from the same, or from the
earlh ; as it is observed that  both produce the same effect
 with the solar heat in the tropical climates, vis. to rarefy
 the air, by mixing with it,  or setting loose a lighter fluid,
 which did not  before act in such large proportion in  any
 particular place.
   Atmosphere, height and density of. Various attempts
 have  been  made  to ascertain the  height lo which the
 atmosphere is extended all round the earth.  These com-
 menced soon after it was discovered, by means of the
 Torricellanian tube,  that  air is endued with weight and
 pressure.  And had not the air an elastic power, but was
 it every where ofthe same density, from the surface of
 the earth  to the extreme limit of the atmosphere, like
 water, which is equally dense af all depths, it would be a
 very easy matter to determine its height from its density,
 and the column of mercury which it would counterbalance
 in the barometer tube ;  for it having been observed  that
 lhe w« ij;ii[ of fhe atmosphere is equivalent to a column of
 30 inches, or 2| feet of quicksilver, and the density of the
 former to that of the latler as 1  to  11010; therefore the
 height of (he uniform atmosphere  would be 11040 times
 2^ feet; fhat is, 2f600 feet,  or little more than five  miles
 and a quarter. But the air, by its elastic quality, expands
 and contracts, and it being found by repealed experiments
 in  most countries of Europe, that the spaces it occupies,
 when  compressed  by different weights,  are reciprocal^
 proportional  to  (hose weights themselves; or  that the
 more the air is pressed, so much the less space it occupies ;
 jf  follows that  the air in the upper regions of  the atmo-
sphere must grow continually more and more rare, as i|
ascends higher; and indeed lhat,  according to that law,
it must necessarily be extended  to an indefinite height.
Now, if we suppose the height ofthe whole divided info n>
numerable equal parts, the quantity of each part will be
as its density : and the weight of the whole incumbent at-
mosphere being also as its density; it follows that fhe
weight of the incumbent air  is every where as fhe quia.
tity  contained  in  the subjacent part;  which  causes a
difference  between f^he weights of each  two contiguous
parts of  air.  But by a theorem in  arithmetic, when a
magnitude is  continually  diminished  by the  like part
of itself,  and the remainders  the same, these will be a
series of continued quantifies  decreasing  in geometrical
progression; therefore if,  according  to the supposition,
the altitude of  the air, by the addition of new parts info
which it is divided, continually increases in arithmetical
progression, its density  will be diminished, or, which is
the same thing,  its gravity decreased,  in continued geo-
metrical  proportion.   And hence, again, it appears that,
according  to fhe hypothesis of the density being alwavs
proportional to tbe  compressing force, (he height of the
atmosphere must necessarily  be  extended  indefinitely.
And  further, as an  arithmetical series adapted to a geo-
metrical  one, is analogous to the logarithms ofthe geomet-
rical one ;  it follows  therefore that the altitudes are pro-
portional to the logarithms ofthe densities, or weights, of
air; and that  any height taken from the earth's surface,
which is  the difference of two altitudes to the top of the
atmosphere, is proportional to the difference of the loga-
rithms of (he two densities (here,  or to fhe logarithm ot
(he ratio of those densities,'or their corresponding com-
pressing  forces, as measured by  the two  heights of tbe
barometer there.  This  law  was  first observed and de-
monstrated by Dr. Halley, from the nature of the hyper-
bola ; and  afferward by Dr. Gregory,  by means of the
logarithmic curve.  See Philos. Trans. No. 181, or Abridg.
vol. 2. p. 13, and Greg. Astron. lib. v.  prop. 3.
   It is now easy, from the foregoing property, and two or
three experiments, or barometrical observations, made at
known altitudes, to deduce a general rule to determine the
absolute  height answering to any density, or  the den-
sity  answering  to  any  given altitude above the earth.
And  accordingly  calculations were made upon this plan
by many philosophers, particularly by the French; but
it having   been  found  lhat   the barometrical observa-
tions did not correspond  with the altitudes as measur-
ed in a  geometrical manner,  it  was  suspected that the
upper parts of the  atmospherical  regions were not sub-
ject to the same laws wilh the lower ones, in regard to tbe
density and elasticity.  It has, however, been discovered,
(hat the  law above given holds very well for all such alti-
tudes as  are within our reach,  or  as  far as to the tops of
lhe highest mountains on the earth, when a correction i«
made for the difference of the heat or temperature of the
air only ; as was  fully evinced by M.  De Luc, in a Ion?
series of observations, in which he determined thealtitudes
of hills  both by the barometer and 'ay  geometrical meas-
urement, from which he deduced  a practical rule to alio*
for lhe difference of temperature.   See his Treatise on
the Modifications of the Atmosphere.   Similar rules,!***
also  been deduced   from  accurate experiment?, by sir
George Shuckburgh and general Hoy,  both concurring!0 
ATM
A T  K
show lhat such a rule for lhe altitudes and densities, holds
true *for  all  heights that are accessible  to  us. when the
elasticity of the air is corrected on account of its dcnsily :
and  lhe result of their experiments  showed, lhat the dif-
ference ofthe logarithms ofthe heights of lhe mercury in
the barometer, at two stations, when multiplied by 10000,
is equal  to  the  altitude in English  fathoms, of lhe one
place above the olher;  that is, when the temperature of
the air is about 31 or 32 degrees of Fahrenheit's thermom-
eter, and a certain quantity, more or less, according as lhe
actual temperature is different from (hat degree.
   But it may here be shown,  (hat the same rule may be
deduced independent of such a (rain of experiment as
(hose above, merely by (he density of (he air at the sur-
face of the earth alone.  Thus, let D  denote the density
ofthe air at one place, and d the density at the other;
both measured by the column of mercury in the baromet'
rical lube : then the difference of altitude between the two
places will be proportional to the log. of D — the log. of
                  D
d, or to the  log.  of—. But as this formula expresses only
                  d
the relation between different  altitudes, and not the abso-
lute quantity of them,  assume some indeterminate, but
constant quantity h,  which multiplying lhe expression
     D                              '
log. —, may be  equal to the real difference of altitude a;
     d                d
that is, a = h X log. of—.  Then, lo determine the value
                      d
ofthe general  quantity  h,  let  us lake a case in which we
know the altitude a, which corresponds (o a known  den-
sity d ; as 'for instance,  taking a = 1  foot,  or 1 inch, or
some such small  altitude :  then, because  the density D
may be measured by the  pressure of the whole atmosphere,
or the uniform column of 27600  feet, when  the tempera-
ture is 55° ; therefore 27600 feet will denote the density
D at the lower place, and 27599 the less density d at 1 foot
                                     27600
above it; consequently  1 = h X log. of-----, which, by
                                     27599
                                      .43429448
the nature of logarithms, is nearly = h X-----------, or
   1                                       27600
      nearly;  and hence we find h — 63551 feet; which
factor h, is 24° ; which reduces the 55° to 31 •.  So (hai
M
a = 10000 X log. of—fathoms, is the easiest expression
m
63551
gives us this formula for any  altitude  a in general, vis.
                    D                        M
a = 63551 X log. of—, or a = 63551 X log. of— feet,
                    d                        m
                    M
or 10592  X  log. of — fathoms ; where M  denotes fhe
                    m
column of mercury in the tube at the lower place, and m
lhat  at the upper.  This formula is adapted to the mean
temperature of (he air 55°:  but it has been found, by lhe
experiments of sir Georjre Shuckburgh  and t.rneral Roy,
lhat for every degree ofthe thermometer, different  from
55°, the altitude a will  vary In  its 435lh pari ; hence, if
we would change the factor  h from 10592 to 10000, be-
cause the difference 592 is lhe 1 Kfh pari of the whole factor
105.IJ, and because 18 is the 2 ilh part  of 435 ;  therefore
lhe change of leroperature, answering to lhe change of the
  vol. i.            36
for  the altitude, and answers  fo the temperature of 31 e,
or very nearly the freezing point: and for  every degree
above that,  lhe result must  be   increased by  so many
times its 435th part, and diminished when below  it.
  From this theorem  it follows, that, at the height of £-£
miles, the density of the atmosphere is nearly twice rarer
than it is at the surface of the earth; at tbe height of <
miles, 4 times rarer ; and so on, according to the following
table :
n miles.	Number of times rarer
3*	2
7	4
14	16
21	64
28	256
35	1024
42	4096
49	16384
56	65536
63	2(52144
70	1048576
   And, by pursuing the calculations in this fable, it might
be easily shown, that a cubic inch of the  air we breathe
would be so much rarefied at the height of 500 miles, lhat
it would fill a sphere equal in diameter to the orbit of Sat-
urn.
   ATOM, in  philosophy, a particle of matter, so minute
as to admit of  no division.
   ATONIA,  or Atony, in medicine, a word lhat signifies
want of firmness, or strength, in the muscular fibre.  This
condition lakes place in  most  forms of chronic diseases,
and in the convalescent period of acute diseases.
   ATONICS, in grammar,  words not accented.
   ATRA hilis, the black bile, one of the humours ofthe
ancient  physicians;  which lhe moderns call melancholy.
See Medicine.
   ATRACTYLIS, in botany, a genus of the syngenesia
polygamia  class of  plants.   The corolla is  radiated ; and
each of the little corollas of  lhe radius  has  2  leelii.
There are 8 species.
   1. A(ractyli3 canceilata, or  small cnicus, is an annual
plant, rising about eight or nine inches high, wilh  a slen-
der stem ; at the  top of lhe  branches are sent out two or
Ihree slender stalks, each terminated by a head of flowers,
like those ofthe thistle, and ofa purplish colour.
  2. Atractylis gummifera, or prickly gum bearing cnicus,
known among physicians  by the name of carline thistle, is
a perennial  plant.   It has  many  florets  enclosed in a
prickly  empalement.  Those  on the  border  are  white ;
but such as compose the disk,  are ofa yellowish  colour.
It flowers in July, but never  perfects seeds in Britain.  Its
roots were formerly used as  a warm diaphoretic  and alex-
ipharmic ; but the present practice has entirely rejected
them.
  3. Atractylis humilis,  or purple prickly cnicus, rises
about  a foot high,  wilh  purple  tlowers.  All these plants
are natives ofthe warm parts of Europe : as Spain. Sicily,
aid the  Archipelago island?. 
A T  R                                                A T R
   ATRAGENE, in botany: a  genus of the polyandria
•rder, and polygamia  class of plants.  The calyx  has
four leaves;  the  petals  are  twelve; and  the seeds are
caudated.  There are five species, all natives of the East.
   ATRAPHAXES,  in botany, a genus of the digynia
order and hexandria class of plants;  and  in  the natural
method ranking under the 12th order, holoracae.   The ca-
lyx has two  leaves; the petals  are two,  and sinuated;
and there is  but one seed.   There are two species, both
natives of warm countries.
   ATRESIA, the  state of persons who want some natu-
ral aperture.
   ATRETI, persons in whom the anus, vagina, urethra,
&c.  are imperforate, whether naturally or  occasioned by
disease.
   ATRIPLEX,  orach, or arrach : a genus of the mon-
oecia order, and polygamia class; and,  in the natural
method, ranking under the  twelfth order, holoracse.   The
calyx of  the hermaphrodite flower is five parted; there is
no corolla; the stamina are  five,  and the stylus is bifid;
the seed  is one, and  depressed.  There are  14 species, of
which the following are the most remarkable.
   1. Atriplex halimus,  the broad leaved orach, was  for-
merly cultivated in gardens as a shrub, by some formed into
hedges, and  constantly  sheared to keep them thick;  but
this is a purpose  to  which it  is by no means adapted, as
the shoots grow so numerous, that it is  impossible to keep
the hedge in any tolerable order;  and, what is  worse, in
severe winters, the plants are often destroyed.
   2.  Atriplex hortensis, the garden orach, was formerly
cultivated in gardens, and used as a substitute for spinach ;
to which it is still preferred by some, though in general it
is disliked by the English.  There are three or four va-
rieties of this plant,  whose only difference is their colour;
one is a deep green, another a dark purple, and a third has
green leaves and purple borders.  They  are all annual,
and must be propagated by seeds.
   3.  Atriplex petulacoides, the shrubby sea orach, grows
wild by the sea side, in  many places of Britain.   It may
have a place in gardens among other low shrubs, where it
will make a pretty diversity.  This species requires little
culture.   It thrives in a poor gravelly soil, and may be
propagated from  cuttinga.
   ATROPA, deadly night  shade : a genus of the
monogynia order, and  pentandria class of  plants ;  and in
the natural method,  ranking under the  25th  order, luridae.
The corolla  is  campanulated; the  stamina are distant;
the berry is  globular,  and consists of two  cells.   There
are eight species; of which the following are the most re-
markable.
   1.  Atropa belladonna, grows wild in  many parts of Brit-
ain.  It  has a perennial root, which sends out strong  her-
baceous  stalks of a purplish colour.   These rise to the
height of four  or five feet,  garnished with entire oblong
leaves, which toward autumn change  to a  purple.  The
flowers are large, and come out singly between the leaves,
upon long foot stalks ; bell shaped, and of a dusky  colour
on the outside, but purplish within.   After the flower is
past, the germen  turns to a round berry, a  little flatted at
the top,  about the size of a cherry.  It is first green; but
when ripe, turns  to a shining black,  sits close  upon the
empalement, and contains a purple juice  of  a  nauseous
sweet taste, and full of small kidney shaped seeds.   Thia
species, being remarkable  for  its  poisonous qualities, ii
very  seldom admitted into gardens.   Mr. Ray gives an
account of  the symptoms  that  follow the taking of  it in-
wardly, by what happened to a mendicant friar, upon hii
drinking a glass of mallow wine, in  which the herb was in-
fused.   In a short time, he became delirious, and soon af.
ter was seized with a grinning laughter ; then with several
irregular motions,  and at last,  with a real  madness, aud
such a stupidity as those have  who are sottishly drunk-
but after all, he was cured by a draught of vinegar.  Bu-
chanan also  gives an account of  the  destruction of the
Danes under  Sueno, when  they  invaded  Scotland, by
mixing a quantity of the belladonna berries with the drink
which the Scots were, according  to a treaty of truce, to
supply them  with.   This so intoxicated the  Danes, that
the Scots fell upon them  in their sleep,  and killed the
greatest  part of  them, so  that there were scarcely men
enough left to carry off their king.  There have also been
many instances in Britain, of children being killed by eat-
ing the berries of the belladonna.  When an accident of
this kind  is  discovered in time,  a  glass of warm vinegar
will prevent the bad effects.
   2. Atropa frutescens, is a  native of Spain, andrisei
with a shrubby stem  to  the height of six  or eight feet,
The flowers come out between the leaves, on short  foot
stalks, shaped like those of  the former, but much less; of
a dirty yellowish  colour, with a few  brown stripes; but
these are never succeeded by berries in Britain.
   3. Atropa herbacea, is a  native of Campeachy, and has
an herbaceous stalk, rising  about two feet.   The flowers
come out from between lhe leaves, on short foot stalks;
they are white, and shaped like those of the common sort,
but smaller.  It flowers in  July and August, but seldom
ripens its fruit in Britain.
   4. Atropa mandragora,  the mandrake, has been distin-
guished into the male and  female.  The male mandrake
has a very large, long, and thick root:  it is largest at the
top or head, and thence gradually grows smaller.  Some-
times it is single and undivided to the bottom; butmore
frequently, it i3 divided into two or more  parts.  When
only parted into two, it is pretended that it resembles fhe
body and thighs ofa man.   From this root arise a number
of very long leaves,  broadest in the middle,  andobtuselj
pointed  at the  end; they are a foot or more in length,
and about five inches in breadth ; ofa dusky and disagree-
able green colour, and of a very fetid smell.   The female
mandrake  perfectly resembles  the other in its growth;
but the leaves  are longer and  narrower, and of a darker
colour, as are also the seeds and roots.  It grows natural-
ly in Spain, Portugal,  Italy,  and the  Levant.  These
three last species are propagated by  seeds* and placed in
stoves.  This plant has been absurdly recommended as a
cure for barrenness.  Its fresh root is a violent purge, lhe
dose being from  ten  to  twenty grains in substance, and
from  half a dram to a dram in infusion.  It is also narcot-
ic.  It has been  found of service  in hysteric complaints,
but must be used with great caution.
   ATROPHY, in medicine, a disease, wherein the  body
or some of its parts do  not receive the necessary nutri-
ment, but waste and decay incessantly.  This is a disor-
der proceeding from lhe whole  habit of the body,  and not 
ATT
ATT
from any distemper of  the  intestines: it is attended with
no remarkable fever,  and is natural in  old age, which is
called atrophia senilis.   See Medicine.
   ATTACHMENT, in law, (he taking or apprehending
ofa person, by virtue ofa writ,  or precept.
   It is  distinguished from  an arrest in this respect;  that
whereas an arrest lies only on tbe body of a man, an at-
tachment is often on the goods only, and sometimes on the
body and goods; there is  this further difference, that an
arrest proceeds out of  an inferior court  by precept only,
and an attachment out of a higher court, either by pre-
cept or  writ.
   An attachment by writ differs from distress,  insomuch
that  attachment does not  extend  to lands, as a distress
does ; and a  distress  does not touch the body, as an at-
tachment does.
   In fhe common accepfation, an attachment is the appre-
hension of a man's body, to bring him to answer the action
of the plaintiff.
   Attachment out of the  chancery,  is  obtained upon
an affidavit made,  that the  defendant was served with a
subpoena, and made no appearance ;  or  it issues upon not
performing some order or decree.  Upon the return of this
attachment by the sheriff, quod non est inventus in balliva
sua, another attachment, with a proclamation, issues; and
if he appears not thereupon, a commission of rebellion.
   Attachment of the forest, is one of the three courts
held in  the forest.  The lowest court is called  the court
of attachment, or wood mote court; the mean, swan mote;
and fhe highest, the justice in eyre's seat.
   This   attachment is  by  three  means;  by goods  and
chattels,  by  body, pledges,  and mainprize, or the body
only.   This court is held every forty days throughout the
year, whence it is called forty days court.
   Attachment  of privilege,  is  by virtue of a  man's
privilege to call  another to that  court whereto he himself
belongs, and in respect whereof  he is privileged to answer
some action.
   Foreign Attachment, is an aftachment of  money or
goods, found within a liberty or city, to  satisfy some cred-
itor within such  liberty or city.
   By the custom of London,  and  several other places, a
man can attach money or goods in the hands of a stranger,
to satisfy himself.
   ATTACK, in lhe  military art, is an effort made to
force a post, break a body of  troops, &c.
   Attack ofa siege, is a furious assault made by the be-
•iegers wilh trenches, covers, mines, &c. in order to make
themselves masters of a fortress, by storming  one of its
■ides.   If lhere are two or three  attacks made at the same
time, there should be a communication betwixt them.
   Attacks, false,  are never carried on with that vigour
and briskness that the  other is;  the design of them being
fo favour the true attack, by amusing the enemy, obliging
the garrison to a  greater duty in dividing their forces, that
the true attack may be more successful.
   Attack in flank,  is to attack both sides of the bas-
tion.
   ATTAINDER, in  law, is when a man has committed
felony or treason, and sentence is passed upon him for the
same.   The children of a person  attainted of treason, are,
ihereby, rendered  incapable of  being heirs to him, or to
any other ancestor; and if he was noble before, his  pos-
              36*
ferity are degraded, and  made  base: nor can  this cor-
ruption of blood be salved,  but  by an act of parliament,
unless the sentence is reversed by a  writ of error.
  Attainder, bill of, a bill  brought into parliament for
attainting, condemning, and  executing, a person for high
treason.   A most unconstitutional proceeding.
  ATTAINT, in law, atlincta,  a writ which lies against
a jury that have given a false verdict in any court of rec-
ord, in a real or personal action, where the debt or dam-
ages amount to above 40 shillings.
  If the verdict is found false, the judgment by commoa
law was, that the jurors' meadows should be ploughed up,
their houses broken down, their  woods grubbed up, all
their lands and  tenements forfeited,  &c.  but by statute
the severity of the common law  is mitigated, where a pet-
ty jury is attainted, and  there is a pecuniary penally ap-
pointed.
  But if the verdict be affirmed, such plaintiff shall be im-
prisoned and fined.
  ATTELABUS, a  genus of  coleopterous  insects, or
beetle kind, distinguished  by having the head inclined*,
and  pointed behind ;  antennae  moniliform, and thickest
near the end.  The larva of the  attalabi attack the leaves,
flower?, the fruits,  and even the stalks and roots of differ-
ent plants : but  most of the species, of which there are
34, penetrate inlo the plant, and subsist entirely on the
spongy parts within.  Preparatory  to  the  pupa  state,
some species spin  a silky web, and others form a little ball
of a very solid kind, in which they  remain during a second
state.   The perfect insects inhabit the same plants as the
larva, but  are deemed less injurious to them.  For lhe
character,  see  Plate.    The most  remarkable  species
are:
  1. Attelabus apiarius, is  bluish, with red elytra, and
three black belts.   It is a native  of Germany.
  2. Attelabus avellana,  is black; with the breast, feet,
and elytra, red.
  3. Attelabus betula  has  springy legs,  and  the whole
body is of a  dark  red.  It frequents the leaves of the
birch.
  4. Attelabus buprestoides, is  of a dark colour,  wifh a
globular breast, and nervous elytra.  It is a native of Eu-
rope.
  5. Attelabus ceramboides, is of a blackish red colour,
and the elytra is  furrowed.  It  frequents the spongy bo-
letus, a species of mushroom.
  6. Attelabus coryli,  is  black,  with red elytra, or crus-
taceous wings.
  7. Attelabus curculionoides, is black, with red  elytra
and breast.   These two last species and the Avellana fre-
quent the leaves of the hazel and filbert nut trees.
  8. Attelabus  formicarius, is black,  with a red elytra,
and a double white  belt toward the  base.   It is a native of
Europe.
  9. Attelabus melanurns,  is black, with testaceous ely-
tra, black at the apex.   It is a native of Sweden.
  10. Attelabus mollis, is hairy and yellowish, with pale
elytra, and three belts.   It is a native of Europe.
  11. Attelabus Pennsylvanicus, is black, with red elytra,
a black  belt  round the middle,  and another toward  the
apex of the elytra.  It is a native of Philadelphia.
  12. Attelabus sipylus, is  green,  with a hairy  breast,
and a double yellow belt upon the elytra. 
\ T T
ATT
   l.i. Attelabus .Suriuamensis, has a double indentation,
or two teeth, in the top of the elytra.  It  is a native of
Surinam.
  ATTENTION, in regard of hearing, is the stretching
the membrana tympani, to  make it  more susceptible of
sounds, or adjusting  the tension of lhat membrane to the
proper key or lone of lhe sound.
  According to lord Bacon,  "sounds are meliorated by
lhe intension of tbe sense, where the  common sense is col-
lected most  to fhe   particular sense of hearing,  and the
sight  suspended.   Therefore sounds are  sweeter and
more powerful in (he night  than in (he day, and I suppose
they are sweeter  to blind men than (o others;  and it is
manifest, that  between sleeping and  waking, when all the
senses are blind and suspended, music is far sweeter than
when one is  fully waken."
  ATTENUANTS, in pharmacy,  medicines which re-
solve the viscosity of the  humours  in lhe human body  ;
promoting their circulation, as well as the discharge of all
noxious and excremenlilious matter.
  When these medicines act  upon fluids lodged in the ca-
pillary vessels, they  get the  appellation of aperitives, or
aperients; as they do (hat of expectorants, when  fhey
promole a discharge ofthe viscid  humours in the lungs.
  ATTIC,  in architecture, a sort of building wherein the
roof or covering is not  to  be  seen ;  thus named, because
the buildings at Athens were generally of this form.
  Attic order, a small order raised upon a large one,
by way of crowning, or to finish the  building: or it is, ac-
cording to some, a kind of rich pedestal, sometimes used
for lhe conveniency of having a wardrobe, or the like ; and
instead of columns, has only  pilasters of a particular form,
and sometimes no pilasters at all.
   The name attic is also given to a whole story into which
this order enters ; this little order being always found over
another greater one.
   Attic base, a peculiar kind of base used by the an-
cient architects in the Ionic order;  and by  Palladio, and
some others,  in the Doric.   This is the most beautiful of
all bases.   See Architecture.
   ATTIRE, in hunting, signifies the head and horns ofa
deer.
   ATTITUDE, in painting, &c.  the posture or dispo-
sition of a figure, expressive  of a designed action or end.
   ATTOLENS, in anatomy, an  appellation given to sev-
eral  muscles, otherwise  called  levators and  elevators.
See Anatomy.
   ATTORNATO  faciendo, &c.  a  writ commanding a
sheriff or steward to admit an attorney to appear for a per-
son who owes  suit to the county court, court baron, &c.
   ATTORNEY, at law, one  who is  retained (o prosecu(e,
or defend, a law suit.
   Attornies, being  properly  those who sue out  writs or
process, or commence, carry on, and defend actions, in
any of the courts of common law, are distinguished from
solicitors, as the  latter do the same business in the courts
of equity ;  and none are  admitted, either as an attorney
or  solicitor, unless they have served a clerkship of five
years, been enrolled, and taken the oath in that case pro-
 vided ; and the judges of their respective  courts are re-
quired lo examine (heir several capacities.
   By 34 Geo. III. c. 14. a  sfamp duty of 100J. is charg-
ed upon all  articles of clerkship to an attorney or solicitor.
Also, every attorney, solicitor, notary, proctor, or agent,
tvithiu the bills of mortality, shall annuaUy take out acer-
tificate, charged wilh a stamp duly of 5/. and of 3/. in any
part of lhe kingdom.
  Attornies may be punished for ill practices ;  and if an
attorney, or his clerks, of which he must have but Iwoat
one time articled, do any thing against the express rules
ofthe court, he or they may be committed.
  Neither a plaintiff nor defendant may  change his attor-
ney without rule of  court, whilst the suit is depending:
and attornies are  not  generally obliged to deliver up the
writings in  fheir hands,  till their fees are satisfied: like-
wise, an action does  not  lie against an attorney, for what
he advises in the way of his profession : yet if an attorney
plead any plea, or appear, without warrant from his client,
action of the case lies against him.
  Attornies have  the privilege to sue and be sued in the
courts of Westminster,  where they practise;  and they
shall not be chosen  into offices against lheir will, except
the militia.
  Attorney, of the duchy of Lancaster, is the second
officer in that court.
  Attorney general, is a great officer under  the king,
created by letters patent,  whose  office it is to exhibit in-
formations, and prosecute for the crown in criminal causes;
and to file bills in the exchequer, for any thing concerning
lhe king in inheritance or profits.  To him come warrants
for making of grants,  pardons, Sec. his  salary  from Ibe
crown is 1000/. per annum.
  ATTOURNMENT, or Attornment, in law, a tram-
fer from one lord to another, of the homage and services
tenant makes;  or that acknowledgment of duty  to a new
lord.
  ATTRACTION, a general term fo denote the princi-
ple by which all bodies mutually tend toward each other,
without regarding  the cause thaf produces  the effect.
  It has been found  by  experience,  that all  matter, of
whatever kind, is subject  lo certain general laws, and the
principal of these are attraction and repulsion.   Five dif-
ferent kinds of attraction have been enumerated by mod-
ern philosophers.  1. The attraction of cohesion; 2. Of
combination, or, as it is called by chymists, elective at-
traction ; 3. Gravity; 4. The magnetic attraction; and,
5. The  attraction of electricity.   Whether  the same
principle acts in all these cases, or whether each of these
effects depends upon a distinct cause, human sagacity has
not been able to discover.
  1. The  attraction of cohesion  may be observed  in al-
most  all the  common operations of nature,  and is exem-
plified by a variety of easy experiments.  Two leaden
balls, having each a smooth surface, if strongly compress-
ed together, will cohere almost as strongly as if united by
fusion; and even  two  plates of  glass, if the surfaces are
even  and dry,  will require  some force  to separate them.
By the  same  law of nature the particles of  even fluid
bodies, in which the attraction  is necessarily weaker than
in solid substances, indicate a disposition to unite.
  The drops of dew that  appear in the morning on the
leaves of plants assume   a  globular form, from the mutual
attraction between the  particles of water.  Small por-
tions  of quicksilver, when  brought near  to each  other,
will run together,  and assume  the same globular appear-
ance.  Also, by the same law,  a vessel may be filled with 
ATT
A V A
water, mercury,  or  any other fluid, above the brim, and
the fluid will be observed (o rise in a convex form.
  To this pi iticiple we may very properly refer what is term-
ed capillary attraction.  Thus, if a fluid is contained in a
vessel not full to  (he brim, it  will always be attracted to
lhe ed^es of the vessel,  and will assume a concave form.
Thus, also, if two plates of glass, at a small distance from
each other,  are  immersed  perpendicularly in water, the
fluid will rise above its level  between the two plates, and
the  height lo which it rises will bear a certain proportion
to the distance of the plates.   A capillary (ube is a tube
with an exceeding small bore, and by the same law which
raises the  water between  (he plates of glass, a  fluid will
rise to a considerable height in one of these tubes.   Both
these experiments  will answer equally well in the vacuum
of an air pump, which  proves that the effect is not owing
to the pressure of the air.   In the same manner also, and
by the  same law, fluids will  ascend in  the cavify ofa
sponge, in  the interstices of linen cloth,  or  any porous
body.
   2. The attraction of combination, or chymical or elec-
tive attraction, is in many respects analogous  to the at-
traction of cohesion.   Like the latter, it seems to depend
on the minute particles of bodies being brought nearly in-
to contact  with  each other;  and indeed so  nearly alike
are  the  effects of these two  species of attraction, that if
they are different in principle it is difficult  to say which is
the  most essential  to the cohesion and solidify of bodies:
Chymical attraction may probably be no  other than lhe
attraction of cohesion acting in a free and  unresisting me-
dium, since its only distinguishing characteristic  is (he dis-
position which bodies in solution  indicate to unite with
certain substances in preference to others.   To  make this
clear by an experiment:  If silver is added to a quantity
of aquafortis, the cohesion  ofthe  particles of silver will
be destroyed, and they  will unife forcibly with those of
the  aquafortis.  The fluid will however remain perfectly
clear ; (he particles being so extremely minute,  fhat the
rays of light will suffer no interruption in passing through
them.   If however to this solution of silver a quantity of
mercury or quicksilver is added, (he aquafortis will be
attracted by the mercury, and the silver will be precipi-
tated, or thrown to the bottom of  the vessel in which the
fluid is contained ; if again copper is added, it will assume
the place of the quicksilver; and if to this  solution of cop-
per a bright piece of iron is introduced, the acid will im-
mediately quit the  copper,  and seize upon the iron, a
quantity of  which being dissolved  in lhe fluid, and (he
copper will be deposited in i(s place on (he surface of the
bar of iron.  The iron may afterward be displaced by the
addition of an alkali.  This  species of attraction  is called
combination ; because the particles of two bodies by those
means become so ultimately  united  or combined, that
they cannot be  separated but by the addition of a third
body, which has a greater atlraction for one of the compo-
nent bodies than they have for one another, and it is call-
ed elective attraction and affinity, from lhe superior ten-
dency in substances to unite with certain bodies in prefer-
ence lo others.   In all cases of elective attraction it is nec-
essary, that at least one of the bodies should be in a fluid
stale.
  3. The attraction of gravitation materially differs from
the two preceding species of attraction, since  it requires
neither the particles ofthe bodies, nor the bodies them-
selves, to be brought into immediate contact, but acts  at
considerable distances, and  in  this respect it  is analogous
to the attraction of magnetism and electricity.
   The most obvious effect  of  gravitation  is  the  general
tendency of bodies to the surface, or perhaps lo (he cen-
(re, of (he earlh.  It appears lo be one ofthe great  laws
of gravitation, that the attraction of bodies is in proportion
to lhe quantity of matter they contain.  The earth, there-
fore,  being such an immense aggregate of matter,  is  sup-
posed  to destroy the  effect of  this attraction between
smaller bodie?, by forcibly compelling  them  to itself.
The attraction of  mountains, however, upon  the balls of
pendulums, has been found, by repeated observations, to
be very considerable.
   The efficient cause of this  species of  attraction is as
much a secret as all the other great principles of nature.
But first,  it appears, that  the gravitating force being pro-
portioned always  to the quantity of matter, all bodies
gravitate  from equal distances with equal velocity, ex-
cept prevented or  impeded  by some resisting medium.
Thus, though a guinea and  a feather will not fall to lhe
ground wilh equal  velocity in the open air, because of lhe
resistance of that fluid, yet if the air by any means is re-
moved, as in the vacuum  of an air pump,  they  appear to
fall at the very same instant of time : for though the guinea
contains considerably more  of solid matter than  the feath-
er, and consequently requires  a  more considerable force
lo put it in motion, yet it appears that the attractive power
being proportioned to the quantity of matter, its velocity
is equal to y?at ofa body which requires  less force to put
it in motion.
   Secondly, The attractive force of bodies is reciprocally
as  the square of fhe distances.   Thus, if a body is of the
weight of one hundred pounds at the distance often diam-
eters of fhe earth, at  half that distance it would have four
times that weight, or the  force of gravity  would be exert-
ed upon it in a quadruple  ratio, and so in proportion as it
approaches the body of the earth.
   4.  The attraction of magnetism only  defers  from lhat
of gravity in its operations being limited to particular sub-
stances.  The  magnet is an ore of iron, and its properly of
attracting certain portions of fhat metal at  moderate dis-
tances is well known.   Like the attraction of gravitation,
that of magnetism  bears a proportion fo the distance, and
probably  (o  the quantify of magnetic matter in  the at-
tracting bodies.  But the properties ofthe magnet are  so
curious and important in nature, that Ihey well  deserve a
distinct consideration.
   5.  The attraction of electricity is also analogous to lhat
of gravity in the property of acting upon bodies at a cer-
tain distance ; but  it differs  from it in its  operation being
confined  to a  particular  state ui' those bodies, that  is,
when excited by friction.
   Attraction of mountains.   See Mountains.
  AVADOUTAS, a sect of Indian bramins, distinguish-
ed for their austerity and  abstinence.
  AVAIL of marriage, in Sco(ch law, denotes  a custom,
by which the superior was entitled lo a certain  sum from
his vassal, upon his attaining (he age of puberty.
  AVALANCHES,  a name  given  in Switzerland and
Savoy, fo those prodigious  masses of snow, which arc
precipitated with a noise like thunder from the mountains, 
AUD
AVE
 destroying every thing in their course.  They have some-
 limes  overwhelmed  whole villages.   The best preserva-
 tive against their effects being the forests  with which the
 Alps abound, ihere is scarcely a village situated  at  the
 foot ofa mountain, thai is not  sheltered by trees, which
 the  people preserve with uncommon  reverence.  Thus
 what constitutes one ofthe principal beauties ofthe coun-
 try, affords security also to the inhabitants.
   AVANIA, in Turkish customs, a fine for crimes  and
 on deaths, paid (o the  governor of the place.   In cities
 and  towns where several  nations live  together  under a
 Turkish governor, he lakes this profitable  method of pun-
ishing all  crimes  among the Christians or Jews, unless it
be the murder of a Turk.
   AVAST, in the sea language, a term requiring to stop,
 to hold, or lo stay.
  AVANTURINE, in natural history, a yellowish stone
full of sparkles, resembling gold, very common in France.
An artificial imitation of it is made by  mixing sparkles of
copper with glass whilst it is in fusion, which is used  by
enamellers, and to sprinkle, as sand, upon  writing.
  AUBANE, in the old customs of France, a right vested
in the  sovereign of being heir to a foreigner that died
within  his dominions.  By this right the French sovereign
claimed the inheritance of all  foreigners that died within
his dominions, notwithstanding any testament the deceas-
ed could make.
  AUB1N, in  horsemanship, a broken kind of  gait  be-
tween an amble and a gallop, accounted a  defect.
  ' AUBLETIA, in botany, a genus of  the class and order
 polyandria monogynia.   The  essential character is, cal.
 five  leaved; cor. five petalled ; caps, many Veiled,  echi-
 nate,  with many seeds  in each cell.   There are three
 species, all trees, and  natives of South America*
   ALTCTION; sales by auction are subject to many legal
 regulations : the  auctioneer  is  obliged  to take  out a
 license ;  and is subject to various penalties if he is negli-
 gent of certain acts of parliament, made principally since
 the  19th ofthe present reign.
   AUCUBA, in botany, a genus of the monoecia tetan-
 dria class  and order.  The essential  character  is: male
 cal. 4 toothed; cor. 4 petalled; berry 1  seeded; fem.
 nect. none ; nut one celled.
   There is but  one species of this beautiful tree, the spe-
 cific name of which is Japonica, to note its native place.
 Notwithstanding this, it is found to be very hardy ; and be-
 ing  easily propagated by cuttings, it is now become very
 common in our gardens, though it does not seem with us
 as yet to attain a growth beyond that of a shrub. The
 leaves are beautifully spotted wifh white  or yellow,  and
 among  other  shrubs it makes a fine appearance.
   AUDIENDO et Terminando, a  commission direct-
 ed to certain persons when any  riotous  assembly, insur-
 rection, Sec. is committed in any  place, for appeasing it,
 and punishing the offenders.
   A UDIENTES, an order of catechumens in the primi-
 tive Christian church, consisting of such as were  but new-
 ly instructed in  the mysteries  ofthe  Christian religion,
 and not yet admitted to baptism.
   AUDITA  QUERELA,  a writ that  lies where any
 person has any thing to plead, but has not a day in court
 for pleading it; or where judgment is given for debt, and
 the dcfrndr.ni'.-; body in execution ; then  if he has a  re-
 lease, or other sufficient cause to be discharged therefrom,
 bat  wants a day ia ceurt to plead the same, (his writ may
be granted by the lord chancellor, upon  view of the ex-
ception suggested to the judges of either ben«h.
  AUDITOR  of  the  receipts, is  an officer of the  ex-
chequer who files the tellers' bills, makes an entry of (hem,
and gives the  lord  treasurer a cerlificate of the money
received the week before.  He also makes debentures to
every teller, before they  receive any money, and takei
their accounts.  He keeps  the black book of receipts,
and the treasurer's key of the  treasury, and sees every
teller's money locked up in  the new treasury.
  Auditory nerves, in anatomy, a pair of nerves arising
from fhe medulla oblongata, with  two trunks, the one o?
which is called the  portio dura, hard portion,  the olher
portio mollis, or soft portion.  See  Anatomt.
  AVELLANE, in heraldry, a cross, the quarters of
which somewhat resemble a filbert nut.
  A VENA, oats, a genus  ofthe  digynia order, belong-
ing  to  the  triandria class  of plants, and in the natural
method ranking under the 4th order, gramina.  The calyx
has  a double valve,  and the  awn on the back is contorted.
There are 25 species, of which the first six  following are
natives of England.
  1. Avena flatior,  tall oat grass.
  2. Avena fatua, the bearded  oat grass.
  3. Avena flavescens, the yellow oat grass.
  4. Avena nuda, the naked oat.
  5. Avena pratensis, the meadow  oat grass.
.  6. Avena pubescens, the rough oat grass.
  7. Avena sativa,  the common oats cultivated in  our
fields.   It is remarkable that the original native place of
this plant is almost  totally unknown.  Anson says that he
observed it  growing wild or spontaneously  in the island
of Juan Fernandez ; but a vague observation from a single
author is not to  be  depended on.  Oats are an article of
the  materia medica.  Gruels made from them have a kind
of soft mucilaginous quality, by which they obtund acrimo-
nious humours, and prove useful in inflammatory diseases,
coughs, hoarseness, and exulcerafions of the fauces.
  AVENAGE, in law, a certain quantity of oats paid by
a tenant to a landlord instead of rent, or some other duties.
  AVERAGE, in  commerce, is divided into three kinds.
1. The simple or particular average, which consists in the
extraordinary expenses incurred for the ship alone, or
for  the merchandises alone.   Such is the loss of anchors,
masts, and rigging, occasioned  by the  common accidenti
at sea,  the  damages which happen  to  merchandise by
storm, prize, shipwreck, wet, or rotting ; all  which must
be borne and  paid by  the thing which  suffered the dam-
age.  2. The large and common average, being those ex-
penses  incurred, and damages sustained, for the common
good and security both of the merchandises and vessels,
consequently  to be  borne by the  ship  and cargo, and to
be regulated upon  the whole.  Of this number are the
goods or money given for the ransom ofthe ship and cargo,
things  thrown overboard for the safety of the ship,  the
expenses of unlading for entering into a  river or harboor,
and the provisions and  hire ofthe sailors when lhe  ship
is put under an embargo.  3. The small averages, which
are the expenses for towing and piloting the ship out oi
or into harbours, creeks,  or rivers, one third of which
must be charged to the  ship, and  two thirds to the carg?-
  Average,  in agriculture, a  term used by farmers, in
many parts of England, for  the stubble,  or  remainder of
straw and grass left in  corn fields after the harvest is car-
ried ii.  In some counties it is  called gratten. 
AVE
AUG
  AVERIA, in a general sense, signifies  any cattle, but
it is used injaw for oxen or horses of the plough.
  Averia, in commerce, a branch of Spanish revenue
that denotes a tax paid on account of convoys to guard
the ships sailing to and from America, which was first im-
posed when sir  Francis Drake made his expedition to the
South Sea.
  AVERMENT, an offer of  the defendant to make good
an exemption pleaded in abatement, or bar  of the plain-
tiff's action.
  Averment,  gtntral, is the conclusion of every  plea
to the writ, or iu bar of  replications,  or other pleadings,
containing matter affirmative.
  Averment,  particular, is  when the life of a tenant for
life, or tenant in tail, is averred.
  AVERRIIOA, in botany, a genus of the decandria or-
der, belonging to the pentagynia class of plants, and in the
natural  method ranking under the 14th order, gruinales.
The calyx has five leaves; the petals are  five, opening at
top; and the apple or fruit is pentagonous,  and divided
into five cells.  There are two species :
  The averrhoa carambola, called  in  Bengal the camrue
or camrunga, is a tree which grows  to the height of 14
feet, and is remarkable for possessing a power somewhat
similar to those species of mimosa which are termed sen-
sitive plants ; its leaves, on being  touched,  moving very
perceptibly.  In the mimosa the moving faculty extends
to the branches ;  but  from the  hardness of the wood this
cannot be expected in the  carambola.  The leaves are
alternately pinnated  with  an odd one ;  and their most
common position in  the  day  lime  is horizontal.  On
being touched, they  move themselves  downward, fre-
quently in so great a degree that the  two opposite almost
touch one another by their under sides, and the young
ones sometimes either come  into contact, or even  pass
each other.   The whole of the leaves of one pinna  move
by striking the  branch with the  nail of the finger or  olher
hard substance, or  each leaf can be moved singly by
making  an impression  that shall not  extend beyond that
leaf.  Notwithstanding  this  apparent sensibility of the
leaf, however, large incisions may be made  in it with a
pair of  sharp scissars, without  occasioning the smallest
motion; nay, it may even be cut almost  entirely off, and
the remaining part still continue unmoved,  when by touch-
ing the  wounded leaf with the finger or point of the  scis-
•ars, motion will lake place as if no injury had been offer-
ed.  Tbe reason is, that although the leaf is the ostensi-
ble part which moves, the petiolus is the seat both of sense
and action.   After  sunset  the  leaves go  to sleep, first
moving down so as to  touch one another by their under
sides: they therefore  perform more extensive motion at
night of themselves  (han they can  be made to do in the
day time by external impressions.  With a convex lens
the rays of the sun may  be  collected on a leaf, so  as to
burn a hole in  it, without  occasioning any mofion; but
upon trying the experiment on the  peliolus, (he motion
is as quick as if from strong percussion, although the rays
be not so much concentrated as to cause pain when applied
in (he same degree on  (he back of (he hand.  The leav es
move very fast  from the  electrical shock, even  although
vci v gentle. The fruit of this  tree is said to be delicious.
  AVERRUNCI,  in lhe ancient heathen  theology, an
order of deities  among the Romans, whose  peculiar  ofiice
it was to avert danger and exile.
  AVERSIONE venire, in civil  law,  see^s to denote
the selling or letting things in the lump, without fixing any
particular prices for each piece.
  AUGIT,  silex  augiies,  in  mineralogy.   The colour
of this mineral is a deep olive or pear green :  it sometimes
occurs in rounded fragments,  but more usually crysfal-
ized.   See Mineralogy.
  AUGMENTATION was the name  of a court erected
27 Hen. VIII. so called from the augmentation ofthe rev-
enues ofthe crown, by the suppression of religious houses ;
and the office still remains, wherein there are many curious
records, though  tbe court has  been dissolved long since.
  Augmentation, in heraldry,  are additional  charges
to a court armour, frequently given as particular marks of
honour.
  AUGUR, an  officer among the Romans appointed to
foretell future events.  There was a college or community
of them consisting  originally of three members, wilh re-
spect to the three tribes, Luceres,  Rhamnenses, and Ta-
tienses: afterward  the number  was increased fo nine, four
of whom were patricians, and five plebeians,   They bore
an augural staff or  wand, as the ensign of their authority,
and their dignity was so much respected that they were
never deposed, nor any substituted in their place, though
they should be convicted of the most enormous crimes.
  AUGURY,  in  antiquity, the art of foretelling future
events, is distinguished into five sorts.   1. Augury from
the heavens.  2.  From  birds.  3. From chickens.  4.
From quadrupeds.  5. From portentous events.   When
an augury was taken, the augur divided the heavens info
four parts, and having sacrificed to the  gods, he observed
with great attention from what  part lhe  sign  from heaven
appeared.   If, for instance, there happened a  clap of
thunder from the left, it was taken as a  good  omen.   If a
flock of birds came about a  man, it was  a favourable pres-
age, but the flight of vultures was unlucky.  If when
corn was flung before the sacred chickens, they crowded
about  it, and ate  it greedily,  it  was looked upon as  a
favourable omen; but if they refused to eat and drink,  it
was an unlucky sign.
  Augury, in its more general  signification, comprises all
the different kinds of divination, which Varro distinguishes
into four  species, according to the four elements,  vis.
pyromancy, or augury by fire ;  aeromancy, or augury by
air; hydromancy, or augury  by water; and geomancy,
or augury by the earth.
  AUGUSTALES, in Roman antiquity, an epithet giv-
en to the flamens or priests  appointed to sacrifice fo Au-
gustus, after his deification, and also to the ludi or  games
celebrated  in honour of the same prince on the fourth of
the ides of October.
  AUGUSTALIA, a festival  instituted by the  Romans
in honour of Augustus Caesar, on his return to Rome after
having settled peace in Sicily, Greece, Syria, Asia, and
Parfhia; on which occasion they likewise built an altar to
him, inscribed Fortuna reduc'..
  AUGUSTAL1S pr^fectus, a title peculiar lo a Ro-
man magistrate who governed Egypt, with a power much
like that of a proconsul in olher province?.
  AUGUSTINS, a religious order in 1 he church of Rome,
who follow  the rule of St. Auguslin, prescribed them by
pope  Alexander IV.  Among other things, this rule en-
joins to have all thirers in  common; (o  receive nothing
without the leave ofthe superior ;  and several e'her pi*-- 
A U N
A U R
 cepts relating to charity, modesty,  aijd chastity.   There
 are likewise nuns of this order.
   The Augustins are clothed in black, and at Paris were
 known under the name of the  religious of St. Genevieve,
 that abbey being the  chief of the order.
   AVICIENNA,  in botany,  a genus of plants ofthe te-
 tandria monogynia class of Linnaeus;  the flower of which
 consists of a single pe(al, divided into four  ovato acumi-
 nated segments; the fruit is a coriaceous capsule of one
 cell, containing a single seed of an elliptic figure.   There
 are three species, natives of the West Indies.  The A.
 tomentose is a tree  about 15 feet high, agreeing in many
 respects with the mangrove.
   AVIS, bird,  aves, among naturalists, the second class
 of animals, a race of creatures  sufficiently distinguished
 from others in having  (he body covered with feathers, two
 feet, and fwo wings  formed for flight.  Birds have the
 mandible protracted and  naked; and  are destitute of ex-
 ternal ears, lips, teeth, scrotum, womb, urinary vessel, or
 bladder,  epiglottis, corpus  callosum, or its  fornix,  and
 diaphragm.  In the Linncean system birds are divided into
 six orders, vis.  accipitres,  or falcon  kind, picae, or pies,
 anseres, or geese and  duck kind, grallae, cranes or waders,
gallina?, the poultry kind, and  passeres, sparrows or small
birds.
  Avis is also the name of an order of knighthood in Por-
tugal, instituted  by Sancho  lhe  first  king, in imitation of
the order of Alcantara, whose great  cross they wear.
  AVISANDUM, in Scotch law, literally signifies advis-
 ing, or under consideration.  A process is said to be un-
 der avisandum,  when the whole proofs, with the argu-
 ments On both sides, are  under the consideration of the
 judge, before he has given an interlocutor or decision upon
 the cause.
   AVISO, adviso, Ital.  a term chiefly used in matters of
 commerce, to denote an  advertisement, an  advice, or a
 piece of intelligence.
   AULIC, an  epithet given to certain officers of the
 Germanic empire,  who compose a  court, which decides,
 without appeal, in all processes entered in if.
   The aulic council is composed of a president, who is a
 catholic ; ofa vice chancellor, presented by the archbish-
 op of Mentz ;  and of eighteen counsellors, nine of whom
 are protestants, and nine  catholics.  They are considered
 as a bench of lawyers, and always  follow the emperor's
 court; for which reason they are called jnstitium impera-
 toris, the emperor's justice, and aulic council.  The aulic
 court ceases at  the death  of (he emperor;  whereas (he
 imperial chamber of Spire is perpetual, representing not
 only (he deceased emperor, but the whole Germanic body,
 which is  reputed never to die.
  Aulic, in  (he Sorboune and foreign universities, is an
 act which a yoong  divine maintains  upon being admitted a
 doctor in divinity.
   It begins by an harangue  of the  chancellor, addressed
 to lhe young doctor;  after which he receives the cap, and
 presides at the aulic, or disputation.
  ACME, a Dutch measure for Rhenish wine, containing
 forty English gallons.
  AUMOXE, in  law, signifies a tenure where lands are
given in alms to some  church or religious house.
  AUNCEL  weight, an ancient kind of balance, now
out of use, being prohibited by  seveial statutes, on account
of the many deceits practised by it.  It consisted of scales
hanging on hooks, fastened at each end ofa beam, which
a man lifted  up on his hand.   In  many parts of England
auncel weight signifies meat sold by the hand, without
scales,
  AUNE, a long measure  used  in France  to measure
cloth, stuffs,  ribands, &c.
  At  Rouen  it is equal  lo one English ell,  at Calais to
1.52, at Lyons to 1.016, and at Paris to 0.95.
  AVOC ATORI A, a mandate of the  emperor of Germa.
ny, addressed to some prince in order to stop his unlawful
proceedings in any cause  appealed to him.
  AVOIDANCE,  in the canon law,  is when a benefice
becomes void of an  incum'ent: which happens either in
facf, as by the death of the parson ; or in  law, as by ces-
sion,  deprivation, resignation, &c.   In  the  first of these
cases, the patron must take notice  ofthe avoidance, at hi<
peril; but in  avoidance  by law,  the ordinary is obliged to
give notice to the patron, in order to prevent a lapse.  .
  AVOIRDUPOIS weight, a kind  of  weight used in
England, of which fhe  pound  weighs  16  ounces.  The
proportion ofa pound avoirdupois to a pound troy, is as
17 to 14: or the avoirdupois pound contains TOOO grains,
and the troy  pound 5T60.
  All the larger and coarser  commodities  are weighed hj
avoirdupois weight; as groceries, cheese, wool, lead, hops,
&c.
  AVOWRY, in law,  is where a person ilistrained sues
out a  replevin ; for then the distrainer must avow and jus-
tify his plea, which  is called his avowry.  The avowry
must  contain  sufficient matter for judgment to have return,
but so much certainty is not required as in a declaration;
and if made  for rent, though it  appears (hat part of that
rent is not due, yet the avowry is good for the rest.
  AURANTIUM,  the orange tree.   See Citrus.
  AURANTII cortex.   See Pharmacy.
  AUREA Alcxandrinu, in pharmacy, a kind of opiate,
or antidote against the colic and apoplexy, composed of
a great number  of ingredients,  which  was in great fame
among the ancient writers.   It  is called  aurea from the
gold,  aururn, which  is an ingredient in its comporifion;
and Alexandria, as  having been invented by a physician
named Alexander.
  AURELIA.  See Chrysalis.
  AUREOLA, in  its  original signification, signifies a
jewel  which  is proposed as  a reward of victory, in some
public dispute.  Hence the Roman schoolmen applied it
to denote lhe reward  bestowed  on martyrs, virgins and
doctors, on account of their works of supererogation : and
painters use it lo signify the crown of glory, wifh which
they adorn the heads of saints, confessors, &c.
  AUREUS, a Roman gold coin, equal in value to twen-
ty-five denarii.
  According to Ainsworfh, fhe  aureus of  the higher em-
pire   weighed near five  pennyweights, and in the lower
empire little more than half that weight.
  AURICH ALCUM.    See Orichalcum.
  AURICLE, in anatomy, that part ofthe ear which fl
prominent from the head, called by many  authors auris
externa.   See fhe article  Ear.  Also the appendages of
the heart at its base, which are distinguished by the names
of fhe right ™d left.
  AURICULA.  See  Primti a. 
A U R
AUK
  AURIFLAMMA,  in  the French history, a standard
belonging to the abbey of St. Dennis, suspended over lhe
tomb of that saint, which lhe religious, on occasion of any
war in defence of their  lands  or  rights,  look down with
greaf ceremony, and gave it to fheir protector  or  advo-
cate, to be borne at  (he head of (heir forces.  Hence lhe
word is sometimes used to denote  the chief flag or stand-
ard of an army.
  AURIGA, the waggoner,  in astronomy, a constella-
tion of lhe northern  hemisphere, consisting of twenty-sev-
en stars according toTycho, forty according to Hevelius,
and sixty-six in the Britannic catalogue.
  This is one of the  forty-eight asterisms mentioned by
all ancient astronomers; and represented  by the figure of
an old man in a kind of sitting posture, with a goat and her
kids in his left hand, and a bridle in his right.   Besides
the hcedi,  ibis constellation includes another star, called
capella ; which is lhe bright one  near  the shoulder, and
supposed to be lhe  mother of lhe hcedi, and  the nurse of
Jupiter.  The hcedi,  or the two stars in the arm of Auri-
ga, were regarded by  the ancients as affording presages of
the weather ,* and these were so much dreaded on account
of the  storms and  tempests that succeeded their rising,
(hat they are said to  have shut up  the navigation at this
season.
   AURIUM abscissio, in antiquity, cutting off ears, was
a punishment inflicted by the  Saxon  law on  Ibose who
robbed churches, and afterward  on every  thief, and at
length on other criminals.
   AURORA BOREALIS,  northern light, or stream-
ers, a kind of meteor appearing in the northern part ofthe
heavens,  mostly in  the  winter  season,  and  in  frosty
weather.   Il is  usually of a reddish colour, inclining to
yellow ; and sends out frequent coruscations of pale light,
which seem lo rise from the horizon in  a pyramidal undu-
lating  form,  and  shooting with great  velocity up to the
zenith.  It  appears often in  form of  an arch, which is
partly bright, and parity dark, but generally transparent:
and the matter of it is not found to have anyr effect on the
rays of light, which pass  freely through it.   Dr. Hamil-
ton observes lhat he could  plainly discern tbe smallest
speck in lhe Pleiades through the density of those clouds
which formed part ofthe aurora borealis in 1763, without
the least diminution of its splendour, or increase of twink-
ling.   Philos. Essays, p. 106.
   Sometimes it produces an iris.  Hence M.  Godin judges
that most ofthe extraordinary meteors and phenomena in
the skies, related as prodigies by historians, as battles, and
the like, may probably enough be reduced to lhe class of
aurorte boreales.  Hist. Acad. R. Scien. for  1762, p. 405.
   This kind of meteor never appears  near  the equator;
but, it seems, is as frequent toward the  south pole as tow-
ard the north, having been observed  there  by  voyagers.
See Philos. Trans.  No. 461, and  vol. 54; also Forster's
Account of  his Voyage  round the World with  Capt.
Cook, in which he describes iheir appearance as observed
for several nights together in sharp frosty weather;  which
was much lhe same  as those seen  in the north, excepting
thaf they were ofa lighter colour.
   It seems lhat  meteors of this kind have appeared at
some times  more frequently than  at others.   They were
so rare  in England, or elue so little regarded, that none are
recorded in our annals siuce  lhat remarkable one of No-
   vol. i.            37
vember 14, 1574, till the surprising aurora borealis  ot
March 6, 1716, which appeared for three  nights  succes-
sively, but by far more strongly on tbe first;  except that
five small ones were observed in the years 1707 and 1708.
Hence it  would seem that the air or earth, or both, are
not at all times disposed to produce this phenomenon.
  The extent  of  these  appearances is also amazingly
great.  That in March, 1716, was  visible from fhe west of
Ireland to the confines of Russia  and the east of Poland,
extending at least near 30 degrees of longitude, and from
about the 50th degree in latitude over almost all the north
of Europe : and in all places, at the same time, it exhib-
ited the like wondrous appearances.
   Father  Boscovich has determined the height of an au-
rora borealis, which was observed  by the  marquis of Poli-
ni (he 16th of December, 1737, and found it was 825 miles
high ; and Mr. Bergmann, from a mean of 30 computations,
makes  tbe average height of the aurora borealis  amount to
70 Swedish, or 469 English, miles.   But Euler supposes
(he height  to be several thousands of miles; and Mairan
also assigns to them a very elevated region.
   In Sweden  and  Lapland  the  aurora; boreales are not
only singularly beautiful,  but afford travellers, by their
almost constant effulgence, a very fine and brilliant light
during the  whole night.  In Hudson's bay, lhe  light  of
(he aurora borealis is said (o be equal  to  that ofa full
moon : and in the northeastern parts of Siberia,  we are
told,  these northern  lights are observed to begin with
single bright  pillars, rising in the north, and almost at the
same time in  the northeast, which, gradually increasing,
comprehend a large space of lhe heavens, rush about from
place to place with incredible velocity, and finally almost
cover the whole sky up to the zenith, and produce an ap-
pearance in the heavens of a vast expanded tent, glittering
with gold,  rubies and  sapphire.  A more interesting spec-
tacle  cannot be conceived ; but whoever  sees  such a
northern light for  the first time could not behold it with-
out terror.  For however fine  the illumination may be,
it is attended, as it is  said, with a hissing noise through
(he air, as if (he largest fireworks  were playing  off.  To
describe what they then hear, the natives make use ofthe
expression spolochi chodjat,  lhat  is, lhe raging host is
passing.  The hunters who pursue fhe foxes are frequent-
ly overtaken with  these lights ; and their dogs are then so
much terrified, that Ihey will not move, but lie obstinately
on  the ground till the  noise is passed. See Philos. Trans.
vol. Ixxiv.
   Many attempts have been made to determine fhe cause
of this phenomenon.   Dr. Halley imagines  (hat  (he wa-
tery vapours or effluvia, exceedingly rarefied by subterra-
neous  fire, and tinged  with sulphureous  streams,  which
many naturalists have supposed to  be tbe cause of earth-
quakes, may also be the cause of this appearance ;  or that
it is produced by a kind  of subtile matter freely pervad-
ing the pores of the earth,  and which, entering into it
nearer the southern pole,  passes out again with some force
into tbe ether, at the  same distance from (he norlhern.
This  subfile matter, by  becoming more dense, or having
its velocity increased, may perhaps  be capable  of pro-
ducing a small degree of light, after the manner of effluvia
from electric bodies, which, by a strong and quick friction,
emit light in  (he dark ;  (o  which sort of light this seems
to have a great affinity. Philos. Trans. No. 347. See also 
Auii
A U ft
 Mr.  Cotes's  description of  this phenomenon,  and  his
 method of explaining it by streams emitted from the hete-
 rogeneous and fermenting vapours of lhe atmosphere, in
 Smith's Optics, p. 69;  or  Philos.  Trans, abr. vol. 6,
 part 2.
   Ever since  the identity of lightning  and the electric
 matter has been determined, however, philosophers have
 been naturally led to seek  for  the explication of aerial
 meteors in the principles  of electricity; and there is now
 no doubt that  most of them, and especially  the aurora
 borealis, are electrical phenomena.   Besides  the  more
 obvious and known appearances which constitute a resem-
 blance between this meteor and the electric  matter by
 which  lightning is produced, it has been observed, that
 the  aurora  occasions  a very sensible fluctuation in  the
 magnetic needle ; and that  when it  has extended lovver
 than  usual  in  the atmosphere, the  flashes  have  been
 attended with  various sounds  of rumbling and hissing,
 especially in Russia and the other more  northern parts of
 Europe, as noticed by Sig. Beccaria and  M. Messier.  Mr.
^Canton, soon after he had obtained  electricity from  the
 Clouds, offered a conjecture that the  aurora is occasioned
 By the dashing  of electric  fire  positive toward negative
 clouds at a great distance, through the upper part of the
 atmosphere, where the resistance is  least: and he sup-
 poses  that the aurora which happens at the time when the
 magnetic needle is disturbed by the heat of the earth, is
 the electricity of the heated air above it: and this appears
 chiefly in the northern -regions,  as the  alteration in  the
 heat of the air in those parts is the greatest.  Nor is this
 hypothesis wholly improbable, when it is considered  that
 electricity is the cause of thunder and lightning; that it
 has been extracted from the air at the time of  the aurora
 borealis ; that  the inhabitants of the northern countries
 observe it remarkably strong when a sudden thaw succeeds
 very cold severe  weather; and that the tourmalin  is
 known to emit and absorb the electric fluid only by the
 increase or diminution of its heat. Positive and negative
 electricity in (he air, wi(h a proper quantity of moisture to
 serve as a conductor,  will account for this and other me-
 teors sometimes seen in a serene sky.  Mr. Canton after-
 ward contrived to  exhibit this meteor  by means of the
 Torricellian  vacuum,  in  a  glass tube  about  three  feet
 long, and sealed hermetically. When one end of the tube
 is held in the hand, and the other applied to the conduct-
 or, the w hole tube will be illuminated  from end to end,
 and will continue luminous without interruption for a con-
 siderable time after il has been removed frond the conduct-
 or.  If,  after this, it  is drawn through fhe hand either
 way, the light  will be remarkably intense through  the
 whole  length of the tube.  And, though a great part of
 the electricity is discharged by this operation, it will still
 flash at intervals, when held only at one extremity,  and
 kept quite still; but if, at  the same tim'e, it is grasped  by
 the other hand in a different place, strong flashes  of light
 will dart from one end to the other; and these will'coh-
 tinue 24 hoirrs or more, without  a fresh excitation.   Sig.
 Beccaria conjectures fhat  there is a constant and regular
 circulation of the electric fluid from north  to south ; and
 he thinks that  the aurora borealis may  be this electric
 matter performing its circulation in such  a state of the  at-
 mosphere as renders it visible, or approaching nearer than
usual to the earth : though probably this is not the mode
 of its operation, as the meteor is observed in the southern;
 hemisphere wilh the same appearances as in lhe northern.
 Dr. Franklin supposes lhat the electric fire discharged in-
 to the polar regions,  from  many leagues of vaporized air
 raised from lhe ocean  between  the  tropics,  accounts fo*
 the  aurora borealis; and that it  appears  first where  i( is
 first in motion,  namely,  in the  most northern pari;  and
 the  appearance proceeds southward, though the fire really*
 moves  northward.   Franklin's Exper. and  Obs.  JfW
 p. 49; Philos.  Trans, vol. Iviii. p. 358, 784;  lb. tdl. |].
 p. 403; Lettere dell' EllettriciSmo, p. 269;  or PriesU
 ley's Hist,  of Electricity.
   Mr. Dalton, who has paid considerable attention fo me-
 teorology, gives the followirig account of the ^appearances
 of the aurora borealis : They come under four different
 descriptions.   1. A horizontal light, like the break of day.
 2. Fine slender luminous  beams,  well  defined, and of
 dense light, which often continue nearly a minute at rest,
 3. Flashes  pointing upward, or  in  the  direction of the
 beams Which they succeed.  These are only momentary;
 and  have no lateral  motion.   They appear broad and dip
 fuse, and of a weaker  light than the beams  ; they grow
 gradually  fainter till  they disappear,  and  cohtlniJe for
 hours) flashing at intervals.   4.  Arcs  nearly in the fonn
 ofa rainbow :  these when  complete go quite across tht
 heavens,  from one point of the horizon to  the opposite
 point.  These appearances generally succeed each other
 in the following order :  1. the faint rainbow like arcs; 2.
 the beams ;  and, 3. the flashes.  Tbe northern horizon-
 tal light appears to consist of  an abundance of flashe's  or
 beams blended together by the situation of fhe observer.
 The beams of the aurora  appear al all places lo be arcs
 of great.circles of the  sphere,  with the eye in the centre;
 and  these arcs, if prolonged upward, would all meet in a
 point.  The rainbow like arcs  cross lhe magnetic merid-
 ian at right angles.   When  two  or  more appear at once,
 fhey are concentric, and tend fo the east  and west: alsd
 fh'e broad arc ofthe  horizontal light  tends to the magnet-
 ic east and west, and is bisected by the magnetic merid«
 fan : arid when the  aurora  extends  over any part of the
 hemisphere, the line separating lhe illuminated part of
 the hemisphere from the clear part  is half the circumfer-
 ence of a great  circle  crossing the  magnetic meridfeb af
 right angles, and terminating in the east and west.  That
 point in the heavens to which  (he beams of (he aurora ap-
 pear (o converge, at any  place, is the same a3 that to
 which the south pole of the dipping needle points at that
 place.  The beams appear to rise  above each  other  in
 succession ; so that of any two beams, that which has the
 higher base has also the higher Summit.  Every beam ap-
 pears broadest at or near the base, and to grow narrower,
 as it ascends; so that  the continuation of the  bounding
 lines would  meet in the common centre  to which the beam
 rends.  The height of the rainbow like arcs of the aurora
 borealis is estimated by Mr. Dalton  to be 150 miles above
 the earth's Surface.
   AURUM,  gold.  Gold  seems to have be'en knows
 from the very beginning of the world.  Its properties and
 its scarcity  have rendered it more valuable than any othfrr
 metal.
   It  is of an drange red or reddish yellow colour, and has
no perceptible taste or smell.   Its lustre is considerable,
yielding only to that of platinum, steel, silver, and merco- 
A U iR
AUK
ry.  Its specific gravity  19.3.  No ojber  substance is
equal lo it in ductility and malleability.  It may be beat-
Jen out into leaves so thin that one grain of gold will cover
561 square inches.   These leaves are only l-282000lh of
ap inch thick, but the gold leaf  with which silver wire is
covered has only l-12th of that thickness.   An ounce of
vo\d, upon silver wire, is capable of being extended more
4han 1300 miles  in  length.  Its tenacity is considerable,
jthough in  this respect it yields  to iron,copper, platinum,
.and silver.  From  the experiments of Sickingen  it  ap-
pears that a gold wire 0.078 inch in diameter is capable
pf supporting a weight of 150.071bs. avoirdupois, without
^breaking.   It melts at 32° of  Wedgewpod';s pyrometer.
When melted, it assumes a bright  bluish green  colour.
It expands in the act of fusion, and consequently contracts
while becoming  solid more than  most metals; a circum-
stance which renders it less proper for casting into moulds.
It requires a very violent heat lo volatilize it; it is, there-
fore, to use a chymical term, exceedingly fixed.   Boyle
and  Kunkel kept  it for some months in a glasshouse fur-
nace, and yet it  underwent no change ;  nor did it lose any
perceptible weight, after being  exposed  for seme hours;tp
The  utmost heat  of Mr. Parker's lens.   Homberg, howey-
er,  observed, that  when a very small  portion of  gold is
jkept in fusion, part  of it  is volatilized.  This observatiop
was confirmed by Macquer ; who observed the metal ris-
ing  in fumes to the  height of five or  six inches, and attach-
ing  itself  to a plate of silver, which it gilded very accu-
rately;,and  Mr. Lavoisier observed the very same thing
when a Piece of B',ver was he,d over gold raelted b^ fire
.blown by oxygen gas, which produces a  much greater heat
tthan common air.   After fusion, it is capable of assuming
a crystaline form.
   Gold is not in the least altered by being kept exposed
-to the air;  it does not even lose  its lustre;  neither has
hwater the smallest action upon it.   It is capable,  howev-
er, of combining with oxygen,  and even of  undergoing
tCombustion in  particular  circumstances.   The resulting
 compound is an oxide of gold.   There are two oxides of
 gold ; the,protoxide  is  of a purple or  violet, the perox-
 ide  of a yellow colour.
   Gold must be raised to a very high temperature before
it is capable of abstracting oxygen  from common air.  It
 may be  kept red hot almost   any  length of time without
any  such change.   llomberg, however, observed, that
 when placed in the focus of Tschirnhausen's  burning
 glass, its  surface became covered with  a purple coloured
oxide ; and the truth of his observations were  put be-
 yond doubt by  the subsequent experiments of Macquer
4 with a still more powerful  burning glass.  It was remark-
 ed also in 1773  by  Camus,  that when (he electric explo-
 sion is transmitted through gold leaf placed between two
 plates of glass,  or when a strong charge is made to fall on
 a gilded surface ; in both cases the metal  is oxidized, and
. assumes a purple colour.   The reality of  (he oxidizement
 of iiold by electricity was disputed by some philosophers,
 but it has been  put beyond the reach of doubt by the ex-
 periments of Van Marum.  When that celebrated philos-
 opher made electric  sparks from the powerful Teylerian
, machine  pass through a gold   wire suspended in the air,
 it took fire,  burnt wilh a green coloured flame,  and was
 completely  dissipated  in fume, w hich when collected
              37*
proved  to  be a  purple  coloured oxide of gold.   This
combustion, according to  Van Marum,  succeeded not on-
ly in common air, but  also  when  the wire was suspended
in hydrogen gas  and other gases which are not capable
ofsupporting  combustion.  These singular  observations
would require to be verified by  other experiments before
any conclusion can be drawn  from them.   The combus-
tion of gold is now easily effected by  exposing gold leaf
to the action of the galvanic pile.  It has been made to
burn with  great  brilliancy by  exposing.a gold wire to
the action ofa stream ;pf oxygen and hydrogen gas mixed
together and  burning.  In  all cases of the combustion of
gold, it  has been ascertained, that the protoxide or purple
coloured oxide only is formed.  The peroxide, or yellow
coloured oxide, may be  procured in the  following  man-
ner- Equal parts of nitric  and muriatic acids are mixed
together, and poured  upon gold ; an effervescence  fakes
place, the gold is gradually dissolved, and the liquid as-
sumes a yellow colour.  It is  easy to see in wjiat manner
this solution  is produced.  No metal  is soluble in  acids
till it has been reduced to  the state of  an pxide.  There
is a strong affinity between the oxide of gold and muriatic
Wid.  The nitric acid furnishes oxygen to (he gold, and
(he muriatic dissolves (he oxide as it forms.  When  nitric
acid is deprived of the greater part of  its oxygen,  it as-
sumes a gaseous form,  and is  then called nitrous gas, or
more properly nitric oxide gas.   It is the emission of this
gas which causes fhe effervescence.  The oxide of gold
may be precipitated from (be nitro muriatic acid, by  pour-
ing jn a little pofash dissolved in water, or, which is much
better*  a little lime ; both of which have a stronger  affini-
ty for muriatic acid than  the oxide has.
   The  oxides of gold may be decomposed in close vessels
by the application of heat.  The gold  remains fixed, and
the oxygen assumes the  gaseous form.   They may be de-
composed, too, by all the substances which have a strong-
er affinity for oxygen than gold has.
   Hitherto gold has not  been found capable of combining
 with sulphur, carbon, or  hydrogen.  M.Pelletier combin-
 ed it with phosphorus, by melting together in a crucible
 half an ounce of gold and  an  ounce of phosphoric  glass,
 surrounded with charcoal.   The phosphuret of gold thus
 produced was brittle, whiter than gold, and had a crystal-
 ized appearance.  It was composed of 23 parts of gold
 and one of phosphorus.   He formed tbe same compound
 by dropping small pieces of phosphorus into gold in fusion.
 Phosphorus, then, is the only one of the simple combusti-
 bles with  which gold at present is  supposed  capable pf
 combining.                             .
   Neither does gold combine,  as far as is  known, wilh
 either of the simple incombustible bodies.  But gold com-
 bines readily with the greater number of the metals, and
 forms a variety of alloys.
    The affinities of gold and its  oxides  are  placed  by
 Bergmann in (he following order:
            Gold.          Oxide of Gold.
            Mercury,       Muriatic acid,
            Copper,        Nitric,
            i-ilver,         Sulphuric,
            Lead,           Arsenic,
            Bismuth,        Fluoric, 
A U  T
A X 1
            0oId.           Oxide of Gold.
            Tin,             Tartaric,
            Antimony,       Phosphoric,
            Iron,            Prussic.
            Platinum,
            Zinc,
            Nickel,
            Arsenic,
            Cobalt,
            Manganese.
   Aurum, fulminans.  See Chfmistrt.
   Aurum potabile, potable gold, a liquid preparation of
this metal, formerly much used in medicine.
   AUSCTJLTARE, in ancient customs.  A person was
formerly appointed lo instruct the monks to read and sing
before they  were allowed to perform in public.   This was
called auscultare,  to hear or listen.
   AUSPICIUM. SeeAuGunv.
   AUSTRALIS Piscis, a constellation of the southern
hemisphere,  not  visible in our latitude.  The stars in
Ptolemy's catalogue are 18, and in the Britannic 24.  The
star Fomahaut, of  the first  magnitude,  is in the mouth of
the fish.
   AUTER   droit, in  law, is  when persons sue or are
sued in another's right, as executors, guardians, &c.
   Auter fois acquit, in law, a plea made by a criminal
that he has been already acquitted of the same crime with
which he is  charged.  For no man shall be arraigned more
than once for the same offence.
   AUTHENTIC, in the  civil  law, a name given to the
novels of Justinian,  in  which  authenticating is a term
used for punishing an adulteress by public whipping and
imprisonment for two years ; then, if her husband refuses
to take her back, she is shaven, veiled, and shut up for life.
   AUTHORITY, in law, a power given by word or writ-
ing to a second person  to transact something, and may be
by writ, warrant, commission, letter of a((orney, &c. and
sometimes by law.  An authority  given to another to do
what a  person himself cannot do is void ; and it must be
for doing a thing that is lawful, otherwise it will be no good
authority.
   AUTO dafe.  See Act op faith.
   AUTOMATON, a seemingly self moving  machine ;
or one so constructed,  by  means of weights, levers, pul-
leys, springs, &c.  as  to  move for a considerable time as
if it was endued with animal life : and according to this de-
scription, clocks, watches,  and all machines of that kind,
are automata.
   It is said  that Archytas of Tarentum, 400 years before
Christ, made a wooden pigeon that could fly; thai Archim-
edes  also made  such automatons; that  Regiomontanus
made a wooden  eagle that  flew  forth from the city, met
the emperor, saluted him, and returned ;  also that he made
an iron fly,  which flew out of his hand at a feast, and re-
turned  again after flying about the room ; that Dr. Hook
made the model of a flying chariot, capable of supporting
itself in the air.  Many other surprising automatons we
have been eye  witnesses of in the present age:  Ihus, we
have seen  figures that could  write,  and perform many
other actions in  imitation  of animals.   M.Vaucanson
made a figure that played  on tbe flute: the same gentle-
man also made a duck which was capable of eating, drink-
'-ng, and imitating exactly the voice ofa natural one j and,
what is still more surprising, the food it  swallowed was
evacuated in a digested state,  or considerably altered on
the principles of solution; al»o lhe  wings,  viscera,and
bones, were formed so  as strongly to resemble ihose of a
living duck ; and (he actions of eating and drinking show*
ed the strongest resemblance, even to  the muddling (he
water with its bill.  M. Le Droz, of La  Chaux de Fonds
in the  province of  Neufchatel,  has also  executed some
very curious pieces of mechanism: one was a clock, pre-
sented to the king of Spain, which had, among other cu.
riosities, a sheep that imitated  the bleating of a natural
one, and a dog watching a basket of fruit,  that barked and
snarled  when any one offered  fo  lake it away ; besides a
variety of human figures, exhibiting  motions truly sur-
prising.
  Another automaton of Droz's was  fhe figure of a man,
about the natural size, which held in  the  hand a metal
style, and by touching a spring that released the internal
clockwork from its stop, the figure began to  draw on a card;
and having finished its drawings on (he first card, the fig-
ure rested, and t hen proceeded lo draw  different subjects on
five or six other cards!  The  first card exhibited elegaal
portraits of the king and queen facing  each other; and the
figure was observed to lift its pencil with the greatest pre-
cision, in the transition from one point (o another, without
making the least slur.
  AUTOUR, in natural history, a sort  of bark which re-
sembles cinnamon, but is  paler and  thicker ;  it is the col-
our of a  broken nutmeg,  and full of spangles.  It comes
from fhe Levant, and is an ingredient in fhe carmine dye.
  AUTUMNAL signs, in astronomy, are  the signs Li-
bra, Scorpio, and Sagit tarius, through which the Sun passei
during fhe autumn.
  AUXILIARY verbs,  In  grammar, are such as help to
form or conjugate others ; that is, are  prefixed to them, lo
form or denote  the moods or  tenses thereof: as to havt
and to be.
  In  the English language the auxiliary  verb  am supplies
the want of passive verbs.
  AUX1L1UM adfilium militem faciendum, vel jiliam
maritandam, a precept  or writ directed  to (he sheriff of
every county where the king or other lords had any ten-
ants, to levy of Ihem reasonable aid toward the knighting
his eldest son, or the marriage of his eldest daughter.
  AWARD,  in  law, the judgment of an arbitrator for
terminating a difference.
  AWK.   See Alca.
  AXILLA, in anatomy, tbe armpit, or the cavity under
the upper part  of the arm.
  Axilla, in botany, the  space comprehended betwixt
the stems of plants and fheir leaves.
  AXIOM, in philosophy, is  such a plain, self evident,
and received notion, that it  cannot be made more plain
and evident by demonstration,  because  it is itself better
known than any thing that can be brought  to prove it: as,
that nothing can act where it is not; lhat a thing cannot
be and not be at lhe same time ; that the whole is greater
than a part thereof; and  that  from nothing nothing can
arise.
  AXIS, in geometry, fhe straight line in a plane fignre,
about which it revolves,  to  produce or generate a solid:
thus, if a semicircle be moved round  its diameter at rest,
it will generate a sphere, the axis of which is that diameter. 
A X I
A Z  A
   Axis, in astronomy.   1.  Axis of the world, an  imagin-
ary right line conceived to pass through the centre of the
earth from one pole to  the  other, about which the sphere
ofthe world, in (he Ptolemaic  system, revolves in its di-
urnal rotation.  2. The axis of a planet is that line drawn
through the centre about which the planet revolves.  The
Sun, together with all planets, except Mercury and Sat-
urn,  are known by observation to move about their  respec-
tive  axes.  The axis of the  Earth, during its revolution
round the Sun, remains always parallel to itself; and is
inclined to the plane of the ecliptic, making with it an an-
gle of 66^ degrees.  3." The axes ofthe equator, horizon,
ecliptic, zodiac, &c. are right lines  drawn through  the
centres of those  circles perpendicular  to their  planes.
See Astronomy.
   Axis, in conic  sections, a right line  dividing the section
into two equal parts, and  cutting all its ordinates  at right
angles.   See Conic Sections.
   The axis  ofthe parabola is of an indeterminate length.
The  axis of the ellipsis is determinate.   In the ellipsis
and  hyperbola, there  are two axes and no more; and in
the parabola only one.
   Axis, in  mechanics.  The axis  of a  balance  is that
line  about which it moves, or  rather turns.  Axis  of oscil-
lation is a right line parallel to the horizon, passing  through
the centre, about which a pendulum vibrates.   Soe Me-
chanics.
   Axis in peritrochio, one of lhe five  mechanical  powers,
consisting of a perifrochium or  wheel, and  moveable to-
gether with   it about its axis.  The power is  applied at
the circumference of the wheel, and  the weight is raised
by a rope that  is gafhered up on the   axis while  the ma-
chine turns round.  The power  may  be conceived as  ap-
plied at the  extremity of the arm of a lever, equal to  the
radius of the wheel; and the weight as applied at  the  ex-
tremity of a lever, equal to the radius of the axis; only
those arms do not meet at  one centre of motion, as in  (he
lever ; but in place of this centre, we  have an axis of mo-
tion, vis. the axis of the whole machine.  See Mechan-
ics.
   The use of this machine is to raise  weights to a  greater
height (han (he lever can do, because (he wheel is  capable
of being turned  several times round,  which (he  lever is
not; and also to communicate motion from one part of a
machine to  another.   Accordingly,  there are few com-
pound machines without if.
   Axis, in optics,  is  that ray among al! others  lhat are
sent to the eye, which falls perpendicularly upon it, and
which consequently passes through the centre ofthe eye.
Common or  mean axis is a right line drawn from the point
of concourse of the two optic nerves  through the middle
of the right line, which joins (he extremity of lhe same op-
tic nerves.  Axis of a  glass or  len9,  is  a right line join-
ing the middle points of the two opposite  surfaces of  the
glass.
   Axis of incidence, in dioptrics,  is  a right line perpen-
dicular in the point of incidence  to the refracting  superfi-
cies, drawn in the same medium that the ray of incidence
comes from.
   Axis of refraction, is a right line  drawn through the re-
fracting medium, from the point of  refraction, perpendic-
ular  to (he refracting superficies.
   Axis, in  architecture.   Spiral axis is the  axia of a
twisted column drawn spirally in order to trace  the cir-
cumvolutions without.   Axis of the Ionic capital, is a
line passing perpendicularly through the middle of tbe eye
of the volute.
  Axis of  a vessel, is an  imaginary right line  passing
through the middle of it perpendicularly to its base, and
equally distant from its sides.
  Axis of a magnet, is a line passing through the middle of
a magnet lengthwise in such a manner as that, however the
magnet is  divided, provided the division is made  accord-
ing to a plane in which such line is found, the magnet will
be cut or separated into two loadstones; and the extremes
of such lines are called the poles of the magnet.
  Axis, in anatomy, the second vertebra of the neck, so
called from the bead's turning on it like an  axis.
  Axis, in zoology,  an animal of the deer kind.  See
Cervus.
  AXYRIS,  in  botany, a genus of the  triandria order,
belonging to the monoecia class of plants, and in the nat-
ural method ranking under  the twelfth order,  holoracece.
The calyx  of the  male is  tripartite; it has no  corolla.
The calyx of the  female consists of  two  leaves; it has
two styli and one  seed.  There are three species, all an-
nual, and natives of Siberia.
  AYE-AYE, in zoology, a singular quadruped discover-
ed in Madagascar.  Its name is  an exclamation of the in-
habitants,  which  M.  Sonnerat  applied to this  animal.
Both  male and  female are slothful and gentle animals ;
and, like owls, they are  scarcely  able to discern objects
in fhe day  time.  They  live  chiefly under ground, feed-
ing on  worms and  insects which they find in the earth or
in crevices in the trunks of trees,  whence they  extract
them  by means of their long and slender toe.   Sonnini
forms a new genus of  this animal, the generic character of
which is the long toes, the thumb of the hinder pair being
turned backward.
  AYENIA, in botany, a genus of the pentandria order,
belonging to the gynandria  class of  plants,  and in the nat-
ural method ranking under the 37th order, columniferse.
The calyx has two leaves; the petals are in the form of a
star, with  long ungues; and the capsule has five cells.
There are  four species, all natives of the West Indies.
  AZAB,  in the Turkish armies, a distinct body of  sold-
iery, who are great rivals ofthe Janizaries.
  AZALEA, an  American upright honeysuckle, a genus
of the monogynia  order, and pentandria class of plants ;
and in the  natural  method  ranking under the  18th order,
bicornes.   The corolla is bell shaped ; the stamina are  in-
serted into the receptacle,  and  lhe capsule  has 5 cells.
There are  7 species, of which the most remarkable are the
following:
  1. Azalea nudiflora, or  red  American upright  honey-
suckle, grows  taller  than  the  viscosa, and in its native
country will  sometimes  arrive  at  the height of 12 feet
but in  Britain  never  rises  to above half that height.  It
has several stems  with oblong smooth leaves.   The flow-
er stalks arise from the division of the branches, which
are long and naked,  supporting a cluster of red  flowers:
these are divided at the top into 5 equal segments, which
spread open.
  2. Azalea viscosa,  with  a white flower, is a low 6hrnb,
arising with several stems  to  tbe height of two or Ihree
feet.   The leaves come out io clusters without any  order 
A Z  O
A Z  O
 at the end ofthe shoots, and fheir edges are 6et with very
 short teeth, which are rough.  The flowers come out in
 clusters between the leaves, have  much the appearance
 of honeysuckle, and are as well scented.
  3. Azalea Pontica, a native -of Porrtus, has large and
 beautiful yellow flowers, very fragrant.
  Ofthe nudiflora there are also some beautiful varieties,
particularly the scarlet and the orange.   In short, there
 has not been a greater accession to our gardens than these
 truly elegant shrubs. They will only thrive in bog earth,
 and are chiefly propagated by layers, as the finer roots sel-
 dom ripen seeds in England.  They must be removed with
 a clump of earth, as disturbing (he fibres des(roys (hem.
  AZIMUTH, in astronomy, an arch ofthe horizon, in-
 tercepted between (he meridian of the place and the azi-
 muth, or vertical circle passing through the centre of the
 object,  which  is equal to  tbe angle of the zenith formed
 by the meridian and vertical circle ; or it is found by this
 proportion ; as the radius, to the tangent  ofthe latitude of
 the place, so is the tangent ofthe sun's or star's altitude,
 for instance, to the cosine ofthe azimuth from  the south,
 at the time of the  equinox.  To  find the azimuth by the
 globe, see the article Globe.
  Azimuth, magnetic al, an arch  of the horizon inter-
 cepted  between the azimuth, or vertical circle  passing
 through the centre of any heavenly body, and lhe mag-
 netical meridian.  This is found  by observing the object
 with an azimuth compass.
  Azimuth compass, an instrument adapted to find,  in a
 more accurate manner than by the common sea compass,
 the sun's or star's  magnetical amplitude,  or azimuth.
  Azimuth, dial, one whose style or gnomon is at right
 angles to  the plane of the horizon.
   Azimuth circles, called azimuths, or vertical circles,
 are great  circles ofthe sphere, intersecting'each other in
 the zenith and nadir, and cutting  the horizon at right an-
 gles in  all the points thereof.  The horizon being divided
 into  360°, they usually  conceive 360 azimuths.   These
 azimuths  are represented by the  rhumbs  on common sea
 charts, and  on the globe they  are  represented  by the
 quadrant of altitude when screwed  in  the zenith.  On
 these azimuths is reckoned the height ofthe stars, and of
 .the  sun, when not in the meridian.
   AZOGA ships,  Spanish ships, commonly called the
 •quicksilver ships,  from their carrying quicksilver  to the
 Spanish Wesf Indies, in order to extract the silver ou( of
 the  mines of  Mexico and  Peru.  These ships, strictly
 speaking, are not  to carry any goods, unless for the king
 of Spain's account; but by procuring  special licenses,
 they are enabled to take in a full cargo for merchants, as
 well  as lhe  sovereign.
   AZOLLA CAROLINIANA, in botany, a species of
 the cryptogamia, hepatiea?, class and order,  (a)
   AZOOPHAGUS, a term used by authors to express
 such animals and  insects as never eat  the! flesh of any
 creature that has had life.
   AZOTE, or nitrogen, in chymistry, a substance hith-
 erto considered as elementary, existing abundantly in na-
 ture, forming full three fourths of the atmosphere.   It is  a
 peculiar  and almost characteristic ingredient of animal
 . matter, the basis  of nitric acid, and one of the constitu-
 ents of volatile alkali.  Pure urate is known only in the
 form of gas ; it is then synonymous with the phlogisticat-
 ed air of Scheele and Priestley, (he atmospherical mepht-
 tis of Lavoisier, and (he nitrogen gas of Chaptal.
   Azote may be procured by (he following processes. If
 a quantity of iron filings and sulphur, mixed together, nnd
 moistened with water, is put into a glass vessel full ©f gj,
 it will absorb all the oxygen in the course of a few daja-
 but a considerable residuum of  air will  still remain »>
 capable of any further diminution.   This residuum has ob-
 tained  the  appellation of  azotic gas.  There  are other
 methods  of obtaining it  more speedily-   If phosphsrui,
 for instance, is substituted for the iron filings and sulphur,
 the absorption is completed in less than 24 hours.  Tbe
 following method, first pointed out by Berthollet, furnishes
 very pure azotic gas, if the proper precautions are attend-
 ed to.  Very much diluted aquafortis,,or  nitrous acid, as
 it is called in chymistry, is poured upon apiece of.muscu-
 lar flesh, and a heat of about 100°  applied.  A consider.
 able  quantity of azolic gas  is emitted, which may be re-
 ceived in proper vessels.
   The air of lhe atmosphere contains about 0.78 pari*, in
 bulk, of azotic gas; almost all the rest of it is oxygen gas.
 Mr. Lavoisier was  the first  philosopher who published this
 analysis, and who made azotic gas known  as a coaipoaajt
 part  of air.   Ilis experiments were published in  177d,;pr
 perhaps  rather  1775.  Scheele   undoubtedly was ac-
 quainted  as early  with the composition  of air; but his
 Treatise  on Fire, in which  that analysis is contained,,was
 not published till 1777.
   Mr. Kirvvan examined the specific gravity of azotic gas
 obtained by Schcele's process ; it was 0.00120; it is there-
 fore somewhat lighter than  atmospheric air;  it is to .atmo-
 spheric air  as 985 to 1000.  According to the experiments
 of Lavoisier, its specific  gravity is only 0,0011$, oritjs
 to common air as 942.6 to  1000.
   This gas is invisible and elastic, like common,airland
 like it  too,  capable  of indefinite  condensation anddila*
 tion.  It  is exceedingly noxious  lo  animals; if obliged to
 respire it,  they drop down dead almost instantly.  No
 combustible will burn in it.  Hence the reason why,*
 candle is extinguished in atmospherical.air as soon**the
 oxygen near it is consumed.
   Azolic gas is capable of combining with oxygen.  Tak«
 a glass tube, the diameter of which is about the sixfh.put
 of an inch;  shut one of its ends  with.a  cork, fhreuigh
 the middle  of which passes a small wire with a hall tf
 metal at each end.   Fill the, tube with mercury, and then
 plunge its open end into a  basin of that fluid.  Throw up
 into the tube as much of a mixture, composednf 13f»rl»
 of azofic and 87,parts of  oxygen gas,, as will fill ibre*
 inches.   Through  this gas  make, by means of thewirein   |
 (he cork, a number of electric explosions pass.  The *sl»  J
• ume  of gas gradually diminishes, and in ils place there is
 found a quantity of nitric acid.   This  acid, therefore,!*
 composed of azote  and  oxygen ; and these two subsjances
 are capable of combining; or,  which is  the same thiog.
 azotic gas is capable of combustion in the tempera*^
 produced by electricity, which we know to be high.  The
 combination of azotic  gas  with oxygen, and the nature of
 the product were discovered by Mr. Caveudieh,,and com-
 municated  to the   Royal  Sociefy  on .the 2d  of,Ju»e»
 17o.;. 
B  A C
BAG
  When sulphur is melted in azofic gas, part of it is dis-
solved, and sulphureted azolic gas formed.   This gas has
a felid odour.   Its properties are still unknown.
  Phosphorus  phinged inlo azotic gas is dissolved in a
small proporfion.  Its bulk is increased about l-10tb, and
phosphureled azotic gas is the result.   When (his gas is
mixed  wilh oxygen gas, it becomes luminous, in conse-
quence of the  combustion of the dissolved phosphorus.
The combustion is  most rapid when bubbles of phosphu-
reled azolic gas are let up into a jar full of oxygen gas.
When  phosphureted oxygen gas and phosphureted azotic
gas are mixed together, no light is produced, even at the
temperature of tJ_°.
  Azotic gas dissolves also a little carbon ; for azotic gas
obtained from animal substances, by Berthollet's process,
when confined long in jars, deposites on  the sides of them a
black matter, which has the properties of charcoal.
   When mixed with hydrogen gas,it undergoes no change.
It may, however, be  combined with  hydrogen,  and the
Compound  formed is known by the name of ammonia or
Volatile alkali.
  The affinities of azote are still unknown.  It has never
     Bthe second letter of the alphabet, is used as an abbre-
   ? viation :  in music, B stands for lhe lone above A :  B
also  stands for bass, and B.C. for basso continuo, or thor-
ough bass.  As a numeral, B was used by fhe Greeks and
Hebrews  fo  denote  2:  but among the Romans, for  300,
and with a dash over it (thus, b) for 3000.  The same peo-
ple likewise  used B. for Brutus, B. F. for bonum factum.
B, in the old chymical alphabet, signifies Mercury;  B.A.
stands for bachelor of arts; B.L.  for bachelor of lawsj
and  B.D. for bachelor of divinity.
  BABOON, in zoology.  See Simia.
  BABYLONICA, texla, a rich sort of  weavings, or
hangings,  so denominated from the city of Babylon, where
the practice of interweaving divers colours  in  their hang-
ings was first invented.
  BACA, in botany.  See Berry.
  BACCH^E, in antiquity, priestesses ofthe god Bacchus.
They were likewise  called mtenades,  on account of the
frantic ceremonies used  in their feasts; as also thyades,
which signifies impetuous, or furious.
  BACCHANALIA, feasts celebrated in honour of Bac-
chus by the  ancienl Greeks and Romans ; of which the
two most remarkable were called the greater and lesser.
The latter were held in  the open fields about autumn;
but the greater, called dionysia,  w ere  celebrated in the
city in spring time.
  BACCHARIS, in botany, ploughman*s spikenard, a
genus of the polygamia superflua order, belonging to the
syngenesis class of plants ; and in the natural method
ranking under the 49th  order, composite discoides.  The
characters are; it has a naked receptacle, and hairy pap-
pus ; with a  cylindrical  imbricated calyx,  and feminine
florets  mixed with the hermaphrodite ones.  There are 9
species, all natives of warm climates ; of which  the two fol-
lowing chiefly merit notice.
yet been decompounded ; and must therefore, in the pres-
ent state of our knowledge, be considered as a simple sub-
stance.  See Air.
  AZURE, in heraldry, the blue colour in the arms of any
person below the rank ofa baron.  In the escutcheon  of
a nobleman, it is called sapphire ;  and in that of a sovereign
prince, Jupiter.  In engraving, this  colour is  expressed
by lines or strokes drawn horizontally.
   AZYGOS, in anatomy, a vein rising within the thorax
on the right side, having no fellow on the left: whence it
is called azygos, or vena sine pari.
  AZYMITES, in church history,  Christians who ad-
minister the eucharist with unleavened bread.
  AZYMOUS, something unfermented; as  bread, &c.
made without leaven.  This term has occasioned frequent
disputes, and, at length, a rupture between the Latin and
the Greek churches; the former of which maintain, that the
bread in the mass ought to be azymous, unleavened, in im-
itation of  the paschal bread ofthe Jews, and  of our  Sa-
viour, who instituted the sacrament on the day  of the pass-
over.  The latter as strenuously maintain the  contrary,
from tradition and the common usage  of the church.
     1. Baccbaris halimifolia, or Virginia groundsel tree, a
'<  native of Virginia and other parts of North America.  It
  grows about 7 or 8 feet high, with a crooked shrubby stem;
  and flowers in October.  The flowers are white,  and not
  very  beautiful; but the leaves continuing green, has occa-
  sioned this shrub to be admitted into many curious gardens.
  It may be propagated by cuttings ; and will live very well
  in the open air, though severe frost will sometimes destroy it.#
     2. Baccharis ivaefolia, or African tree  groundsel,  a na-
  tive of the Cape  of Good Hope, as well  as of Peru and
  other warm  parts of America.  It grows to the height <if
1  5 or 6 feet;  and though there is little  beauty in the flow-
!  er, has been long admitted into the gardens of lhe curious.
  It is  pretty  hardy, and will live abroad in moderate win-
  ters in England ; but is usually kept in green houses, and
  placed abroad only in summer.  It may  be  propagated
.  either by cuttings  or by seeds, which ripen well in this
!  country.  ,
»     BACCHIUS, in ancient poetry, a kind of foot composed
  ofa short syllable and two long ones.
     BACILLARIA, in natural history, a genus of vermes
:  infusoria?, of which only a single species  is  describ-
.  ed.   The body  consists of sfraw like  cylinders, placed
;  parallel to each other, and frequently changes its direction
i  and arrangement.
     BACK, in brewing, a large flat kind of tub or vessel, in
.  which the wort is put for cooling.  The ingredients  of
  beer  pass through three kinds of vessels:  they are mash-
1  ed in one, worked in another, and cooled in a third.  See
!  Brewing.
     Back the sails, is to put them in a situation that will
  occasion the ship to retreat or move astern.
>     Back, in  the  manege.  To back  a horse,  or  mount a
•  horse d dos in French,  is to mount him bare  backed,  or
  without a saddle.
B. 
B  A  C
BAG
   Back gammon, an ingenious game played wilh dice
and tables, to be learned only by observation and practice.
However, lhe following rules concerning it cannot fail to
be acceptable to our readers.  In the first place, the men,
which are thirty in number, being equally divided between
the two gamesters, are  placed thus, vis. two on the ace
point, five on the side of your left hand table, three on the
einque, and  five on the ace point of your right hand table,
which are answered on the like points by your adversary's
men :  or they may be disposed  thus, vis. two on the  ace
point, five on the double sice or sice cinque point, three on
the cinque point  in your own fables, and five on the sice
point  at home ; which are to be answered by your adver-
sary.   The men  being thus   disposed,  be  sure  to  make
good  your trey and ace points; hit boldly, and come away
as fast as you can.  When  you come to bearing, have  a
care of making when you need not; and doublets now will
stand  you most in stead.  If both bear together, he that
is first off, without doublets, wins one;  if bofh  bear, and
one goes off with  doublets, he wins two.  If your table be
clear  before your adversary's men are come  in,  that  is a
back  gammon, which is three ; but if you thus go off with
doublets, it is four.
   The great dexterity of  this game is to be forward, if
possible, upon safe terms; and so  to point the men, that
it shall not be possible  for the adversary to pass, though
you have entered your men, till you give him liberty, af-
ter having got two to one of  the advantage of the game.
   Back staff, in the sea language, an instrument (otake
the sun's altitude.  It consists of two concentric arches,
the greater of which is divided into 30 degrees, and every
degree into  5 minutes, by means of diagonal lines; and
the lesser into 60 degrees.  There are likewise 3  vanes
belonging to it :  that upon  the  arch  of 30  degrees  be-
ing called the sight vane; that  upon the arch  of  60 de-
grees, the shade  vane;  and  the other in the centre of the
arches, the horizon vein.
   To find the  sun's altitude by this instrument, fix  the
shade vane  on the 60 degrees arch, at about  15 or 20 de-
grees less than the complement ofthe altitude; and turn-
ing your back toward the sun, move the sight vane up and
down till the sun's image fall on  the horizon vane, and at
the same instant you see tbe horizon through the slit in
the horizon  vane, then will  the degrees cut by  the  shade
vane  on  the arch, being added to those cut  by the sight
vane  on the other arch, be  the  sun's  zenith distance at
that  time,  which being subtracted from 90 degrees,  will
give  his altitude.
   BACOPA, in botany, a genus of the pentandria mono-
gynia class and order: the  essential  character is,  calyx
with  a short tube, spreading at top;  stam. inserted into
the tube ofthe corolla, stigma headed, caps,  one celled.
   There is but one species, an aquatic plant  of Cayenne,
celebrated by the  inhabitants for its efficacy  in  curing
burns.
   BACTRIS, in botany, a genus of the class  and  order
monoecia hexandria.   In  fhe male flowers  the calyx  is 3
 fiarted ;  corolla  1 petalled,  3 cleft ;  stam.  6; fem. cal.  1
 eafed, 3 toothed ; cor.  the same, stigma 3 cleft, drupe
coriaceous.   This genus is classed  among  the palms :
there are two species, the majus and minus, both natives
of Carthagena,  where the fruit is eaten.
   BACULARES, a sect  of anabaptists, so  called as
holding it unlawful to bear a sword, or any other weapon
besides a staff.
  BACULE, in fortification, a kind of portcullis, or gale,
made like a pitfall with a counterpoise, and supported by
two great stakes.  It is usually made before the corps de
garde, not far from the gate of a place.
  BADGER, in zoology.  See Ursus.
  Badger, in  old law  books, one that was licensed fo
buy corn in one place,  and carry it to another (o sell
without incurring the punishment of an engrosser.  They
are to be annually licensed by the juslices.
  BADIAGA,  a water plant resembling a sponge", and
said to be good for removing the livid marks from blows.
  BADIANE, or Badi an, the seed of a tree which grows
in China, and  smells like annise seed.   The Chinese, and
the Dutch, in imitation of them, sometimes use the badiane
to give their tea an aromatic taste.
  BAD1GEON, a mixture of plaster and freestone, used
by statuaries to  fill up little holes.
  BJECKEA, in botany, a genus  of  the octandria order
and monogynia class of plants.  The calyx is a permanent
perianthium, consisting of a single funnel shaped leaf, cut
into  5 segments at  the  brim ; the corolla consists of 5
roundish petals  inserted into lhe calyx ; the pericarpium
is a globose'capsule, made up of 4 valves, and containing  \
4 cells, in which are  a few roundish angular seeds. There
is one species, a native of China.
  BiEOBOTRYS,  a genus of the pentandria  monogynia
class  and order.   The essential character is, cor. tubular;
border 5 cleft; cal. double, outer 2 leaved, inner 1 leafed,
bell shaped;  berry globose, 1  celled, growing to calyx,
many seeded.  There is but one species, a native of Zan-
na in  the South  Seas.
  BJETYLIA,  anointed stones, worshipped by the Phe-
nicians, and by other barbarous nations.
  BAFFETAS, or Bast as, a cloth made of coarse while
cotlon thread, which comes from the East Indies. Those
of Surat are the  best.
  BAG, among farriers,  is wheni  in  order fo retrieve a
horse's lost appetite, they put an ounce of asafoelida, andis
much  powder of savin, info a  bag, to be tied  to tbe bit,
keeping him bridled for two hours, several times a day:
as soon as the bag is taken off, he will fall to eating.  Tbe
same  bag will  serve a long time.
  BAGNOLIANS, Bagnolenses, in church history,a
sect of heretics, who in reality were  manichees, though
Ihey  somewhat  disguised their errors.   They  rejected
the Old Testament, and  part of lhe New ;  held ibe world
to be  eternal,  and affirmed fhat God did  not create the
soul when he infused  it into the body.
  BAGPIPE, a musical  instrument of the wind kind,
chiefly used in country places,  especially in the north;  it
consists of two principal parts; lhe first a leathern bag.
which blows up like a football, by means  ofa port vent, or
little  tube,  fitted to it, and stopped by a  valve; the other
part consists of three pipes or flutes, lhe first called the
great  pipe,or drone,  and the second the little one;  "bi<h
pass   the wind out only at the bottom: the third has a
reed,  and is played on by compressing the bag under the
arm, when full, and opening and stopping the holes, whn*
are eight, with the fingers.   The little pipe is ordinarily*
foot  long ; that  played on, thirteeu inches ; and the pott
vent six. 
B  A I
B  A  I
    BAGUETTE, in architecture, a small round moulding,
  less than an astragal, and so called from the resemblance it
  bears to a ring.
    BAHAR,  or  Barre, in  commerce,  weights used in
  several places in the East Indies.
    There are I wo of these weights, the one the great ba-
  har, wifh which they weigh  pepper, cloves, nutmegs, gin-
  ger,  &c.  and contains about  5cwt. and 24  pounds  9
  ounces, avoirdupois weight.   Wilh the  little bahar ihey
  weigh quicksilver,  vermilion, ivory, silk, Sec.  It contains
  about 437 pounds 9 ounces.
    BAIL, in law, lhe setting at liberty one arrested, or im-
  prisoned, upon an  action eilher civil or  criminal, upon
  sureties  taken for his appearance at a day and  place as-
  signed.  In civil cases the bail is either common or spe-
  cial.   Common  bail is a matter of course, being nothing
  but  a mere  form  upon appearance, after personal service
  of the writ, aud nolice to appear upon fhe defendant.  If
  he appear thereto, his attorney puis in imaginary sureties
  for his future attendance, as John Doe and Richard Roe.
  But if (he plaintiff will make affidavit (hat the cause of ac-
  tion amounts to  10/. or upward, in order to arrest the de-
  fendant,  and  make him put in substantial sureties for his
  appearance,  called special bail;  it  is then required fhat
  the true cause of action be  expressed in the body ofthe
  writ, or process.  3 Blacks. 287.
    Special bail, are two or more persons, who, after the ar-
  rest, undertake generally, or enter info bond to fhe sheriff
  in a certain  sum,  to ensure (he defendant's appearance at
  (he return of  the writ; (his  obligation is called  the  bail
  bond.
    Bail in criminal cases.  Upon offering sufficient surety,
  bail may  be  taken either in court, or in  some particular
  cases, by the sheriff, coroner, or olher  magistrate, but
 most  usually by  justices of the peace, in (he following
 cases : Persons of good fame  charged with a bare suspicion
 of manslaughter,  or  other  inferior  homicide.  Persons
 charged with pe(i( larceny, or any felony not before spec-
 ified.  Accessories (o felony, not  being of evil fame, nor
 under strong presumption of guilt.   But bail cannot be
 taken upon an accusation  of treason, nor of murder, nor in
 the case of manslaughter if the person is clearly the slay-
 er; nor such as being committed  for felony have broken
 prison, nor persons outlawed, nor such  as have abjured
 lhe realm, nor approvers, nor persons taken wilh the man-
 er, or in the fact of felony, nor persons charged wifh
 houseburning, nor  persons lakeu by  writ of excommuni-
 cato capiendo.
   BAILE, or Bale, in (he sea language.   The seamen
 call throwing (he wa(er by hand ou( of the ship or boat's
 hold, bailing.  They also call those hoops that bear up
 the tilt ofa boat, its bails.
   BAILMENT,  in law,  is a delivery of things,  whether
 writings, goods, &c. to another, sometimes to be delivered
 back to (he bailer; (ha( is, to him who so delivered (hem ;
 sometimes to (he use of (he bailee ; that is, of him to whom
 (hey are delivered ;  and somelimesalso (o be delivered lo
 a (hird person ; this delivery is called  a  bailment.  2
 Blacks. -1.01.
   The following rules are  laid down as actions in (he law
of bailments:  A bailee,  who  derives no benefit from his
undertaking, is responsible only for gross negligence.   A
bailer, who alone receives  benefit from the bailment, is re-
sponsible for  slight neglect.   When lhe bailment is ben-
  vol. i.            38
  eficial to both parties, tbe bailee must answer for ordinary
  neglect.  A special agreement ofthe bailee to answer for
  more or less, is in general valid.  All bailers are answera-
  ble for actual fraud, even (hough (he contrary be stipulat-
  ed.   No bailee shall be  charged for a loss by inevitable
  accident,  or irresistible force,  except by special agree-
  ment.  Robbery by force  is considered as irresistible;
  bu( a loss by private stealth, is presumptive evidence of or-
  dinary  neglect.   Gross  neglect  is a  violation of good
  faith.   No  action lies to compel performance by a naked
  contract.   The  negligence  of a  servant acting by  hip
  master's orders, expressed or implied,  is  (he negligence
  of (he master.
    BAILIFF, a keeper, or protector.   Hence the  sheriff
  is considered-as  bailiff to  (he crown:  and (he county of
  which he has the care, and in which he is to execute  the
  king's writ, is called his bailiwick; so also his officers who
  execute writs, warrants, &c. are called bailiffs.
    Bailiff, water, an  officer appointed in all port  towns,
  for the searching of ships, gathering the  toll for anchorage,
  &c.  and arresting persons for debts, &c. on the wafer.
    Bailiff is still applied to lhe chief magistrate of sev-
  eral  corporate towns.  The government of some  of  tbe
  king's castles is also committed lo persons  called bailiffs,
 as lhe bailiff of Dover castle.
    In France, bailiffs have some considerable prerogatives ;
  they  are  reputed heads of  their respective districts, or
 administer justice by their lieutenants, at least within  the
 precincts  of the  several  parliaments   or  provinces  of
 France.  In their  name justice is administered, contracts
 and other deeds  passed, and  to  them  is committed  the
 command of the militia.
   In Scotland, bailiff is the name of a judge, as well as  the
 appellation of alderman.
   Bailiffs of courts baron, summon Ihose courts, and
 execute the  process  thereof;  they present  all pound
 breaches, cattle strayed, &c.
   BAILIWICK,  signifies sometimes that liberty  which
 is exempted from  the sheriff of the  county, over  which
 the lord of the liberty appoints a bailiff, such as the bai-
 liff of  Westminster.
   BAILS, clerk of the, is an officer belonging (o lhe court
 of king's bench : he files (he bail pieces taken in that  court,
 and attends for that purpose.
   BAIOCAO,  a copper  coin,  current at  Rome, and
 throughout the whole state of lhe church, len of  which
 make a julio, and an hundred  a Roman crown.
   B AIR AM, in the Mahometan customs, a yearly festival
 of the Turks, which they keep after the fast of ramazan.
   The Mahometans have two  bairams, fhe great and lhe lit-
 tle.  The little bairam continues for three days, and is sev-
 enty days after the first, which follows immediately  after
 the ramazan.  During the bairam the people  leave their
 work for three days, make presents fo  one another, and
 spend the (ime wilh great  manifestations of joy.  If (he
 day after ramazan  should prove  so cloudy as lo prevent
 the sight of  (he new  moon,  tbe  bairam is put off (o the
 next day, when it is kept,  even if (he moon  should still
 be obscured.  When they celebrate  this  feast, after  nu-
 merous ceremonies, or rather strange mimicries, in their
 mosque, it is concluded with  a solemn prayer  against  the
infidels,  lo extirpate  Christian  princes, or to arm them
against one another, that they may have  an opportunity lo
extend the limits of their law. 
BAK
B  A  L
  BAITING is applied  to  the act of smaller or weaker
beasts attacking and harassing greater and stronger ones.
Bulls and bears are baited by mastiffs, or bull dogs.  The
practice of bull baiting, and other sports  of the same
kind, which cannot  be too  strongly reprobated,  may be
traced to an early period of our history.  In tbe twelfth
century,  it was  a common practice on every  holiday.  In
the  reign  of Henry VIII.  many  herds of bears were
maintained for the purpose of baiting.  Queen Mary had
a great exhibition of bear baiting  immediately after mass,
wi(h which to entertain her sister Elizabeth, then a pris-
oner  in  Hatfield  house; and the same princess, soon af-
ter her  accession to  the throne,  entertained the foreign
ambassadors with (he baiting of bulls and bears.  The cus-
tom  of bull baiting was most ingeniously defended by Mr.
Windham in the house of commons in the session of 1803,
when a bill was brought in to stop that iuhuman practice.
Whales are baited by a kind of fish called oriae, or killers,
ten or twelve of which will attack a young wbale at once,
and  not leave him till he is killed.   Philos. Trans. No.
287.
  BAJULUS, an ancient officer in the court of the Greek
emperors.
  BAKER, a  person whose occupation or  business is to
prepare bread, or  to reduce meals of any kind,  whether
simple or compound, into bread, biscuits, &c.
  It is not known when  this very useful business first be-
came a  particular  profession.  Bakers were  a distinct
body of people in  Rome nearly two hundred years be-
fore  the Christian era, and it is supposed that they came
from Greece.   To  these were added  a number of free-
men, who were  incorporated into a college, from which
neither they nor their children were allowed to withdraw.
They held their effects in common without enjoying any
power of parting with Ihem.   Each bakehouse had a pa-
Iron, who had  the superintendency of it ; and one of the
patrons had the management of lhe  others, and the care of
lhe  college.    So respectable  were the bakers at Rome,
that occasionally  one of the  body was admitted among the
senators.
   Even  by our own statutes the bakers are declared not
to be handicrafts; and in London they are under the par-
ticular jurisdiction of the lord mayor and aldermen, who
fix (he price of bread, and have the power of fining those
who do not conform to their rules.
   Bread is made of flour mixed and kneaded with yeast,
water, and a little salt.   It is known in London under two
names, the white or  wheaten, and the household: these
differ only in  degrees of purity :  and fhe loaves must be
marked  with a W or H,  or the baker is liable to suffer a
penalty.
   The process of bread making  is thus described: To a
peck of meal are  added a handful of salt, a pint of yeast,
and three  quarts  of water, cold in summer,  hot in winter,
 and temperate  between the two.   The whole being knead-
ed,  will  rise  in about an hour ;  il is (hen   moulded into
 loaves, and put into  the  oven to bake.  The oven takes
more than an hour to heat properly, and bread about three
hours to bake.
   The price of bread is regulated according to the price
of wheat;  and bakers are directed  in  (his  by (he magis-
trals, whose  rules they are bound (o follow.   By these
tbe  peck loaf of each sort of bread must weigh seventeen
pounds six ounces avoirdupois weight, and smaller loaves
ih the same proportion.   Every sack of  flour is to weigh
two hundred and a half; and  from this there ought to be
made, at an  average, twenty such peck loaves, or eighty
common quartern loaves.
  If the bread was short in  its weight only one ounce in
thirty-six, lhe baker formerly was liable  to be  put in the
pillory; and for the same offence be may now be fined,
at the will of the magistrate, in any sum not less than one
shilling, nor more than five shillings for every ounce want-
ing ; such bread being complained of and weighed in the
presence of the magistrate  within twenty-four hours after
it is baked, because bread loses in weight by keeping.
  It is said  that scarcely any nation lives without bread,
or something as a substitute for if.  The Laplanders hate
no corn, but they make bread of their dried fishes, and of
the inner rind of the pine, which  seems to  be used not
so much on  account of  the nourishment to be obtained
from it, as for the sake of having a dry food.   In Norway
they make bread that will keep thirty or forty years, a;"d
the inhabitants esteem (he  old aud stale bread in prti'cr-
ence to that which is newly made.  For their great feasti
particular care is taken to  have the oldest bread ; so that
at the christening ofa child, for instance, (hey have usu-
ally  bread which  has been baked perhaps at the birth of
the father,  or  even grandfather.  It is made from barley
and oats, and baked between two hollow stones.
  The process of biscuit baking, as practised at the vict-
ualling  office at Deptford, is  curious  and interesting.
The dough,  which consists of flour  and water  only, ia
worked by a large machine.  It  is then handed over to
a second  workman, who slices it with a large knife for
the bakers,  of  whom  there are five.   The  first,  or the
moulder, forms the biscuits two at a time ;  the second, or
marker, stamps and throws (hem (o (he splitter, who sep-
arates the two pieces,  and  puts them under the hand of
the chucker, the man that supplies lhe oven, whose work
ef throwing lhe bread on (he peel must be so exact, fhat
he cannot look off for a moment.  The fifth, or the depos-
itor, receives the biscuits on the peel, and arranges thera
in the oven.   All  the men work wifh  the greatest exact-
ness, and are, in truth,  like parts of the same rnachiae.
The business is to deposife in the oven seventy biscuitsin
a minute ; and this is accomplished with the regularity of
a clock, the clacking of the peel operating like  fhe motioD
of the pendulum.   There  are twelve ovens at Deptford,
and  each will furnish  daily bread for 2040 men.
   The  bakers of London  make a distinct  eompanyi the
nineteenth in order.
   BAL.^ENA, the whale, in zoology, a  genus of the mam-
malia class, belonging to tbe order of ceti. The characters
of this genus are these: the balsena, in place of teeth, a**
a horny plate on the  upper jaw, ana a  double fistula or
pipe for throwing out water. There are four species: vis-
   1.  Balensea  bo-ops,  the pike  headed   whale, has a
double  pipe  in  its snout,  fhree  fins,  and a hard horny
ridge on its back.  The belly  is full of longitudinal fold*
or rugse.  It frequents the northern ocean.   The length
of one  taken ort the coast of Scotland, as  remarked by
sir Robert Sibbald, was forty-six  feet, and its  greatest
circumference twenty.   This species fakes ifs name from
the shape of ifs nose, which is narrower and sharper point-
ed (ban that of other whales. 
BALDEN A.
   2. Balaena musculus has a double pipe in its front, and
three fins ; the under jaw is much wider than the upper
one.  It frequents the Scotch coasts, and feeds upon her-
rings.
   3. Balaena mysticetus, the common or great Greenland
whale, which has no  fin on the back.  This is the largest
of all animals; it is  even at present  sometimes  found in
the northern seas ninety feet in length ; but formerly they
were  taken of a  much  greater size,  when the  captures
were less frequent, and the fish had time (o grow.   Such
is (heir bulk  within  the  arctic circle: but in the  torrid
zone, where they are less molested,  whales are still seen
one hundred  and sixty feet long.  The head is  very
much disproportioned (o  the size of the body, being one
third of the size of the fish : the under lip is much broad-
er (han the upper.  The  tongue is  composed of a very
soft spongy fat,  capable of yielding five or six barrels of
oil.  The gullet is very small for so vast a fish, not exceed-
ing four inches  in width.   In the middle of (he  head are
(wo orifices,  (hrough which it  spouts  water to a  vast
height, and with a great noise, especially when disturbed
or wounded;  the eyes are placed toward  the  back of the
head, being the  most convenient situation  for  enabling
Ihem lo see both before and behind; as also to  see over
them,  where tl'.ir food is  principally found.  They are
guarded by eyelids and eyelashes, as in quadrupeds; and
the animals seem to be  very sharp sighted.   Nor is their
sense of hearing in  less perfection; for they are warned
at a great distance of any danger preparing against them.
It is (rue, indeed, that  the  external organ of hearing is
not perceptible,  for this might  only embarrass them in
their natural element; but as soon as the thin scarf skin af-
ter mentioned  is removed, a black spot is discovered behind
the eye, and under that  is  tbe auditory canal, that leads
to a regular apparatus  for hearing.  In short, the animal
hears the smallest sounds  at very great distances, and at
all times, except  when it  is spouting water; which is*
the time that the fishers approach to strike it.   What is
called whalebone, adheres to the upper jaw, and is form-
ed of thin parallel lamina;, some of the longest four yards
in length;  of  these there are commonly 350 on each side,
but in very old fish more.  They are surrounded with
long strong hair,  not only  (hat they may  not  hurt lhe
tongue, but as  strainers to prevent (he return of their food,
when (hey discharge (he water out of their mouth.  The
real bones of (he whale  are  hard, porous, and full of mar-
row.   Two very strong bones  sustain the upper lip, ly-
ing against each other in the shape ofa half  moon.  The
(ail is broad and semilunar; and when (be fish lies on one
side, its blow is tremendous.  The (ail alone it makes use
of, lo advance  itself forward in the wafer; and it is surpris-
ing with what  force and celerity its enormous bulk cuts
(iiFough the ocean.   The  fins are only made use of for
turning in the  water, and giving a direction to lhe veloci-
ty impressed by the tail.   The female also makes use of
(hem, when pursued, to bear off her young, clapping them
on her back, and supporting ihem by the fins on each side
from falling.  The whale varies in  colour;  the back of
nome  being red, lhe belly generally white.   Others are
black, some mottled, and others, quite white.   Their col-
ours in lhe wafer are extremely beautiful, and their skin
is very smooth and slippery.  The outward or scarf skin
of the whale ia no thicker than  parchment;  but this re-
              3JJ-*
moved, the real skin appears, of about an inch thick, and
covering the fat or blubber that lies beneath :  this is from
eight to twelve inches in thickness; and is, when (he fish
is in health, of a beautiful yellow.  The muscles lie be-
neath; and these,  like the flesh of quadrupeds, are very
red and tough.  Tbe teats in lhe female are placed in (he
lowerpartof (he  belly.  They breed only  once in (wo
years.   Their fideli(y to each other exceeds whatever we
are told even of fhe constancy of birds.   Some fishers, as
Anderson informs us, having struck one of two whales, a
male and a female, that  were in company together, the
wounded  fish made a long and  terrible resistance ;  it
struck down a boat with three men in it, wifh a single
blow of its tail, by which all went to  the bottom.  The
other still attended  its  companion, and  lent  it  every as-
sistance ; till, at last, the fish  that was struck  sunk un-
der the number of its wounds;  while its faithful  associate,
disdaining  to survive the  loss,  with  great bellowing,
stretched itself upon the dead  fish,  and shared ifs fate.
The whale goes with young nine or ten months, and is then
falter  (han  usual,  particularly when  near tne  time  of
bringing forth.  It is said  that the embryo, when first per-
ceptible, is  about seventeen inches long, and  white!; but
the cub, when excluded, is black,  and about fen feet long.
She generally produces one young one, and never above1
two.  When she suckles her young, she throws herself on
one side of the surface of lhe sea, and  lhe young one at-
taches itself fo the teat.  Nothing can exceed the tender-
ness of tbe female for her offspring.  Even when wounded,
she still clasps her young  one; and when she plunges to
avoid danger, takes it to the bottom ; but rises sooner than
usual, to give it breath again.  The young ones  continue'
at the breast for a year; during which  lime, Ihey are call-
ed by  the sailors,  short heads.   They are then extreme-
ly fat, and  yield  above fifty   barrels  of blubber.  The
mother at the same time  is equally lean and emaciated.
At the age of two years they are called stunts, as  they do
not thrive much  immediately after quitting  (he breas(;
they then yield scarcely above  twenty or  twenty-four
barrels of blubber: from that time forward they are call-
ed skull fish, and their age is wholly unknown.  The food
of the great whale is a small sea insect well known under
the name of the Medusa or sea blubber.
  4. Balaena physalus, or fin fish, see PIa(e XV. Nat.
Hist. fig. 44. is distinguished from tbe common whale by  a
fin on the back, placed very low and near the fail.  The
length is equal to  that of the  common  kind,  but much
more slender.  It is furnished with whalebone  in  fhe upper
jaw, mixed with hairs, bat  short and knotty,  and of little
value.   The blubber also in lhe body of this kind is very
inconsiderable.  These circumstances, added  to  its ex-
treme fierceness and agility, which render the capture very
dangerous, cause the fishers to neglect it.  The natives ©f
Greenland, however, hold it in great esteem, as if affords
a quantity of flesh  which fo their palate is  very agree-
able.  The  lips are  brown,  and  like a twisted rope :
the spout hole is seemingly split in lhe top of its head,
through  which it blows water with much more violence,
and  to a greater height,  than  lhe common whale.  The
fishers are not very fond of seeing it, for on il* appearance
lhe others  retire out of (hose  seas.  It feeds on herring
and small fish.  Inoffensive as  the whale is, it is not with-
out enemies.  There is  a small  animal, of the  shell fieh 
BAL.ENA.
 kind called the whale louse, that sticks to ifs body, as we
 see shells sticking lo the foul bottom ofa ship.   This in-
 sinuates itself chiefly under (he fins ; and wha(ever efforts
 the great animal makes, i( still  keeps its hold, and lives
 upon the fat, which  it is provided with instruments to ar-
 iive at.
   The swordfish, however,  is  the whale's most terrible
 enemy.   " At the sight of this little animal," says Ander-
 son, " the whale seems agitated in an extraordinary man-
 ner, leaping from the water as if with affright : wherever
 it appears, lhe whale perceives  it at a distance, and flies
 from it in the opposite direction.  I have been myself,"
 continues he, «♦  a spectator of  their  terrible  encounter.
 The whale has no instrument of defence except the tail;
 with that it endeavours to strike the enemy ; and a single
 blow taking place would effectually destroy its adversary :
 but  the  swordfish is as active as the other is strong, and
 easily avoids the stroke; then bounding into lhe air, it
 falls upon its enemy, and endeavours not to pierce with its
pointed beak, but to cut with its  toothed edges.  The sea
 all about  is soon dyed wifh blood, proceeding  from  the
 wounds of the whale; while the enormous animal vainly
endeavours to reach its invader, and  strikes with its tail
against the surface of the water, making a report at each
blow, louder (han (he noise ofa cannon."
  There is still another powerful enemy to this fish, which
is called the orien or killer.   A  number of these are said
 to surround the  whale in the same manner as  dogs get
round  a  bull.   Some attack  it  with  (heir  teeth behind;
others attempt it before: until, at last, the great animal is
 torn down, and its tongue  is said (o be (he only part they
 devour when (hey have made it their prey.
  But of all the  enemies of these enormous fishes man is
 the greatest: he alone destroys  more  in a  year (han the
 rest in an age; and actually has (binned (heir numbers in
 that part of the world where (hey are  chiefly sought.  At
 lhe first discovery of Greenland, whales not being used to
 be disturbed frequendy, came inlo  lhe very bays, and
 were accordingly killed almost close to (he shore ; so that
 the blubber being cu( off, was imniediafely boiled inlo oil
 on lhe spot.  The ships,  in Ihose times, took in  nothing
 but tbe pure oil and (he  whalebone, and all (he business
 wa3 execuled in (he country ;  by which means a ship
 could bring home (he produc( of many more whales (han
 she  can according to  the present method of conducting
 Ibis trade.  The fishery also was then so plentiful,  that
 they were obliged sometimes to  send other ships to fetch
 olf the oil they had made, the quantity being more than
 the fishing ships could bring away.  But time and change
 of circumstances  have shifted the situation of this trade.
 The ships corning in such numbers from Holland, Den-
 mark,  Hamburgh, and other  northern countries, all in-
 truders upon the English, who were the first discoverers of
 Greenland, lhe whales were disturbed ; and gradually, as
 other fish often do, forsaking the place, were not to be
 killed  so  near the  shore  as before; but are now found,
 and  have been  so  ever since, in the openings and space
 among the ice,  where they have deep water, and where
 they go sometimes a great many leagues from the shore.
  The  whale  fishery begins  in  May, and continues all
 June and July ; but whether the ships have good or bad
success, (hey must  come  away,  and get clear  ofthe ice,
by the end of August;  so that in the month of September
 at furthest Ihey may be expected home ; but a ship (hat
 meets  with  a fortunate and  early fishery in  May,  inaj
 reluu:  in June or Julv.
   The manner of taking whales at present is as  follows:
 Every  ship  is provided with six boats, to each of which
 belong  six men  for  rowing tbe boat, and  an  harpooner
 whose  business  is lo slrike lhe whale wilh his harpoon.
 Two of these boats are kept constantly on the watch at
 some distance from lhe ship, fastened to pieces of ice, and
 are relieved by others  every four hours.   As soon  aaa
 whale is perceived, both the boats set out  in pursuit of if,
 and if either of ihem  can come up before (he whale finally
 descends, which is known by his (browing up his tail, the
 harpooner discharges his harpoon  at him.   There ia no
 difficulty in choosing the place where  (he whale is lobe
 struck, as some have asserted ;  for these  creatures only
 come up to the surface in order to spout up the water, or
 blow, as the fishermen term it, and therefore always keep
 the soft and vulnerable part of their  bodies above wafer.
 A late improvement was made in the method of discharg-
 ing the harpoon,  namely, by shooting  it out of a  kind of
 swivel  or musketoon :  but  it does not appear that since
 this improvement was made, the whale fishing ships have
 had better success than before.   As  soon  as the whale is
 struck,  the men set up one of their oars '.?  the middle of
 the boat  as a signal (o  those in the ship.   On perceiving
 this, the  watchman alarms all the  rest with  lhe cry of
fall! fall! upon which all  the  other boats are imniedi-
 afely sent out (o  the assistance of the first.
   The  whale, finding himself wounded, runs off with pro-
 digious  violence.  Sometimes he descends.perpendicular-
 ly ; at others, goes off horizontally, at a small depth be-
 low (he surface.  Tbe rope which  is faslened (o (he har-
 poon is abou( (wo hundred  fathoms long, and properly
 coiled up, that it may freely be given out as (here is a de-
 mand for  i(.  A( first  (he velocity with which this line runs
 over the side of the boat is so great, that  il is welted to
 prevent its taking fire :  but in a short lime  the strength of
 the whale begins  to fail, and lhe fishermen, instead of let-
 ting out more rope, strive as much as possible to pull back
 what is  given out  already, though Ihey  always find them-
 selves necessitated to yield at last fo lhe efforts of the ani-
 mal, lo  prevent  his sinking their boat.   If he runs out
 the two hundred fathoms of  line contained in one boat,
 that belonging to another is  immediately faslened  to fhe
 end of (he first, and so on ; and there have been instances,
 where all  (he rope belonging to (he six boats has been nec-
 essary, though half that quantity is seldom required. Tbe
 whale cannot stay long below  the water, but again comes
 up (o blow : and  being now much fatigued  and wounded,
 stays longer above water than usual.   This gives another
 boat lime to  come  up with him, and he is again struck
 wilh another  harpoon.  He again descends, but wiib less
 force than before ; and when he comes up again, is gener-
 ally incapable of descending, but  suffers himself to be
 wounded and killed wilh long lances, which the men are
 provided  wilh for Ibe purpose.   He  h known to be near
 death when  he spouts up the water deeply tinged with
 blood.
   The  whale being dead,  is lashed  alongside the ship.
 They then lay it on one side, and put two ropes, one at
 the head,  and the oilier in the place of the tail, which to-
 gether with the fins, is struck off as soon as he is taken, to 
B  A L
B  A  L
 keep these extremities above water.  On the offside of
 the  whale are two boats, to receive the pieces of fat,
 utensils, and men, that might otherwise fall into tbe water
 on (hat side.    These precautions  having been  taken,
 three  or four  men with irons at their feet,  to prevent
 slipping, get on the whale, and begin to cut out pieces  of
 about  three feet thick and  eight  long, which are  haul-
 ed up  at the  capstan  or  windlass.  When tbe fat is all
 got off, they cutoff the whiskers of the upper jaw with an
 axe.   Before they cut, Ihey are all lashed to  keep (hem
 firm : which also facilitates the cutting, and prevents them
 from falling into the sea.  When on board, five or six of
 them  are bundled  together, and  properly stowed; and
 after all is got off, the carcass is turned adrift, and devour-
 ed by  the bears, who are very fond of it.   In  proportion
 as the  large pieces of fat are  cut off, the rest of the crew
 are employed  in slicing them smaller, and  also in picking
 out all the lean.  When this is  prepared, they stow  it
 under  the deck, where it lies till tbe fat of all the whales
 is on board ; then cutting it still smaller, they put it up in
 casks  in the hold, cramming them very full  and close.
 Nothing now remains but to  sail homeward, where the fat
 is boiled, and melted down into train oil.
    BALANCE, or ballance, in mechanics,  one of the sim-
 ple powers  wbicb serve to find out tne equality or differ-
 ence of weight in heavy bodies.   See Mechanics.
    The modern balance consists ofa lever,  suspended ex-
 actly by (he middle, and scales affixed to each extremity :
 the principle  on  which each is founded is (be  same,  and
 may be easily  conceived.
   Balance, hydrostalical.  See (he article Hydrostat-
 ics.
   Balance oftradt, in commerce, (he equali(y between
 the value of the commodities bought of foreigners, and the
 value of the native productions transported into other na-
 tions.
   It is  reckoned that lhat nation has the advantage in the
 balance of trade, which exports more of native commodi-
 ties, and imports less of the foreign ; so that  the nation
 grows  so much richer in  bullion  as the balance of that
 trade amounts  to,  which must be made up of bullion  or
 money.
   Among various others, the most received methods of
 arriving at  the knowledge whether a nation gains or loses
 by foreign trade, or any branch (hereof, are (be following :
   1°. A strict survey must be taken  of what proporfion
 the value of (be commodities exported bears to (hose im-
 ported.    If the exports exceed (he imports, i( is conclud-
 ed that  that nation is so far in a gaining way, by the over-
 plus imported  in  bullion.  But this method is uncertain,
 from the  difficulty of obtaining a true account, either of
 the exports or imports;  as custom bouse books are no rule
 in this case, on account ef the running of goods, especially
 many fine commodities of small bulk, but great value ; be-
 sides the various accidents which affect the value -of the
 stock, either sent out or brought in, as losses at sea, &c.
   2°. The second method, no less defective  than the
©ther, is by observing the course of exchange, which if
generally above (he intrinsic value,  or par ofthe coins of
foreign countries, we not only lose by such exchange, but
the same is a proof that  we lose by the general course of
our trade.
  3°. The third method is made from the increase or the
  diminution of our trade and  shipping  in general; for if
  these diminish, the nntion loses, and rice versa: (his seems
  equally imperfect wilh the following.
    4°.  A fourth  way is, by observing  the  increase  and
  diminution of our coin and bullion.
    Balance ofa clock or watch.   See the article Clock-
  work.
    Balance fish.  See Zvgjeka .
    BALANI marini, certain  multivalve shells,  usually
  growing in clusters on the shells of the  larger sort of sea
  shell fish.  See Lepas.
    BALCONY,  in architecture,  a projection in the front
  ofa house, or other building, supported  by pillars or con-
  soles, and encompassed  with a balustrade:  or it is a kind
  of open gallery^ for people to stand in, to behold any pub-
  lic show, or for taking the air in.
    Balcony, in a ship, is a gallery either covered or open,
  made  abaft, either for  ornament or convenience of the
  captain's cabin.
   BALDACHIN, or  Baldaquin,  in architecture,  a
  building in form  of  a canopy, supported by pillars, and
  frequently  used as a  covering to insulated altars.   Some
  also use the term  baldachin for the shell  over a door.
    BALE,  in commerce,  is said of merchandises  packed
  up in cloth, and corded round very tight, in order to keep
  (hem from breaking, or preserve them from  the weather.
   A bale of cotton  yarn is from  (hree (o  four hundred
  weight; of raw silk, it is from  one  to four  hundred ;  of
  lockrarn or dowJass either three, three and a half, or four
  pieces.
   Bale goods, among the English merchants, are all such
 as are imported or exported in  bales ; but the French give
 lhat  name to certain hard wares, and other sort of merchan-
 dise, which come to Paris, and  are commonly made by bad
 workmen, of indifferent materials.
   BALISTES, in ichthyology, a genus of fishes belong-
 ing fo the order of amphibia nantes.  The characters are
 these:  the head is flat; there are eight leeth in  each side,
 and fhe two anterior ones are longest;  in the  place of gills,
 the batistes has an aperture immediately above the pecto-
 ral fins  ; the body is flat, the scales are joined together by
 lhe skin, and the belly is keeled.  There are 24 species of
 this genus:  the most remarkable are,
   1.  Balistes aculeatus,  which has a triradiated back fin ;
 and tbe spines of the tail lean upon each other.   It  is a na-
 tive of India.
   2. Balistes hispidus has the  head fin  uniradiated;  and
 there is a round black spot  in tbe (ail fin.  The body  is
 rough,  and  bristly toward lhe (ail.  The spine or  horn is
 situated between tbe eyes; the snout  is subulated ; and in-
 stead of a belly fin, it  has a ragged sharp  spine.   This spe-
 cies is a native  of Carolina.
   3. Balistes monoceros, whose head fin consists  of but
 one ray, and the tail rays are carinated.  It  is called  (he
 unicorn fish by Ca(esby, who informs us  (hat  the  intes-
 tines  of (his fish are full of small shells and coralline sub-
 stances, which by the strength  and hardness  of its jaw it
 is enabled to grind very small.   These fish,  he  adds, are
 not eaten, being  accounted poisonous.  They most fre-
 quent those seas, amongst the Bahama islands, where the
 corals are in greatest plenty.
  4. Balistes papillosus has a biradiafed back fin,  and a
papillous body. 
BAL
B  A  L
  5. Balistes ringens has a triradiated back fin; (here are
three folds in each side of the head, and the tail fin is fork-
ed.  It is found at Ascension Island.
  G. Balistes tomentosus, whose head fin is biradiated, and
lhe body of it toward the hind part is hairy.  It is a na-
tive of America.
  7. Balistes verrucosus has a triradiated back fin, and
the tail is full of litlle warts. In  tbe place of a belly fin,
this species has a large, thick, warty ray.  It has 25 small
reversed sharp spines at the side  of  lhe tail,  disposed in
four rows.   It is a native of India.
  B. Balistes velula, or old wife, has a triradiated back
fin;  the belly fin is longitudinal, and somewhat carinated ;
and the tail is fin forked.   It is found at Ascension Island.
See Plate XV. Nat. Hist. fig. 45.
  Nearly all the fishes  of this genus,  which by Linnseus
is divided into nineteen  species, but by later writers into
twenty-four, are remarkable for their splendid colours.
  BALIVO amovendo, in law, was a writ for  removing
a bailiff from his office, for want of having sufficient land in
his bailiwick to answer the king and his people, according
to the  statute of Westminster, 2  reg. Orig. 78.
  BALLS of fire, in meteorology, are meteors seen pass-
ing over countries,  and estimated  to  be  at  considerable
heights in the atmosphere.
  Ball, in the military art, comprehends all sorts of bul-
lets for fire arms, from the cannon to the pistol.
  Cannon balls are of iron; musket balls, pistol  balls, &c.
are of  lead.  The experiment has been tried of iron balls
for pistols  and fusees, but they are justly rejected, not
only on account of their lightness,  which prevents them
from flying straight, but because  they are apt  to furrow
the barrel of the pistol.
   Cannon balls are distinguished by their calibres thus :
    A  42
       32
       24
       18
       12
        9
        6
        3
        2

Balls, fire,
Balls, light
.  pound ball, the diam-
^   eter of which is
.1
                 f"6,684 inches
                  6,105
                  5,547
                  5,040
                  4,403
                  4,000
                  3,498
                  2,775
                  2,423
                 J, 923
of which  there are various  sorts used
for various  purposes.  Their compo-
sition is mealed powder two, saltpetre one and a half, sul
phur  one,  resin one, turpentine two and a half.   Some-
limes Ihey are made of an iron shell, sometimes of a stone,
filled  and covered with various coats of the above compo-
sition, till it conglomerates lo a proper size; the last coat
being of grained powder.   But the  best  sort is  lo  fake
thick  brown paper, and make  a shell the size of lhe mor-
tar, and till it with a composition of an equal quantity  of
sulphur,  pitch, resin, and mealed  powder;. which being
well mixed, and put. in warm,  will  give a clear fire, and
burn a considerable time.
  When  lbjjy are intended  to  set fire  to  magazines,
buildings,  &c. t-he composition must be mealed  powder
ten,  saltpetre two, sulphur four, and resin one; or ralher
mealed  powder forty-eight, saltpetre thirty-two, sulphur
sixteen, resin four, steel or-iron filings two, fir tree saw-
dust boiled in saltpetre lye two, birch wood charcoal one,
well rammed into a shell for that purpose, having various
holes filled with small barrels, loaded wilh musket balls;
and, lastly,  the whole immerged in melted  pitch, resin,
and turpentine oil.
  Balls, smoke, are prepared as  above, with this differ-
ence, that  they contain five to one of pitch, resin, and
sawdust.  This composition is put into shells made for that
purpose, having four holes to let out the smoke.  Smoke
balls are  thrown out  of mortars, and continue to smoke
from twenty-five to thirty minutes.
  Balls, stink, are prepared by a composition of mealed
powder,  resin, saltpetre, pitch,  sulphur, rasped horses'
and  asses'  hoofs burnt  in the  fire, asafoetida,  seraphim
gum or ferula, and bug  or stinking herbs,  made up into
balls, as mentioned of bight balls, agreeably to the sine of
the mortar out of which  you  intend to throw  them.
  Balls, poisoned.  We  are not sure that they have
ever been used in  Europe ;  but  tbe Indians and  Afri-
cans have always  been  very ingenious at poisoning sev-
eral sorts of warlike stores and instruments.   Their com-
position  is mealed  powder 4, pitch 6, resin  3, sulphur 5,
asafoetida 8, poisonous substances, chiefly euphorbia, 12,
made into balls as  above directed.   At  the commence-
ment of the French revolution,  poisoned balls  were ex-
hibited to the people, as  pretended to have been fired by
the Austrian?, particularly at the seige of Lisle. They
contained glass, small pieces  of iron, &c. and  were said to
be concocted together by means of a greasy  composition
which was impregnated  with poisonous matter.   In 1792
Jhey were deposited in lhe archives of Paris.
  Balls, red hot,  are fired out  of mortars, howitzers, or
cannon.   Use which you will, the ball  must  be made red
hot, which is done upon  a large coal fire in a square bole
made in  the ground, six  feet  every way, and four or five
feet deep.  Some make  the  fire under an iron  grate, oa
which the shell or ball is  laid  ; but the best way  is to put
the ball into the middle of a clear burning fire, and  when
red hot, all  the fiery particles must be swept off. What-
ever machine  you use  to throw the red hot ball oat ©f, it
must be elevated according to fhe distance ye*  inteiid k
shall range, and the charge of powder must be put into a
flannel cartridge, and a good  wadding upon  that; then*
piece of wood of the exact diameter of the piece, and about
three and a half inches thick, to  prevent the ball from set-
ting fire lo the powder;  then  place the balfon  the edge
ofthe mortar,  &c.  wilh  an instrument  for that parpose,
and let it roll of itself against the wood, and kisia»tly fire
it off.  Should there be  a ditch or parallel before such a
battery, with soldiers,  (he wood  must not be  used, as (he
blast of powder will break it   to pieces, and  its  own elas-
ticity prevent it from flying far ; it would in that case either
kill or wound your own people:  for this deficiency tbe
wadding must be double.     '  .
  Balls, c/i«m,are two balls linked  together by a chain
of eight or ten kiches long, and some have  been made with
a chain of three or four  feet   long; they  are used to de-
stroy tbe palisadoes, wooden bridges,, &e. of a fortijica-
lion ; the-y are also very destructive to the rigging af *
ship.
  Ball and socket is an instrument made of brass, tfiih
a perpetual screw,  so  as to move horizontally, vertically,
and obliquely ; and is  generally used for the managing of
surveying uastmments, and astronomical instruments. 
B  A L
B  A L
  Ball, puff, the English name ofthe lycoperdon.  See
Lycopi rdon.
  BALLAD generally means a kind of song, adapted  to
the capacity of tbe  lower class of  people.  It has not,
however, been always confined to  low and  inferior com-
positions.   In an old English version of the Bible, Solo-
mon's Song is designated as the ballad of ballads. Some
have supposed that the knowledge of the  ballads in com-
mon use is  necessary  to  a minister of state  to  learn the
temper  and disposition of lhe people; and lord Cecil,
prime minister to queen Elizabeth, is said to have made an
ample collection of ballads for this purpose.  See Dr. Per-
cy's Collection of old English and Scottish Ballads, and a
dissertation prefixed to Dr. Aikin's Collection of Songs.
  BALLAST, a quantity of stones, gravel, or sand, laid
in a ship's hold, to make her sink to a  certain depth into the
water, and sail  upright, rendering  her of a prodigious
weight.  The ballast is sometimes one quarter, one third,
or one half, of the ship's burden,  according to the differ-
ence of the bulk.  Flat vessels require the  most ballast.
  The following table will exhibit in  one view the quantity
of ballast allowed to ships of different sizes :
Ballast allowed to the following Ships.
Guns.	Tonnage.	Iron Tons.	Shingle Tons.
110	2290	180	370
100	2090	180	370
98	2110	160	350
90	1870	160	350
80	1620	140	300
74	1700	80	270
64	1370	70	260
50	1100	65	170
44	900	65	160
38	930	70	170
36	870	65	160
32	700	65	140
28	600	60	100
24	500	50	80
22	450	50	70
20	400	50	60
Sloop	300	50	40
Brig	160	30	15
Cutter	---	20	( Seldom I any.
Sloop	---	15	
   The iron ballast is  first stored  fore and aft, from bulk
head to bulk head; then the shingle ballast is spread and
levelled over the iron.
   Ships are said to be in ballast when they have no other
loading.   Masters of vessels are  obliged to  declare the
quantity  of ballast tbey bear, and to unload it at certain
  laces.   They are prohibited  unloading their ballast in
  averts, roads, &c. inattention to which has  ruined many
excellent  ports.
   BALLET, a kind of dramatic poem, representing some
fabulous action or  subject divided info several ac(s,  in
which several persons appear, and  recite things under the
name of some deity, or other illustrious character.  The
term is now particularly used for a stage dance.
   Ballet is likewise the  name  given,  in France, to a
whimsical kind of opera, in  which dancing is  a principal
part of the performance.  In most of these ballets the sev-
eral acts seem so many different subjects, connected only
by  some general relation foreign to the action, which the
spectator could not discover, if it was not made known in
the prologue.
  BALLIAGE, a small duty paid to the cily of London
by alien* and others  for certain commodities exported by
them, which they claim by their charier.
  BALLISTA, in antiquity, a military machine used by
the ancients in besieging cities, to throw large stones, darts,
and javelins.
  It resembled our crossbows, though  much larger and su-
perior in force.
  From this engine, stones of?  size not less (ban mill
stones were thrown with so great violence as to dash whole
houses in pieces at a blow.  It is described thus : a round
iron cylinder was fastened between  two planks,  from
which reached a hollow square beam, placed crosswise,
and fastened with cords, to which were added screws;  at
one end of this stood the engineer, who put a wooden shaft
with a  big  head into the cavity of the beam: this done,
two men bent the  engine by drawing some wheels:  when
the top  of  the head was drawn to  the utmost end of the
cords, the shaft was driven out of the ballisla,  &c.
  BALLOON, or ballon, in a general sense, signifies any
spherical hollow body, of whatever matter it is composed,
or for whatever purposes it  is designed.
  Thus, wifh chymists, balloon denotes around short neck-
ed vessel, used to receive what  it is distilled by means  of
fire; in  architecture, a round globe on lhe top of a pillar;
and among  engineers, a kind of bomb made of" pasteboard,
and played off in fireworks, either in the air or in lhe wa-
ter, in imitation of a real bomb.
  Balloon,  in the French paper trade, is a ferm for a quan-
tity of paper, containing twenty four reams.  Il is also lhe
name ofa sort of brigantine used in the kingdom of Siam.
  Balloon,  air.  See Air balloon.
  BALLOTA, white horebound,  a genus of the gymno-
spermia order and  didynamia class of plants ; and  in the
natural method ranking under the 42d order,  verficillatae.
The calyx has five teeth, with (en striae; and the  upper lip
of (he corolla  is crenafed.   It is a common weed growing   *
on the sides of banks in most parts of England, so is seldom
admitted into gardens.   The flowers grow  in whorls, upon
branching peduncles, and lean on one side of the stalk;
they are commonly of a dull  red colour, but sometimes
white.   It  was formerly used in hysteric cases, bu( is now
fallen inlo  disuse.  The Swedes reckon it almost an uni-
versal remedy in  the diseases  of their cat fie.  Horses,
cows, sheep,  and  goats refuse  to eat  it.   There are five
species.
  BALLS, or ballets, in heraldry, a frequent bearing in
coats of arms, usually denominated according (o their col-
ours, bezants, plates, hurts, &c.
  BALLUSTRADE, a series or row of balusters, joined
by a rail; serving as well for a rest to the elbows, as for a
fence or enclosure to balconies, altars, staircases, Sec.
  BALNEUM, a term used by chymists to signify a ves-
sel, filled with some matler, as sand, water, &c.  in which
another is placed that requires a more gentle beat than lhe
naked fire.   Thus balneum arenosum, called also balneum
siccum, or  sand heal, is when  the cucurbit  is placed  in
sand, in ashes, or filings of iron.  Balneum mari«, or maris, 
B  A  L
BAN
is when (be vessel, containing  (he ingredients to be dis-
tilled, &c. is  put  into a vessel of water,  which is made
lo boil; so that no greater heat than that of boiling water
ran  be communicated  to the  substance  to be  treated.
And balneum  yaporis, or vaporarium, is when two vessels
are disposed  in such a  manner, lhat the vapour raised
from the waler contained  in  lhe lower, heals the matter
contained in the upper.   See Chymistry.
  BALSAM, or  native balsam, an oily, resinous, liquid
substance,  flowing either  spon'aneously, or by means of
incision,  from certain plants of sovereign virtue in the
cure of several disorders.  There are many kinds of bal-
sams, but  the  most remarkable are benzoin, storax, styrax,
balsam of Peru, balsam of  Tolu.  They owe their  most
important properties to the resinous ingredient.
  1. Bensoin.  This substance is obtained from  the  sty-
rax benzoin, a tree which grows in Sumatra, &c.   It flows
from incisions  made in the trunk.   Benzoin comes to Eu-
rope in large  masses of a light  brown colour with yellow
specks.  It is very brittle, and breaks vitreous.  When
rubbed it  emits a fragrant odour, and when  heated suffi-
ciently lets  (he benzoic  acid escape.   It  is soluble in al-
cohol,  but insoluble in water.  It is used chiefly to per-
fume apartments,  and extract from it benzoic acid.  It
has not been examined by any modern chymist.   Its spe-
cific gravity is 1.092.  It is  considered as a compound of
resin and benzoic acid.
  2.  Storax.  This substance  is obtained   by  incision
from the styrax officinale, a tree which grows abundantly
in tbe islands of the Levant, and  in  Italy and  France.
The storax  is sometimes in large  masses,  sometimes in
small tears ; it is  brittle, and has a brown colour.   It has
an aromatic  taste and fragrant smell.  It is soluble in al-
cohol, and  yields benzoic acid by (he  usual processes.
It is composed apparently of benzoic acid and resin.
   3. Styrax.   This is a semifluid juice,  used in medicine
on the continent, though scarcely  in Britain.   Its natural
history is but  imperfectly known; but it is said to exude
from a tree  called by the  natives  rosamallos, which is
cultivated  in  Arabia.  Bouillon Lagrange has published
an account of  its  properties.   Its colour is greenish, and
its  taste aromatic, and  its smell  agreeable.   It  is easily
volatilized by heat.   When  treated  with  water, its ben-
zoic acid  is dissolved, while 1he other constituent remains.
Il  is totally  soluble in  alcohol, except  the impurities.
When exposed to air it becomes harder,  and absorbs ox-
ygen.   Hence we may  consider it  as a combination of
benzoic acid and an imperfect resin.
   4. Balsam of Peru.  This substance is obtained from
the myroxylon oeruiferum, which grows in the warm parts
of South America.  The tree i3 full of resin,  and the bal-
sam is obtained by boiling the twigs in water.  It  has the
consistency of honey, a brown colour, an agreeable smell,
and a hot acrid taste.  Like  (he last it consists of benzoic
acid and volatile oil, not completely converted into resin.
Water dissolves part of the  acid, alcohol the whole  bal-
sam.   It is  easily  volatilized  by heat.
   5. Balsam of Tolu.   This substance is obtained from
lhe tolnifera balsamnm, a tree which grows in South Amer-
ica.   The balsam  flows  from incisions made  in fhe bark.
It comes to  Europe in small gourd shells.   It  is of a  red-
dish brown colour, and  considerable consistence; and
when exposed to  fhe air, it becomes  solid  and brittle.
Its smell is  fragrant.   The composition of this substance
has not been ascertained.  It is only from  analogy (hat
it  has been put among the balsams.  Mr. Hatchett's ex-
periments on it are very curious and important.   He has
ascertained that the balsams in general are soluble in alka-
lies.  When Tolu is dissolved in  the smallest  possible
quantity of lixivium of potash, it completely  loses its own
odour, and assumes a most fragrant smell,  somewhat re-
sembling (hat of  the  clove pink.  "This  smell," Mr,
Ilatchett observes, " is not fugitive, for it is  still  retained
by a solution  which  was prepared in  June, and has re-
mained in an open glass during four months."   Mr. Hatch-
eft found that it dissolved in nitric acid wilh nearly the
same phenomena as (he resins ; but it  assumed the odour
of bitter almonds,  which leads him  to suspect the forma-
tion of prussic acid.
   Such  are  the balsamic substances  at present known.
Tar, which has been sometimes placed among them, isob-
tained  by a  rude dist ill isat ion of  the fir.  Hence it con-
tains a variety of ingredients, oil, resin, pyrolignous acid
water.   When concentrated  by heat it loses these vola-
tile parts, and is converted info pitch ; a substance which
possesses the properties of resin.
   BALSAMICS, in pharmacy, softening, restoring,heal-
ing, and cleansing  medicines, of gentle attenuating princi-
ples, very friendly to nature.  See  Pharmacy.
   BALTIMORA, in  botany, a genus of the polygamia
necessaria order and syngenesia class of plants.   The re-
ceptaculum  is chaffy;  there  is no pappus; the  calyx is
cylindrical aud polyphiUous; and   the ray of fhe corolla
is quinqueflorous.  There is but one species,  m.baltimo-
ra recta, a native of Maryland.
   BAMBOE, or bambou.  See Arundo.
   BAMBUSA, in botany.  See Arundo.
   BAN, in  commerce, a sort of  smooth,  fine  muslin,
which  the English  import from (he East Indies.  The
piece is almost a yard broad, and runs about twenty yards
and a half.
   BANANA, in botany.  See Musa.
   BAND,  in architecture, a general name  for any flat,
low member,  or moulding, that is broad, but not very deep.
   Band of pensioners,  are a company of 120 gentlemen,
who receive a yearly  allowance of  100/. for  attending on
his majesty on solemn occasions.
   Band is also tbe  denomination of a  military   order in
Spain,  instituted by  Alphonsus XI. king of Castile, foe
the younger sons of the nobility, who, before their admis-
sion, must serve fen  years, at least, either in  the army, or
at court: and are bound to take up arms for  the Catholic
faith against the infidels.
   BANDAGE, in surgery, a fillet, roller, or  swathe,used
in dressing and binding  up wounds, restraining dangerous
haemorrhages, and  in joining fractured or dislocated bones.
See Surgery.
   BANDAL,  or  bundle, the  name of a measure in the
south of Ireland,  which is  something  more than  half a
yard;  but lhe coarse  narrow  linen is sold in  the markets,
on which account it i3 called handle cloth.
   BANDALEER, or  bandeleer,  in  military affairs, i
large leathern bell, (hrown over the  right shoulder, and
hanging under (he left arm ;  worn by the ancient muske-
teers, bo(h for the sustaining of their  fire arms, and for
fhe carriage  of their musket charges. 
BAN
B  A  N
   BANDE, or inbend, in heraldry,  expresses the posi-
 tion of a  lion, when he is placed diagonally in the shield.
   B ANDERET, a general, or one of the commanders in
 chief of fhe forces.
   BANDEROLE,  in heraldry,  is  a stream  affixed  by
 small lines or strings immediately under the crook, on the
 staff of a  crosier, and-folding over the staff.
   BANDEROLL,  a little  flag, in form of a guidon, ex-
 tended more in length than  breadth, used to be hung out
 on the  masts of  vessels, &c. It is a name also for camp
 colours.
   BANGUE, a species of opiate, in  great use throughout
 the east for drowning cares, and inspiring joy.
   BANIANS, a religious  sect in  the empire of the Mo-
 gul, who believe a metempsychosis, and will therefore eat
 no living  creature,  nor even  kill noxious animals;  but en-
 deavour  to  release ihem  when  in  the hands  of others:
 whence the vulgar phrase banian day for a fast.
   BANISHMENT, a kind of punishment, by  which the
 guilty person is obliged lo leave the  realm.
   There  are two kinds of banishment; one voluntary and
 upon oath, the olher  upon compulsion,  for some crime or
 offence;  the former, properly called abjuration, is now
 ceased ; the lalter is chiefly enjoined by judgment of par-
 liament, or other courts of justice.
   By Magna Charla, none shall be. outlawed,  or banished
 his country, but by lawful judgment  of  his peers, accord-
 ing to lhe law of fhe land, 9 Hen. III. 29.
   BANK,  in commerce,  a  common repository,  where
 many persons  agree to  keep their money, lo  be always
 ready  at  their call or direction : or  certain  societies or
 communities, who lake the charge of other people's mon-
 ey, either to improve if, or to keep it secure.
   There  are banks of various kinds,  and  different in the
 nalure  of their constitutions and establishments : some are
 instituted wholly on the  public  account, and  put under
 lhe direction of  the magistrates,  as  lhe famous bank of
 Amsterdam, wrhere  lhe  money deposited shall be always
 kept for the use of the proprietors, and shall never be  let
 out for profit or advantage.
   Payments made by assignments upon  this bank are val-
 ued from  fhree to six per cent, above the payment of the
 money in specie, arising from an opinion that the proprie-
 tors entertain of the  equity of  its  administration;  for
 judging themselves secure  lhat fheir money lies always
 ready   af  hand, they seldom  draw  out large  sums, but
 make their mutual payments by transferring fhe sums from
 one man's account to another.
   A second sort of bank is such as consists of a company
 of  nionied men,  who being  duly established, and  incor-
 porated by the  laws of their country, agree to deposife a
 certain considerable fund,  or joint stock, to be  employed
 for the  use of the society ; as lending  money  upon good
 security, buying and  selling  bullion,  gold, and silver, dis-
 counting bills of exchange, Sec.  Such is the bank of En-
 ?Lnd, which was  established  in lhe year 169 1, with a cap-
 ital of  1,200,000/.  This  they lent  lo  government, for
 which  eight per  cent, interest was paid,  and  1000/. per
annum for charges of management.  The corporation was
entitled « The governor and company of the bank of En-
gl.ind ;" and  their charter directed that there  be a gov-
ernor and Iweiify-four  directors;  if  also lavs down rules
respecting (he qualifications of voters and of directors, with
  vol..  i.            39
other regulations.  In 1697  the bank was allowed to en*
large its capital to 2,201,171/. 10s. for the purpose of sup-
porting public credit,  bank  notes  having been at twenty
percent, discount, owing to the  want of punctuality  in
the payments of government.  This  capital  was allowed
to increase from time to time, till at Michaelmas, 1746, when
the whole  debt due  to the bank from fhe public was
11,686,800/. and its divided capital has  been raised  to
10,780,000/.
  From  an early period after  tbe establishment of the
bank, it had been  the practice of lhe company to assist
government with money in  anticipation  of  the land and
malt taxes, and  by making  temporary advances on ex-
chequer bills and olher securities.  In  the year 1781, the
sums Ihus lent to government amounted to upward of eight
millions, in addition to the permanent debt of 11,686,800/.
The company now sought a renewal of their charter, and
offered to advance two  millions on exchequer bills : ibis
being agreed  lo, a call was made of  eight per cent, on
their capital, which was now increased from 10,780,000/.
lo 11,642,400/. the sum on which fhey divide at present.
  The bank of England acts not only as an ordinary bank,
but as  a great  engine  of  state.   It receives and pays
the greater part of the  annuities  which are due  to the
creditors of the public ;  it circulates exchequer bills ; and
it advances to government,  as we  have already seen, lhe
annual amount of the  lantl  and  malt  taxes, which are fre-
quently not paid up for some years.   It discounts bills  of
merchant*; and  upon different occasions it has supported
the credit of  fhe principal  houses, not only of England,
but of Hamburgh and  Holland.
  The company is properly a trading company ; and lhat
which  is  peculiarly  distinguished by  the appellation  of
bank stock is a trading stock, the dividend of which, on a
capital of  11,642,400/.  paid half yearly,  and now  seven
per cent, besides occasional bonuses,  accrues from the an-
nual income of the company; and this arises from the inter-
est received for lhe money advanced by the proprietors  lo
fhe public, or the permanent debt;  from interest on an-
nual temporary  advances; from the  profits of  their deal-
ings in  bullion, and of (heir discounts  ; from the interest
of stock held by lhe company ;  and from the sums allow-
ed by government for (he management of (he annuities paid
at the offices of  the bank.
  Such was also the bank of the United States of  Amer-
ica.
  There are  indeed public banks established in most  of
tbe trading cities of Europe, as in Venice, Paris,  Ham-
burgh, &c.   The bank of Venice is the most ancient.  It
is established  by a solemn  edict of  the  commonwealth,
which enacts, that all payments for wholesale  merchandise,
and letters of exchange, shall be  in  bank notes;  that  all
debtors shall be  obliged to  carry their money to lhe bank,
and  all  creditors receive their  money  from  the bank ;  so
that payments are performed by a simple transfer from the
one person to the other.   In  matters of retail  effective
payments are sometimes made, which do not diminish, but
rather augment the stock, in consequence ofthe liberty of
withdrawing Iheir money at pleasure, &c.
  A third  sort is  (he banks of private men, or partner-
ships, who deal in the same way as the former, upon their
own single stock or credit; and such are  the Lou.bard
sfiecf, or olher bankers, as they are called. 
BAN
BAN
   Bank, an elevation of the ground, or bottom of the sea,
 so as sometimes to surmount the surface of the water, or
 at least to leave it so shallow, as not lo allow a vessel to
 remain afloat over it. Bank, in this sense, is much the same
 with flat, shoal, &c. There  are banks of sand, and others
 of stone, called shelves  and rocks.  Sometimes the  va-
 pours  at sea lead mariners to imagine that they see certain
 objects  at a  distance;  these they call fog banks.  The
 Bank  denotes that of Newfoundland, celebrated for ifs cod
 fishery : it is more  than two hundred miles long.   Banks
 at sea  are usually distinguished by a buoy, the  colour of
 which is varied.  Sand banks are denoted by light colour-
 ed buoys, and rocks by  black ones.
   Bank, in vessels moved with oars, is the bench on which
 the rowers are seated.
   Bank denotes  an  elevation of earth, &c. to slop the wa-
 ters, and prevent inundations./
   BANKAFALET,  a  game at  cards, which  being  cut
 into  as many heaps as  there are players, every man lays
 as much money on  his  own card as he pleases; and  the
 dealer wins or loses as many as his card is superior or in-
 ferior to those of the other gamesters.   The best card is
 the ace of diamonds; the next to it the ace of hearts ; then
 the ace of clubs ; and lastly, the ace of spades : and so of
 the rest of these suits in  order, according to their degree.
The  cheat lies in securing an ace, or any other sure win-
 ning  card; which are  somehow marked, (bat the sharper
 may know them.
   BANKER, in bricklaying,  a piece of timber,  six or
 eight feet long, and eight or nine inches square, on  which
 they cut the bricks.
   BANKRUPT, a trader,  whom misfortune or extrava-
 gance  has induced to commit an act of bankruptcy.  The
 benefit of the bankrupt laws is allowed lo none but actual
 traders, or such as  buy and  sell, and gain a livelihood by
 so doing.
   Requisites to constitute  a trading: tbe merchandising,
 or bnying and selling,  must be of that kind, whereby the
 party gains a credit  upon the profits of an uncertain capi-
 tal stock.  Manufacturers, or persons purchasing goods or
 raw materials to sell again under other forms, or ameliorated
 by labour, as bakers, brewers, butchers, shoemakers, smiths,
 tanners, tailors, &c. are also within the statutes.
   The following description  of persons are not within the
 statutes of bankruptcy, vis. proprietors or persons having
 an interest in land, if buying  and selling  to whatever ex-
 lent, for (he purposes of  disposing merely of the produce
 and profits of such land ; graziers and drovers ;  owners of
 coal mines working and selling the  coals ; owners or farm-
ers of alum rocks  ; farmers who make cheeses  for sale, or
those who  sell cider made  from  apples of  their own  or-
 chard.   In all such  cases, and others of  a  similar nature,
where  the several materials are purchased, and even some
kind  of manufacture exercised; yet as (bis is  the  neces-
 sary  and cuslomary  mode of receiving the benefit arising
 from the land, such persons are  not  held to be traders
within  fhe statutes;  nor  are persons buying  and selling
bank stock or government securities.  Buying or selling
only will neither  singly constitute trading;  neither will
a single act of buying and selling; or drawing  or redraw-
ing bills of exchange merely for the purpose of raising
money for private occasions,  and not with a view to gain
 a profit upon lhe exchange.  Being a par* owner in a ship,
 barge, or waggon, does not constitute a tiauer ; nor hold.
 ing a share or interest in  a joint stock with others  who
 trade, unless he share in the profit and loss  upon  the dis-
 position of the capital.  The  merchandise  must  also be
 general, and not in a qualified manner only, as victuallers
 or innkeepers, schoolmasters, commissioners of the navj
 who victual  the fleet by private contract, the  king's but-
 ler, steward, or other officers ; officers of excise  or cus-
 toms, sutlers of  the armies, butlers,  stewards  of  inns of
 court, clergymen, &c. as acting in such capacities  merely,
 are not liable to be made bankrupts ; the buying and sell-
 ing in such cases not being general, but in the exercise of
 particular employments.   Neither, upon the same prin-
 ciple, are receivers of the king's taxes, or persons dis-
 counting exchequer bills. If the parties above enumerated,
 however, are themselves within the bankrupt laws in anj
 other respect,  they will be liable to their operation, al-
 f hough they should evident ly not profit by trading,  or such
 trading should be illegal; although the trading should not
 be wholly carried on in England, buying only in England
 and selling beyond sea.  Any person, native, denizen, urali-
 en, residing in any part  of the British dominions, or in for-
 eign countries, though never a resident trader in England,
 yet if he  is a trader, and  coming to  England commits an
 act of bankruptcy, he will be subject to the bankrupt laws.
   No one can be a bankrupt on account of any debt which
 he is not compellable by law  to discharge, as infants or
 married women.  And if a single woman is  a trader, and
 committing any  act of bankruptcy, afterward  marry, a
 commission issued against her after such marriage  cannot
 be supported.  But according  to the custom of London,
 where a married woman is sole  trader, she is held liable
 to a commission of bankruptcy  like a feme sole.
   Acts of bankruptcy.   Departing  the  realm.   This
 must be done with intent fo  defraud  or delay creditors:
 when it appears that  there  was no such  intention,  if  will
 not be a departure  within  the  meaning of the statutes. 1
 T. R. 509.
   Departing from the dwelling hoitse.  Such  departure
 must also be  wilh intent  to defraud and delay creditors;   j
 for the departure wilh an intent  to  delay, has been held
 insufficient, without  an  actual delay of some  creditors.
 St. 803.
   Beginning to  keep the  house; the  being denied lot
 creditor who calls for money ; but an order to be denied is
 not enough, without an actual denial, and lhat also to accred-
 itor who has a debt demandable at the time.   5 T. R. 575.
   Voluntary arrest, not only for a fictitious debt, hut even
 for a just one, if done with  lhe intent  to delay creditors,is
 an act of bankruptcy.
  Suffering an outlawry, with intent to defraud the cred-
 itors; but this will not make  a  man a bankrupt, if  revers-
 ed before issuing a commission, or for default of proclama-
 tion after it, unless such outlawry was originally fraudulent.   j
  Escapingfrom prison. Being  arrested for a just  debt of
 100/. or upward, and escaping against the consent of lb*
 sheriff.
  Fradulent procurement of goods to be attached or «•
questered.   A fradulent execution, though  void  against
creditors, is not within the meaning of the  words  attach-
ment, or sequestration,  used in  lhe statute; because they 
BANKRUPT.
relate only to proceedings used  in London, Bristol, and
other places.
   Making any fraudulent conveyance.  Any conveyance
of properly, whether total or partial, made with a view fo
defeat (he claims of creditors, is a fraud, and if it be by
deed, is held to be an act of bankruptcy.
   A conveyance by a trader of all his effects and stock in
trade by deed, to the exclusion of any one or more of his
creditors, has been ever held lo be an act of bankruptcy.
   A mortgage, amongst other things,of all the slock in trade
of a tradesman, was held (o be an ac( of bankruptcy, as
being an assignment of all the slock in (rade, without which
he could carry on no business.
   A conveyance by a trader of part of his effects fo a par-
ticular creditor carries no evidence whatever of fraud, un-
less  made in contemplation of bankruptcy.
   Being arrested for debt; lying in prison two months or
more, upon  that or any other arrest, or detention in prison
for debt, will make  the parly a bankrupt, from the time of
(he first arrest; but where the bail is fairly put in, and the
party at a future day surrenders in discharge of his bail,
the (wo mon(hs are computed from  the  time ofthe sur-
render.
   Of proceedings under a commission.  The lord chan-
cellor is empowered to issue a commission of bankrupt, and
is bound to grant it  as matter of right.  By 5 Geo. II. c.
30. no commission can issue, unless upon the petition of a
single  creditor, to  whom the bankrupt owes a debt which
Bhall amount to 100/. the debt of two  or more, being part-
ners, shall amount to 150/.  and of three or more to 200/.
   If the debt against (he bankrupt amounts to the sum re-
quired, it is not material, though (he  creditor should have
acquired it  for less.
   If a creditor  to the full amount, before an act of bank-
ruptcy committed, receive  after notice of the bankruptcy
a part  of his debt,  such payment being illegal, cannot be
retained, and the original debt remains in force, and will
support a commission.
   The debt must be a legal and not an equitable one, and
if the legal demand  be not in its nature assignable, the as-
signee cannot be the petitioning creditor, as the assignee
of a bond.
   If the creditor, for a debt at law, has the body of his
debtor in  execution, he cannot at  the same time sue out a
commission upon it; that being, in point of law, a satisfac-
tion for the  debt.                               *
   Of opening the commission.   Whenthe commissioners
have received proof of (he petitioning creditor's debt, the
tradinc, and ac( of bankruptcy, (hey declare and adjudge
lhe parly a  bankrupt.   They  are authorized to issue  a
warrant under (heir hands  and  seals, for  the seizure of all
the bankrupt's effects, books, or writings5, and for that pur-
pose to enter the house, or any other place belonging to
lhe bankrupt.
   Such debts only can be  proved under  a commission, as
were either  debts certainly  payable, and  which existed at
(he lime  ofthe bankruptcy, or which although originally
contingent,  yet, from the  contingency happening before
the bankruptcy,  were  become absolute.  In every case
the amount of the debt must be precisely ascertained.
   Time and method of proving.  Creditors were former-
ly precluded from  proving  after four months;  but  the
court now, <\cepl in cases of gross negligence, allows Ihem
             3'.!*
to come in at any time, whilst any thing remains to be dis-
posed of. The usual proof required, is the oalh ofthe cred-
itor himself; either in person, or by affidavit if he live re-
mote from the  place of meeting, or reside in foieign parts.
5 Geo. II.
  Corporations, or companies, are generally admitted fo
prove by a treasurer, clerk, or  other officer duly author-
ized.
  Of the assignees.   Immediately after declaration ofthe
bankruptcy, tbe commissioners are to appoint  a time and
place for the creditors to meet and choose assignees, and
are directed to assign the bankrupt's estale and effects
to such persons as shall be chosen by the major part in
value.
  The powers and duties of assignees are principally those
of collecting the bankrupt's property, reducing the whole
into ready  money, and making distribution as early as pos-
sible.  One assignee  is not answerable for lhe neglect of
another.  Assignees,  if Ihey act improperly, are not only
liable at law to the creditors for a breach of (rust, but may
be removed on account of misbehaviour, &c. by petition-
ing lhe lord chancellor.  Upon lhe removal of an assignee,
he is directed  to join with the remaining one, in assignment
to lhe latter and new  assignee.
  Provisions  for wife, children, Sec.  By the slafufe of
Eliz. the commissioners may assign any lands.. Sec. that the
bankrupt shall have purchased jointly with his  wife, and
the assignment shall be effectual, against the bankrupt, his
wife,  or children ; but Ihis shall not extend  to convey-
ances made before the bankruptcy bona fide, aud not to lhe
use of (he bankrup( himself only, or bis heirs,  and  where
the parlies to  (he conveyance  are no( privy to the fradu-
lent purposes  to deceive (he creditors.
  Examination of the bankrupt.  By the  5lh Geo. II.
the commissioners are empowered to  examine fhe  bank-
rupt,  and all others, as well by parole, as by interrogations
iu writing.   The said statute requires lhe bankrupt lo dis-
cover all his estate and effects, and how, and to whom, and
in what manner, on what consideration, and at what lime,
he has disposed of il;  and all books, papers, and writings,
relative thereto, of which be was possessed or interested,
or whereby he or his family may expect any profit, advan-
tage,  &c. and  on such examination he shall deliver up  to
the commissioners all his effects, (except the necessary
wearing apparel of himself, his wife, and children,) and all
books, papers, and writings, relating  thereto.
   With respect to his privilege from  arrest.  By the
above act,  the bankrupt  shall be  free from all arrest in
coming to surrender,  and from his actual surrender lo the
commissioners for and during lhe forty-two days, or the
further time allowed  to  finish his examination,  provided
he  was not in  custody at lhe lime of his surrender.
  Books  and papers.  By  5  Geo. II.  c. 30.  the bank-
rupt  is entitled, before  the  expiration of the  forty-two
days, or enlarged time, to inspect his books and papers,
in the presence of lhe assignees, or  some person appoint-
ed  by them, and make such extracts as he shall deem nec-
essary.
  Power of commissioners in  case of contumacy.   The
statutes empower the commissioners to enforce their au-
thority by commitment of the  party,  in  the following
cases: persons refusing  to  attend  on the commissioners'
summons ; refusing to be examined, or lo be  sworn, or lo 
BAN
B A  N
 sign and subscribe their examination, or not fully answer-
 ing to the satisfaction of the commissioners.
   Ofthe certificate. By the 5 Geo. II. a bankrupt surren-
 dering, making a full discovery, and in all things  conform-
 ing to the directions of the act, may wifh the consent of
 his creditors obtain a certificate.  If the commissioners
 certify his  conformity,  and the  same be allowed by the
 lord chancellor,  his  person, and whatever proper(y he
 may afterward acquire, will be discharged and exonerat-
 ed from all debts owing  by  him at the time he became a
 bankrupt.   But  no  bankrupt is entitled to the benefit of
 (he ac(, unless four parts in five, both in  number and val-
 ue of his creditors, who shall be creditors for not  less than
 20/. respectively, and who  shall  have duly proved their
 debts  under  the commission,  or some other person duly
 authorized  by ihem, shall sign the cerlificate.
   Of  the dividends.   The assignees  are  allowed  four
 months from the  date of lhe commission  to make a divi-
 dend; and should apply to the commissioners lo appoint a
 meeting for lhat purpose,  or they may be summoned by
 them  lo show cause  why they have not done so.
   Allowance to the bankrupt. Every bankrupt surrender-
 ing, and in all things  conforming to the directions ofthe
 act, shall be allowed five per cent, out ofthe nett produce
 of his  estale, provided, after such  allowance, it be suf-
 ficient to pay his creditors ten shillings in the pound, and
 that the  said five per cent, shall not in the whole exceed
 200/.   Should his estate in like  manner pay  126'. 6d. in
 the pound, he shall be allowed  seven and a half per cent.
 so as not to  exceed 250/. and if his estate pay  15*!. in  the
 pound, he shall  be allowed ten per cent, so as not to ex-
 ceed 300/.   But the bankrupt  is not entitled to such al-
 lowance, till after a second dividend, nor can  he be enti-
 tled to it (ill he has received his certificate.
   Of the surplus.  The commissioners are, on request of
 a bankrupt, to give a true and particular account of the ap-
 plication and disposal of his estate, and  to pay the over-
 plus,  if any, to the bankrupt.
   Of superseding commissions.  Commissions may be su-
 perseded for the want  of a sufficient debt of the petition-
 ing creditor, or because  he was  an  infant, or for want of
 sufficient evidence ofthe trading or act of bankruptcy, or
 in cases of fraud, or by agreement or consent ofthe cred-
 itors.
   Joint commissions.  Partners are liable to a joint com-
 mission, or indiv idually, against each ;  but a joint and sep-
 arate commission cannot in point of law be concurrent.  A
 joint  commission must include all partners; if  there be
 three  partners, and one of them an infant, there can neither
 be a commission against the three, nor against the other two.
   Felony of bankrupts. If any person, who shall be duly
 declared a  bankrupt, refuse, within forty-two days after
 notice left  at his place of abode,  and in  the London Ga-
 zette,  to surrender himself lo  the commissioners, and to
 fully disclose and discover  all  his estale  and effects, real
 and personal, and all transferences thereof,  and  also all
 books papers, and writings, relating thereto; and deliver
up to  the said commissioners, all such estate and effects,
books, papers, &c. as are in his power,  except  his neces-
sary wearing  apparel,  &c.  or in case he shall conceal, or
embezzle, any part of his  estate,  real or personal, lo the
value of 20/. or any books of accounts,  papers, or writings,
relating thereto,  wilh intent to defraud his creditors, be-
 ing lawfully convic(ed thereof, by  judgment or informa-
 tion, he shall be  adjudged guilty of felony, without bene.
 fit of clergy, and his goods divided  amongst his creditors,
 5 Geo. II. c. 30.
   BANKSIA, in botany, a genus of the monogynia order
 belonging  to  the tetandria class  of plants.  The amen-
 tum is scaly, the  corolla consists of four  petals; the an-
 therae are in the cavity of the folds, and sessile; the cap-
 sule is bivalvular; and the seed  is  solitary and bipartite.
 There are eight species, all greenhouse plants, and natives
 of New Holland.
   BANN, or Ban, in lhe feudal law,  a solemn  proclama-
 tion or publication of any thing.  Hence the custom  of
 asking, or bans, before marriage.
   Bann,  in  military affairs, a proclamation  made in the
 army by  beat  of drum, sound of trumpet, Sec.  requiring
 the strict observance of discipline, either for the declaring
 a new officer, or  punishing an offender.   At present such
 kind of proclamations are -given out in the written orders
 of the day.
   B\mx of the empire, an imperial  proscription, behjga
 judicial punishment, wherewith  such as are accessary in
 disturbing the  public peace  are  judged unworthy of lhe
 immunities and protection of the empire, and are outlawed
 or banished, Sec.
   BANNER.   We find a multiplicity of opinions con-
 cerning the  etymology  of this  word; some deriving  it
 from  the  Latin  bandum, a band or flag; oi hers, from the
 word bann, to  summon the vassals to appear  in arms;
 others, again,  from the  German ban, a field or tenement,
 because  landed  men alone were  allowed a banner; and,
 finally, there are  some who think it is a corruption of pan-
 niere, from pannus, cloth, because banners were originally
 made of cloth.
   Banner, the ordnance flag fixed  on the fore part of the
 drum major's kettle drum carriage of the royal artillery.
   Banner, in the horse equipage, for fhe kettle drums
 and trumpets, must  be of the colour of the facing of the
 regiment.  The  badge of the regiment, or its rank, to be
 in the centre of fhe banner of the kettle drums, as on the
 second standard.   The  king's  cypher and  crown to be
 on lhe banner of  the trumpets, with the rank of the regi-
 ment  in figures  underneath.  The depth of the  kettle
 drum banners to  be three feet six inches;  the length four
 feet eight  inches, excluding lhe fringe.  Those of trum-
 pets to be  twelve inches  in depth, and eighteen inches in
 length.
  BANNERET,  an ancient order of knights, or feudal
 lords, who possessing several large fees,  led their vassals
 to battle under their own flag, when  summoned thereto by
 the king.   This order never was conferred but upon some
 heroic action   performed in the  field.  Anciently  there
 being but two kinds of  knights,  great  and little, the first
 were  called  bannerets,  the second bachelors; the first
 composed  the  upper,  the second  the middle nobility'
 Till lately  we have had none of this order crealed in En-
gland since the time of  king Charles the First  ; theJate
sir William Erskine, however, on his return from tbe con-
tinent in 1764,  was made a knight banneret, in Hyde pa*k»
by his present majesty, in consequence of his distinguished
 conduct  at the battle of  Emsdorff.   But  he was not ac-
 knowledged as  such in this  country, although he was in-  §i
 vested wilh the order between  the  two standards of the 
BAR
BAR
 fifteenth regiment of light dragoons, because the ceremony
 did not take place where the'engagement happened.  Cap-
 tain Trollope, of the royal navy, is the last created knight
 banneret.   Knights banneret  take  precedence  next to
 knights of the bath.
   The form of the banneret's creation was this : on a day
 of battle, the candidate presented his flag to the king, or
 general, who cutting off the train or skirt thereof, and mak-
 ing it  a square,  returned  it again;  the proper banner of
 bannerets, who from hence are sometimes called knights of
 the square  flag.
   BANNEROLS, in heraldry, are small  flags used at
 funerals.
   BANNISTERIA, in botany; a  genus of  the trigynia
 order, aud  decandria  class of plants;  and  in the natural
 method ranking under the 23d order, trihilatre. The calyx
 is quinquepartite, with neclareous pores on  the outside of
 the base ;  the petals are roundish and ungulated ; the seeds
 are three, with membranaceous wings.  There are 24 spe-
 cies, all natives of warm countries,  but possessing no re-
 markable properties.
   BANNIMUS, lhe  form of expulsion of any  member
 from lhe university of Oxford, by affixing the sentence up
 in some public place, as a denunciation of  if.
   BANQUET, in the manege, that  small  part of the
 branch of  a bridle that i3 under the eye.
   Banquet line,  an  imaginary line drawn, in making a
 bit, along the banquet, and prolonged up or down, to ad-
 just lhe designed force or weakness of the branch, in or-
 der to make it stiff or easy.
   Banquet,  or Banquette,  in fortification, a little  foot
 bank, or elevation of earth, forming a path,  which runs
 along  the inside of a parapet, upon which the musketeers
 get up, in order to discover the counterscarp, or to fire on
 the enemy in  (he moat, or  in fhe covert way.
   BANTAM WORK, a kind of painted  or carved work,
 resembling thaf of Japan, only more gaudy.
   There are two sorts of Bantam as well  as Japan work:
 as in the latter, some are flat,  and olhers embossed ; so in
 Bantam work  some are  flat, and others cut  in, or carved in-
 to the wood.  The Japan artists work  in gold and other
 metals, and the Bantam generally in  colours, with a small
 sprinkling of gold.
   BAPTES, a name given by  the ancimts to  a fossil sub-
 stance used in medicine:  it was soft and of an agreeable
 smell, and  probably one of the bitumens.
   BAR, in courts  of  justice, an enclosure made wilh a
 strong partition  of timber, where the counsel are phiced
 to plead causes.  Hence our  lawyers, who are called lo
 the bar, or  licensed lo plead,  are termed barristers, an
 appellation equivalent (o licentiate in other countries.
   Bar, in  law, a plea ofa  defendant, which is said to be
 sufficient fo destroy the plaintiff's action.   It is divided
 into bar special, bar lo common intendment,  bar tempora-
 ry, and bar  perpetual.   Bar special,  falls out  upon some
 special circumstances ofthe case in question, as where an
 exficutor being sued for  his  testator's debt, pleads that he
 had no goods in his hands at the day on which  the writ
 was  sued out.   Bar fo common intendment is a  general
 bar, which  commonly disables the plaintiff's declaration.
Bar temporary is such as is  good for the present, but may
afterward  fail ; and  bar perpetual is that  which  over-
throws the plaiuliff's action for ever. In personal actions,
 once barred and ever so, is the general rule;  but it is in-
 tended, where a bar is to the right of the cause, not where
 a wrong action is brought.
   Bar, in heraldry, an ordinary in form of the fess, but
 much less.   It differs from the fess only in its narrowness,
 and in this, that the bar may be placed in any part ofthe
 field, whereas lhe fess is confined to a single place.
   Bar, in the manege, the highest part of that place ofa
 horse's mouth situated between the grinders and lushes.
   Bar, a stroke drawn perpendicularly across  the  lines
 ofa piece of music, including  between each two a certain
 quantity or measure of time, which is various, as  the time
 of the music is either triple or  common.   In common time,
 between each two bars is included the measure of four
 crotchefs ;  in triple, three.  The principal use of bars  is
 to regulate the beating of time in a  concert.
   Bar, in hydrography, denotes a  bank of sand, or other
 matter, whereby the mouth of a river is in a manner chok-
 ed  up.
   BARAL1PTON,  among logicians, a term denoting the
 first indirect mode of lhe first figure of syllogisms.  A syl-
 logism in baralipton, is when the two first propositions are
 general, and  the (bird  particular,  the  middle term being
 the subject  in the first proposition, and the predicate  in
 the second.   Thus :

    Every evil ought to be feared :
    Every violent passion is an evil:
    Therefore something that ought to be feared is a violent passion.

   BARALLOTS, a sect of the  Manicbeans at  Bologna
 in Italy, who had all things in common,  even  their  wives
 and children.
   BARANGI, officers among the  Greeks of  the  lower
 empire.   Cujas calls thern  in  Latin protectores, and oth-
 ers give them the name of securigeri.   It was fheir busi-
 ness to keep the keys of the city gates where  the em-
 peror  resided.
   BARATHRUM,  in  antiquity,  a deep dark pit  at
 Athens, into  which condemned  persons were cast head-
 long.  It had  sharp spikes at the top, that no man might
 escape out, and others at  the  bottom to pi»:rce and tor-
 ment such as were cast in.
  The term is also applied to  certain  baleful cuverns, in-
 accessible on account of their fetid or  poisonous  fumes.
  BARBACAN, or  Barbican,  a watch lower, for  the
 purpose of descrying an enemy  at a  great  distance:  it
 also implies an outer defence, or sort of ancient fortifica-
 tion to a city or castle, used especially  as a fence to  the
 city or walls; also an aperture made in the walls ofa for-
 tress fo fire through upon  the enemy.  It is sometimes
 used (o denote a fort  at the  entrance of a bridge, or  the
 outlet  ofa city,  bavins; a double wall with towers.
  BARBADOES  TAR.   See Bitumen.
  BARBICAN, in architecture, a canal, or opening left in
 the wall for water to come in  and go out, when  buildings
 are erected  in places  liable  to be overflowed, or  to drain
 off the water from a terrace, or the  like.
  BARBARA,  among logicians, the  first mode of the
 first figure of syllogisms.
  A syllogism  in barbara, is one of which  all the propo-
sitions are universal, and affirmative ;  the middle term be-
ing  the subject ofthe first proposition, and attribute in the
second.  For example, 
BAR
BAR
             Bar. Every wicked man it miserable;
             Jia. All tyrants are wicked men ;
             Ra. Therefore all tyrants are miserable.
   BARBATED leaf,  one terminated  by a  bunch  of
strong hairs.
   BARBE,  in  commerce,  a  Barbary  horse,  greatly
esteemed for its beauty, strength,  and swiftness.
   Barbe, in the military art : to fire in barbe means  to
fire the cannon over the parapet instead  of firing through
the embrasures; in which  ease (he parapet must  not be
above (hree feet and a half high.
   Barbe, or Barde,  is an old word  denoting the armour
of the horses of (he ancient knights and soldiers.
   BARBED and Crested, in heraldry, an appellation
given lo the combs and gillsof a cock, when particularized
for being ofa different tincture from  the body.
   A barbed cross is a cross, tbe extremities of which are
like the barbed irons used for striking of fish.
   BARBELICOTiE, in church history, a sect of gnos-
tics, who affirmed  that an immortal eon had commerce
wilh a virgin called Barbelath, lo  whom he granted suc-
cessively lhe gift of prophecy, incorruptibility, and eter-
nal life.
   BARBER, one who makes a trade of shaving, or trim-
ming, the beards of other men, for  money.   Besides curl-
ing the hair, and shaving, the ancient barbers trimmed the
nails.   Formerly some musical instrument was  part of a
barber's stock in trade ; and it was customary for persons
above the common  rank lo resort  to his shop, either for
surgical operations,  or for shaving, &c.  The music was
for the amusement of the wailing customers, and answered
the same purpose as a newspaper in modern times.  Bar-
bers were uniformly bleeders;  and the  pole now used as
a sign,  was a representation of fhe staff which was  put in-
to the hand of a person  undergoing the operation of phle-
botomy.  The white band which surrounds it is designed
to represent  the fillet  (bat binds  up the arm.  The sur-
geon  barbers were  incorporated  by Henry the Vlllth,
and separa(ed from (he surgeons by an act of Anne.
   BARBET, in ornithology, the name ofa genus of birds
in Latham's  Synopsis, corresponding  with the bucco of
Linnaeus.  Barbels are described  as a dull stupid race of
birds, inhabiting the  tropical climates.  They probably
take their name from  the  strong bristles which surround
the bill.  They are in general larger than a lark, and vary
in plumage, being black, green, reddish, pied, &c.  See
Bucco.
   BARBING,  is sometimes  used for  shearing:  by an
ancient statute,  cloth was not  to be  sold, till  barbed,
rowed, and shorn.
   BABBLES, or Barbs, in farriery, lhe knots of super-
fluous  flesh  that grow up in  the channels of a horse's
mouth,  that is, in the  intervals that separate  the bars, and
lie under the tongue.
   BARCALON, an appellation given to the prime minis-
ter ofthe king of Siam.
   BARCONE, a short and broad  vessel used in the Med-
iterranean for the  carriage of corn, salt, and other provi-
sions, from one place  to another.
   BARDESANISTS, Christians of lhe second century,
who maintained that the devil was a self existent independ-
ent being; that Jesus  Christ was not born ofa woman, but
brought his  body with him from heaven; and denied the
resurrection of the body.
  BAREGE waters, are celebrated for their mineral vir-
tues : they are  situated at Barege on the French side of
the Pyrenes, and  differ in the degree of temperature from
120 degrees, to 73 degrees.  By analysis they are found
to contain sulphurated hydrogen and soda, some common
salt, and a bitumen.   See Mineral Waters.
  BAR FEE, a fee of twenty pence, which every prison-
er acquitted ot felony pays to the gaoler.
  BARGAIN  and Sale.  See Contract.
  BARGE  COURSE, with bricklayers, a term usedfor
thai part of the  tiling which projects over without the prin-
cipal rafters, in all sorts of buildings, where there is either
a gable or kirkin head.
  BARGHMOTE, a court which takes  cognisance of
causes and  uisputes between miners.  By custom ofthe
mines, no person is to sue a miner for ore, debt, &c. but in
this court, on penalty of forfeiting the debt, and paying fhe
charge at law.
  BARILLA, a kind of Spanish alkaline salt used in the
glass trade.   It is  procured  by  burning  to  ashes several
plants ofthe kali kind. It is brought over in brown speck-
led masses, without smell  and  strongly alkaline.  See
Soda.
  LARK, in lhe anatomy of plants, the exterior part of
trees, corresponding to the skin of an animal.  See Phys-
iology of Plants.
  Bark, in  navigation, a lit tie vessel with two or three
triangular sails ; but, according to Guillet,  it is a vessel
wifh three masts, viz. a mainmast, foremast, and mizen-
mast.
  Bark, or Jesuic's Bark.   See Cinchona.
  Bark bed, in gardening,  that sort of hot bed, which
is wholly or principally constituted of tanner's bark, com-
monly employed in a hot house, because it retains its heat
longer and emits less steam  than a hot bed of horse dung.
  Bark bound, a disease in trees thought to be capable
of being cured  by  making a slit  or opening through the
bark.
  Bark longue,  or Barca Longa,  a  small low sharp
built but very long vessel,  without a deck.  It  goes with
sails and oars, and is very common in Spain.
  BARLERIA, a genus ofthe angiospermia order,  and
didynamia  class of plants; and  in the natural method
ranking under lhe  40fh  order, personafae.   The calyx ia
quadripartite;  two of the stamina are much  less than the
rest: the capsule is quadrangular,  bilocular,  bivalved,
elastic, and without claws ; and the  seeds are two. There
are  eleven  species ; all natives of  the warm parts of
America, and therefore require to be  kept in a stove, and
treated  like other tender exotics.  They possess no great
beauty  nor any remarkable property j  but  are kept for
(he sake of variety.
  BARLEY.   See Hordeum.
  Barlevcorn, (he least  of our  long  measures, being
tbe third of an  inch.
  Barley, pearl, and French Barley, are barley freed
from (he husk, and rounded by a mill ; (he distinction be-
tween the two being that the pearl barley  is reduced to
the size of small shot, all but the heart being ground away.
  BARM.  See Yeast.
  BARNABITES, a religious order, founded  in the six-
teenth century, by three Italian gentlemen, who had bees
advised by a famous preacher of those days (o  read care-
fully the epistles of St. Paul.  Hence they  were called 
BAR
BAR
 clerks of St. Paul, and Barnabifes, because they perform-
 ed (heir first exercise in a church of St. Barnabas at Milan.
 Their habit is black, and  their office  is to instruct, cate-
 chise, and serve in mission.
   BARNACLE, or  Bernicle, in  ornithology.  See
 Anas.
   Bahnacles, in farriery, an instrument composed of two
 branches joined at one end  wilh a  hinge,  lo  put upon
 horses' noses when they will not stand  quietly to be shod,
 blooded, or dressed.
   BARNADESIA, in botany; a genus of the Dolygamia
 Bqualis order,>and syngenesia class of planls ; (He charac-
 ters of whiph are : the corolla  is radiated;  the  calyx is
 naked, imbricated, and pungent; the pappus of the rays
 feathery, of (he  disk brislly and relrofracted.   There is
 but one species, vis.
   Barnadesia Spinosa, a native of South America.
   BAROCO, in logic, a term given to the fourth mode of the
 Becond figure of syllogisms. A syllogism in baioco has the
 first proposilion universal and affirmative, but (he second
 and third particular  and negative, and  the middle term is
 the predicate in fhe two first propositions. For example :
        Every virtue is attended with discretion ;
        Some kinds of zeal are not attended with  discretion ;
        Therefore some kinds of zeal are not virtues.
   BAROMETER, a machine for measuring the weight
 ofthe atmosphere.  The barometer is founded on an ex-
 periment  of Torricelli, who  considering that a column of
 water of about thirly-three feet was equal in weight lo a
 column of  air  of the  same  base, concluded that  a col-
 umn of mercury, no  longer than about  twenty-nine inches
 and a half,  would be so too,  such a  column of  mercury
 being as heavy as thirty-three feet of vva(er.  Accordingly
 he (ried (he experiment, and  the apparatus he made use
 of is now the common barometer or weatherglass.
   The tubes of which  barometers are made ought to beat
 least one fourth of an  inch bore ; but one third or even
 one half of an inch  is  better.  The  tube should be new,
 and perfectly clean within.   In order  to this, it should be
 hermetically sealed at  both ends, at the glasshouse, when
 made ; one of the ends may  be cut  off with a file, when you
 use if.  The  mercury ought lo be perfectly pure, and
 should be purged from air by boiling it in a tube.
   To fill the tube with mercury, warm it, and pour some
 mercury into it  by a small paper funnel, so as  to  reach
 within an inch of the (op; you will see that  as  the tube
 fills, there are bubbles of air in  several parts.  When  the
 lube is full,  apply your finger hard against the open end,
 and invert il ;  by which means the air that was on the top,
 now rising through all the quicksilver, gathers every bubble
 in ils way.   Turn the tube up again, and  the  bubble of air
 reascends ; and, if there are many small bubbles left, car-
 ries them away.   If,  however, any remain, the  operation
 must be repeated.  The tube is now to be filled to the top,
 and slopping (he open end with  the finger, must be invert-
 ed into a basin of mercury.   When the end of the tube h
 perfectly plunged under lhe surface of lhe mercury, the
 finger must  be  taken away, and lhe mercury in  (he (ube
 will subside, remaining suspended at  (he height of 29 or
JJO inches, according  to the  pressure of (he atmosphere at
 the time.  The space  at (he top ofthe tube is a perfect
vacuum.
   The following is a still better way of filling lhe tube :
 Pour the purest mercury into the tube, which must be very
 dry and well cleaned, fo within two inches ofthe top, and
 then hold it with the sealed end lowest, in an inclined po-
 sition, over a chafingdish of burning charcoal, placed near
 the edge of a table, in order that all parts of lhe  tube may
 be exposed successively to the action of the fire, by mov-
 ing it obliquely over the chafingdish.  The sealed  end is
 to be first gradually presented to lhe fire.  As soon as the
 mercury becomes ho(, (he internal surface of (he lube will
 be studded  with an infinite number of air bubbles, giving
 the mercury a kind of gray colour: these increase in size
 by running info one another, and ascend toward the high-
 er parts of fhe  lube, where, meeting with a cooler part of
 lhe fluid,  they are  condensed, and nearly disappear.   In
 consequence, however, of successive  emigrations toward
 the upper parts of the tube, which are successively heat-
 ed, they finally acquire a bulk,  which enables them in their
 united form entirely to escape.  When the first part ofthe
 tube is sufficiently boiled, move it onward, by little and lit-
 tle, through  its whole length. When lhe mercury boils, ils
 parts strike against each other, and against the sides of the
 tube, with such violence, that a person unacquainted with
 the operation, naturally  apprehends the destruction of his
 tube.  By this process  the mercury  is entirely deprived
 of the air which adhered to it.
  The tube  is now fixed wilh its basin to a wooden frame
 prepared for it, having a scale of inches at the upper end,
 which is accurately  measured from the surface of lhe mer-
 cury  in the cistern. Plate  XIV. Miscel. fig. 6.  Fig. 7
 shows the scale or vernier at the top, drawn larger.
  This is fhe common construction of fhe barometer, and
 is  still found to be (he best.   However, as  the  space
 through which fhe upper part ofthe  mercury in  lhe lube
 has lo rise and fall  does  not exceed three inches, from 28
 inches to 31  above the mercury in the basin, several con-
 trivances have been used to increase the scale, and there-
 by show more sensibly small changes;  the chief of which
 are the following:
  The diagonal barometer.   ABC, fig. 8, is a tube seal-
ed at  C, immersed  in mercury at A; this tube is perpen-
 dicular from A  to B, where the scale of variation begins ;
 thence it  is bent into  B  C.   This part B C  proceeds
 to the highest limit in the scale of variation, vis. I C ; and
 consequently, while the mercury rises-from 1 to C in the
 common barometer, it will move in this from B to C; and
 so the scale  will be  by  this means enlarged in the propor-
 tion of B C to I C.
  This form however, being subject to a great drgree of
 friction, on account of fhe obliquity in fhe part B C, which
 inclination makes the quicksilver  frequently divide info
 several parts, it requires (he (rouble of filling tubes anew
 too often.
  The horisontal, or rectangular barometer, consists of a
 tube ACD  F, fig.  9, sealed ou lhe upper end A, and bent
 (o a right angle at U. The mercury stands in both  legs from
 E to C. Here il is evident, lhat in moving three inches from
 A (o C, i( will move through so many times three inches
in the small  leg D  F, as lhe bore of 1) F is less than lhe
bore of A  C, whence the molion of lhe mercury at  Emust
be extremely sensible.   This form is liable to the same ex-
ceptions as remarked in (hat of fig. 8 ;  and, besides a great
degree of friction, and  the frequent breaking off of the
mercury in  (he leg E,  the part D  F being a very small 
BAROMETER.
bore, tbe free motion of fhe mercury mu3t be impeded by
the attraction of cohesion.
   The wheel barometer.   A, fig. 10, represents (he quick-
silver in a glass lube,  having a large round head  or ball,
and turned up at bottom B; upon the surface of the mer-
cury in the  recurved leg,  there is then placed a short glass
lube loaded  wilh mercury, wilh a string going over a pul-
ley, and is balanced  by  another weight hanging freely in
lhe air.  As lhe surface at A is  very large, and  lhat at
B very small,  the motion of the quicksilver and  conse-
quently of lhe ball, will at the bottom be  very ^consider-
able; but as the weight moves up and down, it turns the
pulley, and  that a hand or index ; and by the divisions of
a large graduated circle, lhe minutest variations of the air
are plainly shown, if the  instrument is accurately  made,
and the friction of the several parts  inconsiderable.
   There is also a barometer, contrived so  as not to be af-
fected by the motion of a ship, called the  marine  barom-
eter.
   Also a portable  barometer, for  moving  from place to
place without i. jury ;  and for  measuring  the  heights of
mountains,  by observing  the  difference of the  altitude
of fhe mercury at fhe  bottom and top ofthe mountain.
   A thermometer should always be attached fo the barom-
eter,  as a necessary  appendage; and by the  side of it a
scale  of correction, to  show how much to add or subtract
from the height of (he   mercury in  (he  barome(er for the
degree of temperature ; for ii is evident that the mercury
in the tube will be  affected by heat and cold in the same
manner as the thermometer, and on that account it will
not show the true weight of the atmosphere.   This cor-
rection is, therefore, very necessary.
   Ever since it was observed that a change of weather gen-
erally accompanied or followed a variation in the height
of the barometer, it has been used  as a prognostic of the
weather.   A great  variety  of observations  have  been
made by different people, relative fo the effect which cer-
tain changes of weather  have  upon (his ins(rumenf ; and
thence fhey have derived a system of rules, (o enable any
one (o know what change  will  happen in (he weather, by
knowing the alteration lhat has taken place in the height
of fhe mercury.
   Before we proceed  to  mention the rules, which  are the
result of (he long observation and experience of philoso-
phers,  it is necessary to  observe,  that  they are by no
means so certain,  and  so  much to  be depended upon, as
many people suppose.   So numerous are fhe causes that
affect lhe stale of  the  atmosphere,  with which  we  are but
little  acquainted, that  no  single instrument can point out
with precision fhe alterations likely  to happen.  Besides
the barornefer, there are  several other instruments used
for meteorological purposes, such as the thermometer, hy-
drometer,  wind gage,  rain  gaje,  electrometer, Sec. wifh
which we shall become acquainted in their turn.  To be
best enabled to prognosticate the change of weather, ac-
curate  observations ought lo be made with  all these in-
struments,  aided  >,y  considerable  experience and the
knowledge of natural philosophy and chymistry ; and even
then, it requires more  science" than we are possessed of,
to predict wifh  certainty the alterations of lhe weather.
See Meteorology.
   As the barometer, however, is fhe most useful of these,
and as it undoubtedly affords  us  considerable assistance,
we shall  lay down such directions as  are most  approved
of for this purpose.
  1. The rising of (he mercury presages, in general, fair
weather ; and its falling, foul weather ; as rain, snow, high
winds, and storms.   2. In very hot weather, the fallingof
the mercury foretells thunder.   3. In winter, lhe rising
presages frost; and in frosty weather, if the mercury falls
three or  four divisions, there will certainly follow  a thaw.
But in a  continued frost, if the mercury rises, it will cer-
tainly snow.   4.  When foul weather happens soon after
the falling of (he mercury, expect but litllojof it; and, on
the contrary,  expect  but little fair weather, when il proves
fair shortly after lhe mercury has risen.  5.  In foul weath-
er, when the mercury rises much and high, and  continues
so for two or three days before the  foul  weather is quite
over, then expect a continuance of fair weather to follow.
6. In fair weather, when the mercury falls much and low
and thus continues for two or three days before the rain
comes, then expect a great deal of wet, and probably high
winds.   7.  The unsettled motion of the mercury denotes
uncertain and changeable  weather.   8. You are not so
strictly  to observe  the words engraved on  the  plates,
though in general it will agree with them, as the mercury's
rising and falling ; for if it  stands at much rain,  and then
rise up to changeable, it  presages  fair weather;  though
not to continue so long as if the mercury had risen higher;
and, on the contrary, if the mercury stood at fair, and falls
to changeable, it presages foul  weather ; though not so
much of  it as if it had sunk lower.
  From  these  observations  it  appears, that it is not so
much the height of the mercury in the tube that indicates
the weather, as the motion of it up and down; wherefore,
in order  to form a right judgment of what weather is to be
expected, we ought to know whether the mercury is actu-
ally rising or falling ;  to which end, the following rules are
of use  :
  1. If the  surface of lhe mercury  is convex, standing
higher in the middle of the  tube than at the sides, it is
generally a sign that fhe mercury is then rising.  2. If the
surface is concave, it is then sinking.  And, 3. if it is lev-
el, the mercury is stationary, or ralher, if it is a  little con-
vex; for mercury, being put into a glass tube, especially
a small one, will naturally have ifs surface a little convex,
because  lhe  particles of mercury attract  one another
more forcibly than Ihey  are attracted by glass.  If  tbe
glass is small, shake  the  tube;  and  Ihen if  air is grown
heavier,  the mercury will  rise about half the tenth of an
inch higher than it stood before; if it is  grown  lighter,it
will sink  as much.  This   proceeds from  lhe mercury's
sticking to the sides of lhe tube, which prevents fhe free
motion of it until it is disengaged  by the shock ; and there-
fore, when an observation is lo be made by such a lube.it
ought always  to be shaken first; for sometimes fhemercn-
ry will not vary of i(s own accord, un(il  (he weather it
ought to  have indicated is presenl.               • *
  Here we must observe, (hat (he above mentioned phe-
nomena are peculiar  (o places lying a considerable  dis-
tance from the equator ; for in the torrid  zone, fhe mercu-
ry in fhe barometer seldom either rises or falls much.  1"
Jamaica, it is observed by  sir William  Beesfon, that the
mercury in  the morning  constantly  stood  at one degree 
BAR
B  A  R
 below changeable, and at noon  sunk to one degree above
 rain; so that the whole scale of variation  there was only
 three tenths of an inch.  At St. Helena, too,  where Dr.
 Haliey  made his observations, he  found the mercury to
 remain  almost  stationary,  whatever weather  happened.
 Of these phenomena, their causes, and why the barometer
 indicates  an  approaching  change of weather, the doctor
 gives us the following account:
   1.  In calm weather, when (he air  is inclined to rain, the
 mercury is commonly low.  2. In serene, good, and set-
 lied weather,  the  mercury is generally  high.  3.  Upon
 very violent winds, though they are not accompanied with
 rain, the mercury sinks lowest of all, with relation to lhe
 point of the compass the wind blows upon.   4. The great-
 est heights of the  mercury are found upon easterly or
 northeasterly   winds.   5. In calm  frosty weather, the
 mercury  generally  stands  high.   6. After  very great
 storms of wind, when the mercury has been very low,  it
 generally  rises again very fast.  7. The more northerly
 places have greater alterations of the barometer than the
 more southerly.  8. Within  the  tropics, and near them,
 according  to  the accounts we have had from others, and
 the  observations made at  St. Helena, the changes of the
 weather made very little or no variation in  the height of
 lhe  mercury.
   Hence it is thought that the principal cause of the rise
 and fall ofthe mercury is  from the variable winds which
 are found in the  temperate  zone, and whose great incon-
 stancy in England is notorious.
   A second cause is, the uncertain exhalation and precip-
 itation of fhe vapours lodging  in  the air, whereby  if  is at
 one  time much more crowded than at another, and conse-
 quently heavier; but this  latter depends in a great meas-
 ure upon (he former.   Now, from (hese principles we may
 explain (he several  phenomena of  (he barometer,  faking
 them in (he same order as (hey are laid down.  Thus,
   1. The  mercury being low, indica(es rain; because (he
 air being light, (he vapours are no longer supported by it,
 being become specifically heavier than the medium in which
 (hey floated ;  so that Ihey descend toward the earth, and,
 in Iheir fall, meeting with other aqueous particles, fhey in-
 corporate together, and form  litlle drops of rain : bul lhe
 mercury's  being at one time lower than another, is lhe ef-
 fect of Iwo contrary winds blowing from lhe place where
 the barometer  stands; whereby (he air of  (hat place is
 carried  bo(h ways from it, and  consequently the incum-
 bent cylinder of  air is diminished,  and  accordingly the
 mercury sinks : as, for instance, if in the German Ocean it
 should blow a  gale of westerly wind, and at the same time
 an easterly wind in the Irish Sea ;  or if in France, it should
 blow  a northerly wind, and  in  Scotland a southerly; it
 must be granted, (hat (hat part of the atmosphere impend-
 ent over England would  be exhausted  and a((enua(ed,
 aud  (he mercury would subside,  and the vapours which
 before floated in these parts ofthe air of equal gravity wifh
 themselves, would sink (o (he earth.
  2. The greater height of the barometer is occasioned by
 (wo contrary winds blowing toward fhe place of observa-
tion, by which lhe air of olher places is  brought thither
and accumulated ' so (hat  the  incumbent cylinder of air
 being increased both in height  and weight, (he mercury
pressed by it  must needs stand high,  as long as the winds
continue so to blow :  and  then  the  air being specifically
  vol.  i.           40
heavier, the vapours are kept suspended, so  that they
have no inclination to precipitate,  and fall down in di«>pc
which is the reason of the serene  good weather which at-
tends the greater heights of the mercury.
  3. The mercury sinks the  lowest of all by lhe very
rapid motion of the air in storms of wind.  For lhe tract
or region of the earth's surface, in  which the winds rage,
not extending all  round lhe globe, that slagnant air which
is left behind,  as likewise  (hat on the sides, cannot come
in so fast as lo supply (he vacuity  made by so swift a cur-
rent; so that the  air must necessarily  be attenuated when
and where the winds continue  to blow, and that more or
less, according lo their violence:  add lo which, lhat the
horizontal motion of the air being so quick, may in all prob-
ability take off some part of lhe perpendicular pressure ;
and the great agitation of its particles  is the reason why
lhe vapours are dissipated, and do not condense  inlo drops,
so as to form rain, otherwise  the  natural consequence of
the air's rarefaction.
  4. The  mercury stands  highest upon the easterly and
northeasterly wind ; because, in the great Atlantic Ocean,
on this side the  thirty-fifth degree of north latitude, the
winds are almost  always  westerly or  southwesterly ; so
lhat, whenever here the wind comes up at east and north-
east, it is sure to be checked by a contrary gale as soon
as it reaches the ocean ; wherefore, according lo the sec-
ond remark, lhe air must needs be heaped over this island,
and  consequently the mercury must stand high as often
as these  winds blow.  This  holds  true in this country ;
but is not a general rule for others, where the  winds are
under different circumstances: and  we have  sometimes
had the mercury here so low as 29 inches, upon an  easter-
ly wind, but then it blew exceedingly hard;  and thus is
accounted for, what was observed in lhe third remark.
  5. In calm frosty weather, the mercury generally stands
high, because it seldom freezes but when the winds come
out ofthe northern and northeastern quarters, or at least,
unless those winds blow at  no great distance off;  for lhe
northern parts of Germany, Denmark,  Sweden, Norway,
and all that  tract whence northeastern winds  come,  are
subject  to almost continual  frost  through lhe winter, and
thereby lhe lower air  is very much  condensed, and in
that state is brought hitherwaid by those winds; and,  be-
ing accumulated by  the  opposition of the westerly wind
blowing in the ocean, the mercury must needs be forced to
a more than ordinary height;  and,  as a concurring cause,
the shrinking of the  lower parts of the air into lesser room,
by cold, must cause  a  descent of the upper parts of  the
atmosphere, to reduce the cavity made by this contrac-
tion to an equilibrium.
  6. After great storms, when lhe mercury has been very
low, it generally  rises again  very fast.  It has been ob-
served (o rise one inch  and a half  in  less (han six hours,
after a long continued storm of  southwest wind.  The rea-
son is, that the air being very much rarefied by fhe great
evacuation which such continued storms make of that fluid,
the neighbouring  air runs  in the more swiftly to  bring it
into an equilibrium.
  Lastly.  The variations are greater in lhe more norther-
ly places.
  BARON, a degree of nobility next below  a viscount,
and above a baronet. It is probable that formerly all those
were barons who had lordships with courts baron, and soon 
BAR
BAR
after the Conquest all such sat in the house of peers; but
being very numerous,  it grew an order and custom, (hat
none should sit but such as the king thought fit to call up
by writ, which  ran  pro hac vice tantum.  This state of
nobility being very precarious, they at length obtained of
the king letters patent, and these were called barons by
patent, or creation ; the only way  now in use of making
barons,  unless when  the son of a lord,  in his ancestor's
life time, is summoned by writ.
  Barons of the cinque ports are members of the house
of commons, elected by the five ports, two for each port.
  Those who have  been  mayors of Corfecastle in Dor-
setshire are  also denominated barons; as were formerly
the principal citizens of London.
  Baron and Feme, in our law, a term used  for the hus-
band and wife; and they  are  deemed but one person, so
that a wife cannot be witness for  or against her husband,
nor he  for or  against  his wife, except in cases of high
treason.
  Baron and Feme, in heraldry, is when the coats of
arms of a man and his wife are borne per pale  in the same
escutcheon, the  man's being always on the dexter side,
and the woman's on the sinister.
  BARONET, a modern degree of honour,  which is he-
reditary,  and has the  precedence of  all  knights, except
those of the garter, bannerets, and privy counsellors.
  Baronets of Ireland, an hereditary dignity instituted
in 1619.  There are also baronets of Nova Scotia, an or-
der instituted by Charles I.  in 1625.
  BARONY, the honour and territory which gives  title
to a baron, whether he is a layman or a bishop.
  Baronv, in Ireland, the  name of the  divisions of the
counties, answering to English hundreds.
   BARRA,in commerce, a long measure used in Portu-
gal and some parts of  Spain,  to measure woollen cloths,
linen cloths and serges.
   BARRATOR, in law, a common mover  or maintainer
of suits and quarrels,  either in courts or elsewhere in the
country.   A man cannot be adjudged a barrator for bring-
ing any number of suits in his  own right,  though they are
vexatious.  Barrators are punished by fine and imprison*
ment.  4 Blacks. 134.
   BARRATRY, in  a ship master,  is his cheating the
owners.  If goods delivered on ship board are embezzled,
all the  mariners ought to contribute (o (he satisfaction of
the party that lost his  goods,  by  the maritime law; and
the cause is  to be tried in the admiralty.
   BARREL, a measure of liquids.  The English barrel,
wine  measure, contains the eighth part of a tun, the fourth
part of a pipe,  and  one  half of an hogshead ; that is to
say, it  contains  thirty-one  gallons  and a half: a barrel,
beer  measure, contains  thirty-six gallons.  The barrel of
beer, vinegar, or liquor preparing for vinegar, ought to con-
tain thirty-four  gallons, according to the standard of the
ale quart.
   Barrel, also denotes a certain weight of several mer-
chandises, which differs according to the several commod-
ities: a barrel of Essex butter weighs one hundred and
six pounds, and of Suffolk  butter, two hundred and fifty-
six pounds.  The barrel of herrings ought  lo  contain
thirty-two gallons wine measure,  which  amount to about
twenty-eight gallons  old standard, containing about a thou-
sand  herrings.  The barrel of salmon  must contain forty-
two gallons.  The barrel of eels the same.  The  barrel
of soap must weigh two hundred and fifty-six pounds.
  Barrel, in  anatomy, a pretty large cavity  behind
the tympanum of the ear, about four  or five lines deep,
and five or six wide.
  Barrels, thundering, in the military art, are filled with
bombs, grenades, and other fire works, to be rolled down
a breach.
  BARRERIA, in botany, a genus of the syngenesia mo-
nogamia class and order.  The essential character is, ca-
lyx five  toothed, very small; corolla  five parted j style
short; stigma trifid.   There is  but one species, a tree of
Guiana, which rises to the height of 40  or 50 feet.
  BARRICADE, a warlike defence, consisting of barrels
and similar vessels filled with earth, stones,  &c. or trees
cut down, against an enemy's shot, or  assault;  but gener-
ally pales which  are  crossed  with battoons  as long as a
half pike, bound about with iron at  lhe feet.
  Barricade,  in the marine, a  strong wooden rail sup.
ported by pillars, and extending as a fence across the fore-
most part of  the quarter deck.  In ships of war, lhe inter-
vals between the pillars are filled with  cork, old cable, &c.
About a foot above the rail,  there extends a double rope
netting;  and between the two parts of the netting are stuff-
ed hammocks,  seamen's bedding, &c. to intercept small
shot fired by swivel guns and muskets in time of battle.
   BARRIER, in fortification, a  kind offence made at a
passage, retrenchment,  &c. composed of  great stakes,
about four or five feet high, placed at the distance of eight
or ten feet from one another, with transums,or overfhwart
rafters, to  stop  either horse or foot that would enter or
rush in with violence.
  BARRINGTONIA, in  botany, a  genus of the poly-
andria order, and monadelphia class of plants, the charac-
ters of which are:  female,  the calyx  diphyllous above,
with a drupa which  it crowns;  and the seed is a quadri-
locular nut.  There is but one species known, vis.
  Barringtonia speciosa, a native of China and  Otabeite.
  BARRISTER, in common law, a person qualified and
empowered to  plead and defend  the  cause of clients in
the  courts of justice.  They  are of two sorts: the out-
ward or outer barristers, who, by their long study in, and
knowledge of, the law,  which must be for a term of five
years at  least, are called to  public practice, and  always
plead  without  the  bar.  The  inner  barristers are those
who, because they are either attorney, solicitor, serjeant,
or counsel fo the king, are allowed  out of respect, the
privilege of pleading within the bar.  But at the rolls,and
some other inferior courts, all barristers are admitted with-
in the bar.
   BARROW,  in  the salt works, wicker cases almost in
the shape ofa sugar loaf, in  which the salt is put to drain.
   Barrows,  a name usually given to those  hillocks or
mounds of earth which were  anciently raised over the
bodies of deceased  heroes,  and  persons of distinguished
character.  These  are considered by  some  antiquarians
as the most ancient sepulchral monuments in the world.
   BARRULET, in heraldry, the fourth of the  bar, or
the one half of the  closset: an  usual  bearing in coat ar-
mour.
   BARRULY, in heraldry,  is when the field is  divided
bar ways, that  is, across from side to side,  inlo several
parts. 
BAR
BAR
  BARRY, in heraldry, is when an escutcheon is divided
"bar ways, lhat is, across  from side (o  side, into an even
number of partitions, consisting of two or more tinctures,
interchangeably disposed.
  Barrv bendy is when an escutcheon is divided evenly,
bar and bend ways, by lines  drawn transverse and  diago-
nal, interchangeably varying the tinctures of  which  it
consists.
  Barry pily is when  a coat is  divided by several lines
drawn obliquely from side to side, where they form acute
angles.
  BARTERING, in commerce,  the  exchanging of one
commodity for another, or the trucking wares for  wares,
among  merchants.  Such was the original and natural
mode of commerce, fhere being no buying till money was
invented, though, in exchanging,  both parties are buyers
and sellers.  Tbe only difficulty in this way of dealing
lies in the due  proportioning fhe commodities to be ex-
changed, so aS that neither party sustain any loss.
  The  value of the  goods bartered  are always equal  to
the product of the quantities bartered into their respec-
tive rates.  Therefore  multiply the  given  quantity and
rate of  one commodity, and  this product divided  by the
rate of  the other  commodity, will give the  quantity,  or
divided by the quantity will give the  rate.
  BARTON is used  in  lhe  west of England for the de-
mesne lands of a manor: also for the manor house; and in
some parts for outhouses, &c.
  BARTONIA, in botany, a genus ofthe class tetandria,
monogynia order of plants ;  (he essential charac(er is, (he
calyx  four parted,  corolla, do. capsule one celled, two
valved.   There are but two species.
  1. B. Verna.   Corolla white, flowers about the  begin-
ning of January, a native of Georgia.
  2. B. Paniculata, corolla white, flowers in August, a na-
tive of Pennsylvania,   (a)
  BARTRAMIA, in  botany,  a genus of plants  of the
class cryptogaraia, order musci: there  are  five species.
  1. The B. Oederiana.  2. B. Crispa.   3. B. Longiseta.
4. B. Marchica, and 5.  B. Menziesii.  (a)
  BARTSIA, painted cup,  a genus of the  angiospermia
order, and didynamia class of plants, and  in  the  natural
method ranking  under  the 40tb order, personatse.  The
calyx is bilbous, emargined, and coloured; the corolla less
coloured than the calyx, with its upper lip longer than lhe
under one.  There are  five species, of which the  princi-
pal  are,
  1. Barlsia alpina,  fhe mountain eye bright cow  wheat.
It is a native of Britain, and is found near  rivulets in hilly
countries.  Sheep and goafs  eat it.
  2. Bartsia viscosa, marshy, or yellow marsh eye bright,
is about 10 or 12 inches high, with an  erect stalk,  downy
and unbranched :  the leaves are sessile, spear shaped, and
a little viscous; the flowers are yellow, and fhe plant dries
black.  It is found in marshy places in  Cornwall.
  BARULES, in church history, certain Christians  who
held that the Son of God had only a phantom of  a  body;
that souls were created before (he world, and  that they
lived all at one time.
  BARYTES, in mineralogy  and chymistry, an earth
that was discovered by Scheele in 1774,  and the first ac-
count of its properties  was  published by him io his Dis-
sertation on Manganese.
              40*
  The experiments of Scheele were confirmed by Berg-
mann, who gave the earth  the name of terra  ponderosa.
Morveau gave it the name of barote, and Kirwan of bary-
tes ;  which last was approved of by Bergmann, and is now
universally adopted.   Different processes for obtaining
barytes were published by  Scheele, Bergmann, Wiegleb,
and Afswelius; but little addition was made to fhe prop-
erties ascertained by the original discoverer, fill Dr. Hope
published his experiments in  1793.  In 1797, our knowl-
edge of its nature  was  still further extended  by  the  ex-
periments of Pellelier, Fourcroy, and Vauquelin.
  1. Barytes may  be  obtained from ponderous  spar, or
sulphat of barytes a3 it is now called, by the following proc-
ess,  for  which we are indebted to  Vauquelin.   Reduce
the mineral (o a fine powder;  mix it  with (he  eighth part
of its  weight of charcoal  powder, and  keep it for some
hours red bot in a  crucible, and if w ill be converted into
sulphuret of barytes.   Dissolve the  sulphuret in water,
and pour nitric acid info the solution, and the sulphur will
be precipitated.  The solution, which  consists of nitric
acid combined with barytes, is to be filtered and evaporat-
ed slowly f ill it crystalizes.   Put  the  crystal into a cruci-
ble, and expose it to a strong heat; the nitric acid is driven
off, and the barytes remains in a state of purity.
  Another method attended with less expense was pointed
out long ago by Dr. Hope,  and has been since proposed
by several foreign chymists  without  taking any notice of
the original discoverer.   The method  is this : Decompose
the sulphat of barytes, by  healing it strongly along with
charcoal powder.  The product is to be treated with wafer
to dissolve every thing that is soluble : and the liquid, be-  4
ing filtered, is to be mixed  wilh a solution of  carbonat of
soda.  A white powder falls.  Wash this powder ;  make
it up into balls with charcoal, and  heat it strongly in a
crucible. When  these  balls  are  treated  with  boiling
water, a portion of barytes is dissolved, which  crystalizes
as the water cools.
  Barytes obtained by fhe  first method is a grayish wbife
porous body, which maybe very easily reduced to  powder.
It has a harsh and  more caustic taste than lime; and when
taken into the stomach proves a most violent  poison.  It
has no perceptible smell.  It  tinges vegetable blues green,
and  decomposes animal bodies  like the fixed  alkalies,
though not with such energy.
  Its specific gravity, according to Fourcroy, is 4 ; but ac-
cording to Hassenfratz, only  2.374.   But there is reason
to conclude, from  the method employed  by Ibis  philoso-
pher, that the specific  gravities which he assigns are all
too low.
  AVhen heated it becomes harder,  and acquires  internal-
ly a bluish green shade.  When exposed to lhe blow pipe
on a piece of charcoal, it fuses, bubbles up, and runs into
globules, which quickly penetrate (he  charcoal.  This is
probably in consequence of containing water, for Lavoisier
found barytes not affected by the strongest heat which he
could produce.
  When exposed  to the air, it immediately attracts mois-
ture ; in consequence of which it swells, heat  is  evolved,
and  the barytes falls lo a white powder, just  as  happens
to quicklime when  water is  sprinkled on it.  After the ba-
rytes is thus slacked, it gradually attracts carbonic acid,
and  loses its acrid properties, its weight being increased.
It cannot therefore be kept pure except in close vessels. 
BAR
B  A  S
   When a little wafer is poured upon barytes it is slacked
like  quick lime, but more rapidly, and with the evolution
of more heat.  The mass becomes white, and swells con-
siderably.   If the quantify of water is sufficient to dilute
it completely,  the  barytes crystalizes in cooling,  and as-
sumes the appearance of a stone composed of needle form
crystals;  but when exposed to tbe air it gradually attracts
carbonic acid and falls to powder.
   Water is  capable of dissolving 0.05 parts of its weight of
barytes.   This  solution, which  is known by tbe name of
barytes water, is limpid and colourless, has an acrid taste,
and  converts vegetable blues first to a green and then de-
stroys them.  When exposed to the air, its surface is soon
covered with a stony crust, consisting of the barytes com-
bined with carbonic acid.
   Boiling water dissolves more  than half its weight of ba-
rytes.  As  the solution cools, the barytes is deposited in
crystals;  the shape of which varies according to  the ra-
pidity with   which  they have been formed.  When most
regular, they are flat hexagonal prisms.   These  crystals
are transparent and  colourless, and appear to be composed
of about 53  parts of water and 47 of barytes.   When ex-
posed to the heat of boiling water, they undergo the wa-
try fusion;  that is to say,  the water which they  contain
becomes sufficient  to  keep the  barytes in solution.  A
stronger heat makes the  water fly off.  When exposed to
the air,  they attract carbonic acid, and crumble inlo dust.
They are soluble in 17\ parts of water at the temperature
of 60°;  but  boiling water dissolves any quantity whatever:
the reason of which is evident; at that temperature their
own  water of crystalization is sufficient  to keep them in
solution.
   Barytes undergoes no change from light;  neither is it ca-
pable, as  far as is known, of combining with oxygen.
   None of the  simple combustibles combine with it except
sulphur and phosphorus.
   Sulphuret of barytes may be formed by  mixing  its  two
ingredients  together, and heating them in a crucible. The
mixture melts at a red heat, and when cold forms a mass of a
reddish yellow colour, without any smell, which is sulphuret
<>f barytes.   This sulphuret decomposes water  with great
rapidity: sulphureted hydrogen is  formed, which, com-
bining with  the sulphuret, converts it into a bydrogenated
sulphuret.  This change takes  place  whenever the  sul-
phuret  is moistened wifh  water, or even  exposed to the
atmosphere.  When boiling water is poured upon  sulphu-
ret of barytes,  a great quantity of sulphureted hydrogen is
formed  almost  instantaneously,  which combines with the
water and occasions the solution of the sulphuret.   When
the solution cools, a great number of brilliant white crys-
tals are deposited.
   Phosphuret  of barytes  may  be formed  by putting a
mixture of phosphorus and barytes info  a glass tube close
at one end,  and  heating the mixture by putting the tube
upon burning coals.   The combination takes  place  very
rapidly.  This phosphuret is of a dark brown colour, very
brilliant and very  fusible. When moistened, it  exhales
the odour of phosphureted hydrogen gas.  When  thrown
into  water it js gradually decomposed, phosphureted hy-
drogen gas  is emitted, which  takes fire when it comes to
(he surface  of the water, and the phosphorus is gradually
converted info phosphoric acid.
   Barytes is not acted on by azote ;  but  it combines read-
ily with muriatic acid, and forms a compound called muri-
at of barytes.
  Barytes has no action on metals; bu( i( is capable of com.
bining with several of the metallic oxides, and forming with
(hem compounds which have no( hitherto been much exam-
ined.  For instance, if poured into a solution of silver or lead
in nitric acid, it precipitates the first brown, and  the sec
ond white ; but if an excess of barytes water is added, the
precipitates are redissolved.
  Barytes  does not combine wifh the alkalies.  Its com-
ponent parts are unknown ; but it resembles (he alkalies in
so many of  its properties, that it is  thought thecomposi.
tion of both is analogous.
  BASALTES, in natural  history, a  kind of stone ofa
very fine texture, ofa deep glossy black, resembling that
of polished steel, and mixed with no other colour, nor any
extraneous  matter  of any kind.  The  most  remarkable
quality  of this stone is its figure, being never found in stra-
ta, but standing up in the form of regular an<rular columns,
composed of a number of joints, one placed on and nicely
fitted to another, as if formed by the hands of a skilful
workman. It is remarkably hard and heavy, will not strike
fire with steel, and is a fine touchstone.
  The  basaltes was originally fo\ind in  columns in Ethio-
pia,  in  fragments in the river Tinolus, and some other
places ; we now have it frequentIy,both in columns and small
pieces, in Spain, Russia, Poland, near Dresden, and in Si-
lecia ; but the noblest store in the world seems to be that
called  the  giant's causeway 'in Ireland, where it rises far
up in fhe country, run3 into the sea, crosses its bottom,and
rises again on the opposite land.
parts of this mineral are:	
Silex	44
Alumina	16
Oxyd of iron	16
Lime	9
Water	5
Soda	4
Muriatic acid	1
	95.
	___
  Besides  the  use of basalt in building and paving, it i«
now  employed as an ingredient in the manufacture of glass
bottles ; and when calcined and pulverized it makes excel-
lent  mortar, which has the  property of hardening under
wafer.
  A dispute is still carried  on in the philosophical world
concerning the origin of basaltes; some considering it as a
crystalization in water, others regarding it as a species of
lava.
  BASARUCO, in  commerce, a small base coin in the
East Indies, being made only of very bad tin.
  BASE, in geometry, the lowest side of the perimeterof
a figure : thus, the base of a triangle may be said of any of
its sides, but more properly ofthe lowest, or that which
is parallel  fo the  horizon.  In rectangled triangles, the
base  is properly that side opposite  to  the right  an-
gle.
  Base of a solid figure, the lowest side, or that on which
it stands;  and if the solid has two opposite parallel plane
sides, and one of them is  the base, then the other is called
the base also. 
B  A  S
BAS
   Base of a conic section, a right line in the hyperbola
and parabola, arising from the common intersection of the
secant plane, and the base ofthe cone.
   Bask, in architecture, is used for any body which bears
another, but particularly for the lower part ofa column and
pedestal.
   The base of a column is that part between the shaft and
lhe pedestal, if Ihere be any pedestal, or if there be none,
between the shaft and the plinth, or zocle.   The  base is
different in the different orders. See Plates Architecture.
   Basf, in fortification, the exterior side of the polygon,
or that imaginary line which is drawn from the flanked an-
gle of a bastion to the angle opposite lo it.
   Base, in gunnery, the least sort of ordnance, the diam-
eter of whose bore is 1£ inch, weight 200 pounds, length 4
feet, load 5 pound, shot l£ pound weight, and diameter 1^
inch.
   Base line, in perspective, the common section of a pic-
ture, and the geometrical  plane.
   Base, or Basis.   By  this term modern  chymists ex-
press either species or families of saline matters, which dif-
fer with regard to the acid, but agree as to the alkali, earth,
or metallic oxyd, which  they contain.   Thus, salts with
the base of potash  include all those which are formed by
the combination of the several acids with potash.   Salts
with an alkaline base comprehend fhose, the bases of which
are potash, soda, or  ammonia, as distinguished from those
with earthy or metallic bases.
   The term  base is  used to denote species; as when we
say sulphuric acid  is composed of oxygen  united with a
base of sulphur : lhe vegetable acids consist of oxygen and
compound base  of hydrogen and carbon. The term is also
used more indefinitely ;  as phosphate of lime is the  base of
animal bone, azote is the  base of muscular fibre j that is,
the characteristic or principal part.
   Base, in law.  Base  estate, such as base tenants have
in their hands.   Base tenure, the-holding by villenage or
other customary services, as distinguished from the high-
er tenures in capite, or by military service.   Base  fee, is
to hold in fee at the will ofthe lord, as distinguished from
soccage tenure.  Base court, any court  not of record.
   BASELLA, climbing nightshade,  from Malabar,  a
genus of the pentandria class of plants and trigynia  order,
and in the natural method ranking under tbe 12th  order,
holoraceae.   The calyx i-s wanting;  fhe corolla is seven
cleft, with lhe  two opposite divisions broader, and  at last
berried ; there  is one seed.  There are four species, but
the two following suffice to give an idea of the plant:
   1. Basella  alba, with oval,  waved, flaccid ieaves, and
small  flowers and fruit.  These plants will climb to a
considerable  height, and send forth  a  great number of
branches;  so they should be trained  up to a trellis, or
fastened to the back of the sfove, otherwise they will twist
themselves about whatever plants stand near them.
  2. Basella rubra, with red leaves and simple footstalks,
has thick, strong, succulent stalks and leaves, which are of
a deep purple colour.  This plant will climb  to the  height
of 10 or 12 feet, provided it is kept in a stove.   The
flowers have no great beauty, but it is cultivated on ac-
count ofthe odd appearance of its stalks and leaves, and
lhe flowers of a whitish green colour tipped  with purple.
The berries ;ue  said to be used for staining calicoes in In-
dia.  31r. Miller assures us, that he has seen a  very beauti-
ful colourdrawn from Ihem, but which did not continue long
when used in painting.   He is of opinion, however, that
a method of fixing  lhe  colour  might be invented,  in
which  case the plant would be very useful.   This, lhe
Scotch Encyclopedists apprehend, might be accomplished
by  means of solution of tin in aqua regia,  which has a sur-
prising effect both in brightening and giving durability  to
other vegetable colours.  Both species  are  propagated
from seeds, which should be sown in a moderate hotbed in
spring, and treated afterward as stove plants.
  BASEMENT, the  lower part or  story ofa building,
when it is in the form of a pedestal, wilh a base or plinth,
die, and corlice or plat band.       «
  BASHAW, a Turkish governofjf a province, city, or
other district.                     -
  Bashaws include  beglerbegs ;  and sometimes sangiac-
begs ;  though a distinction  is sometimes made, and the
name bashaw is appropriated to the  middle sort, or such
as have two ensigns or horse tails carried before  them.
Those who have the honour of three  tails, are called beg-
lerbegs ; and those who have only one, sangiacbegs.
  BASIL,in botany.  See Ocymum.
  Basil, among joiners, the sloping edge  ofa  chissel, or
of the iron of a plane, to work on soft  wood : they usually
make the basil  twelve degrees,  and for hard wood eigh-
teen : it being remarked (hat the more acute the basil is, the
belter the instrument cuts ; and  the  more obtuse,  the
stronger and fitter it  is for service.
  Basil, order  of St. the most ancient of all the religious
orders, was very famous in the East.   It  passed into  the
AVest about lhe year 1057, and was held in great esteem,
especially in Italy.  By their rules, the Italian monks of
that order fast every Friday  in the year: Ihey eat meat
but three times a week, ami then  but once a day ; they
work all  together at certain hours of the day :  their habit
is nearly like  that of the Benedictines, and they wear a
small beard like the fathers of the mission.
  BASILIC,  in ancient architecture, a  term used for a
large hall, or public place, with aisles, porticos, galleries,
tribunals, &c. where  princes sat and  administered justice
in person.
  BASILICA, in  anatomy, the interior branch of the  ax-
illary vein, running the whole length  ofthe arm.
  B A SILICON, in pharmacy, an epithet for a great many
compositions to be found in fhe ancient medicinal writers :
but it more particularly denotes an officinal ointment, com-
posed of wax, resin,  pitch, and oil of olives, from  hence
called tetrapharmacuin.
  BASILICS, a body ofthe Roman laws, translated inlo
Greek.   The  basilics comprehend the institutes, digests,
code, novels, and some edicts, of Justinian and other em-
perors.
  BASILICTTS, in astronomy, cor leonis, a fixed  star of
the first magnitude in the constellation  Leo.
  BASIL1DIANS, in church history, a branch of gnos-
tics who maintained  that Christ's body was only a phan-
tom, and lhat Simon the Cyrenian suffered in his stead.
  BASILISK,  in military affairs, a large piece of ord-
nance, being a  forty-eight pounder, and  weighing about
seven thousand two hundred pounds.
  BASKETS of earth, in (he military art, called bv (he
French corbeilles, are '•mall baskets u-ed  in sieges, on the
parapet of a trench,  being filled  with earth.   Tin v are 
B  A  S
B  A  S
about afoot and a half high, about a foot and a half diam-
eter at the top, and eight or ten inches at bottom ; so that
being set together, there is a sort of embrasure left  at their
bottoms, through which the soldiers fire without exposing
themselves.
  Baskets are  made  of  rushes,  splinters, or willows ;
which last, according (o their manner of growth, are call-
ed osiers and sallows.   They thrive best in moist places ;
and the proprietors of such marsh lands, generally let what
they call the willow beds to persons who cut them at cer-
tain seasons, and prepare  them for basket makers.  To
form an osier bed, the  land should be divided into plots,
six, eight, or ten feet broad, by narrow ditches; and if
there is a  power of keeping water in these cuts at pleas-
ure, by means of a   sluice,  it is highly advantageous  in
many seasons.   Osiers  planted in  small  spots,  and along
hedges, will supply  a farmer with  hurdle stuff,  as well  as
wi(h  a  profusion of all sor(s of baskets.  The common
osier  is cut at three years, but that with yellow bark is
permitted to remain a year longer.
  When (he osiers are cut down, those that are intended
for white work, such as  baskets used  in washing, are to be
stripped of their bark or rinds while green.  This is done
by means of a sharp instrument fixed into a firm block:
the osiers are placed over this, and stripped of their cov-
ering  wilh great velocity.  They are then dried, and put
in bundles  for  sale.   Before they are worked  up, they
must  be  soaked in  water,  which  gives them flexibility.
The basket maker usually sits on the ground to his busi-
ness,  unless when the baskets are too large for bim to reach
their  upper parts in that position.
  Hampers and other coarse work are made of osiers with-
out any previous preparation except soaking.  It requires
no great capital either of money or ingenuity to exercise
the business of a basket maker.   Some expert workmen
make a variety of articles  of wicker manufacture, as work
baskets of different descriptions, table matts, small baskets
used  for fruit at desserts, &c.
   The ancient Britons were noted for  their ingenuity  in
making baskets, which  they exported in large  quantities.
They were of very elegant workmanship, and bore a high
price.  Martial takes notice of them :
            " A basket I, by painted Britons wrought,
            And now to Rome's imperial city brought."
   Basket, as a measure, denotes an uncertain quantity;
as, a basket of medlars is two bushels, of asafoetida  from
20 to 301b. weight.
   BASON, in mechanics, a  term used by glass grinders
for a  dish of copper, iron, &c. in which they grind convex
glasses, as concave ones are formed  on spheres;  and by
hatters for a  round iron mould,  in  which they form the
matter of their hats;  and also  for a leaden one for the
brims of hats, having an aperture in the middle, of a diam-
eter  sufficient for fhe largest block to go through.
   Bason, sale by the, at Amsterdam, is a public sale made
by authority, over which presides  an officer appointed by
(he magistrates.  It is  so called because,  before the lots
are delivered to the highest bidder, they commonly strike
on a copper bason, to  give notice lhat the lot is  going to
be adjudged.
   BAS^,  in music, that part of a concert which is most
heard, which consists of lhe gravest and deepest sounds,
and which is played on  the largest pipes or strings ofa
common instrnmenf, as of an organ, lute, &c. or on instru-
ments larger than ordinary for that purpose, as bass viols,
bassoons, bass hautboys, &c.  The bass is the principal
part of a musical composition, and  the foundation of har-
mony ; for which reason it  is a  maxim among musicians
that when the bass is good the harmony is seldom bad.
  Bass, thorough, is the harmony made by the bass viols,
or theorbos, continuing to play both while the voices sing,
and the other instruments perform their parts, and also fill-
ing up the  intervals when any of the other parts stop. It
is played by cyphers marked over the notes on  the organ,
spinnet, harpsichord, &c. and frequently simply and with-
out cyphers, on the bass viol, and bassoon.
  Bass, counter, is a second or double bass, where there
are several in the same concert.
  BASSET, a game at cards, said  to have been invented
by a  noble Venetian, for which he was banished.  The
persons concerned in  it are a dealer, or banker; his as-
sistant,  who supervises the losing cards; and the punter,
or any one who plays against the banker.
  BASSIA, in botany, a genus  of  the dodecandria class
of plants,  and  monogynia order, the characters of which
are : the calyx is quadriphyllous; the corolla  octofid, with
the tube inflated;  the  stamina are 16; and the drupe ia
quinquespermos. There are three species, natives of Mai.
abar and the South Seas.
  BASSOON,  a  musical  instrument of the  wind sort,
blown with a reed furnished with eleven holes, and used
as a bass in a concert of hautboys, flutes, &c.
  BASSORIA, a genus of the pentandria monogynia
class and order.  The essential  character is: calyx five
cleft, spreading  with a  short tube; berry ovate, knobbed,
and many seeds.  There is but one species, an herbaceous
plant of Guiana, of little note.
  BASSO RELIEVO,  or Bass  relief,  a piece of
sculpture,  where the figures or images do not  projector
stand out far above  the  plane on which they are formed.
Whatever figures or representations are thus cut, stamped,
or otherwise wrought, so that not the entire body, but
only  part of it  is  raised above the  plane, are said to be
done in relief, or relievo ; and when the work is low, flat,
and but a little raised,  it is called low relief; when apiece
of sculpture, a coin, or a medal, has its figure raised so as
to be well distinguished, it  is called  bold, and we say its
relief is strong.
  The  origin of basso relievo is thought to have been
described in lhe story  of the maid  of Corinth, related by
Pliny; who says that  Dibutades, the Sicyonian poller,
her father, invented a  method of  taking likenesses in the
following  manner: His  daughter being in love with a
young man who was going on foreign service, she circum-
scribed the shadow of  his face with  lines upon the wall by
lamp light; her father took the  impression  in clay, and
baked it among  his vases.
  BASS VIOL, a musical  instrument of the same form
with  that  of a violin, but  much  larger.   It is struck
wifh a bow as that is, has the same number of strings, and
has  eight  stops,  which are subdivided inlo semi-stops:
its sound is grave,  and  has a much nobler effect in a con-
cert than that ofthe violin.
  BASTARD, one who is born of any woman not mar-
ried, so that his father is not known by order ofthe law.
A bastard by our English laws, is one that is not only be- 
B  A  S
BAT
gotten, but born out of lawful matrimony.   As all children
born before  matrimony are bastards, so are all children
born so long after  (he  death of the husband, (bat by the
usual course of gestation they could not be begotten by
him.
   If a man marry a woman grossly big with childby another,
and even within three days afterward she is delivered, the
issue is no bastard. 1 Danv. Abr. 729.
   If a child is born wilhin a day after marriage between
parties of full age, if (here  be  no apparent impossibility
lhat the husband should be the father of it, the child is no
bastard, but supposed  to be the child of (be husband.  1
Rol. Abr.
   If a bastard die without issue, though the land cannot
descend to  any heir  on the part of the father, yet to the
heir on the  part  of the  mother, being no bastard, it may;
because he  is of the blood ofthe mother, but he has no
father.  2 Rol.  Abr.   If a bastard die intestate,  leaving
neither widow nor issue, the king is entitled to lhe person-
ality.  2 Blacks. 505.
   The incapacity of a  bastard consists principally in this,
that he cannot be heir  to any one, neither can he  have
heirs but  of his own body : for being nullius fi!ius, he  is
therefore of kin to  no one, nor has he any ancestor from
whom any inheritable blood can be derived.  3 Salk. 66.
   A bastard may be made legitimate,  and capable of in-
heriting, by the transcendent power of an act  of parlia-
ment.  1 Blacks. 459.
   If any single  woman be delivered of  a bastard  child
which shall  be chargeable or likely to become chargeable;
or shall declare herself  to  be  with child, and that such
child is likely to be born a bastard, and to be chargeable ;
and  shall in either of such cases,  in an examination to be
taken in writing, on oath, before one justice of the peace of
the county,  &c. where such parish or place  shall lie, charge
any  person  with having gotten her with child, it frhall
be lawful for such justice, upon  application made to him
by the overseers of the poor of such parish, or one of ihem,
or by  any substantial  householder of any extra parochial
place, to issue out his warrant for the immediate appre-
hending such person so charged as aforesaid, and for bring-
ing  him  before  such justice, or before any other justices
of lhe peace of such  county, cily, or town  corporate : and
fhe  justice, before  whom such person shall be brought,
shall commit him to the common gaol or house of correc-
tion, unless  he shall give security to indemnify such parish
or place;  or shall  enter into a recognisance, with suffi-
cient security, upon  condition to appear at the next gen-
eral  quarter session, or general session of the peace.  6
Geo. II. c. 31.
   Though a bastard child is prima facie settled  where
born, yet this rule admits of several exceptions : as where
a bastard is  born under an order  of removal, and  before
the mother can be  sent to her place of settlement:  or if a
woman be delivered on the road in transitu, while the offi-
cers  are conducting her, by virtue of an order of removal;
or if the child be born in the house of correction, or in the
house of industry, of any  hundred or district, or in a ly-
ing-in hospital, it shall  follow (he mother's settlement. 1
Sess. Cr. 33. 94. 2 Salk. 474.  13  Geo. III.  c. 29.  20
Geo. III. c.  36.
  BiSTAKu  eigne, is a son born before  marriage,  whose
parents afterward intermarry, and by the civil law he is mu-
lier, or lawful issue, but not by (he common law.  2 Ins(. 99.
  BASTARDY, arms of, in heraldry, should be crossed
with a bar, fillet, or traverse from left to right.   Bastards
were  formerly not allowed to carry the arms of their fa-
ther,  and therefore they  invented arms for  themselves,
and  this  is still done by fhe  natural sons of a king.
  BASTION, in the modern fortification, a huge mass of
earth, faced usually with sods, sometimes with  brick, and
rarely with stone,  standing  out  from a rampart, whereof
it is a principal part, and is what, in the ancient fortifica-
tion, is called a bulwark, propugnaculum.
  A  bastion consists of two faces and  two flanks; the
faces include  (he angle of the  bastion,  and  their union
makes the outmost or the salient  angle,  called also the an-
gle of the bastion;  and the union of the two faces to the
two flanks makes the side angles, called also the shoulders
orepaules;  and the union of the two  other ends of the
flanks to (be (wo curtains makes  the angles of the flanks.
   In  regard to  (he bastion, the great rule is, that every
part of it be seen  and defended  from  some other part:
whence mere angles are not sufficient, but flanks and faces
are necessary.   For the proportion of the faces, they are
not to be less than  24  Rhineland perches, nor  more  than
30.   The flanks of a bastion, in case  they  stand at the
same angle under the  line of defence,  are so  much the
belter the  longer they are; whence they  must stand at
right  angles to the line of defence : and the disposition of
the flanks makes lhe principal part of fortification, as  it is
that on which the defence chiefly depends, and  which has
introduced the various  forms of  fortifying. The angle of
the bastion  must be more than 60 degrees, otherwise it
will be too small to give room for guns, and will either ren-
der the line of defence too long,  or the flanks  too short;
so that it  must be either a right angle or some intermediate
one between that and 60 degrees ; for it is disputed wheth-
er or not  it should exceed a right angle.   See Fortifica-
tion.
  BASTON, or Batoon,  in heraldry, a kind of bend,
having only one third of the usual breadth.
  BAT, see Vespertilio.
  Bat, Bate, or Batz, a small copper coin, mixed  with
a little silver, current in several  cities  in  Germany;  it is
worth four crutzers.  It is also a coin of Switzerland, cur-
rent at five livres or one hundred sols French money.
  BATCHELOR, in the livery companies  of London,
are those not yet admitted to the livery.
  Batchelors, in the university, are  persons who have
taken the first degree in the liberal arts and sciences. Be-
fore a person can be admitted to this degree at  Oxford, it
is necessary fhat he study there four years ;  three years
more may entitle him to the  degree of master of arts ; and
in seven  years more he may  commence batchelor of divin-
ity.   At Cambridge tbe degrees are usually taken  as at
Oxford, excepting in law and physic, in either  of which the
batchelor's  degree may be taken in six years.   In France
the degree of batchelor of divinity is attained in  five years'
study, that is, in two years of philosophy and three of di-
vinity.
  BAT  fowling, a method of caf ching birds in the night,
by lighting some straw or  torches near  the place where
they are at  roost j  for upon  beating them up they fly to 
BAT
BAT
(he flame, where being amazed, they are easily caught  in
nets, or  bealen  down with bushes  fixed to lhe end  of
poles, &c.
  BATH, warm, cold, vapour,  &c. See Medicine and
Mineral Waters.
  Bath, in Hebrew antiquity, a measure of capacity, con-
taining the tenth part  of an omer,  or  seven gallons and
four pin(s, as a measure for things liquid : or three pecks
and three pints,  as a measure for things dry.
  Bath.  See Balneum, and Chvmisthv.
  Bath, knights of, a military order in England, suppos-
ed to have been instituted  by  Richard the Second, who
limited  their  number to four:  his  successor, however,
Henry IV.  increased them to  forty-six.   Their motto
was ires in uno,  signifying the  three theological virtues.
  This order  derived this denomination from a custom of
bathing before Ihey received the golden spur.   It is sel-
dom or never  conferred but at the coronation of kings, or
the inauguration of a prince of Wales or duke of York.
They wear a red riband bellvvise.
  The order of the bath, after remaining many years ex-
tinct, was revived under George  lhe First, by a solemn
creation ofa great number of knights.
  BATIS, in botany, a genus of the (ctandria order and
dioecia  class of planls, the characters of which are:  of
the male the amentum is four ways  imbricated, and both
the  calyx and corolla are  wanting: of the female the
amentum is ovale, the involucrum diphyllous; calyx and
corulla wanting; the  stigma is bilobate and sessile; the
berries condunate and four  seeded.  There is but one spe-
cies, vis.  batis mantina, a native  of Jamaica.
  BATMAN, in  commerce,  a  kind of weight used  at
Smyrna, containing six okes of four hundred drams each,
which amount to sixteen pounds, six ounces,  and  fifteen
drams, of English weight.
   BATTALION, or Batallion, an undetermined body
of infantry in regard to number, generally from 600 lo 1000
men. The companies of grenadiers and light infantrymen
having been detached from their  several corps  and form-
ed inlo separate  battalions, the guards  at present consist
of nine battalions.   The different companies are likewise
considerably  augmented ; so lhat il  is  impossible to affix
any specific standard to their complement of men.  The
royal  regiment  of artillery  consists of four battalions.
Sometimes  regiments consist each of one battalion ; but
if more numerous, are divided  into several battalions, ac-
cording to their strength;  so that every one  may  come
within the numbers mentioned.   A battalion in one of our
marching regiments consists of 1000 and sometimes of 1200
men, officers and noncommissioned included.  When there
are companies of several regiments in a garrison to form a
battalion,  those ofthe eldest regiment post themselves on
the riu;ht, (hose of (he second  on (he left, and so on until
the youngest fall into the centre.  The  officers  fake their
posts before their companies, from lhe  right and left, ac-
cording to seniority.  Each battalion is divided info four
division", and each division into two subdivisions, which
are ac;ain div ided info sections.  The companies of grena-
diers being  unequal in all  battalions, their  post must be
regulated  by the commanding officer.
  BATTEN, a  name lhat workmen give to a scantling  of
wooden Muff, from  Iwo to  four  inches broad,  and about
one inch thick, the length undetermined.
   BATTER, a cannonade  of heavy ordnance, from  the
first or second parallel of entrenchment, against  any for-
tress or works.
   Batter in breach, implies a heavy cannonade of many
pieces directed to one part of the revelement  from the
third parallel.
   BATTERING, in military affairs,  implies fhe firino-
with heavy artillery on  some fortification  or  strong post
possessed by an enemy,  in  order to demolish lhe works.
   Battering  pieces are large pieces of cannon used in
battering a fortified town or  post.
   It is judged by all nations  that  no less  than  21 or  IS
pounders are proper for lhat use.   Formerly much larger
calibres were used; but, as  they were so long and heavy,
and very troublesome to transport and manage, they were
for a long time  rejected, till adopted among the French,
who, during the late war, have brought  36  and 42 pound-
ers into the field.
   Battering  train, a train of artillery used solely for
besieging strong places, inclusive of howitzers: all heavy
24, 18, and 12 pounders, come under this  denomination;
as likewise the 13, 10, and 8 inch  mortars and howitzers.
   BATTERY, in military affairs, implies any place where
cannon or mortars are mounted, either to attack the forces
of the enemy, or  to batter a fortification : hence  batteries
have various names, agreeable to the purposes  they are
designed for.
   Battery, gun, is a defence made of earth faced with
green sods or fascines, and sometimes made of gabions
filled with earth :  it consists of a  breastwork,  parapet, or
epaulement, of 18 or 20  feet thick at top, and of 22 or 24
at the foundation j of a ditch 12 feet broad  at the bottom,
and 18 at the top, and 7 feet  deep.  They must be 7 £
feet high.  The embrasures are 2 feet wide within, and 9
without, sloping a  little downward, to depress the metal
on  occasion.   The distance from the centre  of one em-
brasure to  that of the other is  18 feel; that is, the guns
are placed at 18  feet distance from  each other; con-
sequently lhe merlins, or lhat part of solid  earth between
lhe embrasures, are 16  feet within and 7 without-.  The
genouifliers, or parts ofthe parapet which  cover the car-
riage of the gun, are generally  made 2\ feet high from tbe
platform to  the opening of  the embrasures; though this
height ought  lo be regulated according to lhe semi-diaine-
ter of lhe wheels ofthe carriage or the nature of the gun.
The platforms are a kind of wooden floors, made to pre-
vent the cannon from sinking into  the ground,  and to ren-
der the working of the guns  more easy; and are, strictly
speaking,  a part of the battery.  They are composed of
five sleepers or joists of wood, laid lengthwise, the whole
length of the intended platform ; and to keep them firm in
their places, stakes must be driven into the ground on each
side; these  sleepers are then covered  with sound thick
planks, laid parallel to the parapet; and at  the lower end
ofthe platform, next lo the parapet, a piece of timber six
inches  square, called a hurler,  is placed, (o prevent the
wheels from  damaging (he parape(.   Plalforms are gener-
ally made 18 feet long, to feet broad behind, and 9 before,
wilh a slope of about 9 or 10 inches, lo prevent the guns
from recoiling too much, and for bringing them more easily
forward when loaded.   The  dimensions of lhe platforms,
sleepers, planks, hurters, and nails,  ought to be regulated
according to the nature of the pieces that are  to be mounted. 
BAT
BAT
   The powder magazines to serve the batteries ought to be
 at a convenient distance from them, as also from each oth-
 er; the large one at least 55 feet in the rear of the battery,
 and (he small ones about 25.   Sometimes (he large maga-
 zines are made either to (he right or left of the battery, in
 order lo deceive (he enemy ; they are generally built five
 feet under ground ; (he sides and roof must be well secur-
 ed with boards,  and  covered  with earth,  clay, or some-
 thing of a similar substance, to prevent the powder from
 being fired; they are  guarded by sentinels.   The balls
 are  piled in readiness  beside the merlins, between the
 embrasures.
   The officers of the artillery ought always to construct
 their own batteries and platforms, and not the engineers,
 as is practised in England; for certainly none can be so
 good judges of those  things as the artillery  officers, whose
 daily  practice it  is ; consequently (hey are (he mos( prop-
 er (o direc( (he situation and to superintend the making of
 batteries on all occasions.
   Batterv, mortar.  These kinds of batteries differ from
 gun batteries, only in having no embrasures.  They con-
 sist in a parapet  of 18 or 20 feet thick, 7j high in front,
 and 6 in the rear ; of a berme  2^ or 3 feet  broad, accord-
 ing (o (he quality of the earth ; ofa ditch 24 feet broad at
 the lop, and 20 at the boltom.  The beds must be 9 feet
 long, 6 broad, 8 from each other, and 5 feet from the part;
 they are  not to be sloping like  the gun platforms,  but ex-
 actly horizontal.   The insides of these batteries are some-
 times  sunk two  or three feel into (he  ground, by which
 they are  much sooner  made lhan  those  of cannon.  The
 powder magazines and  piles of shells are placed  as is
 mentioned in Gun battery.
   Battery, ricochet, so called by its invenfor, M. Vau-
 ban, and  first used at the siege of Aefh,  in 1697.  It is a
 method of firing wilh  a very small quantity of powder, and
 a little elevation, so as just to fire over the parapet;  and
 then  fhe shot  will roll  along  the  opposite rampart,  dis-
 mounting the cannon,  and driving or destroying the  troops.
 In a siege they aie generally placed at about 300 feet be-
 fore lhe first parallel, perpendicular (o the faces produced,
 which (hey are (o enfilade.  Ricochet practice is not con-
 fined to cannon alone ;  small mortars and howitzers may
 effectually be used for  the same purpose.   They are of
 singular use in action lo enfilade the enemy's ranks; for
 when the men perceive  lhe shells rolling about with fheir
 fuses burning, expecting them to burst every moment, the
 bravest among them will not have courage to wait their
 approach  and face the havock of iheir explosion.
   Bat i eries, horisontal, are  such  as have only a para-
 pet and ditch ;  the platform being only the surface ofthe
 horizon made level.
   Batteries  breach or sunk, are such as  are sunk upon
 the glacis with a design  to make an  accessible breach in
 fhe faces or salient angles ofthe bastion and ravelin.
   Batteries,  cross, are such as play athwart each other
 against  the same object,  forming an  angle at  the point of
 contact ;  whrnce greater destruction follows, because what
 one 6hot shakes, the other beats down.
   Batteries, oblique, or batteries en echarpe, are those
 which   play on  any  work  obliquely,  making  an  ob-
 fuse  angle wilh the line of range,  after  striking the  ob-
ject.
   vol. i.            41
   Batteries, enfilading, are those that sweep or scour
 the whole length of a straight line, or the face or flank of
 any work.
   Batteries, redan, are such as flank each other at the
 salient and rentrant angles of a fortification.
   Batteries, direct,  are those situated opposite fo the
 place intended to be battered, so Ibal (he balls strike (he
 works nearly at right angles.
   Batteries, reverse, are those which play on  the  rear
 of (he (roops appointed lo defend lhe place.
   Batteries, glancing, are such whose  ^hot strike the
 object at an angle of about 20°, after which the ball glances
 from the object, and recoils to some adjacent parts.
   Batteries, joint,     ) when several guns fire on fhe
   Batteries, camarade,) same object at the same time.
 When ten guns are fired at once, their effect  will  be much
 greater than when fired separately.
   Batteries, sunk, are those whose platforms  are sunk
 beneath the level of the fitld, the ground serving for lhe
 parapet, and in it the embrasures are made.  This often
 happens in mortar, but seldom  in gun, batteries.   Batte-
 ry sometimes  signifies the guns  themselves placed  in a
 battery.
   Batteries, fascine, ) are  batteries made of those ma-
   Batteries,gaftion,3 chines  where sods are scarce
 and the earlh  very loose or sandy.
   Batterv planks, are those  planks or b'oards used in
 making platforms.
   Battery boxes, are square chests or boxes filled with
 earlh or dung, used in making batteries, where gabions and
 earth are not lo be had j ihey must not be too large, but
 of a size that is governable.
   Battery nails, are wooden pins made ofthe  toughest
 wood, with which the planks  that cover the platforms are
 fastened.  Iron nails might  strike  fire against  fhe iron
 work ofthe wheels, in recoiling, &c. and be dangerous.
   Battery, in law, the  striking, beating, or offering any
 violence to another person, for which damages may be re-
 covered.  But if the  plaintiff made the first assault  the
 defendant shall be  quit, and  (he plaintiff amerced to  the
 king for his false suit.  Battery is frequently confounded
 with assault, though,  in law,  (hey are different offences;
 for in fhe trespass for assault and  battery, one  may be
 found guilty of assault, yet acquitted of the battery ; there
 may therefore  be  assault without battery,  but battery al-
 ways implies an assault.  See Assault.
   BATTLE,  in the military art, has ever been  the last
 resource of good generals. A situation where chance and
 accident  often baffle and overcome the most  prudential
 and most able arrangements, and where superiority of num-
 bers by no means  ensures success, is such  as is never en-
 tered into without a clear necessity  for so doing.  The
 fighting a battle only because  the enemy is near, or from
 having no other formed plan of offence, is a direful way of
 making war.   Darius lost his  crown and life by  il; king
 Harold of England did the same;  and  Francis I.  at Pavia
 lost the battle  and his liberty.  King John of France fought
 lhe battle of Poictiers, though ruin attended his enemy if
he had not fought.
   The true situation for giving battle is when an army's
 silualion cannot be worse, if defeated, than if it does  not
fight at all: and when the advantage may be great, and the 
B  A T
BAT
loss little.   Such was the duke of Cumberland's at Hast-
enbeck, in 1757, and prince Ferdinand's at Vellinghausen,
in 1761.   The reasons and situations for giving battle are
so numerous, that to treat of them all would fill a large vol-
ume; we shall therefore content ourselves  with the  fol-
lowing : There may be exigencies of state that require its
army to attack the enemy at all events.  Such were tbe
causes of the battle of Blenheim in  1704, of Zorndorffin
1758, of Cunnersdorff in 1759, and of  Rosbach in 1757.
To raise a siege, to defend or cover a country.  An army
is also obliged to engage when shut up in a post.   An ar-
my may give battle to effect its junction with another ar-
my, &c.
  The preparations  for battle admit  of infinite varie-
ty.   By a  knowledge  of the detail of battles, the pre-
cept  will  accompany lhe example.  The  main general
preparations are, to profit by any advantage of ground ;
that the tactical form of the army be in some measure
adapted to  it; and that such form be, if possible, a form
tactically better than the enemy's; and, informing the ar-
my, fo have a most careful attention to multiply resources,
so that the fate of  the  army may not hang on one or two
efforts ', to give any  particular part of the army, whose
quality is superior to such part of the enemy's army, a po-
sition that  ensures action ; and, finally, to have a rear by
nature or if possible by art, capable of checking the ene-
my in  case of defeat.
  The dispositions  of battles admit likewise of an infinite
variety of cases;  for even  the difference of ground which
happens at almost  every step, gives  occasion to change
the disposition or plan; and  a general's experience will
leach him  to profit by this,  and take the advantage the
ground offers him.   It is an instant, a coup-d'ozil, which
decides this; for it is   to be feared the enemy may de-
prive you of  those advantages, or turn them  to  bis own
profit; and for that reason this admits of no precise  rule,
the whole depending on the time and the occasion.
  With regard to battles, there are three things to be con-
sidered : what precedes, what accompanies, and what fol-
lows  the action.  As to what precedes the action,  you
should unite all your force, examine the advantage of the
ground, the wind, and the sun, things not to be neglected,
and choose  if possible a  field of battle proportioned to the
number of your troops.
  You must post the different kinds of troops advantage-
ously for each : they must be so disposed as to be able to
return often  to the  charge; for he who can charge often
with fresh  troops, is  commonly victorious.  Your wings
must   be covered so as not to be  surrounded; and you
must observe that your troops can assist each other with-
out any confusion, the intervals being proportioned to the
battalions and squadrons.
  Great care must be taken about the regulation of tbe ar-
tillery, which should be  so disposed as to be able to act in
every place to the greatest advantage ; for nothing is more
certain than that, if the artillery is well commanded, prop-
erly  distributed, and manfully served, it will greatly  con-
tribute to gaining the  battle,  being  looked upon as the
general instrument of the  array, and tbe most essential
part  of military force.   The artillery must be well suppli-
ed with ammunition, and each soldier have a sufficient num-
ber of cartridges.  The  baggage, provisions., and treasure
of the army, should, on the day of battle, be sent to apfoce
of safety.
   In battle, where (he attacks  are, there is also the prjn.
cipal defence.  If an army attacks, it forms at pleasure;
it  makes ils points at will: if it defends, it  will be some-
times difficult to penetrate into the designs ofthe enemy,
but when once found, succour succeeds to (he discovery,'
Ground and numbers must ever lead in the arrangements
battles ;  impression  and resource will ever bid fairest for
winning them.
   Battle array,  > lhe  method  and order of arranging
   Battle, line of, $ the  troops in order or line of battle -
the  form of drawing up the  army for an engagement!
This method generally consists of three lines, vis. the
front line, the rear line, and the reserve.
   The second line should be about 300 paces behind (he
first, and  the  reserve at about 5 or 600 paces behind (he
second.   The artillery is likewise divided along the front
of the first line.   The front line should be stronger than
the rear line, that its shock may be more violent; and that,
by having a greater  front, it may  more easily close on the
enemy's flanks.  If the  first line  has the advantage, it
should continue to act,  and  attack the enemy's  second
line, terrified by the defeat  of their first.  The artillery
must always accompany  the line of battle in the order it
was at first distributed, if the ground permit it; and the
rest ofthe army should  follow the motions of the first line,
when it continues to march on after its first success.
   Battle ax, an offensive  weapon,  formerly much used
by the Danes, and other northern infantry.  It wasakind
of halbert, and did great execution  when wielded  by a
strong arm.
   Battle, naval,  the  same with a  sea fight or engage-
ment between two fleets of men of war.  Before  a naval
battle, every squadron usually subdivides itself into three
equal divisions, with a reserve of certain ships out of every
squadron to bring up their rear.   Every one of these, ob-
serving a due birth and distance, are in the battle to second
one another; and lhe better to avoid confusion and fall-
ing foul of each other, to charge, discharge, and fall off by
threes or fives, more or less, as the fleet is greater or small-
er.  The ships of reserve are instructed either to succour
and relieve those fhat are any way in danger, or to supply
and put themselves in the place of those that shall be made
unserviceable.
   As for a fleet consisting but  of few ships, when obliged
to fight in an open sea, it  should be brought up to battle
in only one front, with the chief admiral in tbe middle ef
them, and on each side of him the strongest and best pro-
vided ships of the fleet.
   The English mode of fighting at sea has latterly been, to
bear down on the enemy in a single column or line, to break
the line of the enemy ship  by  ship, raking them by a broad*
side as they pass.  By thus breaking the enemy's line at
a particular part, an opportunity is afforded, wind and
other circumstances favouring, of cutting off any gh7*0
number of their force, and reducing them to an equality-
Such was the famous manoeuvre of sir John Jervis off cape
St. Vincent,  by  which  he gained  a  victory over a very
superior  force.   In  the ever memorable battle of Trafal-
gar,  lord Nelson bore down upon the combined fleets in
two columns, which brought  them to action  sooner and to 
B  A U
B  E A
greater advantage than could otherwise have been effect-
ed.  The disposition of the enemy on the same occasion
was most masterly ; for by ranging a pari of their fleet be-
hind the others  in  the  intervals  between ship and ship,
fhey rendered it so much the more difficult and hazardous
to break their line.
   BATTLEMENTS,  in architecture, are indentures or
notches in the top of a wall or other building, in the form
of embrasures, for  the sake of looking or firing through
them.
   BATZ, a copper coin mixed wilh some silver, and cur-
rent at different rates, according to the alloy, in Nurem-
berg, Basil, Fribourg, Lucerne, and  olher cities of Ger-
many and Switzerland.
   BAUHINIA, mountain ebony, a genus ofthe monogy-
nia order and  decandria class of plants, and in the natural
method ranking under the 33d order, lomentacese.  The
calyx  is quinquefid and deciduous; the petals are oblong,
expanded, and clawed,  the superior  one more distant,
all inserted on the calyx ;  the capsule is a legumen.  There
are 13 species, all trees and shrubs, which are propagated
by seeds; and must be  sown  in hotbeds, and afterward
kept in a bark stove.  The most remarkable  are,
   1. Bauhinia aculeata,  with  a prickly stalk, very com-
mon in Jamaica and other American sugar islands, where
it rises to 16 or 18 feet, with a crooked stem, and divides
into many irregular branches  armed  with strong  short
spines, compound winged leaves, each having two or three
pair of lobes ending with an odd  one, which are oblique,
blunt,  and indented at the top.  The stalks are terminat-
ed by  several long spikes of yellow flowers, succeeded by
bordered  pods about three inches  long, containing two
or three swelling seeds.   It is called in America the savin
tree, from its strong odour somewhat resembling the com-
mon savin.
   2. Bauhinia acuminata, with oval leaves, is a native  of
both the Indies, and rises with several pretty strong, up-
right, smooth  stems, sending out  many slender branches.
The flowers come out at  the extremities ofthe branches,
three or four in a loose bunch ;  some of the petals are red
or striped wilh while, but others are plain upon the same
branch ; the  stamina and style are white, and stand out
beyond the petals.  The wood of this free is very hard,
and veined with black j  whence its name of mountain eb-
ony.
   3. Bauhinia divaricata, with oval  leaves, whose  lobes
spread different  ways.   This  grows  naturally in  great
plenty on the north side  ofthe island of Jamaica.   It sel-
dom rises more than five  or six  feet, but divides into sev-
eral branches.  The flowers grow in loose panicles  at the
end of  the branches have  a  white colour,  and a very
agreeable scent.   They appear the greatest  part of sum-
mer, which makes it one of the greatest beauties of the hot-
house.
   4. Bauhinia  tomentosa, wifh  heart shaped leaves, is  a
native  of Campeachy, and  rises to 1*2  or 14 feel, with
a smooth stem dividing  into many branches, having two
smooth pointed lobes.  Every branch is terminated by a
long spike of yellow flowers, so (hat when these trees are
in flower (hej^make a fine appearance.
   5. Bauhinia  variegala,  with  heart shaped leaves, and
lobes joining together, is a native of both the Indies.   It
rises with a strong stem upward of 20 feef, dividing into
           41*
 many strong branches.  The flowers are large, and^grow
 in loose panicles at the extremity of the branches. They
 are ofa purplish red colour marked wilh white, and have
 a yellow bottom. The flowers have a very agreeable scent.
 and are succeeded by  compressed pods about six inches
 long,  and three quarters of an inch broad, confaining three
 or four compressed seeds in each.
  BAWN, or Ban, to construct and secure with branches
 of trees an area enclosed with thick ditches of earth, square
 orcircular, impaled with wooden stakesorbranchesof tree?,
 and surrounded with a deep  trench.  Numerous remains
 of such fortresses are found in Britain, Germany, and oth
 er countries in the north of Europe.
  BAY, among farmers, a  term used to signify the mag-
 nitude of a barn; as, if a barn  consists of a  floor aud (wo
 heads, where they  lay corn, they call it  a barn  of  two
 bays.  These bays are from 14 to 20 feet long.
  BAYONET, in fhe military art, a short broad dagger,
 fitted for the bore of a firelock, to be fixed there after the
 soldier has fired.
  BAYS, in commerce, a sort of open woollen stuff, hav.
 ing a  long nap, sometimes friezed,  and sometimes not.
 This  stuff is without wale,  and is wrought in a loom with
 two treddles, like flannel.  It is chiefly manufactured at
 Colchester,  and Bocking in Essex, where Ihere is a hall
 called the Dutch bay hall, or raw hall.   The exportation
 of bays was  formerly much more  considerable  than  at
 present.   However, the English  bays are s"till sent in
 great  quantifies to Spain and Portugal, and even to Italy.
  BAZAR,  Bazari, or Bazaard, a place designed for
 trade  among tbe eastern  nations, particularly  lhe  Per-
 sians, some of which are  open at top, like the  market
 places of Europe ; others are covered wilh high vaulted
 ceilings, and adorned with domes to give light.
  At  Constantinople  the old and  new  bazar  are large
 square buildings, covered  with domes, and sustained by
arches and pilastres; the former chiefly for arms, harnesses,
and the like;  the latter for goldsmiths, jewellers, furriers,
and all sorts of manufactures.
  BAZAT, or Baza, in commerce, a long, fine, spun cot-
ton, which comes from  Jerusalem, whence it is  called Je-
rusalem cotton.
  BAZENDGES, the name of a vegetable  substance
used by the  Turks, and other eastern nations, in the scar-
let dyeing.   They mix it for this  purpose  with cochineal
and tartar, in the proportion of two parts of bazendges to
one of cochineal.
  BDELLIUM, a gum resin somewhat resembling myrrh
in appearance,  brought from  the Levant.   It is met with
 in single drops, of a very irregular size,  some  of which
are as large as a hazle nut.  Its colour is dusky, and its
taste bitter.
  There is much uncertainly concerning  both  the plant
from which it proceeds, and the  place of its production.
 Tbe smell of this gum is fragrant, and its taste bitter and
pungent.  It readily burns, giving out smoke and a crack-
 ling  noise.   It is  partly soluble in alcohol, and partly in
 water, or  completely in diluted spirit.  It was formerly
 used as a stimulating  remedy, chiefly for  external appli-
cation, and is still retained in the Paris dispensatories.
  BEACON, a public signal, to  give  warning again,
rocks, shelves,  invasions, &c.  It is made sometimes by
putting pitch barrels upon a long pole, and fixing them up 
B  E A
B E  A
on an eminence,  so that they may be seen at a distance ;
for the barrels being fired, lhe flame in the night time, and
Ibe smoke in the day, give notice, and in a few hours may
alarm the whole kingdom,  upon  an approaching inva-
sion, Sec.
  BEACONAGE, a tax  or farm  paid for the  use  and
maintenance of a beacon.  The Trinity house is empow-
ered to levy this tax, by act of parliament.
  BEAD.   The  common black  glass of which  beads
are made for necklaces, &c is coloured with manganese
only.
  Bead, in architecture, a round moulding, commonly
made upon the edge of a piece of  stuff, in the Corinthian
and Roman orders, cut or carved  in short  embossments,
like beads in necklaces.   Sometimes a plain bead is set on
the edge of each fascia of an  architrave, and sometimes
likewise an astragal is thus cut. A  bead is often placed on
(he Ihiing board  ofa doorcase, and on (he upper  edges  of
skirting boards.
  Bead proof, among distillers and venders of liquors, a
fallacious mode of determining the strength of spirits, from
the continuance  of the bubbles, or beads, raised  by shak-
ing a small quantity of them in a phial.
  Bead roll,  among papists, a list of such persons for
the rest of whose souls  they are obliged to repeat a cer-
tain number of  prayers,  which they  count by means  of
(heir bead^.
  BEAGLE.   See Cams.   -
  BEAK, (he bill or nib ofa bird.   See Bill.
  Beak, in architecture, the small fillet left on fhe bead
ofa larmier, which forms a canal, and makes a kind of pen-
dant.
   Beak, or Beak  head, of a ship, (hat part without a
ship, before the forecastle, which is fastened to the stern,
 and  is supported by the main knee,
   BEAKED,  in heraldry, a term  used to  express the
 beak or bill of a bird.  When lhe  beak and legs  ofa fowl
 are ofa different tincture  from (he body, we say beaked
 and membered of such a tincture.
   BEAM, in architecture, the largest piece of wood in a
 building, which lies across the  walls, and serves to  sup-
 port the principal rafters of the roof, and into which the
 feet of these rafters are framed.  No building has less than
 (wo of these beams, vis. one at each end.   Into these the
 girders of the garret roof are also framed; and if fhe building
 is of timber, tbe teazle  tenons of the posts are framed into
 Ihem. The proportions of beamsinor near London are fix-
 ed, by statute, as follows; a beam 15 feet long  must  be
 seven inches on one side its square, and five on lhe  other;
 if it  is 16 feet long,  one side must be eight inches, the
other six ; and so proportionably lo (heir leng(bs.  In the
 country, where wood is more plenty, they usually make
 their beams stronger.
   Beams of a ship are the great main cross timbers which
 hold the sides of  the ship from falling  together, and
 which also  support lhe  decks and  orlops.  The  main
 beam is next the mainmast, and from it they are reckoned
 by first, second, third beam, &c.   The greatest beam of
 all is called the  midship beam.   See Ship,
   Beam  compass, an instrument consisting of  a  square
 woodea or brass beam, having sliding sockets, that carry
 3leel or pencil points; they are used for describing large
circles, where the common compasses are useless.
  Beam, in heraldry, (he term used  to  express the main
horn ofa hart or buck.
  Beam filling, in building, the  filling up of (he vacant
space between  the  raison and roof, wilh slones or bricks
laid be(ween the rafters  on the raison,  and plastered on
with loam, where the garrets are not paigeted, or plaster-
ed, as in country places.           <
  Beam of an  anchor,  the longest part of it, called also
the shank.
   Beam also denotes the lath, or iron, ofa pair of scales;
sometimes  the whole apparatus for  weighiug of goods is
so called: thus we say, it weighs  so  much  at  the king's
beam.
   Beam of a plough, that in which  all the parfsof the
plough  tail are  fixed.  It is commonly made of asb, and is
eight feet long; but  in  the four conltered plough it is ten
feet long.
   Beam, or roller, among weavers,  a  long  and  thick
wooden cylinder,  placed  lengthwise  on the back part of
the loom of those who work wilh a shuttle.   That cylinder
on which the stuff is rolled as it is weaved, is also called
the beam, or roller, and is placed  on  lhe fore part of the
loom.
   BEAN.  See Vicia, and Phaseoi.is.
   BEAR.  See Ursus.
   Bear, in astronomy, a name given to two constellations,
called the greater and lesser bear, or ursa major and minor.
   Bear, a species of barley cultivated in Scotland and
Ireland, and the northern parts of England.  It is not es-
teemed so  good for malting as the common barley.
   Bear, in heraldry.   He that has a coat of arms is said
 fo bear in it the several charges or ordinaries that are in
 his escutcheon.
   BEAR'S breech.  See  Acawthus.
   BEARER,  in architecture, a post, or brick wall, trim-
med up between the  two ends of a  piece of timber,  la
shorten  its bearing, or  to prevent its  bearing with the
whole weight at the ends only.
   BEARING, in navigation and geography, fhe situation
of one place from another, wifh regard to lhe points ofthe
compass; or the angle which a line drawn through the two
places makes with  the  meridians of each.   The bearings
of places on fhe ground are usually determined from the
magnetic needle,  in the managing of which consists tbe
principal part of surveying; since the bearingor distance
of a second point from a first being found, the place of that
second  is  determined; or the  bearings of a third point
from two others, whose distance is known, being found, the
place of the third  is determined  insfrumentally; but to
calculate trigonomefrically, there must be more data.
   Bearing, in the sea language.  When a ship sails tow-
ard the shore, before the wind, sheis said to bear in with
tbe land or harbour.  To let the ship sail more before ibe
wind, is to bear up.   To put her right before the wind, is
to bear round.   A ship  that keeps off from  the land is
said to bear off.   When a ship  (hat  was lo windward
comes under another ship's stern, and  so gives her  lhe
wind,  she  is said  (o  bear under her lee,  &c.  There is
anolher sense of (his word, in  reference to  (he burden of
a ship;  for (bey say a ship bears, when having loo slender
or lean a quarter, she will  sink  loo deep inlo the  wafer
with  an over light  freight,  and thereby can carry but *
small quantity of goods. 
BED
BEG
   Bear i vo ofa piece of timbtr, among carpenters,  lhe
 space eit her between the two fixed extremes thereof, when
 it has no other support, which they call bearing at length,
 or between one extreme and  a  post, brick wall, Sec. trim-
 med up between the ends to  shorten its bearings.
   BEAST,  la bete,  among gamesters, a game at cards,
 played in  this  manner: The  best  cards  are  the king,
 queen, &c. whereof they make three heaps, the king, lhe
 play, and triolet.  Three, four, or  five may play ; and to
 every one are  dealt five  cards.  However, before  the
 play begins, every one  stakes  to  the three heaps.   He
 that wins most 1 ricks,  takes  up  the heap called the play ;
 he that has the king, takes up the heap so called;  and he
 that has three of  any sort, that is, three fours, three fives,
 three sixes, &c. takes up the triolet heap.
   BEAT of drum, in the military art, is to give notice by
 beat of drum, ofa sudden danger; or, that scattered sold-
 iers may repair to (heir arms and  quarters, is  to beat an
 alarm, or to arms; also  (o signify, by  different manners
 of sounding a  drum, that the  soldiers are to  fall on the en-
 emy ; to retreat before, in, or  after, an attack; to move,
 or march, from one place to another; to treat upon terms,
 or confer with the enemy ; to permit the soldiers lo come
 out of their quarters at break of day ; to order to repair to
 their colours, &c.  is to beat a charge, a retreat,  a march,
 &c.
   BEAVER, in zoology.   See Castoh.
   BECA1I, or Bekah, in  Hebrew  antiquity, a Jewish
 coin, equal \o thirteen and eleven sixteenths pence of our
 money.
   BED, a place raised above the level of the floor of an
 apartment, on which the body is stretched out,  for rest or
 sleep,   (a)
   All beds that are for sale must be filled with one sort of
 stuffing  only, on the pain of  forfeiture; as  the  mixing of
 feathers, down, scalded feathers,dry pulled feathers, any
 ways together, is conceived to be injurious loa man's body
 to lie on.  Also bed quilts, mattresses, and cushions, stuff-
 ed with  horse hair, fen down, goat's hair, and  neat's hair,
 which are dressed  in  lime,  and in which the heat of a
 man's body will exhale, and cause them to yield a noxious
 smell, are prohibited by statute.
   Bed of justice,  in the French customs,  a throne upon
 which the king used to be seated when be went to the parlia-
 ment.  The king  never held a bed of  justice  unless for
 affairs (hat concerned  (he state, and then  all the officers
 of parliament  were clothed in scarlet robes.
   Bed of the carriage ofa great gun, a thick plank that
 lies  under lhe  piece,  being in  fact, the body of tbe carriage.
   Bed, in masonry, a course  or range of stones; and  lhe
 joint of the bed is the  mortar between  two stones placed
 over each other.
   BEDCHAMBER, lords of, in the British customs, 14
 lords who attend in their turns, each a week, during which
 tune they lie in  tbe king's bedchamber, and wait on him
 when he  dines in private.  Their salary is  1000/. per an-
 num*  The first of  these  is  called groom of the stole.
 There ave also  twelve grooms ofthe bedchamber.
   BEDA, a sacred book of the religion and  laws of  the
 brahmins of Hindostan, called also veda.
   BEDOUINS, in the Arabian customs, tribes of Arabs,
 who live  in tents, and are dispersed all over Arabia, Egypt,
and  the north of Africa.
   BEE, in zoology.  See Apis.
   BEECH galls, hard protuberances found on lhe leaves
ofthe beech, wherein are lodged the maggots of  a certain
fly.   These  galls are of an  oblong figure and somewhat
flatted.  They resemble (he stone of apium in »liape, and
are very hard.   In each gall there is a single cavity inhab-
ited by  a  white worm, which in time passes through lhe
nymph state into that of  the fly,  to which it owes its or-
igin.
   Beech mast, the fruit of the beech tree, said to be good
for fattening hogs,  deer, &c.  and to have supplied men in-
stead of  bread.  The island of Chios sustained a siege by
means of mast.
   Beech oil, an oil drawn by expression  from the mast
ofthe beech tree, after it has been shelled and pounded.
This oil  is  very common in some  parts of Fiance, and
used instead of butter ;  but most of those who take  a
great deal of it,  complain of pains and a heaviness of  lhe
stomach.
   BEELE, a kind of pickax, used by  the miners for sep-
arating'the ores from the rocks  in which they lie: this
instrument is called a tubber by the miners of Cornwall.
   BEER, a common  and  well  known liqnor,  made with
malt and hops,  and  used in those parts of Europe where
vines  will  not  grow,  and  where  cider  is  scarce.   See
Bui.wing, Sec.
   BEET,  in botany.  See Beta.
   BEETLE, in entomology, a common English name for
all insects that are  furnished  with shelly wing cases ; those
which have them divided by a straight suture are proper-
ly  beetles, and belong  to  the  coleoptera  order.   The
scarabiei are beetles in the strictest sense ofthe word.
   BEFARIA PANIC UL ATA, in botany, a plant ofthe
dodecandria, monogynia class and order; its characteristics
are, cal. 7 cleft, corolla 7 pet. flower white, a  native of
Georgia,  (a)
   BEGGAR.   See Vagrant.           *
   BEGHARDI, a certain sect of Christians which arose
in Germany,  and  in  the low countries, about the end of
the thirteenth century.  They  made  profession of a mo-
nastical life, without observing celibacy ; and maintained,
if they are not scandalized by the monks,  lhat  man could
become as perfect  in this life as he shall be in heaven ; that
every  intellectual  nature is  of itself happy, without lhe
succour of  grace;  and lhat he who is  in this stale of ne/
fection ought to perform  no  good works, nor worship the
host.
   BEGLERBEG, a governor  of one of lhe  principal
governments in the Turkish empire.  There are  two sorts
of beglerbegs;  lhe one have a cerlain revenue  assigned
upon lhe cities, boroughs, and  villages of their govern-
ment, which they raise by power of lhe commission grant-
ed to them by the  sultan; the others  have a certain  rent
paid by the treasurer of lhe grand seignior.  They are be-
come almost independent, and have under (heir  jurisdic-
tion several sangiacs, or particular governments, and begs,
agas, and other officers who  obey them.
   BEGONIA, in bo(any, a genus of plants of the mono-
ecia polyandria class and  order ; the characters  of which
are: (he flowers are of  two kinds; the one is  (he male
flower, wi(h no cal. but many pelals,  some  broader, and
others narrower; (he other,  which produces the embryo
fruit, is of the rosaceous sort, and is composed of several 
BEL                                                BEL
 petal*, arranged in a circular form, and placed on a foliat-
 ed cup, which finally becomes a trigonal alated caps, and
 containing small seeds.  There are 13  species, chiefly
 stove plants.
  BEGUINS, congregations of  devout young  women,
 who maintain themselves by the work of their hands, lead-
 ing a middle kind of life between (he secular and religious.
 These socielies consist of several houses placed together
 in one enclosure, with one or more churches, according to
 lhe number of begnins.  There is  in every house a pri-
oress, without whose leave they  cannot stir out.  Their
vow is conceived in these terms :  * I promise  to be obedi-
ent and chaste, as long as I continue  in  this beguinage.'
They observe a three years' noviciate, before they take
the habit; and the rector of the parish is their superior,
but can do nothing without the advice of eight  beguins.
 They were formerly established in several parts of Flan-
 ders.
  BEHEADING, a  capital punishment among  the  Ro-
mans : it was performed at first with an ax, but afterward
wilh a sword,  as was  formerly the  case  in Holland and
France.   In France, however, during the  last 15 years
the guillotine has been used for the purpose of despatching
criminals ;  and in the  course  of that space of time a multi-
tude of the most  loyal, virtuous,  and most  honourable
men in Europe,  for actions the most praiseworthy, have
been cruelly murdered by that instrument.
  BEIIEN, in the materia medica,  the name of two roots,
 the one white  the other red, both  accounted cordials and
 restorative.
  BEJARIA, a genus  of  the dodecandria  monogynia
 class and  order : the essential character is ; calyx seven
 cleft; petals seven; stam.  fourteen ; berry seven celled,
 many seeded.
  There are two species, one a tree and the other a shrub,
 of New Granada.  The tree has  purple flowers,  and the
 shrub flesh coloured,  something allied to the rhododen-
 drons.
   BEIZA, or Beizath,  in Hebrew  antiquity, a word
 signifying an egg, was a certain measure in use among the
 Jews.  The beiza was likewise a gold coin, weighing forty
 drachms, among the Persians.
   BELAY, in the sea language, is to make fast the ropes
 in their proper places.
   BELEMNITES, in natural history, are fossils, com-
 posed of several thin coats or crusts, encircling one anoth-
 er, and all of a striated texture ; they have usually a hol-
 low in the middle, of  a conical shape;  sometimes  empty,
 and sometimes filled  up with  spar, pyrites,  or a marine
 shell of the straight concamerated kind.  They have usu-
 ally a chink running down  the whole length of the body,
 and sometimes two or three; but  the additional ones usu-
 ally begin at lhe apex of fhe stone, and run up but a lit-
 tle way.  Their figure is sometimes conic, sometimes cy-
 lindric : some are of all the intermediate figures between
 conic and cylindric, and some almost orbicular.  They are
 of various sizes, from  a quarter of an inch to  eight inches
 in length, and though  always of the same structure, are of
 various colours, and  they have  a peculiar  smell  when
 scraped.  They are found in all sorls of strata, sometimes in
 clay, sometimes among gravel,  often immersed in beds of
 stone, often in loose flinls, and are sometimes found cover-
 ed with a sparry crust of a different  texture from  the body
of the mass.  The  finest specimens  have been procured
from chalk pits of Oxfordshire.
  BELL,  a well known machine,  ranked by musicians
among the  musical instruments of percussion.  The mu.
sic of bells is altogether melody ;  but the pleasure arising
from it consists in the variety of interchanges, and the va-
rious successions and general predominance of the conso-
nances in  fhe sounds produced.   The metal of  which a
bell is made, is a composition of tin and copper, or  pew-
ter and.copper; the proportion of one to the other is almost
20 pounds of pewter, or 23 pounds of tin, to 100 weight of
copper.  Bell metal is prohibited  to  be imported, as are
hawk bells, &c.
  The constituent parts of a bell are the body or barrel
the clapper on the inside, and the ear or cannon on which
it hangs  to a large  beam of wood.   The  sound of a bell
consists in a vibratory  motion of its parts, much like  that
of a musical chord.  The stroke of the clapper must nec-
essarily change the  figure ofthe bell, and of a round make
it oval; but the  metal having a great degree of elasticity,
that part will return back  again  which the stroke drove
furthest off from the centre, and that even some small mat-
ter nearer the centre than  before ;  so that the two parts
which before were  extremes of the longest diameter, do
then become those of the shortest; and thas  the external
surface of the bell undergoes alternate changes of figure,
and by lhat  means gives that tremulous motion to the air,
in which the sound consists.   To understand  this more
completely, let  us  conceive that a bell is composed of a
series of  circular zones, decreasing in diameter all the way
to its top, each of which may be considered as a flat ring,
composed of as  many  concentric  circles as  ifs thickness
will admit of.  If this ring is struck at the point a, Plate
XXXIX. Miscel. fig. 11. the part so struck tends toward
g, and  at the same  time  the parts b and d tend toward i
and m, and this  action in  these  parts necessarily causes
the point c to approach toward e;  by their elastic power,
however,  these  parts presently  regain  the position io
which they  were before the bell was struck;  but as  they
return with an accelerated force, they generally go beyond
the point where they  ought to rest.   The part a, there-
fore, after having  returned from g to a, tends toward/,
the part c toward h, and the parts b and d toward k and I;
whence it happens that lhe bell, at first of a circular form,
really becomes alternately oval in two different directions;
it follows then,  that in those parts where the curvature is
the greatest, their exterior points  depart from each other.
  BELLA DONNA.  See Amaryllis and Atropa.
  BELLES-LETTRES, a word absurdly introduced
from the French, and  noted  here only to reprobate the
contemptible practice of debasing the simple majesf^of
our nat ive language, by wretched gallicisms.   The French
writers (hemselves  have no  determinate  idea  affixed to
this phrase; some  applying it  to polite  literature only,
and some extending it to  the whole scope of human learn-
ing, even to mathematics.
  BELLIS, in botany, the daisy, a genus of the synge-
nesia class, and polygamia  superflua order of plants; and
in the natural method ranking under the 49th order, com-
posifje discoida?.  The receptacle  is naked  and conic ;
there is no pappus ; the calyx is hemispherical, with equal
scales ,• and lhe  seeds are ovated.   There  are two spe-
cies, and many varieties. 
BEL
B  E X
   1. Bellis annua,  with  leaves  on the lower part of the
stalk, is alow annual plant growing naturally on the Alps
and the hilly parts of Italy.  It seldom rises  more than
three inches high, and has an upright stalk, with leaves on
the lower part j but the  upper  part is naked, supporting
a single flower, like that ofthe common daisy, but smaller.
  2. Bellis  perennis,  the common daisy, with  a naked
stalk, and one flower, grows naturally in pasture lands in
most parts of Europe.  It is  often a troublesome weed in
lhe grass of gardens, so  is never cultivated.  Its leaves
have a subtile subacid tas(e ; and are recommended as
vulneraries, and in asthmas and hectic fevers, as well as
in such disorders as are occasioned by drinking cold liquors
when the  body has been  much heated.
   The Bellis hortensis, or garden daisy, is only a variety
of this species.  It has a  large double flower.  The varie-
ties cultivated in gardens are; 1.  (he  red and white gar-
den daisy: 2. the double variegated garden daisy : 3. the
child ing,  or  hen and chicken  garden  daisy:  and 4. the
cock's comb daisy, with red and whi(e flowers.
   BELLIUM, a genus ofthe syngenesia, polygamia super-
flua  class  and  order.  The  essential  character is;  cal.
with equal leaflets; seeds conic, with chaffy eight leaved
crown, and awned down; recept. naked.   There are two
species, natives of Italy and the Levant, in many respects
resembling the daisy in habit and appearance.
   BELLON, a  distemper  common in countries where
they  smelt lead  ore.   It is attended with languor, intoler-
able pains, and sensation of gripings in  the belly, and gen-
erally costiveness.  Beasts, poultry, &c.  as  well as men,
are  subject  to  Ihis disorder.   Hence a certain  space
round the smelting houses is called bellon  ground, because
it is dangerous for an animal to feed upon it.
   BELLONIA, in botany, a genus of the monogynia or-
der, and pentandria class of plants.   The characters are ;
the flower is wheel shaped; the germen is situated under
the  receptacle of the flower, which afterward becomes a
turbinated seed vessel,  ending in a point, having one cell
filled wilh small round  seeds.  Of this genus there are
two species known, vis.
   1.  Bellonia aspera,  or shrubby bellonia, has a rough
balm leaf.  It  is  very common in the warm  islands of
America.
   2.  Bellonia spinosa, a native of Hispaniola.
  BELLOWS, a machine so contrived, as to agitate the
air with great briskness,  expiring  and inspiring the air by
turns, and fhat only from enlarging and contracting its ca-
pacity. This machine is of various constructions, but in
general is composed of  two flat boards, sometimes of an
oval, sometimes ofa triangular figure : two or more hoops,
bent according to the figure of the boards, are placed be-
tween them;  apiece of  leather, broad in the middle, and
narrow at  both ends, is  nailed on the edges of lhe boards,
which it Ihus uniles together, as also on the hoops which
separate the boards, that  the  leather may the easier  open
and fold again ; a tube of iron, brass, or copper, is fasten-
ed  to  tbe undermost board; and there is a  valve within
(hat covers the holes in  the  under board, to keep in the
air.   In founderies, and  other s;reat works, where a con-
stant and  vast  beat  is  required,  lhe  bellows are made
double, so (hat (here is a constant blast proceeding by the
upward and downward motion of (he handle.
  The action of  bellows,  however «wrotight,  whether by
water, steam, or men, depends on this; that the air which
enters them, and which they contain  when raised, is again
compressed into a narrower space when fhey are closed,
and it flows out of the pipe with a velocity proportional
to the force by which it is compressed.  The blast also will
last in lhe  proportion which the quantity of air drawn in
through  the  valve  bears  to  lhe pipe.  The bellows of
smiths and founders are worked by means of a rocker,
with a string  or chain fastened  to it,  and pulled by the
workman.  One of  the  boards  is fixed, and by drawing
down the handle of the rocker, the moveable board rises,
and by means ofa weight on  the top of the upper board,
sinks again.  The bellows of  an  organ are  wrought by a
man called the blower;  but in small organs, by the foot of
the player.
   BELLY, the abdomen.  See  Anatomy.
   BELTS, in astronomy, two zones, or girdles, surround-
ing the body of the  planet Jupiter,  more  lucid than the
feet, and of unequal breadth.   See Astronomy.
   Belts, in geography, certain straits between the Ger-
man Ocean and the Baltic.   The belts belong to the king
of Denmark, who exacts  a toll from  all ships which pass
through  them, excepting those  of Sweden,  which  are
exempted.
   BENCAPED,  among  sailors.  A  ship is said to be
bencaped when the  water does  not flow high enough to
bring her off the ground, out ofthe dock, or over the bar.
   BENCH,/ree, signifies that  estate  in copyhold lands,
which (he  wife, being espoused a virgin, has after (he de-
cease of her husband, for her  dower, according to  the
custom of  fhe manor. As to this free bench, several man-
ors have their own  customs;  and in  (he manors of East
and West  Enboume, in  lhe county of Berks, and other
parts of England, there is a custom, that when a copyhold
tenant dies, the widow shall have her free bench in all the
deceased  husband's  lands, whilst she  lives single and
chaste ; but if she commits incontinency, she shall forfeit
her estate : nevertheless, upon  her coming into the court
of the  manor,  riding on a black ram, and  having his tail
in her hand, and  at  the  same time  repeating  a  form of
words prescribed, the steward is obliged, by "the custom
ofthe manor, to re-admit her to her free bench.
   BEND, in heraldry, one of the nine  honourable ordina-
ries, containing a third part of the field when charged, and a
fifth when  plain.  It is sometimes, like  other  ordinaries,
indented, ingrailed, &c.  and is either dexter or sinister.
   BENDING, in the sea language, the tying two ropes
or cables together:  thus Ihey say, bend (he cable; that
is, make it fast  to (he ring of  (he anchor :  bend the sail,
make it fast to the yard.
   BENDS, in a ship, lhe  same with what i- called wails,
or wales;  the outmost timbers of a  ship's side, on which
men set  their feet  in climbing up.  Tbey are reckoned
from  the waler, and  are called the first,  second, or third
bend.  They are the chief slrengfh  of a ship's sides, and
have the beams, knees, and foot hooks, bolted to them
   BENEDICTINES,  in church  history,  an order of
monks, who profess to  follow  the rules of St. Benedict.
The Benedictines being those only that are properly called
monks, wear a loose black gown, with  large wide sleeves,
and  a capuche, or cowl, on Iheir heads,  ending in a point
behind.   In the canon law  they are styled  black friars,
from the colour of their habit. 
BEN
B  E  R
   The rules of St. Benedict, as observed by the  English
 monks before the dissolution of the monasteries, were as
 follows:  tbey were obliged lo perform their  devotions
 seven times in 24 hours, the whole circle of which devo-
 tions had respect to fhe passion and death of Christ: fhey
 were obliged  always to go two and two together: every
 day in Lent they were obliged to  fast till six in the even-
 ing, and abated of fheir usual fime of sleeping and eating;
 but they were not allowed to practise any voluntary auster-
 ity without leave of their superior;  they never conversed
 in their refectory at meals,  but were obliged fo attend to
 (he reading of (he Scriptures:  (hey all slept in (he same
 dormitory,  but  not two  in a bed  ;  Ihey lay in their
 clothes.   For small faults they were shut out from meals;
 for greater, they were debarred religious commerce, and
 excluded from the chapel;  and as to incorrigible offend-
 ers, they were  excluded from the  monasteries.  Every
 monk had two coats, two cowls,  a table book, a knife, a
 needle, and a handkerchief:  and the furniture of their bed
 was a matt, a blanket, a rug, and a  pillow.
  BENEFICE, a church  endowed with a revenue,  for
 the performance of divine service; or the  revenue itself
 assigned to an ecclesiastical person, by way of stipend,
 for the service he is to do that church.
  All church  preferments, except bishoprics, are called
benefices; and all benefices are, by fhe canonists,  some-
times styled dignities; but  we  now ordinarily distinguish
between benefice and dignity ; applying dignity to bish-
 oprics, deaneries, archdeaconries, and-prebends ; and ben-
 efice to parsonages, vicarages, and donatives.
  The canonists distinguish  three  manners of vacating a
 benefice, vis. de jure, de  facto,  and by the sentence ofa
 judge.  A benefice  is vacated de jure, when the person
 enjoying it is guilty of certain crimes expressed in those
 laws, as heresy, simony,  &c.  A  benefice is vacated de
 facto as well as de jure, by the  natural death or the resig-
 nation ofthe incumbent; which resignation may be either
 express, or tacit, as when he engages in a slate, Sec. incon-
 sistent wilh if, as, among the Romanists, by marrying, en-
 tering into a religious order,  or the like.  A benefice be-
 comes vacant by the sentence of a judge, by  way of pun-
 ishment for certain crimes, as concubinage, perjury, &c.
  In the church of England  there are  1071  benefices un-
 der 10/. per annum ; 1467 from  10 to 20 ; 1126 from 20 to
 30;  1049 from 30 to 40; 884  from 40 to 50; and  there
 are 5597 livings  under 50/. per annum.  It  must be 500
years before every living  can be raised fo 60/. a year by
 queen Anne's bounty,  and 339 years before any of them
 can exceed 50/.  a  year.   On the whole, there are above
 11,000 church preferments in England,  exclusive of bish-
oprics, deaneries, canonries,  prebends,  priest vicars, lay
 vicars, secondaries, Sec. belonging to cathedrals, or choris-
 ters, or even curates  fo well beneficed clergymen.  Ben-
 efices began about a.d. 500.
  BEXISH days, among the Egyptians, a term of three
 days  of the week, which are days of  less  ceremony in
 religion than the other four.
  BENZOIN, a dry and solid resin, brought fo  us in
 masses of various sizes from the Eas( Indies,"particularly
 from (he  kingdom  of Sia;n,  and the islands  of Java and
 Sumatra.  If is very brittle, and breaks  vitreous.  When
rubbed, it emits a fragrant odour,  and when  heated suf-
ficiently, lets the benzoic acid escape.   It is  soluble in al-
cohol, but insoluble  in water.  It  is used chiefly (o  per-
 fume apartments, and benzoic acid is extracted from it.  ft
 has not been examined by any  modern chymist.  Its 8pc.
 cific gravity is 1.092.  If is considered as a compound of
 resin  and benzoic acid.   See  Styrax, and  for benzoic
 acid see Chymistry.
   BERA31S, a  coarse cloth, all made with cotton thread
 which comes from  the East Indies, and particularly from
 Sural.
   BERBERIS, the  barberry, or pipperidge  bush.  A
 genus  of  the  monogynia order, and  hexandria class of
 plants: the characters of which are; the calyx consists
 of six leaves;  the  petals  are six, with two glands at the
 ungues; it has  no stylus; and the berry  contains  two
 seeds.  The species are  four :
   1. Berberis cretica, with a single flower in each foot-
 stalk,  is at present  very rare in Britain ; the,plants being
 tender whilst young,  and most of Ihem killed by severe
 frost.   This never rises more than three or four feet high
 in  England; but sends out many stalks  from the roof,
 which are  strongly armed with spines at every joint: the
 leaves are  produced  without order, and  are  shaped like
 those ofthe narrow leaved box tree; the flowers come out
 from between the  leaves,  each having  a slender foot.
 stalk ;  but  they  are  not  succeeded by fruit  in Britain.
   2. Berberis illicifolia, with leaves like the holm oak.
   3. Berberis Sibirica, a very small shrub, scarcely a
 span in height.
   4. Berberis vulgaris, the common barberry, which grows
 naturally in hedges in many parts of England; but is also
 cultivated in gardens, on account of its fruit, which is pick-
 led.  It rises to the height of eight or ten feet, with many
 stalks, which have a white bark, yellow on the inside. The
 flowers come out from  lhe wings  of  the  leaves in small
 ramose bunches  like those of the currant bush, and are of
 a yellow colour;  these are succeeded by oval fruit, which
 are at  first  green, but when ripe turn fo a fine red colour.
 The flowers appear in May, and the fruit ripens in Sep-
 fember.  There are two  or fhree varieties of  this shrub,
 which  by some have been taken  for distinct species; one
 is the barberry without stone ; another, lhe barberry with
 white fruit; and a third is  called by Tournefort taller east-
 ern barberry, with a black sweet fruit.  Of these Mr. Mil-
 ler observes, that the  first  certainly depends on the age of
the plant, because the suckers taken from fhose bushes
commonly produce fruit with slones. The second, he says,
seldom bears any fruit; the leaves  are of a lighter green
colour, and tbe bark ofthe stalks is whiter, than those of
the common kind.  The  third  appears  to be the same
 with the common  sort, excepting the colour and flavour of
 its fruit, which can never indicate  a  specific difference.
 The berries, which are so  acid that  birds will not feed
 upon them, are moderately astringent; and  have been giv-
 en with success in bilious  fluxes, and diseases  proceeding
 from heat, acrimony, and thinness of fhe juices.  The
 leaves  also are gratefully acid.  The flowers are offensive
 to  the smell when near, but at a distance iheir odour is ex-
tremely fine.  An infusion of lhe  bark in  while wine is
 purgative.   The  roofs boiled in lye,  dye  wool yellow.
 In Poland  they  dye  leather of a  most beautiful yellow
 with fhe bark of fhe roof.    The inner bark of fhe stems
 dyes linen ofa fine yellow wifh fhe assisfance of alum. This
shrub  should never be permitted lo grow in corn  lands;
for the ears  of wheat-that  grow near it never  fill, and its
influence in this respect has been known to extend across 
B  E R
B  E S
 afield of 300or 400 yards.  Cows, sbeep, and goats, eat
 it:  horses and swine refuse it.
   BERCHEROIT,  or  Berkcoits,  a weight used at
 Archangel,  and in all the Russian dominions: it weighs
 about 364 pounds English avoirdupois weight.
   BERDASH, a name  formerly used in  England for a
 certain kind of neck dress ; and hence a person who made
 or sold such neck cloths, was called berdasher, from which
 is derived our word haberdasher.
   BERENb ARIANS, a religious sect of lhe 11th cen-
 tury, which adhered lo (he opinion of  Berengarius, who,
 even  in those days, strenuously asserted, that fhe bread
 and wine in fhe Lord's supper is not really and essential-
 ly,  but only  figuratively, changed  info  the body  and
 blood of Christ.
   BERGAMOT,  lhe name ofa fragrant essence  extract-
 ed from a species of citron.   As this oil exists pure in (he
 peel, being simply  deposited in small cells, the extraction
 is easy, either by expression or distillation.   The former
 is the best,  as  (he oil is  not  liable to be altered by heat;
 but more is produced by  distillation  than by expression :
 by this mode  two  ounces of  lhe oil  have been obtained
 from two pounds of the peel.
   It is also the denomination of a coarse tapestry,  manu-
 factured with flocks of silk, wool, cotton, hemp, ox, cow,
 or goat's hair, and supposed to be invented by the people
 of Bergamo.
   BERGESA, a genus of  the class  and order decandria
 monogynia.   The essential character is, calyx five parted ;
 petals five; berry subglobular, one celled, with five seeds.
 There is one species, a leafy tree, with the bark of the
 alder: a native of the East Indies.
   BERGIA, a genus of the  class and  order decandria
 pentagynia.  The essential character is, calyx five part-
 ed ; petals  five; capsule one, globular,  with swellings,
 five celled,  five valved,  valves  resembling petals; seeds
 many.
   There are fwo species, the B. capensis and glomerafa,
 both natives of lhe Cape.
   BERGHMOT,an assembly, or court, held  upon a hill,
 in Derbyshire, for  deciding controversies among the  mi-
 ners.
   BERJBERI, a kind of palsy,  common in the East In-
 dies.  The word, in the language of fhe country,  signifies
 a sheep j and was given by the natives  to this distemper,
 because the  patients, on  throwing out  their  knees, and
 lifting  up their legs, seem  to imitate sheep in their walk.
   BERiME, in fortification, a space  of ground left at the
 foot ofthe rampart, on the  side next the country, designed
 fo receive the ruins of fhe rampart,  and prevent the fill-
 ing up of fhe fosse.  It  is  sometimes palisadoed, for the
 more security; and in Holland it is generally planted wifh
 a quickset hedge.   It is also called liziere, relais, foreland,
 refraife, pas de souris, Sec.
   BERNARDINES,  an  order  of  monks, founded by
 Robert abbot of Moleme,  and  reformed  by St. Bernard.
 They wear a v\ bile robe with a  black scapularv ; and when
 Ihey officiate, they  are clothed wilh a large "gown, which
 is all white,  and wifh  great sleeves, and a hood of the
 same colour.  They differ but very  little from the Cis-
 tercians.
  BERNIIABDIA DICHOTOMA, in botany, a plant
of cryptogamia class and order Slices.   («)
  vol. i.           42
   BERRY, a round fruit, for  (he  most part  soft,  and
 covered with a thin skin, containing seeds in a pulpy sub-
 stance; but if it is harder,  or covered wilh a thicker skin.
 it is called pomuin, apple.
   BERTIESA, a  genus  of  the  pentandria  monogynia
 class and order.   The essential character is, calyx turbi-
 nate, five toothed; corolla, lube short, with a villose mouth.:
 berry  globose, inferior, two celled, many seeded.
   There  is  but one species, the B.  Guianensis, which
 the specific name announces to be a native of Guiaua.  The
 flower is white.
   BERYL, in natural history,  called by our lapidaries
 aqua marina, is a pellucid  gem of a bluish green colour,
 found in the East Indies  and about the gold mines of  Pe-
 ru, and especially in Siberia and Tartary, where its crys-
 tals are sometimes a foot long.
   The beryl, like most other gems, is met with both in the
 pebble and columnar form, but in the latter most frequent-
 ly.  In the pebble form  it  usually appears of a roundish
 but flatted  figure,  and  commonly full of small flat faces,
 irregularly disposed.  In tbe  columnar or crystaline form
 it always consists of hexangular columns, terminated by
 hexangular pyramids.  It  never receives any admixture
 of colour into  if, nor loses the blue and green, but has its
 genuine tinge in  the  degrees from a very deep and dusky
 to the  palest imaginable ofthe hues of sea water.
   The beryl  has many points of resemblance  with  lhe
 emerald, and  in particular the crystals of both are divisi-
 ble parallel to the sides and extremities ofa regular hexa-
 hedral prism.   The beryl is externally shining, with a vi-
 treous lustre.  It is generally  transparent, but sometimes
 only semi-transparent.  The  specific gravity  varies from
 2.65 to 2.75.  A specimen, analyzed by Vauquelin, con
 tained
                69 silica
                13 alumina
                16 glucina
                 1  oxide of iron
                 0.5 lime

                99.5
   It was by the analysis of this  stone that Vauquelin dis-
 covered the earth which he called glucina.  The beryl,
 when cut and  polished, has a considerable  lustre: it is
 ranked among gems; but its value is trifling, compared
 with the ruby, sapphire, topaz, &c.
   Beryl crystal, in natural history, a species of what
 Dr. Hill calls  ellipomacrosfyla,  or  imperfect  crystals, is
 of an extremely pure, clear, and equal texture, and scarce-
 ly ever subject to  the slightest  films or blemishes.  It is
 ever constant to  the peculiarity of its figure, which is that
 ofa long and slender column, remarkably  tapering toward
 the top, and very irregularly hexangular.  It is of a very
 fine transparency, and naturally of a pale brown ; and car-
 ries such evident marks of distinction from all other brown
 crystals, that  our  lapidaries call it, by way of eminence,
 the beryl crystal, or simply the  beryl.
   BESANT, or besant, a coin of pure gold, of an uncer-
 tain value, struck at Byzantium, in the time of the Chris-
tian emperors : hence fhe gold offered by the  king at lhe
altar, is called besant, or bisant.
   Few coins ever had a more general currency than these
besants ', having  been current from the beginning to the 
BET
BET
end of the eastern empire, in all ifs provinces, and also in
(hose coun(ries (ha( had been provinces of the western em-
pire ; and among others in Britain.   With us they  were
received in payments.   They  are frequently referred to
by lhe hislorians of the crusades, but are rarely mention-
ed by ours; and are  not  to be found in Doomsday book,
nor in the acts of Henry I. or Stephen, nor in the last will
of king Henry II.
  Besants,  in  heraldry,  round pieces of gold, without
any stamp, frequently borne in  coats of arms.
  BESISTAN, a name given to those places at Constan-
tinople, &c. where  the merchants have their  shops, and
expose their goods to sale.  A particular besistan belongs
to each  class of merchants.
  BESLERIA, a genus of the angiospermia order and
didynamia class of plants.  Of this genus  there are  six
species : the most  remarkable are,
  1. Besleria cristata, with stalks  growing  single, and
a five leaved involucrum.   The calyx is  scarlet, the co-
rolla yellow.
  2. Besleria lutea, with simple footstalks growing in clus-
ters, and spear shaped leaves ;  yellow flowers.
  3. Besleria melitf ifolia,  with branching footstalks and
oval leaves.  All  these species are natives of  the  warm
parts of America,  and  cannot be preserved in this country
without artificial heat.   But  as they are not remarkable
for  beauty, or any other property yet discovered, we for-
bear any particular description.
  BESORCH, a  coin of tin, or some alloyed metal, cur-
rent at Ormus, at the rate of T-49th parts of  a farthing
sterling.
   BESTIARII,  in  Roman  antiquity,  such as fought
against beasts, or who were exposed  to them by sentence
of the law.   There were  four kinds  of bestiarii  : the first
were those who made  a trade of it, and fought for money ;
the second were such young men as, to show their strength
and  dexterity  in  managing  their  arms,  fought against
beasts;  the  third  was where  several  bestiarii  were let
loose at once, well armed, against a number of beasts ; and
the fourth kind were those condemned to  the  beasts, con-
sisting either of enemies taken prisoners in war, or as  being
slaves, and guilty of  some enormous crime: these were
all exposed naked, and without defence.
   BETA, a genus of  lhe pentandria digynia class and or-
der of plants;  and in the  natural  method ranking under
the 12th order, holoraceae.  The calyx has  five leaves;
there is no corolla; the seeds  are kidney shaped, and sit-
uated within the base  of the calyx.  There are four spe-
cies, vis.
   1. Beta cicla, the root of scarcity, has  been greatly ex-
tolled in different publications of late  years : but ils vir-
tues have perhaps been exaggerated. The betahorfensis,
 or common white beet, is a variety of this; and is cultivat-
 ed in gardens for the sake of its leaves, which are frequent-
 ly used in soups.
   2. Beta maritima, the  sea beet, grows  naturally by the
 sea side, in salt marshes, and in many parts of  England.
 It  has been  supposed by many to be only a variety of fhe
 common white beet; but  Mr. Miller assures  us  he has
 been unable to make any variation in them by culture.
   3. B. apatula, a native of Madeira.
   4. Beta vulgaris, the  red  beef, with a pyramidal root,
 has large, thick,  succulent leaves, which are for the most
part of a dark green or purple colour.  The roots are
large, and of a deep red.   The larger these  roots grow,
the tenderer tbey are ; and  the deeper their colour, the
more they  are  esteemed.  The varieties of (his species
are (he  common red bee(, (he turnip rooted beet, and the
green leaved red beet.
  On many parts of the continent the beet rool has been
used for the purpose of extracting sugar from it.   The
roots are pressed, and  the saccharine liquor boiled down
to the consistence of a syrup:  it of course undergoes many
other operations. According to the account of M. Achard,
however, the cost of a quantity of beet, in Prussia, that
will yield one  hundred pounds of  raw sugar, is not more
than sixpence: twenty pounds of root will  yield one of
sugar ;  one  hundred pounds of raw sugar give fifty-five of
refined,  and twenty-five pounds of  molasses.  It is com-
puted by the same  gentleman,  who  has  employed much
time  in the pursuit, that  a  German square mile of land,
that is,  sixteen square  miles English, properly cultivated,
would produce white beet sufficient to furnish the whole
Prussian dominions with sugar.
  BETEL, or betle, in  botany, a kind of long pepper,
found in Malabar,  and  other  parts of the East Indies.
See Piper.
   BETELGEULE, a fixed star ofthe first magnitude, in
Orion's hind shoulder.
   BETHLEHEMITES, in  church history, a religious
order, called also  star bearers, steliifcri,  because they
were  distinguished by a red star  wilh  five rays, which
they wore on their  breast, in memory of the star that ap-
peared  to  the wise men, and  conducted them to Bethle-
hem.
   There  is an order of Bethlehemites still subsisting in
(he Spanish West Indies, who are habited like capuchins,
with this difference; that they wear a  leathern girdle in-
stead of a cord, and on the right  side of their cloak an
escutcheon, representing the nativity of our Saviour.
   BETON1CA, betony, a genus of the gymnospermiaor-
der and didynamia  class of plants, and in the natural meth-
od ranking under lhe 42d order, verficillalae.  The calys
isawned;  the upper lip of the corolla is ascending and
flatfish  : and the tube is cylindric.   There are seven spe-
cies.   The most remarkable are,
   1. Betonicaorienlalis, the oriental betony.
   2. Betonica stricta, the greater Danish betony.
   3.  Betonica incana, the hoary Italian betony, has a flesh
coloured flower.
   4.  Betonica officinalis, is the species chiefly worlh no-
tice.   It is a low plant, growing in woods and shady places
in several  parts of  England;  the  flowers come forth in
June and July, of  a purplish colour, and stand in spikei
on the top of the stalks.  The leaves and flowers havel
roughish,  somewhat bitterish  taste, accompanied with  a
very weak  aromatic flavour.   The powder of the leaves of
betony snuffed up the  nose provokes sneezing; and hence
it is sometimes made an ingredient in sternutatory po*'
ders.   This effect  does not seem to be owing, as is gener-
ally supposed,  to  any peculiar stimulating virtues in the
herb, but to the rough hairs  with which lhe  leaves are
covered.   The roots  of  this  plant differ greatly  ip ^e
quality from the other parts:  (heir taste is very bitferand
 nauseous:  taken in a small dose, (hey vomit and  pi""?'
 violently,  and are  supposed lo have somewhat in conim°n 
BET
B  E  V
 with the root of hellebore.   According to  Simon Pauli
 and Bartholinus, this plant affects those who gather any
 considerable  quantity of it  with a disorder resembling
 drunkenness. Its leaves are sometimes smoked like to-
 b&cco*
   BETROTHMENT, among civilians, the same  with
 espousals.
   BETULA, (he birch  or  alder tree, a genus of the te-
 tandria order and monoecia class of plants, and in the nat-
 ural  method ranking  under the 50th order, araentaceae.
 The calyx of the male is monophyllous, trifid, and biflo-
 rous; and the corolla  is  parted into four  segments: the
 female calyx is monophyllous,  trifid, and  biflorous: the
 Beeds have a membranaceous wing on both sides.   There
 are fifteen species : (he more remarkable are,
   1. Betula alba, (be  common birch (ree, so well known
 to young students as to need no description : in a proper
 soil and situation it will rise high, and swell to a consider-
 able size.  There is a spruceness in its general appear-
 ance in summer ; and  in  winter ils bark often exhibits, in
 its  variegations of red and  white,  no  inelegant object.
 Were it not so commonly seen upon poor soils, and applied
 to so many mean and degrading purposes, the birch might
 well claim a place among  tbe ornamental trees.
   2. Betula alnus, the alder tree, will grow to a large  tim-
 ber tree.  The alder is of straggling inelegant growth ; and
 hacked  and disfigured in the manner in which they gen-
 erally are, they have but  little effect in effacing  lhe un-
 sightliness  of a  swamp, which is their natural  soil.
 Wherever the soil is or can be made pasturable, lhe alder
 should  by no means be permitted to gain a  footing.   I(s
 suckers and seedlings  poison (he herbage;  and it is a fact
 well known to the observant husbandman, that (he roofs
 ofthe alder  have  a  peculiar  property, of rendering  the
 soil they grow in more moist and rotten, than it would be
 if not occupied by this aqueous plant.  Plantations of al-
 ders should therefore be confined to swampy, low, unpas-
 turable places.  In this case the native species ought to
 give place foils more ornamental varieties,of which Han-
 bury enumerates  five; vis.  1.  the  long leaved, 2.  the
 white, 3. (he black, 4.  the  hoary leaved,  and  5. the
 dwarf alder.
   3.  Betula lenta, the  Canada  birch, grows to sixty or
 more feet in height.  The leaves are heart shaped, oblong,
 smooth, of a thin consistence, pointed,  and very sharply
 serrated.   They differ in  colour; and the varieties of this
 species  are,  1. dusky  Canada  birch;  2.  white paper
 birch; 3. poplar leaved  Canada birch ; 4. low  growing
 Canada birch, &c.
   !. Betula nana, fhe dwarf birch, with roundish leaves,
 grov.;. natarally  in the northern parts of  Europe and on
 the Alps.  It seldom  rises above two or three feet high.
 If has slender branches with  round leaves,  but  seldom
 produces flowers here.  It is preserved in some curious
 gardens for the sake of variety, but is a  plant of no use.
   5. Betula  nigra, the black Virginian  birch tree,  will
 grow to upward of  60 feet in height.  The branches are
 spotted, and more sparingly set in the trees than lhe com-
 mon sorts.   The  leaves are broader, grow on long foot-
 stalks, and add a  dignity  fo the appearance of the free.
 As it is  naturally of an upright  and  swift growth, and ar-
 rives at so great a magnitude,  Hanbury thinks it ought to
have a share among our forest frees, and  to be planted for
             42*
 the standards in open places, as well as to be joined wi(h
 olher trees of ifs own growth, in plantations  more imme-
 diately designed for relaxation and pleasure.   There are
 several varieties of this species,  differing in the colour,
 size of the leaves, and shoots ;  such as,  1. the  broad
 leaved Virginian birch, 2.  the poplar leaved birch, 3. lhe
 paper birch, 4.  the brown  birch, &c.
   One method of propagating tbe foreign sorts of birch is
 from seeds: but they may  also be propagated by layers ;
 and this is the way  to continue the peculiarities in the va-
 rieties ofthe different sorls.  In autumn the young shoots
 should  be plashed near  the stools, and they will strike
 root, and become good plants by the autumn following.
   In  some of the northern parts  of  Europe  the wood of
 the white birch  is much used for making carriages and
 wheels, being hard  and of  long duration.  In  Fiance it  is
 generally used for  making wooden shoes, and in Britain
 for making women's shoe  heels, packing boxes, brooms,
 hoops, &c.  It also makes  very good  fuel, and is planted
 along with hazel to make  charcoal for forges.  The bark
 of the birch seems in a manner incorruptible.  In Sweden
 the houses are  covered with it, and it lasts many years.
 It frequently  happens  that the wood is  entirely rotten,
 when the bark is perfectly sound  and good.  In Kamts-
 chatka it is used  for making drinking cups,   Il  abounds
 with a resinous matter, to which  its durability  is  certainly
 owing.  In consequence of this,  it  is highly inflammable:
 and in the  northern countries  torches are made of this
 bark  sliced and twisted together.  The bark itself con-
 sists of two  different substances ; a thick brittle  brownish
 red one; and several very thin, smooth, while, transparent
 membranes ; in which  the  inflammable property resides.
 The thick part  is  less resinous, and has a roughish tasle.
 K has been  thought fo  possess some  medical  virtues, but
 concerning these experience has as yet determined noth-
 ing certain.   Upon deeply wounding  or  boring the trunk
 of the tree in the beginning of  spring, a sweetish juice is-
 sues,  sometimes in so  large a quantity  as  to equal the
 weight of lhe whole tree and root; one branch will bleed
 a gallon or more in  a day.  This juice is recommended in
 scorbutic disorders, and  other  foulnesses of the blood.
 Its most sensible effect is to promote fhe urinary discharge.
 By proper fermentation, wilh  the addition of sugar, this
juice  makes a pleasant wine.   The  bark of  fhe Canada
 birch  is very light, tough, and durable ; and tbe inhabitants
 of America use it for canoes.
  BEVEL, among  masons, carpenters, joiners, and brick-
 layers,  a kind of square, one leg  whereof is  frequently
 crooked, according  to  the sweep of an arch or vault.   It
 is moveable on a centre, and so may  be set to any angle.
 The make and use of this instrument is pretly much lhe
 same as those of  the common square and mitre, except
 that those are fixed, the first at an angle of ninety degrees
and the second  at  forty-five ;  whereas  the  bevel being
moveable, it may in some  measure  supply  the place of
bolh,  which it  is chiefly intended for, serving to set off or
transfer angles, either greater or less  than ninety or forty-
five degrees.
  Bevel angle, any angle except those of ninety or for-
ty-five degrees.
  BEVELLING, in ship building, the art of hewing tim-
ber with a proper and regular curve,  according to a mould
which is laid on one side of its surface. 
B  I  D
B  I G
   BEVILE', in heraldry, a thing broken or opening like
a  carpenter's rule:  Ihus  we  say,  he beareth argent, a
chief bevile,  verf, by the  name of beverlis.
   BEY, among the Turks, signifies a governor of a coun-
try or lown.   The Turks write  it begh, or bek, but pro-
nounce il bey.
   BEZANS, cotton cloths, which come from Bengal:
some are white, and  others striped wilh several colours.
   BEZOAR, originally meant  an  antidote, or medicine
intended to prevent the fatal effects of poison.
   Bezoar, oriental, a moderately hard and  heavy stone,
very variable and uncertain in size, shape, and colour.  It
is  generally of a round form ; and its size is between that of
a horse bean  and that of a small walnut, though there are
some larger, and others smaller than peas.   The ordinary
colour is a duskish olive, or greenish brown.  It is always
smooth and  glossy on the surface ;  and,  when broken, is
found to  consist of a great number of coats  or  crusts of
stony matter,  laid one over  another; and often  formed
upon a piece of stick, or seed of a fruit, or some such arti-
cle, for a nucleus or  basis.  This is a drug of very great
price, and of very great fame: but it is not of the number
of those things that have  been proved to deserve the  re-
pule they stand  in.  It is  brought to us from Persia, and
many parts of the East Indies:  it is to be chosen entire,
not in scraps or fragments ; of a greenish  or  olive colour,
with some mixture of gray in it;  and such as, when rub-
bed on paper, before whitened withceruss, gives a yellow-
ish colour.   There  is   also an  occidental bezoar, which
comes from Mexico.
   Bezoars are generally supposed f o be concretions formed
in the stomach or intestines of different graminivorous ani-
mals ; but it is not completely ascertained in what animal
Ihey are found,  or how many species may yield  them.
Dr. Pearson analyzed one  specimen, and found it  entirely
composed of vegetable nutter.   Several writers attribute
very great virtues to the oriental bezoar-; but it is probable
(hat if it  has any action at  all,  it  is  merely lhat of  an ab-
sorbent earth, as chalk or  magnesia.
   BIA,  in  commerce, a name given by  fhe Siamese to
those  small  shells which  are called cowries throughout
almost all the other parts ofthe East Indies.  See CowrRiE.
   BICE, or bise, among painters,  a  blue colour prepared
from (he lapis armenus.
   Bice bears (he best body of all bright blues used in com-
mon work, as house painting, &c. but it  is  (he palest in
colour.  It works indifferently well, but inclines a little to
sand}', and therefore requires good grinding.   Next to  ul-
tramarine, which is  too dear to be used in common work,
it  lies best near the eye of all other blues.
   BICEPS,  in  anatomy,  tbe name  of several  muscles.
See Anatomy.
   BIDEXS, a genus of the syngenesia polygamia aequalis
class and order, and  in  fhe natural method ranking  under
the 49th order, composite oppositifoliss.   The receptacle
is paleaceous; lhe pappus  has erect scabrous awns; and
lhe calyx is imbricated.  Of this  genus there are fourteen
species; but none of Ihem appear to merit  notice, except
lhe Bidens tripartita, frequently found by  lhe sides of riv-
ulets, ditches, and  lakes,  in  England.  It grows lo the
height of lwo feel; and has its leaves divided inlo three,
or often five, lobes,  with yellow flowers.  A decoction of
this plant with alum, dyes yarn of a yellow colour.  The
yarn must be first steeped  in  alum water, then dried and
steeped in a decoction of  lhe  plant, and afterward boiled
in the decoction.
   BIDON, a liquid measure, containing about five pints
of Paris, that  is, about five quarts English wine measure.
It is seldom used but among ship's crews.
   BIENNIAL plants, are those that have two years du-
ration, or that are in their prime the first and second sum-
mers.  Tjiey consist both of esculent and flowering plants.
   BIGAMY,  in the  canon  law,  is  when a person either
marries two women successively, or only marries one wom-
an  who had been married before; both which  cases are
accounted impediments to be a clerk, or to hold a bishop-
rick.   It is also bigamy when a  person marries a woman
who had been debauched before;  or when he has known
his own wife after she has been debauched by another.
   The Romanists  make  a kind of bigamy by interpreta-
tion:  as when a person in holy orders, or that has made
profession  of some  monastic  order,  marries.  This the
bishop can dispense with on some occasions.
   Bigamy, by the law of England, is where a person mar-
ries a second  wife,  the first  being alive.  By the stal. 1
Jac. I.  c. 11,  it is enacted,  that if any person or persons
within his majesty's  dominions,  being married, do marry
any person or persons, the  former husband or wife being
alive, the person or persons so offending shall  suffer death,
as in cases of felony.   But it  is provided, thai nothing in
(his statute shall extend  to  any person or persons whose
husband or wife shall be continually remaining beyond seas
by the space of seven years  together, or whose husband
or wife shall absent himself or herself from each other for
seven years  together, the  one of them not knowing lhe
olher to be living  within  (hat time.  Nor  shall the said
s(alu(e  extend to  any person  or persons divorced bv a
sentence in the ecclesiastical court; nor to any person or
persons, for or by reason of  any former marriage had or
made within age of consent.   The offence is now within
the benefit of clergy.
   BIGHT, among  seamen,  denotes one roll, or round, of
a cable or rope, when coiled up.
   BIGNONIA, trumpet  flower, or scarlet jasmine, a
genus of fhe  angiospermia order  and didynarnia class of
plants, and in (he natural method ranking in tbe 40th order,
personates.  The calyx is quinquefid  and cupforrn ; the
corolla is bell shaped at the throat, quinquefid, and bellied
underneath; the siiiqua is bilocular ; and the seeds have
membranous wings.   Of  this  genus there are 27 species,
of which the following are lhe most remarkable:
   1. Bignonia  calalpa, a native of Carolina, Virginia, and
the Bahama islands.   It  has  a  strong woody  stem and
branches, rising 20 feet high, ornamented with large heart
shaped  leaves. This deserves a place in all curious shrub-
beries, as during the summer season no tree makes a more
beautiful appearance. It does  not flower, however, till
old.
   2. Bignonia  capreolata, or tendril bignonia, a native of
North America, is  a climber, which rises by (he assist-
ance of tendrils or claspers.   The flowers are producedin
August from the wings of lhe leaves : Ihey are of lhe same
nature, and of the shape nearly ofthe former;  are large.
ofa yellow colour, and succeeded by short pods.
   3. Bignonia  radicans, lhe climbing ash leaved bignonia,
is a native of Virginia and Canada, rises 30 or 40 feet high, 
B  I  L
B  I  L
 having pinnated opposite leaves of four pair of serrated
 lobes, aud an odd one : all the shoots and branches being
 Icrminaled by  beautiful clusters of large trumpet shaped
 scarlet flowers.  The humming birds delight to feed on
 lln-se fiowers;  and by  thrusting themselves too far into
 them are sometimes caught.   Of this species (here is a
 variety with smaller flowers.
   4. Bignonia sempervirens, or evergreen climbing Virgin-
 ia bignonia,  is a native of Virginia, Carolina, and the Baha-
 ma islands.   The stalks are more  slender than those of
 the radicans, yet they rise, upon proper supports,  to the
 height of twenty or thirty feet; the flowers are trumpet
 shaped,  erect, and ofa yellow colour, proceeding from the
 sides and ends ofthe stalks and branches.
   5.  Bignonia  unguis, the  claw bignonia,  a  deciduous
 climber, is a nalive of Barbadoes and the other West In-
 dia islands.   It rises by the help of claw like tendrils, the
 branches being very slender and weak; and by these it will
 overtop  bushes, frees, &c. twenty or thirty feet high.
   6, Bignonia grandiflora.   This is also a shrubby climb-
 ing plant, a  native of Japan.  The  flowers are purple, and
 as large  as a rose.
   The cultivation of fhe bignonia is not difficult.   If the
 shoots are laid upon the ground, and covered with a litlle
 mould,  they will immediately strike  root,  and become
 good plants for setting out where they are wanted, or they
 will all grow by cullings.   As to the  catalpa, whoever
 has the  conveniency of a  bark bed may propagate it in
 plenty by  cuttings:  which being  planted  in pots, and
 plunged  info the beds in the spring, will soon strike root;
 and may afterward be so hardened fo (he open air, lha( (hey
 may be set abroad in the shade before the end of summer:
 in the beginning of  October they should be removed into
 a  green  house,  or  under some shelter, to be protected
 from  the winter's  frost.   In  the  spring, after the bad
 weather  is past, they may  be  turned out of the pots, and
 planted in lhe nursery way, in  a well sheltered place ; and
 if the soil be rich, and rather moist, it will be the better.
   BILANCIIS deferendis, in law, a  writ directed to a
 corporation for  carrying weights to a  haven,  there  to
 weigh wool, that persons were  formerly licensed lo  trans-
 port.
   BILANDER, a small flat  bottomed vessel, wifh only
 one large mast and sail, and its deck raised half a foot above
 the platboard.
   BILBOWS,  a punishment at sea,  answering fo the
 slocks on  land.   The  offender is laid in irons, or stocks,
 which are more or less ponderous according to the  quali-
 ty of the offence of which he is guilty.
   BILGE,  of a ship,  the  bottom  of  her floor, or the
 breadth  of  the  place  the   ship rests  on  when 6he  is
 aground.  Therefore bilge waler is that which lies on her
 floor, and cannot go to the  well of (he pump; and bilge
 pumps, or burr pumps, are  Ihose lhat carry off lhe bilge
 water. They likewise say tbe ship is bilged, when she has
 some of her  timber  struck off on a  rock or anchor, and
 springs a leak.
  BILE, a yellow, bitter juice, separated from (he  blood
in  (he liver,  collected in the porus biliarius and gall blad-
der, and  thence  discharged  by the common duct into the
duodenum.  See Physiology, and Chymistry.
  BILIOUSyVrcrs are those  occasioned by fhe over co-
piousness, or bad qualities, ofthe bile.   See Medicine.
   BILL, an instrument made of iron, edged in the form of
a crescent, and adapted to a handle. It is used by plumb-
ers to perform several parts  of their work ; by basket
makers,  to cut the  largest pieces  of chesnut trees and
olher wood ; and by gardeners  to  prune trees.  W hen
short, it is called a hand bill; and when long a hedge bill.
   BILL, in law proceedings, is  a declaration in writing,
expressing either the wrong the complainant had suffered
by the  party  complained of, or some fault commitled
against some law  or statute ofthe realm ; and this bill is
sometimes  addressed to the lord chancellor, especially
for unconscionable wrongs done  fo the complainant; and
sometimes  to others having jurisdiction, according as the
law directs.  It contains the fact complained of, the  dam-
ages thereby sustained, and petition of process against the
defendant for redress; and it is made use of  in criminal as
well as civil matters.  In criminal cases, when a grand jury
upon  presentment, or indictment, finds the same to be true,
they indorse on it billa vera, and thereupon the offender
is said (o stand indicted.
   Many ofthe proceedings in the king's bench are by bill,
which was the ancient form of proceeding.
   Bill of credit, is that which a merchant or banker gives
to a person whom he can trust, empowering him to receive
money from his  correspondents in foreign  countries.
Though  bills of credit are different from bills of exchange,
yet they enjoy the same privileges:  for the money  paid
in consequence of them is recoverable by law.
   Bill in equity, is in the  form  of a petition, addressed
to fhe lord  chancellor or barons of the exchequer, wilh
which a  suit in chancery, or  the  exchequer commences,
and which sets forth the circumstances  of the case  at
length.
   Bills  of exchange.  A bill  of exchange is an order or
request in writing, addressed by  one person to another, to
pay a cerlain sura of money on demand, or at a time spec-
ified,  to a third person, or to his order; or it may be made
payable to bearer.
   If a bill is made payable to bearer, it is  assignable by
delivery  only;  but if it is  payable  to order, it must be
transferred by indorsement and  delivery.  The person
making or  drawing  the bill is called the  drawer; the
person to whom it is  addressed the drawee; who, when
he  has undertaken  to  pay the amount, is termed the
acceptor.  The person in whose favour the bill is drawn is
called the payee ;  but if he  appoints some other  person to
receive the money, he  is then termed fhe  indorser, and
fhe person  so  appointed lhe indorsee.  No  particular
form  is necessary in a bill of exchange; any order,  or
promise,  which from the time of making it, cannot be com-
plied  with, or performed, without the payment of money,
is a bill or note.  Mod. 364.
  A promissory note, or note of  hand, is an engagement
in writing, to pay a sum specified at the time (herein lim-
ited, (o a person, (herein named, or sometimes to  his order,
or often to  the bearer at large: this is also  made assigna-
ble, and indorsable like a bill of exchange.  Any persons
capable of  binding themselves by a contract may be par-
ties to a bill of exchange, or other negotiable instrument, or
be in  any manner concerned in negoliating either of them.
An infant, therefore,  or a married woman, except in cer-
tain cases, as where by the cuslora of London she has the
privilege of trading as a feme sole, as they  are incapable 
B  I  L
B  I  L
of binding themselves by contract, cannot be parties to a
negotiable instrument; yet such instrument, negotiated by
persons incapacitated, will nevertheless be valid as to all
other competent parties.  2 Atk. 181.
  Bills of exchange are either/oreigT* or inland : foreign
when drawn by a merchant  residing  abroad upon his
correspondent  in  England, or vice versa ; and inland,
when both the drawer and the drawee reside in the kingdom.
By 9 and 10 W. III. c. 17. and 3 and 4 Anne, c. 9. all
distinctions  between foreign and  inland bills, as far as re-
spect the custom  of merchants, are removed; and the
same principles of law are generally applicable to both.
See Stamps.
  Bills or notes must  be certain, and not depend on any
particular event or contingency.  3 Wils. 213.
  If a bill or note is  made hi a foreign  country,  it must
be conformable to  the laws of that country, or it will not
be valid.
  If a bill or note is altered while in the hands of the payee,
or any  other  holder,  in any material instance, as date,
sum, &c. without  consent of the drawee, he will be dis-
charged from his liability, although such bill  or note may
afterward come into the hands  of  an indorsee  not aware
of the alteration;  but in this case, if altered before accep-
tance or indorsement, the acceptor can  take no advantage
of the alteration; and the  consent of any one of the par-
ties to the alteration, will in general preclude him from
taking an advantage of it.   4 T. R. 320.
  If a bill is made with a proper stamp, and afterward al-
tered by the consent of the parties, though before nego-
tiation; a new  stamp is necessary, as it  is a different con-
tract.  5 T. R. 357.   If,  however,  there be a stamp of
equal or superior value, the proper one may be affixed, on
payment of 40s. before the instrument is due, and  10/. af-
ter it is due. But if there is not originally a stamp amount-
ing to the requisite value, the omission  can  never be le-
gally supplied.  Evans, p. 6.
   The acceptor of a bill is,  by the custom of the mer-
chants, as effectually bound by his acceptance, as if he had
been the original  drawer; and having  once  accepted it,
he cannot afterward revoke it.  Cro. Jac. 303.  See Ac-
ceptance.  The  indorser ofa bill is as liable as the first
drawer; because  the  indorsement  is in the nature of a
new bill.  1 Salk. 125.   To indorse a bill  with a ficti-
tious name,  is forgery, though  such indorsement be use-
less.
   A presentment, either for  payment or  acceptance,
must be made at seasonable hours.   In case a bill is not
regularly paid, the holder  has a right to recover not only
the principal, but also, in certain  cases, costs and dam-
ages.
   Notice is that  information which the holder ofa nego-
tiable instrument is bound to give  to all  the antecedent
parties. If the drawee refuses to accept, or having accept-
ed, if he refuses payment, or if he offers an acceptance va-
rying from the bill; in either ofthe above cases, the bill
is dishonoured ; and the holder, in case of neglect to com-
municate notice within a reasonable time, will not be at
liberty fo resort to the other parties, who by such negli-
gence wjll be discharged from their respective obligations.
Bur. 26T0.  Notice of conditional  or partial  acceptance
should be given to  the other parties to the bill by the hold-
er, in default of payment; for if under these circumstances
a general notice of non-acceptance  is  given to any of
the parties, omitting to mention in such notice the nature
of the acceptance offered, the acceptor is discharged, by
this  act of  the holder, from his acceptance.   1  T. R.
182.
  A protest is an act of a notary public, stating  that a
bill has been presented for acceptance,  or for payment,
and refused, and declaring that the acceptor, indorsers, Sec.
shall be liable for damages, Sec. and to this instrument all
foreign  courts give entire credit.   In the first instance the
notary  marks or notes fhe minute of refusal on the bid it-
self, and afterward the instrument is drawn out and attest-
ed under his band and seal.   The want of a protest can in
no case be supplied by noting, which is a mere  prepara-
tory minute, of which the law takes no cognisance as dis-
tinguished from a protest.  If there is no notary resident
at or near the place, tbe  bill  must, when payable, be pro-
tested by some substantial resident, in the presence of two
or more witnesses, and should  in general be  made at hie'
place where payment is refused ;  but  when a bill is drawn
abroad, directed to the drawee at Southampton or London,
or any other place, requesting him to pay the payee in Lon-
don, the protest for  non-acceptance of such bill may be
made either at  Southampton or London. Notice should
be given on the day of refusal to accept, if any post or or-
dinary conveyance set out on the  day  ; and if not, by (he
next earliest conveyance.  4 T. R. 174.
  An usance is generally understood fo mean only a month.
Molloy  207.   1 Shaw 217.  Instead  of  an  express limi-
tation by months or days, we  continually find tbe bills
drawn or payable at  Amsterdam, Rotterdam, Hamburgh,
Aitona,  Paris, or any other place in France, Cadiz, Madrid,
Bilboa,  Leghorn, Genoa or Venice, limited by the usance,
that is,  the usage between those places and this country.
An usance between this kingdom and Amsterdam, Rotter-
dam,  Hamburgh, Aitona, Paris,  or any  place in France,
is one calendar month from the date of the bill; an usance
between us and Cadiz, Madrid, or Bilboa, two; an usance
between us and Leghorn, Genoa, or Venice,  three. A
double  usance is  double the  accustomed time; a half
usance,  half.   Upon  a half usance, if it be  necessary to
divide a month,  the division, notwithstanding the differ-
ence of  the  length of months, shall contain fifteen dajs.
Blag. 13.
  BILL of entry,  an  account of the goods entered at the
custom  houses both inward and outward. In this bill must
be expressed  the merchant exporting or importing the
quantity of merchandises, and the divers species thereof,
and whither or whence transported.
  Bill  of  lading,  an  acknowledgment signed  by the
master of a ship, and given to a merchant, &c. containing
an account ofthe goods which the master has received on
board from  that merchant, &c. with a promise to deliver
them at  an intended place for a certain sura.   Each bill of
lading must be treble: one for the merchant who loads the
goods, another to be sent to the person  to whom (hey are
consigned, and the third to  remain in the hands  of the
master of the ship.   It must be observed, however, that a
bill  of lading is used only when the goods sent on board a
ship are but part of the cargo : for when a merchant loads
a whole  vessel for his own personal account, the deed pass-
ed between him and the  master ofthe ship is called char-
ter party. 
B  I  N
b  i  a
   Bill in parliament, a paper containing propositions of-
 fered to the houses, to be passed by them, and then to be
 presented to (be king (o pass into an act or law.
   Bill of sale, is when a person wanting a sum of money,
 delivers goods as a security to the lender,  to whom he
 gives (his bill, empowering him to sell the goods in case
 the sum borrowed is not repaid, with interest, at fhe ap-
 pointed time.
   Bill of store, a license granted at the custom house to
 merchants, by which they have liberty to carry, custom
 free, all such stores and provisions as they may have oc-
 casion for during their voyage.
   Bill of sufferance, a license granted to a merchant, at
 the custom house, suffering him lo trade from one English
 port to another, without paying custom.
   Bill, or beak, the  elongated horny processes or mandi-
 bles of birds.  The form of the  bill varies so greatly in
 different  kinds of birds, that they afford the most perma-
 nent character by which these creatures may be arranged.
 In the distribution of families,  Linnaeus first notices the
 structure of the  bill, the tongue, and nostrils, and these
 parts constitute almost exclusively, with the legs, the dis-
 tinction ofthe genera likewise.  The phcenicopter's bill is
 a true hyperbole: the upper part moves and the lower is
 fixed, which is the contrary to what iB found in other kinds.
 The woodpecker's bill will pierce the hardest timber.  In
 the island of Ferro, a fixed reward is given for the bills of
 ravenous  birds.   All watermen are  obliged to bring a
 certain number yearly  lo the country courts, at the feast
 of St. Olaus, when  they are thrown inlo a  heap and burnt
 in triumph.
   BILLET, in  heraldry, a bearing in form of a long
 square.   They are supposed to represent pieces of cloth
 of gold or silver,  but  Guillim thinks they represent a let-
 ter sealed up; and other authors  take  (hem for bricks.
 Billete signifies (hat  the  escutcheon is all over strewed
 with billets, the number not  ascertained.
   BILLIARDS, an ingenious kind of game played on an
 oblong  table, covered with green clo(h, and placed exact-
 ly level, with li(fle ivory balls, which are driven by crook-
 ed sticks, made on  purpose, into hazards or holes on the
 edge and corners of the table, according to certain rules of
 the game.
   BIMEDIAL, in mathematics.  If two medial lines, as
 A B and B C, commensurable only in power, containing a
 rational rectangle, are compounded, the whole line  A C
 will be irrational, and is called a first bimedial line.
                          B
 A------------------------1------------------------C
   See Euclid, lib. X. prop.  38.
   BINARY arithmetic, that  wherein unity or 1 and 0
 are only used.
   This was (be invention of Mr. Leibnitz, who shows it fo
 be very expeditious in discovering the propertiesof numbers,
 and in constructing fables : ami >1. Dangecourt, in lhe His-
 tory  of lhe Royal Academy of Sciences, gives a specimen
 ©f it  concerning arithmetical  p'ogressionals; where he
 shows that, because in binary aivhmelic, only (wo charac-
 ters  arc used, therefore the  laws of progression may be
 more easily discovered by it than by common arithmetic.
   All the  characters use.' in binary arithmetic, are 0 and
 I ; and  the c • pher multiplies every thing by 2, as in the
common arithmetic by 10. Ths;s 1  is o»r   10, two;  11,
 three; 100, four; 101, five; 110, six; 111, seven ; 1000,
 eight; 1001, nine;  1010, ten ; which is built on the same
 principles with common arithmetic.
   The author, however,"does not recommend this method
 for common use, because of the great number of figures
 required to express a number; and adds, lhat if the com-
 mon progression were from  12 to  12, or from 16 to 16, it
 would be still more expeditious.
   Binary arithmetic appears to have been  the same wifh
 that used among tbe Chinese 4000 years ago, and left in
 enigma by  Fohi, the founder of their empire and sciences.
   Binarf measure,  in music, is a  measure which  is
 beaten equally, or where the time of rising  is equal to
 that of falling.  This is usually called common time, be-
 sides which there is a binary triple.
   BIND of eels, a quantity consisting of two hundred and
 fifty;  or ten strikes, each containing twenty-five eels.
   Bind weed.   See Convolvulus.
   BING, in  the alum works,  denotes a heap of  alum
 thrown (oge(her in order (o drain.
   BINOMIAL, in algebra, a root consisting of two mem-
 bers connected by the sign  -f- or —.  Thus  a -f 6 and
 8— 3 are binomials, consisting of the sum and difference of
 these quantities.
   The powers of any binomial are found by  a continual
 multiplication of it  by itself.  For example, the cube or
 third power of a -f- b, will be found by multiplication to
 be os  -f 3a*b  -f 3ab* -f 63 ; and if the powers of a — b
 are required, they will be found the same  as  the preced-
 ing, only the  terms  in which the exponent of b is an odd
 number will be found negative.  Thus, the cube of a — b
 will-be found to be a* — 3a2o -f- 3ab* — b3 ; where fhe
 second and fourth terms are negative, the  exponent of  b
 being an odd number of these terms. In general, the terms
 of any power of a — b are positive and negative by turns.
 See Algebra.
   BINOCULAR telescope, a kind of dioptric telescope
 fitted with two tubes joined in such a manner, that one may
 see a distant object with both eyes at the same time.
   BIPED, an animal furnished with only two legs.   Men
 and birds are bipeds.   Apes  occasionally walk on their
 hind legs, and seem to be of this tribe; but their more nat-
 ural position is on all four.
   The term is used for a genus of reptiles that belong to
 the lizard family.  These have a very long body covered
 with scales, and the toes of the two little feet are armed
 with nails.
  BIPENNIS,  in Roman antiquity, an ax wifh a double
 edge, one of which was used in stabbing, and the other in
 cutting.
   BIQUADRATIC power, in algebra, the  fourth pow-
 er, or squared square, of a  number;  as 16 is the biqua-
 dratic power of 2; for 2 X 2 is 4, and 4 X 4 is equal to 16.
   Biquadratic root of a  number, is the square root of
 its  square root; thus the biquadratic root  of 81 is 3; for
 the square root of 81 is 9,  and the square root of 9 is 3.
 See Aloebra.
   Biquadratic equation, an  equation where the un-
 known quantity of one ofthe terms has four dimensions.
   Any biquadratic, equation may be conceived as generat-
ed by the multiplication of four simple equations. Thus, if
x = a, x = 6, .r =  c, x — d, or x — a = 0, x__b = 0,
x — c=0, x — d = 0; then will x — a  x  x — 6  x x 
B  I  R
B  I  R
__c xa; — (1 = 0 beget a biquadratic equation.   Or it
may be formed of two quadratic equations, asx3 -f- bx -f- c
 X x* -f- dx + e = 0; or, lastly, it may be  produced
from the multiplication of one cubic and one simple equa-
tion, as x — a X x3 -j-ca;2 -f- d x + e = 0.
  BIRCH tree.   See Betula.
  BIRD, avis, in zoology, one of the  six general classes
of animals, the characters of which are, that their body is
covered with feathers, and that they have two wings, two
legs, and a bill of a  firm bony, or rather horny substance :
add to this, that  the females are all oviparous.
  The knowledge of birds, of the orders and genera into
which they are subdivided, and of their nature, uses, fig-
ures, &c. constitutes a particular science, under the name
of ornithology; in which there are six orders, vis.  accipi-
tres, picse, anseres, grallae, gallinae, and passeres.
  Birds,  in heraldry,  according to their several kinds,
represent either the contemplative or active life.   They
are the emblems  of liberty, expedition,  readiness,  swift-
ness, and fear.  Birds  that  are either whole  footed,  or
have their feet divided and yet have no talons, are said to
be membered; but the  cock, and  all birds of  prey with
sharp  and hooked beaks and talons, for encounter or de-
fence,  are  termed armed.   In  the blazoning of birds, if
their wings are  not displayed, they are said to be borne
close;  as, he beareth an  eagle, Sec. close.
  BIRD CATCHING, is the art of taking birds or wild
fowl, either for  food,  or for the pleasure of their songs
in cages, or for preventing the destruction which some spe-
cies of them occasion to  the husbandmen.  Some recur to
it as an amusing pastime, and others practise it as a profit-
able employment.   There are  various  methods of catch-
ing  birds: one of the most  systematic  and  ingenious is
practised in the neighbourhood  of London, by persons
who find a ready  market for birds of any kind, which at
certain seasons  of the year change their situation, and
hence are called birds of flight.  The birds usually taken
on  such occasions, are woodlarks, titlarks,  linnets, gold-
finches, greenfinches, Sec. which are taken during what is
called their flight, or while they congregate  for the pur-
pose of propagating their species.  The nets used by bird
catchers are about twelve yards long, and two and  a half
wide; which  are spread on the ground parallel  to one
 another, and at  such a  distance, that when  turned over,
they shall  coincide.  The remaining apparatus consist of
lines so fastened to the nets, that the bird catcher is able
by a sudden pull fo draw the net over the birds that may
have alighted in  the  space between lhe parallel sides.
These birds are enticed to alight by others usually de-
nominated call birds, of which there are generally five or
six linnets, two goldfinches, two greenfinches, one wood-
lark, one redpoll, a yellowhammer, a titlark,  an aberda-
 vine, and perhaps a bullfinch.   Besidea these, they have
 others which are called flur birds: but the call birds are
  varticularly trained for the service ; and when the nets are
  aid, these are properly arranged, and  they appear to pos-
 sess a most malicious desire of bringing the wild ones info
 the same state of captivity with themselves.   When fhey
 perceive the approach ofthe wild birds, the intelligence
 is anounced from cage to cage with the utmost ectasy. The
 note by which  they invite them  down, has  so powerful
 an ascendancy over the wild  birds, that the  moment they
hear it, they alight on a spot within twenty yards of fhe
bird catchers. If only half the flock is caught by the first
pull of the string, the others that escape will soon return to
the net, and share the fate of their companions: such is the
fascinating power that  the  call birds  possess over those
that are wild.
  Birds are caught in traps of various kinds; and frequent-
ly  by nooses of hair.   In   this way, great numbers of
wheafears  are  annually taken  on  the various downs of
England.   Small holes are  dug by the shepherds in the
ground, in each of which is placed a noose.  Whenever a
cloud obscures the sun, these timid birds seek for shelter
under a stone, or creep into any holes that present them-
selves ; and they are thus insnared by the nooses which
fasten around their  necks.   Woodcocks  and  snipes are
taken likewise by nooses of  horse hair placed along their
paths, in marshes and moist grounds.  Wild ducks in all
their varieties are taken in vast numbers every winter on
our coasts by means of decoys.  See Decov.  Grouse
and partridges are taken by means of nets ; either at night
when resting on the ground,  by observing where they
alight, and when setted, drawing a net over fhat part of
lhe field; or, in the day, a very  steady dog is used to
point at them. The attention ofthe birds being Ihus fixed,
two persons, drawing the two extremities of a large net, pass
it over them, and thus secure a whole pack of  grouse, or
covey of partridges, at once.   Pheasanls  are sometimes
taken by night, by holding flaming sulphur  under the tree3
on  which (hey  are  observed (o perch, (he suffocating ef-
fluvia of which make (hem fall  senseless.
  In various parts  of (he  world,  peculiar modes are
adopted for insnaring  and  taking birds  ; some of which,
whilst fhey are hazardous to those who practise them, ex-
cite no inconsiderable degree of surprise,  and even of anxi-
ety,  in the spectators.  Thus, in the Orkney  islands,
where the birds that inhabit (he rocks, and (he eggs which
(hey deposite among the cliffs, supply lhe principal food of
many among fhe poorer inhabitants, the intrepid and ad-
venturous fowlers climb rocky  precipices more (ban fifty
fathoms above the sea, and pass from one shelf or ledge to
another, whose  breadth is  barely sufficient for resting
places to the birds which deposile their  eggs upon them.
In  this hazardous employment, the adventurers  are com-
monly lowered from above by means of a rope, formed oft-
en  of brittle materials, and held  by a  single assistant.
Fastened  fo this rope, the intrepid peasant descends, and
searches all the  cavities for  eggs; springing fromqne pro-
jecting ledge to another, by the help ofa pole :  whilst the
assistant, upon receiving the necessary signals, shifts the
rope from one part of the rocky precipice to another. If
the weight of the fowler and of  his booty should, in these
perilous circumstances,  overpower his associate above, or
the craggy rock  cut the rope, inevitable  destruction must
await tbe adventurer ; for he will either be dashed against
the projecting rock, or drowned in lhe  subjacent sea.
But the most singular mode of bird catching is in the holm
of  Noss;  which is a huge  rock severed from  the isle of
Noss by  some  unknown  convulsion, and  distant from  it
about sixteen fathoms.  The opposite cliffs are separated
by  the raging sea.  The adventurer, having reached the
rock in a boat, and ascended to the fop of it, fastens sever-
al stakes in the shallow soil that is found on the surface  of
the rock; and similar stakes are also attached lo the edge 
B  I  R
B  1  S
•f the corresponding and opposite cliff.  A rope is then
fixed lo lhe stakes on both sides, upon which a machine,
called  a cradle, is contrived to slide; and by (he help of
a small parallel cord  fastened in like manner, the daring
adveutuier wafts himself over, and returns wilh his booty.
   In the  Feroe islands the method of bird catching is
more extraordinary and hazardous than any which has al-
ready been recited.  The cliffs lo which the fowlers recur,
are in many cases 200 fathoms high; and ihey are travers-
ed bolh from above and below.  In the first case, the fowl-
ers provide themselves with a rope 80 or 100 fathoms long;
and the adventurer fastens one end about his waist and be-
tween  his legs, and  having recommended himself to lhe
protection of lhe Almighty, he is lowered down by  six as-
sociates, who  place a piece of wood in the margin of the
rock, lhat the rope may be preserved  from being fretted
and  broken by its  sharp edge.  To his body is faslened a
Binall line, which serves for enabling him to give the nec-
essary signals, when he wishes lo be raised or lowered,or
shifted from one place to another.   In changing his situa-
tion  he is exposed lo lhe hazard of injury from  loosened
and falling stones ; which falling on the head, must  inevi-
tably deslroy  him, if he was not in some degree protected
by a s(rong (hick cap.  The fowlers, by (heir as(onishing
dexterity, contrive to place (heir feet against the front of
(he precipice, and to dart themselves some fathoms from
it, lor the purpose of surveying tbe roosting places  of the
birds, and  projecting themselves into lhe deep recesses
where they lodge.  There the fowler alights: and disen-
gaging himself from the rope, which he fixes (o a stone,
collects the booty at  his leisure, attaches it to his girdle,
and  when this  is done, resumes his suspended posture.
He will also, when occasions require it, spring from lhe
rock; and in Ibis atlilude, by means ofa fowling  net fixed
to the end of  a  staff,  cafch lhe old birds which are flying
to and from their  retreats.  When this hazardous opera-
tion is finished, he gives a signal to his companions above ;
who pull  him  up, and  divide the booty.  The feathers are
preserved for exportation;  the flesh is  partly eaten fresh,
and  lhe greater  part is  dried  for winter's provision.  In
fowling from  below,  the party have recourse to a boat;
and  when  they have arrived at the base of the precipice,
one ofthe most  intrepid of them fastens a  rope about his
waist, and being furnished with a long pole, with an  iron
hook at one end, either climbs, or is lhrus(  up by his com-
panions, who place a  pole under him, to (he nex( foo(ing
spot within his reach.  By means of the  rope  he hoisls
up one of (he  boa('s crew ; and the rest are drawn up
in (he same manner, each of (hem being furnished wi(h his
rope and fowling staff.  They  (hen pursue (heir journey
upward,  (ill  (hey arrive at  fhe region of (he birds; and
(hey wander abou( (he cliff in search of them.  They next
act in pairs; one fastens himself to (he end of his associ-
ate's rope, and, in places  where  birds have nestled be-
neath his  footing;, he suffers himself (o be  lowered  down,
depending for safety on the strength of his  companion, by
whom  he  is again  hauled up;  but it sometimes happens
lhat  (he person above is overpowered by (he weight, and
in this case both inevitably perish.   The fowl is flung info
the boat, which atlends (heir operations for (he purpose of
receiving  (he  booty.  The  fowlers often pass seven or
eight days in this perilous occupation, and lodge in fhe cran-
nies which they fiud in various parts of the precipice.
  vol. i.            43
  Birdlime,  a viscid substance, prepared in different
ways.  The most common birdlime among us is made from
holly bark, boiled ten or twelve hours ;  when the green
coat being separated from  (be  olher, il  is covered up a
fortnight in a moist place, then pounded inlo a tough paste
so (hat no fibres of  lhe wood are discernible, and washed
in a running stream till no motes appear; put up lo ferment
four or five days, skimmed as often as any thing arises,
and laid up for use.  To use it, a third part of nut oil, or
thin grease, must be incorporated with it over the fire. It
is also  made from (be gluten of wheat.
  The Italians make birdlime ofthe berries of tbe misleto
tree.   That which  comes from Damascus is supposed to
be made  of sebastens: and il is said  lhat  lhe bark of any
of our  wayfaring shrubs will make very good birdlime.
  BIRRUS, in Roman antiquity, a cloak  made of woollen
cloth, worn by fhe  soldiers: also  a robe  worn by the
priests or bishops.
  BIRTH.   See Midwifery.
  Birth, or Birthing, in the sea language, a convenient
place to moor a ship in; also a due distance observed by
ships lying at anchor, or  under sail; and a proper place
aboard for  a  mess  to put their  chests, &c. is called the
birth of that mess.
  BIRTHWORT.   See Aristolochia.
  BISA, or Biza, a coin of Pegu,  which  is current there
for  half a ducat.  It is also a weight used  in that kingdom.
  BISCUTELLA, buckler mustard,or bastard Mith-
ridate  mustard; a  genus  of lhe tetradynamia siliculosa
class and order of plants ; and in the natural method rank-
ing under the 39th  order, siliquoste.  The silicula is flat
compressed, rounded above, and below two lobed,and lhe
leaves  ofthe calyx  are gibbous at lhe base.  There are
six  species, all  natives of France,  Italy,  Spain, and Ger-
many ; of which the most remarkable are :
  1. Bisculella apula, wilh flowers growing in spikes, and
a shorter style.
  2. Bisculella auriculata, with small pods joined to the
style.
  3. Biscutella didyma, with a double orbicular pod di-
verging from the style.
  BISECT, to divide info fwo parts.   The rational hori-
zon bisects the globe into two equal parts.
  B1SELLIARI, or Biselliarii,  in  antiquity,  those
who enjoyed the honour or privilege of the bisellium.
  B1SELLIUM, in  antiquity, a  kind of seat or  chair,
larger  and  richer lhan ordinary, big enough to hold two
persons,  wherein to sil in courts, theatres, and other pub-
lic assemblies.
  BISERRULA, a genus of the decandria order, and dia-
delphia class of plants; and in (he natural me(hod ranking
under the 32d order, papilionacese: (he legumen  is biloc-
ular and flat; and the partition contrary.  Of this genus
there is only one species known, vis.
  Biserrulapelecina, an annual plant,  with purple  flowers;
a native of (he south of Europe.
  BISHOP, signifies  an overseer or superintendant.  An
archbishop, is  (he chief of (he clergy in his own province,
who nex( and immediately under  the  king has  supreme
power, &c. in all causes and (hings ecclesiastical; and has
the inspection of all the bishops of that province.   He has
also his own diocese,  where be exercises episcopal juris-
diction, as in his province he exercises archiepiscopal. 
B  I  S
B  I  S
 As archbishop, upon receipt of the king** writ, ho calls
 the bishops and clergy of his province to  meet in convo-
 cation : to him all appeals are made from inferior jurisdic-
 tions within his province.  During the vacancy of any see
 in his province, he is guardian of tb,e spiritualities thereof.
 If (he archiepiscopal see is vacant, the dean and chapter
 are  the  spiritual  guardians.  The archbishop is entitled
 fo present by lapse, to all the ecclesiastical livings, in the
 disposal of the  diocesan bishops,  if not filled within six
 mouths.  And  be has a customary prerogative, when a
 bishop is consecrated by him, to have the next presenta-
 tion  to such dignity or  benefice in the bishop's disposal,
 as the archbishop shall choose ; which, is therefore called
 his  option, 1 Blacks.  380.  The archbishops may retain
 and qualify eight chaplains, whereas  a bishop can only
 qualify six.
   Bishops are elected by the dean and chapter; in order
 whereunto, when a bishop dies or is translated, the dear*
 and chapter certify the  king thereof in  chancery j upon
 which, the king issues  a  license to. tfrena to proceed to an
 election, called a conge-d'elire : and  wXtk it sends a letter
 Missive, containing the name of the person whom they shall
 eiect; which if they shall refuse to do, they incur, the pen-
 alty of a praemunire.
   A bishop must be foil, thirty years qf age wfeen conse-
 crated.
   A bishop has bis consistory court, to, hear ecclesiastical
 causes;  and is fo visit the clergy, &c.   H.e consecrates
 churches; ordains, admits, and institutes.priests ; confirms,
 suspends, excommunicates,,  grants licenses for marriage,
 wakes probates of wills, 8*C  Co- Lit, 96.  Rol. Abr. 23ft.
   In England  there  are twenty-four bishppricks, and
 two archbishopricks ;  in Scotland, none ; in. Iceland, eighr
 teen.bisbppricks,  and four,  archbishopricks:  and in the
 popish countries abroad they are still  more numerous.
   Al) bishops of England  are lords of parliament, except
 the bishop of  Man, and as such sit and vote in the bouse:
 of lords; they are  barons.in a threefold manner, vis. feu-
 dal, in regard  to  the  temporalities annexed to their bish-
 opricks; by writ, as being summoned by writ to parliament ;
 and  lastly, by patent  and  creation: accordingly, they
 have the precedence of ajl, other barons, and. vote as bar-
 ons and bishops,  and  claim all tbe privileges enjoyed by
 the temporal lords, excepting tbat they cannot be tried by
 Iheir peers; because, in cases  of blood, they themselves
 cannot pass upon tbe  trial, for Ikey are prohibited by the
\anons ofthe church, to be judges of life and: death.
   BJSKET.   See Baker,
   BISMILLAH, a solemn form used by the Mahometans,
 at fhe beginning of all their books andiotfcer writings, sig-
 nifying "in the name of the most merciful, God."
   It is also used among the  Arabs as a.word of invitation,
 to eat.  An Arab prince frequently sits down to eaf in the.
 street before his own door, or under the shade of a wide
 spreading tree,  and calls  all that, pass, even beggars, by
 this word, who come and sit down to eaf with him ; " for,"
 says Pococke,  •«the Arabs are great levellers, andisetav-
 cry body on a footing with themselves,"
   BISMUTH, in  natural history, a. genus of lhe semi-
 metals, the most usual appearance of which  is in form of an
 ore, intimately  mixed  with silver, a large quantity of arse-
 nic, and an earthy matter which yields cobalt.
  The ancienls were acquainted with bismuth, but they
confounded it with (in,.  It U mentioned occasionally by
the  alchymists and  earlier  mineralogists; and referred
sometimes to tin, sometimes to lead, and sometimes loan.
tiniony.   The German miners gave it the name of ledum
argenti;  and appear to have considered it as silver begin-
ning to form, and not yet completed.
  Bismuth is of a reddish white colour, and almost desti-
tute of taste aqd smell.  It is composed of broad hriljiaat
plates adhering to each Qther, The figure of its particles,
according to Hauy,  is an octahedron, or two four sided
pyramids applied  base to base.
  Its hardness is 7.   Its specific gravity is 9..8227.
  When  hammered  cautiously, its density, as Muschen-
bxoek ascertained, is considerably  increased,  it is not
therefore very brittle; it breaks, however, when struck
smartly by a hammer, and consequently is not. oulWable,
Neither can it be drawn out into wire.  Its tenacity has not
been ascertained.
  When healed to the temperature o£ 4600* it melts; and
if (fee heat is much  increased, it evaporates, and way ha
distilled over io close vessels. When allowed to coolsjow,
ty,  and when (he liquid metal is withdrawn,, as soon, as the
surface congeals  it  crystallizes in parallelepipeds, which
cross each other at night angles.
  When exposed to the  air, it soon. loses its lustre, but
scarcely  undergoes any othen changes   It is. not altered
when kept und«« wia-tor.
  Only two. oxides of bismuth, are alj present known*. Bui
tbe combination o£ this metal with oxygen has been more
neglected by chymists, than almost any other.
  When kept: melted in an open vessel, its surface is soon
covered  with a dark blue pellicle; when-this.is removed,
another succeeds* fill (be  whole me(al is oxidiaesd.  When
these pellicles, are kept hot and agitated in an open vessel,
they aire soon converted into a brownish powder known
by  the name of brown oxide.  This  is, the protoxide oj
bismuth.   According to, Fourcroy, it is composed of nine-
ty parts of bismuth, and ten of oxygen*
  When bismuth  is raised to a, strong red heal, it take*
fjre, and burns witji a faint bine flame, and emits a yellow
smoke.   When. this, is  collected, it is. a yelJlow powder,
not volatile, which has. been called yellow oxide of bis-
muth.
  When  bismuth is  dissolved  in nitric acid, if water ia
pouredi into the  solution, a white powder  precipitates,
which, was formerly  called magistery of bismuth, and at
present white oxide of bismuth.  According fo the exper-
iments of KJaprolh,  it is composed of 81.3 parte bismuth
and 17.7 of oxygen.   Thisioxid* is used aa a.paint under
the name of pearl white.
  The oxides of bismuth are very easily converted inf*
glass-; for. that reason bismuth is-sometimes used in tkfr
process of cupellalioniinstead of lead.   It was first pro-
posed.fqr that purpose by Oufay. in 1727, and his experi-
ments were afterward confirmed by, Pott.
  These  oxides are easily reduced  when heated with'
charcoal or othercombustible bodies;  for the affinity be-
tween bismulh  and oxygen is. but weak.
  Bismulh has not been combined wilh carbon or hydro?
gen, neither, does  il  seem  capable, ef combining ia any no*
lafhJe proportion with phosphorus. 
B  I  S
B  I  T
   Sulphur  combines readily with  bismulh by fusion.
 The  sulphuret of bismuth is ofa bluish gray colour, and
 cryitalises  into beautiful telrahedral needles.   It is com-
 posed of 85 parts of bismuth and 15 of sulphur.
   Bismulh combines with almost all the metals, but few of
 ifs alloys are much used.  1. Equal parts of bismuth and gold
 form  a brittle alloy, nearly of the same colour with bismuth;
 the specific gravity of which is greater than  the mean. 2.
 The alloy of bismuth and  platinum is also  very brittle.
 When exposed to lhe air,  it assumes a purple, violet, or
 blue colour.  The bismulh can scarcely be separated by
 heat.  3. Bismuth combines readily wilh silver by fusion.
 The  alloy is  brittle,  lamellar, and nearly of lhe  colour of
 bismuth.   This alloy is sometimes  formed, in order lo pu*
 rify  silver  by the process of cupellation.   4. Mercury
 combines readily wilh bismuth, either by triturating the
 metals together, or by pouring two parts of hot  mercury
 into one part of melted bismulh.  This amalgam is at first
 soft, but it becomes gradually hard.  When melted and
 cooled  slowly, it  crystalizes.  When  lhe quanlity of
 mercury exceeds the bismuth considerably j the amalgam
 remains fluid, and has (he property of dissolving lead and
 rendering it also fluid. This triple compound may be fil-
 tered through shamoy   leather  without  decomposition.
 Mercury is sometimes adulterated with these metals; but
 the imposition may be easily  detected, not  only by the
 specific gravity of the mercury, which is  too small, but
 because it drags a (ail, as the workmen say;  that is, when
 a drop of it  is agitated on  a plane surface, the drop does not
 remain spherical, but part of it adheres to (he surface, as
 if it was not completely fluid, or as if it was enclosed in a
 thin  pellicle.  5. Copper forms  wilh bismuth a brittle al-
 loy of a pale red colour, and lhe specific gravity exactly
 tbe  mean  of that  of the  two  metals  alloyed. 6. Bis-
 muth combines but imperfectly with iron.   The  alloy
 is brittle,  and attracted  by the magnet  even  when (he
 bismuth amounts  lo three fourths ofthe whole.   The spe-
 cific  gravity of this alloy is less than the mean.   7. Bis-
 muth and fin unite  readily.   A small portion of bismuth
 increases the brightness, hardness, and sonorousness of tin :
 it often enters into  the  composition of pewter.  Equal
 parts of tin  and  bismulh form an alloy that  melts at 280
 degrees;  eight parts of tin  and one of bismuth rnelt at 390
 degrees; (wo parts of tirt and one  of bismuth at 330 de-
 grees.  8. The alloy of lead and bismuth is of a dark gray
 colour, and  close  grain.   It is ductile, unless the bismuth
 exceeds  the lead considerably.   Bismuth increases the
 tenacity of lead prodigiously.  Musehenbroek found, fhat
 the tenacity Of an alloy composed of three parts of lead and
 two of bismuth was ten times greater than that of pure leadi
 The specific gravity of Ibis alloy is greater (han the mean,
 9. When eight parts of bismuth, five of lead, and three of
 fin, are  melted logether,  a white coloured  alloy is obtain-
 ed, which mells at lhe temperature of 212 degrees, and
 therefore remains fusible under boiling water.   10. The al-
 loy of bismulh is  bridle,  and  formed of thin plates.  11.
 Bismuth does not combine wilh zinc.
  BISON.   See Bos.
  BISSECTIO.N, in geometry, the division  of a line, an-
gle, Sec. info two equal parls.
  BISSEXTILE,  in chronology,  a  year consisting of
Ihrce  hundred and sixty six days, being lhe same wifh our
leap year.
   The true solar year, or (hat space Of lime which flows
while (he sun is moving from any one point of the ecliptic
fill he returns to the same point again, consists of 365 days,
5 hours, 48 minutes, 57 seconds.  The year made use of
by lhe ancient  Egyptians consisted of 365 days; which
being less  (han  (he  (rue  solar year by nearly six hours,
they lost a day every four years.  Julius Csesar being high
priest among the Romans,  and considering (be  inconve-
niencies arising from (his method of computation, ordered
that every fourth year Should  have an  intercalary day,
and that this additional day should be added to the month
of February; wherefore  this method of computation is
called the Julian account, or old style.
   Yet, as the true length of the year consists of 365 days,
5 hours, 49 minutes  nearly,  it follows that, according lo
Ihis way of reckoning, at the end of every four years  the
civil year will begin 44 minutes sooner than it did before,
consequently in 331 years it will anticipate by one whole
day : for this reason pope Gregory XIII.  set himself upon
reforming tbe calendar; and finding, in  the  year  1582,
that the equinox had anticipated ten whole days, he order-
ed that (hese ten days should be taken out  of the calen-
dar that year, and the 11th of March should be reckoned the
21st; aud ordered that every hundredth year, Which,accord-
ing to the  Julian form, was  to be bissextile, should be a
common year, and consist of 365 days: but because that
was toomuchjevery four hundredth yejtr was to remain bis-
sextile.  This  method  of computation is called  lhe Gre-
gorian,  or new  style;  it  was received  in  most foreign
countries ever since the  reforming of the calendar; and
by act of parliament passed in lhe twenly-fifth year of his
late majesty's  reign, vis. 1751, it commenced in all  the
dominions under the crown of Greet Britain, in  the year
following;  ordering that the natural day following the sec-
ond of September, should be accounted the  fourteenth,
omitting the intermediate' eleven days of  the common cal-
endar.
   BISTI, in commerce, a small coin of Persia: some say
that itis among the current silver coins of Persia, and worth
only a little above three  farthings of our money ; others
speak Of it again as a money of account.
   BISTORT.  SeePoLvoANUM.
   BISTOURY, in surgery, an instrument for making in-
cisions, of which there are different kinds ; some being of
the form of a lancet, others straight and fixed in the handle
like a knife, and others crooked with  the sharp edge on
the inside.
   BISTRE, or Bister, among painters, denotes a glossy
soot pulverized  and made into a kind of  cakes, with gum
water.   It is used to wash their designs.
  Bistre is made by putting soot of dry wood, as beech,
info water, in  the  proportion of two pounds  to  a gallon,
and boiling them half  an  hour.   After the  fluid has set-
tled, pour off the clearer  part while  it remains hot.
Evaporate the fluid to dryness, and what remains is good
bistre.
  BIT, or Bitt, an essential part of a bridle.  There are
many kinds of bits ; the most simple is a short rod of iron,
made rather wider than (he mouth of lhe horse,  and pro-
vided with a hook or ring  at each end  for fastening the
reins to.   The next is a rod similar to the former, broken
in  two pieces, and connected by a joint in  the middle ;  the
former is intended for heavy draft horses, tbe latter for 
B  I T
B  I  V
those of light  draff.  The next is fhe snaffle, which is
provided  wilh  two  cross pieces that rest against the lips
or sides of the moulh ; for as  the  snaffle is intended  for
the  saddle horse, and the reins   go to  the  bands,  so
the  cross  pieces  are useful  in preventing the bit from
being drawn through the mouth.  The number of parts of
which the mouthpiece of the  snafflle is composed, may
be increased  to any  extent, as it may be made with 1, 2,
or several joints; and hence it acquires  new  properties
and  effects which require attention;  its gentleness or rig-
our will depend almost wholly on these conditions. Anoth-
er is the curb bit, the mouthpiece of which is usually pro-
vided with an upset or arch in  tbe middle, as, if perfectly
straight, it would  rest upon the tongue, and occasion an
unpleasant restraint.   It has been sometimes called the lib-
erty bit, on account of the freedom which it allows to  the
tongue; by others it has been called  the porte mouth  bif,
vulgarly the  Portsmouth bit; and by a supposed opposite
expression we get tbe Weymouth bit.
   Bit also denotes the iron part ofa piercer,  auger, and
the  like instruments.
   Bit ofa key, lhe part which contains the wards.
   Bits, or Bitts, in  ship building, the name of two great
timbers usually placed abaft fhe manger, in the  ship's loof,
through which the cross piece goes; the use of it is to be-
lay  the cable therelo, while the ship is  at anchor.
   BITTACLE, on ship board, a square box standing be-
fore him that steers lhe slfip, with the compass placed in
it, to keep and direct the ship  in her course.
   BITTER, a sea  term, signifying any turn ofthe cable
 about the bits, so as that the cable may be let out by lift le
and little ; and when a ship is stopped by  a cable, she is
 said to be brought  up by  a bitter.   Also  that end of lhe
 cable which is  wound about the bits is called the bitter  end
 ofthe cable.
   BITTERN,  in  the salt  works,  lhe brine remaining
 after lhe salt  is concreted: this  they ladle off, that the
 salt may  be taken  out ofthe pan, and afterward put in
 again; when,  being further boiled,  it yields  more salt.
 See Salt.
   BITUMEN, in natural history, is understood by min-
 eralogists in general,  to be an oil which is found in differ-
 ent parts  of the  earth, in various states of consistence.
 These different states form  distinct species; in  the ar-
 rangement of which we  shall be guided  by the observa-
 tions which  Mr. Hatchet  has  made  in his  valuable paper
 on  bituminous substances.
   Sp.  1. Naphtha.   This substance is found sometimes
 on lhe surface of the  water of springs, and sometimes issu-
 ing from certain strata.  It is found in great abundance in
 Persia.
   It is as fluid and  transparent as water.   Colour white,
 or yellowish white.  Smell strong, but not disagreeable.
 Specific gravity when white .708  or .729 ; when yellow-
 ish .8475.   Feels greasy.  Catches fire  on the approach
 of flame,  burns with  a white  flame, and leaves scarcely
 any residuum.
    Sp. 2. Petroleum.  This  substance is   also found in
 Persia, and likewise in many  countries in Europe,  par-
 ticularly  Italy, France, Switzerland, Germany, Sweden,
 England, and Scotland.  If is not so  fluid or  transparent
 as  water.   Colour  yellow, either pale or  wifh a shade of
 red or green; reddish brown, and reddish black.   Smell
that of naphlha, but less pleasant.  Specific gravity .8783.
When burn! ii yields a  soot, and leaves a small quantity
of coaly residuum.  By exposure  to  the air it becomes
like tar, and is then called mineral (ar.
  Sp. 3. Mineral  tar.  This substance is found in many
parts of Asia, America,  and Europe.   It is viscid, and of
a black, brownish black, or reddish colour.   Smell some-
times  strong, but often fain(.  Specific gravity 1.1.  When
burned, emits a disagreeable bituminous smell.  By expo-
sure (o the air it passes into  mineral pitch and maltha.
  Sp. 4. Mineral  pitch and  maltha.  This substance has
a strong resemblance to common pitch.   When the weath-
er is warm it is soft, and has some tenacity ; it is (hen call-
ed adhesive mineral pitch :  when the weather is cold it is
brittle: its hardness  is 5; and  its  fracture has a glassy
lustre.  In this state  it is called maltha.  Colour black,
dark brown, or reddish.  Opaque.   Specific gravity fr0m
1.45 to 2.07.  Does  not  stain  the  fingers.   On a white
hot iron it flames with a strong smell, and leaves a quantity
of gray ashes.   It is to the presence of the  earths which
compose these ashes lhat the great specific gravity of thii
bitumen is lo be ascribed.  By further induration it passes
into asphalt.
  Sp. 5. Asphalt.   This  substance is found abundantly
in many parts of Europe, Asia, and America, especially in
the island of Trinidad.
  Colour  black, or brownish black.  Lustre  greasy, 2,
Opaque.  Fracture conchoidal, of a glassy lustre.  Hard-
ness from  7  fo 8.  Very brittle.   Specific gravity 1.0? to
1.165.  Feels smooth, but not greasy.  Does not stain lhe
fingers.  Has little or  no smell  unless  when rubbed or
heated.  When healed, melts,  swells, and inflames; and
when pure burns without leaving any a^hes.
  Sp. 6. Mineral caoutchouc.   This substance was found
about the year 1786 in the lead mine of Odin, near Castle-
town, Derbyshire.  It was first mentioned by Mr. De Born.
  Colour yellowish or reddish brown,  sometimes blackish
brown.  In its appearance it has a strong resemblance to
caoutchouc or  Indian  rubber ; hence  its name.  Consis-
tency various: sometimes  so soft as to adhere to the fin-
gers ;  sometimes nearly as  hard as asphalt.   When  soft it
is elastic ; when hard, brittle.   Specific gravity 0.9053to
1.0233.
   Insoluble in alcohol, ether, and oil of turpentine, but sol-
uble in oil of olives.  Not affected by nitric acid.  When
distilled it yields a bituminous oil insoluble in alcohol; the
residuum  is carbonaceous.
   There is a variely of this substance found in a rivulet
near the mine of Odin, which, when fresh col, exactly, re-
sembles fine cork in colour and texture ; but in a few days
after  being exposed to the air, becomes of a pale reddish
brown.  This substance  contains within it a nucleus of
elastic bitumen.   It seems to be the elastic bitumen alter-
ed  in ils texture by the water.
   BIVALVES, one of the three general classes of sheH
fish, comprehending all those, the shells of which are com-
posed of  two pieces, joined together by a hinge.   The
Linnaean genera of bivalve shells are  mya solen, tellina,
cardium, mactra,  donax,   venus,  spondylus, chama, area,
 astrea, anomia,  mytillus, and pinna.
   BIVENTER,  in analomv,  a muscle of the lower jaw,
 that has its origin in  the incisure under the mastoid proc-
 ess.   See Ana. 
B  L A
B  L A
  BIXA, the roucou or anolto tree, a genus of the mono-
gynia order, and  polyandria  class of plants; and  in the
natural method  ranking under  the 37th order, columnife-
ise.   The corolla is ten petalled; lhe calyx quinquedent-
ed; (he capsule hispid and bivalved.  Of (his genus (here
is but one species known, vis.
  Bixa orellana, a native of  the  warm parts of America.
It rises with an  upright stem to the  height of eight or ten
feet, sending out many branches at the top forming a reg-
ular bed, with heart shaped  leaves ending in a point, and
haviug  long footstalks.  The flowers are produced  in
loose panicles at  the end of the branches :  these are of a
pale peach colour, having large petals, and a great num-
ber of bristly stamina of the  same  colour in the centre.
After the flower is past, the germen becomes a heart shap-
ed, or rather a mitre shaped  vessel, covered on the out-
side wilh bristles opening with two valves, and filled with
angular seeds.  These seeds are covered wifh a red wax-
en pulp or pellicle, from which the colour called anotta is
prepared.  These plants, in  lhe countries  where they
grow, thrive best in  a cool rich soil, and shoot most lux-
uriantly near springs and rivulets.  With us, they may be
propagated by  seeds procured from  America.   These are
to be sown in pots in the spring, and plunged in a bed of
tanners'  bark:  the plants must afterward be removed into
separate pots, and always kept in the stove.
  BLACK, somelhing opaque,  and  occasioned  by the
porosity of bodies, that imbibing fhe  greater part ofthe
light  that falls on Ihem, and reflecting little or none, ex-
hibit  no colour.  Black bodies are more inflammable than
others, because lhe rays of light falling on them  are not
reflected outward, but enter  the bodies, and are lost in
them.   Being  more porous, they are  found ca?leris pari-
bus  to be  specifically lighter than any other coloured
bodies.
  The disposition of black bodies to acquire heat beyond
those  of olher colours, has  long been known.  If a
black and a white glove  are worn by  the same person in
the sun, it will be found that the  hand with the  black
glove will acquire the greatest degree of beat.  Dr. Wat-
son, the present bishop of Landaff,  covered the bulb of a
thermometer with a black coating of Indian ink, and the
mercury presently rose ten  degrees.  Black clothes heat
more, and dry  sooner in the sun, than white clothes :  black
is therefore a bad colour for clothes in hot climates.  Count
Rumford has attempted  to  controvert this position, but
his experiments do not appear decisive.  See Philosophic-
al Transactions for the year 1804.
  Black, among dyers, one of the five simple and moth-
er colours used in dying.  See Dying.
  Black,  German, called by some Frankfort black, is
made with the  lees of wine, burnt, washed afterward in
water, Ihen ground in mills made for that purpose, with
ivory, bones, or peach stones, also burnt.  It comes from
Frankfort, Mentz, and Strasbourg, either in lumps or pow-
der;  and must  be chosen moist, without having been wet-
ted, ofa  fine black, soft, friable, light, and with as few
shining grains as possible.  This black is (he principal in-
gredient  used by copperplate printers for  working their
engravings
  Black, ivory,  otherwise called velvet black,  is  burnt
ivory or bones,  which, becoming  quite black,  and  being
reduced to thin plates, are ground in water, and made into
troches, to be  used by painters, and by  jewellers,  who
set precious stones, to blacken the ground of the collets,
and give the diamonds a  teint or foil.   In order to be
good, it ough( to be tender, friable, and thoroughly ground.
   Black,  hart's,  (ha( which remains in  (he  retort after
the spirits, volatile salt, and oil, have been extracted from
har(shorn.   It  answers the  purposes  of painters  almost
as well as ivory black.
   Black, Spanish, is nothing but burnt cork: it  is used
in several  works.   It  should be  light, and have as few
grains of sand mixed with it as possible.
   Black,  lamp, originally,  perhaps,  the soot collected
from lamps, is generally prepared by melting and purify-
ing resin or pilch in iron vessels; then setting fire to if un-
der a chimney,  or other place made for the purpose, lined
with  sheepskins, &c. to receive the vapour or smoke ;  in
this way vast quantities of it are prepared at  Paris.  In
England it  is prepared at the turpentine  houses, from the
dregs of the resinous  matters  which are manufactured
there;  but the greater part of lampblack is brought from
Germany, Sweden, and Norway; where lhe process, in the
preparation, is dependent on the manufacture of common
resin.
   The goodness of lampblack depends much on its light-
ness, and on the fulness of its colour.   It is used on vari-
ous occasions, particularly in printers' ink, for  which it is
mixed with oils of turpentine and linseed.   A  patent was
taken out some  years ago by Mr. Row, of Newcastle, for
manufacturing lampblack from  pit coal,  or  any kind of
mineral and fossil  coal, which we  conceive must answer
perfectly well.
   Black, currier's.  See Currier.
   BLACKBIRD.   See Turdus.
   BLACKCAP.   See Motacilla.
   BLACKAMOOR'S head, in chymistry, consists ofa
conical vessel,  surrounded with another of a  cylindrical
form, filled  with cold water, with a cock to draw it off
when it becomes too warm.
   BLACK ACT,  is  so called, having  been occasioned
by some devastations committed near Watham in Hants,
by persons in disguise, or with their faces blacked ;  to pre-
vent which it is enacted by 31 Geo. II. c. 42. lhat persons
hunting armed and  disguised, and killing; or stealing deer, or
robbing warrens, or stealing  fish out of any river,  Sec. or
any person unlawfully hunting in his majesty's forests, or
breaking down the head of any fish pond, or killing,  &c.
of cattle, or cutting down  trees, or setting fire to  house,
barn, or wood, or shooting at any person, or sending anony-
mous letters, or signed with a fictitious name,  demanding
money, Sec. or rescuing such offenders; are guilty of felo-
ny without benefit of clergy.
   BLACK LEAD.  Every person who shall unlawfully
break inlo any wad hole of wad, or black cawke, commonly
called black lead, or shall unlawfully take and carry away
from thence any wad, black  cawke, or black lead, or shall
aid or employ olhers so to  do, shall be guilty of felony.
25 Geo. II c. 10.
   BLACK MAIL,  signifies, in the counties of Cumber-
land, Northumberland, Westmoreland, and lhe bisboprick
of Durham, a certain rale  of money, corn, caltle,  or olh-
er consideration, paid to  some inhabitants near the bor- 
B  L A
B L A
ders, to be protected from a band  of  robbers called moss
troopers.
  Black  mail, also signifies the rents formerly paid in
provisions of corn and  flesh.
  BLACKBURNI A, a genus ofthe tetrandria monogynia
class and  order.  The essential character is, calyx four
toothed;  pet. 4; anther heart shaped ;  germ, conic ; stig-
ma simple ; berry one seeded.  There is one  species, a
native of Norfolk island.
  BLADDER, a thin membranous substance, found in
several parts of an animal, serving as a receptacle of some
juice, or of some liquid excrement, as  the urinary blad-
der, gall bladder, &c.  See Anatomy.
  BLADHI A, a genus of the class and order pentandria
monogynia.  The  essential character  is,  corolla   wheel
shaped,  deciduous, berry containing  one  arilled seed.
There  are three species, natives of Japan.
  BLiERIA, in botany, a genus of the tetrandria monogy-
nia class and order of plants.  Its characters are; that the
calyx is quadripartite, the corolla quadrifid, the stamina
inserted in lhe receptacle; and the fruit a Capsule, with
four cells, containing many seeds.  There are six species.
  BLAFART, in commerce, a small coin current  at Co-
logn, worth something  more than a farthing of our money.
  BL AIN, among farriers, a  distemper  incident to beasts ;
being a certain bladder growing on tbe root of the tongue,
against the windpipe, which swells to such a  degree as to
stop the breath.  It comes by great chafing and healing of
the stomach ; and is perceived by the  beast's  gaping and
holding out his tongue, and foaming at the mouth : to cure
it, cast the  beast, take forth his tongue, and  then  slitting
the bladder, wash it gently with vinegar and a little salt.
   BLAKE A, in botany, a genus of tbe class and order do-
decandria monogynia:  with a calyx composed of six leaves
below, and  entire above ;  six petals, and a six celled poly-
spermous capsule.   There are two species, very beautiful
shrubs, natives of America and the West Indies.
   BLANCHING of copper is done in varices ways, so as
(o make it resemble silver.   If it is done for sale, it is fel-
ony by 8 and 9 William III.  ch. xxvi.
   Blanching, in coinage, the operation performed  on the
planchets or pieces of silver, to give them the  requisite lus-
tre and brightness.  They also blanch pieces of plate, when
they would have them continue white, or have only some
parts of them burnished.
   Blanching, as it is now practised, is performed by heat-
ing lh." pieces on a kind of peel with a wood fire,  in fhe man-
ner of  a reverberatory; so that tbe flame passes over the
peel.  The pieces,  being sufficiently heated and  cooled
again, are put successively to boil in two pans,  which are
of copper :  in these they pat  water, common salt, and far-
tar of Montpelier.   When they have been well drained of
this water in a copper sieve, (hey throw  sand and fresh wa-
fer over Ihem; and when dry,  they are well  rubbed with
towels.
  Blanching also denotes the operation of covering iron
plates with a thin coat or crust of tin.
  BLANKET, a coverlet for a  bed:  a stuff commonly
made of white wool, and wrought in a loom like cloth  ; wifh
this difference, that they  are  crossed like serges.  When
they come from (he loom,  they are sent  to the fuller; and
after .* ey have been fuHed and well cleaned, they are nap-
ped with a fuller's teazle.
  Blankets made of sheep's wool, are divided into several
sorts;  of the head and bay wool lhe widest are made; and
narrow ones of (he middling and common sort.
  There are also blankets made  with  (he hair of several
animals; as (hat of goats, dogs, and others.
  BLANQUILLE, in commerce, a small silver coin cur-
rent in the kingdom  of  Morocco,  and  all  that part  of (he
coast of Barbary :  it is worth about three half pence of our
money.
  BL ASIA, leather cup, a genus of tbe order of algie, and
cryptogamia class of plants; and in  the natural method
ranking under the 57th order, algae.  The male calyx is
cylindric, replete with grains; the female calyx is naked;
the fruit roundish, immersed in the leaves, and many seed-
ed.  Of this genus there is  but one species known, vis.
  Blasia pusilla, which grows naturally on tbe banks of
ditches and rivulets,  in  a gravelly or sandy soil, in En.
gland.   It grows flat upon the ground in a patch, compos-
ed of numerous  thin, green,  pellucid leaves, marked with
a few whitish veins near the  base, divided and subdivided
into obtuse  segments obscurely crenated on the edge?,
The margins of the leaves are a little elevated, but the in*
terior  parts  adhere  close to the  ground by a fine  down
which  answers  the purpose of roots.  The seeds are so
small as to be almost imperceptible.
  BLASPHEMY : all blasphemies against God; all con*
tumelious reproaches of Jesus Christ;  all profane scoffing
at the  Holy Scriptures, or exposing any part of them to
ridicule;  are punishable by fine, imprisonment, and such
corporal punishment as  to the court shall seem meet, ac-
cording to tbe heinousness of the crime.  1  Hew. 6.
  BLAST, a disease in grain, trees, &c.  The sugarcane
in the  West Indies is subject to a disease of this  kind,
which  is thought to be occasioned by the aphis of Linnsui,
which  is distinguished into the black and yellow ; of these,
fhe latter is most  destructive.  It consists of myriads of
insects, invisible to the naked eye, whose proper food il
the juice of the  cane, in search of which  they wound fhe
tender blades, and in the end destroy the vessels.  It ii
said (he blast never attacks those plantations where colo«
nies have been  introduced of tbe carnivorous ant, or fee*
mica omnivora.   These minute and busy creatures sool
clear a sugar plantation of rats ; their natural food consists
of all kinds of insects and animalcuia.
  Blast, a term used at iron founderies fo denote the col-
nmn of air introduced into the furnace for tbe purpose of
combustion.
  BLASTING, a terra used by miners for the tearing up
rocks which lie in their way, by the force of gunpowder.
  In order  to do  this,  a long hole  is  made in the rock,
which  being charged with gunpowder, tbey fill it ep; leav-
ing  only a touch-hole, with a train  or match to fire tbe
charge.
  BLATTA, a genus of the hymenopterons insects, call-
ed in England cockroaches,  or vulgarly and erroneously,
black beetles. The head is  inflected; antennae setaceous;
feelers unequal and filiform ;  wings and wing cases smooth;
the latter somewhat coriaceous ; thorax flatfish, orbicular
and margined; legs formed for running ; abdomen terminal*
ing  in two articulated appendages above the tail. In  hotter
crimates tbe blafta are a very  troublesome race : fhey enter
houses and commit various depredations on  the furniture}
devour provisions of every kind, destroy clothes, and tor* 
BLE
BLE
 naent  the  inhabitants with  their bite.  The blafta most
 abundant  in England was originally from tbe east, or as
 some imagine from America : it is now completely natural-
 ized to our climate ; and the best method of clearing houses
 of ihem, h to employ the agency ofa tame hedgehog, who
 very soon devours them all.
    All the  known species of this insect, whether in the lar-
 va, pupa,  or perfect winged state, secrete  themselves in
 the day time,  and wander  about in the night in search of
 food ; hence they were called by the ancients lucifugaj, in-
 sects that  shun the light.   The following species are  enu-
 merated by LinnaM*s and  others,  vis. gigantea, maderae,
 »gypfiea, occidentals, surinamensis, americana; see Plate
 XV. Nat. Hist. fig. 46. austrahssise, erythoeephala, capen-
 sis, indica, nivea, irrorata, viridis, brasihensis, peliveriana,
 oriental}*, cincta,  picta,  variegara, lapponka,  germanica,
 roficoltis,  maculata, marginata, oblongata, nitidmla, fusea,
 deusta, chlorofica, latissima, aterrima,perspecillaris, asiat-
 ica, schoeferi, sylve&tris, peransylv arnica, livida, pufa, grisea,
 minufissima, aplera, punctwlata, ocelhat*.
    BLAZONING, or Blazonrt,  in heraldry,  the art of
 deeyphering the arms of noble families.  The word orig-
 inally  signified (he blowing or winding ofa born, and was
 introduced into heraldry as a  terra denoting the descrip-
 tion of things borne in arms, with their proper significa-
 tions and  intendments, from an ancient custom the heralds,
 who were  judges, bad of winding a horn a( juste and lour*
 naments,  when they  explained and  recorded the achiev-
 ments of knights.  In blazoning  a coart of arms, you must al-
 ways begin with the field, and next proceed to the charge ;
 and if  there are many things borne in lhe field, you must
 first name that which is immediately lying upon the field.
 Your expressions  must be very short and expressive, with-
 out any expletives, needless repetitions, or particles. Such
 terms for (he colours must be used*, as are agreeable to the
 station and quality of  the  bearer.  All persons beneath
 the degree of  a noble,  must have their colours blazoned
 by colours and melals;  noblemen by precious stones, and
 kings and  princes  by planets.
   BLE A, in the anatomy ef plants* the inner rind or bark.
 See Physiologv of Planets.
   BLEACHING.  The art of bleaching is ef great ar*
 tiquity. The  ancients were acquainted with the detersive
 qualify of  some kinds of clay, and the effect produced by
 the action  of the atmosphere, moisture, and lightj on lhe
 stuffs exposed to  them.  Health and  cleanliness render-
 ed it necessary to devise quicker methods than these;  and
 the property of soaps* and lyes of ashes was therefore soon
 discovered.
   In the present age, fhe arts^ following science with close
 steps, have taken advantage of processes and  detersive
 menstrua,  the  existence of which  was before unknown;
 these discoveries  have succeeded  each olher with such
 rapidity, that the  last -eight or  ten years have effected a
 complete revolution in (he art of bleaching.
   This art is naturally divided into two distinct branches;
 the  bleaching  of  vegetable, and  of animal substances*
 These  being of very  different natures, require different
 processes for whitening them- Vegetables consist of oxy-
gen, hydrogen,  and carbon, of which the latter is in  tbe
 greatest proportion; while animal substances, besides these,
■contain also a large quantity of azote, and  also phospho-
rus and sulphur.
   Bleaching of flax and hemp.  If ripe flax is examined,
 it will be found  to be composed  of fibres or filaments unit-
 ed together by the sap, enveloping a semiligneous sub-
 stance, and covered with a  thin bark.  It is  the fibrous
 part only that is used for making cloth, and it must there-
 fore be previously separated from Ibe olher matters.
   The sap or succulent part is composed of extractive
 principle and water,  and  the first process is to separate
 this substance,  which holds  the filaments  together.   As
 soon as the flax is pulled, it is steeped in soft water until
 the putrefactive fermentation takes place.  This degree
 of fermentation begins with  tbe succulent part,  as  being
 more susceptible of decomposition  (han (he res(.  Was
 (he flax to  be continued long  in this state,  tbe  whole sub-
 stance of it would be decomposed or  destroyed, upon  the
 same principle that malt is injured by too long steeping, or
 that wort loses its substance by loo long a fermentation. It
 must therefore be taken oat of the water while yet green,
 and before the whole ©fits sap is separated. Well water and
 brackish water must be carefully avoided,  as well as that
 which flows over gypseous soil.  Such water accelerates
 putrefaction, and hur(s (he quality of tbe hemp and flax.
 This i9 perfectly agreeable (o the principles of chymistry  ;
 it is thus that a little salt accelerates animal putrefaction,
 while a great quantity tends  to prevent it.  The portion
 of saline substances laken op by the water, hastens cor-
 ruption, by extending  the putrid fermentation even to the
 filaments which it blackens and spoils,  while i( ought to
 operate only on the juices.
   The flax, when (aken from  (he water, is spread out upon
 fhe grass to dry.  During the fermentation and decompo-
 sition which thence result, there is a speedy combination
 of oxygen and carbon.   Exposure on the grass facilitates
 the escape ofthe carbonic acid into  the arfmosphere,. and
 the plants become of a whitish gray colour.
   If is known  lhat a  lye very slightly alkaline  may  be
 substituted with advantage, for  this long and noxious op-
 eration; it is therefore certain, that a chamber from 20 to
 30 feet in length, into which the steam of alkaline caustic
 water^ ofthe strength of one fourth of a degree only, is in-
 troduced, will be sufficient to produce the  same effect as
 watering on an  immense quantify of  hemp and flax, sus-
 pended on  basket work,  in less time, and with less ex-
 pense, than are  required for tbe different manipulations of
 watering.  The losses occasioned by the  negligence of
 workmen, who, by  suffering  lhe hemp and flax to macer-
 ate too long, give time to the decomposition to reach the
 filaments, which renders them brittle, and occasions a con*
 siderable waste, will also&e avoided-  In our process, the
 artist can follow every moment the progress of his opera-
 tion, and stop it at the favourable period.
   Nothing now remains but lhe  wood, and  tbe  flax or fi-
brous part-  The wood is a hollow tube-covered over  very
 compactly with  the flax.   To separate lhe wood, it must
 be kiln dried, in order to render it frangible or brittle ; but
 care must be taken not to apply  too much heat, for fear of
 injuring the flax.
   It is next to be beaten or broken, by which  means the
flax is not only divided into small fibres, bnt most of the
 wood is separated, and the part which adheres is reduced
 to small fragments.   To separate these again,  the flax is
to be scutched,  or  threshed,  in small parcels at  a time,
■either by  manual labour, or mills  contrived  for the pur- 
BLEACHING.
pose.  Hackling is the  last  process;  which  is nothing
more lhan drawing or combining ibe flax in small parcels
at a  lime, through a pile or group of polished and sharp
iron  spikes, placed firmly  in wood through an  iron plate.
The spikes are placed  pretty  close together: the  first
hackle, for different hackles must be used, is coarse, the
second finer, and the third finer still.
   The process of hackling answers a double or triple pur-
pose ;  first, it  divides the  fibres of lhe flax,  as much as
this  can be effected by mechanical means; secondly, it
separates the  minute fragments  of wood  which  escaped
the process of scutching; and lastly, it separates the short
coarse flax, commonly called tow.
   Spinning and weaving are  loo  well known to need de-
scription.  The linen, as it comes from the loom, is charg-
ed with what they call the weaver's  dressing,  which is  a
paste of flour boiled in water; and as this  is brushed into
the  yarn of the warp before it is woven,  it is somewhat
difficult to separate it when dry. To discharge this paste,
fhe  linen must  be steeped  in  water for about  forty-eight
hours; when this extraneous substance undergoes a kind
of fermentation, which does not extend  to the substance of
the  linen itself, upon  the  same  principle  that the  green
sap  is  disengaged from the flax without  injury  to its tex-
ture.
   When the linen is well washed after this last process,  it
contains nothing that water can separate ; it is ofa grayish
white  colour, although the fibres of which  it is composed,
when  divested  of every adventitious substance,  are nal-
urally very white.
   The matter  which  thus colours the linen,  is ofa resi-
nous nature, insoluble in water, and from its intimate union
 or dissemination through the  very fibres of lhe flax, is dif-
 ficult  of separation, even by those substances which have
 a solvent power over it.
   To disengage it, however,  in as cheap and expeditious
 a manner as possible, wi(hou( injuring (he (exture of (he
 fabric, is (he sole object of (he process of bleaching.
   Potash is the first menstruum which should be used in
 bleaching.  It  is  most  economical  fo  render it caustic,
 for the purpose of bleaching.   This is done  by adding
 quicklime to the mild potash,  the former having a stronger
 affinity for the carbonic acid than  the latter.  But care
 must be taken  not to use the alkali too strong, otherwise  it
 will attack  and destroy the fibrous part.  The potash, from
 its solvent  power over the colouring matter, dissolves and
 separates the part immediately exposed to its action; lhat
 is, the part of  il which rests superficially  upon the  fibres
 of the flax  or thread; for it requires ten or twelve repeat-
ed boilings, at  least, with  the alternate agency ofthe at-
 mosphere,  to separate lhe whole of (he resin.
   It might be  asked, why such an active solvent as pot-
 ash should  not  carry away the whole of the resin at once,
 or at least as much as  it alone could in any way separate.
 This requires an explanation.   What appears  to us to be
 a single ultimate fibre of flax in gray linen, is composed of
 a bundle of minute filaments,  closely cemented or aggluti-
 nated  together by the resinous  matter; the potash first
used therefore acts only upon the resin of the  external
 coating of filaments ;  by which means  they are loosened
or separated, and exposed to  lhe further action ofthe air.
The second boiling in potash opens  a second  layer, and
thus,  successively, layer after  layer, until lhe  whole  is
divided, or opened to the centre.   Were the solution of
potash sufficiently strong to force its way at once to the
centre, it would act upon the  filaments themselves, and
destroy the texture of (he cloth.
  Each filament, after the process of potash, retains an im-
pregnation of colouring matter, so intimately united, as to
resist the further action of it.  This can only be removed
by the slow and gradual influence ofthe oxygen gas ofthe
atmosphere.
  From  the properties  of oxygen gas and  potash, their
manner of operating is very obvious.  The oxygen gas
dissolves in each boiling a certain quantity of the colour-
ing matter, with which  it forms carbonic acid gas, and
partly divides the filaments that eluded the action of pot.
ash.  The carbonic acid gas,  from its volatility, flies  off
and mixes with the atmosphere.   Thus,  alternately, the
one dissolving, and the other burning out, for bleaching is
slow combustion, the linen is whitened.
  Mankind have  at  all times  employed free  air as the
most  convenient menstruum for bleaching.   When tired
with the  slowness  of its  action, they assisted it by deter-
sive lyes, which abridged the  process  a little: and this
union of  boiling and exposure on the grass, formed the
whole of the ancient art of bleaching.   Formerly, when it
was necessary to bleach  cloth, it was customary to immerse
it in pure water, to free  it from the dressing.  This pre-
liminary  operation was sometimes hastened by a cold lye;
the cloth was then rinsed in  running water, and spread
out on a  meadow, round which ran a stream of limpid w*
ter that served for watering the different pieces.
  After  being  exposed  in  this  manner some time, the
cloth was washed  and boiled in a  fresh  lye; it was then
again spread out  on the grass; and this operation was
several times  repeated   until the  required whiteness was
obtained.  It was still necessary to wind it through soapy
water, not only to give  it  softness and pliability, but to
bleach completely the borders, which oppose the longest
resistance.
  It was brought to ifs ultimate state of whiteness by draw-
ing it through whey, or  diluted sulphuric acid.  By this
short description it may be seen, that a considerable time
was necessary before the absorption of oxygen could fake
place ; to hasten this operation of nature appeared impos-
sible, until modern chymistry  had demonstrated (hat ox-
ygen might be extracted, and  combined wilh water, to be
afterward applied lo substances where its influence might
be necessary.
  To promote the speedy  action of atmospheric air, or
rather lhe oxygenous part of it, in its ordinary elastic state,
is well known to be impossible.
  The oxygenated muriatic acid  gas has been already de-
scribed  under the word Air.   This gas, combined with
wafer, forms the oxygenated muriatic acid, which is there-
fore only a combination  of  muriatic acid  and oxygen;
but  (his   principle adheres  but  weakly to  the muriatic
acid.
  All vegetable colours are  attacked by this acid, and
whitened with  more or less celerity, which depends on
(heir greater or less  facility of combining  with oxygen.
The colouring matter undergoes a real  slow combustion,
which terminates by (he formation of carbonic acid, which
escaping under the form  of elastic fluid, produces what we
call bleaching. 
BLEACHING.
    In whatever manner  the oxygenated muriatic acid  is
  procured, it is evident that the oxygen adheres to it only
  weakly ;and it is on this properly that the possibility de-
  pends of producing speedily, in manufactories, that action
  which the atmosphere produces but slowly, and of bleach-
  ing in a space of time proportionably short.
    The oxygenated muriatic acid is  employed in four dif-
  ferent ways for  the purposes of bleaching; first, in the
  state of gas alone ; secondly, in the state of gas combined
  with  water, or what  is called the acid; thirdly, potash  is
  mixed wilh the acid to condense the  gaseous  vapour and
  destroy its suffocating odour; fourthly, oxygenated muri-
  ates, dissolved in water, are employed.
    The first method, vis. employing the gas, was never used
  but for the purpose of experiment; as the  vapour is of so
  noxious  a  quality, lhat  lo breathe it is fatal, and several
  people fell a sacrifice to their attempts in employing it.
    When condensed in water, or in the state of oxygenated
  muriatic acid, it was found inconvenient in the large way,
  on account  ofthe expense and difficulty  in constructing
  the necessary apparatus, and the suffocating vapour which
  escaped.
    For the discovery of the oxygenated muriatic  acid,  its
  effects on colouring matter, and its inestimable advantages,
  the  arts are indebted fo  the justly celebrated  Scheele.
  M. Berthollet  lost no time in applying this curious and
  highly interesting substance to the most important practi-
  cal uses.   His experiments of bleaching  by oxygenated
  muriatic  acid, proved completely successful,  and he did
  not delay fo communicate his valuable labours (o lhe pub-
  lic.  The  new method of bleaching was quickly  and suc-
  cessfully introduced  into  (he manufaclories of Manches-
  ter, Glasgow, Rouen, Valenciennes, and Courtray; and
 it has since been gradually adopted in almost all  parts  of
 Great Britain,  Ireland, France, and Germany.  The ad-
 vantages  fhat result  from this method, which  accelerates
 the process  of  whitening cottons, linens, paper, &c.  to  a
 surprising degree, in  every season of the year, can be just-
 ly "appreciated  by commercial people only, who experi-
 ence its beneficial effects  in many ways, but  particularly in
 the quick circulation  of their capitals.
   To save the expense of first preparing the muriatic acid,
 the usual practice is to mix with the oxyde of manganese,
 muriate of soda or common salt, and sulphuric acid diluted
 wifh  water.   The  sulphuric acid acts upon the salt, and
 disengages from it the muriatic acid, which  is oxygenated
 by tbe oxyde of manganese.  The proportions observed
 when cotton is to be bleached,  are,
               Manganese   -  30 parts,
               Common salt,   80
               Sulphuric acid,  60
               Wafer,     -  120.
   For linen cloth the proportions are as follow :
               Manganese  - 00 parts,
               Salt,    -     60
               Sulphuric acid, 50
               Water,     -   50.
   The better these substances are combined together, the
more  easily will the acid gas  be disengaged by the action
of fhe sulphuric acid.
   To ascertain the strength of the acid for bleaching, a so-
lution ofindigo in fhe sulphuric acid is employed. The col-
our of this is destroyed by  the oxygenated muriatic acid ;
and according to fhe quantity of it that can be discolour-
ed by a given quantity ofthe liquor, its strength is known.
  vol.  i. —------41 '       -
    Cloth is prepared for immersion in oxygenated wafer, by
 soaking in a lye of weak potash, and rinsing it afterward in
 a large quantity of water,  in order  to free it completely
 from fhe weaver's dressing, and the saliva of the spinners.
    In this country,  machinery is employed for rinsing and
 beating;  the apparatus must be arranged according to the
 objects to be bleached; fhe skains of thread must be sus-
 pended in the tub destined for them, and the cloth must be
 rolled upon reels in the apparatus.  When every thing is
 thus disposed, the  tubs are filled with oxygenated muri-
 atic  acid, by introducing a funnel, which descends fo fhe
 bottom of the tub, in order to prevent  the dispersion  of
 the gas.  The cloth is wound, or the frame work on which
 the skains  are suspended is turned several times, until  it
 is judged, by taking out a small quantify of (he liquor from
 time fo time, and trying it by fhe test of fhe solution  of
 indigo, that it is sufficiently exhausted.   The  weakened
 liquor is then drawn off, and may be again employed for a
 new saturation.
   Great difficulties for a time impeded the progress of this
 method of bleaching, arising  chiefly from prejudice, and
 the ignorance of bleachers in chymical processes.  These
 obstacles were, however, soon removed by  Mr. Watt, of
 Glasgow, and  Mr.  Henry and Mr. Cooper at Manches-
 ter.  Another difficulty presented itself, which had near-
 ly  proved fatal to the success of the operation.  This was
 the want of a proper apparatus,  not for making the acid
 and combining it with water, for this had been supplied in
 a very ingenious manner by Mr. Watt and M. Berthollet;
 but for the purpose  of immersing and bleaching goods in
 the liquor.   The volatility of this acid, and its suffocating
 vapours,  prevented its application in the way commonly
 used in dye houses.  Large  cisterns were  therefore
 constructed, in which  pieces  of stuff  were stratified;
 and the liquor being poured on  them, the  cisterns were
 closed with lids.  But  this method was soon found lo be
 defective, as the liquor could not  be equally  diffused ;  the
 pieces were therefore only partially bleached, being while
 in some parts, and more or less coloured in others.
  Mr. Rupp, of Manchester, invented an apparatus for
 bleaching cloth, exceedingly simple in ifs construction, of
 small expense, and  which  contains the  liquor in such  a
 manner as to prevent the escape  ofthe oxygenated muri-
 atic acid  gas.   A  consideration  of no less importance in
 the arrangement of  this apparatus, is the impossibility of
 the vapour injuring the health of  lhe workmen.
  It was found, however, that  the use ofthe oxygenated
 muriatic acid alone weakened the cloth, and various meth-
 ods of preventing its noxious  effects upon the health of
 the workmen were tried without success; till it was dis-
 covered that an addition of alkali to the liquor deprived it
 of its suffocating effects, without destroying its bleaching
 powers. The process began then  to be carried on in open
 vessels, and has been continued  in (his manner to (he
 presen( period.  The bleacher is now  able to work his
 pieces in the liquor, and to expose every part of them to
 its action, without inconvenience.
  Potash was at first used for this purpose; and although
 Ihis advanfage was  unquestionably great, it was diminish-
 ed  by  the  heavy  expense  of the potash, which was
entirely lost.   Also,  the  potash  which  was added  to
 the  liquor, though it  did not destroy its power of bleach-
ing, diminished it; because  a solution of the oxygenated
muriate of po(ash, which differs from this bleaching liquor
in nothing but in the proportion of alkali,  will not°bleach 
BLEACHING.
at all.  This is a well known fact, from which we might in-
fer, that the  oxygenated muriatic acid will lose its power
of destroying lhe  colouring matter of vegetable substan-
ces, in proportion as it becomes neutralized by potash.
  It was afterward  discovered that tbe oxymuriatic acid
might be combined wilh  the alkaline earths, as lime and
barytes,  and also  with magnesia;  by this means forming
oxymuriates, which were  soluble  in water and had the
property of bleaching. The oxymuriate of lime is at pres-
ent used in almost  all  the bleaching grounds.  For the
manner of  preparing it, Mr. Tennant took out a patent:
but this has  been  lately contested,  and is now prepared
and used by all the bleachers through the country.
  If the oxygenated muriatic acid is passed through lime
water, it will combine with the lime, and form oxymuriate
of lime;  but-as  the water  can only retain a small portion
of lime, this was  not found of  much  use.  To cause a
larger quantify of  lime to  combine with the oxymuriatic
acid gas,  the lime is  mechanically suspended in the wa-
ter, into which the gas is made to pass, and agitated, so as
to present fresh matter to  the  gas. By this means, the
oxymurafe of lime  is formed in a  very convenient man-
ner ;  it is  dissolved in  water,  and used as a bleaching
liquor.
  This liquor is found to be preferable to the oxygenated
muriatic  acid, and potash.  At the great bleach field in
Ireland, four lyes  of potash are applied alternately with
four  weeks  exposure on  the  grass, two immersions in
the  oxygenated muriate of lime, a lye of  potash between
the two, and (he exposure  of a week on the grass between
each lye and the immersions.  During summer two lyes
and fifteen days  exposure  are sufficient to prepare cloth
for the action of (he oxygenaled muriate;  then  three al-
ternate lyes, with immersions in the liquor, will be suffi-
 cient to complete the bleaching: nothing then will be nec-
 essary, but to wind the cloth through the sulphuric acid.
   The oxygenated muriatic acid gas may also be combin-
ed with lime in  a dry state, or the  water may be evapo-
 rated, when it is  employed for the formation of oxymuri-
 ates, which may then be very conveniently transported to
any distance without injury to its detersive power; an ad-
 vantage  not possessed by the acid  alone, which cannot be
 transported  without the loss of almost half of its strength.
   In  all  the processes for bleaching which  have been
 hitherto  described, we have seen that potash  acts a dis-
 tinguished parf, either as  an auxiliary,  or as a principal
 agent. To find a detersive substance which might be a
 substitute for it, was an object of the utmost importance.
 Mr. Kirwan suspected that it would be found in the sul-
phuret of lime, and his opinion  was  confirmed  by Dr.
 Higgins.
   Sulphur and lime are both cheap articles; they are very
 easily combined, and this combination completely answers
 fhe purposes of potash, without  any danger of injuring the
 linen.  The sulphuret of lime is  prepared in the following
 manner  for  the purpose of bleaching: Sulphur or brim-
 stone, in fine powder, four  pounds;  lime, well slacked and
 sifted, twenty pounds; water,  sixteen gallons; these are
 fo be well mixed,  and boiled for about half an hour in an
 iron  vessel, stirring them briskly from time to time.  Soon
 after the  agitation of boiling  is  over, the solution of the
sulphuret of lime  clears, and  may  be drawn off free from
 fhe insoluble matter,  which is  considerable, and  which
rests  upon tbe bottom of the boiler.  The liquor, in this
state, is pretty nearly of the colour.of small beer, but not
quite  so transparent.
   Sixteen gallons of fresh water are afterward to be pour-
ed upon the ii.soluble dregs iu the boiler, in order to sep-
arate the whole of the sulphuret from them.  When this
clears,  being  previously well agitated,  it  is also  to be
drawn off, and mixed with  lhe first  liquor ;  to these again
thirty-three gallons more of water  may be added, which
will reduce  the liquor to a proper  standard  for sleeping
the cloth.  Here we have, an allowance being made for
evaporation, and  for  the quantity retained  in the dregs,
sixty gallons of liquor from four  pounds of brimstone.
   Although sulphur, by itself, is not in any sensible de-
gree soluble in water, and lime but sparingly so, water dis-
solving only about one seven hundredth part of its weight
of lime ; yet the sulphuret of lime is highly soluble.
   When linen is freed  from the weaver's dressing, in fhe
manner already described, it is to be steeped in the solu-
tion of sulphuret of lime, prepared as above, for  about
twelve or eighteen hours, then taken out  and  very well
washed.  When dry, it is to  be steeped in the oxymuri-
ate of lime for twelve or fourteen hours, and then washed
and dried.  This process is to be repeated six times, that
is, six alternate immersions in each liquor, which has been
found to whiten the linen.
   Steam has  been lately employed wilh greal  success in
France.  The process was  brought  from lhe Levant.
Chaptal first made it known fo the public.
   We have already  mentioned,  that the bleaching of veg-
etable substances depends on the destruction of (heir col-
ouring principle by (he combined action of the air,  mois-
ture, and light; or rather,  by the united influence of Ihesc
principles to alter their natural colour.
   Alkalies have, on the colouring mat ter of vegetables, an
action which produces the effect ofa real combustion. Were
we intimately acquainted  with  the nature of potash and
soda, we might be able fo explain the cause of this burn-
ing;  but it is  sufficient for  us af  present to know the effect.
The  exposure of vegetable matters on lhe  grass, subjects
them to the action ofthe solar rays ; and moistening them
during  their exposure, facilitates, with the evaporation
ofthe water,  the emanation of  the carbonic acid formed
by tbe oxygen of fhe atmosphere, which combines with
the carbon resulting from  the  alkaline combustion.  It
even agrees pretty well wilh theory, in terminaling the
process of bleaching, to immerse lhe cloth and thread in
sour  milk, acidulous liquors, or, what is more convenient,
very weak sulphuric acid.
   In proportion as the alkali, during the first immersion,
destroys the colouring  matter,  the oxygen of  the  atmo-
sphere, or that furnished by the oxygenated muriatic acid,
joins that carbonized matter,  and forms  carbonic acid,
which afterward  resolves itself into gas.  This  is contain-
ed the more in the principles, as (he bases  of all the acids
are insoluble in  water; but when  the  combination takes
place between the carbon and (he oxygen, it immediate-
ly becomes soluble.  Thus, on  the one  hand to burn tbe
colouring matter, and to dissolve it on the other, form (be
whole  secret  of the  art  of bleaching; and the greater
or less  tendency of vegetable  substances to experience
that combustion, constitutes the gradations of their white-
ness, and the facility or difficulty of bleaching. 
BLEACHING.
   The slowness of the whole process  arose, in a great
 measure, -from bleachers being unacquainted with these
 principles.   A long succession of  lyes, and  exposure on
 tbe grass, was necessary to penetrate the fibres of the lin-
 en from stratum to stratum.   The  texture was sufficiently
 close lo resist the action of the heat of a common lye, and
 a considerable time  was required to absorb the oxygen
 presented by the delicate stratum  of atmospheric air.
   In the process of bleaching by steam, these difficulties are
 removed.  The high temperature of the steam, in the inte-
 rior part  of the  apparatus,  swells up  the fibres  of the.
 thread or cloth ;  the  pure alkali, which rises with the elas-
 tic fluid,  seizes wilh  avidity on  the colouring matter, and
 burns it; seldom does (he tissue of  the flax  or hemp re-
 sist the penetrating effect of (his  vapour bath.   The whole
 matter, therefore, by which they  are coloured, is attack-
 ed and decomposed by this single  operation ; and  even if
 we suppose that a part has been able to resist, nothing is
 necessary but lo repeat the operation, after a  previous im-
 mersion and exposure on (he grass, to ensure  its complete
 effect.  The alkali even appears  to have a much  livelier
 and more caustic action when it  is combined  with caloric,
 than in ordinary  lyes, where the temperature never  rises
 above 162° of Fahrenheit. By making the cloth or thread
 pass through one lye  of oxygenated muriatic acid, or  oxy-
 genated muriate of lime, an union  is effected  between the
 solution and the carbon, arising from (he burning of the
 extraclo  mucous  matter  of tbe  flax; carbonic  acid is
 formed;  the water even in which this new compound is
 diluted, concurs to promote this  combination : if (he clo(h
 is (hen exposed on the grass, the  carbonic acid is dissipat-
 ed, and (he clo(h is bleached.
   It was  believed that the steam of a pure alkakine lye
 would not be causlic, and would not produce  the same ef-
 fects as the saline  solution; and the  reason  assigned for
 this opinion was the  concentration of all the  salts by the
 evaporation of the aqueous fluid  : but what takes place in
 the open  air, where  the atmosphere  every moment ab-
 sorbs  the moisture which is evaporated, cannot be applied
 to a close apparatus, where the temperature is elevated in
 an extreme  degree:  besides, the  caloric  always  carries
 with it a  little alkali, even in low temperatures, as is ob-
 served when water  is poured  over potash; the steam
 which issues from it changes blue vegef able colours to green.
   It follows from  these  chymical  principles, that  the ac-
 tion of steam alone does not  bleach, and that the concur-
 rence of oxygen is necessary to aid the composition ofthe
 carbonic acid ;  this acid requires  for its formation, 28 parts
 of carbon, saturated with  72 of oxygen: but  all the oxy-
 gen contained in lhe apparatus would  not be  sufficient to
 saturate (he considerable  quan(i(y of  colouring  matter
 burnt by (he alkaline  combustion, and converted into car-
 bon ; this  deficit must  be supplied by immersion in any ox-
 ygenated  liquor whatever, and (he  dispersion  ofthe elas-
 tic fluid thus formed must be  then facilitated by exposure
 on the  grass.
   To bleach cloth  in this manner, it must be immersed in
 a slight alkaline caustic  liquor, and placed in a chamber
 constructed  over a boiler, into which  is put  (he alkaline
 lye which is lo be raised  inlo steam.   After the fire has
 been lighted, and the  cloth has remained  exposed  to lhe
 aclion of. the steam for a sufficient  length of time, it is taken
out, and immersed  in the oxygenated muriate of lime, and
afterward exposed  for  two or (hree days on the t;ra««s-
This operation, which  is  very expeditious, will be suffi-
cient for cotton; but if linen  cloth  should still retain  a
yellow tint, a second alkaline caustic vapour bath, and two
or three days on the grass, will be sufficient to give it the
necessary degree of whiteness.
   Bleaching of cotton.  Cotton is a filamentous substance,
or a  kind of down which envelops the seeds of the col-
ton plant.   This plant or shrub comes originally from the
East, and grows only in warm  climates.
   This substance, after being  separated from (he seeds,
is always charged wilh a coarse colouring  matter, which
soils it, and renders it opaque.  The presence of this unctu-
ous matter is proved by the slowness with  which cotton ab-
sorbs water  before it is scoured,  and by the  force with
which it absorbs it after the operation;  by which means,
from  being opaque, it is rendered clear and transparent.
   Cotton varies a  great deal in its qualities, according io
the different kinds, the climate where produced, and the
culture employed.  Its colour is  sometimes yellow, and
sometimes white; but in general it is of a dirty yellow.
  To bleach it does not require the same preparations as
hemp and flax.  The first operation  consists in  scouring
it in a slight alkaline solution, or, what is better, by expo-
sure to steam.  It is  afterward put  into a basket, and
rinsed in running water.  The  immersing of cotton in an
alkaline lye, however il may be rinsed, always leaves with
it an earthy deposite.  It is well known that cotton bears
the action of acids better than hemp or flax; that time is
even  necessary before the  action of  them can be prejudi-
cial to it:  and  by taking advantage of this valuable prop-
erty in regard to bleaching, means have been found to free
it from the earthy deposite, by pressing down the  cotton in
a very weak solution of sulphuric acid, and afterward re-
moving the acid by washing, lest too long remaining in it
should destroy the cotton.
  Bleaching of wool.  The substances  produced by the
animal kingdom, differ  essentially  in their constituent
principles from vegetables.   Vegetables  serve as the
nourishment to the animals and insects, the spoils of which
we employ.  Animalized by their organs,  they acquire
other properties.  We shall here  confine ourselves to the
examination of wool and silk,  as  the animal substances
most  generally employed for clothing.
  Wool is a finer kind of hair with which tbe bodies of sev-
eral animals are covered.   It is composed of filaments or
tubes, filled with an oily or medullary substance. The sides
of these tubes are perforated with a multitude of small pores
which communicate with a longitudinal tube.   By chym-
ical analysis wool gives a great deal  of oil, and carbonate
of ammonia;  caustic alkaline lyes dissolve it entirely. It
experiences no change in boiling water;  it alters very lit-
tie when preserved in a place well aired;  acids have very
little action on it; when exposed to a  strong heat, it enters
into fusion.
  An examination  of these chymical facts, is necessary
for understanding the principles which ought to direct the
artist in the bleaching of this substance.   The little action
which acids have upon wool, and its unalterableness in wa-
ter even when aided by heat, render  it necessary to have
recourse to alkaline or saponaceous lyes; but its solubili-
ty in  these salts shows, that great prudence and caution
must be employed.   In  regard to acids, none have been 
BLEACHING.
 hitherto used but  (he sulphureous acid, obtained in the
 gaseous slate by combustion.
   In fhe preliminary operations to which wool is subject-
 ed, il is customary to leave a litlle of its grease, to secure
 it from insects.   Wool is often freed from tbe grease by
 Ibe farmers, when they wish to sell it at a high price; but
 in the subsequent manipulations, it is greased or oiled be-
 fore it is combed, spun, &c. and as this fat matter attracts
 dust, it dirties and thickens the  stuffs.  The first kind of
 bleaching to which wool is subjected, is to free it from these
 impurities.  This operation is called scouring. In manufac-
 tories, it is generally performed by means of an ammoniacal
 lye, formed of five measures of river wafer and one of stale
 urine;  the wool  is immersed for about twenty minutes in
 a bath  of this mixture, healed  lo fifty-six degrees;  it is
 then taken out,  suffered to  drain, and  then rinsed in  run-
 ning water:  this manipulation softens the wool, and gives
 It the first  degree of whiteness ; it is repeated a second,
 and even a third time, after which the wool is fit to be em-
 ployed.  In some  places, scouring is performed with wa-
 ter slightly impregnated wilh soap; and indeed, for valu-
 able articles, this process is preferable, but  it is too  ex-
 pensive for articles of less value.
   Fulling the cloth adds still  to the whiteness, and  if an
 increased degree is necessary, it may be procured by the
 action of the sulphureous acid ; that is to say, of the fumes
 of sulphur  in a  state of combustion, or the vappur of that
 acid condensed and combined with water.
   Sulphuring is generally  performed in an  arched or
 very close chamber, constructed in  such a  manner,  that
 (he articles  to be exposed to the action of lhe sulphur can
 be suspended on poles.   The chamber being filled, a cer-
 tain quantity of sulphur is put in a state of combustion in
 flat dishes,  having a large surface with very  little  deplh;
 the  entrance is speedily  shut,  and all the interstices
 around the  door are carefully stopped lo prevent the ac-
 cess of the atmospheric air.   The acid generated  by the
 combustion of the sulphur, penetrates the stuffs, attacks
 the colouring matter, destroys it, and effects lhe bleaching.
 The stuffs are left in (he stoves  some time after (he defla-
 gration has  ceased.   This time varies from six to twen(y-
 four hours.   They are then (aken out, and  made to pass
 through a slight  washing  with soap, to remove the rough-
 ness they have acquired by the  action of (he acid, and to
 give (hem the necessary softness.
   This process  is imperfect.  At first, (he acid of (he sul-
 phur acts only on lhe  surfaces,  and  does not penetrate.
 This aerial  immersion is  not sufficient; the gas cannot in-
 troduce itself to a sufficient depth into the stuffs, and the
 superficies only  are whitened.
   A superior method has been lately  invented, which is
 by making use of fhe sulphureous acid.
   The  sulphureous acid, or that acid  generated  by the
 imperfect combustion of sulphur, differs from the sulphu-
 ric acid, oil  of vitriol, by its containing less of the acidify-
 ing principle, and by being (he mean lerm be(ween (he sul-
 phuric acid.
   Sulphureous acid gas unites very easily with water, and
 in this combination it may be employed for bleaching wool
 and silk.  The sulphureous acid in (his stale of liquidity,
 may be prepared by  making it traverse water in an appa-
 ratus nearly similar to (hat used for preparing oxygenated
 muriatic acid.  The most economical method of obtain-
ing it is to decompose sulphuric  acid, oil of vitriol, by the
 mixture of any combustible matter capable of taking from
 it a part of ils oxygen.  In exaci experiments of the lab-
 oratory, when the chymist is desirous of having great pu-
 rity, it is obtained by nteans of- metallic  substances,  and
 particularly by mercury; but  for the purpose of which
 we  are  treating,  where great  economy is required, we
 should recommend  lhe uiost  common substances.  We
 shall therefore give the following process.  Take chopped
 straw, or sawdust, and introduce  it into a mattress; pour
 over it sulphuric acid, applying at the same lime heat, and
 there will be  disengaged sulphureous acid gas, vapour of
 sulphur, which may be combined  with water in the appa-
 rat us.
  The pieces are rolled upon the reels, and are drawn through
 the  sulphureous acid by turning (hem, until it is observed
 lhat the whiteness is  sufficiently  bright.  They are then
 laken out, and are left to drain on  a bench covered with
 cloth, lest they should be stained in consequence of (he de-
 composition of the wood by the sulphureous acid ; tbey are
 next washed  in river water, and Spanish  white is em-
 ployed,  if it should   be  judged  necessary.   This ope-
 ration is  performed  by  passing  the  pieces  through a
 tub  of  clear water,  in  which  about  eight  pounds of
 Spanish  white have  been dissolved.  To obtain a fine
 whiteness,  the  stuffs,  in general, are twice sulphured.
 According to  this  process, one immersion and reeling two
 or three hours are sufficient.   Azuring or bluing is per-
 formed by throwing into the  Spanish white liquor, a solu-
 tion of one part of Prussian blue to 400 parts of water;
 shaking the cloth in the liquid, and  reeling il rapidly. Tbe
 operation is terminated by a slight washing with soap, to
 give softness and pliability lo lhe stuffs.  The final opera-
 tions of drying, stretching, pressing, &c. are foreign to our
 present subject.
   Bleaching of silk.   Silk  is  a semitransparent matter,
 spun by a caterpillar, and formed of a substance contained
 in its body, which becomes hard in the air.  This insect
 inhabits warm climates, being indigenous in Asia: it was
 naturalized in  Europe about the time of lhe downfal ofthe
 Roman empire.
   The filaments prepared by the silkworm are rolled up in
 a cod or ball.  In this state, in which we find it, it is Cover-
 ed with a yellow varnish, which destroys ils brilliancy and
 renders it rough. Silk by chymical analysis gives carbon-
 ate of ammonia and oil; wafer af a boiling  heat  produces
 no effect upon it; alcohol makes it experience no change;
 but  concentrated alkaline lyes attack and dissolve it.
  To give splendour to silk, it must be freed from its var-
 nish.  This covering  is soluble  in alkaline lyes.  Silk is
 generally scoured by  means of soap, by which it loses one
 fourth of its weight.   The  matter  disengaged from it is
 very fetid, and if the silk is  not rinsed in plenty of water,
 putrid fermentation will take  place.  Even when the best
 soap is used, it is generally suspected that it injures the
 whiteness of the silk.   The splendour ofthe Chinese silk
 is brighter than  that  ofthe  European, and the  Chinese
 employ no soap in (heir operations. A  slighlly alkaline
 lye will dissolve lhe varnish of the silk without using soap,
 and this  has also been  effected by  the action of boiling
 water at a very high temperature.
  Themethod which has been used successfully in France
is as follows:
  Take a solution of caustic soda, so weak as  to mark only
a fourth ofa degree, at most, of the areometer for salts? 
BLE
BLE
 and fill with it  the boiler of the apparatus for bleaching
 with steam.  Charge lhe frames with skains of raw silk,
 and place them in the apparatus until it is full; then close
 the door, and make  the solution boil.  Having continued
 the ebullition for twelve hours, slacken the fire, and open
 (he door of (he apparatus.  The heat of (he  steam, which
 is always above 250°, will have been sufficient to free the
 silk from  the gum, and to  scour it.   Wash the skains in
 warm  water; and, having wrung them,  place them again
 on lhe frames in the apparatus, lo undergo a second boil-
 ing.  Then wash Ihem several times in water,  and  im-
 merse them in water somewhat soapy, to give them a little
 softness.
   Notwithstanding the whiteness which  silk acquires by
 these different  operations, it must be carried to a higher
 degree of splendour by exposing it lo the action of sul-
 phureous acid  gas,  in a close  chamber,  or by  immers-
 ing  it in  sulphureous  acid, as before recommended for
 wool.
   Bleaching prints, and printed books.   An application
 has been made of tbe new mode of bleaching, to lhe whiten-
 ing  of books and prints that have  been soiled by smoke
 and time.
   Simple immersion in oxygenated muriatic  acid, letting
 the article remain in it a longer or shorter space of time ac-
 cording to the strength of the liquid, will be sufficient  lo
 whiten an engraving:  if it is required to  whiten (he paper
 ofa bound book, as  i( is  necessary (hat all (he leaves
 should be moistened by the acid,  care  must be taken to
 open the book  well, and to make (he boards rest on (he
 edge of (he vessel, in  such a manner thai (he paper alone
 shall be dipped in (he liquid: the leaves must be separal-
 ed from each  olher, in order that ihey  may be equally
 moistened on both sides.
   The liquor assumes a yellow lint, and (he paper  be-
 comes white in the same proportion; at the end of two
 or three hours, the book may be taken from the acid liquor,
 and plunged  into pure water,  wifh the same care and
 precaution as recommended in regard to (he acid liquor,
 that the water may exactly (ouch the two surfaces of each
 leaf.  The water must be renewed every hour, to extract
 the^cid remaining in the paper, and to dissipate the disa-
 greeable smell.
   By following this process, there is some danger that the
 pages will not be all equally whitened ; either because the
 leaves have not been sufficiently separated, or because the
 liquid  has had  more action on the front margins than on
 those near the binding.  On ihis account, lhe best way is
 to destroy the  binding entirely, lhat each  leaf may re-
 ceive an equal and perfect immersion ; and this is the sec-
 ond process recommended by M. Chapfal.
   "They begin," says he, " by unsewing the book, and
 separating it into leaves, which  they place in cases form-
 ed in a leaden  tub, with very thin slips of wood or glass,
 so that the leaves, when laid flat, are separated from each
 olher by intervals scarcely sensible.  The  acid is then
 poured in, making it fall on (he  sides of (he tub, in order
 thai (he leaves may no( be deranged by i(s motion.   When
 lhe workman judges, by (he whiteness of the paper, that
 it  has been sufficiently acted upon by the acid, it is drawn
 off by  a cock at (he bodom  of the tub, and ifs place is
 supplied by clear fresh wafer, which weakens aud carries
off the remains ofthe acid,  as well as the strong smell.
 The leaves are then to be dried, and after being pressed,
 may be again bound up.
   "The leaves may be placed also vertically in fhe tub ;
 and this position seems to possess some advantage, as they
 will be less liable to be torn.  Wilh Ihis view I construct-
 ed a wooden frame, which I adjusted to the proper height,
 according to the size of  the leaves which  I  wished to
 whiten.  This  frame supported  very thin slips of wood,
 leaving only the space of half a line  between  them.   1
 placed two leaves  in each of ihese  intervals,  and kept
 them fixed in their  place by two small wooden wedges,
 which I pushed  in  between the clips.   When  the paper
 was whitened I lifted up the frame with leaves, and plung-
 ed them  in cold water, to remove the remains ofthe acid,
 as well as lhe smell; ihis process I prefer fo the other.
   "By this operation books  are not only  cleaned, but
 the paper acquires a degree of whiteness superior to what
 it  possessed when first made.  The use of this acid is at-
 tended also with the valuable  advantage of destroying ink
 spots.   This liquor has no action upon spots of oil or an-
 imal grease; but it  has been long known that a weak so-
 lution of potash will effectually remove stains of that kind.
   " When I had fo repair prints so torn that they exhib-
 ited only scraps pasted upon other paper, I  was afraid of
 losing these fragments in the liquid, because the paste be-
 came  dissolved.  In such cases I enclosed the  prints in a
 cylindric glass  vessel,  which I inverted on  the water in
 which I had put the mixture  proper for extricating  fhe
 oxygenated muriatic acid gas.   This  vapour,  by filling
 the whole inside of (he jar, acted upon the print, extract-
 ed the grease as well as ink spots, and the fragments re-
 mained pasted to the paper."
   Easy method of preparing the  oxygenated muriatic
 acid.   To oxygenate the muriatic acid, nothing is neces-
 sary but lo dilute it, and mix it in a very strong glass vessel
 with manganese, in such a manner lhat the mixture may
 not occupy the whole contents ofthe glass.  Air bubbles
 are formed on the surface of the liquor; the empty space
 becomes filled with a greenish vapour;  and at the end of
 some hours lhe acid may be  further diluted with wafer,
 and (ben used.   It has an acid taste, because the whole is
 not saturated with oxygen ;  but  it possesses all the vir-
 tues of the oxygenated muriatic acid.   This  process may
 be followed when there is not time to set up  an apparatus
 for distilling, in order to procure lhe oxygenated acid.
   BLECHNLM, in botany, a genus of plants of fhe class
 ofthe crypfogarnia filices ; lhe fructifications of which are
 disposed in two parallel lines, approaching  lo the rib of
 the frond.  There are six species, all foreign plants.
   BLEEDING.   See Surgery.
   BLENDE, or Black  Jack.  This  ore very usually
 accompanies sulphuret of lead.   It  is  common, but  sel-
 dom in such quantities as |o make il worth working.  It
 occurs both in amorphous masses and crystalized.  The
 primitive form of its crystals  is the i homboidal dodeca-
 hedron.  The figure of its integrant particles is the tetra-
 hedron.
  Colour  yellow,  brown,  or black.    Streak  reddish,
brownish, or gray.  Lustre vitreous, or that ofthe diamond.
 Generally somewhat transparent.  Refraction  single. Tex-
 ture foliated. Clivage six fold.   Hardness 6 to 8. Scratch-
 es sulphat of barytes.  Specific gravity 4.000  to 4.1665.
 Before the blow  pipe decrepitates, and gives  out white 
BLE
B  L I
flowers of zinc, but does not melt.  Borax does not affect
if.   When breathed upon, loses its  lustre, and recovers
it very slowly.  It is usually divided into  three  subspe-
cies.
   1. Yellow blende.  Colour commonly sulphur yellow,
often passing into olive green or brownish red.   Powder
pale yellow.   Streak yellowish  or  reddish gray,  not me-
tallic.  Lustre that of  the diamond.  Transparency usu-
ally 2, sometimes 4.  Often phosphoresces when  scraped
or rubbed.  According to Bergmann, it is composed of
                  64  zinc
                  20  sulphur
                    5  iron
                    4  fluoric acid
                    1  silica
                    6  water

                 100.

  2. Brown  blende.  Colour different  shades of brown.
Surface often tarnished.  Powder brownish gray.  Streak
yellowish gray.   Lustre internal, vitreous.  Transparen-
cy  0 to 2, sometimes 4.   A specimen of this variety, an-
alyzed by Bergmann, contained
                    44 zinc
                    17 sulphur
                    24 silica
                      5 iron
                      5 alumina
                      5 water

                    100.
   3. Black blende.  Colour black or  brownish  black ',
 surface  often  tarnished  blue;  tips of the crystals  often
 blood red.   Powder  brownish  black.   Streak  reddish
 gray.   Lustre internal, that of  the diamond.   Transpar-
 ency 0 to 1;  the red parfs 2.   Hardness 8.  A specimen
 of this variety, analyzed by Bergmann, contained
                    52 zinc
                    26 sulphur
                      4 copper
                      8 iron
                      6 silica
                      4 water

                    100.
   BLENNILTS, the Blenny, a genus of fishes belonging
 to  the order of jugulares;  the  characters of  which are:
 the head slants or declines to one side;  there are six rays
 in  the membrane of  the gills ; the body tapers toward the
 tail ; the belly fins have  only two  blunt  bones;  and
 the tail fin is distinct.   The species are  13, among which
 are:
    1. Blennius cornutus, wifh a simple ray above the eyes,
 and a single back fin.   2. Blennius  galeria, with a trans-
 verse membraneous crest upon  the head, is  found in the
 European seas.   3.  Blennius gattorugine, see Plate XV.
 Nat. Hist. fig. 47.  with small palmated fins about fhe eye-
 brows and neck.   It is about seven or eight inches long,
 and is found  in the European seas.  4. Blennius ocula-
 ris, fig. 48.  with a  furrow betwixt  the  eyes,  and a large
 spot on  the back fin.  It  is found in the European seas.
5. Blennius raninus, with six divisions in the belly fins, is
found in the lakes of Sweden.  It is remarkable that when
this fish appears  in the lake,  all the other fishes retire;
and what i3 worse, it is not fit for eating.   6. Blennius vi-
viparus,  has two tentacula at the mouth.  They  bring
forth 200 or 300 young at a time.  Their season of partu-
rition is a  little after the depth of winter.  Before mid-
summer they quit the bays and shores, and retire into the
deep, where they are  commonly taken.  They are a very
coarse fish, and  eaten only by the poor.  They are com-
mon in the  mouth of the Esk, at Whitby,  Yorkshire,
where they  are  taken frequently  from off the bridge.
They sometimes grow to the length ofa foot.  Their form
is slender,  and the back bone is as green as that ofa sea
needle.  See Plate, Nat. Hist. fig. 49.
  BLIGHT, in  husbandry, a disease incident to plants,
which affects them variously,  the whole plant sometimes
perishing by it, and sometimes only the leaves and bios.
soms,  which will  be  scorched and  shrivelled up, the rest
remaining  green  and  flourishing.   Various causes have
been assigned for this disease, and various cures proposed.
It sometimes is in the plant itself from imperfect secretion,
but is more commonly the effect of cold winds in the
spring.   See Plants.
  BLINDS, or Blindes, in the art of war, a sort of defence
commonly  made of osiers, or branches interwoven and
laid across  between two rows of stakes, about (he height
of a man, and four or  five feet asunder, used particularly
at the heads of trenches when they are extended in front
toward the glacis; serving  to shelter the workmen,and
prevent their being overlooked by the enemy.
  BLINDNESS,  a  tofal privation of sight, arising from
an  obstruction of the functions of the organs of sight, or
from an entire deprivation of them.
  The causes of blindness  are various; proceeding from
cataracts,  gutta serena's, &c.  There are also periodical
blindness, as a defect  of  sight in some toward  night, in
others only in the day; the  former of which  is termed
nyctalopia, the latter  hemeralopia.
  It is said, that in several parts of Persia, there are found
vast numbers of blind people of all ages, sexes, and con-
ditions, occasioned by a species of little flies, which prick
the eyes and lips, and enter the nostrils, carrying certain
blindness with them when they light on the eyes.
  If  we consider blindness in  a moral or philosophical
view ; as there is not  any sense or faculty of fhe corporeal
frame which affords so many sources of utility and enter-
tainment as the power of vision ; so is there not any pri-
vation which can be productive of disadvantages so va-
rious and so bitter as the want  of sight.  By no avenue of
corporeal perception  is knowledge, in her full extent, so
accessible  to the rational soul, as by the glorious and de-
lightful medium of light.  To  the blind, on fhe contrary,
the visible  universe is totally annihilated ;  he has not even
any distinct idea of space, except that in which he stands,
or to which his  extremities can  reach.   Sound, indeed,
gives  him  some ideas of distant objects; but these ideas
are extremely obscure and indistinct.   They are obscure,
because  they consist alone of the objects whose oscilla-
tions vibrate on his ear,  and do  not necessarily suppose
any other bodies with which the intermediate space may
be occupied; they are indistinct, because  sounds  them-
selves are frequently ambiguous, and do not uniformly in* 
BLINDNESS.
dicate their  real  causes.   And though by them the idea
of distance in general, or even of some particular distances,
may be obtained ; yet they never fill lhe mind with those
va-t and exalting  ideas of  extension which  are  inspired
by ocular perception.  For (hough a clap of (hunder, or
an explosion of ordnance, may be distinctly heard after
the sound has traversed an immense region of space, yet,
when tbe distance is uncommonly great, it ceases to be in-
dicated by sound;  and therefore tbe ideas  acquired  by
auricular experiments, of extension and interval, are ex-
tremely confused  and inadequate.  The comprehensive eye
darts its instantaneous glance over extensive  vallies, lofty
mountains, protracted rivers,  illimitable oceans.  It views
in an instant the  mighty space from  earth to heaven, or
from one star to another.  By the assistance of telescopes,
its  power is  almost infinitely  extended,  its  objects mul-
tiplied, and  the sphere of its observation immensely en-
larged.  Thus the imagination, inured to  vast impressions
of distance, can not only recal Ihem in their  greatest ex-
tent, wilh as much rapidity as (bey were at first imbibed,
but can multiply  tbem, and add  one to  another, (ill  all
particular boundaries and distances are lost in immensity.
The blind are apprehensive of danger in every motion tow-
ard any place, whence their contracled powers of percep-
tion can give (hem no intelligence. All (he various modes
of delicate proportion, all the beautiful  varieties of light
and colours, exhibited in lhe works of nature and art, are
to ihem irretrievably lost.  Dependent  for  every thing,
but mere existence, on lhe good offices of others; obnox-
ious to injury from every point, which they are neither
capacitated to perceive nor qualified  to resist; they are,
during the present state of being, rather prisoners at large,
than citizens of nature.  The  sedentary  life  to which by
privation of sight they are destined, relaxes their frame,
and subjects  them to all the  miserable sensations  which
arise from dejection of spirits.   Hence  the  most  feeble
exertions create lassitude and  uneasiness. Hence the na-
tive (one of the nervous  system,  compatible with  health
and pleasure, being destroyed by inactivity,  exasperates
and imbitters every disagreeable impression.  Natural
evils, however, are supportable, being either mild in their
attacks, or short  in (heir dura(ion :  the miseries inflicted
by conscious and reflecting agents  almost alone deserve
the name of evils.  These excruciate the soul with ineffa-
ble poignancy, as expressive  of indifference or malignity
in those by whom such bitter potions are  cruelly adminis-
tered.   The negligence  or wantonness,  therefore, with
which the blind are too frequently treated, is an enormity
which God alone  has justice or power to  punish.   Those
amongst them who have had sensibility to feel, and capaci-
ty to express, the effects of  (heir misfortunes,  have de-
scribed (hem in a manner capable of penetrating (he most
callous heart.   Homer, in the person of Demodocus the
Pha>atian bard, has pathetically described his own situa-
tion; and Milton, with equal  force and  beauty, has de-
plored the misfortune of blindness.
  Thus dependent on every creature,  and passive to eve-
ry accident,  can we be surprised to observe moments when
the blind are at variance with themselves and every thing
else around them ? With the same instinct of self preserva-
tion, the same irascible passions which are common to the
species, and exasperated by a  sense of debility either for
rclaliafion or defence, can (he blind be really objects of re-
sentment or contempt, even when fhey seem peevish or
vindictive 1  This, however, is not always their character.
Their behaviour is often highly expressive not only of res-
ignation, but even of cheerfulness ; and  though they are
often  coldly, and even  inhumanly, treated by men,  yet
they are rarely, if ever, forsaken of Heaven.  The com-
mon Parent of nature, whose benignity is permanent as his
existence, and  boundless  as hi3 empire,  has neither  left
his afflicted  creatures without consolation nor resource.
   The blind often derive advantages even from their loss,
however oppressive and irretrievable: not indeed adequate
to  compensate, but sufficient to alleviate their  misery.
The attention of the soul,  confined to those  avenues of
perception which she can command,  is neither dissipated
nor confounded by the immense multiplicity, nor the rapid
succession, of surrounding objects.  Hence her  contem-
plations are  more uniformly fixed upon the revolutions of
her own internal frume.   Hence her perceptions of such
external things  as are contiguous and obvious to her obser-
vation,  become  more exquisite.  Hence  even her instru-
ments of corporeal sensation are more assiduously improv-
ed : so that  from them  she derives  such notices of ap-
proaching pleasure, or impending danger, as entirely es-
cape the attention of those who  depend for security on the
reports of their eyes.  He distinguishes the approach of
his friend by the  sound of his steps, by his manner of
breathing, and  almost by every audible token which he
can exhibit.   Prepared for the  dangers which he may en-
counter from the surface of the ground upon which he
walks, his step is habitually firm and cautious.   Hence he
not only avoids  (hose falls which might be occasioned by
its less  formidable  inequalities,  but from its general bias
he collects some ideas how far  his safety is immediately
concerned;  and though  these conjectures may be some-
limes fallacious, yet ihey are generally so true as to pre-
serve him from such accidents as are not incurred by his
own temerity.  The rapid torrent and the deep  cascade
not only warn him to keep a proper distance, but inform
him in what  direction he moves, and are a kind of audible
cynosures to regulate his  course. In places to which he
has been accustomed, he in a manner recognises his  lat-
itude and longitude from every breath of varied fragrance
that tinges the gale, from every ascent or declivity in the
road,  from  every natural or artificial sound  lhat  strikes
his ear; if these indications be stationary,  and confined
to particular places.  Regulated by these signs, the blind
have not only been known to perform long journies them-
selves,  but  even,  if we  may  credit  report,  to  conduct
others through  dangerous paths  at midnight,  with the ut-
most security and exactness.
   It would be endless to recapitulate the various mechan-
ical operations  of which (hey are capable by their nicety
and accuracy of touch.   In some, the tactile powers are
said to have been so highly improved, as (o perceive  (hat
texture and  disposition of coloured surfaces by which
some rays of light are reflected and others absorbed, and
in this manner to distinguish colours; but (he testimonies
for (his fact still appear too vague and general to deserve
public credit. A person who lost the use of his sight at an ear-
ly period of infancy, who in the vivacity or delicacy of bis
sensations was not  perhaps inferior to any one, and who had
often heard of others in  his situation capable of distin-
guishing colours by touch, stimulated, partly by curiosity 
BLINDNESS.
to acquire a new  train of  ideas if possible, but still more
by incredulity wilh respect to the facts related, tried re-
peated experiments by touching the surfaces of different
bodies and examining whether any such diversities could
be found in them as might enable  him to distinguish col-
ours ; but  no  such  diversity could he  ever  ascertain.
Sometimes, indeed,  he imagined  that objects which had
no colour, or,  in other words, such as were  black, were
somewhat different and peculiar in their surfaces, but this
experiment did not always hold.   That their acoustic per-
ceptions are distinct and  accurate,  we may fairly con-
clude  from the rapidity  with which they ascertain  the
acuteness or gravity of different tones, and from their ex-
act discernment of the various modifications of sound, and
of sonorous objects, if the sounds themselves are in any
degree significant of their causes.
   When we ruminate on  the numberless advantages de-
rived  from the use of sight, and  its immense importance
in extending the human capacity,  and improving every
faculty of  the mind,  we  might be  tempted  to doubt the
reports concerning such persons as,  without the assistance
of light, have arrived at high degrees of eminence even in
those sciences  which appear absolutely unattainable but
by the interposition  of external mediums.   It has, howev-
er, been demonstrated by the late  ingenious Dr. Reid,
that blind  men, by proper instruction,  are susceptible of
almost every idea, and every trulh which can be impressed
on the mind by the mediation of  light and colours, except
the sensations of light and colours themselves.  Yet there
is one phenomenon of this kind  which seems to have es-
caped the attention  of that philosopher, and  for which no
author has offered any tolerable reason, though it certain-
ly merits the attention of a philosopher.  For Ihough we
 should admit  that  the blind can  understand wilh great
 perspicuity all  the phenomena of light  and colours;
 though it v as allowed that  on these subjects they might
 extend their speculations  beyond  their instructions, and
 investigate the  mechanical principles of optics by the
 mere  force of  genius and application, from the  data which
 they have already obtained ; yet it will be difficult, if not
 impossible, to assign any  reason  why these objects should
 be more interesting to a blind man than any other abstract
 truths whatever.   It is possible for the blind, by a reten-
 tive memory, to tell that the sky is an azure ;  that the sun,
.moon, and stars, are  bright; that the rose is red, the lily
 white or yellow, and the  tulip variegated.  By continual-
 ly hearing these  substantives and  adjectives joined, he
 may be mechanically laught lojoin them in the same man-
 ner ; but if he has never had any sensation of colour, how-
 ever accurately  he  may speak of  coloured  objects, his
 language must be like (hat of a parrot; without meaning,
 and without ideas.
    It is scarcely possible to lay down a plan,  or enter into
 a detail of particulars, with respect to the mode of educa-
 tion  proper lo be pursued for lhe blind.  These must be
 determined by the genius, the capacity, and the circum-
 stances, of those to  whom the general rules should be ap-
 plied.  Much therefore  must depend on their fortunes,
 much on their temper and genius ; for unless these partic-
 ulars  were known, every answer which could be eiven to
 questions  of this kind must be extremely gen;ral\ and of
 consequence  extremely superficial.  Besides, the task is
 sa much more arduous, because  whoever attempts it can
expect to derive no assistance from those who have writ-
ten on education  before him : and though fhe blind have
excelled  in more than one science, yet, except in tho case
of Dr. Saunderson, it does not  appear that any of them
have been conducted  to that degiee of eminence at which
they arrived upon a premeditated plan.  We should rath-
er imagine, that  they  have  been led through  the general
course and ordinary forms of discipline ; and  that, if any
circumstances  were favourable to their genius,  they rather
proceeded from  accident than  design.  This  melancholy
truth reflects no  honour on human nature.  When con-
templated by a man of benevolence, it is not easy to guess
whether  his mortification or astonishment will be greatest.
A heart  that glows with real philanthropy feels for the
whole vital creation,  and becomes in  some measure the
sensorium of every suffering insect or reptile.  How must
our sympathy increase then in tenderness and  force, when
the distressed individuals of our own species become its
objects!   Nor  do the blind  bear  so  small a propor-
tion to the whole community as, even in a political view,
to be neglected.   But in this, as in every  other political
crime, the punishment returns upon the society in which it
is committed.   Those abandoned and unimproved beings,
who, under proper culture and discipline, might have suc-
cessfully concurred in producing and augmenting the gen-
eral welfare, become  the nuisances and burdens of those
very societies who have neglected them.  The most im-
portant view which we can entertain in the education ofa
person deprived of sight, is to redress, as effectually as we
possibly can, the  natural disadvantages  with  which he is
encumbered;  or, in other words, to enlarge as far as possi-
ble the sphere of  his  knowledge and  activity.  This can
only be  done by the  improvement of his intellectual, im-
aginative,  or  mechanical,  powers;  and which of these
ought lo be  most assiduously cultivated, lhe  genius of
every individual alone can determine.   Were men to judge
of things by their  intrinsic natures, less would be expect-
ed from  the blind than others.   But, by some pernicious
and unaccountable prejudice,  people generally hope to
find them either possessed of preternaf oral talents, or more
attentive to those which they have than others.  Hence
it unluckily happens, that blind men, who in  common life
are too often regarded as raree  shows, when they do not
gratify the extravagant expectations  of their spectators',
frequently sink in  the general opinion, and appear much
less considerable and  meritorious than they really are.
This general  diffidence of their powers  deprives them
both of  opportunity and spirit  fo exert themselves; and
they descend,  at  last, to that  degree  of insignificance in
which the public estimate has fixed tbem.  From the orid-
nal dawning, therefore,  of  reason and  spirit, the parents
and tutors of the blind ought to inculcate this  maxim upon
them ; that it is their  indispensable  duty to excel, and
that it is absolutely in their power to attain a high degree
of eminence.  Not that improvement  should be rendered
quite easy to them:  for all difficulties which are not in-
superable heighten the charms, and enhance the value, of
those acquisitions which they seem lo  retard.  But care
should be taken lhat  these difficulties be not  magnified ot
exaggerated:  for  lhe blind have a painful sense  of their
own incapacity, and  consequently a slrong propensity to
despair.  For this reason, parents and relations ought nev-
er to be too ready in offering their assistance to the bftnl 
BLINDNESS.
 in any office which fhey can perform, or in any acquisition
 which th*:y can procure for themselves, whether Ihey are
 prompted by amusement or  necessity.  Let a blind boy
 be permitted lo walk through tbe neighbourhood without
 a guide, not only though he  should run some hazard, but
 even though he should suffer some pain.   If he has a me-
 chanical turn, let him not be denied lhe use of edge lools :
 for it is better lhat he  should lose a little blood, or even
 break a bone, than be perpetually confined to (he same
 place, debilitated in his frame, and depressed in his mind.
 Such a being can have no  employment but to feel his own
 weakness,  and become his own tormentor;  or to transfer
 to others the peevishness arising from fhe natural, adven-
 titious, or  imaginary,  evils which he feels.  Scars, frac-
 tures, and  dislocations,  in his body, are trivial misfortunes
 compared  with  imbecility,   timidity, or fretfulness,  of
 mind.  Besides  fhe dreadful effects which inactivity has
 in relaxing the nerves and depressing lhe spirits, nothing
 can be more productive of jealousy, envy, peevishness,
 and every passion lhat  corrodes the soul  to agony, than a
 painful impression of dependence on others, and of our in-
 sufficiency  for our own  happiness.   The natural curiosity
 of  children renders them extremely inquisitive.  This
 disposition is often peculiarly prevalent in the blind.   Pa-
 rents  and  tutors, therefore,  should gratify it whenever
 their answers can be intelligible to the pupil: when i(  is
 otherwise,  let them candidly confess the impossibility or
 impropriety of answering his questions.  Nor will lhe vio-
 lence of exercise, and the tumult of play, be productive
 of such perils as  may be apprehended.   For lhe encour-
 agement of parents,  we  can  assure them, that (hough, till
 the age of  (wen(y, some blind persons were, on most oc-
 casions, permitted (o walk, to  run,  to play at large, they
 have yet  escaped  without  any corporeal  injury from
 these excursions.  Parents in the middle, or higher ranks,
 who have  blind  children, ought, by all  means,  to keep
 them out of vulgar  company.  Such persons often have
 a wanton malignity, which impels Ihem  to  impose upon
 the blind, and to enjoy their painful sensations.   But the
 credulity and ignorance of the lower class are no less dan-
 gerous  than their false  wit.   The  illiterate have often  a
 strong propensity lo relate whatever is marvellous and
 dreadful.   These impressions,  when  early imbibed, can
 scarcely be eradicated by all the conspiring efforts of ma-
 ture reason  and  confirmed experience.  Those philoso-
 phers who  have  affempted to break the alliance belween
 darkness and spectres, were  certainly inspired by lauda-
 ble motives.  Were we  endued  with senses to advertise
 us of every  noxious object before ils contiguity could ren-
 der it formidable,  our panics  would probably be less fre-
 quent and sensible than  we really feel them.   Darkness
 and silence, therefore, have  something dreadful in them,
 because  ihey supersede  the vigilance of those  senses
 which give us the earliest  notices of things.  In  talking,
 fherefore, to a blind boy of invisible beings, let him hear
 as seldom as possible, even  in stories which he knows to
 be fabulous, of vindictive  ghosts,  vindictive  fiends, or
 avenging furies.   They seize and preoccupy every aven-
 ue of  terror which is  open in the soul; nor are they easily
 dispossessed.  Sooner may we hope to exorcise a ghost,
 than lo obliterafe  their images in a warm and susceptible
imagination, where they  have been  habitually impressed,
and where these feelings cannot be dissipated by external
  ■"Pol. r.           45
 phenomena.   If horrors of this  kind  should  agitafe the
 heart of a blind boy, which may happen, notwithstanding
 the most strenuous endeavours  to  prevent if, the stories
 which he has heard will be most  effectually discredited by
 ridicule.   This, however, must  be  cautiously applied, by
 gentle gradations.  If he  is inspired with terror by effects
 upon his senses,  lhe  causes of which  he cannot investi-
 gate, pains must be  taken to explain  these phenomena ;
 and to confirm that explication,  whenever it can be done,
 by fhe testimony of his own senses and his  own  experi-
 ence.  The  exercise of  his  locomotive and  mechanical
 powers  will  sensibly contribute to dispel  these terrors.
 His inventive faculties ought likewise lo be indulged wilh
 lhe  same freedom.   The  data which they explore may be
 presented in such a manner as (o render discoveries easy :
 but  still  let invention be allowed to  co-operate.  The in-
 ternal triumph which the mind feels from the attainment
 of new  truths,  heightens their charms, impresses them
 deep on lhe  memory, and gives them a lasting influence
 in practice.  Care should  therefore  be taken to afford the
 mind a theatre for its exertions,  as  extensive  as possible,
 without diverting it from one great end, which, in order to
 excel, it ought for ever lo have in view.
   With respect lo employments for the blind, if lhe pupil
 be not  in easy  circumstances,  music  is bis readiest and
 most probable resource.  Civil and ecclesiastical employ-
 ments have either something in  their own nature, or in the
 invincible prejudices of mankind, which renders them en-
 tirely inaccessible to such as  have  not the use of sight.
 No liberal and cultivated mind can entertain (he least hes-
 itation in concluding, that there is nothing, either in the
 nature of things, or even in the positive institutions of gen-
 uine religion, repugnant  to fhe idea of a blind  clergyman.
 As fo the  law, though  there  could be no doubt that a
 blind man might discharge the office of a chamber counsel
 with success, yet, as a barrister, his difficulties must ap-
 pear formidable, if not absolutely  insuperable :  for  he
 must remember all  lhe sources,  whether in natural equity
 or positive institutions, whether  in common or statute law,
 whence his arguments ought lo be drawn.   He must be
 able to specify, and  to  arrange  in their proper order, all
 the material objections of  his  antagonists :  these he must
 likewise answer as they are proposed, extempore.  When,
 therefore, it is considered how difficult it is to temper (he
 natural associations of memory wilh the artificial arrange-
 ments of judgment,  the  desultory  flights of  imagination
 with the calm and regular  deductions of reason, the energy
 and  perturbation of passion with (he  coolness and tran-
 quillity of deliberation, some idea may be formed  of  (he
 arduous  (ask  which every blind man  must achieve, who
 undertakes the law as a profession.   As to physic, tbe ob-
 stacles which a blind man must encounter, both  in  the
 theory and practice of  lhat art, will be easily conceived.
 If the blind must depend  upon the  exercise of fheir own
 powers for bread, we have already pointed out music as
 (heir easiest and  most obvious province; but let it be re-
 membered, that mediocrity in this art  may prove fhe bit-
 terest and  most  effectual  curse  which a parent can inflict
 upon his offspring: as it  subjects  Ihem to every  vicious
 impression or habit, which may be imbibed or contracted
from  the  lowest  and roost abandoned  of mankind.  If
your pupil, therefore, is not endowed with natural talents
exquisitely proper  both for lhe theory and  practice of 
BLINDNESS.
        this art, suffer him  by no means to be initiated in it.   If
        his natural  genius favours your attempts, the piano, harp,
        or organ, are the most proper instruments for  him to be-
        gin ; because  by these instruments he may  be  made
        more easily acquainted with the  extent of musical scales,
        wilh the powers of harmony, with the relations of which
        it is constituted, and  of course with the theory of his art.
        When he becomes a  practical adept, tangible signs may
        be used, by which he may not only be  enabled to read,
        but even  to set music for himself.  Such exercises will
        render him infinitely more accurate, both in his principles
        and  practice, than he would otherwise be.
         For the present article we acknowledge ourselves chief-
        ly indebted to  the Encyclopedia Britannica, a work of es-
        tablished merit; and  we have even extended our limits,
        contrary  to our professed design, beyond the practical
        part of science, because  this article cannot fail to be inter-
        esting if it is known, as we are informed it is, to be the pro-
        duction of Dr. Blacklock.   As  an encouragement to the
        blind, or those who have blind  children, we subjoin a few
        instances of extraordinary attainments in blind persons.
         The most illustrious instance  is the gentleman whom
        we have just had  occasion  to  name, Dr. Thomas Black-
        lock^ he was born in  1720,  at  Annan,  in  Dumfriesshire.
        His  father was a bricklayer,  and his mother the daughter
        ofa  dealer in cattle ;  both  respectable in their characters
        and station.   Before he was six years old he lost his sight
        by the smallpox, which  prevented his father from execut-
        ing his intention of bringing him  up to some trade.  He
        therefore encouraged   the  inclination he had early shown
        for books, by reading to amuse him ; first, the small pub-
        lications  usually  put into the  hands of children,  and
        afterward the  works of  our  best authors,  such as Mil-
        ton, Prior, Pope, Addison, &c»   His companions, attached
        to him by affection as well as compassion, were assiduous
        in reading to amuse and instruct him.   By their aid he ac-
t        quired some knowledge of Latin.  Poetry was early his
        delight; and  at twelve  years of age  he began to write
        poems  himself, of considerable  merit.   He had attained
        the  age of  nineteen,  when  his  indulgent father, whose
        kindness made a grateful and indelible impression on his
        mind, was killed by the fall of a malt kiln.  This loss, se-
        vere to any one, but doubly so to one in his circumstances,
        and endued with his sensibility, led the way, however, to
        his receiving  advantages which,  perhaps,  had his father
        lived, he might never have obtained.  He had lived with
        his mother about a year after his  father's death, when he
        began to be   spoken of as a young  man  of uncommon
        genius ;  and several of his poetical productions were hand-
        ed about, which enlarged the circle of his friends  and ac-
        quaintance.  Some of these being shown to Dr. Steven-
        son, of Edinburgh, that  gentleman formed the benevolent
        design of carrying him to the metropolis, and giving him a
        classical education.   He accordingly came to Edinburgh
        in 1741, and was enrolled as a student of divinity in the
        university,  where he continued his studies till 1745; when,
        on  account  of  the national  disturbances, he returned to
        Dumfries, and resided with Mr.M'Murdo, his sister's hus-
        band.  In 1746 he  published a  volume of his  poems in
        8vo.  Upon his return to  Edinburgh he obtained, among
        other literary acquaintance, that of the celebrated David
        Hume;  who warmly  interested himself in his favour, and
        assisted  him  in the publication, by subscription, of the
quarto edition of his poems, which in 1754 had undergone
a second edition in octavo.   To  the  quarto edition Mr.
Spence, professor of poetry at Oxford, from regard to the
author, prefixed an ingenious account of his life and writ-
ings.   About this  lime,  while prosecuting his studies io
the languages,  and every other branch of science from
which  his want of sight did not preclude him,  he became
a complete  master of  the French tongue,  by his inter-
course with the family of provost Alexander,  who  had
married a French  lady.  After passing the  usual trials
he was licensed as a preacher by the presbytery of Dum-
fries, in  1759; and obtained no small  reputation by the
different sermons he preached, of which he  left some vol-
umes in manuscript.  In 1762 be married Miss S.Johns-
ton,  daughter of Mr. Jos. Johnston, a  respectable sur-
geon in Dumfries:  a connection  which proved tbe great
blessing and comfort of his after life.  A few  days after, by
lord Selkirk's interest, he  obtained the royal presentation
to the  parish of Kirkcudbright:  but the inhabitants, from
various motives, opposing the presentation, the matter was
compromised by settling a moderate annuity on Mr. Black-
lock, upon his resigning his right to the living.  With this
slender provision be removed, in 1764, to Edinburgh; and
adopted the plan of keeping young gentlemen as boarders,
whose  studies he could  assist  and superintend: which he
continued until  within  four years of his death, when his
weak state of health obliged him  to give it  up.  In 1767
the university of Aberdeen  conferred on him the degree
ofD. D.  In summer  1791  he  was seized by a feverish
disorder, which, though at first  it appeared slight, and
never  rose  to  a violent degree, overpowered his weak
frame,  and carried  him off on the 3d of July,  1791, in his
seventy-sixth year.  A foreign  author characterizes this
extraordinary man in few words.   *' Blacklock," says he,
" will appear to  posterity a fabulous character; ev en now
he is a prodigy."
  Another no less striking instance is Dr. Nicolas Bacon,
a blind gentleman,  descended from the same family wilh
the celebrated  lord Verulam, was, in the city of Brussels,
with high approbation  created LL.D.  He was deprived
of sight at nine years of age, by an arrow from a crossbow
whilst  he was attempting  to  shoot it.   When he had re-
covered his health, which had suffered by  the shock, he
pursued the same plan of education in which he had been
engaged ;  and having heard that one Nicasius de Vourde,
born blind, who lived toward the end of (he 15th century,
after having distinguished himself by his studies in the
university of Louvain,  took  his  degree as D. D. in that
of Cologne, he  resolved to  make the same attempt;  but
the public, cursed with  prejudices for which the meanest
sensitive nature might  blush, prejudices equally beneath
the brutality and ignorance of the lowest animal instinct,
treated his intention with ridicule: even the professors
themselves were not far from  being of the same sentiment;
and they admitted  him  into  their schools rather from an
impression that il might amuse him, than become of any
use to  them.   He had the good fortune, however, contra-
ry to their expectations, to  obtain the first places among
his condisciples.  It was  (hen said,  lhat  such rapid ad-
vances might be made  in the preliminary branchesof bis
education, but would soon be  effectually checked by stud-
ies of a more profound  and  abstracted nature.   This, it
seems, was repeated from school  lo  school, through the 
BLINDNESS.
whole climax of his pursuits; and when, in the course of
academical learning, it became necessary to study poetry,
it was the general voice that  all was over, and at  length
he had reached his  ne  plus ul(ra.  But here he likewise
disappointed (heir  prejudices, and taught them (he  im-
mense difference between blindness of body and blindness
of soul.   After continuing his studies in learning and phi-
losophy for two years more, he  applied himself to law,
took his degree in that science, commenced pleading coun-
cilor or advocate in the council of Brabant, and had  the
pleasure of terminating almost every suit in which he was
engaged to the satisfaction of his clients.  The  attain-
ments of professor Saunderson are not less extraordinary,
and yet as well established  not only on lhe testimony of
his pupils, but by his  works.  The following anecdotes of
Dr. Moyes were not long ago presented to  the Manches-
ter society by  Dr.  G. Bew,  and afterward  published.
" Dr. Henry Moyes,  who  occasionally read lectures on
philosophical chymistry at  Manchester, like Dr. Saunder-
son,  the celebrated  professor of Cambridge, lost his sight
by the  smallpox  in his early infancy.  He never recol-
lected to  have seen: 'but the first traces of memory I
have,' says he, ' are  in  some  confused ideas of the solar sys-
tem.'  lie bad the good fortune to be born in a country
where learning of every kind is highly  cultivated,  and to
be brought up in a family devoted to learning.  Possessed
of native genius, and  ardent  in his application, he made
rapid advances in various  departments ef erudition, and
not only acquired  the fundamental principles of mechan-
ics, music, and the languages, but likewise entered deeply
into the investigation of the profounder sciences, and dis-
played an acute and general  knowledge of geometry,  op-
tics, algebra, astronomy, chymistry, and, in short, of most
of the branches of the Njewtonian philosophy.   Mechani-
cal exercises were the favourite employments of his infant
years.  At a very early age  he made himself acquainted
with the use of edged  tools so perfectly, that notwithstand-
ing hisentire blindness,  he was able (o make little wind-
mills ; and he even  constructed a loom wilh his own hands,
which still  show the  cicatrices of wounds he received in
the execution of these juvenile exploits.  By a most agree-
able intimacy and  frequent  intercourse which I enjoyed
wilh this accomplished: blind gentleman, whilst he resided
at Manchester, I had an opportunity of repeatedly observ-
ing the peculiar manner in which  he  arranged his ideas
and acquired his information.  Whenever he was intro-
duced into  company, I remarked  that he  continued  for
sometime silent.   The sound directed him to judge of
the dimensions of the room, and the different voices of the
number of persons that were  present.   His distinction in
these respects was very accurate, and his  memory so  re-
tentive that he seldom was  mistaken.  I have known him
instantly recognise  a  person on  first hearing him speak,
though more than two  years had elapsed since the lime of
Iheir  last  meeting.  He determined  pretty nearly  the
stature of those he  was  speaking with, by the direction of
their voices;  and he made tolerable conjectures  respect-
ing Iheir tempers and  dispositions, by lhe manner in which
they conducted their  conversation.  It  must be observed
lhat this gentleman's eyes  were not totally  insensible to
intense light.   The  rays-refracted through  a prism, when
sufficiently vivid, produced  certain distinguishable effects
on them.  The red gave him a disagreeable  sensation,
           15*
which be compared (o the touch of a saw.   As the  col-
ours declined  in  violence, the harshness lessened, until
the green afforded a sensation that  was highly pleasing (o
him, and which he described as conveying an idea  similar
to what he  felt in running his  hand over smooth polished
surfaces.   Polished  surfaces, meandering  streams,  and
gentle declivities, were the figures by which he expressed
his ideas of beauty.   Rugged rocks, irregular points, and
boisferous  elements,  furnished him with expressions for
(error and disgust.  He excelled in the charms of conver-
sation ;  was happy in  his allusions  fo visual objects;  and
discoursed  on the nature, composition, and beauty  of col-
ours, with  pertinence and precision.  Dr. Moyes  was a
striking instance of the power  the  human soul possesses
of finding resources of satisfaction,  even under (he most
rigorous calamities.   Though  involved ' in   ever  during
darkness,' and excluded from the charming views of silent
or animated nature; though dependent on an  undertaking
for the means of his subsistence, (he success of which  was
very precarious; in shor(, though des(i(ule ofc o(her sup-
port than his genius, and  under the mercenary protection
of a person whose integrity he suspected ; still Dr. Moyes
was generally  cheerful,  and apparently happy.   Indeed
it must afford  much pleasure to  tbe  feeling  heart,  to ob-
serve this  hilarity of temper  prevail almost  universally
with  the blind."  There are,  in short,  few  sciences in
which the blind  have  not distinguished themselves  : even
(bosewhose acquisi(ion seemed essen(ially(o depend upon
vision, have at last yielded to genius and industry, (hough
deprived of (hat  advantage.  Sculpture is  not the most
practicable art for a blind man ; yet there are instances of
persons who have taken (he figure ofa face by (he  (ouch,
and  moulded i( in wax wilh the utmost exactness;  as was
the case of the blind sculptor mentioned by De Piles, who
thus took the likeness of  the duke de Bracciano in  a dark
cellar, and made  a marble statue of king  Charles I.  wilh
great elegance and justness.  In music, there  are, at pres-
ent, living instances how  far the blind may proceed.  In
former periods we shall find illustrious examples how am-
ply nature has capacitated the blind to excel,  both in the
scientific and practical departments of that enchanting art.
  Dr. Bew, in the Transactions of lhe Manchester Sociefy,
above quoted, mentions an instance,  which would  be be-
yond belief if  we had  it not on such  respectable authori-
ty.  *' John Melcalf,  a native  of the neighbourhood of
Manchester, where he is  well known, became blind at a
very early  age, so as  to be entirely unconscious of light
and its various effects.   This man passed the  younger
part of his  life as a waggoner, and occasionally as a guide
in  intricate  roads during  the night, or when  the tracks
were covered wifh snow.  Strange  as this may appear to
these who can see, the employment he has since under-
taken is still more extraordinary: it is one of the last to
which we could suppose a blind  man would ever turn his
attention.   His present occupation is lhat of  a projector
and surveyor  of  highways in  difficult  and mountainous
parts.   With the assistance only of a long staff, I have
several times met this man traversing IheroadB, ascending
precipices, exploring vallies, and investigating  (heir  sever-
al exienls, forms, and situations, so as to answer his designs
in the best  manner.  The plans  which he desians, and (he
estimates he makes, are done in a manner peculiar to him-
self, and which he cannot  well convey the meaning of to 
B  L I
B  L I
others.   His abilities in this  respect are nevertheless  so
great, that he finds constant  employment.   Most  of the
roads over lhe Peak in Derbyshire have been altered by
his directions, particularly those in the vicinity of Buxton ;
and he is at this time constructing a new one betwixt Wil-
meslow and Congleton, with a view to open a communica-
tion to (he  great London road, without being obliged to
pass over (he moun(ains."
   Bishop Burnett,  in his Letters, mentions a blind lady,
whom he saw at Geneva, who lost her  sight at  one year
old, yet was eminently skilled in most sciences, ancient and
modern.   She spoke French, German, Italian, and  Latin ;
and  played exquisitely on several musical  instruments.
She wrote very legibly wilh a crayon.  The  means by
which her father taught her  to write  was, by having let-
ters carved in wood; and by feeling them she acquired a
correct idea of their form.   The bishop saw her write,
which she did very fast, aided only by a machine which
held the  paper, and kept her  always in line.
   In  the Annual Register for 1762, we have a similar ac-
count.   "  A  young gentlewoman  of a  good family  in
France, now in her 18th year, lost her sight when only two
years old,  her mother having been advised to  lay some
pigeons'  blood on her eyes, to preserve them in the small-
pox ; whereas, so far from answering the end,  it ate into
them.   Nature, however, may be said to have compensat-
ed for the unhappy mistake, by beauty of person,  sweet-
ness of temper, vivacity of genius, quickness of concep-
tion, and many talents,  which certainly much alleviate
her misfortune.  She plays at cards with the same readi-
ness as others ofthe party.   She first prepares the packs
allotted  to  her, by pricking them in several parts; yet
so imperceptibly, that the closest inspection can scarcely
discern her indexes.  She sorls  lhe  suits, and  arranges
tbe cards in their proper sequence, with the same preci-
sion, and nearly the same facility, as those who have  their
sight.  All she requires of those  who  play with  her is  to
name every card as it is played ;  and  these she retains so
exactly, that she frequently performs some notable strokes,
such as  show  a great combination and strong  memory.
The  most  wonderful  circumstance is,  that she  should
have learned to read  and  write;  but even  this is readily
believed on knowing her method.  In writing to her, no
ink is used, but the letters are pricked down on the paper ;
and by the delicacy of her touch, feeling each letter, she
follows them successively, and reads every word with her
finger ends. She herself in writing makes use ofa pencil,
as she could not know when  her  pen was dry;  her guide
on the paper is a small thin ruler, and  of the breadth of
her writing.  On finishing a  letter, she wets it, so as to
fix the traces of her pencil, fhat they are not obscured or
effaced; then proceeds to fold and seal it, and write the
direction: all by her own address, and without the assist-
ance of  any other person.  Her  writing is very slraighf,
well cut, and the spelling no  less  correct.   To teach this
singular  mechanism, the indefatigable cares of her affec-
tionate  mqther  were long employed:  who accustomed
her daughter to feel letters cut in cards  or pasteboard ;
brought  her to distinguish an A  from a B, and  thus lhe
whole alphabet, and afterward to spell words;  then by
the remembrance ofthe shape ofthe letters, to delineate
them on  paper; and lastly, to arrange them go as to form
words and sentences.  She has learned to play on the guit-
ar ; and has even contrived a wry of  pricking down the
tunes, as an assistance  to her memory.  So delicate are
her organs, that in singing a tune, though new to her, she
is  able to name the notes.  In figured dances she acquits
herself extremely well, and in a minuet with inimitable ease
and gracefulness.  As for the works of her sex, she has a
masterly hand:  she sews and hems perfectly well; and
in  all her works  she threads the needles for herself, how.
ever small.  By lhe watch,  her touch never fails telling
her exactly the hour and minute."
   These  instances afford the happiest  encouragement
both to those who labour under this misfortune, not to de.
spair of attaining by perseverance the intellectual accom-
plishments ; and a striking admonition to parents not to in-
crease,  by their negligence, a calamity fo which a darling
child may be subjected by the dispensation of Providence.
Some benevolent institutions have been lately established
for the employment and instruction ofthe blind poor; and
we have litlle doubt that the views of their projectors will
in many cases, be fully answered.
   BLINK ofthe ice,  in  sea language, denotes that bright
appearance  produced by the ice near  the  horizon; and
perceptible, in approaching the ice, long before it is itself
seen.
   BLISTER, in medicine,  a thin bladder containing a
watery humour, whether occasioned by burns, and the
like accidents, or by vesicatories  laid on  different parts of
the body for that purpose.
   Cantharides, or Spanish flies, applied  in the form of a
plaster, are chiefly used with (his intention.   See MiTE-
ria Medica.
   BLITUM, the blite, or strawberry spinach, a genus of
the digynia  order and  monandria class  of plants, and in
the natural method ranking in the 12th order, holoracea.
The calyx is trifid ; no petals; the  seed is one, included
in  a berry shaped calyx.  There are four species, vi:.
   1. Blitum capitatum, with flowers in clustered heads at
the joints and  crown ofthe stalks, is a native of Spain and
Portugal,  but  has been long preserved in the British gar-
dens for the beauty of its fruit. It is an annual plant,with
leaves  somewhat like  those of the spinach;  the stalk rises
two feet and a half high ; the upper part of  the stalk has
flowers coming out in  small heads at every  joint, and is
terminated by a  little  cluster of the same ; after the flow-
ers are past, the heads swell to the size of wood strawber-
ries, and when ripe have the same appearance, but are not
eatable; they are full of purple juice, which stains the
hands of those  who bruise them of a deep purple colour.
   2. Blitum fartaricum,  with triangular acutely indented
leaves, is a native of Tartary.   It rises to near three feet
high ; the flowers come out from the sides  of the stalks, but
are smaller than those of the capitatum, as is  also the fruit.
   3.  Blitum virgatum, with small heads growing from the
sides of the stalks, is a native ofthe south of France and
Italy.  It seldom grows more than a foot high; the leaves
are of the  same  shape with  those of the capitatum, but
smaller.  The flowers are produced  at the wings of the
leaves, almost the length of the stalk; they are smaller,
and not so deeply coloured as the first.
  4.  Blitum chenopodioides, is a low plant, a native of
Tartary. 
B  L U
B  L U
   All these species being annual, must be propagated by
 seeds, and are very hardy.
   BLOCKS, on ship board,  is the usual name for  what
 we call pulleys at land.  They are thick pieces of wood,
 some with three,  four, or five shivers in Ihem, through
 which all  the running ropes run.  Blocks, whether single
 or double, are  distinguished and called by  the  names of
 the ropes they carry, and the uses they serve for. Double
 blocks are used when there is occasion for much strength,
 because  they will  purchase  with  more ease  than single
 blocks, though much slower.
   Block and block, is a phrase signifying that two blocks
 meet, in haling any tackle or halliard, having such blocks
 belonging to them.   Fish block is hung in a notch at the
 end of the davit.   It serves  to hale up the flukes ofthe
 anchor at the ship's prow.   Snatch block is a great block
 with a shiver in if,  and a notch cut  through one of its
 cheeks, for the more readily receiving of any rope ; as by
 this  nofch  the middle  part of a  rope may  be reeved
 into a block, without passing it endwise.  It is common-
 ly fastened with a strap  about  the mainmast, close to the
 upper deck, and is chiefly used for the fall ofthe winding
 tackle, which is reeved into this block, and (hen brought
 to the capstan.
   Blocks now used in the navy are made in the Portsmouth
 yard, by means of machinery, which has lately been erect-
 ed for the purpose,  and which performs the several opera-
 tions from the  rough timber  to the perfect block in the
 completest manner possible.  But as the machinery is so
 complicated, as would require a dozen pages of explana-
 tion, to render it intelligible; whilst it could interest, per-
 haps, but a small portion of our readers ; we have conclud-
 ed to omit  it, to make room for  more useful informa-
 tion.
   Block engraving.  See Engraving.
   BLOOD, sanguis, a red liquor, circulating through tbe
 arteries,  veins, and other vessels of animal bodies; and
 serving for the support of life, and nourishment of all their
 parts.  See Anatomy, and Physiology.
   BLOOM, a mass of iron after having undergone the first
 hammering, called blomary.
   BLOSSOM, denotes the flowers  of plants, but more es-
 pecially of fruit trees.
   BLOW PIPE,  or blowing pipe, a hollow  tube, used
 by several artificers : as enamellers, glass makers, jewel-
 lers,  &c.   It is a  wind instrument for the purpose of in-
 creasing the heat  of a candle or lamp, as common bellows
 are employed for  raising the temperature of a fire or fur-
 nace. The blow pipe is of great use in practical chymistry.
 See Chymistry.
  BLOWING ofglass, one ofthe methods of forming the
 divers kinds of works in the glass manufacture.
  It is performed by dipping the point of an iron blowing
 pipe in the melted glass, and  blowing through it with (he
 mouth, according (o the circumstances ofthe glass to be
 blown.  See Glass.
  Blowing of tin, denotes the melting its ore, after being
 first  burnt (o destroy (he mundic.
  BLUBBER, denotes  the fat of whales and other large
 sea animals, of which U made train oil.
  The blubber is  the adeps of the animal : it lies under
the skin, and over the muscular flesh : it is about six inches
in thickness, but about the under lip it is two or three feet
thick.   The  quantity yielded by a good sized whale
amounts to from forly to eighty hundred weight,  or even
more.   The use of the blubber to the fish  seems to be
partly to poise the body, and partly to keep off the water
at some distance from the blood ; and thus it acts as cloth-
ing to keep the fish warm.
   BLUE, painter's, is made differently,  according to the
different kinds of painting.   In limning,  fresco, and min-
iature, they use indifferently  ultramarine, blue ashes, and
smalt: these  are their natural blues,  excepting the  last,
which is partly natural, and partly artificial.
   In oil and miniature they also use  indigo  prepared, as
also a factitious ultramarine.
   Enamellers and painters upon glass have also blues prop-
er to themselves, each  preparing  them  after  their  own
manner.
   Blue, turnsole, is used in painting on  wood, and is
made ofthe seed of that plant: the way of preparing it is,
to boil four ounces of turnsole in a pint and  a half  of  wa-
ter, in which lime has been slacked.
   Blue, Flanders, is a colour bordering on green,  and sel-
dom used hut in landscapes.
   Bluing of metals is performed  by heating them in  the
fire till they assume a blue colour; particularly practised
by gilders, who blue their  metals before they apply the
gold and silver leaf.
   Blue, to-dye skins.  Boil elderberries or dwarf elder,
then smear and wash the skins therewith, and wring them
out: then boil the berries as before, in a solution of alum
water, and wet the skins in the same manner once or twice ;
dry them, and they will be very blue.
   A Blue for painting or staining of glass.  Take  fine
white  sand  twelve ounces, zaffer and minium of each
three ounces ;  reduce them to a fine powder in  a bell met-
al mortar, then putting the powder into a very strong cruci-
ble, cover it and lute it well, and, being dry, calcine it over
a quick fire for an hour; take out tbe matter  and pound
it: then to sixteen ounces of this powder  add fourteen of
nitre powder; mix them well together, and put them  into
the crucible  again: cover and lute it, and calcine  for  two
hours on a very strong fire.
  Blue, Prussian.  This blue is  next lo ultramarine for
beauty, if it is used in oil: this colour does not grind well
in water.
   Blue hice is a colour of good brightness, next to Prus-
sian  blue, and also a colour of  a body, and will flow
pretty well in the pencil..
   Blue, Saunders, is  also  of very  good  use, and may
serve as a shade to ultramarine, or lhe blue bice, where the
shades are not required lo be very  deep ;  and is of itself a
pleasant blue,  to be  laid between the light and shades of
such a flower as is ofa mazarine blue.
   Blue, a fine one from Mr. Boyle.   Take the blue
leaves of rue, and beal (hem a little in a stone mortar with
a wooden pestle ; then put them in water, juice and  al),
for fourteen days or more, washing (hem  every   day till
they are rotten; and at last  beat (hem and lhe waler to-
gether till they become a  pulp,  and let  them dry in the
sun.  This is a fine blue for shading.
  Blue, Indigo.   This makes the strongest shade for
blues, and is ofa soft warm colour, when it has been well
ground, and  washed with gum water, by means of  a stone
and a muller. 
BOA
BOA
  Blue, Lacmus, or Litmus.   This is a beautiful blue,
and w ill run in a pen as free as ink.  It is made of lacmus,
and prepared thus; take an ounce of lacmus, and boil it in
a pint of small beer wort, till the colour is as strong  as you
would have it; then pour off the liquor into a gallipot, and
let it cool for use.  This affords  a beautiful colour, has
extraordinary effects,  and  is a holding colour; if it is
touched with aquafortis, it immediately changes to a fine
crimson, little inferior to carmine.
  Blue, Japan.   Take gum water,  what quantity you
please, and white lead a sufficient quantity,  grind  them
well on a porphyry ; then take isinglass size, what quanti-
fy you please, of the  finest and best smalt a sufficient
quantity, mix them well;  to which add of your white lead
before ground, so much as may give  it a sufficient body ;
mix all these together to the consistence of a paint.
  Blueness  of the skies.   Sir Isaac Newton observes,
that all the vapours, when they begin to condense and co-
alesce into natural particles, become first of such a bigness,
as  to reflect the azure rays, before they can  constitute
clouds, or any other colour.
  But Mr. Melville supposes, that the clouds only reflect
and transmit the  sun's light; and that, according to their
different  altitudes, they  may assume all  the variety of
colours at sunrising and setting,  by  barely reflecting the
sun's incident light, as they receive il through  a shorter
or  longer tract of air;  and  the change is produced in the
sun's rays by the quantity of air through which they pass,
from white to yellow, from  yellow to orange, and  lastly
to red.
   BLUFF HEAD, among sailors.   A ship  is said to be
bluff headed that has an upright stern.
   BOA, a genus of serpents belonging to the order of am-
 phibia; tbe generic character is, scuta, or  undivided
 plates, both on the abdomen and beneath the tail.
   This genus of serpents  is remarkable for the  vast  and
 almost unlimited size  of  some of  the  principal species,
 which in India, Africa, and South  America, are occaF;on-
 ally found of not less  than twenty, thirty, and even thir-
 ty-five feet in length, and of a strength so prodigious as to
 be able  to destroy  cattle, deer, &c. by twisting round
 them in such a manner as to crush them to death by con-
 tinued pressure, after which they swallow tbcm in a very
 gradual manner; and when thus gorged with their prey,
 become almost  torpid wilh repletion, and if discovered in
 this stale, may  without much difficulty be  destroyed by
 shooting or other methods.  There is reason to suppose
 that these gigantic serpents are become less common now
 than  some centuries backward.
   There are  nineteen species, vis.
   1.  Boa constrictor.   Of all the larger bose  this is most
 conspicuous, and is at once pre-eminent from superiority of
 size  and beauty of colour: in  this respect indeed i(  ap-
 pears to be subject to considerable variation from age,
 sex,  and climate, but may be distinguished in every state
 from the rest of its tribe by the peculiar disposition of its
 variegations.   The ground  colour of the whole animal, in
 the younger specimens, is a  yellowish gray, and sometimes
 even  a  bright  yellow; on which  is disposed along  the
 whole length of the back  a series of large, chain like, red-
 dish  brown,  and sometimes perfectly red  variegations,
 leaving large open oval spaces of the ground colour at reg-
 ular  intervals;  between  these larger marks  are disposed;
many smaller  ones of uncertain forms, and more  or less
numerous in different parts.
  The  boa constrictor is a native of Africa, India, the
larger Indian islands, and  South America, where it chiefly
resides  in the  most retired sitoations in woody and marshy
regions.
  It was, in all probability, an enormous specimen of this
very serpent that once diffused so violent a terror amongst
the'most  valiant of mankind, and  threw a whole  Roman
army into dismay.   Historians relate this surprising event
in terms of  considerable luxuriance.   Valerius Maximus
thus mentions it from Livy,  in  one of the lost books of
whose history it was related more at large.
  " And  since  we are on the subject of uncommon phe-
nomena, we  may here mention the serpent so eloquently
and accurately recorded by Livy; who says,  that near
the river Bagrada in Africa, a snake was seen of so enor-
mous a  magnitude as to prevent the army of Attilius Reg-
ulus from the use of the river; and after snatching up
several soldiers with its enormous  mouth, and devouring
them, and killing  several more by striking and squeezing
them with the spires of its tail, was at length destroyed by
assailing it with all the force of military engines and show-
ers of  stones, after  it had withstood the attack of their
spears  and darts: that it was regarded by the whole ar-
my as a more formidable enemy than even Carthage itself:
and that the whole adjacent region being tainted with the
pestilential effluvia proceeding from its  remains, and (he
waters  wifh i(s blood,  the Roman army was obliged to re-
move its station : he also adds, that the skin of the monster,
measuring 120 feet in length, was sent to Rome as atrophy."
  The  flesh of this serpent  is eaten by the Indians and
negroes of Africa, and they make  its skin into garnjflnts.
See Plate XV. Nat. Hist. fig. 50.
  2. Boa scytale,. or spotted.   The spotted  boa is some-
times scarcely inferior in size to  the constrictor, and is of
similar  manners, destroying, like that animal, goats, sheep,
deer, &c.  It is described as being generally of a gray or
glaucous colour, marked with large orbicular black spots
on  the  back ; and with smaller ones, of similar form, but
with white centres, on the sides ; while on tbe abdomen
are scattered  several.oblong spots and marks, interspersed
wilh  smaller specks and variegalions.   It is a native of
several  parts  of South  America, and, like other large
snakes, is occasionally eaten by lhe Indians.
  3. Boa cenchris, or ringed.   This also  grows to a largo
size, though not equal to either of the former species, from
which,  as well as from most others, it may be easily dis-
tinguished by the regular distribution of its colours;  the
general cast being ferruginous, darkest on the back, where
it is marked by a  continued series of very large blackish
circles  from head to tail; while along the sides.are inter-
spersed several kidney, shaped blackish spots with, white
centres:  the head is a lengthened form, and is  marked bjj
a black longitudinal and two.lateral bands*  This animal ii
a native of South America.
  4. Boa enydris, or water.   This species, according te
Linnaeus, is variegated with different shades of gray; the
teeth ip the lower jaw are longer than usual in  this genus J
the number of abdominal  scuta is 270, and of the  subcau*
da] ones 105.
  5. Boa orphryas, or brown, mentioned by Linnaeus from
a specimen jn the museum of D.egeer: has the general habit 
BOA.
of tbe B. constrictor, but is of a dark or dusky colour, and
has 281 abdominal and 84 subcaudal scuta.
   6. Boa canina, a highly beautiful  snake .••measuring
about four  feet  in length, and being of moderate size or
thickness in proportion : the head is large, and shaped like
that ofa dog ; the colour of the whole animal on the up-
per parts is a most beautiful Saxon green, with  several
short, undulating, transverse white bars down the back, the
edges of which are ofa deeper or stronger green than the
ground colour of the body: the under or abdominal part is
white.  This species is a native of South America.  In
the British Museum is an elegant specimen.
   7. Boa regia is, in  the form of ils head and the general
shape of the body, most allied to the  canina  and phrygia.
In its colour it appears to vary,  the  ground colour being
white, but  the  variegations sometimes dusky or  chesnut,
and sometimes ofa most elegant  orange red, accompanied
by a  tinge of blossom  colour on the lighter parts.  The
head  is covered in front with large scales : the tail is ex-
tremely short,  and tapers suddenly.
   8. Boa phrygia. Among the whole serpent tribe it may be
doubted whelher there exists a species more truly elegant
than the present.  Its general size seems to be nearly that
of the boa canina, but its length is rather greater in pro-
portion : the ground colour of the whole animal is white,
with a very slight cast of yellowish  brown on  the back,
while along the whole  upper part is disposed a continued
series of black variegations,  so  conducted  as  to bear a
striking resemblance to an embroidery in needle work : the
head  is of the same form with that of the boa canina, and
marked by three  narrow black  streaks, which, running
along the top of  the head and the cheeks, join  with the
embroidered pattern ofthe back.
   9. Boa hortulana is  of moderate size, measuring only a
few feet in  length, and being of a slender form ; has obtain-
ed its Linnsean title from the singular variegations on the
head, which are ofa blackish brown,  on a pale ferruginous
or yellowish ground, and in some degree represent the
form of a parterre in an old fashioned garden : the varie-
gations on the body are of similar colour, and are dispos-
ed into large circular, and sometimes angular patches on
the sides.   See Plate XV. Nat.  Hist. fig. 51.
   10. Boa  murina is  a  middle sized species,  measuring
about two feet  and a half or three feet in length,  and being
of a moderately thick form :  the colour of (he whole upper
 fiart is gray or  bluish brown,  with  several moderately
 arge round black spots dispersed in a somewhat irregular
manner along the back and sides:  the head is marked on
each side by two longitudinal black stripes : this species is
said to feed principally on rats, and to be found in South
America.
   11. Boa  crotaline is a native of Surinam, and is a  large
species, marked on the back by a chain of black rhomboid
spots, and is furnished with very large and strong fangs.
   12. Boa fasciata. It is to Dr. Patrick Russel that we owe
the knowledge of this  remarkable species, which is a na-
tive of India, and is said to be most frequent in the coun-
try of Bengal.  It is of a yellow colour, marked with pret-
ty numerous dusky  blue transverse bands, continued at
equal  distances : the head is rather small, and covered in
front with large scales : the body is of a trigonal form, the
sides sloping very considerably :  the  whole length ofthe
animal  is something more than  five  feet; the diameter,
in the thickest part, being nearly five  inches :  the length
of the tail five inches only, and its  termination rather ob-
tuse.
   This snake is among the number of  poisonous  species,
and its bite is considered by the Indians as inevitably fa-
tal.   A specimen was brought to Dr. Russel in the month
of November, 1788, in  an apparently  weak and languid
state, having been bruised in taking.  Being set at liberty
in a  room,  it crept slowly toward  an obscure  corner;
where a chicken being presented to him he took no partic-
ular notice of it, and even suffered the bird  to stand on
his back.  As he showed  no disposition to bite, his jaws
were forcibly opened,  and the thigh of the  chicken be-
ing placed between them, the mouth was so closed over
it as to oblige the fangs to act. The bird, when disengaged,
showed immediate symptoms of poison, and after several
ineffectual efforts  to rise,  rested with  the  beak on the
ground, the  head  being seized with trembling.  In the
space of twenty minutes it lay down on one side, and con-
vulsions soon supervening, it expired within twenty-six
minutes from the bite.
   13. Boa viperina is also  an Indian species, first describ-
ed in tbe  work of Dr. Russel.  It is  about a foot and a
half in length and of a moderately deep brown colour; the
back being marked throughout the whole length by a broad
undulating black band, with a narrow yellowish white mar-
gin, while along the  sides runs a row of somewhat irregular '
roundish black spots : the under part of the animal is of a
pearl colour.  The  head is hardly broader than  the neck,
oblong, roundish, depressed,  subtruncate, and covered
with small scales: (he (ee(h are small and  numerous, and
as (here is a marginal row in (he  upper  jaw, there are of
course no fangs: the trunk or body is round,  of nearly
equal thickness, and coated with small, orbicular, close set,
carinated scales.
   This snake, Dr. Russel  informs  us, is said to produce
by its bite a slow wasting of the fingers and toes, similar
to what happens in some leprous cases.  A living speci-
men,  however, which he obtained in Dec. 1788, from Gan-
jam, enabled him to make  some experiments with it on
chickens; but though  it  arrived in excellent order, and
bit ferociously, the  bite was followed by no symptoms of
poison.
   14. Boa lineata, geedi paragoodoo, or cobra monil, is of
an  extremely dark  blue  colour, so  as to appear almost
black in certain lights, and is marked throughout tbe whole
length of the upper part  by several transverse curved and
dotted white lines at somewhat  unequal distances.  The
natives  of India,  who generally exaggerate the noxious
character  of their serpents, assert that the bite of this an-
imal'produces immediate death.  The experiments of Dr.
Rossel, however, prove that it is seldom fatal to chickens
in less than half an hour, and to dogs in less than an hour
and ten minutes-  Its poison was also  observed to cause
less violent convulsions  in the animals infected by it than
that ofthe cobra de  capello, and another highly poisonous
Indian snake called  katuka rekula poda; but produced a
greater degree of stupor.
   15. Boa horatta is a small species, measuring only about
fifteen inches in  length.  Its colour is a dark brown, with
a row of spots on the ridge of lhe back, from  the neck to
the end ofthe tail,  varying a little in size and figure, but
all of a dull yellowish colour edged with black. The fangs 
BOA
BOA
or poisoning organs of this  snake show  it to be noxious ;
but in what degree could not be ascertained by Dr. Rus-
sel, who could not meet with a  living subject lo make the
necessary experiments wilh.  It is reported, however,  to
be one ofthe most fatal of serpents.
   16. Boa Siamese, a small species, but  very long in pro-
portion to its breadth"; the circumference ofthe body be-
ing scarcely more than an inch and a half, and the length!
from two  to three feet.: the head shaped like  that ofthe
boa  canina : the colour of the  whole animal pale yellow
above, with pretty numerous transverse broken  bars  of
white, with black or deep brown edges;  the abdomen yel-
low.  This species is said to be a native of the East In-
dies, and particularly ofthe kingdom of Siam.
   17. Boa contorix, a small species, seldom exceeding the
length of about fifteen inches: head large,  with the cheeks
swelling out like those  of vipers; the  nose turning up,
like that of a bog: the body very thick  toward the head :
colour pale brown, with several large black spots   or
patches disposed along the back and sides.  This species
is a native of North America, and is ofa poisonous nature:
it is slow in its motions, and has a malevolent aspect; the
tail is nearly a third of the length of the  whole  animal.
   18. Boa palpebrosa.  Length  about fifteen inches:  bead
rather large, and covered  in front with large scales : eye-
brows remarkably prominent; body thick  in proportion to
ils length: colour pearly gray above, with obscure trans-
verse dusky or bluish undulations;  beneath pale yellow
brown : native  country unknown.
   19. Boa annulata.  This is rather a small species, meas-
uring about two feet in length :  in its general appearance it
is allied to the boa hortulana; but the back is marked with
large round  black spots, almost  encircled by a narrow
zone of the same colour.  It is a native of South America.
   BOAR.  See Sus.
   BOARD, among seamen.   To go aboard, signifies  to
go into the ship.  To slip by the board, is to slip  down
by the ship's side.  Board and board,  is  when two  ships
come so  near as to touch one  another,  or when tbey  lie
• side by side.   To make a board, is to turn to  windward ;
and the longer  your boards are, the more you work into
the wind. To board it up, is to beat it up  sometimes upon
one tack, and  sometimes upon another.   She makes a
good board, that is, the ship advances much at one  tack.
The  weather board,  is that  side of the ship which is  to
windward.
  BOAT, a small open vessel, commonly wrought by rowing.
  The structure, and even the names of boats, are differ-
ent, according  to lhe different uses they are designed for,
and the places  where they are to be used.
   The several  boats and  their  names are as follow : a
long  boat, a jolly boat, a skiff, a pinnace, a waler boat, a
yaul; the preceding six are boats for ships. Other boats
are, a gondola, a Greenland boaf, a Bermudas boat, a bal-
lon of Siam,  a horse boaf, a periaga, a pleasure boat, a
ponton, a canoe, a crude, a curry curry, a deal hooker, a
felucca,  a ferry boat, a praw, a flying praw, a  punt, a tilt
boat, a tod boat, a well boat, a wherry, &c.
   The boats or wherries plying about London, are either
scullers, wrought by a single  person, with  two oars; or
oars,  wrought by two persons, with each  an oar. All boats
rowed with more than four oars above  or below London
bridge, are forfeited.
  Boat, life, a boat invented by  Mr. Hei:ry Greathcad,
of South Shields, for  tbe  purpose  of preserving  lhe
lives of shipwrecked persons. The following circumstance
gave rise lo this invention:
  In September, 1789, the ship Adventure, of Newcastle,
was stranded on the Herd sand, on the south side of Tyne-
mouth haven,  in the midst of  tremendous breakers;  and
all the crew dropped  from the rigging one by one, in the
presence of thousands of spectators; not one of whom
could be prevailed  upon, by any  reward, to venture out
to her assistance, in any boat or coble ofthe common con-
struction.
  On this occasion the gentlemen of South Shields called
a meeting of the inhabitants,  at which a committee was ap-
pointed, and premiums were offered  for plans of a  boat
which should be the best  calculated to brave the dangers
ofthe sea, particularly of broken water.
  Many  proposals were offered;  but  the preference was
unanimously given to  that of Mr. Greathead, who was im-
mediately directed to build  a  boat at  the expense of the
committee.
  This boat went off  on the 30th of January, 1790; and
so well has it answered, and  indeed exceeded, every ex-
pectation, in the most tremendous broken sea, that since
that time, not fewer than two hundred  lives have been sav-
ed at  the entrance  of the Tyne  alone, which otherwise
must  have been lost;  and  in no instance has it ever failed.
  The principle of this boat  appears to have been suggest-
ed to  Mr. Greathead by the following simple fact:  Take a
spheroid, and divide it into quarters; each quarter is ellip-
tical,  and nearly resembles  tbe half  of a wooden bowl,
having a curvature with projecting ends ; this (brown into
(he sea or broken water, cannot be upset, or lie wifh (he
bottom upward.
  The length of the boat is thirty feet; the breadth fen
feet;  fhe depth, from the  top  of the gunwale to the lower
part of the keel in midships, three feet three inches ; from
the gunwale to the platform, within, two feet four inches;
from the top of the stems, both ends  being similar, to the
horizontal line  of  the bottom  of the keel, five feet  nine
inches.  The keel is  a plank  of three inches thick,  ofa
proportionate breadth in  midships, narrowing gradually
toward the ends, to the  breadth ofthe  stems at the  bot-
tom, and forming a great convexity downward. The stems
are segments of a circle, with  considerable rakes. The
bottom section, to  the floor heads, is a curve fore and aft,
with the  sweep ofthe keel.  The floor timber has a small
rise curving from the keel to the floor heads.   A bilge
plank is wrought in on each side, next the floor heads,
wilh a double rabbit or groove, ofa similar thickness with
the keel; and,  on the outside  of this, are fixed  two bilge
trees,  corresponding  nearly with the level of the keel.
The ends of the bottom section form  lhat fine kind of en-
trance observable in the lower part of lhe bow ofthe fish-
ing boat called  a coble, much  used in the north.  From
this part  to the  lop of (he stem it  is more elliptical, form-
ing  a considerable  projection.   The sides,  from the floor
heads to the top of the gunwale, flaunch off on each side,
in proportion to above half the breadth ofthe floor.  The
breadth is continued far forward toward the ends, leaving
a sufficient length of straight side  at lhe top.  The sheer
is regular along lhe straight side, and  more elevated  tow-
ard the ends.  The gunwale fixed to  (he outside is tfiree 
BOA
B  O C
 mches thick.  The sides, from the under part ofthe gun-
 wale, along the whole length of the regular sheer, extend-
 ing twenty-one feet  six inches, are cased with layers of
 cork to the  depfh of sixteen inches  downward; and the
 thickness of this  casing of cork being four inches, it pro-
 jects at the top a litlle without the gunwale.  The cork,
 on  the  outside,  is  secured with  thin plates or slips of
 copper,  and  the  boat is  faslened  with  copper nails.
 The thwarts, or seats,are five in number, double banked:
 consequently the boat may be rowed with ten oars.  The
 thwarts are firmly stanchioned.  The side oars are short,
 with iron tholes and rope grommets, So that the rower can
 pull either way.  The boat is steered with an oar at each
 end ; and the steering oar is one third longer than the row-
 ing oar.  The platform placed at the bottom, within the
 boat, is horizontal, the length ofthe midships, and elevated
 at the ends for the convenience ofthe steersman, to give
 him a greater power with the oar.   The internal part of the
 boat next (he sides, from the under part ofthe thwarts down
 to (he platform, is cased with cork ; (he whole quan(i(y of
 which, affixed to the  life  boat, is nearly seven hundred
 weight.  The cork  indisputably contributes much to the
 buoyancy of the boat, is a good defence in going alongside
 a vessel, and is of principal use in keeping the boat in  an
 erect  position in the sea, or  rather for giving her a very
 lively  and  quick  disposition lo recover from any sudden
 cantor lurch  which she may receive from the stroke of a
 heavy wave.  But, exclusively of the cork, the admira-
 ble construction of  this boat gives it a  decided pre-emi-
 nence.  The ends being similar, the boat ean be rowed ei-
 ther way; and this peculiarity of form assists her in rising
 over the waves.   The  curvature of  the keel and bottom
 facilitates her movement in turning, and  contributes  to
 the ease of the steerage, as a single stroke of fhe steering
 oar has an immediate effect, the boat moving as upon a cen-
 tre.   The  fine entrance below is of use in dividing  the
 waves, when rowing against them ; and, combined with the
 convexity of the bottom, and the elliptical form of the
 stem, admits her to rise with wonderful  buoyancy in a
 high sea, and  (o  launch  forward  with rapidity,  without
 shipping any water, when a common boat would be in dan-
 ger of being filled.  The {launching or spreading form of
 the boat, from her floor heads  to the gunwale, gives her a
 considerable bearing; and the continuation ofthe breadth,
 well forward, is a great support to her in the sea ;  and it
 has been found by experience fhat boats  of this construc-
 tion are the best  sea boats  for rowing against turbulent
 waves.  The  internal shallowness of the  boat from the
gunwale down  to the platform,  the convexity ff the form,
 and the bulk of cork within, leave a very diminished space
for lhe water to occupy ;  so lhat the life  boat, whe> filled
with water, contains a considerable less quantify than the
 common boat,  and  is in no  danger either of  sinking or
overturning.   It may be presumed by some, that in cases
of high wind,  agitated  sea,  and  broken  waves,  a boat of
 such a bulk could not prevail against them by the force of
oar9;  but the  life boat, from her peculiar form, may be
rowed ahead, when the attempt in other boats would fail.
Boats  of the  common  form, adapted for speed, are  of
course put in  motion with a small power; but for want of
buoyancy and  bearing, are overrun by the waves, and sunk
when  impelled against them; and boats constructed for
  vol.  i.           4K
burthen meet with too much resistance from fhe wind and
sea  when opposed to them, and  cannot in such cases be
rowed from the shore (o a ship in  dis(ress.
   Mr. Greathead gives (he following instructions for the
management ofthe life boat :
   The boats in general  of  this description, are painted
white on the outside; this colour more immediately en-
gaging the eye of the spectator when rising from the hol-
low of the sea than  any other.  The bottom of lhe boat
is at first varnished,  which  will take paint afterward, for
the more minute inspection of purchasers.   The oars she
is equipped with are  made of fir ofthe best quality ; hav-
ing found  by experience that a rove ash  oar, that will
dress clean and  light, is too pliant among the breakers;
and  when made  strong and heavy, from  rowing double
banked, the purchase being short, sooner exhausts the row-
er; which renders the fir oar, when made stiff,  prefera-
ble.
   In the management of  fhe boat  she requires twelve men
to work her: that is, five men on  each side rowing double
banked, with an oar slung over an  iron thole, with a grom-
met, as provided, so as io enable lhe rower to pull either
way, and  one man  at each end  lo steer  her, and to  be
ready at the opposite end to take the steer oar when want-
ed.  As, from the  construction  of  lhe boat, she is al-
ways in a position to be rowed  either way, without turn-
ing the boat: when  manned, the  person who steers her
should be well acquainted with the course of the tides, in
order fo take every possible advantage: the best  method,
if the direction will  admit of it, is fo head the sea.  The
steersnfen  should keep his  eye fixed upon the wave  or
breaker,  and encourage  the  rowers to  give way  as lhe
boat rises to it; being then aided by the force of the oars,
she  launches over it  with vast rapidity,  without shipping
any wafer.  It is  necessary to observe, that Ihere is often
a strong reflux of sea occasioned by the stranded  wrecks,
which requires both despatch and care  in the people em-
ployed that the boat be not damaged.  When the wreck is
reached,  if the wind  blows to the  land, the boat will come
in shore without any other effort than steering.
   BOATSWAIN*, a ship officer, to whom is committed the
charge of all the tacklings, sails and rigging, ropes, cables,
anchors, flags, pendants, &c.   He is also  to  lake care of
the long boat and its furniture,  and lo steer her eilher by
himself or his mate.   He calls out the several gangs and
companies aboard, to the due execution  of their watches,
works, spells, &c.  He is likewise provost marshal, who
sees and punishes all offenders sentenced by  (he captain,
or a court marshal of the  fleet.
   BOB, or ball, is a  metallic weight, attached to the low-
er extremity of a pendulum rod, by  means of a tapped ad-
justing nut, at such a distance from the point of suspension
as (he(ime ofa given vibra(ion requires.
   BOBBIN, a small  piece of wood (urned in (he form ofa
cylinder, with a little border jutting out at each end, bor-
ed through to receive a  small iron pivot.   It serves te
spin with the spinning wheel; or to  wind thread, worsted,
hair, cotton, *ilk,  gold, and silver.
   BOCARDO,  among  logicians, the fifth mode of the
third figure of syllogisms, in which the middle proposition
is an universal affirmative, and the first and last particular
negatives, thus: 
B  O  E
B  O I
     Bo  Some sickly persons are not students;
     car Every sickly person is pale ;
     do  Therefore some persons are pale that are not students.
   BOCCONIA, greater tree  celandine:  a genus of the
monogynia order, and  dodecandria class of plants, and in
the natural method ranking under the 27th  order, rhcea-
defe.  The calyx is dipbyllous; there is no corolla; the
stylus is bifid;  the berry is dry, and monospermous.   Of
this  genus there is but one known species, vis.
   Bocconia frutescens, which is esteemed  for the beau-
ty of its large foliage.  It is very common in Jamaica and
the warm parts of America,  where it grows lo the height
of 10 or 12 feet, having a straight trunk as large as a man's
arm, and covered with a white smooth bark.  At the top
it divides into several branches, on which the leaves are
placed alternately.   These leaves are 8 or 9 inches long,
and 5 or  6 broad; and  are of a fine glaucous colour.  The
whole plant abounds  with a yellow juice of an acrid na-
ture ; so that it is used  by the  inhabitants  of America to
take off warts and spots from the eyes.  The singular beau-
ty of this plant renders it worthy of a place in every curious
collection : and  it seems  the Indians are very fond of it;
for Hernandez  tells  us,  their  kings  used  to plant it in
their gardens.  It is propagated by seeds from America,
and  must always be kept in a stove.
  BOCK LAND, in ibe Saxons' time, is what we now
call freehold lands, held by the  better sort of persons by
charter or deed in writing; by which name it was distin-
guished from folkland, or copyhold  land, holden  by the
common  people without writing.
   BODY, in physics,  an extended solid substance, of it-
self utterly passive and inactive, indifferent either to mo-
tion or rest;  but capable of any sort of motion, and of all
figures and forms.
   Descent of Bodies.  Heavy bodies, in an unresisting me-
dium, fall with an uniformly accelerated motion; whence
the  spaces  descended  are  in the  duplicate ratio of  the
times and velocity, and increase according lo the uneven
numbers 1,3, 5, Sec.   The  times  and velocities are in a
subduplicate ratio of the spaces.  The velocity of de-
scending bodies is in proportion to the times  from the be-
ginning of their fail; and the spaces described by  a falling
body, are as the squares of lhe times from the beginning of
their fall.  See Mechanics.
   Bodv, in geometry, the regular bodies, or those which
have all their angles and sides similar  and equal, are five,
vis.  tetrahedron, octahedron, dodecahedron, icosahedron,
and the cube.
  Body, among painters, as  to  bear a body,  a term
signifying that  (he colours are of such a nature  as to be
capable of being ground so fine, and mixing with the oil so
entirely, as to seem only a very thick oil ofthe same colour.
  BOEBERA  Chrysanthemoides, in  botany, a  plant
ofthe syngenesia, superflua class and order of plants :  the*
calyx is duplex ; corolla radiated, luted, annual, a native of
Missouri,  (a.)
  BOEHMERIA,agenus ofthe monoecia tetrandria class
and order.   The essential character is,  male, calyx four
parted ; corolla none.   Female, calyx none; germ obo-
vate; style single; seed single, compressed.
  There are five species, natives of America and the West
Indies.
   BOERHAAVIA, a genus of (he monogynia order,and
 monandria class of plants.   There is no  calyx; the cor-
 olla is monopetalous, campanulated, and plaited; and the
 seed is one,  naked and below.  There are seven species,
 all natives of the Indies.   Some of these plants rise 5 or
 6 feet high, but most of  them  only 18 inches or 2 feet.
 They bear flowers ofa yellow or red colour.
   BOG properly  signifies a quagmire,  covered indeed
 with grass, but not solid enough to support  the weight of
 the body;  in which sense it differs only from marshes or
 fens, as a part from the whole:  some  even restrain the
 term bog to quagmires pent up between two hills ; where-
 as fens lie in champaign and low countries, where the de-
 scent is very small.  To drain boggy lands, a good meth-
 od is, to make trenches of a sufficient depth to carry off
 tbe moisture; and  if these are partly filled up with  rough
 stones and  then covered  with thorn bushes and straw to
 keep  the earth from filling up their interstices, a stratum
 of good earth and turf may be laid over all;  the cavities
 among the stones will give  passage to  the water, and the
 turf will grow at top as if nothing had been done.
   BOILING, or ebullition, in physics, the agitation of a
 fluid body, arising from the application of fire, &c.
   It has been proved that all fluidity is the effect of a certain
 quantity of caloric, or the  matter of heat, absorbed by a
 body in passing from a solid to a fluid state, as is shown in
 the melting of ice,  tallow, wax, &c.  Boiling  is the act of
 a body passing from a fluid state fo that of vapour, occa-
 sioned.by a further absorption of caloric.
   If the heat is  applied to lhe  bottom of lhe vessel con.
 taining the liquids,  as is usually the case,  after the  whole
 liquid has acquired a certain temperature, those particles
 of it which  are next the bottom, become elastic, and rise
 up, as they are formed, through the liquid, like air bubbles,
 and throw the whole into a violent agitation.   The  liquid
 is then said to boil.
   A pleasing experiment is related by that elegant and in-
 genious philosopher, the present bishop of Landaff,  which
 is illustrative ofthe nature of boiling in general, and partic-
 ularly of what has been just advanced. With an intention of
 exhibiting a striking instance of the increase of dimensions
 produced by heat in  fluids, he took a glass vessel not un-
 like the thermometer in form;  the bulb contained above a
 gallon, the stem had a  small diameter, and was about two
 feet in length.   This vessel he filled with boiling water to
 the  very top of the stem, and corked it close with a  com-
 mon cork.   The  water and lhe cork were at first contigu-
 ous, but as the water cooled it contracted, and sunk visibly
 in the stem$  and thus the first intention  of the experiment
 was answered.   But here an unexpected phenomenon pre-
 sented itself.  The wafer, though it was removed from lhe
 fire, though it was  growing cold, and  had for some lime
 entirely ceased from boiling, began to boil very violently.
 When a hot iron was applied  to that  part of the stem,
 through which the water in contracting itself had descend-
 ed, the ebullition presently ceased: it was renewed when
 the iron was removed; and it became more than ordinari-
ly violent, when,  by the application of a cloth dipped in
 cold water,  that  part  was  cooled.  To account for these
appearances, it is only necessary to recollect, that by the
sinking of the water in the stem, a kind of vacuum is left
between its surface and the cork; the water therefore 
B O I
B O L
necessarily boils with a lower degree of heat than it would
under the pressure of the atmosphere.  The space be-
tween the cork  and  the water is not however a  perfect
vacuum :  it is occupied either by the vapour of the water,
or by a small portion of air, or by both. Ileal increases the
elasticity both of air and vapour, and  thus augments the
pressure upon the surface of the  water, hence the ebulli-
tion cease3 upon the application of the hot iron.  Cold,
on tbe contrary,  diminishes the elasticity ofthe air,  and
condenses vapour; and thus the pressure upon the sur-
face being lessened by the application ofa cold cloth, the
ebullition of  the water became more violent.   The heat
ofthe water when it ceased boiling was 130 degrees.
   An experiment of another distinguished philosopher af-
fords perhaps a better illustration of the whole theory
which has been just advanced.  This  gentleman placed a
quantity of vitriolic ether under the receiver of an air pump,
which was so contrived that  he  was able to let  down a
thermometer  at pleasure without admitingthe external air.
He no sooner began to extract the air, than the ether was
thrown into a violent ebullition, at tbe same time  its tem-
perature sunk surprisingly.   When the ether was first put
in, its temperature was about 58 degrees, but it became so
cold when boiling, that a quantity of water in  a  vessel con-
tiguous  to it was suddenly frozen.  The manner in which
these phenomena may be explained is this :  The weight
of the atmosphere being removed, the heat  which the
ether contained  was sufficient to  make it boil.  The ele-
mentary fire which the  ether lost in boiling was disposed
of in forming  a vapour more subtile  than the ether itself;
which could  not, consistently  with (he  principles estab-
lished, be formed without the absorption of a  considerable
quantity of the matter of fire.  Now as it appears (ha( wa-
ter and spirit of wine boil  in vacuo at 122 degrees below
their ordinary boiling point, it is natural that ether, which
boils  in the open air at about the heat of the human blood,
should boil in vacuo  at 24 degrees  below 0, a degree of
cold  sufficient to freeze any water that might  happen to
be in contact with (he vessel which contains (he ether.
  Every  particular  liquid  has a fixed point  at which
boiling commences, and this is called the boiling point of
the liquid.  Thus wafer begins  to boil when heated to 212
degrees.   After a liquid has begun to boil, it  never be-
comes hotter, however strong (he fire may be to which it
is exposed.   A  strong heat, indeed, makes  it boil more
rapidly, but does not increase ifs temperature.   This fact
was first observed by  Dr. Hooke.   The following table
shows the boiling point  of a number of liquids :
Bodits.	Boiling
Ether	98
Ammonia	140
Alcohol	176
Water	212
Muriat of lirne	230
Nitric acid	248
Sulphuric acid	590
Phosphorus	554
Oil of turpentine	560
Sulphur	570
Linseed oil	600
Mercury	660.
46*
The boiling point however is found to depend on tbe de-
gree  of pressure to which the liquid is exposed.  If the
pressure is diminished, the liquid boils at a lower tempera-
ture ; if it is increased, a higher temperature is necessary
to produce ebullition.   From the experiments of professor
Robison, it appears that, in a vacuum, all liquids boil about
145 degrees lower than in open air, under a pressure of
30 inches of mercury :  therefore water  would boil in va-
cuo at 67 degrees, and alcohol at 34  degrees.  In Papin's
digester, the temperature of water may be raised to 300
degrees, or even  400  degrees without ebullition ; but the
instant  that this  great pressure is removed, the boiling
commences  with prodigious violence.
   BOLE, in mineralogy.   This mineral occurs chiefly in
the isle ofLemnos, at Sienna in Italy, and in Silesia.  Its
colour is generally an obscure  Isabella yellow, or reddish
or whitish brown: it is sometimes, though rarely, met with
of  a grayish yellow,  or flesh red;  its  surface  is often
marked with black spots,  and dendritic figures.  It gen-
erally occurs massive; its texture is earthy ; fracture con-
choidal.   Internally it exhibits a slight glimmering  lustre,
and acquires  a polish by friction.    When broken with a
hammer it flies  into irregular sharp  edged fragments.  The
dark  coloured  varieties are opaque,  the  lighter coloured
are more or less translucid.  It  has a  greasy feel, ad-
heres strongly  to the  tongue, gives a shining  streak, is
very  soft, and is easily frangible.  Specific gravity 1.4
to 2.0.
   When put into  water it  absorbs a little  with great ea-
gerness,  and breaks down  into small  fragments  with a
crackling noise.   When  finely  pulverized, and diffused
through boiling water, it  remains suspended a  less  time
than any of the plastic clays, and  is entirely separable
by (he filtre.  Before fhe  blow  pipe it  turns black and
melts, without any addition, into  a porous,  greenish,
gray  flag.   The Lemnian bole,  according  to Bergmann,
contains
           47.0  Silica
            19.0  Alumina
            6.0 Carbonate of magnesia
            5.4 Carbonate of lime
            5.4 Oxide of iron
            17.0  Water and air

           99.8
The only use of the  bole at present is as a coarse red
ingredient;  for which purpose it is  calcined and levigated,
and is sold  in Germany under the  name of Berlin or En-
glish  red.
   BOLETUS, in botany, spunk ;  a genus of the order of
fungi, belonging to the cryptogamia class of plants. Botan-
ists enumerate 170 species, of which the following are the)
most remarkable.
   1. Boletus bovinus, or cow spunk,  is frequent  in woods
and pastures.   It is generally of a brown colour, though
sometimes it is tawny,  yellowish brown, reddish brown,
deep red, purple, or greenish brown.   The flesh is yellow,
white, or reddish.  The young  plants are  eaten in Italy,
and esteemed a great delicacy.  The Germans also ac-
count them a dainty, calling them gombas, and brat buls.
Cows, deer,  sheep, and swine, will feed upon this and other
boleti, but are sometimes greatly disordered by them.  In 
B  O L
B  O  M
cows and other cattle  they have been  known to create
bloody urine,  nauseous milk, swellings of the  abdomen,
inflammations  of the bowels, stoppages,  diarrhoeas, and
death.  In sheep  they are said to bring on a schirrhous
liver, a cough, a general wasting, and dropsy.  Scarabs,
dermestes, and many other insects, feed upon and breed
in them abundantly.
  2. Boletus igniarius, or touchwood spunk, is frequent on
the trunks of old trees of all kinds, especially ash.   It con-
sists of a very  hard woody  substance,  in shape like a
horse's hoof;  and  grows of various sizes, from a man's fist
to that of his head and larger.   The upper side is smooth,
but uneven, distinguished near the rim by elevated zones
of different colours, brown, gray, tawny, &c.   The flesh
is of a tawny brown colour, extremely hard and tough.
This fungus is made use of in Germany and some parts of
England for tinder.  The Germans boil it in strong lye,
dry it, and  boil it again in  solution of saltpetre.   The
Laplanders  burn it about their habitations, in order to
keep off a species  of the gadfly,  which  is fatal  to  the
young reindeer.   It has been used to stop the bleeding of
fhe vessels after amputations.  Phil. Trans, vol. xlviii. p.
2.  For  this purpose the hard outer part is cut off, and
the soft  inner substance is beaten  with a hammer to make
it still softer.  It is best when gathered in August or Sep-
tember.
  3. Boletus pini Iaricis, or agaric of the shops, grows on
old larch trees.  This  fungus is an irregular spongy sub-
stance, extremely  light, and of an uniform snowy white-
ness ; except the  cortical part, which is usually taken off
before the agaric is brought into the shops.
   4. Boletus suberosus, or white cork spunk, grows com-
monly on the trunks of birch  and willow trees.  It grows
sessile and horizontal; its figure is semicircular; the up-
per side convex, the under nearly plain; of various sizes,
from that of an ass's hoof to a peck measure.   The upper
surface is  quite white, generally  covered with a short
strong down, but sometimes smooth.   The internal sub-
stance is thick, white, tough, light, and spongy, like cork ;
and is sometimes cut and shaped by the country people in
Scotland for corks.
   BOLLITO, a name  by which the  Italians call a  sea
^reen colour in artificial crystal.  To prepare this colour,
you must have in the furnace a pot filled  with forty pounds
of good crystal,  first carefully skimmed, boiled, and puri-
fied, without any manganese;  then you  must have twelve
ounces of the powder of small leaves of copper, thrice cal-
cined, half  an ounce of  zaffer in powder; mix them to-
gether, and  put them at four  times into the pot, that fhey
may the  better  mix with the glass; stirring  them well
each time of putting in the powder, for fear that it should
swell too much and run over.
   BOLLOS,  in the mines of Peru, a denomination given
lo the ingots  or bars of  silver procured  there  from the
ore, by the operation of fire, and the use of aquafortis.
   BOLONI AN stone, is  a kind of mineral found near Bo-
logna ; which, when duly prepared by calcination, makes
a species of phosphorus.  The property of this stone is,
that though it has  no lucid appearance in the dark, until  it
undergoes a particular calcination, it becomes  capable by
previous preparation, of imbibing, when exposed for a few
minutes to the light of day, or even the flame of a candle,
such a quantity  of light, that it afterward shines  in  the
dark for several minutes, like a glowing coal, but without
any sensible heat.
  BOLSTERS, in sea language, small cushions, or bags,
filled with tarred canvas or rope yarn, &c. and placed un-
der the shrouds and stays, to prevent their chafing against
the trestletrees,  by the  motion of the mast, when the
ship rocks at sea.
  BOLT, among builders, an iron fastening fixed to doors
and windows.  They are generally distinguished into three
kinds, vis. plate, round, and spring bolts.
  Bolts, in gunnery, are  of several sorts.  See  Gun-
nery.
  Bolts, in a ship, are iron pins, of which there are sev-
eral sorts, according to their different make and uses.  Such
are drive bolts,  used to drive out others :  ray bolts, with
jags  or barbs on each side, to keep them from  flying out
of their holes :  clench bolts, which are clenched with riv-
etting hammers: forelock bolts, which have at the  end a
forelock of iron driven in to keep them from starling back:
set bolts,  used for forcing the planks, and bringing them
close together:  fend, or fender bolts, made with long and
thick heads,  and struck into the  uttermost bends of the
ship, to save her sides from bruises:  and ring bolts, used
for brinking  to  the  planks, and those parts whereto are
fastened the breeches and tackles ofthe guns.
  Bolt of canvas,  in commerce,  the quantity of 28 ells.
  BOLTONIA, in botany, a genus of the  class syngene-
sia,  order superflua.  The essential  characters are, cal.
imbricated, cor. radiated, white.   There are 3 species all
persisting.  1 B. asteroides, starwort flowered Bolfonia,
flourishes in July, a native of Pennsylvania. 2. B. gloslifolia,
a native  of  Carolina  and  Pennsylvania.   3.  B. affinis,
grows in Missouri, (a.)
  BOMB, in military affairs, a globe or shell of cast iron,
having a vent to receive the fuse, which is made of wood,
The shell  being filled with gunpowder, the fuse is driven
into the vent or aperture, within an inch of the head, and
fastened with a cement  made of quicklime, ashes,  brick
dust, and steel filings, worked together in a glutinous water;
or of four parts of pitch, two of colophony, one of turpen-
tine, and one of wax.  This tube is filled with a combusti-
ble matter, made of two ounces of nitre, one of sulphur,
and Ihree  of gunpowder dust, well rammed.   To preserve
the fuse, they pitch it over, but uncase it when they put
fhe bomb into the mortar,  and cover it with gunpowder
dust; which having  taken  fire by  the flash of the powder
in the chamber of tbe mortar, burns all tbe time lhe bomb
is in the air;  and the composition in the fuse being spent, it
fires the powder in  the  bomb,  which  bursts with  great
force, blowing up whatever is about it.  Tbe great height
the bomb  goes in the air, and the  force with which it falls,
make it go deep into the earth.
  Bomb chest, a kind of chest  filled  usually with bombs.
sometimes only  with gunpowder, placed under ground to
tear  it and blow it up into the air, with those who stand on
it.   It was set on fire by means of a saucisse fastened at
one end, but is now much disused.
  BOMBARDMENT, the act  of  assaulting a city or
fortress, by throwing shells  into i(, in order (o set fire lo
and ruin the  houses, churches,  magazines, Sec. and to do
other mischief.   As one of the effects ofthe shell results
from its weight, it is never discharged as a ball from a can-
non, lhat is, by pointing it point blank at a certain object; 
BOM
BOM
 but the mortars in England are fixed at an elevation of 45
 degrees; that is, inclined so many degrees from the hori-
 zon, that the shell describes a curve, called tbe military
 projectile.  Hence a mortar,  whose trunnions are  placed
 at the breech, can have no  point blank  range.  Mortars
 should be so contrived, that they may be elevated to any
 degree required,  as much preferable to  those  fixed at an
 angle of 45°; because shells  should never  be thrown at
 that angle but in one single  case only, which seldom hap-
 pens ; that is,  when the battery is so  far  off, that tbey
 cannot  otherwise reach the works: for when shells  are
 thrown from the  trenches into the works ofa fortification,
 or from (he (own into the trenches, they should have as
 little elevation as possible,  in order to roll along, and not
 bury themselves; whereby  the damage they  do, and the
 error they cause to the troops, is much greater  than if they
 sink into the ground.   On the contrary, when shells are
 thrown upon magazines, or any other buildings, with an in-
 tention to destroy them, the mortar should be  elevated as
 high as possible,  that the shells may acquire a greater force
 in their fall.
   Shells should be loaded with  no more powder  than is
 requisite to burst them into the greatest number of pieces,
 and the length of the fuses  should  be exactly calculated
 according to the  required ranges;  for, should the fuse set
 fire to the powder in the shell before it falls on the place
 intended, the shell will burst  in lhe air, and probably do
 more mischief to those who  fired the mortar than to those
 against whom  it  was  discharged.   To prevent this, the
 fuses are divided into as many seconds  as the greatest
 range requires, consequently may be cut to any distance,
 at an elevation of 45 degrees.
   Mortars are not to be fired with two fires ; for when the
 fuse is  properly  fixed, and both  fuse and  shell dredged
 wilh mealed powder, the blast of (he powder in the cham-
 ber ofthe mortar, when inflamed by the tube, will likewise
 set fire to the fuse in the shell.
  BOMBASINE, a name given to  two sorls of stuffs, the
 one of silk, and the other crossed of cotton.
  Bombasine of  silk  pays duty on importation as other
 foreign  silks. See Silk.  That of cotton pays each  piece,
 a duty according to its width.
  BOMBAX, in botany, the  silk cotton tree : a genus of
 the  polyandria order, and monodelphia class of  plants;
 and in the natural method ranking under lhe  37th order,
 columniferse.  The calyx is quinquifid ; the stamina are
 five  or more; the capsule is ligneous, quinquelocular, and
 quinquevalved; the seeds are woolly, and the receptacle
 pentagonous.   The species are :
  1. Bombax ceiba, with a prickly stalk.
  2. Bombax heptaphyllum, with leaves cut  inlo seven
 parts.   The  cotton is of a fine purple colour, but the size
 of the tree is  not  particularly mentioned by botanical
 writers.
  3. Bombax pentandrum,  with a smooth stalk.   This
 and the ceiba  grow naturally  in both the  Indies,  where
 (hey arrive at a great magnitude, being some ofthe largest
 trees in (hese parts.   Bosmau  says, he has seen in Guinea
 trees of this kind  so widely  diffused, that  20,000  armed
 men might stand under the branches of one.   They gener-
 ally grow with straight stems.  Those of  the ceiba are
armed wifh short strong  spines; but the pentandrum has
a very smooth  stem,  which in the young  plant is of a
 bright green; but after a few years is covered with a gray
or ash  coloured  bark,  which turns brown as Ihey grow
older.   The branches toward (he (op are furnished w ith
leaves  composed of five, seven,  or nine,  oblong smooth
little leaves, spear shaped, and joined fo one common cen-
tre at their base, where ihey adhere to lhe long footstalk.
The flower buds appear at the end ofthe branches ; and
soon after the flowers expand, which are composed of five
oblong  purple  petals,  with a great number of stamina in
the centre; when  these  fall off, they  are  succeeded by
oval fruit as large as a swan's egg, having a thick ligneous
cover, which, when ripe, opens in five parts, and is full of
a dark short cotton, enclosing  many roundish seeds  as
large as small peas.
   4. Bombax  gossipinum.   Besides  the species  above
described, Mr. Miller  mentions another which he saw in
the gardens of the late duke of Richmond at Goodwood,
and was  raised from  seeds which came from the East In-
dies.
   These plants, being natives of warm climates, must al-
ways be kept in a stove.   They are raised from seeds
procured in  lhe capsules from lhe places where ihey grow
naturally.   They must be watered plentifully in summer,
but moderately in winter.
   The dark short cotton of the  first and third species is
used by  the poorer inhabitants of those places where such
trees grow,  to  stuff pillows  or  chairs, but is  generally
deemed  unwholesome to  lie upon.  The beautiful  purple
down of  the heptaphyllum is spun, wrought into clothes,
and worn without being dyed any other colour, by  the in-
habitants ofthe Spanish West Indies, where the tree nat-
urally grows.  Large pirogues, or canoes fit to carry a sail,
are made both at Senegal and in America, of the trunk of
the silk cotton tree, the wood of which is  very light, and
unfit for  any other  purpose.  In Columbus's first voyage,
it  was reported that a canoe  was seen  at Cuba made of
the hollowed trunk of one of these trees, capable of con-
taining 150 men.
   BOMB KETCH.  The  modern  bomb  vessels carry
two ten inch mortars, four 68 pounders, and six 18 pound-
ers, carronades ; and the mortars may be fired at as  low an
angle as  20 degrees ; (heir principal use being (o cover the
landing of troops, and to protect our coasts and harbours.
A bomb  ketch  is from 60 to 70 feet long, and draws eight
or nine feet  water.
   BOMBIC acid.   The silkworm  has a small reservoir
near the  anus,  from which, when full grown, or especially
when it is in the chrysalis state, a minute quantity of acid
liquor is seen to ooze out.   If the entire animal is bruised, it
gives a liquor containing the usual soft  animal  matters,
with a native acid.  Alcohol separates the former, and
leaves the latter in solution; which, by evaporation, fur-
nishes a \ery sour pungent yellow fluid, which exhibits all
the marks of an acid,  by reddening blue vegetables,  and
uniting with  alkalies.
  BOMBYLIUS, in entomology,  a genus of  dipterous
insects distinguished by the following character : beak  or
sucker very  long, setaceous, straight, and consisting of (wo
unequal valves, within which three setaceous bristles are
contained ; feelers (wo, shor( and hairy : antennae subulate
and connected at the base.
  The antenna? are short, and contain three articulations
the first of which is long, the second short, and (he third
or lust conical, and terminating in a kind of appendage, al-
most forming a fourth joint, as  is to be observed with'the 
BOM
B  O M
assistance of glasses.   Those who have carefully examined
the structure of the trunk with the microscope affirm, that
the number of valves or bristles  concealed within the ex-
ternal bivalve sheath are four, instead of three as Gmelin
describes them.   The antennae are inserted at the base of
the trunk.
  Insects of this  genus have the head comparatively of a
small size, ofa form somewhat rotund, and almost wholly
occupied by the  eyes.   The thorax large, the abdomen
bulky and rounded at  the extremity, as in the bee.   Both
the thorax  and abdomen are hairy, or covered with down.
The wings  longer than the body, and extended horizontal-
ly.   Legs  long   and  slender.  The size and rotundity of
the body afford an excellent natural character, by which
this tribe of insects may  be  distinguished from those of
the genera  empis  and asilus, with which some naturalists
have  confounded Ihem.  The Fabrician species of  volu-
cella, cyfherea,  and anthrax, have been  referred to the
bombylius  genus with very little propriety.  The true
bombylius  is a lively  active tribe of insects,  that subsist
entirely on the nectareous juices  they extract from flow-
ers, wilh the assistance of their long proboscis or  trunk.
They fly with much rapidity, making  all  the time a soft
humming noise similar to  that of the bee.   In England the
largest species, major, has acquired the name of the hum-
blebee  fly.  The insects of this tribe are found in the
winged state in the summer, but their metamorphose is ut-
terly unknown.    Only  a  small number  of species  in
this genus are at present  known.   See Plate XV.  Nat.
Hist. fig. 52, and  53.
  BOMBYX, a genus of lepidopterous insects, or rather
one of the  subdivisions of tbe phaleena, an extensive ge-
nus, in  which all the insects of the moth  tribe are com-
prised by Linnaeus.   Fabricius, in his " Entomologia sys-
tematica," admits the bombyx as a genus, applying the
term phalaena, which  Linnaeus gave indiscriminately to  all
the species of the moth tribe, as  a generical name to that
particular  description of moths  which have fhe palpi cy-
lindrical, the  tongue advanced and membranaceous, and
the antennae filiform.   In the Systema Naturae, Linnseus
divides the bombyces into  sections in the following order:
the elingues, or  those without a manifest  spiral tongue;
and the  spirilingues, having an involuted tongue.  These
two principal sections are subdivided again; the elingues,
into those with the back smooth  or not crested, with ex-
panded wings, with reversed wings, with  deflected wings,
with erect  crests or tufts on  the backs ;  and the spirilin-
gues, those smooth, with expanded wings, and with deflect-
ed  wings, and wilh the back crested.
  The insects of the bombyx tribe never fly except in the
evening.  During the day time they secrete themselves
under the leaves, or beneath tbe branches, in the clefts  of
trees, where fhey may remain secure till about sunset, at
which time they appear to be on the alert; at first crawling
about the branches, then fluttering their wings, and becom-
ing brisker in all their motions as the evening advances.
The larger sort of moths, which we  see first starting from
the woods  or hedges after some of  the geometree, are tbe
swifts, the  Fabrician hepiali; which  fly  swiftly, as (heir
trivial name implies,  but  low or near the surface of the
ground : these at twilight are succeeded by the bombyces
and noctme, whose flight is  more elevated.  They con-
tinue fo sport about fill it becomes quite dark.   The males
ofthe bombyces are commonly first upon the wing in search
of the females; which latter are,  in some few species, en-
tirely destitute of wings, or at least have  only the rudi-
ments of them close to the thorax; in  which case the fe.
male waits upon the trees or herbage for the arrival of tbe
male : the female of bombyx antiqua, the vapourer moth,
is a striking proof of this; for  it  has so little the appear-
ance  of  a  moth  that  any one, except an entomologist,
would mistake it for an apterous or wingless insect.  Those
females which have wings are  commonly larger even than
the males.
  The bombyces are produced from a larva, or as it ia
more  usually termed by common observers, a caterpillar.
This is of a long cylindrical form, having in some speciei
a smooth skin,  or in others more or less tuberculated;
sometimes the skin is covered with a fine  silky down, or
with hairs;  and some of the larger kinds  are armed with
spines and bristles.  All the  larva; of the bombyces sub-
sist on vegetables.  Their jaws are strong, and of a horny
texture;  and  below them is  a small opening, through
which the creature draws the silky thread of so much util-
ity in its  general economy.  Most of these larvae have 16
feet, some have only 14 feet, and others no more than 12 ;
six of which are  hooked,  and situated on the three first
annulations  near the head, the  others toward tbe lower ex-
tremity of  the body are short, broad, and very different
in structure.
  The greater number of species  in the  bombyx tribe,
when in the larva state, lead a solitary life ; in  which case
they  separate as soon as they  are hatched from the eggs,
and crawl about to provide for themselves, the smallest of
these even being able to obtain its own subsistence; tbey
can eat as readily, and spin, or throw out the silky thread
with as much facility, as when grown bigger.  The latter
is of considerable utility to the larva; for when it wishes
to descend from one branch of the tree or bush to another,
instead of being obliged to pursue a circuitous course, by
crawling  or walking, it need  only  fasten one end of the
silken thread to  any particular spot,  and lower itself by
its assistance fo the branch desired ;  or when suspended
midway between  the branches, it can pass aside with a
swing to any other point within a convenient distance.  In
like  manner, when observed by birds or other enemies, it
can drop in an instant, and elude the enemy ; waiting con-
cealed below among the  leaves or on the ground till the
danger is over, and then remounting to the former spot by
the aid of  this thread.   This is a provision of nature for
the security of the larvae of the  bombyces,  in common
wifh  that of other lepidopterous insects.
  Some species of the bombyces live in societies, as may
be observed, for instance, in bombyx neusfria of entomol-
ogists, the lack ej'emoth of English collectors.   The  lar-
vae of this species,  by  their united labours, spin a capa-
cious  habitation, in which the infant brood is hatched from
the egg, and after undergoing their several transformations)
finally become moths.
  Like other larvae of the moth tribe, those of the bom-
byces cast  their  skin several  times.   When  full grown,
and approaching tbe pupa state, those of the bombyx kind
spin a sort of web, in which we find the most valuable silk
produced by  these  creatures at any time  of  their lives*
The  silk spun by the hairy larvae is  observed lo be of
little  value,  because the creature interweaves it wilh lhe
hairs  it plucks off its skin for this purpose.   The common
silkworm, bombyx mori, whose cocoon consists ofthe most 
BON
BON
 valuable kind of silk,  as is well known, has the skin per-
 fectly smooth, or free from hair.   There are certain spe-
 cies  of the  larger  bombyces,  the larvae  of which have
 Binooth skins, but still beset with annular series of soines
 or bristles, that produce very strong  silk, and are reared
 with (he view of obtaining the cocoons for the manufacture
 ot silk in the East Indies.  The breed of  these useful in-
 sects has long been cultivated  in  India, although the silk
 produced from them is very little, if at all, known in Eu-
 rope.  The  bombyces remain in  the pupa state for a cer-
 tain time, varying according  to the species,  some only a
 few days or weeks, others six or twelve months, two years,
 or even three.  The same day that the creatures emerge
 from the pupa stale (hey are in a condition to perpetuate
 their race.   Almost immediately  after coupling, the males
 die ; the females live long enough to deposite the eggs in a
 proper place for their security,  and where the infant brood
 may find subsistence, after which they perish likewise.
   The species ofthe  bombyx tribe are numerous.   Those
 already described by  naturalists amount to a large number;
 and there are, in the cabinets of  the curious, many more,
 especially of the extra European species, that have never
 been described ;  even in  the collections of this country,
 those of lhe latter description are numerous.
   BOxN'A notahilia, are such  goods as a person dying
 has in another diocese than that wherein he dies, amount-
 ing to the value of 5/. at least; in which case the will of the
 deceased must be proved, or administration granted, in the
 court of the archbishop of the province, unless by com-
 position or  custom any dioceses  are authorized to do it,
 when rated at a greater sum.
   BOND.   A bond, or obligation, is a deed whereby (he
 obligor, or person bound,  binds himself, his heirs, execu-
 tors, and administrators, to pay a certain sum of money,
 or do some olher act; and there  is generally a condition
 added, (hat if he do perform such act, the obligation shall
 be void, or  else remain in full force; as performance of
 covenants, standing to  an award, payment of rent,  or re-
 payment of a principal sum of  money with interest, which
 principal sum is usually half the sum specified in the bond.
 2. Blacks.  340.
   All persons who are enabled  to contract, and whom the
 law supposes lo have sufficient freedom and understand-
 ing for that  purpose, may bind themselves in bonds and
 obligations.  1 Rol. Abr. 340.
   If the condition of  a  bond is impossible at (he time of
 making it, if it is to  do a thing  contrary to some rule of
 law, or to do a thing that is malum inse, the obligation itself
 is void.  The bond of a feme covert is void,  as is that of
 an infant.  If a person is illegally restrained of his liberty,
 and during such restraint  enters  into a bond (o a person
 who causes (he res(raint, the  same may be avoided for du-
 ress of imprisonment.   2 Inst. 482.
   To avoid  controversies, (hree things are necessary to
 making a good obligation,  signing, sealing, and delivery.
 A bond, on which neither principal nor interest has been
 demanded for '20 years, will  be presumed in equity (o be
 satisfied.  If several obligors  are bound jointly and sever-
 ally, and the  oblijee makes one of tbem his executor, it is
 a release of  the  debt, and the executor cannot sue the
 other obligor.  8 Cor. 136.
   If one obligor  makes the executor of an obligee bis ex-
ecutor,  and leaves assets,  lhe  debt is deemed satisfied;
for he has power  by  way of  retainer  to satisfy the debt.
 A release to one  obligor is a release fo all, both in law
 and equity.  1 Atk. 294.
   Bond, post obit,  one and the main condition of which
 is, that it only  becomes payable after the dealh of some
 person, whose  name is  therein  specified.  The death of
 any person being uncertain as to time, the risk attached to
 such bonds frees  them from  the shackles of  the common
 law of usury.   It has been determined, that bonds bought
 for half their value did not amount to usury, on account of
 the risk with which they were attended.
   Bond, in carpentry,  a term  among  workmen; as, to
 make good bond,  means that they should fasten the two
 or more pieces together either by  tenanting, mortising, or
 dovetailing, &c.
   Bond,  in masonry and bricklaying,  is when bricks or
 stones are  so interwoven that the joints are not made over
 or upon other joints, but reach at  least six inches both
 within the wall  and  on  the surface, as the art of building
 requires.
   BONDAGE by firelock, was when a freeman renounc-
 ed his liberty, and  became slave  to  some  great  man :
 which was  done by  the ceremony of cutting  off a lock of
 hair on the forehead, and  delivering if to his lord ; denot-
 ing that he  was to  be maintained  for the future.   Such
 bondman, if he  reclaimed his liberty, or  was fugitive  from
 his master, might be drawn again  (o his servitude by the
 nose:  hence is  said to be the origin of  the popular men-
 ace to pull a man by the nose.
   BONE,  in  chymistry and the  arts.   The bones are
 the most solid part of animals.  Their texture  is some-
 times dense, at other times cellular and porous, according
 to the  situation of the bone.  They are white, of a lam-
 ellar  structure, and not  flexible  nor softened by heat.
 Their  specific gravity differs  in different parts.   That of
 adults' teeth is 2.2727:  the specific gravity of children's
 teeth  is 2.0833.   It must have been always known that
 bones are combustible,  and that when sufficiently  burnt
 they  leave behind  them a white porous substance, which
 is tasteless, absorbs water, and  has the  form  of lhe origi-
 nal bone.   The nature of this substance embarrassed the
 earlier chymist.  In 1771, Scheele  mentioned in his dis-
 serlation on fluor spar,  that  lhe earthy part of  bones is
 phosphatof lime.  This discovery was the  first  and the
 great slep toward a chymical knowledge of the composi-
 tion of bones.  Afterward, some  new  facts  were  made
 known by Berniard,  Bouillon, and Rouelle; but for by
 far the most complete analysis that has hitherto appeared
 we are indebted to Mr. Hatchett.
   The component parts of bones are chiefly  four: name-
 ly, the earthy salts, fat, gelatine, and cartilage.
   1. The earthy salts may be obtained either by calcining
 the bone to whiteness, or by steeping  it for a sufficient
 length of time  in the acids.   In the first case,  the salts
 remain in the state of a  brittle  white substance.  In  the
 second, they are  dissolved,  and may be thrown down by
 the proper  precipilants.  These earthy salts are three in
 number: 1. Phosphat of lime,  which constitutes by far
 the greatest  part of the  whole.  2. Carbonate of lime.
 3. Sulphat  of lime,  which forms the smallest part.   To
estimate these substances, calcined bones, or  the raspings
of bones, may  be dissolved  in nitric or muriatic acid
During the  solution carbonic  acid gas  makes its escape
Pure ammonia dropped into the solution throws down the
phosphat of hme in the state of a fine powder, readilv sol- 
BON
BON
uble without effervescence by nitric,  muriatic, and acetic
acids.   Nitrat of barytes afterward  causes a small  pre-
cipitate insoluble in muriatic acid, and therefore consist-
ing of sulphat of barytes.   Its weight indicates the quan-
tity of sulphuric acid in bones, from which the sulphat of
lime which they contain may be estimated.  Carbonate
of ammonia now throws  down  pure carbonate of  lime.
These three constituents were found by Hatchett in all the
bones of quadrupeds and fish which he examined.  The
carbonate scarcely exceeds the fifth part of the phosphat,
and the proportion of sulphat is still smaller.
  2. The proportion of fat contained in bones is  no less
various.   By breaking bones in  small pieces, and boiling
f hem for some time in water, Mr. Proust obtained their fat
swimming on the surface of the  liquid.   It weighed, he
says, one fourth ofthe weight ofthe bones employed.  This
proportion appears excessive, and can scarcely be account-
ed for  without supposing that the fat still retained water.
  3. The gelatine is separated by the same means as the fat,
by breaking the bones in pieces, and boiling them long enough
in water.  The water dissolves the gelatine,  and  gelatin-
izes when  sufficiently  concentrated.   Hence the  import-
ance of  bones in  making portable  soups, the  basis of
which  is concrete gelatine,  and likewise in making  glue.
By this process Proust  obtained from powdered bones
about 1 -16th of their weight in gelatine.
  4. When bones are deprived of their gelatine by boil-
ing them in water, and of  their earthy salts by steeping
them in diluted acids, there  remains  a soft  white elastic
substance, possessing the figure of the bones, and known
by  the name of cartilage.   From  the  experiments  of Mr.
Hatchett,  it appears that this substance has the  proper-
ties of coagulated albumen.   Like  that substance, it be-
comes brittle and semitransparent when dried, is readily
soluble in hot nitric acid, is converted kilo gelatine by the
action of  diluted nitric acid; for  it is soluble in hot water,
and gelatinizes on cooling, and  ammonia  dissolves it and
assumes a  deep orange colour.   Like coagulated albumen,
it forms an animal soap with fixed alkalies.
   This cartilaginous substance is the portion of the bone
first formed.  Hence the softness of these parts  at first.
The phosphat of lime is  afterward gradually deposited,
and gives the bone  the  requisite firmness.  The gelatine
and fat, especially  the first,  gave the bone the requisite
degree of  toughness and  strength; for when they are re-
moved,  the bone becomes brittle.  The relative  propor-
tion of phosphat of lime and cartilage differs exceedingly
in different bones and in different  animals.
			fiios.	v^ur.	
One hundred parts con-		Gela-tine 16	Of	of	Loss.
tain			lime.	lime.	
Human bones from a-) burying groupd C			67	«	15.5
Do. dry, but not from 7		23	CS	2	2
under the earth	s				
Bone of ox - - .		3	93	2	2
calf - . .		25	54	trace	21
horse - .		9	67.5	1.25	22 25
sheep . .		16	70	0.5	18.5
elk ...		1.5	90	1	7.5
hog - - .		17	52	1	30
hare - .		9	85	1	5
pullet - •		6	72	1.5	20.5
pike - -		12	64	1	23
carp - .		6	45	0.5	48 5
Horse teeth - - -		12 24	85 5 64	025	2.25
				0.1	11.15
Hartshorn - - -		17	575	1 |	H.5
  Bones, diseases of, see Scrgert.
  Bones,  fossil or petrified, are those found in the earfh,
frequently at great depths in all strata, even in fhe bodies
of stones and rocks.  Some of these bones are of a huge
size, usually supposed to be the bones of giants, butmore
truly of elephants or hippopotami, others smaller, as the
vertebra, teeth, and the like.  It has indeed been disputed
whether these are really  animal  substances  or mineral-
but a chymical investigation proves them  to be animal-
and they were probably deposited in those strata at a time'
when all things were in a state of solution, and they incorpo.
rated and petrified with the bodies  where they happened
to be lodged.
   Mr Hatchett examined some fossil bones from the rock
of Gibralter.  He found them to consist of  phosphat of
lime without any cartilage  or soft animal part.  Their in-
terstices were filled with carbonate of lime.  Hence (hey
resemble exactly bones that have been burnt.  They must
then have been acted on by some foreign  agent; for putre-
faction, or lying in the  earth, does not soon destroy the
cartilaginous part of bones.  On putting a human os hume-
ri, brought from Hy the in Kent, and said  to have been tak-
en from a Saxon tomb, into muriatic acid, he found the car-
tilaginous residuum nearly as complete as in a recent bone,
   BoNE-ace, properly bon, or good, ace, an easy game at
cards, played thus : The dealer deals out two cards to the
first hand, and turns up the third,  and so  on through all
the players, who may be seven, eight, or as many as the
cards will permit; he that has the highest card turned up
to him carries the bone, that is, one half of the stake, the
other remaining to be played for.  Again,  if there are three
kings, three queens, three tens, &c. turned up, the eldest
hand wins the bone ;  but it is to be observed, that the ace
of diamonds is bon-ace,  and wins all other cards whatever.
Thus much for the bone ;  and  as for the other half of the
stake, the nearest to  31 wins it,  and he that turns up or
draws 31  wins it immediately.
   BONING, in surveying and levelling, is the placing of
three or more rods or poles, all ofthe same length, in or
upon the  ground in such a manner that their tops may be
all in one continued straight line, whether it  is horizontal
or inclined, so that the eye may  look along the tops of
them all, from one end of the line to the  other.
   BONNET,  in  fortification, a small work,  consisting of
two faces, having only a parapet  wifh two rows of palisa-
does, of about ten or twelve feet distance.  If is generally
raised  before the salient  angle of  the counterscarp, and
has a communication  wilh the covered way by a trench
cut through the glacis,  and palisadoes on each side.
   Bonnet dpretre, or  priest's bonnet,  in fortification, U
an outwork, having at  the head three salient angles, and
two inward.   It differs  from the double tenaille only in
this; that its sides, instead of being parallel, are like the
queue d'aronde, or swallow's  tail, that  is, narrowing or
drawing close at the gorge, and opening  at the head.
   Bonnet, in the sea language, denotes an addition to a sail;
thus they say, lace on the bonnet, or shake off the bonnet.
   BONPLANDIA gemini flora, in botany, a plant of tbe
class pentandria,  order monogynia,  cal. liber tubulous 5
toothed, cor. 5 parted,  stam. declinate,  stig. trifid,  cap.
ovafp f rigona, 3 celled, 3 sperm, stem elliptical, (u.)
   BONTIA, wild olive of Barbadoes, a  genus ofthe an-
giospermia order  and didynamia  class  of plants, and in
the natural method ranking under  the 40th order, perso- 
BOO
BOO
  natae.  The calyx  is quinquepartite;  the  corolla is bila-
  biated, the inferior lip tripartite and revolute; the drupe
  is ovate  and monospermous, with the  apex turned to one
  side.  There is one species, vis.
    Bontia daphnoides has a woody stem and branches, ris-
  ing to the height of ten feet, with narrow,  smooth, thick-
  ish leaves, and flowers from  the sides of the  branches,
  succeeded by large oval fruit that sometimes ripens in En-
  gland.   This species is generally cultivated  in  the gar-
  dens al Barbadoes  for hedges ;  for which it is  exceedingly
  proper,  being  an evergreen of very quick growth.   It is
  said fhat from cuttings planted  there in the rainy season,
  when they have immediately taken root, there has been a
  complete hedge four or five feet high in 18  months.
    BONZES,  Indian priests, who, in order to distinguish
  themselves from  the laity, wear a chaplet  round their
  heads, consisting of an hundred beads,  and carry a staff,
  af lhe end of which is  a wooden bird.  They live upon
  the alms of the people,  and yet are very charitably dis-
  posed, maintaining several orphans and  widows out of their
  own collections.
   BOOK binding, the  art of gathering and sewing to-
  gether the sheets of a book, and covering it with a back,
  &c.   It  is  performed  ihus: the leaves are  first folded
  with a folding stick, and laid over each olher  in the order
  of the signatures, which are the letters with lhe  numbers
  annexed to them at lhe bottom of the pages of  the first
  one, two, or more leaves in each sheet.   The leaves thus
  folded are then beaten on a stone with a hammer, fo make
  them smooth and  open  well,   and afterward   pressed.
  "While in the press they are sewed upon hands, which are
  pieces of cord or packthread; six  bands to a folio book,
  five to a quarto, octavo, &c.  which is done by drawing a
  thread through the middle of each sheet, and giving it a
  turn  round each band, beginning with  the first and pro-
  ceeding to the last.   After ihis  (he books are glued, and
 the bands opened and scraped, for the better fixing (he
  asteboards; the back is turned wifh a hammer, and the
  ook fixed in a press between two boards, in order to make
 a groove for  fixing the pasteboards; these being  applied,
 holes are made for fixing (hem to the book, which  is press-
 ed a third (ime.   Then (he book is a( las( put fo  the cut-
 ting press, betwixt  (wo boards,  (he one lying even  with
 the press for the knife to run upon, the olher above it for
 the knife to run against:  after which the  pasteboards are
 squared.
   The next operation is the sprinkling fhe  leaves of (he
 book, which is done  by dipping a brush inlo  vermilion and
 sap green, holding (he brush in  one hand, and spreading
 the hair with  (he olher; by which molion (he edges of
 the leaves are sprinkled in a regular manner, without any
 spots being larger (han (he other.
   The covers, which are either of calf or of sheep skin,
 being moistened in water, are nex( cu( ou( (o (he size of (he
 book, (hen smeared  over with paste made of whea( flour
 and i.flerward stretched  over the pasteboard on the  out-
 side, and doubled over the edjres withinside, after bavin*
 first taken off (he four angles, and indented and  pla(ted the
 cover at the head band; which done, the book is covered
 and bound firmly between (wo bands, and (hen  set to dry.
 Afterward it is washed over wifh a  litlle paste and water,'
and then sprinkled fine  wifh a brush; unless it should be
marbled, when the spots are to be made larger by mixing
  vol. i.           47
 the  ink with vitriol.  After this fhe book is glazed twice
 wifh the white of an egg beaten, and at last polished with a
 polishing iron passed hot over (he glazed cover.
    The le((ers or o(her ornaments on books are made wifh
 gilding tools engraved in relievo, either on the points  of
 punchers, or around little cylinders of brass.  The pun-
 chers make their impressions by being pressed flat down,
 and the cylinders by  being  rolled  along  by a handle,  io
 which they are fitted on an iron axis.  To apply the gold,
 the binders glaze  the  parts  of the leather with  a liquor
 made of whites of eggs diluted wilh water, by means ofa
 piece of sponge; and when nearly dry, the pieces of gold
 leaf are laid on, and the tools being  made hot in a charcoal
 fire, are applied.
    Book keeping, an art teaching how to record and dis-
 pose lhe accounts of business, so  that  (he  (rue  s(a(e  of
 every part and of the  whole  may be easily and distinctly
 known.
    Merchants' books are kept either single, or according
 to the method of double entry.  Those who  keep them
 in the former method  have  occasion for few books, as a
 journal or day book, and a ledger or post book; the for-
 mer to  write  all the articles, following each other as they
 occur in the course of  their business, and the  other  to
 draw out the accounts  of all  the debtors and  creditors on
 the journal.  This method is only proper for retail deal-
 ers, or at least for traders who have but very little  busi-
 ness ; bul as  for wholesale dealers  and great merchants,
 who keep their books  according  to  tbe double entry, or
 Italian method, as is now most commonly done, (heir busi-
 ness requires several olher books, lhe usefulness of which
 will be seen from what follows.
   The most considerable books, according to the melhod
 of double enfry, are lhe waste book, the journal, and the
 ledger; but besides  these three, which are absolutely nec-
 essary,  there are several others, to the number of thirteen,
 or even more, called subsenient or auxiliary books, which
 are used in proportion to the  business a man hap, or to the
 nature of fhe business  lhat he carries on.   These books
 are the  cash book, the  debt  book,  the book of numeros,
 the book of invoices, lhe book of accounts current, the
 book of commissions, orders, or advices, &c.
   The waste book may  be defined a register, containing
 an inventory ofa merchant's  effects and debts, wilh a dis-
 tinct record of all his  transactions and dealings, in a way
 of trade, related in a plain simple style, and  in order of
 time as  they succeed one another.
   The waste book opens wilh the inventory,  which con-
 sists of  Iwo parts; first, the effects,  thai is, lhe money  a
 merchant has by him, the goods  he  has in hand, his part
 of ships, houses, farms, &c.  wifh the debts due to him ;
 the second part of the  inventory is  the debts due by him
 toothers;  tbe difference between which and the effects  is
 what the merchants  call  neat stock.   "When a  man begins
 fhe world, and first sets  up  to trade, (he imenlory is (o
 be galhered from a  survey of (he par(iculars  (ha( make
 up his real es(afe ; but ever after it is to be collected from
 the balance of his old books, and carried to lhe new.
   After lhe invenlory is fairly  related in (he waste "book
the transactions of trade come next   to be entered down'
which is a daily task,  lo be  performed  as  they  occur'
The narrative ought  lo exhibit  (ransacCions  wi(h all the
circumstances necessary to be known, and no more.  It 
BOOK KEEPING.
should contain the names of persons with whom the mer-
chant deals upon  trust,  the  conditions of bargains, the
terms of payment, the quantity,  quality,  and prices of
goods, with every thing  that serves to make  the record
distinct, and nothing else.  The waste book, if no subsid-
iary books  are  kept,  should  contain  a record of all the
merchant's transactions and dealings in the  way of trade;
and that not only of such as are properly and purely mer-
cantile, but of every occurrence that  affects his stock, so
as to impair or increase it,  such as private expenses, ser-
vants' fees, house rents, money gained, &c.
   The journal is the book  in  which the transactions re-
corded in the waste  book  are  prepared to be carried to
the ledger, by having their proper debtors and creditors as-
certained and pointed out: whence it may be observed that
the great design of the journal  is to prevent errors in the
ledger: again, after the ledger is filled up,  fhe journal fa-
cilitates the work required  in  revising and correcting it;
for first the waste book and journal are compared, and then
the journal  and ledger ; whereas to revise the ledger im-
mediately from the waste book would be a matter of no
less difficulty than to form it without the help of a journal:
lastly, the journal is designed as a fair record ofa merchant's
business, for neither of the other two books can serve this
purpose; not the ledger, by reason ofthe order that obtains
in it, and also on account of its brevity, being little more than
a large index: nor can the waste book answer this design
as it can neither be  fair nor  uniform, nor very accurate
being commonly written by different hands, and in fimeof
business.   Hence  it is that in case of differences between
a merchant and his dealers, the journal is the book coin-
monly called for and inspected by a civil judge.
  In the journal, persons and  things are charged debtor!
toother  persons  and  things as creditors; and in  this it
agrees with the ledger, where the  same style is used, but
differs from it  as  to forms and order; so that  it agrees
wi(h the waste book  in those very things where it differs
from the ledger; and, on the other  hand, it agrees with the
latter, in the very point wherein it differs from the former;
but in order to state  tbe  comparison betwixt the  waste
book and journal, we  shall turn two or  three examples of
the waste book into a journal form.
WASTE BOOK.
                            July  1st.
Bought of William Pope 40 yards of black cloth at 14s. per yard, pay-1
    able in three months   --.---.       J
Bought of James Sloan 100 yards of shalloon, at lOd. per yard.
     Whereof paid         -     -     -    -    -     -    02 00 00
     Rest due, at two months    -     -    -    -     -    02 03 04
                               4th.
Sold William Pope four pipes of port wine, at 271. 10s. per pipe.  I. s. d.
     Whereof received    -    -    -    -    -     -     55 00 00
     Rest due, on demand       .....55 00 00
                                JOURNAL.

                             July 1st.
Black Cloth Dr.fo William Pope, 28Z.
    For 40 yards, at 14s. per yard, payable in three months
Shalloon Dr. to Sundries, 41. 3s.  4d.
    To cash paid in part for 100yards, at lOd. per yard
    To J.  Sloan, for the rest, due at two months  -
/.	s.	d.
02	00	00
02	03 04	
4th.
Sundries Drs. to Port Wine, 110Z.                      /.  5. jm
    Cash, received in part for four pipes, at 271.10s. per pipe 55 00 00
    William Pope, for the rest, on demand     -       -     55 00 00
 /.

28
110
00
03
00
04
00
   It may be here observed, that every case or example
ofthe waste book,  when entered into  the journal, is call-
ed a journal post or entrance; thus the examples above
make three direct posts.  Again, a post is either simple or
complex: a simple post is that which has but one debtor, and
one creditor, as the first of these above ; a complex post is
either when one debtor is balanced by one or more creditors,
asm the second post  or when two or more debtors are bal-
l

28
03
110
00
00
anced by one creditor, as in (he third post ; or when several
debtors are balanced by several creditors, and then the
post is said fo be complex in both terms.  This being P|"e'
mised, the following rules  are  to be observed for writing
in tbe journal.
   1. In a simple post, the debtor is to be expressly; men-
tioned, (hen the creditor, and lastly  tbe sum, all in one
line; after which the narrative or reason of the entry,'* 
BOOK KEEPINGS
 one  or  more lines,  as  in the first of these three posts
 above.
   2. In a complex post, the  several debtors or creditors
 are expressed in the first line by themselves,  with their
 respective sums subjoined to them ;  which are to be added
 up,  and their total carried  to  the  money columns, as in
 the second and third posts
   3. The debtors  and creditors should be written in a
 large letter or text hand, both for  ornament and distinc-
 tion.
   Before we proceed to explain the ledger, we shall pre-
 viously inquire into  (he na(ure and use of (he (erms debt-
 or and creditor,  as  (he  whole ar( of book keeping entire-
 ly depends on a true idea of those terms, the  nature and
 use of which will be obvious from the following consider-
 ations :
   Accounts  in  the ledger  consist of two parts, which in
 their own nature are  directly opposed to and the reverse
 of one another, which are therefore set fronting one anoth-
 er, and on opposite sides of the same folio.   Thus all the
 articles of the money received go  to the left side of the
 cash account; and  all  the articles or  sums laid out are
 carried to the  right.  In  like  manner  (he purchase of
 goods is posted to the left side of (he accounts  of the said
 goods, and the sale or disposal of them to the right.
   Transactions of trade, or cases of the waste book, are
 also made up of two parts,  which  belong to different ac-
 counts, and to opposite  sides of the ledger, e.g.  If goods
 are bought  for ready money, the two parfs are the goods
 received and  the  money delivered ; the former of which
 goes to the left side of  (he account of the said goods, and
 the latter to the right side of the cash account.
   The two parts in any case in the waste book,  when post-
 ed to the journal, are denominated (he one the debtor, the
 other the creditor of that post; and when carried thence
 to (he ledger, the debtor or debtor part is entered upon
 the left side, hence called the debtor side, of  its own ac-
 count, where it  is  charged debtor  to  (he  creditor part.
 Again,  the creditor or credifor part is posted to the right
 side or creditor side of its account,  and  made creditor by
 the debtor part.  Hence Italian  book  keeping is said to
 be a method of  keeping accounts  by double  entry, be-
 cause every single case ofthe waste  book requires at least
 two entries  in  (he  ledger,  vis.  one for the debtor  and
 another for (he creditor.
   From what has been said it  is evident that  the  terms
 debtor and creditor are nothing else but marks or charac-
 teristics stamped upon the different  parts of transactions
 in the journal, expressing the relation of  these parts to one
 another, and showing (o which side of (heir  respective ac-
 counts in the ledger they are to be carried.
   Having thus far explained  the meaning  of the  terms
 debtor and creditor, we shall now proceed to the ledger,
 or principal book of accounts.
   Ofthe ledger.  The ledger is the principal book where-
 in all the several articles of each  particular  account  that
lie scattered  in other books, according  to Iheir dates, are
collected and placed togelher in spaces  allotted for them,
in such a manner thai lhe opposite parfs  of every account
are directly set fronting one another, on  opposite sides of
the same folio.
             47*
  The ledger's folios are divided into spaces for containing-
the accounts, on  the head of which are written the titles
ofthe  accounts, marked Dr.on the left hand page, and
Cr. on the right; below which stand the articles, wifh fhe
word  To prefixed on the Dr. side,  and the word By on
the Cr. side; and upon the margin are recorded fhe dates
of the articles, in two small  columns allotted for that pur-
pose.   The money columns are the  same as in  other
books ; before them stand  the folio column,  which con-
tains figures directing to the folio where the corresponding
ledger entrance of each  article is made; for every thing
is twice entered in the ledger,  vis. on  the Dr. side of one
account, and again on the Cr. side of some other account;
so that the figures mutually refer from the one to the other,
and are of use  in examining the  ledger.  Besides these
columns, there must-be kept in all accounts, where number,
measure, weight,  or distinction of coins is considered, in-
ner columns to  insert the quantify ; and  for  the ready
finding any account in the ledger, it has an alphabet or in-
dex, wherein are written the  titles of all accounts, wifh
the number ofthe folio where they stand.
  How the ledger is filled up from the journal.  1.  Turn
to the index, and see whether the Dr. of the journal post,
to be  transported, is written there: if not, insert it under
its proper letter, with  the number of the folio to which it
is to be carried.
  2. Having distinguished the  Dr.  and the Cr. sides, as
already directed, recording  the dates,  complete the entry
in one line, by giving a short hint of the nature and terms
of the transaction,  carrying the sum  to  the money col-
umns  ; and inserting the  quantity, if it  is an  account of
goods, &c. in the inner columns, and  the referring figure
in the folio column.
  3. Turn next  to the creditor of the journal post, and
proceed in the same manner with if, both in  (he index
and ledger; wi(h (his difference only,  lhat the entry is
to be made on the Cr. side, and the word By prefixed to if.
  4. The post being thus entered in the ledger, return to
the journal, and on  lhe margin  mark the folios of the ac-
counts, with the folio of the Dr. above,  and the  folio of
the Cr. below, and a small  line  between them  thus f-.
These marginal numbers of the journal, are a kind of  in-
dex to the ledger, and are of use in  examining the books,
and on other occasions.
  5. In opening the accounts  in the ledger,  follow the
order  of  the journal ; that is, beginning with  (he first
journal post, allow the first space in the ledger for (he
Dr. of i(,  (he next for  lhe Cr.  lhe  Ihird for  the Dr. of
the following post, if it is not the same wifh some of those
already opened, and so on till the whole journal be trans-
ported : and supposing that, through  inadvertency, some
former space has been allowed  too large, you are not to go
back to subdivide it, in order to erect another account in
its stead.
  Though these rules are formed for simple posts, where
there  is but one Dr. and one Cr. yet  they may be  easily
applied to complex ones.
  As   an  example  how arlicles  are to be  entered in
the ledger, take fhe  two  accounts of  Cash  and Wil-
liam Pope, so far as mentioned in the  above waste book
and journal. 
BOO
JOURNAL.
BOO
180b.		Casti Dr.	Fo.	/.	s.	d.	1806.		Contra Cr.	Fo.	I.	s.	d.
July	4	To port wine re-ceived in part foi four pipes, at 271. 10s. per pipe.	6	55	00	00	July July	1 1	By shalloon, paid in part for 100 yards at lOd. per yard.	12	2	00	00
													
July	4	Wil.Pope, Dr.							Contra Cr.				
		To port wine, as per journal.	6	55	00	00			By black clofh, for 40 yards, at 14s. per yard.	3	28	00	00
  Cash book.  This is the most important of the auxilia-
ry books.  It is so called,  because it  contains, in debtor
and creditor, all the  cash  that  comes in, and goes out of,
a merchant's stock ;  the receipts on the debtor side; the
persons of whom it was received,  on what, and on whose
account, and in  what specie : and the payments  on tbe
creditor side; mentioning also  the specie, the reasons of
the payments,  to whom,  and for what account they are
made.
  Book of debts or payments,  is a book in which  is writ-
ten down the day on which all sums become due, either
to be received or paid,  by bills of exchange, notes of
hand, merchandises  bought  or  sold,  or  otherwise.  By
comparing receipts and payments, one may, in time, pro-
vide  the necessary funds  for payments, by getting the
bills, notes, &c. due to be paid, or by taking other pre-
cautions.
   Book ofnumeros or wares.  This book is kept in order
to know easily all the merchandises that are lodged in the
 warehouse, those that are taken out of it, and those that
remain therein.
   Book  of Invoices.   This book is kept  to perserve fhe
journal from erasures,  which are  unavoidable in drawing
up the  accounts  of  invoices of the several merchandises
received, sent  out, or sold; wherein one is obliged to en-
ter very  minute  particulars.  I(  is also designed to ren-
der those  invoices easier to find than they can be in the
waste book or  journal.
   Book of accounts current.  This book serves to draw
up the accounts  which are to be sent  to correspondents,
in order to settle them in concert, before they are  balanc-
ed  in the ledger ; it is  properly a duplicate  of the ac-
counts  in the  ledger which is kept to have recourse to
occasionally.
   The other mercantile books generally  in use are, the
 book of commissions, orders, or advices ;  the book of ac-
 ceptances of bills of exchange ; the book of remittances ;
 the  book of expenses; lhe copy book  of letters; the
 book of postage ; the ship books ;  and the book of work-
 men.   To  these may  be  added others, which  depend on
 the greater or  lesser accuracy of the merchants and bank-
 ers, and on the several kinds of trade  carried  on by par-
 ticular dealers.
  Books.   By  8 Anne, c. 19. the author  of any book,
and  his assigns, shall have  the sole liberty of printing
and  reprinting the  same for twenty-one  years, to com-
mence from the day of the first publication thereof, and
no longer ; except that if  the author be living at the ex-
piration of the said  term, the sole copyright shall return
to him for  other fourteen years; and if any other person
shall print, or import, or shall sell or expose it to sale, he
shall forfeit fhe same, and also one penny for every sheet
thereof found in his possession.  But  this  shall not ex-
pose any person to the said forfeitures,  unless  the title
thereof shall be  entered  in the  register book of the com-
pany of stationers.
  By 41 Geo. III. eleven copies of each book, on the
best paper, shall, before publication, be delivered to the
warehouse keeper of the company  of stationers, for tbe
use ofthe royal library, the libraries  of the  two universi-
ties in England, the  four universities in  Scotland, tbe li-
brary of Sion college, tbe library belonging to fhe college
of advocates in Edinburgh, the  library of Trinity college
Dublin, and the  king's inns Dublin, on pain of forfeiting
the value thereof, and also  51.
  By stat. 34 Geo. III. c.  20.  and 41 Geo. III. c.  107,
persons importing  for sale  books first printed within the
united  kingdom, and reprinted  in any other, such books
shall be seized and forfeited ; and every person so expos-
ing such books to sale, for every such offence shall forfeit
the sum of 10/.  The penalties not to extend to books not
having been printed  for twenty years.
 ^ By the act of union, 40 Geo. III. c. 67. all prohibi-
tions and bounties on the export of articles, fhe produce
and  manufacture of  either country, to the other shall
cease;  and a countervailing duty of two pence for every
pound  weight avoirdupois of books, bound  or unbound,
and of maps and prinls,  imported into Great Britain, di-
rectly from Ireland, or which  shall  be imported into Ire-
land from Great Britain, is  substituted.
  BOOM, in the sea language, a long piece of timber wifh
which the  clew  of the studding sail  is  spread  out J and
somefimes  the boom is used to  spread  or boom out tbe
clew of the mainmast.
  The different kinds of booms have  different names ac-
cording to the purposes for which they are intended. 
B  0 R
B  O  R
   Boom denotes also a cable stretched athwart the mouth
 of a i her or harbour; wilh yards, topmasts, battling, or
 spars of wood, lashed to it, to prevent an enemy's coming in.
   BOOMKIN, in sea -vinguage, a short bar of timber pro-
 jecting from each bow of a ship, to extend  one edge of
 th« foresail to the windward ; for which purpose there is a
 large block fixed to its outer end, through which the rope
 is passed that is fastened to (he lower corner  ofthe sail to
 windward, called (he  tack ;  and this  being drawn tight
 down brings the corner of the  sail close to (he block,
 which  being performed, (he  tack  is said  (o be  aboard.
 The bootnkin is secured by a strong rope, which confines
 it downward (o (he ship's bow, to counteract the strain it
 bears from the foresail above, dragging it upward.
   BOOTES, a constellation ofthe northern  hemisphere,
 consisting of 23 stars according to Ptolemy's  catalogue, of
 28 in Tycho's, of 34 in Bayer's, of 52 in Hevelius's, and
 of 45 in Mr. Flamsteed's catalogue.
   BOQUINIANS, in church history, a sect of heretics,
 so called from  Boquinus their founder, who  taught  that
 Christ  did not die for  all mankind, but only for the faith-
 ful, and consequently  was only a particular saviour.
   BORACIC acid.  The word  borax first occurs in the
 works of Geber, an  Arabian chymist of the 10th century.
 It is  a  name given to a species of white salt much used by
 various artists.  Its use in soldering metals appears to have
 been known to  Agricola.
   Borax is found mixed with other substances in Thibet.
 It seems to  exist in some lands adjacent to  lakes, from
 which it is  extracted  by water, and deposited in those
 lakes;  whence  in summer, when the water is shallow, it is
 extracted and carried off in  large lumps.   Sometimes lhe
 water in these lakes is admitted into reservoirs ; at the
 boltom of which, when the water is exhaled  by lhe sum-
 mer's heat, this salt is found.   Hence it is carried to the
 East  Indies, where it is in some measure purified and crys-
 talized ; in this state it comes to Europe, and is called tin-
 cal.  In olher parts of Thibet, it seems, by  accounts re-
 ceived from China, they dig  it out of the ground at the
 depth of about two yards, where they find it in small crys-
 taline masses.
   Though  borax has  been in common use  for  nearly
 three  centuries, it  was only  in  1702, that Homberg, by
 distilling a  mixture of borax and green vitriol, discovered
 the boracic acid.   He called  it narcotic or sedative salt,
 from a notion of his that it  possessed the properties indi-
 cated  by  these names.  Lemery the younger soon after
 discovered, lhat it could likewise be obtained from  bo-
 rax by means ofthe nitric and muriatic acids.  Geoffroy
 afterward discovered, that borax contained soda; and at
 last Baron proved,  by a number of  experiments, lhat
 borax is composed of boracic acid and soda; and  that  it
 may be reproduced  by  combining these two substances.
   The  easiest method of procuring boracic  acid  is the
 following:  dissolve  borax in hot water, and filtre the so-
 lution;  then  add sulphuric  acid, by little  and little, till
 the liquid has a sensibly acid tasfe.  Lay it aside to cool,
 and a great number of small shining laminated crystals will
 form.   These are fhe boracic acid. They are to be wash-
 ed with cold water, and drained upon brown paper.
   Boracic acid,  thus procured, is in the form of thin hex-
agonal scales, of a silvery  whiteness,  having some re-
semblance to spermaceti, and the  same kind of greasy
 feel.  It has a sourish taste at first, (hen makes a bitterish
 cooling impression, and at  last leaves an agreeable sweet-
 ness.  It has no smell;  but when sulphuric acid is poured
 on it, a (ransien( odour of musk is produced.
   It reddens vegetable blue3.  Its specific gravity  is 1.479,
 while in the form of scales; after it has been  fused it is
 1.803.
   It is not altered by lighf.  It is perfectly fixed in the
 fire.  At a red heat it melts, and is converted into a hard
 transparent glass ; which becomes somewhat opaque when
 exposed to  the air, but does not attract moisture.   It  is
 much less soluble in water than any of the  acids  hitherto
 described.  Boiling water scarcely dissolves 0.02 of bo-
 racic acid, and cold water a still smaller quantity. When
 this solution is distilled in  close vessels, part of  the acid
 evaporates along with the water, and crystalizes in the re-
 ceiver.  Water, iherefore, renders it  in  some  measure
 volatile, (hough it is  perfectly fixed when  in a state of
 dryness.
   Neither oxygen gas, the  simple combustibles, the  sim-
 ple  incombustibles, nor the metals, produce any change
 upon boracic acid, as far as is at present known.   It is sol-
 uble in alcohol; and alcohol containing it burns with a green
 flame.  Paper dipped into a solution of boracic acid burns
 with a green flame.
   Though  mixed  with  fine powder of charcoal, it is nev-
 ertheless capable of vitrification ; and with soot  it melts
 into a black bitumen like mass, which is, however, soluble
 in water, and cannot be easily calcined to ashes, but  sub-
 limes in part.
   With the assistance of a distilling heat  it dissolves  in
 oils, especially in mineral oils; and with these it yields
 fluid and solid products, which give a green colour  lo spirit
 of wine.
   When boracic acid is rubbed with phosphorus, it  does
 not prevent its inflammation ; but an earthy  yellow matter
 is left behind.
   It is hardly capable of oxidizing or  dissolving any of
 the metals except iron and zinc, and perhaps copper.
   Boracic acid combines with alkalies, alkaline earths, and
 alumina, and most of the metallic oxides, and forms com-
 pounds which are called borats.
   Sub-borat of soda, or common borax.   See Borax.
   BORAGO, in botany, a genus of the  pentandria mono-
 gynia class and order of plants, the flower of which  con-
 sists of a single petal ofthe  length ofthe cup, and  divided
 into  five segments : there is no pericarpium, but  the cup
 grows  larger and inflated ; and  contains four seeds  of  a
 roundish figure,  rugose, carinated  outwardly from the
 point, globose at  the base,  and inserted into a hollow re-
 ceptacle.   There are five species.  The leaves of borage
are accounted good in removing faintness; for which  rea-
son the tops are frequently put into wine and  cool tankards.
Boerhaave recommends the expressed juice in all inflamma-
tory diseases.   The flowers  are  one  of the four cordial
flowers.  The only officinal preparation  is lhe conserve of
the flowers.
  BORASSUS, in botany, a genus of plants, of the dioe-
cia hexandria class and order.  The male  and female
flowers grow  on separate plants,  and give lhe plant  such
a different figure, that fhey are called by different names
iu the Hortus Malabaricus ; the male being called ampana
and the female  carimpana.   The male has  for the cup of 
B  O  R
B  O R
its flower the whole compound spatha, which is amenta-
ceous and  imbricated: the flower is  divided into three
segments, the petals being hollowed, and of an ovaffig-
ure : the stamina are six thick filaments, and the antherse
are thick and slriated.   In the female, the cup is the same
as in the male; but the petals of the  flower, which is di-
vided into three parfs,  in the manner of the male, are very
small, of a roundish figure, and remain  when the  pistil,
&c. fall off.   The germen of the pistil is  roundish;  the
styles are three, and small, and the stigmata are small; the
fruit is a roundish obtuse berry, ofa  rigid structure, and
containing  only one  cell; the seeds  are (hree, and of an
oval compressed figure.  There is one species, a native of
Ceylon.
  BORAX, or sub-borat of soda.  This salt, according to
Bergmann, is composed of
                       39 acid
                        17 soda
                       44  water
                       100.
   It is decomposed by the  following  salts,  according to
Fourcroy :  1 Sulphats of lime, ammonia, magnesia, gluci-
na, alumina, zirconia.  2. Sulphats of ammonia, magnesia.
3. Nitrats of barytes, strontian, lime, ammonia, magnesia,
glucina,  alumina, zirconia.  4. Muriats of barytes, stron-
tian, lime, ammonia, magnesia, glucina, alumina, zirconia.
5. Superphosphat of lime. 6. Phosphate of ammonia, mag-
nesia,  glucina, alumina,  zirconia.   7. Filiate of barytes,
strontian, magnesia, ammonia, glucina,  alumina, zirconia.
   Borax is sometimes used  in  medicine as an astringent.
It is used as a flux  for metals, and enters into the compo-
sition of some of  the coloured glass pastes made in imita-
tion of gems; but  its great use is to facilitate the  solder-
ing ofthe more precious metals.  It  is employed also as a
flux by mineralogists in essaying the properties of miner-
als by the blow pipe.
   Borat of ammonia may be formed by saturating boracic
acid  with ammonia.  It has  scarcely been examined.
Fourcroy affirms, that when its solution is evaporated, the
ammonia is volatilized, and the  acid crystalizes.
   Borat of alumina  may be formed by mixing together the
solutions of borat of soda and sulphat of alumina.   It is
said to be scarcely  soluble in water,  and not to crystalize.
   When boracic  acid and  silica are  exposed to a strong
heat, they melt together into  a transparent glass.  This
compound has received the name of borat of silica.
   BORBONIA,a  genus ofthe decandria order, and dia-
delphia class of plants.   The stigma is emarginated ; the
calyx  has pointed  spines; and  tbe  legumen is pointed.
There are six species,  all natives  of warm countries.
They are a kind of broom ; and rise to the height of ten
or twelve feet, but in Europe seldom above  four or five.
They are green house plants, and may be propagated by
layers; but as these are generally two  years before they
put forth roots, (he  best method is by seeds, which must
be procured from their native places.
  BORBORITES, borboritoe,  in church history,  a sect
of gnostics in the second century, who, besides embrac-
ing the errors of  these  Christians, denied the last judg-
ment.  Their name comes from jBopGjw, filth, on account
of a custom they had of daubing their  faces  and  bodies
with dirt and filth.
  BORDARII, a term mentioned'in the Doomsday in-
 quisition;  tbey were distinct fiom the  servi and villani,
 and were of a somewhat higher rank j having a bord, or
 cottage, with a small parcel of land allowed to them, on
 condition that they  should supply the lord with poultry
 and eggs, and other  small provisions for  his board and en-
 tertainment.  The same  term is used  to denote servants
 employed in fetching wood, drawing water, grinding corn
 cleaning yards, &c.  by which they are distinguished from
 villani, employed in  the tillage of lands.
   BORDURE, in heraldry, a cutting off from within the
 escutcheon all round it about one fifth  of the field, serving
 as a difference in a coat of arms, to distinguish families of
 the  same name, or persons bearing the same coat.
   If the line constituting the bordure is  straight, and the
 bordure plain, then in blazoning you must only name  the
 colour of the bordure.
   BOREAL signs, in astronomy, are  the first six signs
 of the zodiac, or those northward of the equinoctial.
   BORECOLE.  See  Brassica.
   BORER, an implement  invented for the purpose of
 searching or exploring the nature of soils. It is composed
 of two rods of iron,  each about six feet long, and an inch
 in diameter, which screw into one another.  By this instru-
 ment two men  will easily sound the depth of twelve feet
 in less than a quarter of an hour, if they do not meet with
 many stones.  Thus, without much charge, or any hazard,
 there  is a certainty of discovering what earths are under
 the upper soil, and whether other substances lie conceal-
 ed there,  such as marl, chalk, fullers' earlh, fossil shells,
 coals,  quarries of slate or stone, oars, &c.
   BORING,  in mineralogy, a method of piercing fhe
 earth by a set of scooping irons, made with joints so as to
 be lengthened at pleasure.   The mineralogist can guess
 where a vein of  oar may lie, though there are none of the
 common outward signs of it upon the surface of the earth,
 and  in this case he has recourse to boring:  the  scooping
 irons are drawn  back at proper times,  and the samples of
 earth and mineral matters they bring up are examined,  to
 know whether it will be worth while to open a mine in the
 place.
   Boring  of water pipes.   The method of boring water
 pipes is as  follows.  The poles of alder, which  is a very
 useful wood in making pumps,  water pipes, &c. being laid
 on horses or tressels  of a foot in height,  to rest the auger
 upon while they  are boring,  they set up a lathe to turn the
 least end of the poles, to fit them  to  the cavities of the
 great end of the others.   They turn the small ends of the
 poles about five or six inches in length,  to the size they
 intend to bore the  larger ends about the same depth, vis.
 5 or  6  inches.   This is designed to make a joint to shut
 each  pair of  holes  together; the concave part  being
 the female part,  and the other part the  male, of the joint.
 In turning the male part they turn a channel  in it, or a
 small groove at a certain distance from the end ; and in the
 female part,  they bore a small hole to fit over this channel.
This being done, they bore the poles through ; and fo pre-
vent them from  boring out at the side,  they stick great
nails at each end to be a guide in boring.    It is usual,  how-
ever, to bore them at  both ends ; so that if a pole is crook-
ed one way,  they can  bore it through and  not  spoil
it.
  The operation is now performed  wifh  a  horse mill, afl
at Dorset stairs, for the new river company.  See Pipe
boring. 
BOS
BOS
  BOROUGH,  Burrough,  Borow, or Burgh, a cor-
poration or town which is not a city.  The word in its orig-
inal signification meant  a company consisting of ten fami-
lies,  which  were bound together as each other's pledge.
Afterward borough came to signify a town, having a wall
or some kind of enclosure round it; and all places which
formerly had the name of borough, it is said,  were forti-
fied, or fenced in some shape or other.
  The  name is now  particularly  appropriated  to such
towns or villages as send burgesses or representatives to
parliament, whether they are incorporated or not.  They
are  distinguished into those by  charter or statute, and
those by prescription or custom.  The number in England
and Wales, including cities and cinque ports, which elect
members, is 215 j some of which send one, and some two
representatives.
  Royal Boroughs, in Scotland,  are corporations made
for the advantage of trade, by charters granted by several
of (heir kings, having the privilege of sending commission-
ers  (o represen( (hem in parliament, besides other  pecu-
liar immunities.  They form a body of themselves, and send
commissioners each to an annual convention at Edinburgh,
to consult the benefit of trade and their general interest.
  Borough English, a customary descent  of lands or
tenements, in certain places, by which they descend to the
youngest instead of the eldest son ; or, if the owner has no
issue, to the younger instead  ofthe elder brother.   This
custom goes with the  land, although (here be a devise or
feoffment at the common  law to the contrary.  The rea-
son of this  custom, says Littleton, is because (he young-
est  is presumed, in law, to be least  able to  provide for
himself.
  Borough head.  See Headborough.
  BORRELLISTS, in church history, a Christian sect
in Holland. They are a kind of anabaptists,  but they
have some very particular opinions. They reject the use
of churches, of sacraments, public prayer,  and all other
external acts of worship.
  BORRERA, in botany, a genus of the class cryptoga-
mia, order sichenes; of this there are four species, natives
of America. 1. B. Ciliaris ; 2. B. Leucomela ; 3. B. Chry-
sophthalma ; 4. B. Exilis.  (a.)
  BORYA, in  botany, a genus ofthe class dioecia, order
diandria; the calyx four leaved, corolla none, drupa 1 sper-
raa: there are three species ;  vis.  1. B. Porulosa, a native
of Florida.  2. B. Ligustrina, a native of Tennessee. 4. B.
Accuminata, a native  of Carolina and Georgia.
  BOS, in zoology, the ox, a genus of quadrupeds of the
order of pecora. The generic character is, horns  concave,
turned outward, lunated, smooth;  front teeth eight in the
lower jaw; canine  teeth none.
  1st. The bison,  from which (he several races  of com-
mon cattle  have been gradually derived, is  found wild in
many parts both of (be old and new continents; inhabiting
woody regions,  and arriving  at a size far larger  than (hat
of the domestic or cultivated animal.   In this its native
state  of wildness,  the bison is distinguished, not only by
his size, but by the superior depth and shagginess of his
hair; which about tbe head, neck, and shoulders, is some-
times of such a  length as almost to touch the ground : his
horns are ra(her shor(, sharp pointed,  extremely  strong,
and stand distant from each other at their bases, like those
ofthe common bull.   His colour is sometimes of a dark
blackish  brown,  and sometimes rufous brown; his eyes
large and fierce; his limbs extremely strong, and his whole
aspect in  degree savage and  gloomy.  See Plate X\ I.
Nat. Hist. fig. 59.
  The principal  European regions where this animal is at
present found, are the marshy forests of Poland, lhe Car-
pathian mountains, and Lithuania.   Ils chief Asiatic resi-
dence is the neighbourhood of mount Caucasus ; but it is
also found in other parts of the Asiatic world.
  The American  bison seems to differ in no respect from
the European, except in being more shaggy, and having a
more protuberant bunch or fleshy substance over the shoul-
ders.
  It grows to a vast size, and has been found to weigh six-
teen hundred, and even Iwo thousand four hundred pounds ;
and the strongest man cannot lift one of the skins from (he
ground.
  These were the  only animals which bore any affinity
to the European cattle,  on  the  first discovery of the
American continent;  and might have been made to answer
every  purpose of the European cow ; but the natives, be-
ing in a savage state,  and living chiefly by chase, had nev-
er attempted the domestication of the animal.
   2d.  Common ox.  This is, in reality, the bison reduc-
ed to a domestic state; in which, in different parts of the
world, it runs into as many varieties as  the sheep ; differ-
ing widely in size, form, and colour, according to  climate
and olher circumstances.  Its  importance in  this ils do-
mestic state needs not be  mentioned.  Formerly the ox
constituted the whole riches of mankind ; and he is  still the
basis of the wealth of nations, which subsist  and  flourish
in proportion  to  tbe cultivation of their lands and the
number of Iheir  cattle.  See Plate XVI. Nat. Hist. fig.
54, 55.
   The British breed of horned cattle  has been so much
improved by a foreign mixture, that it is difficult to point
out the original kind  of these islands.   Those  which may
be supposed to have been purely British, are  far  inferior
in size to those of the northern parts  of the continent.
The cattle of the highlands of Scotland  are  exceeding-
ly small;  and many  of them,  males as well  as females,
are hornless.  The  Welsh runts are  much  larger : (he
black  cattle of Cornwall are  of the same size with the
last.   The  large kind that is now cultivated throughout
most parts of Great Britain, are either entirely of a for-
eign  extraction,  or  our  own  improved  by a  cross  with
the foreign kind.  The  Lincolnshire  kind  derive  their
size from  the Holstein breed ; and the large hornless cat-
tle that are bred in some parts of England came originally
from Poland.
   3d.  Indian ox.  This variety is  found in many  parts of
India, also in the Indian and African islands, and particular-
ly in Madagascar. It is of a reddish colour, of a very large
size,  and is distinguished  by a very large protuberance
above the shoulders.
   4th. Zebu.  This variety resembles the preceding, but
is extremely small,  being found in some parts of  India of
a size  scarcely larger than  a great dog.   In colour it dif-
fers like  the  common cattle; being  either gray, brown
while, &c. or variously  spotted.   See Plate XVI. Nat!
 Hist.  fig. 60.
   5th. Loose horned ox.  This is said to be  found  in
 Abyssinia and Madagascar,  and to be  distinguished by 
BOS
BOS
 pendulous ears, and horns attached only to the skin, so as
 to hang down on each side.
   6. Bourj-.  Of the size ofa camel, and ofa snowy white-
 ness, withaprofuberanceon the back. Native of Madagas-
 car, and some other islands, called by the name ofBoury.
   7. Tinian ox.  Of a white colour, with black ears.   In»
 habits the island of Tinian.
   II.   Bos Arnee.   Ox with upright  lunated horns, flat
 and wrinkled on their upper surface.
   This is an Indian species, known chiefly from its vast
 horns, which are sometimes seen in museums, and from  In-
 dian paintings, in which it is occasionally represented. It is
 said to have been met wilh by a  British officer, in the
 woods above Bengal, and fo have been about fourteen feet
 high, which is to be understood  of  the measure from the
 hoofs fo the fop of the horns.   It partakes ofthe  form of
 the horse, the bull, and the deer, and is a very bold and
 daring animal.
   III. Bos Babylus, or Buffalo, ox wilb horns lying back-
 ward, turning inward, and flat on the fore part. See Plate
 Nat. Hist. fig. 61.
   In its general appearance, the buffalo is so nearly allied
 to the common  ox, that without an  attentive examination
 it might pass for a variety of the same animal.  It differs,
 however, in the form of its horns, and in some particulars
 relative to its internal structure.  The  buffalo is rather
 superior in size  to the common ox, the head larger in pro-
 portion ; the  forehead higher; the  muzzle  of a longer
 form, but at the same  time broad and  square.  But it is
 principally  the form of the horns that  distinguishes the
 buffalo.   They  are large, and of a compressed or depress-
 ed! form, with the exterior  edge sharp.  The buffalo has
 an  appearance of great strength, and a more ferocious or
 malignant aspect than the bull; owing to the convexity of
 his forehead, the smallness  of his eyes, the flatness of his
 muzzle, and the flatter and more inclined position of his
 horns.   The general or prevailing colour ofthe buffalo is
 blackish, except lhe hair on the top of  lhe forehead, and
 that at the tip of the tail, which  is  of a yellowish white:
 the skin itself  is also of a black colour; and from this
 general cast it is but very seldom observed to vary.
   As the buffalo in his domesticated state is, in general,
 larger and  stronger than  the ox, he is employed wilh ad-
 vantage in different kinds of labour.  Buffaloes are made
 fo draw heavy loads, and are commonly directed and re-
 strained by means ofa ring passed through the nose. Two
 buffaloes yoked, or rather chained lo a cart, are  able fo
 draw as much as four strong horses.  As they carry their
 neck and head low, the whole  weight of their body is em-
 ployed in drawing;  and their mass much surpasses  that  of
 a labouring horse.   In ifs babits the  buffalo is much less
 cleanly than the ox; delighting  to  wallow in the mud;
 and, next to the hog, may be considered as  the  dirtiest
 of domesticated  quadrupeds.  His voice is deeper, more
 uncouth and hideous, than that  of fhe bull.  The  milk  of
 the female buffalo is said by some authors to  be  not  so
 good as that of  the cow; but il is more  plentiful,  and is
 used for the purposes of the dairy in the warmer regions.
 Italy is (he countey  where buffaloes are at present most
 common in a domesticated state; being used, as in  India,
 both for the dairy and for draught.   The district  of fhe
 Pontine marshes is fhe spot which may  be considered as
their principal station.   In  India (his animal is occasion-
\y used for the saddle, as a substitute for the horse.
   The buffalo, like other animals of this* genus, admits 0f
 varieties as to size and figure.   Of these the most ; en ark-
 able  is the small naked Indian buffalo of  Mr. Pennant,
 which is fhe size of a runt, with a nearly naked body,(hin-
 ly  beset  with  bristly  hair: the  rump and thighs quite
 bare; the  first being marked on each side with dusky
 stripes pointing downward, the last  with two transverse
 stripes: the horns compressed sideways, taper, and sharp
 at the point.  It is a native of India.
   Another variety,  still smaller, is  said to occur in (he
 mountains of the  Celebes,  which are full of caverns.
 This variety is of the size of a middling sheep, and is seen
 in small herds, very wild, and difficult to be taken; and
 even in confinement are so fierce, that Mr. Pennant records
 an instance of fourteen stags being destroyed in the space
 of a single night by one of these animals which was kept in
 the same paddock.
   IV. Bos Moschatus, or musk ox,  having very long
 pendent hair, and horns (in the male approximated at the
 base) bending inward and downward, and outward at the
 tips.
   It  is a native of North America, where it  appears fobe
 a very local animal; being found  first in the tract be-
 tween Churchill river and that of the Seals, on  lhe west
 side of Hudson's bay ;  and is very numerous between Ibe
 latitudes 66 and 73 north, which is as far as any tribes of
 Indians go.
   This animal is but of small size, being rather lower than
 the deer*  but larger or thicker in body.  The hair, in the
 male, is ofa dusky red colour, extremely fine, and so long
 as to trail  on the ground, and renders the animal a seem-
 ingly  shapeless mass,  without  distinction  of  head or
 fail:  lhe  legs are very short ;  the  shoulders rise into
 a lump, and the tail is very short, being a kind of stump
 of a few inches only, with  very long hairs.  Beneath Ike
 hair,  on all parts of the animal, is an extremely  fine cin-
 ereous wool, which  is said to be  more beaufiful than silk
 when manufactured into stockings and olher articles. The
 horns are closely united at the base, bending inward and
 downward ;  but turning outward toward the tips, which are
 very  sharp: near the base the horns are two feet in girth,
 but are only two feet long when measured along lhe cur-
 vature : the weight of a pair, separated from lhe head, is
 sometimes sixty pounds.
  The cow, or female, differs from lhe male in having the
 horns much smaller,  and placed  at the distance of nine
 inches from each other at lhe base.
  The general colour of the cow is black, except lhat fhe
 legs are whitish, and between lhe  horns there is a bed of
 white hair intermixed with rust colour; a dusky mane, or
 elevated ridge of  hair, runs  along the back, and on the
 middle of the back is an oblong patch or  bed  of pure
 white.
  These  creatures  delight  most in rocky and barren
 mountains, and seldom frequent (he wooded parte of tbe
 country,  They run nimbly, and are very ac(ive in climb-
ing (he  rocks.  Their flesh tastes very  strongly of musk;
 and the heart in particular is said  lo be so thoroughly im-
 pregnated with the flavour as to be scarcely eatable.  The
 flesh, however, is  supposed  fo be very wholesome, and
 has been found a speedy restorative to sickly crews who
 have  made it their food.
  V. Bos Grunniens, or Yak,  having  with cylindric
 horns curving outward, very long pendent hair, and ex- 
BOS
BOT
  tremely villose horse like tail, is about the height of  an
  English bull, which he resembles in the general figure of
  the body, head, and legs ; if is covered  all over  with  a
  thick coat of long hair.  The head is rather short, crown-
  ed with two smooth round  horns, which, tapering from the
  roof upward, terminate in  sharp points : ihey are arched
  inward, bending toward  each olher,  but near the extremi-
  ties are a little turned back.
   They  are  a very  valuable property to the tribes  of
  itinerant  Tartars,  called Duckba,  who live in tents and
  tend them from place to place: they at the same time af-
  ford their herdsmen  an  easy mode of conveyance, a good
  covering,  and wholesome  subsistence.  They  are never
  employed in agriculture, but aie exlremely useful as beasts
  of burthen ; for they are strong, sure  footed, and carry a
  great weight.   Tenis and  ropes are  manufacJured of their
  hair; and amongst (he humbler ranks  of herdsmen, caps
 *and jacke(s  are made of (heir skins.  Their (ails  are es-
  teemed throughout the East, as far  as luxury and  parade
  have any influence on fhe manners of (he  people.   In In-
  dia no man of fashion ever goes ou(, or sits in form at home,
  without two  chowrabadars,  or brushers,  attending him,
  each furnished with one  of these tails mounted on silver or
  ivory handles, to brush away the flies.  The Chinese dye
  them of a beautiful  red, and wear them as tufts to their
  summer bonnets.
   The yak is the most fearful of animals, and very swift;
  but when chased by men or dogs, and finding itself nearly
  overtaken, it will face its pursuers, and hide its hind parts
  in some bush, and wait for them ; imagining that if it could
  conceal its tail,  which was  (he object they were in  search
  of, it would escape unhurt.
   VI. Bos Caffer, or  cape ox,  having  the horns very
  broad at the base, then spreading downward, next upward,
  and at the tips curving inward;  inhabits the interior parts
 of Africa, north of lhe cape of Good  Hope, and  is  greatly
  superior in size to the largest English ox.    It is ofa very
 strong and muscular form, wit ha fierce and malevolent aspect.
 Its colour is a deep cinereous brown : the hair on the body
 is rather short, but that on  the head and breast very long,
 coarse, and black, hanging  down the  dewlap, like that ofa
 bison :  from the hind part of the head (o lhe middle of the
 back is also a loose black  mane: the tail is nearly naked
 at the base ; the remainder being covered with  long loose
 hair.
   These  animals are found in large herds in the desert
 parts beyond the Cape;  and if met in the  narrow parts  of
 woods, are extremely dangerous, rushing suddenly on the
 traveller, goring and trampling both man and horse under
 foot.   It is also  said that they will often strip off the skin
 of such animals as they have killed,  by licking them wilh
 their rough tongues,  as recorded by some of lhe ancient
 authors of the bison.   The urcus is lhe same animal wifh
 the common bull in its natural and wild state.  See Plate
 Nat. Hist. fig. 5ft.  See  also figs. 56, and 57.
   BOSCOI, or  Bosci, a (ribe of monks in Palestine, who
 fed on  grass like the  beasfs ofthe field.  They are rank-
 ed among  lhe number of Adamites, on account of the little
 care fhey  took about provision;  when  (hey were hungrv,
 they went  info the fields, each wifh his knife in his hand,
 and ealhered and ate what  (hey could find.
  BOSE.A, golden  rod  trkk: a  genus of the digynia
order, and pentandria class of plants;  and in the  natural
  vol. i.            48
 method ranking under  the  53d  order, scabridse.  The
 calyx is pentaphyllous ; there is no corolla, and (he berry
 is monospermous.  Of  this genus there  is but  one spe-
 cies, vis.
   Bosea yervamora.  It  is a  native of  the Canary and
 Caribbee islands, and has  been long an inhabitant  of the
 British botanic gardens. It is a pretty strong woody shrub,
 growing with a stem as large as a man's leg.   It may be
 propagated by cutlings  planted in spring; and the plants
 must be housed in winter.
   BOSS,  among bricklayers, denotes a  wooden utensil
 in which lhe mortar used  in tiling is to be  put.   It has an
 iron hook by which it may be hung on the laths or on the
 ladder.
   BOSSAGE, in architecture, a term used for any stone
 that has a projecture, and  is laid rough in a building to be
 afterward  carved inlo mouldings, capitals, coafs of aims.
 It is also that which is otherwise called  rustic work, and
 consists of stones which advance beyond the naked or lev-
 el ofthe building, by reason of indentures or channels left
 in the joinings.
   BOSSIACA heterophylla, in botany, a plant ofthe  di-
 adelphia, decandria class and order; the calyx is two lip-
 ped, heart  shaped; carina two petals; a shrub, native of
 New Holland.   (6.)
   BOSTANGIS, in the Turkish affairs, persons  employ-
 ed in the garden ofthe seraglio, out of whose number are
 collected those who are to row in the grand seignior's brig-
 anfines.
   BOSTRYCHITES lapis, a  name given  to a  sfone
 supposed fo contain women's hair  included in it.  Soma
 have understood by it those  pieces of crystal which
 have accidental  foulness in  them resembling hair;  others
 call  by this name those German agates which contain  ei-
 ther the confervae or other capillary  water plants.  It  is
 also a name given to a species of pyrites, the  irradiations
 of which were supposed to imitate hair.
   BOTANY, from Bot«v»j, Greek, an herb or plant, former-
 ly implied  a  knowledge ofthe  nature, uses, and cultiva-
 tion  of plants.  In our accounts of the different genera,
 we have endeavoured to combine these three objects. But
 as a  modern science, botany chiefly applies to the classifi-
 cation of plants ;  or that systematic arrangement by which,
 from general marks  or characters, fhe botanist is  enabled,
 first  to trace lhe class, next the order, then the genus, and
 last of all lhe species, to which any plant he meets with
 belongs.
  Various  systems have been invented for the classifica-
 tion ofthe  vegetable Iribes ; but that of Linnseus, as the
 simplest and most decisive, has superseded them  all. It is
 founded on fhe sexual system, or that which supposes all
plants to have male  and female parts of generation ;  a sys-
 tem which Ihere is every reason lo believe physiologically
 true, but which in that view will be more properly treat-
 ed of under the article Phvsiology of Plants.

           Sect. I.  Of the parts of plants.

  The principal outlines ofa plant are thus delineated by
Linnaeus:
  A  plant consists ofa root, trunk, leaves, props, fructifi-
cation, and inflorescence,  to which may  be added the
habit.
  I.   The root consists of  two parts, lis. the caudex and 
BOTANY.
(he radicula, distinguished according to shape, direction,
duration, &c.
   1. Caudex, the stump,  is the body or knob of tbe root,
from which the trunk and branches ascend, and the fibrous
roots descend, and in different plants is either solid, bul-
bous, or tuberous.   Solid,*as in trees,  shrubs,  and many
of fhe herbs.  Bulbous is explained under Hyrernacu-
lum.  Tuberous knobs are also solid and hard, containing
one or more embryos or eyes.  They are either only one
knob,  as turnip, carrot, &c.  containing only one eye at
the top ;  or consist of many knobs connected together by
slender fibres, as  in potatoes,  Jerusalem artichokes, &c.
each containing many  eyes dispersed  over the surface;
and are either pitted, when the eyes lie inward, as in po-
tatoes, &c. or tuberculated, containing the eyes outward,
as in Jerusalem artichokes, &c.  In tuberous knobs, tbe
fibres or stringy parts issue from every part of the surface,
which is an essential difference from bulbous knobs, where
they are confined  to the caudex of the bulb only,  and
are the true and genuine roots, the bulb itself being only  a
large bud under ground.  Those tuberous knobs with only
one eye, differ as to duration,  but are in general biennial;
those wifh many eyes are perennial; both seem to be pro-
duced by the nutriment ofthe stemlike buds, and not by the
fibrous roots,  for  the  stem is first formed and becomes
strong, and as it grows to maturity, tbe tuberous knobs in-
crease.
   2. Radicula, a little root,  is the string  or fibrous part of
the root, descending from the caudex:  it is really the prin-
cipal and essential part of every root, and by  which the
nourishment is drawn from the earth for the support ofthe
plant.
   II. The trunk rises  immediately from the caudex ; and
produces  the leaves,  flowers  and  fruit.   It  is  either
herbaceous,  shrubby, or arborescent; and is distinguish-
ed according to its shape, substance, surface, &c. as fol-
lows :
   1. Caulis, a stalk or stem, is the main  trunk which ele-
vates the leaves and fructification, and is applied to trees,
shrubs, and herbs.  It  is  denominated simple when it does
not divide, and compound when it is divided into branches.
   2. Culmus, a straw or haulm,  is the  proper  trunk of
grasses, and also elevates both the leaves and fructifica-
tion.  It  is  sometimes jointed, and sometimes not:  it is
also sometimes round and sometimes angular.
   3. Scapus, a stalk, is an herbaceous trunk which elevates
the fructification,  but not the leaves;  that is, it is a stalk
proceeding immediately from  the root, and terminated by
the flowers, as in narcissus, hyacinth, &c.
   4. Stipes, a trunk, used by  Linnaeus for  the trunk of
mushrooms, as also for that slender thread or footstalk
which elevates the feathery or hairy  down wifh  which
some seeds are furnished, and connects it with the seed.
   III. The leaves are either simple or compound, and are
distinguished by tbeir figure, situation, insertion, number,
divisions, &c.
   1. A simple leaf is such as adheres to fhe branch singly,
or whose footstalk  is terminated by a single expansion, not
parted to the middle rib, and is determined by i(s shape,
surface, and div isions.
   2. A compound  leaf is such whose footstalk is furnished
wifh several  separate simple expansions, or whose divi-
sions extend to the middle rib, now called a common peti-
ole or footstalk, supporting several lobes or little simple
leaves, of which  the  compound leaf consists.   They  are
distinguished by shape, &c. and the form by which (hey
are attached to the common footsalk, as palmated, winged,
feathered, &c.   Sometimes leaves are  twice or more coin-
pounded, which divisions admit of many modifications, and
give rise lo as great variety of terms.   It may  sometimes
be difficult, at first sight, to know a common footstalk (oa
compound  leaf from  a branch; but a common footstalk
where it issues  from the branch,  is either flat or hollow on
one side, and convex  on the olher; whereas branches are
alike on both sides, whether round, flat, or angular: again,
buds are never found at the angles formed by the lobes of
a compound  leaf with the footstalk, but at  the angles
formed  by  the  footstalk of the whole  compound leaf and
the stem; and it may  always be certainly distinguished  by
its falling off wilh the little leaves which  it supports. The
manner or place in which leaves are attached to the plant,
is called the determination of leaves, and is distinguished
by several  terms, according to number, disposition, inser-
tion, figure, &c.   For the different kinds of  leaves, see
Plates XVII, XVIII, XIX.  Botany.
   IV. The props, fulcra, a term used to  express those ex-
ternal  parts  which  strengthen,  support, or defend, the
plants on which they  are found, or serve  to facilitate some
necessary secretion, are as follow :
   1. Petiolus, the footstalk or support ofa leaf.
   2. Pedunculus, the footstalk or support of a flower.
   3. Stipula, haulm or husk,  a sort of scale or  small leaf
stationed on most plants, when present, on each side the
base of the footstalk of leaves and flowers, at the first ap-
pearance, for the purpose of support.   They are placed
either single or double, and sometimes on the inside, as in
the fig and mulberry; or on the  outside, as in  the birch,
lime,  and papilionaceous flowers.  They are  also either
sitting,  extended downward,  or  sheathing along the stem,
as in the plane  tree.   As to duration, they sometime! fall
before the  leaves, and sometimes are equally persistent.
They often afford a good distinction for the species.
   4. Cirrhus, a clasper or tendril,  is the fine spiral string
or fibre by which plants fasten themselves to some other
body for support.  They are sometimes placed opposite
fo the  leaves; sometimes at the  side of the footstalks
of lhe  leaves; sometimes they issue  from  the  leaves
themselves ; and sometimes they put out roots, as in ivy,
&c.
   5. Pubes, a term applied to the hair, down, wool, beard,
bristles, glands, and several other appearances on different
parts of plants, serving (he double purpose of defence and
vessels  of secretion.
   6. Arma, the defensive weapons of plants,   as  thorns,
prickles, Sec.
   7. Bractea?, the floral leaves, mean not only (hose leaves
situated on the stalk nearest to the lower  parts of the flow-
er, but  those which sometimes terminate (he flower stalk,
being composed of large bractese, resembling a bush ofhair.
They are then called bractese comosne, as in crown imperi-
al, lavender, and  some species of sage.
   V. The fructification, or mode of fruit  bearing,  consists
of tbe calyx, corolla, stamina, pislilium, pericarpium, sein-
ina, and receptaculum, which are afterward explained. 
BOTANY.
   VI. The inflorescence, or mode by which flowers  are
joined (o (heir several  peduncles, whether common or
partial.
   i. A flower, in the sexual system, has a very different
signification  from (he same  (erm of former botanists; for
if the antherae and  stigma are pre3en(, though the calyx,
corolla, filaments of the stamina, and style of the pistillum,
be wanting,  it is still a flower; and if  all the parts  are
present, H is a complete flower. The seed also constitutes
the fruit, whether there is a pericarpium or not.
   ii. Complete flowers are either simple or aggregate ; sim-
ple, when no part of the fructification is common lo many
flowers or florets, but is confined to one only; aggregate,
when the flower consists of many  florets collected into a
bead, by means of some part  ofthe fructification common
to them all, as by a common receptacle, or common calyx ;
as in dipsacus, scabiosa, &c. From  the different structure,
disposition,  and other circumstances of the receptacle or
calyx, being (he only part common (o aggregate flowers,
arise seven subdivisions.
   1. Aggregate  flowers, properly  so  called,  are  formed
by the  union of several lesser flowers, placed on partial
peduncles on a common dilated  receptacle, and within a
common perianthium; and in Ihose  flowers where each
floret has its proper calyx, that is also a perianthium.  A
flower is said (o be radiate, when (he florets in (he radius
or circumference differ from  those in  (he disk; in which
case tbey are generally larger, and are called semiflorets,
from their difference in form,  and in distinction from (hose
ef (he disk, which are called proper florets ; and they
also differ as to sex, which gives  rise to several of the
orders in (he class syngenesia,  which contains the com-
pound flowers.
   2. Compound aggregate flowers consist also of several
florets, placed sitting,or withou( partial peduncles, on  a
common dilated receptacle, and within a common perian-
thium ; and  where  each floret has  its proper calyx, it  is
also a perianthium.  Compound  flowers  also  admit of  a
further description, vis. each floret  consists of a single
petal, with  generally five divisions, and having five stami-
na distinct at (he base, bu(  united at the top by (he anthe-
rae into a cylinder, through which passes  the style ofthe
pistillum, longer than the stamina, and crowned by a stig-
ma with two divisions rolled  backward, and having a  sin-
gle seed placed upon the receptacle  under each floret.
This is the general character of a compound flower, (o
which (hereare a few exceptions;  it also differs when the
flower is radiate; but lhe essential character of a  regular
floret consists in theantherre  being united so as to form a
cylinder, and having a single  seed placed upon the recep-
tacle under each floret.
   3. Umbellate aggregate  are when (he flower consists of
many florete  placed on lastigiate  peduncles proceeding
from lhe same stem or receptacle, and which, though of
different lengths, rise to such  a height as to form a regular
head or umbel, whether flat, convex, or concave.  Both
-the common and partial  calyx Linnaus calls an involu-
crum.   It is called  a  simple  umbel when it has no lesser
divisions; a compound umbel when each  peduncle is sub-
divided at  its extremity into many lesser peduncles for
supporting (he flowers,  so as to form several little umbel-
las, uniting in one  head : the whole together is called an
                  48*
universal umbel, and lhe little umbellas are called partial
umbels.  In some genera that have radiated  umbels, lhe
florets ofthe  centre and those of the circumference differ
both as  to sex and size ; but in general each have five
petals, five stamina, and two styles; or one  lhat is bifid,
wilh a  germen  placed beneath, and  two naked  seeds,
which when ripe, separate below, but remain  connected
at the top.
  4. Cymous aggregate, from cyma, a sprout, called by
Linnseus a receptacle, is when several fastigiate peduncles
proceed from the same centre like the umbel, and rise to
nearly an even height; but unlike tbe umbel, the seconda-
ry or partial peduncles proceed without any regular order.
as in sambucus, viburnum, &c.
  5. Amentaceous  aggregate are such flowers as have a
long common receptacle, along which are disposed squama
or scales, which form that sort of calyx called amentum,
or catkin, as in  corylus, pinus, juglans, Sec. Amentaceous
flowers  generally  want  the petals, and all of them are of
the classes monoecia and dioecia.
  6. Glumose aggregate are such flowers as proceed from
a common husky calyx belonging to grasses, called gluma ;
many of which  are placed on a common receptacle called
rachis, collecting the florets into tbe spike, as triticum, hor-
deum, secale, lolium,  &c.
  7. Spadiceous aggregate are also such flowers as have a
common receptacle protruded from within a  common ca-
lyx, called spatha, along which  are  disposed several flo-
rets.  Such a  receptacle is called spadix; and is either
branched, as in  phoenix, or simple, as in narcissus, &c. In
this last case, the florets may be disposed either all round
it, as in calla, dracontium, pothos, &c. on the lower side of
it, as in  arum, &c.  or in two  sides, as in  zostera, &c.
These flowers have generally no partial calyx.
  Under the head of inflorescence might also be mentioned
the sexes of plants.  There are, besides fhe above, sever-
al other modes  of flowering, properly so called, that come
under the general term inflorescence, and often afford lhe
best marks to discriminate the species.   They are chiefly
expressed as  follows:
  1. Verticillus, a  whorl, when (he flowers are placed in
whorls at each  joint round the common stalk: they have
very short partial peduncles, are all ofthe Iabiated kind,
and have either two or four stamina,  and four naked seeds,
as in salvia, marubium, mentha, &c.  A verticil has several
distinctions, as  naked, bracted, &c.  and all (hose  genera
with four stamina are of the class didynamia, as is seen in
mini, tbyine,  &c.
  2. Capitulum, a  little head, is when many flowers are
connected into nearly  a globular form or head, on (he sum-
mit of the common stalk, sometimes with and sometimes
without partial peduncles, as in gomphrena, &c. and is dis-
tinguished by its shape and other circumstances.  Under
capitulum is now introduced the  term fasciculus, a little
bundle, which  was formerly considered  as  di>tinc(.   It
means when the peduncles are erec(, parallel, approaching
each other, and raised to (he same height, as in sweetwil-
liam, where (hey generally proceed from different parts of
the  common stalk opposite (o each other.
  3. Spica, a spike, is when (he flowers, having no par-
tial peduncles,  are arranged alternately around a common
simple  peduncle.   It is called  spica secunda, a single 
BOTANY.
rowed spike, when the flowers are all turned one way, fol-
lowing each  other ; and  spica distioha, a double rowed
spike, when the flowers stand pointing two ways, as in Io-
liura, &c. and it is distinguished by  shape and other cir-
cumstances.
   4. Corymbus, a cluster of ivy berries, when the lesser
peduncles of the flowers proceed  from  different parts of
the common  peduncle  or  stalk; and though of unequal
lengths, and  sometimes single, sometimes branched,  yet
form a regular surface at the top, as in the siliquose plants.
The  corymbus may be supposed (o be  formed from  a
spike, by adding partial peduncles to  the flowers, and
seems to be the mean between the  racemus and umbella,
the peduncles rising gradually from different  parfs of the
common stalk, like those of lhe raceme, and proceeding to
a proportionable height like those of the umbel.
   5. Thyrsus, a young stalk, a mode of flowering resem-
bling the cone of a pine.  Linnseus defines it a panicle con-
tracted into an ovate or egg shaped form ; the lower pedun-
cles, which are longer, horizontally ;  and the upper, which
are shorter,  mount vertically, as syringa, &c
   Racemus,  a bunch of grapes, is when  the flowers are
placed on short partial peduncles, proceeding as little  lat-
eral  branches from and along the common peduncle.  It
resembles  a  spike in having the  flowers  placed along a
common peduncle, but differs from it in having partial pe-
duncles : it also differs from a corymbus in the shortness
and equal length of  its peduncles, not forming a regular
surface at the top, as in ribes rubrum, vitis, &c.
   6. Panicula, the tuft upon reeds, is when lhe flowers are
dispersed upon peduncles variously subdivided ; or it is
a  sort of branching spike, composed of  several smaller
spikes, attached  along a common peduncle,  as in avena,
panicum, and several other grasses, and many of her plants.
When the partial peduncles diverge and hang loose, it is
called a diffuse, and when they converge, it  is called  a
close, panicle.
   7. Axillares,  such flowers as  proceed  from the  angle
formed by the leaf and the stem,  as is most common.
   8.  Terminates, such flowers as terminate  the stalk or
branch.   Every other mode of flowering is called the in-
florescence, whether opposite to the leaves, lateral, single,
double, erect, bending, &c.
   Luxuriant, or double flowers, are considered  only as
varieties.  A luxuriant fl iwer is supposed generally to be
owing to superabundant nourishment; the luxuriant part
i? generally  the corolla,  but sometimes the calyx also.
There are  three degrees of luxuriant flowers, vis. 1.  mul-
tiplicatus ; 2. plenus ;  and 3. prolifer.
   1.  Flos multiplicatus is when the  petals ofthe corolla
are only so far multiplied as to exclude part of  the stami-
na ; and  is called duplicate, triplicate, quadruplicate, &c.
according to  the number of rows of petals.
   2. Flos plenus is when the corolla is so much  multiplied
as to  exclude all  the stamina, which is occasioned by the
stamina turning petals, and the flower is often so crowded
as to exclude or choke  the pistillum also.   Therefore, as
the essential  parts of generation are thus wholly or in part
destroyed, the plants  become barren and imperfect, and
no seed, or very little, can be expected from them. Flow-
ers wifh  one  petal are not very  subject  lo fulness; when
they are, i( generally arises from an  increase of (he divi-
sions of the petal. It is most usual in flowers of many pet-
als, where it arises various ways ;  somelimes by multipli-
cation of the petals only, sometimes of lhe calyx or nec-
tarium, and sometimes "of all.  Compound flowers are also
subject to luxuriance, arising several ways.
   3. Flos prolifer is when one flower grows out of anoth-
er ; this generally happens in full flowers, from their great-
er luxuriancy.   In  simple flowers it rises from the centre
and proceeds from the pistillum, shooting up into another
flower, standing on  a single footstalk.  In aggregate flow-
ers, properly so called, many footstalked flowers are pro-
duced out of one common calyx.   In umbellate flowers a
second umbel proceeds from the centre ofthe first umbel
producing Utile umbels, which by a greater  exertion of
luxuriancy, may produce others with little umbels, and
thus may produce several heads of flowers, each  growing
out of that immediately below it, furnished wilh little um-
bels variously compounded.  A prolific flower is also call.
ed leafy,  frondosus, when it produces branches with flow-
ers and leaves ; which, though  rare, sometimes happens
in rosa, anemone, monarda, and others.   As in luxuriant
flowers many parts ofthe natural character are  deficient
in the whole, or in any part, they can only be distinguish-
ed by lhe general  habit, and by  such parts as remain in
the natural stale ;  as very often by the calyx, and in the
polypetalous flowers,  the lowest series or rows of petals
remain the same, as in rosa, papaver, nigella, &c.
   4.  Flos mutilatus  is fhe opposite imperfection, being
such  a flower as occasionally is  deprived of all, or the
greatest  part of the  petals,  yet bears seeds, as in some
species of tussilago, campanula, &c. This term is oppos-
ed to luxuriance, and is supposed by Linnaeus to be caus-
ed by a defect  of heat, though it may also happen from
other causes.
   VII. The habit  of plants, by which ancient botanists
meant the whole external appearance of every part, where-
by they were arranged in their several systems, is by Lin-
nreus applied to the agreement of plants of the same genus,
or natural order, chiefly in the following circumstances:
   1.  Gemmation.   The structure and disposition ofthe
bulb ; as solid, coated, scaly, stem.  Also of lhe bud; its
origin petioled, stipuled, cortical; ifs contents leafy, floral,
common.
   2. Vernation. The complication of the leaves within
the bud, as conduplicate or doubled together ; convolute
or rolled together;  involute or rolled in ; revolule or roll-
ed back ;  imbricated or tiled ; equitant or riding ; obvo-
lute or rolled against each other; plaited or  folded over;
spiral or coiled like a watch spring, one end in tbe centre.
  3. ^Estivation.   The state of the bud in summer, as
convolute, imbricated,  conduplicate,  valved, unequally
valved.
  4. Tortion.   The twisting or bending of the parts, as
uniform, dissimilar, from the right, from the left, recipro-
cal, resupine, spiral.
  5. Nuptials. Male,female, androgynous, hermaphrodite.
  6. Semination.   The shape and  other circumstances
ofthe seed, as tail, wing, luff, awn, hooks, gluten, curva-
ture.   Also of  the pericarpium; as berrying, inflation,
viscosity, elasticity, structure.
  7.  Placeutation.   The number and disposition  of the
cotyledons;  or if wanting.
  8. Variation.   Of colour,  size,  pubescence,  age.  1«
External ; plaited,  bundled, broad leaved, curled, awn- 
BOTANY.
 less.  2. Internal: mutilated,  great  flowered, luxuriant,
 crested, viviparous, bulb bearing.  By variation or varie-
 ty, are meant such  differences as are only incidental to
 vegetables, and are not found constant and unchangeable ;
 that is, where plants raised from the same seed, by some
 accidental cause differ  in  their form and appearance from
 the true character of the  species to which they belong;
 which cause being removed, (be plant is restored  to its
 true specific character;  and these incidental varieties
 chiefly  arise  by difference of soil or culture in some of
 the above circumstances.   And though it is as necessary
 to collect varieties under (heir proper species, as (he spe-
 cies under their proper genera, yet it is often more diffi-
 cult:  1st, from   the difficulty of ascertaining the genus,
 and, 2dly, from the  danger of confounding  the species;
 and sometimes some parts of lhe  specific character itself
 are also  subject  to  variety,  particularly  the  leaves;
 though in general tbe  true  specific character is constant
 and unchangeable, arising only from circumstances in which
 plants of (he same genus are found to disagree, which dis-
 tinctions are commonly taken with most certainly from the
 parts explained in this  section.
   VIII.  The hybernaculum, winter lodgement, is  that
 part of a plant which defends the embryo or future shoot
 from external injuries during the winter,  and is either a
 bulb or a bud.
   i. A bulb, bulbus, is a  large sort of bud produced un-
 der ground, placed upon  the caudex of certain herbace-
 ous plants, hence called bulbous plants, all of which are
 perennial, that is, perpetuated  by their bulbs or ground
 buds, as well as  by seeds;  they are  therefore improperly
 called roots,  being only  the hybernacle of  the  future
 shoot.  Bulbs are of the following sorts :
   1. Squamous, consisting of scales  laid over each other
 like tiles, as in the lily.
   2. Solid, consisting of a close substance, as in tulips.
   3. Coated, consisting of many coats infolding each other,
 as in onions.
   4. Cauline, produced not only from the  sides of lhe
 principal bulb,  called a sucker  or offset, but from other
 parts of the stem ; as in crow or wild garlic, and in some
 species of onion, hence called bulbiferous, where they are
 produced at the  origin of the umbel of flowers.
   ii. A bud, gemma, is the embryo of lhe plant, seated
 upon (he stem of the branches,  covered with  scales.   In
 general there are three sorts of buds  : that containing the
 flower only, as in poplar, ash, &c. where the leaf buds and
 flower buds are  distinct ; that containing the leaves only,
 as  in birch, &c.  and   that containing  both  flower and
 leaves, as in (he generally of plants ; and these las( some-
 times contain  leaves and male flowers, sometimes leaves
 and  female flowers, sometimes leaves and hermaphrodite
 flowers.   Annual plants are only renewed from seeds ; and
 several other plants, both trees aud shrubs, have no winter
 buds.  It is also observed in bot countries, that few plants
 have buds ; or al least that they are  without that scaly
 covering which seems essential  to a bud,  and  constitutes
 the hybernacle;  instead whereof are protruded small feath-
er like branches from the wings of the leaves, defence and
protection from cold not being necessary ; whereas in cold
countries  most plants have buds, which are wrapped up all
the winter, in readiness fo greet the approaching spring.
  Analogous to (he  protection afforded  by  the buds, is
 the sleep of plants, which, according lo Linnaeus, happens
 various ways; as by converging,  including, surrounding,
 fortifying, conduplicating, involving, diverging, depending,
 inverting, imbricating.  This  disposition in plants is very
 remarkable  in  chickweed, pimpernel),  dandelion, goat's
 beard, &c. which  expand  their flowers only at certain
 times of (he day, and shut  (hem  up al the approach of
 night or  a storm; from  which may be prognosticated a
 change of weather.  In many plants, not  only  the flow-
 ers, but the young shoots, are defended from external in-
 juries by the nearest leaves  converging and enclosing the
 tender rudiments.   Thus we have  delineated the princi-
 pal outlines of plants; but  a more particular description
 of those parts which serve chiefly lo  characterize the dif-
 ferent classes, orders, genera, and species, will be given in
 the following sections, particularly

           Sect. II.  Of the classes of plants.
    The flowers of plants  Linnseus very  properly made
 the sole  foundation of his  beautiful system of botany.
 Being the same iu all parts of the globe capable of pro-
 ducing plants,  the  classification  founded  upon  them af-
 fords a kind of universal  language,  so to speak, to bot-
 anists, whereby they can no longer mistake each other's
 meaning, as has unfortunately been lhe case, less or more,
 with almost all former botanical systems.
   Flowers, in respect of sex, are distinguished into male,
 female, hermaphrodite, and neuter.   Male flowers are such
 as have only the stamina, as in the classes monoecia, dioe-
 cia, and polygamia.   Female flowers are such as have on-
 ly the pistil la,  as  in the same classes.   Hermaphrodite
 flowers are such  as  have bolh the stamina and pistilia in
 the same flower,  as in  almost all the other classes: her-
 maphrodites are also distinguished into male hermaphro-
 dites, when the female is ineffectual; and female hermaphro-
 dites, when  the  male  is  ineffectual.   Neuter flowers are
 such as have neither stamina  nor pistilla perfect.
   The plants themselves also take a denomination from
 the sex of their  flowers.  Male plants are such as bear
 male flowers only ; female plants bear female flowers only ;
 hermaphrodite plants  bear   hermaphrodite  flowers only.
 Androgynous plants are such as  bear male and female
 flowers, distinct upon the same root, as in the class monoe-
 cia.  Polygamous plants are  such as bear hermaphrodite
 flowers, and male  or female  flowers,  or both distinct, on
 the same or on different roots.
   When on the same root, the flowers  are either male her-
 maphrodites  and female hermaphrodites ;  or hermaphro-
 dites and male; or hermaphrodites and female, distinct :
 if on different roots, the flowers are either hermaphrodites
 and male; hermaphrodites  and female; hermaphrodites
 and both male and female; or are androgynous and male •
and sometimes androgynous and male and female on three
distinct plants.
               TABLE OF THE CLASSES.

   1. Monandria,  i.e. one male or  stamen in an hermaph-
rodite flower.
   2. Diandria,  i.e. two stamina,
   3. Triandria,  —three dilto.
   4. Tetrandria, — four ditto.
   5. Pentandria,— five ditto.
   6. Hexandria,-— six ditto. 
BOTANY.
   7. Heptandria, i.e. seven ditto.
   3. Octandria,   —• eight ditto.
   9. Enneandria,  — nine ditto.
  10. Decandria,   — ten ditto.        *
  11. Dodecandria,— twelve ditto.
  12. Icosandria, — twenty  or  more ditto, inserted into
the calyx.
  13. Polyandria, i.e.  all above twenty stamina inserted
into the receptacle.
  14. Didynamia, i.e. four  stamina, two long and two
short.
  15. Tetradynamia,  i.e.  six stamina,  four long and two
short.
  16. Monadelphia, the stamina united  into one body by
the filaments.
  17. Diadelphia, the stamina  united into two bodies by
the filaments.
  18. Polyadelphia, the stamina united into three or more
bodies by the filaments.
  19. Syngenesia, the stamina united in a cylindrical form
by the antherae.
  20. Gynandria, the stamina  inserted  into  the  pistil-
lum.
  21. Monoecia, male and female flowers distinct,  in the
same plant.
  22. Dioecia, males  and females in different plants, of
the same species.
  23. Polygamia, male, female,  and hermaphrodite flow-
ers in the same or different plants.
  24. Cryptogamia, the  flowers  invisible,  so that they
cannot be ranked according to the parts of fructification,
or distinctly  described.
  These 24 classes comprehend every known genus and
species.   It  is easy to class a plant belonging to any ofthe
first 11  classes, as they all depend  on the number of stam-
ina, without  regard to any other circumstance: only it
is to be observed  that the 11th  class, dodecandria, al-
though its title is expressive of 12  stamina only, consists
of such plants as are furnished with any number of  stami-
na from 11 to 19 inclusive.   The  reason  of the chasm in
the classes from 10 to  12 stamina, is, that no flowers have
yet been found with only 11, so as to form a class.  The
reseda indeed  has  sometimes 11,  but  often  more; and
those of the  brownea are united below, which brings it un-
der monadelphia.
  The  12th  class  requires  more  attention.  When  fhe
stamina amount  to above 20,  a young botanist will be apt
to imagine that the plant belongs to the polyandria class.
In reducing plants of  this kind to  their classes, particular
regard must  be had  to  the insertion of the stamina.   If
they are inserted into the calyx,  the plant belongs  to the
icosandria class ; if into the receptacle, it belongs  to the
polyandria.   This distinction it is very  necessary  to ob-
serve, as the fruits of the latter class are frequently poi-
sonous.
  The  14th  class is likewise in danger of being confound-
ed with the 4th, the number of stamina being the same ; but
in the 14th, two of them are uniformly much shorter than
the other two ; at the  same time each particular stamen be-
longing to the different pairs stands directly opposite  to one
another.  The plants of this class are all labiate, or gaping
blossoms, as  in the snapdragon, foxglove, ground ivy, &c.
The 15th class may be mistaken for the 6th, as they con-
sist of the same number of stamina ; but in the 15th, four
of them are uniformly longer than the other two, and these
two are always opposite to each other.  The plants of this
class are all cruciform;  that is, four petalled, like a cross
as in the cabbage, wall flower, &c.
   In the 16th class, the stamina are united below, but dig.
tinct above.   The pistilla are also united below in one sub-
stance with  the receptacle, which is prominent in tbe cen«
tre, but divided above into as many threads as there are
germina.
   In the 17th class, the corolla is papilionaceous, butterfly
shaped, and the petals are expressed by  distinct names j
vis. vexillum, the uppermost, which covers the rest;  als?,
the two at each side ofthe flower; and carina, the lowest,
which  is often bipartite, and  placed between  the  ale,
The antherse  are  most frequently 10,  one on the upper
filament, and nine on the lower.  The pistillum grown out of
the receptacle within the calyx.   See the common pea.
   The 19th class consists of plants  whose flowers  are
composed of a great number of small flowers, enclosed in
one  common calyx, and therefore styled  compound
flowers.  The whole compound   flower  in its aggregate
state is styled flosculose, because composed of these flos-
culi or florets.   The  essence of a flosculose  flower con-
sists in having the antherse united in a cylinder, and a sin-
gle seed below the receptacle ofthe floret.
   In  the 20th class, the stamina grow  either upon the
pistillum, or upon  a receptacle that stretches  out  in the
form of a stylus,  and supports both the  stamina and the
pistillum.  The other classes are sufficiently distinguish-
ed in the table.

         Sect. III.   Of the orders of plants.
  The orders  are inferior divisions, which lead us a step
nearer the genus.  In the first 13 classes they are taken
from the female parts, in the same manner as the classes
from the male; and  named monogynia,  digynia, trigynia,
tetragynia, &c. t.e. one, two,  three,  four, &c. pistilla, or
female parts.  When the pistils have no stalk or filament
like the stamina, they are numbered by the stigmata or topi
ofthe pistils, which in that case adhere  to the capsule in
the form of small protuberances,  as may be observed in
the flowers of the poppy, &c.
   In the 14th  class the  orders are derived from a differ-
ent source.  The plants belonging to it have their seedi
either  enclosed in a  capsule, or altogether uncovereo\
Hence they are divided into gymnospermia, comprehend-
ing such as have naked seeds ;  and angiospermia, compre-
hending such as have their seeds covered, or enclosed in a
capsule.
  The 15th class is divided info two  orders, vis. fhe sili-
culosa, or those  which have a short pod : and the siliquo-
sa, or those which have a longer one.
  The orders  of tbe 16th, 17th,   18th, and 20th classes,
are taken from the number of stamina; e.g. monadelphia
pentandria, decandria, polyandria, &c.
  The orders of the  19th class are, 1. polygamia aequalis,
those whose floscules are all furnished  with stamina and
pistil"?.   Polygamia spuria, comprehends plants  (bat have
hermaphrodite floscules in the  disk, and  female floscules
in the margin  ; which is made fhe foundation ofthe three 
BOTANY.
next orders,  vis. 2. Polygamia  superflua, those  whose
hermaphrodite flowers in the disk are furnished with stig-
mata, and bear seed, and whose female flowers in tbe ra-
dius likewise  produce seeds.  3. Polygamia frustranea,
auch as have hermaphrodite seedbearing floscules in the
disk ; but whose floscules in the radius, having no stigma-
ta, are barren.  4. Polygamia necessaria, is the reverse of
the former: the hermaphrodite flowers in  the disk want
stigmata, and  are barren; but the female floscules  in the
radius are furnished with stigmata, and produce seeds.  5.
Polygamia segregafa, many floscules  enclosed in one com-
mon calyx, and each of the floscules likewise furnished
with a  perianthium  proper to  itself.   6. Monogamia.
This order consists only of  seven genera, none of  which
have properly compound flowers, but  are ranked under
this class merely from having their stamina united by the
antherm.
  The orders of the 21st class  are partly taken from the
number of stamina, and partly from the names and char-
acters peculiar to some of the other classes ; e.g.  monoe-
cia triandria, monoecia syngenesia, monoecia gynandria.
   The orders of  the 22d class are founded upon the num-
ber, uniqn, ahd situation of the stamina in the male flow-
ers.  The orders of the 23d  are all taken from classical
characters; e.g. polygamia monoecia,  polygamia dioecia,
and polygamia trioecia.
   The 24th class is divided into  four orders :  1. Filices,
comprehending all plants that bear their seeds in the back
or edges of the leaf, and  those that are called capillary
plants.  2. Musci, which comprehends all the moss kind.
3. Algae,  including  the  lichens,  fuci,  and  many  others
whose parfs of fructification  are  either altogether invisi-
ble or exceedingly  obscure.   4.  Fungi,  comprehending
all (he mushroom  (ribe.
   For a delineation of (he classes, &c. see Plates XX. and
XXI.  •
	Classes.
1.	MONANDRIA
2.	DlANDRIA
3.	Triandria
4.	Tetrandria
5.	Pentandria
6.	Hexandria
7.	Heptandria
8.	Octandria
9.	Enneandria
10.	Decandria
11.	Dodecandria
12.	Icosandria
13.	Polyandria
14.	Didynamia
15.	Tetradynamia
16.	Monadelphia
17.	Diadelphia
18.	PoLVADELPHIA
19.	Syngenesia
20.	Gynandria
21.	Monoecia
22.	Dioecia
23.	Polygamia
24.	Cryptogamia
	Appendix
                TABLE OF THE  ORDERS.

  Number and Names of the Orders.
2 Monogynia, Digynia,
3 Monogynia, Digynia, Trigynia.
3 Monogynia, Digynia, Trigynia.
3 Monogynia, Digynia, Teteagynia.
6 Monogynia, Digynia, Trigynia, Teteagynia,  Pentegynia,  Polygynia.
5 Monogynia, Digynia, Trigynia, Teteagynia,  Polygynia.
4 Monogynia, Digynia, Te(ragynia, Heplagynia.
4 Monogynia, Digynia, Trigynia,  Tetragynia.
3 Monogynia, Trigynia, Hexagynia.
5 Mouogynia, Digynia, Trigynia,  Penfagynia,  Decagynia.
5 Monogynia, Digynia, Trigynia,  Penfagynia,  Dodecagynia.
5 Monogynia, Digynia, Trigynia,  Penfagynia,  Polygynia.
7 Monogynia, Digynia, Trigynia,  Tetragynia,  Penfagynia,  Hexagynia,  Polygynia.
2 Gyinnospermia,  Angiospermia.
2 Siliculosa, Siliquosa.
8 C Triandria, Pentendria, Octandria, Enneandria, Decandria, Eudecandria, Dodecandria,
  £     Polyandria.
4 Pentandria, Hexandria, Octandria, Decandria.
4 Pentandria, Dodecandria, Icosandria, Polyandria.
6 ( Polygamia sequalis, Polygamia superflua, Polygamia frustranea, Polygamia necessaria, Po-
  (     lygamia  segregata, Monogamia.
    Diandria, Triandria, Tetrandria, Pentandria, Hexandria, Octandria, Decandria, Dodecan-
        dria, Polyandria.
    Monandria, Diandria, Triandria,  Tetrandria, Pentandria, Hexandria, Heptandria, Polv-
        andna, Monadelphia, Syngenesia, Gynandria.
    Monandria, Diandria, Triandria, Tetrandria,  Pentandria, Hexandria, Octandria, Ennean-
        dria, Decandria, Dodecandria, Icosandria, Polyandria, Monadelphia, Syngenesis
  (     Gynandria.                                                  *      J &     '
3 Monoecia, Dioecia, Trioecia.
4 Filices, Musci, Algae, Fungi.
1 Palma?.
11
15
   Some  botanists rank these last  as a 25th class; but
this is improper, as tbey are all capable of being arranged
in lhe preceding  classes of the  system, although on ac-
count of their singular structure, Linnseus placed them in
an appendix.  They contain  such genera as have a spa-
dix and spatha, i.e. whose  flowers and fruit are produced
on lhat  particular  receptacle called a spadix, protruded
from a common calyx in form of a sheath, called spatha.
This order consists of trees aud shrubs only.  These have
always a simple stem, not branched, bearing leaves at the
top, resembling those of fern, being a composition of a leaf
and a branch, called  frondes; and  (he corolla has alwava
3pe(als.  See Plates XX. and XXI. Botany.

           Sect. IV.  Thegtntra of plants.
  In investigating (he genus of a plant, we must first con-
sider its essence.   The essence of every vegetable  eavs
Linnteus, consists in the fructification; the essence of the 
BOTANY.
fructification in the flower and  fruit;  (be essence of the
flower consists in the antherae and stigma, and the essence
ofthe fruit in the seed.  Hence  he makes the flower and
fruit the foundation of his generic distinctions.
  These are generally composed of seven parts;  the ca-
lyx, the corolla, the stamina,  fhe pistillum, the pericarpi-
um, the scmina, and  tbe receptaculum ; and  lhe presence
or absence, the number,  figure,  proporfion, and situation,
ofthe several parts,  constitute the genus.   But as there
are few genera wherein all the parts of the natural char-
acter are constant  in  every one of the species, it  is nec-
essary to fix upon  such circumstances as are constant in
both  genus and species, and call those the essential  or rul-
ing character;  both to distinguish one genus from another,
and to fix the several  species and  their  varieties to their
respective genera; for which purpose,  in  some  cases,
Linnaeus was obliged to have recourse to fhe nectarium.
The first four parts ofthe fructification are properly parts
ofthe flower, and the last three ofthe fruit.
  I. The calyx, or cup, is the  termination of the outer
bark of a plant.  Its  chief use is to enclose, support, and
protect, the olher parte of the fructification.  When pres-
ent, it is seated on  the receptacle:  and is distinguished by
its figure; by the number, division, and shape of its leaves,
or segments ; and  by  the  following names,  according  to
the circumstances with which  it is attended.
  1. Perianthium,  when its  station is close  to, and sur-
rounds, the other parts of the fructification,  is called lhe
perianthium of the fructification : if it  includes many flos-
cules, as  in scabiosa, and  olher aggregate and compound
flowers, it is called a  common perianthium:  if it includes
only one floscule, it is called  a proper perianthium ; if it
includes the stamina,  and not the germen,  it is the perian-
thium ofthe flower, and is said fo be above, as in lonicera,
ribes, campanula, &c. if it includes (he  germen, but not
the stamina, it is the perianthium of the fruit,  and is  said
to be below, as in linnea and morina, each of which have
two calyxes and two receptacles above  each other,  one
of the flower and the  other of  the fruit.
  2.  Involucrum,  when stationed at lhe foot of an umbel,
below the common receptacle, and at a distance from the
flower, is called universal,  if  placed under lhe universal
umbel; and partial, if placed under a partial umbel.
  3.  Amentum,  consists of  a  great  number  of   chaffy
scales, disposed along a slender axis or common recepta-
cle, which, from its resemblance to a cat's tail, has obtain-
ed  the name of catkin ; and these  flowers have generally
no petals: sometimes  the  same  amentum supports both
male and female flowers, distinct, on the same plant, as in
carpinus, &c.  sometimes the male  and female flowers are
removed from  each  other  on  the same plant,  and the
amentum  supports only the  male flowers, and  the female
flowers are  enclosed  by a perianthium, as in corylus, fa-
gus, &c. and sometimes  an amentum  only supports male
flowers on one plant, and female flowers on another plant,
as in  salix, populus, &c.
  4.  Spatha, a sort of calyx growing from  the stalk, burst-
ing lengthwise, and protruding a spadix,   supporting  one
or more flowers, which have often no perianthium.  It con-
sists either of one leaf, with a  valve on one side only, as in
the greater number of spatbaceous plants ; or of two leaves,
with two valves, as in stratiotes, &c. or is imbricated, as in
musa, &c. with one or two  valves.
   5. Gluma, a husk, chiefly belongs to corn and  grasses.
consisting of one, two, three, or more valves, folding over
each other like scales, and frequently terminated bv a long
stiff, pointed prickle, called the arista.
   6. Calyptra, the proper calyx of mosses, is placed over
the antherae ofthe stamina, resembling an extinguisher a
hood, or monk's cowl.
   7. Volva, so named from its  infolding, is  the proper
calyx of funguses, being membranaceous,  and surrounoW
the stalk, before  their expansion.
   It is often difficult to distinguish the  calyx from the
bractea?, which are found on many plants, situated on the
flower stalks : and are often so near to  the lower parts of
the fructification  as to be mistaken for the calyx, as in (ilia
passiflora, &c. but they may be best distinguished by (his
rule ; (he bracteae differ in shape and colour from (hp oth-
er leaves of the plant, but are commonly of lhe same du-
ration ; whereas the calyx always withers when the fruit
is ripe, if not before.
   II. The corolla is the termination of the  inner bark of
the plant; which accompanies the fructification, in (he
form of leaves variously coloured.  It is generally seated
on the receptacle, sometimes on the calyx; serving as an
inner work of defence to  the  part  it encloses; as the
calyx, which is  usually of stronger texture,  does for an
outer.   The leaves ofthe corolla are  called  petals; by
the number, division, and shape of which,  it is distinguish-
ed.  It is said to be inferior or below, when it includes fhe
germen, and is attached to the part immediately below if,
as in borago, &c. and i( is said to be superior or above,
when it is placed above (he germen, as in Crataegus, &c.
In respect to duration, the corolla either conlinues (ill the
fruit is ripe, as in nymphaea; or falls off at the first open-
ing of  the  flower, as in actaea; or with the stamina and
other parts of the flower, as in most plants; or does not
fall, but withers,  as in campanula, &c.
  The nectarium, Linnaeus says, principally belongs to tbe
corolla, as an appendage to fhe  petals ; and contains the
honey,  which  is  the principal  food  of  bees and other
insects.  But though, in plants where it is found, it may
be attached to the corolla, and be then most  evident; yet
it is almost  as often attached lo other parts of  the fructifi-
cation: Linneeus  therefore chiefly make3 use of if as an
essential character  in many of  the genera,  as being less
variable than others; and observes, that when it is not
united  with the substance ofthe  petals, those plants are
generally poisonous ; the tube or lower part  of inonopetal-
ous flowers, he considers as a true nectarium, because it
contains a sweet liquor.  But as it affords very singular va-
rieties  in other instances, it has the following distinctions.
   1. Calycine  nectaria, such as are  situated upon, and
make a part of,  the calyx; as  in tropaeolum, monotro-
pa, &c.
  2. Corollaceous  nectaria are  attached fo the  corolla,
and are called calcariale  when  they  resemble  a  spur.
They are either on flowers of one petal, as in Valeriana, &c.
or on flowers of many petals, as in viola, Sec. or within the
substance ofthe petals,  as in lilium, iris, &c.
  3. Stamineous nectaria  attend  fhe  lamina,  and are
either seated upon the antherae, as in adenanthera; or upon
the filaments, as in laurus, &c.
  4. Pistillaceous  nectaria accompany tbe pistillum,andare
placed upon the germen, as in byacinthus, butomus, &c 
BOTANY.
    5. Receptaculaceous nectaria join the receptacle, as in
 polygonum, sedum, &c.
    6. Nectaria that crown the corolla, are placed in a row
 within the petals, though  entirely unconnected with their
 subsfance, as in silene, &c. and in this situation often re-
 semble a cup, as in narcissus, Sec.
    7. Nectaria of singular construction, are sucb as cannot
 properly be placed under any of the foregoing distinctions,
 as in amomum, curcuva, saliva, urtica, &c.  The proper
 use of  the nectarium is not yet discovered.
    III.  The stamina, or chives, are the males of fhe flow-
 er, proceeding from the wood of the plant.   Each stamen
 consists of two parts, vis. the  filament and  the antherae.
 In most flowers they are placed upon the receptacle, with-
 in the  corolla, and round tbe germen ; and are chiefly dis-
 tinguished by number.
    1. The filament is the thread shaped part of the stamen,
 serving as a footstalk  to elevate (he antherae, and some-
 times has jags or divisions; which are either two, as in
 Salvia; three, as in  fumaria ; or nine, as in  the class dia-
 delphia.   They are  also distinguished  by  their form or
 figure, as awl shaped, thread shaped, hair like, spiral, rev-
 olute, &c.  by their proportion, as  equal,  unequal, irreg-
 ular, long, or short:  and  by  their situation, being gener-
 ally opposite to the leaves  or  divisions of lhe calyx, and
 alternate  with  the petals; lhat is, when lhe divisions of
 the calyx are equal in number to the petals, and to the stam-
 ina.  In  monopetaloue flowers  Ihey are generally inserted
 into the corolla ; but scarcely ever in flowers of more than
 one petal, but info (he receptacle;  yet in (he class icosan-
 dria (hey are inserted into (he calyx or corolla, (hough
 the flowers have many petals, as also in a few o(her plants.
 Bu( in  (he class polyandria, and most other  polypetalous
 {ilants, they are inserted into  the receptacle, like the ca-
 yx and corolla.   The  class gynandria, however, is an ex-
 ception to the above  rules, where lhe stamina are some-
 times without filaments.
   2. The anlhera,  from  ctvQos, a flower, emphatically so
 called  from its great utility  in the fructification, is lhe fop
 ofthe filament, containing the impregnating pollen; and is
 either one (o each filament, as in most plants; or one com-
 mon (o three filaments, as in cucurbita, &c.  or one com-
 mon to five filaments, as in  the class syngenesia: or some-
 limes (here are (wo anthera? to each filament, as in ranun-
 culus and mercurialis;  three lo each filament, as in fuma-
 ria ; five  (o (hree filaments, as  in bryonia; or  five to each,
 as in theobroma.   The anfhera is also distinguished by its
 form or figure, as oblong, round, angular, Sec.   It consists
 of one  or more cells, which burst  differently indifferent
 parts;  either in the side, as in most plants; on tbe top;
 or from the top to the base.  It is also fastened to the top
 ofthe filament; either by  ils   base, as in most  plants; or
 horizontally  by its middle   to  lhe lop of  the filament, so
 poised as  to turn like a vane:  or it  is fixed by its side,
 leaning to the top of the filament, then called incumbent.
 Sometimes it grows to the nectarium, as in costus; to (he
 receptecle, as in arum; or (o  (he pistillum,  in the class
 gynandria.
  IV.   The pistillum,  or  the   female of the  flower,  pro-
 ceeding from (he pith of the  plant, is that erect column
 which   is  generally placed  in  the  centre of the flower,
amidst (he stamina; and consists of (hree parts, the ger-
men, (he style, and the stigma.
  1. The  germen is  the base of the pistillum, supporting
  vol.  i.            49
 the sfyle.  After some  time,  it becomes  a  seed vessel,
 and may therefore  be considered as lhe rudiment of lhe
 pericarpium.  It is  distinguished by  its shape,  number,
 and situation;  and is said  lo be above or below, accord-
 ing to its situation above  or below (be attachment of (he
 corolla.
   2. The style elevates (he stigma from the germen, (o
 receive  the  influence of the stamina, and to convey it
 down  to the  germen as through a tube.  If is distinguish-
 ed either by its number, which, when present  (or when ab-
 sent,  the number of sligmafa) gives rise  lo  most of  lhe
 orders, and are called so many  females;  or  by its divi-
 sions, being double, fiebe, or quadruple, &c. though join-
 ed at the base ; or by its length, being longer, shorter, or
 equal  wilh the stamina ;  or by  its proportion,  being thick-
 er or thinner than lhe stamina ; or by its figure, being reg-
 ular, cylindric, awl shaped, bent, Sec. or by  its situation,
 being  generally on the (op of (1 e germen, (hough in some
 instances supposed to be both  above and below, as in cap-
 paris and euphorbia; unless  the lower part in these gene-
 ra are considered as tbe extension of lhe receptacle.   It
 is often placed  on  the side of  tbe  germen, as in hirtella,
 suriana; also in rosa, rubus,  and the rest of (he plants in
 the class icosandria  and order polygynia.   With respect
 to duration, it generally falls with the other parts of the
 flower; but in some plants it is  permanent, and attends (he
 fruit to its malurity, as in the class tetradynamia.   In flow-
 ers which have no style, the stigma adheres to the germen.
   3. The stigma, when single, is generally placed like a
 head on the summit of lhe sfyle: when several,  they are
 placed on the  top, or regularly disposed along the side;
 and covered with moisfure, to retain the pollen of lhe an-
 therae.  It is  distinguished  either by its number,  being
 single in most plants; or by  ils  divisions, figure, length,
 thickness, or duration; as in most plants it  withers when
 the germen is become a seed vessel; in some  it is perma-
 nent,  as in papaver.
   V.  The pericarpium is the  germen grown fo maturity,
 and become a matrix.   All plants,  however,  are not fur-
 nished with a seed vessel, as corylus, &c.   In many, il is
 supplied chiefly by the calyx,  which converging encloses
 the seeds (ill (hey arrive at maturity ; as is the case with
 the rough leaved planls, and lhe labial and compound flow-
 ers of the classes pentandria, didynamia, and  syngenesia.
 Sometimes the receptacle supplies the office of seed ves-
 sel, as in gundelia; and sometimes lhe nectarium, as in
 carex.   The  pericarpium   is  situated  at  fhe  recep-
 tacle of  the  flower, either above or below, or bofh, as
 in saxifraga and lobelia:  and is distinguished by  lhe  fol-
 lowing appellations, according lo ils different structure.
   1. Capsula is frequently succulent  whilst  green;  but
 when ripe, it is a dry husky seed vessel, that parts to dis-
 charge ils contents :  and by some elastic motion, the seeds
 are often darted forth  with  considerable velocity, as in
 dictamnus, &c.  Il opens either at the  top,  as "in most
 plants; at the bottom; at the  side, horizontally across
 the middle; or longitudinally;  and if it is articulated or
jointed, it opens at each of lhe joints, which contains a
 single  seed.  It is distinguished externally, by  its num-
 ber  of valves; and  internally, by the  number of  its
 cells, wherein the seed is enclosed ; as well as by  its shape
 and  substance.
   2. Siliqua, a pod, is a pericarpium of two valves ;  but
as  some   are   long,  others  round  or  broad,  Lin'meus 
BOTANY.
distinguishes them by their form into siliqua and silicula,
which give name to the two orders  in the class tetradyna-
mia.  The siliqua is a long pod, being much longer  than
broad, as in brassica, sinapis,  &c. the silicula, a little pod,
is a roundish pod, either flat or spherical, and the length
and breadth nearly equal,  as in lunaria, draba, &c  In
both, the apex, which had  been the  style, is often so long
beyond the valves, as to be of equal  length with the pod ;
and the seeds  in  both are  fastened  alternately by a  slen-
der thread, to both  the sutures or joinings of the valves.
  3. Legumen, pulse, is also a pod, and is likewise a per-
icarpium of two valves,  wherein the seeds are fastened
to short receptacles along the upper suture  only, on  each
side, alternate: this chiefly belongs  to the papilionaceous
flowers, or the class diadelphia.
  4.  Folliculus,  or conceptaculum, is  a pericarpium of
one valve only,  opening lengthwise on one side, and the
seeds not fastened  to the suture, but to a receptacle with-
in the fruit, as in asclepias, &c.
   5.  Drupa is  a pericarpium lhat is pulpy, having no
valve.   It contains within  its substance  a nut, or seed en-
closed  with a hard  ligneous crust,  asolea, cornus, &c. and
when the drupa is seated below the  calyx, it is furnished
with an umbilicus like the pomum.
   6.  Pomum, an apple, is  also a pulpy pericarpium  wilh-
out a valve; but containing  in the middle a membranous
capsule, with several cells  containing the  seeds; and at
the end opposite to the footstalk there is generally a  small
cavity, called umbilicus from its resemblance to the navel
in animals; and  which was   formerly  the  calyx, seated
above the fruit, and persistent, as in pyrus, cucumis, &c.
   7. Bacca, a berry, is also  a pulpy pericarpium without
 valve,  enclosing one or more seeds, which have no mem-
 branous capsule or covering, but are disposed promiscu-
 ously through the pulp, as in solanum,  &c. and are gen-
 erally  placed on footstalks attached to  receptacles with-
 in  the  pulp, as  in  ribes, &c.  The  berry also admits of
 the following distinction:  it is said to be proper, when it
 is a true pericarpium formed of a  germen ;  and improper,
 when it is formed  from other parts of the fructification, as
 in  rosa, juniperus,  &c.   A large succulent calyx becomes
 a berry ; and  in juniperus,  the three petals become the
 umbilicus ; in poterium the berry is formed of the tube of
 (he corolla; in fragraria, Sec.  it is  formed of  lhe top of
 (he receptecle;  in  rubus,  &c. i(  is formed from a  seed,
 which  is (he receptacle of the berry; in ruscus, &c. it is
 enclosed within and is a pari of (he nectary.   The berry
 is commonly either round or oval, and is  frequently fur-
 nished wifh an umbilicus, as in ribes, &c. it does not nat-
 urally  open  to  disperse the seeds  like the capsule, that
 office being performed  by  birds and other animals.
   8. Strobilus is a pericarpium formed of an amentum, be-
 ing a seed v esse! composed of woody scales placed against
 each other in fhe form  of a cone, opening only at fhe  top
 of the  scales, being firmly fixed below to a sort of axis or
 receptacle, occupying lhe  middle  of tbe  cone ;  as in pinus,
 Sec.  For parts of  flowers and fruits, see  Plates III and
 V. Botany.
    VI.  Semina, the seeds, are the  essence of fhe fruit of
 every vegetable, and defined by Linnseus to be "a decid-
 uous part of the plant, containing the  rudiments ofa new
 vegetable, fertilized  by  the sprinkling of the pollen."
They are distinguished according to number, shape, tex-
ture, appendage, Sec.  A seed, properly so called, consists
of the five following parts; to which are added the nux and
propago.
  1. The corculum, from cor, a heart, is the essence of the
seed, and principle of the future plant;  and consists of (wo
parts, vis. plumula and rostellum.  The plumula  is the
part which shoots up into the stem, and  tbe rostellum is
what forms the root.  See Physiology  of Plants.
  2. The cotyledons, from cotyledon, the hollow of the
buckle bone, are the thick porous side lobes of (he  seed,
such as the two sides inlo which a bean divides when soak*
ed in water,  and which afterward  come up  as  the seed
leaves ofthe plant.  If a plant is cut below the cotyledons,
it will scarcely ever put out fresh leaves, but withers and
decays; if it is cut above  the cotyledons, it generally
shoots out afresh,  and continues  to grow: therefore, if
plants whose cotyledons rise above ground, as turnips, &c.
are cut or eaten  into the ground by cattle,  they decay;
but where the cotyledons remain below ground, as in grass-
es, and are cut or eaten to  the  ground,  they will shoot
out afresh.   Some plants have  only one, as in grasses and
in cuscuta,  &c.  others  two, as  in vicia, &c. linuin has
four; cupressus, five ; and  pinus, ten.
   3.  The hilum, the black  spot on a bean, called the eye,
is the external mark on the seed,  where  it was fastened
within tbe pericarpium.
   4.  The arillus, the proper  exterior coat of  the seed,
that falls off spontaneously, is either cartilaginous or suc-
culent: yet  seeds are said  to be naked, when not enclos-
ed in any sort of pericarpium, as in the class and order
didynamia gymnospermia.
   5.  Tbe coronula is either a  small sort of calyx adher-
ing to the top ofthe seed, like  a little  crown, and assist-
ing to disperse it by flying, as in scabiosa, knautia, &c. where
the little  calyx of the floret becomes the crown of the
seed: or a down,  which is  either feathery, as  in Valeri-
ana, &c. or hairy, as in  tussilago,  Sec.  This  down has
generally been thought intended to disperse the seed. The
coronula is either also sitting, fhat is, attached close to the
seed, as in hieracium, Sec. or foots!alked by a thread ele-
vating and connecting the tuft  wifh the seed, as  in crepis,
Sec.  Some seeds are furnished wifh a wing, a tail, a hook,
an awn, &c. all coming under  the term coronula, and
tending either (o disperse or fix the seeds.   Some have as
elastic  force, to disperse them; which  is either in the
calyx, as  in oats and some others; in  the pappus, as in
centurea crupina ; or in the capsule, as in geranium, &c.
Other seeds, especially those whose pericarpium is a her-
ry, as also  the nutmeg and  other nuts,  are dispersed by
birds and other animals.
   Nux, a nut, a seed enclosed in a hard woody substance,
called the shell, which is one  celled, two celled, &c. and
the enclosed seed is called  the kernel.
   Propago, a slip or shoot,  the seed of a moss, which ha*
neither coat nor cotyledon, but consists only of a  naked
plumula, where the rostellum is inserted into the calyx of
the plant.
   VII. The receptaculum is the base which receives, sup-
ports, and connects, (he other parfs of  (he fructification.
It is only mentioned by Linnseus, when if can be introduc-
ed as a character varying in shape and surface, as princi* 
BOTANY.
pally in the class syngenesia.   It is called proper when it
supports tbe parts of a single fructification only ; when it is
a ba*e to which only the parts of (he flower are joined, and
not the germen, it is called a receptacle of lhe flower; in
which case (he germen, being placed  below (he recepta-
cle of (he flower, has a proper base of  its own, which is
called  the receplacle of  the  fruit:  and i(  is called a re-
ceptacle of the seeds, when it is a base to which (he seeds
are fastened within the pericarpium.   In  some simple flow-
ers, where the germen  is  placed  above the receptacle of
the flower, the fruit has a separate receptacle, as in mag-
nolia, uvaria, &c. in which genera fhe numerous germina
are seated upon a receptacle  rising like a pillar above the
receplacle of (he  fructification.  It  is  styled  common,
when it supports and connects a head of flowers in com-
mon ;  as  in (he amentum,  and olher aggregate  flowers.'
The umbella and cyma are also called receptacles.  Ra-
cIhh, a filiform receplacle, collecting the florets longitudi-
nally info a spike,  in  many  of the glumose flowers, as
wheat, barley, rye,  &c.  Spadix  anciently  only signified
the  receptacle of  a palm  issuing out of a spatha, and
branched; but now every  flower stalk  that is protruded
from a calyx called spatha, is denominated a spadix, as in
narcissus, &c.

             Sect. V. The species of plants.

   The genera  include a great number of species, distin-
guished by the  specific  difference of the root, the trunk,
the branches, fhe leaves, &c. yet all agreeing in fhe essen-
tial generic characler.  They are called by trivial names,
expressive of the difference of some  other circumstance,
added to  the generic name.  To  investigate  the species,
therefore, it is necessary to understand  those differences,
and to be acquainted with lhe names by which they are
expressed.   Several of these have been already inciden-
tally explained ; but for a complete enumeration, the read-
er must have recourse to tbe  glossary.
   In general it may be observed, that specific differences
take their rise from any  circumstance,  wherein plants of
the same  genus  disagree; provided such circumstance is
constant, and not liable lo alteration by culture or olher
accidents.  Hence  Linnaeus asserts  the species lo be as
numerous as there were different forms of vegetables pro-
duced at  the creation ; and considers all casual differences
as varieties of the same species.
   Hybrid, or mule plants, must be  ranked among varie-
ties, whether occasioned by accident, by the pollen of one
plant falling upon the pistilla  of another, or reared by art;
of which  Linnaeus gives many curious instances.
   Varieties may generally be reduced under their spe-
cies, by comparing the variable marks of the variety with
the natural plant;  but there are some which are attended
with  difficulty, and require  judgment  and experience ;
particularly  in some  species of helleborus, gentiana, fu-
maria, Valeriana, scorpiurus, and medicago.  In these fwo
last there is a remarkable diversity in the fruit of the indi-
viduals.   In (he medicago,  or snail trefoil, in particular,
the forms of the real snails, which nature has imitated in
these plants, are scarcely more  diversified  (han (he fruit
of this mimic species : so that Ihc botanist who is studious
of varieties, would find no  end fo his labour, were he fo
attempt fo pursue  nature  through (he various shapes she
has wantonly adopted.  The whole order of the fungi (oo,
              49*
as Mr. Lee observes,  is still a chaos ; botanists not being
yet able in these to decide  what is a species, and what a
variety.
      Sect. VI.   Ofthe natural classes or orders.
  Notwithstanding the evident superiority of the sexual
system, Linnseus  and  most  other modern botanists are of
opinion,  that  there is a natural method, or nature's sys-
tem, which  we should diligently  endeavour fo find out.
On these principles,  Linnceus divides vegetables into 58
natural classes or orders, vis.
   1.  Palmse.  These  are  perennial,  and mostly trees or
shrubs:  such as the phoenix, or  date palm,  the cocos or
cocoa nut tree, &c.  They are astringent.
   2.  Piperita;, peppers, are  mostly herbaceous  and pe-
rennial :  such as   the  pothos, lhe  stalks of which creep
along rocks  and trees, into which they strike root at cer-
tain distances; the arums, Sec.
   3.  Calamariae,  reeds.
   4.  Gramina, grasses.
   5.  Tripetaloideae have no very striking characters, but
are nearly allied  to lhe grasses.  Such are the butomus,
or water gladiole, &c.
   6.  Ensatae, swordlike plants;  as  the saffron,  iris, &c.
   7.  Orchidese.   The orchis kind.
   8.  Scitamineae are beautiful exotics, all natives of very
warm countries.   Some of them furnish exquisite fruils;
lhe amomum or ginger, and the inusa or plantain, are in-
cluded in this order.   The roots are hot and resinous.
   9.  Spathaceae  are  nearly allied  in habit  and structure
to the liliaceous  plants, from which they are chiefly dis-
tinguished by the spatha, out of which their flowers are
protruded:  such  are  the allium, the amaryllis, &c.
   10. Coronariae are  herbaceous, perennial, and from one
inch  to 15 feet high.   The roots  are eilher bulbous, fi-
brous, or composed of small fleshy knots, jointed at top.
The  hyacinths and lilies belong  to this tribe.
   11. Sarmenfosse,  from  sarmentum, a long shoot,  have
climbing stems and branches, (hat, like (he vine, attach
themselves  to other bodies for support: such are smilax,
trillium,  Sec.
   12. Holeracese, from holus a  pot herb, contains trees,
shrubs, perennial and annual herbs,  chiefly for domestic
use :  such as  (he beet, rhubarb, &c.
   13. Succulents.   This  order consists of flat,  fleshy,
and juicy plants,  most of them evergreens.   They are as-
tringent, refreshing, and very wholesome.
   14. Gruinales, cranelike, consist of geranium, and  a
few other genera which Linrseus considers as allied to  it
in their habit  and external structure.
   15. Inundatae  are aquatic plants, low, herbaceous, and
mostly perennial.  The elatine, hippuris, the pond weed,
&c. are  of this class.  These plants  are astringent.
   16. Calyciflorae have the stamina inserted inlo the ca-
lyx,  and are all of the shrub or tree kind :  such  is the elre-
agnus or wild olive, &c.
   17. Calycantheuue have the corolla and stamina insert-
ed into the calyx.   Such  are  the epilobium, ly thrum,
willow herbs, &c.  These plants are  astringent.
   18. Bicornes,  plants whose antheree have the appear*
ance  of  two boms.   Of these are the heaths, vacciniums,
&c.   These are  also astringent.
   19. Hesperideae  are of  the  shrub and tree kind, and
 mostly evergreen. Such as the myrtle, clove tree, Sec. 
BOTANY.
  20. Rotacese  consist of planfs with one wheel shaped
petal  without a tube; as the phlox,  the cistus,  hyperi-
cum, &c.
  21. Preciae, from precius, early, consist of primrose, an
early flowering plant, and  some others which agree with
it in habit and structure.
  22. Caryophylleae, those which resemble the pink and
carnation, including those plants, &c.
  23. Trihilatee consist of  plants with three seeds, which
are marked with an external cicatrix, where they are fast-
ened within to the fruit.  The acer, aesculus, &c. belong
to this class.
  24. Corydales have  irregular flowers, somewhat  re-
sembling a helmet.   Such  are  the  impatiens or balsam,
fumaria, &c.
   25.  Putamineae,  shelled, consist of  a few  genera of
plants allied in habit,  whose fruit is covered with a hard
woody shell.  The caper shrub and  some  other exotics
are included in this class.
   26.  Multisiliquae consist of plants  which  have  more
seed vessels than one.   Such are the columbines, delphi-
nums, &c.  They are caustic and purgative.
   27.  Rhaeadeae  consist  of poppy, and a  few genera
which resemble  it in  habit and structure.  Upon being
cut, they emit plentifully a juice which is white in poppy,
and yellow in the others.  These plants are narcotic.
   28.  Luridm are an order of plants  whose pale appear-
ance  indicates their  baleful and noxious qualities.  The
atropa, datura, &c.
   29.  Campanaceae have  bell shaped flowers, including
the convolvulus,  &c.   The  plants  are medicinal, aud
abound with a white  milky juice.
   30. Contortae, plants which have a single petal twisted
 toward one side.   The apocynum,  asclepias,  and  even
 the periwinkle, are included in this class.  The  plants
 being cut,  emit  a juice,  either of a milky or  greenish
 white, which is deemed poisonous.
   31. Vepreculse,  from vepres, a briar, consist of plants
 resembling the  daphne, &c.  but which do not constitute
 a true natural class.
    32. Papilionaceae, plants that have papilionaceous flow-
 ers, such  as the  common and sweet  pea, &c.  These
 plants  are emollient.
   33. Lomentaceae,  from  lomenfum,  a  colour used by
 painters, furnish beautiful tinctures, and some of them are
 much used in dyeing.  The sophora,  abrus, and supina,
 are found in this class.  These plants  are mucilaginous..
   34.  Cucurbitacese,  from cucurbita, a gourd,  plants
 which  resemble  the gourd in external figure, habit, vir-
 tues, and  sensible  qualities.  Among  (hese are the cu-
 cumber and melon.  These plants are purgative.
   35. Senticosse, from sentis, a briar, consist of the rose,
 bramble, and other plants which resemble them in exter-
 nal structure.   The  fruits are  cooling.
    36.  Pomacepe, consist of plants which  have a pulpy es-
 culent fruit, of the apple, berry, or cherry kind.
    37.  Columniferse,  from  columna, a pillar, and fero, to
 bear, plants whose  stamina and  pistil have the appear-
 ance of a  pillar in the centre of the flower.   Among these
 are the alfhea, camellia,  tea  tree,  &c.  The plants are
 mucilaginous and lubricating.
    38.  Tricoccse,  from r^ng, three,  and xojococ, a grain ;
 plants with a single  three cornered capsule, having (hree
cells, each  containing a  single seed.  Among which are
box, phyllanthus, Sec.
  39. Siliquosae, plants which have a pod for their seed
vessel.   Among  these  are  the  cabbage, mustard, Sec.
The plants are diuretic and antiscorbutic.
  40. Personatae, from  persona, a mask, plants whose
flowers are furnished with an  irregular, gaping, or grinning
petal, in figure somewhat resembling the snout of an ani-
mal.  Such are the snapdragon, justicia, &c.   The inter-
nal use of many of thern  is extremely pernicious ; applied
externally, they are anodyne, and powerful resolvents.
  41. Asperifoliae,   rough leafed plants ; as borage, bug-
loss, &c.  They are diuretic and  cordial.
  42. Verticillatae  consist of herbaceous vegetables, hav-
ing four naked  seeds, and the flowers placed in whorls
round the stalk ; hyssop, lavender, dead nettle,  &c.  The
leaves are cordial and cephalic.
  43. Dumosae, from dumus, a bush, are all of the shrub
and tree kind,  thick and  bushy, rising from 6 fo 25,  30,
and even 40 feet high; elder, buckthorn,  &c.   The ber-
ries are purgative.
   44.  Sepiariae, from sepes,  a hedge, from their size, ele-
gance,  and other  circumstances, are very  proper  for
hedges.   Ash, privet, lilac,  Sec.
   45.  Umbellatae,  plants whose flowers grow in umbelg,
with five petals that  are often unequal, and  two naked
seeds joined at top  and separated below.   Parsley, aethu-
sa, caraway, fennel, &c. furnish specimens of this tribe.
The planfs of  this  order,  which grow in dry places,  are
sudorific, stomachic, and warming.
   46.  Hederacese,  from  hedera, ivy ; consist  of both
herbaceous and shrubby plants, most of which, particular-
ly  ivy and vine, have creeping  branches, which attach
themselves by roots or tendrils to other bodies.
   47.  Stellatse, from stella, a star, consist of planfs with
two naked seeds, and leaves disposed round the  stem in
form of a radiant star.  Spigelia, dogwood, &c. belong to
this order. They are opening and cordial.
   48.  Aggregatse,  plants which have aggregate flowers,
consist of a number of florets, each of which have a prop-
er  and common calyx : as dipsacus, scabius, Sec.
   49.  Compositae,  plants with compound flowers. Car-
duns, xeranthemum, &c. are of this tribe.
   50.  Amentacese, plants bearing catkins : salix, Sec.
   51.  Coniferse, from conns, a cone, and fero,  to bear;
plants whose  female flowers, placed at a distance from the
male, either on the same or distinct roots, are formed  into
a cone.   The  fir, pine, cypress, &c. all rank under this or-
der.   They are gummy and odorous.
   52. Coadunatae, fromcoadunare, to join, are so termed
from the general appearance  of the seed  vessels,  which
are numerous, and  being slightly attached  below, form all
together a single fruit in the  shape ofa sphere or cone; the
parts of which, however, are easily  separated.  Such are
the magnolia,  tulip tree, &c.
    53. Scabridae, from scaber, rough,  consist of plants
 wilh rough leaves, which seem to be akin to the asperifoliaj;
 only fheir degree of roughness is much  greater,  lleinpi
 fvz, &c.  They are astringent.  Their taste is bitter and
 styptic.
    54.  Miscellanea?,  miscellaneous  plants.   Thi3 order
 consists of such genera as are not connected  together by
 very numerous relations. 
BOTANY.
   55. Filices,  ferns, bear their  flower and fruit  on the
 back  of the leaf or stalk.  They are opening and atten-
 uating.
   56. Musci, mosses, resembling the pines, firs, and other
 evergreens of  lhat class, in the form and disposition of
 their leaves, and manner of growth of the female flowers,
 which are generally formed into a cone.   They frequent-
 ly creep, and extend like a carpet upon tbe  ground, trees,
 and stones; being generally collected into  bunches  and
 tufts ; lhe smallest are only one third of an inch in  height,
 ami the  largest do not exceed five or six.
   57. Algse, flags, or rather sea weeds, consist of  marine
 plants, &c. whose roof, leaf, and stem, are all one.
   58. Fungi, mushrooms, are rarely branched, sometimes
 creeping,  but  most  commonly erect.  These plants are
 very  astringent.  As food, they are  at best suspicious ;
 some of them are rank poison.
   Plantac  dubii ordinis, plants of uncertain order.   Upder
 this name  Linnaeus classes all tbe olher genera which can-
 not  be reduced to any of the above mentioned orders, and
 which are near 129 in number.
   Though  we have  already explained the most  es-
 sential botanical terms,  yet the student  will  often find
 it advantageous to have recourse to the following glossary ;
 which we  would even recommend, should  he in  any of
 our descriptions of genera find a term which he does not
 understand.
                          A.
 Abbreviatum perianthium, a shortened cup, when the cup
   is shorter than the tube of the flower.
 Abortiens flos, a barren flower, such as produces no fruit.
 Abrupta folia  pinnate, winged leaves, ending without ei-
   ther foliole or cirrhus.
 Acaulis, without stalk or stem.
 Acerosa folia,  chaffy leaves, when  they are linear and
   abiding.
 Acicularis, needle shaped.
 Acinaciform, falchion or  cimeter shaped.
 Acini, the small berries ofa mulberry  or bramble.
 Acotyledones,  plants whose  seeds have no cotyledons or
   seminal leaves.
 Aculei, prickles, fixed in the surface of the bark.
 Aculeatus  caulis, a stalk  or stem furnished with prickles.
 Acuminatum folium, a leaf ending in a point.
 Aculum  folium, a leaf terminating in an acute angle.
 Adnatum folium, the disk of the leaf pressing close  to the
   sfem of the plant.
 Adpressum folium, the disk of the leaf pressed   to  the
   stem.
 Adscendens caulis, or ramus, a stalk or branch inclining
   upward.
 Adversum folium, an opposite leaf.
 Aire, wings, the side petals of a papilionaceous blossom,or
   membranes added  to a seed, stalk, &c.
 Alated, winged.
 Alalus petiolus, the footstalk of a leaf winged wilh mem-
   branes.
 Alburnum, the  white substance that lies between the inner
   bark and lhe wood of trees.
 Alferni rami folia, leaves  that come out singly, and  follow
   alternately in gradual order.
Alveolaled, deeply pitted, resembling a honeycomb.
Amentum,  a thong, or a catkin.
 Amplexicaule folium, a leaf embracing lhe stalk, when the
   base of the leaf embraces fhe stem sideways.
 Anceps caulis, a double edged stalk,  i.e. compressed and
   forming two  opposite acute angles.
 Ancipilous, two edged.
 Angulatus caulis,  an angulated stalk.
 Angustifolious, narrow  leaved.
 Angiospermia,  plants whose seeds are covered with a cap-
   sule.
 Annua radix, an annual root; that which lives  but  one
   year.
 Anthera, the summit of the stamen.
 Apertura, an opening in some species of antherse.
 Apetalous, having no petals or corolla.
 Apex, lhe top or summit.
 Aphyllous, destitute of leaves.
 Apophysis, an excrescence  from the receptacle of the
   musci.
 Appendiculatus petiolus, a little appendage hanging from
   the exlremity of the  footstalk.
 Appressed, approaching to the stem.
 Approximata folia, leaves growing near each other.
 Arbor, a tree.
 Arboreus, arborescent; ofthe nature of a tree; producing
   buds.
 Arbustiva, a copse of shrubs or trees.
 Arcuatum legumen, a curved or bent pod.
 Arista, lhe beard of corn or grasses.
 Articulatus caulis, a stem with knots or joints.
 Arliculus culmi, the straight part of the stalk between  the
   Iwo joints.
 Assurgentia folia, leaves first bent down, but rising erect
   toward the apex.
 Attenuatus pedunculus, a footstalk that grows smaller tow-
   ard the flower.
 Auctus calyx,  an  augmented flower cup, having a series
   of distinct leaves, shorter than its own, that surround its
   base.
 Avenia folia, leaves which have no visible veins.
 Auriculatum folium, an ear shaped leaf, when the leaf tow-
   ard the base has a lobe on each side.
 Axillaria folia, leaves growing out ofthe angles formed by
   the branches and lhe stem.
                         B.
 Barba, a beard, a species of pubescence, sometimes on the
   leaves of plants.
 Barbate folia,  leaves terminated by  a bunch  of strong
   hairs.
 Bicapsular, having two capsules.
 Biennis radix, a biennial root, which continues to vegetate
   two years.
 Bifaria folia, leaves pointing two ways.
 Biferae plantae, leaves that flower twice a year.
 Bifidum folium, a leaf divided into two parts.
 Biflorus pedunculus, a footstalk bearing two flowers.
 Bigeminura folium, a forked footstalk, wilh two little leaves
   on  the apex of each division.
Bijugum folium, a winged  leaf bearing two pair of fo-
   liola.
Bilabiata corolla, a corolla with two lips.
Bilobatum folium, a leaf consisting of (wo lobes.
Binadim folium, a digitate leaf, consisting of two foliola.
Biparlitum folium, a leaf divided into two segments. 
BOTANY.
Bipinnatum folium, a double winged leaf, when the folioles
  of a pinnate leaf are also pinnate.
Biternatum folium, a leaf where there are three folioles on
  a petiole, and each foliole is ternate.
Bivalve, consisting of two valves.
Brachiatus caulis, a  stem  branching in pairs, each pair
  standing at right angles with those above and below.
Brachium, the arm, the tenth degree in the Linnaean scale
  for measuring plants, being 24 Parisian inches.
Bracteatus, having a bractea growing out of it.
Bulbiferus caulis, a stalk bearing bulbs, as in lilium bulbi-
  ferum.
Bulbosa radix, a bulbous root.
Bullatum folium, a leaf whose surface rises above the veins,
  so as to appear like blisters.
                          t_/.
Caducus calyx, a flower cup that falls off at the first open-
  ing of the flower.
Calcariatus, resembling a spur.
Calyculatus calyx, a little calyx added to a larger one.
Calypfra, a veil or covering.
Campanulata  corolla, a bell shaped flower.
Canaliculata folia, leaves having a deep channel running
  from the base to the apex.
Capillaceum folium, a capillary  eaf.
Capillaris pappus, hairy down.
Capillus, hair, the first degree  of  the Linnaean scale for
  measuring plants ;  the diameter ofthe hair, and the 12th
  part of a line.
Capitati florcs, flowers collected into heads.
Capitulum, a  little head; a species of  inflorescence, in
  which  the  flowers are connected  inlo  close heads on
  the tops of the peduncles, as in gomphrena.
Capreolus, a tendril.
Capsula, a little chest or capsule.
Carina,  a keel, the lower petal  of the papilionaceous co-
  rolla.
Carinatum folium, a leaf whose beak resembles the keel of
  a ship.
Carnosum folium, a fleshy leaf.
Cartilagineum folium, a leaf whose brim is  furnished with
  a margin of different substance from the  disk.
Caryophyllaeus flos, a flower growing like  a  carnation.
Catenulata scabrilies, a species  of glandular  roughness,
  hardly visible, resembling little chains, on the  surface
  of some plants.
Caudex, the stem of a tree.
Caulescens, having a stalk  or stem.
Caulina folia, leaves growing immediately on the stem.
Caulis, a stem, a species of trunk.
Cernuus, nodding or hanging down the head.
Cespitosse, plants which produce many  stems  from one
  root, and form a surface of turf or sod.
Ciliatum, ciliated, with the  margin guarded by parallel
  bristles, formed like lhe eyelash.
Circinalea folia, leaves within the bud, rolled spirally down-
  ward.
Circumscissa capsula, a capsule cut transversely.
Cirrhiferus pedunculus, a peduncle bearing a tendril.
Cirrhosum folium, a leaf that terminates in  a tendril.
Cirrhus, a clasper, or tendril.
Classis, a class; defined by Linnaeus to be  an  agreement
  of several genera in the parts of fructification, according
  to the principles of nature distinguished by art.
 Clavatus  petiolus, or pedunculus, a  footstalk  with the
   leaf or flower club shaped, tapering from the base toils
   apex.
 Clavicula, a little key or tendril.
 Clausa corolla, a corolla with its neck close shut in with
   valves.
 Coarctati rami, branches close together.
 Cochleatum legumen, a pod like the shell of a snail, as in
   medicago.
 Coloratum folium,  a  leaf of any  colour  different from
   green.
 Columnella, a  little column, the substance that passes
   through the capsule, and connects the several partitions
   and seeds.
 Columniferee, pillar shaped.
 Coma, a bush; a species  of fulcrum  composed of large
   bracteae, which terminate the stalk.
 Communis gemma, the common contents of the bud, both
   flower and fruit.
 Communis calyx, a common flower cup containing  both
   receptacle and flower.
 Comosa radix, a bulbous root with fibres resembling hair.
 Compacfum folium, a leaf of a compact and solid sub-
   stance.
 Completus flos,  a complete flower, having a perianthium
   and corolla.
 Compositus caulis, a compound stem, diminishing as it as-
   cends.
 Compositum folium, a compound leaf, when the petiole
   bears more than one leaf.
 Compressum   folium,  a leaf resembling a  cylinder com-
   pressed on fhe opposite sides.
 Concavum folium, a hollowed leaf, the margin forming an
   arch with the disk.
 Conceptaculum, a receiver.
 Conduplicatum folium, a leaf doubled together, when the
   sides are parallel and approach.
 Conferti rami,  branches crowded together.
 Confertus  verticillus, a species  of inflorescence, wherein
   flowers and leaves are crowded, and  formed into whorls
   round the stalk.
 Confluentia folia, leaves flowing together, as in the pinnat-
   ed leaf, when the pinnae run into one another.
 Conglobates flos, a  flower collected into a globular head.
Congloraerati flores, flowers irregularly  crowded together.
Congesta  umbella, flowers  collected  into a spherical
   shape.
Conica scabrities, a species of cetaceous scabrifies, formed
   like cones, scarce visible, on the surface of plants.
Conifers, plants bearing cones.
Conjugatum folium, a pinnated leaf, where the folioles come
   by  pairs.
Connata folia, two opposite leaves united at their base,so
   as to have the appearance of one leaf.
 Connivens corolla, a corolla wherein the apices ofthe pet-
   als converge so as to close the flower.
Conniventes antherae,  antherae approaching together.
Continuafum folium, a continued leaf, or one which ap-
   pears to be  a continuation  of the  substance of the
   stalk.
 Contrarise valvulae, contrary valves, i.e. when fhe dissepi-
   mentum is placed transversely between them.
Convexum folium, a leaf rising from the margin to tbe cen-
   tre of the leaf. 
BOTANt.
Convolutus cirrbus, a tendril twining in the same direction
  with the sun's moiion.
Convolution folium, a leaf rolled up like a scroll.
Cordatum folium, a heart shaped leaf.
Cordiformis, s.haped like a heart.
Corolla, a wreath or liltle crown.
Corollula, a litlle  corolla.                  -it   a
Corona seminis, a crown adhering (o many kinds of seeds,
  serv ing (hem as wings, which enables them to disperse.
Cortex, (he outer rind or bark.
Crenatuin folium, a notched leaf.
Crispum folium, a curled leaf, when the circumference be-
   comes larger than the disk admits of.
Crista! us flos, a flower with a tufted crest.
Cruciated flowers, ) cross  shaped flowers,  consisting ot
Cruciformes flores,} four petals disposed in the form ot a
   cross.                               .         .  r
Cubitus, a cubit, the 9th degree of the Linnaean scale for
   measuring plants,  from the  elbow  to the extremity ot
   the middle finger, or  17 Parisian inches.
Cucullata folia, leaves rolled up  lengthwise in the form ot
   a cone.
Culmen,the top or crown of any  thing.
 Culmus, a reed or straw, the stem ofa grass.
Cuneiforme folium, a wedge shaped leaf.  ^
 Cuspidatum folium,  a leaf whose apex resembles the point
   of a spear.
 Cyatbiformis corolla, a flower in  (he form of a cup.
 Cylindracea spica, a spike in the form of a cylinder.
 Cymbiform, keel shaped.

 Dasdaleum folium,  a leaf  whose  texture  is remarkably
   beautiful.
 Debilis caulis, a  weak feeble stalk.
 Decaphyllous calyx, a calyx consisting often leaves.
 Decidua folia, leaves that fall  off in winter.
 Decimates caulis, a  stalk bending toward the earth.
 Decompositum folium,  when a petiole once divided  con-
   nects many folioles.
 Decumbens, lying down,
 Decurrens folium, a leaf running down, is applied to the
   base of a sessile leaf extending itself downward along the
   stem, beyond  the proper termination ofthe leaf.
 Decursive folium pinnatum,  a pinnated leaf, wherein the
   bases of the foliole are continued  along the sides ofthe
   petiolus.
 Decussate folia,    > leaves growing  in pairs, and opposite
 Decussated leaves, $ to each other.
 Deflexus ramus, a branch bent a little downward.
 Deflorate  stamina, stamina that have shed their farina.
 Defoliatio, tbe falling of lhe leaves.
 Deltoides folium, a  leaf like the Greek A.
 Demersa  folia, leaves sunk in the water.
 Dentata folia, leaves having horizontal points of the  same
   consistence with the leaf, and standing at a little distance
   Irom each olher.
 Dependens folium,  a leaf pointing toward the ground.
 D.pressum foliim, a  leaf pressed  down, when the sides
   rise higher (han the  disk.
 Dichotomi caulis, forked stalks, when the divisions  come
   by two and two.
 Dicotyledones,  plants  whose seeds  have two cotyledons,
   that  are the placenta of the embryo plant, and after-
   ward the seed leaves.
Didymae antherae, twin antherte, t.e. when they occur by
  two on each filament.
Didynamia, the superiority of two.
Difformia folia,  leaves  on the same  plant of dificrent
  forms.
Diffusi caules, the  branches of a stalk spread ditterent
  ways.                                            e
Digitatum folium, a fingered leaf, i.e. when the apex ot a
  petiole connects many folioles.
Dimidiatum, halved.
Dipetalous, consisting of two petals.
Diphyllous, consisting of two leaves.
Discus,  a  disk, the middle part of a radiate compound
  flower*
Dispermous  plants,  plants producing their seeds by
  (wo.
Dissecte folia, leaves cut into divisions.
Dissepimentum, a partition of the fruit, which divides the
  pericarpium into cells.
Dissiliens siliqua, a pod that bursts wilh elasticity.
Distans  verticullus, a  species of inflorescence, wherein
  the whorls  of verticillate flowers stand at a great  dis-
  tance  from one another.
Disticha folia, leaves in  two rows, on two  sides of the
   branches only.
Divaricati rami, branches standing wide from each  other
   in different directions.
Divergentes  rami, branches widening gradually.
Dodrans, the 7th degree in the Linnaean scale for  measur-
   ing the parfs of plants, or nine Parisian  inches.
Dodrantalis,  nine inches long.
 Dolabriforme folium, a leaf resembling an ax.
 Dorsalis arista, an awn fixed to the back of the gluma.
 Drupa, a pulpy pericarpium.
 Duplica radix, a double root; a species of bulbous root,
   consisting of two solid bulbs.
 Duplicate serratum folium, a leaf sawed double, with less-
   er teeth within the greater.
                          E.
 Ebracteatus, without a braclea.
 Ecaudate corolla, a corolla without a tail  or spur.
 Echinatum pericarpium,  a pod beset with prickles, like a
   hedgehog.
 Etflorescentiae tempus, the lime of efflorescence, when a
   plant shows its first flowers.
 Elliptical, resembling an oval.
 Emarginated, terminated by a notch.
 EJnervia folia, leaves having no apparent nerves.
 Enneapetala corolla, a flower consisting of nine petals.
 Enodis, having no knots  or joints.
 Ensatae, plants having sword shaped leaves.
 Ensiformia folia,  leaves  shaped like a two edged sword,
   tapering toward the point.
 Epiphyllospermous, bearing the fruit on the back of the
   leaf.
 Equitantia folia,  leaves  riding, i.e.  when their  sides ap-
   proach so, that (he outer embrace  (he inner.
 Erec(us, upright, perpendicular.
 Erosum folium, a gnawed leaf, i.e.  when  the margin ap-
   pears as if it were gnawed or bitten.
 Exserta stamina, stamina standing forth, when they appear
   above the corolla.
 Exsfipulatus, without stipula;.
 Exsuccum folium, a leaf whose substance is dry. 
BOTANY.
Extrafoliaceae stipulae, stipulae growing on the  outside of
  the leaves.
                          F.
Farctum folium, a stuffed leaf.
Fasciata plants, a plant with many stalks grown together,
  like a bundle.
Fascicular, consisting of fleshy parts connected  to the base
  without the intervention of threads.
Fascicularis  radix, a bundled  root,  i.e.  tuberous roots
  growing in bundles.
Fasciculata folia, bundled leaves ; growing in bunches.
Fastigiati pedunculi, peduncles pointed at lhe apex.
Fauces,)  the jaws or opening between the segments of
Faux,  5  *he corolla,  where the  tube terminates.
Fibrosa radix,  a fibrous root.
Filamentum, from filum, a thread, the part that supports
  the antherae.
Filiform,  thread shaped.
Firabricata petala, fringed petals.
Fissum folium, a leaf split half way down.
Fistuiosus caulis, a hollow stem.
Flabellalum folium, a fan  shaped leaf.
Flaccidus pedunculus, ihe footstalk ofa slender flower.
Flagellum, a I wig or shoot like a  whip.
Fleshy, filled with a firm pulp.
Flexosus caulis, a stalk having many turnings or bendings,
  taking a different direction al every joint.
Floralia folia,  floral leaves, that immediately  attend the
  flower.
Floralis gemma, a flower bud.
Flos, a flower.
Flosculus, a little  flower.
Foliaceae  glandulae, glands growing on lhe leaves.
Foliaris cirrhus, a tendril growing from a leaf.
Foliaris gemmatio, a leaf bud.
Foliatio plantae, the complication  of the leaves whilst fold-
  ed within the bud.
Foliatus caulis, a leafy stalk.
Folifera gemma, a bud producing leaves.
Foliolum, a litlle leaf, one ofthe  single leaves, several of
  which united constitute a compound leaf.
Foliosum capitulum,  a leafy head, i.e.covered with leaves
  amongst the  flowers or tops of (he plan!.
Folium, a leaf.
Folliculus, a  little bag.
Fornicalum peialuui, a vaulted or arched petal.
Frequens  planta, a common plant, growing every where.
Frondescentiae tempus, the  season  when  the leaves  of
  plants are unfolded.
Frondosus cordex, a species of trunk composed of a branch
  and a leaf blended together.
Fructescentiae  tempus, the  time  when a plant scatters its
  ripe seeds.
Fructificatio, the temporary part  ofa vegetable appropri-
  ated to  generation, terminating the old plant and begin-
  ning the new.
Frustranea, to no purpose.
Frulex, a shrub.
Fruticosus caulis, a shrubby slalk.
Fugacissima  petala, petals of short duration.
Fulcratus caulis, a branch having a prop.
Fulcrum,  a prop or support.
Furcata, forked.
Fusiform, spindle shaped.
                          G.
Galea, a helmet applied to the corolla of the class gynan-
   dria.
Galeatum labium, the lip of a flower, shaped like a helmet.
Geminae stipulae, stipulae growing in pairs.
Geminatus pedunculus, a double footstalk growing from
   one point.
Gemmiparous, bearing buds.
Geniculates, jointed.
Geniculae, little joints.
Germen, a sprout or bud.
Gibbum folium,  a leaf bunching out.
Glaber, smooth, having an even surface.
Glabrous, of a slippery nature.
Gladiata siliqua, a sword shaped pod.
Glandulae, glands, or secretory vessels.
Glandulifera scabrities, a  kind of bristly roughness on the
   surface of some plants, on which there are minute glands
   at the extremity  of each bristle.
Glareosi loci, gravelly places.
Glaucophy llus, an azure coloured leaf.
Globosa radix, a round root.
Globularis scabrities, a species of glandular roughness,
   scarce visible to the naked eye, the small grains of which
   are exactly globular.
Glochoides, the small points of the pubes of plants.  Lin-
   naeus applies  this term only to the hami triglochoides,
   with three hooked points.
Glomeraffe  spicae, flowers crowded together in a globular
   form.
Gluma, a husk or chaff.
Glutinocity, a slippery juice like glue or paste.
Gramina, grasses.
Granulatae radices, ) consisting of many little knobs, like
Granulated roots,  $ seeds or grain, attached to oneanoth- "
   er by small strings.
Gymnospermous, naked seeded.
Gynandria, male and female  parts united.
                         H.
Hamosae setae, hooked bristles.
Hamus, a hook; an accuminated crooked point.
Hastata folia, leaves resembling the head ofa spear.
Hemisphericus calyx,  a half round flower cup.
Herba, an herb; the  part  of the vegetable arising from
   the root, terminated by the fructification, and compre-
   hending the stem, leaf, props, and hybernacula.
Herbaceaeplantse, perennial plants, which annually perish
   down to the root.
Herbacei caules, stalks that  die annually.
Hexagonus caulis, a stalk with six angles.
Hexapetalae corollae, flowers consisting of six petals.
Hexaphyllus calyx, a flower cup consisting of six leaves.
Hians corolla, a gaping flower.
Hirsutus, rough, hairy.
Hispidus caulis, a stalk covered with  strong fragile bris-
   tles.
Holeraceae, pot  herbs.
Horizontals flos, a horizontal flower, growing with ill
   disk parallel to the horizon.
Hybridae  plantae, mule plants.
Hypocrateriformis corolla, a monopetalous flower, shaped
   like a cup or salver. 
BOTANY.
                         I.J.
 Imberbis corolla, a flower without a beard.
 Imbricates, tile!, i.e. when the scales of a stalk, or flower
   cup, lie over one another like tiles upon  a house.
 Immutalae, unaltered.
 Irnpar, odd, applied to a pinnated leaf terminating in an
   odd lobe.
 Inane, filled wilh spongy matter.
 Inanis caulis, a hollow or empty stalk.
 Incana folia, leaves covered with whitish down.
 Incisa folia, leaves cut into irregular segments.
 Incompletes flos, an imperfect flower without petals.
 Incrassati  pedunculi, footstalks  that increase in thickness
   as they  approach the flowers.
 Incumbens anthera, an anthera affixed to the filament side-
   ways.
 Incurvatus caulis, a stalk bowed toward the earth.
 Indivisum folium, an undivided leaf.
 lnerme folium, a leaf unarmed, i.e. without prickles.
 Inferus flos, a flower whose receptacle is situated below
   the germen.
 Inflated, puffed out like a bladder.
 Inflexa folia, leaves bending inward to the stem.
 Infundibuliform, shaped like a funnel.
 Insertus petiolus, a footstalk inserted into the stem.
 Integrum folium, an undivided leaf.
 Integerrimum  folium, an  entire  leaf, whose margin is des-
   titute of incisions.
 Interfoliaceus  pedunculus, a flower stalk  arising from be-
   tween opposite leaves.
 Interrupta spica, a spike of flowers, interrupted by small
   clusters of flowers between  the larger ones.
 Interruptum folium pirmatum,  the large folioles  ofa wing-
   ed leaf, interrupted alternately by pairs  of smaller ones.
 Intorsion, twisting to one side.
 Intrafoliaceae stipulae, stipulae growing on the inside ofthe
   leaves ofa plant.
 Inundate loca, is applied by Linnaeus to places that are
   overflowed only in winter.
 Involucellum, a partial involucrum.
 Involucrum, a cover.
 Involute folia, leaves rolled in, i.e. when their lateral mar-
   gins are rolled spirally inward on both sides.
 Irregularis flos, an irregular flower.
 Juba, a crest of feathers.
 lulus, a catkin.
                          K.
 Kernel, a seed covered with a shell.
 Kidney shaped, having a notch cut out ofthe base, with-
   out posterior angles.
                          L.
 Labiatus flos, a lipped flower.
 Lacera folia, leaves whose margin is cut into segments, as
   if rent or torn.
 Lacinin?, segments or divisions.
 Laciniatum folium, a leaf cut into irregular segments.
 Lactescentia, milkiness.
 Lacunosa folia, leaves deeply furrowed by the veins being
   sunk below the surface.
Lacuslres plantae, plants which grow in lakes.
La v is, smooth, having an even surface.
Lamina, a thin plate, lhe  upper  expanded pait ofa poly-
  pefalous  flower.
  vol. i.           50
Lana, wool, a species of pubescence which covers the sur-
  face of plants.
Lanatum folium, a woolly or downy leaf.
Lanceolatum folium, a lance shaped leaf.
Lappet,  the superior spreading part of  a monopetalous
  corolla.
Laterales flores, flowers coming from the  sides.
Laxus caulis, a loose or slender stalk.
Leguminous  plants, plants whose seeds are enclosed in
  pods.
Lenticularis scabrities, a species of glandular scabrities, ia
  the form of lentils.
Leprosus, spotted like a leopard.
Liber, the inner rind of a plant.
Lignosus caulis, a woody stem.
Lignum, wood.
Ligulated,    ) a flower whose petals are tubulated at the
Ligulatus flos, 5 base, plain on the outside, linear toward
  the  middle, and widest at the extremity, in form of a
  bandage.
Liliaceous, like a lily.
Limbus, a border, the upper expanded part of a monopet-
  alous flower.
Linea, a line, the second degree in the Linnaean  scale for
  measuring plants; the 12th part of an inch.
Lineare folium, a narrow leaf, whose opposite margins are
  almost parallel.
Lineata  folia, leaves  whose superficies  are marked  with
  parallel lines, running lengthwise.
Lingulatum folium,  a leaf shaped like a tongue.
Lobata folia,  ) leaves divided to the middle into parts
Lobed leaves, $ that stand wide from each other, and have
  their margins convex.
Loculamentum, a cell, a division of a capsula.
Locus foliorum, the particular part ofa plant to which the
  leaf is affixed.
Lomentaceous, like bean meal.
Longiusculus, somewhat long.
Longum  perianthium, a long perianthium, i.e. when the
  tube of the calyx is equal in length to that of the cor-
  olla.
Lucidum folium, a clear shining leaf.
Lunata folia, moon shaped  leaves, round  and  hollowed at
  the base like a half moon.
Lunulated, shaped like a crescent.
Lnridus, pale, wan, or dismal.
Lyratum folium, a leaf shaped like a lyre.
                           M.
Marcescens corolla, a flower withering on the plant.
Margo folii, the margin of the leaf.
Masculus flos, a male flower containing antherae, but no
  stigma.
Masked flower, a flower gaping, but shut close  between
  the lips.
Mas planta, a male  plant.
Matrix, a seed vessel.
Medulla, marrow, lhe pilh ofa plant.
Membranacea folia,  leaves which have no  distinguishable
  pulp between their surfaces.
Membranatus  caulis, a  stalk  covered  with thick mem-
  branes.
Miliaria scabrities, a species of glandular roughness  on
  some plants, like grains of millet. 
BOTANY.
Milky planfs, plants whose juices are whif e, red, or yellow.
Monocotylodones, plants whose seeds have a single coty-
  ledon.
Monoecia, one house.
Monopetalous, having but one petal.
Monophyllous, consisting of one leaf.
Monospermous, having one seed.
Mucronatum folium, a leaf terminating in a sharp point.
Multifidum folium, a leaf divided  into many  linear seg-
  ments.
Multiflorous, bearing many flowers.
Multipartitum folium, a leaf divided into many  parts.
Multisiliquae, plants with many pods.
Muricatus caulis, a  stalk whose surface is  covered with
  sharp points, like the murex.
Muticous, without a beard or prickle.
                          N.
Naked, without bristles or hairs.
Natans folium, a leaf which swims  on the surface of wa-
  ter.
Navicularis valvula, the valve of a seed vessel resemr«ing
  a ship.
Nervosum folium, a leaf whose surface is full of nerves or
  strings.
Nervous,  having  unconnected small vessels, like nerves,
  running from the base to the top.
Nidulantia semina, seeds in the pulp of a berry.
Nitidum folium, a bright glossy leaf.
Nucleus, a kernel.
Nudus, naked.
Nutans caulis, a nodding stalk.
                          O.
Obcordatum petalum, a heart shaped petal, with its  apex
   downward.
Obliquum folium, a leaf whose  apex points obliquely tow-
   ard the horizon.
Oblongum folium, an oblong leaf.
Obsoleta  lobata  folia,  leaves  having lobes  scarcely dis-
   cernible.
Obtusa folia, leaves rounded at the apex.
Obvoluta folia, leaves rolled against each other, when their
   respective margins  alternately  embrace  the straight
   margin of the opposite leaf.
Officinales, plants used in medicine, and kept in the apoth-
   ecaries' shops.
Operculum, a cover.
Oppositifolious,    )  branches  and leaves  that grow by
Oppositi rami folia, $ pairs opposite each other.
Orbiculatum folium, a round leaf.
Orgya, a fathom, or six Parisian feet.
Ovale folium, an oval leaf.
Ovarium, the germen.
Ovatum folium, an egg shaped  leaf.
                            P.
Pagina folii, the surface of a leaf.
Palea,  chaff, a thin membrane rising from  a common re-
   ceptacle, which separates  the flosculi.
Paleaceus pappus, chaffy down.
Palmata radix, a handed root.
Palmatum folium, a leaf shaped  like  an open  hand.
Palustris, marshy or fenny.
Panduriform, shaped like a guitar.
Papilionaceous, butterfly shaped.
Papillosum folium, a leaf covered with dots or points like
  nipples.
Pappus, down.
Papulosum folium,  a leaf whose  surface is covered with
  piiiiples.
Parabolical, in form of a parabola.
Parallelum dissepimentum, the dissepiment parallel to the
  sides of the pericarpium.
Parasiticae  plantae, plants that grow only out  of other
  plants.
Partialis umbella, a partial umbel.
Partiale involucrum,  a cover at  the base of the  partial
  umbel.
Partitum folium, a divided leaf.
Parvum perianthium, a little flower cup.
Patens, spreading.
Patulus calyx, a spreading cup.
Pauciflorous, having few flowers.
Pedalis caulis, a stalk a foot in height.
Pedatum folium, a species of compound leaf,  whose divi-
  sions resemble the toes of the foot.
Pedicellus, a little footstalk.
Peduncularis cirrhus, a tendril proceeding from the foot-
  stalk ofa flower.
Pedunculati flores, flowers growing on footstalks.
Pedunculus, the footstalk of a flower.
Peltatum folium, a  leaf in which the footstalk is inserted
  into its disk instead of its base.
Penicilliforme stigma, a stigma in the form ofa  painter's
  pencil.
Pentagonus caulis, a five angled stalk.
Pentapefalous, consisting of five petals.
Pentaphyllous, consisting of five leaves.
Perennial, continuing for many years.
Perfecti flores, flowers  having petals; the perfect flow-
  ers of Ray, Tournefort, and other botanists.
Perfoliatum folium, a leaf whose base entirely surrounds
  the stem, or through whose  centre lhe stalk grows.
Perforati cotyledones, perforated cotyledons.
Perianthium, i.e. surrounding the flower, a species of
  calyx.
Pericarpium, i.e. round  the fruit, a pod.
Perichaetium, a circular tuft of fine hairlike  leaves, sur-
  rounding  the bases of the filaments in the musci and
  algae.
Petaliforme stigma, a stigma  resembling  the shape ofa
  petal.
Pelaloides flos, a flower having petals.
Petiolaris cirrhus, a tendril proceeding from the  footstalk
  ofa leaf.
Petiolatum folium, a leaf growing on  a footstalk.
Petiolus, a little footstalk.
Pileus, a hat or bonnet, the orbicular  expansion ofa mush-
  room, which covers the fructification.
Pilosum folium, a leaf whose surface is covered with long
  distinct hairs.
Pinnatifidum folium,  a winged leaf; applied to  simple
  leaves whose laciniae are transverse to the rachiae.
Pinnatum folium, a winged leaf.
Pixidatum  folium, a kind of foliage  where one leaf islet
  into another by a joint.
Planipetalous, with plain flat petals.
Planum folium, a plain flat leaf. 
BOTANY.
Plicatum folium, a plaited leaf.
Plumata seta, a feathered bristle.
Phimosus pappus, a kind of soft down.
Poilex, a Ihumb, the length of the first joint of the thumb,
  or a Parisian inch.
Polycotyledones, many  cotyledons.
Polygamia, many marriages.
Polygynia, many females.
Polypetalous, consisting of many petals.
Polyphillous, consisting of many leaves.
Polyspermous, containing many seeds.
Polystachius culmus, a stalk of grass having many spikes.
Pracmorsa radix, a bitten root, ending abruptly.
Prismaticus calyx, a triangular flower cup.
Procumbent, lying on the ground.
Prominulous, jetting out beyond the valves.
Pronum discum folii, a leaf with its face downward.
Proprium involucrum, an involucrum at  the base of anum-
  bcllated  flower.
Pulposum folium, a  pulpy leaf.
Pulveratum folium, a leaf powdered with a kind of dust
  like meal.
Punctatum folium, a leaf sprinkled with hollow dots or
  points.
Putamineous, like a shell.
                        Q.
Quadrangulare folium, a leaf with 4 prominent angles in
  the edge of its disk.
Quadrifidum folium, a leaf divided  into  4 parts.
Quadrijugum folium, a leaf having 4 pair of folioles.
Quadrilobum folium, a leaf consisting of 4 lobes.
Quadriparfifum folium,  a  leaf consisting  of 4 divisions
  down to  the base.
Quaterna folia, verticillafe leaves,  having four in each
  whorl.
Quina folia, verticillafe leaves by fives.
Quinatuin folium, a  digitate leaf with 5 folioles.
Quinquangulare folium,  a leaf with  5 prominent angles in
  the edge of its disk.
Quinquefid urn folium, a leaf consisting of 5 divisions, with
  linear sinuses, and straight margins.
Quinquejugum folium, a pinnated  leaf with 5 pair of fo-
  lioles.
Quinquelobum folium, a leaf wrth 5 lobes.
Quinquepartitum folium, a  leaf consisting  of 5  divisions
  down to  (he base.
                          R.
Rachis  folii pinnati, fhe middle rib of a winged leaf, to
  which the folioles are  affixed.
Radiafus flos,  a  species of compound flowers, in which
  the florets of the  disk are tubular, and those of lhe radi-
  us ligulate.
Radicalia folia, leaves proceeding immediately from the
  root.
Radicans caulis, a stalk bending (o  the ground, and taking
  roof where it touches  the earth.
Radicate folia, leaves shooting out  roots.
Radius, a ray,  the  ligulate  margin of  (he disk of a com-
  pound flower.
Ramea folia, leaves that grow only on  the branches, and
  not on the trunk.
Ramosissimi caules, stalks abounding with branches irreg-
  ularly disposed.
                 50*
Ramosus caulis, a stalk having many branches.
Ramus, a branch ofa tree.
Reclinatum folium, a leaf bending downward.
Recurvatum folium, a leaf bent backward.
Reflexus ramus, a branch bent back toward the trunk.
Remotus verticillus, a species of inflorescence, w herein the
  whorls of flowers and leaves stand  at a distance from
  one another.
Reniforme folium, a kidney shaped leaf.
Repandum folium, a leaf having a bending or waved mar-
  gin without any angles.
Repens caulis,  a  creeping stalk, either running along the
  ground, or on trees or rocks, and striking roots at certain
  distances.
Repens radix, a creeping root extending horizontally.
Reptans flagellum, a twig creeping along the  ground.
Restantes pedunculi, footstalks remaining after the fructi-
  fication has fallen off.
Resupinatio florum, the upper lip of a flower facing the
  ground, and the lower lip turned upward.
Resupinatum folium, a leaf, the lower disk of which looks
  upward.
Retroflexus ramus, a branch bent in different  directions.
Retrofractus pedunculus, a footstalk bent back toward its
  insertion, as  if it were broken.
Retusum folium, a leaf with its apex blunt.
Revolutum folium, a leaf rolled back.
Rhombeum folium, a leaf whose shape  nearly resembles a
  rhombus.
Rhomboideum folium, a leaf ofa geometrical figure, whose
  sides and angles are unequal.
Rigidus caulis, a stiff or rigid stem.
Rimosus  caulis, a stalk abounding with clefts and chinks.
Ringens, grinning or gaping.
Rosaceus flos, a flower whose petals are placed in a circle
  like those of a rose.
Rostellum, a little beak.
Rotaceous, like a wheel.
Rotatus limbus corollae, a wheel shaped flower, expanded
  horizontally, having a tubular basis.
Rotundatum folium, a roundish leaf.
Rubra lactescentia, red milkiness.
Ruderata loca,  rubbishy places.
Rugosum folium, a rough or wrinkled leaf.
                          S.
Sagittatum, arrow shaped.
Sarmentosus caulis, the shoot of a vine, naked  between
  each joint, and producing leaves at the joints.
Scaber caulis, a scabby and rough stalk, having tubercles.
Scabrities, a species of pubescence, composed of  particles
  scarcely visible, on the surface of plants.
Scandens caulis, a climbing stalk.
Scariosa folia, leaves dry on the  margin, that sound  when
  touched.
Scorpioides flos, a flower resembling the tail  ofa scorpion.
Scutellum, a  species of fructification which is orbicular,
  concave, and elevated in the margin.
Scyphifer, cup bearing.
Secretoria scabrities, a species of glandular  roughness on
  the surface  of some plants.
Securiformis pubescentia, a species of pubescence on some
  plants, fhe bristles resembling an ax.
Semiualia folia, seed leaves. 
BOTANY.
Semiteres caulis, a half round stalk, flat on one side.
Senipervirens folium, an evergreen leaf.
Sena folia, leaves  growing in sixes.
Sericeum folium,  a  leaf whose surface is of a soft silky
  texture.
Serratum folium,  a sawed leaf.
Sessile folium, a  leaf growing  immediately to the stem,
  without any footstalk.
Setae, bristles.
Setacea folia, leaves shaped like bristles.
Simplex caulis, a  single stem.
Sinuatum folium,  a leaf whose sides are scalloped.
Solidus caulis, a solid stalk.
Solitarius pedunculus, a  solitary  flower stalk, i.e. when
  only one proceeds from the same part.
Solutae stipulae, loose straw.
Sparsus, scattered without order.
Spathaceous, like a sheath.
Spatulaf um folium, a leaf in the form of a spatula.
Spica, a  spike ; a species of inflorescence in grasses, re-
  sembling an ear of corn.
Spicula, a little spike.
Spinae, thorns, or rigid prickles.
Spinescent, hard  and prickling.
Spinosus caulis, a stalk with strong prickles, whose roots
  proceed from the wood of the stem, and from the surface
  of the bark.
Spirales  cotyledones, seminal leaves twisted spirally.
Spithama, a span, or seven Parisian inches.
Splendentia folia, shining leaves.
Squamosa radix,  a scaly root.
Squarrosum, rough, scaly, or scurfy.
Stamineus flos, flowers having stamina, but no corolla.
Statuminatae, an order of plants in the former Fragmenta
  Metbodi Naturalis of Linnaeus.
Stellate folia, leaves surrounding a stem  like the rays of
  a star.
Stellatae setae, bristles arising from a centre in form ofa star.
Sterilis flos, a barren flower; masculus of Linnaeus.
Stigma, a mark, the apex ofthe pistillum.
Stimuli, stings.
Stipitatus pappus, a kind of trunk that elevates the down
  and connects it with the seed.
Stipulares glandulae, glands produced from stipulae.
Stolo, a shoot which, running on the surface of the ground,
  strikes root at every joint.
Striati caules, culmi, &c.channelled streaks running length-
  wise in parallel lines.
Strictus caulis, a  straight stiff shoot.
Sfrigae, ridges or  rows.
Stylus, the style, from stylus a pillar.
Submersum folium, the leaf of an aquatic plant, sunk under
  the surface of the water.
Subramosus  caulis, a stalk having few branches.
Subrotundum folium, a leaf almost round.
Snbulatum folium, an awl shaped leaf.
Suffrutex, an under shrub.
Sulcatus  caulis,  or  culmus, a stalk  deeply furrowed
  lengthwise.
Superus flos, a flower whose receptacle stands above the
  germen.
Supra axillaris pedunculus, the footstalk of a flower whose
  insertion is above the angle formed by the branch.
Supra decomposite folia, composite leaves which have lit-
  tie leaves growing on a subdivided footstalk.
Supra foliaceus pedunculus, (he footetalk of a flower in-
  serted into (he stem immediately above the leaf.
Surculus, a twig, the stalk of a moss.
Swob, a legumen or pod.
Syngenesia, generating together.
                         T.
Tegumentum, a cover.
Teres caulis, a cylindrical stalk.
Tergeminum folium, a leaf three times double, when a di-
  chotomus petiolus is subdivided, having two foliola on
  the extremity of each division.
Ternata of folia, leaves in whorls by threes.
Tessalatum folium, a checkered leaf, whose squares are
  of different colours.
Tetradynamia, the superiority of four.
Tetragonus caulis, a square stalk.
Tefrapetalous, consisting of four petals.
Tetraphyllous, consisting of four leaves.
Tetraspermous, producing four seeds.
T/ialamus, a bed, the receptacle.
Theca,  a sheath.
Tomentosus, covered with a whitish down like wool.
Tomentum, a species of woolly or downy pubescence,
  covering the surface of some plants.
Torosum pericarpium, a brawny protuberance, like the
  swelling of the  veins, when  a pericarpium is  bunched
  out by the enclosed seeds.
Torla corolla, a flower with the petals twisted.
Tortillis arista, a twisted awn.
Transversum  dissepimenfum,  the  dissepiment at  right
  angles with the sides of the pericarpium.
Trapeziforme folium, a leaf having four prominent angles,
  whose sides are  neither equal nor opposite.
Triangulare folium, a triangular leaf.
Tricocca capsula, wifh three cells, and a single seed in each.
Tricuspidated, three pointed.
Trifidum folium, a leaf divided  into three linear segments,
  having straight margins.
Triflorus, bearing  three flowers.
Trigonus caulis, a  three sided stelk.
Trihilatum semen, a seed having three eyes.
Trijugum folium,  a  winged  leaf with three  pairs of fo-
  liola.
Trilobum folium, a leaf with three lobes.
Trilocular folium, a leaf having the pericarpium divided
  into three loculaments.
Trinervum folium, a  leaf having three strong nerves run-
  ning from the base to the apex.
Trioecia, three houses.
Tripartifum folium, a leaf divided  into three parts  down
  to the base.
Tripetalous, consisting of three petals.
Tripetaloideae, three petalled.
Triphyllous, consisting of three leaves.
Tripinnatum folium  compositum, a leaf having a  triple
  series of pinnae,  or wings.
Tiiplinerve folium,  a leaf having  three nerves running
  from  the base fo the apex.
Triquetrum folium, or triquetra caulis,  a leaf,  or  stalk,
  having three plain sides.
Trispermous, three seeded. 
BOT
BOT
  Triternatum folium compositum, a  compound leaf when
    the divisions of a triple  petiolus are Subdivided into
    threes.
  Trivalve pericarpium, a pod consisting of three valves.
  Truncatum folium, a leaf having its apex as it were cut
    off.
  Truncus, the body or stem of a tree.
  Tubeictilatus, having pimples or tubercles.
  Tuberculum, a little pimple.
  Tuberosa radix, a knobbed root.
  Tibulatura perianthium, a tubular flower.
  Tubulosi flosculi, tubular florets nearly equal.
  Tubus, a tube.
  Tunicatus radix, a species  of bulbous  root, having coats
    lying one over another from the centre to the surface ;
    as  in the onion,  &c.
  Turbinatum  pericarpium,  a kind of pod  shaped like a
    top, narrow at the base, and broad at the apex.
  Turgiduin legumen, a swollen pod.
  Tuiiones, the young buds of pines.
                         V. U.
  Viginalis, shea(hed.
  Vaginans folium, a leaf like a sheath.
  Valvula, a valve.
  Venosum folium, a leaf whose whole surface is run over
   by  veins.
  Ventricosa spica,  a spike narrowing at each extremity,
   and bellying out in the middle.
  Ventriculosus calyx, a flower cup bellying out in the mid-
   dle, but not in so great a degree as venfricosus.
 Verrucosa capsula, a capsule having little knobs or warts
   on its surface.
 Versafilis  an(hera, an anthera fixed by the middle on the
   point of (he filament, and so poised as to turn like the
   needle ofa compass.
 Verticalia folia,  leaves  so  situated that their base is per-
   pendicular above the apex.
 Verticillated  branches,  flowers, or leaves ; such  as sur-
   round (he stem, like the rays ofa wheel.
 Vesicula, a little bladder.
 Vesicularis scabrities,  a kind of glandular roughness, re-
   sembling vesicules.
 Vexillum, a standard, the upright petal ofa papilionace-
   ous flower.
 Villosus, covered with soft hairs.
 Virgatus caulis, a stalk  shooting out.
 Viscidura folium, a clammy leaf.
 Viscosilus, clamminess.
 Ulisrinosa loca, boggy places.
 Umbella, an umbel or umbrella.
 Umbellalus flos, an umbellated flower.
 Umbellula, a little umbel.
 Umbilicatum folium, a leaf shaped like a navel.
 Uncinatum stigma, a hooked stigma.
 Undatura folium, a waved leaf,  whose  surface rises and
   falls in waves toward the margin.
 Undulata corolla, a flower whose petals are waved.
 Unguis, a nail or claw ; that part of a petal (hat is joined
   to (he receptacle.
Unicus flos, a single flower.
Unicus radix, a single root.
Uniflorus pedunculus, a footstalk with one flower.
Unitelateralis, growing on one side.
 Universalis umbella, an universal umbel.
 Volubilis caulis, a twining stalk.
 Urecolata corolla, a pitcher shaped flower.
 Urens caulis, or folium, a stalk or leaf burning, or stinging,
   as nettles.
 Utricula, a species of glandular secretory vessels, on lhe
   surface of various  plants.
                          W.
 Waved, having the disk alternately bending up and down
   in obtuse plaits.
 Wedge shaped, growing narrower toward the base.
 Whirl, or (leaves, flowers, &c. surrounding a stalk  or
 Whorl,   ( trunk at the joints in great numbers.
   BOTE, bota, in  our  old law books, signifies recom-
 pense or amends : thus man bote, is a compensation for a
 man slain.  There  are likewise house bote  and plough
 bote, privileges  to tenants, of cutting wood for making
 ploughs, repairing tenements, and likewise for fuel.
   BOTRYCHIUM, in botany, a genus of (he class cryp-
 togamia, order of filices.   There are four species, natives
 of America.   1. B. virginicum,  2. B. fumarioides, 3. B.
 obliquum, 4. B. dissecfum.   (a)
   BOTTOM, in navigation, is  used to denote as well the
 channel of rivers and harbours,  as the body  or hull of  a
 ship: thus, in the former sense, we say a gravelly bottom,
 clayey  bottom,  sandy bottom, &c. and in the  latter sense,
 a  British bottom, a Dutch bottom, &c.   By  statute, cer-
 tain commodities imported in foreign bottoms, pay a duty
 called petty customs, over and abov« what they are lia-
 ble lo if imported in British bottoms.
   BOTTOMRY, in commerce, a marine contract for the
 borrowing of money upon the keel or bottom of a ship; that
 is, when the master of a ship binds the ship itself, that.if the
 money  be not paid by the time appointed, the  creditor
 shall have  the ship.
   Bottomry  is alsowhere a person lends money to a mer-
 chant, who wants it in traffic, and the lender is fo be paid
 a greater sum at the  return of the ship, standing to the
 hazard of the  voyage; on which account, though the in-
 terest be greater than what the law commonly allows, yet
 it  is not usury, because the money being furnished at the
 lender's hazard, if the  ship perishes he shares in the loss.
   It is enacted by 19  Geo. II.  cap. xxxvii. that after Au-
 gust 1, 1746, every sum of money lent on bottomry,  upon
 the ships of any subjects lo or from the East Indies, shall
 be lent only on the ship,  or the merchandises laden on
 board her, and so expressed in the  condition of the bond;
 and the benefit of salvage shall be g^nted fo (he lender^
 his agents,  &c.  who  only shall havfa  right  to make as-
 surance on the money len( ; and no borrower of money on
 bottomry shall recover more on any assurance (ban the
 value of his interest  on the ship or effects, exclusive of
 the  money borrowed.  And if the value of  his interest
 does not amount to  the money borrowed, he  shall be re-
 sponsible to the lender for the surplus, with lawful inter-
 est for the  same, togelher  with the assurance,  and  all
charges whatsoever,  &c.  notwithstanding  the  sbio and
merchandise shall be totally lost.
   BOTTONY. A  cross bottony, in heraldry, terminates
at  each end in three buds, knots, or buttons, resembline
in  some measure, the trefoil ; on which account Segoine
in  his Tresor Heraldique, terms it croix trefflee.  It?s
the badge of the order of St. Maurice. 
BOW
BOW
  BOTTS.  See Oestris.
  BOUGIE, in surgery, originally a wax taper, but the
term is now generally applied to several instruments which
are used by surgeons in diseases of the urinary passage.
See Surgery.
  BOULTINE, a term which workmen use for a mould-
in"-, the convexity of which is just one fourth ofa circle ;
being the member next  below the plinth  in the Tuscan
and Doric capitals.
  BOUNTY, in commerce, a premium paid by the gov-
ernment to the exporters of certain British commodities,
on their taking oath, or, in some cases,  giving bond, not
to reland the same in England.
  Bounties, as they respect the fisheries, are either per-
petual or temporary.  The former  are payable on the ex-
port of pilchards, cod fish, ling whether wet  or dried,
salmon, white herrings, red herrings, and dried red sprats,
being of British fishery and curing.  The latter are pay-
able on the tonnage of ships carrying on  (he British and
Greenland fisheries,  on the quantity of fish taken in the
British and Newfoundland  fisheries, on  the quantities of
oil, blubber,  and whale fins,  taken in the southern whale
fishery.   The bounty on cordage  manufactured in Great
Britain, is 2s. 4%d. perewt.  Bounties have been granted by
several statutes on the exportation of corn, when it does not
exceed stipulated  prices  at the  port  of exportation.
Those trades only require bounties, in which the merchant
is obliged to sell  his goods for  less than they cost him;
and the bounty is given to compensate this loss, and to
encourage him  to continue, or  perhaps to commence, a
trade that may be important to lhe interests ofthe country.
  Bounty, queen Anne's, for  augmenting poor livings
under 501. per annum,  consists of tbe produce of tbe first
fruits and tenths, after  lhe charges and pensions payable
out of the same are defrayed.   To remedy the inconve-
niences that result from an absurd slatute enforcing lhe res-
idence of the clergy,  by slat. 44 Ge«>. III. c. 2. the sum
of 8000J. was granted out of the  consolidated fund to the
governors of queen Anne's  bounty, for the relief of cu-
rates deprived of their cures on  account ofthe residence
of incumbents.
   BOURIGNONISTS, the name of a sect among the
Low country protestants, being sHch as follow the doctrine
of Antoinette  Bourignon,  a native of Lisle, and apostate
from tbe Roman catholic religion.  The principles of this
sect  bear a very near resemblance to  those of the  qui-
etists and quakers.
   BOUT ANT, or Arch boutant, in architecture, aflat
arch or part of an ar:7i  abutting against the reins ofa vault,
to prevent its giving way.  A pillar boutant is  a  large
chain or pile of stone, made to support  a wall,  terrace, or
vault.
   BOW, arcus, a weapon of offence made of steel, wood,
horn, or other elastic  matter.   The use of the  bow is,
without all doubt, of lhe earliest antiquity.  It has like-
wise been the most universal of  all weapons, having ob-
tained amongst the most barbarous and remote people, who
had lhe least  communication with the rest of mankind.
The figure of the bow is pretty much the same in all coun-
tries where it has been used ; for it has generally two in-
flections or bendings, between which, in the place where
the arrow is drawn, is a right line.  The Grecian bow was
in the shape of an 2, of which form we meet with many,
and generally adorned with gold or silver.  The Scythian
bow was distinguished from the bows of Greece and other
nations by its incurvation, which was so great  as to form
a half moon  or  semicircle.   The Persians had very great
bows made of reeds, probably the  bamboo; and the In-
dians had also,  not only arrows, but  bows made of the
reeds or canes of that  country; the Lycian bows were
made of the cornel  tree; and  those of  the Ethiopians,
which surpassed all others  in magnitude, were made of
the palm tree.
  Though it does not appear that the Romans made use
of bows in the infancy of their  republic, yet they after-
ward admitted  them as hostile  weapons, and  employed
auxiliary archers in all their wars.
  In drawing the bow, the primitive Grecians did not pull
back their hand toward the right ear, according  to  the
fashion of modern ages, and of the ancient Persians, but
placing  their bow directly  before  them, returned their
band upon the right breast.  This was also the custom of
the Amazons.
  The bow is a weapon of offence amongst the inhabitants
of Asia, Africa, and America, at this day ; and in Europe,
before the invention of fire arms, a part of the infantry
were armed  with bows.  Lewis XI. first abolished the use
of them in France, introducing in their place the halherd,
pike, and broad sword.  The long bow was formerly in great
use in England, and many  laws  were made to  encourage
it.   The parliament under Henry VII. complained ofthe
disuse of long bows, heretofore the safeguard and defence
of this kingdom, and the dread  and terror of its enemies.
  Bow, among builders, a beam  of wood or brass, wifh
(hree long screws  (hat direct  a lath of wood  or steel to
any arch; chiefly used in drawing draughts of ships and
projections of the sphere; or wherever it is requisite to
draw large arches.
  Bow of a  ship, that  part which begins at the loof, and
compassing  the ends of  the stem, finishes at  the stern-
most part of the forecastle.
  That part upon fhe  right hand side of the stem, to a
person on deck and looking forward, is called the star-
board bow, and oti the left hand side is called the larboard
bow.
  Bow, weather,  is that part of  the bow toward the wind
when a  ship is close hauled ; and the other part is called
the lee bow.
  Bow, on the, an expression  to denote fhe position of
any object,  as a ship, the  land, &c. appearing in lhe di-
rection of some particular part of the bow.  If a  ship is
sailing directly toward  the object,  it is said  to be right
ahead ;  if not, the object is said to be on  the starboard or
larboard, or on lhe weather or lee bow.
  BOWER, in the sea language, the name of an  anchor
carried  at the bow of  a  ship.   There are generally two
bowers, called  first  and  second, great and little,  or best
and small bower.
  BOWLINE, in sea language, a rope fastened near the
middle ofthe leech, or perpendicular edge ofthe princi-
pal square sails, by three or four subordinate parts called
bridles, and leading  forward toward the bow, whence it
derives  its name.   It  is always  used when fhe wind is so
unfavourable,   that  the  sails must be  all braced side-
ways, or close  hauled  to  the wind: in this situation, the
bowlines are employed to keep  the weather or windward 
BRA
BRA
edges of the principal  sails  right  forward and  steady)
without which ihey would  be perpetually  shivering, and
rendered incapable of service.   The bowline is fastened
by two, three, or four ropes, like a crow's foot, to as many
parte of the sail; only  the  mizen bowline is fastened to
the lower end of the yard.  This rope belongs to all sails,
except the spritsail  and bprit-lopsail.  The  use of lhe
bowline is  to make the  sails stand sharp, or close, or by
a wind.
  Sharp tht bowline, is  hale it  tawt, or pull it  hard.
Hale up  the bowline,  that is,  pull it harder  forward  on.
Check or ease,  or  run up the  bowline, that is, let it be
more slack.
  BOWSE, in the sea language,  signifies as much as to
hale or pull.  Thus bowsing  upon a tack, is haling upon a
tack.   Bowse away,  that is, pull away all together.
  BOWSPRIT, or boltsprit, a  kind of mast,  resting
slopewise on the head  of  tee  main stem, and having its
lower end  fastened to  the partners of the foremost, and
further supported by the fore  stay.  It carries the sprit-
sail, sprit-topsail, and jack staff; and its length is usually
the same with that of the foremast.
  BOWYERS, artificers whose employment or occupa-
tion it  is to make bows.  There is a company  of bowycrs
in the  city  of London, first incorporated in 16'i3.
  BOX, or box tree.  See Buxus.
  BO YAU, in fortification, aditch covered with a parapet,
which serves as a communication  between two trenches.
It runs parallel to the works ofthe body of the place, and
serves as a line of contravallation, not only to hinder the sal-
lies of the besieged, but also to secure the miners.  But
when it is a particular cut that  runs from  the trenches to
cover  some spot of ground, it is drawn so as not to be en-
filaded, or scoured by the shot from the town.
  BO YES, idolatrous priests among the savages of Flor-
ida.
  BRABEJUM, the African almond, a genus ofthe mon-
oecia order, and polygamia class of plants.   In the male the
corolla is four or five parted; there are four stamina inserted
in the throat; the style is bifid and abortive; the hermaph-
rodite has a four parted corolla, re volute  upward, with
four stamina, one pistil  with  two stigmas; the fruit  is a
roundish drupa with  a globular seed.  Of this genus there
is but one species, vis.
  Brabejum stellatifolium, the  star leafed African almond,
a native of the Cape  of Good Hope.  In Europe it seldom
grows  above eight or nine feet high, but in its native  soil
is a tree of middling growth.  It  riscs  wilh an upright
stem, which is soft, and full of pitch within, and covered with
brown bark.  The leaves come out all round the branches
at each joint:  they are  indented at their edges, standing
on very short footstalks.   The flowers are produced tow-
ard the end of  their shoots, of a pale colour inclining to
white.  They  may be propagated, though with difficulty,
by layers made in April.   In  winter  they should have a
good greenhouse ; but  in summer  they should be placed
abroad in a sheltered situation.
  BRACE, in  architecture, a piece of timber framed in
with bevil joints, the use of which is to keep the build-
ing from swerving either way.   When the brace is fram-
ed into the kinglesses,  or  principal rafters, it is by some
called  a stmt.
  Braces, in the sea language, are ropes belonging to all
the yards of a ship, except the mizen, I wo to each yard,
reeved through blocks that are fastened to penants, seized
to the yard arms.  Their use is either fo square or trans-
verse the yards.
  Brace, in writing,  a term  used to signify a crooked

line,  as ( , made  at the end of two  or more articles in an

account, the amount of which is usually placed in the ceo-
tre of the brace.  It is used also in printing to enclose an
entire passage, as a triplet in poetry.
  BRACED, in heraldry, a  term for the intermingling
three cheoronels.
  BRACHLEUS.   See Anatomy.
  BRACHIALIS.   See Anatomy.
  BRACH1UM, arm.  See  Anatomy.
  BRACHM4NS, or bramins,  a sect of Indian  philos-
ophers, known to the ancient Greeks by the name of gy m-
nosopbists.  The ancient  Brachmans  lived upon herbs
and pulse, and abstained from every thing that had life in
it.  They lived in solitude,  without matrimony,  and with-
out property.  The modern Brachmans constitute one of
the casts or tribes ofthe Banians.  They are the  priests of
that  people, and perform their office of  praying and read-
ing the  law, with several mimic  gestures, and  a  kind of
quavering voice. They believe in rewards and punish-
ments after this  life; and have so great a veneration for
cows, that they  look on themselves as blessed if they can
but die with the tail of one of them in their hand.  They
have preserved some noble fragments of the knowledge of
the ancient Brachmans.  They are skilful arithmeticians,
and calculate, with  great exactness, eclipses of (he  sun
and  moon.  They are remarkable for (heir  religious au-
sterities.  One of them has been known to make a vow to
wear about his neck a heavy collar of iron for a considera-
ble time;  another to chain himself by  the foot to a tree,
with a firm resolution to die in that place; and another to
walk in wooden shoes stuck full of nails on the inside.
Their divine worship consists chiefly of processions, made
in honour of their deities.   They have a college at Bana-
ra, a city seated on the river Ganges.
   BRACHYGRAPHY, the art of short hand writing.
See  Tachygraphy.                              ,
   BRACHYSTEMON, in botany, a genus ofthe class
didynamia,  order gymnospermia.  The essential  charac-
ter is, cal. 5 toothed, cor. gaping, white; 4 seeded,  ob-
long.  There are 4 species.   1.  B. verticillatus, a nalive
of Pennsylvania.  2,  B.  mulicus,  a nalive of Carolina,
3. B.  virginicus,  a nalive of Penns.  4. B.  lanceola-
tus,  a native of Penns.   They flower in August.
   BRACKETS, in a ship, the  small  knees, serving to
support the galleries, and  commonly carved.  Also,  the
timbers that support  the  gratings in the head are called
brackets.
   Brackets, in gunnery, are lhe cheeks of (he carriage
ofa  mortar:  they are made of strong planks of wood, of
almost a semicircular figure, and  bound round with thick
iron  plates; they are  fixed to the  beds by four bolts,
which are called bed  bolts; they rise upon each side of
the mortar, and  serve to keep her  at any elevation, by
means of some  s(rong  iron bolts, called  bracket bolt?,
which go through these cheeks or brackets. 
                       BRA

  BRACTEARIA, in natural history, a genus of tales,
composed of small plates in form of spangles, each plate
being either very thin, or  fissile  inlo very thin ones.
See Mineralogy.
  BRADS, among artificers, a kind of nails used in build-
ing, which have no spreading heads, as other nails have.
They are distinguished, by ironmongers, by six names;
as joiner's brads, flooring brads, batten brads, bill brads,
or quarter heads, &c.  Joiner's brads are for hard wain-
scot ; batten brads, for  soft wainscot;  bill brads are used
when a floor is  laid in haste, or for shallow joists subject
to warp.  See  Nail.
  BRADYPUS, or sloth, a genus of animals of the order
ofbruta.  The generic  character  is:  1st, Bradypus tri-
dactylus, or three toed sloth.  The general appearance
of the sloth is extremely uncouth; tbe body  is of  a thick
shape ; the fore legs short, the hinder ones far longer;
the feet  on all the legs are very small, but are armed each
with  three most excessively strong and large claws, of a
slightly curved form,  and sharp  pointed.  The head is
small; the face short,  with a rounded or  blunt  snout,
which is naked, and of  a  blackish  colour ; the eyes are
small, black, and round; the ears rather small, flat, round-
ed, lying close to the head, and not unlike those of mon-
kies.  The, hair on the  top of the  head is so disposed as
fo project somewhat  over  the forehead and sides of the
face, giving a very peculiar and  grotesque physiognomy
to the animal.  The general colour of the hair on all parts
is a grayish  brown;  and  the hair is  extremely  coarse,
moderately long, and very thickly covers the body, niore
especially about  the back and  thighs.   A remarkable
character as to colour in this  species, is  a wide patch or
space on the upper part of the back, of  a bright  ferrugi-
nous or  rather pale  orange colour, spotted on  each side
with black, and marked down the middle with a very con-
 spicuous black stripe; wide at its  origin, and gradually
 tapering to its extremity : it  reaches  more than halfway
 down the back, and  terminates  in a sort of trifid mark.
 The tail is nearly imperceptible, being so extremely short
 as to be concealed from view  by lhe fur.
   The count de Buffon is  not willing to allow this crea-
 ture any share in contributing lo lhe general beauty in
 the  scale of animated nature, but considers it as an ill
 constructed mass of deformity, created only  for misery.
   Notwithstanding this appearance of wretchedness and
 deformity,  the sloth is, perhaps, as well fashioned for its
 proper modes  and habits of life, and feels as much happi-
 ness in ifs solitary and  obscure retreats, as the rest of  lhe
 animal world of greater locomotive  powers and superior
 external elegance.
   The sloth feeds entirely on vegetables, and particular-
 ly on leaves and  fruit.   Its voice  is  said to be so incon-
 ceivably singular, and of such a mournful melancholy, at-
 tended, at the same  lime,   with such a peculiarity of as-
 pect, as at once to excite a mixture of pity,  and disgust:
 and  it is added, that  the animal makes use of this natural
 yell as its  best mode  of defence; since  other creatures
 are frightened away by (he uncommon sound.  This, how-
 ever, is far from being  its only refuge  ; for so great is the
 degree of muscular strength  which it  possesses, that it is
 capable of seizing a dog with its claws, and  holding it, in
 spite of  all  ifs efforts to escape, till it  perishes with hun-
 ger; the sloth itself being so  well  calculated for support-
                       B R  A

ing abstinence, that the celebrated Kircher assures us of
its power in  this respect having been exemplified by the
very singular experiment of suffering one, which had fast-
ened itself to a pole, to  remain in that  situation, without
any sustenance,  upward of forty  days.   This  extraordi-
nary animal is an inhabitant of the hotter parts of South
America.  It  is  nearly  as large  as  a middle  sized doff
See Plate XXXIII. Nat. Hisf. fig. 62.                S'
  2d.  Bradypus didacfylus,  or  two toed sloth, is also a
native of South  America;  and it is asserted, on good au-
thority, that it is likewise found in some parts of India, as
well as in the island of  Ceylon.   In its  general appear-
ance, as well as in size, it bears a considerable resemblance
to  the former species:  it is,  however, somewhat  more
slender \n its shape, covered with smoother or less coarse
and harsh hair,  and is of a more uniform or  less varied
tinge, and, in particular,  is  strikingly  distinguished, as a
species,  by having only  two claws on the forefeet; it is
also a much more active animal, and, even when imported
into Europe, has been  known, according to the testimony
ofthe  count de Buffon, to ascend and descend from  a tall
tree several times in a day; whereas the  three toed sloth
with difficulty performs that operation in a whole day, and
can scarcely  crawl a few hundred yards  in the space of
many  hours.
   3d.  Bradypus  in sinus,  or ursine  sloth, is by far the
largest species: it  is a native of India, and has been but
lately introduced  to the knowledge of European natural-
ists.   It  was brought from the neighbourhood of Patna
in Bengal.  This animal has, at first sight, so much of the
general aspect of a bear, that it has  actually been con-
sidered as such by some observers : but it is no otherwise
related to the bear than by its size and habit, or mere ex-
terior  outline.
   It is about the size of a bear,  and is covered all  over,
except on the face, or rather (he  snout, which is bare and
whitish,  with long, shaggy, black  hair;  which  on (heneck
and back is much longer than elsewhere.  On the fore
part of the body the  hair  points  forward ;  on the hinder
part backward.  The eyes are very small: the ears rather
small, and partly*hid  in  the long hair of (he head.   It is
totally destitute of incisores  or  front teeth:  in each jaw
there  are two canine teeth of  a moderate  size.  The nose
or  snout is of a  somewhat elongated form ; it also appears
as  if furnished  with a  sort of  transverse joint,  or internal
cartilage, which admits of a peculiar kind of motion in this
part.
   It is a gentle  and good nalured animal; it feeds chiefly
on vegetables and milk, is fond of apples, and does not wil-
lingly eat animal food, except of a very tender nature, as
marrow, which it readily sucked  from a bone presented to
it.   Its motions  are not,  as in the two former species, slow
and languid,  but  moderately lively;  and  it  appears to
have a habit  of turning itself round and round  every now
and then, as if for amusement,  in  the manner of a dog
when  lying down to sleep.  It is said to  have  a propensi-
ty to  burrowing under the ground.
   BRAG, a  game al cards, wherein as many may partake
as  the cards will supply ; (he  eldes( hand dealing three to
each person  at  one lime, and (urning up  (he  last card all
round.  This done, each gamester puts down three stakes,
one for  each  card.   The  first slake is  won  by (he best
card turned  up  in  the dealing round, beginning from tbe 
BRA
BRA
 ace,  king, queen, knave, and so downward. When cards
 of the same value  are  turned up to two or more of  the
 gamesters, the eldest hand gains; but it is to be observ-
 ed that the ace  of  diamonds wins, to whatever hand it is
 turned up.
   The second stake is won by  what is called the brag,
 which consists in one of the gamesters challenging fhe rest
 to produce cards equal to his: now  it  is lo be observed,
 that a pair of aces is the best brag, a pair of kings  the
 next, and so on ; and a pair of any sort wins the stake
 from the  most valuable single card.  In this part  consists
 the great diversion of the game ; for, by lhe artful manage-
 ment ofthe looks, gestures, and voice, it frequently hap-
 pens that a pair of fives, treys, or even duces, out brags or
 induces the holder  to throw up  a higher pair, and even
 some pairs royal, fo the no small merriment ofthe com-
 pany.  The knave  of clubs is here  a principal favourite,
 making a pair with  any other card in hand, and with any
 other two cards a pair royal.
 .  The third stake is won by (he person who first makes up
 the cards in his hand one and  thirty;  each dignified
 card going for ten, and drawing from  the pack, as  usual in
 this game.
   BRAGANTIA racemosa, in botany, a plant ofthe class
 gynandria, order hexandria, cal. none, cor. 1 pefaled, tubo
 globose,  furrowed   lengthwise,  4 celled, 4 valved.   (6)
   BRAIL, or Brails, in  a ship, are small ropes made  use
 of to furl the sails  across : they belong  only to the two
 courses and the mizen sail.
   BRAIN.  See Anatomy.
   BRAN, the skins or husks of corn, especially wheat
 ground, separated from the corn by a sieve or boulter.   It
 is of wheat  bran that starch makers make their starch.
 The dyers  reckon  bran among  the  not colouring drugs,
 and use it for making what they call  the sour waters, with
 which they prepare iheir  dyes.
   BRANCHIAE, gills, in the anatomy of fishes, the parts
 corresponding to lhe lungs of land animals, by which fishes
 take  in and throw out again a  certain  quantity of water
 impregnated with air.   All fishes, except  »he  cetaceous
 ones  and  the lamprey, are furnished wilh ihese organs of
 respiration,  which  are  always eight in number, four  on
 each side (he throat.  That next (he hear( is always (he
 leas(, (he res( increasing in order as  (hey stand near (he
 head of the fish.
   Each of Ihese gills  is  composed  of a  bony  lamina, in
 form of a semicircle, for (he most part; and on its convex
 side stand lhe leaves or  lamellae,  like so many sickles.
 The whole convex part of the lamellae is beset with hairs,
 which are longest near  the base,  and decrease  gradually
 as they approach toward the point.   There are also hairs
 on the concave side of the lamellae,  but shorter than the
 others,  and continued only to its middle.  The  convex
 side of one  lamina is fitted into the concave side of (he
 ncx( superior one; and all  of (hem are connected  togeth-
 er by means of a membrane, which  reaches from their
 base half way (heir  height, where it grows (hicker, and in
 gome  measure resembles a rope.   The rest  of (he lamina
 is free,  and terminates in a  very  fine and flexible point.
 The use of Ihese gills  m'm,is (o be  (o  receive the blood
protruded from (he heart into the aorta, and convey it in-
to  fhe extremities of the lamellae;  whence lieinir returned
by veins, it  is distributed over (he body of (he fish.
  vol.i.            51
   BRANCHIARUM foramina, aperfnres of (he gills.
 In mos( fishes (here is only one apertere ; in fhe cartilagi-
 nous ones, these apertures are ten in number, five on each
 side; and in the lamprey there are no less than fourteen
 of these apertures, seven on each side.
   Cetaceous fishes have no  aperture of this kind ; and
 the reason seems to be  because fhey are furnished wifh
 lungs.
   BRANCIIIDiE, in  Grecian antiquity, priests  of the
 temple of Apollo, which was  at Didymus in  Ionia.
   BRANCHIOSTEGI, in  ichthyology, one of the five
 general orders of fishes into which they  were formerly di-
 vided :  lhe rays ofthe fins are bony : they have no bones
 or ossiculaein the branchiae or gills.
   BRANDY, a spirituous and inflammable liquor, ex-
 tracted from wine and other liquors by distillation.
   Brandy is prepared in inaiiv of the  wine countries of
 Europe, and with peculiar excellence in Languedoc, in
 Anjou,and other parts of the south of France, whence is
 lhe  Coniac  brandy.  In distilling  brandy, the  strong
 heavy wines are preferred.   It is expected that all wines
 used for this purpose  should  yield at  least  one sixth of
 their quantity of  spirit.   The apparatus is composed of
 three parts : the alembic, or boiler, the capital fitted on
 the top of fhe boiler to  receive the spirituous vapour,
 and a worm immersed in cold water, in which the vapour
 is condensed, and flows out in fhe form of distilled spirit.
 In general, lhe slower the process, and the smaller the
 stream of spirit from lhe  worm  pipe, lhe finer and  better
 is the brandy.  That part of  the spirit which comes over
 first has the slrongesf, richest, and highest flavour.  See
 Alcohol.
   Brandy is  naturally  clear and  colourless as  water.
 The different shades of colour which it  has in commerce
 arise partly from (he casks in  which it is kept, but chiefly
 from the  addition  of  burnt sugar,  saunders wood, and
 other colouring matters  that are intentionally  added by
 the manufacturer, and which  are neither of advantage nor
 disadvantage lo the quality of the spirit.
   Besides the brandy made of wine, there  is some also
 made of beer, cider, syrups,  sugar, molasses, fruit,  grain,
 &c.  however, these are  not  properly called  brandy, but
 go under fhe general denomination of spirits.
   BRASIL wood, or Brazil wood, an American wood
 ofa red colour, and very heavy.   It is  denominated  va-
 riously, according to the places  whence it is brought:
 thus we have brazil from Fernambuco, Japan,  Lamon, Sec.
 See  CjEsalpina.
   This wood must  be chosen  in thick pieces, close, sound,
 without any bark on it, and such as, upon splitting, of pule
 becomes reddish, and,  when chewed,  has  a saccharine
 taste.  It is much used in turning work,  and  takes a <^ood
 polish ; but its chief use is in  dyeing.
   When the sulphuric acid  is added slowly to a  fresh
 watery decoction of Brazil wood, a small quantity of red
 precipitate falls down, and the  liquor becomes yellow. Ni-
 tric acid  produces  a similar  change; but  the  liquor is
orange.  Most ofthe other acids produce red precipitates.
The alkalies restore in part the colour of the liquor.   The
action ofthe  solutions of tin and of alum is the most im-
portant.  Alum gives a fine red precipitate in great abund-
ance ; and  in this manner a fine crimson  lake and carmine
are sometimes prepared,  which consist of alumina, united 
BRA
BRA
with lhe natural colour of the wood.  Nifromuriatof tin,
added  to the decoction, separates the whole of the colour-
ing mat ter, which falls down  in great abundance, united
with (he oxide of tin, and the  liquor remains colourless.
The solutions of iron  blacken Brazil wood, manifesting
the presence of gallic acid.
  The colour of Brazil wood, though very beautiful, is fu-
gitive, and is readily darkened and rendered purple by al-
kalies, or  by soap that contains an  alkali.  When  it is
used by dyer3, they  employ acids and tin to fix the  col-
our.
  BRASS is a factitious metal made of copper  and zinc,
in proper proportions.  It is of a beautiful yellow colour,
more fusible than copper, and not so apt to tarnish.   It is
malleable, and so ductile that  it  may  be drawn out into
wire.  Ifs density is greater than the mean density of the
two metals.   By calculation it ought to be 7.63 nearly,
whereas it is actually 8.39; so  that its density is increas-
ed by about l-10tb.   The ancients do not  seem to have
known accurately  the difference between copper,  brass,
and bronze.  They considered brass as only a more valu-
able kind of copper,  and therefore used the word as to
denote either.   They called copper 02s  cyprium,  after-
ward, ryprium ; and this in  process of time was convert-
ed into cuprum.
  The method of preparing brass is as follows : The zinc
having been calcined and ground fine as flour, is mixed
wilh fine charcoal, and  incorporated, by means of water,
into a mass : this being done, about seven pounds of zinc
is put into a melting pot that  will contain about a gallon,
and over that about five pounds of copper ;  this pot is let
down  into a wind furnace,  where  it remains  for eleven
hours, in which time it is converted info brass.  The metal
then is cast, either into plates or lumps; forty-five pounds
of crude zinc will  produce  thirty  pounds when  calcined
or burnt.   Sometimes brass shruff is used instead of cop-
per ; but that is not always to be  procured in quantities
sufficient, it being no other than a collection of old brass.
   Pure brass is not malleable,  unless when it is hot; for
when it is cold it will break ; and after it has  been melted
twice, it will be no longer in a  condition to  bear tbe ham-
mer at all: but  in order to  render  it capable of being
wrought, tbey  put  seven  pounds of lead to an hundred
weight of brass, which renders it more soft and pliable.
   The most important properties of brass are that ils col-
our is much brighter and nearer approaching to gold than
copper.   It is also more  fusible,  and less subject to rust,
and fo be  acted upon by a  vast  variety of substances
which corrode copper: it is  also more capable of exten-
sion, and  peculiarly  adapted for  wire.   Mr. Smeaton
found that 12 inches  in length of  cast brass at  32°, ex-
panded by 180° of  heat, T|^7 parts:  brass  wire,  under
the same  circumstances, expanded 7|^|7«   The expan-
sion of hammered copper is only T^£7, but that of zinc
is aVwff5 8° tna*  brass  holds  a middle place in this re-
spect between its two component metals.
   There is a vast variety in the proportions  of the differ-
ent species of brass used  in commerce ; nor is it easy to
determine whether  the perfection of this  alloy depends
on any certain proportion of (he (wo metals.  In general
fhe extremes of the  highest  and lowest proportions of
zinc are from 12 to 25 parts in  the 100.   The ductility of
brass is not  injured wilh the  highest proportion.  This
metal is much  used in  (he escapement  wheels,  and
other nicer parts of watch making; and bars ci brass very
carefully made will fetch for this work almost  any price.
  The  use  of brass  is of very considerable antiquity.
Most of the ancient genuine relics are composed of vari-
ous mixtures of brass wilh tin and other metals, and are
rather to be denominated bronzes.
  The best proportion  for  brass guns is said  to be 1000
pounds  of copper,  900 pounds of tin, and 600 pounds of
brass, in 11 or 12 hundred weight of metal.
  The best brass  guns are made of malleable metal, not'
of pure copper and zinc alone ; but worse metals are used
to make it run closer and sounder, as lead and pot metal,
See  Cannon.
  Brass, Corinthian, has been famous in antiquity, and is
a mixture of gold, silver, and copper.
  Brass colour, one prepared by the braziers  and colour-
men  to imitate brass.   There are two sorts of it, the red
brass or bronze, and the yellow  or gilt brass:  the latter
is made only of copper filings, the smallest and brightest
that  can be found;  with the former  they  mix some red
ochre, finely pulverized : they are both used with varnish.
  BRASSICA, the cabbage, a genus of the class and or-
der tetradynarnia siliquosa.   The essential  character is:
calyx erect, converging; seeds globular ; a gland between
the shorter stamens and the pistil, and between the longer
and the  calyx.
  There are sixteen species, vis.
  1. B. assica  orientalis ; perfoliate cabbage.  2. Brassica
austriaca; Austrian cabbage.   3. Brassica eainpesJris;
yellow field cabbage.   4.  Brassica arvensis; purple field
cabbage.  5.  Brassica alpina ; Alpine cabbage. 6. Bras-
sica  napus;  wild cabbage, rape, or  navew.   7. Brassica
rapa ; turnip.   8. Brassica  oleracea;  common cabbage.
9. Brassica  cbinensis;  Chinese  cabbage.   10. Bratsica
violacea.  11. Brassica polymorphs.  12. Brassica eru-
casfrum; wild rocket.  13. Brassicaeruca; gardenrock-
et.   14. Brassica vesicaria.   15. Brassica muralis; wall
rocket.   16. Brassica Richerii.
  The first  has the petals white; all the leaves smooth;
stem leaves  ovate, blunt at  the  end, heart shaped at the
base, smooth, glaucous,  perfectly  entire;  petals white
with a tinge of straw colour;  siliques blender, pointing up-
ward, and  approaching the  stem;  roof  fusiform.  Mr.
Hudson affirms, that this is very nearly allied  to the cam*
pestris; and Dr. Stokes thinks it probable that the plant
of horf. ups. supposed to be the  B. orienlalis of  Tourne-
fort  and  our  European species, are distinct. There is
certainly great confusion in the three first species of bras-
sica  ; and in a genus  so subject to vary, perhaps mere lo-
cal differences may have been "exalted into species.
  It is a native of corn fields  and cliffs, in lhe Levant,
about Montpellier; in  Germany, Switzerland,  Austria,
Carniola,  Piedmont,  &c.   In England, near Harwich;
Bardsey near  Orford, Suffolk; Godstone and  Maresfield,
Sussex: annual, flowering in June.
  The  second is a native of Austria, a biennial: root
white, rather  woody, sometimes branched, about half a
foot  long, very thin, with an acrid smell: stem in fhe wild
plant commonly single,  in  the  cultivated or garden ones
generally more, about two feet high; leaves entire, round-
ed at the end", (hick, glaucous, embracing fhe ^talk, very
smooth.  The flowers are yellow, and open  in small num« 
BRASSICA.
 bers at once.  The siliques are about three  inches  long,
 smooth, hbarp, and parallel, or nearly  so, with the stalk,
 standing in an upright manner.  Il is  a plant which  natu-
 rally grows in rough uncultivated places, and infields.
   3. Root annual;  root leaves lyrate, slightly hispid;
 stem leaves smooth and even ; corolla yellow, never white.
 It grows  among  summer corn,  in the north of Europe;
 and in some parts of Sweden it is a common  weed.
   4. Stem a foot high, smooth and even, flexuose, branch-
 ed, perennial at bottom ; leaves  smooth, quite blunt, rath-
 er  fleshy; calyx closed, smooth, with a double protube-
 rance at the base.   Native of the south of Europe, in  moist
 fields.
   5. This differs from  the foregoing  sort in having a nar-
 rower stem ; the  leaves more lender and longer;  those
 next (he ground on long petioles : bu( it differs principally
 in  having almost upright, white petals, and the small flow-
 er ofa Turritis.   Native of Germany and  Sweden.
   6.  Root biennial; stem somewhat  branched, cylindri-
 cal, smooth, from a foot to two feet in  height; root leaves
 lyrate; stem leaves smooth, glaucous, sessile, stem clasp-
 ing, of an oblong heart shaped figure,  very  slightly tooth-
 ed on the edges; calyx  yellowish green, spreading as in
 Sinapis.  The silique has frequently three or four warty
 excrescences.   The roots, when cultivated, may be eaten,
 but have a stronger taste  than  the turnip.  Under  the
 title of rape or coleseed, it is much cultivated in (he  isle
 of Fly, and some parts of England, for its seed,  from which
 the rape oil  is drawn;  and for feeding cattle.  What re-
 mains  after the oil is  expressed, is called oil cake or rape
 cake.   It is very efficacious manure, and is sold from four
 to six pounds a ten.   It is not this but the lint cake, or resid-
 uum of flaxseed, used in making linseed oil,  that is used in
 fatting beasts.
   Linnaeus says that the navew grows  wild  on the sandy
 shores of Gotland, Holland, and England.   With us it is
 found among corn, and on ditch banks.
   7. The turnip, now  so  common in cultivation, is suffi-
 ciently known by its round fleshy roots.  These, howev-
 er, vary exceedingly in their form,  size, and colour, in a
 cultivated state, in which only we are apt to view (hem.
   The variations of turnip are  chiefly in  the root, and
 arise from the different soils, situations, and modes of cul-
 tivation.  The varieties enumerated  by Mr.  Miller are,
 1.  the round, red, or purple  topped; 2. the green top-
 ped; 3. (he yellow;  4. tbe black  rooted;  5. lhe early
 Dutch.  He allows that these may be varieties acciden-
 tally obtained from seeds, although he has sown Ihem sev-
 eral years, and has always found them to retain fheir dif-
 ferences.   Tbe yellow turnip seems  most unlikely to  have
 been an accidental variety, because tbe roots are yellow
 within, whereas the others have white flesh,  notwithstand-
 ing they are of different colours on the outside.  He thinks
 that the long rooted turnip is a distinct species; the form
 of lhe root, and its manner of growth, being totally differ-
 ent from those before enumerated.  The roots are some-
 times as long as those of  the  parsnep, and nearly of the
 same shape.
  The general  use of Ihis root for the table and feeding
of cattle is well known: and  it  has been a considerable
improvement of light lands, particularly in (he county of
Norfolk, whence other counties have derived the culture.
The red rooted turnip was formerly more  cultivated in
 England than at present;  but since the large green top-
 ped turnip has  been introduced, all skilful farmers prefer
 it lo (he others, because (he roots grow to a large size, and
 continue much longer good.  It also grows above ground
 more than  any of the others, which renders it preferable
 for  feeding catlle ;  and being  lhe  softest and sweetest,
 even when very large, it is most esteemed  for the table.
 In very severe winters, however, this is in greater danger
 of suffering by frost than those whose roots lie deeper, es-
 pecially if the ground is not covered wilh snow ;  for when
 the  roots are alternately frozen and thawed, Ihey rot soon-
 er than those which are more covered, and less lender.
 We have known roots of this sort which were more than a
 foot in diameter, boiled, and were as sweet and  tender as
 any of the smallest roots.  At Stowe, in Gloucestershire,
 a farmer  produced four  turnips weighing  an  hundred
 weight;  and offered to produce, from a small given space,
 eighty turnips which should  weigh a ton.
   The next  in goodness to the  green topped is the red or
 purple lopped  turnip, which will also grow large, and be
 extremely good for some time ;  but (he roots will become
 stringy much sooner than the others. The long rooted, lhe
 yellow, and the black  rooted turnips  are now rarely cul-
 tivated,  except for tbe sake of  variety, none of ihem be-
 ing  so good for the table or for feed as  the red and green
 lopped sorts.
   The early Dutch turnip is chiefly sown in the spring,
 to supply  the table before the others can be procured;
 and when drawn off young, this sort is tolerably good ; but
 if lhe roots are left  to grow large, they become stringy,
 rank, and unfit for use.
   Turnip  roots are reputed lo relax the bowels, and lo
 sweeten  the  blood ;  to be hurtful lo pregnant and hysteri-
 cal  women, and to all who are subject to flatulencies.  The
 juice  well fermented,  affords by  distillation an ardent
 spirit.  The rind is acrimonious.   The tender tops  boil-
 ed  are frequently  eaten  in  the spring as  greens  with
 meat.
   8. The  cabbage, as it is found  in ifs wild state on the
 sea  shores of  Britain, has  the stem leaves very much
 waved, and variously indented ;  the colour sea green, fre-
 quently with a mixture of purple;  fhe lower ones some-
 what ovate and sessile; the upper almost linear.   The
 flowers are large; the leaflets ofthe calyx ovate, broad,
 and yellow ;  the siliques short and swelling.
  Early  in the spring the  sea cabbage is preferable fo fhe
 cultivated  sorts; but when it is gathered on the coast-, it
 must be boiled in two waters, to take  away the  sallness.
 When old  it is  said to occasion giddiness.  The roots
 may also be eaten, but they are not so  tender as  those of
 the turnip and navew.  All the different varieties of gar-
 den cabbage originate from this.
  These varieties may, it should seem, be reduced to three
 general divisions: the  first  comprehending those which
 grow in the natural  way, without forming  (he  leaves or
 stalks info a bead.  This  section or division, besides the
 sea cabbage  or  wild colewort,  would comprehend  the
 green colewort, the borecoles, and turnip cabbage.  Sec-
ondly, those  which  form the leaves into a head, as the
white cabbage,  the red, the savoy,  Sec.  Thirdly, those
which form their stalks into a head, as the cauliflower  and
the different varieties of broccoli.  The first section inhrht
be subdivided into  the wild, with broad leaves, and an 
BRASSICA.
even stem ; the turnip cabbage, with broad leaves and a pro-
tuberant stem ; and the borecoles, with fine cut leaves, and
an even stem.  The second section contains the cabbages
commonly so called : as the red ; the numerous varielies of
the white, such  as  the sugar loaf,  the early, the foreign
musk, the small  Russia,  the large sided, the flat topped,
the Yorkshire, Scotch,  American,  &c. and those with
wrinkled leaves, as the common savoy, the green savoy,
&c.   Of the borecoles in the first, and the  broccoli  in the
third section, there are also variations in colour, the pur-
ple and the white.
  The common colewort, or  Dorsetshire kale, is now al-
most lost near London, where the markets  are  usually
supplied with cabbage plants instead  of them; these be-
ing more tender and delicate.  The common colewort,
indeed, is belter able to resist the cold in severe winters;
but it is not good till it  has been pinched by frost; and
our winters being generally temperate, cabbage plants are
now  constantly brought to market;  which, if they are  of
the sugar loaf kind, are lhe sweetest greens from Decem-
ber to April yet known, the variegated kale excepted.
  The curled coleworts or borecoles  are more generally
esteemed than the common  one, being like that so hardy
as never to  be  injured by cold, and at the same time
much more  tender and delicate: these, however, are al-
ways sweeter in severe winters than irr»mi!d seasons.
  Of the heading cabbages, the red is chiefly cultivated
for pickling ; the common white, flat, long  sided, and sa-
voy, for winter use.  Tjje  musk  cabbage is  almost lost,
though for eating it is one of the best we have.
  The early York and sugar loaf cabbages are generally
sown for summer use, and are commonly called Michael-
mas  cabbages.   The Russian cabbage was  formerly  in
much greater esteem than at present, it being now only
to be found in particular  gentlemen's gardens, and rarely
brought to market.  The other heading cabbages, togeth-
er with many others, for it would be endless to enumerate
all the varieties  which are perpetually rising into fame,
and falling into oblivion, are cultivated chiefly for feeding
cattle ; for which they are certainly well adapted on strong
lands; but they are undoubtedly a very exhausting crop.
  The cauliflower was first  brought to England from the
island of Cyprus,  where  it  is in great perfection at  pres-
ent ; but it  is supposed it was originally brought thither
from some other country : most of the old writers mention
it to  have been brought  from that island  to the differ-
ent parts of Europe.   Although Ihis plant was cultivated
in  a  few English gardens long since, yet  it was not
brought  fo  any  degree of  perfection till about the year
1680, at least not to be sold in the markets.   Since the
year 1700, the cauliflower has been so much improved in
England,  lhat such plants  as before would  have  been
greatly admired, are at  present little regarded.  It has
indeed been  much  more improved in England than in any
olher parts  of Europe.   In France  they rarely  have
cauliflowers  till near Michaelmas; and Holland is gener-
ally supplied with  them from England.   In many parts of
Germany they were not cultivated till within  a few years
past; and most parts of  Europe are supplied with seeds
from hence.
  Purple and white broccoli are  only varieties  of the
cauliflower ;. for although with care they may  be kept dis-
 tinct, yet if they were to stand near each other for seed,
 they would probably  intermix.  When, however,  these
 are cultivated with care, they may be kept distinct. The
 variations are not occasioned by soil, but by the mixture
 ofthe  farina ofthe anthers in the flowers;  those persons
 therefore, who are curious to preserve them distinct, nev-
 er suffer the  different sorts to stand near each other for
 seed.
   9. Leaves  oblong or oval, very  like those of hound's
 tongue, blunt but smooth; stem leaves embracing,oblong
 quite entire; flowers, as in the common cabbage, yellow
 calyx longer than the claws of the petals, whence il gapes
 and is  prominent between them; stamens longer; siliques
 a little compressed.  Native of China.
   10. This  is an annual  plant, which, if sown  in April,
 will flower in July, and perfect (he seeds in October.  It
 never closes the leaves to form a head, but grows open
 and loose, more like the wild navew. This sort cam" from
 China, where it is cultivated as an esculent plant. There
 are two or three varieties of it, and it is as changeable as
 our common cabbage.
   11. This species is a native of Siberia, and is an annual
 plant.  The  root is thin and fibrose.  The stems numerous,
 growing oblique, two feet or more in length, smooth, and
 branching upward ;  the  leaves are of dissimilar forms,
 but in general are linear, lanceolate,  thick, and alternate;
 those on the stalk generally dentated ; the denticles near-
 ly subulate.  The shoots are leafy,  proceeding from the
 axillas ofthe branches, so as to cause a kind of cluster-
 ing  appearance; the  flowers are pale yellow.  It is a
 plant which varies extremely  in lhe  appearance of its
 leaves.
  12. Root  annual, fusiform ;  stems many, from a foot to •
 eighteen inches high and more,  round, smooth, sometimes
 having a few hairs  and  small red dots, bright or glaucous
 green ; branches alternate; flowers in a long, loose, terminat-
 ing raceme ;  peduncles  alternate, round, smooth, one flow-
 ered ; corollas yellow,  with dark yellow and green veins;
 siliques spreading, obtusely  quadrangular.  Native ofthe
 southern countries  of  Europe,  in  sandy fields,  byway-
 sides, and on walls ; flowering from  June to August.
  13. Root  annual: stem  angular,  upright,  branching,
 two  feet hi^h and more; leaves  smooth, pulpy, with a
 leafy nerve, and three or four pair "of pinnas, larger as
 they approach the  nerve, confluent, oblong, acute, tooth-
ed ; the outer largest, ovate, or rhoinboidal, often semibi-
fid and semitrifid ;  calyx erect, livid,  with the leaflets,
especially two of them, gibbous; claw ofthe petals erect,
lorn*; border broad, roundish, lemon colour, with  black
veins, sometimes white ; siliques on short peduncles ; seeds
 round on one side and flat on lhe other.   Native of Swit-
 zerland, Austria, and Piedmont.   It was formerly much
 cultivated in the gardens as a sallad  herb,  but af pres-
 ent is  little  known, having been long rejected on ac-
 count of its  strong  ungrateful smell.  It also stood  in the
 list of medicinal plants, but is now seldom used, though it
 is reckoned a strong diuretic.
  14. Root  annual,  spindle shaped; leaves  lanceolate,
pinnatifid toothed, smooth above ; stem hairy, branching;
racemes erect, terminating; corollas yellow, wifh darker
 veins ;  calyx cylindrical; but in (he frui(  i( becomes in-
flated and permanent.   It differs from the  foregoing, in 
BRA
B  R E
   having a calyx under the fruit, inflated like a  bladder;
   leaves not lyrate but lanceolate ; siliques hispid backward,
   not smooth; calyxes permanent (ill the fruit is  ripe,  not
   deciduous.  Native of Spain and Aleppo.
      \;i. Root perennial, so.newhut woody, penetrating deep
   into walls; stem a foot and a half high, branched, round,
   at bottem somewhat woody and perennial;  leaves pinna-
   tifid and jagged, smooth, spreading, having a disagreeable
   smell; petals rather large, twice the length ofthe calyx,
   yellow ; the two glands on the outside of the filaments are
   unusually long, externally bent in  at the top;  the other
   two shorter and roundish ; silique an inch and a  half long,
   round, marked on each  side wilh a prominent line.
      Il grows on old buildings  aud walls in  many parts of
   England, as Yarmouth, Chester, &c.
      16. Root woody, perennial;  toot leaves elliptic, obtuse,
   obscurely sinuate, angular;  petiole channelled, the length
   ofthe leaves; stem round, striated, hollow, a cubit and  a
   half high, simple or a little  branched; stem leaves few,
   distant, like the others, but on shorter petioles, and scarce-
   ly angular ; flowers in umbels ; petals  ovate,  yellow,
   scarcely emarginale ; veins darker; siliques tort nose, sub-
   quadrangular, drawn fo a point  at both ends. The whole
   plant is very smooth, tender, juicy,  and glaucous.  Na-
   tive of the south of France, aud the mountains of Pied-
   mont.
      BRAULS,  Indian cloths with blue and white  stripes :
   they are otherwise called turbans, because  Ihey serve lo
   cover those ornaments of  the head, particularly on the
   coast of Africa.
      BRAWN, (he flesh  ofa boar soused  or pickled; for
   which end the boar should be old; because the older he is,
•  the more horny will the brawn be.
     The method of preparing brawn is as follows :  fhe boar
   being  killed, it  is the flitches only, without the legs, (hat
   are made brawn; the bones of which are to be taken out,
   and (hen (he flesh sprinkled with salt, and laid  in a tray,
   tha( (he blood  may be drawn off: (hen it is to be salted  a
   little, and rolled up as hard as possible. The length ofthe
   collar of brawn, should  be as much as one side of the boar
   will bear; so that when rolled  up it may be nine or ten
   inches diameter.
      The collar  being  (hus  rolled up, is (o be boiled in  a
   copper, or large kettle, fill it is so tender, that you can run
   a straw through it:  then  set it by, till it is thoroughly
   cold, and put it into the following pickle.   To every gal-
   lon of water,  put a handful or two of salt, and as much
   wheal bran : boil ihem together, (hen drain the bran as clear
   a3 you can from (he liquor:  and when the liquor is quite
   cold, put (he brawn into it.
     BRAZED, in heraldry, a term serving to describe three
   cheveron*, one  clasping another.
     BRAZIER, an artificer who makes kettles, pans, can-
   dlesticks, and other kitchen utensils in brass. Some ofthe
   articles manufactured by  lhe  working brazier are beaten
   out with the hammer, and united in their several parts by
   solder;  others are cast, but those which  are cast belong
   more properly lo (he business  of (he founder, excepting
   the polishing and finishing, which require the art of the
   brazier.
     BRAZING, the soldering or joining two pieces of iron
   together by means of thin plates of brass, melted between
   the pieces that are to be joined.  If  the work is  very fine,
as when two leaves of a broken saw are fo be brazed to-
gether, they  cover it with pulverized  borax,  melted
wi(h water, tha( it may incorporate with the br;»-s  pow-
der, which is  added to it: the piece is then exposed fo the
fire without touching the coals, and heated till (he  brass is
seen (orun.
  BREACH, in fortification, a gap made in any  part of
the works of a  lown by  the cannon or mines of (he  beseig-
ers, in order (o make an attack upon the place.   To make
the attack more difficult, the beseiged sow the breach with
crow feet, or stop if wifh chevaux-de-frize.
  A practicable breach is fhat where lhe men may mount
and make a lodgement,  and ought to be 15 or 20 fathoms
wide.   The besiegers  make their way to it by covering
themselves with gabions, earth bags, &c.
  Breach, in a  legal  sense, is where a  person  breaks
through (he condition ofa bond or covenant, on an action
upon which the breach  must be assigned ; and this assign-
ment must  not be general but particular, as in an action of
covenant for not repairing houses, it ought to be assigned
particularlyjvha( is the want of reparation; and  in such
certain manner that the defendant may take an issue.
  BREAD, panis, a mass of dough, kneeded  and baked
in an oven.  See Baking.
  BREAD FRUIT.  See Artocarpus.
  Bread room, in a ship, fhat destined to hold (he bread
or biscuit.  Tne boards ofthe bread room should  be well
joined and caulked, and even lined with tin plates or matts.
It is also proper to warm it well with charcoal for  several
days before the biscuit is  put  info it; since nothing is
more  injurious to the bread than moisture.
  BREAK, in the art of war, or to break ground, is  to open
the trenches before a place.
  BREAKERS, a name given to those billows that break
violently o\er rocks lying under the surface ofthe sea.
They  are  distinguished both by their  appearance  and
sound, as they cover fhat part of the sea wifh a perpetual
foam, and produce a hoarse and terrible roaring, very dif-
ferent from what fhe waves usually have in a deeper bot-
tom.   When a ship is  unhappily driven among breakers,
it is hardly possible to save her;  as every  billow that
heaves her upward serves to dash her down with addi-
tional force, when it  breaks over the rocks or sands be-
neath it.
  BREECHL\GS, in fhe  sea language, the ropes wifh
which thegreat guns are lashed or fastened fo the ship's side.
  They are thus called, becuuse nuf'.e (o pass round the
breech of fhe eun.
  BREDEMEYERA floribunda, m botany, a shrub  of
the class diadelphia, order octandria : the calyx 3  leaved;
corolla papilionaceous,  vexillo 2 leaved,  drupa  2  celled :
flourishes in the woods of the Caraccas.   (&)
  BREEZE, a shifting wind, that blows from sea or land
for some certain hours  in the day or night.
  The  sea breeze which takes place in tropical climates,
i3 only sensible near the coasts  ; it commonly rises  in the
morning, about nine, proceeding slowly in a fine small black
curl on the water, toward the shore; it increases Gradually
till twelve, and dies about five. Upon its ceasing  the land
breeze commence*, which increases till 12 at night, and is
succeeded in lhe morning by the sea breeze again.
   In some countries,  the sea breezes appear to  be only
the efforts of the trade wind, as  at  Barbadoes, and 
B  R E
B  R  E
  in many places between the tropics, where the general
  wind, if not impeded by mountains or islands, blows fresh
  in the day time, but after  sunset, the terrestrial exhala-
  tions being precipitated, produce a new wind, which is not
  only able to make head against  the trade  wind,  but
  to repel it from their coasts.  The sea breezes do not all
  come  from  the same  point of  the compass, but from
  different  points as the  land lies.  Breezes are  more con-
  stant in summer than in winter, and more between the trop-
  ics than in the temperate zone.  Breezes differ from the
  trade winds,  as the former occur daily, and are  perceived
  only near the shore, whereas the latter are periodical at
  certain seasons, and blow at a distance  from the land.
    BREHONS, hereditary judges  belonging to fhe infe-
  rior provincial kings, and also to the nobles  or  chieftains,
  among  the ancient Irish, by whom justice was administer-
  ed,  and controversies decided.
    BRENTA, a liquid measure used at Rome.
    BRENTUS, a genus of coleopterous insects, having
  the  head protracted into a very long projecting snout, be-
  yond the  middle of which the antennae, which are monili-
  form, are  inserted.  There are several species, as the an-
  chorago, Plate, Nat. Hist. fig. 63. barbicornis, &c.
    BREST SUMMERS, in timber buildings,  are pieces
  in the outward,  into which the girders are framed: this,
  in the ground floor, is called a cell; and, in the garret floor,
  a beam.
    BREST, or Breast, in architecture, a term  sometimes
  used for  the  member  of a column, more usually called
  torus.
    BRETHREN, and sisters  of the free Spirit, an appel-
  lation assumed by a new sect which sprung up in the thir-
  teenth  century, and  gained  many adherents in  Italy,
  France, and  Germany.   They derived their name from
  the  words of St. Paul,  Rom. viii.  verse  1—14.  They
  maintained that all things flowed by emanation from God ;
  and  that by the power of contemplation, they were united
  to (he Deity, and thereby acquired a glorious and sublime
  liberty, both  from the lusts and the instincls of nature;
  hence they inferred that the person who was thus absorbed
  in the Deity, became apart ofthe Godhead, and was the
  son of God in the same sense that Christ was.  They treat-
  ed with contempt all Christian ordinances, and  all exter-
  nal acts of religion, as unsuitable to the  state of perfection
  at which tbey had arrived.
   BREVE,  in law, is  any writ directed  to the chancel-
 lor,  judges, sheriffs, or  other officers,  whereby a person
 is summoned, or attached, to answer in the king's courts,
 &c.
   Breve  perquirere, the purchasing  of a writ or  li-
 cense for  trial in the king's courts: whence comes the
 present usage of paying 6s. 8d. fine to the king in suit, for
 money due on bond, where  the debt is 401. and of 10s.
 where it is 1001. &c.
   Breve, in  music, a  note or character of time in the
 form  of a diamond, or square, without any tail, and equiv-
 alent to two measures, or minims.
   BREVET, in the French customs, denotes the grant of
 some favour or donation from the king, in which sense  it
 partly answers to our warrant, and partly to letters patent.
  BREVIARY, a daily office, or book of divine service,
id the Romish church.   It is composed of matins, lauds.
 first, third, sixth, and ninth vespers, and the compline, or
 post communio.
    The institution  of the  breviary is  not  very ancient j
 there have been inserted in it the lives of the saints, full
 of ridiculous and ill attested stories, which gave occasion
 to various reformations of it, by several councils, particu-
 larly those of Trent and Cologn; by several popes, par.
 ticularly Pius V. Clement VIII. and Urban VIII. also by
 several cardinals and  bishops, each lopping off some ex-
 travagances, and bringing it nearer to the simplicity ofthe
 primitive offices.
    Originally every person was obliged  to recite the brer-
 iary every day; but  by degrees the  obligation was re-
 duced to the clergy only, who are enjoined under penal-
 ty of mortal sin and ecclesiastical censures, to recite it at
 home, when they cannot attend in public.  In  the four-
 teenth century there was a particular reserve granted in
 favour of  bishops,  who were allowed, on extraordinary
 occasions, to pass three days without rehearsing the brev-
 iary.
    This office was  originally called cursus, and afterward
 the breviarum; which  latfer name  imports, that the old
 office was abridged, or  rather that this  collection is a kind
 of abridgment of all the prayers.
    BREVIATOR, an  officer under the eastern empire,
 whose business it  was  to write and translate briefs.  At
 Rome those are still  called breviators, or abbreviators,
 who dictate and draw up the pope's briefs.
    BREVIBUS a rotulis liberandis,  a writ or com-
 mand to a sheriff,  to deliver to his successor, the county,
 with the appurtenances, and  the  rolls, writs, and other
 things to his office  belonging.
   BREVIER,  among printers, a small  kind of type, or
 letter, between  nonpareil and burgeois.
   BREWING, the art of making beer or  ale.   The art
 of brewing is undoubtedly a part  of chymistry, and de-
 pends on fixed  and invariable principles.   These princi-
 ples have never yet been thoroughly investigated, and on
 that  account a just and certain theory has  not  been ob-
 tained.   We  shall, however, give the best rules, as far as
 practical  observation and experience have  hitherto gone,
 for the information of those who have not had the oppor-
 tunity of attending to the subject.
   Malt liquor is essentially composed of water, tbe solu-
 ble parts  of malt and hops, and of yeast.  There are sev-
 eral kinds of  malt,  which are distinguished by their cob
 our, and tbe colour depends upon the mode of malting and
 drying.   Whether  the pale or the brown malt  is used, it
 must be coarsely ground, or bruised between rollers, which
 is rather to be preferred.
   The next consideration in brewing is the quality of the
 water to be employed ;  and here soft water  is universally
 allowed to be  preferable to hard, both for the purposes of
 mashing and fermentation. Transparency is however more
 easily obtained by the use of hard than soft water.   But
 it is not well adapted to the brewing of porter, or such beers
 as  require a fulness of palate, as in the London brewery,
 and some country situations. Tbe purity of water is deter-
 mined  by its lightness ;  and in this respect,  distilled  wa-
 ter^ only  can  claim  any  material degree of perfection.
 Rain water is  the purest  of all naturally produced; but
having once descended to the surface ofthe earth, it is li' 
BREWING.
 able to a variety of intermixtures unfavourable to the pur-
 posses of brewing.  With regard to others, though a mat-
 ter of considerable importance, no precise rule  can  be
 laid down.  Where  there is liberty of choice, a prefer-
 ence should doubtless be given to that water, which from
 natural purity is equally free from saline substances and
 vegetable putrefaction, has a soft fulness upon the palate,
 is totally flavourless, inodorous, and colourless;  whence
 it is the belter  prepared for the reception and retention
 of such qualities as brewing is to communicate.
   The first step in the process of brewing is mashing,
 which is  performed  in a large  circular  wooden vessel,
 shallow in proportion  to ils extent, and furnished with a
 false bottom, pierced  with small holes, and moveable or
 fixed a few inches above the real bottom.  There are two
 side openings in the interval between the  real and false
 boltom ; to one is fixed a pipe for (he purpose of convey-
 ing  water into the tun,  and the  other  for drawing the
 liquor out of it.  The malt is to be strewed evenly over
 lhe false bottom ofthe same tun, and then by  means of
 the side pipe, a proper quantity of hot water is introduc-
 ed from  the upper copper.   The water rises up through
 the malt, or as it  is called, the grist, and when the whole
 quantity is introduced, the mashing begins, the object of
 which is  to effect a perfect mixture of the mall  wilh the
 water, so that the soluble parts may be extracted by it:
 for this purpose, the grist is incorporated with the water
 by means of iron rakes, and then the mass is beaten and
 agitated by long flat wooden poles resembling oars, which
 are either worked by the hand or by machinery connect-
 ed with the steam engine or some other  moving  power.
 When the mashing is  completed, (be (un is covered in (o
 preven( (he escape of  the hea(, and (he whole is suffered
 to remain still,  in order that  the insoluble parts may
 Separate from tbe liquor: the side hole  is (hen opened,
 and  (he clear wort allowed to run off, slowly at first,
 but more  rapidly as it  becomes  fine, into the lower or
 boiling copper.
   The chief thing in mashing is the temperature of the
 mash,  which  depends on the heat of water, and on the
 state ofthe malt.   If the water was let in upon (he grist,
 boiling hot, the starch which it contains would be dis-
 solved  and converted  inlo  a gelatinous substance,  in
 which all the other parts ofthe malt, and most of the water,
 would be entangled, beyond (he possibility of recovery by
 any after process.  The most eligible temperature appears
 to be from 185° to 190° of Fahrenheit:  for the first mash-
 ing (he heat of the water must be somewhat below this
 temperature, and  lower in proportion to the dark colour of
 the malt made  use  of; for pale malt, the  water may be
 180°, but for  brown, it ought not  fo be more than 170°.
 The wort ofthe first mashing is always by much the richest
 in saccharine matter;  but to  exhaust the malt, a second
 and a third mashing is required, in which the water may
 be  safely raised to 190° or upward.  The proportion of
 wort (o be obtained  from each bushel of malt, depends
entirely on (he proposed strength ofthe liquor.  It is said
 that  25 or 30 gallons  of good  table beer may be taken
from each bushel of mail.  For ale and porter of (he su-
perior  kinds, only the produce of the first mashing, or six
or ei^ht cr.llons is to be employed.   Brewers make use of
an instrument calh-d  a  sacchrometer, to  ascertain (he
strength  and goodnes* ofthe  wort.  This instrument is a
 kind of hydrometer, and shows (he specific gravity ofthe
 wort, rather than the exact quantity of saccharine  matter
 which it contains.
   We now come fo the boiling and hopping; and  if only
 one kind of liquor is made, the produce of the three mash-
 ings is to be mixed together; but if both  ale  and table
 beer are required, the wort ofthe first, or ofthe first  and
 second mashings is appropriated to the ale, and  the re-
 mainder is set aside for the beer. All the wort destined for
 the same liquor, after it has run from the tun, is transfer-
 red to the large lower copper, and  mixed with a certain
 proportion of bops.  The better the wort, (he more hops
 are required.   In private families, a pound of hops is gen-
 erally used to every bushel of malt:  but in public brewer-
 ies, a much smaller proportion is deemed sufficient. When
 both ale and  table beer are brewed from the same malt,  the
 usual practice is to put the whole quantity of hops in the ale
 wort,  which having been  boiled some  time,  are to be
 transferred to  the  beer wort, and  with it to  be again
 boiled.
  When the hops are mixed with the wort in  fhe copper,
 the liquor is  made to boil, and the best practice  is to keep
 it boiling as fast as possible, (ill upon taking a little  of the
 liquor out, it is found (o be full of small flakes like (hose of
 curdled  soap.  The boiling copper is in common  brew-
 eries uncovered :  but in  many on a  very large scale, it is
 fitted with a steam tight cover, from the centre of  which
 passes a pipe, that terminates by several branches in the
 upper or mashing  copper: the steam, therefore, produced
 by the boiling, instead of being wasted,  is let into the cold
 water,  and thus raises it very nearly  to the temperature
 required for mashing, besides impregnating it  very sensi-
 bly with lhe essential oil of the hops, in which the  flavour
 resides.
  When the liquor is boiled,  it is discharged  info a num-
 ber of coolers, or shallow  tubs, in which it remains until if
 becomes sufficiently cool  to be submitted to fermen(a(ion.
 It is necessary  (ba( (he process of cooling should be car-
 ried  on as expeditiously  as possible,  particularly  in hot
 weather; and for this reason, the coolers in the great brew-
 houses are  very shallow.  Liquor made from pale malt,
and which is intended for immediate drinking, need not be
cooled lower than 75 or 80 degrees ; of course this kind of
 beer may be brewed in almost the  holfest weather;  but
 beer brewed from brown  malf, and intended to be kept,
 must be cooled to 65 or 70 degrees, before it is put into a
 state of fermentation. Hence  the spring and autumn have
ever been deemed lhe most favourable for the manufac-
 ture of lhe best malt liquor.
  We  now come  to the tunning and barrelling:  from  the
 coolers the  liquor is  to  be transferred into the working
tun, and with it is fo be  mixed  a gallon of yeast  to four
barrels of beer.   In four  or five hours the fermentation
begins,  and  it requires from 18 or 20 hours to  48,  before
 the wort is fit to be put  into barrels.   In the barrels the
 fermentation again goes on,  and during a few days,  a copi-
ous discharge of yeast takes place from the bung hole ; care
 must be taken that the barrels are carefully filled up every
 day with fresh  liquor:  this discharge  gradually becomes
 less, and in about  a week it ceases ; af which time fhe bung
hole  is closed,  and  the liquor is fit for use after  it  has
stood a certain lime according to ifs strength, and (he tem-
perature at  which it has been  fermented. 
B  R I
B  R I
   Brewing,  among dislillers, denotes the method of ex-
tracting the more soluble parts of vegetables with hot wa-
ter, and  thus  procuring a solution or decoction fitted for
vinous fermenfalion.  In this sense brewing is a necessary
step toward distillation.   A fermentable solution, fit  for
yielding  a spirit, is obtainable from any vegetable, under
proper management. Thus sugar, treacle, and olher inspis-
sated vegetable juices, which totally unite with water, are
better adapted to fermentation, than roots, fruits, or herbs,
in substance, the grains, or even the malt itself;  all which
dissolve, but  very imperfectly,  in hot  water.   Malt is,
however, generally used in  England,  and brewed for this
purpose : the worst malt will serve for distillation; and the
infusion  or wort  without the addition  of hops, and  the
trouble of boiling, is here directly cooled and fermented.
See Distilling.
   BREYNIA, in botany, a genus ofthe polyandria dio-
ecia class and order of plants.   The essential character is,
male calyx one leaved,  five parted;  corolla none;'nect.
five glands; filaments five, very short;  anthers roundish.
Female  calyx and corolla as in the male;  pist.  germ
globose ; style none ;  stigmas five ; per. caps, five celled ;
seeds  solitary.  There is  one  species, a native of New
Caledonia.
   BRIBERY, the receiving, or  offering, any undue  re-
ward,  by or to any person whatsoever,  whose ordinary
profession  or  business relates  to the administration of
public justice, in order to incline him to do a thing against
the known rules of honesty and integrity:  it also  signi-
fies the taking or giving a reward for offices of a public na-
ture.
   As to  the punishment of bribery,  by the  common law,
bribery in  a judge, was looked  upon as an offence of so
heinous a nature, that it was sometimes  punished as high
treason.   3 Inst. 148.  And all  other kinds of bribery
are punishable by fine and  imprisonment; which may also
be inflicted on  those  who offer a bribe  though not taken.
Blacks. 143.  2 Inst. 147.
   BRICIANI, a military order, instituted by St. Bridget,
queen of Sweden.
   BRICK, a reddish earth, ofthe aluminous or argillace-
ous kind, formed into  long squares, by means ofa wooden
mould, and then baked or burnt.  In the East they baked
their bricks in the sun;  the  Romans used  them  unburnf,
only leaving them to dry for  four or  five years in  the
air.
   Bricks, among us, are various, according to their va-
rious forms, dimensions, uses, method of making, &c. the
principal of which are, compass bricks, of a circular form,
used in steyning of walls:  concave, or hollow bricks, on
one  side flat like a common brick, on  the other hollowed,
and used for conveyance of wafer;  feather edged bricks,
which are like common statute bricks, only thinner on one
edge than the other, and used  for penning up  the  brick
pannels in  timber  buildings; cogging bricks are used for
making the indented works under the  coping of walls built
with great  bricks: coping bricks, formed on purpose for
coping of walls :  Dutch  or Flemish bricks,  used to pave
yards, or stables, and for soap boilers' vaults, and cisterns :
clinkers, such bricks as are glazed by the heat of the fire
in making: sandal or samel bricks,  are such as lie out-
most in a kiln or clamp, and consequently are soft and
useless,  as not being thoroughly burnt: great bricks are
those twelve inches long,  six  broad, and  three thick,
used to build fence walls: plaster or buttress bricks, have
a notch at one end, half lhe breadth of lhe brick; their
use is  to  bind the  work which is built  of great bricks*
statute bricks, or  small  common  bricks, ought,  when
burnt,  to be nine  inches long, four broad, and two  and a
half thick.
   The art of brickmaking is, in almost all its branches,
regulated by different acts of parliament.  Bricks maybe
made of pure clay,  or of clay mixed with sand or ashes
or with both.  The clay  is first moistened and tempered
with water, to render it  fit for moulding into bricks.  Then
several persons  are usually employed in making a single
brick :  these are  called a gang, and they consist of one or
two men,  a woman,  and  two  children, to each of  which is
assigned a different department in the occupation. A gang
in full work will make many  thousand bricks in the course
of a week.   When the bricks are made and sufficiently
dried,  they are burnt in a kiln.  The great art in this part
of the  process, is required in piling the bricks, so that (he
fire may circulate through every course, and in all direc-
tions.   Bricks when finished are of different colours, ac-
cording to fhe  clay of  which  they are made; the most
beautiful are the  white bricks manufactured at Woolpitin
Suffolk.
   BRICKLAYER, one who lays bricks in the  building
of edifices of any  kind.   Tilers and bricklayers were in-
corporated lOEIiz. under the name of master and wardens
of lhe  society of freemen of the mystery and art of tilers
and bricklayers.
   BRIDE WELL, in Bridge street, Blackfriars, is a foun-
dation  of a singular  nature, partaking partly of the hospi-
tal, the prison, and  the workhouse.  It was founded by
Edward VI.  who presented  the place, which had formerly
been the  palace of king  John, to lhe cify of London, with
700 marks of land, bedding and other furniture.  Several
youths are sent to Ihis hospital as apprentices to manufac-
turers  who reside there,  and when they have faithfully
served their time of seven years, they  are presented with
Iheir freedom,  and ten  pounds each for carrying on their
respective trades.
   BRIDGE, a work of masonry or timber, consisting of
one or  more arches, built over a  river, canal, or piece of
water,  for the convenience of crossing the same.
   Bridges are a sort of  edifices very difficult to execute,
on account of the inconvenience of laying foundations and
walling under water.  The parts ofa bridge are the piers,
the arches, fhe pavement, or way over for cattle and car-
riages,  fhe footway on each side, for foot passengers, the
rail or parapet, which encloses the  whole,  and  the hut-
ments  or ends ofthe bridge on the bank.
   The conditions required in a bridge are, that it shall be
well designed, and suitably decorated.  The  piers  of
stone bridges should be equal in number, that there may
be one arch in the  middle, where commonly the  current
is strongest; their thickness  is not to be less than a sixth
part ofthe span of the arch, nor more than a fourth ; fhey
are commonly guarded  in 1he front with angular starlings,
fo break  the force of fhe  current.   As the  piers of
bridges always diminish  the bed ofa river in case of inun-
dations, the  bed must be sunk  or hollowed in proportion
to the space taken up by the piers, (as lhe waters gain in
depth what they lose in breadth,) which  otherwise conduce
to wash away the foundation and  endanger fhe piers; to
prevent this, they sometimes diminish the current, either 
BRIDGE.
by lengthening its course, or making it more winding;
or by stoppiiiL  (he bottom with rows of planks, stakes, or
piles, which break the  current.  It is also required that
the foundation  of bridges be iaid at that season of the year
when the waters are lowest ;  and if the ground is rocky,
hard gravel, or stony,  tbe first stones  of the  foundation
may be laid on the surface; but if  the soil  is soft sand,
it will be neces-ary to  dig (ill  a firm boltom is found.
  Bridges should rather be of few and  large  arches, than
of many smaller ones,  if fhe height and situation will pos-
sibly allow of if; for (his will  leave more free passage for
the water and navigation, and  be a great saving in materi-
als and labour; as there will  be fewer piers and centres,
and the arches, &c. will require less materials; a remark-
able instance of which  appears in fbe difference between
the bridges of  Westminster and Blackfriars, fhe expense
of fhe former being more than double fhe latter.
   For the proper  execution of abridge, and  making an
estimate of fhe expense, &c. it is necessary (o have (hree
plans, (hree sections, and an elevation.  The three plans
are so many horizontal sections, vis. firs( a  plan  of the
foundation under the  piers, wilh  the  particular circum-
stances attending it, whedier of gratings, planks, piles, &c.
the second is the plan of the  piers and arches; and  the
third is (he plan of (he supersteuctere, with  the paved
road and banquet.   The three sections are vertical ones ;
the first  of them a longitudinal section from end to end of
the bridge, and through lhe middle of the breadth ; the
second, a transverse one, or across it, and  through the
summit of an  arch ; and (he third also across, but  taken
upon a  pier.   The elevation is  an orthographic  pro-
jection of one  side or  face of (be bridge, or i(s appear-
ance as viewed at a distance, showing (he exterior aspect
of the materials, with  the manner in which (hey are dis-
posed, &c.
  For (he figure of (he  arches,  some prefer the semicircle,
though perhaps without knowing any  good reason why ;
others the elliptical form, as having many advantages over
the semicircular; and some  talk of lhe catenarian arch,
though its pretended  advantages  are only chimerical;
but (he arch of equilibration is (he only perfect one, so as
to be equally strong in every  part.  See Arch of Equi-
LinRATiotf.  The piers are of different thickness, accord-
ing to fhe figure, span,  and height ofthe arches.
  Wilh  lhe  Romans, (he  repairing and  building of
bridges were commitfed (o (he priests, (hence named pon-
tifices;  next to the censors, or curators of (he roads ; but
at last  lhe emperors took the care of the bridges into their
own hands.   Thus,  fhe Pons Janiculensis  was built of
marble by Antoninus Pius ;  the Pons Cestius was restor-
ed by Gordian ; and Arian built a new one which was call-
ed after his own name.  In the middle are, bridge build-
ing was counted anions fhe arts of religion; and, toward
the end ofthe 12thcentury, St. Benezet founded a regu-
lar order of hospitallers, under the name of pontifices, or
bridge builders, whose  office was (o assist travellers, by
making  bridges,  settling ferries, and receiving strangers
into hospitals, or houses, built on (he banks of river-.
  Among (he bridges of antiquity, that built  by Trajan
over lhe Danube, il is allowed, is the most magnificent. It
was demolished by his next successor Adrian, and the ruins
are  sfill lo be .seen in fhe middle of (he Danube, near (he
city Warhel, in Hungary. Ithad20 piers, of square stone,
  vol. i.           52
each of which wa3 150 feet high above the fonndafion, 60
feet in breadth, and 170 feet distant from one another, which
is  the span or width of the arches; so that the whole
length ofthe bridge was more than 1530 yards, or nearly
one mile.
   In France, (he Pont de Garde is a very bold structure;
the piers being only 13 feet thick, yet serving to support
an immense weight of a triplicate  arcade, and joining two
mountains. It consists of three bridges, one over another;
the uppermost of which is an aqueduct.
   The bridge of Avignon, which  was finished in the year
1188, consists of 18 arches, and measures 1340 paces, or
about one thousand yards  in length.
   The famous bridge at Venice, called the Riallo, passes
for a  masterpiece of art,  consisting of only one very flat
and bold arch, near a hundred feet span, and only 23 feet
high above the water : it was built in  1591.   Poulet also
mentions a bridge of a single arch, in the city of Munster
in Bothnia, much bolder than that ofthe  Rialto at Ven-
ice.   Yet  these are  nothing to a bridge in China, built
from one mountain to another, consisting of a single arch,
400 cubits long and  500  cubits high, whence it is called
the flying bridge; and a figure of it is given in the Philo-
sophical Transactions.  Kircher  also  speaks of a bridge
in the same country three hundred and  sixty perches  long
without any arch, but supported by three hundred pillars.
   There are  many  bridges  of considerable note in our
own country.   The triangular bridge at Crowland in Lin-
colnshire, it is said, is the most ancient Gothic structure
remaining entire in the kingdom;  and was erected about
the year 860.
   London bridge is  on (he old  Gothic  structure, with
twenty small locks or arches, each of only  twenty  feet
wide;  but there  are now only eighteen open, two having
been thrown into one in the centre, and another next one
side is concealed  or covered up.  It is nine  hundred feet
long, sixty high,  and seventy-four wide; the  piers are
from twenty-five to thirty-four feet broad, with starlings
projecting at the  ends; so that the great waterway, when
lhe tide is above  the starlings, was 450 feet, scarcely half
the breadth ofthe river; and below the  starlings the
water way was reduced to one hundred  and ninefy-four
feet, before fhe opening ofthe cenlre.
   London bridge was first  built with limber, between the
years  993 and 1016; and il was repaired or rather  new
built wifh timber, 1163.  Tbe stone bridge was begun in
1176, and finished in 1209.  It  is probable there were no
houses on  this bridge for upward of 200 years; since we
read ofa tilt and  tournament held on it in 1395.  Houses
it  seems were erected on it afterward;  but  being found
of great inconvenience and nuisance,  they were removed
in 1758, and the avenues to it enlarged, and the whole
made  more commodious; the two  middle arches were then
thrown into one, by removing the pier from between them ;
the whole repairs amounting to above 80,000/.
   The longest bridge in England is that over the Trent at
Burton, built in the 12th  century,  of squared freestone,
and is strong and lofty ; it contains thirty-four arches, and
the whole length is 1545 feet.  But this falls far short of
fhe wooden bridge over  the Drare,  which according to
Dr. Brown, is at least five  miles long.
   But one ofthe  most singular bridges in Europe,  is that
built  over the  Taaf in  Glamorganshire,  by  William 
BRIDGE.
 Edward, a poor country mason, in the year 1756.   This
 remarkable bridge consists of only one stupendous arch,
 which, though only eight feet broad, and thirty-five feet
 high, is no less  than one hundred and forty feet span, be-
 ing part ofa circle of one hundred and seventy-five feet
 diameter.
   Of modern bridges, perhaps the two  finest in Europe,
 are the Westminster and Blackfriars bridges over the river
 Thames af London.   The former is 1220 feet long, and
 44 feet wide, having a commodious broad  footpath on each
 Bide for passengers.   It consists of thirteen large, and two
 small arches,  all semicircular, with fourteen intermediate
 piers.  Tne  arches all spring from about two feet  above
 low  water mark; the middle arch is seventy-six feet wide,
 and  the others on each side decrease always by four feet
 at a time.  The two middle piers are each seventeen feet
 thick at the  springing of the arches; and the others de-
 crease equally on each side by one foot at a lime ;  every
 pier  terminating with a salient  right angle against  either
 stream.  This bridge is built of the best  materials, and  in
 a neat and elegant taste,  but  the arches  are too small for
 the quantity of masonry contained  in it.  This bridge was
 begun in 1738, and opened in 1750; and  the whole sum of
 money granted  and  paid for the erection of this bridge,
 with the,purchase of houses  to  take down, and widening
 the avenues, &c. amounted to 389,500/.
   Blackfriars  bridge, nearly opposite the  centre of the
 city of London, was begun in 1710, and was completed in
 ten years  and  three  quarters;  and is an exceeding light
 and  elegant structure ; but the materials  unfortunately do
 not  seem to  be the  best, as  many  of  the arch stones
 are decaying.   It consists of nine  large, elegant, elliptical
 arches ; (he centre arch being one  hundred feet wide, and
 those on  each side decreasing in  a  regular gradation, (o
 the  smallest,  at each extremity,  which  is seventy feet
 wide.  The breadth  of the bridge is  forty-two feet, and
 the  length from wharf to wharf nine hundred and ninety-
 five.  The upper surface  is  a portion  ofa very large cir-
 cle, which forms an elegant figure, and  is of  convenient
 passage over it.   The whole expense was 150,840/.
   Bridges,  iron, are the exclusive invention  of British
 artists.  Tiie  first that has been erected on a large scale
 is lhat over the  river Severn, at Coalbrook Dale, in Shrop-
 shire.  This  bridge  is  composed of  five ribs, and each
 rib of three concentric arcs  connected together by radi-
 ating pieces.   The interior arc forms a complete semicir-
 cle ; but the others extend only to the cills under the road
 way.  These  arcs pass through an upright frame of iron at
 each end, which serves as a guide ; and the  small space in
 the haunches between tbe frames and lhe outer arc is fill-
 ed with a  ring of about seven feet diameter.   Upon fhe
 top of the ribs are laid cast iron plates, which  sustain the
 road  way.  The arch of this bridge is one hundred feet
 six  inches  in   span; the interior ring  is  cast  in two
 pieces,  each  piece being  about seventy  feet   in length.
 If was  constructed  in the year 1779, by Mr. Abraham
 Darby, iron master at  Coalbrook Dale, and must be con-
 sidered as a very bold effort in the first instance of adopt-
 ing a new material.  The total  weight of the metal is
 378^ tons.  See Plate XXII.
   The second iron bridge, of which the  particulars have
 come to our knowledge, was that designed by Mr. Thom-
as Paine, author of many political works.  It  was  con-
 structed by Mess'rs. Walkers  at  Rotherham,  and was
 brought to  London, and set up in a bowling green at Pad-
 dingfon, where it  was  exhibited for some  time.  After
 which it was intended to have been sent to America* but
 Mr. Paine not being able to defray the expense,  the man-
 ufacturers took it back, and (he malleable iron was after*
 Ward worked up in  (he construction of the  bridge at Wear-
 mouth.
   The third iron bridge  of importance erected in Great
 Britain, was that over  the river Wear, at Bishop Wear-
 mouth, near Sunderland, (he chief projecter of which was
 Rowland Burdon, Esq. M. P.  This bridge consists of a
 single arch, whose  span is 236 feet; and as (he springing
 stones at each side  project two feet, (he whole opening it
 240 feet.   The arch  is a segment ofa circle of about 444
 feet diameter;  its versed  sine is thirty-four feet, and the
 whole height from low  water about one hundred feef, ad-
 mitting  vessels  of  from  two  to three hundred tons
 burthen to pass under,  without striking their  masts.  A
 series of  one hundred and five blocks form a rib, and six
 of these ribs compose  the  breadth of  die bridge.  The
 spandrels,  or  the spaces between the arch and  tbe road
 way, are  filled up by  cast iron circles, which touch the
 outer circumference of the arch, and at the same time sup-
 port  the road  way, thus gradually diminishing from  the
 abutments toward the centre of the bridge.  There are
 also diagonal iron bars,  which are laid on the tops of  the
 ribs, and extended  (o the abutments to keep the ribs from
 twisting.   The superstructure is a strong  frame of timber
 planked over fo supporf the carriage road, which is cots-
 posed of marl, limestone, and gravel, wilh a cement of
 (ar and chalk immediately upon fhe planks to preserve
 (hern.  The whole  width ofthe  bridge  is  fhir(y-(wo feet.
 The abutments are  masses  of almost solid  masonry, twen-
 ty-four feet in thickness, forty-two  in breadth at bottom,
 and thirty-seven at top.   The south pier is founded on
 the solid rock, and  rises from about twenty-two feef above
 the bed of the river.   On  the north side the ground was
 not so favourable,  so lhat it  was necessary (o carry lhe
 foundation ten  feet below the bed.  The weight of (he
 iron in this extraordinary fabric amounts to 260 tons; 46
 of these are malleable, and 214 cast.  The entire expense
 was 27,000/.
   The splendid example of the bridge at Wearmouthgave
 an  impulse to  public  taste,  and  caused an emulation
 amona;  artists,  which has  produced many examples and
 more projects of iron bridges.  The  Coalbrook Dale Com-
 pany have  constructed several,  among which is a very
 neat one over the river Parrot at Bridgewater.  Mr. Wil-
 son, the engineer employed by Mr.  Burdon, has also built
 several: and bas lately finished a very elegant one over
 the riv er Thames, al Staines, which is by far fhe most com-
 plete in design,  as well  as  the best executed, of any that
 has hitherto been erected.  This bridge consists ofa sin-
 gle arch, 181 feet in span, and 16 feeUsix  inches in rise,
 being  a segment of a circle  of 480 feet.  The blocks of
 which lhe  ribs are  composed, are similar lo those hi the
 Wearmoutb bridge, except that these have only  two con-
 centric arcs instead  of three, as at the  latter.  The arcs
 are cast hollow, and  the blocks connected by means of
 dowels and keys ; thus obviating the great defect observed
 at Wearmouth, of having so much hammered iron expos-
ed to the action of the air.   Four ribs form the width ofthe 
B  R I
B  R  0
arch, which are connected together by cross frames.  The
spandrels are filled with circles which support a covering
of iron plates an inch thick:  on this is laid the road way
twenty-seven feet wide.  Two hundred and seventy (ous
are tiie weight of (he iron employed in (he bridge, and three
hundred and thirty of the road way.
  BRIEF, any  writ  in writing issued out of any of lhe
king's courts of record at Westminster, whereby any thing
is commanded (o be done in order (o justice.
  Briefs for collecting charity are  to  be read in  all
churches and chapels  within two  mouths  after receipt
thereof, and (he sums (hereby collected shall be paid over
to (he undertaker of briefs, within six months after lhe de-
livery of lhe briefs  under penally of 20/.
   Brief also  signifies an abridgment of the client's  case
made out for the instruction of counsel, on a trial at law,
which is to be fully  but briefly stated.
   Briefs apostolical, letters which lhe pope despatches
 to princes, or other magistrates, relating to any public af-
fair.  These briefs are dislinguibhed from bulb, the latter
being more ample  and always written on parchment and
sealed  wilh  lead  or  green wax, whereas briefs are  very
concise, written on  paper, sealed with red wax, and with
the Real of the fisherman, or St. Peter  in a boat.
   BRIGADE, in tbe military ait, a party or division ofa
body of soldiers, whether horse or foot, under the com-
mand ofa brigadier.  An army is divided into brigades of
 horse and brigades  of foot: a brigade of horse is a body of
eight or (en squadrons ; a brigade of foot consists of four,
 five, or six battalions.
   Brigade-major is  an officer appointed  by (he briga-
dier, (o assist him in the management and  ordering of  his
brigade.
  BRIADIER  is  the general officer  who has the com-
mand of a brigade.   The eldest colonels are generally
advanced to this post.  He (ha( is upon duly is  brigadier
of (he day. They march al (he head of (heir own brigades,
and are allowed a serjeant and (en men of (heir own brig-
ade for their guard.
  BRIGANTINE, a coat of mail,  a  kind of ancient de-
fensive  armour, consisting of thin jointed scales  of plate,
plian( and easy lothe  body.
  BRIMSTONE.   See Sulphur.  Brimstone medals,
figures, &c. may be cast  from a composilion consisting of
equal weights of sulphur and  vermilion melted together,
and when cleared it  may be cast in a mould smeared with
oil.  If it should change to a  yellowish  hue, wet it  with
aquafortis and it will have the appearance of fine coral.
  BRINE PANS, the pits in  which  salt  water is retained,
and suffered to stand, to bear the action  of the sun, by
which it is converted in(o salt.
  Brine pit, (he salt spring from which (he water to be
boiled into salt is taken.  There are  many of ihese springs
in (his countey ; (hat  at Nantwich, in  Cheshire, is said to
be sufficient (o yield salt for (he whole kingdom-
  BRING to, in naval affairs, to check  or retard (he  ve-
locity,  or rale of sailing of a ship, by arranging the sails in
such a manner, that they shall counterac( each o(her, and
thus prevent her either  from  advancing ahead, or getting
sternway.
  BRINING of grain;  (he praclice of immersing it in
some sort of liquor or  pickle (o prevent (he smut, oro(her
diseases, and also to guard it  from tbe ravages of insects.
                 52*
Mr. Arthur Young, in his Farmer's Calendar, says, fhat
from various experiments it appears that steeping  wheat
from twelve to twenty-four hours in a lye of wood ashes, in
lime water, and in a solution of arsenic, gave clean crops
from extremely smutty seed.
  Brining of hay, the blending of salt  wilh hay  in lhe
operation of stacking, to preserve and render il palatable.
This practice is useful in rainy seasons, and it prevails
chiefly in America.
  BRISTLE, a thick glossy  kind of hair, with which the
swine kind are more especially covered.  They aie hard,
transparent,  homy substances, of a prismalical  figuie,
without  any  appearance of  cavities  or pores  in them.
Cat's bristles, or whiskers, have a solid pith in the middle.
Hog's bristles constitute an  important article of exporta-
tion in Russia; those  imported into this  country pay a
heavy duty.
  Bristle  dice,  a sort of false  dice,  furnished  with a
piece of hog's bristle s(uck in  (he corners, (o prevent (hem
from falling on certain sides,  and to make them run high
or low at pleasure.
  BRISTOL water.  See  Mineral Waters.
  BRIZA, in botany, quaking grass :  a genus ofthe digy-
nia order, and triandria class of plants ; and in the natural
melhod ranking under tbe 4th order, gramina.  The calyx
is (wo valv ed, and multiflorous ; the spicula bifarious, with
(he small valves hear( shaped and blunt, and the inner one
small in  proportion to the  rest.  There  are six species of
briza : (wo of which are natives of Britain, vis.
   1. Briza media, (he middle  quaking  grass, and
  2. Briza minor, (he small quaking grass.  Both grow  in
pasture  grounds.  The briza maxima  is a native of the
south of Europe, and is a very  ornamental plan( in gardens.
  BROCADE, a stuff of gold, silver, or silk, raised and
enricned with flowers, foliages, and olher ornaments, ac-
cording to the fancy of the merchants or  manufacturers.
Formerly (he word signified only a stuff,  woven all of gold,
both in lhe warp and  in the woof, or all of silver, or of
bolh mixed together:  thence it passed  lo those of stuffs
in which there  was  silk mixed, to rahe ?r d  terminate
the gold  or silver  flowers: but now all stuffs, even (hose
of silk alone,  whether they are grograms of  Tours or  of
Naples, satins,  and even  faffelies or lutestrings, if they
are but adorned and worked with some  flowers,  or other
figures, are called brocades.
  BROKER, a name given  to persons of several  and
very different professions, the chief of which are  exchange
brokers,  stock  brokers, pawn brokers,  and brokeis sim-
ply so called, who sell household furniture, and second
hand apparel.
  Brokers, exchange, are a kind of agents, or negotia-
tors, who contrive, propose,  and  conclude bargains be-
tween merchants,.and between merchants and tradesmen,
in matters of bills of exchange, or merchandise,  for which
they have  so much  commission.  These, by the  statute
of 8 and  9 William III. are fo be licensed in London by
the lord  mayor, who administers to (hem  an oalh, and
takes bond for the  faithful execution of their offices.   If
any person shall act as broker, without  being thus licens-
ed and admitted, he shall forfeit lhe sum of 500/. and per-
sons employing him 5/. and brokers  are lo register  con-
tracts, &c. under the like penalty : also brokers shall not
deal  for themselves, on  pain of forfeiting 200/.  They 
B  R  O
B R  O
are to carry about with them a silver medal, having the
king's arras, and the arms of the cily, and pay 40s. a year
to the chamber ofthe city-
   The exchange brokers make it their business lo  know
the alteration of the  course of exchange, to inform mer-
chants how it goes, and lo give notice to those who have
money to receive, or pay, beyond sea; they are the prop-
er persons  for  negotiating the exchange, and  when the
matter is accomplished,  that is, when the money for the
bill is paid, and the bill delivered, they have for brokerage
2*. for 100/. sterling.
   Brokers, stock, are those employed to buy and sell
shares in the joint  stock  ofa company, or in  the  public
funds.   The negotiations of these brokers are regulated
by certain acts  of parliament,which among other  things
enact,  that contracts in the nature of wagers,  incur a pen-
alty of 500/. and by  the sale of stock, of which the  seller
is not possessed, and which he does not transfer, a forfeit
of 100/. and contracts for the sale of any stock, of which
the contractors are  not  actually possessed,  or to which
they are not entitled, are  void,  and  the parties agreeing
to sell, &c. incur a  penalty of 500/. and that brokers keep
a book in which all contracts, &c. shall be regularly en-
tered.
   Brokers, pawn, are persons  who keep shops, and let
out money, to necessitous people,  upon  pledges, on inter-
est.  This trade is regulated by statutes, which prevent
the demand of exorbitant  interest;  which prohibit pawn
brokers from purchasing goods in their custody, and from
lending money  to any  person  appearing  to  be  under
twelve years of age, or intoxicated.  Pawn brokers are to
place in  their  shops,  a  table of  rates allowed by act of
parliament; they are  subject also to divers other restric-
tions, evidently inlrnde I as a security to the poor, whose
exigencies or misfortunes oblige them  to  part with their
property, to satisfy  their most pressing wants.
   BROMELIA, the pine apple:  See Plate XXIII. Nat.
Hist. fig. 64, a genus of the monogynia order, and hexan-
dria class of plants ; and in the natural method  ranking
under the tenth order, coronariae.  The essential charac-
ter is, calyx, trifid,  superior:  corolla with nectareous
scales at the base  of each berry, three celled.   There
are nine species, of which the following are the most re-
markable :
   1. Bromelia ananas, with leaves very like some sorts of
aloes, but not so thick and succulent, which are strongly
armed with black  spines.  From the centre  of the plant
arises  the flower stalk, which » near three feet  high ; the
lower  part  is garnished  wilh entire leaves, placed  alter-
nately at every joint.  The upper part  is garnished with
flowers set in  a loose spike or thyrse quite round : ihese
are succeeded  by  oval seed vessels, having a longitudinal
partition, in the centre of which  are  fastened smooth cy-
lindrical seeds.  Of this there are six varieties.
   2. Bromelia  Ungulate,  with obtuse, sawed, and prickly
leaves.
   3. Bromelia nudicaulis, with the lower leaves indented
and prickly.  The leaves of Ihis species are  shorter than
those  of the ananas.  They are sharply  sawed on their
edges,  and of a  deep  green  colour.  The flower stem
arises  from  the centre of the plant,  which divides up-
ward into several branches; (he upper part of these are
garnished with spikes of flowers, which dome out alternate-
ly from the sides of the branches, each having a narrow-
entire leaf just below ii, which are longer than (be spike.
The flowers are placed v ery close on the spikes : and when
they decay,  the  empalement  turns to an oval  pointed
seed vessel, enclosing seeds of (he same shape with the
o(ber.
  The plants of (he pine apple are propagated by  plant-
ing the crowns which grow on the fruit, or the  suckers
which  are produced either from the sides of lhe plants or
under the fruit.  The suckers and crowns must be  laid to
dry in  a warm  place for four or five days, or more; for if
they are immediately planted tbey will  rol.  The cer-
tain  rule of judging when they are fit lo plant, is by  ob-
serving if the bottom is healed  over and becone hard.
In summer, they must be  fiequenlly  watered;  but  not
with large  quantities af a time; aud the moisture should
not be  detained in the pots by the holes being stopped,
for that will  soon  destroy the plants.  If the season is
warm,  ihey should be watered twice  a week;  but in a
cool season, once a weejs  will be sufficient; and  in sum-
mer  they should once a week be watered gently all over
the leaves; which  will greatly  promote  their  growth.
During lhe winter, they will not require to be watered oft-
ener than once a week, according as (he earth in  the pots
seems  (o dry.  Plants  beginning to  show their fruit
should never  be shifted ;  for if they are removed after the
fruit appears, if stops the growth, and thereby causes  the
fruit to be smaller, and retards its ripening;, so that it will
be October or November before the fruil  is ripe;  there-
fore  tbe plants should  be kept in a vigorous growing stale
from tbe first appearance ofthe fruit, as upon this depends
the goodness  and the size of it.  After cutting off the fruit
from the  plant intended to be propagated, the  leaves
should  be  trimmed, and  tbe pots plunged again into a
model ate hot bed, observing to  refresh ihem fiequenlly
with water, which will make them put out sinkers in plen-
ty ; so  that  one may be soon supplied with plants enough of
any of the  kinds, who will but observe  to keep the plants
in health.  The most dangerous  thing  lhat can happen
to these plants is their being  attacked  by small white in-
sects, which appear at first like a white mildew, but soon
after have the appearance of lice:  these attack both root
and leaves  at the same time; and if fhey are not soon de-
stroyed, will  spread over a whole  slove in a short lime,
and in  a few weeks entirely stop lhe growth of (he plants
by sucking out the nutritious juice, so that the leaves will
appear yellow and sickly, and ha* e a  number of yellow
transparent spots all over them.  These insects, after they
are fully grown, appear like bugs,  adhering so closely to
the leaves  as  not  fo be easily  washed  off,  and  seem to
have no local motion.   They  were  originally  brought
from America upon  the  plants imported  from ihence.
The only  method yet discovered of destroying  them, is
by frequently washing the leaves, branches, and steins, of
such plants as fhey attack, with water in which there has
been a strong infusion of tobacco stalks.  Bit this method
cannot be practised on lhe ananas plante, because the  in-
sects fasten themselves so low between the leaves, that it
is impossible to come at them wilh a sponge to wash them
off;  so thai although  they seem to be all cleared off, they
are soon succeeded  by a fresh supply from below, and
the  roots are also equally infected at  the same lime.
Therefore, whenever they  appear on  the plants, lhe 
B  R O
B  R  O
 safest method is to fake the plants out of the pots, and
 clear the earth from (he roots ; then put them into a (ub,
 filled with water  in  which there  has been a strong infu-
 sion of  tobacco  stalk*; and  lay some sticks  across  to
 keep them immersed in (he water, wherein (hey should re-
 main tweiity-fonr  hours; then take  them out, and with a
 sponge wash off all the insects from the leaves and roots,
 and wash the plants in a tub of fresh water.  This is (he
 most effectual  way lo clear them from the insects.  Af-
 ter this, you should put Ihem  in fresh earth; and, having
 stirred up the  bark bed, and  added  some new tan to give
 a fresh heat to the bed, the pots should be plunged again,
 observing to water (hem all  over the leaves, and  this
 should be repeated once a week during summer; for these
 insects always multiply much faster where the plants are
 kept dry, than when fhey are sometimes  sprinkled over
 with water, and kep( in a growing state.
   Of late, some  very  considerable  improvements  have
 been made in this article.  The  leaves of the  oak  have
 been substituted  for  (he more expensive bark;  and (he
 pines (reated wilh (hem are  found (o (brive as well, and
 to produce as good fruit as (he others.   But the most con-
 siderable improvement is that  mentioned in  tbe 67th vol-
 ume of the Philosophical Transactions,  where the follow-
 ing method is shown by William  Bastard, esq. of  Devon-
 shire, of raining these fruils in water.   " The way in which
 1 treat them," says he, "is as  follows:  I place  a  shelf
 near (he highest part ofthe back wall, that the pine plants
 may stand without absolutely touching tbe glass, but as near
 as it can be; on  this shelf I place pans full of water, about
 Beven or eight  inches deep; and  in  these pans I  pu( (he
 pine apple planfs, growing  in the same pots of earlh as
 they are generally planted in,  to be plunged into (he bark
 hed in  (he common  way; (hat is, I put  (he po( of earth,
 with (he pine plan( in it, in the pan full of  water, and as
 the wafer decreases  I constantly fill up the pan.   I place
 either plants in fruit, or young plants as soon as they are
 well rooted, in these pans of water,  and find they (hrive
 equally well: (he fruit reared this way is always much larg-
 er as well as bet ter flavoured, than  when ripened in (he bark
 bed.   I  have more than once  pul  only  the plants them-
 selves without  any earth, I mean  after they had roots, in-
 to these pans of wafer, wifh only water  sufficien(  (o keep
 the roots always  covered,  and  found  (hem flourish be-
 yond expectalion.  In  my house, the shelf I mention is
 supported by irons from the top, and there is an interven-
 ing space of about ten  inches between lhe back wall and
 the shelf.  A neighbour of mine has  placed a leaden cis-
 tern upon the top of the back flue,  (in  which, as it is in
 contact with  the  flue, the water  is always warm when
 there is fire in fhe house,) and  finds his fruit excellent and
 laiie.   My shelf does  not touch  fhe back  flue, but is
 abouf a foot above it; and consequently only warmed by
 the air in the bouse.  Both these methods do well.  The
 way I MCount  for this success  is, lhat lhe warm air al-
 ways ascending to lhe part where (his shelf is placed, as
 being (he highest  part of the house, keeps i( much hotter
 than in  any olher part.  The temperature at that place
 is, I believe, seldom less than what is indicated bv 73* of
 Fahrenheit's thermometer, and when  the sun shines it is
often above i00°;  lhe wafer (he planfs grow in,  seems to
enable them to bear  the greatest heat, if sufficient air is
 allowed ; and I often see  (he roots of the plants growing;
 out of  the holes in  the bottom of the pot of earth, and
 shooting vigorously in Ibe wafer."
   BROMLS, broom grass, in botany:  a genus of (he
 digynia order, and triandria class of plants; and, in the
 natural  method, ranking under the 4th order, gramina.
 The calyx is bivalved, having a partial  spike, oblong and
 round,  opposite grains, with an  awn below  the point of
 each outer valve.   There are 25 species, of  which seven
 are natives of Britain, vie.
   1.  Bromus arvensis, common broom grass;
   2.  Brornus ciliatus, wall broom grass;
   3.  Biomus giganteus, tall broom grass;
   4.  Bromus pinnalus, spiked broom grass;
   5.  Bromus ramosus, wood broom grass ;
   6.  Bromus secalinus, field broom grass;
   7.  B omus slerilis, barren broom grass.
   BRONCHIA.   See Anatomy.
   BRONCHOCELE, in surgery, a tumour rising in the
 fore part of the neck.   This disorder with us is frequently
 called a Derbyshire neck, on account of the  inhabitants
 of that  county being much subject to it; probably for the
 same reasons that the inhabitants about  the vallies of the
 Alps, and  other mountainous countries, are  so much af-
 fected with if.   The  most common situation of this swell-
 ing is the sides of the thyroid gland, and in many cases
 it seems to consist ofa general enlargement of that organ.
 This disease is known to predominate  most in countries
 affected by the humidity of the  atmosphere,  joined wilh
 excessive heal: it  increases in   lhe spring lime, and di-
 minishes in the autumn; it  is less  prevalent in cold and
 dry seasons,  (han in (hose fhat are damp, and moderate-
 ly warm ; it has been asserted that its progress, wherever
 it is endemial, is in exact proportion to the  degree of mois-
 ture indicated by the hydrometer.
   BRONCHOTOMY,  in  surgery, an incision made in
 the aspera arteria, or windpipe, which is necessary  in
 many cases, and especially in a violent quinsy, to prevent
 suffocation from the great inflammation or tumour of the
 parts.   It is also  called laryngotomy and tracheotomy.
 See Surgery.
   BRONCHUS, in anatomy, the lower part of (he aspe-
 ra arteria,  dividing in bronchise, or  branches.   In this
 sense it stands contradistinguished from the larynx.   The
 name is frequently extended  to  the whole aspera arteria
 or trachea.
   BRONTIJE, thunder stones,  a kind of hemispherical
 stones divided by zones.  The word is Greek, signifying
 thunder, in reference to lhe popular tradition, (hat thia
 species  of stones fall in (bunder showers.
   BRONZE, a compound metal, composed of from 6 fo
 12 parts of (in combined with 100 parts of copper.   This
 alloy is  heavier than copper, and  possesses more tenacity •
 it is more fusible, and less liable to be altered by exposure
 to the air.  This  composition is used for cannon as well
 as for medals.
   BRONZES,  a   name given by antiquarians to figures
 either of men or beasts, to urns,  and, in general, to every
 pi^ceof sculpture which the ancients made of that metal.
 We likewise  give   the  name of  bronzes to stalues  and
 busts  cast of  bronze,  whether these pieces are copies of
antiques, or original subjects. 
B  R O
B  R O
   The  me(hod  of casling bronzes  is  as  follows: The
 figure (o be cas(, mus(  have a mould  made  on it wilh a
 mixture of one part of plaster of  Faiis, and  two parts of
 brick dust.  In  lhe joints litlle channels should be cut
 from different  pails of lhe infernal  hollow,  lending up-
 ward, to give vent to the air  which the metal  will force
 out, as it runs info the mould.   When lhe mould is made,
 a thin layer of clay should be  spread over the inside, the
 same  thickness  the bronze is  intended lo be: then the
 mould must be closed, and the hollow within  the layer of
 clay filled  with  two thirds of brick dust, and one third of
plaster mixed with water.  This will make  the core ; and
 if the figure to be cast should  be large, strong bars of iron
 forming a  skeleton of  support for the metal figure must be
 laid in the mould, and round this lhe core must be cast;
 when this  is  done, the mould must be opened again, and
 round this the core of clay taken out; the mould and core
 must  be thoroughly dried, to  prevent any accident with
 the cast.   The core  is  then lo be laid in the mould, and
 supported by short bars  of bronze which run through lhe
 mould inlo  the  core.  The mould is now  to be laid in a
 situation for casting;  a channel must be continued suffi-
 ciently sloping from the  reservoir of metal  to the mouth
of  the mould  for (he liquid bronze lo run easily.  The
form ofthe furnace, and lhe manner of running the metal,
are lhe same as those  employed in the bellfoundery.
  BRONZING, the art of varnishing wood, plaster, ivo-
ty, Sec. so as  to give  them tbe colour of bronze.  There
 are two sorts of  composition  used for  (his  purpose, (he
 red and (he yellow; (he latter is  made of (he finest cop-
 per dust, and  to the former is added a small quantity of
 red ochre,  well  pulverized.   Both are applied with var-
 nish,  and  the  work is dried over a chafingdish as soon as
 bronzed.
  BROOM, in botany.  See Spartium, and Genista.
  Broom flower, ordre de la geniste, an  order institut-
 ed  by St. Louis, king of France,  to  show  lhe esteem
 which he had for the queen his wife;  and who, the even-
 ing before his  queen's  coronation,  received Ihis  order
himself.
  The  collar of this  order was a gold chain of broom
flowers, interlaced with fleur-de-lis : the inscription, '« ex-
 altat  humiles,"  the founder accounting tbe broom the
 symbol of humility.
  BROSjEA, in botany, a genus of plants, of the order
monogynia, and  pentandria class.   The characters  are
these : the cup is a one leaved perianthium, five segments;
the flower  is monopefalous, of lhe shape of a truncated
Cone.  The fruit is a  roundish capsule, divided into five
cells, and opening at fhe sides, discharges a great number
of seeds.   There is one species, a native of South America.
  BROTHERHOOD of God, a  Christian denomination
 associated together for restraining and abolishing the right
 and exercise of  private war.   This sect was founded in
 the 12th century by a carpenter  at  Guienne, who pre-
 tended  to have had  divine communication  with Jesus
 Christ and the Virgin Mary.  He was received as an in-
 spired messenger of God.  Many prelates and barons as-
 sembled at Puy,  and took an oath,  not only to makepeace
 with all their own enemies, but to  attack such as refused
 fo lay down their arms, and to be reconciled to their ene-
mies.
  BBP WALLIA, in botany, a genus of the angiosper-
 mia order, in the didynamia class of plants.  The essen-
 tial  chaiaciei  is,  calyx five toothed : corolla  five cleft
 equal spreading with (he navel closed: anthers, (wo larg-
 er :  capsule  one  celled.  There are  two species, both
 annuals, vis.
   1. Browallia  demissa,  with a single flower upon each
 footstalk.  The seeds were sent to  Mr. Miller, from Pa-
 nama.   The flowers are of a light blue colour, sometimes
 inclining to a purple  or red; and  there are often three
 colours of flowers  on the same plant.  They flower in
 July, August, and September.
   2. Browallia elata,  wilh one or many flowers on each
 footstalk, is  a native of Peru.  The stalk appears some-
 what shrubby ; the footstalks have sometimes one flower,
 others wifh three,  and others with five, of a deep violet
 colour.  As  both species of browallia are annual plants,
 tbey must be raised from seeds, which are to be sown on
 a hot bed; but they  may  be transplanted in June, into
 the borders of fhe  flower  garden;  where, if the weather
 proves warm, they will flower and perfect seeds; but lest
 these should  fail, (here should be a plant or two kept in
 (he greenhouse (o secure seeds.
   BROWN, among dyers, painters, &c. a dusky colour,
 inclining toward redness.  Of (bis colour there are iari-
 ous shades or degrees, distinguished  by different appella-
 tions ;  for instance, Spanish brown, a sad brown, a tawny
 brown, the London brown, a clove brown, &c.
   Spanish brown is  a dark dull  red, of a horse  flesh
 colour.   Il is an earth, and is of great use among painters,
 being generally used as the first and  priming colour that
 they lay upon any kind of timber work in house painting.
 That which  is of (he deepest colour,  and freest  from
 sfones, is lhe best.  Though this is of a  dirty brown col-
 our, ye( i( is not much used to colour any garment, unless it
 be an old man's gown; but (o shadow vermilion, or lolay
 upon any dark  ground behind a picture, or to shadotr
 yellow berries in the darkest places, when lake is wanted,
 Sec.  It is best and brightest when burnt in lhe  fire till it
 is red hot, although, to  colour a.hare, horse, dog, or ibe
 like, it should not be burnt; but, for other uses, it is best
 when it is burnt, as for instance, for colouring wood, posts,
 bodies  of trees,  or any thing  else of wood, or any dark
 ground of a picture.
  The method of  dyeing browns is by plunging tbe cloth
 in a boiling bath of red wood ground  and nut galls bruis*
 ed ;  and when il  has boiled for two hours and a half, and
 has been cooled and aired, it is plunged again in lhe same
 bath, to which a  proportionable quantity of copperas must
 first be added.   The more dull you would have (he brown,
 the more copperas must be put in.
  BROWN1STS, in  church  history,  a religious sect,
 which sprung up  in England  toward  (he end of the 16th
 century.   Their  leader  was  one Robert Brown, born at
 Northampton.   They  separated from  the established
 church, on account of its discipline  and  form of govern-
 ment.  They equally disliked  episcopacy and presbyte*
 rianism.   Tbey condemned  the  solemn celebration ol
 marriages in churches, maintaining, that matrimony being
 apolitical contract, lhe confirmation of  it oughl to pro-
 ceed from tbe  civil magistrate.  They rejected all forms
 of prayer, and held that  the Lord's  prayer was not to b«
 recited  as a prayer ;  being given only as a  model, upoi
which to form our prayers. 
BR U
BRU
   BRUCEA, in botany, a genus ofthe tetrandria order,
 and dioecia class of plants.  The essential character is,
 Calyx four leaved :  corolla, four  petaled : fem. perri. four
 one seeded.   There is one species, a shrub of Abyssinia.
 It  is a simple  bitter,  leaving in the  throat  something
 of roughness resembling ipecacuanha.
   BRUCIIUS, a genus of coleopterous insects, wilh fili-
 form antenna;, equal filiform feelers, and acuminated lip.
 The species of this genus are in all twenty-five.
   BKUlSER/the name  of a concave tool used  for grind-
 ing and polishing the specula of telescopes.  It is made
 of brass about a quarter of an inch thick, and hammered as
 near  the  giuge as possible.  It is tinned on  the  convex
 side, and made equally broad at bottom  and top.   By this
 instrument the speculum is prepared for the hands ofthe
 polisher.
   BRUNS'FELIA, in botany, a genus of  (he monogynia
 order,  and  pentandria clais of  planfs.  The  corolla is
 funnel  shaped, and very long; and (he  fruit an unilocular
 polynpermo<i3 berry.   There are two species.
   Brutisfelia Americana,  rises six or eight feef high, has
 a woody  branching rough stem, with oblong entire leaves
 on foolstajks, and Iar2,e whitish flowers by threes or fours at
 the ends  of Ibe branches, succeeded by round saffron col-
 oured soft fruit.  It may be raised from  seeds sown in
 pols  in  (he spring,  and plunged in a bark bed.   It may
 also  be propagated by cuttings  planted in  pots  in the
 same Season,  plunging ihem also in a  bark bed or other
 hot bed under glasses.  The  plants must always remain
 in  the  stove.  2d,  B. undulate.  Both natives  of Ja-
 maica.
   BRTJN1A,  in botany,  a genus of the  monogynia or-
 der, and pentandria class of plants.  The flowers  are ag-
 gregate or clustered; the  filaments inserted into the heels
 of the petals; the stigma  is  bifid, the  seeds are solitary,
 and the capsule is bilocular.  There are eight species, na-
 tives of the Cape.
   BRUNICHIA  cirrhosa, in  botany, a  plant  of the
 class decandria, order  digynia.  The cal. 5 parted, cor.
 none, capsule 1 sperm. 3 sided.   It is a native of Carolina
 and  Missisippi.  (a)
   BRUNON1AN  system, the system of medicine dis-
 covered by (he late  Dr. Brown, and explained at large in
 his Elemenls of Medicine.  I(  might  appear  proper to
 give an account of this doctrine under (he general  article
 Medicine ;  but the new system differs  so widely from ail
 former systems of lhat  science,  that we  think it more
 consistent wifh propriety to delineate it  under its own
 proper  title.   The following will  give a  sufficient view of
 the outlines of (his docfrinc (o such as are unacquainted
 with if; and  for ils minulise we must refer (o (he doctor's
 own works, and those of Dr. Beddoes, Dr. Junes, Sec.
   Bkunonian system, account of.   The  human body,
 particularly (he system of solids it consisls of, is a form of
 Jiving ma((er, whose characteristics are  sensation and mo-
 tion.   The capability of being affected  by external pow-
 ers is termed excitability; lheagen(s stimuli, or exciting
 powers; (he  result  excitement.  • Without this  property,
 excitability,  the  body would  be dead  inert matter: by
 this property  it becomes living  mafter;  by this  property,
 called into action  by lhe exciting powers, it becomes a
 living system.   While the stimuli act on the excitabili-
iy with  a sufficient  degree of power, then is the pleasant
sensation of health :  when they  raise the  excitement
above this point,  or  depress it  below  it,  disease takes
place: when  (he  stimuli  cease to act, or the system lo
feel (heir power,  death ensues.  Excitability is a prop-
erty of living matter,  peculiar  and inherent, but it ia a
property which Dr. Brown did  not  pretend to explain.
He left it as sir Isaac Newton did his attraction, as a prop-
erty not to  be  investigated.  Of  (his energy or power
there is assigned to every living system, at the commence-
ment of  life, a certain quantity or proportion; but  its
quantity differs in  each, and in  the same body it is found
to  change; for  the excitability, according  to circum-
stances,  may be "abundant, increased, accumulated, su-
perfluous, exhausted, consumed," &c.  The stimuli,  or
exciting powers, are of (wo classes, external and internal.
The external stimuli are heat,  light,  sound,  air, and mo-
tion; food, drink,  medicines,  and whatever else is taken
into the body,  not excepting  poisons  and  contagions.
The internal are  the  functions of  the body,  the blood,
the secretions, muscular exertion, and  finally  the powers
of the mind; as  sensation, passion,  and  thought.   Ex-
citement is  life; (he natural movements of (he  machine,
and  (he  functions  resulting from these, as sensation, re-
flection,  and voluntary motion, as (hey immediately flow
from the exciting  powers,  are  vigorous when  they are
strong, languid when tbey are weak, and cease when they
are  taken  away entirely.  Thus our body is continually
moved by external agents, and life is a forced state.   Our
weak frame has  an unceasing tendency  to  dissolution,
which is  opposed only by the incessant application of ex-
citing powers,  which are  the sources of life, and which,
being partially or completely withdrawn, are immediately
followed by disease or death.  It  ia  also a principle  of
Ihis  doctrine, that  "all stimuli by aclingon (he excitebil-
i(y exhaus( i(."   Thus (he stimuli of  food, air, motion,
passion, and thought,  have  supported  (he body (hrough
(he  labours  of (he day: (hey have supported the func-
tions by  ac(ing on  the exci(abili(y; in (he evening it is
exhausted by their continued operation; they  have no
longer the  same power; (he functions fail ; we sink into
rest, and continue  in sleep, unaffected by the stimuli, re-
newing by sleep that excifabilify which had been exhaust-
ed by the labours or by the pleasures of (he dav ; we rise
wi(h restored  excitability ; we feel a  new power of ex-
citement in every  object around u,; we are refreshed  in
fhe morning, and languid at night, and our whole life is an
alternation  of motion and  rest,  of action and sleep,  of
apathy and pleasure, of wasting our excitability by day
in labour or enjoyment, and of recruiting it by night by
(he abs(rac(ion of  all stimulant powers.  The same  phi-
losophy extends to (he duration of life : in childhood ex-
citability is abundant in quantity, as being little exhaust-
ed ;  but it is low in power, because the lender stamina and
accumulated  excitability of children can neither  suffer
nor support high  excitement.  Their  excitability  is  so
abundant, tha( (hey are easily  supported by weak diet
and low exciting powers, and therefore most of their dis-
eases are diseases  of weakness.   In  youth and manhood
(he excitability is  yet  entire, lhe stamina are  strong, the
powerful stimuli are  applied, and high passions prevail:
these are the periods of vigour, and (he era of inflamma-
tory disease.  In old age the stamina  are worn, the exci-
tability is exhausted,  the common stimuli have lost their 
BRUNONIAN  SYSTEM.
    power,  and  fhe  system  begins  fo decline ;  we  have
    weakness of body, imbecility of mind, and asthenic dis-
    eases.  We may las'of all have recourse to more gener-
    ous diet, and raise the stimulant powers by substituting wine
    to water or brandy to wine : thus perhaps excitement may
    be awhile supported,  and  life  prolonged; but in a few
    years these also fail.   This doctrine further teaches, fhat
    our body is never  moved but by exciting powers.   None
    but stimuli affect our system.  That there are direct seda-
    tives in nature, is esteemed an unphilosophical and vulgar
    error.  In stimuli  there is a gradation which, being rela-
    tive to the system, deceives our sense ; for, as some stim-
    uli are  powerful and others weak, a low stimulus applied
    after a more  powerful one, will stimulate  less  fhan the
    former, will allay the motions which the former had ex-
    cited, and will,  therefore,  be  named a sedative.   Take
    heat as  an example of this : cold is but an  abstraction of
    heat, yet it is thought a  positive existence; and cold is
    named a sedative and heat  a stimulant power.  To detect
    this  deception of sense,  plunge  the right hand into water
    at the heat of 150°,  (he left in(o inching snow ; withdraw
  . both, and plunge them at  once  into water at 100°, it will
    prove at once stimulant and sedative; cold or sedative to
    the right hand,  and hot  or stimulant to  fhe left.   So is
    fasting an abstraction of  the wonted  stimulus of food,
    bleeding ofthe usual stimulus of blood, and so on.  Health,
    then, is the due operation of  stimuli on a well regulated
    excitability, producing a  moderate  excitement,  and  a
    pleasant sensation, moving  the  whole system wilh a just
    degree of power, and  giving  all the functions fheir due
    energy  and tone.  Asthenic disease, disease of debility
    or of weakness,  is the result  of stimuli applied in a low
    degree, or of the system  less  easily excited.  Sthenic
    disease, or disease  of strength, is (he result of stimuli ap-
    plied in too great a degree, or  of a system too suscepti-
    ble of excitement.   The first  is depression of excitement
    below fhe healthy  state : it produces languid motions and
    functions/ and   requires excitement for its  cure.   The
    second is  a strong state of the  system, wound up to too
    high  a  degree of  excitement.   It  is an  exuberance  of
    health and strength.   It is marked by violent movements,
    and.is cured by  extraction of stimuli.  Thus are  all our
    maladies either  diseases  of weakness  or of excessive
    strength;  and this is  the  foundation  of fjie Brunonian
    scale, which has for its  middle  point health; below that
    are arranged  the diseases  of weakness; above it the dis-
    eases of excessive  strength ; and in both divisions  of the
    scale, diseases are so  arranged, that the worst forms are
    set off at the greatest distance from the middle point, to
    mark them as the widest deviations from  the healthy state.
    To illustrate slill  further the  nature of these (wo forms
    of disease,  we  must  observe  their respective  causes.
    Sthenia, or excessive  strength, is simply  the  effect of
    many or powerful  stimuli acting on the system.   Asthe-
    nia is the immediate  effect of withdrawing these; but as-
    thenia is not so simple  as its opposite slate, for debility
    varies in its  nature  according to its various causes.  1.
    By abstraction of exciting powers is produced a species of
    debility named direct.   2.  By long or violent application
    of strong exciting powers,  the excitability is exhausted ;
    both the excitement and  the strength  fail:  this species of
,   debility is named indirect.  3.  When  the exciting pow-
    ers are withdrawn, and the direct debility  produced,*it is
 at the same time combined wifh a new species. By mere-
 ly withdrawing the stimuli, such weakness v ould be pro-
 duced as should be temporary only, and ini Jit be doneaw.iy
 by restoringthe usualexcitinr powers; bulwheie thesfiruu-
 li are wilhdrawn, excitability is accumulated, and when it is
 accumulated in an undue degree, it cannot bear the usual
 stimuli, and will not give out the healthy degree of excite-
 ment. Thus, direct debility caused by the absenceof excif.
 ing powers, is attended with  accumulation of excitability.
 Indirect debility, caused by superabundant stimuli, is at-
 tended with exhausted excitability.   The former is most
 easily cured, as  we have but to apply stimuli, and raise
 the excitement:  the latter  is  difficultly  cured; for the
 excitability being in some degree exhausted, (he sysfem
 is less susceptible,  and  has less excitability  to operate
 upon  for the restoration of health.   The abstraction of
 stimuli is an immediate cause of weakness; high excilement
 is a state of (he system which the excitability cannot long
 endure without being exhausted, so that stimuli themselves
 produce ultimate weakness.  Since,  therefore, high ex-
 citemenf is temporary only, and has but one cause, while
 weakness is a permanent state, and has many causes, the
 diseases of debility must in a very great proportion exceed
 in number  the  diseases of excessive strength;  and dis-
 eases of excessive strength must ultimately end there.  If
 97  of 100  diseases  arise  from  weakness, the  conclu-
 sion  must be of  the first importance  in praclice.   Hence
 it is  a  general  principle  in this  system, that  though
 there are many individual diseases, there are but two states
 of the system,  and two general methods of  cure;  and
 though it admits  the difference between local and general
 diseases, yet it does not allow fhat a local sthenic disease
 can exist for any time along with a general  asthenic dia-
 thesis, or vice versa.  For the  cure of al) those diseases
 which stand above the point of health, nothing more is re-
 quired than withdrawing the stimuli of food, drink, heat,
&c. or by evacuation,  as bleeding, vomiting, and purging.
 For  all those diseases which  stand  below the point of
health, we use the natural stimuli of diet, beef tea, wine,
heat, &c. or the  less natural  stimuli ofthe pharmacopoeia,
lhe chief of which are  opium, ether, volatile alkali, musk,
camphor, brandy, and other spirits.  The cause of the
one form of-disease is the cure ofthe other; in  the  one
we raise the excitement till it arrives al the point of health;
in fhe other we depress it to the same point:  having affect-
ed this by the powers of medicine, we keep  it there by
attention to regimen; and the great object in tbe Bruno-
 nian  practice is  to hit  the point of health, neither to stop
short of this object, nor lo  pass beyond il; for by either
imprudence we may do much harm. By profusion of stim-
 uli we may convert a disease of weakness into a disease
of inflammation : by too severe an abstraction  of stimuli
 we may  run into the  opposite  excess, converting inlo a
disease of weakness what was originally  a disease of vio-
lent inflammation. The use of stimuli in asthenic  diseases
 is lo be regulated by the cause and  state of the disease.
 In all diseases of indirect weakness, where excitability pas
been exhausted, the strength must be raised bv the im-
 mediate application  of the most  powerful  stimuli, which
are to be slowly reduced in quantity or strength, till mod-
erate or ordinary stimuli suffice for supporting the ex<-la-
ment of health.   In all cases of dVect weakness, where
excitability is accumulated,  (he immediate application 9 
B R U
BRU
powerful stimuli  would destroy.   Weak stimuli  must be
first used, the superabundant excitability must be gradually
wasied, and  the  doses very slowly increased, till we  rise
to (be point of health.
  Dr. Brown's frequent prescriptions of wine, spirits, and
opium, to his patients in asthenic diseases, with his repeat-
ed recommendations of these stimuli  in his  lectures  and
writings, raised a very general prejudice against  his sys-
tem and practice, among Ihose who knew nothing of either
but from vague report.   They  alleged (hat, though he
might cure the diseases of his palients, he would infallibly
corrupt (heir morals, by habituating them to  such danger-
ous medicines.   From  these charges Dr. Beddoes vindi-
cates (he docteine, in (he following words:  p. 159.  " The
Brunonian system has been frequently  charged with in-
temperance ; the objection is serious, but lhe view already
given of its  principles shows it  to  be  groundless.  No
writer has insisted so much upon  the dependence of life
upon external causes, or  so strongly stated (he inevitable
consequences of excess;  and (here are no means of  pro-
moting morality upon which we can rely, except (he
knowledge of (he  (rue rela(ions between  man and other
beings or bodies.  For by this knowledge we are directly
led to  shun what is hurtful, and pursue what is salutary."
And what stronger motive of temperance  can philosophy
itself inculcate than lhe Brunonian doclrine does, when it
teaches, that every act of intemperance and excess lends
to exhaust the very principle of life?
   Dr. Beddoes, though he seems to  be a decided Bruno-
nian, has nevertheless, with great candour as well as judg-
ment,  pointed out a few of the imperfections of  lhe new
doctrine.   1.  He observes, (hat, as Dr. Brown "assumes
that a certain portion of excitability is originally assigned
to every living system, by his very assumption he denies
its continual production, subsequent diffusion, and expen-
diture."  2. He next objects against the doclor's "uni-
formity of operation in stimulants."  " Heat and wine,"
he justly observes, " can never act in the same manner ; for
no person is intoxicated  by heat."  He adds,  " Had it
been  once allowed by Brown that the different  constitu-
ent parfs of the body bear a different relation to  the same
agents, he must  have  admitted  lhe  operation of specific
stimulants to  an unlimited  extent.'1  On the subject of
predisposition to  disease,  he  observes, "that though
facts have been noted, tbe principle lies involved in total
obscurity.   Brown does  not purposely elude the difficul-
ty, but  his  principles lead  him beside.it;  and we  may
doubt  whether  the term predisposition ought  in strict
propriety to have appeared  in  his Elements; for predis-
position is with him a slight  disease, differing only in de-
gree from lhat inlo which  lhe  person predisposed falls."
4. " There are several olher opinions," he adds, " which,
in a complete  revisal of the Brunonian system, would re-
quire particular  examination ; such as his doctrine  con-
cerning hereditary diseases," of which Brown denies (he
existence, " lhe  peculiar state of sthenic inflammation,
and the nature of  lhe passions."   5. And in a note upon
Brown's preface, he  si vies lhe doctor's opinion,  that
•nearly all  lhe diseases of children depend  on debility,'
M a gross and  dangerous  error," though  he admits thai
"thousands  of ihem are cut offaf an early period of life,
and lens of thousands  kept languishing in misery, by as-
thenic  diseases, for  want of the necessaries of life.'*
  vol.  i.           53
  The following are among lhe principal objections that
have been urged by (he  opponents of this doctrine.   1.
Medicines and the other exciting powers do not  act as
mere stimuli only.  If they did, they must  ha*e -ill oi.e
common nature, and differ only in degree; whereas they
differ widely in their effects : one produces  hilarity , as
wine, &c.  another coma,  as opium ; one poison  prom ces
phrensy, another palsy, a third conv ulsions, &c.   It ipe-
cacuanha operates on the stomach,  jalap on lhe bowels,
cream of tartar on (he kidneys, and mercury on (he sali-
vary glands, they  must have  some  peculiar or specific
qualities superadded  to  their stimulant power, and lhe
latter must be but a subordinate effect.  If bark cures an
intermittent fever, or mercury lhe venereal disease, which
brandy, opium, and even ether cannot, then it is the duty
of the physician lo  discover these secret, peculiar, and
inexplicable powers, and to operate by them, without re-
gard to their stimulant  effects.  2.  In opposition to the
Brunonian doctrine,  lha( there is  not a direct sedative in
nature, it is argued, fhat fixed air,  and the contagion of
fever,  dysentery, the plague,  Sec. are direct  sedatives,
which  do not stimulate in the smallest degree.  3. It has
been urged, that if  the new doctrine is true, Ihere ought
to be no such  thing as an incurable disease.  All diseases,
wjielher above or below lhe point  of health,  ought  to
yield fo the abstraction  or application of the stimuli,  as
long as lhe excitability  is not totally exhausted.  4.  In
short,  it has been argued, that if the Brunonian system is
true, there  is  i:o use for nosology or phv sioloa_> ; very
little for chymistry  or  botany, as a few  stimuli, with  <>n
emetic  and cathartic or two, are sufficient  to  supply a
Brunonian laboratory ; and not much e*en for anatomy  it-
self, that grand  foundation of medical knowledge.  But
whatever deficiencies, imperfections, or inexplicable mys-
teries, may sfill adhere  fo this system, it is allowed, even
by its  opponents, to  have contributed greatly  to the im-
provement of  medical practice ; to have considerably di-
minished lhe former too frequent  prescriptions  of copious
bleeding on almost every  occasion ;  and to have lessened
the number of evacuant doses, and increased thaf  of cor-
roborant medicines, in many  diseases of weakness, where
the opposite practice  was  manifestly injurious.  Audit
is allowed to be the duly of every medical practitioner (o
examine it without prejudice or partiality.
   BRUNSWICK  green, a colour used in paper hang-
ings, and other coarse kinds of painting in wafer colours.
It is prepared in any close vessel of wood or earthen ware,
filled half full of  copper filings or  clippings,  on which is
poured a saturated solution of sal ammoniac,  which to-
gether will form the muriate of copper, the ammonia be-
ing at the same time disengaged.   In a few weeks almost
the whole of lhe copper may  be  converted into ow de ;
this being well washed,  and  slowly dried in  the shade, is
pure Brunswick green.   Three parts of muriate of ammo-
nia, or sal ammoniac,  and two of copper, yield six parts
of green.
   BRT SH, a well known domestic utensil.   The wooden
part of brushes  is  generally of  oak, which is cut to its
proper size by an instrument like a large knife, fastened
down  to the  block  with a staple  at  one end,  in such a
manner thai it is moveable up and  down ; to lhe other end
is a handle.  The wood fo be cut  is held  in the I.  ft hand,
while the knife  is worked with the  right.  The knife is 
B  R Y
BUB
 always kept very sharp; and, by its make and mode of
 using, hard wood is very  readily reduced to any shape
 and size.   This wood, when cut into the proper sizes, is
 drilled with as many holes as is necessary, and into these
 fhe hair or bristle is put.
   There  are brushes of various sorts, shapes, and sizes ;
 but the structure of them all  is  the  same, or nearly so.
 When tbe bristles are sorted, combed, and picked, a cer-
 tain portion of them is taken  and tied together in the
 middle wilh string, or  wilh fine copper or iron wire : in
 this double state  they are fastened into the wooden stock
 wilh glue or with pitch.   The  ends of the hair are-now
 to be cut  oP  and  the surface to be made even or uni-
 form.
   Common hearth brushes and hair brooms are made in a
 slighter way.   As soon as the stock is brought to its prop-
 er shape it is drilled, the  hairs doubled,  and each bundle
 is put  into the hole with some hot cement made with pitch
 and resin.
   In some brushes,  the wires are visible  on the back; in
 ofhers (he backs are smooth,  there  being thin slices of
 wood glued  over the wires.
   A patent was obtained in 1804, by Mr. Thomason, for
making hearth brushes,  (he object of which was (o con-
 ceal (he hair in a nea( metal case, into which the hair«is
 drawn  by means of rack work.
  BRYGMUS,  among  physicians, a grating noise made
by the gnashing of  teeth, a symptom common in epilepsy,
 and some  convulsive disorders.   See Medicine.
   BRYONIA, bryony, a genus  of the syngenesia  order,
 and monoecia class  of plants; in the natural method rank-
 ing under the 34th order,  cucurbitaceae.   The  calyx of
 the  male  is five toothed, with a quinquefid  corolla,  and
 three filaments.   In the female the calyx is dentated, the
 corolla quadrifid, the style" trifid,  wilh a roundish many
 seeded berry.  There are  19  species, of which the most
 remarkable  are:
   1. Bryonia Africana,  African  tuberous  rooted bryony.
  2. Bryonia alba,  rough or while bryony wilh red flow-
 ers, a native of dry banks under hedges in many parts of
 Britain.   The roots of this  plant have by impostors been
wrought into a human shape, and shown for mandrakes.
 Their  method was fo find a young thriving plant of bryo-
ny ; (hen  they opened  the  earth all round, being careful
not to  disturb  the lower fibres;  and being provided with
such a mould as is used  for making  plaster figures,  they
iixed fhe mould close to (he roof, fastening it with wire to
keep if in  its proper situation; then they  filled the earth
about the  roof,  leaving it to grow to the shape of the
mould, which in one summer it will do; so that if done in
March, by September i(  will have the shape.  The leaves
of (he  planl are also imposed on people for mandrake
leaves, although there is  no resemblance belween (hem,
nor any agreement in quality.  The roots of this species
are used in medicine. These are  very large, sometimes
as thick as  a  man's thigh; their  smell  when  fresh, is
strong  and  disagreeable";  the  taste  nauseously bitter,
acrid, and biting; (he juice is so sharp, as in a little time
to excoriate the  skin ;  in drying, (hey lose a great part
of their acrimony, and almost  their whole scent.  Bryo-
ny root is a  strong irritating cathartic, and applied exter-
nally is said to be a  powerful discutient.
   3. Bryonia Bonariensis,  bryony with hairy palmated
 leaves, divided  into five parts, and obtuse segments.  It
 is a native of warm countries ; but merits cultivation on
 account ofthe pretty appearance it makes when full of fruit.
   4. Bryonia Cretica, spotted bryony of Crete.
   5. Bryonia racemosa, bryony  with a red olive shaped
 fruit.'  It is a native of warm climates, and perennial; hut
 the branches decay every winter.
   6. Bryonia variegata,  the American bryony with varie-
 gated fruit.
   BRYUM, in  botany, a genus of the 56th natural order,
 vis. musci, belonging to  the cryptogamia class of plants.
 The anthera is operculated or covered with a lid, theca-
 lypfra polished, and there is  a filament arising from the
 terminal tubercle.  There arc 41 species, most of  then
 natives of England.
   BUBO, or Buboe.  See Surgery.
   BUBON, Macedonian parsley: a genus ofthe digynia
 order, and  pentandria class of plants; and in the natural
 method ranking  under the 46th order, umbellafae.  Tbe
 fruit is ovated, striated,  and  villous.   There are five sp©.
 cies, which are propagated by seeds, and require the com-
 mon culture of other exotic vegetables, vis.
   1. Bubon Galbanum or African  ferula, rises with an up
 right stalk to the height of eight or ten feet, which at bot-
 tom is  woody,  having  a purplish bark covered with a
 whitish powder  that  comes off when handled.  The top
 ofthe stalk is terminated by an umbel of yellow flowers;
 which are succeeded  by  oblong channelled seeds, which
 have a tbin  membrane or wing on fheir  border.  Whea
 any part of tbe plant  is  broken,  there issues out a little
 thin milk of a cream  colour,  which has a strong scent of
 galbanum.
   2.  Bubon gummiferum, with a mock chervil leaf, rises
 with a ligneous stalk  about the same  height,  with leavel
 at each joint; the small  leaves or lobes narrow and hv
 dented like those of bastard hemlock.   The stalk is termi*
 nated by an umbel of small yellow  flowers, which are suc-
 ceeded by  seeds  like those ofthe former sort.  The  giK
 banum ofthe shops is supposed to  be procured from these
 two species.
   3. Bubon Macedonicum, sends out  many leaves from
 the root: the lowest^row almost horizontally,  spreading
 near the surface of the ground.  In the centre of the plant
 arises the flower stem, which is little more than a  foot
 high, dividing inlo many branches, each terminated bysn
 umbel of white flowers, which  are  succeeded by  oblong
 hairy seeds.  This plant, in  warm countries, is biennial;
 but in Britain seldom  flowers till tbe third or fourth year;
 but whenever tbe plant flowers, it always dies.
   4. Bubou rigidius,  hard or rigid ferula, is a native of
 Sicily.  It is a low perennial plant, having short, stiff, and
 very narrow leaves:  the flower stalk rises a  foot high,
 which i3 terminated by an umbel of small white flowers.
 5. B. cavigaftum.
   BUBONOCELE, or Hernia inguinale.   See Sun-
 GERy.
  BUBROMA, a genus of fhe class and order polyadel-
phia  dodecandria.  The  essential character  is, calyx
three leaved: petals,  five arched,  semibifid: anfhers, on
each  filament, three:  stigma, simple: capsule, muriate,
ending in a five rayed star. 
BUG
B U  C
   There is one  species, a large tree of the West  Indies,
 resembling (he elm.
   BUCCINATOR.  See Anatomy.
   BUCCINUM,  (he Trumpet  shell, a genus  of uni-
 valve shells, shaped, in some degree, like a horn, or other
 wind instrument: the belly of (he shell is distended, (he
 aperture of tbe mouth is large,  wide, and elongated, the
 tail is more or less long, and the clavicle more or less ex-
 erted.
   This is a very numerous genus, the principal species of
 which are the  pomum, Plate XXIII. Nat. Hist.  fig. 65.
 spindle  shell, the mitre shell,  (he midas ear shell,  the
 great trifon shell, the tower of Babel shell, &c.
   The shells ofthe bucciitum kind are commonly furnish-
 ed with an operculum ; (he animal, a limax or snail, sub-
 ject to some slight difference in its form  in  various spe-
 cies.  They  are oviparous, and the males are said (o be
 smaller  and higher in colour (han the females.
   BUCCO, the Barbet, in  ornithology, (he  name of  a
 genus in the picae order, distinguished by having  (he bill
 sharp edged, compressed on  (he sides, notched on each
 side near the apex, bent inward,  with a long slit beneath
 the eyes.  Nostrils covered with incumbent  feathers:
 feet formed for climbing. There  are seventeen species,
 and  some varieties.  They occur in  Africa,  but  chiefly
 inhabit  Asia, and the  hotter  parts of America.  They
 are in general dull and stupid birds; their bill is stout, and
 remarkably covered with projecting bristles.   Those of
 the ancient hemisphere are  very  much distinguished by
 the thickness and shortness of the bill;  and,  far from af-
 fecting  the stupid gravity of lhe American species, ihey
 attack (he smaller tribes with the boldness and intrepidity
 of (he hawk.  The principal species are as follows, vis.
   1. The tamatia, or spotted barbet, a na(ive of  Brazil.
 I(s leng(b is six inches  and a half, of  which (he (ail occu-
 pies two inches; (he bill is hooked, and divided inlo (wo
 points;  (he brisdes  or  beard  which covers  it extends
 more than half its length.  They feed chiefly on insects ;
 and their flesh, though not good, is eaten by the natives.
   2. The Cayanensis, or red  headed barbet.  This is
 about seven inches in length; the bill is strong, of a dark
 srsh colour, bending a little  downward at the tip; at  the
 basis ofthe upper mandible are a few black brisdes point-
 ing forward over the nostrils.   They are inhabitants of
 Cayenne, and are  also met wilh at Guiana and St. Domin-
 go; and, no dotrbt, in other hot parts of America.  They
 feed on caterpillars, locusts, and large beetles.
   3.  The capensis, or collared barbet.  The plumage of
 this bird is  agreeably variegated.   It is found in Guiana,
 but is a rare species.
   4.  The  bucco elegans,  see  Plate  XXIII.  Nat. Hist,
 fig. 66. or elegant barbet, lhe most beautiful of the  genus.
   5.  The viridis, or green barbet, is 6f- inches long;  lhe
 back,  the  coverts of lhe wings, and of ibe tail, are of  a
 very fine green ; the head is brown gray ; the neck is  the
 same colour, but each feather "is  edged with yellow.
   6.  The  grandis,  or  Chinese barbet,  is nearly  eleven
inches long.  The principal colour in ifs plumage is a fine
green mixed  wifh blue,  which changes  with the light.
Plate, Nat. Hist. fig. b7.
   BUCEROS, in ornithology, the name of a genus in the
order of  piece, called in English the hornbiU.   Birds of
             53*
 this kind have the bill convex, curved, sharp at lhe edge,
 ofa large size, and serrated outwardly; a horny pro t id e-
 rance on the upper mandible, near tbe  fiontof the beau,
 nostrils  behind the base of the bill,  longue acute  «.nd
 short; feet formed for walking.  Of this genus there are
 thirteen species; the principal of which are,
   1. Tbe buceros rhinoceros,  distinguished above every
 other of (his extraordinary family by (de enormity of  its
 bill.  The upper mandible is red toward the base, aud of
 a whitish yellow from thence to the lip ; (be lower one en-
 tirely ofa whifishyellow except al the base,w here it is black,
 and hid in the  feathers; on the top of (he upper mandible is
 an appendage,  as large  as  (he bill itselt, an^ turning up-
 ward, contrary to the direction of the bill, t  h mandibles
 of which bend downward; this curved horn is variegated
 with whitish yellow, red, and black, and is as it were  di-
 vided longitudinally  by a line of black on  each  side.
 This bird, when full grown, measures  four  feet from the
 point of the bill to the  tip of the (ail.   The beak, far
 from being in  proportion to the size of the biid, or useful
 from its structere, seems to be  a cumbious load to  the an-
 imal destined  to bear i(; nature does not furnish another
 example of a  weapon of such magnitude attended  with so
 little effect; the point of it,  like thai of a lever  (oo far
 removed from (he fulcrum, takes but a feeble hold; it is
 ofa substance so soft, that its edges are continually brok-
 en by  the  least resislance.   This singular bird is found
 in Java, Sumatra, the Philippine islands, and othei parts
 of the East  Indies.   They are said to feed on flesh and
 carrion, and that they follow  the hunters for the purpose
 of feeding on (he entrails of  the beasts  which  they kill:
 (bat they chase  rats and  mice, and,  after pressing them
 flat, toss them up and catch them in their descent, swal-
 lowing them whole.
   2.  The galeatus,  or  helmeted hornbill.   The  prevail-
 ing colour of  the  bird  is  black; and of the helmet  the
 tops of snuffboxes are sometimes made.
   3.  The Malabaricus, or pied hornbill.   This species is
 two feet  ten inches from the point of the bill to (he extremi-
 ty of the tail.  Its bill is eight inches long and two broad,
 and bent from the straight position; a false bill sits like a
 horn close on the first, and follows its curvature, and is ex-
 tended from  the case to within two inches of the point.
 This bird has  been  called  the  Indian raven,  the  horned
 crow, the horned pie of Ethiopia, Sec.  When at  rest,
 its head  seems to recline on its shoulders ;  and when dis-
 turbed by surprise, it assumes  an air of boldness and im-
 portance.  This  bird will eat  vegetables and raw flesh;
 will catch rats,  and devour  small bird> alive.  It often
 repeats aery like the clacking of a turkey hen when she
 leads her brood.
   4. The bicornis, or Philippine hornbill,  according  to
 Brisson  is ofthe size ofthe  turkey hen ; but ils head is
 much larger, which indeed is requisite, to support a bill
 nine inches long,  and two inches eight  lines thick, and
 which carries, above tbe upper  mandible, a horny excres-
 cence six inches long,  and three inches broad.   It in-
habits the Philippine  islands and the East Indies, and
has a cry more like that of a hog  or a calf than of a bird ;
the Genloos rank it among  their gods, and pay adoration
to it; it lives chiefly in woods,  feeding on  wild figs, al-
monds, and the pistachio  nut, which it  swallows  whole, 
BUD
BUi
and, after lhe external parts of it have been digested, it
brings  up the nuts again whole, without the kernels being
anywise  damaged or unfit for vegetation.
  BUCHNERA, in botany, a genus of the angiospermia
order,  in (he  diuynamia class of plants; ranking, in the
natural method, under lhe  40th order, personatae.  The
characters are : lhe calyx is obscurely 5  toolhed: corol-
la, border, 5 cleft, equal: lobes, cordate : capsule, 2 cell-
ed.  There are eleven species, natives of  the Cape,
South  America, and the West Indies.
  BUCIDA, in botany, a genus of  (he order monogynia,
in the decandria class of plants;  ranked, in the natural
method,  under the 12th order, holeraceae.  The calyx is
indented in five segments:  it has no corolla; and the fruit
is a single seeded berry.  There is only one species.
  BUCKLER, a piece of defensive armour used by the
ancients.  It was  worn on  the left arm, and composed of
wickers woven  together, or wood of the lightest sort, but
most commonly of hides, fortified with plates of brass or
other metal.
  BUCKRAM, in commerce, a sort of coarse cloth made
of hemp, gummed, calendered, and dyed several colours.
It is put  into those places of the lining of a garment, which
are to be stiff and  to  keep  their forms.   Sometimes they
use new pieces of linen cloth to make buckrams, but most
commonly old sheets and pieces of old sails.
  BUCKWHEAT.  See  Polvgonum.
  BUCKTHORN.  See  Rhamnus.
  BUDDING, a method of propagating various sorts of
trees, particularly those of the  wall  fruit  kinds.   See
Gardening.
  BUDDLEIA, in botany, a genus ofthe monogynia or-
der, in the tetrandria class of plants.  The calyx and co-
rolla are  qnadrifid; the stamina placed at fhe incisures of
the corolla.   The capsule is  bisulcated, bilocular, and po-
lyspermous.  There are eight species, of which three de-
serve notice.
  1. Buddleia Americana,  a  native of Jamaica and most
of the other American islands.   It rises to the height of
ten or  twelve feet, with a thick woody stem covered with
gray bark ; and  sends out  many branches toward  the
top, which come out opposite : at the ends of the branches
the flowers  are produced  in long close spikes branching
out in clusters, which are yellow, consisting of one leaf cut
into four segments :  these  are succeeded by oblong cap-
sules filled with small seeds.
  2. Buddleia occidentalis, a native of Carfhagena.  It rises
much higher than  the other, dividing into a great  number
of slender branches covered with a russet  hairy bark,
with long spear shaped  leaves ending in sharp points:  at
the end of the branches are produced branching spikes of
white flowers growing  in whorls  round  the stalks, with
small spaces between each.    All  these plants grow in low
sheltered spots ; their branches being too lender to resist
the force of strong winds.
  3. Buddleia  globosa, a  native of  Chili,  but  hardy
enough fo stand the winter in this climate.  It  is a beauti-
ful shrub.  The flowers are of an orange colour, in close
peduncled heads, two  together on opposite sides of the
branches.
  BUDGE BARRELS, among engineers, small barrels
well hooped, wifh only one head; on the other end is
nailed  a piece of leather, to  draw together upon strings
like a purse. Their use is for carrying powder along with
a gun or mortar, being less dangerous, and easier carried
than whole barrels.  They are likewise used upon a bat-
tery of mortars, for holding meal powder.
  BUFF,  in commerce, a sort of leathtr prepared from
the skin of the buffalo, dressed with oil, after  lhe man-
ner of shammy.  This makes a very considerable article
in the French,  English, and Dutch commerce at  Constan-
tinople, Smyrna,  and all along  fhe coast of Africa.   The
skins of elks, oxen, and other like animals, when prepared
after the same manner  as that of the buffalo,  are likewise
called buffs.
  Of buff skin, or buff leather, are made a  sort of coats
for the horse or gens-d'armes of France, bandaliers, belts,
pouches, and gloves.
  BUFFALO.  See  Bos.
  BUFONIA, toad  grass:  a genus of the digynia or-
der, belonging to the tetrandria class of plants ; and in the
natural method ranking under the 22d order, caryophyl-
lea?.  The calyx is 4 leaved :  the  corolla, 4 petaled: (he
capsula is monospermous.  There  is but  one species, a
native of Britain.
  BUG.   SeeCiMEX.
  BUGGASINS, in commerce, a name given to buck-
rams made of calico.
  BUGLOSS.  See Anchusa.
  BUILDING.   See Architecture.
  Buildings, laws concerning.   Tbe buildings of Lon-
don are regulated by what is denominated  the  building
act, which  repeals and amends several former acts for the
same purpose.  It  was passed  in the year 1774, and be-
gins by dividing all buildings into seven rates or classes,
for the purpose of subjecting them fo various regulations
respecting  the thickness ofthe  walls, &c.  Surveyors of
districts are appointed to see the rules and regulations of
this act properly complied with.  Before  any building is
begun to be erected, the master workman is bound to give
twenty-four hours notice to the surveyor, who is to attend
and view the building,  and enforce the observance ofthe
act.  The  fees  to be paid by the builder to lhe surveyor
are, for a  building of the first  rate, 3/. 10s. and for an
alteration or addition, 1/.  15s. for a building ofthe second
rate, 3/. 3s. and for an alteration 1/. 10s. for lhe third rate,
21.10s. and ll.  5s.  and for the fourth rate,  ll. Is. and
15s.
  BULBOCODIUM, mountain saffron:  a genus of the
monogynia  order, in the hexandria class of plants ; and in
the natural  method ranking under the ninth  order,  spa-
thacese.  The corolla is funnel shaped, and hexapetalous,
wilh the heels narrow, supporting the  stamina.  There is
one species,
  Bulbocodium vernum, which is a native of Spain, and
has a bulbous root shaped like lhose of the snow  drop,
which sends out  three or  four spear shaped  concave
leaves, between which  comes out the  flower,  standing on
a very short footstalk.  The  flowers  appear about the
same lime wilh the last;  af first they  are of a pale colour,
but afterward change to a whitish purple.
  BULIMY, a disease in which the patient is  affected
with an insatiable and perpetual  desire of eating ;  and, un-
less be is indulged, he often falls into fainting fits.   It is
also called  fames canina, canine appetite.  See Medi-
cine, 
B  U  L
bun
    BULK HEADS are partitions madeafhwart the ship,
  wilh boards, by which one part is divided from the other;
  as the great cabin, gun room, bread room, and several oth-
  er divisions.  The bulkhead  before is'the partilion be-
  lween (he forecasde and grating in the head.
    BILL.  See Bos.
    BLLL'S EYE, among seamen, a small, obscure,  sub-
  lime cloud,  ruddy in  the  middle, that sometimes appears
  to mariner-, aud is the  immediate forerunner of  a great
  storm at sea.  It is aUo used for a small oval block  of hard
  wood, without sheaves. It is turned in a lathe, has a groov e
  round the outside, and an oval hole gouged through lhe
  middle.
    Bull, among ecclesiastics, a written letter, despatched,
  by order of  (he pope,  from (he Roman  chancery, and
  sealed with  lead, being written on parchmenl, by which it
  is partly distinguished from  a brief.  It is a kind of apos-
  tolical rescript, or edict, and is chiefly in use in matters of
  justice or grace.  If (he former  is (he inten(ion of (he bull,
  the lead is hung by a hempen cord ; if (he latter, by a silk-
  en thread. It is (his pendent lead, or seal, which is, prop-
  erly speaking, the bull;  and which is impressed, on one
  side, wilh  lhe heads of  St. Peter and St. Paul, and on
  the other wilh  the  name of the pope,  and the year of his
  pontificate.  The bull is written in an old, round, Gothic let-
  ter, and is divided into five parts ; the narrative of the fact,
  the conception, the clause, the dale, and the salutation, in
  which (he pope  styles himself servus servorum, i.e. the
  servant of servants.  These instruments, besides the lead
  hanging fo Ihem, have a cross, wifh some te\t of Scripture,
  or religious molto, about it. Bulls are granted for the con-
  secration of  bishops, the promotion to benefices, and the
  celebration ofjubilees, &c.
    Bull,  in cozna  Domini, a particular bull read every
 year, on  the  day  of  the Lord's supper,  or  Maundy
 Thursday, in  the pope's presence, containing excommu-
 nications and anathemas against  heretics, and all who dis-
 turb or oppose the jurisdiction of (he holy see.  After
 the reading of the bull, the pope throws a  burning torch
 into the public place, to denote the thunder of this  anath-
 ema.
   Bull, golden, an edict, or imperial constitution, made
 by the emperor Charles IV. reputed to be  the magna char-
 ts, or the fundamental law, of the German empire.  It is
 called golden, because it has a golden seal, in the form ofa
 pope's bull, tied with yellow and red cords of silk ; upon one
 side is the emperor represented silling on his throne, and on
 the olher the  capitol of Rome. I( is also called Caroline, on
 Charles IV's accoun(.  Till  (he publication of (he golden
 bull, (he form and ceremony of (he elec(ion of an emperor
 were dubious and  undetermined, and  the number of the
 electors nof fixed.  This solemn edict regulated the func-
 tions,  rights, privileges,  and pre-eminences of the elec-
 tors.   The original,  which is in Latin, on vellum, is pre-
 served  at Frankfort: (his ordonnance, containing  thirty
 articles, or chapters, was approved of by all the princes of
 the empire, and remains still in force.
  BULLA, in  conchology, the name of a genus of shells,
 the character of which is  thus defined: animal  a limax ;
shell univalve, convoluted, and unarmed ;  mouth or aper-
ture somewhat  straightened,  oblong, longitudinal, and at
the base  very entire; pillar lip oblique and smooth.
 There are many species.
    BTJLIjJE, in Roman antiquity, ornamenfs at first given
  only to the sons of noblemen; though afterward  they be-
  came of more common use.  This ornament was  first giv-
  en by  Tarqiiinus wilh lhe  pnetexla lo  his son, who had,
  with his own hand, al fourteen years of age, killed an  en^
  emy.
    BULLION, uncoined gold or silver in the mass.
    Those metals are called  so, either when smelted from
  the  native  oar,  and   not perfectly  refined, or when they
  are perfectly refined  but melted down in bars or ingots, or
  in any unwrought body of any degree of fineness.
    When gold and silver are in their purify, Ihey are so
  soft and flexible that  fhey  cannot  well be brought info
  any fashion for use, without being first reduced and hard-
  ened with  an alloy of some other baser metal.  To pre-
  vent abuses, according to the laws of England, all sorts of
  wrought plate in  general ought to be made lo lhe legal
  slandard :  and the price of our standard gold  and silver,
  the  common rule whereby to set a value on their bullion,
  whether lhe same is  in ingots,  bars, dust, or in  foreign
  specie; whence il is easy  to conceive that the value of
  bullion cannot be exactly known without being first assay-
  ed, that the exact quantity  of pure metal therein contain-
  ed may be determined, and consequently whether it is
  above or below the standard.
    BUMALDA, in botany, a genus  of the digynia order,
  belonging to lhe pentandria class of plants.   The corolla
  is five  pelaled, styles villose, capsule  two celled,  two
  beaked.  There is one species, a native of Japan.
   BL'MELIA, a genus ofthe class  and order pentandria
  monogynia.  The essential character is, corolla five cleft,
  with five leaved nectary, drupe one  seeded.  There are
  seven species, all trees and  shrubs,  natives  of the  West
 Indies, called there bastard bully tree.
   BUMICILLI, a religious  sect   of  Mahometans  in
 Egypt  and  Barbary, who pretend (o  fight with devils, and
 commonly appear in   a fright and  covered  with  wounds
 and bruises.
   BUNIAS,  in botany, a  genus of the order siliquosa,
 and letradynarnia class of planfs, and ranking  under  lhe
 thirty-ninth natural  order,  siliquosse.   The  siliqua  is
 deciduous,  four  sided,  muricated,  or  shagreened with
 unequal pointed angles.  There are nine species, all  annu-
 al plants, but none of them possessed of any remarkable
 property.
   BUNIUM, pig nut, or earth  nut, in botany, a  ge-
 nus of the digynia order and pentandria class of plants, and
 in the natural  method ranking under the 45th order, um-
 bellate.  The corolla is uniform, the umbel  thick, and
 lhe fruit ovate.  There is but one known species, vis.
  Bunium bulbocaslanum, with a globular root. It <rr0wg
 naturally in moist pastures in Britain, and has a tuberous
 solid root, which lies  deep  in the  ground.   The leaves
 are finely cut, and lie near tbe ground.   The stalk rises a
 foot and a half high, is round, channelled, and solid.  The
 flowers are white, and shaped like those of other umbellife-
 rous plants; the seeds are small, oblong, and when ripe
 are channelled.  The roots of fhis sort are frequently due
 up, and by  some people eaten  raw.  They have much
 resemblance in taste to a chesnut,   whence the specific
 name.                                         *
  BU XT ofa sail, the middle part  of it, formed  design-
edly into a  bag or cavity, that  the sail may gather more 
B  U  P
BUR
wind.  It is used mostly in topsails, because courses are
generally cut square, or with but small allowance for bunt
or compass.  The bunt holds much leeward wind, that is,
it hangs  much lo leeward.
   Seamen all agree  that a bellying or bunting sail  carries
a vessel  faster to  the windward than a straight  or  fast
sail.
   Bunt lines  are small lines made  fast to fhe bottom of
the sails, in the middle part ofthe bolt rope, to a cringle,
and so are reeved  through a small  block,  seized to  the
yard.  Their use is  f o trice up the bunt of the sail, for the
better furling it up.
   BUOY, at sea,  a  shorl piece of wood, or a close hoop-
ed barrel, fastened so as to float directly over the anchor,
that the men who go in the boat to weigh the anchor, may
know where it lies.
   Bcov is  also a  piece of wood or  cork,  sometimes an
empty cask, well  closed, swimming on the surface of the
water, and fastened by a chain or cord to a large stone,
piece of broken cannon, or the like, serving to mark the
dangerous places near a coast, as rocks, shoals, wrecks of
Vessels, anchors, &c.
   Stream the buoy, is to let the anchor fall while the ship
has way.
   To  buoy up the cable is to fasten some pieces of wood,
barrels, &c. to the cable near the anchor, that fhe cable
may not touch the ground in case it be foul or rocky, lest
it should be fretted and cut off.
   BUPHAGA, in ornithology, a genus of the  order of
picse, of which only  a single species,  Africana,  see Plate
XXIII. Nat. Hist. fig. 68. has been discovered. Its char-
acter is, the bill straight  and somewhat  quadrangular;
mandibles gibbous, entire, and  more gibbous on  the out-
side ; legs formed for walking.  It is  found in Africa, and
is callgfl in English the beef  eater from this peculiarity;
that it sometimes alights upon tbe backs of cattle, and picks
holes in them in order lo get at the  larva; of the cestri, or
gadflies, deposited by those creatures in the flesh directly
below the skin.
   BUPHTHALMUM,  ox  eye, a genus  of the polyga-
mia superflua order, and syngenesia  class  of planfs,  and
in the natural method ranking  under the 49th order, com-
posite.   The receptacle  is  paleaceous;  the pappus an
indifferent rim ;  the  seeds, especially those of the radius,
emarginafed on the sides ;  fhe stigmata of the hermaphro-
dite florets undivided.   There are twelve  species, all of
which may be propagated by seeds;  and those whicb do
not, by parting their roots, or cutting off their branches.
Some ofthe species  are tender, and require to be raised
on a hot bed.  The  following are the most remarkable:
   1. Buphthalmum arborescens, rises with several woody
stems to the height of eight or ten feef.  The flowers are
produced at the ends ofthe branches ; they are ofa pale
yellow colour, and have scaly empalements.
   2. Buphthalmum helianrhoides, a native of North Amer-
ica.   It has a  perennial root, and an annual stalk which
rises  six  or eight feet high.  The  flowers  come  out
at the extremities ofthe branches, and are ofa bright yel-
low colour, resembling a small sunflower.
   BUPLEURUM,  /wire's ear, or thorough wax, a genus
of the digynia order,  and pentandria class of plants, and in
tbe natural method ranking under tbe  45th  ordeT, umbel-
late. The involticra of the partial umbels are large in pro*
portion, and penfaphyllous ; (he petals involuted or rolled
inward; (he frui(  roundish,  compressed and  striated.
There are 14 species, (he principal of which is,
   Bupleumm fru(ieosum, or shrubby Ethiopian hartworf.
It rises with a  shrubby  stem,  dividing  into numerous
branches,  forming  a bushy head five  or six  feet high
adorned with oblong, oval, entire leaves of a sea green
colour, placed alternate, with yellow flowers in umbels at
the ends of the  branches,  which appear in July and Au-
gust, and are sometimes succeeded by ripe seeds.   It may
be propagated by cuttings.
   BUPRESTIS, a genus of coleopterous insects, distin-
guished in a peculiar manner by the uncommon brilliancy
and  highly metallic  splendour of their colours, which em-
ulate  the  finest and most beautifully polished  metals.
The insects of this genus, which are very nunierons, have
the antennas serrated, and as  long as the thorax;  feelers
four, which are  all  filiform, with the last joint obtuse or
truncated; head partly retracted within the thorax. The
larvse of the buprestes are said to live in the solid wood,
or in the trunks  of decayed trees; but this is doubted  by
some naturalists, since they do not appear (o be exactly
known in that state.   The conjecture is, however,  plausi-
ble, as the perfect insects are almost constantly found upon
trees, or plants and flowers. Few species of (his beautiful
tribe of insects are found in Europe :  the largest and most
brilliant of those discovered are from the Brazils, and other
hot  countries,  among  which  is  (he bupres(is  vittata.
See  Plate XXIII. Nat. Hrst. fig. 69.   There are in all2?
species.
   BURSAS, in commerce,  a small coin at Algiers with
the arms of the dtey  struck on both sides.  It  is worth half
an a3per.
   BURBER, an Egyptian piece of copper money, twelve
of which make a medine.
   BURCARDIA, a genus of the class and order pentan-
dria penfagynia.  The  essential character is, calyx  five
leaved ; corolla  five petaled ;  capsule angular, one celled,
three valved, seven or eight seeded.  There is one species,
a native of Guiana, annual.
   BURDEN of a ship, is its contents or number of tons
it will carry.  The  burden of a ship may be  determined
thus :  multiply the length of the keel, taken within boardi
by the breadth ofthe ship, within board, taken from the
midship beam ; from plank to plank and multiply the prod-
uct by'the depth of the hold, taken from lhe plank below
the keelson, to the under part of the upper deck plank,and
divide the last product  by 94, then ihe quotient is the
content of the tonnage required.
   BURGAGE, an  ancient tenure in  boroughs, whereby
the inhabitants, by custom, hold their rands, &c. ofthe king,
or other superior lord of the borough, at a certain yearly
rent; also  a dwelling house in a borough was  ancientty
called a burgage.
   BURGLARY, the breaking and entering  the mansion
house of another in the night, with intent to commit some
felony within the same, whether fhe felonious  intent be
executed  or not.   Hare's PI. 79.  Brrt there must be a
breaking and entry to complete this offence.   1 Haw. c.
38. s. 3.  If there be daylight enough, begun or left, to
discern a man's face, it is no burglary.  Tb'rs however
does not extend to moonlight,  for then  many burglaries
would go unpunished.  4 Blacks. 224. 
BUR
B  V  R
  Every entrance into a house by trespass is not a break-
ing in  this case; for there  must be an actual breaking.
If tbe door ofa mansion should  stand open, and (he thief
enter, (bis is riot a breaking; or  if (he window of an house
be  open,  and a  thief wi'h a hook  or  other  instrument
should draw out some of the goods of (be owner, this is no
burglary,  because there is no actual breaking.  But if the
thief should break theglassof the window, and wilh a hook
or other instrument ,draw out some of the goods of  the
owner, this is a burglaiy, for there is an actual breaking of
the house.  3 Inst. 64.
   Tbe mansion  house does not only include the dwelling
house,  but also  the outhouses  that are  parcel  thereof,
though not under the same roof, or joining contiguous to
it;  but if (hey be  far  remote from  the  dwelling house,
and not so near  it as  to  be  reasonably esteemed parcel
thereof, then the breaking  is  not burglary.   H. H.
553.  To break and  enter  a  shop, not parcel of  the
mansion house,  in which  the shopkeeper never  lodges,
but only  works  or  trades there in the day time, is not a
burglary,  but only larceny ; but  if he or his servant, usual-
ly or often lodge in the shop at night, it is then a mansion
house, in which a burglary may be committed, lb.  Where
the owner leaves his house and disfurnishes it, without a
settled resolution of returning, it cannot under these  cir-
cumstances be deemed a dwelling  house; but where the
owner  quits tbe  bouse in order to  return occasionally,
though no person be left  in it, it may still be considered
as  his   mansion  house.  Fost. 76.  A  chamber in an inn
of  court, &c. where  one usually lodges,  is  a mansion
house, for every one has a several  properly there, but  a
chamber where any person lodges as an inmate cannot be
called   bis mansion, though if a  burglary be committed in
his lodgings, the indictment may lay the offence to be in
the mansion house of him that let them.   3 Inst.  65.  If
the owner live under the same roof wilh  the inmates, there
must be a separate outer door, or the whole is the mansion
of the  owner; but if tbe owner inhabit no part of the house,
or even if he  occupies a  shop or cellar in  it, but do not
sleep therein, i( is   (he  mansion of each lodger,  (hough
there be but one outer door.  Leach's  Haw. c. 38. s. 15.
   By  the 18 Eliz. c. 7. s. 1. it is enacted, that if any per-
son shall commit  any  felonious  rape,  ravishment,  or
burglary, and be found guilty by verdict, or shall be out-
lawed,  or shall  confess  such rape  or burglary, every
person so found  guilfy shall  suffer death, and forfeit as in
cases of felony without benefit of clergy.  But in all cases
of burglary, accessaries after must have their clergy.   1
Haw. 557.
  The court may allow a prosecutor who has bona  fide
prosecuted, such  sum as they shall  think  reasonable,
not exceeding the expenses he was bona fide put to; mak-
ing also, if he  shall appear to be in poor circumstances,  a
reasonable allowance for  his trouble and loss of time.  18
Geo. HI. c. 19.
  And further, any person who shall apprehend any one
guilty  of burglary, and prosecute him (o conviction, shall
have a certificate without fee, (o be made out and deliver-
ed  before the  end of (he assizes, under lhe  hand of  lhe
judge,  certifying the conviction, and in whal parish  the
burglary was  committed,  and that the  burglar was taken
by  the person  or persons claiming lhe reward ; and if any
dispute should arise between  the parties claiming,  the
judge shall by such certificate, direct the same to be paid
and distributed among  them as to him sli;,ll seem just  and
reasonable ; and on tendering such certificate lo (he sher-
iff, and demand made, he shall pay (o (he person or per-
sons so entitled the »uin of 40/. without any deduction.  5
Anne, c. 31.  6 Geo. 23. s. 10.  Such certificate shall be
enrolled  by the clerk of the peace of the county in which
it shall be granted, for which he shall have Is.  And the
said certificate may be  once assigned over, and the origi-
nal proprietor or assignee of the same shall, by virtue there-
of,  be. discharged from  all manner of  parish and ward
offices, within (he parish  and ward  where the felony  was
committed.  10 and  11 Wm. c. 23.
  BURGOMASTER, the chief magistrate of the great
towns in  Flanders, Holland, and Germany.  The power
and jurisdiction ofthe burgomaster are not the same in all
places, every town having its particular  customs and reg-
ulations.  At Amsterdam there are four, chosen  by the
voices of all those people  in the senate,  who have either
been burgomasters or echevins.   Their  authority  resem-
bles  that of our lord mayor and aldermen;  they dispose
of all under offices  that fall in their time, keep lhe key of
the bank, and enjoy a salary but of five hundred guilders ;
all feasts, public enterlainmenls,  &c. being defrayed  out
of (he common treasury.
  BURIAL.  Among the Jews, the privilege of burial
was  denied only fo self murderers, who were thrown  out
to rot upon fhe ground.   In the Christian church, though
good men  always desired  the privilege  of interment, yet
(hey were nof, like  (he  heathens, so concerned for their
bodies as lo  think if  any detriment to them, if either  the
barbarity of an enemy, or some other accident,  deprived
them of this  privilege.   The primitive  Christian church
denied lhe more solemn rites of burial only to  unbaptized
persons, self murderers, and excommunicated persons who
continued obstinate and impenitent, in manifest contempt
of the church'* censures.
  The place of burial among the Jews was never particu-
larly determined.  We find (hey  had graves in (he town
and  country, upon  (be highways,  in gardens, and upon
mountains.   Among  (he Greeks,  (he temples were made
repositories for the  dead in the  primitive ages; yet  lhe
general custom in later ages wilh  ihem, as well as wilh
the Romans and olher  heathen nations, was fo bury their
dead without their cities, and chiefly by the highways.
Among the primitive Christians, burying in cities was not
allowed for the first three hundred years, nor in churches
for many ages after;  the dead bodies being first deposited
in (he atrium or church yard,  and porches and porticoes
ofthe church: hereditary burying places were forbidden
till the twelfth century.
  By lhe laws of England, persons dying are to be buried
in woollen, or (heir represen(a(ives shall forfeit 5/. and af-
fidavit is to be made  thereof before a ju-tice under a  like
penalty.   The minister is to keep a register at tbe parish
expense.
  BURMANMA, a genus of the monogynia order,  in
the hexandria class of plants; ranked in  the natural meth-
od  under  (he  10th  order,  coronariae.   The  flower  is
small, and consists of three minute, ovated, oblong petals,
situated at lhe mouth of the cup;  the fruit is an involuted 
BUR
BUT
capsule,  formed of three valves, wifh three cells, con-
taining many  small seeds.  There are two species, of no
note.
  BURN.   See Surgery.  ,
  BURNING GLASS, a convex or concave glass, com-
monly spherical, which being exposed directly to the sun,
collects all the rays falling on it into a very small  space,
called the focus, where wood, or any  other  combustible
matter being  put, will be set  on fire.  The convex  burn-
ing glasses transmit the rays of light, and  in their pas-
sage refract or incline them  toward the axis, having  the
properly of  lenses, and acting according to the laws of
refraction.   The concave  burning glasses, or ralher mir-
rors,  being  usually  made  of metal, reflect  the rays of
light,  and in  lhat reflection incline them to a point in  the
axis,  having  the property  of mirrors, and acting accord-
ing to lhe laws of reflection.   See Optics.
  BURNISHER, a round polished  piece of steel, serv-
ing to smooth and give a lustre to metals.  Of these there
are different  kinds, of different figures,  straight, crooked,
&c.  Half burnishers are used to solder silver, as  well as
to give a lustre.
  Book binders burnish the edges of their books by rub-
bing them with a dog's tooth.  Gold and silver are burnish-
ed by rubbing them with a wolf's tooth, or by the bloody
stone, or by  tripoll, a piece  of white wood, emery,  &c.
Deer  are said to burnish their heads  by rubbing off a
downy white skin from their horns against a tree.
  BURR PUMP, or Bilge pump,  differs from the com-
mon pump in having a staff 6, 7, or 8 feet long, with a  bar
of wood to which the leather is nailed, and this serves in-
stead ofa box.  Two men, standing over the pump, thrust
down this staff, to the middle whereof is fastened a rope,
for 6, 8, or 10 (o hale by,  Ihus pulling it up and down.
   BURTON, in the  sea  language, a small tackle con-
sisting of two single blocks: it  may  be made  fast any
where at pleasure, for hoisting small  things in and out, and
will purchase more than a single tackle wilh two blocks.
   BURSERA, in botany, a genus of the dioecia  poly-
gamia class and order.   The hermaphrodite calyx is  tri-
phyllous; the  corolla tripetalous:  the male capsule car-
nous, frivalved, and monospermous.  The male is, corolla
five petaled,  stamina ten.  There  is but one species, vis.
   Bursera gummifera, or gum elemi, see Plate XXIII.
Nat.  Hist, fig 70.  It is frequent in woods in most of the
Bahama islands, and grows speedily  to a great height and
thickness.   The bark is brown  and very like the birch.
The  wood is soft and useless, except when piects of  the
limbs are put  into the ground as fences, when it grows
readily, and  becomes a durable barrier.   The leaves  are
pinnate : fhe middle rib 3 or 6 inches long, with the pinnse
set opposite  on footstalks half an inch long.   It has yel-
low flowers,  male and female  on  different trees.   These
are succeeded by  purple  coloured berries  bigger than
large peas, hanging in clusters on a stalk of about 5 inches
long, to which each berry is joined by  a footstalk half an
inch  long.   The seed  is hard, white, and of a triangular
figure, enclosed within a thin capsule,  which divides in 3
parts  and discharges the seed.  The fruit when cut dis-
charges a clear  balsam, esteemed a  good vulnerary, par-
ticularly for  horses. On  wounding the bark, a thick milkv
liquor is obtained, which soon concretes  into a resin no
way different from the gum eletr.i of fhe shops.
  BUSHEL, a measure of capacity for dry goods, as
grain, fruits, dry pulse, &c. containing four pecks or eight
gallons, or  one eighth of a quarter.  A bushel,  by 12
Henry VIII.  c. 5. is lo contain eight gallons of wheat*
the gallon eight pounds of (roy weight;  the ounce twenty
sterlings,  and  (he sterling  thirty-two grains, or corns of
wheat, growing in  (he mids( of (he ear.
  This standard bushel is kept in the exchequer, and it is
found fo contain 2145.6 solid  inches, and the water with
which it has been filled weighed 1131 ounces and fourteen
pennyweights troy.   By act of parliament made in 1697
it is determined that every round bushel with a plain and
even bottom, being 18§ inches in diameter,  and 8 inches
deep, should be esteemed a legal Winchester bushel ac-
cording to the standard  in his majesty's  exchequer.  A
vessel thus made will contain 2150.42  cubic inches, of
course the corn gallon contains 268.8 cubic inches.   Be-
sides the standard or legal bushel, there are several local
bushels of different dimensions in different places.
  Buskin,  a kind  of shoe, somewhat in  the  manner of a
boot, and adapted  to either foot, and worn by either sex.
This part of dress, covering bolh the foot and mid leg, was
tied underneath the knee ;  it was very rich and fine, and
principally used on the stage by actors  in  tragedy. It
was of a quadrangular form, and the sole was so thick, as
that by means of it, men of lhe ordinary stature might be
raised to (he pitch and elevation ofthe  heroes they per-
sonated.  The colour was generally purple on the stage:
herein it was distinguished from the sock, worn in comedy,
that being only a low common shoe.  The buskin seems
to have been worn  not  only by actors,  but  by girls, to
raise their  height: travellers  aud  hunters also made use
of it lo defend themselves from the  mire.
  BUSS, in  maritime affairs, a small sea vessel, used by
us and the Dutch in the herring fishery, commonly from
48 to 60 tons burden,  and sometimes more.   A buss has
two small sheds or cabins, one at the prow, and the other
at the stern ; that al the prow serves for a kilchen.
  BUTCHER bird, in ornithology.  See Lanius.
  BUTEA, in botany, in honour of the late marquis of
Bute.  Class and order diadelphia decandria;  nat.  ord.
papilionacese; calyx  sublabiafe ; corolla  standard very
long, lanceolate;  legume  compressed, membranaceous,
with one seed  at the summit.  There  are two species;
one an evergreen  tree, about 15 feet high,  from which,
when cut, exudes a gummy blood red juice, ofa Bweetish
taste.  The second differs but little from  the preceding.
They are both  natives of the East  Indies, on the coasts
of Malabar and Coromandel.
  BUTNERIA, a genus  of the pentandria monogynia
class and  order.   The essential character  is; cor. five
petaled,  filaments  at top, connate  wilh lhe petals; caps.
five grained, muricate.  There are three species, shrubs
of America and fhe West Indies.
  BUTOMUS, the flowering rush, or water gladiole; a
genus ofthe hexagynia order, in lhe enneandria clasn of
plants, ranking, in the natural method, under lhe 5th order,
tripetaloideae.   There is no  calyx, but it has six petals,
and as  many monospermous capsules.  There is but one
species, vis.
  Butomus umbellatus, of which there are Iwo varieties, •
lhe one wilh a white, lhe other wilh a rose coloured, flow-
er.   Though common plants, they  are very  pretty, and 
BUT
B  U  X
are worth propagating in a garden where there  is con-
veniency for an artificial bog, or where (here are ponds of
standing water, as is many times (he case.  Where (hese
conveniencies  are wanting, (hey  may be planted in  cis-
terns, which should be kept filled with water, with about
a foot thickness of earth in the bottom ; and into this earth
the rools should be planted, or the seeds sown as  soon as
they are ripe.
   BUTT, in commerce,  a vessel or measure of wine con-
taining two  hogsheads, or 126 gallons.
   Butt, or butt ends, in the sea language, are tbe fore
ends of all planks under water, as (hey rise, and are join-
ed one end to another.  Butt ends in great ships are most
carefully bolted ; for if any one  of them should spring or
give way, (he leak would be very dangerous and difficult
to stop.
   BUTTER, a  fat  unctuous  substance, prepared from
milk by the process of churning. It was late before  the
Greeks appear to have had any nofion of buffer; (heir po-
ets make no mention of it, and yet frequently speak of milk
and cheese.  The  Romans used butter no otherwise (han
as a medicine, never as a food.   The ancient Christians of
Egypt burnt  butter in their lamps  instead of oil; and in
the Roman churches, it was anciently allowed, during
 Christmas time, to burn butter  instead  of oil, on account
ofthe great consumption of it otherwise.
   BUTTOCK ofa ship, is (hat part of her which is her
breadth right astern,  from (he (ack upward;  and  a ship is
said to have a broad or a narrow buttock, according as she
is built broad  or narrow at lhe fransum.
   BUTTON, an article  of dress, serving to fasten clothes
tight about  the body, made of metal, silk,  mohair, &c. in
various  forms.   Metal buttons  are  formed two different
ways; lhe blanks, or bases ofthe balton, are either pierced
out ofa large  sheet of metal, or cast.  In the latter case,
• the shanks are previously fixed in the sand, exactly in lhe
centre of the impression  formed  by each pattern, so as to
have  their  extremities immersed in the  melted metal,  by
which means  Ihey  are firmly fixed in fhe button when
cooled.  The former process is generally used for yellow
buttons, and the  latter for those  of white metal.
   The metal  used  for gilt buttons is an alloy of copper
and zinc, containing more copper than goes to the compo-
sition of brass.   This metal is rolled into sheets, and the
blanks pierced out; these are then planished, if for plain
buttons ; but when  ornamented buttons are wanted the
die is now  struck, unless great nicely is required, when
they are wrought by (he hand.  The shanks, made with
great expedition by a curious engine, are then attached to
fhe bottom of each  butlon by a wire clamp,  like a pair of
Riigartongs,  and a small quantity  of solder and resin appli-
ed fo each.   They are then  exposed  (o  heat on an iron
plate, containing  about a gross, (ill the solder runs, and
(he shank becomes fixed lo tbe button, after which Ihey
are singly put into a lathe,  and their  edges  turned  off
smoothly.  The surface of (he metal, which has become in
a  small degree oxidated by the  action  of the heaf, is lo
be cleaned  by means of diluted nitric acid.  The  next
step in the business is the rough  burnishing, which is done
in a lathe with a  hard black stone, from Derbyshire. Af-
ter this comes lhe gilding;  which is done by first cover-
ing <he surface uniformly wilh a thin stratum of mercury,
and upon  (his is to be laid an amalgam,, made of mercury
   vol. i.             54
and gold; five grains of gold will cover 144 buttons, each
one inch in diameter.  The mercury is now to be volat-
ilized by means of heat.
  Glass buttons are composed of glass of various colours,
in imitation of opal, lapis  lazuli, and olher  stones.  The
glass is kept in fusion, and the button nipped out of it whilst
in its plastic state, by a pair of iron moulds, like those for
casting  pistol shot,  adapted to the intended form of the
button; the shank having been inserted  in lhe mould so
that it may become imbedded in the glass when cool.
  Shell buttons  are those which consist of a back, gener-
ally made of bone, without  any shank, but corded wifh
catgut,  and  covered in front with a thin plate  of metal
struck with a die.  The backs  are cut out  wilh a brace,
the bit  of which is a circular  saw,  and the four holes
through which the catgut passes are drilled by four drills
moving parallel to each other, and acting at once.  They are
then corded by children, who tie the catgut on the inside;
the cavity is filled with melted resin, and tbe metal shell
applied warm.   The button is then pressed between two
centres in a lathe, which  are  forced together by a weight
acling on a lever, and tbe edge of lhe  shell turned down
during its revolution  with a small burnisher.
  Button stont, in  natural history, a figured  stone, so
named  from its resembling  the  button of  a  garment.
There are three sorts, which Dr. Hook supposes lo have
been nothing but the filling up of three several sorts of
shells.   They  are very  hard flints, and  consist of  I wo
bodies.  This name is also given to a peculiar species of
slate, found  in some parts of Germany, that runs with ease
into glass, in the course ofa few hour3, without the addi-
tion of any salt, or other foreign substance, lo promote its
vitrification. If, in fact, contains in itself all the principles
of glass, and from if the Swedes and Germans make glass
buttons, the handles  of knives, and other articles.
  BUTTS, or  Backs, a name given to that  sort of tan-
ned leather which is  prepared from lhe stoutest and heav-
iest ox hides, and is chiefly used for the soles of shoes.
  BUXBAUMIA, in botany, a genus of lhe order musci,
belonging to the cryptogamia  class of  plants :  ranking
under the same order,  musci,  or mosses, in the  natural
method.
  BUXUS, the box tree; a genus ofthe tetrandria or-
der, and monoecia  class  of plants; and  in  the natural
method  ranking under the  38th  order,  tricocca?.  The
male  calyx  is   triphyllous; lhe germen an embryo, or
imperfect rudiment.   The female calyx is tetraphyllous:
(here are (hree petals, and as many styles : (he capsule is
(hree beaked and trilocular, with two seeds. There is one
species, with three varieties.
   1. Buxus angustifolia, the narrow leaved box.   2. Bux-
us  arborescens,  with  oval  leaves.  These two varieties
grow in great plenty upon Boxbill, near Dorking, in Surry.
Here were formerly many large trees of that kind, but now
they  are few  in number.  There are two or three varie-
ties of (he second sort, which are propagated in gardens •
one with yellow, and the other with white striped leaves.
Another has the tips ofthe leaves only marked with yellow,
and is called tipped box.  Both these may be raised from
seeds, or propagated by cuttings, planted in  autumn in a
shady border.   The best season for removing these trees
is in October ;  though if care is used to lake them up with
a ball of earth,  Ihey may  be transplanted almost at any 
C  A  A
CAB
 time, except  the middle  of summer.  Box wood is ex-
 tremely hard  and smooth, and therefore well adapted to
 the use of the turner.  Combs, mathematical instruments,
 knife handles, and button moulds, are made of it.  It may
 properly enough  be  substituted  in default of ebony, the
 yellow alburnum  of  which it perfectly resembles.   Nei-
 ther the wood  nor the leaves ofthe box tree at  present
 are used  for  any  other  medicinal  purpose  than  the
 distillation of  an  empyreumatic oil; and an oil  of nearly
 the same quality is obtained from almost every other wood.
   3. Buxus  suffruticosa,  dwarf or Dutch box, commonly
 used for bordering flower beds.  It is increased by part-
 ing the  roots, or planting the slips; but as it makes a great
 increase of  itself, and  easily parts, it  is  hardly worth
 while to plant the slips that have no roots.  For borders
 to flower plots, it  far excels any other plant.  It is of long
 duration; is easily kept handsome; and by the firmness
 of its rooting,  keeps  the mould in the borders from wash-
 ing into the  gravel walks more effectually than  any  plant
 whatever.
  BUZZARD.   SeeFALCo.
  BUYING and selling, a transferring of property from
one person to another, in  consideration  of some  price or
recompense.  On an agreement  for goods, the vendee
cannot carry them away without  payment, unless the ven-
dor agrees to  trust him.   But if any part ofthe  price is
laid down, or any portion  of the goods delivered  by way
of earnest, lhe vendee may recover the goods by action, as
 well as the vendor may the price of them. By 29 C. II. c.
3. no contract  for the sale of goods, to the value of 10/. or
upward  shall  be  valid,  unless  the payment or delivery
be performed,  or unless  some note in  writing  be made
 and  signed  by  the  party or his agent.   But if a ven-
 dee, after a  bargain is struck, tenders the money,  and the
 vendor refuses it, the property is absolutely vested in the
 vendee.
   BYLAW,  is  a private law  made by those who are
 duly authorized  so to do  by charter, prescription, or
 custom, for  (he  preservation of order-and good govern-
 ment, within some particular place or jurisdiction.  Moor
 583.                                               '
   Every corporation,  lawfully erected,   has  power to
 make bylaws, or  private statutes, for the  better govern-
 ment of the corporation;  which are binding upon  them-
 selves,  unless contrary  to the laws of the land, and then
 they are void.   11 Blacks. 475.
   BYSSUS, in botany,  a genus of mosses, belonging to
 the order algae, in the crypfogamia class  of plants: (he
 characters are; that the mosses of it are composed of sim-
 ple and  uniform parts,  and always appear in form of ex-
 crescences, either of a woolly or of  a dusty matter.  It
 seems properly a  genus of a middle  kind, between  (he
 mushrooms and the mosses, but most approaching (o the
 latter;  as the several species of it are of longer duration,
 and  want that fleshy texture which distinguishes the fun-
 gus  class; and as they never produce heads, nor have
 any  thing of the  figure or texture of  fungi.  There  are
 19 species, natives of Britain, which grow  upon old waits,
 rotten wood, &c.   They are also found in many parts of
 Europe, covering the ground like a carpet.
   Bvssus asbestinus, a species of asbestus or incombus-
 tible flax, composed of flexible parallel fibres.  It is found
 plentifully in Sweden, either white, or of different shades
 of green. At a copper mine in Westmannland, it forms the
 greatest part of lhe vein out of which lhe ore is dug: and
 by the heat of the furnace  which melts the metal, is chang*
 ed into  a pure semilransparent glass.
   Bvssus, in anliquily, that fine Egyptian  Hnen of which
 the funics of lhe Jewish priests were made.
  BYSTROPOGON,agenus of the  didynamia gymno-
spermia class and order.  The essential character is: cal.
five subulated, bearded at the opening; cor. upper lip bifid,
lower trifid ;  stam. distant.  There are seven species, but
none deserving particular notice.
C.
1^   the (hird letter of the alphabet.   C, in music, is the
^-/l9 highest part in the thorough base; again, a simple C,
or rather a semicircle,  placed  after the clef, intimates
that the music is  in common time, which is  either quick
or sloiV, as it is joined with allegro or adagio; if alone, it
is usually adagio.   If the C is crossed or turned, the first
requires the air to be played  quick,  and the last  very
quick.
  CAABA, or Caabah, properly signifies a square build-
ing, but  is particularly applied by the  Mohammedans lo
the temple of Mecca, built, as they pretend, by Abraham,
and Ishmael his son.  If is toward this temple they always
turn their faces when fhey pray, in whatever part of the
world they happen to be.   This temple enjoys the priv-
ilege of an asy lum for all sorts of criminals ; but it is most
remarkable for the  pilgrimages made to it by the devout
mussulmen, who pay so great a veneration to it, that they
believe a single sight of its sacred walls, without any par-
ticular act of devolion, is  as meritorious in the sight  of
God, as the most  careful discharge of fheir duty, for the
space of a whole year, in any other temple.
  CAB, an Hebrew dry  measure,  containing two five-
sixths pints of our corn measure.
  CABALLEROS, orCAVALLEROS, are Spanish wools,
of which there  is  a  considerable  trade  at Bayonne,  in
France.
  CABBAGE.   See Brassica.
  Any person who shall steal, or take away, or malicious-
ly pull  up and destroy, any turnips,  potatoes, cabbages,
parsneps, peas, or carrots, growing in  any lands, &c. shall,
on  conviction before one justice, by confession, or oath
of one witness, forfeit, over  and above the value of the
goods stolen, a sum not exceeding 20s. one half to the own-
er of the goods, and one half to the poor.
  CABBALA,  according to the Hebrew style, has a
very different signification  from that  wherein  we under-
stand if in our language.  The Hebrew cabbala  signifies
tradition ; and the rabbis, who are called cabbalists, study 
CAB
C  A C
  principally the combination of particular words, letters,
  and numbers, and by this means pretend to discover what
  is to come, and  to  see clearly  into the sense of many
  difficult passages in  Scripture : there are  no sure princi-
  ples of this knowledge, but  it depends upon some particu-
  lar traditions of the ancients ; for which reason it is term-
  ed cabbala.
    The cabbalists have abundance of names, which they
  call sacred;  these they make use of in invoking of spirits,
  and imagine  that  they receive great light  from  them.
  They tell us that the secrets of the cabbala were discovered
  to Moses on mount  Sinai, and  that these have been deliv-
  ered down to Ihem from father to son, without interruption,
  and without any use of tellers; for to write them down ia
  what they are by no means permitted to do.  This is like-
  wise termed the oral law, because it passed  from father to
  son, in order to distinguish  it from the written laws.
    There is  another  cabbala, called artificial, which con-
  sists in searching for abstruse  and mysterious significa-
  tions ofa word in Scripture, whence Ihey borrow certain
  explanations, by combining the letters which  compose it.
  This cabbala is divided into three kinds,  the gematrie, the
  notaricon, and (he (emura or themurah:  the first of which
  consists in taking tbe letters of a Hebrew word for cyphers
  or arithmetical numbers, and explaining every word by
  the arithmetical value of the letters whereof it is compos-
  ed.  The second sort of cabbala, called notaricon,  con-
  sists in taking every particular  letter of  a word for an
  entire  diction;  and  lhe  Ihird,  called  themurah,  i.e.
  change,  consists in making different  transpositions or
  changes of letters, placing one for the other, or one before
  the other.
   Among fhe Christians likewise, a certain  sort of magic
 is  by mistake called cabbala, which consists in  using im-
 properly certain passages of Scripture for magic  opera-
 tions, or in forming magic characters or figures with stars
 and talismans.
   Some visionaries  among the  Jews believe fhat Jesus
 Christ  wrought his miracles by virtue of  lhe mysteries of
 the cabbala.
   CABECA, or Cabesse, a name given fo (he finest silks
 in the East Indies, as those from 15 to  20 per. cent, infe-
 rior to  them are called barina.
   CABIDOS, or Cavidos, a long measure used at Goa,
 and  in  other  places of the East Indies belonging  lo the
 Portuguese, lo measure stuffs, linens, &c. and equal to four
 sevenths of the Paris ell.
   CABLE,  a thick, large,  strong rope,  commonly of
 hemp, which serves  lo keep a ship at  anchor.  There
 is no merchant ship, however  small,  but has at least
 (hree cables;  vis.  the  chief cable,  or cable of  (he
 sheet anchor, a common  cable,  and a smaller one.   Ca-
 ble  is also said of  ropes which serve  (o  raise heavy
 loads, by  (he help of cranes, pulleys, and o(her engines.
 The  name of cable  is usually given (o such  as have at
 least (hree  inches in diameter; those thai are less are
 only called  ropes, of  different names  according lo iheir
 use.  Every  cable,  of what Ihickness soever it may be,
 is composed of three strands, every strand of three ropes^
 and  every rope of three twists;  (he twist  is made of more
 or less threads, according as lhe cable is to be thicker or
 thinner.   In lhe manufaclnre of cables,  after lhe ropes
are made, they use sticks, which they pass first between
the ropes of which they make the strands, and afterward
                 54*
between the strands of which they make the cable, to fht
end  that  (hey may  all twist  the better,  and be more
regularly  wound together;  and also,  (o  prevent them
from twining or entangling, they hang  at tbe eud of each
steand and of each rope, a weight of lead or of stone.  The
number of threads  each cable is composed of is  always
proportioned to  its  length  and thickness; and it is by
this number of threads that ifs weight and value are ascer-
tained.  Thus a cable of three inches circumference,  or
one inch diameter, ought to consist of 48 ordinary threads,
and weigh 192 pounds : and  on  this foundation is calcu-
lated (he following table.
Circumf.
Threads.
3 inches.	48
4	77
5	121
6	174
r	238
8	311
9	393
10	485
11	598
12	699
13	821
14	952
15	1093
16	1244
17	1404
18	1574
19	1754
20	1943
                                       Weight.
                                        192 pounds.
                                        308
                                        484
                                        696
                                        952
                                       1244
                                       1572
                                       1940
                                       2392
                                       2796
                                       3284
                                       3808
                                       4372
                                       4976
                                       5616
                                       6296
                                       7016
                                       7772.

   A patent  has been taken out within these few mouths
 by Mr. Haddart, for improvements in the manufacfure of
 cables.
   Pay more Cable, is fo let more out of Ibe ship.   Pay
 cheap the cable, is to hand it out apace.  Veer more ca-
 ble, is to let more out, &c.
   Cable's  length, is 120 fathoms.  This regulates the
 distance of ships of war when formed into a line of battle,
 which is ordered to be one or more cables length.
   Slip the Cable, is  to let it run quite out when there is
 not  time to weigh the anchor: ihis is preferable to  cut-
 ing it. Before it is either cut or slipped, a spare buoy rope
 should be passed through the hawse hole, and fastened
 near the  end, wilh a rolling nilcb, lhat  it and the anchor
 may be easily regained.
   CABLED, in heraldry, a term applied to a cross form-
 ed of lhe two ends of a ship's cable.
   CABOCHED, in heraldry, is when the heads of beasts
 are borne without any part of lhe neck, full faced.
   CABOLETTO, in commerce, a coin of the republic of
 Genoa, worth about three pence of our money.
   CACALIA,  in botany, Alpine colt's foot, a genus of
 the polygamia aequalis order, and syngenesia class of plants.
 The receptacle  is naked; the pappus hairy;  the calyx
 cylindrical, oblong, and calyced, or having a  small calyx
of very short scales only at lhe base.  There are 33  spe-
cies : the  most remarkable are:
   1.  Cacalia ficoides, a native of (he Cape of Good Hope
If  rises with  strong round .talks to the height of seven  or
eight feet.   The flowers are  in small umbels ; (hey are
white, tubulous, and cut into five parts at the top   The 
C  A  C
C  jE s
leaves are pickled by the French, who esteem them much.
They have a method of preserving the white  farina upon
them, which adds greatly to the beauty of the pickle when
brought to table.
  2. Cacalia kleinia, wilh a compound shrubby stalk.   It
grows  naturally in  the  Canary islands, but has long been
cultivated in the  English  gardens.  There have been
stones and fossils dug up at a very great depth in some
parts of  England having very perfect impressions of this
plant upon them.  This plant has been called the cabbage
tree, from (he resemblance  which the stalk of it  has  to
the  cabbage.   Others  have entitled it carnation tree,
from the shape of the leaves and the colour of the flowers.
   CACHEXY,  in  medicine, such a disposition  of  (he
body as  depraves (he nourishment throughout its  whole
habit.  See Medicine.
   CACHRYS, a genus of the digynia order, and pentan-
dria class  of  plants; and in the natural method ranking
under the 45th order, umbellatse.  The fruit is subovate,
angled,  and cork or spongy rinded.  There are five spe-
 cies, vis.
   1. Cachrys hungarica, with a plain,  fungous, channelled
seed.  2. Cachrys libanotis, with  smooth furrowed seeds.
3. Cachrys linearis, with plain channelled fruit.  4.  Ca-
chrys sicula,  with double  winged leaves.   5. Cachrys
trifida, with bipinnated leaves.   All these are perennial
plants, rising pretty high, and  bearing large  umbels of
yellow flowers, and may be propagated by seeds.
   CACTUS,  melon thistle: a genus of the monogynia
 order, and icosandria class of plants; and  in the natural
 method  ranking under the 13th order, succulentse.  Tbe
 calyx is monophyllous, superior, or above the receptacle
 of  the fruit,  imbricated; the corolla polypetalous; lhe
 fruit an  unilocular polyspermous berry.  To  (his genus
 Linnseus has  added tbe cereus and  opuntia.  See Plate
 XXIII.  Nat.  Hist. fig. 71.  The cacti  are plants of a
 singular structure.  When the plants are cnt through the
 middle, their inside is a soft, pale green, fleshy substance,
 very full of moisture.  The fruits of all  the species are
 frequently eaten by the inhabitants of the  West Indies.
 They are about three fourths of an inch in length, ofa ta-
 per form,  drawing to a point at  lhe bottom toward  the
 plant, but blunt at  the (op, somewhat like a pear.  The
 taste is  agreeably acid, which in  a hot country must ren-
 der them grateful.  There are 27 species, all natives of
 the West Indies.  The two following  are  the most  re-
 markable, vis. 1. Cactus cochenillifer, tbe species which
 fhe  cochineal animals inhabit.   See Coccus.   2. Cac-
 tus  grandiflora,  one  of  the creeping cereuses.  The
 flower of this species, though  very short lived, is as
 grand and beautiful as  any in  the vegetable  system:
 it begins to open  in  the evening about seven  o'clock,
 is   in perfection about  eleven,  and fades  about four
 in the  morning; so that  the same flower only contin-
 ues  in  perfection about six hours.  The  calyx when
 expanded is about a foot in diameter, of a splendid yel-
 low w itbin, and  a dark  brown  wilhoul; tbe  petals are
 many, and of * pure white ; and the great nnmber ofthe re-
 curved stamina,  surrounding the style in tbe centre«of (he
 dower,  make a grand appearance, to which may be add-
 ed  (he  fine scent which  perfumes the air fo a consider-
 able distance.   I( flowers in July.
   The cactus tribe are divided by gardeners into, 1. mel-
on thistles  or turks caps ; 2. torch  thistles ; 3. creeping
cereuses; 4.  Indian figs or  prickly pears.   The cochi-
neal plant is of this last description.  They are easily
distinguished from the euphorbia by the milky juke which
exudes from the lalter on puncture.
   CADE, a cag, cask, or barrel.  A cade of herrings is
a vessel containing the quantity of 500 red herrings, or of
sprats 1000.
   CADENE, one of the sorts of carpets which the Euro-
peans  import from (he Levant.  They are (he worst sort
of all,  and are sold by (he piece from one  to two  piasters
per carpe(.
   CADI, or  Cadhi, a  judge of  (he civil affairs in the
Turkish empire.   It is generally taken  for (he judge ofa
town, judges of provinces being distinguished by (he ap-
pellation of mouls.
   In Biledulgerid in Africa, the cadi decides in spiritual
affairs.
   CADILESCHER, a principal officer of justice .among
the Turks, answering to a chief justice among us.
   CADRITES, Mohammedan friars,  who once a week
spend great  part of the night in turning  round,  holding
each other's  hands, and  repeating  incessantly the word
hai, which signifies living, and is one  ofthe attributes of
God;  during which one of them plays on a flute.
   CiECILIA, the name of a genus of  serpents.   The
generic character is, tha( lhe body is without scales,  is
smooth, and  moves by means of lateral  rugae or Wrinkles;
the upper lip is prominen(,  and furnished wi(h (wo tenta-
cula;  il has no tail.  There are three species, vism
   1» Caecilia tentaculata.    Eel  shaped  can-ilia.   Tbe
length of this species  is about a fool, and ils general ap-
pearance (hat of  a small eel: its  colour a livid brown,
the abdomen paler or whitish : is a native of South Amer-
ica, and is said to be of an innoxious  nature.
   2. Csccilia glutinosa.  White sided ca&cilia.  Is about
the same length and diameter with the former, but has a
large tumid head, and wider nostrils, without any 'appear-
ance of tentacula: the colour of both head and  body is
deep  brown, and along each  side runs a broad whitish
stripe; the wrinkles are extremely close and numerous,
and disposed  in  such a manner as to form a slight carina
along  the sides  on the  white stripe.  This is a native of
 South America.
   3. Slender ceeciJia.  Length 13 inches and three quar-
ters :  diameter, which is perfectly equal throughout, one
 fifth of an inch : skin smooth, but when closely examined
 appearing most  minutely granulated.  It is supposed to
 be a native of South America.
   CAECUM, or Ccecum, in  anatomy,  tbe blind gut, ob
 first ofthe thick intestines.   See Anatomy.
   C/ERITES, or  CiERiTUM tabula;,  in  Roman an-
 tiquity, tables or registers in which the  names of  the Cte-
 rites were registered.   The people of Caere were account-
 ed  citizens  of Rome, but had no privilege of voting.
 Hence when a Roman citizen was  degraded, if a senator,
he was expelled  tbe senate; if a knight, he lost  the pub-
lic horse; and if a plebeian, his name was inserted in (be
register of the Cserites ;  that is, he was subject (o all (axes;
but incapable of voting; or enjoying any public office.
   CyESALPINIA,  Brasilbtto, or  Brazil wood, a
genus of the decandria class, and  monogynia  order of
plants;  and in the natural method ranking under the 33d 
e  A i
CAL
 order, lomentacete.  The calyx is quinquefid, with the
 lowest segment larger in proportion.  There are five petals,
 the lowest most beautiful.  It is a leguminous plant. There
 are eight species, the most remarkable of which is:
   Caesalpinia brasiliensis, commonly called brasiletto.   It
 grows naturally in the  warmest parts of America, whence
 (he wood is imported  for the dyers.   The demand has
 been so great,  that none of  the large trees are left in any
 of (he British plantations; so that Mr. Catesby owns him-
 self ignorant of the dimensions to which they grow.  The
 largest remaining are not above two inches in thickness,
 and eight or nine  feet in height.  The branches are slen-
 der, and full of small  prickles; the leaves are pinnated ;
 the lobes growing opposite (oone another, broad at their
 ends, with one notch.  The flowers are white, papilionace-
 ous, with many stamina and yellow apices, growing  in a py-
 ramidal spike at the end of a long slender stalk : the pods
 enclose several small round seeds.   The colour produced
 from this wood is greally improved by a solution of tin  in
 aqna regia.  There is another sort, a native of the same
 countries with lhe first, but of a larger size.  It sends out
 many weak irregular branches, armed with short,  strong,
 upright  thorns.  The  flowers are produced in long spikes
 like  those  of the former, but are  variegated with red.
 These plants may be propagated from seeds,  and should
 be constantly kept in the stove.
   C./ESARIAN sectioit.   See Midwifery.
   CiESTUS, in antiquity, a large gauntlet made of raw
 hide, which the wrestlers made use of  when they fought
 at the public  games.   It was a kind of leathern strap,
 strengthened wilh lead, or plates of iron, which  encom-
 passed (he hand, (he wrist, and a part of the arm, as well
 to defend these parts as to enforce their blows.
   CAESURA, in  the ancient poetry, is  when, in lhe scan-
 ning of  a verse, a word is divided so  that one  part seems
 cut off, and goes to a different foot from  the rest; as,
         Mcnli | ri no | Ii,  nun | quam men | dacia | prosunt:
 where the syllables ri, li, quam, and men, are caesuras.
   CAFF A, in commerce, painted cotton cloths manufac-
 tured in the East Indies, and  sold at Bengal.
   CAFFILA, a company of merchants or travellers, who
 join together in order  to go with more security through
 the dominions of (he great mogul, and through o(her coun-
 tries  on (he continent of the East Indies.  The caffila
 differs from a caravan, at  least in Persia; for the caffila
 belongs  properly to some sovereign, or to some powerful
 company, of Europe;  whereas a caravan is a company
 of particular merchants,  each trading  upon his own ac-
 count.   The English and Dutch have  each of  them their
 caffila at Gambron.
   CAG, or  Keg, of sturgeon, &c.  a cask  or  vessel that
 contains from four to five gallons.
   CAHYS, a dry measure for corn, used in some parts of
 Spam, particularly at Seville and  at Cadiz.  It is nearly
 a bushel of  our measure.
   CAIC, or CAiqcK, a skiff, or sloop, belonging to a gal-
 ley.  The  same name is given to a small kind of bark
 used  in  the  navigation of the Black Sea, and carrying
 from 40 to 50 men.   Those  used on the sea of Marmora
 are generally manned  by two or three rowers, and they
 are incessantly  employed in crossing  the  harbour, and
procccdi ig to the several neighbouring villages and islands.
 They carry one or more sails, which are set only in fair
 weather, and when the wind is not strong.
   CAIMACAN,  or  Caimacam, in the Turkish affairs,
 a dignity in the Ottoman empire, answering to  lieutenant,
 or rather deputy, among us.
   CAINIANS, or Cainites, in church history, a Chris-
 tian sect that sprung up about the year 130, and  took
 their name  from  Cain,  whom  they looked upon as their
 head and father.  They said that he was formed by  a ce-
 lestial and almighty power, and that Abel was made but
 by a weak one.
   CAISSON, in the military art,  a  wooden chest, into
 which several bombs are  put,  and sometimes only  filled
 with gunpowder.  This is buried under some work, of which
 the  enemy  intend to  possess themselves ;  and  when
 *hey are masters of it, is fired,  in order to blow Ihem up.
 It is also employed for a wooden frame,  or  chest, used
 in laying the foundations ofthe  piers of a bridge.
  Caissons  were used in  the  building of Westminster
 bridge, each of which contained 150  loads of fir limber,
 and was of more tonnage than a 40 gun frigate: their size
 was 80 feet long, and 30 feet  broad, and their sides 10
 feet in height.  The caisson was provided wifh a sluice to
 admit, the water.  The method of working was as follows :
 a pit being  dug,  and  levelled in tbe proper situation for
 the pier, of  the same shape as the caisson, only larger, it
 was brought to its position, and a few of the lower courses
 of fhe pier built in it, and sunk once or twice, to prove the
 level of lhe foundation; then being finally fixed, the ma-
 sons worked in the usual way of tide  work.   About two
 hours before low wafer, fhe sluice  was shut down, and the
 water pumped out, for (he masons  (o se( and cramp (he
 stene work of (he  succeeding courses.   In  (his manner
 (he work proceeded (ill the pier rose to the surface of (he
 caisson, when (he sides  were  floated away to serve the
same purpose at  another pier.
  CAKILE maritima, sea rocket, in botany, a plant of lhe
 class tetradynamia, order siliculosse.  The  character w,
 cal.  4 leaved spreading; cor. 4 petaled;  colour white and
 purple ; small pod lanceolate ;  flowers in June :  a native
 of New Jersey and Carolina,  (a)
  CALADIUM, sagitfae folium, arrow leaved  caladium,
 in botany, a plant of fhe  class  monoecia, order polyan-
dria.  The cal. spatha, cor. none;  pericarpium one cell-
ed, containing many seeds ; flourishes in Georgia,  (a)
  CALAMANCO, a sort of woollen siuff manufactured
in England and in Brabanf.  It has a fine  gloss, and is
checkered in (he warp, whence (he checks appear only on
Hie right side.  Some calamancoes are quite plain, others
have broad stripes adorned with flowers,  some wilh  plain
broad stripes, some with narrow stripes, and others watered.
  CALAM1NAR1S, or Lapis Calaminaris, in natural
history, an ore of zinc, ofa spongy  substance,  and  a lax
and cavernous texture,yet considerably heavy.  See Zinc.
  CALAMUS, a genus of fhe monogynia order, and hex-
andria classof planfs; and in the natural  method ranking
under the  5th order, tripetaloidefe.  The cahx is hexa^
phvllous, there is no corolla, (he fruit is a dry" monosper-
mous berry, imbricated backward.   There is "but one ' pe-
cies, rir.                                          *
  Calamus rofang.  The stem is without branches,  has a
crown at lop, and  is every where be*ct with straight 
CAL
CAL
 spines.   This is the true Indian cane, which is not appa-
 rently such on the outside; but (he  external bark being
 taken off discovers the smooth stick,  which has  no marks
 of spine on the  inner bark;  and  is exactly like those
 which (he Dutch sell to  us, keeping this matter very se-
 cret, lest travellers going by  should  take as many canes
 out of the woods as  (hey please.   Sumatra is said to be
 (he place where most of  these sticks  grow. Such are lo
 be chosen as are of  proper growlh,  between  two joints,
 suitable  lo tbe fashionable  length of canes as they were
 then used ; but  such are scarce.  The calamus rolang is
 one of several plants from which the drug called dragon's
 blood is obtained.  S,,o Plate  XXIII. Nat. Hist.  fig. 72.
   Calamus aromaticus.   See Acorus.
   CALATOR,  in antiquity,  was  a public servant, and a
 freeman, such as a bailiff or crier,  or summoner, to sum-
 mon courts, synods, and other  public assemblies.
   CALATRAVA,  knights of, a military order in Spain,
 instituted under  Sancho HI.  king of Castile, upon  the
 following occasion.  When that prince took  the strong
 fort of Calatrava from the Moors of Andalusia, he gave it
 fo lhe Templars; who, wanting  courage to defend it,  re-
 turned it to him again.  Then  don Raymond, of the order
 of the Cistercians, accompanied with several persons of
 quality,  made an offer  to defend  the  place, which  the
 king thereupon delivered  up to them,  and instituted that
 order.
   CALCANEUM, or os calcis.   See Anatomy.
   CALCINATION, in  chymistry,  such a management
 of bodies by fire as  renders them  reducible lo a calx or
 cinder.
   As  most mefals were  reducible  to  this form,  the term
 calces of metals was long appropriated to them ; but in
 science the term  is supplanted by the characteristic  ap-
 pellation of oxide, which  expresses the peculiar change
 that occurs in calcining metallic bodies by the  absorption
 of oxygen.   Calcination and oxidation are not strictly  sy-
 nonymous,  even when applied to  metals,  since the true
 sense  of  the former implies  the agency of fire, but the
 metals may be oxidated by the action of lhe acids as well
 as by  heat and air.
   CALCULI, Biliary, are hard bodies sometimes form-
 ed in the gall bladder, or  in the duct through which the
 bile passes into the intestinal canal, and stop up  the pas-
 sage altogether.   They naturally drew  (he attention of
 physicians, because it was soon ascertained that they oc-
 casioned lhe disease  called jaundice.  Accordingly they
 were examined and described  by different chymists, and
 fhe facts ascertained  before 1764 were collected by Hal-
 ler in the sixth volume of  his Physiology.  Since that pe-
 riod, a  treatise  has  been published  on them by Vicq
 d'Azyr;  and several  new facts have been discovered  by
 Poulletier de la Sale, Fourcroy, Gren, and Saunders.
  Such of the biliary calculi as have been hitherto exam-
 ined with attention may be arranged  under four  classes.
   1. The first kind  comprehends  those which  have  a
 white colour, and a cryslalized, shining,  lamellated struc-
 ture.
  2. The second is brown coloured, and has the appear-
 ance of inspissated bile.
  3. The third class  comprehends  those calculi  which
are composed of a mixture of the substances which con-
stitute the two last.
    4. The fourth comprehends (hose gall stones which do
 not flame, but gradually waste away at a red heat.
    Let us take  a  view of each of these classes of biliary
 calculi.
    1. The first species of biliary calculi was pointed out
 for the  first lime by Haller, in  a dissertation  published
 in 1749.  Wallher afterward added several  new facts*
 and at last it was  accurately described by Vicq d'Azyr.
 It is almost always of  an oval shape, sometimes as large
 as a pigeon's egg,  but commonly about  the size of a spar-
 row's ; and  for the most part only one  calculus, when of
 this species, is found in the gall bladder al a time.  It has
 a white colour, and when broken  presents crystaline plates
 or strise, brilliant and  white like mica, and having a soft
 greasy feel.   Sometimes its colour is yellow or greenish;
 and it has constantly a nucleus ofinspissated bile.  lis spe-
 cific gravity is inferior to that of water.  Gren  found lhe
 specific gravity of one 0.803.
   When exposed to a heat considerably greater than that
 of boiling water, this  cryslalized calculus softens and
 melts, and crystalizes again when the temperature is low-
 ered.   It is altogether insoluble in water;  but hot alcohol
 dissolves it wilh facility.   Alcohol, of the temperature of
 167°,  dissolves ^ of  ils  weight of  this substance; but
 alcohol, at lhe temperature of 60°, scarcely dissolves any
 of it.  As the alcohol  cools, the matter is deposited in
 brilliant plates resembling laic or boracic acid.  It is sol*
 uble in  oil of turpentine.  When melted it has the ap-
 pearance of oil, and exhales the odour of melted wax:
 when suddenly  heated  it evaporates  altogether in a thick
 smoke.  It is soluble in pure alkalies, and the solution baa
 all (he properties of a soap.  Nitric acid also dissolves it;
 but it is precipitated unaltered by water.
   This  matter, which is  evidently lhe  same with the
 crystals which Cadet obtained from bile,  and which he
 considered as analogous to sugar of milk, has a strong re-
 semblance to  spermaceti.  Like that  substance, it is of an
 oily nature, and inflammable; but it differs  from it in a va-
 riety of  particulars.
   Since it is contained in bile,  it  is not difficult fo see
 how it may crystalize in the gall bladder if it happens lo
 be more abundant than  usual; and  the consequence
 must be a gall slone of this  species.  Fourcroy found a
 quantity of the  same substance in the dried human liver.
   2. The second species of biliary calculus is of around
 or polygonal  shape, often of  a gray colour externally, and
 brown  within.  It is formed  ot  concentric layers of a
 matter which  seems  to be inspissated bile; and ihere is
 usually a nucleus of the white crystaline  matter at the
 centre.   For the most part Ihere are  many of this species
 of calculus in lhe  gall bladder together ; indeed it is fre-
 quently filled  wilh them.   The calculi  belonging to this
 species  are often light and  friable, and of a brownish red
 colour.   The gall stones of  oxen, used by painters, be-
 long to (his species.
  3. The (bird species of calculi are most numerous of
 all.  Their colour is often  deep brown or green; and
 when broken, a number of spermaceti crystals are observ-
 able, mixed with the inspissated bile.
  The calculi belonging to Ihese three  species are solu-
ble in alkalies, in soap lyes, in alcohol, and in oils.
  4. Concerning lhe fourth  species  of gall stone,  very
little is known wilh accuracy.  Dr. Saunders tells us that 
CALCULI.
 he has met with some gall  stones insoluble  both in alco-
 hol and oil of turpentine;  some of  which do  not  flame,
 but become red, and consume to an ash like a charcoal.
 Haller quotes several examples of similar calculi.
   Gall stones often occur in  the inferior animals, particu-
 larly  in cows and hogs;  but the biliary concretions of
 (hese animals have not hitherto been examined with much
 attention.
   Calculi, urinary.   It is  well known that concretions
 not unfrequently form in the  bladder, or the other urinary
 organs, and occasion one of the most  dismal diseases to
 which the human species is liable.
   These  concretions  were distinguished by the name of
 calculi, from a supposition that they  are of a stony na-
 ture.  They have long attracted the  attention of  chym-
 ists and physicians.  Boyle extracted from calculi, by
 distillation,  oil, and a quantity of volatile  salts.  Boer-
 haave supposed them compounds of oil and  volatile salts.
 Slare attempted a chymical analysis of  them.  Hales  ex-
 tracted from (hem a prodigious quantify of air.   He gave
 them the name of animal tartar, pointed out several circum-
 stances in which they  resemble common  tartar, and made
 many experiments to find a solvent of them.   Drs. Why tt
 and Alston  pointed out alkalies as solvents of calculi.  It
 was an attempt to discover a more perfect solvent lhat in-
 duced Dr. Black to make those experiments, which termi-
 nated in the  discovery of the nature  ofthe alkaline car-
 bonates.
   Such was the state of the  chymical analysis of calcu-
 lus, when, in 1776,  Scheele published a dissertation on
 fhe subject   in the Stockholm Transactions, which was
 succeeded  by some remarks of Mr. Bergmann.  These
 illustrious chymists  completely removed the uncertainty
 which had hitherto hung over the subject, and ascertain-
 ed the nature of (he calculi which (bey examined.  Since
 that time  considerable additional light has  been thrown
 upon the nature of these concretions by the  labours of
 Austin, Walther,  Brugnatelli,  Pearson, &c.   But the
 most  important  additions  to our  knowledge of calculi
 were made by Dr. Wollasfon.  That ingenious  chymist
 distinguished (hem into species, and ascertained  the com-
 position of each, pointing  out several  new constituents
 which had not been suspected before.
   Urinary calculi  are  usually spheroidal or egg shaped :
 sometimes they are polygonous, or  resemble a cluster of
 mulberries ;  and in that case  they  are distinguished by
 the epithet  mulberry.   Their size is various ; sometimes
 (hey are very small,  and  some(imes as large  as a goose
 egg, or even larger.  The colour of some of (hem is a
 deep  brown, resembling  (hat of wood.  In some cases
 they are white, and not unlike chalk  ; in others, ofa dark
gray, and hard.  These different colours are often  inter-
mixed, and occur of various degrees of intensity.   Their
 surface in  some cases is polished like marble; in others,
rough and  unequal; sometimes  they  are covered  with
 seniilransparent  crvslals.   Their specific gravity  varies
from 1.2l3(o 1.976.
   The substances hitherto discovered in urinary calculi
are the following:
   1. Uric acid,
  2. I'raf of ammonia,
  3  P.'iO'.phate of lime,
  4.  Phosphate of magnesia and ammonia,
   5.  Oxalate of lime,
   6.  Carbonate of lime,
   7.  Silica,
   8/  Animal matter.
   It appears from a strict analysis of the different  urina-
 ry calculi, that all  their  component parts exist in urine,
 except oxalate of lime and silica.  But little satisfactory is
 known concerning  the manner in which they are formed,
 or of  the cause of their formation.  Whenever any solid
 body makes ifs way  into the bladder, it has been observ-
 ed that it is  soon incrusted with a coat of phosphate  of
 lime; and this first nucleus soon  occasions a  calculus.
 Concretions of uric acid seldom or never form in the blad-
 der, unless a primitive nucleus has originated in the kid-
 neys.  The  gravel, which is  so  frequently  emitted by
 persons threatened with the stone, cousists always of this
 acid.    As oxalic acid  does not exist in urine, some mor-
 bid change must take place in the urine when calculi com-
 posed of  oxalate of lime are deposited.
   As our ignorance of the cause of urinary concretions
 puts  it out of our  power to prevent their formation, (he
 ingenuity of physicians has been employed in attempt-
 ing to discover substances capable of dissolving them af-
 ter they have formed, and thus to relieve lhe human race
 from  one  of lhe most dreadful diseases to which it  is sub-
 ject.   These attempts must have been vain, or fheir suc-
 cess  must have entirely depended upon chance,  till the
 properties of the concretions  themselves had  been dis-
 covered,  and  the substances  capable of dissolving them
 ascertained  by experiment.   We shall  therefore pass
 over lhe numerous lithanthriplics which have been  recom-
 mended in all ages,  and satisfy ourselves with giving  an
 account of (he experiments made by Fourcroy and Vau-
 quelin to dissolve stones  by injections  through lhe ure-
 thra,  made after Iheir analysis of tbe urinary calculi.
   The  component parte of urinary calculi, as far as sol-
 vents are concerned, may  be reduced under three  heads :
 1. Uric acid  and  mat of ammonia:  2. the phosphates:
 3. oxalate of lime.
   1.  A solution of pure potass and soda, so weak (hat it
 may be kept in the mouth, and even swallowed without
 pain,  soon dissolves calculi composed of uric acid,  or urat
 of ammonia, provided they are kept plunged in it.
   2.  The phosphates are very quickly dissolved by nitric
 or muriatic acid, so weak that  it may be swallowed with-
 out inconvenience, and possessed of no greater acridness
 than urine itself.
   3.  Oxalate of lime is much more  difficult of solution
 than the preceding substances.  Calculi composed of it
 are slowly dissolved by nitric acid, or by carbonate of po-
 tass or soda, weak enough not to irritate I he bladder; but the
 action of these substances is slow, aud scarcely complete.
   These solvents,  injected  into the bladder repeatedly,
 and retained in it as  long as the patient can bear their ac-
 tion without  inconvenience, ought to act upon lhe  stone,
 and gradually dissolve il.   The difficulty, however, is  to
 determine the  composition of  the calculus  to be  acted
 upon, in order to know which of (he solvents (o employ.
 But as no method of  deciding this point with certeinfy  is
al  present known,  we must (ry some  one of (be solvents
for once or (wice, and examine it after it has been thrown
out ofthe bladder. Let us begin, for instance, with inject-
ing a weak solution of potass; after it has remained in the 
CAL
C  A L
bladder half an hour, or longer if the patient can bear if,
let (he  liquid, as soon as passed, be filtered and mixed
with a litlle muriatic acid ; if any uric acid has been dis-
solved, a white solution will make its appearance.   This
precipitate is a proof that  the calculus is composed of uric
acid.   If it does not appear,  after preserving in  the al-
kaline solution for some days, fhen there is reason to ex-
pect lhe presence of  the  phosphates ; of course a  weak
muriatic acid solution should be injected.   After Ihis so-
lution is emitted, let it  be mixed with ammonia,  and the
phosphate  of lime will precipitate, if the calculus is com-
posed of it.  If neither of these  solutions  takes  up any
thing, and  if the symptoms are  not alleviated, we  must
have recourse to the action of nitric acid, on the supposi-
tion that  the  calculus is composed of oxalate of  lime.
These different solutions must be persisted in, and varied
occasionally as they lose  their efficacy, in order  to dis-
solve the  different coats of the calculus.   Such are the
methods pointed ont by Fourcroy and  Vauquelin.  It is
scarcely necessary to observe, that the bladder should be
evacuated of urine previous to the injections, and that the
injections should be previously heated to the temperature
ofthe body.
  CALCULUS, or calculus humanus, in  medicine, the
stone in the bladder or kidneys.  See the preceding ar-
ticle.
  Calculus  differentialis, is a method of differencing
quantities,  that is, of finding an infinitely small quantity,
which being taken an  infinite number of times, shall be
equal to a given quantity.   An  infinitely small quantity,
or infinitesimal,  is  a portion of a quanti(y  less (han any
assignable  one;  it is (herefore accounted as no(hing: and
hence two quantities differing by an infinitesimal, are re-
puted equal. The word infinitesimal is merely respective,
and implies a relation to  another quantity : for example,
in astronomy, lhe diameter ofthe earlh is an infinitesimal
in respect ofthe distance of lhe fixed stars.   It must not,
then, be confounded with  any  real being.
   Infinitesimals are likewise called differentials, or differ-
ential quantities, when they are considered as  the differ-
ences of two quantities.  Sir Isaac Newton calls Ihem mo-
menta,  considering  them  as  momentary  increments  of
quantities : for instance, of a line generated by  the flux of
a point, of  a surface by the flux of a line, or of a solid by
fhe flux of  a surface.  The calculus differentialis, there-
fore, and the doctrine of fluxions, are the same thing, un-
der different names; the latter given by sir Isaac New-
ton, and lhe former by Mr. Leibnitz, who disputes with
sir Isaac the honour of lhe discovery.  There is,  howev-
er, one  difference between them, which consists in  the
manner of  expressing the differentials of quantities: Mr.
Leibnitz, and most foreigners, express them by the same
letters as variable,ones, prefixing only the letter d : thus
the differential of x is called dx, and the differential of y,
dy.   And  dx  is a  positive quantity if  x continually in-
crease, and a negative quantify if a: decrease. We, on the
other hand, following  sir  Isaac  Newton, instead  of dx,
write x, wifh  a  dot over  it; and instead of dy, y.  But
foreigners reckon  Ibis method not so commodious as the
former, because  if differentials  were  fo be differenced
again, the dots would occasion great confusion ; not f o men-
tion lhat printers are more apt to overlook  a point than a
letter.
   Now as permanent quantities are always expressed by
the first letters of the alphabet, da = 0, db = 0, dt c=
0; wherefore d (x + 7/ — u) ~ dx + dy, and d (x — «
-f- a) = dx — dy.   The difference of quantities, then, ii
easily performed by the addition or subtraction of iheir
compounds.   To difference  two quantities that mnlfipiw
each other,  asxy, multiply  the differential of one  factor
into the olher factor, and the sum ofthe two factors is (he
differential required.  Thus  the differentials of xy will be
xdy + ydx, that is d (xy) = xdy + ydx.  Again, if
there be (hree quantises mutually multiplying each other
the factum of the two must be multiplied info the differen-
tial of the third ; thus suppose vxy: let vx = f,and vxy
will be  = ty; consequently d (vxy) = tdy -\-ydt: but
dt = vdx  -f- xdv.   If these values therefore  are substi-
tuted in tbe  antecedent differential tdy + ydt, it follows
that d (vxy)  = vxdy -f* vydx •+• xydv.   In ihe s^me man-
ner must we proceed wbenithe quantities to be differenc-
ed are more than three.  But if, while one variable quanti-
ty increases, the other,  y, decreases,  it is evident that
ydx —  xdy will be the differential of xy.
   The  rule  for  differencing quantities  that mutually di-
vide each other, is first to multiply the differentia] of lhe
divisor  into the dividend ;  and, on tbe contrary, the dif-
ferential of the dividend into the divisor.  2. To subtract
lhe first product from the  last.  3. To divide the remain*
der by  the  square of the  divisor, and the quotient is tbe
differential of the quantities  mutually dividing each oth-
er.  For instance, let xy : vs be the quantities lo  be dif-
ferenced :  suppose xy =  t,  and  vs =  w; (hen  xy: vs
will be equal tot: w.  But d (t: w) = (wdt — tdw): rv*;
and dt  = xdy -f- ydx, dw = vds -f- sdv.  Wherefore d
Q : rv)  = d (xy: vs)  = (vsxdy  -f- vsydx — xyvds —
xysdv)  : v2s2.   For a further account  of the doctrine of
(he differentials, see Fluxions.
   Calculus  exponential is, among mathematicians, a
method of differencing exponential  quantifies.  By anex-
ponential  quantity  is  meant a power,  lhe exponent of
                      x   x
which is  variable,  as x  ,  a  .  In order to difference an
exponential quantity, nothing else is required lhau lo re-
duce the exponential quantities (o logarithmic ones, upon
which the differencing is  managed  as in  logarithmic ones.
For instance, suppose (he differential of the exponential
         y
quantity x  were required.
            y
Let        x  —  s

then will  ylx — Is  ls ~ log- xs
          Ixdy + ydx \ x'.'.ds \ s
          %lxdy  -f- sydx =  xds.
         y           y— *
That is, x  Ixdy -f- yx     dx = ds.  If the exponen-
tial quantity to be  differenced be of the second  degree,
     y
    x
as v  ,  suppose as before
                y
               X
              V  = 5
          y
then will x Iv = Is 
CAL
CAL
(x Ixdy -f* yx       dx) Iv -f x dv '. v = dz ; s
     s (x Ixdy + yx      dx) Iv + sx dv \ v = ds
 that is,
   y                              y
  x   y          y — 1          x  —ly
 v  (x Ixdy -f- yx      dx) Iv + v  v     x dv + ds
 or,
   y              y                 y
  x  y           x   y — 1         x  —  1 y
 v  x Ixlvdy -f- v yx      Ivdx -\-v  v     x dv — ds.
   By the same  method may be  found the differential of
 exponential quantity of any power.  This calculus was
 invented by Mr. John Bernouilli, and is used in investigat-
 ing (he properties of exponential curves.  See Exponen-
 tial Curve.
   Calculus  inlegralis, or summatorius, is a method of
 summing up differential quantities ; fhat is, from a differ-
 ential  quantity from whose differencing the given  differ-
 ential results.
   It is tbe inverse of the calculus differentialis ; whence
 fhe English, who usually call the differential method flux-
 ions, give this calculus,  which  ascends from the fluxions
 to the flowing quantities, or, as Wolfius and other foreign-
 ers express it, from the differences to (he sums, (hename
 of (he inverse method of fluxions.
   Let s  be the sign of the sum, or integral quantity, so
 that sydx may denote (he integral of (he differential ydx.
 To integrate or sum up  a differential quantity, 1. It is de-
 monstrated that sdx = X.   2°. s (dx"+ dy) = x +" y.
                                 m — 1       m
 3°. 8 (xdy -f- ydx) = xy.   4°. smx      dx = x  . 5°.
           (n —- m) ; wi       n I m
 s(n;m)x            dx — x    .  6°.s(jydx—xdy):
 y* = x  '. y.   Of these  the  fourth and fifth  cases occur
 most frequently, in which the differential quantity is inte-
 grated, if a variable unity is added to the exponent, and
 the sum  divided by the  new exponent, multiplied into the
 differential of the root, as in the fourth case by (m — 1 -f
 1) dx, that is, by mdx.
   If the  differentia] quanthy to be integrated, do not come
 under any of these formulas, it  must either be reduced to
 an integrable finite,  or an infinite series each of whose
 terms may be summed.
   This calculus is applied to geometry, in the quadrature
 and rectification of curves, in cubing solids and measuring
 their surfaces, in the inverse method of tangents,  and in
 the doctrine of logarithms.
   It may be remarked, that as in the analysis of finites,
 any  quantity  may be raised to  any given power;  but,
 vice versa, the root cannot be extracted out of any num-
 ber required:  so  in the analysis of infinites, any variable
 or flowing quantity may be differenced;  but, vice verm,
 any differential cannot be integrated.   And as in the analy-
 sis of finites, we  are  not yet arrived at a method of  ex-
 tracting rools of all equalions, so  nei(her has (he integral
 calculus arrived at perfection: and as in  the former we
are obliged (o  have recourse (o approximation, so in (he
latter we  have  recourse to a perfect integration.  See Se-
ries.
  vol. i.           55
   Calculus, antecedental.  A geometrical method  of
reasoning without any consideration of motion or velocity,
applicable to every purpose to which fluxions have been
or can be applied.  It was invented by  3Ir. Glenie, who
derived it from an examination of  the antecedents of  ra-
tios, having given consequents, and a given  standard of
comparison  in  the several degrees of augmentation  and
diminution,  which they undergo by composition and de-
composition.
  CALEA, in botany, a genus of  the polygamia aequalis
order 'and syngenesia  class of plants, and  in  the natural
method ranking under  the 49th order, composilse.   Tbe
receptacle is paleaceous, the pappus hairy, and the  calyx
imbricated.   There are seven species.
  CALENDAR.   See Almanac
  The first calendar was made by Romulus, who divided
the year into ten  months only, beginning on fhe first day
of March, and containing  304 days, in which  time he im-
agined the sun performed  his course through  all  the sea-
sons.   This calendar was reformed by Numa Pompilius,
who added two months more, vis. January and February,
5lacing them before March : his year began on lhe first of
 anuary,  and  consisted of 355  days.   This was  after-
ward improved by Julius Caesar, and was by  him called
the Julian account,, which  reduced the year to 365  days,
6 hours; and was retained in most protestant countries,
and in  our nation  till the  year 1752.  This year is dis-
posed into quadriennial  periods, whereof the first  three
years, which were called common, consisted of 365  days,
and the fourth, bissextile,  of 366.   The Julian  account
was afterward corrected by pope  Gregory XIII. which
on that account obtained the name of the Gregorian calen-
dar, or new style; tbe Julian being called (he old style;
and though  the Gregorian calendar is preferable to the
Julian, yet it is not without its defects.           %
  When pope Gregory had reformed the calendar, \e or-
dered all the  ecclesiastics under his jurisdiction to con-
form to (bis new mode of reckoning; and he exhorted the
Christian princes, within tbe pale of  his authority, to adopt
it in their dominions.  It was  accordingly  introduced
without delay into all catholic countries.  In Spain, Por-
tugal, and part of  Italy, it was received  on the same day
as at Rome; but  in France not  till some  months  after.
The catholic states  in Germany  adopted the Gregorian
calendar in  1583;  but (he protestant stales refused  it.
Hence arose  a  difference of 10, and afterward 11,  days,
between the methods of reckoning used in  catholic and prot-
estant countries.  The protestant states in  Germany re-
formed their calendar in 1700.  But in  this country the
new style was not introduced till  September, 1752;  on
fhe 2d  of that month the  old style ceased, and the next
day was called the 14(h, instead of the 3d.  The act of
parliament which  altered the style changed also the be-
ginning of the year from the 25th of March to the 1st of
January.
  Dr. Playfair, in his Chronology, has taken some pains
to show that the method of intercalation  used in the Greg-
orian calendar  is not quite accurate.   It supposes  the
tropical year to consist of 365 d.  5 b.  49' 12",  whereas
recent observations have  shown it to be 365 d. 5 h.  48'
45\".   The  following intercalations ought  to  be made
instead  of those determined on by pope  Gregory. 
     '   —   -f-  —■*   "f"    4-   -f*    -r-     -\-
     4  17   33  128   545  673   801  929   1057

     l' 4*   8 '  31*  132  163   199   225    256 '
&c.  so  that  one  day is to be intercalated in the space
of four years; or, more accurately, four days in 17 years ;
or sfill more accurately, eight days in 33 years, or 31
days in 128 years, and so on.   The signs -{- and — indi-
cate, that the  number  of  intercalary days above which
(hey are placed is too great or too small.
  Julian Christian Calendar, that in which  the days of
the week are determined  by the  letters A, B, C, D, E,
F, G;  by means of the solar cycle, and the  new and full
moons, especially the paschal full moon, with the feast of
Easter, and  the other moveable feasts depending thereon,
by  means of golden numbers  rightly disposed through
thi Julian year.
  Gregorian Calendar, that which, by means of epacts
rightly disposed, through the several months,  determines
the new and full moons, and the time of Easter, with the
moveable feasts depending  thereon, in the Gregorian year.
Therefore the Gregorian calendar  differs from  the Julian,
both in the form of the year, and in that  epacts are  sub-
stituted instead of golden numbers.
  Reformed, or corrected Calendar, that which, selling
aside golden numbers, epacts,  and dominical  letters, de-
termines the equinox, with the paschal  full  moon, and
the moveable feasts depending  thereon, by  astronomical
computations, according to the Rudolphine tables.
  CALENDER, a machine  used in manufactories,  to
press certain woollen and silken stuffs, and linens, to make
them smooth, even,  and glossy, or to give them waves  or
water them, as  may be seen in mohairs and tabbies. This
instrument is composed of  two thick cylinders, or rollers,
of very hard and polished wood, round which the stuffs
.to  be  calendered are wound: these rollers  are placed
crosswise between  two very  thick  boards,  the lower
serving as a fixed base, and the upper moveable, by means
ofa thick screw, with a rope fastened to a spindle, which
makes its  axis: the uppermost board is loaded with large
stones cemented together,  weighing 20,000 lb. or more.
It is this weight that gives the polish, and makes the waves
on the stuffs about tbe rollers, by means  of a  shallow In-
denture or engraving cuf in it.
  CALENDS, in Roman antiquity, the  first day in each
month, so called  from  lhe  Greek  ymKuv, to  proclaim; it
being customary on those days  to proclaim the number of
holidays in each month. The Homan  method of reckon-
ing t*he days of their months has something extremely sin-
gular in it:  instead  of computing forward, in  the natural
order of the numbers 1, 2,  3, &c. they  reckoned back-
ward, in the manner expressed in  the following verses :
        Prima dies mensis cujusque est dicta calendx ;
        Sex Maius,  nonas, Julius, October, et Mars ;
        Qu*tuor at reliqui: habet idut quilibet octo j
        Inde dies reliquos omnes die esse calendas;
        Quas retro numerans, dices a mense sequente.
  Hence, to find the day of our month answering to that
of the calends, to the number of  days in lhe preceding
month  add two, and froin this  sum subtracting the num-
ber of calends given,  lhe  remainder will be  the  day of
our  month:  thus lhe  fourth of the calends  of June is
found to answer to  the 29th of  May ;  and so  on in other
case1-'.
  CALENDULA,  in botany, the marigold, agenusof
the polygamia necessaria order, in  the syngenesia class of
plants, and in the natural method ranking under tbe 49th
order,  composite.   The receptacle is naked, there is no
pappus, the  calyx  is polyphyllous and equal, the seeds
of the disk membranaceous.  There are 14 species, none
of them nativ es of Europe.   The common kind is so well
known as to need no description; and none of the others
merit any, except
  Calendula fruticosa, which  in 1759 was introduced
from the Cape of Good Hope.   It has a slender shrubby
perennial stalk, which rises to (he heigh( of seven or ei"ht
feet, but requires support.  It may be propagated  by
cuttings.
  CALIBER compasses, the name of a particular instru-
ment used by gunners for measuring the diameters of shot,
shells, &c. as also the  cylinder of cannon, mortars, and
howitzers.   They resemble  other compasses, except in
their legs, which are arched,  in order (hat (he points may
touch the extremities of the arch.   To  find the (rue diam-
eter of a circle, they  have a quadrant fastened to one
leg,  and passing  through the other, marked with inches
and  parts,  to express lhe diameter required:  tbe length
of each ruler or plate is usually between the limits of six
inches and a foot.  On these rulers are a variety of scales,
tables, proportions,  &c. such as are  esteemed useful to
be known by gunners.   The  following articles are on the
completest gunner's callipers,'vis.  1. The measure of
convex diameters in inches.   2. Of concave ditto. 3. The
weight of iron shot from given diameters.  4. The weight
of iron shot from given gun bores.  5. The degrees of a
semicircle.  6. Tbe  proportion of troy and avoirdupois
weight.  7. The  proportion of English and French feet
and  pounds.   8. Factors used in  circular and spherical
figures.  9. Tables of  the specific gravity and weights of
bodies.  10. Tables  of the quantity of powder necessary
for proof and service of brass and iron  guns.  11. Rules
for computing tbe number of shot or shells  in a  finished
pile.   12. Rule concerning the fall of heavy bodies.  13.
Rules for raising  of  water.   14. Rules for firing artillery
and  mortars.   15. A line  of inches.   16. Logarithmetic
scales of numbers, sines, versed sines, and tangents.  17.
A sectoral line of equal parts, or the line of lines.   18.
A sectoral  line of plans and  superficies.  ID. A  sectoral
line of solids.  See  Plate XXIV.
  CALIDUCT, in  antiquity, a kind of pipes, or canals,
disposed along the walls of houses and apartments, used
by the ancients for conveying heat f o several remote parts
of the house from one  common furnace.
  CALIPH, the supreme ecclesiastical  dignity among
the Saracens; or, as it is otherwise defined, a sovereign
dignity among the Mahometans, vested  with absolute au-
thority in all matters relating both to religion and policy.
It signifies in (he Arabic, successor or vicar: (he Sara-
cen princes assumed (his title as descendants from Maho-
met  ; (he caliphs bearing the same relation to Mahomet
that the popes pretend they do  to Jesus Christ, or Sf.
Peter.  Il is at this day one of lhe grand seignior's lilies,
as successor of Mahomet; and of  lhe sophi of Persia, as
successor of  Ali.
  CALIXTINS, in church history, a sect of Chilians,
in Bohemia  and  Moravia : the principal point in which
they differed from the church, was the use of the chalice,
or communicating in both kinds.  Is is also a name gi»en 
CAL
CAL
 to those, among the Lutherans, who follow the sentiments
 of George  CalixfiiF, a celebrated divine, who opposed
 the  opinion of St. Augnstin on predestination,  grace,
 and free will.
   CALL A,  African, or Ethiopian arum,  a genus of fhe
 polyandria order, in lhe gynandria class of plants, and in
 the natural me(hod ranking under the second order, pipe-
 rita?.  The spall,n is plain; (he spadix covered with flo-
 rets ; (here is no calyx ;  no petals; and the berries are
 monospermous.
   There are four Species, the most beautiful of which is
 the calla iEthiopica.   It is a nalive of the Cape, and  re-
 quires die  shelter of a greenhouse.   It propagates  very
 easily by offsets.   It resembles the aru,m, but the flower,
 or rather the spafhe,  is white.
   CALLICARPA, a genus of lhe class and order tetran-
 dria monogynia.  The essential  character is,  calyx four
 cleft; corolla four cleft; berry four seeded.
   There are seven species, trees and shrubs, of North
 America and the West Indies.
   CALLICO, a kind of manufacture made of cotton.  It
 takes it name from Callicut, a city on tbe coast of Mala-
 bar, where it was first manufactured.   In the East Indies
 the  callicoes are  all painted by  the  hand,  which is per-
 formed wilh great expedition.  From these we derive our
   Callico printing, which is the art of communicating
 different colours lo particular spots or figures on the sur-
 face of the cloth, while fhe other parts retain its original
 whiteness.   This art, or  rather lhat  to which we  have
 just referred, has been practised in  India for more fhau
 2000 years.  But in London callico printing was not  in-
 troduced fill  about the year 1676, since which it has been
 encouraged by several acts of parliament
   This ar( consiste in impregnating (hose  parte  of (he
 clo(h which are (o receive a colour, wifh a mordant, and
 then dyeing it as  usual with some dyestuff or olher.   The
 dyestuff attaches itself firmly  only  fo lhat part of the
 cloth wbich has received  the  mordant.  The whole sur-
 face of the cotton  is indeed  more or less tinged, but  by
 washing, and bleaching it for some days on the  grass
 with the wrong side uppermost, all the unmordanted parts
 resume their original  colour, while those which have  re-
 ceived  the mordant  retain  it.  Suppose that a piece of
 white cotton cloth is to receive red stripes ;  all the parts
 on which the stripes are (o appear are pencilled over wi(h
 a solution of acetife of alumina; after (bis,  (he clo(h is
 dyed in (he usual manner with madder.  When taken out
 of the dyeing vessel, it is all of a red colour,  but by wash-
 ing  and bleaching,  the  madder  leaves every part of the
 cloth white, except the stripes impregnated with the ace-
 tile of alumina, wbich remain red.   In the  same manner
 may yellow  stripes, or any other wished-for figure,  be
 given to cloth,  by substituting quercitron bark, weld, &c.
 for madder.
  When different colours are lo be given to different parfs
 of fhe cloth at  the same time, it is done by  impregnating
 it  wilh various mordants.  Thus, if stripes  are drawn
 upon a codon clolh  wi(h acetife of alumina, and o(her
 stripes with acelite of iron, and (he clo(h afterward dyed
 in  (he usual  way with madder, and (hen  washed and
 bleached, it will  be striped  red and brown.  Tbe same
mordanfs  with quercitron  bark,  give yellow and olive or
drab.
                 55*
  The mordants chiefly employed in callico printing arc
acetile of alumina, and acetite of iron.  These mordants
are applied to the cloth, either wifh a pencil, or by means
of blocks, on which the pattern, according to which the
cotton is to be printed, is cut.  As they are applied only
to particular parts  of  the clolh,  care  must be  taken that
none of them spread to lhe part of lhe clolh which is to
be left white, and that they do not interfere with one anoth-
er when several are applied.   If these precautions are
not attended to,  all the elegance and beauty of the  print
must be destroyed.  It is necessary,  therefore, that the
mordants should be of such a degree of consistence, that
they  will not spread beyond those parts of the cloth on
which they are applied.   This  is done  by thickening
them with flour or starch, when they are to be applied by
the block : and wi«h gum-arabic, when ihey are to be put
on by a pencil.  The  Ihickening should never  be greater
than is sufficient to prevent the spreading of the mordants ;
when  carried too far, the cotton is apt  not to be  sufficient-
ly saturated with the mordants j of course the dye takes
but imperfectly.
   In order that  the parts  of the  cloth impregnated with
mordants may be distinguished by (heir colour,  it is usual
to tinge the mordants with some colouring  matter or other.
The printers commonly use the  decoction of Brazil wood
for this purpose; but Dr.  Bancroft has objected to this
method, because he thinks that tbe Brazil wood colouring
matter impedes the subsequent  process of dyeing.  It is
certain that the colouring matter of the Brazil wood is dis-
placed, during that operation, by fhe superior affinity of
the dyestuff of the mordants.   Was it no( for (his supe-
rior affinity, the colour would not take at all.   Dr.  Ban-
croft advises to colour the mordant wifh some of (he  dye-
stuff afterward to be applied; and he  cautions  the using
of more for that purpose, than  is sufficient to make the
mordant distinguishable when applied  lo lhe cloth.  The
reason of this precaution is obvious.   If too much dye is
mixed wilh the  mordant,  a great proportion of the  mor-
dant will be combined with colouring matter, which  must
weaken its affinity for  the cloth,  and of course prevent it
from combining with it in sufficient quantity to ensure a
permanent dye.
  Sometimes  these two mordants are mixed together in
different proportions ;  and sometimes one or both is mix-
ed with an infusion of  sumach, or of nutgalls.   By these
contrivances, a great variety of colours are produced by
the same dyestuff.
  After the mordants have been applied,  the cloth  must
be completely dried.  It is proper for this purpose to em-
ploy artificial heat, which will contribute something tow-
ard the separation of the acetous acid from its  base, and
toward  its evaporation, by which the  mordant will  com-
bine in a greater proportion, and more intimately with the
cloth.
  When the cloth is sufficiently dried, it is to  be washed
with warm water and cow dung,  till all the flour, or  gum,
employed to thicken the mordants,  and all those parts of
the mordants which are  uncombined  with the cloth, are
removed.  The  cow dung serves to entangle these  loose
parts  of  the mordants, and to preventthem from combin-
ing with those  parts  of the cloth  which  are to remain
white.  After this, the cloth is  thoroughly rinsed in  clean
water. 
CALLICO.
   Almost the only dyestuffs employed by callico printers,
 are indigo,  madder, and quercitron bark, or weld.  This
 last substance, however, is but little used by the printers of
 this country,  except for delicate greenish yellows.  The
 quercitron bark has almost superseded it, because it gives
 colours equally good,  and is much cheaper and more con-
 venient, not requiring so great a heat to fix it.   Indigo,
 not requiring any mordant, is commonly applied at once,
 either with  a block or  a pencil.  It is prepared by boiling
 together indigo and potash made caustic by quicklime, and
 orpiment; the solution is afterward thickened with gum.
 It must be carefully secluded from the air, otherwise the
 indigo would soon be regenerated, which would render the
 solution  useless.  Dr. Bancroft has proposed to substi-
 tute coarse  brown sugar  for orpiments :  it is equally effi-
 cacious in decomposing the indigo, and rendering it solu-
 ble ;  while it likewise serves all the purposes of  gum.
   Let us now give an example or two of the manner in
 which the printers give  particular colours to callicoes.
 Some callicoes are only printed  of one colour, others have
 two,  others three  or more,  even to the number  of eight,
 ten, or twelve.  The  smaller the number of colours, the
 fewer in general are the processes.
   1.  One of the most  common colours on cotton prints,
 is a kind  of nankeen yellow of various  shades down to a
 deep yellowish brown, or  drab.   It is usually in stripes
 or spots.   To produce it the  printers  besmear a block,
 cut out into the figure of the print, with acetite of iron,
 thickened with gum or flour ; and apply  it to the cotton,
 which,  after being dried and cleaned in the usual manner,
 is plunged into a potash lye.  The quantity of acetite  of
 iron is  always proportioned to the depth of the shade.
 2. For yellow the  block is besmeared with acetite of alu-
 mina.   The cloth, after receiving  this  mordant,  is  dyed
 with quercitron bark, and (hen bleached.  3. Red is com-
 municated by the same  process;  only madder is substi-
 tuted for the bark.   4. The fine light blues  which ap-
 pear so often on printed cottons, are produced by apply-
 ing fo the cloth,  a block besmeared with a composition,
 consisting partly of wax, wbich covers all those parts of
 the cloth which are to  remain white.  The  cloth is then
 dyed in a cold  indigo vat;  and after  it is dry,  the wax
 composition  is removed by hot water.   5.  Lilac, flea
 brown, and blackish brown,  are given by means of ace-
 tife of iron ; the quantity of which is always proportioned
 to the depth of fhe shade.   For very deep colours,  a lit-
 tle sumach  is added.   The cotton is afterward dyed in
 the  usual manner with madder, and then bleached.  6.
 Dove colour and drab,  by acetite of iron, and quercitron
 bark.
  When different colours are to appear in the same print,
 a greater number of operations are necessary.  Two or
 more blocks are employed,  upon each of which, that part
 of the print only is cut, which is to be of some particular
 colour.   These are besmeared with different mordants and
 applied to  lhe cloth, which is  afterward dyed as usual.
 Let us suppose, for instance, that these blocks are appli-
 ed to cotton,  one  with acetite  of alumina, another with
 acetife of iron, a third  with a mixture of  those two mor-
dants,  and fhat the cotton is then dyed  wifh quercitron
bark, and bleached.   The parts impregnated with the
mordants would have the following  colours.
     Acetite of alumine,         Yellow.
     -----—— iron,             Olive, drab, dove.
     The mixture,               Olive green, olive.
   If part of the  yellow is covered over with the indigo
liquor, applied with a pencil,  it will be converted into
green.  By the  same liquid, blue may be given to such
parts of the print as require it.
   If the cotton is dyed with madder, instead of quercit-
ron bark, the print will exhibit the following colours.
     Acetite of alumine,          Red.
             - iron,             Brown, black.
     The mixture,               Purple.
   When a great number of colours are to appear; for in-
stance, when those communicated by bark, and those by
madder,  are wanted at the same time ; mordants for part
of the pattern are to be applied ;  the cotton is then lo be
dyed in the  madder bath,  and bleached : then the rest of
the mordants, to fill up the pattern,  are added, and the
cloth is again dyed with  quercitron  bark, and bleached.
The second dyeing does not much affect the madder col-
ours ; because the mordants,  which  render them perma-
nent, are already saturated.   The yellow tinge is easily
removed by the subsequent bleaching.   Sometimes a new
mordant is also applied to some of tbe madder colours, in
consequence of which, they receive a new permanent col-
our from  the bark.  After the last bleaching, new colours
may be added by means  of the indigo liquor.  The fol-
lowing table will give an  idea of the  colours,  which may
be given to cotton by these complicated processes.
                   I. Madder dye.
                                  Colours.
    Acefite of alumine,          Red.
    ---------iron,             Brown, black.
    ---------diluted,           Lilac.
    Both, mixed,               Purple.
                   II. Bark dye.
Acetite of alumine,
----------iron,
Lilac and acetite of alumine,
Red and acetite of alumine,
             Yellow.
             Dove,  drab.
             Olive.
             Orange.
III. Indigo dye.
             Blue.
             Green.
     Indigo,
     Indigo and yellow,
  Thus no less  than 12 colours may be made to appear
together in the same print, by  these different processes.
  These instances will serve fo give fhe reader an idea of
the nature of callico printing, and at the same time afford
an  excellent illustration of the importance of mordants
in dyeing.
  If it was possible to procure colours sufficiently perma-
nent, by applying them at once to the cloth by the block
or the pencil, as is the case with the mordants, the art of
callico printing would be brought to the greatest  possible
simplicity ; but at present, this can only be done in one
case, that of indigo; every other colour requires dyeing.
Compositions, indeed, may be made, by previously com-
bining the dyestuff and the mordants.  Thus yellow may
be applied at once, by employing a mixture of the infusion 
CAL
CAL
  of quercitron bark and acetite of alumine; red, by mixing
  the  same mordant with the  decoction  of alumine, and so
  on.   The colours applied in this way  are, unfortunately,
  far  inferior in permanency to those  produced when  (he
  mordant is previously combined  with  the cloth,  and  the
  dyestuff  afterward applied separately.  In this way  are
  applied almost all the fugitive colours of callicoes, which
  washing, or even exposure to the air, destroys. As the  ap-
  plication  of colours in this way cannot always be avoided
  by callico printers, every method of rendering them more
  permanent is an object of importance.
    CALLIGONUM, in botany, a genus ofthe polyandria
  digynia class of  plants, having no flower ; the fruit is an
  oval, compressed, striated,  hairy pericarpium, with bifid
  tops, turning  backward ;  the  seed is single.  There  are
  three species.
    CALLISIA, in botany, a genus of the monogynia  or-
  der, in the triandria  class of plants,  and in  the  natural
  method  ranking under  the  6th order,  ensafae.   The  ca-
  lyx  is  triphyllous; the petals are three; the antherae are
  double; and (he capsule  is bilocular.   There is but one
  species, a native of America.
    CALLITRICHE, or star grass, in botany, a genus of
  the  digynia order, in the monandria class of plants, and
  in (he  natural method ranking under the  12th order,
  holoraceae.  It has no calyx, but two petals, and the
  capsule is bilocular and tetraspermous.  There are  two
  6pecies.
    CALLUS, or  callosity, any cutaneous, corneous,  or
  osseous hardness, whether natural or preternatural: but
  most frequently  it means the callus generated about the
  edges of  a fracture, provided by nature to preserve the
 fractured bones, or divided parts, in the situation in which
 they are replaced  by the surgeon.  See Surgery.
   CALODENDRUM, a genus  of lhe class and order
 pentandria monogynia.  The essential character is, calyx
 spreading, five petaled; nect. five leaved;  capsule five
 celled.  There is one  species, a native of the Cape.
   CALOGERI, in church history, monks of the Greek
 church, divided into three degrees: the novices,  called
 arcbari;  the ordinary  professed, called  microchemi;  and
 (he more perfec(,  called megalochemi: they are likewise
 divided into coenobites, anchorets, and recluses.  The
 coenobites are employed in reciting their office from mid-
 night to sunset.  The  anchorets retire from the conversa-
 tion  of lhe world, and live  in hermitages, in the  neigh-
 bourhood ofthe monasteries;  they  cultivate a little spot
 of ground, and never go out but on Sundays and holidays
 to perform their devotions at the next monastery.   As for
 the recluse, they  shut themselves up  in grottoes  and
 caverns, on the tops of mountains, from which they never
 go  out, abandoning  themselves entirely to Providence.
 They live on the alms sent them by the neighbouring mon-
 asteries.
  CALOMEL.   See  Materia Medica.
  CALOPHVLLUM, in botany, a genus of the poly-
 andria monogynia class of plants, whose corolla consists of
 four roundish, hollow, patent petals, and is larger than the
 cup ;  the fruit is a  large globose drupe.   There are  two
 species.
  CALORIC,  a word  used to denote that substance by
which the phenomena of heat are produced.
  Philosophers  formerly differed in opinion  respecting
  the causes of those phenomena; and there  were many
  who considered them merely as  the effect of (be mechani-
  cal changes of bodies, and some  even admitted an active
  principle of cold.   At present, however, it is almost unan-
  imously agreed, that these effects are produced by a pe-
  culiar matter which has received  the name of caloric; and
  which, in general, enables us to explain those appearances
  fully,  and in a satisfactory manner.  Caloric is an uncon-
  finable fluid,  highly  elastic, and so very subtle  that  ifs
  gravity  has not  yet been  ascertained.   It  is  diffused
  through all natural bodies, with  which it is more or less
  combined, according as their affinities for it are greater or
  less.  We are not acquainted  with any  body that does
  not enter into combination with it; nor any from which
  the utmost endeavours could entirely separate it: and
  caloric, therefore,  is not to be had in a pure state in na-
  ture :  hence chymists, when mentioning the constituent
  parts of bodies, pay no regard to the presence of caloric,
  but consider it as understood of course.   All bodies are
  combined in some  way with a certain portion of caloric ;
  or, to  express it  in other words, the particles of every
  substance are intermixed in a variable proportion with the
  particles of caloric, and  kept probably apart  by them.
  Hence the elementary particles of bodies do not, in fact,
  touch  each other;  and this  is manifest  from the  prop-
  erty which all bodies  possess, of being conteacted info a
  lesser  volume  when deprived of heat.  See Pyrometer.
    Caloric, being a substance perfectly elastic, whose com-
  ponent particles would expand ad  infinitum if not impeded,
  all bodies combined with them ought  likewise to expand
  ad infinitum, if there existed no power which acted in di-
  rect opposition to its elasticity.  This power is the mutu-
 al  attraction of the particles, or cohesion.   All material
 bodies, therefore, are continually acted upon by two pow-
 ers,  which tend  more  or less to  equipoise each  other ;
 one causes the particles of bodies to recede from  each
 olher,  and by the other they tend  to approximate.
   The  proportion of each of these powers determines (be
 exterior•form of bodies.   If cohesion predominates,  then
 the bodies are  solid; but if this power be overcome, then
 the particles are further removed, and Iheir volume is pro-
 porlionally increased.  Finally, if caloric predominates
 to such a degree that  the particles of bodies are  placed
 out  of the sphere of their reciprocal attraction, they lose
 (heir aggregation, and appear no longer in the form of sol-
 ids, but become liquid or gaseous.
   But if there  existed no other power but the two already
 mentioned, bodies  would not remain liquid ; for, on in-
 creasing the heat, they would immediately pass from the
 solid to the aeriform, or  gaseous state.  But there  is a
 third power, which, by acting at the same time, preserves
 them in an intermediate or liquid state. This  power is the
 pressure of lhe atmosphere, without which there would be
 noliquidin nature, for all bodies would be either solid or ae-
 riform.  Hence all bodies, from fheir combination with cal-
 oric, may exist in three different states, which result from, 1.
 The power of attraction by which bodies cohere.  2. The
 quantity of caloric  with which the substance is combin-
 ed.   3.  The greater or less pressure of the atmosphere
  The means by which a solid body may be changed inlo
 a liquid  are, (herefore:  1. A combination wilh a new and
 sufficient quantify of caloric, and 2. An union with  anoth-
er body  already liquid.   The operation bv which a body 
CALORIC.
   is rendered liquid, according  to the first method, is term-
   ed fusi-m, the theory of which is clear from what has been
   advanced.  In lhe second case, a body becomes liquid, if
   the quantity of caloric, in the liquid body added, be suffi-
   cien( (o remove (he elemenlary  particles of the new com-
   pound, (o  such a distance as will  enable them to move
   freely in all directions.
     A liquid body is rendered solid, 1. By (he loss of a por-
   lion of its caloric.  2. By combining it with  another solid
   body.  In the former  case, a body parts with that portion
   of caloric whereby it overcame  the repelling force of the
   molecules, which  now approach nearer to  each other;  so
   that they are again acted upon by cohesion.  This change
   of bodies is  termed congelation.  In the latter case, tbe
   compound body becomes solid,  if the caloric,  present in
   the liquid, be not  sufficient to prevent the attraction ofthe
   constituent particles of the new body, so as to cause it  to
   be acted upon by cohesion.
     A liquid  is changed into the state of gas, 1. By being
   combined with a quantity of caloric sufficient to equipoise
   the pressure of the atmosphere.  2. If the pressure ofthe
   atmosphere is either sufficiently diminished,  or  totally re-
   moved.
     A gas becomes liquid, 1. By the loss of that superabund-
   ant portion of caloric which resisted the pressure of the
   atmosphere.  2. By sufficiently increasing that pressure.
   Hence in every elastic fluid, two principal objects are to
   be considered : first,  the caloric which gives its exterior
   form,  vis. that of gas.   Secondly, the body  dissolved by
   the caloric, and by which the peculiar chymical proper-
   ties of (he  gas are determined.  This latter is generally
   termed the base,  which we must be caulious not to con-
   found with the gas itself.
      Caloric  continually  tends  to  form an   equilibrium.
   Hence it is, that,  if two bodies of the same nature ; for in-
   stance, two pieces of the same metal; be unequally heat-
   ed, or imbued with  different   portions of  caloric, and
   brought into contact with each other, the caloric equally
   diffuses itself throughout the two bodies ;  and the quanti-
   ties of caloric, in each body, will bear the same  propor-
   tion to each other as the masses themselves.  But, sup-
   posing the two bodies  to be of a different kind, in that case,
   though the caloric would also form an equilibrium, and
   each body would indicate the same  temperature  to the
   thermometer, yet fhe  proportions of caloric in each body,
   will not be as the masses, but will vary according ^s the
   bodies differ.   This property of bodies, to require differ-
   ent quantities of caloric to indicate the same temperature
v-  to the thermometer, was termed by Dr. Black, the capac-
   ity ofa body for heat;  but the quantity of  caloric itself
   he called specific heat.   The cause of  this  phenomenon
   arises from fhe different degrees of affinity which different
   bodies possess for caloric, and from which  lhe capacities,
   and various points of saturation, of different bodies may be
   estimated.
     When any body is  in equilibrio with the bodies which
   surround it, with respect to its caloric, that  quantity which
   it contains is not perceptible  by any external sign or or-
   gan of sense, and is termed combined caloric, or,  accord-
   ing to Black, latent heat.  But, if the latent heat, from
   any cause,  is forced, in some degree, to quit a body, and
   fo combine  with those that surround it, then  such caloric
is said to be  free or sensible until tbe equilibrium is re-
stored.
   It is this caloric in a free state which acts upon our or-
gans, and excites that  sensation  which  we term warmth*
and it is this alone which we can ascertain by the ther-
mometer.  The  temperature of a body is, therefore, the
termination of the rarefaction ofthe mercury, at the instant
when its caloric has  established an equilibrium with  that
of the body.
   The equilibrium of  caloric is destroyed by fhe follow-
ing causes :  1. A change of the capacities in bodies by
chymical analysis or synthesis.   2. External mechanical
pressure.  As (o (he former, the reason of the separation
or addition of caloric is to be sought for from the general
laws of chymical composition, vis. that a compound body
possesses properties different from its constituent parts.
Hence the capacity  of the compound body is not always
a mean between the sum of (he capacities of its  constitu-
ent  parts, but is  oftentimes greater or less ; and, on ac-
count of this greater or less capacity of a compound body,
caloric, at the moment the constituent parts unite, is ei-
ther expelled  or attracted  from  surrounding  bodies.  In
the former case,  the temperature of the surrounding bod-
ies is increased, in the latter it is diminished.  When a
body, whose temperature has been raised, conies into con-
tact with several other bodies of lower temperatures, then
the caloric  endeavours to form an equilibrium;  and that
of  the  first  body,  because it is this  especially which
causes a change in the equilibrium, diffuses itself through-
out the second, and thence throughout the third, and so in
succession till all their temperatures are equal.   The  in-
termediate bodies, through wbich caloric permeates, are
called conductors  of heat; and as they convey it more or
less quickly, they are said to be good or bad conductors.
All bodies possess the property of communicating caloric,
but according to different  degrees,  being hence  termed
good or bad conductors.   Hitherto we know of but one
exception, which is in congealed water or ice.  This body
imbibes all the caloric which it receives from other bodies;
nor does it communicate the least quaniity to such as  lie
contiguous to  it, until  the quantity of caloric it has ab-
sorbed has rendered it liquid.  The water produced fol-
lows again the general law, and becomes a conductor of
heat.  Therefore, if a body of a certain temperature is
brought into contact with ice, it will impart to the ice its
own caloric, till it has descended to the temperature ofthe
ice itself; and we shall see that only as much of the ice
returns to the slate  of wafer as  the caloric, which it had
imbibed, could liquefy.  This, however, is that portion of
caloric, which  had raised the body from the temperature
of  the  ice to that which it possessed  previously fo  fhe
experiment, and which  we have denominated  specific
heat.   Moreover, since equal quantities of caloric ought
to liquefy equal quantities of ice, it follows, that the spe-
cific heat of  bodies,  under like  circumstances, is  in a
direct ratio ofthe quantities of ice which they can lique-
fy when brought inlo  contact.
   From the foregoing  observations we may draw the fol-
lowing conclusions:
   1. If equal quantities of the same body, at fhe same tem-
perature, come severally into contact with ice, then equal
quantities of ice will be changed info the liquid state of 
CAL
CAL
 water, and such bodies will descend to the temperature of
 the ice.
   2.  If unequal quantities of the same body are treated in
 a similar manner, then the quantities of the ice  liquefied
 will be in a direct ratio of the quantities ofthe body.
   3. But, if equal quantities of different bodies are treated
 in this way, then the quantities of the ice liquefied will be
 in a direct ratio of  the  quantities  of caloric which those
 bodies have lost; or, in other words, they will be in a di-
 rect ratio of the quantities of caloric which caused those
 bodies to ascend from the temperature of the ice to that
 which they possessed at the beginning of the experiment:
 and therefore, as the masses of the bodies  were equal, (hey
 will be in a direct ratio  of their specific heat, and in a di-
 rect ratio of their own capacities for caloric.
   These experiments not only demonstrate, that different
 bodies, in reality, possess different capacities for caloric;
 but they likewise show  us the means by which we are en-
 abled to measure the  relative quantities  which they con-
 tain.
   Heat  and cold, with  respect to  our senses, are  distin-
 guished by those perceptions which are the effect either
 of an  augmentation, or diminution of caloric, in the animal
 body, whenever we approach an object  whose tempera-
 ture is either higher or lower than that which we ourselves
 possess.   But  the  perception  is always  modified by the
 state of the organs, and the temperature  they have been
 before exposed to.  Hence not only one  person shall feel
 cold, another  warm, in the same atmosphere; but if we
 plunge our hands for some time, the one inlo hot, the other
 into cold water, and suddenly transfer them both into wa-
 fer ofthe heat ofthe blood, the same water will distinctly
 impress  on our perceptions both  heat and cold.  It fol-
 lows, that our  perceptions are not a just criterion ofthe
 state of bodies as to their temperature.
   Incandescence and flame are observed  in the rapid dis-
 engagement of caloric and light.  The first effect  of this
 disengagement is inflammation; and these  phenomena,
 taken collectively, excite in us  that idea which is express-
 ed  by the word fire.
   Among the various states of heat, it is  necessary (hat
 we should consider caloric in (wo points  of view.  First,
 as it elevates bodies above the temperature of  the sur-
 rounding medium, where it is known by the term sensible
 beat,  and which we can measure either by a common ther-
 niomelervor by Wedgewood's pyrometer.   Secondly, the
 whole quantity of caloric existing in a  body in chymical
 union, where il is known by the term absolute heat,  the
 quantity  of which is ascertained by the calorimeter of La
 Place.   From the principal laws which caloric follows in
 its combination with olher bodies, and from the properties
 already  recited,  many phenomena may be  explained
 which occur in the chymical solution of  bodies, and in
 which caloric is the principal agent.   Thus:  1. Why two
 s:)lid  bodies cannot mutually  dissolve each  other;  and
 why it ia necessary, for tha( purpose, that one  of them,
 at least, should be in a fluid state.   2. Why, io most com-
 binations of solids wilh fluids, caloric promotes solution.  3.
 Why the contrary happens in solutions of aeriform bodies
in liquid*.   A. Why the combination of two solid or two
fluid bodies or lhe  combination of one  fluid with one sol-
iJ,  produces a body which is either solid or fluid.   5.
 What phenomena ought  to  be produced as to volume,
 specific gravity, and temperatures.
   CALOTTE, in architecture, a round cavity or depres-
 sure, in form of a cap  or cup, lathed and plastered, used
 to  diminish the  rise or elevation of a moderate chapel,
 cabinet,  alcove, &c. which,  without  such an expedient,
 would be too high for other pieces of the apartment.
   CALTH A, marsh marigold, in botany, a genus ofthe
 polyandria polygynia class of  plants, and in the natural
 method  ranking  under  the 26th   order, multisiliquse.
 There is no calyx; there are five petals; no nectaria; lhe
 capsules are many and polyspermous.  There is only one
 species  known, which  grows  naturally in  moist boggy
 lands in  many parts of England.  There is a variety with
 double flowers, which  for  its beauty is preserved in gar-
 dens.  It is propagated by parting the roots in autumn.
 Upon May day the country people strew the flowers upon
 the pavement  before their doors.  Goats and sheep eat
 this plant; horses, cows, and swine,  refuse il.
   CALVARY, in heraldry, a cross; so called because it
 resembles the cross on  which our Saviour suffered.
   CALVINISTS, in  church history, those who follow
 (he opinions of John Calvin,  one of the principal reform-
 ers ofthe church in the 16th century, a person of great parts
 and industry,  and of considerable learning; whose doc-
 trine still subsists in its greatest  purity at  Geneva, where
 it  was first  introduced, and  whence  it was propagated.
 The Calvinists are great advocates for the absoluteness of
 God's decrees; and hold that election and reprobation de-
 pend on  the mere will of God, without any regard (o (he
 merit or  demerit of mankind; that he affords  to the elect
 an irresistible grace, a faith that they cannot  lose, which
 takes away the freedom of will, and necessitates all their
 actions to virtue.  The Calvinists believe  that God fore-
 knew a determinate  number, in whom he  would  manifest
 his glory; and that  having  thus foreknown them, he pre-
 destinated them to  be holy, in  order to  which he  gives
 them an  irresistible grace,  which makes it impossibfe for
 them to be otherwise.
  CALYCANTHUS, in botany, a genus of the polygy-
nia order, in the icosandria class of plants, and in the natural
method  ranked  among the plantae  dubii  ordinis.  The
calyx is  monophyllous,  pitcher form, squarrose,  with
small coloured leaves, the corolla consisting of tbe leaves
on lhe calyx;  the styles are numerous, each with a gland-
ular stigma ; the seeds are many, each wilh a train, with
in  a succulent  calyx.  There are two species, vis.
   1. Calycanthus floridus, or Carolina allspice tree, a na-
tive  of Carolina.  It seldom grows,  at least with us,  to
more  than  five feet high.   It divides into many branches
irregularly near the ground.   If is of a brown colour; and
when bruised emits a most agreeable  odour.   The leaves
 that garnish this delightful aromatic are of an oval figure.
At the end of  these stand the flowers, ofa kind of choco-
late purple colour.  The propagation of this shrub is not
very difficult ; though  more  than common care must be
taken, after small plants are obtained, to preserve them
(ill they are of a size  to be ventured abroad.   The last
year's shoots, if laid in the ground, the bark being a little
bruised,  will strike root within a year, particularity if (he
layers are shaded, and watered in summer.
  2. C. prajcox is not yet inured to our climate. 
CAM
CAM
   CALYPTRA.   Most of the  mosses have calyptrae.
 See Botany.
   C ALYPTRANTHES, a genus ofthe icosandria mono-
gynia class and order.  The essential character is, calyx
superior, truncate, covered wilh a veil shaped rib; corol-
la none; berry one celled, one to  four seeded.
   There are six species, trees and shrubs, of the West In-
dies.
   CALYX,  among botanists, a general terra  expressing
 the cup of a  flower, or that part of a  plant which sur-
rounds and supports the other parts of the flower.   See
Botany.
   CAMjEA, in natural hisfory, a genus ofthe semipellu-
cid gems, approaching to (he onyx  s(ruc(ure, being com-
posed of zones, and formed on a crystaline basis ; but hav-
ing the  zones very broad  and thick, and laid alternately
on one another, with no common matter between ; usually
less transparent, and more debased  with earth, than the
onyxes.
   1. One species of the  camcea is the dull looking onyx,
with  broad black and white zones;  and is  the camfea of
the moderns, and lhe Arabian onyx; this species is found
in Egypt, Arabia, Persia, and the  East Indies. 2. Anoth-
er species of the  camasa is the dull, broad zoned, green
and white camaea, or the jaspi cameo of the Italians: it is
found in the  East  Indies, and in some parts of America.
3. The  third is the  hard camaea, with broad white and
chesnut  coloured veins.   4. The hard camsea, with blu-
ish, white, and flesh coloured broad veins, being the sar-
donyx of Pliny's time, only brought from the East Indies.
   CAMALDULIANS, a religious order founded by St.
Romuald, in a little plain, on the mount Apennine, called
Camaldali, situated in the state of Florence.
   The manner of life first enjoined this order was,, that
they dwelt in separate cells, and  met together only at
the time of prayer : some of (hem, during the two Lents
of the year,  observed  an  inviolable silence; and others
for the  space  of  a  hundred  days.  On   Sundays  and
Thursdays they fed on herbs, and  the rest of the week
only on bread and water.  These  constitutions were, how-
ever, a  little  moderated some time afterward.  This her-
mitage is now accounted very opulent.
   CAM AX, in botany, a genus of the class and order pen-
tandria  monogynia.   The essential character is, corolla
wheel shaped ; filaments  inserted between the segments
ofthe corolla;  berry four celled,  many seeded.
   There is one species, a native of Guiana.
   CAMBER BEAM, among builders, a piece of timber in
an edifice, cut archwise, or with an obtuse angle in  the mid-
dle, commonly  used in platforms, as church leads, and on
other occasions where long and strong beams are required.
   CAMBLET, or camlet, a plain stuff, composed ofa warp
and woof, which is manufactured on a loom, wifh  two
treadles, as linens  are.  There are  camblets of several
sorts: some of goat's hair,  bolh  in the warp and woof;
others, in which the warp is ofhair, and the  woof half hair
and half silk;  others again, in which both the warp and
the woof are  of wool; and lastly, some of which the warp
is of wool and the woof of thread ;  some are striped, some
waved or watered, and some figured.
   CAMBOGIA, in botany,  a genus of the monogynia or-
der in the  polyandria  class of  plants, and  in the natural
method  ranking under the 39th  order, tricocc*.   The
 corolla is tetrapetalous; the calyx tetraphyllous; andtht
 fruit is a pome with eight cells, and solitary seeds. 1 here
 is but  one species, vis.
   Cambogia gutta, a native of India.  It yields  the gum
 resin known by the name of gamboge.
   CAMBRICS,  a species of very fine white linen, made
 of flax at Cambray.
   Of so much repute are French cambrics, that for many
 years  more than 200,000/.  per annum was expended in
 them by the inhabitants of this country.  Parliament in-
 terfered, and the  wearing and selling of foreign cambrics
 are prohibited under heavy penalties.  The cambrics now
 allowed in this country are chiefly manufactured in Scot-
 land and Ireland.
   CAMELLIA, in botany, a genus of the  monadelphia
 polyandria class, and in the natural method ranking under
 the 37th order, columniferse.   The calyx is imbricated
 and polyphyllous, with the interior leaves larger than the
 exterior.  There are three species, natives of China and
 Japan.  Thunberg, in bis Flora Japonica, describes it as
 growing every where in the groves and gardens of Japan;
 where  it becomes a prodigiously large and tall  tree, highly
 esteemed by the natives for the elegance of its large and
 very variable blossoms, and  its evergreen  leaves.  It is
 there found  with single and double  flowers,  white,  red,
 and  purple, produced from April  to  October.  Repre-
 sentations of this flower are  frequently met with in  Chi-
 nese paintings.  With us the camellia is generally treated
 as a greenhouse plant, and propagated  by  layers.   At
 some future time it may,  perhaps,  not be uncommon to
 treat it as a laurustinus or magnolia :  fhe high  price at
 which  it has hitherto been sold, has  probably prevented
 its being hazarded in this way.  The blossoms are of a
 firm texture, but apt to fall off long before they have lost
their brilliancy.
  CAMELOPARDALIS, a genus of the order of pecora.
The .generic character is; horns permanent, bony, cover-
ed with a bristly skin;  front teeth in the lower jaw eight;
 the exterior one on each side deeply bilobafe.  If height
 alone constituted precedency among quadrupeds, the gi-
raffe, or camelopardalis, see Plate XXV. Nat. Hist. fig. 77.
 would undoubtedly claim lhe first rank; measuring, when
 full grown, near seventeen  feef  from the top  ofthe head
to the  fore feet.   The  female, however, is lower than the
male, and the measure abovemenf ioned must be understood
 to relate lo the animal when arrived  at  the utmost limits
of its tallest growth, tbe generality of those described by
travellers not exceeding fifteen or sixteen feet.  Notwith-
 standing the unusual proportions of this animal, ils general
 form is in the highest degree elegant and picturesque :  fhe
 head being small,  the  aspect mild,  the neck extremely
 long and tapering; the fore parts much higher  than the
 hinder; and the  disposition of the  colours singular and
 pleasing.  At first view, the fore legs seem nearly twice
 the length of the hind ; but this difference, on accurate ex-
amination, appears to result chiefly from the extraordinary
height  ofthe shoulders, compared with  that of the thighs.
  The  horns of the camelopardalis differ in texture  from
those of all other  horned quadrupeds, forming a part of
the skull, and consisting ofa porous bony substance, cov-
ered externally with short coarse bristly hair:  they ter-
minate abruptly, in a flatfish or slightly convex head, but
little wider than the other part of the horn, and edged with 
CAM
C  A M
tft.TbrihUes all round the outline.   On the middle of the
forehead rises a  considerable protuberance, owing to an
el- vation or bony rising on that part of the skull.   From
the head to the middle of the back runs  a Bhort stiffish
mane   The tail is of moderate length, and of a cylindrical
form, gradually tapering toward the end, and terminating
in a tuft of long hair.  The hoofs  are moderately large
and bhxk.  The fore part of the body is  very thick and
muscular, and the hind part thin and meagre.  The ground
colour of (he i.nimal is whitish, variegated on all parts with
numerous, moderately large, and somewhat squarish spots;
which  in the male are brown, and in the female ferrugin-
ous.   In the younger animals they are sometimes of a
bright  reddish yellow.  These marks or spots are of a
somewhat less regular shape on the sides lhanon the neck
and shoulders.
   The camelopardalis is a native of Ethiopia,  and some
other parts of Africa;  where it is chiefly found in forests,
 living on herbage of various kinds, but principally on the
foliage-of trees, and particularly on some species of mi-
mosa.  When grazing on the surface of the ground,  it is
observed to spread its fore legs very considerably, in or-
der to enable it to reach the ground with greater facility.
It is an animal  of a mild  and harmless disposition, and
 when attacked,  endeavours  merely  to  save  itself  by
flight; running with great swiftness, though in a somewhat
peculiar and  awkward style, on account of the length of
its neck, and breadth of its fore parts  compared with the
hind.
   The male  and female  camelopardalis   resemble  each
other when young: but as the animal advances in age, the
spots on the male become  dark brown, while those of the
female continue of a ferruginous cast.  In  both, however,
some occasional differences of shade take  place ; and (he
female, when very old, is said to acquire the dusky shades
of the male.   The  female has also a less conspicuous tu-
bercle on the forehead, and has four teats, as in a cow.
   These animals are sometimes seen in small groups, to
the number of  six or seven together, and when disturbed
run off with great celerity.  When seen in front, at some
 little distance, the animal  might be mistaken for a decay-
ed tree, and  Ihus be easily passed by without particular
 notice.
   Camelopardalis, in  astronomy, a new constellation
of the northern hemisphere, formed by Hevelius, consist-
ing of 32 stars,  first  observed by  him, situated between
Cepheus, Cassiopeia, Perseus, the  two Bears,  and Draco.
Il contains about 58 stars in the British catalogue.
   C AMELUS, camel, a genus of quadrupeds ofthe order
of pecora.  The generic  character is, horns none ;  front
teeth in the lower jaw six, somewhat thin  and broad; ca-
nine  teelh distant, in the upper jaw three, in the lower
I wo:  upper lip divided.   There are seven species.
   ].  C. dromedarius, Arabian camel, or dromedary, is
found in lhe warmer parts of Asia,  and in the upper  re-
gions of Africa.  In Asia  it is  said  not to be found further
north lhan Persia, and in  Africa  not further  south than
Ethiopia. It  is common in most parts of India.   See Plate
XXV.  Nat. Hist. fig. 71.
  The general height of the Arabian camel, measured
from the top of the  dorsal bunch  to the ground, is about
six feet and a half;  but from the fop of the bead, when
the animal elevates it, not much less than nine feet: the
  vol.  i.           56
head, however, is generally so carried as to be nearly on
a level with the  bunch, or rather below  it,  the animal
bending  the neck extremely in its  general posture: lhe
head is small, the neck very long, the body of along and
meagre shape, the legs rather slender, and  the (ail,  which
is slightly tufted at the  end, reaches to the joints of the
hind legs;  the feet are very large, and are hoofed in a pe-
culiar style, being divided above into two lobes not reach-
ing through the whole length of the  foot, and  the extrem-
ity of  each lobe is guarded  by a small hoof: the  under
part of the foot is  covered  wilh  an  extremely strong,
tough, and pliable skin, which, by  yielding in all  direc-
tions, enables the animal to travel with peculiar  ease and
security over dry, stony, aud sandy regions.  On each leg
are six callosities.  On the lower part ofthe breast is also
a large callus or tough tubercle, wbich is gradually in-
creased  by the constant habit which  the animal  has of
resting upon it in lying down.  It is distinguished from the
succeeding species by having a single large bunch on the
back.
  The general colour ofthe camel  is an  uniform  dusky
brown, more or less tinged with ferruginous.   Its hair is
fine and soft, and serves for the basis of several  kinds  of
stuffs.
   There are several varieties of this animal, differing in size,
strength, &c. analogous to the different breeds of horses.
   2. C. Bactrianus, Bactrian camel, in its  general appear-
ance so much resembles the Arabian, that it might rather
seem a permanent variety of that animal  than a distinct
species ; differing only  in being somewhat larger, and in
having two bunches  on  the back instead of one.   It is
said to be found wild  in the northern parts of India, and in
lhe deserts bordering on China, and is more esteemed for
swiftness than tbe Arabian camel.   See Plate  XXV. Nat.
Hist. fig. T3.
   In Arabia it  is kept chiefly  for the use of the great,
being not a native of  that country,  but imported from In-
dia, &c.   Of this animal, as well as ofthe  Arabian camel,
there are several races or varieties, differing, like those of
horses, in  strength, size, swiftness,  and  elegance of form.
A breed of peculiar swiftness is said to be reared in  China,
and to be distinguished by the expressive title offong kyo
fo, or camels with feet of wind.   A white variety  occurs
in some  parts of Siberia; and lastly, a hybrid or mixed
breed is  said to be occasionally obtained between the Bac-
trian and the Arabian camel.
   3.  Camelus  glama.  This animal, described by some
of the old naturalists under the name of ovis Peruviana, or
Peruvian sheep,  is a native of South America, and is par-
ticularly plentiful  in Peru,   where it inhabits,  in a wild
state,  the  highest and coldest parts of mountains, feeding
in numerous  herds, and flying with great  rapidity  on the
sight of mankind.  It was, however, completely subdued
and domesticated by Ibe ancient Peruvians, being the
only beast of burden known  to  that people, to whom it
answered the same purposes as the  camel and dromedary
in the eastern regions ofthe old continent.  The general
size of the glama is nearly that of a stag ; measuring about
four feet and a  half in height  to the top ofthe shoulders,
and about  six feet in  length from  nose to tail. The neck
is a .great length; the head  small; the back slightly ele-
vated, and the whole animal bears some resemblance to a
camel on a smaller  scale.  Its general colour is a  li*ht 
CAM
CAM
ferruginous brown, paler or whitish on the under parts;
and sometimes it  is  said to  be varied or patched with
darker and lighter shades on different parts, and to have a
black stripe running down  the  back to the beginning of
the tail.   See Plate XXV. Nat. Hist. fig. 75.
  The voice of the glama resembles the shrill neighing of
a horse.   When angry or attacked, it strikes with its feet,
and endeavours to bite.  The glama is said to be able to
carry a burden  of about  a hundred  and fifty pounds
weight, and to travel at the  rate of three German miles a
day  for  three or four days together.  When resting, it
leans on its breast in the manner ofthe camel, which it also
resembles in the faculty of abstaining long from drink,
sometimes four or five days;  and, like that animal, may
be supported by very coarse and trifling food.  Its flesh is
said to resemble mutton in flavour.
  4. Camelus vicuna.   The vicuna bears a general resem-
blance to the glama;  but is  of a lighter and more delicate
aspect, and of smaller size ;  the head is smaller and short-
er in proportion ; the eyes remarkably large and full;  the
ears somewhat sharper, and the limbs more slender.  The
hair of this animal is of a very  soft, wavy, and  woolly  na-
ture ; that on the breast is nearly three inches long, on  the
other parts not more than one inch ; the end of the tail is
furnished, like  the  breast,  with  long  woolly hair.   See
Plate XXV. Nat. Hist. fig.  76.
  The vicuna affords the finest wool of any,  and  it is
wrought  into cloths of most exquisite silky softness and
beauty,  which are said to be too warm for common wear,
unless made peculiarly thin.
  The vicuna, as well as the  paco or  next species, is
sometimes taken by the Peruvians  by the simple artifice
of tying  cords, with bits of wool or cloth fixed to them at
certain distances, at three or four feet from the ground,
across the narrow passes ofthe mountains ; and when  the
animals have been hunted or driven that way, they are so
terrified by the  fluttering of the rags, that, instead of at-
tempting to pass, they huddle together in heaps, and thus
afford their pursuers an opportunity of  killing with their
slings as many as they please.
   5. Camelus paco.   This  species is said to be entirely
confined to Peru, where the  natives keep vast flocks of
them for fhe sake of the wool, of which they prepare cloth
of silky lustre and softness.  Like tbe vicuna, it is found
in mountainous districts in large herds,  but is never  ob-
served  to associate with those animals.  It is of a  more
robust make than the vicuna, and is covered with  very
long wool; which is, in the wild animal, ofa dull purple col-
our, resembling that of dried rose leaves, but in the domes-
ticated kind is often varied with black, white, and rufous;
the belly is white.   Like the two preceding species, it  has
sometimes been named the Peruvian sheep.  Those con-
cretions, known by the name  of bezoars, are often found
in the stomach of this  as well as of other species.
  6. Camelus huanacus, or the guanaco, is a  native of
Peru, and is found in  similar situations with the glama and
the paco.  It is the largest  of all the Peruvian animals of
(bis kind, and is said sometimes to grow to the  size of a
horse.  Ifs back is pretty much arched ; and it is cover-
ed  not  with  wool  like  the other smaller species,  but
with long smooth hair; the head is round, the nose some-
what pointed, the ears straight like thoBe ofa horse, and
the tail short and turning upward.  It appears to be more
nearly allied to the glama than to any olher species, bu( is
said never to associate with that animal.   Its general col-
our is tawny above and white below.
  7. Camelus arcuanus.  This  species, which inhabits
Peru and Chili, is described as  measuring abou( six feet
in length,  and about four in height.  It  is covered with
woolly hair, and in  i(s general appearance is not unlike a
ram.  The  ears  are flaccid or pendulous, tbe neck and
legs long; the tail like that ofa sheep, but shorter in pro-
portion: the wool is very soft, and fhe colour of the ani-
mal is said to vary in  different individuals,  being either
brown,  black, ash  coloured, or while.   This animal was
employed by the ancient inhabitants of Chili as a beast of
burden, as well as in ploughing.  Its wool was also used
in (he manufacture ofa fine silky clolh or stuff; but this
is now said to have given place to the introduction of Eu-
ropean wool, as being stronger and more serviceable.
  CAMEO.  SeeCAMiEA.
  CAMERA OBSCURA.   See Optics.
  CAMERARIA,  in  botany, a genus of the monogynia
order, in the pentandria class of plants, and in the natural
method ranking under  the 30th order,  contorts.  There
are two horizontal follicles at  the base of the seed case.
The seeds are inserted into a proper membrane. There are
two species, vis.
  1. Cameraria angust ifolia, has an irregular shrubby stalk,
wbich rises  about eight feet.  The flowers are  produced
scatteringly  af the end ofthe branches, which are shaped
like those  of the latifolia,  but smaller.  It ia a native of
Jamaica.
  2. Cameraria latifolia,  a native of tbe  island  of Cuba.
It rises wifh a shrubby stalk to 10 or 12 feet, dividing into
several branches, with roundish pointed leaves placed op-
posite.  The flowers  are  produced  at  the end of the
branches in  loose clusters, which have long tubes enlarg-
ing gradually upward ; and  at the top are cut  into five
segments, broad at Iheir  base,  but ending in sharppoiats:
the flower is ofa yellowish white colour.
  CAMERLINGO, according to Ducange, signified for-
merly the pope's or emperor's treasurer: at  present cam-
erlingo is no where used but at  Rome, where it denotes the
cardinal who governs the ecclesiastical state, and adminis-
ters justice.
  CAMERON1ANS, a party of presbyterians, which
sprung up in Scotland in the reign of king Charles II.   They
affirmed that the king had forfeited his right to the crown,
by  breaking the  solemn league and covenant, which were
tho terms on which he received if.   They pretended both
to dethrone  and  excommunicate him, and broke out into
open rebellion.  Upon the Revolution they were recon-
ciled to the  kirk, and  fheir preachers submitted to  the
general assembly of the church of Scotland in 1690.
  CAMP, in military affairs, is (he whole extent of ground,
in general, occupied by an army pitching ils lenls when in
(he field, and  upon  which all  its baggage and  apparatus
are lodged.   It is marked out by fhe quartermaster gen»
eral, who  allots  every regiment its ground.   The  extent
of the front of a regiment of infantry is 200 yards, includ-
ing the two battalion guns, and depth 320, when lhe regi-
ment contains nine  companies, each of 100  private men,
and the companies' tents in  two  rows; but  when the 
CAM                                               CAM
  companies' tents stand  in one row, and but 70 private
  men to each  row, the front is  then but 155  yards.
  A squadron of horse has 120 yards in front,  and 100 for
  an interval between each regiment.
    The nature of the ground must also be  consulted, both
  for defence against the enemy, and for supplies to the ar-
  my.  It should have a communication wilh the army's
  garrisons; and  have plenty of water, forage,  fuel; and
  either rivers, marshes, hills, or woods, to cover it.  An ar-
  my always encamps fronting the enemy, and generally in
  two parallel lines, besides a  corps de reserve, about 500
  yards distant from each other;  the horse and dragoons on
  the  wings, and the foot in the centre.  Each regiment
  posts a subaltern's guard at 80 yards from the colours  to
  the officer's tent, called the quarter guard, besides a cor-
  poral's guard in tbe rear; and each regiment of horse  or
  dragoons, a small guard on foot, called the standard guard,
  at the same distance.   The grand guard of the army con-
  sists  of horse,  and is posted about a mile distant toward
  the enemy.
    In a siege, the camp is placed all along the line  of cir-
  cumvallation, or rather in the rear of the approaches, out
  of cannon  shot: the army faces the circumvallation, if
  there is any ; that  is, the soldiers have lhe town in their
  rear.  One thing  very essential  in  the establishing  a
  camp, and  which  should be  particularly attended to if
  the  enemy is near, is, that  there  should not only be a
  commodious spot of ground at the head of the camp where
 the army, in case of surprise, may in a moment be under
  arms, and in condition to repulse the enemy ; but also  a
 convenient field of battle al a small distance, and of a suf-
 ficient extent for  them to form advantageously, and to
 move with facility.
   The arrangement ofthe tents in camp, is nearly the same
 all over Europe ; which is, to dispose them in such a man-
 Tier, that the troops may form with safety and expedition.
 To answer this end, the  troops are encamped in the same
 order as that  in which they are to engage, which is by
 battalions and squadrons; hence, the post of each battal-
 ion and squadron in the line of battle, must necessarily be
 at  the head of its own encampment.   Gustavus Adolphus,
 king of Sweden, was the first who formed encampments
 according to tbe  order of battle.  By this disposition, the
 extent of the camp  from right to left, of each battalion and
 squadron, will be equal to the front of each in line of bat-
 tle ; and consequently, the extent from right to left of the
 whole camp, should be equal to the front of the whole ar-
 my when drawn up  in line of battle, with the same  inter-
 vals between the several encampments of the battalions
 and squadrons, as are in the line.  There is no fixed rule
 for the intervals.  The most general method is, an interval
 of 60 feet between each battalion, and of 36 feet  between
 each squadron.
   Hence it  follows, 1st, that the front line ofthe  camp
 must be in  a direction to face the enemy ; 2dly, that at
 the head of the encampment of each  battalion and squad-
 ron, Ihere must be a clear space of ground, on which  they
 may form in line of  battle;  and, 3dly, that when the 3pace
 taken up by the army is embarrassed with woods, ditches,
 and o(her obsteuctions, a communication must be opened
for  the troops to move with ease to the assistance of each
other.
  The tents for the cavalry, as well as for the infantry,
are  placed in rows perpendicular to the principal front of
                 ."»»>-■■'
 the camp; and their number is conformable to the number
 of troops.   The horses of each troop are placed in a line
 parallel to the tents, with their  heads toward them.   The
 number of tents in each  row, is regulated by the strength
 of the troops, and the number of troopers allotted to each
 tent is 5; it follows, that a troop of 30 men will  require
 six tents, a troop of  60  men 12 tents, and a troop of 100
 men 20 tents.  The tents  of the cavalry are ofthe same
 form as those of the infantry ; butmore spacious, tbe bet-
 ter to contain the fire arms, accoutrements, saddles, bridles,
 boots, &c.
   CAMPAIGN, in tbe art of  war,  denotes the space of
 time that an army keeps the field, or is encamped, in opposi-
 tion to quarters.
   CAMPANIFORM, or  campanulated, an appellation
 given to flowers resembling a bell; a characteristic where-
 on Tournefort establishes one of his classes of plants.  Sec
 Botany.
   CAMPANINI, a name given to a marble of Italy, dug
 out ofthe mountains of Carrara; because, when it is work-
 ed, it resounds like a  bell.
   CAMPANULA, tbe  bell flower, a genus of the mono-
 gynia order, in the pentandria class of plants,  and in the
 natural method ranking under the  29th order, campa-
 naceae.  The corolla is  campanulated,  with its  fundus
 closed up by fhe valves  thai  support theslamina; lhe
 stigma is trifid ;  the capsule inferior, or below the recepta-
 cle of the flower, opening and emitting the seeds by later-
 al pores.  Of this genus  there are  no fewer  than 78 spe-
 cies, but the following  are the most  worthy  of atten-
 tion :
   1.  Campanula canariensis, with an  orach leaf and tube-
 rous root, is a native of the Canary islands. It has a thick
 fleshy root of an irregular  form; the leaves are of a sea
 green, and when they first come out  are covered slightly
 with an ash coloured pounce; the flowers are the perfect
 bell shape, and hang downward ; they are of a flame col-
 our, marked with stripes ofa brownish red.
   2. Campanula decurrens, lhe peach leaved bell flower,
 is a native of the northern parts of Europe :  of this there
 are some with white, and some with blue flowers,  and some
 with double flowers of both colours.
  3. Campanula hybrida,  or Venus's looking-glass, seldom
 rises more  than  six inches; the branches are produced,
 which are terminated by flowers very like the speculum.
 This  was formerly cultivated in the gardens;  but  since
 the speculum has been introduced, it has almost supplant-
 ed this.                                        '
  4. Campanula latifolia, or greatest  bell flower, has a
perennial root, and several  strong,  round, single stalks.
The flowers come out singly upon short footstalks ;  their
 colours are blue, purple,  and while.
  5. Campanula  medium, the Canterbury bell flower, is a
 biennial plant, which perishes soon after i( has ripened its
 seeds.  It is well known.
  6. Campanula pyramidalis, has thick tuberous  roofs ; it
 sends out strong, smooth, upright stalks, wbich rise to (he
 height of 4 feet.  The flowers  are  produced  from  the
 sides of the stalks, and are regularly set on for more than
 half their length,  forming a sort of  pyramid.  The  most
common colour of the flowers  is  blue, though some are
white.
  7. Campanula  rapuncnlus, the rampion, has  roundish
fleshy  roots, which are eatable, and much cultivated in 
CAM
CAN
France for sallads ; some years past,  it was cultivated in
(he English  gardens  for  the  same purpose, but is  now
generally neglected.
  8. Campanula speculum, with yellow eyebright leaves,
is an annual plant with slender stalks rising a foot; from
the wings of the leaves come out the flowers sitting close
to the stalks, which are of a beautiful purple inclining to a
violet colour.
  9. Campanula trachelium, with nettle leaves, has a pe-
rennial root, and stiff hairy stalks: the flowers  are blue
and white ; some have double flowers.
  CAMPHOR.  The laurus camphoratus is a tree wbich
grows in  China, Japan, and several parts of India.
  The wood and roots being boiled with water, the cam-
phor rises with the steam, and is condensed, in straw plac-
ed  in  the capital,  &c. of the  still,  in small  glandular
crystals,  together with another sort,  apparently scraped
from the cavities of the wood, and mixed wifh sand, ashes,
&c. and purified by a second  sublimation by the English
and  Dutch chymists.  This  operation is performed  in
shallow matrasses, technically  termed bumbelois, on a
sand heat.  The camphor  melts at 360 degrees, boils and
sublimes solid and transparent.   Its vapour is so heavy,
that very  little escapes, though the mouth is open.   It  is
volatile at all temperatures, and  exhales in toto when ex-
posed.  It is crystalizable either by cooling when melted,
by sublimation at a  low heat, or from  its solvents at  an
angle of 60 degrees : hence it forms figures like those  of
ice.
  Its solvents are alcohol, acids, especially the mineral,
essential and fat oils.   From all  solvents but the two lat-
ter it is  separable, unchanged  by water.  Its specific
gravity  is 0.9887.  Hence  it just floats  on water, but
sinks readily  in spirits.  Small thin cuttings thrown  on
clean warm water are affected with a  strong rotatory  mo-
tion till an oily film has overspread the  surface, when  it
ceases.
  It is transparent as glass when pure and newly sublim-
ed, and is highly refractive.  It catches flame very readi-
ly, and emits a great deal of flame as it burns, but it leaves
no residuum.   It is so  inflammable that  it continues  to
burn even on the surface of water. When camphor is set
on fire in a large  glass globe filled with oxygen gas,  and
containing a little water, it burns with  a very bright flame,
and produces a great deal of heat.  The inner surface  of
the glass is soon covered with a black powder, which has
all the properties of charcoal, a quantity of carbonic acid
gas is evolved, the water in the globe acquires a  strong
smell, and is impregnated with carbonic acid and camphor-
ic acid.
  From an useful analysis, M. Bouillon Lagrange concludes
that camphor is composed of volatile oil and charcoal  or
carbon combined.   From  his experiments  we learn that
the ultimate ingredients of camphor are carbon and hydro-
gen, and  that the proportion of  carbon  is much greater
than in oils.
  Camphoric acid is the result of the change produced on
camphor  by distilling nitric acid several  times from  it.
It crystalizes in parallelopipeds, is efflorescent, soluble
in wafer, and volatile in a steong heat.
  CAMPHOROSMA, in botany, stinking ground pine;
3 genus ofthe tetrandria order, in the  monogynia class  of
plants, ranking in the natural method  under the 12th or-
der, holeraceae.  The calyx is pitcher shaped and indent-
ed; there is no corolla ; and the capsule contains a single
seed.  It is  reputed cephalic aud nervine ; though little
used  in  modern  practice.  It takes the name  from  if«
smell, which  bears some resemblance (o that of camphor.
There are five species.  Of these the principal is,
  Camphorosma monspeliensis, which grows by  the road
side in Languedoc, and especially about  Mon(pelier.  It
has been produced as a specific for the dropsy, and asth-
ma.
  CANAL,  a kind  of artificial river, made for (he con-
venience of water carriage.
  The Dutch, or if we can believe the relations of travel-
lers, the Chinese, who inhabit a country  vastly more ex-
tensive than that of the Dutch, have shown (he great ad-
vantages resulting from canals to a trading people.
  There are  several large canals  in France;  that of Bri-
ere, begun under  Henry IV. and finished under Lewis
XIII. establishes a communication between the Loire and
the Seine  by the Loing.   There are forty-two sluices
upon  it.  But the  greatest and  most wonderful work  of
that kind, and at the same time one of the most useful, is
the junction of the two seas, by the canal of Languedoc,
proposed under Francis I. but not finished till  (he time of
Lewis XIV.
  The operations  necessary for making artificial naviga-
tions or canals, depend on the situation of tbe ground, the
connection with rivers, and fhe ease with  which wafer can
be obtained.  When the ground is naturally level, and un-
connected with rivers,  the execution is easy, and the navi-
gation is not liable to be disturbed with floods: but when
the ground rises and falls, and cannot be reduced to a level,
artificial methods of raising  and lowering vessels must be
employed.   Temporary sluices  are  sometimes used for
raising boats  over falls or shoals in rivers by a very sim-
ple operation. Two pillars of masonry work with grooves,
are fixed, one on each bank of the river, at some  distance
below the shoal.   The boat  having  passed these posts,
planks are let down across the river by pulleys  into the
grooves, by which the water is  dammed  up to a proper
height for allowing the boat to pass up the river over the
shoal.
  The Dutch frequently make use of inclined planes or
rolling bridges upon dry land, along which their vessels
are drawn from the river below into lhe river above; this
was fhe method employed  by the ancients, and is still
used by the Chinese, who are said to be ignorant of the na-
ture and utility of locks.  These rolling  bridges consist
ofa number  of  cylindrical rollers  which turn easily on
pivots; and a mill is commonly built near at hand,so that
the same machinery may serve a double purpose of work-
ing the mill and drawing up vessels.
  Before a  canal  is undertaken,  the following circum-
stances require consideration.
  1st. Places to be benefited in point of trade.  Trade
being the grand  source from which adventurers in canal
schemes expect lo derive  their great profits, such towns,
places, &c. must be included in fhe line ofa canal, to which
the safe, expeditious, and easy conveyance of merchan-
dise, and consequent enlargement of commerce, will be of
moment.   These can be fixed upon only by an  accurate
survey and knowledge  of the country through which the
canal is intended to pass. 
CAN                   .                              CAN
  2dly. The supply of water, Sec.  It is almost needless to
mention the absolute necessity of a supply of water for a
canal,  which must be in requisite quantities in the summit,
or reservoirs, which may be supplied by the neighbouring
springs ; or if  these fail,  water must be thrown up by en-
gines from a lower  level.
  Reservoirs are large bodies of water collected together
for the use of  such parts of the canal as are likely to be
deficient; into wbich it is let by sluices, when and where
wanted.
  The quantity of water requisite for the use of a canal
depends in a great measure upon  the  quantity of trade
carried on.  A lockful of water must be  lost every time a
boat passes  through, which, in a lock whose length in the
chamber is seventy-five feet, breadth seven feet, and lift
six feet, will be 125 cubic yards of water ; which quanti-
ty, multiplied by the number of boats likely to pass through
the summit lock, will give  an idea of the waste of water.
Allowance also must be made for exhalation and accidents.
   The most eligible level is certainly that which has the
least fall and the fewest obstructions, and is best  adapted
to the  face of  the country.
   The soil most favourable for  a canal is clay; the most
unfavourable,  sand.  As  soils approach more or less to the
quality of clay or sand, in such proportion are they to be
preferred for holding water.
   Ofthe expense of execution  little can be said, as it en-
tirely  depends on the extent, the several  works, Sec. which
can  be accurately  known only by  an  actual survey  and
estimate, the total of which will of course be considered
previous to undertaking works of such magnitude.  It
may be  proper to  observe generally, that many  locks,
bridges, or aqueducts, much tunneling, unfavourable soil,
&c.  will of necessity incur great expenses.
   Lastly. The mode of  execution.   The foregoing par-
ticulars having been attended to, it becomes necessary to
enumerate the several works, useful and necessary, in the
execution of a canal.
   For the passing and repassing of boats, there  are va-
rious expedients, some of which have been noticed ; but
experience  confirms (he  use of locks, when  it becomes
necessary, by artificial means, to raise or let  down boats
from one level to another.
   A lock is  a large basin,  or, more properly, a long square
cistern,  placed lengthwise  in  a river  or canal,  enclosed
by upper and lower gates.  The lock should be lined with
walls of strong masonry on each side,  and at the bottom ;
or if wood,  stout oak piles should be used,  shod with iron,
and  lined wilh two inch and a half or three inch oak plank,
with a  floor  of the same materials, laid on oak sleepers,
dovetailed and spiked into  the upright piles.
   The use,  or locking down, is thus managed :  the lock
being full to the level  of the upper water, the gates are
(hen hhuf, including fhe  boat to be lowered.  The water
iu the  lock is drawn off; in part first, by means of the pad-
dles in the gates, and completely by the gates being open-
rd ;  when the boat, being  upon a level  with the lower
uater,  is able  lo proceed upon  its passage.   For ascend-
ing,  or locking up,  the boat being in fhe lock, the lower
rales are shut: lhe lock is then filled with the upper wa-
ler,  fii-st by the sluices,  and finally by  the  gates bem*1
opened : (bus  the vrssel  is  on  a level wilh (he upper wa-
ter, and may immediately proceed.
  In the first figure; see Plate XXIV. we have a perspec-
tive view of part of a canal,  with  a vessel within a lock,
on the upper level of the water.   The  second  figure
shows a section of an open lock, with a vessel about to
enter.   A,  B, in the  former figure,  are  flood gates;
each of which consists  of two leaves  resting upon one
another, so as to form an obluse angle, in  order to resist
the pressure of the water.  A, when shut,  prevents the
water of tbe superior canal fron falling into the lock,  and
B sustains the water in the lock.   D, in the second figure,
is the subterraneous passage by which the  water passes
from tbe upper  level into the lock when  the sluice d is
opened;  and C is the passage by which the water in the
lock is let out when  the sluice c is raised;  and thus the
vessel in the lock is brought on a level with the lower part
of the canal.
  CANARINA, in botany,  a genus of the order mono-
gynia, belonging to the hexandria  class of plants.  The
calyx is six leaved ;  corolla six cleft, bill form.   There
are 2 species.
  C ANARIUM,  in botany, a genus of the dioecia order,
in the pentandria class of plants. Its characters  are, that
it has male and female flowers ; that, in both, the calyx
has two leaves, and the corolla consists of three petals  :
the fruit is a drupa with a three cornered  nut.  There is
but one species.
  CANCER, in astronomy,  one of the 12  signs, repre-
sented on the globe in the form of a crab,  and thus ma'rk-
ed (s) in books.   It is the fourth constellation in the star-
ry zodiac.   The reason generally* assigned for its  name
as well  as figure,  is a supposed  resemblance which the
sun's motion in this sign bears lo the crab's.  As the lat-
ter is said  to walk backward, so lhe former, in this part
of his course,  begins to go backward,  or recede from us.
By others, the disposition of stars in  this sign is sup-
posed to have given the first hint to the representation of
a crab.  It gives name to  a quadrant of  the ecliptic, vis.
  Cancer,  tropic of,  in astronomy, a lesser circle of lhe
sphere parallel to  (he equator, and passing through the
beginning of the sign Cancer.
  Cancer,  in medicine, a roundish, unequal, hard, and
livid  tumour,  generally seated  in  the glandulous part
of the body,  supposed to  be so called because it appears
at length with turgid  veins shooting out from it, so as fo
resemble, as it is thought, the figure  of a crab fish ;  or,
others say, because, like that fish,  where it has once got,
it is scarcely possible to drive it away.  See Medicine.
  Cancer, in zoology, a genus of insects belonging lo (he
order of insecta aptera. The generic chai acters are these:
they have eight legs, (seldom ten or six,) besides two large
claws which answer the purpose of hands.  They have
two eyes at a considerable distance from each other, and
for the  most  part  they are supported  by  pedunculi or
footstalks : the eyes are elongated  and  moveable.  They
have two clawed palpi, and the tail is jointed.  There are
eighty-seven species  of the cancer, distinguished princi-
pally by tbe length of their (ails, and (he margin of (heir
breasts.  The following are the most remarkable :
  1. Cancer astacus,  or  tbe  craw  fish,  with a projecting
snout slightly  serrated on the sides;  a smooth thorax'";
back smooth, with two small spines on  each side ;  claws
large, beset with small tuberclrs ; (wo first pair of legs
clawed, the (wo  nex( subulated ;  (ail  consisting of fivV 
CAN
CAN
 joints ; the caudal fins rounded.   It inhabits many of the
 rivers  in England, lodging in holes which they form in the
 clayey banks.
  2. Cancer atomos,  atom lobster, with a slender body;
 filiform  antennae; three pair of legs near  the  head ; be-
 yond are three  pair of legs,  and a slender tail between the
 last pair.  It is very minute,  and the help of the micro-
 scope  is often necessary for its inspection.
  3. Cancer crangon, the shrimp, with long slender feel-
 ers,  and between them two projecting laminae;  claws with
 a single, hooked,  moveable fang. It inhabits the shores
 of Britain in vast quantities.
  4. Cancer stagnalis, is found generally in small shallow
 pools of rain water,  and is very  transparent.   The head
 of the male is armed withiangs; the tail of the female is
 furnished with a bag of eggs at the base. See Plate XXV.
 Nat. Hist. fig.  78.
  5. Cancer diogenes, soldier crab, or hermit crab, with
 rough  claws ; tbe left claw is the longest.   This  species
 is parasitic, and inhabits the empty cavities of turbinated
 shells, changing its habitation according to its increase of
 growth from the small  nerite to  the large whelk.   They
 crawl very fast with the shell on their back,  and at the
 approach of danger draw themselves within the shell, and
 thrusting out the larger claw,  will pinch very hard what-
 ever molests them.  When it wants to change its shell, it
 travels along that  line of pebbles  and shells which is form-
 ed by the extremest wave ; still, however,  dragging  its
 old incommodious habitation at its tail,  unwilling to part
 with one shell,  even though a troublesome appendage, till
 it can  find another more convenient.   It is seen stopping
 at one shell, turning it, and passing it by ;  going on  to
 another, contemplating  that for a  while, and then slipping
 its tail from its old habitation  to try on  the new : if this
 also is found  to be inconvenient,  it quickly  returns to  its
 old shell again.  It is not till after many trials, and many
 combats also,  that the soldier is completely equipped ;
 for there is often a contest between two of them for some
 well looking favourite  shell for which  they are rivals.
 When this animal is taken, it sends forth a feeble cry, en-
 deavouring to seize the enemy with its nippers ; which if
 it fastens upon, it  will sooner die than quit the grasp. See
 Plate XXVIII. Nat. Hist. fig. 110.
  6. The strigosus, or plated lobster, with a  pyramidal
 spiny snout; thorax elegantly plated,  each plate marked
 near its  junction with short striae ; only three  legs spiny
 on their sides ;  tail broad.  Tbe  largest of this species is
 about six inches long.   It inhabits the coasts of Anglesea.
 See Plate XXVIII. Nat. Hist. fig. 109.
  7. Cancer gammarus, the common lobster, inhabits the
 rocky  shores of our  island, but chiefly where there is a
 depth  of water.   In Llyn in  Caernarvonshire a  certain
 small lobster, nothing different except in size, burrows in
 the sand. Lobsters fear thunder,  and are apt to cast their
 claws on a great clap : it is said that they will do the same
 on the firing of a great gun ; and  that, when men  of war
 meet a lobster boat,  a jocular  threat is  used,  that if the
 master  does not sell them good lobsters, they will salute
 him.   This species inhabits the clearest water, at the foot
 of rocks that impend over the sea ; wbich has given op-
 portunity of examining  more closely into the natural his-
 tory of  the animal, than  of many others who live in an
element, that in a great measure limits the inquiries of the
most inquisitive.  Some lobsters are taken by liand; but
the greater quantity in pots, a sort of trap formed of twigs,
and baited with garbage.   They are  formed like  a wire
mousetrap,  so that when tbe lobster gets in, it cannot re-
turn.  Lobsters begin  to breed in spring, and continue
breeding most  part of the summer.   Dr. Baster says he
counted  12,444 eggs under the tail, besides those that re-
mained in the  body unprotruded.  They deposite those
eggs in the sand, where they are soon hatched.   Lobsters
change their shells annually. They acquire an entire new
coat in a few days; but  during the time that they remain
defenceless, they seek some very lonely place, foi fear of
being devoured by such of their brethren  as are not in the
same situation.  It is remarkable, that lobsters and crabs
renew their  claws,  when accidentally  torn off; and they
grow again in a few weeks, though  they never  attain to
the size of tbe first.  They are  very voracious animals,
and feed on sea weeds, garbage, and all sorts of dead bod-
ies.   Though the ova are cast at all seasons, they seem
only to come to life in July and August.  Great numbers
of them  may  then be  found,  in the form of tadpoles,
swimming about the little pools left by  the (ides among the
rocks, and many also under (heir proper form from half
an inch to four inches in  length.  In casting their shells,
it is hard to conceive how  the lobster is able to draw (he
flesh of their large claws out, leaving the shells entire and
attached to  the shell of  their body, in which state they
are  constantly  found.   The fishermen say, the lobster
pines before casting, till  the flesh  of  its  large claw is no
thicker than the quill of agoose,  which enables it to draw
its parts  through (he  joints and narrow passage near the
trunk.  The  new shell  is quite membranaceous at first,
but hardens by degrees.  Lobsters only grow in size while
their shells  are in their  soft state.   They are chosen ton
the  table, by  their being heavy in proportion to Iheir
size ; and by the hardness of their  shells on their sides,
which, when in perfection, will not yield to moderate pres-
sure.
  8.  Cancer granulatus,  or rough  shelled crab;  these
crabs are pretty large, and are commonly taken from the
bottom of the sea in  shallow water; the legs are small in
proportion  to  the  body;  the two claws  are remarkably
large and flat.  The whole shell  is  covered over with in-
numerable  little tubercles  like shagreen:  the colour is
brown, variously stained with purple.
  9. Cancer grapsus, or the red mottled crab, has a round
body, the legs longer and larger than in other kinds ; the
claws are red, and the rest of the  animal is mottled in a
beautiful manner with red and white.  These crabs inhab-
it the rocks  banging over the sea;  they are the nimblest
of all crabs, and run with surprising agility along the up-
right side of a rock, and even under the  rocks lhat hang
horizontally below the wafer.  This they are often oblig-
ed to do  for escaping the assaults of rapacious birds that
pursue them.
  10.  Cancer horridus, the  horrid crab,  with a project-
ing  bifurcated snout,  the end diverging; with tbe claws
and legs  covered with long and very sharp spines.   It is
a large species, and inhabits the  rocks  on the eastern
coasts.  See Plate XXVIII. Nat.  Hist. fig. 111.
  11.  Cancer locusta, the  locust lobster, with four anten-
nae ; two pair of imperfect claws ; the first joint ovaled ; the
body consists of fourteen joints.  It abounds, in summer, 
G  A N
CAN
en (he shores, beneath stones and algce, and leaps about
wilh vast agility.
   12. Cancer msenas, the common crab, with three notches
on thefront; five serrated teeth on each side; claws ovat-
ed;  next joint toothed; bind feet subulated.  It inhabits
all our shores; lurks under the algce, or burrows under the
sand.
   13. Cancer pagurus, or the black clawed crab,'with a
crenated thorax; smooth body; smooth claws and black
tips ; bind feet subulated.   It inhabits the rocky coasts ;
is very delicious meat, and casts its shell between Christ-
mas and Easter.
   14.  Cancer pisum, tbe pea crab, with  rounded and
smooth thorax, entire and blunt; with a tail of the size
of the body, which commonly is the bulk of a pea.   It
inhabits the muscle, and on that account has been deemed
poisonous;  but the swelling after eating is wholly  consti-
tutional.
   15. Cancer pulex, the flea lobster, with five pair of legs,
and  (wo claws, imperfect; and twelve joints in (he body.
I( is  very  common in founteins and  rivulets; swims
very swiftly in an incurvated posture on its  back; em-
braces and protects its young between the legs; does not
leap.
   16.  Cancer ruricola, the land crab, or  violet crab, with
a smooth entire thorax, and the two  last joints ofthe feet
armed  with spines.  It inhabits tbe Bahama islands,  as
well as  most lands  between the  tropics.   See  Plate
XXVIII. Nat. Hist. fig.  112.  These animals live not
only in  a  kind of orderly society in the retreats in tbe
mountains,  but regularly once a year march down to  the
sea side  in  a  body of some millions  at a time.  As they
multiply in  great  numbers, they choose  the  month  of
April or May to begin  their expedition; and then sally
out by thousands from the stumps of hollow trees, from
the clefts of rocks, and from the holes which they dig for
themselves  under the surface ofthe earth.  At that time
the whole ground  is  covered with this band of adventur-
ers ; there is no setting down one's foot  without treading
upon them.   The sea is their place of destination, and to
that they direct (heir march wifh right lined  precision.
No geometrician  could  send them to their destined sta-
tion by a shorter  course; Ihey neither-turn to the right
nor left, whatever obstacles intervene ; and  even if they
meet with a house, they will attempt  to scale the walls to
keep the unbroken tenor of their way.   But though this
is the  general order of their route,  they, upon other oc-
casions, are  obliged to conform to the face of the country;
and if it is  intersected wifh  rivers, they are then seen to
wind along the course of the stream.  They are often
obliged to halt  for want of rain, and to go into the most
Convenient  encampment till the weather changes.   The
main body of the army is  composed of females, which
never leave  the mountains  till the rain is set in for some
time.  The night is their chief time of proceeding;  but
if it rains by day, they do not fail to profit by tbe occasion;
and they continue to move forward in their slow uniform
manner.   When the  sun  shines and is hot upon the sur-
face of the grouud,  they make an  universal half, and wait
till the  cool  of the evening.   When they are terrified,
they march  back in a confused disorderly manner, hold-
ing up their nippers, wilh which Ihey sometimes tear off a
piece of (he skin, and then leave tbe weapon where they in-
flicted the  wound.  Tbey  even  try to intimidate their
enemies ; for they often clatter their nippers logether, as
if to threaten those (bat disturb (hem.  But though they
thus strive to be formidable to man, they are much more
so to each other; for they are possessed of one most un-
social property, which is, tha( if any of them by accident
is maimed in such a manner as to be incapable of proceed-
ing, the rest fall upon and devour it on the spot, and then
pursue their journey.   When, after a fatiguing march, and
escaping a thousand dangers, (for they are sometimes three
months in getting to the shore,) they have arrived at their
destined port,  they prepare  to cast their spawn, which
shaking off into the water, they leave accident to bring it
to maturity.  At this time shoals of hungry fish are at the
shore in expectation  of this annual supply ; the sea at a
great distance seems  black with  them; and about  two
thirds of the crabs'  eggs are immediately devoured by
these  rapacious invaders.  The  eggs that escape  are
hatched under tbe sand; and  soon after, millions at a time
of these little crabs are seen quitting the shore, and slow-
ly travelling up  to  the mountains.   This animal, when
possessed of its retreats in the mountains, is impregnable :
for, only subsisting upon vegetables, it seldom ventures,
out: and its  habitation being in  the  most inaccessible
places, it remains for a great part  of the season in perfect
security.   It is only when impelled by the desire of bring-
ing forth its young, and when  compelled to descend into
the flat country, that it is taken.  At that time, the natives
wait  for its descent  iii eager expectation, and destroy
thousands ; but disregarding their bodies, Ihey only seek
for that small spawn which lies on each side of the stom-
ach within  the  shell, of about the thickness of a man's
thumb.   They are much more valuable upon their return
after they have cast their shell; for, being covered with a
skin  resembling soff parchment, almost every part except
the stomach may be eaten.  They are taken in the holes
by feeling for them with an instrument; (hey are  sought
after by night, when on their journey, by flambeaux. The
instant the animal perceives itself to be attacked, it throws
itself on its back, and with its  claws pinches most terribly
whatever it happens to fasten on.  But the dexterous crab
catcher takes them by the hinder legs in such  a manner
lhat  (be  nippers cannot touch him, and thus  he  throws
them into his bag.  Sometimes also they are caught when
they take refuge in the bottoms of holes in rocks by the sea
side, by covering the  mouth of  the hole to prevent (heir
getting out: and (hen soon after, the tide  coming, enters
the bole, and the animal is found, upon its ebbing, drowned
in its reteeat.  These crabs are of various sizes, (he largest
about  six inches wide; (hey  walk sideways like (he  sea
crab, and are shaped like them : some are black, some yel-
low, some  red, and others variegated with red,  white, and
yellow mixed.
  The light coloured are reckoned best; and when full in
flesh, are very well tasted.
   17. Cancer serratus, or the prawn, with a long serrated
snout  bending  upward; three  pair of very long filiform
feelers; claws small, furnished with two fangs; five joints
to the tail; middle caudal fin subulated, two outmost flat
and  rounded.  It is frequent in several shores among loose
stones; sometimes found at sea, and taken on the  surface
over 30 fathoms depth of water; cinereous when fresh : of
a fine red when boiled. 
CAN                                                CAN
   18. Canr?r ^uiilp, with a snout like a pra'.vn, but deep-
er and thinner;  -h •  feelers h.nger  in proportion fo the
bulk; the ' ubcaudal fins rather larger; is, af full growth,
r. >r abo^e half the bulk of  the  former.   It  i.-ihabits the
cor^ sis of Kent;  and is  sold  in  London  under the name
of (he white  shrimp,  as it  assumes that  colour when
bo'ied.
   19. Cancer relutinup, or velvet crab,  with the thorax
quinquedentated ; body covered  with  short, brown, vel-
vet like pile ; chws covered wifh minute tubercles; small
spines  round  the top  of  the  second joint; hind  legs
broadiy ovated.  It inhabits the western  coast of  An-
glesea.
   20. Cancer volans, or sand crab, is but ofa small size ;
its colour light brown,  or dusky white.   It has eight legs,
and two claws, one of which is double the size ofthe  oth-
er ; these claws serve  both  to  defend  and feed them.
The head has two  square holes, which are receptacles
for its eyes; out of which it thrusts them, and  draws
Ihem in again at pleasure.  Their abode is only on the
sandy  shores of Ilathera,  and others  of  the  Bahama
islands.  They  run  very fast,  and  retreat  from danger
into littte holes they make in the sand.
   CANCROMA, or boat bill, in  ornithology, a genus
of birds belonging to the order of grallae; the characters
of which are: the bill is bread, with a keel along the mid-
dle ;'the nostrils are small, and lodged in a furrow; the
tongue is small; and the foes are divided. There are two
species:
   1. Cancroma  cancrophaga, or  the brown boat bill, re*
sembles  the cochlearia so much in size,  head, crest, and
every thing almost, except the colour, that Mr. Latham
considers them both as only varieties ofthe same species.
Linnseus however ranks them as distinct.  In this species
tbe under parts, instead of ash colour, are of a pale rufous
brown; the tail rufous  ash; and the  upper parts wholly
ofa cream  colour; fhe bill and legs of a yellow brown.
It inhabits Cayenne, Guiana,  and Brazil,  and chiefly fre-
quents such parts as are near the water:  in  these places
it perches on the trees which hang over the  streams,  and,
like the kingfisher, drops down on the fish which  swim be-
neath.   It  has  been thought to live  on crabs  likewise,
whence the  Linnaean name.
   2. Cancroma cochlearia, the crested boat bill, as  well
as the cancrophaga, is  of the size of a domestic fowl; the
length 22 inches.  The bill  is  four inches  long, and of
singular form, not unlike a  boat wilh the  keel uppermost,
or, as some think, like the  bowls of two spoons, placed
with lhe hollow parts together ; from the hind head springs
a long  black crest; the feathers  which compose it are
narrow, and end in a point;  the middle ones are six inches
in length, the others  lessen by degrees; the  plumage
on the forehead  white; the rest ofthe bird ofa pale  blu-
ish ash colour; across the lower part ofthe  neck behind
is a transverse band of brownish black, which passes for-
ward on each side toward the breast. Its place and man-
ners are the same with  those ofthe cancrophaga.
   CA\DIDATI Milites, an order of soldiers among
fhe Romany who served as  the emperor's body guards to
defend him in battle.
   CANDLE; a teper  of tallow, wax, or spermaceti, the
v.;*-k of which is commonly of several threads of cotton,
spun anu nrhted together.
   The machine for cutting the cotton is a  smooth bonrd
 made to be fixed on the knees; on the upper surface are
 the blade of a razor, and a round piece of cane, placed at
 a certain distance from  one another,  according  fo lhe
 length of the cotton wanted : (he cotton is carried round
 the cane, and being brought to the razor, is instantly sepa-
 rated from the several balls.
   A tallow candle,  to be good, must be half sheep's and
 half bullock's tallow, for hog's tallow makes the candle
 gutter, and always gives an offensive smell, wifh a thick
 black  smoke.  The wick ought to be pure, sufficiently
 dry, and properly twisted, otherwise the candle will emit
 an unconstant vibratory flame,  which is both prejudicial
 to the eyes and  insufficient for the distinct illumination of
 objects.
   There are two sorts of tallow candles; the one dipped,
 the other moulded ; the former are the  common candies.
 The tallow is prepared  by chopping the  fat,  and then
 boiling it for some time in a large copper; and when lhe
 tallow is extracted by the process of fire, the remainder
 is subjected to the operation of a strong iron press, and
 (he cake that is left after the tallow is expressed from it
 is called greaves: with this dogs are  fed, and (he greater
 part of the ducks that supply the London markets.  It is
 also sometimes given to pigs, but certainly without benefit-
 ing the flavour of the meat.
   When the tallow is in proper order^ the workman holds
 three of the broaches, with the cottons  properly spread,
 between his fingers, and immerses the cotton into the vat
 containing the tallow : they are then hung on a frame and
 suffered to cool; and when cold they are dipped again,
 and so the process is continued till the candles are ofthe
 proper size.  During the operation  the vat is supplied
 from time to time with fresh  tallow, which is kept to the
 proper heat by means of a gentle fire  under it.
   The mould in which the moulded candles are cast, con-
 sists ofa frame of wood, and several  hollow metal cylin-
 ders, generally made of pewter, of the  diameter and length
 of the candle wanted:  at the extremity of these is the
 neck, which is a little cavity in form of  a dome, having a
 moulding within side, and pierced in the middle, with a hole
 big enough for the cotton  to pass through.   Tbe cotlon
 is introduced into the shaft of fhe mould  by a piece of
 wire being thrust through the  aperture of the hook till it
 comes out of (he  neck :  (be other end of the cotton is so
 fastened as to keep it in a perpendicular situation, and in
 the middle of the candle ; the moulds are then filled with
 warm tallow, and left to be very cold before they can be
 drawn out of the pipes.
   Besides these, there are other candles made by tallow
 chandlers, intended to burn during lhe night without the
 necessity of snuffing : the wick has been usually made of
 split rushes; but lately very small cotton wicks have been
 substituted  for the rush :  these  are lighted  much easier,
 are less liable to go  out, and, owing to the smallness of
 the cotton, they-do not require the aid of snuffers.
   To make wax candles with the ladle. The wicks being
 prepared, a dozen of them are tied by the neck, it equal
 distances, round an iron circle, suspended  directly over
 a large  basin of  copper  tinned,  and full of melted wax :
 a large  ladleful of this wax is  poured gently on the lops
 of the wicks one after another, and the operation continu-
ed till the candle arrives at its destined bigness, with this 
CAN
CAN
 precaution, that the first three  ladles be poured on at the
 top of the wick ;  the fourth at the height of £, the fifth at
 |, and the sixth at \, in order  to give  the  candle its py-
 ramidal form.  Then the  candles are  taken down, kept
 warm, and rolled and smoothed upon a walnut tree table,
 with a long square instrument of box, smooth at the bottom.
   As to the manner of  making wax candles by tbe hand,
 they begin to soften the wax by working it several times
 in hot water, contained in a narrow but deep caldron.  A
 piece of the wax  is then taken  out,  and disposed by little
 and little around the wick, which is hung on a hook in the
 wall, by the extremity  opposite to (he neck ; so lhat they
 begin wilh  the large end, diminishing still as they descend
 toward the neck.  In other respects the  method is nearly
 the same as in the former case.  However, it must be ob-
 served, that in the former case  water is always used to
 moisten the several instruments, to prevent  the wax from
 slicking; and in the latter, oil of olives, or lard for the
 hands, &c.   The cylindrical wax candles are either made
 as the  former, with a ladle, or drawn.   Wax candles, or
 tapers  drawn, are  so  called because  they are actually
 drawn in the manner of wire, by means of two large roll-
 ers of wood turned  by a handle,  which turning backward
 and forward  several times, pass (he wick through melted
 wax contained  in a brass basin, and at (he same (ime
 through (he holes of an instrument like  that used for draw-
 ing wire, fastened on one side ofthe basin.
   A patent has very lately been  obtained for making can-
 dles with hollow cylindrical wicks upon the principle of
 the Argand lamp.  See Lamp.
   Tallow chandlers and wax chandlers are, by 24 Geo. III.
 s.2. c.4I. to take out annual licenses.  They shall not use
 melting  houses  without making a true entry, on pain of
 1002. and are  to give notice of making candles to the excise
 officer for the duties, and of the number, &c.  or forfeit 50/.
   Candle.   Sale or auction by inch of candle, is when a
 small piece of candle being lighted, the bystanders are al-
 lowed to bid  for  the merchandise fhat  is selling; but the
 moment the candle  is out,  the  commodity is adjudged to
 the last bidder.
   CANELLA,  in  botany, a genus of the monogynia or-
 der, in the dodecandria class of plants, and in the natural
 method ranking under  the 12th order, holeracese.  The
 calyx is three lobed; the petals are five; the  antherae
 sixteen, growing  to an urceolated or bladder shaped nec-
 tarium ;  and the fruit is  a trilocular berry, wilh two seeds.
 There is but one species, vis.
   Canella alba.   It grows usually about 20 feet high, and
 8 or 10 inches in thickness, in most of the Bahama islands.
 The bark is a warm stomachic.
   CANDY, or  Sugar  Candy,  a  preparation of sugar,
 made by melting and crystalizing it six or seven times
 over, lo render it hard and  transparent.  See Sugar.
   CANE, canna.  See Arundo.  It is also lhe name of
 a long measure, which  differs according  to the  several
 countries where it  is used.
   At Naples, the cane is equal  to 7 feet 3 inches English
 measure; the  cane of Thoulouse,  and the upper Langue-
 doc, is equal lo the varre of Arragon, and contains 5 feet
 8|  inches;  at Mon(pelier,  Provence, Dauphine,  and (he
 lower Languedoc,  (o 6 English feet 5~ inches.
  CANES  venalici, in astronomy,  (he greyhounds, two
new constellations first established by Hevelius, between
  vol. i.            57
 fhe tail of the Great Bear and Bootes's arms, above the
 Coma Berenices.  The first, vis. that nearest lhe Bear'>
 tail, is called asterion;  the other cbara.   They compre-
 hend 23 stars, two only of which were observed by Ty-
 cho.  In the British catalogue they are 25.
   CANINE teeth,in anatomy, are two sharp edged teeth
 in each jaw, one on each side, placed between the intiso-
 res  and molares.
   CANIS, dog, in zoology, the name of a comprehensive
 genus of quadrupeds, of the order of the terse.   The gen-
 eric character is, cutting teeth in the upper jaw, six ;  the
 lateral ones longer, distant; tbe intermediate ones lobated.
 In  the lower jaw six; the lateral ones lobated.  Canine
 teeth solitary, incurvated. Grinders six or seven, or more
 than in other genera of this order.   There are 24 species.
   1st. Canis familiaris, or common dog.  The real origin
 of this species is in a stale of uncertainty : wild dogs ap-
 pear to be found in great troops in Congo, lower Ethiopia,
 and toward the  Cape of Good Hope.  They  are said  to
 be  red  haired,  with slender  bodies and turned up tails,
 like greyhounds.  It is also added that Ihey vary in col-
 our, have upright  ears,  and are of (he general size of a
 large fox hound.  They  destroy cattle, and  hunt down
 antelopes and many olher animals, and commit great  rav-
 ages among the sheep  of the Hottentots.   They are
 very seldom to  be taken, being extremely svvifl as well as
 fierce.  The young are  said  to be sometimes obtained,
 but grow so  fierce as to be rendered domestic with great
 difficulty.
   It is not, however, allowed  by  modern naturalists  that
 these wild  dogs constitute fhe  true or real species in a
 state of  nature, but that they are rather the descendants
 of dogs once domesticated, and which have relapsed into
 a slate resembling that of primitive wildness ; and a theory
 has  for some time  prevailed,  that  the wolf is in reality
 the  slock or original from which the dog has proceeded.
 If, however,  the origin ofthe dog must be traced to some
 other animal, the jackal seems a more  probable  origin
 than the wolf.   It is generally believed that lhe dog was
 unknown in America on the arrival of Europeans.
   That  which is supposed by Buffon to approach  most
 nearly to the original animal, is known by the name of the
 shepherd's dog.  This is distinguished by its upright ears,
 and  tail  remarkably villose beneath.  In the Alpine re-
 gions, as well as in some other parts of Europe, this dog
 is much larger and stronger than in England.   Its princi-
 pal use is as a guard to the flock, which it  prevents from
 straggling, and defends from all attacks.
  The dingo, or New Holland dog, approaches in appear-
 ance to  the  largest  kind of shepherd's dog.   The ears
 are  short  and  erect;  the tail rather bushy; the  hair,
 which is of  a reddish  dun colour, is  long, (hick,  and
 straight.   This dog  is  capable of  barking, though not so
 readily as the European dogs : it  is extremely fierce, and
 has  the same sort of snarling  and  howling voice as the
 larger dogs in general.   By some it has been erroneously
 said  neither to bark nor growl.  Those which have been
 brought over to Europe were of a savage and  untractable
 disposition.
  The Pomeranian dog  is distinguished by upright ears,
 long hair on the head, and  an extremely curved tail, so as
 to form almost a  circle.  This  dog is generally of a white
colour. 
CANIS.
  The Siberian J?°? « nearly allied to the preceding, and
may be subdivided  into several races,  differing  as to
strength and size.   The Siberian usgs are principally used
in that country and  in Kamtschatka  for drawing sledges
over  the  frozen  snow in winter.  When yoking to the
sledge, they set up a dismal yell, which ceases on begin-
ning the journey, and then gives place to silent subtlety,
and a  perpetual endeavour to weary  out the patience of
the driver by wayward tricks and contrivances.
  The Iceland dog  seems  to differ but slightly from the
preceding kind.  It  has a shortish muzzle,  upright ears,
wifh  flaccid tips, and is covered with long roughish hair.
its  general colour is blackish : the breast, legs, and tip of
the tail often white.
  The water dog is  distinguished  by its curly hair, like
wool.  It is remarkable for its great attachment to the water,
swims with great ease, and is used in  hunting ducks, and
other aquatic birds. Its feet are commonly said to approach
more  to a  webbed  form  than  those of most other dogs.
  The great water spaniel  is also distinguished in a simi-
lar  manner by its  curled hair,  and i(s propensity to the
wafer.  There is a smaller variety of the water dog, called
lhe little barbet, which, in general appearance, extreme-
ly resembles the larger.
  The Newfoundland dog is of a very large size, and from
its strength and docility, is one of those which are best
calculated for the security of a house.   This animal is re-
markably fond  of plunging  into the water.  See  Plate
 XXVI. Nat. Hist. fig. 85.
   King Charles's dog is one  of fhe most elegant varieties
 of  lhe dog,  and it is recorded  that king Charles the Sec-
 ond  hardly  ever walked  out without being attended by
 some  of this breed.  Il is  in  some  degree allied (o the
 small water spaniel, and is generally black, with the roof
 of  (he mouth of the same colour.
   The Maltese dog is also a very small kind of spaniel,
 generally of a white colour.
   The hound admits of some varieties.   The old English
 hound is distinguished by ifs great size and strength.  Ils
 power of smelling is exquisite,  and it is said to be able to
 distinguish  the scent an  hour after  the lighter beagles
 have given it up.  These dogs are said to have been once
 very common in every part of  England,  and to have been
 much larger than at present, the breed having,  as it should
 seem, been gradually suffered  to decline.
   The bloodhound  is a very large dog, taller and more
 beautifully formed than the old English hound, and supe-
 rior to most others in speed, strength, and sagacity.  The
 bloodhound was in much esteem with our  ancestors  for
 the pursuit of robbers, &c.  It was  mostly of a reddish
 or brown colour.   "  A person of quality," says Mr. Boyle,
 " to make a trial whether a young bloodhound was well in-
 structed, caused one of his  servants to walk to a town
 four miles off,  and then fo a market town three miles from
 (hence.  The dog,  without seeing whom he was to pursue,
 followed him by the scent to the above mentioned places,
 notwithstanding the  multitude of market people that went
 along the  same way, and of travellers that had  occasion
 to  cross it;  and when tbe bloodhound came to fhe chief
 market (own, he passed (hrough the streets without taking
 notice of any of the people there, nor did be stop till he
 had  gone  to the house where (he man he sought  rested
 himself, and found  him in an upper room, to the wonder
 of  those that followed him."
  The pointer is employed principally in finding partridgei
and other game.  The  large pointer, commonly termed
the Spanish pointer, is supposed to distinguish itself by a
greater degree of docility than the English pointer,  but ii
not able to undergo the fatigues of the field so well.
  The Dalmatian,  or coach dog, is  an  animal of great
beauty.  Its native country seems uncertain.  Mr. Pen-
nant,  however, informs  us that Dalmatia  is the country of
this elegant dog.  It is white, and beautifully marked with
numerous black spots.    See Plate XXVI. Nat.  Hist
fig. 88.
  The Irish greyhound is supposed to be  the largest of all
the dog kind, as  well as the most beautiful  and majestic
in its  appearance.   It is only (o be found in  Ireland, and
even  there is become extremely rare.
  The common greyhound is remarkable for the slender-
ness of its shape,  the length of its snout,  and the extreme
swiftness of its course.  The greyhound wants the faculty
of quick scent, and follows his prey  merely by the eye.
The Italian greyhound is a small  and  beautiful variety of
the former.  See Plate XXVI. Nat. Hist. fig. 89.
  The naked dog is naturally divested of  hair, and is sun-
posed to have originated in some very warm  climate.
   The mastiff  is of a very strong and thick  form, with a
large  head, a  bold countenance,  and large lips hanging
down on each side.  Dr. Caius, who lived in the reign of
Elizabeth, and who described the several varieties of En-
glish  dogs, tells us  (hat  three  mastiffs were reckoned a
match for a bear, and four for a lion ; but from an experi-
ment  made in lhe Tower in the reign of James the  First,
a lion was found an  unequal match to only three.  Two of
the dogs were disabled by  the  combat, but the third
forced the  lion to  seek  for safety by flight.  See Plate
XXVI. Naf. Hist.  fig. 86.
   The bull dog is a kind of mastiffon a smaller scale, with
a somewhat flatter snout, and a greater ferocity of aspect.
The bull dog is remarkable for the undaunted and savage
pertinacity with which it provokes and continues the fight,
and when it has fixed its bite, is with extreme difficulty
disengaged from its antagonist.  The pug dog is a  small
and innocent resemblance of the former, and  is in some
countries considered as a kind of lap dog.  See  Plate
XXVI. Nat. Hist.  fig. 87.
  The terrier is generally an attendant on every pack of
hounds,  and is  very expert in forcing  foxes or other game
out of their coverts. It  is the determined enemy of all
tbe vermin kind ; such as weasels, fouBtoril?badgers, rats/
mice, Sec.
  The turnspit is a breed very much on the decline  in En-
gland, though  still used in some other countries.   It  is a
long  bodied, short  legged  dog,  with crooked or  bowed
knees, and is commonly  of a dusky  gray,  spotted with
black.  To these we may add the alee, or Peruvian dog,
and several mixed breeds from the above.
  2d. Canis lupus,  or wolf, is distinguished  from the  dog
by his superior size, stronger limbs, more muscular body,
and greater breadth of the upper part of the face, while
the whole form of it is longer :  the tail also,  which in tbe
dog is pretty uniformly turned a  little toward one side,
generally the left,  in the wolf has an inward  direction;
it is rather long and  bushy.  The wolf is a native of almost
all  the temperate  and  cold regions of tbe  globe.  It is
found in  most countries of Europe, but  has been totally
extirpated from England, as well as from Ireland. 
CAMS.
   The general colour of the  wolf is a  pale gray, with a
 cast of yellowish, but it varies much as to the shades or
 gradations of colour in different parte of the world.
   The wolf is sometimes affected with madness, attended
 wilh similar appearances lo those exhibited in  (hat state
 by the dog, and productive ofthe same symptoms in con-
 sequence of its bite : this disease is said to happen to them
 in the depth of winter, and therefore, as Mr. Pennant ob-
 serves, can never be a( (ributed to the rage of the dog days.
 Wolves  in the  northern parts of the world sometimes,
 during the spring, get  on  the ice of the sea, in order to
 prey on  young 6eals, which  they catch asleep; but this
 repast sometimes proves fatal to them, for the ice, detach-
 ed from  the shore, carries  them to a great distance from
 the land before  they are sensible of it.   It is said that in
 some  years a large district is by this means delivered from
 these pernicious beasts, which are heard howling in a most
 dreadful manner far in (he sea.
   The (ime of ges(a(ion in the wolf is, according to Buffon,
 about (hree months and a half; and the young whelps are
 found from April (o July;  and (his  difference in the time
 of gestation,  which in the wolf is 100 days,  and in the dog
 only  60,  he considers justly  as a proof of lhe real  differ-
 ence  between the two species.  See Plate XXVI. Nat.
 Hist. fig. 84.
   3d. Canis Mexicanus, or Mexican wolf, appears to have
 been  first described by Hernandez, in his account of
 Mexico.   In its general appearance it resembles the com-
 mon wolf, but has a head  (wice as large, a (bicker neck,
 and a less  bushy tail:  (he colour of (he body is cinere-
 ous, marked  with  some yellow spots.  Above the mouth
 are situated  several bristles  as large, but not so stiff, as
 those  ofthe hedgehog; the  ears are gray, like tbe head
 and body; there is  a  long  yellow spot on  the  neck,
 another  on the  breast,  and a third on the belly; on the
 flanks are transverse bands from the back to the belly; the
 tail is  gray, with a yellow spot in the middle; the legs are
 barred with gray and brown.
   4th. Canis lycaon, or black wolf.  Like the common
 wolf, it is found  both in Europe ajid America, as well as in
 tome parts of Asia.  It  bears a great general resemblance
 to the common species, but is smaller, entirely black, with a
 somewhat thinner or less bushy tail hanging nearly straight;
 the ears are  larger  in  proportion than those ofthe com-
 mon wolf, and the eyes smaller, and situated at a greater
 distance from each other.  In America tbe black wolf is
 chief!j' found  in  Canada, and in Europe occurs only in the
 more  northern regions.
   5th. Canis hya?na, is a nalive of many parts of Asia and
 Africa, being found in Syria, Persia, Barbary, Senegal,
 &c.  Its  general  size is  that  of a large dog,  but it is
 distinguished  by great  strength of  limbs,  and  by a re-
 markable fulness or thickness of the snout.   Its colour is
 a pale grayish brown, accompanied by a tawny  cast, and
 the whole body is marked  by several  distant  blackish
 transverse bands running from the back downward. On all
 the feet are four  toes,   Hyaenas generally inhabit caverns
 and rocky places : they  prowl about chiefly by night, and
feed on the remains of dead animals  as well  as  on  living
prey.  They are even said to devour the bodies which Ihey
occasionally find in cemeteries.   They attack cattle, and
frequently commit great devastation among the  flocks.
                  57*
Though  not  gregarious  from any social principle, fhey
sometimes assemble in troops, and follow with dreadful as-
siduity the movements of an army, through the hope of
feasting  on  the  slaughtered  bodies.  See Plate XX\ I.
Nat. Hist. fig. 79.
   There is something in  the aspect ofthe hyaena which
seems to indicate a peculiar gloominess and malignity of
disposition; and  its manners in a state of captivity seem
in general to correspond with its appearance, being  savage
and untractable.  It has even been supposed that the hy-
aena cannot be tamed; but this  opinion  is  proved io be
erroneous from two  instances at least;  one of which is
recorded by Mr.  Pennant, who declares that he saw a hy-
ena which had been rendered as tame as a dog; t he other
by the Count de Buffon, who assures us that in an exhibi-
tion of animals at Paris, in the year 1773, there was a hy-
aena which had been lamed very early, and was apparently
divested of all ils natural malevolence of disposition.
   6th. Canis crocuta, or spotted hyaena,  resembles the
former, but is superior in size, and is readily*distinguish-
ed by being marked all over the body and legs with nu-
merous roundish black spots.  It is an African animal, and
is found in Guinea, Ethiopia, and about the Cape of Good
Hope.
   7th. Canis aureus, or jackal, is a native of (he warmer
regions of Asia and  Africa, and appears to be no  where
more common than in Barbary.   It is about the size ofa
middling dog, and is of a pale or light orange yellow, with
darker or blackish  shades about the back  and legs: the
tail hangs straight, is ra(her bushy, and is commonly black
at (he (ip.   The  jackal  resides  in rocky places,  and in
woods, and makes  its  principal  excursions during the
night,  preying indiscriminately on all the weaker  animals.
It also occasionally  devours various vegetables.  The
voice of the jackal is described as peculiarly hideous, con-
sisting of a kind of mixture of howling and indistinct bark-
ing.   These animals frequently go in great troops to hunt
their prey, and by their dreadful yellings alarm and put lo
flight deer, antelopes, and other timid quadrupeds ; while
the lion,  instinctively attending to the clamour,  is said to
follow till the jackals have hunted down the prey, and,
having satiated himself,  leaves only tbe mangled remains
to be devoured by the jackals.
   When taken young the jackal is easily tamed, attaches
itself to mankind,  distinguishes its master, comes on being
called by its name, shows an attachment  to dogs,.instead
of flying from them,  and has all the other particularities of
character by which the dog is distinguished.  See Plate
XXVI. Nat. Hist. fig. 82.
   8th. Canis mesomelas, or cape jackal, is said to be not
uncommon about the  Cape of Good Hope,  and is by some
confounded with the jackal, to which, indeed, it seems to
be very nearly allied. The head is yellowish brown, with
a mixture of black and white hairs: the nape of the neck
and the whole length of the back black, with a mixture of
white.   The general colour of the animal is bright foxv or
ferruginous : the tail is not unlike that of a fox, but rather
less bushy.  The length of this animal is two  feet and
three quarters, exclusive ofthe tail, which  measures one
foot.
  9th. Canis Barbarus, Barbary jackal, has a long slender
nose, sharp upright ears, and a long bushy tail. Its  colour 
CANIS.
is a very pale brown :  from behind each ear runs a black
line, which soon divides into I wo, running downward along
the neck.   It is of the size of the common  fox,  but the
limbs seemingly shorter, and the nose more slender.
   10th. Canis Ceilonicus,  Ceylonese dog, is a native  of
Ceylon, but no particulars relative to its manners or histo-
ry are known.   It is a little larger than a common domes-
tic cat, measuring  about twenty-two inches  from nose to.
tail; the tail  itself  sixteen inches,  gradually tapering to
the point.  The claws of this animal resemble those of a
cat more than of a dog,  though not so long and slight in
proportion.  Both fore and hind feet have five toes.
   11th. Canis vulpes, or fox, like the wolf, appears to be
pretty generally diffused throughout all the northern and
temperate parte of the globe; occurring with numerous va-
rieties, as to shades of colour and gradations of size,  in
most parts of Europe, the  north of Asia,  andA merica.
See Plate XXVI. Nat. Hist. fig. 83.
   In the northern climates are foxes of all colours, black,
blue,  gray, iron  colour,  silver gray,  white with yellow
feet, white with black heads, white wilh the extremity of
the tail black, reddish, with the throat and belly entirely
white, and, lastly, some have a black line along the back,
and crossed with  another  over the shoulders :  the latter
are larger than (he o(her kinds,  and have black (hroats.
   The  fox prepares for himself a convenient den or re-
ceptacle in which he lies concealed  during  the greater
part of the day.  This den is  sometimes said to be ob-
tained by dispossessing the badger of its hole, and appro-
priating it to his own purposes.  It is so contrived as  to
afford  the best security to the inhabitant, by being situat-
ed under hard ground, (he roots of trees, &c. and  is  be-
sides furnished with proper outlets through which he may
escape in case of necessity.
   The fox attempts his prey by cunning rather than by
force : his scent is exquisite, so that  he can perceive his
prey or his enemies at the distance of 2 or 300 paces: he
has the habit of  killing more  than he eats, and hiding
the remainder under grass, the roots of trees, &c.  His
voice  is a sharp,  quick yell, often ending  in  a higher,
stronger, and screaming kind of  note, not unlike that ofthe
peacock.
   The fox produces  five or six young at a time; and if
ihey are discovered  or disturbed, the female will carry
(hem  in her mou(h,  one at a time, to some more secret
retreat; in (his respect imitating the conduct of lhe cat and
dog, which are known to do the same.
   12fh. Canis alopex, bran( fox, is  less than the common
fox, and has a thicker and darker fur, though sometimes,
on (he contrary, it is  much brighter and redder than that
species, as mentioned by Linnaeus in his Fauna Suecica:
the tail is tipped with black.
   13th. Canis corsac, or corsac  fox.  The colour of this
species is,  in summer, a clear yellow ferruginous ; in win-
ter mixed or shaded with gray,  deeper on the back, white
on the belly, and reddish on the feet: the eyes are sur-
rounded with a border of white; and a brownish stripe
runs from them down the nose.   The size of this animal is
less than that of (he common fox.
   14th. Canis Karagan, or Karagan fox.   This is a small
species, which, according to Dr. Pallas, is very  common
in almost all parts of  the Kirghisian  deserts and Great
Tartary.   Its  general  colour  is a wolf gray ; the head
yellowish, and  above the eyes  reddish :  the throat and
breast are of a deep or blackish gray, (he belly white.
  15th. Canis  cinereo argenleus, or fulvous necked  fox
inhabits North  America, and the skins are often sent over
to Europe.  Tbe crown of (he head, neck, and back, are
gray, mixed with black and while :  the finer hairs being
white gray, the  coarser varied with black and white like
a porcupine's quill.   In size this species is inferior to the
common fox.
  16th. Canis  Virginianus, or Virginian  fox, resembles
the common fox in shape:  has a  sharp nose, long, sharp
upright ears, long legs, and a bushy tail :  its colour  is  a
whitish gray, with a  cast of red about the  ears.  It in-
habits  the  warmer parts of North America,  particularly
Carolina and Virginia.  It  is said never to burrow under
ground  like the common fox, but to inhabit hollow trees:
it is destitute of the strong smell of tbe common fox, is ea-
sily tamed, and is said to prey chiefly on poultry, birds, &c.
  17th. Canis argentatus, silvery  fox, resembles the com-
mon fox.   It is ofa deep brown colour, with the longeror
exterior hairs of a silvery white,  giving a highly elegant
appearance 'o  the animal.  It  is  an inhabitant ofthe for-
ests of Louisiana, and  preys on game.
  18th. Canis lagopus, arctic fox, is inferior in size to the
common fox.   Its colour is a bluish  gray, which some-
times changes  to perfect  white: when young it is said
to  be  of a dusky colour.  They  inhabit  Spitzbergen,
Greenland, and Iceland; and are only migratory  in Hud-
son's Bay, once in  four or five years.  They are the
hardiest of animals,   and even in Spitzbergen and Nova
Zembla prowl  for prey during  the  severity of winter.
They live on the young wild geese, and all kinds of water
fowl, or on  their eggs ; on hares or any lesser animals; and
in Greenland, through necessity, on berries, shell fish, or
whatsoever the  sea   throws up.   Tbey  swim well,  and
offen cross from island to island  in search of prey.  The
Greenlanders take them either in pitfalls dug in the snow,
and baited  with the capelin fish, or in springs made with
whalebone  laid over  a hole made in the snow, strew-
ed  over at bottom wifh fhe  same  kind  of fish; or in
traps made like little huts, wifh flat stones,  with a broad
one  by way of door,  which falls down,  by means of a
string baited on the inside with a piece of flesh, whenever
lhe fox  enters  and pulls at if.   The  Greenlanders  pre-
serve (he skin for traffic ; and, in cases of necessity, eat the
flesh. They also make buttons ofthe skins;  and split the
tendons, which tbey use instead of thread. The blue furs
are much more esteemed than the white. See Plate XXV.
Nat. Hist.  fig. 80.
  19th. Canis culpaeus, Chili fox, is  supposed  to be  a
variety of (be antarctic  fox.   Ifs length from nose (o
tail is  two feet and a half; its  colour a deep brown.  It
inhabits the open countries of Chili, in which it forms its
burrows.
  20th. Canis thous, or Surinam dog, seems to have been
unknown to other naturalists.   Linnaeus  slates only  that
the body is gray, entirely white beneath; that it is ofthe
size of a large cat, and has upright ears ofthe same colour
with the body ;  a verruca or wart above lhe eyes, on each
cheek, and beneath   the throat; and that the tongue  is
ciliated at the edges. 
CAN
CAN
   21st. Canis Bengalensis, Bengal fox, is scarcely half
 the size of the European fox.  The face is cinereous, the
 body pale brown, the legs fulvous, the tail tipped with
 black, and down the middle ofthe face runs a black stripe.
 The spaces round the eyes and the  middle of the jaws
 are while.  It is said to feed chiefly on roots and berries.
   22d. Canis fuliginosus, sooty fox, in size and habit re-
 sembles the  arctic fox,  but is a distinct  species.  It is
 said to be numerous in Iceland.
   23d. Canis antarcticus, antarctic fox, is about  a  third
 part superior in  size to  the arctic fox, and  has pretty
 much  the habit ofa wolf in its ears, tail, and strength of
 limbs.  It is a native of the Falkland isles, and is said to
 be almost the only land quadruped of those distant spots.
 It resides near (he  shores; kennels like a fox, and forms
 regular pa(hs from bay (o bay, probably for (he conveni-
 ence of surprising water fowl, on which it principally lives.
 Il is a (ame, fetid animal,  and barks  in the manner of a
 dog.
   24th. Canis zerda, the Fennec, or zerda, is a beautiful
 African and Asiatic animal, and is principally found in Ara-
 bia.    Its general length is about ten inches, and its colour
 yellowish white.   The ears, which are uncommonly large,
 are internally of a bright rose colour, edged with a broad
 margin of white hair, and the tip of the  tail is black.  It
 inhabits the  vast deserts of Zaara, which extend beyond
 mount Atlas; it  burrows in sandy ground, which shows
 the  use of valves to lhe ears.  It is so exceedingly swift
 that it is  very rarely taken alive ; feeds on insects, es-
 pecially locusts ; sits on its  rump; is very vigilant,  and
 barks  like a dog, but much shriller.
   Canis major, in astronomy, a constellation ofthe south-
 ern hemisphere, consisting of 28 stars, according to Ptole-
 my; of 13, according to Tycho; and 32 in the Britannic
 catalogue.
   Canir minor, Caniculus, or CAtricuLA,in astronomy,
 a constellation ofthe northern hemisphere. In Ptolemy's
 catalogue, the canis minor comprehends two stars; in that
 of Tycho, five ;  and in the Britannic catalogue, 15.
   CANNA, Indian flowering reed; a genus of the mono-
 gynia  order, in the monandria class of plants ; and in the
 natural method ranking under the 8th order, scitaminse.
 The corolla is erect, and divided into six parfs, with a dis-
 tinct  lip,  bipartite, and  rolled back ; tbe  style lanceo-
 late, and growing to the corolla; the calyx is triphyllous.
 There are five species, vis.
   1. Canna  coccinea, has  larger  leaves than any of the
 other four species, and fhe stalks rise  much higher.  The
 flowers are produced in large  spikes,  and are of a bright
 crimson or rather scarlet colour.
  2. Canna  glauca, wifh a very large yellow flower, is a
 native of South America.
  3. Canna Indica, or common broad  leaved flowering
 cane.
  4. Canna latifolia, with a pale red flower, is a native of
 Carolina, and some  other northern  provinces of America.
  5. Canna  lutea, with* obtuse oval leaves, is less common
 in  America (han  (he other sorts.   All these plants must
 always be kept in pots of rich earth, to be moved to  shel-
 ter in winter.
  CANNABIS,  hemp, in botany, a genus of the  dioecia
pentandria class of plants, and in the natural method rank-
ing under the 53d order, scabridse.  The calyx ofthe male
 is quinquepartite, wi(h  no corolla.   In (he female  fhe
 calyx is monophyllous,  en(ire, and  gaping a(  the side;
 there is no corolla, but two styles; tbe fruit is a nut, bi-
 valved, within the closed calyx.  Of this there is but one
 species, vis.
   Cannabis sativa.  It is  propagated in  the rich fenny
 parts of Lincolnshire in great quantities for its bark, which
 is useful for cordage, cloth, &c. and the seeds abound with
 oil.  Hemp is always  sown on a deep, moist, rich soil,
 such as is found in Holland, Lincolnshire, and the fens of
 the island of Ely, where  it is cultivated (o  great advan-
 tage, as it might be in many other parts of England where
 there is a soil of the  same kind ; but it  will  not thrive on
 clayey or stiff cold land.   The ground on which hemp is
 to be sown should be well ploughed, and made very fine
 by harrowing.  About the middle of April (be seed may
 be sown; (hree  bushels  are (he usual allowance for an
 acre, but two are sufficient.  In tbe choice of the seed, the
 heaviest and brightest coloured should be preferred;  and
 particular care should be had  to the kernel of  the seed.
 For lhe greater certainty in this matter, some of the seeds
 should be cracked lo see whether they have the germ or
 future plant perfect; for, in some places, the male plants
 are drawn out loo soon from the female, i.e. before they
 have impregnated the female  plants wilh (be farina; in
 which case, (hough (he seeds produced by  (bese females
 may seem good (o (he eye, yet they will not grow. When
 (he plants are come up, they should be hoed ou(  in (he
 same manner as turnips, leaving them (wo feet apart; ob-
 serve also to cut down  all the  weeds,  which, if well per-
 formed,  and in dry weather,  will destroy   them.  This
 crop, however, will require  a second hoeing, in about  six
 weeks  after the first; and, if Ihis is well performed, the
 crop will require no further care.  The first season  for
 pulling hemp is usually about the middle of August, when
 tbey begin lo pull what they call the simple hemp, being
 that which  is composed ofthe male plants; but it would
 be much better to defer (his for a fortnight or three weeks
 longer, until those male plants  have fully shed (heir farina
 or dus(, wi(hou(  which (he seeds will  prove only emp(y
 husks.  These male planfs decay soon after (bey have
 shed (heir farina.  The second pulling is  a  lidle after
 Michaelmas,  when  (he seeds  are ripe. This is  usually
 called karle hemp, and consists of the female planfs which
 were  left.   This karle  hemp is  bound in  bundles ofa
yard compass, according to the statute measure, which are
 laid in the sun for a few days to dry; and then it is stack-
 ed up or housed (o keep it dry till the seed can be thresh-
 ed out.   An acre of hemp, on a rich  soil,  will produce
 nearly three quarters  of  seed,  which,  together with lhe
 unwrought  hemp, are worth from 6/. to 8/.   Hemp is  es-
 teemed very effectual for destroying  weeds; but (bis it
 accomplishes by impoverishing (he ground,  and  thus rob-
 bing them of their nourishment;  so that a crop of it must
 not be repeated on tbe same spot.
   CANNEL COAL.   See Ampf.litf.s.
   CANNON,  in the military art,  an engine or kind of
 fire arms for  throwing iron,  lead, or stone bullets, by  the
 force of gunpowder.
   Cannons at first were called bombardae, from the noise
 they made.  They had  likewise the  name of cnlverin,
 basilisk, &c. from the beasts lhat were represented upon
 them ; and the Spaniards, from devotion,  gave them (he 
CAN
CAN
name of saints ; witness the twelve apostles which Charles
V. ordered  fo be  cast at Malaga, for his expedition to
Tunis.
   The most remarkable parts about a cannon are the cas-
cabel,  mouldings,  base  ring, touch-hole, vent ring,  rein-
forced ring, trunnions, dolphins,  trunnion ring, cornish
ring, neck, muzzle, face, and chase or cylinder.
   The metal of wbich brass cannon is  made is in a  man-
ner kept a secret by the founders ; yet, with all their art
and secrecy, fhey have not hitherto found out a composi-
tion that will stand a bot engagement without melting, or
being rendered useless.  Those cast  at Woolwich bid
fairest toward this amendment.  The respective quanti-
ties  which should enter into Ihis composition, is a point
not  decided; every  founder has  his  own  proportions,
which are peculiar to  himself. The most common propor-
tions of the ingredients are the following, vis.  To 2401b.
of metal fit for casting, they  put 68lb. of copper, 521b. of
brass, and 121b. of tin.  To  42001b. of metal fit for  cast-
ing,  tbe Germans  put 3687£f lb. of copper, 204||lb. of
brass, and 307|4lb.  of tin.   Others again use 1001b. of
copper, 6lb. of brass, and 9lb.  of tin :  and lastly, others
1001b. of copper, 101b. of brass, and 15lb. of tin.  With
respect to iron guns, their structure is the same as that of
the others, and they  generally  stand the most severe en-
gagements, being frequently used on ship board.  Sever-
al experiments have  taught  us that the Swedish  iron
guns are preferable to all others.
   Cannons are distinguished by the diameters of the balls
they carry.   The rule for their length is, that it be  such
as that the whole charge of powder be  on fire before the
ball quits  the piece.   If it be too long, tbe quantity of air
to be driven out before the ball, will give too much resist-
ance to the impulse ;  and that impulse  ceasing, tbe fric-
tion ofthe ball against the surface of the piece will take
off from the motion.
   In former days, cannon were made much longer  than
they are  now; but experience has taught us, that a ball
moves with  a greater impetus through a less space than a
greater: and accordingly  it is found  that  an iron ball of
48 pounds weight goes further  from  a  short cannon than
another ball of 96 pounds out of a longer piece ; whereas,
in olher respects, il is certain, the larger the bore and ball,
the greater the range.  But for the range ofa cannon, see
Projectile.  It  is  found, too,  by experience,  that of
two cannons of equal bore, but different lengths, the  long-
er requires a greater  charge  of powder than tbe shorter.
The ordinary  charge of a  cannon is,  for the  weight of its
gunpowder to be half that of its ball.  See Founding.
   CANON, in an  ecclesiastical sense, a law, rule, or reg-
ulation, of the policy and discipline ofa church, made by
councils, either general, national, or provincial.
   Canons of  the apostles, a collection of ecclesiastical
laws, which, though very ancient, were not left us by fhe
apostles.  It is true, they were  sometimes called apostol-
ic canons; but this means no more than lhat they  were
made by bishops who  lived soon  after the apostles, and
were called apostolical men.  They consist of regulations,
which agree with  lhe discipline of (he  second and (hird
centuries.   The Greeks generally count eighty-five, but
the La(ins receive only fif(y,  nor  do they observe all
these.
   Canon  of mass, in the Romish church, the name ofa
prayer which the priest reads low to himself, the people
kneeling.
  Canon, in arithmetic, algebra, &c. is a rule to solve all
things ofthe same nature with the present inquiry; thus,
every last step of an equation in algebra, is such a  canon ;
and, if turned into words, is a rule to solve all questions of
the same nature with that  proposed.
  The tables of logarithms, artificial  sines and tangents,
are called likewise by the name of canon.
  Canon law,  a collection of ecclesiastical laws,  serving
as the rule and  measure of church  government. The
power of making laws was exercised by the church before
the  Roman empire  became Christian.   The  canon  law
that obtained throughout the west, till the twelfth centu-
ry, was the collection of canons made by Dionysius Ex-
iguus in 520, the capitularies of Charlemagne, and  the de-
crees of the, popes, from Sircius to Anasfasius.
  The canon law, even when papal authority  was at id
height in England, was of no force when  it was found to
contradict the prerogative ofthe king, the laws, statutes,
and customs ofthe realm,  or the doctrine ofthe establish-
ed church.  The ecclesiastical jurisdiction of the see of
Rome in England,  was founded on the  canon law ; and
this created quarrels between kings and several archbish-
ops and prelates, who  adhered  to the papal usurpation.
Besides the foreign  canons,  there were  several laws and
constitutions made here for the government of the church ;
but all these received their force from the royal assent;
and if, at any time,  the ecclesiastical courts did, by their
sentence, endeavour to enforce obedience to such canons,
the courts at common law, upon complaints  made, would
grant prohibitions.  The  authority vested in the  church
of England of making canons was ascertained by a statute
of Henry VIII. commonly called the act of the clergy'i
submission ; by which they acknowledged (hat  (he ronvo.
cation had been always assembled by  the king's writ; so
that though the power of making canons resided in  the
clergy met in convocation, their force was derived from
fhe authority of  the king's assenting to, and  confirming
them.  The old canons continued in force till the reign of
James I. when the clergy being assembled in convocation,
the king gave them  leave fo treat and consult  upon can-
ons, which they did, and presented them to the king, who
gave them the royal assent.  These were a collection  out
of lhe several  preceding canons and injunctions.   Some
of these canons are now obsolete. In the reign  of Charles
I. several canons were passed by the  clergy in convoca-
tion.
  CANOPUS, in astronomy, a star  of  the first  magni-
tude in the rudder of Argo, a constellation of  the south-
ern hemisphere.
  CANTAR, or Cantaro, in commerce, a weight used
in Italy, particularly at Leghorn. There are three sorts:
one weighs 150 pounds, the other 151, and the third 160.
The first serves to weigh alum and cheese; fhe second is
for sugar ; and  fhe Ihird for wool and cod fish.  The word
is used also as a measure of capacity used at Cochin, and
containing four  rubis.
  CANTATA,  in music,  a song or composition, inter-
mixed with recitatives, airs, and different movements,
chiefly intended for a single voice.
  CANTEENS, tin or wooden vessels used by soldiers
on a  inarch, &c.  to carry water or other  liquor in ; each 
C  A O
CAP
holds about two quarts.  Wooden canteens are in gener-
al use with the British army : they are made cylindrical,
like barrels, 7\ inches in diameter, and about four inches
in length.  They are chiefly manufactured by Mr. George
Smart, of Camden Town.
  CANTHARIS, in zoology, a genus  of coleopterous
insects, with setaceous antennae, the exterior wings of
which  are flexile,  the  thorax  somewhat flatted,  and the
sides of the abdomen plicated.  Linnaeus enumerates 27
species of tbe cantharis, most of them to be found in dif-
ferent parts of Europe.
  For  the cantharis, usually called Spanish flies with us,
■ee Meloe.
  CANTHI.  See Anatomy.
  CANTO,  in music, the treble,  or at least the higher
part of a piece.
  CANTONED, in architecture, is when the corner of
a building is adorned with  a pilaster,  an  angular column,
rustic quoins, or any thing  that projects beyond the naked
ofa wall.
  Cantoned, or Cantonized, cantonte, in heraldry, the
position of such things as are borne with a cross, &c. be-
tween.  He bears gules,  a cross  argent cantoned with
four scallop shells.
  CANTRED, or Cantref,  signifies  an hundred vil-
lages;  being a British word, compounded of the adjective
cant, i.e. hundred, and tref, a town or village.  In Wales,
some of the counties are divided into cantreds, as in En-
gland into hundreds.
  CANTUA, in botany, a genus of the tetrandria class,
monogynia order: the essential characters  are; cal.  five
parted, cor. five parted, colour red, capsule ovate. There
are (wo species; 1. C. coronopifolia, scarlet cant ua, flowers
in August, frutescent,  biennial.  2. C. inconspicua, blue
buck's horn leaved cantua, cor. blue, flowers in Novem-
ber, both  natives of Florida and Carolina.
  CANVAS, in  commerce, a very clear unbleached
cloth of  hemp or  flax,  woven very regularly in  little
squares. It is used for working tapestry with the needle,
by pasiing the threads of gold, silver, silk, or wool, through
the intervals or squares.   It is also a  coarse cloth of
hemp, unbleached, somewhat clear, which serves to cover
women's stays, also to stiffen men's clothes, and to make
some other of their wearing apparel, &c.   It is also used
fo make sails for shipping,  &c.
  CANZONE,  in music, signifies in general a song where
some little figures  are  introduced ; and
  CANZONETTA is a diminutive ofthe  same.
  CAOUTCHOUC.  About the beginning of the 18th
century, a substance called caoutchouc was brought as a
curiosity from America.   It was  soft, very elastic,  and
combustible.   The pieces of it that came to Europe were
usually in the shape of bottles, birds, &c.  This substance
is very much used in rubbing out the marks  made upon
paper by a blacklead pencil; and therefore in this coun-
try  it is often called Indian rubber.  Nothing was known
of ils production, except that it was obtained from a tree,
until the French academicians  went to South America in
1735, to measure a degree of (he meridian.   Mr.de la
Condamine senl an account of it to the French academy,
in the year 1736.  He told them,  that there grew in the
province of Esmeraldas, in Brazil, a tree,  called by the
natives hhtve; that from this tree there flowed a milky
juice, which, when inspissated, was caoutchouc.
  It is now  known  that there are  at  least Iwo trees in
South America,  from which caoutchouc may be obtain-
ed;  the  haevea caoutchouc  and  the jatropha elastica:
and it is exceedingly probable (ha( i( is extracted also
from other species of hasvea and jatropha.  Several trees,
likewise, which grow in the East Indies, yield caoutchouc.
When any  of these plants is punctured, there exudes
from it a milky juice, which, when exposed to the air,
gradually lets fall a concrete substance, which is caout-
chouc.
  If oxymuriatic acid is poured into the milky juice, the
caoutchouc  precipitates immediately^ and, at the same
time, the  acid loses its peculiar odour.  This renders it
probable that the formation of the caoutchouc is owing to
its basis absorbing oxygen.  If the milky juice is confined
in a  glass vessel containing common air, it gradually ab-
sorbs oxygen, and a pellicle of caoutchouc appears on its
surface.
  Caoutchouc, when pure, is ofa white colour, and with-
out either taste or smell.  The blackish colour ofthe ca-
outchouc of commerce, is owing to the method employed
in drying it after i( has been  spread upon moulds.   The
usual way is (o spread a thin coat of the milky juice upon
the mould, then todry it by exposing it to smoke; afterward
another coat is spread on, which is dried in  (he same way.
Thus the caoutchouc of commerce consists of numerous
layers of pure caoutchouc alternating with as many layers
of soot.  It  is soft  and pliable ; it is exceedingly elastic
and adhesive; so that it  may be  forcibly stretched out
much beyond its  usual  length, and instantly recover its
former bulk when the  force is withdrawn.   It cannot  be
broken without very considerable force.  Its specific grav-
ity is 0.9335.  It is  not altered by exposure to the air; it
is perfectly insoluble in water; but if boiled for some time,
ifs edges become somewhat transparent, owing undoubt-
edly lo the water carrying off lhe soot; and so soft, that
when two of them are pressed and kept together for some
lime, they adhere as closely as if they formed one piece.
By this contrivance pieces of caoutchouc may be soldered
together,  and thus  made  to  assume  whatever shape  we
please.   Caoutchouc dissolved in ether may be employed
to make  instruments of different kinds, just as the milky
juice of the  haevea; bul this  method  would  be a great
deal too expensive for common use.
  Caoutchouc is soluble in volatile oils; but, in  general,
when these oils are evaporated, it remains somewhat glu-
tinous; and therefore  is scarcely proper  for  those uses
to which, before its  solution, it was so admirably adapted.
It is also  soluble in alkalies.   When exposed to heat it
readily melts; but it never afterward recovers its proper-
ties, but continues always of the consistence of tar.  It
burns very readily with a bright white flame, and diffuses
a fetid odour.   In the countries where it is found, it is fre-
quently used by way of cvndle.  When distilled it gives
out ammonia: from this, and  from  the effect of sulphuric
and nitric acid  upon  it, there is no doubt lhat it is Com-
posed of carbon,  hydrogen, azote, and  oxygen; but  the
modes of their combination are unknown.
  CAP of maintenance, one of the regalia or ornaments
of state belonging to the kings of England, before whom 
CAP
CAP
it was carried at the coronation, and  other great solemni-
ties. Caps of maintenance are also carried before the may-
ors ofthe several cities in England.
  Cap, in a ship, a square piece of timber put over the
head or upper end of any mast, having a round hole to re-
ceive the mast.   By means of these caps,  the  topmasts
and top-gallantmasts  are kept steady and firm in the tres-
sel trees  where  their feet stand.
  Cap ofa gun, a piece of lead  which is put over  the
touch-hole of a gun, to keep the priming from being wasted
or spoiled.
  CAPE, in law, a judicial writ concerning plea of lands
or tenements, and divided into  cape magnum and cape
parvum, both of which affect things immoveable; and be-
sides these there is a cape ad valenciam.
  Cape magnum, is  designed to  lie where a person has
brought a prozcipe quod reddat of a thing that touches a
plea of land, and the  tenant makes default at the day given
to him in the original writ; then this writ shall go for the
king, to take the land into  his hands : and if he comes not
at the  day given  him, he loses his  land, &c.
  Cape parvum, called petit cape, is defined thus :  when
the tenant is summoned in plea of land, and cometh at the
summons, and his appearance is recorded; and after he
maketh default at the  day that is given to him, then this
writ shall go for the king.
  Cape  ad valenciam,  is a species  of cape  magnum,
where one being impleaded, and on a summons to warrant
lands, a vouchee does not  come at  the day ; whereupon if
the demandant recovers of the tenant, he shall have this
writ against the vouchee, and recover so much in value of
his lands, in case he has so much ; and if not, there shall
be an execution of such lands and tenements as shall after
descend to him in fee; or if he purchases, afterward, there
may be a regular  summons, &c. against him.
   CAPELLA, in astronomy, a bright fixed star in the
left shoulder of the  constellation  Auriga.  It is, in the
Britannic catalogue, the fourteenth in  order of that con-
stellation.   Ils  longitude is 17° 31' 41"; its latitude 22°
51'47".
   CAPER. See Capparis.
   C APH AR, a duty which the Turks raise on the Christ-
ians who carry  or send merchandises from Aleppo  to Je-
rusalem and other places in Syria.
   CAPI AGA, or Capou agassi, a Turkish officer, who
is grand master of the  seraglio.
   CAPIAS, in law, is a writ of two sorts, one whereof  is
called capias ad respondendum, before judgment;  where
an  original  is sued  out,  &c.  to take the defendant and
make him answer the  plaintiff: and  the other  a writ of
execution, after judgment, being of divers kinds.
   Capias ad respondendum, is a  writ  commanding the
sheriff to take the body  of Ibe defendant,  if he may be
found in his bailiwic, or county,  and him safely to keep,
so that he may have  him in court on tbe day of the re-
turn,  to answer to the plaintiff of  a plea of debt or tres-
pass, or the like,  as the case may be.  And if the sheriff
return that  he cannot be found, then (here issues another
writ, called an  alias capias; and after that another, call-
ed a pluries capias ; and if upon none of these he can be
found,  then he may  be proceeded against to outlawry.
But all this being only  to  compel an appearance, after lhe
defendant has appeared the  effect  of the>e  writs is  taken
off, and the defendant shall be put  to answer, unless ia
cases where special bail is required, and there the defend-
ant is actually to be taken into custody.   3 Blacks. 212.
  Capias ad satisfaciendum, is a  writ directed to the
sheriff, commanding him to take the body of the defend-
ant, and him safely to keep, so that he may have his body
in court  at the return of the writ,  to make the plaintiff
satisfaction for his  demand :  otherwise he  is to remain in
custody till he does. When a man is once taken in ex-
ecution  upon this writ, no other process can be sued out
against his lands or goods.  But  if a defendant dies whilst
charged  in execution upon  this writ, the plaintiff may,
after his death, sue out new  executions against his lands,
goods, or chattels.   3 Blacks. 415.
  Capias utlegatum, is  a writ that lies  against a person
that is outlawed in any action, whereby the sheriff is com-
manded to apprehend the body ofthe party outlawed, and
keep him in safe custody till the day of the return ofthe
writ, and then present him to tbe court, there to be  dealt
with for his contempt.   But this being only for want of
appearance, if he shall afterward appear, the outlawry is
most commonly reversed. 3 Blacks. 284.
  Capias in withernam, is a writ directed  to the sheriff,
in case where a distress  is carried out of the county, or
concealed by the distrainer, so that the  sheriff cannot
make deliverance of the goods upon a replevin ; command-
ing him to lake so many of lhe distrainer's own  goods, by
way of reprisal, instead of lhe other that are so concealed.
  CAPILLARY  tubes, in  physics, little pipes, whose
canals are extremely narrow, iheir diameter being only a
half, third, or fourth of a line.  See Attraction.
  Capillary vessels.   See Anatomy.
  CAPISTRUM.   See Surgery.
  CAPITAL, in  architecture,  the uppermost  pari of a
column or pilastre,  serving as the head or crowning, and
placed immediately over the shaft,  and  under the entab-
lature.  See Architecture.
  CAPITATION,  a tax or imposition  raised on  each
person in consideration of his labour,  industry, office, rank,
&c. commonly called a poll tax.
  CAPITULATION,  in the German polity, a contract
which the emperor makes with the electors in the name of
all the princes and states of  the empire, before be is de-
clared emperor, and wbich he ratifies before he is raised
lo lhat sovereign  dignity.  The principal  points which
the emperor undertakes to observe, are, 1. To defend the
church and the empire.   2. To  observe the fundamental
laws of  the empire.  3.  To maintain and  preserve the
rights, privileges, and immunities, of the electors, princes,
and other slates ofthe empire, specified in the capitula-
tion.  These articles and capitulations  are presented to
the emperor by the electors only, without the concurrence
of the other states, who have complained from time lo time
of such proceedings : and in the  lime ofthe Westphalian
treaty, in 1648, it was proposed  lo deliberate in lhe fol-
lowing diet upon a way of making a perpetual capitulation;
but the electors have always found  means of eluding the
execution of  this  article.   In order, however, to give
some satisfaction to fheir adversaries, they have inserted
in the capitulations of the emperors, and in that of  Fran-
cis  I. in particular, a promise to use  all their influence to
bring the affair ofa perpetual capitulation to a conclusion.
Some German authors own  that this capitulation 'limits 
CAP
CAP
 the emperor's power ; but maintain, fhat it does not weak-
 en kis sovereignty: though  the most  part  maiutain,
 that he is not absolute, because  he receives  (tie  empire
 under conditions, which seta bounds to an absolute  author-
 ity.
   CAPOC, a sort of cotton as soft as silk, so fine and so
 short lha( it cannot be spun.  It is  used  in (he East In-
 dies, as well as in Europe, to line palanquins, to make beds,
 mattresses, cushions, pillows, &c.
   CAPONIERE,or Caponnikre,  a work sunk  on (he
 glacis  of a place, about four or five feet deep.  The earlh
 that comes out of  i( serves to form a parapet of  (wo or
 (hree feet high, made with  loopholes or small embrasures :
 it is covered over head  with strong planks, on which are
 laid clays or hurdles, which support the earth that covers
 all.   It holds 15 or 20 men, who fire through Ihese  em-
 brasures.  They are also sometimes  made in lhe  bottom
 of a dry moat.
   CAPPAD1NE, a sort of silk flock, taken from (he up-
 per pari of (he silkworm cod, after (he (rue silk has  been
 wound off.
   CAPPARIS, a genua of the monogynia order, in the
 polyandria class of plants, and in (he natural method rank-
 ing under the 25(h order, putamine».  The calyx is te-
 (raphyllousand coriaceous; (he petals are four, (hestam-
 ina are long; the fruit is a berry, carnous, unilocular, and
 pedunculated, or furnished with a footstalk. There are 25
 species, of which (he principal is,
   Capparis spinosa, or common  caper,  a  low shrub, gen-
 erally growing out of the joints of old walls or fissures of
 rocks  in the warm parts of Europe.   This plant  is  with
 great difficulty preserved in England.  The  pickle made
 from its berry is well known.
   CAPRA, the  goat  kind, in zoology,  constitutes a
 genus  of quadrupeds of the order of pecora.  The gen-
 eric character is, horns hollow, turning upward and back-
 ward, compressed, rough, almost close a( (heir base.  Front
 teeth in the lower jaw eight. Canine teeth, or tusks, none.
 Chin bearded in the male.  There are nine species and
 varieties:
   1. Capra  Ibex.  This, wbich is the common ibex or
 ■teinbock of authors, appears to have been sometimes con-
 founded wilh  lhe Caucasan ibex, or next  species, to
 which it  is much allied.  It is found  in several parts of
 Europe and Asia. It inhabits the Carpathian and Pyrenean
 mountains, and various parts of the Alps, more particularly
 the Rhaetian Alps, in the midst of snow and glaciers.   In
 Asia it occurs on the summits of tbe chain of mountains ex-
 tended from Taurus, and continued between eastern Tarta-
 ry and Siberia. If also inhabits the tract beyond the Lena,
 and  in all  probability may be a nalive of Kamtschatka.
 In Arabia  it inhabits  lhe  province of Hedsjaes,  and is
 (here known by  (he name of Baeden.  Lastly, it is found
 in the  high mountains of the island of Crete, where  the
 Caucasan ibex has also been discovered.
   It is an animal of great strength and agility, and  is con-
 siderably larger  than a common  domestic goat.  Its col-
 our  is a deep hoary or gravish brown; much paler or
 whitish beneath, and on the insides of the limbs ;  the body
 is  of a  thick, strong form ;  the head rather small, the eyes
 large, and lhe horns extremely large and long, so as some-
limes (o measure (hree  feet in length, and to extend lhe
v. hole length of the body.
  VOL. I.            5'J
   In its general habits or manners the ibex resembles (he
 common goat;  but  possesses every attribute of strength
 and activity in  a degree proportioned to its natural state
 of wildness.  It is  even  said, that, when hard  pressed,
 this animal will fling itself down a steep precipice, and
 falling on its horns, escape unhurt from its pursuers ; nor
 will this appear in the least incredible, if we may rely ou
 the faith of Monardes, who assures us that he saw a Cau-
 casan  ibex leap from the  top ofa high tower, and falling
 on  its  horns, immediately spring up on its limbs, and leap
 about  without having received the least  apparent inju-
 ry. See Plate XXVI. Nat.  Hist. fig. 90.
   The flesh of the young ibex is  said to be in good es-
 teem as an article of food.  Its period of gestation is said
 to be the same as Tn the common goat, vis. five months.
   2. Capra  jEgagrus, or caucasan ibex,  supposed lo
 be  the stock or origin  ofthe domestic goat, is considerably
 superior to that animal in size, and ifs form in some de-
 gree resembles  lhat of a stag. Its general colour is a brown-
 ish or  subferruginous  gray above, and white beneath ; the
 forehead is nearly black, which colour is continued down
 the back in the form of a list or stripe : the chin is furnish-
 ed  with a large brownish beard, and  the horns, which are
 very large, and bend considerably backward, are  smooth,
 black, and sharply ridged  on their  upper  part.  The
 female is destitute both of horns and beard.
  In point of strength and agility this species is at least
 equal,  if not superior,  to the common ibex ; it inhabits the
 loftiest rocky points of mount Caucasus, and  particularly
 the  parts  about the rivers  Kuban and  Terek; almost
 all  Asia Minor, and may probably extend even  to India.
 It is said  to abound on the hills of Laar and Chorazan, in
 Persia.
   3. Capra  Hircus, or common goat, in its domestic
 state, is found in almost every part of the globe, bearing the
 extremes of heat and cold, and differing in size and form
 according to various circumstances.  It may be observed,
 that the horns have generally  a  curvalure outward toward
 the tips; and it may  be added, that  the animal was en-
 tirely unknown to the Americans on the discovery of that
 continent, having been introduced by the Europeans.
  The colour ofthe domestic goat is various, being either
 black,  brown, white,  or spotted.  The  flesh is of great
 use to  the inhabitants of Wales, and affords ihem a cheap
 and plentiful provision in the  winter months, when lhe
 kids are brought to market: the haunches are often dried
 and salted, and used as a substitute for bacon.  The skin
 ofthe goat is peculiarly well adapted for the glove manu-
 factory, especially that of the kid ; and as it (akes a dye
 be((er  (han any o(her  skin, it was formerly much used for
 hangings in the houses of people of fortune; being suscep-
 tible of fhe richest colours. The goat goes with young four
 months and a half.  The skin of the Chamois goat is also
 in high esteem  for fine leather.   See  Plate XXVI. Nat.
 Hist. fig. 91.
  The following are the most remarkable varieties of the
 domestic goat.
  1. Capra mambrica, or Syrian goat, is distinguished by
 fhe great length of the  ears, wbich are pendulous, like
 Ihose of a hound, and sometimes reach so low  as to be
 troublesome to the animal while feeding.  2. Capra Ango-
 rensis,  Angora goat, is generally of a beautiful milk white
colour, short legged, with black,  spreading, spirally twisted 
C  AP
CAR
horns, and with  the  hair on the whole body disposed in
long pendent spiral ringlets.   It is from the hair of this
animal that the finest camlets, &c. are prepared.  3. Ca-
pra depressa, or African goat, is a very small or dwarf va-
riety, found in  some parts of Africa.   4. Capra reversa,
or  Whidaw goat.  This  is also a dwarf variety, found
in Africa, where its flesh is considered as an excellent food.
5. Long horned Whidaw goat.   6. Capricorn goat.
  CAPRARIA, Sweet weed, a genus of the angioa-
permia order, in the didynamia class of plants ; and in the
natural method ranking under  the 40th order, personatse.
The calyx is quinquepartitc ; the corolla is campanulated,
quinquefid,  with acute segments ; the capsule bivalved,
bilocular, and polyspermous.  There are five species.
   CAPRICORN,  in astronomy, one of the twelve  signs
of the zodiac, represented  in globes in tbe form ofa goat,
and characterized in books by this mark v$>.
   It  is the tenth sign in order, and contains twenty-eight
stars according to Ptolemy and Tycho Brahe ; twenty-
nine  according to Hevelius ;  and fifty-one according to
Flamsteed.
   Tropic of Capricorn, a lesser circle of the sphere,
which is parallel to the  equinoctial, and at 23° 30' distance
from it southward.
   CAPRIMULGUS,  goat sucker, a genus of birds be-
longing to the order of passeres.  Tbe beak is incurvated,
small, tapering, and depressed at the base :  tbe  mou'h
opens wide.  There are two species : 1. The Europaeus,
with tbe tubes ofthe nostrils  hardly visible, wbich feeds
on moths, gnats, Sec.  It appears in May, and leaves us in
August.  2. The Americanus, a night bird, found in Ameri-
ca.   See Plate XXV. Nat. Hist. fig. 81.
   CAPSICUM, in botany, Guinea pepper, a genus of
the monogynia order,  in the pentandria class  of plants ;
and in the natural method ranking under fhe 28th order,
luridae.   The corolla  is verticillated, and  the fruit is a
sapless berry.  There are five  species; the principal are:
    1. Capsicum annuum, the common long podded capsi-
cum, commonly cultivated in fhe gardens.   Of this there
is one variety with red, and another with yellow fruit; and
of these there are several subvarieties, differing only in the
size and figure of their fruit.
   2. Capsicum baccatum, bird pepper, rises with a shrub-
by stalk four  or five feet  high; tbe leaves are ofa lucid
green;  the fruit  grows at the division of fhe branches,
standing erect : these are small, oval,  and of a bright red :
they are  much  more  sharp and biting than those of the
other sorts.  This is the Cayenne pepper.
   3. Capsicum  grossum, the  bell pepper.  The fruit of
Ibis is red, and is  the only kind proper for pickling, the
skin being tender, whereas those of the other sorts are thin
and lough.
   CAP SQUARES, in gunnery, strong plates of iron
which come over the trunnions of a gun, and keep it in the
carriage.
   CAPSTAN, or Main capstan, in a ship, a  large piece
of timber in the nature  ofa windlass, placed next behind
the mainmast, its foot standing  in a step  on  the  lower
deck, and its  head between the upper decks, formed into
several squares with holes in them.   Its use is to weigh
the anchors, to hoist up or slrike down topmasts, to heave
any weighty matter, or fo strain any rope that requires a
main force.
  Capstan Jear is placed between tbe mainmast and the
mizen, and serves to strain any rope, heave upon the jear
rope or upon the viol, or hold off by at the weighing of an
anchor.
  CAPSULE, among botanists, a species of pericarpium
or seed vessel.
  Capsulje atrabiliari-e:, called also glandula; renales
and  renes succenluriati, are two  yellowish  glands ofa
compressed figure,  lying on each side of the upper part
of the kidneys.  See Anatomy.
  CAPTION, in law, is where a commission is executed
and the commissioners subscribe Iheir names to a certifi-
cate, declaring when and where the commission was exe-
cuted.  It relates  chiefly to commissions to take answers
in chancery and depositions of witnesses, and  take fines
of lands, &c.
   Caption and Horning, in tbe law of Scotland. When
a decrete or sentence is obtained against any person, the
obtainer takes out a writ, whereby the parly decerned it
charged to pay or fulfil the will ofthe decrete,  under (he
pain of rebellion:  this writ is called letters of horning. If
he refuses to comply, then the writ or letters of caption may
be raised, whereby all the inferior judges and magistrates
are commanded  (o assist in  apprehending the rebel, and
putting him in prison.
   CAPURA, a  genus of the class and order hexandria
monogynia.  The  essential character is, cal. none ; cor.
six cleft;  stam.  within (be tube; germ, superior; stigma
globular; per. berry.  There is one species, a  native of
the East  Indies.
   CAPUT draconis. the  Dragon's head, in astrono-
my, the ascending node of fhe moon.  It  is also a star
of the first magnitude, in the head of the  constellation
Draco.
   Caput mortuum, in chymistry, that thick dry matter,
which remains after distillation of any thing, but of miner-
als especially.  See Chymistry.
   CARABINE, a fire arm,  shorter than a musket, carry-
ing a ball  of twenty-four in the pound, borne by the  light
horse, hanging at a belt over the lefr shoulder.
   CARABUS, in zoology, a genus of insects belonging
to fhe order of coleoptera, or the beetle kind.  The feel-
ers are bristly; the breast is  shaped like a heart, and mar-
ginated,  and (he elytra are  likewise  marginated.  There
are 34 species of this genus, mostly distinguished by their
colour.   The most remarkable is tbe crepitans, or bom-
bardier, with  the breast,  head,  and  legs ferruginous, or
iron coloured, and (he elytra black.   It keeps itself con-
cealed among stones, and makes bu( litlle use of its wings;
when it moves it is by a sort of jump; and whenever it is
touched,  it makes a noise resembling  the discharge of a
musket in miniature, during which a blue smoke may be
perceived proceeding from it.  The insect may be made
to play off its artillery, by scratching its back with a  nee-
dle.  A   bladder placed  near  the anus, is  the arsenal
whence it derives  ifs store, and this is its chief defence
against an enemy ; but the smoke emitted seems altogether  k
inoffensive, except  by causing a fright, though it is useful
fo fhe insect by conceali g its course.  Its chief enemy in
another species of the  same  genus, but four times larger.
When pursued and fatigued, the bombardier has recourse
to stratagem,  by lying down in the path ofthe large cam-
bus, which advances wilh open  mouth and claws to seize 
C  A  II
CAR
 it; but on the discharge of the artillery, suddenly draws
 back, and remains  awhile  confused,  during  which the
 bombardier conceals himself, in some  crevice if there is
 one ; but if not,  the  larger carabus  renews the attack,
 takes his prisoner by the head and tears it off.
   CARACOL,  in architecture,  denotes a staircase in a
 helix or spiral form.
   CARACT,  Carat, or  Carrat,  the name  of that
 weight which expresses the degree of fineness that gold is
 of.  The mint master, or custom, has fixed the purity of
 gold at 24 caracts; though it  is not possible so to  purify
 and refine  that  metal, but it will  want still  about one
 fourth part ofa  caract in absolute purity and perfection.
 The caract  is divided into £, |, T"j., -jJj.  These degrees
 serve (o distinguish lhe greater or lesser quantity of alloy
 therein contained : for instance, gold of 22 caracts, is (hat
 which has two parts of silver, or of any other metal, and 22
 of fine gold.
   It is also a certain weight which goldsmiths  and jewel-
 lers use with which to weigh precious stones and pearls.
 This caract weighs four grains, but something lighter than
 (he grains of other weights.  Each of  these grains is sub-
 divided into |, £, T> -T\, Sec.
   CARAGROUTH,  in commerce, a silver coin  of the
 empire, weighing nine drachms.  It goes at Constantinople
 for 120 aspers.
   CARBON, or the radical of carbonic acid, has not, un-
 less the diamond is admitted as  such,  been  yet obtained
 in a separate state;  charcoal, which was once  so esteem-
 ed, appearing to be a compound substance. Nor is it ever
 found united wilh caloric, in a gaseous state, unaccompa-
 nied by some third principle.  Its (aste, smell, and colour
 are unknown.  I( is infusible and indissoluble by caloric,
 and is hence esteemed the most refractory substance in
 nature.  It has no evident  attraction for nitrogen alone,
 but  combines  with it by  the intervention of other prin-
 ciples.  With  hydrogen it has a strong affinity,  uniting
 and forming  a  gas termed carbonated hydrogen; hy-
 drogen gas  having (he power of holding it in solution.
   The diamond, which exceeds all other gems in hardness,
 density  and refraction of the rays of light, crystalizes in
 two tetrahedral and trihedral pyramids, united base to
 base, or in hexahedral prisms  terminating in trihedral
 summits, or in irregular polyhedral grains.  At a very
 high temperature it burns, becomes black and opaque, and
 is converted into gas.   Sp. gr. about 3,5.
   Newton conjectured the diamond  to be a combustible
 body.  Guy ton, in 1785, inferred its similarity to charcoal,
 from its  leaving an effervescent alkali,  after combustion in
 fused nitre.  Lavoisier found  that on burning it in closed
 vessels,  it  yielded carbonic  acid.  This has also  been
 proved by Mr. Tennant, who performed the combustion in
 a crucible of gold. Berthollet considered it as crystalized
 charcoal.
   Since this, Guyton, having burnt the diamond in oxygen
 gas, by the solar rays, and I hereby having obtained carbon-
 ic acid without residue,presumed that he had ascertained
 (he diamond (o be pure carbon,or the pure combustible mat-
 ter of (he carbonic genus, yielding the pure acidifiable basis
 ofthe carbonic acid.  He found ifs combustion required a
 much higher temperature than charcoal; but this, he ob-
 serve*, takes  place with  other acidifiable bases,  their
first degrees of  ovydalion being difficultly produced,
although their subsequent  acidification  is easy.  It also
                  58*
required more oxygen for its complete combustion  than
charcoal; one part of diamond absorbing four of oxygen,
and producing five  of carbonic acid ; this he remarks is
not to  be  wondered at, since, being pine carbon, it con-
tains none ofthe oxygen principle, and therefore demands
more.   In proportion  therefore  as  substances contain
pure combustible matter, will, in fact, be (he difficulty of
their  combustion, their first degrees of oxygenation pro-
ceeding so slowly.  Thus he accounts for plumbago,  or
black lead, which is a  carbonic combustible, richer in com-
bustible matter than charcoal itself, not burning, but at a
very high degree of  temperature: and thus he accounts
for the incombustibility of anthracolite, Kilkenny coal, tbe
brilliant charcoal of certain vegetables, &c.  The diamond
is therefore to be considered as pure  carbon ; plumbago,
carbon oxygenized in tbe first degree; charcoal, an oxyd
of the second, obtained from various substances in the an-
imal, vegetable, and mineral  kingdoms, generally by vo-
latilizing their other  constituent parts.*  When obtained
in a state of purity, it resists the strongest bea( in closed
vessels.  It  decomposes sulphuric  acid from its affin-
ity with oxygen  exceeding (hat of  sulphur.   It  de-
composes  nitric acid  with  great  rapidity; and  if  the
charcoal is first powdered,  and fhe acid strong, and
allowed  to  run   down  the  side  of the vessel, to mix
with the charcoal, "it burns with rapidity, with a beau-
tiful flame,  throwing up  the  powder  so as to resemble a
beautiful fire  work.   With nitrate of potash, it  detonates
in a hot crucible, leaving a fixed alkali behind.   It is dis-
solved  by  the alkalies, and  by the sulphurets of alkali,
both in the dry and moist way.   It does not unite with
metals, but restores their oxyds to a metallic state.
   Charcoal possesses the power of absorbing several gases,
which thus condensed retain their properties, and even ex-
ert them in some instances more powerfully.   It decom-
poses water at the common  temperature,  carbonic acid
and carbonated  hydrogen being separated.   If burnt in
contact with common air, its acidifiable base attracts oxy-
gen, and this  peculiar acid is formed, which, with a certain
proportion  of caloric,  assumes a gaseous form.   If burnt
in oxygen gas, its peculiar acid is plentifully formed,  the
charcoal burning  wilh considerably increased  rapidity,
and if (he lighter charcoal made from bark is used, a very
brilliant effect is  produced from  the  numerous vivid cor-
uscating sparks.
   CARBONATES, are neutral salts, composed of (he
carbonic acid, and  certein bases: Ihus carbonate of am-
monia, or mild volatile alkali, consists of carbonic acid and
pure or caustic ammonia.  Owing to (he weakness of (his
acid, (he characters of (heir bases are generally most pre-
dominant.
   The  carbonates  are not acted on by light, oxygen, or
nitrogen; nor do (hey deliquesce wilh (he moisture of (he
atmosphere.  Although  charcoal decomposes (he phos-
phoric  acid alone, the  carbonates are  decomposed by
phosphorus;  (his difference  arises  from fhe  aftraction
which  the  phosphoric acid exercises on the base of (he
carbonate; from  similar causes, the  effects of  different
combustible bodies on  them vary much.  All (he  olbej
acids have a greater attraction for (he earthy and alkaline
bases than (he carbonic ; (ha( acid being disengaged from
(he carbonates by their addition.  So feeble is this acid,
(hat  it  is  separated  from  most of its bases  by  heat
only. 
CAR
CAR
   CARBUNCLE,  in natural history,  a very  elegant
gem, the colour of which is deep  red with an admixture
of Bcarlet.   See Garnet.
   Carbuncle, or Anthrax, in surgery, an inflammation
which arises, with a vesicle or blister, almost like those
produced by burning.  This inflammation,  for the  most
part, terminates in a sphacelus, and putrifies the subjacent
parts down to the bone, they becoming as black as a coal.
A carbuncle always breaks out very speedily, even in the
space of an hour or two, attended with heat and pain : as
soon as it is opened, it discharges a livid  sanies, or some-
times  a  limpid water: it is black within, which is a sign
that the sphacelus has seized the subjacent parts, and is
making its progress:  but the  putrid flesh in  those who
recover, suppurates, and parts from the sound.  The size
of these pestilential blisters is various, more or less ;  as is
also their number in  the  patient; for there is no part of
the body which they do not infest, and they generally ap-
pear in company with buboes.
   Those carbuncles which arise in the face, neck, breast,
or armpits, are observed to be of the worst kind, for they
generally kill the patient.
   In the external treatment, some of the modern physi-
cians   use only scarification in this case, with very good
success; others open the eruptions with a pair of scissars,
and having discharged the  matter,  frequently wash the
carbuncle with sp.  vin. camph. or sp. vin. in  which has
been digested a little Iheriaca:  they afterward  apply a
maturating cataplasm, which is to be continued till the car-
buncle separates  from the sound parts ; then they  cut it
out all at once.
   Carbuncle, in heraldry, a charge or bearing consisting
of eight radii, four whereof make a common cross, and the
other four a saltier.
   CARCASS,  a  composition  of  combustibles.  Car-
casses are of two sorts, oblong and round : tbe  uncertain
weight of the first sort has almost rendered them  useless.
They  are prepared in the following manner: Boil  12 or
151b. of pilch in a glazed earthen pot; mix wifh that 31b.
of tallow, 301b. of powder, 6lb. of saltpetre, and as many
stopins as can be put in.  Before the composition  is  cold,
the carcass must be filled ;  to do which, smear your hands
with oil or tallow, and fill the  carcass one third full with
fhe above composition;  then put in loaded pieces of gun
or pistol barrels, loaded grenades, and  fill the intervals
with composition ; cover the whole over with coarse cloth,
well sewed together,  keeping it in a round form.   Then
put if into the carcass, having a hollow top and bottom,
with bars running between them  to  hold  them together,
and composed of four slips  of iron jointed at top,  and fix-
ed at the bottom, at equal distances, to a piece of  iron,
which, together with the  hoops, when filled, form a  com-
plete globular body.  When quite finished and cold, the
carcass must be steeped in  melted pitch, and then  instant-
ly immerged in  cold water.  Lastly, bore three  or  four
holes at top, and fill the same wifh fuse composition, cover-
ing the holes with pitch until used.  Carcasses are thrown
.out of  mortars, and weigh from 50  to 2301b.  according to
the size  of  the mortars they  are  lobe  thrown  out of.
There are other carcasses for the sea service, which differ
from a shell only in the composition,  and in the four holes
from which they burn when fired.
   Carcasses were  first used by  lhe bishop of Munster,
at the siege of Groll in 1672, where the duke of Luxem-
burg commanded.
   CARCERES, in the ancient circensian games,  were
enclosures in (be circus, in which lhe horses were restrain-
ed till  the signal was given for starting, when,  by anadmi-
rable contrivance, they all at once flew open.
   CARD, among, artificers, an instrument consisting of a
block of wood, beset with sharp teeth, serving to arrange
the hairs of wool, flax, bemp, and the like : there are dif-
ferent kinds of them, as hand cards, stock cards, &c.
   Cards, among gamesters, little pieces of fine thin paste-
board of an oblong figure, of several sizes, but most com-
monly  in England 3| inches long, and 2£ broad, on which
are painted several points and figures.  The  moulds and
blocks for making cards, are exactly like those that were
used for the first books:  they lay a sheet of wet or moist
paper on  the block, which is first slightly done over with
a sort of ink made wilh lampblack diluted  in water, and
mixed  with some  starch to give it  a body.   They after-
ward rub it off with a round list.   The court cards are
coloured by means of several patterns stiled stane files.
These consist of papers cut through with a penknife, and
in these  apertures, they apply  severally (he  various col-
ours, as red, black, Sec.  These patterns are painted wilh
oil colours, that the brushes may not wear them out; and
when the pattern is laid on tbe pasteboard, they slightly
pass over it a brushful of colour,  which, leaving it within
the openings, forms the face or figure of (he card.
   CARD AMINE, lady's amock;  a genus of the siliquo-
sa order, in the tetradynamia class  of plants; and in the
natural method ranking under  the 39th order, siliquosa.
The siliqua parts asunder with a spring, and the valves
roll spirally backward ;  the stigma is entire, and the calyx
a little gaping. Of this there are 18  species; but the most
remarkable is the
   Cardamine pratensis, wilh  a large purplish flower.  It
grows naturally in many parts of Britain, and is also call-
ed cuckow flower.   There are four varieties, vis. the
single, with purple and white flowers, which are frequent-
ly intermixed in  the meadows; and  the double of both
colours.  The single sorts are not admitted into gardens;
but the double deserve  a place, as making a pretty ap-
pearance during the time they are in flower.
   CARDAMOM.  SeeAMOMUM andMATERiAMEDiCA.
   CARDIA, or Cardium,  in natural history, a genus of
the vermes testacese, or shell  fish, lhe shell of which is
formed of two ovals, and resembles lhe figure of a heart
at cards:  the valves are equal and gibbose.
   Of this genus there are 21 species, some nearly globose,
others of a triangular figure, and others irregularly oblong.
Under this genus  are  comprehended the cockles, ark
shells,  &c. fogether with the pectini inauriti, or scallops
without ears, as they are called.
   CARDIAC, an appellation given to such medicines as
preserve or increase the strength of (he heart, and by lhat
means  the vital forces, though  fhey do not immediately
operate upon the heart, nor are particularly appropriated
to the corroboration of fhaf part. See Materia Medica.
   CARDIALGIA, the heartburn,  in medicine, a disor-
der of  the stomach attended wifh anxiety, a  nausea, and
often a reaching or actual vomiting.  See Medicine.
   CARDINAL,  an ecclesiastical  prince in  the Romish
church, being one who has a voice in the conclave at the 
CAR
CAR
 election of a pope.  The cardinals were originally noth-
 ing more than deacons,  to whom was intrusted the  care
 of distributing the alms  to the poor of the several quar-
 ters of Rome ; and as they held assemblies of the poor in
 certain churches of their several districts,  (hey (ook the
 title of these churches.   They began to be called cardi-
 nals in the year 300, during the pontificate of St. Sylves-
 ter, by which appellation were meant the chief priests of
 a parish, and next in dignity to a bishop. This  office grew
 more considerable afterward, and by  small degrees arriv-
 ed at its present state.
   The cardinals compose the pope's  council, and till the
 lime of Urban  VIII. were styled  most  illustrious;  but
 by a decree of that pope in 1630, they had  the title of
 eminence conferred upon them.  At the creation of a  new
 cardinal, (he pope performs (he ceremony of shutting and
 opening his mouth, which is  done in a private consistory.
 The shutting his mouth, implies the depriving him of the
 liberty of  giving his opinion in congregations; and the
 opening his mouth, which is  performed fifteen  days after,
 signifies the taking off this restraint.  However, if the pope
 happens to  die during the time a cardinal's mouth is shut,
 he can neither give hhtyroice in the election of a new pope,
 nor be himself advanced to that dignity.
   The cardinals are divided into  six classes or orders,
 consisting of six bishops, fifty priests, and fourteen  dea-
 cons, making in all seventy ;  which  constitute  the sacred
 college.  The number of cardinal  bishops has very  sel-
 dom been  changed, but that of priests and deacons has
 varied at different times.  The privileges of  the cardi-
 nals are very great;  they have aft  absolute power in (he
 church during (he vacancy of (he holy see  : (hey have a
 right fo elect the new pope, and are the only  persons on
 whom the choice can fall:  most of the grand offices  in
 the court of Rome, are filled by cardinals.  The dress  of
 a cardinal is a red soutanne, a rochet, a short purple man-
 tle, and the red hat.   When fhey  are sent to the courts
 of princes,  it is in quality of legates a latere; and when
 they are appointed governors of towns, their government
 is called by the name of legation.
   CARDIOID, in the  higher geometry,  an  algebraical
 curve, so called from its  resemblance to a heart.
   The Cardioid is  thus generated.  APB, Plate XIV.
 Miscell. fig. 11. is a circle and A B its diameter.  Through
 one extremity A of  the  diameter draw a number of lines
 A P Q,, cutting the circle in P;  upon  these set off always
 P Q, equal to the diameter AB; so shall the points Q, be
 always in the curve of lhe cardioid.
   From this generation  of the curve, its chief properties
 are evident, vis, that,
 everv  where PQ, = AB,
   CQ, or QQ, is = Aa  or 2 AB,
   AQ= AB=L AP.
   P always bisects QQ,.
   The cardioid  is an algebraical curve, and the equation
 expressing its nature  is thus :
   Put  a =  AI5 lhe diameter,
       Z —  al) perp. AH,
       y =  DQperp. AD ; then is

J         + V2„\.;'  _ Brtjy" +^8.3 J  = 0, Which  IS
lhe equation of (he curve.
  Many properties  of the cardioid may be seen in the
Philosophical Transactions, 1741.
  CARDIOSPERMUM, heart pea,  a genus of the tri-
gynia order, in the octandria class of plants, and in the
natural  method ranking  under the 39th order, trihilatse.
The calyx is tetraphyllous ; the petals four ; the nectari-
um  tetraphyllous and unequal;  the capsules three, grown
together,  and inflated.   There are three species, natives
of the East and West Indies.
  CARDUUS, the thistle, a  genus  of  the polygamia
sequalis order, in the syngenesia class of plants, and in the
natural method ranking under the 49th  order, composite.
The calyx is ovate,  imbricated  with prickly scales,  and
the receptacle hairy.   Of this genus there are 51 species,
ten of which are natives of Britain ; and  being  trouble-
some weeds, they require no description.   Some of  the
exotics are propagated  in gardens for the sake of variety.
  Carduus benedictus.  See Centauria  and Materia
Medica.
  CAREENING, in the sea language, the bringing a  ship
to lie down on one side, in order to trim and caulk tbe  oth-
er side.  A ship is said to be brought to the careen when
the most of her lading being taken out, she is hauled down
on one side by a  smafl  vessel as low as necessary ;  and
there kept by the weight of the ballast,  ordnance, &c. as
well as by ropes, lest  her masts should  be strained too
much; in order lhat her  sides  and bottom may be trim-
med, seams caulked, or any thing lhat is faully underwa-
ter  mended.  Hence when  a  ship lies on one side when
she sails, she is said to sail on (he careen.
  CAREX, the sedge, a genus of  (he monoecia triandria
class and order of plants, and in the natural method rank-
ing  under the 3d order, calamariae.  The characters  are :
the male flowers are digested into a long spike ; the calyx
is an oblong and imbricated amentum, consisting of acute,
hollow, and lanceolaf ed scales, each containing one flower :
(here is no corolla ; (he stamina are three  erect setaceous
filaments of the length of the calyx;  the antherae are ob-
long and erect.   In the female flowers  the  calyx is  lhe
same as in the male; there are  no petals,  but there is an
inflated oblong  nectarium ; the germen is  triangular,  and
is placed within the nectarium ; the style is very short;
the stigmata are two or three ; long, crooked, pointed, and
hoary.  The nectarium grows  larger w hen  lhe flower is
fallen, and contains the seed ; which is single, of an acute
ovated form, triangular, and has one of ifs angles usually
much smaller than  the  others.  There are  97  species.
The common sedge may serve as an example for all.
  CARICA, the papaw, a genus of the decandria order,
belonging to the dioecia class of planfs, and in the natural
method ranking under the  38th order, tricocca?.   The
calyx of the male,  almost none ;' the corolla  is quinquefid
and funnel shaped ; the filaments in the tube of (he corolla a
longer and a shorter one alternately. The calyx of (he fe-
male qninquedenteted ;  (he corolla is pentapetalous,  with
five stigmata; fhe  fruit an unilocular and polyspermous
berry.
  1. Carica papaya rises with a thick,  soff, herbaceous
stem, (o (he height of 18 or 20 feet, naked (ill within two
or (hree feet of (he  top.   The leaves come  ou( on every
side, upon very long footstalks;  in full  grown plants  they
are  very large,  and divided into many  lobes Jeeply  sinu- 
CAR
CAR
ated.  The flowers of the male plant are of a pure white,
and ha*e an agreeable odour.  The flowers ofthe female
papaya are large, bell shaped, composed of six petals, and
cofijinonly  yellow ; when (hesc fall  away, (he  germen
b wells (o a fleshy fruit, ofthe size of a small melon. These
fruits are of different forirs : some angular, and compressed
at both ends;  o(hers oval or globular, and some pyrami-
dal.   The fruit, and all the other parts of the tree, abound
with a milky  acrid juice, which is applied for killing of
ringworms.  When the roundish fruit are nearly ripe, the
inhabitants of India boil and eat them with their meat as
we do turnips.  They have  somewhat  the  flavour of a
pompion.   But they mostly pickle tbe long fruit, and thus
they make no  bad succedaneum for mango.   The  buds of
the female flowers are gathered, and  made  into a sweet-
meat ; and the inhabitants are such good managers of the
produce  of the  tree, that they boil the shells of the ripe
fruit into a repast, and the insides are eaten with sugar and
pepper, like melons.  The  stem being hollow, has given
birth to a proverb  in the West India islands, where, in
speaking ofa dissembling person, they say he is as hollow
as a  papaw.
  2. Carica prosoposa, differs from the other  in having a
branching stalk, the lobes of the leaves entire, the flower
of a rose colour, and the fruit shaped like a pear, and of a
sweeter flavour than the papaya.  Both species being na-
tives of bot countries, they cannot be preserved in Britain
unless constantly kept in a warm stove.  They are easily
propagated by seeds, which are annually brought in plenty
from the West Indies,  though the seeds of the European
plants ripen well.
   CARINA,  in  architecture, a name given by  the Ro-
mans to all buildings  in  the form of  a ship, from  carina,
the keel of a  ship : as we still apply the word nave from
navis, a ship,  to the middle  or  principal vault  of  our
churches, because it has that figure.
   Carina, in anatomy, a term used for the  fibrous rudi-
ments, or embryo of a chick, appearing in an incubated egg.
   The carina  consists of the entire vertebrae, as they  ap-
pear after ten or twelve days incubation.
   C ARISSA, in botany, a genus of the monogynia order,
in the pentandria class of plants ; and in the natural meth-
od ranking under the 30th order, contortas.  It  has  two
berries, many seeded.   There are two species, trees of
Africa.
   CARLINA, the carline thistle, a genus of the polyga-
mia tequalis order, in the syngenesia  class of plants;  and
in the natural method ranking under the 49th order, com-
posite. The calyx is radiated with long coloured marginal
scales.  There are nine species ;  but  the carlina vulgaris
is the only one that is a native of Britain.  All fhe others
are natives of  lhe south of France or Italy, and are very
easily propagated in  this country by seeds.  The roots
are used in medicine, and for  that purpose are imported.
As we receive them they are about  an inch thick, ex-
ternally of a  rusty brown colour,  corroded as it were
on (he surface, and perforated wi(h numerous small holes,
appearing as  if worm eaten.  They have a strong smell,
and  a subacrid, biUerish, weakly aromatic taste.   They
are reckoned warm alexipharmics and diaphoretics.
   CARLINE, or Caroline, a silver  coin current in (he
Neapolitan dominions, and worth about fourpence  of our
money.
  CARLINGS, or Carlines, in a ship, two pieces of
timber lying fore and aft, alon^ from beam io beam, where-
on the ledges  rest on  wnich  the  planks of the  ship are
fastened.
  CARLOCK, in  commerce, a sort of  isinglass made
with the sturgeon's bladder, imported from  Archangel.
The chief use of it is  for clarifying wine; but it  is also
used by dyers.
  CARMELITES, or White friars, are  an  order of
Our Lady  of mount Carmel, making  one ofthe four or-
ders of mendicants.  They pretend to derive  their origin
from  the  prophets Elijah and  Elisha.  Their original
rules  contained sixteen articles, one of which confined
them to their cells, and enjoined them to employ  them*
selves  day  and night in prayer; another  prohibited  the
brethren having any property ; another enjoined fasting,
from the feast  of the  exaltation of the  holy cross  till
Easter, excepting on Sundays ; abstinence at all times
from flesh was enjoined by another article:  one obliged
them to manual labour;  another imposed a strict silence on
them from vespers till the  tierce the next day. However,
these constitutions have been in some respects altered.
  CARMINATIVES, in pfiarmacy, medicines used in
colics, or other flatulent disorders, to dispel the wind. See
Materia Medica.
  CARMINE, a powder of a very beautiful red colour,
bordering upon purple, and used by painters in miniature,
though but rarely because of its great price.  The mode
of preparing this colour is kept  from  the public.  The
receipts which have been from time  to  time published
concerning the preparation of Ihis and other colours, have
been rarely found to succeed in practice.   It is said to be
extracted  from cochineal  by means  of water,  wherein
chouan and antour have been infused ; some  add rocou,
but this gives it too much of fhe opal cast.  Others make
carmine with Brazil wood, fernambouc, and leaf gold, beat-
en in a mortar, and steeped  in  white wine vinegar;  the
scum arising from this mixture, upon boiling, when dried,
makes  carmine ; but this  kind is  vastly inferior to  the
former.  There is another carmine, made of Brazil wood
and fernambouc, by a different preparation.
  CARNEDDE, in British antiquity, denotes heaps of
stones  supposed to be  druidical  remains,  and thrown to-
gether on  some  important occasions.   They are very
common in the isle  of Anglesey, and were also used aa
sepulchral monuments,  in the  manner of tumuli.  Hence
it is inferred,  lhat the  ancient Britons  bad the custom of
throwing stones  on the deceased. From this custom is
derived the Welsh proverb, karn ardyben ;  '* 111 betide
thee."
  CARNEL, among  ship carpenters.  The building of
ships, first  with their timbers and beams, and after bring-
ing on their planks, is called carnel work, to distinguish it
from clinch work.
  CARNELIAN,  sarda, in natural history, a precious
stone,  of wbich there are  three  kinds,  distinguished by
(hree colours, a red, a yellow,  and a  white.   Authors
have attributed medicinal  virtues  to this  stone,  meaning
the red carnelian; this, therefore,  is to be understood as
the sarda, or carnelian of the  shops.   It is very  well
known among  us ; and  is found in roundish or  oval masses,
much  like our common  pebbles; and is generally  met
with between an inch and two or three  inches  in diameter. 
CAR
CAR
 It is of a fine, compact, and close texture, of a glossy sur-
 face ; and in the several specimens is of all the degrees of
 red, from lhe palest flesh colour to the deepest blood red.
 It is generally free from spots, clouds, or variegations : but
 sometimes it is veined very beautifully with an extreme-
 ly  pale red, or with white ; the veins  forming concentric
 circles, or other  less  regular  figures, about a nucleus, in
 the manner of those of  agates.  The  pieces of carnelian
 which are all of one colour, and perfectly free from veins,
 are (hose which our jewelters  generally make  use of for
 seals, though the variegated ones are much more beautiful.
 The carnelian  is tolerably hard, and capable of a very
 good polish: it is not  at all affected  by acid menstruums ;
 the fire divests it of a part of its colour, and leaves it ofa
 pale red; and a strong  and  long  continued heat will re-
 duce it to a pale dirty  gray.  The finest carnelians are
 those  of the East  Indies; but there  are very beautiful
 ones found in the rivers of Silesia and Bohemia; and we
 have some not despicable in England.
   Though the ancients  have recommended the carnelian
 as an astringent,  and  attributed a number of fanciful vir-
 tues to it, we know  no other use of the stone than the cut-
 ting seals on it, to wbich purpose it is excellently adapt-
 ed, as being not too hard for cutting, and yet hard enough
 not to be liable to accidents, to take a good polish, and to
 separate easily from the wax.
   According to the new arrangement in natural history,
 the carnelian is a variety ofthe chalcedony of fsero, and is
 composed  of 84 parts of silica, and  16 of alumine, mixed
 with iron.   The name has been given (o  different  hard
 stones, capable ofa fine polish, but chalcedony forms the
 basis of the greater number.   The varieties in their col-
 ours, transparency,  &c. have given occasion to their being
 known under a great variety of names.
   CARNIVAL, or  Carnaval, a time  of rejoicing, a
 season of mirth, observed with  great solemnity by the
 Italians, particularly at Venice, lasting from Twelfth day
 till Lent.   Feasts,  balls,  operas, concerts of music, in-
 trigues,  marriages,  &c. are chiefly  held in carnival  time.
 The carnival  begins at  Venice  the  second  holiday in
 Christmas;  then it is  they begin  to wear  masks, and
 open their  playhouses  and gaming  houses ; fhe Place of
 St. Mark is filled  with  mountebanks, pedlars, and such
 like mob, who flock thither  from  all parts.   There  have
 been no less than seven sovereign princes, and thirty thou-
 sand foreigners here, to  partake of these diversions.
  CARNIVOROUS, an appellation  given  to animals
 which  naturally feed  on flesh, and  thence called beasts
 or birds of prey.  Some will have if, that no quadrupeds
 are naturally carnivorous but those furnished with canine
 or dog teeth :  on which principle mankind are excluded
 out ofthe number of naturally carnivorous animals; and,
 in fact, animal food must undergo various preparations be-
 fore it is fit for the use of man.
  CAROLINE BOOKS, the name of four books,  com-
 posed by order of Charlemagne, to refute the second coun-
 • il of Nice.  These  books are couched in very harsh and
 severe terms, containing one hundred  and twenty heads
of accusation against the council of Nice, and condemning
 (he worship of images.
  CAROLINE A, a genus of (he monadelphia polyandria
!•]■{** and  order.  The  essential  character is; monogy-
niNUM. calyx ■-■imple, tubular,  truncate; petal ensiform;
pome five grooved, two celled.  There are two specie-);
natives of Guiana and Tobago.
   CAROLOSTADIANS, in church history, an ancient
branch of Lutherans, who denied the real presence in the
eucharist.
   CAROLUS, an ancient English broad piece of gold,
struck under Charles  I.  Its  value  has of late been at
twenty-three shillings  sterling, though at the time it was
coined, it  is said to have  been rated at twenty  shil-
lings.
   Carolus, a small copper coin, with a little silver mix-
ed with it, struck  under Charles VIII. of France.   The
carolus was worth twelve deniers when it ceased to be
current.
   CAROTEEL,  in commerce, an uncertain weight or
quantity of goods. Thus a caroteel of cloves is from four
to five hundred weight, of currants from five to  nine, of
mace about three hundred, of nutmegs from six to seven
hundred and a half.
   CAROTIDS, in anatomy,  two arteries of the neck,
which convey the blood from the aorta to the brain.  See
Anatomy.
   CAROXYLON, a genus of the pentandria monogynia
class and order: the  essentia! character is; corolla five
petaled; nect. five leaved, converging, inserted into the
corolla; seed clothed.  There is one species.
   CARPESIUM, a genus of the  syngenesia polygamia
superflua class  and  order: the essential character is;
calyx imbricate; down none;  recept.  naked.   There
are two species.
   CARP.  See Cvprinus.
   CARPiEA,  a kind of dance  anciently practised in
Athens and other Grecian states, by two persons, the one
acting as a labourer, the other  as a robber.   The labour-
er, laying by his arms, goes to  ploughing and sowing:  the
robber appears, and the other betakes himself lo his arms,
and fights  in defence  of his oxen.  The whole was per-
formed to  the sound of flutes.   Sometimes the  one was
victor and sometimes the other,  and  the reward was the
oxen and plough.  Tbe great  object of ihis nalional  ex-
ercise  was to teach and accustom lhe  peasants to defend
themselves against the attacks  of ruffians.
   CARPET, a sort of stuff wrought with  the needle or
on a loom, which  is part of the furniture ofa house, and
commonly spread over fables, or laid upon the  floor. Per-
sian  and Turkey carpets are most esteemed;  though at
Paris there  is a manufactory after the manner  of Persia,
where they make them little inferior, not lo say finer, than
(he (rue Persian carpets.  They  are  velvety, and per-
fectly imitate lhe  carpets which come  from  (he  Levant.
There are also carpets of Germany,  some  of  which  are
made of woollen stuffs, as serges,  &c. and called square
carpets ; others are made  of wool also, but wrought wilh
(he needle, and pretty often embellished wifh silk; and
lastly (here are carpels made of dog's hair.  We have
likewise carpets made in England,  which are used either
as floor carpets,  or lo make chairs and other  household
furniture.
  In weaving carpets the design or pattern is traced in its
proper colours on cartons, tied before the workman, who
looks at Ihem  every  moment, because every stitch  is
marked upon them, *s  if  is to be in  his work.  By  thU
means he  always knows what colours and slides )-e ;» f© 
CAR
CAR
use, and how many stitches of tbe same colour.  In this
he is assisted by squares,  into which  the whole design is
divided; each square is subdivided into ten vertical lines,
corresponding with the parcels often threads of tbe warp;
and besides, each square is ruled with ten horizontal lines,
crossing the vertical lines  at right angles. The workman,
having placed  his spindles of thread near him, begins to
work on the first horizontal line of one ofthe squares.
  The lines marked on the carton are not traced on the
warp, because an iron wire, which is longer than the width
of a parcel of ten threads, supplies the place of a cross
line.  This wire is managed by a crook at one end, at the
workman's right hand ;  toward the other end it is flatted
into a sort  of knife, with a back and edge, and grows wider
to the point.   The weaver fixes his iron wire horizontally
on the warp, by twisting some turns of a suitable thread
of the woof round it, which he passes forward and back-
ward, behind a fore  thread ofthe warp,  and then behind
the opposite thread, drawing them in  their turn by their
leishes.  Afterward he brings the woof thread round the
wire, in order  to begin  again to  thrust it into  the warp.
He continues in this manner to cover the iron rod or wire,
and to fill up a line to the  tenth thread ofthe warp.   He
is at liberty either to stop here or to go on with the same
cross line in the next division, according as he passes the
thread of the woof round the iron wire, and into the warp,
the threads of which he causes  to cross one  another at
every instant:  when he comes to the end of  the line, he
takes care to strike in or close again all the stitches with an
iron reed,  the  teeth of which freely enter between  the
empty threads of the warp, and which is heavy enough to
strike  in the woof he has  used.  This row of  stitches is
again  closed and  levelled,  and in the same manner the
weaver proceeds ; then with his left band he lays a strong
pair of sheers along the finished line,  culs off  the loose
hairs, and  thus forms a row of tufts perfectly even, which,
together with  those before and after  it, form  the shag.
Thus the workman follows stitch for stitch, and  colour for
colour, the plan of his pattern, which he is attempting to
imitate ; and he paints  magnificently, without having the
least notion of painting or  drawing.
  CARPINUS, the hornbeam, a genus of the polyandria
order, in the monoecia class of plants ; and in the natural
method ranking under the 50th order, amentaceae.  The
calyx of the male is  monophyllous and ciliated ; there is
no corolla, but 20 stamina.   The calyx of the  female is
monophyllous and ciliated ; no corolla; two germens, with
two styles on each.  The  fruit is an egg  shaped  nut.
There are  four species, vis.
  1. Carpinus betulus, or  common hornbeam ;  a decidu-
ous tree, native of Europe and America. Its leaves are
ofa darkish green,  and  about the size of those  of (he
beech, but more pointed and deeply serrated. Itc branch-
es are  long, flexible, and  crooked ;  yet in (heir general
appearance resemble (hose of (he beech.  Indeed (here is
so great a likeness between these I wo trees, especially in
(heir shrubby and underwood stete, (bat it would be diffi-
cult fo distinguish them, were it not for the glossy varnish
with which (he leaves of (he beech are strongly marked.
As  an underwood, it affords stakes and edders, fuel  and
charcoal.   Ifs limber ranks wilh lha( of (he beech and  (he
sycamore;  and (he inner bark is said  (o be much  used in
Scandinavia (o dye yellow.
  2. Carpinus ostrya, the hop hornbeam, a native of I(aly
and Virginia.
  3. Carpinus Virginiana, or flowering hornbeam.
  4. Carpinus duinensis.
  CARPOCRAT1ANS, heretics, who sprung up tow-
ard (he middle of (he second centery, being a branch of
the ancient Gnostics. They are said to have held a com-
munity of wives, and maintained lhat a man cannot arrive
at perfection without having passed through all criminal
actions; laying  down as a maxim, that there is no action
bad in itself, but only from the opinion of men.
  CARPODETUS, a genus of the pentandria monogy-
nia class and order:  the essential  character is, calyx five
notched, corolla five petaled; stigma flat headed; berry
globular, five celled. There is one species, a native of
New Zealand.
  CARPUS, the wrist.   See Anatomy.
  CARRARA  marble,  among artificers, the name of a
species of white marble, distinguished from the Parian call-
ed the statuary  marble,  by  being harder and less bright.
  CARRIER.  Every  person carrying goods for hire ia
deemed a carrier, and as such is liable in law for any loss
or damage that may happen  to them whilst in his custody.
Waggoners, captains of  ships, lightermen, &c. are there-
fore carriers;  but a stage coachman is not within (he cus-
tom as a carrier: neither are hackney coachmen carrier!
within the custom of the realm, so as to be chargeable for
the loss of goods, unless they are expressly  paid for that
purpose, for their undertaking is only f o carry the person.
  If a person takes hire  for  carrying goods, although he
be not a common carrier, he may nevertheless be charg-
ed upon  a special  assumpsit; for where hire is taken a
promise is implied ;  and  where  goods are delivered to a
carrier, and he  is  robbed of them, he  shall be  charged
and answer for them on account of the hire,  and tbe car-
rier can be no loser,  as he may recover against the hun-
dred.   Goods sent by a  carrier cannot be distrained for
rent;  and any person carrying goods for all persons in-
differently, is lo be deemed a common carrier as far as re-
lates to this privilege.  A delivery  to a servant is a de-
livery to the master; and if goods are delivered to a carrier's
porler and lost,  an  action will lie against the carrier.  1
Salk.  282.
  Where a carrier gives notice by printed proposals that
he will not be responsible for  certain valuable goods if lost,
if more (han (he value of a sum specified, unless entered
and paid for as such ; and valuable goods of that descrip-
tion are delivered to him,  by a person who knows lhe con-
ditions, but concealing the value, pays no more lhan the
ordinary price of  carriage  and  booking; the carrier is,
under such circumstances, neither responsible lo the sum
specified,  nor liable  to repay the sum paid for carriage
and booking.  M. 30. Geo. III. 1. II. B. 298.
  A carrier who undertakes for  hire to carry  goods, i«
bound to deliver them at all  events,  unless damaged and
destroyed by  the act of  God, or the king's enemies; and
if any accident,  however inevitable, happen through lhe
intervention of human means, a carrier  becomes respon-
sible.   1 T. R. 27.
  CARRON ADE,  a short  kind of ordnance, capable of
carrying a large ball, and useful in close engagements at
sea.   It has its  name from Carron,  fhe  place where this
kind of ordnance was first made. 
CAR
CAR
   CARROT, daucus, in botany.  See Daucus.
   CARRUCA, in antiquity,  a splendid kind  of car, or
 chariot,  highly decorated with gold, silver, ivory, &c. in
 which tbe emperors,  senators, and people of high rank,
 were carried.   The word was  used also in the middle ages
 to signify a plough.  Hence
   CARRUCAGE denoted the ploughing of  ground:
 either ordinary,  as for grain, hemp, flax ; or extraordi-
 nary, as for wood,  dyers' weed,  rape, and the like:  and
   CARRUCATE, in our ancient history, denotes as
 much arable land as can be tilled in one year with one
 plough.   In the Doomsday inquisition, the arable land is
 estimated  in  carrucates, the  pasture  in hides,  and the
 meadow land in acres.   In (he  reign of Richard I. (he
 carrucate was estimated at 60  acres; in the  time of  Ed-
 ward I. at 180, and in tbe 23d of Edward III. it contained
 112 acres.
   CARTHAMUS, a genus  of  the order of polygamia
 sequalis, in the syngenesia class of plants, and in the natural
 method ranking under the 49th order, composif x.  The ca-
 lyx  is ovate, imbricated with scales, close below,  and
 augmented with subovate foliaceous appendices at  top.  Of
 this genus there are 10 species;  but the only remarkable
 one is
   Carthamus  tinctorius,  with  a saffron coloured flower, a
 native of Egypt and some of the warm parts of Asia.  It
 is cultivated in many parts of Europe,  and in the Levant,
 whence great quantities of it are annually imported  into
 Britain for dyeing and painting.   It is an annual plant, and
 rises with a stiff ligneous stalk,  about 2£ or 3 feet in height,
 dividing upward  inlo many branches,  with  oval pointed
 leaves silting close to the  branches.   The flowers grow
 single at the extremity of each branch ;  the heads of the
 flowers are large, of a fine saffron colour, and are the part
 used for the purposes above mentioned.
   CARTHUSIANS, a religious order, founded in the
 year 1080, by one  Bruno.   Their rules are very  severe.
 They are  not to go out of their  cells, except to church,
 without  leave of their superior, nor speak to any person
 without leave.  They must not keep any portion of their
 meat or drink till next day; their beds are of straw, covered
 wifh a felt; their clothing two  hair cloths, two cowls,  two
 pair  of hose, and a cloak, all coarse.  In the refectory
 they are to keep their eyes on the dish, their hands on
 the (able, their attention on the  reader,  and their hearts
 fixed on God.   Women are not allowed to come into their
 churches.
   CARTILAGE,  in  anatomy, a body approaching much
 to the nature of bones, but lubricous, flexible, and elastic.
 See Anatomv.
   CARTIL AQINOUSfishes, or those with cartilaginous
 fin9, constitute a  class or order of fishes, called  by Lin-
 naeus amphibia nantes.   The term is applied to  all those
 fish,  fhe muscles of which are supported by cartilages,
 or gristles, instead of bones.  They unite in their forma-
 tion  several leading proper(ies  of  (he o(her tribes.  Like
 the cetaceous,  they have lungs ; and, like the spinous, they
 have  gills, and a heart without a partition.   Thus they
 fiossess a twofold manner of breathing; sometimes by their
 ungs, and sometimes by (heir gills.  This double capacity
of breathing in cartilaginous fish is  one ofthe most  remark-
able  features in  the history of nature, as they are thus
enabled lo unite all the advantages of which their situation
  vol. i.           59
is capable, and draw from both elements every aid to their
necessities or their enjoyment.  The apertures by which
they breathe are variously placed.  The gills are affixed to
these apertures, but without any bone to open and 3hut
them.   From  the gills are cylindrical ducts running (o (he
lungs, and which are supposed to convey the air that gives
play to  the organs.  This tribe can live longer out of the
water than those whose gills are more simple; tbey can
venture their heads above the deep, and continue for hours
out of their  native element.   This order includes  the
shark, lamprey, sturgeon, ray, &c.
  CARTON, or Cartoon, in painting,  a design drawn
on strong paper to be afterward calked through, and trans-
ferred on the fresh plaster of a wall to be painted in fresco.
Carton  is also used for a design coloured for working  in
mosaic,  tapestry, &c.   The cartons at  Hampton courl
are designs of  Raphael Urbino.  They are seven in num-
ber, and form only a small  part of tbe sacred historical
designs  executed by this  artist, while engaged  in  the
chambers  of the Vatican,  under the auspices  of popes
Julius II.  and  Leo X.  When finished they  were  sent  to
Flanders fo be copied in tapestry, for adorning the  pontifi-
cal apartments ; the work was not, however, sent to Rome
till after the death of Raphael.   The  cartons themselves
lay long neglected after the sacking of Rome in the time
of Clement VII. they were at length discovered and pur-
chased  by Rubens for Charles I. of England.  They are
held in  lhe highest estimation by all those who have any
pretensions to true taste, for their various and matchless
merit, particularly  wilh  regard to the invention,  and  to
the great and noble expression of such a variety of char-
acters, countenances, and attitudes, as Ihey are different-
ly affected and properly engaged.
  CARTOUCHE, in architecture and sculpture, an or-
nament  representing a scroll of paper.  It is  usually aflat
member, with wavings, to represent some inscription, de-
vice,  cypher, or ornament of armoury.  They are in ar-
chitecture much the same as modillions; only these are
set under the cornice in wainscoting, and those under the
cornice  at the eaves of a house.
  Cartouche, in the military art, a case of  wood, about
three inches thick at the bottom, girt with marlin, holding
about 400 musket balls, besides six or eight  balls of iron,
of a pound weight,  to be fired  out of  a hobit, for  the de-
fence of a pass,  &c.  A cartouche is sometimes made  of
a globular form, and filled with a ball of a pound weight;
and  sometimes it is made for  the  guns,  being of ball  of
half or  quarter pound weight,  according  to the  nature  of
the gun, tied in form of a bunch of grapes, on a tompion
of wood, and coated over.  These were made in the room
of partridge shot.
  CARTRIDGE,  in the military art, a case of  paste-
board or parchment, holding the exact  charge of a fire
arm.  Those  for muskets, carabines,  and  pistols, hold
both the powder and ball  for the charge; and those  of
cannon  and  mortars are usually in  cases of pasteboard
or tin,  sometimes  of wood, half a foot long, adapted  to
the caliber of  the piece.
  CARTS. Every cart, &c. for the carriage of any thin*
to and from any place where the streets are paved, within
the bills of mortality, shall contain six inches in the felly •
and no person shall drive any  cart, &c. within the limits'
aforesaid,  unless the name of  the owner and number  of 
OAR
CAR
 such cart be placed in some conspicuous part thereof, and
 his name entered with the commissioners of the hackney
 coaches, under the  penalty of 40s. and any person may
 seize and detain such cart till (he penalty be paid. 18. Geo.
 II. c. 33.  And if the  driver shall ride upon such cart
 without having a person on foot to guide  it, he shall forfeit
 10s. and the owner  so  guilty forfeits 20s.   On changing
 property fhe name of the new owners shall be affixed, and
 entry shall be made with the commissioners of the hackney
 coaches.  The entry of all carts driven within five miles of
 Temple bar, is strictly  enjoined by the 24 Geo. III. s. 2.
 c. 27.
   CARUM, a genus of fhe digynia order, in the pentan-
 dria class of plants,  and in the natural method ranking
 under the  45th order,  umbellatse.  The fruit is ovate,
 oblong, and striated ; the involucrum monophyllous ; the
 petals  are carinated  or keel shaped below, and emargi-
 nated by their inflection.   There is one species,
   Carumcarui, the caraway of the shops, grows naturally
 in many places of Britain.  It is a biennial  plant, which
 rises from seeds one year, flowers the next, and perishes
 soon after the seeds are ripe.  It has  a strong aromatic
 taste, and a taper root  like a parsnep, but much smaller,
 which runs deep into the ground, sending out many small
 fibres.   From the root  arises one  or two smooth,  solid,
 channelled stalks, about two feet high, with winged leaves,
 having long naked footstalks.   The seed of this plant  is
 one of the greater hot seeds, stomachic, carminative, and
 good in the colic.  The officinal preparations of it are the
 seeds candied with sugar, and an oil distilled from the seed.
   CARUNCULA.  See Anatomy.
   CARUNCLES in the urethra.   See Surgery.
   CARUS, in medicine, a sudden deprivation of  sense
 and motion, affecting the whole body.   See Medicine.
   CARYATIDES, or Cariates, in architecture, a kind
 or order of columns or pilasters under the figure of women
 dressed in long robes, after the manner of the Carian peo-
  le, and serving instead of. columns to  support the  enta-
  lemeiit.
   CARYOCAR, in botany, a genus of the tetragynia or-
 der, in the polyandria class of plants.  The calyx is quin-
 quepartite, the petals five, the styles most frequently four.
 The fruit is a drupe,  with nucleuses, and four furrows net-
 ted.  There is one species.
   CARYOPHYLLUS, tbe  clove tree, a genus of the
 monogynia order, in the polyandria class of plants  ; and
 in the natural method ranking under the 19th order, hespe-
 ridese.   The corolla is tetrapetalous; the calyx tetraphy 1 -
 lous ; the berry monospermous, below  the receptacle of
 fhe flower.  Of this there is but one species,  vis.
   Caryophyllus aromaticus, which is a  native of the Mo-
 lucca islands, particularly of Amboyna,  where it is prin-
 cipally cultivated.   The clove tree resembles in its bark
 the olive; and is about tbe height of the laurel.  No verdure
 is ever seen under it.   It has a great number of  branches,
 at the extremities of  which are produced vast quantities of
 flowers, lhat are first white, then green,  and at last pretty
 red and hard.   When they arrive at this degree of matu-
 rity, (hey are,  properly speaking,  cloves.  As they dry,
 tbey assume a dark yellowish cast, and when gathered
 become of a deep brown.  The season  for gathering the
 clovea  is from October to February.  The boughs of the
frees are then strongly shaken, or "the cloves beaten down
 with long reeds.  Large cloths are spread to receive them
 and (hey are  afterward either dried in (he sun or in the
 smoke of the bamboo cane.  The cloves which escape the
 notice of those who gather them,  or are purposely left
 upon the free, continue to grow till  they are about as inch
 in  thickness; aud  these falling  off, produce new plants,
 which do not bear in less than eighl  or nine vears.  Those
 which are called mother cloves are inferior to the common
 sort, but are preserved in sugar by the Dutch, and in lonr
 voyages eaten after their meals,  to promote  digestion.
 The clove,'  to be in perfection, must be full sized, heavy]
 oily, and easily broken, of a fine smell,  and of a bot aro-
 matic  taste, so as almost lo burn  the throat.   It should
 make tbe fingers smart when handled, and leave  an oily
 moisture upon them when pressed.  In  lhe East Indies
 and in some parte of Europe,  it is so much admired as to
 be thought an indispensable ingredient  in almost every
 dish.  Cloves are very hot, stimulating,  aromatics; and
 possess in  an eminent degree the general virtues of sub-
 stances of this class.   Their  pungency  resides in their
 resin,  or rather in  a combination of resin with essential
 oil; for the spirituous extract is very pungent: but if  the
 oil and the  resin contained in this  extract are separated
 from each olher by distillation, (he oil will be very mild;
 and any pungency  which it does  retain, proceeds from
 some small  portion of adhering  resin, and the remaining
 oil will be insipid.   No plant, or part of any plant, con-
 tains such a  quantity of oil as cloves  do.   From 16 ounces
 Newman obtained  by distillation  two ounces and  two
 drams, and  Hoffman obtained an ounce  and a half of oil
 from two ounces of the  spice.  The oil is  specifically
 heavier than water.  Cloves acquire weight by imbibing
 water; and  this they will do at some  considerable distance.
 The Dutch, who trade in cloves, make a  considerable ad-
 vantage by knowing this secret.   They sell them alwavs
 by weight;  and when a bag of cloves  is ordered, (hey
 hang i( for several hours before i,( is sen( in, over a vessel
 of water, at about  two feet distance from the  surface.
 This will add many  pounds to the weight, which the  un-
 wary purchaser pays for on the spot.  This is sometime!
 practised in Europe, as well as in the spice islands: but
 the degree of  moisture must be more carefully watched in
 the  latter ;  for there a  bag of cloves will, in one night's
 time, attract so much  water, that it may be pressed out
 by squeezing them wifh the hand.  At Amboyna the com-
 pany have allotted  the inhabitants  4000  parcels of land,
 on each of which they were at  first allowed, and about
 the year 1720 compelled, to plant about 125 trees, amount-
 ing in all to 500,000.   Each of these trees produces annu-
 ally  on an average more than two pounds of cloves, and
 consequently the collective produce  must weigh more than
 a million.  See Plate XXVII. Nat. Hist. fig. 92.
  CARYOTA, in botany, a genus of the monoecia po-
 lyandria plants, classed by Linnaeus under palmae:  the
male and female flowers of which  are produced in sep-
arate parts of the same  spadix ; (he  corolla is divided into
three hollow,  lanceolated  segments; (he stemina are nu-
 merous filaments,  longer  than  the corolla; fhe anthers
are linear ;  the corolla in (he female flower is divided into
two very small acuminated segments ; the fruit is a round
berry,  containing a single cell; the  seeds are two, large,
oblong, rounded on one side, and  flatted on the other.
There are two species. 
CAS
CAS
   CASE, among grammarians, implies the different in-
 flexions or terminations of nouns,  serving to express the
 different relations they  bear to each other, and  to the
 things they represent.
   Case, among printers,  denotes a sloping frame,  divid-
 ed into several  compartments, each containing a number
 of types or letters of the same kind.   From these com-
 partments the compositor takes out each letter as he wants
 it, to compose a page or form.
   Case of crown glass contains 12, 15, or 18 fables, ac-
 cording to the quality of the glass : in cases of the best
 glass there are the smallest number of tables, as the price
 is (he  same for each case.
   Cask of Newcastle green glass contains  35 tables.
   Case hard en mo,  a method of preparing iron, so as
 to render its outer surface hard, and capable of resisting
 any edged tool.
   Case shot,  in the military art,  musket ball, stones,
 old iron,  &c.  put into cases,  and shot out of great  guns.
   CASEMENT, or Casemate,  in architecture,  a hol-
 low moulding, which some architects make one sixth ofa
 circle, and others one fourth.
   CASERN, in  fortification,  lodgings built in garrison
 towns, generally near the rampart, or in the waste  places
 of the town,  for  lodging the  soldiers  of the  garrison.
 There are usually two beds in each casern for six soldiers
 to lie, who mount the guard alternately, the third  part
 being always  on duty.
   CASES, reserved, in the polity of the Romish church,
 atrocious crimes, the absolution of which is reserved by
 the superiors  to themselves or their vicars.  There are
 cases reserved by the pope,  who formerly gave (he ab-
 solution  in person, but now delegates that power (o cer-
 tain bishops and priests : cases reserved  by (he bishops
 in convents, some by (he chapters;  but at tbe point of
 death all reserved cases  are absolvable by the ordinary.
 The cases reserved by the pope,  according to (he ritual
 of Paris,  are:  1. The wilful burning of churches, and
 also of other  places, if (he incendiary  is publickly pro-
 claimed.  2. Actual simony.  3. The murder or mutila-
 tion of a person in holy orders.   4. The striking a bishop
 or other prelate.  5. Furnishing arms to the infidels.  6.
 Falsifying the bulls or letters of the pope.   7. Invading
 or pillaging the lands of  the church.  8. Violating an in-
 terdiction of (he pope.
   CASHEW NUT.  See Anacardium.
   CASING of timber work, among builders, is (he plas-
 tering a house all over on the outside with morfar, and
 then striking it while wet  by a ruler wifh the corner ofa
 trowel, to make it  resemble the  joints  of freestone.
 Some direct it to be done upon heart laths, because the
 mortar would  in a little time decay the sap  laths,  and to
 lay on fhe mortar in (wo thicknesses, vis. a second  before
 the first is dry.
   CASKETS,  on board  a ship, small ropes made  of sin-
 net, and fastened (o grommets or lit tie rings upon (he  yards.
 Their use is (o make fast (he sail to the yard when it is to
 be furled.
   CASSATION, among civilians, the act  of annulling
any act or procedure.  The reasons of  cassation are; 1.
 AY hen  a decree is directly contrary  to another decree,
and both airainsl (be  snc e party.   2. AY hen the decrees
•re contrary to the express decision of  statutes and cus-
                  59*
tomi.  3. When the formalities prescribed by the laws
have not been observed.
   Cassation  is properly a term in the courts of France,
the laws of which country require the party that sues for
a cassation,  to deposite 450 livres, which sum is forfeited
if he fails in his suit.
   CASSIA, a genus of the monogynia order, in the de-
candria class of plants,  and in the natural method ranking
under the 33d order, lomentaceae.  The calyx is  penfa-
phyllous ;  petals  five; antherae, upper, (hree barren;
lower, three beaked : a leguminous plant.  There  are 51
species, all natives of warm climates.  The most remark-
able are:
   1. Cassia fistula, the  purging cassia  of Alexandria,  is
a native of Egypt and both  Indies:  it rises to the  height
of 40 or 50 feet, with a  large trunk, dividing into many
branches with winged leaves.  The flowers are produced
in long spikes at the end of the branches, each standing
upon a long footstalk : these are .composed of fine yellow
concave petals,  which are succeeded by  cylindrical pods
from one fo two feet long, with a dark brown woody shell,
having a longitudinal seam on one side, divided into many
cells by transverse partitions,  each containing one  or two
oval, smooth, compressed  seeds, lodged* in  a  blackish
pulp, which  is tbe cassia used in medicine.   There are
two sorts of this drug in the shops, one brought from the
East Indies, the other from the West.   The canes or pods
of the latter are generally large, rough, Ibick rinded, and
the pulp nauseous ; (hose of the former are less, smoother,
the pulp blacker, and of a sweeter taste ; this sort  is pre-
ferred (o the  other.  The pods should be chosen weighty,
new,  and not rattling, from the seeds being loose  within
them, when  shaken. The  pulp should be  of a  bright
shining black colour,  and a sweet teste ; not harsh, which
happens  from the fruit being gathered before it has grown
fully ripe,  or sourish, wbich it is apt to  turn upon keep-
ing : it should neither be very dry nor  very moist,  nor at
all mouldy ;  which, from its  being kept  in damp cellars or
moistened, in order to increase its weight, it  is very  sub-
ject to be.  The greatest part of the pulp dissolves both in
water and rectified spirit; and may be extracted from the
pod by either.   This pulp is a gentle laxative medicine ;
and frequently given, in a dose of some drams,  in costive
habits.   See Plate XXVII. Nat. Hist. fig. 93.
  2. Cassia senna, is a shrubby plant cultivated in Persia,
Syria, and Arabia, for the leaves, which form  a considera-
ble article of commerce.  They are of an oblong  figure,
sharp pointed at the ends,  about a  quarter  of an  inch
broad, and not a full inch in length ; ofa  lively yellowish
green colour, a faint, not very  agreeable smell,  and a
subacrid, bitterish, nauseous taste.  They  are brought
from the above places,  dried and picked fjom tbe  stalks,
to Alexandria in Egypt, and  thence imported  info Eu-
rope.  Some  inferior sorte  are brought from Tripoli and
other places: (hese may easily be distinguished by their
being either  narrower,  longer, and  sharper  pointed; or
larger, broader, and round pointed, wiJh  small prominent
veins ; or large and obdise,  ofa fresh green colour, with-
out any yellow cast.   Senna is  a very useful  cathartic,
operating mildly, and yet effectually ;  and if judiciously
dosed  and  managed,  rarely  occasioning (he  ill  conse-
quences  which loo fiequenlly  follow the  exhibition of (he
stronger purges. 
CAS
CAS
   CASSID A, in zoology, a genus of insects, ofthe order of
 the coleoptera, with filiform or threadlike antenna; thick-
 est toward the extremities.  Add to this, that the thorax is
plain and marginated.   Of this genus there are many spe-
cies, some green, as the viridis, some gray, but most black;
but all have been confounded by authors with the beetles,
and called in English tortoise beetles.  Foreign countries
afford many beautiful species.  Even in this climate there
is something  singular in them.   Their larva, by the help
of two prongs which are found at  its  hinder  extremity,
makes itself, with its own excrements, a kind of umbrella,
that shelters  it from  the sun and rain.   When this um-
brella becomes too dry, it parts with it for a new one.
This larva casts its slough  several times.   Thistles and
verticillated plants are inhabited by these  insects. There
is  one species, of which the chrysalis resembles an armori-
al  escutcheon.   It is this which produces our variegated
cassida.   Numbers are found  on the sides of ponds, upon
the wild  elecampane.  See Plate XXVII. Nat.  Hist.
fig. 94.
  CASSINE; a genus of the trigynia order, in the  pen-
tandria class of plants, and  in the natural method ranking
under the 23d order, dumosae.   The calyx is quinque-
partite;  the petals are five ; and the fruit is a trispermous
berry.  There are four species, all of them  natives of warm
climates.
  CASSIOPEIA,  in astronomy, a  constellation in fhe
northern hemisphere, situated  opposite to the Great Bear,
on the other side ofthe pole.  The stars of this constella-
tion  in  Ptolemy's  catalogue, are thirteen; in Tycho's
twenty-eight; and in  Mr. Flamsteed's fifty-six.  In the
year 1572 a  remarkable new star appeared in this con-
stellation, surpassing  Sirius or Lyra  in  brightness and
magnitude.  It appeared  even  bigger than  Jupifer, which,
at that time,  was near  his  perigee,  and by some was
thought  equal to Venus when she is in her greatest lus-
tre ;  but in a month it began to diminish in lustre, and in
about eighteen months entirely disappeared.
   CASSITERIA, in  the  history of fossils, a genus of
crystals, the figures of which are influenced by an admix-
ture  of some particles of tin.  The cassiteria are of two
kinds; the whitish pellucid  cassiterion,  and the brown
cassiterion: the first  is a  tolerably  bright  and pellucid
crystal, and seldom  subject to the common  blemishes  of
crystal: it is ofa perfect and regular form, in the figure
of a quadrilateral pyramid, and is found in Devonshire and
Cornwall  principally.  The brown cassiterion is like the
former in figure: it is of a  very smooth and glossy sur-
face, and is also found in great plenty in  Devonshire and
Cornwall.
   CASSOWARY.  See Struthio.
   CAST, or caste, in the East, denotes  a tribe or num-
ber of families of the same  rank and profession.  The di-
vision of a nation into casts  obtains in the dominions  of
fhe great  mogul,  kingdom of Bengal, and  the island of
 Ceylon.   There are four principal casts, vis. that of the
 bramins,  which is tbe most noble; that of tbe rajahs, or
 princes, who claim to be descended from the royal fami-
 lies ; that of the choutres, which includes artificers  ; and
 that of the parias, the lowest of all.  Every art and trade is
 confined to ifs proper cast, nor can it be exercised by any
 but those whose fathers have professed the same.   The
cast of parias ia held infamous ; and (here are trades in (he
 cast of choutres which debase the professors  of them al.
 most to the same rank; some of which are fishermen
 shoemakers, and even  shepherds.
   CASTANIA, chesnut, in botany, a genus of the  class
 monoecia, order pentandria. The es sential characters are •
 cal. five and six leaved ; cor.  five petaled ; seed two and'
 three, enclosed in a convex hull  or bur; flowers in June.
 There are three species.  1. C. vesca americana,  com-
 mon chesnut, native of Pennsylvania and Carolina.  2. C.
 nana, dwarf chesnut, native of Georgia,  and 3. C. pumila
 chinquapin, native of Pennsylvania and  Georgia.  (6)
   CASSYTA,  a genus of the monogynia order, in lhe
 enneandria class  of plants. The corolla  is in the form of a
 calyx, divided  into six segments ; the nectarium is  com-
 posed of three  truncated glands encompassing the ger-
 men ;  the interior filaments are glandular ; and the drupe
 contains a single seed.  There are two  species.
   CASTILLAN, or Castillane, a gold coin,  current in
 Spain, and worth fourteen rials and sixteen deniers.  Cas-
 tillan is also a weight used in Spain for weighing gold.  It
 is  the hundredth part of a pound Spanish weight. AA*hat
 they commonly call  a  weight of gold in Spain, is alwavi
 understood of the castillan.
   CASTILLEIA, a genus ofthe  didynamia angiosper-
 mia class and order.  The essential character  is, calyx
 tubular, compressed; upper lip bifid,  lower none; corolla,
 lower lip trifid ;  capsule two celled.   There are two spe-
 cies, natives of South America.
   CASTING, among sculptors, implies the taking of casts
 and impressions of figures, busts, medals, Sec.
   The art of taking casts or  impressions  from pieces of
 sculpture, medals, &c. is of very great importance in tbe
 fine arts.   In order to procure  a copy or cast from any
 figure, bust, medal, &c. it is necessary to obtain a mould, by
 pressing upon the thing to be moulded or  copied some sub-
 stance which, when soft,  is capable of  being forced into
 all the cavities  or hollows of  the sculpture.   When this
 mould is dry and hard, some substance is poured into it,
 which will fill all the cavities of the mould, and represent
 the form of the original from which the mould was taken.
  The particular manner of moulding depends upon the
form of the subject to be worked upon.   When there are
no projecting parts,  but such  as form a right or a greater
angle with the principal surface ofthe body, nothing  more
is  required than to cover it over  with  the substance of
 which  the mould  is to  be formed, taking care to press it
 well into  all  the cavities of the original, and to take it
 off clean, and without bending.  The substances used for
 moulding are various,  according to tbe  nature and situa-
 tion of the sculpture.   If it may be laid  horizontally, and
 will  bear to be oiled  without injury, plaster of Paris may
 be advantageously employed,  wbich  may be poured over
 it to a convenient thickness, after oiling  it to prevent the
 plaster from sticking.   A composition of beeswax, resin,
 and pitch, may  also be used, which will  be a very desira-
 ble mould, if many casts are  to be taken from. •'•  But if
 the situation  of the sculpture is perpendicular,  so that
 nothing can be poured  upon it, then clay, or some similar
 substance, must be used.  The best kind of clay for this
 purpose is  that  used  by the  sculptors for making their
 models ;  it must be worked (o  a due consistence, and hav-
 ing  spread  it out fo a size sufficient (o  cover all the sur-
 face, it must be sprinkled over with whiting, (o prevent U 
CASTING.
from adhering to  the  original.  Beeswax and dough, or
the crumb of new bread, may also be used  for moulding
some small subjects.   When (here are undercuttings in
the  bas relief, they must be first filled up before it can be
moulded, otherwise the mould could not be got off.  When
the casts are taken afterward, these places must be work-
ed out with a proper tool.
   AVThen the model, or original subject, is ofa round form,
or projects so much that it cannot be moulded in this man-
ner, (he mould must be divided into several parts; and it
is frequently necessary to cast several parts separately,
and  afterward  (o join  (hem together.  In this case, the
plaster must  be tempered  with  water  to  such  a con-
sistence, (ha( it may be worked like soft paste, and must be
laid on with  some convenient instrument, compressing it
so as to make it adapt itself to all parts  of the surface.
When tbe model is covered to a convenient thickness, the
whole must be left at rest till the  plaster is set  and firm,
so as to  bear dividing  without falling to  pieces, or being
liable to be put out of its form by any slight violence;
and  il must (hen be divided  into  pieces, in order to its
being taken off from the model, by cutting it with a knife
with a very thin blade; and being divided, must be cau-
tiously taken off,  and  kept  till dry: but it must be ob-
served,  before  tbe separation of the  parts is made, to
notch them across the joints, or lines of division, at prop-
er distances, that they may  with ease  and certainty be
properly put together again.   The art of properly divid-
ing the moulds, in order to make them separate from the
model, requires more dexterity and skill than any other
thing in the art of casting, and does not admit of rules for
the  most  advantageous conduct  of it  in  every case.
AVhere (he subject is ofa round or spheroidal form, it is
best to divide the mould into  three parts, which will then
easily come off from the model; and the same will hold
good of a cylinder, or any regular  curve  figure.  The
mould being thus formed, and dry, and the parts  put to-
gether, it must be first oiled, and placed in such a position
that the hollow may lie upward, and then filled with plas-
ter mixed with water ; and when the cast is perfectly set
and  dry, it must be taken out  of the mould and repaired
when necessary, which finishes the operation.
   In larger masses, where  there  would  otherwise be a
great thickness of tbe  plaster, a core may be put within
the mould, in order to produce a hollow in the cast, which
both saves the expense of the plaster, and renders the cast
lighter.
   In the same manner, figures, busts, Sec. may be cast of lead,
or any other metal in the moulds of plaster or clay ; taking
care, however, that the moulds be perfectly dry; for should
there be the  least moisture in them,  the sudden heat  of
the metal would convert it into vapour, which would pro-
duce an explosion, and blow the melted metal about.
   To lake a cast  in metal from any small animal, insect,
or vegetable.   Prepare a box, sufficiently large to hold
(he animal,  which must be dead, in which it must  be sus-
pended by a string, and the  legs, wings, &c. ofthe ani-
mal,  or (he tendrils, leaves, Sec. ofthe vegetable, must be
separated, and adjusted in their right  position by a pair of
sunll pincers.  A due quantity of plaster of Paris mixed
with t.dc, must  be tempered (o (he  proper consistence
wifh  water, ai.I the sides of the box oiled. Also a straight
piece of stick  must be  put to  (he principal part of the
body, and pjeces of wire  to the extremities of the other
parts, in order that they may form, when drawn out after
the matter of the mould is set and firm, proper channels
for pouring in the metal, and vents for the air, which oth-
erwise, by the rarefaction it would undergo from (he heat
of the metals, would blow  it out, or burst the mould.   In
a short time the plaster will set, and become hard ; when
the stick and wires may be drawn  out, and the frame or
coffin in which the mould  was cast taken away ; and the
mould must  then  be put, first, into a moderate  heat, and
afterward when it is as dry as it  can be rendered by that
degree, removed  into a greater, which may be gradually
increased till the whole is red hot. The animal or vegeta-
ble enclosed in the mould, will  then be burnt to a coal:
and may be totally calcined to ashes, by blowing for some
time into the charcoal and  passages made  for pouring in
the metal, and giving vent to  the air; which will, at the
same time that it destroys the remainder of  the animal or
vegetable matter, blow out the ashes. The mould must then
be suffered  to cool  gently, and  will  be perfect; the de-
struction of the substance included in  it, having produced
a corresponding hollow; but it may nevertheless be prop-
er to shake the mould, and  turn it upside down, as also to
blow with the bellows into  each  of the air vents, in order
to free  it wholly from any remainder of  the ashes; or
where  there may be an opportunity of filling the  hollow
with quicksilver, it will be found  a very effectual method
of clearing the cavity; as all dust, ashes, or small detached
bodies,  will necessarily rise to the surface of the quick-
silver, and be poured out with it.  The mould  being thus
prepared, it must be heated very hot, when  used,  if the
cast is to be made with copper or brass, but a less degree
will serve for lecd or tin.   The  metal being poured into
the mould, must be gently struck, and then suffered to
rest till  it is cold; at  which  time  it  must  be  carefully
taken from the cast, but without force ; for such parts of
the matter as appear  to adhere  more strongly, must be
softened, by soaking in water till they are entirely loosen-
ed, that none ofthe  more delicate parts ofthe cast may be
broken off or bent.
  When  talc cannot be obtained, plaster  alone may be
used; but it is apt to be calcined, by the  heat used in
burning the animal or vegetable whence the cast is  taken,
and to  become of too  incoherent and friable a texture.
Stourbridge, or  any  other good clay, washed perfectly
tine, and mixed  with  an equal part of fine sand, may be
employed. Pounded pumice stone, and plaster of Paris, in
equal quantities, mixed with washed clay in the same pro-
portion, is said to make excellent moulds.
  Method of taking  a cast  in plaster from a person's face.
The person  whose likeness is required in plaster, must lie
on his back, and  the hair must be lied back, so that none
of it covers  the face.   Info each nostril convey a conical
piece of stiff paper, open at both ends to allow of breath-
ing.   The face is then lightly oiled  over in every part
with salad oil, to  prevent the plaster from  sticking to fhe
skin.   Procure some  fresh burnt plaster, and mix it with
water to a proper consistence for pouring.   Then pour it
by spoonfuls quickly all over the face, taking care the eyes
are shut,  till it is entirely  covered to the  thickness of  a
quarter of an inch. This substance will grow sensibly hot,
and in a few minutes it will be hard, and form a mould, in
which a  head  of clay may be moulded; and  therein the 
CAS
C  A  S
eyes may be opened, and such other additions and correc-
tions may be made as are necessary.  Then, this second
face being anointed with  oil,  another mould of plaster
must  be made upon  it,  consisting of two  parts joined
lengthwise along the ridge of the nose ; and in this a cast
in plaster may be taken, which will  be exactly  like  the
original.
   To take casts from medals.   In order to take copies of
medals, a mould must first be  made; this is generally ei-
ther of plaster of Paris,  or of melted sulphur.
   After having oiled the surface of the medal with a little
cotton, or a camel's hair pencil dipped in oil of olives, put
a hoop of paper round  it, standing up above the surface
of the thickness you  wish the mould to be.   Then take
some  plaster of Paris, mix it with water  to  the  consist-
ence of cream, and with a brush rub it over the  surface
of  the medal, to prevent  air holes from appearing: then
immediately afterward  make it to a sufficient thickness, by
pouring on more plaster.  Let it stand about half an hour,
and it  will in that time grow so hard, that you may safely
take it off;  then pare it smooth  on the back and round
the edges neatly.   It  should be dried, if in cold or damp
weather, before a brisk fire.  If you cover the face of the
mould with fine plaster, a coarser sort will do for the back :
but no more plaster should be mixed up at one time than
can be used, as it will  soon get hard, and cannot be soften-
ed without  burning over  again.   Sulphur must  not be
poured upon silver  medals, as  this will tarnish them.
   To prepare this mould for casting sulphur or plaster of
Paris  in, take  half a pint of boiled linseed oil, and oil of
turpentine one ounce, and mix them together in a bottle ;
when wanted, pour the mixture into a plate or saucer, and
dip the surface ofthe mould into it;  take tbe mould  out
again; and when it  has sucked in the oil, dip it again.   Re-
peat this, till the oil begins to stagnate upon it ; then take a
little  cotton wool, hard rolled up, to prevent the oil from
sticking to it,  and wipe  it  carefully off.  Lay it in a dry
place for a day or two, if longer the better, and the mould
will acquire a very hard surface from the effect ofthe oil.
   To cast plaster of Paris in  this mould proceed with it
in the same manner as above directed for obtaining the
mould itself, first oiling the mould with olive oil.   If sul-
phur  casts  are required, it  must be melted in  an iron
ladle.
   Another  method with  isinglass.  Dissolve isinglass in
water over the fire  ; then, with a hair pencil, lay the melt-
ed isinglass over the medal; and when you have covered
it properly, let it dry.   AVhen it is hard, raise the isinglass
up with the point, of a penknife, and it will  fly off  like
horn, having a sharp  impression of the medal.
   The isinglass may  be made of any colour, by mixing
the colour with it;  or you may breathe on  the concave
side,  and  lay gold leaf on it,  which, by shining through,
will make it appear like a gold medal.   But if you wish
to  imitate a copper medal, mix a little  carmine  with the
isinglass, and lay gold leaf on as before.
   CASTLE, in the sea language, is a part ofthe ship, of
which there are two; the forecastle, being the elevation
at the prow, or the  uppermost deck, toward the mizen, the
place where the kitchens  are; and the hindcastle, where
the officers' cabins are.
   CASTOR, the beaver, in zoology, a genus of lhe order
of glires.   The generic  character is, front teeth in the up-
per jaw truncated and excavated with a transverse angle;
in the lower jaw transverse at the tips; grinders on each
Bide four; tail long, depressed and scaly ; collar bones ia
the skeleton.
   1. Castor fiber, or common beaver, is a native of the
most northern parts of Europe  and Asia, but is found
most  plentifully in North America.  It is readily distin-
guished from every other quadruped; see Plate XXATII.
Nat. Hist. fig. 95; by the remarkable structure of its tail
which is of  an  oval form, nearly flat, but  rising into a
slight convexity on its upper surface, perfectly  void of
hair, except at the base, and marked out  into scaly divi-
sions like the skin of a fish.  The general length ofthe beaver
is about three feet, and of the tail nearly one foot.  The
colour of the animal  is a  deep chesnut,  and  the hair is
very fine, smooth, and glossy.   The beaver, like other
quadrupeds, sometimes varies in colour,  and is  occasional.
ly found perfectly black.
   Of all quadrupeds tbe beaver is considered  as possess-
ing the greatest  degree of natural or instinctive sagacity
in constructing ils habitation ; preparing,  in concert with
others of its own species, a kind  of arched caverns or
domes, supported by a foundation of sliong pillars,  and
lined or plastered internally with a degree of neatnej-saud
accuracy unequalled by the art of any olher quadruped.
   The favourite resorts of the beaver are  retired watery,
and woody,  situations.  In  such places the animals as-
semble, to the number of some hundreds;  living in a kind
of families,  and building their arched mansions or recep-
tacles.
   They begin to assemble in the month of June  or July,
for the purpose  of uniting into society.  They arrive in
numbers from all parts, and soon form a troop of two or
three hundred.  The place of rendezvous is generally the
situation fixed for their establishment, and always on the
banks  of  some water.  If the waters are  flat, and never
rise above their ordinary level,  as in lakes, the beavers
make no bank or dam ; but in rivers or brooks, where the
waters are subject to risings and fallings, they  construct a
bank, and by this artifice form a  pond or piece of water,
which  remains always at  the  same  height.  The  bank
traverses  the river, from one side  to  tbe other, like a
sluice, and is often from eighty to a hundred feet long, by
ten or twelve broad at the base.   This pile, for animals of
so small a size, appears to  be enormous, and supposes an
incredible labour ; but the solidity with which  the work il
constructed is still more  astonishing than its  magnitude,
The part of the river where  they erect this bank is gen-
erally shallow.    If they find on  the margin a large tree,
which can be made to fall into the water, they begin with
cutting it down, to form lhe principal part of  their work.
This tree  is  often  thicker than the body of a man.  By
gnawing the foot of  a tree with  their four  cut (ing teeth
they accomplish their purpose in a very short lime, and
always  make the tree fall across the river. Tbey next
cut the branches from  the trunk,  to make it lie  level.
These operations are performed by the whole community.
Several beavers are  employed in gnawing the foot of tbe
tree, and others  in lopping off the branches after it has fall-
en.  Others, at  the same time, traverse  the  banks of
the river,  and cut down  smaller  trees from the  size ofa
man's leg  to that of hi* thigh.  These (hey dress and cut
to a certain length, to make stakes of them, and  first drag 
CAS
CAT
 them by land to  the margin of the river, and then by wa-
 ter to (be place where (he building is carrying on. These
  Eiles (hey sink down, and interweave the branches with (he
   rger stakes.  Whilst some are labouring in (his manner,
 others bring earth,  which they plash with their fore feet,
 and transport  in such quantities, that fhey  fill wilh it all
 the intervals between  fhe piles.  These piles consist of
 several rows of stakes, of equal height, all placed opposite
 to each other, and  extend from one bank of the river to
 the other.  The stakes facing the under part of the river
 are placed perpendicularly,;-but the rest  of the  work
 slopes upward to sustain the pressure  of the fluid, so that
 the bank, which is  ten or twelve feet wide at the base, is
 reduced to two or three  at the top.
   The first great structure is made with  a view to render
 their smaller habitations more commodious.  These cabins
 or houses are built upon piles near the margin ofthe  pond,
 and ha.e two  openings,  the one for going  on the  land,
 and the other for  throwing  themselves  info the water.
 The form of the edifices is either oval or round, some of
 them larger, and some less, varying from four to five, to
 eight or ten feet  diameter. Some of them consist of three
 or four stories, and their  walls  are about two feet thick,
 raised perpendicularly upon planks, or plain stakes, which
 serve  both  for  foundations  and floors to  their  houses.
 They are built with amazing  solidity,  and neatly plaster-
 ed bo(h without  and within.  They are  impenetrable (o
 rain, and resis( the most impetuous winds. The partitions
 are covered  with a kind  of stucco, as  nicely plastered as
 if it had been executed by the hand of man.  In (he ap-
 plication of this  morfar  (heir tails sf rve for (rowels, and
 their fee( for plastering. They employ differen( materials,
 as wood, sfone, and  a  kind of sandy earth, which is not
 subject fo dissolution in  water.  They labour in a sitting
 posture ; and besides  (he  convenience of this situation,
 they enjoy (he pleasure  of gnawing perpetually (he bark
 and wood, which are  most agreeable  to their taste; for
 they prefer fresh bark and tender wood to most of their
 ordinary aliment.  Of these provisions  (hey  lay up ample
 stores (o support them during the winter;  but fhey are
 nol  fond of dry wood,  and make occasional excursions du-
 ring the  winter season for fresh provisions in the forests.
 If is in the water, or near their habitations, that they es-
 tablish (heir magazines.   Each  cabin  has i(s own maga-
 zine. propor(ioned (o (he number of i(s inhabitants,  who
 have all  a  common right to the  store, and  never pillage
 their neighbours.  Some villages are composed of twenty or
 twenty-five cabins, but such establishments are rare  ; and
 the common republic seldom exceeds ten  or twelve fami-
 lies, each of which has its  own quarter ofthe village, its own
 magazine, and its  separate habitation. The smallest cabins
 contain two, four, or six ;  and the largest eighteen, twenty,
 and, it is alleged,  sometimes thirty,  beavers.  They are
 almost always equally  paired, there being the  same  num-
 ber of females as  of males.  When danger aproaches, they
 warn one another by striking their fail on the surface of
 the water,  the noise  of which is heard at a great distance,
 and  resounds  through  all the  vaults of their habitations.
 E.ich takes his part ;  some plunge into the lake; others
 conceal themselves within fheir walls,  which can only be
penetrated by the fire  of heaven or the steel of man, and
 which no animal will attempt either (o open or overturn.
They often swim  a long way under the  ice ;  and it is then
 that they are most easily taken, by attacking the cabin on
 one hand, and  at the same time watching at a hole made
 at  some distance, whilher they are obliged to repair for
 the purpose of respiration.  The continual habit of keep-
 ing their  tail and posterior part in the water, appears to
 have changed the nature of their flesh.   That of their an-
 terior parts, as far as the  reins, has the taste and consist-
 ence of tbe flesh of land animals ;  but that of (he (ail and
 hinder parts has the odour and all other qualities of fish.
   Besides the associated beavers  there are others  that
 live solifary, and instead of constructing caverns, or vault-
 ed and plastered receptacles, content  themselves  with
 forming holes in the  banks of rivers.   The fur of these,
 which are commonly termed  terrier beavers, is consider-
 ed as far less valuable than that of the associated animals.
   The beaver when taken young may readily be tamed ;
 and in that state appears  to be an animal ofa gentle  dis-
 position, but does not exhibit any symptoms of superior
 sagacity.
  2. Castor huidobrius, or Chili beaver.  This is a species
 peculiar to South America, and is found in the very deep
 lakes and rivers of that country, and feeds principally on
 fish and crabs.   Its length from nose to tail is about three
 feet:  the  head is ofa squarish  form, the eyes small,  the
 ears rounded  and short, and  (he  snout obtuse; in each
jaw are two sharp and strong cutting teeth, and the grind-
 ers are like those of  the common beaver.  The body is
 very broad, and covered, like  the common  beaver,  with
 two sorts of bair; the shortest or softest of which is supe-
 rior to thaf of most other quadrupeds, and is in high esteem
 with  manufacturers,  being wrought into a kind of cloth
 which has the softness of  velvet, and is also used in the
 manufacture of hats.   It is a bold  and even fierce animal,
 and has the power of continuing'a great while under water.
 It does not construct any  regular habitation like the com-
 mon beaver, nor does it afford any  castor. The female is
 said to produce from two to three young at a birth.   Il is
 called in Chili by the name of guillino.
  Castor, in astronomy.   See Gemini.
  CASTOREUM, castor, in the  materia medica, is by
 many mistaken for the  spermatic matter of  the  animal,
 though, in fact, it is a peculiar  secreted  matter,  con-
 tained in  bags destined to receive if,  in the manner of
 the musk  and  civet, yet situated differently in  the  ani-
 mal.
  CASUARINA,  a genus of monandria order,  in fhe
 monoecia class of plants.  The male has the calyx of the
 amenfum ;  the corolla a  bipartite small scale.  The  female
 has a calyx of lhe amentum,  no corolla; (he style is bi-
 partite.  There are  five species,  natives  of New South
 Wales.
  CAT.   See  Felis.
   Cat hahpings, in a  ship, small ropes running in lit-
 tle blocks  from one side of the shrouds to  the  other
 near the deck.   Their use is  to force the shrouds,  and
 make them lawt, for  lhe more security and safety  of  the
 masts.
 t Cat, or cat head,  on shipboard,  a short piece of (imber
 in a ship, lying aloft  right  over  (he hawse, having at one
 end two shivers, wherein is  reeved a  rope, with"a great
 iron hook  fastened to if, called
  Cat hook.   Its use is to trice up the anchor,from the
 hawse to the top ofthe forecastle. 
'CAT
CAT
   Cat holes, in a ship, are  over the parts as right with
the capstan as they  can be: their use is  to  heave the
ship astern, upon occasion, by a cable, or a hawse, called
stern fast.
   Catgut, a  small string  for fiddles and  other musical
instruments, made from the intestines of sheep  and lambs,
dried and twisted either singly or several together. They
are sometimes coloured, and are used by watchmakers,
cutlers, turners,  and  other artificers.   Great quantities
are imported into England and other northern countries,
from France and Italy.
   Cat salt, a name  given by our salt workers to a very
beautifully granulated kind of common salt.  It is formed
out of  the  bittern, or leach brine,  which  runs from the
salt when taken out ofthe pans.   AVhen the common salt
is taken from the boiling pans, it is put into long wooden
troughs, with holes bored at the bottom for the brine to
drain out:  under these troughs vessels are placed to re-
ceive this brine, and across them small  sticks, to which
the cat salt fixes itself in large and beautiful crystals.  It
contains some portion  of the bitter purging salt, is sharp
and pungent, and is white when powdered, though pellucid
in the  mass.  Large  quantities of  this salt are  used in
the manufacture  of hard soap.
   CATACAUSTIC curves, in the  higher geometry, that
species of caustic curves which are formed  by reflection.
   These curves are generated after  the following manner.
If there be an infinite number of rays,  as  AB, AC, AD,
&c. see Plate  XIV. Miscel. fig. 12. proceeding from the
radiating point A, and reflected at any given curve BDH,
so that  the angles of incidence be still equal  to (hose of
reflection;  then the curve  BEG, to which the reflected
rays BI, CE,  DF, &c. are  tangents continually, as in the
points I, E, F, is the catacaustic curve.
   If the reflected IB  be produced to K, so that AB =
BK, and the curve KL be  the evolute of the catacaustic
BEG, beginning  at the point K ; then the portion ofthe
catacaustic  BE  = AC — AB -f- CE—Bl continually.
Or if any two incident rays, as AB,  AC  be  taken, that
portion of the caustic  that is evolved while the ray AB
approaches to a  coincidence with AC, is equal to the dif-
ference of those  incident rays -J- the difference of the re-
flected rays.  When the given curve is a geometrical one,
the catacaustic will be so too, and always rectifiable.
   The catacaustic ofa circle is a cycloid formed by the
revolution  ofa circle  along a circle.  The  caustic of the
vulgar semi-cycloid,  when the  rays  are  parellel to fhe
axis, is also a vulgar cycloid, described by  the revolution
of a circle upon the same base.   The caustic of the loga-
rithmic spiral is the same curve, only set in  a different po-
sition.
   CATACHRESISJ, in rhetoric, a trope which borrows
the name of one  thing to express another.
   CATACOMB, a grotto  or subterraneous place for the
burial of the dead.  The term is particularly used  in Italy
for a vast assemblage  of subterraneous sepulchres, three
leagues from Rome, in the via Appia, supposed to be the
sepulchres of the ancients.   Others imagine  these  cata-
combs to be the cells wherein the primitive  Christians hid
themselves.   Each catacomb is three feet  broad, and
eight or ten high, running in form of an alley or gallery,
and communicating with one another.   Some authors- sup-
pose them  to have been the puticuli mentioned by Festus
Pompeius, into which the Romans threw  the bodies  of
their slaves, to whom they denied the honours of burying*
and Mr. Monro, in the Philosophical Transactions, gives
it as his opinion, that lhe catacombs were the burial places
of the first  Romans,  before  the practice of burning the
dead  was introduced ; and  that they were dug in  con-
sequence of  these opinions,  that Shades hate the light
and love to hover about the places where  their bodies
were laid.
  The catacombs of Egypt seem to be of a different na-
ture, though called by the sa/ne name.  The bodies found
in these catacombs are mummies.  In searching for these,
labourers are frequently  obliged to clear away the sand
for weeks together, before they find the precious deposite.
Upon coming  to a square opening of about eighteen feet
in depth, they descend into it by holes made for the feef,
placed at proper distances, and there they are sure of
finding a mummy.  These caves, or wells, as fhey are
usually called,  are hollowed out of freestone, which is
found  in Egypt a few feet  below  the covering of sand.
At the bottom of these, which are about forty feet below
the surface, there are several square openings on each side
of the passages,  often or  fifteen feet wide, and these  lead
to chambers of fifteen or twenty feet square, hewn  out of
the rock ;  and in each of tbe catacombs are to be found
several apartments  communicating with  one another.
They are said to extend  so far as to undermine the city of
Memphis and  its environs.  In  some of these chambers
the walls are adorned with figures and hieroglyphics; in
others the mummies are found in tombs, round the apart-
ment, hollowed out in the rock.
  CATALEPSY, in medicine, a  kind  of apoplexy, or
drowsy disease,  in which  the patient is taken  speechless,
senseless, and fixed in the same posture in which the dis-
ease first seized  him.  See Medicine.
  CATALOGUE ofthe stars.  See Astronomy.
  CATANANCHE, Candia lion's foot, a genus ofthe
polygamia icqualis order,  in tbe syngenesia class of plants,
and in tbe natural method ranking under the  49th order,
composite.  The receptacle  is paleaceous; the calyx is
imbricated ; the pappus furnished with awns by a caliculas
of five  stiff hairs. There are three species, of which the
most remarkable is the
  Catananche cerulea, which is a hardy, herbaceous, and
very ornamental plant for tbe flower garden.  There is a
variety with double flowers.
  CATAPHONIC&, the science  which considers the
properties of reflected sounds.  See Pneumatics.
  CATAPHRACTA,  in antiquity, a  kind  of coat  of
mail, which covered the soldier from head to foot.  Hence
cataphractati were horsemen armed with  the cataphracfa,
whose horses, as Sallust says, were covered with linen
full of iron plates disposed like feathers.
  C ATAPHRYGIANS, ancient heretics, who took their
name from the country of Phrygia.   They supposed the
Holy Spirit had abandoned lhe church, and therefore that
Montanus, as a prophet, and Priscilla and Maximilla,  as
true prophetesses, were  to be  consulted  in every thing
relating to religion.
  CATAPLASM, an external topical medicine, of a soft
consistence, known by the common  name of poultice, and
prepared of ingredients of different virtues, according to
the intention  of the physician.  See Pharmacf. 
CAT
CAT*
    CATAPULTA,  in  antiquity,  a military engine con-
  trived for the throwing of arrows, darts, and stones, upon
  the enemy.   Some of these engines were of such force,
  that they would (brow stones of an hundred weight.  Jo-
  septula takes notice of the surprising effects of these en-
  gines, and says, that the stones thrown out of them beat
  down the battlements, knocked off the angles of the tow-
  ers, and  would level a whole file of men, from one end to
  the other, were the phalanx ever bo deep.
    CATARACT, in hydrography, a precipice in the
  channel of a river, caused by  rocks, or other obstacles,
  slopping (he course of the stream, whence the water falls
  wilh a greater noise and impetuosity:  such are the cata-
  racts of (he Nile, (he Danube, (he Rhine, and the famous
  one of Niagara in America.
    Cataract.   See Surgery.
    CATARRH, in medicine,  a defluxion from the  head
  upon the mouth and aspera arteria, and through them upon
  the lungs.  See Medicine.
    CATECHU, in the materia medica, improperly called
  terra japonica in the shops, is a concreted vegetable juice,
  partly of (he gummy, partly of the resinous  kind.  See
  Areca, and Materia Medica.
    CATEGORY,  in logic, a  series or opder of all the
  predicates or attributes contained under any genus.
    The school philosophers  distribute  all the objects  of
  our thoughts and ideas into certain genera or classes ; and
  these classes the Greeks call  categories, and the Latins
  predicaments.  Aristotle made ten categories, vis. quanti-
  ty, qualify, relation, action, passion, time, place, situation,
  and habit, which are usually expressed by the following
  technical distich.
            Arbor, sex, tervoi, ardore, refrigerat, ustos,
            Ruri crasatabo, nee tunicatus ero.
    CATENARIA, in the higher geometry, the name ofa
 curve line formed by a  rope  hanging freely from two
 points of suspension,  whether the points be horizontal or
 not.   The nature of this curve was sought after in Gali-
 leo's time, but  not  discovered till  the year 1690, when
 James Bernouilli published it as a problem.  Dr. Grego-
 ry, in 1697", published a method of investigation of the
 properties formerly discovered  by John Bernouilli and
 Mr. Leibnitz, (oge(her with some new properties of  this
 curve. From him we take the  following method  of find-
 ing the general property of the  catenaria.   1.  Suppose a
 line heavy and flexible, the two extremes of which F and
 D, Plate  XIV. Miscel. fig. 13.  are firmly fixed in these
 points ; by ite weight it is bent into a certain curve FAD,
 which is called the catenaria.  2. Let B D and  6 c be  par-
 allel (o (he horizon, A B perpendicular (o B D, and D c
 parallel to  A B,  and (be points B  b infinitely near to each
 other.  From the laws of mechanics, any three  powers
 in equilibi io, are  to one another  as the  lines  parallel to
 the lines of their direction,  or  inclined in  any given an-
 gle, and terminated by (heir mutual concourses: hence if
 D d express the absolute  gravity of the particle D d, as
 it will if we allow (be chain lo be every way uniform, then
 D c will  express (hat pari of (he gravity (ha( ac(s per-
pendicularly upon D d; and  by the means  of which  this
particle endeavours (o reduce itself to a vertical position;
so that if  (his  litlle line d c be  constant, the perpendicu-
lar action of gravity upon (he parts  ofthe chain, will be
  vol. i.            60
 constant too,  and may therefore  be expressed by any
 given right line.
    Further,  tbe  lineola D c will express the force which
 acts against that conatus ofthe particle  D d, by which it
 endeavours to restore itself into a position perpendicular
 to the horizon, and hinders it from doing so.   This force
 proceeds from the ponderous line D A drawing according
 to the direction D d ; and is, cseteris paribus, proportion-
 al to  the line D A which  is the cause of it.   Supposing
 the curve FAD, therefore,  as  before, whose vertex is
 A, axis A B, ordinate B D, fluxion of the axis D c = B b,
 fluxion ofthe  ordinate d c, the relation of these two flux-
 ions is thus, vis. dc.  D d '.: a : DA curve, which is the
 fundamental property ofthe curve, and  may be  thus ex-
 pressed (putting  A B = x and BD=y and  A D = c)
   ax
 y—-
    c
    CATERGI, the name of the public carriers  in the
 grand seignior's dominions.  In Europe, the merchant or
 traveller gives earnest to lhe  carrier, but  the catergi in
 Turkey give earnest to the merchant and others, as a se-
 curity that they will certainly  carry their goods,  or not
 set out with them.
    CATERPILLAR, in zoology, the name of (he butter-
 fly class of insects, in their reptile or worm state.   See
 Papilio, &c.
    CATESBJ2A, the lily thorn, a genus of the mono-
 gynia order, in (he tetrandria class of plants ;  and  in (he
 natural method ranking under the 28th order, Iuridae.
 The  corolla is monopetalous, funnel  shaped, very long
 above (he  receptacle of the fruit; the stamina are within
 its throat; the fruit a polyspennous berry.   There are
 two species, vis. the
   1. Catesbaea spinosa, a native of the  island  of Provi-
 dence, discovered  by Mr. Catesby,  who gathered the
 seeds, and brought them to  England.   It  rises to the
 height of ten or twelve feet, and is  covered wilh a pale
 russet bark, with small  leaves resembling those of the
 box tree; the  flowers hang downward, are tubulous, and
 of a dull yellow colour.  This plant is  propagated by
 seeds, which must be procured from the country where it
 grows.   2. The catesbaea parviflora.
   CATHARINE, or  knights of St. Catharine, a military
 order, instituted for the securify of (ravellers who came to
 visit the tomb of this saint on mount Sinai.
   CATH ARISTAE, in church history, a branch of Man-
 ichecs, so  called   from certain purifications which  they
 were obliged to practise;  they are also said to have held
 it  unlawful  to eat flesh.
   CATHARTICS.   See Materia Medica.
   CATHETER.   See Surgert.
   CATHETUS,  in  geometry, a  line  or radius falling
 perpendicularly on another line or surface:  thus the ca-
 theti ofa right  angled  triangle are the two sides  that in-
 clude the right angle.
   Cathetus, in  architecture, a perpendicular line, sup-
 posed to pass through the middle of a cylindrical body, as
 a baluster, column, &c.
   CATOPTRICS.   See Optics.
   CATTLE.  By the 3 and  4 Edward VI.  c 19. no
person shall buy any ox, steer, runl, or cow, &c. and sell 
C  A  V
C  A V
the same again alive in the same  market, or fair, on pain
of forfeiting double the value thereof, half to the king, and
half to him that shall sue.  This is the only act in force
against forestalling, engrossing, and regrating.
   If any person shall feloniously drive away,  or steal, or
shall  wilfully kill  any ox, bull, cow, calf, steer, bullock,
heifer, sheep or lamb, with a felonious intent, to steal the
whole  carcass,  or any  part  thereof,  or shall  assist in
committing any such offence, he shall be guilty of felony
without benefit of clergy.  14 and 15 George II. c. 6. and
 34.
   Any person, who  shall unlawfully and maliciously kill,
maim, or wound any cattle, shall be guilty of felony  with-
out benefit of clergy ; and the hundred  shall be answera-
ble for the damages, not exceeding 200/. 9 George, c. 22.
And horses, mares, and  colts, are  included in the  word
cattle.  Every  person  who  shall apprehend and prose-
cute to conviction any offender, shall have ten pounds re-
ward; to be paid  by the  sheriff within a  month, on  his
producing a certificate from the judge.   The 26 George
III. c. 71. to prevent the stealing of horses, &c. for  their
skin, provides that all persons keeping a slaughter house
for cattle not  killed for  butcher's  meat, shall  take out li-
censes, be subject to an  inspector, and only slaughter at
 certain times.
   CATURUS, a genus  ofthe dioecia triandria class and
 •rder.   There are two species, natives ofthe East Indies.
   CAVA, or vena cava.  See Anatomy.
   CAVALIER, in fortification, an elevation of earth, of
 different shapes, situated ordinarily in the gorge of a bas-
 tion, bordered  with  a parapet, and cut into more or less
 embrasures, according  to the capacity of the cavalier.
   Cavaliers are a double defence  for the faces of the op*
 posite bastion : they defend the ditch,  break the besieg-
 ers' galleries, command the traverses in dry moats,  scour
 the salient angle of the counterscarp where the besiegers
 have their counter batteries, and enfilade the  enemies'
 trenches, or oblige them  to multiply their parallels ; they
 are likewise very serviceable in  defending the  breach,
 and the retrenchments ofthe besieged, and can very much
 incommode the entrenchments which the enemy make by
 their being lodged in the bastion.
    CAVAZION, orcavasion, in architecture, denotes the
 hollow trench made for laying the foundation of a  build-
 ing,  which, according  to Palladio, ought to be one  sixth
 part of the height ofthe  whole building.
    CAUCALIS,  in botany, a genus ofthe pentandria di-
 gynia class of plants, the universal flower of which is  dif-
 form and radiated ; the proper flower of the disk is male,
 small, composed of five inflexo cordated equal petals ; the
 fruit  is  of an oblato  oblong figure,  striated  longitudi-
 nally, with rigid scabrous bristles: the seeds  are two, ob-
 long, convex on one side and armed  wilh prickles  in or-
 der of (he striae, and plane on the other side.  There are
 nine species.
    CAUDA  draconis,  the dragon's tail, in  astronomy,
 the name of the moon's descending node.
    Cauda  leonis, in astronomy, a star of  the first magni-
 tude in the tail of (he constellation Leo.  See Leo.
    CAVEAR, caveer, or caviar, the spawn or hard roes
 ef sturgeon, made into  small cakes, an  inch thick, and
 of a hand's breadth, salted  and dried in the sun.  This
 sort of food is in great repute throughout Muscovy, because
of their three Lents, which they keep with a superstitious
exactness.
  CAVEAT, is a caution, entered in  the spiritual conrt,
to stop probates, administrations, licenses, dispensations,
faculties,  institutions, and such  like, from being granted
without the knowledge of (he party that enters it.  A ca-
veat stands in force for (hree months.  2 Rol. Rep. 6.
  The entering  a  caveat being at  (he instance of (he
party, is only for the benefit of the ordinary, that he  may
do no wrong;  it is a eautionary act for his better informa-
tion, to which the temporal courts have no manner of re-
gard ;  therefore if after a caveat entered, the  ordinary
should grant administration, or probate ofa will, if is not
void  by our law; it is true it is void  by (he canon  law,
but our law takes no notice of a caveat.   Rol. Rep.  191.
  CAVEDO, in  commerce, a Portuguese long measure,
equal to 27T3/irV English inches.
  CAVETTO, in architecture, a hollow member, or
round concave moulding, containing a quadrant ofa cir-
cle, and having a  quite  contrary effect to that ofa quar-
ter round; it is used as  an ornament in cornices.
  CAVIA, a  genus of the order of glires.  The generic
character is,  front  teelh  two, wedge shaped; grinders
eight ; toes on the fore feet from four to five, on the hind
feet from three to five ; tail very short,  or none ; clavicles,
or collar bones, none.   The animals of  the gen\is cavia
have generally a  slow,  and sometimes a  leaping pacet
they live like the rest of the glires, on vegetable substan-
ces, and in  their natural state inhabit  excavations under
ground,  or beneath the roots of trees ; or other recesses
which tbey either find ready  prepared, or form for them-
selves.  The  most familiar example of this genus is the
well known little animal, called the guinea pig, or
   1. Cavia  cobaya, or variegated cavy.   This little ani-
mal is very easily rendered tame, but  is seldom observed
to show  any very lively attachment to its  benefactors;
and is not distinguished  by any remarkable degree of do-
cility: it is, however, cleanly, harmless, and of a timid
disposition.   In a  state of confinement it  breeds almost
every two months; and often produces a very numerous
offspring at a  birth.  The young very soon acquire the
necessary degree of strength  and perfection of their spe-
cies, though they continue to grow till seven  or eight
months.  In their habits they are  extremely  neat, and
may be  frequently observed in  the act of smoothing and
 dressing their fur, somewhat in the manner of a cat.  In
 their quarrels  they not  only bite but  kick  each other,
 like horses, with their hind feet. It is observed that the
 male and female seldom sleep at the same time; but  seem
 alternately to watch each other; the  one  sleeping while
 the other is feeding, &c.   Their general voice is a sort of
 grunting squeak, and sometimes  a shriller or sharper cry.
   2. Cavia paca, or spotted cavy.   This  is a  large spe«
 cies, Plate  XXVII. Nat. Hist. fig.  98. measuring near
 two feet in  length.  It is found in Guiana, Brazil, and oth-
 er parts of South America; inhabiting holes, formed under
 ground, and principally near the banks of rivers. It is ofa
 thick, clumsy form, somewhat resembling that ofa pig ; for
 which reason it has  been sometimes called the hog rabbit.
 The spotted cavy is a nocturnal animal, residing in  a sol-
 itary  manner in his  hole during almost the whole day.  In
 a domestic state it  readily feeds on almost any kind of
 vegetable diet, and is particularly fond of sugar and fruits. 
CAU
*
C  E A
 It is much esteemed as an article of food by the  South
 Americans.  It is subject to  some  variety in  point of
 colour, and* has  been sometimes seen quite white.  Its
 general length, when full grown, is about two feet.  The
 female is said to produce but one young at a birth.
   3. Cavia capybara.  Tbe characters  of  this animal,
 Plate XXVII. Nat. Hist. fig. 97. are somewhat ambigu-
 ous, and it was formerly considered by Linnseus as a spe-
 cies of hog, and was accordingly placed in that genus in
 the 12th edition ofthe Syslema Naturse, under the name
 of bus bydrochceris.   It grows to the size of a hog of two
 years old, and is said to have been sometimes found ofthe
 weight of 100 pounds.  It inhabits various parts of South
 America, though said  to  be more common in Brazil than
 in other regions.  It feeds not only on various vegetables,
 and particularly on sugar caues, but also, contrary to the
 nature of most ofthe glires, on fish ; for which purpose, it
 frequents rivers, swimming  with lhe same facility as  the
 otter, and, like that  animal, dragging  its  prey out  ofthe
 water, and eating i( on the bank.
   4. Cavia caudate aguti.  This species is peculiar to the
 warmer parts of South America, and is extremely common
 in Guiana.  Its general size  is that ofa rabbit: the body
 is plump, and  thicker behind  than before:  (he head  is
 rather small, and somewhat  compressed laterally.  This
 animal's manner of moving resembles that of a hare, and
 its voice is like lhe  grunting of a young pig.   It feeds on
 various roots, nuts, fruit, &c. and resides in woods, where
 it forms  subterraneous burrows, and sometimes  lodges
 in the hollows  of trees.  They are  taken  in  traps, or
 hunted with dogs.   The Indians  and negroes, who know
 how fo allure  (hem by whistling, or imitating (heir cries,
 kill  as many as (hey please.  When  pursued, they con-
 ceal themselves,  like rabbits, in the  holes of old  trees.
 They hold their food in their paws like squirrels.
   5. C.  Aguti  Leporine; Leporine  cavy,  is probably a
 variety of (he  aguti, from which  it  differs  in being of a
 reddish colour above, with the breast and belly white.  It
 is of the size of a hare, and is  a  native of Surinam, and
 other parts of South  America.   It is altogether an Ameri-
 can animal, and, notwithstanding  ifs  common title of the
 Java hare, is not found either in that island  or Sumatra,
 as erroneously supposed by some.
   6. Cavia acuschy,  Plate XXVII. Nat. Hist. fig. 96. is
 by some regarded as a variety of the  aguti, but differs in
 being somewhat smaller, rather thinner, and entirely of an
 olive colour, paler or  more  inclining to whitish beneath :
 the tail is  also longer than in tbe  aguti.  Il is a native of
 the same parts of South America with the  aguti,  is of sim-
 ilar manners, and is also tamed with equal readiness.
  7. Cavia aperea, or rock cavy.  This animal, which is
 a native of Brazil, is  neither a rabbit nor a rat, but  seems
 to partake of both.  Its general colour is the same with
 lhat  of our hares, and  its belly  is white: its upper lip is
 divided in the same  manner, and it  has  (he same large
 cu(ting teeth, and whiskers round  the mouth and on the
 sides of the eyes, but its ears are rounded like those of  a
rat, and so short that they exceed not a Gnger's breadth in
height.
  CAUKING,  or caulking of a ship, is driving oak-
 um,  or the lik*\ into all tbe seams of the planks of a ship,
 to prevent leaking, and keep oul the water.   After the
scams are stepped  with oakum, it is  done over with  a
                  60*
mixture of fa!!. *, pitch, and tar, as low as the ship draws
water.
   CAULICOLES, or caulicoli, are eight lesser branches
or  stalks, in the  Corinthian capital,  springing out from
four greater or principal cauls, or stalks.  The eight vo-
lutes of this order are sustained by four cauls, or primary
branches, of leaves,  and from  which  these caulicoles or
lesser foliages arise.
   CAULIFEROUS, an appellation given to such planfs
as have a perfect caulis or stem.  See Botany.
   CAULIFLOWERS.  See Brassica.
   CAULINIA, in botany, a genus of the monoecia class,
monandria order; cal. none; cor.  none; capsule  ovate,
one celled. There are 2 species, 1. C. flexilis, bending cau-
linia. 2. C. fragilis, brittle caulinia; both natives of Penn-
sylvania ; flowers in September.  (6)
   CAULOPHYLLUM thalictroides, in botany, a plant
ofthe  class hexandria,  order monogynia; the  cal. is 5
leaved, cor.6petaled,drupa globose, 1 celled, persisting;
grows in Pennsylvania and Ohio.  (6)
   CAUSALTY. among the miners, denotes the lighter,
sulphureous, earlhy parts of ores, carried off in the ope-
ration of washing. This, in the mines, Ihey throw in heaps
upon banks, wbich,  in  six or seven years, they find it
worth their while to work over again.
   CAUSTICS.   See Surgery.
   Caustic curve, in the higher geometry, a  curve form-
ed by the concourse or coincidence of the  rays of light,
reflected from some other curve.
   CAUTERY, a medicine for burning, eating, or corrod-
ing, any solid part ofthe body.' See Surgery.
   CAUTION, in  the civil  and Scotch  law, denotes
much the same with what, in the law of England, is called
bail.
   CAXA, a little coin  made  of lead,  mixed with some
scoria of copper, struck in China,  but current chiefly at
Bantam in the island  of  Java, and some ofthe neighbour-
ing islands.  The caxas are  of two kinds, great and small.
   Of the small 300,000 are equal to  fifty-six livres  five
sols French money;  and of  the great 6,000 are equal to
four shillings and sixpence sterling.
  CAZEMATE, or casemate, in fortification, a  certain
retired  platform in the flank of a bastion, for the defence
of the moat and face of the opposite bastion.  Sometimes
there are three such platforms, one behind  another,  fhe
uppermost of which is on the terre plein of  (he bastion,
which makes fhe other two to be called places basses, or
low places.  They are covered from the  enemies'  batte-
ries by a work of earth added to the angle of the shoulder,
of a circular and sometimes of a square form, called shoul-
der, orillon, or epaulement.
  Cazemate,  is also used for a well with several subter-
raneous branches dug in the passage of  the bastion, till the
miner is heard at work, and air given to the mine.
  CEANOTHUS, New Jersey tea, a genus of the mon-
ogynia order, in the  pentandria class of plants; and in
the natural method ranking under the 43d order, dumosK.
There are five petals, pouched and arched.   The fruit is
a dry, trilocular, and  (rispermous berry.  There are  six
species, of which (he  mos( remarkable is the
  Ceanolhus Americanus, a nalive of most parts of North
America, whence (he seeds have been imported into Eu-
rope.  In England this plant seldom rises more than three 
C  E L                                                 C E M
feet high.  The stem, which is  of a pale brown colour,
sends out branches from the botlom.  The flowers grow
at the ends of the twigs in clusters : they are of a white
colour, and when in flower give the shrub a most beauti-
ful appearance.
   CECROPIA, a genus ofthe diandria  order in the dio-
ecia class  of plants;  aqd in the natural  method ranking
under the 53d order, scabridse.  There is one species, a
tree of South America.
   CEDAR.   See Juniperus, Pinus, Cedrela, &c.
   Cedar, bastard.   See Theobroma.
   Cedar, white.  See Cupressus.
   CEDRELA, a genus of  the monogynia order, in the
pentandria class of plants;  and ranking, according  to
the natural method, under the 54th  order, miscellaneae.
There is only one species, called Barbadoes bastard cedar.
   CEL ARENT, in logic, a mode of syllogism, wherein
the major and  conclusion are universal  negative proposi-
tions, and the minor an universal affirmative.   As
  cb No man that is a hypocrite can be saved :
  la. Every man who with his lips only cries Lord, Lord, is a hypocrite :
  rekt Therefore, no man, who with his lips only cries Lord, Lord, can
          be saved.

   CELASTRUS, the staff tree, a genus of the monogy-
nia order, in  the pentandria  class  of plants; and in the
natural method ranking under the 43d  order,  dumosae.
The  corolla  is  pentapetalous and patent; the capsule
quinquangular and trilocular; the seeds veiled.  There
are 22  species, two of which are inured to our climate,
 vis.
   1.  Celastrus bullatus, an  uncertain deciduous shrub, a
 native of Virginia.  It is about four feet  high.  The flow-
 ers are produced in July, at the ends of the branches, in
 loose spikes.  They are  of  a white colour, and in their
 native countries are succeeded by beautiful scarlet fruit;
 but with us this seldom happens.
   2. Celastrus scandens, the  flowers of which are green,
 and appear in June. The berries are red, and make a fine
 appearance in autumn.
   CELESTINS, in  church  history, a  religious order
 of Christians, reformed from the Bernardins  by pope Ce-
 lestin V.
   The celestins rise two hours after midnight to say mat-
 ins : they eat no flesh any time, except when they are sick ;
 they fast every Wednesday and Friday to the feast of the
 exaltation ofthe holy cross;  and from  that feast to Eas-
 ter, every day.
   CELIAC, or cceliac passion.  See Medicine.
   CELLEPOR^E, a genus of marine  plants,  or rather
 animals; a class of worms in the Linnaean system.   They
 are of the order of the lythophyta.
   CELOSIA, cock's comb, a  genus  of the monogynia
 order, in the pentandria class of plants;  and in the natural
 method ranking under fhe 54ih order, miscellaneae.  The
 calyx is triphyllous ;  the corolla is five petaled in appear-
 ance ; the stamina are conjoined at the base to the  plated
 nectarium;  the capsule gaping horizontally.  There are 14
 species, of which the  most worthy of notice is the
   Celosia cristata, or  common cock's comb.  The princi-
 pal colours ofits flowers are red, purple, yellow, and white ;
 but there are some whose heads are variegated with two
 or three colours.  They are very  tender exotics, and re-
quire a great deal of care to cultivate them  in  this coun-
try.
  CELSIA, a genus of the angiospermia order, in the
didynamia class  of plants; and in the natural method
ranking under the 28th order, luridse. The calyx is quin-
quepartite ;  the corolla wheel sdiaped ; the filaments beard-
ed or woolly ; (he capsule bilocular.  There are four spe-
cies, na(ives of Armenia.
  CELTIS, lhe lote, or nettle tree, a genus of the mon-
oecia order,  in the  polygamia class of plants; and in the
natural  method ranking under the  53d order,  scabri-
dae.  It is an hermaphrodite plant: the female calvx is
quinquepartite;  there  is no corolla; there are five stam-
ina, and two styles.  The fruit is a  monospermous plum.
In the male, there is no calyx : the corolla is hexapetalous;
there are  six stamina, and an embryo ofa pistillum. There
are seven species, all of them deciduous.  The most re-
markable  are
  1. Celtis australis,  the  southern celtis,  a deciduous
tree, a native of Africa and the south of Europe.
  2. Celtis occidentalis, the western cel(is, a native of
Virginia.   These  two  species  grow  with large, fair,
straight stems.  The leaves are late in the spring before
tbey show themselves; but  they  make  amends for this,
by  retaining fheir  verdure till near the close of autumn:
and then do not resemble   most  deciduous trees, whose
leaves show their approaching fall by the change of their
colour; but continue to exhibit themselves of a pleasant
green to the  last.  Hanbury speaks highly of (he celtis as
a timber tree : he says, " the wood of (he lote (ree is ex-
tremely durable.  In Italy (hey make their flutes,  pipes,
and other  wind instruments of it.  With us  lhe coach
makers use it for the frames of their vehicles."
  3. Celtis orientalis,  the  eastern  celtis, a native of Ar-
menia:  it grows to  about  12 feet,  and  its  branches are
numerous, smooth, and of a greenish colour.   The leaves
are smaller  than those of the others,  though  fhey are of
a thicker texture, and a lighter green.  The flowers come
out from  the wings of the leaves,  on slender footstalks:
they are  yellowish, appear  early in spring, and are suc-
ceeded by large yellow fruit.
  CEMENT, any glutinous substance capable of uniting
and keeping things logether by cohesion.  We shall give
an account of some of the best compositions used for the
purpose of cementing together various articles.
  Jeweller's cement;  for  setting  precious stones when
pieces are broken off by accident.  In such cases fhe ar-
tist can frequently join the pieces so correctly than an in-
experienced eye cannot discover  the stone to have been
broken; for this purpose a small piece of gum mastich is
applied between the fragments, which are previously heat-
ed  sufficiently to  melt  the interposed  gum.  They are
then pressed together,  to force out the redundant quanti*
ty  of gum.
   Turkey cement, for joining  metals, glass,  Sec.  Dis-
solve five or six bits of mastich,  as large as  peas, in as
much spirit of wine as  will suffice to render it liquid; in
another vessel dissolve as  much isinglass, which has  been
previously soaked  in  water till it is swollen and  soft, in
brandy or rum, as  will make two  ounces by measure of
strong glue,  and add two small bits of gum galbanum, or
ammoniacum, wbich must  be rubbed  or ground till they
are dissolved ; then mix the whole with a sufficient heat; 
CEMENT.
keep it in a phial stopped, and when it is to be used set
it in hot water.
  A cement for broktn china, glass, Sec.   Take quick-
lime and  white of eggs, or old thick varnish; grind and
temper them well together, and it is ready for use.  Dry-
ing oil and white lead are also frequently used for cement-
ing china  and earthen ware;  but  this cement requires a
long time  to  dry.   Where it is  not  necessary the ves-
sel  should endure heat or moisture, isinglass glue, with a
little tripoli, or  chalk, is better.
  A ctment useful for turntrs.   Take  resin one pound,
pitch four ounces; melt these together,and,while boiling
hot, add brickdust, until by dropping a little  upon a stone,
you perceive it hard enough; then pour it into water, and
immediately  make it up in rolls, and it is fit  for use.  Or
take resin one  ounce,  pitch two  ounces; add red ochre,
finely powdered,  until you  perceive it strong enough.
Sometimes a small quantity of tallow is used, according
to the heat of (he weather, more being  necessary in win-
ter than in summer.  Either of these cements is of excel-
lent use for (urners.  By applying it  (o the side  of  a
chuck, and making  it warm before  the fire,  you may fas-
ten any thin piece of wood, which will hold while you turn
it;  when you want it off again,  strike it on the top with your
tool, and it will drop off immediately.
  A strong cement for electrical  purposes.   Melt one
pound of resin in  a pot or pan, over a slow Are; add
thereto as much plaster of Paris, in fine powder, as will
make it hard enough, which you may soon know by trial;
then add  a spoonful of linseed oil, stirring it all the while,
and try if it be hard  and  tough enough for your purpose;
if it is not sufficiently hard,  add more  plaster of Paris;
and if not tough enough,  a little  more linseed oil.  This
is as good a cement  as  possible  for fixing  the^necks of
globes or  cylinders, or any thing else that requires to be
strongly fixed;  for it is not easily melted again when cold.
Or take resin one pound,  beeswax one ounce ; add thereto
as much red  ochre as will make  it of sufficient stiffness;
pour it into water, and make it into rolls, and it is fit for
use.   This  cement is useful for cementing hoops on
glasses, or any  other mounting of electrical apparatus.
  A cement for glass grinders.   Take pitch and boil it;
add thereto, and keep stirring it all (he while, fine sifted
wood ashes, until you have it ofa proper temper: a  little
tallow rnayiie added, as you find necessary.  For small
work : to  four ounces of resin add one fourth of an ounbe
of  beeswax melted together; and four ounces of whiten-
ing, made previously red ho(.  The whitening should be
put in while  hot, (hat it may not have time to imbibe
moisture from (he a(mosphere.
  Shell lac is a very steong  cement  for holding metals,
glass, or precious stones, while cutting, turning, or grind-
ing  them.   The metal, Sec. should be warmed, to melt it.
For fastening ruby cylinders  in watches, and similar deli-
cafe purposes, shell lac is excellent.
  T> solder or cement broken glass.  Broken glass may
be soldered or  cemented in  such a manner as to be as
strong as  ever, by interposing between  tbe  parts, glass
ground  up like a  pigment, but of easier fusion than the
pieces o be joined, and then exposing them  to such a heat
as will tese the  cementii,^ ingredient, and make the pieces
agglutinate without being themselves fused.  A glass for
the purpose  of cementing broken  pieces of flint glass,
may be made by fusing some of the same kind of glass
previously reduced to powder, along with a little red lead
and borax, or with the borax only.
  Cement for Derbyshire spar and other stones.  A cem-
ent for this purpose may  be made  with about  seven or
eight parts of resin and one of beeswax, melted  together
wilh a small quantity of plaster of  Paris.  If it is wished
tcTmake the  cement fill up the place of any small chips
that may have been lost, the quantity of plaster must be
increased a little.   When the ingredients are  well mixed,
and the whole is nearly cold,  the  mass should be well
kneaded together.  The pieces of spar that are to be join-
ed, must be heated until they will melt tbe cement, and
then pressed  together, some of the cement being previous-
ly interposed.  Melted sulphur applied to fragments of
stones previously heated, by placing (hem before a fire, to
at least (he melting point of sulphur, and then joined with
(he sulphur between,  makes a pretty firm and durable
joining.  Little  deficiencies in tbe  stone, as chips out of
corners, &c. may also be filled up with melted sulphur, in
which some of (he powder of (he stone has been melted.
   A cement that will stand against  boiling water, and
the pressure  of steam.  In joining the flanches of iron
cylinders, and other parts of hydraulic and steam engines,
great  inconvenience is often experienced from the want of
a durable cement.  Boiled linseed oil, litharge, and red and
white lead, mixed together to a proper consistence, and
applied on each side of a piece of flannel previously shap-
ed to fit the joint, and then interposed between the  pieces
before Ihey are brought home, as the workmen term it, to
their place by the screws or other  fastenings employed,
make  a close  and durable joint.
   The quantities of the ingredients may be varied with-
out inconvenience, only taking care not to make the mass too
thin with oil.  It is difficult in many cases instantly to make
a good fitting of large pieces of iron work, which renders
it necessary sometimes to join and  separate the pieces re-
peatedly, before a proper adjustment is obtained.   When
this is expected, the white lead ought to predominate in
the mixture,  as it  dries  much slower than the  red.  A
workman, knowing this  fact, can be at little loss in exer-
cising his own discretion in regulating the quantities.  It is
safest to err  on  the side of  the white lead, as  the dura-
bility of the cement is no way injured by it, only a longer
time is required for it to dry and harden.  When lhe fit-
tings will not admit easily of so thick a substance as flan-
nel being  interposed, linen may be substituted, or even
paper or thin  pasteboard.                  *
   This cement answers well also for joining broken stones,
however large. Cisterns built of square stones put togeth-
er with (his cement, will never leak, or want  any repairs.
In this case (he stones  need not be  entirely bedded in it:
an inch, or even less, of the edges tbat are to lie next the
water, need only be so treated; the rest of the joint may
be filled with good lime.
   Another cement that  will stand  the action of boiling
water and steam.  Thi3 cement, which is preferable ev en
to the former for steam engines,  is prepared as follows:
Take two ounces of sal ammoniac, one ounce  of flowers of 
C  E N
CEN
 sulphur, and 16 ounces of cast iron filings or borings.  Mix
 all well together by robbing them in a mortar,  and  keep
 the powder dry.
   When the cementris wanted  for use, take one part of
 the above powder, and twenty parts of clean iron borings or
 filings, and blend them intimately by grinding them in a mor-
 tar. Wet the compound with water, and when brought to a
 convenient consistence, apply it to the joints with a wood-
 en or blunt spatula.  By  a play of affinities, which those
 who are at all acquainted  with chymistry will be  at no loss
 to comprehend, a degree of action and re-action takes
 place among the ingredients, and between them and the
 iron surfaces, which at last causes the whole to unite as
 one mass.  In fact, after  a time, the mixture and the sur-
 faces of the flanches become a  species of pyrites,  hold-
 ing a very large proportion of iron, all the parts of which
 cohere strongly together.
   Blood cement.   A cement often used by coppersmiths
 to lay over the rivets and edges  ofthe sheets of  copper in
 large boilers, to serve as an additional security to the join-
 ings, and to secure cocks, Sec. from leaking,  is  made by
 mixing pounded quicklime  with ox's blood.   It must be
 applied fresh made, as it soon gets hard.  If the proper-
 ties of this cement were duly investigated, it would proba-
 bly be found useful for many purposes to which it has nev-
 er  yet  been applied.   It is extremely cheap,  and  very
 durable.
   Flour paste.   Flour paste for cementing, is formed
 principally of wheaten flour, boiled in water till  it is of  a
 glutinous or viscid consistence.   It  may be  prepared of
 these ingredients, simply for common purposes ;  but when
 it is used by bookbinders, or for paper hangings, it is usual
 to mix with the  flour a fifth or sixth of its  weight of pow-
 dered resin or  alum;  and where it is  wanted still more
 tenacious, gum arabic, or any kind of size, may be added.
   Japanese cement, or rice glue.  This elegant cement is
 made by mixing rice flour intimately with cold water, and
 then gently boiling it.  It is beautifully white, and dries
 almost transparent.  Papers pasted together by  means of
 this cement will sooner separate in  their  own substance
 than at the joining, which makes it useful in the  prepara-
 tion of curious  paper articles, as tea trays, ladies' dress-
 ing boxes, and other articles that require layers of paper to
 be cemented together.
   CENCHRUS, in botany, a genus of  lhe polygamia
 monoecia class of plants.  There are two flowers, the one
 male, the other hermaphrodite;  the proper flower is single
with two Ianceolated, acuminated,  concave valves : there
is no pericarpium, and but one roundish seed.  There are
eleven species.
   CENSOR, in Roman  antiquity,  a  magistrate whose
business it was to reform the manners and to value the
 estates of the people.
   CENSUS, in Roman antiquity, an authentic  declara-
 tion made before the  censors, by the several subjects of
 the empire, of their respective names and places of abode.
 This declaration was registered by the censors,  and  con-
 tained an enumeration  in writing  of all the estates, lands,
 and inheritances, they possessed  ; their quantity, quality,
place, wives, children,  domestics, tenants,  slaves.
   CENT, in commerce, an abridgment of centum, is used
to express the profit or loss arising from the sale of any
 commodity : thus we say, there is 10 per cent, profit, or It
 per cent. loss; which  is ^ profit, or T*T loss, upon  the
 sale ofthe whole.  In the trade of money, it signifies the
 benefit or .interest of any sum of money.  Thus money
 is worth 4 or 5 per cent, upon exchange.   But in broker-
 age, it must be observed, that cent, is applied in a differ-
 ent manner.  For example, if a broker or exchange agent
 takes ■§• per cent, for the contracts made by his interposi-
 tion, it is to be understood that there is paid to him | of a
 pound, vis. 2s. Gd. for every 100/. he negotiated.
   CENTAUR, ceniaurus, in astronomy, a constellation
 of the southern  hemisphere commonly  joined with  the
 wolf, and called centaurus cum lupo.  In Ptolemy's cata-
 logue, it consists of 37 stars; in Tycho's of 4; and of 35
 in the Britannic catalogue, with  Sharp's appendix.
   CENTAUREA,  a genus of the polygamia frustranea
 order, in the syngenesia class of plants, and in the natural
 method  ranking under  the 49th order, compositae.  The
 receptacle is bristly, the pappus simple, the corollulre of
 the radius funnel shaped, longer than (hose of the disk,
 and irregular.  There are 77 species, of  which we shall
 only mention f wo, vis.
   1.  Centaurea cyanus, the bluebottle, grows commonly
 among corn.  The expressed juice of this flower stains
 linen ofa beautiful blue colour, but is not permanent. Mr.
 Boyle says, that the juice of the inner petals, wifh a little
 alum, makes a beautiful permanent colour, equal to ultra-
 marine.
   2. Centaurea glastifolia. The root of this species is an
 article in tbe materia medica.   It has a rough,  somewhat
 acrid taste, and abounds with a red viscid juice. Its rough
 taste had gained  it some esteem as an astringent; ifs acri-
 mony as an aperient; and its glutinous quality as a vulner-
 ary :  but the present practice takes very little notice of it.
   CENTIPES, in zoology.   See Scolopendra.
   CENTNER, among metallurgists and assayers, denotes
 a weight divisible first into a hundred, and afterward into
 other lesser parfs. It is, however, to be observed, that the
 centner of metallurgists is the same with the common hun-
 dred weight; whereas that of assayers is no more than one
 dram, to which the other parts are proportional, and never-
 theless pass by the names  1001b. 64lb. 321b. &c.
  CENTRAL forces, the powers which cause a  moving
 body to tend toward,  or recede from, the centre of motion.
 See Mechanics.
  CENTRE of a bastion,  a point in the middle of the
 gorge of a bastion, whence the capital line commences, and
 is generally at the angle of the inner polygon.
  Centre of a conic section,  a point in which  the  di-
 ameters intersect each other.   In the ellipsis,  this point
is within  the figure, and in the hyperbola,  without.
  Centre ofa curve ofthe higher kind, the point where
two  diameters concur.   When  all (he diameters concur
in the same  point, sir Isaac Newton  calls it the general
centre.
  Centre of a dial, that point where the axis ofthe world
intersects the plane  of the dial; and therefore  in dials
that have centres, it is that point wherein all the hour lines
meet.  All dials have centres, except such as have their
planes parallel to the  axis of tbe world.
  Centre of gravity, in  mechanics, lhat point about
which all  the  parts of a  body,  in any situation, balance 
CEN                           .                    C K  R
each olher.   Hence, 1.  If a body is suspended by  this
point as (he centre of motion, it will remain at rest in any
position indifferently. 2.  If a body is suspended in any
other point, it can rest only in two positions, vis. when the
centre  of  gravity is exactly above or below lhe point of
suspension.   3. When the centre of gravity is supported,
the whole body is  kept from falling.  4. Because  this
point has a constant endeavour to descend to the centre of
the earth, therefore, 5.  When the point is at liberty to
descend,  the whole body  must also descend, either  by
sliding, rolling, or tumbling down. 6. The centre of gravity
in regular uniform and  homogeneal bodies,  as  squares,
circles, &c.  is Ibe  middle point in a line  connecting any
two opposite points or angles.   Wherefore, if such a line
is bisected, lhe point of section will be the centre of grav-
ity.  See Mechanics.
   Centre  of oscillation, that point  in  a pendulum in
which, if the weight of the several parts was collected,
each vibration would be performed in  the same (ime as
when (hose weighte are separate. This is the point whence
the length of a pendulum is measured, which, in our lati-
tude, in a pendulum that swings seconds, is 39 inches and
2-10ths.  The centre of suspension is the point on which
the pendulum hangs.
   Centre of percussion, in a moving body, that point
wherein the percutient force is greatest, or that point with
which  if the body strikes against any obstacle, no shock
shall be felt in the point  of suspension.  See Mechanics.
   CENTRIFUGAL force, that force by which all bod-
ies that move round any other  body,  in a curve, endeav-
our to  fly  off from the axis of their motion in a tangent to
the periphery ofthe curve, and (hat in every point of it.
See  Mechanics.
   CENTRIPETAL force, (hat force by which a body
is every where impelled, or any way (end?, (oward some
point as a centre ; such are gravity, or that force whereby
bodies tend toward the centre ofthe earth; see Mechan-
ics; magnetical  attraction, whereby the loadstone draws
iron ; and that force, whatever it be, whereby the planets
are continually drawn back from right lined motions, and
made lo move in curves.
   CENTRISCUS,  in ichthyology, a genus of fishes be-
longing to the order of amphibia nantes.  The head grad-
ually ends in  a narrow snout, the aperture broad and flat:
the belly is carinated, and the  belly fins united.  There
are two species, vis.
   1. The sculatus, which has its back covered with a
■mooth bony shell, which ends in a sharp spine,  under
which is the tail, but the back fins are between the tail
and (he spine.  It is a native of (he East Indies.
  2. The scolopax, see Plate XXVIII. Nat. Hist. fig. 105.
has a ronzh scabrous body, and a s(raigh( extended tail. It
has two belly fins, with four rays each, and has no teeth.
It is  found in the Mediterranean.
  CENTRUM tendinosum, in anatomy,  a point where-
in the  tendons of the muscles of the diaphragm  meet.
See Anatomy.
  CENTUMVIRI,  in Roman antiquity, judges appoint-
ed to decide  common causes among the people.  They
were chosen  (hree out  of each tribe; and  though five
more than a  hundred, were nevertheless  called centum-
viri, from the round number centum, a hundred.
  CliNTt/'NCULUS, in botany,  a genus of plants call-
ed by some anagallidiastrum, and by others a species of
anagallis, the characters of which are these :  it belongs
to the tetrandria monogynia class of plants; the flower is
monopetalous, the tube being globose, and the limb divid-
ed into four oval segments : the fruit is an unilocular cap-
sule, containing a great number of roundish seeds.  There
is one species, annual.
  CENTURION,  among the Romans, an officer in  the
infantry,  who commanded a century or  a hundred men.
The centurions held the first rank in  the first cohort ofa
legion, and two of (hem (he place of (he two first hastati,
or pikemen :  the first among the principes was also a cen-
turion.
  CENTUSSIS, in Roman antiquity, a coin containing a
hundred asses.
  CEPHALANTHUS,  a genus of the tetrandria mono-
gynia class of plants; the corolla consists of a single petal;
the tube  is slender; the  limb is divided into four parts,
acute, reflex, and of the length of the tube ; the frtiit is
an oblong capsule,  containing  only one cell; several of
these grow together, and form a roundish, head:  the seeds
are numerous and oblong.  There are five species, trees
and shrubs of China.
  CEPHALIC medicines, are remedies for disorders of
the head.  See Medicine.
  Cephalic vein.  See Anatomy.
  CEPHEUS, in astronomy, a constellation of the north-
ern hemisphere, the stars of which, in Ptolemy's catalogue,
are 13; in  Tycho's, 11;  in Hevelius's, 40; and in Mr.
Flamsleed's, 35.
  CEPI corpus, in law, a return made by the sheriff, that,
upon a capias, or other like process, he has taken the de-
fendant's body.
  CERAMBYX, in zoology,  a  genus of beetles, of the
coleopfera order, the characters of which are these :  the
antennae are long and setaceous, and the  thorax is oblong,
rounded, and mucronated or pointed at  each extremity.
Under this genus is comprehended  the Capricorn beetle.
There are 83 species of this  genus enumerated by Lin-
naeus, principally distinguished by the figure of the breast.
See Plate XXVII.  Nat. Hist. figs.  99 and 100.
  CERASTIUM,  mouse ear, a genus  of the  decandria
penfagynia class of plants, the flower of which consists of
five bifid petals ; and its fruit is a very long unilocular pod, *
containing numerous roundish seeds.   There are 18 spe-
cies of this weed.
  CERATE, in pharmacy, a medicine used externally in
several diseases, especially those of the skin.  It is gener-
ally of four sorts, the white cerate, 1 he yellow cerate, the cic-
atrizing cerate, and the mercurial cerate.  See Pharmacy.
  CERATIOLA  ericoides, heath hornbush, in  botany,
a plant of (he class dioecia,  order diandria, cal.  none, cor.
none, drupa 2 sperm. frutescent, a native of Georgia and
Carolina,  (b)
  CERATOCARPUS, a genus ofthe  monoecia monan-
dria class of plants, distinguished  by having no petals, and
a small, compressed, and bicornate seed, not unlike that of
bidens.
  CERATONIA,  the carobtree,  or  St. John's  bread  a
genus of tbe trioecia order, in the polygamia class of plants,
and in the natural  method  ranking under the 33d order 
C  E R
C  E R
 lomentaceae.  The calyx is  hermaphrodite and quinque-
 partite; there is  no corolla; the  stamina  are five; the
 sfyle is filiform ; the legumen coriaceous and polysper-
 mous.  It is  also dioecious, or male and female distinct
 on different plants.  There is but one species, vis.
   Ceratonia siliqua, a native of Spain, of some parts of
 Italy, and the Levant.  It is an evergreen;  and, in the
 countries where it is native, grows in the hedges.  It pro-
 duces a quantity of long, flat, brown coloured pods, which
 are thick, mealy, and of  a sweetish  taste.   These  pods
 are eaten by the poorer sort of inhabitants when there is a
 scarcity of other food; but they are apt to  loosen  the
 belly, and cause gripings of the bowels.
   CERATOPHYLLUM,  a  genus of the  polyandria
 order, in the monoecia class of plants, and  in  the natural
 method ranking under the 15th order, inundatae. The  male
 calyx is multipartite ; no corolla ; stamina from 16 to 20;
 the female calyx is  multipartite ; no  corolla;  one pistil ;
 no style ; one  naked seed.  There  are two  species,  of
 no note.
   CERBERA, a  genus of the monogynia order, in the
 pentandria class of plants, and in the natural method rank-
 ing under the  30th order, contortae.  The fruit is a mono-
 spermous plum.  Of 5, the most remarkable species is,
   Cerbera atrouai, a native of the warm parts of America.
 It rises with an irregular stem to eight  or ten feet, sending
 out many crooked diffused  branches, with thick succulent
 leaves of a lucid green, smooth, and  very full ofa milky
 juice.   The flowers come out in loose bunches at the end
 of the branches ; they are  of a cream colour, having long
 narrow tubes,  and  at the top are cut into five obtuse seg-
 ments, which seem twisted.  The wood of this  tree smells
 most abominably, and the kernels of the nuts are a deadly
 poison, to which there is no antidote ; so that the Indians
 will not even use the wood  for fuel.
   CERCELE,  in heraldry.   A cross cercele is a cross
 which, opening at  the ends, turns round both ways like a
 ram's  horn.
   CERCIS, the Judas tree, a genu3 of the  monogynia
 order, in the decandria class of plants, and in the natural
 method ranking  under the 33d order,  lomentaceae.  The
 calyx is quinquedentated, and gibbous below;  the corolla
 papilionaceous, wilh a  short vexillum  or flag petal  under
 the wings or side petals ; a  leguminous plant.   There are
only two species, both deciduous. The most remarkable is,
   Cercis Canadensis, or Canadian cercis; it will grow to
 the  size of twenty feet in some  places.  The branches
 are also irregular :  the flowers are usually of a  palish  red,
 and show themselves in spring, before the leaves are grown
to their size.   The flowers  are often eaten in sallads, and
 afford an excellent pickle.
  CERDONIANS, in church history, persons who main-
 tained  most of the  errors of Simon  Magus, Saturnel, and
other Gnostics.  They asserted two  principles, the one
good, and the other evil: this last, according to them, was
 creator of the world, and the God that appeared under the
 old law; the first, whom they  called unknown, was (he
 father of Jesus Christ; who, they taught, was only incar-
 nate in appearance, and was  not born ofa virgin, nor suffer-
ed death, but in  appearance.
  CEREALI A, in antiquity, feasts of Ceres, instituted by
Triptoiemus of Eleusis, in Attica.
   CEREBELLUM,  in anatomy,  the hinder part of the
 brain.  See Anatomy.
   CEREBRUM.   See Anatomt.
   CERINTHE, honey wort, a genus of the monogynia
 order, in the pentandria class of plants, and in the natural
 method ranking under the 41st order, asperifolise.  The
 limb of the corolla is a ventricose tube, with the throat
 pervious ;  and there are two bilocular seeds.  There are
 two species,  natives of Germany, Italy, and the Alps.
 They are low annual plants, with purple, yellow, and red
 flowers, which may be propagated by seed sown in autumn
 in a warm  situation.
   CERINTHIANS,  in church history, a Christian sect,
 followers of Cerinthus, who lived and published  his here-
 sy in the time of tbe apostles themselves.  They did not
 allow that  God was the author of the creatures,  but said
 that the world was created by an  inferior power:  they
 attributed  to this creator an only son, but born in time
 and different from the world: they admitted several angels
 and  inferior powers;  they maintained that  the law and
 the prophets came not from God, but from the angels; and
 that (he God ofthe Jews was only an angel.  They distin-
 guished between Jesus and Christ: and said, (hat Jesus
 was a mere man, born, like olher men, of Joseph and Mary;
 but  that he  excelled all  other men in prudence and
 wisdom; that  Jesus being  baptized, the Christ of (he su-
 preme God, (hat is, the Holy Ghost, descended upon him;
 and  fhat by the assistance  of this Christ, Jesus  perform-
 ed his miracles.  It was partly to refute this sect that St.
 John wrote his Gospel.
   CEROPEGIA, in botany, a genus of the penfandria
 monogynia  class.   The flower consists of a single petal;
 the tube is  cylindraceous,  oblong, and terminating with a
 long globose base; the limb is small, and divided  into five
 segments:  the fruit is  two cylindraceous  acuminated
 floscules, containing one cell, and divided by two valves;
 the seeds are numerous, imbricated, and oblong.  There
 are six species.
   CERTHIA, in  ornithology, the creeper  or ox eye, a
 genus belonging to the order of picae.   The beak is arch-
 ed, slender, sharp, and  triangular; the tongue is  sharp at
 the point; and the feet are  of the walking kind, or having
 the toes open  and unconnected.  Of (his genus  near 50
 species have been enumerated.  The  following are a few
 of the most remarkable :
   1.  The familiaris, or common ox eye, is gray above and
white underneath, with brown wings, and ten while spo(a
on the ten  prime  feathers.  This  bird is found in most
parts of Europe, though if is believed no where so common
as in Britain. It may be thought more scarce than it really
is by (he less attentive observer; for, supposing  it on the
body or branch of any  tree, the moment it observes any
one,  it gets to  (he opposite side, and  so on,  let a person
 walk round  (he tree ever so often.  The facility of its
running on (be bark ofa tree, in all  directions, is  wonder-
ful ;  this it  does wi(h as much ease as a fly on a glass win-
dow.   Ite food is principally, if not wholly, insects, which
it  finds in the chinks and  among the  moss  of trees.  It
 builds  ifs nest in some  hole of a tree, and lays generally
five eggf»,  very rarely  more (han seven:  (hese  are ash
coloured, marked at the  end with spots and  streaks of a
 deeper colour. 
C  E R                                               C E  R
  2. The hook billed green  creeper inhabits the Sand-
wich islands in general,  and is one of the  birds  whose
plumage  the natives  make use  of  in constructing their
feathered  garments; which  having these  olive  green
feathers,  intermixed with  the beauliful scarlet and yellow
ones belonging lo the next species, and yellow tufted bee
eater, make some of the most beautiful  coverings of these
islanders.
  3. The pusila, or brown and white creeper, is not above
half the size of our  European creeper.  The  upper  part of
the body is brown, with a changeable gloss of copper: lhe
under parte are while.  It is  a native ofthe Cape, and is
fond of honey.                                   * .
  4. The Loteni, or  Lotens  creeper, has the head, neck,
back, rump, scapulars, and upper  tail  coverts, of green
gold; beneath, from  lhe  breast to the vent,  of  velvet
black, which is separated from the green on  the neck by a
transverse bright  violet band.  It inhabits Ceylon and
Madagascar.
   5. The cerulea,  or blue creeper, has  the head of a most
elegant blue; but  on each side  (here is a stripe of black
like velvet, in which lhe eye  is  placed:  the chin and
throat are marked wilh black in the  same manner; the
rest of the body violet blue.  It inhabits  Cayenne.  It
makes its nest with  great art.  The outside is composed
of dry stalks of grass, or such like;  but within of very
downy soft  materials, in the  shape of  a retort, which it
suspends from some weak (wis;, a( (he end ofa  branch
of  a  tree, the  opening  or mouth downward, facing the
ground: (he neck  is  a foot in length,  but the real nest is
quite at the top, so that the bird has to climb up this fun-
nel like  opening to  get  at  the nesf.  Thus it is secure
from every harm ; neither monkey, snake, nor lizard, daring
to venture al  the end ofthe branch, as  it would not stead-
ily support them.
   6. The sannio, or mocking  creeper, is ofthe size of fhe
lesser thrush.  On the cheeks is a narrow white spot: the
head, especially on tbe crown,  is inclined (o violet; the
plumage in general is olive green.  It  inhabits both the
islands of New Zealand.   It has an agreeable note in gen-
eral ; but at  times so varies and  modulates  the  voice,
that it seems to  imitate  the notes  of all olher  birds;
hence it  was called by the English the  mocking bird. See
Plate XXVII. Nat. Hist. fig. 101.
   CERTIFICATE, inlaw,  a writing made in any court,
to give notice to another court of any thing done therein.
The clerks of the  crown, assize, and   the  peace, are to
make certificates into the king's bench  of the tenor of  all
indictments, convictions, outlawries, &c.
  CERTIFICATION of assise of  novel disseisin, a
writ granted for the re-examination or review of a matter
passed by assize before any justices ; as where a man ap-
pearing by his bailiff to an assize brought by another, has
lost the day, and having something more to  plead for him-
self, a* a deed of release, &c. which lhe bailiff did not or
might not plead for him,  desires a  further examination of
the cause, either before  the  same justices or others, and
obtains letters patent to lhat  effect.
  CERTIOR \RI.   The wri( of cer(iorari is an original
wri(, issuing out ofthe court  of chancery  or lhe king's
bench, directed in the king's name lo the judges or offi-
cers of inferior courts, commanding ihem to certify or fo
return lhe records  ofa cause depending before them, to
 jtol. i.           Gl
fhe end the party  may  have the  more sure and speedy
justice before  the  king or such justices as he shall assign
to determine tbe cause.   1  Bac. Abr.
  A certiorari lies in all judicial proceedings in which a
writ of  error does not lie ; aud it is a consequence of all
inferior jurisdictions erected by act of parliament, to have
their proceedings  returnable in the  king's bench.   Ld.
Raym. 469.
  In particular cases  the court will use their discretion
fo grant a certiorari,  as if (he defendant is of good char-
acter, or if (he prosecution  is malicious,  or attended with
oppressive circumstances.  Leach's Ham. 2. c. 27. s. 28. n.
  The courts  of chancery and king's bench may award a
certiorari ; to  remove (he  proceeding from any inferior
courts,  whether (hey are  of ancient  or  newly created
jurisdiction, unless the  statute or charter wbich Creates
them exempts them from such jurisdiction.   1 Salk.  144.
pi. 3.
   CERT MONEY,  a fine paid  yearly by lhe residents
of several manors  lo  the lord  thereof, and sometimes to
lhe hundred, pro  certo  lete,  lhat is, for the certain keep-
ing of (he leet.
   CERVICAL nerves.  See Anatomy.
   CERVIX, in anatomy,  denotes  properly lhe hinder
part ofthe neck.  See Anatomy.
   CERUSE, or Ceruss, white lead, a sort of calx of lead.
made by exposing plates of  that metal to the vapour of
vinegar.  See Chymistry.
   CERVUS, (he ?lag or deer kind, in zoology, a genus,
of quadrupeds of (he order  of (he  pecora.  The generic
character is :  horns solid,  covered while  young with a
hairy skin, growing from the (op, naked, annual, branched.
Fron( teelh in (he lower jaw,  eigh(.   Canine tee(h, none;
some(imes single in (he upper jaw.
   1. Cervus  alces, or elk.   The elk,  by far (he largest
animal of (his  genus, is, when full grown, scarcely inferior
to a horse in size.   It is common to both continents, in-
habiting only the coldest regions, and is observed  to arrive
at a greater magnitude in Asia and  America  than in Eu-
rope.   In its shape it is much less elegant  than the rest of
tbe deer tribe  ; having a very short and thick neck, a large
head, horns  dilating  almost  immediately from  the base
into a broad palmated form, a thick, broad, heavy upper
lip, hanging very much over  the lower; very high shoul-
ders, and long legs.  Notwithslanding  ils awkward  pro-
portions, it is, however, of a noble and majestic appear-
ance.   It is also a  mild and  harmless animal, and princi-
pally supports itself by browsing the boughs of trees in
the  vast  and  dreary forests  of the frozen   zone.  The
greatest height of the elk  is  about  seventeen hands,
and its greatest weight about 1229  pounds.   The horns
have been known to measure each  32 inches in length.
The female is rather  smaller (han  (he  male, and has no
horns.   See Plate XXVIII. Nat. Hisl. fig. 103.
   In Europe (he elk i» found  chiefly in Sweden,  Norway,
and some parts of Russia.  In Asia it occurs in the woody
tracts of the  Russian dominions; and in  Siberia in par-
ticular  is found  of gigantic magnitude.   In America it
seems to be most  common in  Canada, and  the country
round the great lakes, and is called by the  name  of moose
deer.
  The e.lk, though naturally of an inoffensive and  peace-
able disposition, displays a high  degree of courage, and 
CERVUS.
even ferocity, when suddenly attacked ;  defending himself
wifh great  vigour,  not  only with bis boms, but  also by
striking violently with his fore feet, in the use of which he
is so dexterous as easily to kill a dog, or even a wolf, at a
single blow.
  2. Cervus tarandus, or reindeer, see Plate  XXVIII.
Nat. Hist. fig. 104. like tbe elk,  is  an inhabitant  of the
northern region?.  In Europe  its  chief residence is in
Norway  and Lapland.   In  Asia it  frequents  the  north
coast  as  far  as Kamtschatka, and the inland parts as
far as Siberia.  In  America it occurs in Greenland, and
does not extend further south than  Canada.  The height
of a full grown  reindeer is four feet  six inches : the body
is of a somewhat thick and square form, and the  legs short-
er in proportion than those of the stag.   Its general col-
our is brown above  and white beneath; but as itvadvances
in age, it often becomes of a grayish  white.   No  animal
of this tribe appears  to  vary so much  in  the form and
length of its horns  as the reindeer.   In general the horns
are  remarkable for their great length  and proportional
slenderness, and are furnished with a pair of brow  antlers,
wifh widely expanded and  palmated tips  directed for-
ward.  In the young and middle aged reindeer the horns
are remarkable for their  slender  form ;  but as  the animal
advances in age, they  are ofa stronger appearance.  With
the  Laplanders, indeed, this animal is at once the substi-
tute ofthe horse, the cow, the sheep, and goat.
  3. Cervus elaphus, or stag, is one of (hose innocent
and peaceable animals that seem destined to embellish (he
forest, and animate the solitudes of nature.  The elegance
of his form, the lightness of his motions, the  strength of his
limbs, and  the  branching horns with which  his  head is
decorated, conspire to give  him a high rank among quad-
rupeds, and to  render him worthy the admiration of  man-
kind.  It varies both in size and colour  in different coun-
tries,  but is generally about three feet and a half high, and
ofa  reddish brown colour, whitish beneath.   The horns
vary as to size, &c.  The  general number  of branches in
a well grown stag seems  to be six or seven, but they are
sometimes far more numerous.
  The stag is a native of almost all  the temperate parts of
Europe, as well  as of Asia.  It  also  occurs in North
America, where it occasionally arrives at a  larger size
than  in the old continent, except in Siberia,  where  it is
found of gigantic magnitude.
  Stags in general  cast or shed their horns  sooner or later
in the month of March, in proportion to their  ages.  At
(he end  of June  (hey are full grown, and (he animal rubs
them  strongly  against the boughs of  trees,  or any
convenient object,  in order to free them  from the  skin,
which is now become useless, and by the beginning of Au-
gust (hey assume (he full strength and consistence, which
they  retein (hroughout  the remainder of the year.
  4. Cervus dama, or fallow deer, is considerably smaller
than  the stag, and is of a brownish bay colour,  more or
less deep in different individuals ; whitish beneath, on the
insides ofthe limbs, and beneath fhe tail, wbich is some-
what longer  in proportion than that of the stag.   In ifs
general form, the animal greatly resembles the stag, hav-
ing the same elegance of aspect, with a  more gentle dis-
position.  It is not so common as the stag, and is even  a
rare animal in  some  parts  of Europe,  as in  France and
Germany, but in Spain is said to be found nearly  equal to
the stag in size.   The manners of the fallow  deer resem-
ble those of lhe slag, bul it is observed fo be less delicate
in (he choice  of  ite food; eating a variety of vegetables
which  are refused by  the  former.   It  arrives at full
growth and perfection in about three years, and is said to
live about twenty.
   The horns  are annually shed, as in  lhe stag, but at a
somewhat later period.
   5. Cervus Virginianus, Virginian deer, is a native ofthe
northern parte of America, where if is found in vast herds
and is an animal of great importance to the Indian natives
who dry  its flesh for their winter provision.   The size of
the^nimal is  that ofthe  fallow deer:  its colour a light
cinereous brown ; the horns slender, bending very much
forward, with numerous branches on the interior sides, and
no brow antlers.
   This species appears  to occur in almost  all  parts of
North America,  and they abound in  the greatest abun-
dance in  the vast savannas contiguous to the  IMissisippi
and the great  rivers which flow into i(; grazing in innu-
merable herds, along with stags and buffaloes.
   6. Cervus axis, or spotted axis, see Plate XXVIII. Nat.
Hist. fig. 102. is a most beautiful animal.  Its size is nearly
that ofthe fallow  deer, and ite colour  an elegant light ru-
fous brown, distinctly and  beautifully marked with  very
numerous  white  spots.   If is described by Pliny among
the animals of India, and is said to have been sacred to
Bacchus.   It  has  been  introduced  into  Europe, and
is occasionally seen in parks and menageries.   It  is readi-
ly tamed,  and seems lo suffer but little from  a change of
climate.
   7. C. Axis,  middle.  Whether Ibis is  a variety of (he
former, or specifically distinct, does no( appear perfectly
clear.  If is of a middle  size, between the spotted axis
and the great axis.  In the colour of its hair, it resembles
the  first sort, but is  never  spotted.  It inhabits dry
hilly forests  in  Ceylon,  Borneo,  Celebes,   and  Java,
where it is found in very numerous  herds.   Its flesh is
much esteemed by the natives, and is dried and salted for
use.
   8. C. Axis, great.   The existence  of this species or
variety is  ascertained from a pair of horns in  the  British
museum, resembling the  former  kinds  in  shape, but ef
larger size:  they measure  two feet nine inches in length,
are of a whitish colour, and are very strong,  thick, and
rugged. Mr. Pennant conjectures that they were brought
from Ceylon  or  Borneo,   having  been informed by Mr.
Loten, who had long resided in the former of these islands,
that a very  large kind of stag, as tall as  a horse, ofa red-
dish colour, and wifh trifurcafed horns, existed there as
well as in Borneo.
   9. Cervus pygargus, or tailless  roe.   This species is
described in the first volume of Dr. Pallas's Travels, and
is  a native oflhe mountainous  parts of Hircania,  Russia,
and Siberia; inhabiting the loftiest parfs of those  regions,
but in* winter  descending  into  the  plains, the hair at that
season assuming  a  hoary appearance.  In its form it re-
sembles the roebuck, but  is larger.   Its colour is brown,
with the outsides of the limbs and under parfs of fhe body
yellowish.   It has no tail, but a mere broadish cutaneous
excrescence.
   10. Cervus Mexicanus, or  Mexican  roe, is about the
size of the common or  European roebuck, and of a red- 
                        CES

 dish colour,  but when young is often spotted with white.
 The horns are thick, strong, and rugged: ihey bend forward,
 and are about ten inches long.  The flesh is said to be far
 inferior to the venison of Europe.
   11. Cervus porcinus, porcine deer, has slender trifur-
 cated horns, thirteen inches long and  six inches at  the
 base: the height  from  the shoulders to  the  hoof is two
 feet two inches, and about two inches higher  behind ;  the
 body  is thick and  clumsy, the legs fine and slender;  lhe
 colour on  (he upper  part of lhe neck, body,  and sides, is
 brown;  the  beliy  and rump lighter.
   12. The cervus capreolus, or common roe, is ofa red-
 dish brown colour, and  is the smallest  of the European
 animals of this genus.
   1 be common or general measure of lhe roe is three feet
 nine inches from nose to tail; the height  before, Iwo feet
 three inches; but behind, (wo  feet seven  inches;  the
 horns are  about si* or eight inches long, and are strong,
 upright,  rugged,  and trifurcaled  : the  general  colour of
 the animal is reddish  brown, more or lesa deep in differ-
 ent  individuals, and the rump is white.   It is an inhabi-
 tant of most parfs of Europe, as far as Norway ;  il also oc-
 curs in some parts of Asia, but is not lo be found in Africa.
 Whether it is a native of America seems somewhat doubt-
 ful, though some  species  nearly  allied to it are found in
 that continent.
   13. Cervus muntjac, or ribbed faced deer, is a native of
 Java and Ceylon, and is somewhat smaller than lhe com-
 mon roebuck, and ofa thick form, like the porcine  deer.
 The horns are trifurcaled ; but what seems principally to
 distinguish (his animal, is the appearance of (hree longitu-
 dinal subcutaneous ribs, extending from (be horns (o  (he
 eyes.  From each side of (he upper jaw hangs a disk ; so
 that ihis  species differs  in  that respect from most of  tbe
 genus.
   14. C m-vus guineensis, or gray deer, is the size ofa cat;
 the  colour gray, with a line of  black between the ears, a
 large spot of black above tbe  eyes, and  on  each side of
 the  throat a line of black, pointing  downward : the middle
 of the breast black ; the fore legs and sides of the belly, as
 far as  the hams, marked with black; the ears rather long;
 the  under side of the  tail  black.   It is said to be a native
 of Guinea.
   CES A RE,  among logicians, one of the modes of lhe
 second figure  of  syllogisms; the minor proposition of
 which is an universal affirmative,  and lhe other two uni-
 versal negatives :  thus,

        ce No immoral  books ought to be read :
        sa. But every obscene book is immoral;
        re Therefore no obscene book ought to be read.

   CESSATION, cessalio a divinis,  in  lhe Romish
 church, is when, for any notorious injury to  the church,
 a stop is put  to all divine offices and the administration of
 the sacraments, and  Christians are deprived ofphurch
 burial.  A cessation differ* from an interdict in this, that,
 during lhe latter,  divine  service  may be  performed in
 such  churches  of any place  interdicted,  a* are not ex-
 pressly under the interdict, and even celebrated solemnly
 on certain high festivals,  the church doors  being shut:
 but in  a cessation,   no religious service can be performed
 solemnl} J  the only liberty allowed  is, in order (o icnew
the consecrated hosts, (0 repeat   every  week a private
                  cl#
                        C E T

 mass in the parish churches, (he doors being shut, observ-
 ing also not to ring the bell.  Moreover it is lawful, during
 the  cessation,  to administer baptism,  confirmation,  and
 penance, to such persons as desire it, provided  they are
 not excommunicated, or under an interdict.
   CESSAVIT, in law, a  writ  that  lies, in many cases,
 upon  this general  ground; (hat he  against  whom  it  is
 brought has for two years ceased or neglected to perforin
 such service, or lo pay such renf, as he is  bound to by
 his tenure, and has not upon his  lands and tenements suffi-
 cient goods or caff le to be distrained.
   CESSION,  is where an ecclesiastical person is created
 a bishop, or where a parson  ofa parsonage lakes another
 benefice, without dispensation, or otherwise not qualified,
 &c.  in both cases, fheir firs( benefices are said  to be void
 by cession: and (o those benefices which the person who
 was created a bishop enjoyed, lhe king  shall present for
 that  lime, whosoever is patron of them ; and in the other
 cases tie patron may present.
   CESTRUM, bastard jasmine, a genus ofthe monogynia
.order, in  lhe pentandria class of plants; and in the natural
 method ranking under the 28th order, luruiffi.   The co-
 rolla is funnel shaped ;  the stamina each sending out a lit-
 tle toolh  about (he middle of (he inside.  There are six
 species,  all natives of the warmest parts of  America;  so
 cannot be preserved in this country without artificial heat.
 They are flowering shrubs, rising  in  height  from five lo
 twelve feet, with flowers of a white, or pale yellow colour.
 The  flowers of one species, called Badmington jasmine,
 emit a strong scent after sunset.  They  may be propagated
 either by seed  or cuttings.
   CESTUI, a French word,  signifying he or him, fre-
 quently used in our law writings.  Thus, cestui qui trust,
 a person who has lands, &c.  committed  to him  for  lhe
 benefit of another: and if such  person does not  perform
 his trust,  he is compellable to it  in chancery.   Cestui qui
 vit, one for whose life any lands, Sec.  are granted.   Ces-
 tui qui use, a person  fo whose use any one is infeoffed of
 lands or tenements.   Formerly the feoffees lo uses  were
 deemed owners of lhe land, but now  (he possession is ad-
judged in cestui qui use.
   CETUS, in  astronomy, a constellation of the southern
 hemisphere, comprehending  twenty-two stars  in Ptole-
 my's catalogue, twenty-one in Tycho's, and in the Britan-
 nic catalogue ninety-seven.
   In this constellation is  a variable star wbich  appears
 and disappears periodically,  passing through fhe several
 degrees  of  magnitude both increasing and diminishing in
 about 333 days.
   CETE, the sevenlh order in  the mammalia class of an-
 imals ; (he characters of which are, breathing apertures on
 (he head, (ail horizontal, no claws.  The animals of this
 order are  all ofthe whale kind.
   Nature has bestowed on this tribe an infernal  structure
 in  all respecta agreeing wilh that of quadrupeds; and in a
 few others (he external parts are both similar.   Cetaceous
 fish,  like  land animals,  breathe by means of lungs,  being
destitute of gills.   This  obliges  them  to rise fiequenlly
on (he surface of (he water lo respire, (o sleep on the sur-
face, as well as  fo perform several other functions.  They
have the power of uttering sounds, such as bellowing and.
 making  other noises denied  to  genuine fish.   Like land
animals Ihey have  warm blood, bring  forth, and suckle 
CHjE
C  H  A
their young, showing a strong attachment to them.  Their
bodies beneath  the skin are entirely  surrounded wilh a
thick  layer of fat, blubber, analogous to (he lard on hogs.
The number of^lheir fins never  excee.is  (hree, vis. (wo
pecteral fins, and  one  back fin;  but in some species the
last is wanting.   Their  (ails are placed horizontally,  or
flat, in respect  to  their bodies; contrary to the direction
of those of all other fish, which have them in a perpendic-
ular site.  This situation of the tail enables them to force
themselves suddenly lo the surface of the wafer to breathe,
which they are so  frequently constrained to do.   Not-
withstanding the many parts and properties which cetace-
ous fish have in common with land animals, yet there  still
remain others which render it more natural to place them
in the rank of fish  : the form of  their bodies agrees with
that of fish; they   are  entirely naked, or covered only
with a smooth skin ; they live  constantly  in the  water,
and have all the actions offish.  This order comprehends
the monodon,  or narwhale, or sea  unicorn; balsena,  or
common  whale; the physeter, cachalot,  or spermaceti
whale; and delphinus,  dolphin, grampus, porpus, &c.
  CHA, in commerce,  a thin light silk stuff made in China,
and worn by the inhabitants for a summer dress.
  CHiEROPHYLLUM, chervil: a genus of the digynia
order, in the pentandria class of  plants; and in the natu-
ral  method ranking under the 45th  order, umbellatse.
The involucrum is reflexed concave,  lhe petals inflexed
cordate; the fruit  oblong and  smooth.   There are ten
species, two of  which,  called cow weed and wild chervil,
are weeds common in many places in Britain.   The roots
of the first have been found poisonous when used as  par-
sneps ; the flowers afford an indifferent yellow  dye ; the
leaves and  stalks a beautiful  green.   Its presence indi-
cates a fertile soil, but it ought to be rooted  out from all
pastures early  in the spring, as no animal but the ass will
eat it.  The leaves are  recommended by Geoffroy  as
aperient and diuretic, and at the same time grateful to the
palate and stomach.   He even asserts  that  dropsies
which do not yield to this medicine can scarcely be cured
by any other.   He directs  the  juice to be given in  the
dose of three or four ounces every fourth hour, and con-
tinued for some lime, either alone or in conjunction wifh
nitre  and syrup of the five opening  roots.  The other
species of chserophyllum are not possessed of any remark-
able property.
  CHiETODON, in  ichthyology, a genus of fishes be-
longing to  tbe  order of thoracici.   The  teeth  are very
numerous,  thick,  setaceous, and  flexile ; the rays of the
gills are six.  The back fin and the fin at  the anus are
fleshy and squamous.  There  are 23 species, distinguish-
ed from each other principally by the figure ofthe tail, and
the number of  spines in the back fin.   The most remark-
able is the acuminatus,  or  shooting fish,  having a hollow
cylindrical beak. It is a native  ofthe East Indies, where it
frequents the sides of fhe sea and  rivers in search of food ;
from its singular manner of obtaining which it receives its
name.  When it spies a fly sitting on the planfs that grow
in shallow water, it swims to the distance of four,  five, or
rix feet;  and then, wilh a surprising dexterity, it ejects
out of its tubular mouth a single drop of water, which nev-
er fails striking the fly into the wafer, where it soon be-
comes its prey.   See Plates XXVIII. and XXXIII. Nat.
Hist. figs. 113,114, 115, 116.
  CHAFFERS,  in  our old records,  signify wares or
merchandise ;  and hence the word chaffering is used for
buying and selling.
  CHAIN, a  kind of measure in France, in  the trade of
wood for fuel: there are chains for wood by tale, for wood
by the rope, for  faggots, for cleft wood,  and for round
sticks : (here are also chains measuring the sheaves of all
sorte of corn, &c.
  Chains in a ship, those  irons (o which (he shrouds by
the masts are made fast to the chain walls, which are  (he
broad timbers made jetting out of (he sides,  to which the
shrouds are fastened and spread out,  the better to secure
the masts.
  Chain shot,  two  bullets wilh a chain between (hem.
They are used a( sea to shoot down yards or masts,  and
to cut the shrouds or rigging ofa ship.
  Chain pump.   See Pump.
  Chain, in  surveying, a measure of length,  made of a
certain number of links of iron  wire, serving to take the
distance  between  two  or  more places.  Gunter's chain
contains  100  such links, each  measuring 7^v inches
and consequently  equal  to  66 feet,  or four poles.  See
Surveying.
  CHALCEDONY, in natural  history, a genus of semi-
pellucid  gems* of an even and regular not tabulated tex-
ture, of a semi-opaque  crystaline basis, and variegated
with different colours,  dispersed  in  form of mists  and
clouds, and, if nicely examined, found to be owing to an
admixture of various kinds of earths or metals, but imper-
fectly blended in  the mass, and often visible in distinct
molecular.  Of this genus Ihere  are a great many species,
as the bluish white chalcedony ;  fhe brownish black chal-
cedony, or smoky jasper or  capnitis of the ancients;  and
the yellow and red chalcedony.
  This stone is found abundantly in many countries,  par-
ticularly  in Iceland and  the Ferro  islands.   It is most
commonly amorphous, or in rounded masses.   Ifs specif-
ic gravity is from  2.615 to 2.T03; and it is composed of
84 parts  of silica,  and 16 of alumina,  mixed  with iron.
When striped while and black, or brown alternately, it is
called onyx; when striped  white  and gray, it is denomi-
nated chalcedonix.  Black or brown chalcedony, when
between  the eye and a strong light, appears of a dark
red.
  CHALDRON, a dry English  measure, consisting of
thirty-six bushels,  heaped  up  according to  the sealed
bushel kept  at  Guildhall, London; but on  ship board,
twenty-one chaldron of  coals  are  allowed to the score.
The chaldron  should weigh Iwo  thousand pounds.
  CHALIZA, ih Hebrew antiquity, the ceremony where-
by a woman, left a widow, pulled off her brother in law's
shoes,  who  should have espoused her; after which she
was at liberty  to marry whom she pleased.
  CHALK, in natural history,  fhe English name of  the
while, dry, calcareous earth, with a dusty surface,  found
in hard  masses,  and called by  authors creta, and terra
creta.  See Chymistry.
  CHALLENGE, taken either against persons or things:
persons,  as  in av-ize the jurors, or any  one  or moie
of them; or in a case of felony, by a prisoner at the bar.
  Challenge of jurors is  of two kinds ;  either fo the array,
by which is meant  the whole jury as  it stands arrayed in
the pannel or little square pane of parchment  on which 
C  H  A
C  H  A
the jurors' names are written; or to the polls, by which
are meant  the  several particular persons or  heads in (he
array.   1 Inst.  156.
  Challenge to the  array is in respect  of the partiality
or default of the sheriff, coroner, or other officer that made
the return ; and it is then twofold :  1st. Principal chal-
lenge to lhe array, which if it is made good, is a sufficient
cause of exception, without leaving any thing to the judg-
ment of the triers ; as if the sheriff is of kindred to either
party; or if any of the jurors are returned at lhe denomina-
tion of either of (he parties.  2d. Challenge to (he array
for favour, which being no principal challenge must be left
to the discretion and  conscience  ofthe triers; as where
either of the parties  suspects that the juror is inclined to
favour the opposite party.  1 Inst. 158.
   Principal challenge to the polls, is where cause is shown,
which  if  found true, stands  sufficient of  itself, without
leaving any  thing to the  triers;  as if  the juror is under
the age of twenty-one, it is a good cause of challenge.
   Challenge to the polls for favour, is when neither party
can take any principal challenge ; but shows causes of fa-
vour, as that lhe juror is a fellow servant with either party.
   In cases of high treason, and misprision of high treason,
the prisoner  shall have his  peremptory challenge (o lhe
number of thirty-five.  1  Inst. 156.  But  with regard to
petit treason,  murder,  and  other felonies, the 22 Hen.
VIII. c 14. continues in force, which takes away the  per-
emptory challenge of more than twenty.
   CHAMA, in zoology, a genus of shell fish belonging fo
tbe order of (estecea.   The  shell is  (hick  and has  (wo
valves: (here are 14 species,  principally dis(inguished by
(he figure ofthe shells.   See  Plate XXVIII. Nat. Hist.
figs. ior,  108.
   There is a great variety among  the  several species of
chama; some being perfectly smooth, some striated,  and
some rugose, or even spinose ; whilst  others are oblong,
others roundish; and some are equilateral.   Among the
species of this genus, we may reckon the concha Veneris,
or Venus's shell, with  a spinose edge ;  the agate chama;
 md  the chama gryphoides and cordata.
   CHAM^ROPS, the dwarf palm, or little palmetto, a
genus ofthe natural order of palmae.  The hermaphrodite
calyx is tripartite; the corolla tripetalous;  there are six
stamina, three pistils, and three monospermous plums.  The
male is  a  distinct plant, the  same as the hermaphrodite.
There  are three species, the most remarkable of which
is the
   Chamaerops  glabra,  a native of the  West  Indies, and
warm parts of America, also of the corresponding latitudes
of Asia  and Africa.  It never rises wilh a tall stem ; but
when the plants are old, iheir leaves  are five or six feet
long, and upward of two broad ;  tbese spread open like
a fan, having many foldings, and at the top are deeply di-
vided like lhe fingers of a  hand.   This plant lhe Ameri-
cans call lhatch, from fhe use lo which lhe leaves are ap-
plied.   It may be easily raised in this country from seeds
lirought from America ;  but as the plants are tender,  ihey
must he constantly kept in a bark stove.
   CHAMBER, in policy, the  place where certain assem-
blies are held, also the assemblies themselves.   Of these
some are established for the administration of justice, others
for commercial affairs.
   Ofthe first  kind are, 1. star chamber, so called, because
(he roof was painted with stars ; the authority, power, and
jurisdiction of which, are absolutely abolished by fhe stat-
ute 17 Car. 1. 2. Imperial chamber of Spire, fhe supreme
court of judicatory in the empire, erected by Maximilian I.
This chamber has a right of judging by appeal, and is the
last  resort of all civil affairs of the states and  subjects of
the empire, in the same manner as (he aulic council of A i-
enna.  Neverlheless  it is restrained  in several cases; it
takes no notice of matrimonial causes, these  being left to
the pope ; nor of criminal  causes, which either belong to
particular princes or towns in their respective territories,
or are cognisable by all the states of lhe empire in a diet.
By the treaty of Osnaburgh in 1648, fifty  assessors were ap-
pointed for (his chamber, whereof twenty-four were to be
protestants, and  twenty-six catholics, besides  five  presi-
dents, two of them protestants,  and the rest catholics.  3.
Apostolical chamber of Rome, that wherein affairs relat-
ing to lhe revenues of the church and the pope are  trans-
acted.  This council consists of the cardinal camerlingo,
the  governor of the rota, a treasurer, an auditor, a presi-
dent, one advocate general, a solicitor general, a commis-
sary, and twelve  clerks. 4. Chamber of  London, an apart-
ment in Guildhall, where the city money is deposited. Of
the  last sort are, 1. The chambers of commerce.  2. The
chambers of assurance.
   The chamber of commerce is an assembly of merchants
and traders, where the affairs relating to trade are treated
of.   There are several established  in most  of lhe chief
cities of France ; and  in our own country,  we have lately
seen chambers of this kind erected for  various purposes.
Chamber of assurance in France, denotes a society oi mer-
chants and others for carrying on the business of insuring;
but  in Holland, it signifies a court of justice, where causes
relating to insurances are tried.
   CHAMBERLAIN, an officer charged with the manage-
ment and direction ofa chamber.
   Chamberlain.   The office of lord  great chamberlain
of England is hereditary ;  and  where a  person  dies seized
in fee of this office, leaving two sisters,  the office belongs
fo both,  and Ihey may execute it  by  deputy, but such
deputy must be approved of by the king, and must  not be
of a degree inferior to  a knight.  To the  lord chamber-
Iain the  keys of Westminster  hall,  and lhe  court  of re-
quests, are delivered upon all solemn occasions.  He dis-
poses of the  sword  of state lo be carried before the king,
when he comes to the parliament,  and  goes on (he right
 hand of (he sword next (he king's person. He has (he care
of providing all (hings in (he house of lords in (he lime of
 parliament.  To him belong livery  aud lodgings  in the
 king's court, Sec. and (he gentleman usher ofthe black rod,
 yeoman usher, &c. are under bis authority.
   The lord  chamberlain  of tbe household has also super-
 intendence of artificers retained in the king's service, mes-
 sengers, comedians, revels, music, Sec.
   Chamberlain of London is commonly (he receiver of all
 rente and revenues belonging  (o lhat city, and has great
 authority in making  and  determining  the rights of free-
 men, and regulating  matters concerning apprentices, or-
 phans, &c.
   Chamberlain  of Chester, when  there is  no prince of
 Wales and earl of Chester, receives  and returns all  writs
 coming thither out of any of the king's  courts.
   CH AMBRA.NLE, among builders, an ornament of stone
or wood bordering the three Bides of doors, windows, and
 chimnies. 
C  H A
C  H  A
    CHAMFER, or Chamfret, in architecture, an  orna-
 ment consisting  of half a scotia, being a kind  ofa  small
 furrow or gutter on a column, called also scapus, stria, &c.
    CH AMPAIX, or point CHAMPAiN,in heraldry,a mark
 of dishonour in fhe coat of arms of him who kills a prisoner
 of war after he has cried quarter.
    CHAMPARTY, or Champerty, is the unlawful main-
 tenance of a suit, in consideration of some bargain to have
 part of the lands or thing in dispute, or part  of tbe gain.
 By stat. 33 Ed.  I. st. 3. both the champartor, and he who
 consents thereunto, shall be  imprisoned three years, and
 make fine at the  king's pleasure.
    CHAMPION, a person who  undertook a combat in fhe
 place or  quarrel of another; and  sometimes the word is
 used for him who fought in his own  cause.  It appears that
 champions, in the just sense of (he word, were persons
 who fought instead of those that, by custom, were obliged
 lo accept the duel, but had a just excuse for  dispensing
 with it, as being  too old, infirm, or being ecclesiastics, and
 the  like.   Such  causes  as could not be decided by the
 course of common law were  often tried by single combat;
 and he who bad  the good fortune to conquer, was always
 reputed to have justice on his side.  Champions  who
 fought for interest only where held  infamous ; these hired
 themselves to the nobility, to fight for them in  case of need,
 and did homage for their pension.   When (wo champions
 were chosen to  maintain a cause, it was always required
 that there should be a decree of the judge to authorize the
»combat:  when the judge had pronounced sentence, the ac-
 cused threw a gage or pledge, originally a glove or gaunt-
 let, which being  taken up by the accuser, they were both
 taken into safe custody till the day  of bailie appointed by
 the judge.   Before the champions  took the field,  their
 heads were shaven to a kind of crown or round, which was
 left at the top; ihen they made an oath  that  they believ-
 ed  the person who retained  them, to be  in the right, &c.
 They  always engaged on foot, and with no other weapon
 than a club and  a shield, which weapons were blessed in
 the field  by the  priest, with great ceremony ; and  they
 always made an offering to the church, that God might
 assist them in the  battle.  The action began with railing,
 and giving  each  other ill language; and at the  sound ofa
 trumpet, they went to blows.  After the  number of blows
 or encounters expressed in the cartel, the judges of lhe
 combat Ihrew a rod into the air, to advertise the champions
 that tbe combat was ended.  If it lasted till night, or ended
 with equal  advantage on both sides, the accused was re-
 puted the victor.  If the conquered champion fought in
 the cause of  a woman,  and it was a capital  offence, the
 woman was  burnt, and the champion hanged.  If it was the
 champion ofa man, and the  crime capital, the vanquished
 was immediately disarmed, led out of the field, and hanged,
 together with the  party whose'cause he  maintained.  If
 the crime was not  capital, he not only made  satisfaction,
 but had his right hand cutoff:  the accused was to be close
 confined in  prison, till the bailie was over.
   Champion of the  king, a person whose office it is, at
 the coronation of our kings, to ride armed info Westminster
 hall, while the king is at dinner there, and, by fhe procla-
 mation of a herald,  make challenge  to  this  effect,  t>i\r.
 "  that if any man shall  deny the king's Title 1 o the crown,
he is there ready to defend it  in single combat," Sec.  which
being done,  the king drinks  to him ; and sends him a gilt
 cup, with a cover, full of wine, which the champion drinks
 and has the cup for his fee.                            '
   CHANCE, is more particularly used for the probability
 of an event; and is greater or less, according to the num.
 ber of chances by which it may happen, compared with the
 number of chances by wbich it may either happen or fail.
 Thus, if an event  has three chances to happen, and two lo
 fail, lhe probability of  ifs happening may be estimated A
 and the probability ofits failing |. Therefore, if the proba-
 bilities of happening and failing are added together, (be sum
 will always be equal (o  uni(y.
   If (he probabilities of happening and failing are unequal
 there is what is commonly called odds for, or against, the
 happening or failing, which odds are proportional to (he
 number of chances for happening or failing.
   The expectation of obtaining any thing, is estimated by
 (he value of (ha(  thing, multiplied  by the probability  of
 obtaining it.  The risk of losing any thing, is estimated
 by the value of that thing, multiplied by the probability
 of losing it.  If, from the expectations which the game-
 sters have  upon the  whole sum deposited, the particular
 sums they deposite, that is, Iheir own stakes, are subtract-
 ed, there will remain the gain, if the differenre is positive;
 or the loss, if  the difference is negative.  Again, if from
 (he respective expectafions which  either  gamester has
 upon (he  sum deposited by his adversary, (he risk of los-
 ing wha( he himself deposites is subtracted, there  will like-
 wise remain his gain or loss.
   If there is  a certain  number of chances by which the
 possession of a sum  can be secured, and also  a certain
 number of chances by which it may be lost, that sum may
 be ensured for that part of if, which shall be  fo the whole,
 as the number of chances there are to lose it, is to lhe num-
 ber of all the chances.
   If two events have no dependence on each other, so that
p be the number of chances by which the first may happen,
 and q the number  of  chances by which it may fail; and
 likewise, that  r be the  number of chances by which the
 second  may happen,  and s lhe number of chances by
 which it may fail:  multiply p + q by r + s, and the prod-
 uct pr -f- qr -f ps -f qs will contain  all the  chances by
 which the happening or failing ofthe events may be varied
 amongst one another.
   From what  has been  said, it follows, that if a fraction
 expresses the  probability of an event, and another frac-
 tion the probability of another event, and these two events
 are  independent,  fhe probability that these  two events
 will happen, will be fhe product ofthe two fractions.
   Ex. 1. Suppose a person playing with a single die offers
to  wager, that he will throw an ace each time for two suc-
cessive throws; what probability has he of succeeding?
   Solution.  Suppose  the  wager 36/. and lhat, on throw-
ing tbe first lime, an ace  did come up ; then,  because
 (here are six faces on the die, only one of which is right,
his expectation on  the second throw will be £th of 301. or
36
— =6/.  But the probability of this event being also £tb,
 6
the expectation, before lhe first throw must necessarily be
£th of 6/. or 1/.  Therefore the probability  of his losing
                      1     f        1    35
fhe  wager will be  1-----X— = 1-----= —,   from
                       6    6         36   36 
CHANCE.
which it appears that no person ought to hazard such a
wager, unless the value of 35 to 1 shall be laid against him.
  Ex. 2.  A person offers to lay a wager of ll. that out of
a purse containing m + n counters, of which wi are black,
and n white, he will, blindfolded, at the first trial, draw a
white counter; and also  that,  out of another purse con-
taining m  and n  counters, of which  m are black, and it
white, he will also, blindfolded, at  the first trial, draw a
white counter;  and that, if  he  fail in either trial, his wa-
ger shall be lost.   What probability is there that he shall
succeed ?
  Solution.  If,  as ih the last example,  he  had already
succeeded in the first trial, it would follow that his expec-
                            N
tationon the second will be------: but if the success of
                          M -f- N
the  first trial be a condition of obtaining this  expectation,
                                         n
then the probability of so doing will be------; which
                                       wi + n
                                       n         n
multiplied info that expectation, will give-------X      »
         nh                          m + n    m + n
or              ., for the probability required.
   m + n  X m X n
   Hence the probability ofthe happening of two indepen-
dent events, will be equal to the  product of (he probabili-
ties of (heir  happening separately.  Of course,  if the two
events are ofthe same kind, then (he probability will be
   n*           n*
______=-------------.  More generally:
m~+^*   wa-f2mn + n»
   I. Let the number of  chances for fhe happening of an
event be a, and the number of chances  for  its  failing be
b;  then the probability ofits happening once in any nura-
                                         a       ab
 ber of trials will be expressed by the series ——  -f-
                                       a+b    <T+~oY
    ah*       abJ     ab*       ab'
 171          1526         12281
----; for five----; for six-------, &c.
1296          7770         46636
  III. The  probability of the event's happening three
times in any number of trials, will be expressed  by the
        ni         3a3b       6a3b2      10as6s
series
r-  +
+
+
      a -f- tfs     a -f- b\*     a + 6V     a -f-  b\*
which is to be continued to as  many terms, wanting two,
as is the number of terms given:  thus a  and b as before,
 1       15       150      1250   .....           ,
___ _l  ---- _|_______. -f- -----. which being  summed
216     1296     7776     46656

                        1               21
up  for  three  trials  =—'for four =  ----,  for five
 1                     216              1296
=  *L, &c.
   7776
Generally a = chances for happening,
          b = ditto for failing,
          I = number of times for producing the event
                 in a given number of trials,
          n = number of trials,
     a 4- b = s ;  then the following series is universal:

  a1          lb    Z.l+l.b*     U+1.I+2.P8
   —  X 1 -]     I            "+"    IOQ.3
   I           s       1.2.s2          i.m.j.s*

U-H.M-2.1+3.64
_______________■ —   ---------—------------------ •
     1.2.3.4.S4
For when 1 = 1, the series will be
     a       ab          .   ,   n
   ._____+ .-------, &c. as in the first case ;
   o + b   a -f 6\*
        1 = 2, the series will be
     a*      2as6
           -r-     _ , &c. as in the second  case ;
+
a-\-b\    a
Sec. continued to as
  a + /;-  ' a~+b\*'  a+Tl5   a+b'
many terms as are equal to the number of trials given.
Thus, if a =  1, b = 5, and the number of trials be 1, 2, 3,

4, 5, &c. then the probability will be  — for  one trial;

 1    5    H              i     5    25      91
____i____= _ for two trials; — +---1------=---tor
 6   36   36              6    36   216    216
three trials, and soon.
  II. Things  remaining as before,  the probability of the
event's happening twice in any given number of trials, will
be expressed by  the following  series,  continued to  as
many terms, wanting one, as  the  number of trials given :
  «s    2a*b    3alb*   4a»b»   5a»D*          1

fl^^ + a+^s + o^0y + ^r:6l4   aToV"       36
10
+
+
216    12U6
 500    3125

7776   46656
         1
These being summed up,
  a + 0\2 ' a +1?\3
        I = 3, the series will be
    a3       3a3 b
          -f-______, &c. as in the third case; and so ou
  a + bV   a + b\*
universally.                      N
  Remark. The above series must be continued  to so
                                                I
                                               a
many terms exclusive ofthe common multiplicalor —, as

are denoted by the number n — I -f- 1.
  And, for the  same reason, the probability of the contra-
ry, that is, of the event's not happening so often as I limes,
making n —• I + 1  = P» w'^ De expressed by the series
hP        pa   p.u+l.aa   p-p + 1 .v + 2.a3
1.X1  +- +i_LZ----+ r------------, which
sP         s      1.2.ss         1.2.3. a»
series is to  be continued to  so many terms, exclusive of
the common raultiplicator, as are denoted by the number /.
   Either series may be  used, according aa I is less or
16
we  have for two  trials —; for three  trials—; for four
                       36                216
greater than
n + 1
                    It is to be observed of these series,

that  they are both derived from the same principle:  for, 
C  II  A
C  H  A
supposing  two adversaries, A and B, contending about
the happening of that event, which has  every time  a
chances  to happen,  and b  chances  to fail; that the
chances a  are  favourable to A, and the chances b to B,
and  that A should lay a wager with  B that his chances
should come up I times  in n trials ; then, by reason B
lays a wager to the contrary, he himself undertakes that
his own chances shall, in the same number of trials, come
up n — I -J- 1  limes; and therefore if in the first series,
we change I into n — I +  1,  and vice versa; and  also
write b for a, and a for b ; the second series will be formed.
See Nature and Laws of Chance, by Thomas Simpson;
Demoivre on chances  ; Dodson's Mathematical Reposito-
ry,  vol.ii. p. 82, &c.
   Chance medley,  in law,  is the accidental killing of a
man, not wholly without the killer's fault f it is also called
manslaughter by misadventure,  for which  the offender
shall have  his pardon of course, 6 Ed.  I. c. 9.  But here
is to be considered, whether the person who commits this
manslaughter by chance medley was doing a lawful thing ;
for if the act was unlawful it is felony.   Chance medley is
pro^jrly  applied to such killing  as happens for self de-
fence in a sudden rencounter.  4  Blacks. 183.
   CHANCEL, a particular part of the fabric ofa Christ-
ian  church; it is  the rector's freehold and part of his
glebe, and  therefore he is obliged to repair it; bul where
the  rectory is impropriate, the impropriator must do it.
   CHANCELLOR,  an officer  supposed originally  to
have been a notary  or scribe under the emperors; and
namechcancellarius, because be sat behind a lattice, called
in Latin  cancellus, to avoid being crowded by the people.
The chancellor originally presided over a political college
of secretaries, for the writing of treaties, and other public
business; and the court of equity, under the old constitu-
tion, was held before  the king and his council, in  the pal-
ace, where one supreme court for business  of every kind
was kept.   At first  the chancellor  became a  judge,  to
hear and determine petitions to the king, which were pre-
ferred to him ; and in the end, as business  increased, the
people addressed their  suit to the chancellor, and not  to
the  king; and thus the chancellor's equitable power by
degrees, commenced  by prescription.
   Lord high chancellor of Great Britain, or lord keeper of
the great seal, is the highest honour ofthe long robe; being
made so per traditionem magni sigilliper  dominum  regem,
and  by taking the oaths : he is the first person ofthe realm
next after  the  king, and princes of (he blood, in ail civil
affairs ; and is (he chief administeafor of justice next the
sovereign, being fhe judge of the court of chancery, which
is styled  a court of equity.   This equity consists in abat-
ing the rigour of the common law, and  giving a remedy in
cases where no provision, or not  sufficient  provision, had
been made by the ordinary course of law.   The jurisdic-
tion  of this court is of vast extent.  Almost all causes of
weight and moment, first or last, have their determination
here.  In this court  relief is given in the case of infants,
married women, and others not capable of acting for them-
selves.   All  frauds for which there is no remedy at law
are  cognisable here ;  as also all breaches of trust, and un-
reasonable or unconscionable engagements.  It will compel
men fo  perform their agreements; will  remove  mortga-
gers  and obligors against penalties and  forfeiture, on pay-
ment of principal, interest, and costs ; will rectify mistakes
in conveyances ; will grant injunctions to stay waste; and
restrain the proceedings  of inferior courts, lhat ihey ex-
ceed not their authority and jurisdiction. 3 Blacks. 48.
This court will not retain a suit for any thing under 10/.
value, except in cases of charity, nor for lands under 40*.
per annum.
  The  lord chancellor not only keeps the king's great
seal, but also all patents, commissions, warrants, &c. from
the king, are, before they are signed, perused by him:  he
has the disposition of all ecclesiastical benefices  in the
gift of the crown under 20/. a year, in  the king's books •
and he is speaker ofthe house of lords.
  Chancellor of a cathedral, an officer that hears les-
sons and lectures read in the church, either by himself or
his vicar;  to correct and set right the reader when he reads
amiss;  to inspect schools; to hear causes ; apply fne seal-
write and  despatch the  letters  of the chapter; keep the
books ; take care that there are frequent preachings, both
in the church and out of it; and assign the office of preach-
ing to whom he pleases.
  Chancellor of a diocese, a lay officer under a bishop,
who is judge of his court.
  Chancellor of the dutchy of Lancaster, an officer ap-
pointed chiefly  to  determine  controversies  between the
king and his tenants of the dutchy  land, and otherwise to
direct  all the king's affairs belonging to that court.
  Chancellor of the exchequer, an officer  who presides
in that court, and  lakes care of the interest of fhe crown.
He is  always in commission wilh the  lord  treasurer, for
the letting of crown lands, &c. and has  power with others,
to compound for forfeitures of lands, upon penal statutes:
he has also great authority in managing the royal revenues,
and national finances.
  Chancellor ofthe order ofthe garter, and other mili-
tary orders, is  an officer who seals lhe commissions and
mandates ofthe chapter and assembly of lhe knights, keeps
the register of their proceedings, and delivers acts thereof
under  the seal of Iheir order.
  Chancellor of an university, is he who seals the dip-
lomas,  or letters of degrees, provision,  &c. given in the
university.
  The  chancellor of Oxford  is usually one of the prime
nobility, chosen by the members ofthe university in con-
vocation.  He  is their chief magistrate: his office is du-
rante vita, to govern the university, preserve and defend
its rights and privileges,  convoke assemblies, and do jus-
tice among the  members under his jurisdiction. Under the
chancellor is the vice chancellor, who is chosen annually,
being nominated by  the chancellor, and elected  by the
university in convocalion : he is always lhe  head of some
college, and in holy orders.  His proper office is to ex-
ecute the chancellor's power, lo govern the university ac-
cording to ber statutes, fo see that officers and students do
their duty, that courts be duly called, &c.   When he en-
ters upon  his office, he chooses four pro v ice chancellors
out of the heads of the  colleges, to execute his power in
his absence.
  The chancellor of Cambridge is also  usually one of lhe
prime  nobility,  and in most respects the same as thaf of
Oxford, only he does  not hold his office durante vita, but
may be elected every three years.  Under the chancellor
there is a  commissary,  who holds a  court of  record for all
privileged persons  and scholars under the degree of master 
C  H A
C  H A
of arts, where all causes are tried and determined by the
civil and statute law, and by the custom ofthe university.
The vice-chancellor of Cambridge is chosen annually, by
the senate, out of two persons nominated by the heads of
the several colleges and hall.
  CIIA N CE RY, apostolic, a court in the church of Rome,
belonging to the pope.   The pope's datory and chancery
courts were formerly one and the same thing: but the mul-
titude of affairs to  be transacted therein, ohliged him to
divide it into two tribunals, which are  so nearly related
to one another, that the  chancery does  no more than dis-
patch all that has passed through the datory court.   The
officers belonging to this court are the regent, prelates,
and registers.   There are also six masters in chancery,
whose business it is to collect the bulls:  each of these em-
ployments is purchased for six thousand crowns.   These
are subordinate to  the master of the rolls, who keeps the
registers of the bulls.
   CHANDELIER, in fortification, a kind of moveable
parapet, consisting of a wooden  frame, made of two up-
right stakes, about six feet high, \\ ith cross planks be-
tween them; serving to support the fascines  to cover the
pioneers. The chandeliers differ from blinds in this, that
the former cover the men  only before, whereas the latter
cover them also above.  Ttiey are  used in approaches,
galleries, and mines, to  hinder the workmen from being
driven from their stations.
   CHANNEL, in architecture, that part of  the Ionic ca-
pital which is under the auacus.
   Channel of the larmier,  the hollow soffit of a cornice
which makes the pendant mouchctte.
   Channel of the volute,  in the Ionic capital, the face of
the circumvolution inclosed hy alistel.
   CHANTLATE, in building, a piece of wood fastened
nem- th^ end of the rafters, and projecting beyond the wall
to support two or  three rows of tiles, so placed as to pre-
vent  the rain-water from trickling down the sides of the
walls.
   CHAOS, in zoology, a genus of insects belonging to
the order of zoophyte.  The body has no shell or cover-
ing, and is capable of reviving after appearing to be dead
for a considerable  time.  It  has no joints, or external or-
gans  of sensation. There  are  five  species, mostly ob-
tained by infusions of different vegetables in water, and
only discoverable by the microscope.
   CHAPEAU, in heraldry, an  antient cap of dignity
worn by dukes, being scarlet-coloured  velvet on the out-
bide,  and lined with a fur.
   CHAPEL,  a place of divine worship, served by  an in-
cumbent under the denomination ofa chaplain.
   In  England there are several serfs. 1. Parochial chap-
els, which, differing from parish churches only in the name,
..i;' generally small, as the inhabitants within the district
;:re lew.  I f there is a presentation ad ecc'esiam instead of
ad capelUim, and an admission and institution upon it, it
is no long- i  a chapel, but a church. 2.  Chapels which ad-
join to and are part of the church:  such were formerly
built  by honourable persons as  burying-places for them-
selves and their families.  3.  Chapels of ease, built in  ve-
ry large parishes for the convenience of such as cannot re-
pair to the parish  church.   These are served by inferior
curates provided  at the charge of the rector, and  conse-
quently re moveable at his pleasure.   4. Free  chapels,
     VOL. I.                u-
such as were founded by the kings of England, free from
all episcopal  jurisdiction, and to be visited only hy the
founder and his successors: the visitation is made by the
lord chancellor.   The king likewise may license any sub-
ject to build and endow a chapel, and by letters patent ex-
empt  it from  the visitation of the ordinary.   5. Chapels
in universities belonging to particular colleges,  which,
though consecrated, and though sacraments are adminis-
tered there, are not liable to the visitation of the bishop.
6. Domestic  chapels, built by gentlemen for the private
service of God in their own families.  These may be erect-
ed without the leave ofthe bishop, and need not  be con-
secrated, though  they were anciently: they are not sub-
ject to the visitation  of the ordinary.
  Knights  of the  Chapel, called also  poor knights of
Windsor, were instituted by HenryVIII. in his testament.
Their number was at first thirteen, but has been since aug-
mented to twenty-six. They assist in the funeral services
of the kings  of England:  they are subject to the office of
the canons of Windsor, and live on pensions assigned them
by the order  of the garter. They bear a blue or red clokc,
with the arms of  St. George on the left shoulder.
   CHAPLAIN, an ecclesiastic who officiates in a chapel.
  The king of great Britain has forty-eight chaplains in
ordinary, who wait four each month, preach in the chapel,
read the service to the family,  and to the king in his pri-
vate oratory, and say grace in the absence of the clerk of
the closet.   Besides, there are twenty-four chaplains at
Whitehall, fellows of Oxford or  Cambridge, who preach
in their turns, and are allowed 30/. per annum each. Ac-
cording to a statute of Henry VIII.  the persons vested
with  a power of retaining chaplains, together with the
number each is allowed to qualify, is as follows: an arch-
bishop, eight; a duke or bishop, six; marquis or carl, five;
viscount, four; baron, knight ofthe garter, or lord chan-
cellor, three; a duchess, marchioness, countess, baroness,
the treasurer and controller ofthe king's house, clerk of
the closet, the king's secretary, dean of the chapel, al-
moner, and master  ofthe rolls, each of them two; chief
justice ofthe king's bench, and  warden ofthe cinque ports,
each one.  All these chaplains  may purchase a licence
or dispensation, and take two benefices with cure of souls.
A chaplain must  be retained by letters testimonial  under
hand and  seal; for  it is  not  sufficient that he serve as
chaplain in the family.
   CHAPLET, a string of heads used by the Roman
catholics to count the number of their prayers.  The in-
vention of it is ascribed to Peter the Hermit, who pro-
bably learned it ofthe Tucks, as they owe it to the East
Indians.  Chaplets are sometimes called  pater-nosters,
and are made of  coral,  of diamond, of wood. &c.   The
common chaplet contains fifty  avc-marias and five pater-
nosters.
   CIIAPPE', in  heraldry, the  dividing an escutcheon hy
lines  drawn from the centre ofthe upper edge to the an-
gles below, into three par's, the  sections on the sides be*
ing of a different metal or colour from the rest.
   CHARA, a genus ofthe monandria order, in the mo-
noicia class  of plants. There is neither node calyx nor
corolla; and the anthera is pined under the germen. The
female calyx is tetraphyllous: no corolla; the stigma quin-
quefid, with  one  roundish seed.  There are 4 species.
   CllAilACTER, in a general sense, denotes any mark 
C  H A
C  H  A
 whatever, serving to represent either things or ideas: thus
letters are characters, types, or marks, of certain sounds;
words, of ideas, &c. See Letter, &c.
  Character. It one person apply to another for the
character of a third person, and a good character as to
his  solvancy be given, yet if, in consequence of this opin-
ion, the party asking the question suffer loss through the
person's  insolvency, no action lies against him who gave
the  character if it were fairly given.  I Esp. Rep. 442.
  But if a man wickedly asserts that which  he knows to
be false, and thereby draws his neighbour into a loss, it is
actionable. 3 T. R, 351.  But if the party giving credit
also knew that the party credited was in bad circumstan-
ces  an action will not lie.  1 Esp. Rep. 290.
  Character, a mark or abbreviation used in  certain
arts and  sciences.
  Characters in Algebra and Arithmetic.
  a, b, c, d, &c. the first letters  of the alphabet,  are the
characters of given quantities; and *, y, x, &c.  the last
.letters, are the characters of quantities sought.  See Al-
gebra.
  m, n, r, s, t, &c. are characters of indeterminate expon-
                                       m  n   r
ents both of ratios and of powers: thus, x  , y ,  a , &c.
denote undetermined powers  of  different kinds; mx, ny,
rxi,  different multiples, or submultiples of the quantities
x, y, %, according as to, n, r, are either whole numbers
or fractions.
  + is the sign of the real existence of the quantity it
stands before,  and is  called an affirmative  or positive
sign.   It is also the mark of addition, and  is read plus,
or more; thus, a+ b, or 3-f 5, implies a is added to b, or 3
added to  5.
  — before a single quantity, is the sign of negation or
negative existence, showing the quantity to which it is
prefixed  to be less than nothing.   But between quantities
it is the sign of substraction, and is read minus,  or less;
thus, a—b or 8—4, implies 6 subtracted from a, or 8 after
4 has been subtracted.
  = is the sign of equality, though Des Cartes and some
others use this mark a; thus, a=b signifies that a is equal
to 6.   Wolfius, and some others, use the mark = for the
identity of ratios.
  X is the sign of multiplication, showing that the quan-
tities on  each side the same are to be multiplied by one
another, as ax6 is to be read a multiplied into 6; 4x8, the
product of 4 multiplied into  8.  Wolfius and other's make
the sign of multiplication a dot between the two factors;
thus 5 .4 signifies the product of 5 and 4. In algebra the
sign is frequently omitted, and the two quantities put to-
gether; thus ba expresses the product of b and d.  When
one or both ofthe factors are compounded of several let-
ters, they are distinguished by a line drawn over them;
thus, the factum  of a+b—c into d, is wrote dxa+b—c.
 Leibnitz, Wolfius, and  otners, distinguish the compound
 factors by including them in a parenthesis (a+b—c) d.
  -r- is the sign of division; thus, a-r-b denotes the quan-
 tity o to be divided by b. In algebra the quotient is often
                             a  '
 expressed like a fraction, thus — denotes the quotient of
                             6
 a divided by 6.   Wolfius makes  the sign of division two
 dots; thus \2 :4 denotes the quotient  of 1.2 divided by 4,
=3.  If either the divisor or dividend, or both, be com-
posed of  several letters, for example a+b-?-c, instead
                                    a+b
of writing the quotent like a fraction,-----, Wolfius in-
                                      c
eludes  the compound quantities in a parenthesis, thus
(a+b) : c.
   ©* is. the character of involution; vv is the character of
evolution.
   7 or  [~   are signs of majority; thus, ayb expresses
that a is greater than b.
   Z. or   ~] are signs of minority;  and when we  would
denote that a is less than b,  we write aZJb, or a  ~]ft.
   co is the character of similitude  used by Wolfius, Leib-
nitz, and others:  it is used in other authors for the  differ-
ence between two quantities, while it is unknown  wTiich
is the greater ofthe two.
   ::is lhe mark of geometrical proportion disjunct, and
is usually placed between two pair of equal ratios, as, 3
:  6 :: 4 : 8, shows that 3 is to 6 as  4 is to 8.
   ; ;  the mark of geometrical  proportion continued,
implies the ratio to be still carried on without interruption,
as 2, 4,8,16, 32, 64 •++- are in the same uninterrupted
proportion.
   y/ is the character of radicality, and shows, according
to the index of the  power that is  set  over it, or after
it, that the  square,  cube,  or other root, is extracted,
or to be  extracted;  thus,  y/ 16,  or v2 16,  or y  (2)
16, is the square root of 16.  \K25, the cube root of  25,
&c. This  character sometimes affects several quantities,
distinguished by a line drawn over them; thus, \/b+d  de-
notes the square root of the sum of b and d.  When any
term, or terms, of an eqaution are wanting, they are gen-
erally supplied by one or more asterisks: thus in  the
equaiony^j^+jcp +?|_0>  tl|e  tmn _^py y^y^^

is marked with an asterism, as y**—\p2+q.  See Alge-
bra.
   Characters used in Astronomy.  See Astronomy.
   Characters used in the arithmetic of infinities.
   •  the character  of an infinitesimal or fluxion; thus,
x, y, &c. express the fluxions or differentials of the varia-
ble x and  y, and two, three, or more dots, denote second,
third, or higher Auctions. Mr. Leibnitz, instead of  a dot,
prefixes the letter d to the variable quantity, in order to
avoid confusion of dots in the  difficrencing of differen-
tials.  Sec Calcului  differevtialis.
       Characters in Medicine and Pharmacy.
   R recipe                   M.  manipulus, a handful
   a, aa, or ana, of each alike
   Jfe a pound or a pint
P. a pugil
P. vE. equal quantities
S. A. according to art
q. s. a sufficient quantity
q. pi. as much  as  you
  please
P. P. pulvis  patrum, the
  Jesuits' bark.
  3 an ounce
  5 a drachm
  3 a scruple
  gr. grains
  f$ or ss, half of any thing
  rong. congius, a gall <n
  coch. cochleare, a spoon-
    ful
  Characters used in M isic, and of musical notes, with
their  proportions, ac as  follow.
   C chara. ter of a large  8   n a b-eve             2
   S a long               4   Da semihreve         i 
C  H A
C  II  A
minim
crotchet
quaver
semiquaver
demisemiquaver
1
1
  X character of a sharp note: this character at the be-
ginning of a line, or space, denotes that all the notes in that
line are to be taken a semitone higher than in the natural
series; and the same affects all the octaves  above or he-
low, though not marked: but  when prefixed to any par-
ticular note, it shows that note alone to be taken a semi-
tone higher than it would be without such character.
  il or 6, character of a flat note: this is the contrary to
the other above, that is, a smeitone lower.
  ^ character of a natural note: when in a line or series
•f artificial notes, marked at the beginning  fe or X, the
natural note happens to be required, it is denoted by this
character.

  ft$ character ofthe treble cliff.
  Jst character of the mean cliff.


  jEE bass cliff.


  £h, orf, or|, character of common duple time; signify-

ing the measure of two crotchets to be equal to two notes,
ef which four make a scmibreve.
C £i£2(haracters that distinguish the movements of
common time; the first implying slow, the second quick,
and the third very quick.
   s» Z> h h t?' cnaractcrs of simple triple time, the meas-
ure or which is equal to three semibreves, or to three
minims.
   |, or«, or T6j, characters of mixed triple time, where the
measure is eq'ial to six crotchets, or six quavers.
  |, or •, or -f6,  |, ro|, characters of compound  triple
time.
   *p2»  V» nr|»,or *^, or y, characters of that species of
triple time called the measure of twelve times.   See Tri-
ple.
       Characters ofthe rests or pauses of time.
                              :S:
3i^?-™IS=Kfe
   Numeral Characters used to express numbers, are
 ether letters or figures.  The Arabic character, called al-
 so tbe common one, because it is used almost throughout
 Europe in  all sorts of calculations, consists of these ten
 digits, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7,8, 9,0. See Arithmetic.
   The Greeks had three ways of expressing numbers:
 first, every letter, according to its place in the alphabet,
 denoted a number, from «, one, to et, twenty-four. 2. The
 alphabet was divided into eight units, * one, p two, y three,
 &c. into eight tens, t ten, * twenty, a thirty, &c.  and cigli-.
 hundreds, % one hundred, <r two hundred, t three hundred,
 &c.  3. I   stood  for one, n  (w«70 ^1VC> ^ (&**) ten, H
 (<H**7o») a  hundred, x (#ia<*) a thousand, m (&&»)  ten
 thousand; and when the letter n inclosed any of these, ex-
 cept I, it showed the inclosed  letter to be five times its
 value; as jaj fifty, ]h[ five hundred, |x| five thousand, |m[
 fifty thousand.
   The Hebrew numerals consisted  of their alphabet di-
 vided into nine units;  thus, ^ one, ^two, &c: nine tens;
 thus, Uen,  3 twenty, &c: nine hundreds; thus, p one hun-

 dred, *) two hundred, &c. and *■? five hundred, Q six hun-

 dred, r seven hundred, 'rt eight hundred, ty nine hundred.

 They expressed thousands by the word 7]7J<, with the other

 numerals prefixed to signify  the  number of thousands:

 thus, 0^7^ two thousand, Q>T?iOthree thousand, &c.
   CHARADKIUS, in ornithology, a genus belonging to
 the order of grallse. The beak is cylindrical  and blunt;
 the nostrials are linear; and the feet have each three toes.
 Among the species, of which their are 27 or 28, are,
   1. The Alexandrinus, or Alexandrian dottrel,  is  of a
 brownish colour, with the  forehead, collar, and belly,
 white; the  prime tail-feathers  on both sides are white;
 and  the legs are black.  It is about the size of a  lark,
 and lives upon insects.
   2. The  JEgyptius has a black  streak on  the  breast,
white eye-brows, the  prime tail-feathers streaked  with
black at tbe points, and bluish legs.  It is found in the
plains of Egypt, and feeds on insects___3. The morinellus
has an iron-coloured breast, a small white streak on the
breast  and eye-brows, and black  legs.  It is found in
 Cambridgeshire,  Lincolnshire, and Derbyshire.   On
 Lincoln-heath, and on the moors of Derbyshire, they arc
migratory; appearing there in small flocks of eight or ten
only in the latter end of April, and staying there all May
 and part of June, during which time thev are very fat,
and much  esteemed for  their delicate flavour.    In the
months  of  April and September they are taken on the
 Wiltshire and Berkshire downs.
   4. The pluvialis (see Plate XXVIII. Nat. Hist. fig.
 106) is black above, with green spots, white underneath,
 and the feet arc  ash-coloured.  It is tbe green plover of
 Ray, and  is a native  of Europe.   They lay four eggs,
sharply pointed at the lesser end. ofa dirty white colour'
and irregularly marked,  especially  at  the thicker end,
with blotches and spots.  They make a shrill  whistling
 noise; and may be enticed within shot by a skilful imita-
 tor of their note.
   5. The cedicnemus.or sf me curlew of R.<v. is ofa o-iTy
 colour, with two  of the  piin.e  winr-feathers hli'ck "but
 white in the middle: it has a sharp bill,  s,„d ash-odoured
 feet; and is about the size of a crow.  In Hampshire, Nor- 
C  H  A
e  h  a
folk,  and on  Lincoln-heath,  it is called  the  curlew,
from  a similarity of colours to  the  curlew.  It breeds
in some places  in rabbit-burrows;  also among stones
on  the bare ground, laying  two eggs of a  copper-
colour spotted with a darker red.  The younger run soon
after they arc hatched.  These birds feed in the night on
worms  and  caterpillars: they  will also  eat toads, and
catch mice.   They inhabit fallow  lands and downs; and
prefer dry places, being never seen in any waters. When
they fly, they extend their legs straight out behind; are
very shy birds; run far before they take to  wing; and
often squat:  are generally seen single, and are esteemed
very  elicate food.
   CHIRAC, the tribute which the Christians and Jews
pay to the grand signior.  It is generally a pistol' a head,
and sometimes four crowns.  The christians  who come
to travel in Turkey pav it at the first town they arrive at:
others begin to pay it at nine  or  sixteen years  old; but
women, priests, rabbis, and religious, are exempted.
   CHARCOAL,  according to modern chemistry, is an
oxide of carbon.   When charcoal, however, is prepared
in the usual  way, by exposing wood in close vessels to a
red heat, it  always contains a portion of hydrogen; for if
a quantity of this charcoal is exposed to a strong heat in
a retort of porcelain, iron, or coated glass, a great quan-
tity of gas is obtained.  The gas which comes over first
is a mixture of  carbonic acid and carbureted hydrogen;
but the proportion of carbonic acid diminishes, and at last
it ceases to come  over at all; yet the carbureted hydrogen
continues as copious as ever.
   The  evolution  of  these gases  was long ascribed by
chemists to the water which charcoal usually contains, and
which it is  known to absorb  from the atmosphere with
considerable avidity.  If that was  the case, the  propor-
tion of carbureted hydrogen oughtto diminish at the same
rate with the carbonic acid; the hydrogen of the one be-
ing equally  derived from the decomposition of water with
the oxygen  of the other.   But as the evolution  of car-
bureted hydrogen continues after that of carbonic acid
has ceased,  it is scarcely  possible to deny, that the hy-
drogen which thus escapes constituted a component part
of the charcoal.
   If, therefore, we consider the experiments of Morveau
on the combustion of the  diamond as decisive, we must
conclude, that common charcoal  is composed of three
ingredients, namely, carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen; and
it is of course a triple compound.
   CHARGE, in gunnery.  The mode of charging is too
well known to require description. It is  only to be no-
ted, that if  the hall is red-hot,  a tompion, or trencher of
green wood, is to be driven in before  it.   The weight of
the powder  necessary for a charge is commonly  one-half
or one-third the weight of the ball, or still less; and in-
deed, in most cases of service, the quantity of powder
used is too great for the intended execution.  In the Brit-
ish navy, the allowance for 32-pounders is7-16ths ofthe
weight ofthe bail.  But it is  probable, that if the pow-
 der in all  ship-guns  was  reduced  to one-third  of the
 weight ofthe hall, or even less, it would be a considera-
 ble advantage,  not  noly by saving ammunition, but by
 keeping the guns cooler  and quieter, and at the same
 time more effectually injuring the vessels of the enemy.
 With, the present allowance of powder, the guns are heat-
ed, and their tackle and furniture  strained, and all this
only to render the hall less efficacious: for a ball which
can but just  pass through a piece of timber, and in the
passage looses almost all its motion, is found to rend and
fracture it  much more than when it passes through with
a much greater velocity.  See Robins's  Tracts,  vol. i.
Again, the  same author observes, that the charge is not
to be determined by the greatest velocity that may be pro-
duced, but that it should be such a quantity of powder as
will produce the least velocity necessary  for the purpose
in view; and  if the windage be moderate, no field-piece
should ever be loaded with more than one-sixth, or at the
utmost one-fifth, of  the weight of its ball  in powder: nor
should  the charge  of any bettering-picce exceed  one-
third of the weight of its bullet. Ibid.   Different charges
of powder, with the same weight of ball, produce differ-
ent velocities in the ball, which are in the same suhdupli-
cate ratio of the weights of powder; and when the weight of
of powder is the same, and the ball varied, the velocity pro-
duced is in the reciprocal subduplicate ratio of the weight
ofthe ball; which is agreeable both to theory and practice.
See Philos. Trans.  1778, and Hutton's Tracts, vol.i.
   But this  is on a supposition that the gun is of an inde-
finite length; whereas, on account of the limited length
of guns, there is some variation  from this law in prac-
tice as well as in theory; in  consequence  of which it ap-
pears that  the velocity of the ball  increases with the
charge only to a certain point, which  is peculiar to each
gun, where the velocity is the greatest; and that by farth-
er increasing the charge, the velocity gradually dimin-
ishes, till the bore is quite full of powder.  By an easy
fluxionary process, calling the length of the bore ofthe
gun 6, the  length  of the charge producing the greatest
                       6
velocity ought to be-----------, or about 4 of the length
                   2.718281828
ofthe bore; where 2.718281828 is the number whose hyp.
log. is 1. But, for several reasons, in practice the length
of the charge producing the  greatest  velocity falls short
of that above mentioned, and the more so as the gun
is longer.  From many experiments it is found, that the
charge producing the greatest velocity, in guns of various
lengths of bore, from 15 to 40 calibers, is as follows:
Length of bore                       Length of charge
   in calibers.                         for greatest veloc.
  Charge, in heraldry, is applied  to the figures repre-
sented on the escutcheon, by which the bearers are dis-
tinguished from one another;  and it is  to be observed,
that too many charges are not so honourable as fewer.
  Charge and  Discharge.  A charge is a thing that
binds him who does it,  or that which is his, to the per-
formance thereof; and discharge is  the  removal of that
charge.  In all cases where an executory thing is created
by deed, there,  by consent of all the parties, it may hy
deed be defeated and discharged.
  CHARITABLE uses: lands given to alms, and alien-
ed, may be  recovered by the  donor. IS Ed.  1. c.  41.
Lands, &c. may be given for the maintenance of houses
of correction, or of the poor. S5 Eliz. c. 7.  Money git- 
C  II  A
C  H  A
 en to put out apprentices, either by parishes, or public
 charities, to pay no duty. 8 Anne, c. 9.
   CHARLES'S-WAIX, in astronomy, seven stars in
 flic constellation called ursa major,  or the great bear.
   ("HART, or sea-clun-t. an hydrographical  map, or a
 porjectionof some parts ofthe earth's superficies in piano,
 for the use of navigators.   Charts differ very considera-
 bly from geograpiii al or land map  , which are of no use
 in navigation.  Nor arc sea-charts all of the same kind;
 some being what we < all  plane charts, others Mcreator-
 charts, and others globular charts.
   Plane Chakt is  a representation of some part  of the
 superficies of the terraqueous globe, in which the meri-
 dians are supposed parallel to each other, the parallels
 of laiitade at  equal distances,  and  consequently the de-
 grees of latitude and longitude every where equal to each
 other.  See Navigation.
   .)l>rcator's Chakt, is  that wherein the meridians are
 straight lines  parallel to  each other, and equidistant; the
 parallels a re also straight lines, and parallel to each other:
 btit the distance between them increases from the equinoc-
 tial towards either  pole,  in the ratio of the secant ofthe
 latitude to the radius.
   If the superficies of the terrestrial globe is supposed to
 be taken off, and extended on a plane, so as to make the
 meridians parallel to each other, and the degrees of longi-
 tude every where equal, it is easy to conceive that it must
 he productive ofthe most notorious errors; for an island
 in latitude 60°, where tbe radius of  the parallel is only
 equal to one-half of the  radius of tbe equator, will have
 its length from east to west distorted in a double ratio to
 what it was on the globe; that is, its length from east to
 west, in  comparison of its  breadth from  north to  south,
 will be represented in  a double proportion to what it real-
 ly is: when: e it follows, that in whatever proportion the
 degrees of any parallel are increased or diminished by
 a  projection in piano, the degrees of longitude ought to be
 increased or diminished in  the same ratio; for otherwise
 the true  bearings and distances of places will be lost, as
 in the case of the plane-chart where  the degrees of lati-
 tude and longitude  are all equal.
   Though  this projection is generally called Mercator's
 projection, yet our  countryman, Mr. Wright, had long
 before invented  it,  demonstrated its use, and shown a
 ready way of constructing it, by enlarging the meridian
 line, by a cou'mued addition of secants: but neither of
 these  gentlemen is then;:lit  the original author  of it,
 having  been  hinted  by Ptolemy  about two  thousand
 years ngo.   See Navigation.
   (r'ohalar Chart, a  meridional projection, wherein the
 distance ofthe eye from the plane ofthe meridian, upon
 wbich the projection is made, is supposed to be equal to
 the sine of the  angle of 45°.  This projection comes the
 nearest of all f o the nature  of the globe, because the me-
 ridians therein are placed at equal distances, the paral-
lels also are nearly equidistant, and consequently the se-
 veral parts of the earth have  their proper proportion of
 magnitude, distance, and situation,  nearly the  same as
 on the globe itself.
   ( HARTA,  MAGNA, the great charter of liberties
granted lirsf by king  John, and afterwards, with some
 alterations, confirmed in  parliament by king Henry the
Third.  It is so called, either for the excellence of the
 laws therein contained,  or because there was another
 charter, called the charter ofthe forests, which was the
 h ss of the two; or in regard of the great wars and trou-
 ble in obtaining it.   King Henry the Third, after it had
 been several times confirmed by him, and as often brok-
 en, at last, in the  3rth year of his reign, confirmed it in
 the mjst solemn  manner in  v\ estminsterhall.   After-
 wards king iOd. I. confirming this charter,  in the 35th
 year of his reign, made an explanation of the liberties
 therein granted to the people, adding some;  and in the
 confirmation,  he  directed  that  this charter  should  be
 read twice a year to the people, and sentence of excom-
 munication to be constantly denounced against all that
 by word, or deed, or counsel, shall act contrary thereto,
 or in any degree infringe it.
   CHARTER, is a deed  whereby the  king passes any
 grant to any one person or more, or to any bod}  politic.
   Charter-party,  is a contract under hand and seal,
 executed hy the freighter and  the  master and oilier of
 the ship, containing the terms  upon which the ship is
 hired to freight:  the masters and  owners usually bind
 themselves, the ship, tackle, and furniture, that the goods
 freighted shall be  delivered (dangers ofthe sea except-
 ed) well conditioned at the place of discharge; and they
 also covenant to provide mariners, tackle,  occ.  and  to
 equip th»  ship complete and  adequate to the voyage.
 The freighter stipulates to pay thecviisideration-moiiey
 for the freight, and penalties  are  annexed to  enforce
 the reciprocal  covenants.  A charter-party is the same
 in the civil law, as an indenture  at common law; and is
 distinguished from a bill of lading, inasmuch as the for-
 mer adjusts the terms of the freight, and the latter as-
 certains the contents of the cargo.
   CHARTREUSE,  or  grande chartreuse, a celebrated
 monastery, the capital of all the convents of the Car-
 thusian monks, situated on a steep rock in the middle of
 a large forest oi" fir-trees, about  seven miles north-east
 of Grenoble,  in the province of  Dauphiny, in France.
 From this mother-convent all the others  of the same
 order take their name; among which was the chartreuse
 of London, corruptly  called the Charter-house, now
 converted into an  hospital, endowed with a revenue of
 GOO', per annum.
  Here are maintained eighty decayed gentlemen, not
 under fifty years of age;  also  forty'boys  are educated
 and fitted either icr the university or* trades.   Those
 sent to the university, have an  exhibition of 20/. a year
 for eight years: and  have an  immediate title to nine
 church-livings in the gift ofthe governors of the hospital
 who are sixteen in number, all persons  ofthe first dis-
tinction, and  take their turns in the nomination of pen-
 sioners and scholars.
  CHACE, a great quantity of ground lying open and
 privileged for wild beasts  and wild fowl.*  Such is En-
field-chace.   A chace differs from a forest, inasmuch as
 it may be in the hands of a subject, which a forest in
 its proper nature  cannot; and from a park, in that it is
not enclosed, and has more officers.  A chace is not en-
 dowed like a forest with so many liberties, as the  courts
 of attachment, swainmote, and justice-seat; and cannot
lawfully be made, without  license from  the king  under
 the broad seal.
  CHATTELS or catals, all sorts of  goods and pro- 
CHE
CHE
 perty moveable  or immoveable, except freehold  pro-
 perty.
   CHAZINZARIANS,  in  church  history, a sect of
 heretics who adored the cross.
   CHECK, or check roll, a roll or book,  wherein are
 contained the names of such persons as are attendants
 and in  pay to the king, or other great personages.
   Clerk of the Check, in the king's  household, has the
 check and control  of the  yeomen of the guard, and all
 the ushers belonging to the royal family; allowing their
 absence or defects in  attendance, or diminishing their
 wages  for the same, Sec. He also, by himself or deputy,
 takes the view of those that are to watch in  the court,
 and has the setting of the watch, &c. Clerk ofthe check
 in the king's navy  at  Plymouth, is also the name of an
 »flicer  invested with the like power.
    Checks, or  drafts, on bankers, are instruments by
 means  of which a creditor may assign to a third person,
 not originally party to the contract, the legal as well as
 equitable interest in a debt raised by it, so as to vest in
 such an assignee a right of action against the original
 debtor. 1 H. B. 602.  These  instruments are uniformly
 made payable to bearer, which constitutes a character-
 istic difference between them and bills of exchange; and
 the legislature has considered them in a more favourable
 point of view by exempting them from the stamp-duties.
 They are equally negotiable with bills, although, strict-
 ly speaking, not due before payment is demanded. AVhen
 given in payment they are considered as cash; and it is
 said, may  be declared upon  as a bill of exchange: and
 the moment this resemblance begins, they are governed
 by the same principles of law as hills of exchange.
    Checks payable  on demand, or where no time of pay-
 ment is expressed, are payable on presentment  without
 any indulgence or  days of grace; but the presentment
 should be made within a reasonable time after the receipt,
 otherwise the party upon whom the check is drawn, w ill
 not be  responsible, and the person from whom the holder
 received it will be discharged. Therefore, where circum-
 stances will allow of it, it is  advisable for the holder of
 the check to present it on the same day it is received.
    CHECKY, in heraldry, is when the shield, or a part
 thereof, as a bordure, Sec. is  chequered, or divided into
 chequers or squares, in the manner of a chess-board.
    This is one of the most noble and most ancient figures
 used in armoury.
    CHEEKS, among mechanics, are almost all those pie-
 ces of  their machines and instruments, that are double,
 and perfectly alike; as the cheeks of a mortar, which
 are made of strong wooden  planks, of a semicircular
 form, bound with thick plates of iron, and  fixed to the
 bed with four bolts: these cheeks rise on each side of the
 mortar, and serve  to keep it at what elevation is given
 it: the cheeks of a printing-press are its two principal
 pieces, placed perpendicular and parallel  to each other,
 and serving to sustain the three sommers, &c.
    Cheeks, in ship-building, two pieces of timber, fitted
 on each side of the  mast, at the top, serving to strength-
 en the  mast there, and having holes in them,  called
 hounds, through which the ties run to hoist the yards.
 Also the uppermost rail, or piece of timber in the beak
 of a ship, and these on each  side of the trail-board, are
'called the upper and lower cheek.
   The  knees also which fasten the beak-head to the
bows of the ship, are called cheeks.
   CHEIRANTHUS, stock gilliflower, and wall-flower:
a genius of the 39th natural order, siliquosoe, and be-
longing to the tetradynamia class of plants. The gei>
men is marked with a glandulous denticle on each side*
the calyx is close, with two of its leaves gibbous at the
base; the  seeds  plane.  There are 22 species, of which
the following are most worthy of notice.
   1.  Cheiranthus animus, or ten  weeks stock, with an
upright, woody, smooth  stalk, divided into a branchy
head, twelve or fifteen inches high, with spear-shaped,
blunt, hoary leaves, and all the branches terminated hy
long erect spikes of numerous flowers, of different co-
lours in different varieties.
   2.  Cheiranthus cheiri, or the common wall-flower,
the branches terminating in long erect spikes or nume-
rous flowers,  which in different varieties are  yellow,
bloody, white, &c.
   3.  Cheiranthus incanus, the hoary cheiranthus, the
top of the stalk and all the branches terminated hy erect
spikes or flowers from one to two  or three feet long, of
different  colours  in  different varieties.  The two last
sorts are very hardy evergeen  biennials or  perennials;
but the first, being an annual plant, must be continued
by seed sown every  year; and  even the two last, not-
withstanding their being perennial, degenerate so much
in their flowers after  the first year, that it will be pro-
per also to raise an annual supply of them.  The  seeds
are to be chosen from such flowers as have five, six, or
more petals, or  from such as grow near to the double
ones. When fine doubles of the two last kinds are ob-
tained,  they  may be multiplied by  slips from the old
plants.
   CHEKAO, a kind of paste, prepared hy calcination
and trituration from a hard stony substance, and after-
terwards  washing the  powder  in large  quantities of
fair water. The Chinese use the chekao in drawing the
elegant figures we see in the wholly white china-ware,
which they afterwards varnish" in the common way. Sec
the article Porcelain.
   CHELIDONIUM, celandine,horned or prickly pop-
py: a genus of the monogynia order,  in the pentandria
class of plants:  and in  the natural method ranking un-
der the 27th order,  rhseadese. The carolla is tctrape-
talous,  the calyx diphyllous, the siliqua unilocular and
linear. There are five species.  One of them,  viz. cheli-
donium majus, is an article in the materia  medica. It
grows on old walls, among rubbish, and in waste shady
places. The herb is of a blewish green colour; the  root
ofa deep  red; and both contain a gold-coloured juice;
the smell is disagreeable, the taste somewhat bitterish,
very acrid, burning and biting the mouth; the root i.s
the most acrid. The juice takes off warts; cures tetters,
ring-worms,  and  the itch;  and,  diluted with milk, it
consumes opaque white  spots on the eye. Horses, cows,
goats, and swine, refuse to eat the  herb.
   CIIELONE, in botany, a genus of the angiosper-
mia order, in the didynamia class  of plants; and in the
natural method ranking under the 40th order, personate.
The calyx is quinquepartite; the rudiment  of  a  5th
filament among the highest stamina; the capsule bilocu-
lar.  There are five species, viz. 
CHE
CHE
   l. Chelone glabra, 2. chelone hirsuta, 3. chelone pen-
 stcinnn,  4.  chelone  obli([ua,  and 5. C.  campanulata.
 They are all natives of North America; and are herba-
 ceous  flowery perennials, with upright stalks two feet
 high, decorated with spear-shaped leaves, and beautiful
 spikes of monopetalous,  ringent  flowers, red, rose-co-
 loured, blue,  and purple.  They  flower  from Sept. to
 Nov. and are sometimes succeeded by ripe seeds in this
 country.  They are  hardy, and may be propagated by
 seeds  in any  soil; but the two first multiply so fast hy
 their creeping roots  that the seeds are seldom regarded.
 The last species is the most beautiful.
   CHEMISE,  in fortification, the wall  with which a
 bastion, or any other  bulwark of earth, is lined for its
 greater support and strength: or it is the solidity ofthe
 wall from the talus to the stone-row.
   Fire-Chemise, a piece of linen-cloth, steeped in a
 composition of oil or petrol,  camphor, and other com-
 bustible matters, used at sea, to  set fire to an enemy's
 vessel.
   CHEMISTRY-is that branch of  science, the object
 of which is to ascertain the  simple  substances or ele-
 ments of bodies, the properties of these, and  their ac-
 tion on each other. The methods  made use of to obtain
 this knowledge are analysis  and  synthesis.  Chemistry
 comprehends  almost all  the changes in natural objects,
 with which we are more immediately connected, and in
 which we have the greatest interest: it is subservient to
 the various arts of  life, and the several branches  of
 manufacture  which  are carried  on  in every civilized
 state.   Dyeing,  bleaching,  tanning,  glass-making,
 the working  and composition of metals, &c. are all
 processes in chemistry.  In agriculture  chemistry in-
 vestigates the nature of soils; it explains the phenome-
 na of the growth and nourishment  of vegetables, and the
 nature and action of manures. As a science it is con-
 nected with all the phenomena of  nature, the causes of
 rain, snow, hail, dew, wind, and earthquakes: it has
 been  called in to the aid of  the culinary arts; and its
 high importance in medicine  has been long and univer-
 sally acknowledged. Chemistry therefore is highly wor-
 thy of our attention,  because beyond every other branch
 of study it increases our knowledge,  extends  the num-
 ber of our resources, and is thus calculated to promote
 our enjoyments, and augment our power over the ma-
 terial world. Besides, no study can give us more exalt-
 ed ideas of the wisdom and goodness of the great First
 Cause than this, which exhibits the most astonishing
 effects fiequenlly produced by the most  simple means;
 and displays to our view the great care which has  eve-
 ry where been taken to  secure the comfort and happi-
 ness of every living creature.
   The history  of  Chemistry.—The  word  chemistry
 is said to be  of Egyptian origin, and  equivalent  to
 our phrase  natural philosophy,  comprehending  all
 the knowledge of natural objects  which  the  ancients
 possessed. It afterwards  acquired  a more limited signi-
 fication,  and  was  confined   to the   art  of   working
 metals, which  was  in  the  highest  estimation among
 the ancients. In the  third centurv  it  was used in a still
 more  Iiiiiit«*«l  sense,  signifying the art of making gold
and silver.  In this sens  the science was eagerly culti-
vated by  the Creeks; from the in it  passed to the Arabi-
 ans, and by these it was introduced into Europe. Those
 who professed it assumed the form of a sect, under the
 name of alchymists, who laid it down as a first princi-
 ple, that all metals are composed of  the same ingredi-
 ents, or that the substances which compose gold exist in
 all metals, and  are  capable of  being brought  into the
 pure state;  hence the  great object of their researches
 was to  discover the means of producing this  change,
 and of converting the baser metals  into gold. The sub-
 stance  which possessed  this wonderful  property  was
 called " the philosopher's stone,"  the  touch of  which
 was to change every thing into gold.
   From the eleventh to the fifteenth centuries alchymy
 was in its most flourishing state. The writers  who ap-
 peared  during that period were numerous; among the
 most celebrated  were Albertus Magnus, Roger Bacon,
 Arnoldus de Villa Nova, Raymond Lully, and  the two
 Isaacs of Holland. Some of their hooks are altogether
 unintelligible; others  display great acuteness,  and an
 extensive acquaintance   with  natural  objects.  They
 often reason with great accuracy, though generally
 from mistaken principles. They all boast that they are
 in possession of the philosopher's stone, and profess to
 communicate the  method of making it; but their lan-
 guage is enigmatical, and evedently intended not to be
 understood by any but the adepts in their own  myste-
 ries. Their writings and vaunted professions gained im-
 plicit credit; and the covetous were filled with  the  de-
 sire of enriching  themselves by  means  of discoveries
 which they pretended to communicate. This laid the un-
 wary open to the tricks ofa set of impostors, who offer-
 ed to communicate their secret for a suitable but large
 reward. Thus they contrived to get possession of a sum
 of money with which they  absconded or tired out the
 patience of their pupils by  intolerably tedious,  expen-
 sive, and ruinous processes.
   Chemists had  for many ages hinted at the importance
 of discovering a universal remedy, which should he ca-
 pable of curing, and even of  preventing all deseases;
 and several of them had asserted, that this remedy was
 to be found in the  philosopher's stone, which  not only
 converted baser metals to gold, but possessed also the
 most sovereign virtue,  was capable  of curing all disea-
 ses in an instant, and even of prolonging life to an in-
 definite  length,  and of  conferring on the  adepts the  gift
 of immortality on  earth. This notion gradually gained
 ground; and the  word chemistry,  in  consequence, at
 length acquired a more extensive signification, and  im-
 plied not only the  art of  making gold, but the arf also
 of preparing the universal medicine.
  About the time  that the first  of these  branches was
 sinking  into discredit, the second, and with it the study
 of chemistry, acquired an unparalleled degree of cele-
 brity, and attracted  the attention of all Europe.  This
 was owing to the appearance of Theophrastus Paracel-
sus, who was born in 1493, near Zurich in Switzerland;
 and was, in the 34th year of his age, after a number of
 whimsical adventures, which had raised his reputation
to a great height, appointed by the magistrates of Basil
to deliver lectures  in their city; he was the first public
professor of chemistry in Europe.
  The character of this extraordinary man is  univer-
sally known. That he was an impostor,  and boasted of 
CHEMISTRY.
secrets which he did not po-so:-3,  cannot be denied; but
it must  be acknowledged  that his talents were great,
and that his labours were  not entirely useless. He con-
tributed not a little to  dethrone  Galen  and  Avicenna,
who at  that time ruled over  medicine with absolute
power;  and to restore Hippocrates and the patient ob-
servers  of nature to that chair, from which they ought
never to have been expelled,  lie certainly  gave  che-
mistry an eclat which it did not before possess; and this
must have induced  many of those laborious men who
succeeded him to turn their attention to the science. Nor
ought we to forget that by  carrying his speculations
concerning the philosopher's  stone, and the universal
medicine, to the  greatest  height of  absurdity,  and by
exemplifying their emptiness and inutility  in his own
person,  he undoubtedly  contributed more than  any
man to  their digrace and subsequent banishment from
the science.
   Van  Helmont, who was born  in 1577, may be con-
sidered as the last of the alchymists.  His death  com-
pleted the disgrace of the universal medicine.  His con-
temporaries, and those who immediately succeeded him,
attended solely to the improvement of chemistry. The
chief of them were Agricola, Bcguin, Glaser, Erkern,
Glauber, Kunekcl, Boyle, Sec.
   The foundation ofthe alchymistical system being thus
shaken, the facts which had been collected soon became
a heap  of rubbish, and chemistry was left without any
fixed principles, and destititucof an object. It w;is then
that a man arose, thoroughly acquainted with the whole
of these facts, capable of arranging them, and of  per-
ceiving the important purpose to which they might be
applied, and able to point out the  proper objects to which
the researches of chemists  ought to be directed. This
name was Backer. He accomplished the arduous task in
his  work entitled Physica  Subterrnnea, published at
Francfort 1669. The publication of this  book forms a
 very important sera in the history <d*chemistry. It then es-
 caped for ever from the trammels oi'alch v my, and became
 the rudiments ofthe science which we find it at present.
   Ernest Stahl, the editor of the Physica Subterranea,
 adopted, soon after Breeder's death, the theory of his
 master; but he  simplified  and  improved it so  much,
 that he made it entirely his own; and accordingly it has
 been always distinguished by the name of the Stahlian
theory.
   Ever since the days of Ftalil, chemistry has been cul-
 tivated with ardour in Germany and  the North;  and
 the illustrious philosophers  of these countries have con-
 tributed highly towards its prog; ess and its rapid im-
 provement.  The  most deserved ly celebrated of these
 arc Margraf, Bergman, Scheele, Klaproth, k.ci
   In France, soon  after the  establishment of the Aca-
 demy of Science in  1666, llomberg,  Geoffroy, and Le-
 mery,  acquired celebrity by their chemical experiments
 and discoveries; and after the  new-modelling  of the
 Academy, chemistry became the  peculiar object of a
 part of that illustrious body.  Rouelle, who was made
 profess >r of chemistry in Paris about the  year  1745,
 contrived to  infuse his own enthusiasm into the whole
 body of the French literary men; and from that moment
 chemistry became the fashionable studv. Men of  emi-
  nence  appeared every  where,  discoveries multiplied,
the spirit pervaded the whole  nation, extended  itself
over Italy, and appeared even in Spain.
  After the death of  Boyle, and of some other of the
earliest members of the Royal  Society, little attention
was paid to chemistry in Britain, except by a few  indi-
viduals. The spirit which Newton had infused for the
mathematical sciences was so great, that for many years
they drew within their votex almost every man of emi-
nence in Britain. But when Dr. Calien became profes-
sor of  chemistry in Edinburgh in  1756, he kindled a
flame of enthusiasm  among the students, which was
soon spread far  and wide by tbe subsequent discoveries
of Black,  Cavendish,  and Priestley;  and meeting with
the kindred fires which were already burning in France,
Germany,  Sweden,   and Italy, the   science  of  che-
mistry burst forth at once with  unexampled lustre. (See
the article  Air.)  Hence  the rapid progress which
it has  made during the last forty years, the  univer-
sal attention which it has  excited, and  the unexpect-
ed light which it has  thrown on the arts and  manufac-
tures.
   As the theory now  universally received derived, in a
great degree, its origin and support from the discovery
of the  composition of  water (Sec Air  as above), we
shall proceed to state this important point of doctrine.
   Water was long considered as an elementary princi-
ple; no one had been able to decompose it: hut since the
experiments of  Cavendish, Lavoisier, and others,  its
true nature has  been accurately ascertained; and water
may now he decomposed with as much facility as  al-
most any  other substance with  which  we are  acquaint-
ed. Water is composed of oxygen and hydrogen: it may,
by undeniable   experiments, be converted  info these
gases, and  by the  combustion of them in proper pro-
portions,  a quantity of water will be produced equal to
the weight ofthe gases emplovcd; of this we shall pro-
ceed to give the requisite proofs by experiments.
   Experiment 1. A tube of common glass E F (fig. 18),
well annealed, and difficult to  be fused, about  an inch
in diameter, is placed across a  furnace CFED, i;> a po-
sition  somewhat inclined, and to its upper extremity is
adapted a glass  retort A, containing  a known quantity
of distilled water, and resting on a furnace  V X.  To
the lower extremity of the glass tube F, is applied to a
worm  SS, connected  with the doable tubulated flask H;
and to the other tubulurc is adapted  a bent  glass tube
IvK, destined to convey the gas to an  apparatus proper
for determining the quality and quantity of it. When
the whole  is thus arranged, a fire is to be kindled in the
furnace CE,  and maintained  in  such a maimer as to
bring  the glass  tube EF to a red-head, but without fus-
ing it: at the same time so much fire is to be maintain-
ed in  the furnace  YX, as to keep the water in the re-
tort A in a continual state  of ebullition.  In proportion
as the water in  the retort A assumes the state of vapour
by ebullition, it fills  the interior part of the tube EF,
and expels the atmospheric air, whir-h is evacuated by
the worm SS, and the tube KK. The steam ofthe  wa-
ter is afterwards condensed by cooling in the worm SS,
and falls  drop  by drop, in the state of water, into the
tubulated flask  II.  When the whole of the water in the
the retort A is evaperaled, and the liquor in the vessels
suffered to drain off completely, there is found  in the 
CHEMISTRY.
  flask H a quantity of water exactly equal to that which
  was in the retort A: of course  there has been no disen-
  gagement of any gas: so that this operation was merely
  a common distillation, which gave  absolutely the same
  result as if the water had never been brought to a state
  of incandescence in passing through the glass tube EF.
    Exp. 2. Every thing being arranged as in the pre-
  ceding experiment, 28 grains of charcoal reduced to
  fragments, and which had been  previously exposed for
  a long time to a white heat in close  vessels, were next
  introduced into the glass tube  EF. The operation was
  then conducted  as before, and the water in the retort A
  kept in a continual state of ebullition till it was  totally
  evaporated.  The water in the retort A was distilled, as
  in the preceding experiment; and being condensed in
  the  worm SS,  had fallen,  drop by itrop, into the flask
  11; but at the same time there had been disengaged a
  considerable quantity  of  gas which escaped through
  ♦ lie tube KK, and was collected in  a proper apparatus.
  When the operation was finished,  there was found no-
  thing in the tube EF but a few ashes; and the 28 grains
  of charcoal had totally disappeared.
    The gases disengaged were found to weigh  altogeth-
  er 113.7  grains: and there were found two  different
  kinds of gas, viz. 144 cubic inches of carbonic acid gas
  (211), weighing  100 grains; and 380 cubic inches ofa
  very light gas, weighing 13.7 grains. This last gas took
  fire on being applied to a lighted body in contact with
  the air. In examining afterwards the weight of the wa-
  ter which had passed into the flask, it  was found less
  than that in the retort A by 85.7 grains.
    In this experiment, therefore,  85.7 grains of water,
  and  28 grains of charcoal, formed  carbonic acid gas
  equal to  100  grains; and a peculiar gas susceptible of
  inflammation, equal to 13.7  grains.
   Exp. 3. The apparatus being arranged as above, in-
  stead of the 28 grains of charcoal, 274 grains of thin shav-
  ings of iron, rolled up in a spiral form, were introduced
  into the tube E F: the tube was then brought to a red heat
  as before; and in the same manner the whole ofthe wa-
 ter in the  retort A was made to evaporate.  In this ex-
  periment there was disengaged only one kind of gas
 which was inflammable:  there was obtained of it  about
 406 cubic inches, weighing  15 grains;  and the  2T4
 grains of iron, put into the tube EF, were found to weigh
 85 grains above what they  did when introduced; and
 the water first employed was diminished 100.
   The  volume of these iron shavings was found to be
 greatly enlarged. The iron  was  scarcely any longer
 susceptible of  attraction by the magnet; it dissolved
 without effervescence in  acids: in a word, it was in the
 state  of a black oxide, like  that which has  been burnt
 in oxygen gas. In this experiment there was a real oxi-
 dation ofthe iron by the  water,  entirely similar to that
 effected in the air by the aid of heat: loo groins of wa-
 ter were decomposed; and of these 100 grains 85 united
 to the iron, to  reduce it  to  the state of  black oxide:
 these  85 grains, therefore, wore  oxygen;  the remaining
 15 grains, combined with caloric, formed an inflamma-
 ble gus.  It iheiu e follows that  wat  v  is  composed of
 oxygen and the base  of inflainmai.-l > gas, in the propor-
 tion of 85 to 15, or of 17  to  \ V. ater therefore,  besides
oxygen,  which is one of its p'-nupies, and  which
    VOL I.                  63
IS
  common to it with a great many other substances, con-
  tains another peculiar to itself, and which is its consti-
  tuent radical.  This radical, has been  called hydrogen,
  that is to say, the generator of water; and the combina-
  tion of this radical with coloric, is distinguished hy th«
  name of hydrogen gas.  Sec Ai:!.
    This radical then is a new combustible body; that is,
  a body which  has so much affinity for  oxygen as to be
  able to take it from caloric, and to decompose  oxygen
  gas. This combustible body itself has so great an affini-
  ty for caloric, that unless engaged in some combination,
  it is always in the aeriform or gaseous state, at the de-
  gree of pressure and temperature in which Ave live.
    If it is true, as has been shown, that water is  com-
  posed of hydrogen, combined with oxygen, it thence re-
  sults, that by re-uniting these principles, water ought
  to he re-formed. This indeed is what takes place, as will
  he seen by the following experiment:
    Exp. 4. Take a wide-mouthed glass balloon, A (fig.
  19), capable of containing about four gallons, and ce-
  ment to its mouth a small plate of  copper  BC, having
  above it a cylinder of the same  metal, g D, pierced
  with three holes to receive three tubes. The first of these,
  h II, is destined to be connected at its extremity h, with
  an air-pump, in order that tbe  balloon A  may be ex-
  hausted of air.  The  second tube, gg,  communicates by
  its extremity MM,  with  a reservoir of oxygen gas,  and
  is  destined to convey it into the balloon A.   The third
  tube, D d, communicates by the extremity NN,  with a
  reservoir of hydrogen gas: the extremity of this  tube
  terminates in an aperture so small  as scarcely to admit
  a very delicate needle. It is through this aperture that
  the hydrogen gas contained in the  reservoir is to pass
  into  the balloon A.  In the  next place, the  small plate
  BC  is pierced with a fourth hole, into which is inserted
  with cement a glass tube, through which passes a wire
 FL,  having  at its extremity L, a small  ball destined to
 make an  electric spark pass between the ball and  the
 cztrcmity y, of the tube that conveys the hydrogen gas
 into the balloon A.  The  wire FL  is moveable'in the
 glass tube, in order  that the metallic  ball L may  be
 brought nearer  to, or  removed from, the point  y:  the
 three other tubes gg, H/i, Dd,  are each furnished with
 a cock.
  That the gases may be conveyed in  a verv  dry state
 through the tubes which conduct  them into  the balloon
 A,  and that they may be  deprived of water  as much as
 possible,  you must put into the swelled parts  MM and
 NN of the tubes,  some salts  capable of attracting the
 moisture with great activity, such as acetite of potash,
 muriate of lime, or nitrate of lime. These salts should
 be only coarsely pounded, in  order that they may not
 form  a mass,  and  that the gasses may pass  freely into
 the interstices left between the fragments. You mast be
 provided with a sufficient quantity of very pure oxyeen
 gas, and nearly a triple volume of hydrogen gas, equal.
 ly pare. To obtain it  in this state,  and free from all
 mixture, you must extract it from water, decomposed
 by means  of every pure and ductile iron.
  When every thing has  been  thus prepared, adapt to
the  air-pump ibe tobe //Ii, and exhaust  the air in the
Itrge  balloon A; then fill it with oxygen gas, by means
oi the  tube gg; and  by a certain degree of pj.^ 
CHEMISTRY.
force the hydrogen  gas to pass into the  balloon  A,
through the extremity y of the tube dDy; then kindle
this gas by means of an  electric  spark, and if you re-
new the quantity of each of these two gases, the  com-
bustion may be continued for a long time.
  In proportion as the combustion proceeds, water is
deposited on  the internal  surface of the balloon A: the
quantity of this water gradually increases, and it unites
itself into large drops, which run down the sides of the
vessel, and are collected in the bottom of it.
  It w as by an experiment of this  kind  that  Lavoisier
ascertained that 85 parts,  by weight, of oxygen, and 15
parts, also by weight, of hydrogen, are required to com-
pose an hundred parts of water.
  Hence  it is evident that water  is not a simple sub-
stance; that it is composed of two principles, oxygen
and hydrogen;  and that its two principles  separated
from each other,  have so great an affinity for caloric,
that at the common degree of temperature  and  pres-
sure they cannot exist but under the gaseous form.
  Chemical operations and instruments.—The reduction of
solids  into powders of different degrees of fineness, by
means of pulverization, Sec. is a necessary preliminary
operation previously to their being chemically acted up-
on. But these processes can never reduce substances in-
to their  primary or elementary  particles; they do not
even destroy the aggregation of bodies; for every par-
ticle, after the most accurate trituration, forms a small
whole, resembling the original mass from which it was
divided. The real chemical operations, on the contrary,
such as solution, destroy the aggregation of bodies, and
separate their constituent  and  integrant  particles from
each other.  Brittle substances  are reduced  to powder
by  means of hammers, pestles and  mortars, stones, and
mullers. Pestles and mortars are made either of metal,
glass, porcelain,  marble,  agate, Sec.  according to the
hardness and properties of the bodies to be pounded.
Wedgewood's  ware affords a most  excellent kind  of
mortar for most purposes, as it is very strong, and not
liable to be acted upon  by acids.  Many bodies cannot
be reduced to powder by the foregoing methods: such are
fibrous substances, as wood, horns of animals, elastic
gum, and metals  which flatten  under the hammer; for
these, files, rasps, knives, and graters, are necessary.
   The separation of the finer  parts of bodies from the
coarser, which may want  further pulverization, is per-
formed by means of sifting or washing.
   A sieve for sifting, generally consists of a cylindrical
band of thin wood, or metal, having silk, leather, hair,
wire, &c. stretched  across it. Sieves are of different de-
grees  of fineness,
   Washing is used for procuring powders of an uniform
fineness  much  more accurately than by  means of the
 sieve; but it can only  be  used  for such substances as
 are not acted upon by the fluid which is used. The pow-
 dered substance is mixed with water, or some other con-
 venient fluid: the liquor is allowed to settle for a few mo-
 ments, and is then decanted off: the coarsest powder re-
 mains at the bottom of the vessel, and the finer passes
 over with the liquor. By  repeated decantations in this
 manner, various sediments are obtained,  of different de-
 grees of fineness: the last, or that which remains lon-
 gest suspended in the liquor, being the finest.
  Filtration is a finer species  of sifting.  It is siftin<*
through the pores of paper, or flannel, or tmv linnen or
sand, or pounded glass, or porous stones, and the  like-
but is  used only for separating fluids from  solids,  or
gross  particles that may  happen to be suspended in
them,  and not chemically  combined with the fluids.
Thus salt-water cannot be deprived of its salt by filtra-
tion; but muddy water will deposit  its mud. No solid,
even in the form of powder, will pass through the above
mentioned filtring substances:  hence if  water or other
fluid, containing sand, insects, mud, 6cc. is placed in a
bag or hollow vessel, made of any of those substances,
the sand,  See.  will remain on the filtre,  and the liquor
will pass  through, and may be received clear in a ves-
sel under  it.  Unsized paper is a very convenient sub-
stance  for making  filtres for  chemical  purposes.  It is
wrapped up in a conical form,  and put into a glass fun-
nel, which serves to strengthen  the paper and support
the weight of the fluid when poured into  it.
   Decaiitation  is often substituted instead of filtration,
for separating solid particles which are diffused through
liquors. These are  allowed to settle to the bottom, and
the clear fluid  is gently  poured off.  If the sediment is
extremely light, and apt to mix again  with the fluid,
by the slightest motion, a syphon is used for drawing
off the clear fluid.
   Lixiviation is the separation by means of water, or
other fluid, of such  substances  as are soluble in it, from
other substances that are not soluble in it. Thus, if a cer-
tain mineral consists of salt and sand, or salt and clay, &c.
the given body being broken to powder, is placed in water,
which will dissolve the salt, and keep it suspended, whilst
the earthy matter falls to the bottom of the vessel, and,
by means of filtration, may be  separated from the fluid.
   Evaporation separates a fluid from a solid, or a more
volatile fluid from another which is  less  volatile.
   Simple evaporation is used when the more volatile or
fluid substance is not to be preserved. Various degrees
of heat are employed for this purpose, according to the
nature of the substances.  It is performed in vessels of
wood, glass,  metal,  porcelain,  &c. Basons made of
Wedgewood's  ware are  very  convenient, as they are
not apt to break by sudden changes of heat. Small flasks
of thin glass also: these are placed either over the na-
ked fire,  or  in a vessel  filled with sand, which is then
called a sand-bath.  This affords a more regular degree
of heat, and renders the  vessels less liable to be  broken.
   When the fluid which  is evaporated must be preserv-
ed, then the operation is called distillation.
   Distillation is evaporating in close vessels, when we
wish to separate two fluids of different degrees  of vola-
tility, and to preserve the most volatile, or both of them.
The substance to be subjected  to distillation, is put into
some vessel that will resist the action of heat, called a
retort, an alembic j  or a still; having a beak  or  neck
projecting from it,  to which is  attached  another vessel,
to receive the fluid  that rises  first,  which is called the
receiver.  The vessel that contains the liquor to be dis-
tilled  is placed upon the  fire, or  in a  sand-bath,  or
over a lamp;  the heat causes  the most volatile fluid  to
raise in the form of vapour, and to pass  into the receiv-
er, where it is again condensed by  cold.  This conden-
sation is sometimes assisted by making the vapour pass 
CHEMISTRY.
  through a tube which is immersed in a vessel contain-
  ing cold water.
    A (fig. 1, Plate XXIX) represents a retort used  for
  distillation. It is a vessel, either of glass or baked earth,
  for containing the  liquid to be distilled. When it has a
"  small neck, a, with a stopper fitted to it, for introducing
  the materials through, it is called a tubulated retort. B
  is the receiver for condensing the vapour which is
  raised, and into which the neck ofthe retort is inserted.
  The joining, b, is made air-tight by means of some sub-
  stance applied to it,  called a lute.  Various methods are
  used for supporting both the retort  and receiver, accord-
  ing to the degree of heat employed in the process, and
  several other circumstances.  See  Lute.
    When great heat is employed, earthen retorts are us-
  ed, which are placed on or in the fire. When a less heat
  is wanted, glass retorts are generally employed;  which
  must not be placed immediately on the fire,  unless they
  are coated over  with a composition of  clay and  sand,
  which  is sometimes done. Glass  retorts are generally
  placed in a sandbath,  or suspended over a lamp, for
  which Argand's lamp is the best. The receiver is placed
  upon some stand  convenient  for the purpose, with a
  ring made of  hay under it, or  some such contrivance,
  to keep it steady.
    A (fig. 2) is a vessel called a mattrass, for the same
  purpose, having a vessel, B,  called an alembic, fitted to
  the head. The liquid raised by heat into  the state  of va-
  pour, is condensed in the alembic, and falls into a groove
  all  round its  inside, whence it runs out dy the spout
  C,  into the receiver D.
    Fig. 3, are  conical tubes that fit into one another, for
  lengthening the  necks of retorts,  &c. to connect them
  with the receivers  at any distance: they  are called adop-
  ters.
    Fig. 4, are  phials with bent glass tubes fitted in them,
  for disengaging gases, and similar experiments.
    Fig. 5, represents an improved chemical apparatus,
  such as is used by Mr. Davy in his experiments at the
  Royal institution.  A is a japanned tin vessel, filled with-
  in two or three inches ofthe  top with water.  Just be-
  low the surface ofthe water is fixed a shelf having seve-
  ral holes  bored  through it, to which small  funnels are
  attached underneath. The glass receiver B,  intended to
  receive the gas, is filled with water; and being inverted
  with its mouth under water,  it is raised up  gently, and
  placed upon the shelf over one ofthe holes, where it will
  remain full of water, which is  kept up  by the pressure
  of the atmosphere  in the same way as the mercury is
  retained in  the  tube of the barometer. The material
  from which the gas is to be  disengaged is  put into the
  retort G, which is put through, and suspended in  one of
  the rings of the lamp furnace D.   E is an improved Ar-
  gand's lamp, ha vine: two concentric wicks, placed on the
  shelf F.  The shelf is moveable  up and down to bring the
  lamp to a convenient distance from the retort.  The lamp
  is to be lighted, and  as s^'»n as the substances in the re-
  tort act upon  < ach other s ifficientlv, *he gas will begin
  to be  disengaged,  and  w ;ll  -iscetv' through the hole in
  the shelf into  the vess I !', and displi e the water with
  wli'h it  bad  h^en {'M  ''. When the water is displaced,
  the  receiver is f 11  f eras wbich  was dis naraered from
  the retort, and may he preserved in it by keeping its
mouth always underwater in the cistern. This gas may
be transferred  from the  vessel B  to any other,  in the
following manner: Fill the vessel into which the gas is to
be transferred with the fluid in the trough, and place it
on the shelf over one ofthe holes. Then take the vessel B,
and keeping its mouth still under the fluid, bring it under
the hole on which the veseel is placed; then depressing
its bottom, and elevating its mouth, so as to bring it more
to a horizontal position, the gas in it will escape and rise
up through the hole on which the other vessel has been
placed,  and will fill it by displacing the fluid.
  If the oxyd of manganese is put into the retort  G,
and the lamp applied to it, great plenty of oxygen  gas
will escape from the retort, and will fill the receiver B.
  When the gas to be procured is  absorbable by water,
quicksilver is used instead of water, and a much smaller
vessel than A is made use  of, which is generally made
of wood or stone. A small glass vessel, capable of con-
taining an ounce measure,  is used  for measuring  gases:
for if this phial is successively filled and inverted under
a large jar, wre may thereby throw into that jar any re-
quired quantity of an elastic fluid, and as much of anoth-
er as we please.
  G (fig. *5) is a strong glass graduated tube, for  re-
ceiving a mixture of gases that are to be  exploded  by
the electric spark.  Near the closed end two wires pass
through the  glass, and almost touch each other: they
are cemented in, so as to make the holes air-tight. Ga-
ses may be introduced into this tube; and if the interval
between the two w ires is made a part of the electric cir-
cuit, by putting chains connected  with a Leyden phial
to the rings of the wires, the spark  will pass through
the  interrupted space between the two wires, and ex-
plode the gases.
   A (fig. 6)  is a glass retort, the  beak of  which  is  ad-
justed to a double tubulated  balloon B.  To the  upper
opening of the balloon is fitted a glass tube C, the oth-
er extremity of w hich is conveyed into the liquor con-
tained in the glass vessel  D: with this are  connected
two or three, or more similar vessels, by means of glass
tubes, and to the last tubulurc ofthe range of vessels is
adapted a glass tube which is conveyed under a receiv-
er  placed  upon the shelf of  the pneumatic cistern.  A
(fig. 5.)
  Water is poured into the first of these vessels; caustic
potash into the next, or  such other substances as  are
necessary for absorbing the gase«; and the joinings  are
well fluted.  By this method the  purest and most con-
centrated products are  obtained;  because the  water,
which is always the receiver, becomes  saturated with
them. In this way  the common muriatic acid, the oxy-
genated muriatic acid, volatile alkali, Kc. Sec. may be
made in the best manner.
   Large vessels for containing air, and  expelling any
given quantity, are called  gazometers. They  are of va-
rious constructions; one of the be>-t is the following: A
B (fig. T) is  a cylindrical vessel of tin, japanned, near-
ly filled with water; and having  a tube C in the mid-
dle, open .at top, and branching, to communu ate with
the  cock D. Within this vessel there is another cylin-
drical vesse'. generally   <' glass, of smaller size, F,
open at bottom; which is inverted  and a- spendedhy the
lines ee, w hich go over the pulleys f, f, f, f, and have 
CHEMISTRY.
weights g£, attached to them, to balance the vessel F.
While the cock D remains shut, if the vessel F is pres-
sed downwards,  the air included within it will remain
in the same situation, on the principle of the diving-bell;
but if the cock is  opened,  and the vessel F  is pressed
down, the air included within it will escape through the
cock; and  if  a blow-pipe is attached to  this cock, a
stream of the gas may he thrown upon lighted charcoal,
or any other body. By means of the graduated  rod h,
also,  the quantity thrown  out is exactly  ascertained:
this  rod is so divided  as to express the contents of the
inner vessel in cubic feet, Sec. This instrument also an-
swers for  breathing  any of the  gases, by applying a
mouth piece to the cock. To render it more portable,
the weights gg are sometimes included in the uprights ii,
which are  hollow and wide enough  to  receive them.
Sometimes  also there  is another branch from the  bot-
tom of the pipe, in the middle, directed to the side of
the other cylinder, and coming upwards by the side to
the top, where there is another cock attached.
  Crystallization.*—When a salt is dissolved in water,
or other fluid, and by evaporation the fluid  is driven
off, the salt gradually acquires  the solid form, and in
doing this, it arranges its particles in a particular man-
ner;  some salts arrange themselves in the form of pyra-
mids, some of prisms of different kinds, &c. Vessels of
earthenware, or glass, are employed for such crystalli-
zations. They must be  placed where they are perfectly
still, and well defended from dust or accidents.
  Solution.—When a  salt is mixed  writh water, it loses
its state of  solidity; the particles of salt  are divided
and  unite  themselves to those of the water,  forming a
liquid, of which all the parts are homogeneous, or of
the same kind. The same takes place when resin is mix-
ed with spirits of wine. In this process neither the salt
nor the water is decomposed; and the  salt may be re-
covered  again in its  original state and  quantity,  by
driving off the water by evaporation.
  The  dissolution of metals by acids, however, is of a
different nature: here, either the metal, the acid, or the
water, is altered, and different products are  obtained.
Vessels of glass are generally  used for  solutions  and
dissolutions. The liquid used for dissolving a metal, or
other solid  substance, is  usually  called a solvent, or
menstruum.
  Precipitation.—The  recovery or separation of a b"ody
from  its solvent, by the addition  of a third  substance,
so that the former may re-appear in a solid state, how-
ever divided, is called precipitation. The substance thus
recovered, is called a  precipitate,  and the superadded
body  that occasions this precipitation is called a pre-
cipitant.
  Fusion.—The melting, or causing any  body to pass
from  the solid to the liquid state, by the action of fire,
is called fusion.  The  fusion of  metallic substances re-
quires vessels sufficiently strong to resist the fire. These
vessels are mostly, if not always, made of earthenware.
or porcelain, or a mixture of clay and powder of black-
lead. They arc  called crucibles, and  are .s^gierally of
the forms  represented  fig. 8; sometimes  these  vessels
have  covers  made of earthenware;  but sometimes the
fused metal must be exposed to a current of air. In  that
case the crucibles are broad and shallow, as  at  fig. 9.
These are called cupels; and they are formed of cakin>
ed bones, mixed with a small quantity of clay, or of a
mixture of clay and black-lead powder. But the cupels
must not be placed in a closed furnace, or be surround-
ed by  coals; for, in  that case,  the  required current of
air could not have access to  the fused metal. They are
therefore  placed under a sort of oven of earthenware,
which is called a muffle, as represented fig. 10;  which,
with the included cupel, is  exposed  to the heat of a fur-
nace.
  Furnaces.—In the application of the action of heat to
bodies, furnaces of different forms are employed, accor-
ding to the operations for  which they  are  destined.  A
furnace is a kind of hollow cylindric tower, ABCD (fig.
11);  sometimes a little  wider at the top, with nott lies
m, m,  m, to give a passage to  the air. This furnace
ought to have at least two lateral  apertures;  an upper
one  F, which is the door of the fire-hole  H I; and a
lower one G, which is the door ofthe ash-hole C D. In
the interval between these two doors the furnace is di-
vided into two parts by a horizontal grate, destined to
support the charcoal. The  place occupied by this grate
is indicated  by the line H I; above the grate is the firc-
hole where the fire is maintained; and below it is the ash-
hole, where  the ashes are collected  as they are  formed.
  Another kind of furnace often necessary, is that  call-
ed the. reverberating furnace (fig. 12); it consists of an
ash-hole H  I R L, a fire-hole  K L M N, a laboratory
M N R R, and a dome R R  S S; above the dome is a tube
TTVV, to which several  more can be added if requir-
ed. In the laboratory is placed  a retort, which is  sup-
ported by two iron bars that  run across the furnace; the
neck of it passes the lateral aperture O, and has adapt-
ed to it a receiver. As a strong heat is sometimes requir-
ed for the furnace, a large volume of air must be made
to pass through it; and in that case a great deal of heat
is disengaged. For this reason, instead of one  aperture
to the  ash-hole, there must be two: when only a mode-
rate  heat  is required, one of them may be shut;  if a
strong heat is  necessary, they may be both opened.  It
will be of advantage also to make the upper aperture
T T of the dome pretty large.  The use of the dome ii
to reverberate the heat  and flame on the retort, in or-
der that it may every where be exposed to nearly an
equal heat; by which means the vopours can be condens-
ed only in the beak of the retort and in the  receiver,
and are also forced to proceed thither. When  matters
which do  not require a strong degree of heat are to be
fused,  the reverberating furnace may be employed as a
fusing furnace.  The laboratory  MNRR  in that case
is removed; and the dome R R S S is placed on the fire-
hole  M N, as represented.
  One of the best fusing furnaces ever made, is that
construced by Lavoisier, and which is represented fig.
13. The following is the description which  he gives of
it in bis Elements of Chemistry.  This furnace is in the
form of an  elliptical spheroid ABCD, cut off at the
two ends by two planes which pass  perpendicular to the
axis  through the foci of the ellipse. From this shape it
is capable of containing a considerable qunntitv of char-
coal, while it leaves sufficient space in the intervals for
the passage ofthe air. That no obstacle may opyr>sPthe
free access of external  air, it is perfectly open  below, 
CHEMISTRY.
 and stands upon an iron tripod.  The grate is made of
 flat bars, set on edge, with considerable interstices be-
 tween them. To the upper part A B is added a chimney,
 or tube of baked earth, eighteen feet long, and equal in
 width to nearly half the diameter of the furnace. Lavoi-
 sier recommends, as a thing of importance, to make the
 tube F G A B as bad a conductor of heat as possible; it
 must therefore be constructed neither of iron-plate, nor
 of copper,  as is commonly the case.
  Another  kind of furnace is that necessary for assay-
 ing. In this furnace the metal must, at the same time,
 be  exposed to the most violent heat; and, secured from
 the contact of the air,  become incombustible by  its pas-
 sage through the coals: on this account it his been call-
 ed  the assaying or cupelling furnace.  It is generally of
 a square form (fig. 14); and,  like the  other furnaces,
 has an  ash-hole A A B B, a fire-hole B B C C, a labora-
 tory  C C D D,  and a  dome D D E E. The laboratory
 is destined for receiving the  muffle, which is a kind of
 small oven (fig. 10) made of baked earth, and close at the
 bottom.  It rests on bars which traverse the furnace; and
 being adjusted to the door of the laboratory, is luted in
 with clay.  It is in this small oven the cuples are placed,
 and the muffle is surrounded with charcoal: that above
 it being conveyed through the  door I  of the dome; and
 that  below it, through  the  door K of the fire-hole.
 The air which enters through the apertures of the ash-
 hole, after  having served for the purpose of combustion,
 escapes through the upper aperture E E of the dome.
 In  regard  to the muffle, the air penetrates to it through
 the door G, and promotes the  oxidation of the  metal.
 This furnace, however, is attended with the following
 inconvenience: if the door G of the laboratory is shut,
 the oxidation, for want of air, takes place slowly; while,
 on  the other hand, if it is open, the current of cool air
 causes the  metal to become fixed, and retards the  ope-
 ration. To  obviate this inconvenience, hot air should be
 conveyed to the muffle from  without, by causing it to
 pass through an earthen tube, kept in a state of ignition
 by  the furnace itself; and thus  the interior  part of the
 muffle would never become cold.
  A very useful kind of furnace is that invented by Dr.
 Black.  It  consists (fig.  15)  of a cylindrical or ellip-
 tical  body  of sheet iron,  coated  within with  a mix-
 ture of loam and clay.  The aperture  X at top is clos-
 ed occasisnally with an iron saucer full of sand, which
 forms a sand-bath: B is the door of the fire-place, and
 C is the ash-pit register, which slides so as to admit
 more or less air. D is an iron  tube which goes into the
 chimney ofthe room, to carry off the smoke.
  Blow-pipes are used for directing the flame of a can-
 dle  or lamp against any bit of ore  or other substance re-
 quired to be examined. They ought to  have a bulb upon
 the  middle  of their stem, to contain the moisture that is
 formed from the breath, as fig. 16.
  The blow-pipe contrived bv Dr. Black, of a conical
 form, represented in fig. 17, is the most convenient: a is
 the  nozzle.
  Of simple snbstmires.—The  object of chemistry, in
 subjecting to experiment th-- dif< rent bodies in  nature,
is tb if we may therebv be enabled to examine separate-
ly 'be subslmces whi  h i nt."p into *heir romncsiti >n.
This science has, during the last thirty years, made a
very rapid progress. Formerly oil and salt, a*  well as
water, were considered as elementary bodies: now it is
ascertained that they are compound substances.  Salts,
as we shall hereafter see, are composed of an acid with
some base, and their neutral state is the result  of this
union. Acids again are formed by the combination of an
acidifying principle (oxygen)  which is common to aM,
and a radical peculiar to each particular acid. See Acid.
The radicals of the acids  are not always  simple sub-
stances: they are often  compounded of hydrogen and
carbon.  The bases  of the  alkaline salts are often  not
more simple than those ofthe acids; as has been  proved
with respect to ammonia, which is composed of  hydro-
gen and azote. See Ammonia.
  It results from our knowledge of the gases (see Air,)
that there are  a certain number of substances which we
may consider as simple bodies, whether they are so or
not, because  no means  have  yet been discovered by
which they may be decomposed.
  The substances of this kind are,
                        (/Light
Simple substances,  which J Caloric
  may be considered asthe-^ Oxygen
elements of bodies.
j Azote or nitrogen
LHydrogen
Simple non-metallic sub
  stances, oxidable  and<
  acidifiable.
Simple, earthy,
  substances.
salifiable
Simple metallic substances
  oxidable,
Simple metallic substances
  oxidable,  and some of<j
  them acidifiable.
""Carbon
 Sulphur
 Phosphorus
 Muriatic radical
 Fluoric radical
 Boracic radical
rLime
 Magnesia
 Barytes
 Alumina
 Silica
 Strontian
 Zirconia
 Glucina
 Yttria
fPlatina
 Gold
 Silver
 Mercury
 Copper
 Iron
fLead
 Tin
 Zinc
 Antimony
 Bismuth
 Cobalt
 Nickel
 Manganese
 Uranium
 Titanium
 Tellurium
 Columbium
 Tantalum)
 Chrome
 Arsenic
 M- lybdeva
^Tungsten. 
CHEMISTRY.
  These simple  substances ma\ be combined with each
other,  and with other substances, in order to form com-
pounds.
  Of light. The physical properties of light will be con-
sidered under Optics.  This  substance seems to have
considerable influence upon many chemical processes.
The effect of light upon vegetation is well known.  Many
flowers follow the course of the sun; and plants that grow
in houses, seem solicitous, as it were, to get  at the light.
Plants that grow in the shade, or in darkness, are pale,
and  without colour: and when this is the case, they are
said to be etiolated or blanched.   Gardeners  avail them-
selves of thi« fact to render vegetables white  and tender.
The more plants are exposed to the light, the more colour
they acquire.  Yet the dead vegetable is deprived of co-
lour by exposure to it.
  Vegetables are not  only indebted to light for their co-
lour, their taste  and odour are  derived from the same
source. From this cause it happens that bot climates are
the native countries of perfumes, odoriferous fruits, and
aromatic resins.   The action of light on the organs of ve-
getables causes them to pour out streams of pure air from
the surfaces of their leaves, while exposed  to the sun:
whereas, on the contrary, wlien in the shade, they emit
air of a noxious quality.  Even animals, in general, droop
when deprived of light; and it appears to be of great im-
portance to the health and happiness of human beings.
  All metallic oxydes, but especially those  of mercury,
bismuth, lead, silver, and gold, become of  a deeper co-
lour by exposure to the sun; some of them  become per-
fectly revived, others only partially.   Many bodies, if
exposed  to light, either  at high  or  low temperatures,
combine with it, and emit it again under certain circum-
stances.  These are called solar phosphori.  Substances
of this kind have been prepared by various chemists; the
principal of which are, the phosphorus of Canton, Bald-
win, Homberg, and the  Bolognian phosphorus.  These
have the property of shining in the dark.  Various ani-
mal  and vegetable substances seem to possess this phos-
phorus. The glow-worm is a remarkable instance. Dead
fish, rotten sea-weeds, and great numbers of  insects, have
this property in  a great degree.
  Instruments for measuring the degree or  intensity of
light are called photometers.
  Of caloric.  All the bodies in  nature  are  immersed in
caloric, which penetrates their parts throughout,  and
which fills up the intervals left between the particles. Iii
some cases the caloric is fixed in these bodies, and in such
a manner as even to contribute to their solidity; but it
often separates their particles also, by exercising on them
a repulsive force; and it  is on its greater or less actioH
or accumlation that the transition of bodies from the solid
state to the liquid, and  from  the liquid to the aeriform,
depends.
The combination of caloric with
Oxygen                                       forms
Azote or nitrogen                                 —
Oxygen and azote                                 —
Oxygen and carbon                               —
Oxygen and the muriatic radical                   —
Oxygen and the muriatic radical, surcharged-with 1
   oxygen                                       J
Oxygen and sulphur                               —
Oxygen and the fluoric radical                     —
Ammonia                                         —
Hydrogen                                         —
Hydrogen  and sulphur                            —
Hydrogen  and phosphorus                          —
Hydrogen  and carbon                              —
Water                                            —

   Of oxygen.  Oxygen is a substance diffused in great
abundance throughout nature; it  forms  nearly a third
in weight of our atmosphere.   Animals absorb a great
quantity of it by respiration; and it combines with other
bodies to convert them into oxides and acids.
   A certain number  of conditions must  he united, in
order that a  body  may be  oxygenated.   The first  is,
that the constituent particles of this body must not ex-
ercise between themselves  an attraction  stronger than
that which  they exercise on oxygen. If they do  not
possess this superior force of attraction for oxygen, it
may be communicated  to them artificially, by exposing
them to heat; that  is to  say, by introducing into them
caloric, which separating them  from  each other, dimin-
ishes the force of their reciprocal attractionjS^and allows
them to exercise a more powerful one on the oxygen:
oxygenation will then take place.  The degree of heat
necessary to produce  this phenomenon is not the same
for all substances:  some may be oxygenated at a tem-
 Oxygen gas, or vital air
 Azotic gas, or mephitic air
 Nitrous gas
 Carbonic acid gas, and gas oxide of carbon
 Muriatic acid gas
 Oxymuriatic acid gas

 Sulphurous acid gas
 Fluoric acid gas
 Ammoniacal gas
 Hydrogen gas
 Sulphurated hydrogen gas
 Phosphori zed hydrogen gas
 Carbonated hydrogen gas
 Aqueous gas, and so of all other evaporable liquids.

 perature so low that we never find them but in an ox-
 ygenated state.   Of this kind is the muriatic radical,
 which never presents itself to us simply, but always in
 an acid, which  it has been hitherto impossible to decom-
 pose.  To oxygenate the greater part of bodies, and al-
 most all simple substances, in general,  it will be suffi-
 cient to  expose them to  the action of the atmospheric
 air, and to  raise them to the proper temperature.   The
 temperature necessary to oxygenate lead, mercury, and
 tin, is not greater than that in which we live; but on the
 other hand, a pretty high degree of heat is necessary to
 oxygenate ir,n and copper in the  dry  way, and when
the oxygen is  not assisted by the action  of  humidity.
 Sometimes the  oxygenation takes place with great rapi-
 dity, and in that case is accompanied with heat, li'ht,
 and even flame: such is the combustion of phospV»r>is
in the air, and in oxygen gas.  That of sulphur is :<'ch
less rapid.   S'bh also is the combustion of iron ii. pore
oxygen gas. Example: If a piece of iron wire bent in a 
CHEMISTRY.
spiral shape, as A (fig. 20.) is hung in a receiver B fill-
ed with oxygen gas, and by means of a small piece of
phosphorus, it is inflamed, the metal will burn with the
greatest brilliancy.   Tin,  lead, and the greater part
of the metals, oxidate slowly, and without the disengage-
ment of the caloric being sensible.
  There is still another method of oxygenating simple
substances.  Instead of exposing them to oxygen united
with caloric, the oxygen may be presented to  them in
union with some metal for which it has little affinity. The
red oxide of mercury is one of those best fitted for ac-
complishing this object, because the oxygen in that state
adheres very little to  the  metal: it  is disengaged from
it at that degree of heat at which glass begins to become
red.  The black oxide of manganese, the red oxide of
lead, the oxide of silver, and almost all the metallic ox-
ides,  can in a certain  degree, produce the same effect.
   Every metallic reduction or revivification, is an oxy-
genation of charcoal  or some other combustible matter
by a  metallic oxide.   The charcoal, by combining with
the oxygen and caloric, escapes  under the form of car-
bonic  acid gas,  and the metal  remains  pure and re-
vived.
   All combustible substances  may be oxygenated also
by combining them either with the nitrate of potash, or
that of soda, or with the oxygenated muriate of potash.
At a  certain degree of heat the oxygen abandons the ni-
trate or muriate,  and  combines with the combustible bo-
dy, but with great violence.  The reason is as follows.
The  oxygen,  in combining with the nitrates,  and  par-
ticularly with the  oxygenated  muriates, enters along
with  a quantity of caloric almost equal to that necessa-
ry for constituting it  oxygen gas.   At the  moment of
its combination with the combustible body, all this caloric
becomes suddenly free, and produces terrible detona-
tions.  This method of oxygentions, therefore, must not
be attempted but with the utmost caution, and when ve-
ry small quantities of matter are employed.
   There are different degrees of oxygenation: the  first
degree forms  oxides, the second forms weak acids, the
third  strong  acids, and  the  fourth  hyperoxygenated
 acids.
   The combination of oxygen with
    'Caloric      forms oxygen gas
     Hydrogen      —- water
             Degrees
            <\i oxy-
             genation
                 "I, —base of atmospheric air
                  2, — nitrous oxide
                  3, — nitrous gas
                  4, —nitric acid
                  {1, — oxide of carbon
                  2,— carbonic acid
                 r 1, — oxide of sulphur, soft sulphur
                } 2, — sulphurous acid
                 |^3, — sulphuric acid
                  1, — oxide of phosphorus
                  2, — phosphorus acid
                  3, — phosphoric acid
      _,,         r 1, — muriatic acid
      The mum- S 8,_oxvmuriatic acid
       tic radical  l3,__hv pcrovVinuriatic acid
i
1
-!
o
a
Azote
Carbon
  y

Sulphur
Phosphorus
}
1, — fluoric acid
  The fluoric
   radical
  Theboracic|     boradcadd
 l_ radical    J
The combination of oxygen with.
         Degrees
         of  oxy-
         genation
r
s
Gold

Platina
Silver

Copper

Iron

Tin

Lead

Mercury
{
  1, forms yellow oxide of gold
  2, — red oxide of gold, precipitate of
       Casius
  1, — yellow oxide of platina
  1, — oxide of silver
  {l, — reddish -brown oxide of copper
  2, — green and blue oxide of copper
f 1, — black oxide of iron
"^ 2, — yellow and red oxide of iron
f 1, — grey oxide of tin
\ 2, — white oxide of tin
r l, —grey oxide of lead
\ 2, — yellow and red oxide of lead
J 1, —black oxide of mercury
^2, — yellow and red oxide of mercury
Bismuth
£ <» Cobalt
    Nickel
Zinc
en
             {1, — grey oxide of bismuth
             2, — white oxide of bismuth
             1, — grey oxide of cobalt
             1, — oxide of nickel
           f 1, — grey oxide of zinc
           \z, — white oxide of zinc
           f l, — grey oxide of antimony
           \ 2, — white oxide of antimony
           r l, — grey oxide of arsenic
           < 2, — white oxide of arsenic
           ^3, — arsenic acid
Manganese { l> ~ bl^k ox^e of manganese
    °      I 9.. — white, oxide, ot manganese
Antimony
Arsenic
12,
                 white oxide of manganese
                 oxide of tungsten
                 tungstic acid
Molybdena il'~oxi^. m^Mena
    J       12, — molybdic acid
Tungsten
Titanium

Chrome
1, — oxide of titanium
    oxide of chrome

chromic acid
  In the mineral kingdom almost all the oxidable  and
acidifiable radicals seem to be simple substances; but in
the vegetable kingdom there are scarcely any which are
not composed of two substances, hydrogen and carbon.
Azote and  phosphorus are often joined with  them, and
the result is radicals with four bases.
  From these observations, it  appeai-s that  the oxides
and the animal and vegetable acids may differ from each
other three ways.   1st. By the number of  acidifiable
principles which constitute their base; 2d, By the dif-
ference in the proportions of these principles; 3d,  By
the different degrees of oxygenation.   This is more than
sufficient to  account  for the great number of varieties
which nature exhibits to us.   It thence appears, there-
fore, thatfome of  the vegetable adds can be converted
into  each other.  Nothing is necessary for this purpose
but to  change the  proportion of carbon and hydrogen,
and to oxygenate them more or  less.   Carbon and'hv-
drngen, by the first  degree of owarenation, .<  ive tar- 
CHEMISTRY.
tareous acid; by a second degree oxalic acid;  and by a
third the acetous, or acetic acid.
   Of azote or nitrogen.  Azote is a principle diffused in
great  abundance throughout nature: when  combined
with caloric, it forms azotic or mephitic gas,  which in
volume is throe fourths of the atmosphere, and in weight,
somewhat less than atmospheric air.  It always remains
in the  state of  gas  at the temperature and  pressure of
the atmosphere which we experince; and we are unac-
quainted with any degree of compression or cold capa-
ble of reducing it to the solid, or even to the liquid state.
Azote is one ofthe essential constituent parts of animal
matter; it is combined in them with carbon and  hydro-
gen, and sometimes with phosphorus; the whole being
connected by a certain portion of oxygen, which reduces
them to the state of oxide, or to the acid state, accord-
ing to  the degree of oxygenation.
   The nature of animal matters, therefore, may vary,
like that of vegetable matters, three ways: 1st,  By the
number ofthe substances which enter into the  combina-
tion of their radicals;  2d, By the difference in the pro-
portion of these substances;  3d,  By the different de-
grees of oxygenation.
    The combination of azote with
fCaloric
—■i
S
"A
CC
Oxygen
   forms azotic gas
Degrees
of oxy-
genation
   f~l, the base of atmospheric air
  J 2, nitrous oxide
   | 3, nitrous gas
   \jt, nitric acid
       ammonia
]
     Hydrogen
     Carbon
     Hydrogen
     and sometimes ^.animal matters.
     Phosphorus
    ^Oxygen      J
   Of hydrogen.  Hydrogen is one of the constiuent prin-
 ciples of water, and thence it has received its name. It
 forms  in  the composition of water  fifteen hundredth
 parts of its weight, while oxygen forms the other eighty-
 five parts.  The  affirm ity of hydrogen  for caloric is so
 great, that it constantly remains in the state of gas at the
 degree of heat and pressure  in which we live; it is im-
 possible, therefore, to procure it free from all combina-
 tion, and consequently we are  unacquainted with the
 nature of this principle.  It it one of the most abundant
 principles in nature; for besides entering into the com-
 position of water, which is  itself so abundant on the
 earth, it is one of those principles  which act the most
 •onspicuous part in the vegetable and  animal kingdoms,
hy combination with different substances.
  Having already referred to the production of hydro-
 gen gas, (see Air, p. 31) we shall now show the means
 of obtaining it by experiment.
  Exp. Let the gun-barrel oc b (fig.  21,  Plate  XXX)
 pass through a furnace F, and adjust to one extremity of
 it the bent tube A, and let the other extremity terminate
 in the tube B, carried under the receiver Cf  When the
 apparatus is  thus disposed,  and the several parts luted
together, the gun-barrel  must be brought to a red heat,
and the water poured in drop by drop through Aj and
when it comes in contact  with the gun-barrel, it is de-
composed; the iron seizes on the  oxygen  of the wa-
ter,  and the hydrogen  escapes through B in a state of
gas.
  This  gas may also be obtained  by pouring a solution
of sulphuric acid over filings of iron or zinc.
  Exp. Put iron filings into  the jar A with two tubu-
lures a  and b, adjust  to 6 the smali glass tube ending in
a capillary bore, and through a pour the diluted sulphuric
acid: the gas will speedily  be disengaged; and if a taper
is applied to x, it will continue to burn with a fine blue
flame as long as the decomposition goes on. This is call-
ed the philosophical candle.
     The combination of hydrogen with
   'Caloric    forms hydrogen gas
     Oxygen      — water
     Azote       —-ammonia, or volatile alkali
     Sulphur      —the base  of  sulphurated hydrogen
                     gas
     Phosphorus  —the base of phosphorized hydrogen
                     gas
                    the base of carbonated hydrogen gas
                    fixed  and volatile oils
s


zn
ft
s
en
Carbon    -^
 -_
> —
I
                     the radicals ofthe vegetable acids
                     and when azote and phosphorus are
                      joined with it
                  — the radicals of the animal kingdom.
   Of carbon. Carbon appears to be  a simple substance,
 for hitherto it has  not been  possible to decompose it.
 Modern experiments seem to prove that it exists com-
 pletely formed in vegetables, in  which it is combined in
 hydrogen, and sometimes with azote and with phosphor-
 us; and that it assists to form in them compound radicals,
 which  are afterwards carried to the state of oxides or of
 acids,  according to the proportion of qxygen united with
 them.   To  obtain the carbon contained  in  animal or
 vegetable  matters, nothing is necessary but to expose
 them,  first  to a moderate and then to a very strong de-
 gree of heat,  in order to decompose the last portions of
 water, which the  charcoal  strongly retains.   In  these
 operations chemists  employ retorts  of earthenware or
 porcelain, into which the combustible matters are intro-
 duced; and they  are exposed to a strong heat in a rever-
 berating furnace.  The heat converts  those substances
 which  arc susceptible of it into  gas;  and the carbon,
 which  is more fixed, remains combined with a little earth
 and some  fixed salts.
  In the arts, the carbonization of wood is effected by a
 simpler and  cheaper process.  The wood is cut into pieces
 nearly ofthe same size and length; these pieces are dis-
 posed in heaps, and  are  covered  with  earth, in such a
 manner as to prevent all commuidcation with the air, ex-
 cept what is necessary to make the wood burn, and to
 drive off the oil and water formed during the combustion;
 they are then kindled, and when they have burnt a suffi-
 cient time, the fire is extinguished by stopping the holes
 which served to introduce the air.
  There are two methods of analysing charcoal, viz. 1st,
 By its  combustion  in oxygen gas: 2d, Its oxygenation by
the nitric  acid.  In  both cases it is converted into car-
bonic acid, and it leaves a residuum of lime, potash, and
some neutral salts. It is n\t yet fully ascertained whether
the potash exists in charcoal before its combustion. 
CHEMISTRY.
  Exp. Under a b 11 £«a-■■■* A, (fig. 23.) filled with oxy-
gen gas, e.n-i in verted over mercury in the trough B C,
introduce sjiiip. charcoal in the saucer D.   The charcoal
must be wrapped in cotton; having also a small particle
of phoKidiouis in ii,  in order that the whole may take
fire upe.ii tin. introduction of the heated wire H I through
the mercury.  The charcoal will  then  bum with great.
brilliancy.   It will  be found that to saturate 28 parts of
carbon with oxygen, 72 parts ofthe latter are required,
and the aeriform acid produced is equal in weight to the
sum ofdfhe  weight of the carbon and of the oxygen.
  Exp. Very pure carbon  may  be thus procured:  Put
into a glass tube » (fig. 24.), closed at one of its extremi-
ties, and  reduced to a capillary bore  at  the other, one
part of phosphorus; and above it, at the distance of seve-
ral inches, five parts of carbonate of lime,  reduced to
powder.  Place the tube in the middle ofthe furnace F,
so that the coals can heat the carbonate of lime only, the
part ofthe tube containing the phosphorus being in tbe
ash-hole.   When the lime is  brought to a red heat, the
tube is to he raised, that the phosphorus may burn; the phos-
phorus lays bold of theox.vg a of the carbonic arid, and
becomes phosphoric acid; which unites to the lime, and
forms phosphate of lime, while the  ari» on remains by itself.
   The combination of carbon not oxygenated with
Oxygen   forms carbonic oxide and carbonic acid
Hydrogen —the carbono-hydi >us ra ii  J, fixed and vo-
               latile oils
Iron       — carburet of iron, or plumbago
Zinc      — carburet of zinc.
   Of sulphur.—Sulphur is one of those cuubustilde  sub-
stances which have the greatest fewfcii' y to combination.
At the common temperature ofthe atni sphere it  is con-
crete; and  it does not liquefy but at:-a beat  several de-
grees  higher than that of boiling water. Jt is found com-
pletely formed, and almost in its utmost d< grec of put ity,
in  volcanic productions.  It is (' -in :' :.!;;. am inu« h :'<-
cner, in the state ef sulphuric acid, in argil, gypsum, ecc.
   To  extract (lie sulphur of the sulphuric arid united to
these snbstanecs, it must be deprived of its oxygen.  This
may be effected by combining it at a red  heat wisu car-
bon:  the  carbon  takes  from it its oxygen, and thence is
formed ciirhoniC acid, which combining wilh caloric, dis-
engages itself in  the state of gas:  tbe  result then is  a
suipliuret, which  maybe deu ; !,?oscd by an acid:  the
 acid uni»;es to the base of the sulphuret,. and the sulphur
 is precipitated.
    I\\. >Ve may here show the nature of sublimation: Put
some  lumps of sulphur into  the  vessel  A (fig. 25.), to
which the  receiver B is adapted and luted round.  A is
 put on a sand-bath, io.de hoi by the furnace C: the sul-
phur me.it.--, a :-mokc rises wlshh is deposited in B in the
 fo  in (.',' vegetation, em  iiencc it has been called  flowers
 of sulphur.  In this way Mdeitur may be  combined with
 ale hoi.   IM ', 'unded sulphur into a glass ret 11 A (fig.
 26.). suspi od wiii.in il  the bottle B containing alcohol,
th  n  nut  > n the .  ..er C,  end adjust the beak x to the
hi ait  ;u-s x: b.te ;!«.«■ joining.-, and heat the retort hy the
funuo. I'.  Tin selpfmr will be sublimed, and  the al-
 col, I  m ill ne \< L.tilized.  I nth is slate the bodies meet,
 flic  |   ,  |  i-s- h  s tilt  i.ljdiur,; nd :• :.Otoi- will beob-
 t; in-d in x :dig;.tiv  • ' I-  •>"', which is ml Ii -sated  alco-
 hol,   'i    rove  that sulphur i- held io combination by
     VOL. I.                I ^
Oxygen

Hydrogen
Copper
Iron
Lead
r 1. forms oxi
< 2, sulphurou
(_3, sulphuric
        1

       {
the alcnljol, add to it some distilled water, and the sul-
phur wili he precipitate'.
  The combination of sulphur not oxygenated with
       Degrees of
       oxygena-
       tion.
           1. forms oxide of sulphur, or soft sulphur
                      us a  id
                       acid
                  the base of sulphurated hydrogen gas
                  sulphuret of copper, or pyrites of cop-
                     per
                  sulphuret of iron, or pyrites of iron
                  sulphuret of lead, or galena
                 f sulphuret of mercury, or ethiops nunc-
                 io   ral; cinnabar
            —    sulphuret of zinc, or blende
                 f suipliuret of antimony, or crude anti-
                 \   mony
                 f sulphuret  of arsenic, or orpiment;
                 \   realgar
                 r sulphuret of potash,  or  liver of sul-
 Potash     —   -j   phur with a base of fixed vegetable
                 I   rdkdi
                 f sulphuret of soda, or liver of sulphur
                 \   with a base of fixed mineral alkali
                 f sulphuret of lime, or  liver of sulphur
                 \   with a caleareous base
                 f sulphuret of magnesia, or liver of sul-
                 l   phur with a base of magnesia
                 f sulphuret of barytes, or  liver  of sul-
                 \   pluir with a base of pondrous earth
                 r sulphur-1 of ammonia, or volatile liv-
            —   \   er  of   sulphur;  finning  liquor of
                 I   Be•;. le.
   Of phosphorus.—Phosphcrus is  a simple  combustible
 sn:.stan(e,  for no experiment gives us reason to think
 that it ran be decomposed.   It was not known to the old
 chemists;  aud it was discovered in 1667 by a German,
 named Brandt, who made a mystery of  his process.  A
 short time after Brandt's secret was discovered by Kunc-
 kel, who published  the process,  and on that account it
 was called Ivun'  kcl's phosphorus.
   It was fiom urine  alone tbat this phosphorus was first
 extract;'; and though the method  was described, parti-
 cularly i y lionderg, in lite Memoirs cd the Academy of
 Sciences i'vx 17&*~, the English, for a I >ngtinv\ supplied
 this article  to all Europe.   It was not made in France
 till 1737, when it was prepared for the  first time in tho
 Botanical Garden, in the presence of commissioners ap-
 pointed by the Academy of  Sciences.
   At  present  it  is  extracted by a more convenient and
 economical process fom the bones of animals, which are
 real phosphate of ii<:ie.  The simplest method, according
 to Gahn, Scheele, Roucl'e.  &c. is lo c; 1 ine the bones of
 full grown  animals  until tiny are almost entirely white;
 to pound aii't sift th 'in. and then t » pour over them snl-
 phurie acid  liiuted with wetei: but  less than is u  cossary
 for dissolving:the whole ma'tuv.
   The sulnhoii' a<  id unites it-  If to the eanli ofthe
 bones, anc  forms sulpha re of liii ; by these nrans the
 phovphorie acid  is disengaged, and rem;  ins in a free staff
 in the  liquor. The  liqun  is then to be dera.i1'-', and
Mercury
Zinc
Antimony

Arsenic
Soda

Lime

Magnesia

Barytes

Ammonia 
CHEMISTRY.
the residuum being washed, the water employed for this
purpose insist be  addeci  lo  the dreamed  liquor.   The
wi: J; m ist turn be evaporat' v.. in order to separate the
s il] !>at? of lime which crystallizes in silky filaments,
and you v ill  thus obtain]/! ••sphoricacid, under the form
of white transparent glass; which, when reduced to pow-
der, and mixed with a t'-drd of its  weight of charcoal,
and (lis'ilied,  will yield good pliosidorus.
   Phosphorus >h fv)imd In almost every animal substance,
and in some plants, whicn, according to chemical  analy-
sis, have an animal character.  In  tbis state it is gene-
rally combined \rith carben, hydaagen. and azote, from
wMeli there rcs.ilt radicals with four bases.  Phosphorus
iniinnu'.; at the temperature  of 401 degrees.
   it has so great an affinity for oxygen, as to decompose
oxygen gi s.   Example.  A receiver containing three or
four quarts of oxygen gas (fig. 23)  was placed over the
mercurial trough B C, and about 611 grains of phosphorus
distributed in me saucer D, and introduced under  the re-
ceiver A, and kindled by means of a red-hot wire. The
combustion took  place   with great  rapidity, produc-
ing a brilliant flame, and  the disengagement of a great
degree cd' light and  heat; the inside of the receiver be-
came coveted with white flakes, which were found to he
concrete phosphoric acid.   The quantity of oxygen gas
employed was  16.2  cubic inches;  after the  absorption
there remained 23 cubic inches, of  course 139  inches of
gas was absorbed.   About 45 grains of phosphorus were
burnt, and these combined with the oxygen formed the
phosphoric acid.   This experiment proves that, at a cer-
tain temperature oxygen has more  affinity for phospho-
rus than it has for  caloric; that the phosphorus decom-
poses the oxygen gas by seizing on  its base: and that the
caloric passes into the surrounding  bodies, and produces
in them heat.
   The following experiment,  made on a larger scale,
proves the  justness of the preceding results in a manner
more rigorous and exact.   Take a large glass balloon,
A (fig. 27), the aperture of which,  E F,  is about three
inches in diameter,  and cover the aperture with a plate
of ground  glass, pierced with two holes to receive the
two tubes,  y  y y,x x x, furnished with cocks.  Before
^ ou cover it  with the plate, introduce into it a supporter,
C B, with a porcelain cup, D, containing  150*  grains of
phosphorus; and after you have closely shut the balloon,
hy luting on  the glass plate, exhaust the balloon of air hy
connecting the tube x x x with an air-pump.  Then
wei.e-h the whole apparatus by a nice balance, and  fill the
balloon with  oxygen gas by means of the tube y y y, con-
nected with a hydro-pneumatic machine.   By the help of
this machine  you may ascertain in a very  accurate man-
ner, the quantity of  oxygen gas introduced into the bal-
loon, and that consumed during the course of the opera-
tion.
   When every tiling is thus arranged, kindle the phos-
phorus by means of a burning glass; the combustion will
be exceedingly rapid, and accompanied with a lage flame
and a strong  heat.  In proportion as it is effected, there
is form -d such a quantity of white flakes^vhich  attach
themselves  to the. inside of the vessel, that it is soon ren-
dered entirely opake.
   When the whole apparatus has  cooled,  and  you have
ascertained the quantity of oxygen gas employed,  weigh
   CI, form
?n -J 2,  —
   U,  —
Hydrogen
the ball'ion again before you open it.   Then wash, drv,
and weigh, the small quantity of phosphorus remaining
in the cup, in order that  it  may be deducted from the
whole quantity  of  phosphorus employe i  in the experi-
ment. By observing these precepts, it will  be easy to
determine, 1st, the weight of the phosphorus burnt: 2d,
the weight of the oxygen gas which iias combined with
the phosphorus;  3d, the weight of the flakes obtained hy
the combustion.  This experiment will give nearly the
same results  as the  preceding.
   It thence appears that the phosphorus, in burniug, com-
bines itself with oxygen equal to one and a half ofits own
weight; and that the weight of the white flakes, or con-
crete phosphoric acid, produced, is equal to the sum of
the weight of the phosphorus burnt, and that of the oxy-
gen combined with it.
   The combination  of phosphorus not oxygenated with
         Degrees
         of oxygenation.
          1,  forms  oxide of phosphorous
Oxygen -^ 2,   —  phosphorous  acid
                  phosphoric acid
                   f phosphuret of hydrogen, or the base
                   \  of phosphorized hydrogen  gas
Azote        —  phosphuret of azote
Carbon       — phosphuret of carbon
Sulphur       —  phosphuret of sulphur
¥                  f phosphuret of iron, called formerly
lron              \  siderit
   Of Earths.—By analysing earths, and freeing them
from  substances with which they are  mixed, chemists
have obtained nine simple or primitive  earths, viz. lime,
magnesia, barytes,  alumina, silex, strontian, zirconia,
yttria, and glucina.
   Lime is rarely found in  a pure state; it is contained in
chalk, which  may be deemed a neutral  salt, being  form-
ed by the combination of lime with carbonic acid.   The
best process for abtaining lime in a state of purity is this:
wash chalk in distilled water, brought to a state of ebul-
lition, and then dissolve it in distilled acetous  acid: this
acid,  by combining  with  the lime, expels the carbonic
acid, which escapes under the gaseous  form; then  preci-
pitate the lime by carbonate of ammonia, for the acetous
acid abandons the lime, in order to combine with the am-
monia, and  the  lime is precipitated: wash and calcine
this precipitate, and the residuum will be pure lime.
   Lime is solubie in water, but in very small quantities;
more than 600 parts of water are necessary to dissolve
one of it.  It has a pungent, hot, and acrid taste; it turns
blue vegetable colours green.   It takes  up water with
avidity.   When thrown into this liquid it splits,  swells
up, acquires a larger volume, and a great  heat.  It dis-
solves in acids without effervescence. The borate  of so-
da and the phosphates of urine dissolve it also.
   Lime,  when alone,  is infusible,  even though the fire
may  be urged by oxygen gas, as has been  proved by
Lavoisier; but if combined .with  acids,  it forms a fusible
body, for lime is a salifiable base.   Of all these base it
is  that most abundantly diffused throughout nature.  See
Lime.
   Magnesia has never yet been found free from every
kind of foreign matter.  To procure it  in the utmost de-
gree of purity, crystals of the sulphate of magnesia (Ep- 
CHEMISTRY.
 som  salt), of which it forms the base, must be dissolved
 in distilled water, and decomposed by alkaline carbonates:
 the sulphuric acid combines with the alkalies; the magne-
 sia with the carbonic acid, and is precipitated.  This pre-
 cipitate must then be calcined, in order to disengage the
 carbonic acid; and what remains will be pure magnesia.
   Pure magnesia is exceedingly  white, tender, and in ap-
 pearance spongy.   When perfectly pure, it is not sensi-
 bly soluble in water.  It excites no sensible savour on the
 tongue; and in this respect it is greatly different from lime.
 It gives a light green  colour to  the  tincture of turnsole.
 La' oi'dcr has proved by experiment that magnesia is as
 iidusibie as lime.   See Magnesia.
   Barytes, or ponderous earth, has never yet been found
 pure and free from all combination.   It is found under the
 pulverulent form, and exceedingly white.   It gives a ve-
 ry slight int of green to blue vegetable colours. Its spe-
 cific gravity is from4.2 to 4.3000.  Analysis has proved
 that 100 parts of carbonate of barytes contain 62 of bary-
 tes, 22 parts  of carbonic  acid, and 16 parts of water. See
 Barytks.
   Alumina or pure argil is found chiefly in the different
 kinds ot el ay, of which it forms  the base, and where it is
 often mixed with silex.   To obtain it very pure, sulphate
 of alumina (alum) must be  dissolved in water,  and after-
 wards  decomposed  by  alkaline  carbonates.  The alkali
 combines with the  sulphuric acid, which then  abandons
 the  alumina; and  the  latter combines with the carbonic
 acid abandoned by the alkali.  The alumina must then
 be freed from this acid  hy calcination; and after this pro-
 cess  it will remain pure.   It absorbs water with avidity,
 and becomes  diluted in  that liquid.   It adheres strongly
 to the tongue.  The borate of* soda and the phosphates of*
 urine dissolve it.  When exposed to heat, it becomes dry,
 shrinks, and cracks.  By the action ofthe fire it acquires
 so great hardness as to strike fire with steal:  it is then
 no longer susceptible of being diluted in water.  Alumina,
 even when perfectly pure, is completely fusible in the fire,
 if urged by a current of oxygen  gas.   The result of its
 fusion is a vitreous, opakc, and very hard substance,
 which  scratches glass  in the  same  manner as precious
 stones do.   See Alum and Alumina.
   Silex, or verifiable earth, is almost in its state of puri-
 ty in rock-crystal:  but to have it  perfectly pure, one part
 of beautiful  rock-crystal must be fused with four parts of
 pure  alkali; the mixture must then be dissolved in water,
 and precipitated by  an  excess of acid; the precipitate will
 he pure silex, which is rough and harsh to the touch; its
 particles, when diluted in water,  are easily precipitated.
   The  fluoric acid dissolves silex exceedingly well:  it is
 also the solvent of glass.    Alkalies dissolve silex in the
 dry way, and with it form  glass.  Silex cannot be fused
 by a burning lens; but by exposing it to a fire, urged by
 oxygen gas, Lavoisier produced a  commencement of fusion
 on its lurface.  See Silex.
   Strontian was discovered by  Dr.  Hope,  professor of
 chemistry at Clasgow.  It  is found in the state of a car-
 bonate, that is, combined  with  carbonic acid, in a vein of
 lead ore at Strontian in Argvle.  hire, in the western part
 of Scotland.   It has been found also combined with car-
bonic acid at Lead-hills, in t'm same country.  Some of it
 has since been discovered  at  Moalimirtre in France, com-
 bined with sulphuric acid; and it is found in quantities in
 the neighbourhood of Bristol.
    Strontian was at first confounded with barytes: which
 indeed it resembles in several respects, though it differs
 from it in others.
    Carbonate of strontian is decomposed bv the sulphuric
 acid,  and carbonic acid is  disengaged: the sulphate of
 strontian, tlius obtained, is very little soluble in water. It
 dissclves with  effervescence mi  the nitric and  muriatic
 acids,  and carbonic acid is  disengaged.   These nitrates
 and muriates of strontian are not deliquescent, and are de-
 composed by the sulphates  of lime, potash, and others.
 It may be deprived of its acid by calcinatioji; its eanh is
 then soluble in, water, but in greater quantity in boiling
 than in cold water, for a part of it is precipitated by cool-
 ing.
    The carbonate of slrcnthin is lighter than carbonate of
 barytes:  the specific gravity of the latter is frem 42. to
 43.000, that ofthe carbonate of strontian is only from 36.
 to 37.000.  Analysis has proved, that  100 parts of the
 carbonate of strontian  contain 62 parts of strontian,  30
 parts of carbonic acid,  and 8 parts of water.  See Strox-
 TIAN.
    Zirconia is a simple earth, lately discovered by Klap-
 roth, in the jargon of Ceylon, of which it is a constituent
 part, and even the most abundant; for it has been  found
 by analysis, that 100 parts of the jargon of Ceylon con-
 tain 64 parts and a half of zirconia,  32 parts of silex, and
 two parts and a half of the oxide of iron.   To obtain
 zirconia pure, it must be united to the muriatic acid, with
 which  it forms  a muriate of zirconia; this muriate must
 be dissolved in a large quantity of water, and the zirconia
 must be precipitated by potash: if it is carefully washed,
 and then  brought to a red  heat in a crucible, it will be
 perfectly  pure.   Calcined zirconia  has a white colour.
 It is rough to the touch like silex; it has no taste, and is
 not soluble in water.    Its specific gravity is at least 43.
 000; that of distilled water being 10.000. *
   When separated from its solutions by caustic alkalies.
 this earth retains a pretty large quantity of wat^r. which
 gives it tbe semi-transparency of horn; it has then t!>r« ap-
 pearance  of gum-arabic, both by its slightly yellow colour
 and its fracture and transparency.   It is suse< ptible of
 uniting with carbonic acid.   It unites also with  tl^ sul-
 phuric and nitrous acids: alkalies, and  the first „jx ^v;_
 initive earths, separate it from the latter  iie:d. It  wd! not
 alone fuse by the blowpipe; but it fuses with the Innate of
 soda, and gives a transparent colourless glass.
   Yttria is also a newly discovered earth,  and will br
 described under the article Yttria.
   Glucina is a simple earth, lately  discovered by  Vau-
 quelin,  in the aigue-marine, called the occidental.  It i>
 a white granulated earth, which effervesces with acids.
 In 100 parts of this aigue-marine there ore 14 ofglurhi-i.
 It is soluble in the carbonate of ammonia, as well as  in
tbe sulphuric acid.  In the latter case, tbe s. lutlon has at
first a saccharine,  and afterwards an astringent taste.
Its crystals are sweet, like  the.  solution.   It  las some
resemblance to  alumina:  as  it is soft to the touch, ad-
heres to the tongue,  is light, dissolves io potash, end is
precipitated from i.s solution hy ammonia,  'iut it differs
from alumina hy its  combination', with  acids beimj ex- 
cn^M£::-L*iiY.
recding'.y sweet, by giring no  dura  wkm mived with
sulphate of potash, by be,me entirely soluble in carbonate
of amm.Miia, and by nut being  precipitated f'ooi its solu-
tions by oxalate of potash and tar!rite of pole::>, as alu-
mina i^.
   It hies been found by ana! vis, that 100 pacs of earth
r -ontain 68 of silex, 15 of alumina, 14 of glucina, : oi" lime,
and one ofthe oxide of iron.
   Of Adds.—According to the theory of Lavoisier,  all
acids consist of a certain base, united to oxygen,  which
is considered as the cause of acidity.  See Acid. We are
already acquainted with the bases of the sulphuric, nitric,
phosphoric, and arsenic acids; we  know that hydrogen,
carbon, and oxygen, form the bases ofthe vegetable arid-;
and that the same substances,  in combination with nitro-
gen, constitute the animal acids, such as prussic, Sec. But
we are totally  unacquainted with  the bases ofthe muri-
atic, boracic, and  fluoric ac ids.   Acids  are either solid,
liquid, or gaseous.   They excite a peculiar sensation  on
the palate, called  sour.  They  change  most of the. blue
vegetable colours red.   Most  of them unite to w;dcr in
all proportions; and some have  so strong an attraction
for it, as to be incapable of appearing in tbe solid form.
   All the acids combine with the alkalies.   These com-
binations have been termed neutral salts.  See Acid and
Alkali.   These salts  are easily formed by art; and na-
ture exhibits a  great number,  especially of  those  which
are formed by acids of simple radicals.  Neutral salts
are distinguished by two names;  one expressing the ac id,
and the other the alkaline base.  The first of these  names
may have two  variations of termination, corresponding
to two different states of the  acid in the salt.   The ter-
mination ate, is employed when the acid is  one of those
which are completely saturated with oxygen, and whose
names end in ic; thus the salts compounded  with tbe ni-
tric acid, arc called nitrates.  Words terminating in ite,
serve to distinguish the presence of those weak acids which
are not fully saturated  with oxygen, and which, when
alone, have names ending in  cms;  thus, nitrites are salts
compounded with nitrous acid.  For the crystallization
of salts, see Crystallization.
   All metallic  substances combine with at least some of
the acids.   But the alkalies  and earths enter into the
composition of neutral salts without any uniting medium;
whereas the metals do not combine with acids, unless they
have been first more or  less oxygenated: we may there-
fore say, that  the metals themselves are not soluble in
acids, but only the metallic oxyds.  When a metallic sub-
stance is put into an acid, the first requisite, in order that
it may dissolve, is, that it become oxydated in  it.  For
this purpose, it must take up oxygen, either  from the
acid, or from the water with  which the acid is diluted;
the oxygen then must have more  affinity for the  metal
than it has either for the hydrogen or for the base of the
acid;  and consequently a decomposition, either of the
water or ofthe acids, must take place.
   On these observations the explanation of the principal
phenomena of metallic solutions depend.   In metallic so-
lutions, an effervescence, or disengagement of gas, often
takes place. The gas disengaged by nitric acid, is nitrous
gas; that disengaged by sulphuric  acid, is sulphurous
a-id gas, if it be this acid that has furnished the oxygen;
but it is hydrogen gas, if the oxygen has been  furnished
by the water.   Nitric acid and water being composed ol
sid.slances which, taken separately, cxiet only in the state
of gases, as soon as they arc deprived of  I heir oxygen,
i.!ie oilier principle assumes the gaseous form.   It is this
rapid passage i'iom the liquid to the gaseous state, that
constitutes clfVrvescenre.  The case is the same vvitli the
sulphuric  acid.
  In general, the metals do  ir>t take from these acids all
their oxygen;  tl;vy do  not reduce the one to  azote, and
the other  to sulphur, but to nitrous gas  and sulphurous
arid.  Metallic substances dissolve without effervescence,
when they have been  previously  oxidated;  for in that
case,  the metal no longer has a tendency to decompose
either the acid or the water.   There is therefore no dis-
engagement of gas, and consequently no effervescence.
  No metal dissolves  with effervescence in oxygenated
muriatic acid.  In this case,  the  metal takes from  the
acid  its excess of oxygen; and the  result is a metallic
oxyd, and simple muriatic arid.   There  is no efferves-
cence, because there is  no disengagement of gas.
  Metals which have very little affinity for oxygen, and
which  have not the power to decompose either the aeid
or the water, are insoluble in acids, unless tiiey have been
first  oxydated.  For this reason, silver,  mercury, and
lead,  are not soluble in muriatic  acid, when exposed to it
in their metallic state; but if previously oxydated, !hev
arc exceedingly soluble, and the solution takes place with-
out effervescence.
  The following is a table of the acids hitherto known:
                    Mineral acids.
                           Oxygenated muriatic,
                          Hyper-oxygenated muriatic.
                          Carbonic,
                          Fluoric,
                          Boracic,
                          Mellitic.
                    .Metallic, acids.
                           Molybdic,
                           Chromic,
                           Columbic.
                   Vegetable  acids.
                           Gallic,
                           Citric,
                          Tartaric,
                          Succinic,
                           Suberic.
                    Animal acids.
                           Lactic,
                           Saccho-lactic,
                          Prussic.
Sulphurous,
Sulphuric,
Nitrous,
Nitric,
Muriatic,
Arsenious,
Arsenic,
Tungstic,

Acetic,
Malic,
Oxalic,
Benzoic,
Camphoric,
  Phosphorous,
  Phosphoric,
  Sebacic,
  Laccic.
  Of sulphurous  acid.—This  is sulphur combined with
oxygen, but not to saturation.   It is the sulphurous acid
gas when absorbed by water.   The salts formed by the
combination of  this acid with  different bases, are called
sulphites; they are not employed for any useful purpose;
they are converted into sulphates by heat.
   Of sulphuric  acid.—Sulphuric  acid, formerly called
spirit or oil of vitriol, is formed by the c ombi nation of sul-
phur, which is its base, and oxygen.  It is obtained when
the combustion  of sulphur is carried on very slowly with
access of atmospheric air; b::t it  is produced with more
facility by the addition of saltpetre, now called nitrate of 
CHEMISTRY.
potash, v.hu-ii r'i,misiie3 oxvg- n abundantly, and enables
the combustion to go on more rapidly.
  In epcrati'uis of tins kind, on a large scale, the mix-
t'n e oisulphur and saltpetre is burnt in large chambers,
the sides of which are cased with plates of  lead, and
water is placed on the boor, to collect the sulphuric va-
pours. The. water is  afterwards put into large retorts,
and distilled  by a moderate heat; water slightly  acid
passes over, and concentrated sulphuric acid remains in
the retort. This acid suffers congelation by intense cold;
it is unctuous to the touch,  attracts  moisture from the
atmosphere wilh great avidity, and, when mixed with wa-
ter, produces  a heat above that of boiling water.  It acts
rapidly on all inflammable  susbtances, rendering them
black, the acid itself becoming brown, or even blackish.
It combines  with nitrous  acid, and  forms  a compound
which dissolves silver, but scarcely any other metal.
   Sulphates  are neutral salts, formed"hy the sulphuric
acid with certain bases. Thus, sulphate of  potash, for-
merly called vitriolated tartar, is produced  by the com-
bination of the sulphuric acid and potash.
  Sulphate of soda,  formerly called Glauber's salt, is
formed by the combination of soda with the sulphuric
acid.   It is  found frequently in mineral waters.  See
SULI'HV!!.
  Nitrous acid.—Nitrous  acid exists  in the  state of gas,
in the form of a red vapour; it is nitrous gas combined
with a limited quantity of oxygen: it is rapidly absorbed
by  water, and, when combined with it, is of a yellow  or
orange colour.  It emits copious orange-coloured or red
fumes.   Different quantities of water convert its colour
to a deep blue, green, yellow, kc. while the  vapours still
continue of their original yellowish-red colour.
  Liquid nitrous acid, generally called spirit of nitre  in
the shops, is only nitric acid (to be afterwards described),
holding in solution a  quantity of nitrous gas.   If this
nitrous acid is heated, the  nitrous  gas is  disengaged,
which coining into the air, attracts oxygen, and becomes
nitrous acid gas, appearing in the form of red fumes, and
the liquid is converted  into colourless nitric acid.
  The following is the process made use of for procuring
nitrous acid:  Take a quantity of sulphate of iron (martial
vitriol), deprived of its water of crystallization by heat,
and mix with it an equal weight of dry nitrate of potash;
put the mixture into a glass retort, to which a very spa-
cious receiver has been luted, containing a  little water,
and begin to distil with a very slow fire.  As soon as the
red vapours cease to come over, let the fire be slackened;.
and when the vessels  are cooled, the receiver must  he
cautiously withdrawn,  and its contents quickly transfer-
red through a glass funnel into a bottle furnished with a
ground stopper.  It  may also be obtained by decompos-
ing nitrate of potash,  by means of sulphuric acid,  with
the assistance of heat.
  The nitrites are v cry little known.
  Of nitric acid.—The constituent principles of this  acid
are oxygen and nitrogen (or azote).  It differs from the
last-mentioned acid, only in  not having any nitrous gas
in a loosely combined  state.   Oxygen and nitrogen with
caloric, form nitrous gas, which, with a greater quantity
of oxygen, forms nitric acid.
  Nitric acid is transparent, liquid, and colourless; when
diluted with water, it is sold in the shops by the name of
 aqua-fortis.  It possesses in an eminent  degree ail the
 properties of acids.   If  is capable of ox) dating a'f the
 metals, except gold and plantina.  It thickens and black-
 ens oils, converting them to aco;,!. or inflaming them, ai -
 cording to the nature of the oil and the degree of concen-
 tration ofthe acid.  It is prerured by redistilling nitrous
 acid, or at least heating it till it is deprived of i's fume-.
 Tbe combinations < i  nitric acid v. ith different bases, are
 called nitre';e^.   These  salts have tbe property of de-
 tonating with, or inflaming charcoal, and other easily in-
 flammable bodies, at a red heat.  It is upon Ibis property
 that the composition of gunpowder is founded, which con-
 sists  of five parts of nitrate of potash, one of charcoal.
 and one of sulphur.
   Nitrate of potadi, nitre, or saltpetre, is formed by the
 combination of the nitr'c acid with potash.  It is pro-
 duced  spontaneously  in various  situations, sometimes
 efflorescing on the surface of the earth, and on the walls
 of old buildings.  It may be artificially produced by the
 putrefaction of  animal and  vegetable substances; light
 earths, such as lime and marl, ashes, the refuse of soap-
 manulactures, Sec. being stratified for this purpose with
 straw,  dung,  and putrifying animal and vegetable sub-
 stances, and wetted with urine, blood, dunghill-water, and
 the mother-waters of saltpetre, turned, and exposed to a
 current of air.   It is  formed in  these processes by the
 extrication of nitrogen, by the decomposition ofthe animal
 and vegetable substances, which combines with the oxygen
 ofthe atmosphere, forming nitric acid; and this, uniting
 with  the alkali, wbich is separated at the same time from
 these substances, forms the nitrate of potasb.  See X11 re.
   Nitrate of lime, formerly  termed nitrous selenite, is
 found adhering to, and embodied in, calcareous stone,
 and dissolved in various mineral springs.  It is formed
 near  inhabited places, and  is  yielded by the lixiviation
 of old plaister,  and by the  mother-waters of saltpetre,
 as they are termed by the manufacturers.  It may be fre-
 quently observed as an efflorescence upon old damp walls.
   Of muriatic acid.—Muriatic acid, formerly termed ma-"
 rine ac id, or acid of sea-salt,  is supposed to  consist of
 oxygen, in combination with a peculiar but  hitherto un-
 known basis; for it has never yet been decomposed.  It ex-
 ists in  the gaseous state, and forms muriatic acid gas,
 which has been considered already.   This, absorbed hy
 water,  constitutes liquid muriatic acid.  The muriatic
 acid is diffused in great abundance throughout tlie mineral
 kingdom, and is united chiefly with soda, lime, and mag-
 nesia;*itj£ found with these three bases in sea-water, and
 in that of several lakes.   In mines of rock-salt it is for
 the most part united with soda.
  Tbe muriatic  acid  does not adhere very strongly to
 the earths and alkalies.  The sulphuric acid is  capable
 of separating  it from them; and  it is by  means of this
 acid that chemists obtain the muriatic.
  Experiment. Put eight parts of purified muriate of so-
 da, reduced to fine powder, into  the retort A (ii ;r. 28), and
 five parts of sulphuric acid diluted with a small quantity
 of water.   Adapt to the retort  tbe matrass C, to receive
 the portion of impure sulphuric and muriatic  acid which
 passes over towards the end of the operation.  1), E, and
 F, are a series of bottles in which water is put, the quan-
tity of which is equal to the weight ofthe salt employed.
These bottles arc fumished with safety-tubes, G G. The 
CHEMISTRY.
joinings must be well luted, and the heat gradually in-
creased till nothing more can be disengaged.  The mu-
riatic acid will pass over in the state of gas, and unite it-
self in a large proportion with the water in the receiver.
The water thus saturated is  muriatic  acid.   It is a co-
lourless fluid.  It emits copious white fumes in  contact
with  moist atmospheric air, which is  muriatic acid gas,
that escapes from it, and condenses again, by combining
with  the  humidity of the air.   Its combinations  with
earths, alkalies, and metals, form muriates.
   Muriate of  potash, the febrifuge salt of  Sylvius, is
formed by the combination of muriatic acid with potash.
It is found in sea-water and old plaister.  It has a strong
bitter disagreeable taste.
   Muriate of soda,  marine salt, common salt, is formed
by the combination of muriatic acid  with soda.   It is
found native in mines, in many places, but  particularly
in Poland and Hungary.   It is  also obtained by extract-
ing it from sea-water by evaporation, Sec.   It is always
contaminated by a quantity of muriate of magnesia, mu-
riate of lime, and sometimes by the sulphate of lime. It
occasions clay to fuse readily, and is  employed in glaz-
ing earthenware.  It assists  the fusion of glass also.  It
has a penetrating pleasant  taste,  decrepitates  on hot
coals, and by great heat is volatillized.
   Muriate of ammonia, or sal ammoniac, is formed by
the combination of the muriatic acid with ammonia, and
is found native in many parts, particularly in the neigh-
bourhood of volcanoes. It is obtained  artificially by sub-
limation, from the soot formed by the  combustion of the
excrements of animals which feed on saline plants.
   Muriate of lime is found in mineral waters,  but par-
 ticularly in the waters of the sea, to which it contributes
to  give their bitter taste.  It speedily deliquesces.  It fuses
with a moderate heat, and  by  calcination becomes the
 phosphorus of Homberg.
   Muriate of barytes is not  known to exist native.  The
 sulphuric and  fluoric  acid  decompose  it very readily;
 hence this salt is highly useful  to detect the  presence of
these acids in any mixture.
   Of oxygenated muriatic acid.—-Oxygenated  muriatic
 acid  is muriatic acid with an excess of oxygen.  By this,
 however, the acid properties of the muriatic acid are not
increased, as is the case with other acids, but, on the con-
trary, diminished.  In the state of gas, when absorbed
by water, it forms liquid oxygenated muriatic acid, which,
 in  a liquid form, is of a greenish-yellow colour.   It has
 a bitter taste, and a very suffocating odour.  Instead of
reddening blue vegetable colours,  it has the remarkable
property of destroying them entirely.  It thickens oils
and animal fats, and renders them less  disposed to com-
bine with alkalies.  It is readily obtained by the distilla-
tion  of muriatic  acid with  substances containing much
oxygen,  such  as the oxyds of metals,  particularly the
 native oxyd  of manganese.
   When  it is exposed to the light, oxygen gas is separat-
 ed, and the acid is reduced to the state of ordinary mu-
 riatic acid.  It remov es the stain of common ink, though
 it does not affect printers' ink.  It is therefore used for
 cleaning old books and prints.  Half an ounce of minium
 being added  to three ounces of muriatic acid, will ren-
 der it fit for this purpose.  The muriatic  acid,  taking
oxygen from the minium, or red oxyd of lead, is convert-
ed into oxygenated muriatic acid.
  Nitro-muriatic acid, called  formerly aqua regia, is an
acid analogous to oxygenated muriatic acid.  !i is pro-
duced  by adding muriatic acid to nitric acid, in the pro-
portion of  one part of the fo ,nee to two of the latter.
During  this combination an  effen esceii'e  takes  place,
hc«t is set free, and oxygenated muriatic acid gas is
evolved; the action may  be assisted by the application of
heat.  The mixture becomes yellow.   This acid has the
property of dissolving gold and  plantina, which cannot
be acted upon by  any other acid; for  the muriatic acid
attracts part of the oxygen of the nitric acid, being thus
converted partly into nitrous acid and partly into nitrous
gas, whilst the muriatic  acid  becomes ion verted by this
addition of oxy^n into oxygenated muriatic acid, or ni-
tro-muriatic acid.   Tne  same combination may be iro-
duced  by mixing together oxygenated muriatic acid uud
nitrous gis.  Oxygenated muriatic acid may be com-
bined  with a  great number of the salifiable  bases; the
salts which it forms detonate with carbon and with seve-
ral metallic substances.  These detonations are exceed-
ingly dangerous, because the  oxygen  entering into  the
muriatic acid, with a large quantity of caloric, its  ex-
pansion gives rise to  violent explosions.
   Oxygenated muriate of potash is made by introducing
the oxygenated muriatic  gas into a solution of potash; its
crystals, as well as those of the common muriate,  being
formed on  evaporation in the dark. It gives a faint taste,
with a sensation of coldness in  the mouth; the crystals
have somewhat of a  silvery appearance, and emit light
by attrition.    It is decomposed  by the action of light,
parting  w ith  its oxygen, and becoming simple muriate
of potash.  Heat also separates its oxygen from it, in the
form of oxygen gas,  100 grains yielding 75  cubic inches
of oxygen gas.  When three parts of oxygenated muri-
ate of potash, and one  of sulphur, are triturated in a
mortar, the mixture detonates violently.  The same ef-
fect is produced when the mixture is struck with a ham-
mer on an  anvil.
   Phosphorus detonates with oxygenated muriate of pot-
ash with a  prodigious force.   Similar effects are produc-
ed with  other  inflammable substances, or with metallic
bodies.  The oxygenated muriate of potash  increases the
blackness of ink; and the colours of log-wood, weld, co-
chineal, and archil, are improved by it, if no heat is em-
ployed.  When employed in the  composition of gunpow-
.der, instead of nitre, the effects produced by its ignition
are augmented in  a very great degree, and the mixture
will explode by mere trituration.
   In this and other salts formed in the same  way, the
acid gets a still greater  dose  of  oxygen, and is denomi-
nated hyper-oxymuriatic acid; but it cannot be separately
exhibited.
   Of carbonic acid.—This acid, already noticed under car-
bonic acid  gas, exists in the gaseous state; and in com-
bination with different bases it constitutes carbonates.
   Carbonate  of potash, formerly called mild vegetable
alkali, is  made by exposing  a solution of  alkali  to the
carbonic acid gas until saturated.   It has now less of the
urinous taste, but  still changes the blue colour of v iolets
to a green.  It does not attract moisture from the  air, 
CHEMISTRY.
butrather parts with its water of crystallization. By ex-
posure to heat it loses its acid,  is rendered pure alkali,
and is capable of uniting with silex, and forming glass.
It is decomposed by quick-lime, and by all the  acids.
   Carbonate of soda was formerly termed mild mineral
alkali.  It is decomposed  by quick-lime, by the  acids,
and by fire, in the same manner as the former carbonate.
   Carbonate of ammonia, or concrete volatile alkali, may
be obtained from many animal  substances, but  it  is not
found naturally.   It is formed by the combination of car-
bonic acid with ammonia.   When the muriate  of ammo-
nia is heated  with carbonate of lime, the products are mu-
riate of lime and carbonate of ammonia, which latter sub-
limes in a solid form.
   Carbonate of lime, called also mild calcareous  earth,
chalk, Ace. is formed hy the  combination of carbonic acid
and lime.  It has  not been  crystallized by art, although
found  variously crystallized in  its  native state.  By in-
tense beat the acid is  disengaged, and pure lime remains.
It is decomposed by almost all  the  acids, their superior
degree of attraction for lime forming other calcareous
salts, the carbonic  acid escaping in a gaseous form, and
occasioning effervescence.
   Carbonate of barytes has no  taste, is not altered in the
air,  is almost  insoluble in water, but is decomposed by
heat and by all the acids.  It is poisonous.
   Carbonate of magnesia,  or the  common magnesia of
the  shops,  is obtained  by precipitation from  the sul-
phate of magnesia.  It is soluble in water in the propor-
tion of several grains to an ounce.  It loses its water and
acid by  calcination,  the residue  being  pure  magnesia,
sometimes called calcined magnesia.  See Carbojv.
   Of fluoric  acid.—The composition of this acid is un-
known.   In  a gaseous  state it forms fluoric  acid gas;
united to water, it  constitutes liquid fluoric acid.  It ex-
ists completely formed in fluate of lime, known  under the
name of fluor, or Derbyshire spar.  It is combined in it
with calcareous earth, forming an insoluble salt.  To ob-
tain this acid alone, and separated from its base, put fluor
spar into a leaden retort, and pour over it sulphuric acid;
adapt a leaden receiver to the retort, half-filled with wa-
ter,  and  expose the  retort to  a gentle  heat.  The sul-
phuric acid seizes  on  the basis of the spar, and forms with
it sulphate of lime; and the fluoric acid passes over in the
state of gas,  and is absorbed hy the water in the receiver.
If it is received in  a mercurial apparatus, it will pass over
in the state of gas.
   The distinguishing property  of the fluoric acid is  its
power of dissolving silex.   Its odour resembles muriatic
acid.  When exposed to moist  atmospheric air, it emits
white fumes.  Its  action upon all inflammable substances
is very feeble; it does  not afford oxygen to them.  It has
no a» tion upon most ofthe  metals, but it dissolves many
of their oxyds.  It must be kept in well-closed leaden
or tin  bottles, or glass phials,   coated within  w ith wax
or varnish.  It is  employed for etching on glass.  See
Fluor.
   Of boracic  acid.—The boracic acid, before known un-
der the name of Romberg's sedative salt, is a concrete
acid extracted from borax, a salt brought from  India. Its
base is unknown.    It exists in brilliant,  glittering, white
scabs, so", and unctuous to the touch.   Its taste is bit-
terish, with a slight acidity.  When mixed with burning
spirit of wi»ie, it causes a green, surrounded with a white
flame.  To  extrac t boracic acid from  borax, tin1 latter
mest  b" dissolved in boiling water: the liquor is then to
befiltred while very warm, and sulphuric acid poured in-
to it:  this acid seizes on the soda of tiie borax; and the
boracic aci<:, being separated, becomes tree.   By cooling
it my be obtained under a crystallized form.
  Borate of soda, or borax, is formed by the combination
of the boracic acid w ith soda.  It is found in a crv styliz-
ed state at the bottom of certain  salt-lakes, i.i a  barren
volcanic district 01 the kingdom of Thibet,   A stili purer
kind comes from China.  It is obtained in a pure state by
a second crystallization,  being previously calcined to de-
stroy tbe greasy matter.   When purified, it  is white and
transparent.  It has a cooling taste, and renders the blue
vegetable infusions green.  Exposed to a moderate heat,
it melts with its water of crystallization; and is reduced
into a white opaque light mass, when it is commonly call-
ed calcined borax.  It serves as a flux to verifiable earths;
it also vitrifies clay, but less completely.  It is employed
in forming  reducing  fluxes; and it may also be used in
producing the fusion of glass.  In soldering metals, it is
highly useful, cleansing the surface of the metal, and as-
sisting the fusion of the solder.  See Boiiax.
   Of mellitic acid.—A yellowr mineral somewhat resem-
bling amber, found at Arten in Thuriiigen, has been found
by Klaproth and Vauquelin to consist  of alumina com-
bined with a peculiar arid, which (from mellite the name
of the mineral) is called the mellitic acid.  It is crystal-
lizable, soluble in water, decomposable by heat, and forms
with the salifiable bases peculiar salts called  niellats.
   Of arsenious acid.—Formerly chemists were embar-
rassed with  the nature of the poisonous substance known
in commerce by the name of white arsenic.  Experiments
have shown  that this substance is the metal arsenic, oxy-
genated in  the  first degree.   It is therefore called ar-
senious acid.  It possesses a weak acid taste; it sensibly
reddens the tincture of litmus.  If placed on burning coals,
or on a red-hot iron, it is volatilized in the form of a
white vapour, which has a strong smell resembling garlic.
It is in a small degree soluble in water.  The white ar-
senic of the  shops is chiefly obtained from arsenical ores
of cobalt.  These are thrown into a furnace resembling
a baker's o\en, with a long flue,  or chimney, into which
the fumes pass, and are condensed into a greyish powder.
This  is refined by a second sublimation in close vessels,
with a little  alkali.  As the heat is considerable, it melts
the sublimed arsenic into opaque crystalline masses, which
are known in commerce by the name of white arsenic.
   Of arsenic acid.—Arsenic ac id is produced only by art.
It appears in the form of a white pulverulent matter. All
the preparations of arsenic are deadly poison; the hydro-
sulphurets are the best antidotes.  A weak solution of
hydro-sulphuret of potash, soda, or lime, is therefore
often  administered with success, if given in time, to per-
sons who have been poisoned by arsenic.   Sulphureous
mineral waters may also be  given.   In such cases oil,
milk, butter, Sec. which are too often resorted to, should
never be employed, if a sulphuret, or hydro-sulphuret,
can possibly be procured.
   Oftungstic acid.—This acid does not exist  in an un-
combined state in nature.  It is procured from a mineral
called tungsten, which is a combination of this acid with 
CHEMISTRY.
lime (tungsi ate of lime), or from wolfram,  v. hkh is this
acid united to iron and manganese. It appears in a pul-
verulent form, harsh to the touch.   It is tasteless, and in-
soluble in water.  It  is not capable of turning blue vege-
table colours  red, until it  has been first rendered soluble
by ammonia.  It is of a yellow colour, w bich becomes blue
on being exposed to the light..
   Ofmohjbdic acid.—Wc  are indebted to Mr. Ilatchett
for a thorough knowledge  of the properties of this acid,
and of all its combinations. It is molybdena oxygenated;
for this metal is susceptible of oxygenation to such a de-
gree as to become a cone rete a' id.  It is soluble in about
570 parts of water.   The  solution reddens tincture of lit-
mus.  It is not applied to any use.
   Of chromic acid.—This  acid is very little known.   In
nature it is found combined with oxyd  of lead, in the
mineral called chromatc of lead, or the red-lead <f Sibe-
ria; also united to iron, alumina,  and silex, in the sub-
stance called  chromatc of iron.
   Of columbic acid.—This acid is  as little  known as the
last.  It is found in  the newly discovered  ore called co-
lumbium, or columbat of iron.
   Of acetous acid.—This  acid exists, mixed with other
substances, in common vinegar.   Suirc this acid is xery
volatile, it is obtained pure by distilling vinegar in a sand-
 heat.   It is also called distilled vinegar,  and is perfectly
 colourless,  and of a pleasant sour taste  and odour.   Irs
 base is carbon and hydrogen; the addition of oxygen forms
 acetous acid.  The same principles form the bases ofthe
 other vegetable acids, but in different proportions.
   The acelites  of potash and soda, are obtained by neu-
 tralizing the carbonates of these alkalis with acetous acid,
 and evaporating and  crystallizing the solution.   It was
 formerly supposed, that when deprived of part of its car-
 bon, it formed another state of the acid, which was called
 acetic  acid:  but it has been shown by Grem, that there
 exists but one state ofthe  acid, and what was called acetic
 acid differed only in the degree of concentration.
    Of malic acid.—This acid is found in  the juice of un-
 ripe apples and other fruits, and is procured by saturating
 the juice of apples with potash, and adding a solution of
 acetite  of lead till it no  longer occasions a precipitate;
 wash this precipitate, which is malate of lead; pour over
 it sulphuric  acid until the liquid acquires an acid taste
 without any  mixture of sweetness, and filtre the whole in
 crder to separate the malic acid from the sulphate of lead
 which  is firmed.
    Of oxalic  acid.—Oxalic acid, formerly called  the acid
 ofs.igar, is prepared from sugar by treating it with nitric
 acid.  It has ;. stronger attraction for lime than any other
 ac:d.   It is therefore employed to  discover  the pre-
 sence of lime in any solution.   It  is always concrete.
 It Conns with  alkalis,  earths,  and metals, salts called
 oxalal  s.
    Of citric acid.—Citric acid isfound in the juice of lemons
 and orange-, unripe grapes, and other sour fruits.  It
 crystallizes,  and when concrete is not changed by the air.
 It dissolves in  water, and has a very pleasant acid taste.
 It is used for a variety of purposes, and of late extensive-
 ly in the art of calico-printing.
    Of tartaric acid—The  tartar found adhering to casks
 in which wine has bf en fermented, is a salt composed of
 ; peculiar acid combined  with potash, hut in such a man-
 ner, that the acid is in considerable excess. The salt is
 known under the name of acidulous tartrat of potash, and
 the acid which enters into its composition is the tartaric
 acid.  This may be obtained by dissolving two pounds of
 crv stals of tartar in water, and  throwing in chalk by de-
 grees, until the liquid is saturated.  A precipitate fiirms,
 which is tartrite of lime.   By adding nine ounces of sul-
 phuric acid, and five ounces of water, to this tartrite. and
 digesting them together for  twelve hours, the  tartaric
 acid is set at liberty, and may be cleared from the sul-
 phate  of lime by means of cold water.  The acidulous
 tartrat of potash, or cream of tartar, is formed from crude
 tartar, by solution, and subsequent filtration and evapora-
 tion.  See Tartar.
   Of benzoic acid.—This acid is obtained by sublimation
 from the resin called benzoin,  and exists in the balsam
'of  Peru and that of Tolu, and  some other substances of
 this kind. It is  also found in urine, and many animal
 substances.  See Benzoin-.
   Of camphoric acid.—The  camphoric acid is camphor
 oxygenated  to  acidity, hy  boiling it with nitric  acid.
 This  acid exists  in the form of white  crystals, which
 effloresce in the air.  Its taste is  acid and hitter. It red-
 dens blue vegetables. See  Camphor.
   Of gallic  acid.—This  acid is  found  in  the gaU-n its,
 bai-Kof trees, and in all  those  vegetables called astrin-
 gents.  Its taste is soar and astringent. It reddens vege-
 table blues.  It crystallizes. It  has a strong tendency to
 unite with metallic; oxyds. It forms with the several me-
 tals precipitates of different colours. With gold,  it forms
 a brown precipitate;  with  silver, grey; "inercurv, an
 orange; copper, a brown; lead,  a white; and iron, a'bhick
 precipitate.  The base of ink is iron, thus prer;pitat d;
 one povmd of powdered  nutgalls being infused for  t  ,r
 hours, without boiling, in common water,  with  six • 111-
 ces of gum-arabic, and six ounces of sulphate of iron, or
 green copperas, good black ink is produced.  To .  <> in
 gallic acid, dissolve two ounces  of common alum in v iter,
 ami precipitate the solution by  letting fall into it a solu-
 tion of potash; wash the precipitate well, and  trans- r it
 into a decoction of gallnuts (obtained hy  ini'asing one
 ounce of gall-nuts in sixteen of water, and evaporating
 the liquor to one-half), agitate  the  mixture frequently
 during  the  course of 24 hours, and then filtre it The
 fluid which  passes through the  filtre is gallic acid; which
 may be obtained  in the form of  needle-shaped crystals.
 by evaporating it slowly till a pellicle appears, and then
 letting it stand undisturbed.
    Of succinic acid—This acid  is obtained by distillation
 from  amber, and is therefore called  also acid of amber.
 It is very soluble in hot water, and crystallizes  hy cool-
 ing. See Amber.
   Suberic acid.—This acid is obtained by  the ac tion of
 nitric acid on cork.  It reddens vegetable blues, and has
 the peculiar property of turning the  blue solution of in-
 digo in sulphuric acid to green.
   Fhdsphorous acid.—When  phosphorus is burnt slowly.
 and does n »t become completely saturated  with oxygen,
 it forms an  acid, called  phosphorous acid. It  is liquid,
 transparent, and of considerable density.  It has an un-
 pleasent taste, and emits a disagreeable odour when rub-
 bed, and especially when warmed, it is  more volatile
 than phosphoric acid. 
CHEMISTRY.
    OfpJutsplwric acid.—Phosphorus  saturated  with oxy-
 gen, forms phosphoric acid, which is capable of existing
 in a dry state. It dissolves in water, and affords astrans-
 parent fluid void of odour. When  exposed to heat, it is
 renderetl viscous,  and by  degrees   becomes consistent,
 and loses  its  transparency.  When urged by a violent
 heat, it melts  into a transparent  glass, which again  at-
 tracts moisture  when exposed to the air, and becomes
 converted into liquid phosphoric acid.  When melted in
 an earthen crucible, it acts upon the crucible, and fuses
 into a glass, which is  not soluble in water, and exhibits
 no signs of acidity. It has a strong  attraction  for all the
 alkalis and earths. This acid  is obtained from  bones,
 wnich are  chiefly phosphate of lime. It may also  be  ob-
 tained by the rapid combustion of phosphorus in oxygen.
 See Phosphorus.
   Sebacic acid, called the acid of fat, is obtained from the
 fat of animals. It is concrete, and soluble in water. It is
 sour, and without odour.
   Laccic acid  has been discovered by Dr. Pearson, in a
 substance called  white- lac, formed by certain  insects of
 the coccus tribe. By exposing this substance to such a de-
 gree of heat as was just sufficient to liquefy  it, a fluid
 was obtained,  to  which the doctor  has given  the name
 of laccic acid.
   Lactic acid  is found  in  the  whey of milk.  It is con-
 crete, and  liquefies in the air. It is  sour, and oxydates
 the metals.
   Saccho-lactic acid, was discovered hy Scheele, who ob-
 tained it by treating sugar of milk with nitric acid. It is
 also obtained by treating gum-arabic with nitric acid.
   Of prussic acid.—The prussic acid, is  formed by ex-
 posing the horns, hoofs, or dried  blood of animals, with
 an equal quantity of fixed alkali,  to a red heat. The al-
 kali is  found to be neutralised by the acid thus formed,
 and, on evaporation, will yield a salt in crystals, which is
 then called prussiatc of potash or of soda, according to the
 alkali which has been employed. The prussiates of alkali
 precipitate all metals from their solutions; the alkali unit-
 ing with the acid which holds the metal in solution,  whilst
 the prussic  acid unites with the  metallic oxyd,  and com-
 municates to it a peculiar colour. Tims gold is precipita-
 ted  of a  yellow colour,  lead of  a  white, copper of a
 brownish-red,  and iron of a dark blue, forming a  prusi-
 ate of iron,  or  the substance called Prussian blue. From
 this substance the prussic acid may  be again separated,
 hy digestion with pure  alkali, the prussiatc of  alkali be-
 ing again formed, and the iron left in the state of a brown
 oxyd.  This acid has a sour taste and suffocating  smell,
 but, except its capacity of combining with alkalis and
 metals, it manifests  no conspicuous  acid properties.   It
 does not rrddcii lhe most delicate vegetable blues.
   For the remainder of the compounds formed by the
 acids with the salifiable bases, see  the Tables.
   Of weiitls.—Among  the most.useful substances  in na-
 ture, are the metals. Many of (he mechanic arts depend
 upon them;  and w it bout a knowledge cd' them,  perhaps
 mankind would never  have attained  11.eirpresent degree
 of c ivili/a-i"ii.  Their  use is  still  unknown to many na-
tions inhabiting ibe numerous islands of the South Sea.
They  are seldom  met with in the earth in n native  or
pure state,  but generally in combination  with oxygen,
sulphur, arseuic, and the ac ids.  lo their different  states
  vol. i.                 65
  VOL. j.                 OD
 • VOL. J.                 03
  wr»T_r___________         on_____________    ___________
 of combination, they are said to he mineralized, and they
 are then called ores.
   The ores of metals are generally found in mountainous
 countries, chiefly in crevices of rocks, forming veins of
 ore; which are distiiiguislicd into level, inclined, direct,
 or oblique, according to the angle they make with the ho-
 rizon. The part of  the rock resting on the vein, is  called
 the  roof, and that on which the vein rests, the bed of the
 vein. The  cavities  made in the earth, in order to extract
 these ores, are called mines. The metallic matter of ores
 is generally incrusted, and intermingled with some ear-
 thy substance, different from <'"  rock in which the vein
 is situated, which is termed its matrix. This, however,
 ought not  to be  confounded with the mineralizing sub-
 stance with which the metal is combined, such as sul-
 phur, Sec.
   The  art of distinguishing ores from eacjh other, and
 the method of describing them with  accuracy and preci-
 sion, are called Mineralogy.
   The art of assaying or analysing them, in order to as-
 certain the component parts, forms a branch of chemistry,
 called the  Docimastic art. Sec Assaying.
   To procure the pure metal from the ore, it  is first
 cleared  as much as possible from the  foreign or stony
 substances with which it is blended, and which are called
 the gangue, by first reducing the ore to powder, in which
 state it is  called slich, and then by  washing. It is the^
 torrificd, or roasted, to dissipate the  sulphur  and  arse-
 nic; and lastly fused by the addition of some flux contain-
 ing  the coaly principle, to  disengage the oxygen with
 w hich the  metal  has been impregnated during the pre-
 vious calcination or torrefaction.
   Metals  are distinguished from  all other bodies  by a
 peculiar brilliancy, which is termed  metallic lustre, and
 by their weight,  or  specific gravity; the heaviest fossil,
 not metallic, being lighter than the lightest metal.  They
 are also distinguished by their malleability, or their pro-
 perty of being extended under tbe  hammer,  and  their
 ductility, or the property  of being drawn into wire:
 though these two qualities are not possessed by  all the
 metals.  They are fusible by a sufficient degree of  heat,
 and when suffered to cool gradually, they crystallize into
 regular figures. (See Crystailizatiojv.)  If continued
 in fusion,  they lose their  brilliancy,  and  become  an
 opaque powder, or metallic oxyd, acquiring weight, and
 absorbing a certain portion of oxygen during the  transi-
 tion. This  process was  formerly called calcination; it is
 now called  oxydation. The pure metal itself was former-
ly known by the name of regulus; as the regulus of tin,
of gold, Sec.
  That metals  are calcined or oxydated in  consequence
of their absorbing oxygen, is proved  by this process tak-
ing place  only when oxygen is  present, and  by  their
giving it out in exactly  the same  quantity and propor-
tion on their reduction to their metallic state. They un-
 dergo this process also from the action of humidity,  'flic
 water is decompose'!,  its hydrogen being dissipated,
 whilst its oxygen unites with the metal. They  are  solu-
 ble in a-ids, and are. precipitated from  them'by alkalis.
 Some ofthe ac ids are decomposed duritg their combina-
tion with metals; their oxygen combining with the metal,
fcrnrng a metallic oxyd, which is then dissolved by the
remainder ofthe acid, and forms a metallic salt. 
CHEMISTRY.
  V> hen perfectly fused, they are for lhe most part mis-
cible. or comhinable with each other, or with uumetallic
substances,  as sulphur, phosphorus,  and  charcoal.  If
urged by a stronger heat, they are converted into a vi-
triform substance, or metallic glass. These metallic glas-
ses,  as well  as the oxyds, possess other properties than
their rcguli.  They are of different colours: and the me-
tallic- oxyds  tinge the  earthy and saline glasses with
whr it they vitrify, with various colours conformably to
the  difference of their own nature.  They  do this fre-
quently, even when added in  but small quantity. Such
metallic oxyds as do not themselves yield a transparent
glass, may deprive another of its transparency if fused
with it. On the combination of other glasses with the me-
tallic ones, and on the colouring of the first by means of
the  latter, depends the preparation of artificial gems and
glass pastes, the pigments for enamel and porcelain-
painting, the-enamel  itself, and  the glazings for earth-
enware1.
   The operation by which metallic glasses and oxyds are
restored to the reguline form,  is c ailed the reduction or
reviving of metals.
   In their reduction from the oxyds and glasses, the ad-
dition of a  combustible substance is  always necessary;
 charcoal, for instance, or such matters as contain carbon;
 as  s-iap. pitch, resin, fat, and oil. In the smelting-works,
the fuel itself is employed as a means of  reduction,  by
fusing the metal interspersed among the coals. Some me-
 tals, as  iron and platinum, grow soft before  they fuse,
 and on this depends their very useful property of being
 welded.
   Metals are the best conductors of electricity  and gal-
 vanism.
   Of platinum.—Platinum is  found  only  in  a metallic
 form in small grains.  It w as unknown  in Europe before
 the year 1748.  It is brought from South America. It is
 the heaviest, hardest, and most infusible, of all the metals.
 Itis ductile, and may  be hammered into plates, or drawn
 into wire. It may be  welded together in a white heat,
 is unalterable in the air, and is on this  account found a
 very valuable material for  making specula, or reflecting
 mirrors for  telescopes.  No acid acts  upon it, except the
 nitro-niuriatic.  It is of a  white  colour, between that of
silver and tin.
   The  process  which is generally  used  for obtaining
malleable platinum, is  as follows: Triturate common pla-
tium (which is generally in grains) with water, to wash
off  every  contaminating matter  that  water can carry
 away. Mix the platinum with about one-fifth part white
 arsenic, and one fifteenth part potash, putting the whole
 into a proper crucible in the following manner: having
 well heated the crucible, put in one-third of the  mixture;
 apply to this a strong heat, and add one-third more; after
 a renewed application of heat, throw  in the last portion.
 After a thorough fusion ofthe whole, cool and break the
 mass.  Fuse  it a second time,  and if necessary, even a
 third time, till it comes to be magnetic.  Break it into
 small pieces, and melt those pieces in  separate crucibles;
 and in portions of a pound and a half of the platinum to
 each crucible, with an equal quantity of arsenious acid,
 and half a pound of potash. After cooling the contents of
 the different crucibles  in an horizontal position, in order
 to  have them throughout of equal thickness, heat them
under a  mufti1, to volatilize the arseni ins  acid;  and
keep them in this state  without increase of heat, fin- the
space of six hours.  Heat them next in common oil, till
the oil shall have evaporated to drv ness.  Then immerse
them in nitric acid, boil them in water, heat them to red-
ness in  a crucible,  and hammer them into a dense mass.
They are now fit to be heate ; in a naked lire, and ham-
mered into bars for  use.  Platinum  is generally  mixed
with iron, and therefore it is  magnetic. It forms allovs
with most of the metals.  That with copper is the most
useful; it takes a fine polish, and does  not tarnish. Sc«
Plvtincm.
   Of gold.—Gold is always found in nature  in a metal-
lic- state. Itis generally met with in gr.ins, call d gold-
dust, mixed with the sand of rivers;  being carried awav
by them, from the rocks and mountains, where it is found
in leaves or ramifications, adhering  to quartz, and other
stones.  It is found shiefly in Africa and Hungary: and
some has been discovered  lately in the county of  Wick-
low,  in Ireland,  where the largest piece of native gold
 hitherto seen was found. Its weight was 22 ounces, and
 it was almost pure.  Small quantities of gold have been
 found in avast variety of substances. Indeed, in vry mi-
 nute quantities it is frequently met with: and from this
 circumstance, and from its being found  after chemical
 processes where  none was ever expected,  many of the
 supposed formations of gold by the  alchymists have ta-
 ken their origin.  It has been obtained  from rotten ma-
 nure, garden-mould, uncultivated earth, and from vege-
 tables.
   It is of a rich yellow colour; and is the heaviest of the
 metals, except platinum.  It is not  very hard when pure.
 It is the most ductile of all the metals. Gold-leaf trans-
 mits light of a lively green colour; but silver, copper, and
 all the  rest ofthe metals which can be formed into  leaves,
 are perfectly opaque, being much thicker.  Gold melts at
 32 degrees of Wedgewood's pyrometer, and is volatilized
 by an intense heat, such  as that of a mirror or lens. It
 cannot be oxydated by any heat of a furnace, but may by
 electricity  and galvanism.
   Gold  is not acted upon  by any acid, except the oxy-
 genated muriatic,  or nitro-muriatic acids,  which latter
 was called from this aqua regia, because gold was named
 by the  alchymists the  king of the metals. This solution
 of gold, called nitro-muriate of gold, yields  by evapora-
 tion  crystals of a beautiful yellow  colour, which, when
 dissolved in water, tinge the skin indelibly of a deep pur-
 ple. When precipitated from this solution by tin, it forms
 the purple precipitate of Cassus, so much used in ena-
 melling. This consists  of on oxyd of gold, mixed with an
 oxyd of tin. If, into a solution of gold, a piece of charcoal
 is put,  and exposed to the  sun's rays, the gold will be re-
 vived, and appear in a metallic state  on the charcoal,
 forming a kind of gilding.
   Gold may be taken from  its solution hy sether,  which
 then retains it  in solution, forming an  sethercal solution
 of gold. If any substance is dipped in the nitro-muriate
 of gold, and then  exposed to a stream of hy drogen gas,
 the gold will be reduced, and the substance covered with
 it. When ammonia is added to a solution of gold, a yellow
 precipitate is formed, called fulminating gold, because  it
 has the property of exploding when  exposed to heat.
   Gold is  precipitated from its solution in a metallic 
state by green sulphate of iron.  Gold easily alloys with
mercury, which is therefore employed for the purpose of
extracting it  rom the substances with which it is mixed.
The mcrcurv, being more volatile, is driven off by heat,
and the gold remains free. With silver it forms an alloy
of considerable ductility. Copper heightens its  colour,
and renders it harder without much impairing its ductili-
ty.  Tin and lead  considerably impair its tenacity.  With
platinum  it forms an alloy which is very  ductile.  With
zinc it affords a brittle and hard  mixture,  susceptible of
polish.  It unites well with iron,  and hardens it  re-
markably.
  On account of its  peculiar property of not tarnishing
in the  air, it is much used for defending  other  metals;
and on account of its beautiful lustre, it is much employ-
ed in ornaments.  See Gold.
  Of silver.—Silver is often found native, and also com-
bined with lead, copper, mercury, cobalt, sulphur, arse-
nic, &c.  Wiien found in the metallic state, it appears in
grains or leaves, adhering to various substances.  It is
found in the greatest quantities in Peru  and Mexico;  but
there are silver-mines in many  other  countries.  When
pure it is ofa very brilliant white. It is malleable, ductile,
and laminable, in a great degree, though inferior to gold
in  these qualities.   It  may  he beaten  out into  leaves,
which  arc only ttyVvh part  of an inch in thickness. It
melts at 28 degrees of  Wedgewood's pyrometer, and is
volatilized in  very  high temperatures.  It does not tar-
nish in the air, except  when sulphureous vapours  are
present. It forms alloys with most of the  metals.  With
gold it forms a metal of a greenish colour, called green
gold.  Copper makes it much harder, without  lessening
its  ductility.  It forms an amalgam  with mercury. The
alloy of British coinage is fifteen parts of fine silver and
one of copper. It unites to phosphorus and sulphur, form-
ing phosphuret and sulphuret of silver.
  Silver is acted upon  by  the  sulphuric and nitric,  but
not by  the muriatic  acid. With the nitric acid it forms a
colourless solution,  which  stains  animal and vegetable
subsiances  with  an  indelible black colour: hence it is
used as a permanent ink, and is employed for dying hu-
man hair black; though, for this purpose, it should  be
used with great caution, and much  diluted, as  it is  ex-
tremely caustic or corrosive. It is also employed for mark-
ing linen. Nitric acid dissolves more than half its weight
of silver, the solution depositing crystals.  When  these
are fused  by a gentle heat, they lose some of the acid, and
being poured into moulds,  form the  substance called  lu-
nar caustic (nitrate of silver), used in surgery.
  Nitrate of  silver, prepared  with common  silver, is
greenish, but  this is on account of the copper  usually
mixed  with the silver. Silver is precipitated from its  so-
lution  in  nitric acid, by muriatic  acid,  in the form of
a white curd; which,  when fused, forms a semi-transpa-
rent mass of the consistence of horn, called horn silver,
hut more  properly muriate of silver. It soon blackens in
the air. and is very  little soluble in water. Since the mu-
riat ic  acid has a strong affinity  for the oxyd  of silver,
and since  the muriate  of silver is  not very  soluble in
water, the nitrate of silver is employed as  a re-agent, to
discover the presence of muriatic acid  in am  liquid:  for
if it coniains that acid, muriate of silver will fall  down
in a white, cloud, on dropping nitrate of silver into it,
  The nitric acid sold in the shops is usually adulterated
with muriatic or sulphuric acid, or with both:  hence the
nitrite of silver is used to free the nitric from the two
latter acids.  For this purpose nitrate of silver is poured
into it by degrees, until no more precipitate is produced:
after which it is rendered clear by filtring. Nitric  acid
thus purified is  called hy artists precipitated aquafortis;
but it still contains some silver, from which it cannot be
freed, except by distillation.
  When precipitated from nitrate  of silver by ammonia,
it forms fulminating silver; a very dangerous preparation,
for  it explodes by the mere contact of any body. More
than a grain cannot  be exploded at a time with any safe-
ty.  When mercury is added to the nitric solid ion of sil-
ver, a precipitation of the silver  is  formed, resembling
vegetation in appearance, called  arbor  Dianse. or 'he.
tree of Diana.  See Argentum Arborescens. If a few
drops of the nitrate of silver are  put  upon a pi ce of
glass, and a copper wire placed in it, a beautiful precipi-
tation ofthe silver will take place, in the form of a plant.
The affinity of silver for other metals, and its solution in
acids, are the properties on which  Plating, Silvering
depend. See Silver.
  Of mercury.—Mercury, called also quicksilver, always
appears in a liquid state, in the common  temperature of
the  atmosphere; but  in intense cold, as at 40 below zero,
it becomes solid, and is then malleable, resembling silver.
It is found in nature, sometimes in  a pure state, but chief-
ly united to sulphur, when it forms cinnabar; and some-
times to silver. It is  also united to  the acids, and  to oxy-
gen.  It  is mostly found in Spain and  South  America.
Like other fluids, it  boils, and is converted  into vapour.
This process is  employed to separate it  from other sub-
stances.  It is acted  upon  by most of the acids.  It com-
bines with sulphur and phosphorus; and firms alloys with
most ofthe  metals, which are  then called  amalgams. On
this property depend some ofthe methods of gilding and
of silvering mirrors. When acted upon by heat  and air
for  a long time, it absorbs oxygen, and is converted into
a real oxyde, called  precipitate per se,  or red oxyd of
mercury. When the heat is increased, this oxyd gives out
Its oxygen,  the mercury reassuining its metallic appear-
ance. When agitated long in  air,  mercury is converted
into a black oxyd.
  The sulphuric acid acts on mercury, if assisted by heat;
sulphureous  acid gas is  then disengaged,  and a  white
oxyd is formed. Hot water being poured on this, ii be-
comes a yellow oxyd, called turbith  mineral, the water
holding in solution sulphate of mercury.   The uitric ;cij
dissolves  mercury, even without heat, nitrous  gas being
disengaged; one  part of  the  acid oxydates  the metal,
whilst the other dissolves  the oxyd.
  The nitrate of mercury is corrosive. When dry, it de-
tonates upon coals. By a moderate heat it vie Ids oxygen,
or  nitrogen gas; the remaining oxyd becoming yellow,
and at length a lively red, being  the red  precipitate  of
mercury: and if fresh nitric acid is distilled from it three
or four times, it appears in small crystals, of a vi r> su-
perb red colour. Tbe muriatic acid does  not scusiblv  act
on  mercury, except by long digestion; when it oxvdates
a part,  which oxyd  it dissolves. It completelv  dissolves
the mercurial oxvds; and  when these have a small quan-
tity of o\\gen,  and are  nearly in a metallic  <\u.u\} t!re 
CHEMISTRY.
muriate of mercury is formed. When, on the contrary,
it is .r.isnv.ted  ith oxve;cn,the oxy-muriate of mercury,
or corrosive sublimate oi* mercury, is formed.
  To obtain the mil!  m ;riate of mercury, mercurius dul-
cis, or calomel, equal p:ir*is of quicksilver and of oxyge-
nated imriate arc  completely blended by trituration, and
exposed to sublimation.  A beautiful artificial cinnabar
m;-i/ he prepared, by  triturating mercury and flowers of
snlphiir with a solution of caustic vegetable alkali, keep-
ing it at a propr-r temperature, and afterwards washing it
re^eaiecily with boiling water. See Mvrcury.
   Of copper.—Copper is found native, but in very small
quant: fr-s. It is generally met  with in the state of an
oxyd, or  united to acids and sulphur.  There are many
copper-mines in Britain, German;*, Sec. The largest cop-
per-.- ine  perhaps  known, is  that at the Pr.ris mountain,
in the isle of Anglesea.
   Pure copper is ofa red colour, very tenacious, ductile,
and  malleable. It melts at 27 degrees  of Wedgewood's
pyrometer, and burns with  a green flame. When heated
in con!act with  air, it is changed  into a blackish red
oxyo, woich  by a more violent heat is converted into a
brown glass. The nitric acid dissolves copper with effer-
ves ence,  and the  solution  has a blu« colour. The acid
first oxydates the metal; a large quantity of nitrous gas is
then disengaged,  and the copper afterwards dissolves.
This is nitrate of copper. The sulphuric acid does not dis-
solve copper, unless  when concentrated; and very fine
biie  crystals, known  under the name of sulphate of cop-
per, are the result. This is what is commonly called blue
vitriol. The muriatic acid does  not dissolve copper,  hut
when concentrated, and in a state of ebullition; the solu-
tion is green, the taste of which is caustic,  and exceed-
ingly astringent.  The acetous acid, in a sufficient degree
of concentration,  dissolves copper;  hut when not  suffi-
ciently  concentrated, it only imperfectly  oxydates it,
forming verdigris; which, being dissolved in  vinegar,
forms  crystallised acetite of copper, known under  the
name of distilled verdigris. Iron precipitates copper from
Us solution. For this purpose nothing is necessary but to
immerse the iron in the  solution; the acid seizes on  the
iron, and  abandons the copper. The copper thus precipi-
tated is called  copper of cementation.   This process is
employed for obtaining the copper found in water near
mines of copper.
   Copper may be  alloyed with most ofthe metals. As an
alloy of silver it renders it  more fusible: this  mixture is
employed as a solder for silver plate.  Copper, when alloy-
ed  wish tin, forms  bronze, a  metal used for making
bells, cannon, statues, Sec. When alloyed by cementation
with the oxyd of zinc,  called calamine, it forms brass.
With arsenic  it forms white tombac. The  salts formed
with copper have a poisonous quality. It is employed for
making kitchen-utensils, but very improperly, for as these
vessels are liable to he corroded by the salts and acids used
in culinary preparations, they often become dangerous,
and  may thus make us  swallow  slow poison.  Kitchen-
utensils of tinned  iron are far preferable, because iron
possesses  no quality injurious to health. See Copper.
   Of iron—No metal is so universally diffused through-
out nature as iron. It is found in animals, in vegetables,
and in almost all bodies. It is the most useful of all  me-
tals, as  well  as the most plentiful, otherwise it probably
would be also the dearest. It is seldom found native, but
combined with a great variety of substances, and  it is
particularly distinguished by its inagnrucal properties, [t
is the hardest and most elastic of the metals. It is  very
ductile, and possesses the  property of being welded.  It is
very difficult to fuse.
  Exposed to the action of water, iron soon rusts or oxy-
dates. It attracts the oxygen and carbonic acid, and is
changed into a brown substance, whic h is a mixture of
oxyd of iron and carbonate of iron. Iron-filings  agitated
in water become oxydated, and assume the form of a black
powder called martial ethiops. When iron ore is  fused in
large fi rnaces,  it is made to flow into  a kind of mould
formed in sand.  This first product, which is exceedingly
brittle, and not at all malleable, is called  cast iron. In this
state, by pouring it into different kinds of moulds, it is
formed into stoves,  pipes, cannon, and other articles.
  Castor critic iron contains carbon and, oxygen.  The
presence of the  former  appears from its coating the
utensils employed in its fusion with plumbago or black-
lead, which contains  nine-tenths of carinn,  and one of
iron. Crude iron  is  in three states, white, grey, or black,
according as it contains a larger proportion of carbon,
an exact proportion of carbon and  oxygen,  or a larger
proportion of oxygen. To render the iron malleable, it
must he freed from  the carbon and oxygen which it  con-
tains.  For this purpose it is fused; and kept  in  that
state for some time, stirring and  kneading it all the
while; by this the  carbon and oxygen unite, and  are
expelled in the form of carbonic acid gas. It is then  sub-
jected to the action of large hammers, or to the pres-
sure of rollers, by which the remaining oxyd of iron and
other impurities are forced out. The iron  is  now no
longer  crystallized or granular in its texture;  it is
fibrous, and ductile, and is in a  purer  state, though far
from being absolutely pure. It is capable of being weld-
ed  and  worked  hy hammers into any form. It is now
called forged or wrought iron.
  There are several varieties of iron in this state,  aris-
ing from the intermixture of other substances. There
is one kind of forged iron,  which when cold is ductile,
but  when heated  is  extremely brittle. It  is also fu-
sible. This is  termed hot-short-iron.  Cold short-iron
possesses  precisely  the  opposite   properties, being
highly  ductile  while hot,  but when  cold extremely
brittle.  The  causes of  these   peculiarities have not
been perfectly explained.  Iron is capable of being re-
duced to  a third  state, which is that of steel. It is con-
verted into steel by exposing it to heat in contact  w ith
carbonaceous substances, which unite themselves with it.
Thus we have  three  states in  which  iron  may  exist,
viz. cast iron, forged iron, and steel.
   Cast iron contains too great a quantity of carbonaceous
substance: it may be called steel too much steelified; itis
therefore exceedingly brittle, and not at all malleable.
   Forged iron is "iron purified from  all foreign  sub-
stances.
   Steel is formed by bedding in charcoal, in a close fur-
nace, alternate  layers of  malleable iron and  charcoal,
and exposing them  to a strong fire for six or eight  days.
This process is called cementation. During this opera-
tion, the iron combines with a quantity of carbon, and
is conrerted into blistered steel. This is either rendered 
CHEMISTRY.
more perfect and melleahle by  subjecting it to the ope-
ivlion of tbe hammer; or is fused,  and cast into small
bars, forming cast steel. Those iunds of cast iron which
cont tin but little oxygen, may  be converted into a sort
of sU\i by a similar process.  In this process, the iron
gains  an  increase of weight by tne  carbon it has ac-
quired.
  Steel holds a  middle  rank between cast and  forged,
Or malleable iron. It is composed of very small  grains,
and when  hot, possesses a considerable degree of mal-
leability. It is speciin ally heavier than forged iron.  It
is denser than forged iron, but  itis not harder. To com-
municate to it the necessary  hardness, it must be tem-
per 'ii; that is, after being exposed to a greater or less
degree of heat, according to  the  required degree of
hardness, it must be suddenly cooled by  immersion  in
cold water. Tempering renders it harder, more elastic,
and more brittle, it may be made so hard as to scratch
glass. Steel,  thus hardened, may have its softness and
ducliiUy restored by again heating, and  suffering it to
eool -I ,\\1,.   \ polished bit of steel, when heated with
access of air,  acquires xe-vy beautiful colours. It  first
becomes a  pale yellow, then  of a  deeper yellow,  next
reddish, then  deep blue,  and at last bright blue. At this
period it becomes red-hot, and the colours disappear; at
the same time that the metallic- scales, or the black im-
perfect oxyd of iron which is formed, incrust its surface.
All these  different shades of colour indicate the differ-
ent  tempers the steel has acquired by the increase of
heat. Artists have availed  themselves of this property,
to give to  surgical and  other  sharp instruments those
degrees of temper,  which their various  uses  require.
Tempered  steel is more clastic, and harder, than iron.
  Wootz, a metal brought from the  East  Indies, was
examined by Dr. Pearson, who discovered  that it was
iron  united to carbon, and also to oxygen. Iron com-
bines with sulphur and phosphorus, forming sulphuret
and phosphuret of iron.  It combines .also with most of
the metels: but it was supposed till lately, that it could
not he amalgamated with mercury.  Mr. Arthur Aikin
has,  however, contrived a  method  of effecting  this.
Where iron is united to oxygen in the proportion of  T3
parts of iron  to 27  of  oxygen, it  forms the black  or
green oxvd of iron, which may he obtained by bringing
a bar of iron to a red heat, and subjecting it to the ham-
mer; the scales which fly off, are the black oxyd of iron.
This oxyd is attracted by the me.gnet, and if exposed to
a white heat in a crucible, will absorb 21  parts more of
oxvgcn; and  is then converted into the red or brown
©xydc of iron, and will not he affected hy the magnet.
  Iron does not  combine  with oxygen,  in more  than
thee  two  proportions.  Iron  is acted  upon hy all the
acids. The nitric acid is rapidly decomposed by  iron.
A portion of the oxygen of the acid oxydates the  iron,
which then dissolves, and the remainder of the acid
piu-ses oft' in nitro.s gas. Sulphuric  acid diluted  with
wafer  being poured on  iron, a considerable efferves-
cence takes place, in consequence of the disengagement
of tbe hydrogen  gas of  the water; its oxygen effecting
the  oxydatinn ofthe metal, while the acid dissolves the
metal without  being decomposed. This solution yields by
cvaporati in the sulphite of iron. Common copperas is
this salt in an impure state.  See Iron.
   Of lead.— This metal is scarcely ever found in the na-
tive ste.ie.  il is c hieily  mineralized by  sidpmir,  and is
then caliecl gaiena. Tnc pure metal is ofa greenish co-
lour. When cut a is brt;!;t,  b;i- soon tarnishes in fhe
air. It may be easily cut with a  Unite, and it sods the
fingers  wh'-u rubbed.  It he.s Ii :ie or no ela.Viu ity.  It
fuses at 540 degrees t-'aiirenneii.  When exposed to heat
with access of ;ir  ii fuses,  and  is oxydated at  the sur-
face. Ii this oxyd  is removed, more is formed, and thus
the  whole may be converted  into grey oxyd of lead,
which when exposed to  a S!;vmg hca>, is concerted into
a  yellow oxyd,  called massicot.  If this  yellow oxyd is
exposed to a still  more  violent  beat, it assumes a beau-
tiful red colour, and becomes red  lead, or minium. Lith-
arge is a semi-vitrified  oxyd of lead, obtained  by keep-
ing a stream of air upon fused  lead: it is generally pro-
cured in the process of separating silver from lead.  If
litharge is exposed  to  a strong  heat, it becom s con-
verted into glass of lead, which forms the basis of the
common glazing for earthenware. Lead combines with
sulphur and phosphorus. Ixitric acid converts  lead into
a  white oxyd.  Sulphuric acid  in a state of ebullition
oxydates.  by means of  a portion of its  oxygen, a con-
siderable part of the lead exposed to its action; another
part ofthe lead is  dissolved and forms sulphate of lead.
Muriatic acid poured over  lead,  and assisted by heat,
oxydates one part  of it,  and dissolves another. The affi-
nity of muriatic acid  for the oxyds of lead is so great,
that the latter  decompose all the combinations of this
acid. They decompose the muriate of soda, tbe muriate
of ammonia, <Vc. and form  muriate of lead, or patent
yellow.  The acetoi.s acid corrodes lead,  and the result
is  a white  oxyd, known  under  the name of white lead.
All the oxydes  of lead are soluble in vinegar, and form
acetat of lead, known under the name of sugar of lead.
   Lead is applied  to a great variety of uses in the arts.
It is employed for  making water pipes, for lining boxes,
for covering houses, for musket bullets,  for small shot,
and various other  purposes. It  is sometimes mixed with
the metal  employed for tinning utensils of copper: this
practice is highly  dangerous, and deserves the severest
reprehension and punishment.   Lead  forms  alloys with
other metais, which are  used as rolders.
   Of Tin.—Tin is scarcely ever found native.  It is ge-
nerally  combined  with  sulphur,  iron, and other sub-
stances. It is of a  colour approaching to  that of silver,
but somewhat duller.  Next to lead, it is the softest, and
the least elastic of all the metals.  In tenacity  it is su-
perior only to lead; though  not very ductile, it may  be
reduced to very thin leaves.  It is less  sonorous than
copper, silver, or iron. Except cast iron, it is the light-
est of all metals. It fuses with less heat than any of the
other metals, and is a long time before it becomes red-
It  may be easily bent, and in that case emits a kind of
crackling  noise; it is the only metal which possesses
this property.
  When tin has been  kept  some time in a state of fu-
sion, and is then exposed to the  action  of the air,  its
surface becomes wrinkled, and covered with a grey pel-
licle, which is oxyd of tin.  If  this first stratum is re-
moved, the tin  appears  below in all  its  brilliancy; but
it soon loses its splendour, and its surface is again oxy-
dated. By continuing to expose it to heat, you may a< 
CHEMISTRY.
length oxydate the whole of it.  This oxyd is what is cal-
led putty of tin, used for polishing mirrors, lenses, Sec.
and for rendering glass white and opaque, converting it
into enamel.
  Tin is soluble in sulphuric acid. With muriatic acid
it  forms muriate of tin, of  great use in dyeing.  Tin
when fused  detonates with nitrate of potash, and  also
with oxygenated muriate  of  potash when struck with a
hammer.  Tin combined with sulphur forms aurum mu-
sivum, used by the japanners.  It alloys with other me-
tals, forming solder. With lead and antimony it consti-
tutes pewter, used for various  domestic  vessels.  With
mercury it is employed for silvering mirrors. Sec Tin.
   Of Zinc.—This metal is mostly procured from  cala-
mine, which is a sort of oxyd of zinc.  When it is min-
eralized by sulphur it is called blende. I  ir nearly of
the colour of  tin.  It  is scarcely at all  ductile.  Zinc,
when exposed to heat, soon enters into  fusion, and long
before it becomes red; the degree of heat which  is re-
quired for this purpose, being  only a very little higher
than that necessary to fuse lead: when brought to  a red
heat  it burns  with a blue flame, and throws out  white
flakes, called flowers of zinc.
   The nitric acid, even when  diluted with water, dis-
solves zinc  with violence, and forms a nitrate of zinc.
The sulphuric  acid diluted with water dissolves zinc ra-
pidly;  in this the water is decomposed, and  a  great
deal  of hydrogen gas escapes.  By evaporation may be
obtained sulphate of zinc, or white vitriol  in  crystals.
The  muriatic  acid dissolves zinc with effervescence; and
hydrogen gas is produced in the same  manner  as  with
the sulphuric acid;  afterwards there is a precipitation
of black flakes, which is  muriate of zinc.  One part of
 zinc  alloyed with three parts of copper, forms the  metal
 called brass.   See  Zixc.
    Antimony.—Antimony  is  rarely found native.  It is
 generally combined with sulphur,  forming sulphuret of
 antimony.  It is  of a whitish colour, and so brittle that
 it readily breaks under the  hammer. Its  interior tex-
ture appears to be laminated.  It volatilizes entirely in
the fire, and communicates the same property to metals
 with which it  is mixed.   It fuses  at a degree of heat
somewhat higher than that necessary to  fuse  zinc. If
 kept in fusion it oxydates, and is converted into grey
oxyd of antimony.  If the heat is increased, this is con-
verted into white oxyd of antimony, known under the
name of  flowers of antimony.  This oxyd is verifiable,
and then becomes glass of antimony.
   Antimony  combines with phosphorus  and  sulphur.
Wine and the  acetous acid dissolve antimony, and then
become emetic, the acid of tartar forms with it the well-
known salt, the antimoniated tartrat of potash, or eme-
tic tartar.
    Antimony is employed in  commerce in two states; 1st,
 under the form of crude antimony, which is nothing else
 than sulphuret of antimony  freed from its matrix; 2nd,
 under the form of regulus  of antimony, or metallic anti-
 mony.  See AxtimuxVT.
    Of Bismuth—Bismuth is often found native. It is also
 combined with oxygen, sulphur, iron, and arsenic.  See
 Bismuth.
    Of Cob-ilt—Cobalt has never been found but in a state
 of combination. It is found united to sulphur, arsenic,
and other metallic substances.  It is of a pale or grev
colour, inclining to red;  it is hard, but  fusible.  In the
fire it has a considerable degree of fixity, and do«s not
inflame, or emit fumes. It fuses, but requires  almost as
strong a degree of heat as is necessary to fuse iron.
  Oxyd of cobalt, when freed from arsenic,  is  known
under the name of zaffer. Zaffer. when fused with three
parts of quartz, and one part of potash, forms glassed' a
beautiful blue colour. This glass pulverized forms smalt,
from which the  blue  employed for colouring starch is
made.  It is used  also hy the painters of earthenware,
porcelain, &c.  and by enamellers.  Cobalt is solub'e in
acids. The nitric and sulphuric acids dissolve it with ef-
fervesence.  The muriatic  acid does not dissolve cobalt
cold; but by the aid of heat it dissolves a portion of it.
The acid has a more powerful action on the zaffer, and
the solution is  of  a beautiful green colour.  Tbe nitro-
muriatic acid dissolves cobalt, and forms a sympathetic
ink.  See Cobalt.
  Of Nickel.—Nickel  is generally  found in a met.dlic
state. It was discovered not long since by Croustedt, a
Swedish  mineralogist.  It is  of a reddish colour, very lit-
tle malleable, and very difficult of fusion. When exposed
to the air it oxydates, and very rapidly when heated. It
forms alloys with most of the metals, and is acted on by
most of the acids.  See Nickel.
  Of Manganese.—This metal is found only in combina-
tion.  It is generally united to oxygen,  for wbich it has a
strong affinity, so  that it is  very  difficult to preserve it
in a metallic  state. The black oxyd  of manganese is
found very generally. It is procured in the greatest pu-
rity in the neighbourhood of Exeter,  and is very much
used for obtaining  the oxygenated muriatic arid gas em-
ployed in bleaching. It is  also  used  by glass makers
for destroying the green or yellow tint of glass; and for
this reason has been called  glass maker's soap. It is also
employed forgiving a violet colour to glass and porcelain.
In a metallic state it is of a grey colour, not at all mal-
leable, and more infusible than iron.  It alloys with all
the metals, except  mercury.  See  Manganese.
   Uranium was discovered by Klaproth in 1789, in the
mineral called pechblcnde,  which is an oxyd of uranium.
It is of a grey colour,  very porous and soft; more diffi-
cult of fusion than manganese. It is very little known on
account ofits scarcity.
   Titanium is a newly discovered metal. It was first ob-
served in a mineral called menachanite, found in Corn-
wall, and afterwards in an ore called titanite.  It  is of a
reddish yellow colour, and very infusible. It is very little
known.  See Titanium.
   Chrome is  a metal lately discovered by Vauquelin; re-
specting the nature and properties of which wre are as
yet little acquainted.  Vauquelin  gave  it the name of
chrome, because  it communicates the red colour to the
ruby, and the green to the emerald. It was found by this
chemist  in the state  of an acid, in a substance before
known under the name ofthe red lead of Siberia.  The
mineralizing substance of this red lead is a real acid, the
radical of which is chrome.  It is likewise found in France,
combined with  iron.
   Arsenic  is often found native.  When combined with
sulphur  it is called orpiment. It is also often united with
metals.  See Arsenic. 
CHEMISTRY.
   *rlulyhdcna is found united to *ulphur. It is in this state
 very like [dumbago. It is extremely dilhcult to obtain in
 a metallic state,  and is therefore very scarce,  and little
 known.  It is capable of oxygenation, so as to form an
 acid. See Molyhdkna.
   Tungsten is never found pure, and is very scarce. It is
 acidiiiable; and its combination with lime forms tungstate
 of lime.  It is also united to iron and  manganese,  in the
 ore culled   olfram. The metal is brittle, hard, and very
 inf sible. It is very little known; but is s dd to have one
 valuable  property, viz: that of  rendering  all vegetable
 colours fixed; but this does not appear to lie  certain.
   For the remaining compounds into which metals en-
 ter, and the  order of their affinities, &c.  see Salts and
 Mk-'Mls.
   Vegetable Substances.—Besides the substances  which
 we hav e already described, nature exhibits another class
 which are called living, or organized beings.  These are
 animals and vegetables, wdiich at first sight  appear to be
 very different from each other, yet  it is not easy to say
 preci^el;, in what the difference between them consists.
   Vegetables in  general differ from animals, in the former
 being  fixed to tbe earth,  and not being able to change
 their situation;  while the latter are  possessed  of loco-
 motive power, which they are obliged to exercise, in or-
 der to procure food for their sustenance.
   Almost all vegetables are composed of  three principal
 parts: the bark, or exterior covering; the wood or woody
 fibre, which in trees constitutes the  principal part; and
 the  pith, which seems to correspond to the marrow of
 animals.  The constituent principles of vegetables, are
 hydrogen, carbon, and oxygen. Those arc common to all
 vegetables.  Such  other substances as exist in  particular
 vegetables, are only essential to the composition of those
 in which they are found, and do not belong to vegetables
 in general. Of these elements, hydrogen and oxygen have
 a strong tendency to unite with caloric, and be converted
 into gas,  while  carbon is a fhd element, having little
 affinity with caloric.  On the olher hand, oxygen, which
 in the usual temperature, tends almost equally to unite
 with hydrogen or with carbon, has a much  stronger af-
 finity vwth carbon, when at the red heat, and unites with
 it, to form carbonic acid.
   Vegetables are analyzed by various means, by heat, by
 acids, by water, and by fermentation.  Some of these pro-
 cess* s form  products which did not exist in the living ve-
 getables.  Though all vegetables consist of hydrogen, car-
 bon, and oxygen, yet these elements do not exist in them
 in a simple .and uncomhin»d state, hut joined together in
 various proportions, forming a variety of compound sub-
 sum-  s, which, mixed together in an organic form, make
 up t!i  whole vegetable. We shall now describe the prin-
 cipal substances  which are to he met with in  vegetables.
   1. Mucilage1.   Various parts of vegetables  impart to
 water, if boiled with them, a certain viscous  consistency:
 this i* called mucilage. Some trees suffer  their mucilage
 to transude, either spontaneously or by incisions  made in
 them.  When it has become concrete by drying in the air,
 it is called gum.  This substance is without taste; soluble
 in v ,;  r, but not in oils or alcohol. It is n<>t  changed by
 expesur  to  the air.  It appears to consist of  oxygen, hy-
drogen, nitrogen, carbon and lime.
  S. Oils.   Oil  was formerly  supposed to  be a simple
 substance; hut Lavoisier proved that it is composed of
 carbon and hydrogen: it also contains a small portion  of
 oxygen. Oils ur • divided into fat or fixed oils, and vola-
 tile and essential oils.  Fixed oil is  usually obtained by
 expression, chiefly from the seeds and kernals of plants.
 It is generally mixed with mucilage. It does not combine
 with water or alcohol. It has a great affinity for oxygen,
 which thickens  it, and makes  it pass into the concrete
 state.  Some  fixed oils, as linseed  and walnut oil. dry of
 themselves, or become  solid, in the air;  but this property
 is niurh increased by boiling, and adding  oxyd of lead,
 wdiich  constitutes drying oil. Fixed oils  are volatilized
 by a strong heat, and  when volatilized, take fire hy the
 contact of an ignited body.  When added  to acids, tbey
 attract oxygen from the acids, and form a kind of resin-
 ous substance.  With alkalis, they form soap; and dissolve
 sulphur and phosphorus.
   Volatile oils are generally procured by distilling  aro-
 matic plants  with water.  The water rises, accompanied
 by the oil, part of which is dissolved in the water; but the
 greatest quantity separates to the surface, or the bottom.
 They are soluble in alcohol, dissolve resin, sulphur, and
 phosphorus, and are very inflammable.  They attract ox-
 ygen; and by long keeping are converted into resin, char-
 coal, and water. See Oil.
   3. Resins exist in the vessels of certain trees, and fre-
 quently exude from them  spontaneously. Sometimes they
 are procured by making incisions in the trees, and some-
 times by distilling tbe wood. They are considered as vol-
 atile oils combined with oxygen. They are soluble in al-
 cohol and oils, but not in  water.  It is this property that
 renders them so valuable  as varnishes. They are inflam-
 mable, and melt w ith a slight heat.  The principal resins
 are the turpentines,  mastic,  copal, sandarac,  Sec.  See
 Resins, <Scc.
  4. Gum resins appear to he a natural mixture of resin
 and mucilage.  They  are  partly  soluble in water,  and
 partly in alcohol.  Gum ammoniac, assafoetida, &c. are
 gum resins. See Gum.
  5. Caoutchouc, or elastic gum, very much resembles a
 resin. It is very elastic,  inflammable,  and insoluble in
 water or fat.  It is partly soluble in volatile oils, and en-
 tirely so in melted spermaceti, and in nitric ether. It
 gives out heat as often as  it returns to its dimensions af-
 ter strong tension.  See Caoutchouc.
  6. Camphor is a volatile  oil,  rendered concrete hy
 carbon. It is very inflammable, and sublimes by a gen-
 tle  heat.  It is soluble in ether, alcohol, acids, and oils.
 It is highly odorous, and  has been supposed to prevent
the spreading of contagious disorders; but this has  been
 denied by some. See Camphor.
  7. Wax is a vegetable substance, found in the greatest
quantity on the anthers  of  flowers.  The surfaces of
many leaves  are also coated with it.   It is collected by
the bees. It is insoluble in water and alcohol, but solu-
 ble  in  volatile and fixed oils.  It is very inflammable.
 Its  principles are the same as those of volatile oil.  See
 Wax.
  8. Honey is chiefly formed in the pistils  or female
 organs of flow ers, whence it is collected by the bees. It
 appears to he sugar dissolved in mucilage. Sec Honey.
  9. Sugar is very extensively distributed through the
 vegetable kingdom.  It is  procured in the greatest quan- 
CHEMISTRY.
tity from the sugar cane; but  it may also be obtained
from the sugar-maple,  the beet-root, carrots, Sec.   Its
constituent principles are oxygen,  carbon, and hydro-
gen. See Sugar.
  10. Gluten is an elastic substance, very much resem-
bling an animal matter, found in many vegetables, but
chiefly in wheat flour. It is insoluble in water, and very
slightly so in alcohol. It hardens by heat into a brown-
ish transparent horny matter; and differs from all other
vegetable substances hy its containing a larger quantity
of nitrogen and some  ammonia.
  11. Fccula, or starch, forms the  principal part ofthe
substance which is washed away in order to obtain the
gluten from the grain.  When  the  fluici  is suffered to
stand,  a white powder subsides, which is the starch. It
is not soluble in cold water nor in alcohol; but is soluble
in hot.water, forming with it a well known paste. Bar-
ley  consists almost entirely  of  it. It appears to be only
a slight alteration from mucilage, differing from that on-
ly by its being insoluble in cold water.   There are also
coloured feculse, as indigo.
  12. Tannin, or the tanning principle, is found in the
bark of  trees, and all those parts of vegetables  which
are called astringent. It has the property of forming a
compound with gelatine or animal jelly that is solid,
elastic, and insoluble in water.  On its combination in
this manner with the gelatinous part of skin, depends
the art of tanning or making leather. See Cutis.
  13. WToody fibre constitutes the basis of wood. It may
he procured  separate from  every  other  substance,  by
boiling wood shavings in water to dissolve the extractive
matter, and then in alcohol  to separate the resins, &c.
It is insipid, insoluble in water, and combustible. When
heated without  access  of air,  it is converted into char-
coal, which has been already described.
  14.  Colouring matter is found in vegetables combined
with. 1. the extractive principle; 2. with resin;  3. with
iecula; 4. gum.
  The greater part of the colouring matters have a great
affinity for many ofthe earths, but chiefly for alumina;
also for the white metallic oxyds,  particularly oxyd of
tin; and also for animal fibrous matters, and for oxygen.
On these properties, and the method of transferring the
colouring principle  of one body to another  so that it
shall be durably fixed, depends the  whole art of dyeing.
See Dyeing.
  15.  Acids. The acids which exist ready formed in ve-
getables, arc the citric, malic,  oxalic, gallic,  benzoic,
tartaric, acetic, and suberic.  They have been already
described.
  16. Besides the substances already enumerated, many
others arc found in vegetables, such as  sulphur, iron,
manganese, lime,  alumina, magnesia, barytes, Sec.  All
the vegetables of the class  called gramina, or grasses,
have an epidermis or  outer skin,  composed  of silex.
This is particularly observable  in canes,  which, when
struck together in the dark, produce sparks of fire.
   Vinous fermentation.—If mucilaginous saccharine ve-
getable substances, under a proper combination of water
and heat (from 60 to 70° Fahrenheit),  are not entirely
excluded from  aiv. they experience in a very short time
a striking change in their mixture. An  internal com-
motion takes place;  the mass  grows turbid;  a large
quantity of air bubbles  are discharged from its inner
part, which on account of the toughness  of the matter
wherein they are enclosed, form a stratum  on the sur-
face ofthe fluid, known by the name of yeast. These air
bubbles consist of carbonic acid gas.  After a time these
appearances cease; the fermented liquor becomes clear
and transparent,  and no more gas is disengaged.  The
liquor  now has lost  its sweetness and  viscidity, and
has acquired the vinous taste and intoxicating quality.
Wine is made in this matter from the juice of the grape*
if the fermentation is checked when at its height, by ex-
cluding the air, the wine begins to  ferment anew, and
etfervesce  when again  exposed  to  it. The sparkling
wines, as champaign, are prepared in this manner, and
hence should be considered as imperfect wines. Nut on-
ly the juice of the grape, but all mucilaginous substances
containing  sugar, are capable of the vinous fermenta-
tion.
  To understand these phenomena it must  he observed
that alcohol, which is the essence ofa vinous fluid, consists
ofthe same principles as sugar, only combined in differ-
ent proportions.  Alcohol contains more hydrogen and
less carbon and oxygen.  In the process of fermentation,
therefore, a considerable part of the oxygen combines
with the  carbon  which  the  saccharine  fluid contains.
These two form the carbonic acid gas which is expriled
in the process; and the quantities of these being lessened,
and, the hydrogen left behind, this very essential change
is effected in the liquor.
  To prepare vinous liquors  from grain or corn, they
are converted  into  malt: by this process, the gluten
which forms the germ is  separated, and the fecula ap-
pears to be converted  into sugar by the germination of
the seed.   From malt, beer is made by extraction and
fermentation.   If wine, beer, or any other fermented li-
quor, is distilled, a fluid is obtained which is colourless.
of a strong heating taste, a penetrating  odour, and an
intoxicating property.  This  is  alcohol, ardent spirit,
or spirit of wine.   In this state it contains a quantity of
water. If this alcohol is re-distilled, and reduced to two-
thirds, it  is obtained  very pure, and is called rectified
alcohol.   Alcohol is  very inflammable and volatile; it
dissolves resins, essential oils, camphor, sulphur, phos-
phorus, Sec.  Itis composed of hydrogen, carbon, and a
small quantity of oxygen.   Strong  acids  and alcohol
have  a considerable re-action  on each other; and this
produces  ether, wdiich is a very volatile, inflammable,
odorous fluid.  Mitric acid wish alcohol produces nitric
aether, and sulplriric  acid with  alcohol produces sul-
phuric aether.  See Fermextatiox.
  Acetous fermentation.—When wine, or any fermented
vinous liquor is exposed to a heat, from 75° to 85° Fahren-
heit, and access of air is permitted, the fluid becomes turbid,
and a new change of  principles takes place. It loses its
taste "..nd smell, it  becomes sour, and is converted into
vinegar.  Though vinegar is chiefly prepared from fluids
wdiich have undergone the vinous ferment;.;ion, yet this
is not necessary to the production of vinegar; for simple
mucilage is capable of passing into the state of acetous
fermentation.   When the saccharine principle predo-
minates in any substance exposed to the nece>-:;iry con-
ditions of fermentation, alcohol is  productd.   When
mucilage is most abundant, vinegar or acetous acid is the 
CHEMISTRY
 product; and when gluten is most predominant, ammonia
 will he discovered, and  putrefaction or the putrid fer-
 mentation will take place.
   The process of the acetous fermentation is still more
 simph" than that of the vinous, and consists merely in the
 fluid imbibing the oxygen from the atmosphere, for which
 it has a strong attraction;  and by the access of which to
 the point of saturation, it is converted into an acid.
   Putrid fermentation.—This is the last change,  or final
 decomposition, of vegetables.  Without moisture, heat,
 and a due access of air, this does not take place.   In this
 state  of fermentations ammonia is formed, accompanied
 by a very olfensive smell. Vegetables which curtain albu-
 minous matter and gluten, are most liable to putrefaction.
   Animal .substances.—The constituent principles of ani-
 mal substances are nearly  the same with those of vege-
 tables; but the former contain much more  nitrogen and
 phosphorus, and the latter  more carbon and hydrogen.
   The proximate constituent parts of animal substances,
 or simple combinations ofthe above-mentioned radicals,
 are the following:
   1.  Gelatine, or animal jelly, is very generally dispers-
 ed through all the parts  of animals, even in bones, but
 exists in the greatest quantity in the tendons, membran  s,
 and the skin.   It is a mucous substance, very soluble in
 warm water,  but  not in alcohol; insipid, and without
 smell; when cold,  it  congeals to a cohesive,  tremulous
 substance.   It forms  the basis of soups, broths, Sec. and
 imparts to them their nutritious qualities.   When eva-
 porated to dryness,  it forms portable soup, glue, isin-
 glass, Sec.  The union of this substance in the skin with
 tannin constitutes leather.
   2. Fibrin, or animal fibre, forms the basis ofthe muscu-
 lar, or fleshy parts of animals.  It is fibrous in its structure,
 transparent, insoluble in water and alcohol except hy a
 long-continued heat in  a digester. It coagulates by the mere
 contact of air, and in a temperature of 120°, in which it dif-
 fers from albumen,  and also by its insolubility in cold liquid
 ammonia.  Itis soluble in acids and alkalis;by its union
 with the latter soap is formed.  C haptal employed this pro-
 perty to make soap from wool.  With nitric acid it affords
 more  nitrogen gas than any other s: bstence.   Pure fibrin
 may be obtained by washing away all the other parts from
 muscular fibre.  It is very analogous to vegetable gluten.
   3. Albumen is the  principal constituent part  of the
 serum of blood, and is also called coagulable  lymph. The
 white of eggs consists almost  entirely of albumen.  It  is
 insoluble in bot or cold water, oils, or alcohol; and coag-
 ulates by a heat of 160°  Fahrenheit, into a white solid
 mass, also by a ids, oxyds,  and alcohol.   The coagulum
 is only soluble in alkalis.   See Albumen.
   4. Animal oil differs from the vegetable  oils, in heir.."
generally solid at the temperature ofthe atmosphere, but is
veiysim'n.r to them in its other properties. It contains more
oxygeji. and also sebacic acid.  Among animal oils may be
ranked fat. Udlovv. lard, suet, butter, <Vc  Fish oil isgen-
er■ ll\  more liquid than other animal oijs. Spermaceti is an
animal oil, found in tbe head of aspeciesofvvh d;. Animal
fibre* may br rouwHed into a substance rese'ubling sprr-
nie cti, bv "re tnienl with the nitric acid, and also by ex-
po  .er it to acui cent of water for several e tilths.
   5. : I ones consist clweily of phosphate of lime, with car-
bonaLc ii lime and gelatine.
   voi. i.                  6G
   G. Blood, when  suffered to rest, separates into two
 parts; the one a coagidum or clot, called the crassamen-
 tunr: the  other a fli.id called the serum.   The  erassa-
 mentum consists of fibrin, mixed with albumen or lymph,
 and colouring matter.   The fibrin may  be  separated
 from the  albumen and colouring part, by wasbiii;.;. The
 colouring part contains much iron, in an oxyelaied state,
 owing to  the oxygen it receives  in its passage though
 the lungs. The ser:m consists of albumen  and gelatine,
 mixed with muriate and carbonate of soda,  and phos-
 phate of lime.  It is coagulable by heat, the acids, and
 alcohol.
   7.  Milk, if suffered to rest, throws up on its  surface
 a biitvraceoiis oil. cream.   If the remaining  skimmed-
 milk is suffered to remain, it becomes sour, and separates
 into two parts; a  curd, which is chiefly albumen; and
 whey, which is nearly analogous to serum, mixed w ith su-
 gar and lactic acid.  It may be made to pass into tbe vinous
 fermentation.  Milk may be separated intuits constitu-
 ent parts, by the addition of acids and neutral salts. By
 the addition of rennet  (which is the stomach  ofa calf,
 in which  the milk has soured), milk is separated into
 curd and  whey. Ofthe former cheese is made, by press-
 ing and drying it.  By agitating milk, the oily  part of
 the cream is separated  in a more solid form,  constitut-
 ing  butter.  This  is nls:>  prepared  by agitating the
 cream alone, which separates the butter from the rest
 ofthe milk winch remains,  called butter-milk.
   &. Nails, horns, hoots, and quills, resemble  coagulat-
 ed albumen.
  The animal acids and phosphorus have been already
 described.  Many other animal substances, such  as bile.
 urine, saliva, Sec. are very complicated, and but imper-
fectly known.
  Of putrefaction—Every animal body,  when deprived
of life, and exposed to the air, undergoes a decomposi-
tion, or resolution ofits parts.   Its colour become s pale,
then changes to blue and green; the parts  become soft,
and send out a fetid smell, arising from  the disengage-
ment of a very noxious gas.  The organization is de-
stroyed, and the constituent parts ofthe animal substance
form new  arrangements, and are chiefly resolved into
the gaseous state.   What remains is a dry powder, con-
sisting of  a mixture of earths and charcoal.
Table I.   Of compound oxydable and acidifiable bases.'
                         Names of the radicals.
                        fTartaric
                         Malic
                         Citric
                         Oxalic
                         Acetic
                         Succinic
                         Benzoic
                         Camphoric
                         Gallic
                        _S liberie
 Oxydable  or acidifiable flJiXci\v ,  x.
  radicals from the  ani-J kaccholactie
  mal  kingdom,   whirli^ p.;'iir.,c
  mostly  cl niain  azote. ! ! l'!,s?,c

 Carb no-hydrous radical"")
  from the mineral king- s>MeIlitic
  dom.               ' j
Oxydable or acidifiable
  hydro-carbonous   or
  carbono-hydrous radi-
  cals from the vegetable
  kingdom.
1
>>? 
                           CHEMISTRY.

Table II. Ofthe binary combinations of oxygen with simple substances.
	N« mes ofthe sim-ple substances.	First degree of oxygenation.	Second degree of oxygen-.-J Third degree of tion. | oxygenation. J	
	Caloric -	Oxygen gas		
	Hydrogen	Water*		
	Azote	Nitrous oxyd	Nitric oxyd, or base of ni-	
Combinations			trous gas	Nitrous acid -
of oxygen wiih	Carbon	Charcoal or carbonous		
simple non-«^		oxyd -	Carbonic oxyd	Carbonic acid
metallic sub-	Sulphur	Oxyd of sulphur	Sulphurous acid	Sulphuric acid
stances.	Phosphorus -	Oxyd of phosphorus -	Phosphorous acid	Phosphoric acid
	Muriatic radical	.	Muriatic acid	Muriatic acid
	Fluoric radical	...	Fluoric acid	
	Boracic radical	Boracic oxyd	Boracic acid	
	'Antimony	Grey oxyd of antimony	White oxyd of antimony	
	Silver	Oxyd of silver		
	Arsenic	Grey oxyd of arsenic -	White oxyd of arsenic	Arsenic acid
	Bismuth	Grey oxyd of bismuth -	White oxyd of bismuth	
	Cobalt - -	Grey oxyd of cob dt		
	Copper	Brown oxyd of copper -	Blue and green oxyds of copper	
	Tin -	Grey oxyd of tin	White oxyd of tin	
Combinations	Iron	Black oxyd of iron	Yellow and red oxyds of	
of oxygen with			iron	
the simple mo*	Manganese «	Black oxyd of manganese	White oxyd of manganese	
taliic substan-	Mercury	Black oxyd of mercury	Yellow and red oxyds of	
ces.			mercury	
	Molybdena -	Oxyd of molybdena	-	Molybdic acid
	Nickel	Oxyd of nickel		
	Gold - -	Yellow oxyd of gold	Red oxyd of gold	
	Platina - -	Yellow oxyd of platina		
	Lead	Grey oxyd of lead	Yellow and red oxyds of lead	
• Tungstein		Oxyd of tungstein	.	Tungstic acid
I	_Zinc	Grey oxyd ot zinc	White oxyd of zinc	
tion.
Nitric acid
Hyperoxymuriatic acid
Table III.  Of the combinations of oxygen  with the
                 compound radicals.
  Names of the radicals.
Tartaric
Malic
Citric
Oxalic
Acetic
Succinic
Benzoic
Camphoric
Gallic
Suberic
Lactic
Saccholactic
Sebacic
Prussic
Laccic
Mellitic
Names of the resulting acids.
  Tartaric acid
  Malic acid
  Citric acid
  Oxalic acid
  Acetic acid
  Succinic  acid
  Benzoic acid
  Camphoric acid
  Gallic acid
  Suberic acid
  Lactic acid
  Saccholactic acid
  Sebacic acid
  Prussic acid
  Laccic acid
  Melitic acid.
Table IV.  Of the binary combinations  of azote with
               the simple substances.
  Simple substances.            Results of the combinations.
Caloric                        Azotic gas
Hydrogen                      Ammoniac
  Simple substances.            Results of the combinations.
                              ["Nitrous oxyd
                             J Nitric oxyd
                              j Nitrous acid
                              t.Nitric acid
             "This combination  is hitherto unknown;
                should it ever  be discovered, it will  be
                called,  according to the principles of
                our nomenclature, azuret of charcoal.
                Charcoal  dissolves in azotic gas, and
                forms carbonated azotic gas
Phosphorus  Azuret  of phosphorus.  Still unknown
            TAzuret of sulphur.  Still unknown.  We
           •^   know that sulphur dissolves  in azotic
            l_   gas, forming sulphurated azotic gas
             "Azote combines with charcoal and hydro-
                gen,  in the compound  oxydable and
                acidifiable bases, and is generally con-
                tained  in  the  radicals  of  the animal
                acids
            rSuch combinations  are hitherto unknown;
Metallic   J   if ever discovered, they will form me-
 substances ]   taliic azurets,  as azuret of  gold, of sil-
            L.   ver, Sec.
Oxygen
Charcoal
Sulphur
Compound
  radicals
* Only one degree of oxygenation of hydrogen is hitherto known. 
CHEMISTRY.
Lime
Magnesia
Barytes
Arci-ill
PoiUsh
Soda
1.
: Entirely unknown.  If ever discovered,
    they will form azuret of lime, azuret of
j    magnesia, Sec.
Table \ II. Of the binary combinations of phosphorus
             with the simple substances.
Table V.  Ofthe binary combinations of hydrogen with
                 simple substances.
TO:
jl'l
(.Pi
Simple sub-
 stances.
Caloric
Azote
Oxygen

Sulphur
Resulting compounds.
              Hydrogen gas
              Ammoniac
              Water
            f Hydruret of sulphur, or sulphuret of hy-
            t  drogen
Phosphorus J HyirIuret of Phosphorus,  or phosphuret
            I  of hydrogen
Charcoal   / Hvuro-car°onous, or carbono-hydrous ra-
            I  dicals
Metallic   ") „ ,  ...   .   .
substances, I M^ta,hc  hydrurets, as hydruret of iron,
as iron, Sec. J
  Those combinations  take place in the state of gas,
and form respectively, sulphurated and  phosphorated
oxygen gas.
          Resulting compounds.
  Phosphor;<  gas
 Oxyd of phosphorus
  "Miosphorons acid
   Miosnhoi ic  acid
  Phosphuret of hydrogen
  Phosphuret of azote
 Phosphuret of sulphur
 Phosphuret  of charcoal

I Phosphurets of metals
  Table VI. Of

  Simple substances.
  Caloric

  Oxygen

  Hydrogen
  Azote
  Phosphorus
  Charroal
  Antim.my
  Silver
  Arsenic
  Bismuth
  Cobalt
  Copper
 Tin
 Iron
 Manganese
 Mi'rci.ry
 Mol  bdena
 Nickel
 Gold
 Platina
 Lead
 Tungstein
 Zinc
 Potash
 Soila
 Ammoniac
 Lime
 Magnesia
 Bar* tos
Argill
{:
the binary combinations of sulphur with
   simple substances.
            Hesulting compounds.
         Sulphuric gas
         Oxyd of sulphur
         Sulphurous acid
         Sulphuric aid
         Sulphuret of hydrogen
                     azote
                     phosphorus
                     charcoal
                     antimony
                     silver
                     arsenic
                     bismuth
                     cobalt
                     copper
                     tin
                    iron
                    manganese
                    mere f.ry
                    molybdena
                    nickel
                    gold
                    pl.ttina
                    lead
                    tungstein
                    zinc
                    potash
                    soda
                    ammoniac
                    lime
                    magnesia
                    barytes
                    argill.
  Simple substances.
  Caloric

  Oxygen

  Hydrogen
  Azote
  Sulphur
  Charcoal
  Metallic  sub-
   stances.
 Potash
 Soda
 Ammoniac
 Lime
 Barytes
 Magnesia
 Argill         j

  Table VIII.  Of the binary combinations of carbon.
 Simple substances.           Resulting compounds.
                f Oxyd of charcoal or carbonous oxyd
 Oxygen        J  Carbonic oxyd
                (.Carbonic acid
 Sulphur          Carburet of sulphur
 Phosphorus       Carburet of phosphorus
 Azote             Carburet of azote
 Hydrogen
 Metallic sub-
  stances.
Alkalies and
  earths
!> Phosphuret of potash, soda, &c.
f Carbono-hydrous radicals
I Fixed and volatile oils
J- Carburets of metals

I Carburet of potash, &c.
Table IX. Ofthe combinations of azote or nitrogen in
  the state of nitrous ac id with the salifiable bases, ar-
  ranged according to the affinities of these bases with
  the acid.
Names of the bases.
Names of tlie neutral salts.
Barytes
Potash
Soda
Lime
Magnesia
Ammoniac
Argill
Notes.
Nitrate of barytes
         potash
         soda
         lime
         magnesia
         ammoniac
         argill
Oxyd of zinc	zinc
iron	iron
manganese cobalt	manganese cobalt
nickel lead tin	nickel lead tin
copper	copper
  " These salts are
   only  known of
   late,  and  have
 ^ received no par-
   Iticular name in
   the old nomen-
  clature.
    As metals dis-
  solve   both   in
  nitrous  and  ni-
  tric aci Is. metal-
  lic  salt* must of
  consequence  be
  formed  hnving
  different degrees
  of  oxygenation.
  Those  vvheiviu
  the metal is least
•i oxygenated must
  he called nil,-ites,
  whin   more  so. 
CHEMISTRY.
Oxyd of bismuth
        antimony
        arsenic
        mcrcurv
Nitrate of bismuth
        antimony
        arsenic
        mercury
                             nil rats; but the
                             limits of this di-
                             stinction are dif-
                             ficultly ascertain-
                             able.   The older
                             chemists   were
                             not   acquainted
                             with any of these
                            jsalts.

silver  r   It is extremely probable  that gold,
gold   4 silver, and  platina, form  only nitrats,
platina (.and cannot subsist in the state of nitrites.
Table X.  Of  the comb
  sat\rated with oxygen,
  the salifiable bases, in
  the acid.
    liases.
Barytes
Potash
Soda
Lime
Magnesia
Ammoniac
Argill
Oxyd  of zinc
        iron
        manganese
        cobalt
        nickel
        lead
        tin
        copper
        bismuth
        antimony
        arsenic
        mercury
        silver
         gold
        platina
inations of azote, completely
in the state of nitric acid, with
the order of  the affinity with

  Names of the resulting neutral salts.
Nitrate of barytes
          potash
          soda
           lime
           magnesia
           ammoniac
          argill
          zinc
          iron
          manganese
           cobalt
           nickel
          lead
           tin
           copper
           bismuth
           antimony
           arsenic
           mercury
           silver
           gold
           platina.
Table XI.  Ofthe combinations of sulphuric acid with
      the salifiable bases, in th  order of affinity.
Names ofthe bases.
Barytes
Potash
Soda
Lime
Magnesia
Ammoniac
Argill
Oxyd of zinc
        iron
        manganese
        cobalt
        nickel
        lead
        tin
         copper
         bismuth
         antimony
   Resulting compounds.
Sulphat of barytes
          potash
          soda
          lime
          magnesia
          ammoniac
          argill
          zinc
          iro n
          manganese
          cobalt
          nickel
          lead
          tin
          copper
          bismuth
          antimony
Oxyd of arsenic
        mercury
        silver
        gold
        platina
Sulphat of arsenic
          mercury
          silver
          gold
          platina.
Table XII.  Of the combinations of the  sulphurous
  acid with the salifiable bases, in the order of affinilv.
Names ofthe bases.
Barytes
Potash
Soda
Lime
Magnesia
Ammoniac
Argill
Oxyd of zinc
        iron
manganese
cobalt
nickel
lead
tin
copper
bismuth
antimony
arsenic
mercury
silver
gold
platina
   Names of lhe neutral salts.
Sulphite of barytes
          potash
          soda
          lime
          magnesia
          ammoniac
          argill
          zinc
          iron
           manganese
          cobalt
          nickel
          lead
          tin
          copper
          bismuth
          antimony
           arsenic
          mercury
          silver .
           gold
          platina.
Table XIII.   Of the combinations of phosphorous and
  phosphoric acids, with the salifiable bases, in the or-
  der of affinity.
Names of
the bases.
Names of the neutral salts
     formed by
Lime
Barytes
Magnesia
Potash
Soda
Ammoniac
Argill
Oxyd of zinc
       iron
          Phosphorous
             acid,
      Phosphites of
             lime
             barytes
             magnesia
             potash
             soda
             ammoniac
             argill
             zinc
             iron
manganese   manganese
cobalt
nickel
lead
tin
copper
bismuth
antimony
arsenic
mercury
silver
gold
 cobalt
 nickel
 lead
 tin
 copper
 bismuth
 antimony
 arsenic
 mercury
silver
 gold
    Phosphoric
       acid,
Phosphats of
       lime
       barytes
       magnesia
       potash
       soda
       ammoniac
       argill
       zinc
       iron
       manganese
       cobalt
       nickel
       lead
       tin
       copper
      bismuth
      antimony
      arsenic
       mercury
      silver
      gold. 
CHEMISTRY.
Table XIV.  Of the combinations of carbonic acid with
     the salifiable bases, in the order of affinity.
Names of the bases.               Resulting neutral salts.
Barytes                Carbonate of barytes
Lime                               lime
Potash                              potash
Soda                               soda
Magnesia                           magnesia
Ammoniac                          ammoniac
A i gill                               argill
Oxyd of zinc                        zinc
        iron                        iron
        manganese                 manganese
        cobalt                       cobalt
        nickel                       nickel
        lead                       lead
        tin                         tin
                                    copper
                                   bism.ith
                                   antimony
copper
bismuth
antimony
arsenic
mercury
silver
gold
platina.
arsenic
mercury
silver
gold
platina.
tin
Table XV.   Of the combinations of muriatic acid with
      the salifiable bases, in the order of affinity.
Names of the bases.              Resulting neutral salts.
Barytes                   Muriat of barytes
Potash                              potash
Soda                               soda
Lime                               lime
Magnesia                           magnesia
Ammoniac                          ammoniac
Argill                              argill
Oxyd of zinc                        zinc
        iron                         iron
        manganese                   manganese
        cobalt                       cobalt
        nickel                       nickel
        lead                         lead
                                   f smoking of tin
                                   \ solid of tin
        copper                      copper
        bismuth                     bismuth
        antimony                    antimony
        arsenic                      arsenic
                                    {sweet of mercury
                                    corrosive of mer-
                                    cury
        silver                       silver
        gold                         gold
        platina                      platina.

Table  XVI.  Of the combinations of oxygenated mu-
  riat ic acid with the salifiable bases, in  the order  of
  affinity.
Names of the hases-             Names ofthe neutral salts.
Barytes      Oxygenated muriate of barytes
Potash                              potash
Soda                               soda
Lime         Oxygenated muriate of limr
Magnesia                           magnesia
Argill                               argill
Oxyd of zinc                        zinc
       iron                         iron
       manganese                   inanganesr
       cobalt                       cobalt
       nickel                       nickel
       lead                         lead
       tin                          tin
       copper
       bismuth
       antimony                    antimony
       arsenic                      arsenic
       mercury
       silver
copper
bismuth
mercury
silver
gold
platina
gold
platina.
Table XVII.  Of the combinations of fluoric acid with
      the salifiable bases, in the order of affinity.
Names ofthe bases.             Names of the neutral salts.
Lime                        Flu at of lime
Barytes                              barytes
Magnesia                            magnesia
Potash                               potash
Soda                                 soda
Ammoniac                            ammoniac
Oxyd of zinc                           zinc
        manganese                    manganese
        icon                           iron
        lead                          lead
        *i»                            tin
        cobalt                        cobalt
        copper                        copper
        nickel                         nickel
        arsenic                        arsenic
        bismuth                       bismuth
        mercury                       mercury
        silver                         8iiver
        g°W                           gold
        Patina                        platina.
                And by the dry way,
Argill                        Fluatof argill.

Table XVIII.  Of  the combinations  of boracic acid
    with the salifiable hases, in the order of affinity.
   Bases.                         Xcuiral salts.
Lime                         Borat of lime
Barytes                                barytes
Magnesia                              lm.  ,t.8ia
Potash                                 potash
Soda                                  soua
Ammoniac                              ammoniac
Oxyd of zinc                            zinc
       iron                           iron
       lead                            lead
       *in                             tin
        cobalt                          cobalt
        copper                        copper
        nickel                          nickel
       mercury                        mercury
AfSM                                 ai-gilL 
CHEMISTRY.
Table XIX.  Ofthe combinations of arscniac acid with
      the salifiable bases, in the order of alu.iity.
   Bases:
Lime
Barytes
Magnesia
Potash
Soda
Ammoniac
Oxyd of zinc
        manganese
        iron
        lead
        tin
        cobalt
        copper
        nickel
        bismuth
        meivciry
        antimony
        sbver
        gold
        platina
Argill

Table XX.
        Neutral salts.
Arseniat of lime
           barytes
           magnesia
           potash
           soda
           ammoniac
           zinc
           manganese
           iron
           lead
           tin
           cobalt
           copper
           nickel
           bismuth
           mercury
           antimony
           silver
           gold
           platina
           argill.
Of the combinations of tungstic acid with
   the salifiable bases.
   Bases.
Lime
Barytes
Magnesia
Potash
Soda
Ammoniac
Argill
Oxyd of antimony, &c.
         Neutral salts.
Tungstatof lime
            barytes
            magnesia
            potash
            soda
            ammoniac
            argill
            antimony, &c.
Table XXI.  Of the combinations of tartaric acid with
     the salifiable bases, in the order of affinity.
    Bases.
Lime
Barytes
Magnesia
Potash
Soda
Ammoniac
Argill
Oxyd of zinc
        iron
        manganese
        cobalt
        nickel
       lead
       tin
        copper
        bis math
        antimony
        arsenic
        silver
        m~i ;ury
        gold
        platina
       Ventral salts.
Tartrite of lime
           barytes
           magnesia
           potash
           soda
           ammoniac
           argill
           zinc
           iron
           manganese
           cobalt
           nickel
           lead
           tin
           copper
           bismuth
           antimony
           arsenic
           silver
           mercury
           gold
           platina.
Table XXII.  The malic acid combines with the sali-
              fiable bases, forming with
           Potass           Malat of potass
           Soda                      soda
           Ammonia                 ammonia
           Barytes                   barytes
           Strontian                 strontian
           Lime                      lime
           Magnesia                 magnesia
           Alumina                  alumina.
           The -rder of affinity is unknown.

Table XXIII. Of the combinations of citric acid with
       the salifiable bases, in the order of affinity.
                                     Neutral salts.
                                Citrat of barytes
                                         lime
                                         magnesia
                                         p-tash
                                         Soda
   Bases.
Barytes
Lime
Magnesia
Potash
Soda
Ammoniac
Oxyd of zinc
        manganese
        iron
        lead
        cobalt
        copper
        arsenic
        mercury
        antimony
        silver
        gold
        platina
Argill

Table  XXIV.
ammoniac
zinc
manganese
iron
lead
cobalt
copper
arsenic
mercury
antimony
siher
gold
platina
argill.
              Of the combinations of the suberic acid
  with the salifiable bases, in the order of affinity.
Names of the bases.              Names of the neutral salts.
      Barytes                Suberat of barytes
                                       potass
Potass
Soda
Lime
Ammonia
Magnesia
Alumina
soda
lime
ammonia
magnesia
alumina.
Table XXV. Ofthe combinations of the oxalic acid with
      the salifiable bases, in the order of affinity.
   Bases.                             Ntuiral salts.
Lime
Barytes
Magnesia
Potash
Soda
Ammoniac
Argill
Oxyd of zinc
       iron
manganese
cobalt
nickel
lead
copper
Oxalatof lime
        barytes
        magnesia
        potash
        soda
        ammoniac
        argill
        zinc
        iron
        manganese
        cobalt
        ni' kel
        had
        copper 
CHEMISTRY.
                               Oxalat of bismuth
                                        antimony
                                        arsenic
                                        mercury
                                        silver
                                        gold
                                        platina.

Table XXVI. Of the combinations of acetic acid with
      the salifiable bases, in the order of affinity.
Wxyd of bismuth
       aioimony
       arsenic
       mi rrury
       silver
       go!;i
       platina
Lime		Benzoat of lime	
Potass			potass
Soda			soda
Ammonia			ammonia
Magnesia			magnesia
[ Alumina			alumina.
	Order of affi	nity	unknown.
   Btses.
Barytes
Potash
Soda
Lime
Magnesia
Ammoniac
Oxyd of zinc
       manganese
       iron
       lead
       tin
       cobalt
       copper
       nickel
       arsenic
       bismuth
       mercury
       antimony
       silver
       gold
       platina
     Neutral salts.
Acetat of barytes
         potash
         soda
         lime
         magnesia
         ammoniac
         zinc
         manganese
         iron
         lead
         tin
         cobalt
         copper
         nickel
         arsenic
         bismuth
         mercury
         antimony
         silver
         gold
         platina
         argill.
      Table XXIX. Camphoric acid combines
         with                     forming
       Lime               C amphorat of 1 i me
       Pol ass                           potass
       Soda                            soda
       Barytes                          barvtes
       Ammonia                        ammonia
       Magnesia                        magnesia
       Alumina                         alumina.

         Table XXX. Lactic acid combines
         with                      forming
       Potass                  Lactat of potass
       Soda                            soda
       Ammonia                        ammonia
       Barytes                          barytes
       Lime                            lime
       Alumina                         alumina
       Magnesia                    '    magnesia.

Table XXXI. Of the combinations of saccholactic acid
    with the salifiable bases, in the order of affinity.
Argill

Table XXVII. Ofthe combinations of succinic acid with
      the salifiable bases, in the order of affinity.
                                    Neutral salts.
                              Succinat of barytes
                                        lime
   Bases.
Barytes
Lime
Potash
Soda
Ammoniac
Magnesia
Argill
Oxyd of zinc
       iron
       manganese
       cob dt
       nickel
       lead
       tin
       copper
       bismuth
       antimony
       ars "nic
       me 1 cury
       sil \ er
       gold
       platina
potash
soda
ammoniac
magnesia
argill
zinc
iron
manganese
cobalt
nickel
lead
tin
copper
bismuth
antimony
arsenic
mercury
silver
gold
platina.
Bases. Lime	Neutral salts. Saccholat of lime
Barytes	barytes
Magnesia Potash Soda	magnesia potash soda
Ammoniac	ammoniac
Argill Oxyd of zinc	argill zinc
manganese	manganese
iron	iron
lead	lead
tin	tin
cobalt	cobalt
copper nickel	copper nickel
arsenic	arsenic
bismuth	bismuth
mercury antimony silver	mercury antimony silver.
Tabic XXVIII. Benzoic acid combines
  with                     forming
Barytes               Benzoat of barytes
Table XXXII. Of the combinations of the prussic acid
    with the salifiable bases, in the order of affinity.
   Bases.
Potash
Soda
Ammoniac
Lime
Barytes
Magnesia
Oxyd of zinc
       iron
      Neutral salts.
Prussiat of potash
          soda
          amnion
          lime
          barytes
          magnesia
          zinc
          from 
CHEMISTRY.
Oxvd of manganese	Prussiat of manganese
cobalt	cobalt
nickel	nickel
lead	lead
tin	tin
- copper	copper
bismuth	bismuth
ant.mony	antimony
arsenic	arsenic
silver	silver
mercury	mercury
gold	gold
platina	platina.
       Table XXXIII. Mellitic acid combines
         with                            forming
        Potass                    Mcilat of potass
        Soda                              soda
        Ammonia                         ammonia
        Lime                              lime
        Barytes                           barytes
        Alumina                          alumina.

  The  combinations of  tbe  remaining  acids with the
salifiable bases arc for  the most part unknown; when
ascertained they will he denominated from their constitu-
ent acids as  follows:
From the Sebacic acid
         Laccic acid
         Gallic acid
Sebats
Laccats
Gallats.
          Glossary of Chemical Terms.
Affinity, the same with elective  attraction (see the ar-
  ticle Attraction), means that attraction which  ex-
  ists belween the very minute particles of bodies. It is
  essentially  different from  the  attraction of gravita-
  tion,  since it is not governed by the masses or specific
  gravity of the particles.  It has been termed  elective
  attraction, because something analogous to preference
  or choice  may be observed in this kind of action of
  bodies on  each other.  Thus, spirit of  wine will dis-
  solve resin, but water will not; on the  contrary gum
  will dissolve in water, while  it is insoluble in spirit.
  Nay, some fluids will  let fall  the  particles of certain
  bodies, in order to take up and combine with those of
  others. Thus, if a quantity of silver is added to aqua-
  fortis  (nitric  acid), the cohesion of the particles of
  silver will be destroyed, and  they will unite forcibly
  with those of the  aqua-fortis.  The fluid will remain
  perfectly  clear, because the particles even in this
  state  of combination,  are  so  extremely minute that
  the rays of light  will  suffer no interruption in pass-
  ing through them. If iiowev-r, to this solution of sil-
  ver, a quantity of mercury is added,  the acqua-fortis
  will be attracted by the mercury, and the silver will
  be thrown down or precipitated to the bottom of the
  vessel in  which  the fluid is contained.  (Hence the
  chemical term precipitation.)  If  again copper is ad-
  ded, it will assume the place  of the  mercury, which
  of course in its turn  will be  precipitated.  If to this
  solution  of copper,  a piece of bright  iron (for rust
  would prevent the action of the acid)  is introduced,
  the surface of the iron will be dissolved, and the cop-
  per precipitated, and will be deposited on the bar of
  iron. The iron  may  afterwards he precipitated by
  the introduction of an  alkali.  On this principle are
  founded the tables of affinity or elective attraction,
  which state the  substances in  order as they  have an
  attraction for each other.  It is a general maxim in
  chemistry, that for bodies to act in this manner on
  each other, one of them must  be in a  fluid stuie.  \
  double elective  attraction or  intimity is, when two
  bodies, each compounded of two principles, mutually
  change  a principle* of  each.   Thus,  when  the salt
  which is compounded of mercury  with nitric acid is
  presented to a solution  < -f vitriolated tartar, the vitri-
  olic acid will quit the alkali, and unite with the  mer-
  cury, and the nitric acid will combine with the alka-
  li. This is  also sometimes called  the attraction of
  combination.
Calcination, applied to the metals, is their oxygenation
  by means of heat.
Concentration, the separation and evaporation by means
  of heat of the  watery  particles  from  any fluid; by
  which the fluid is said in common language to become
  stronger, or less diluted.
Crucible, a vessel usually made of clay, employed as a
  melting-pot for  metals or other substances.
Crystallization, is when  a body  passing from a fluid to
  a solid state, assumes a regular form.   See the article
  Crystallization.
Decantation, the separation of a fluid from the solid con-
  crete particles which it contains.  This is  done by
  leaving the fluid at rest in a conical vessel, when the
  foreign matter will deposit itself at the bottom, and if
  tbe fluid is very gently poured off it will be obtained
  tolerably dear.  A syphon is sometimes employed with
  advantage when  the  matter deposited is light,  and
  there is danger of shaking the vessel.  A thick wollen
  thread steeped in the liquor,  and inclining over the
  edge of the vessel into another,  makes a very  good
  syphon for tills  purpose.
Decoction is the extracting,  by  the application of heat
  and moisture, of some  portion of matter from certain
  substances, as the gums and essential oils from vegeta-
  bles. When the extract is made in cold  water itis call-
  ed infusion.
Decrepitation,   the small  and   successive explosions
  which take place when salts are exposed to heat to
  expel their water of crystallization.
Dcsi cation (drying), the  expelling or evaporating humid
  matter from any substance by means of heat.
Detonation, an  explosion caused by  the sadden expan-
  sion of certain substances, when  either a very  rapid
  combination or decomposition takes place.
Digestion, the  slow action of a solvent  upon any sub-
  stance, often  assisted by the heat of a sanci-hath.
Distillation, the operation which by means of heat and
  moisture separates volatile matters fiom those which
  are fixed, or matters more or less volatile from one
  another.
Effervescence, the escape of volatile matters  from  the
  mass of a fluid, which  in their passage through cause
  a  kind of ebullition.
Efflorescence. When solid or  consistent bodies spontane-
  ously become converted into powder,  the surface ap- 
CHE
CHE
   prars covered with a  white dust. This effect is occa-
   sioned by the loss of the water of crystallization.
 Extract, the solid matter  left behind when the wate-
   ry parts arc evaporated from a decoction or infusion.
 Fixed, an  epithet  descriptive of such bodies as resist
   the action of heat, so as not to rise in vapour.  It is
   opposed to volatile.
 Fulmination, a still more violent and sudden explosion
   than detonation.
 Fusion, the  passing of a solid  body to a fluid state by
   means of heat.
 Infusion, the  extraction of resinous, gummy, or other
   matters, by the action of water in  the common tem-
   perature of the atmosphere.
 Lixiviation,   the process of separating by solution in
   water  those matters  which arc soluble in any body
   from those whic b are  insoluble;  generally applied to
   the fixed residues of bodies for the purpose of extract-
   ing the saline parts, which dissolve in the water,  and
   afterwards crystallize on evaporation.
 Mixture, the aggregation or mechanical union of bodies
   which have no affinity or chemical combination. It is
   opposed to solution, where  the  particles of tbe fluid
   and solid body are permanently combined.  In mere
   mixtures,  when set at rest,  one part will commonly
   subside and form a sediment.
 Oxidation, the combination of any other body with oxy-
   gen.
 Precipitation, the effect which takes place in solution, in
   consequence of elective, attraction, when one matter is
   let fall to the bottom in consequence, ofthe fluid parti-
   cles combining  with another. (See  Affinity, above.)
   The product is also called a precipitation.
 Reagent, a body which is brought in contact with anoth-
   er to promote the separation of its principles or con-
   stituent parts. The reagents arc the immediate  means
   of precipitation.
 Rectification, the further purification of matters by a
   second or third distillation or sublimation.
 Reduction, the bringing back the oxyds or calces of me-
   tals to the  pure  metallic state, by expelling the oxy-
   gen, which is generally done by exposing the oxyd to
   the action  of heat along with some matter containing
   carb oi;  when the oxygen  and carbon go off  in the
   form of carbonic acid gas. leaving the metal pure.
Residuum (formerly called caput-mortuum), that part of
   a  body which remains after a part has been separated
   by an operation, such as distillation or sublimation.
Saturation. Most bodies that have a chemical affinity
   for each otljer will only unite in certain proportions.
   Yv ben, therefore, a fluid has dissolved as much of any
   substance as it will dissolve, it is said to have reach-
   ed the point of saturation. Thus, water will  dissolve
   one quarter of its weight of common salt; and if more
   is added, it  will  sink to the bottom in a solid  state.
   Some fluids will dissolve  more of certain substances
   when hot than when cold. Thus  water when hot will
   di solve a  much larger quantify of nitre than when
   cold.
Solution, the  dispersion ofthe particles of a solid body
   in any fluid hi so equal a maimer, that the compound
  liquor shall be perfectly and  permanently clear and
  transparent. This happens when  the particles of the
  yoi.. x.                67
   fluid hare  an affinity or  elective attraction  for the
   particles of the solid.  When solid particles arc only
   dispersed in a fluid by mechanical means, it  is mix-
   ture,  and the compound  is commonly  opaque  and
   muddy.
 Sublimation is  to dry  matters what  distillation is to
   humid ones.  It is  the process by which the  volatile
   are separated from the fixed parts of bodies by the
   application of heat alone without moisture.
 Vitrification,  the convcrtion  into glass  of such substan-
   ces as are capable of assuming that form.
 Volatilization,  the reducing  int.) vapour such substan-
   ces as are capable of assuming that state.
   CHENOLEA, a genus of the order monogynia. in
 the pentandria class of plants.  The calyx is gi m.i! \v,
 one-leafed, five-parted; caps, one-celled, with one smooth
 seed. There is one species, a native of the Cape.
   CHENOPODICAI, goose-foot, or ivild orach, a genus
 ofthe digynia order, in the  pentandria  l.ss of pi  ; s,
 and in the natural method ranking under the li2th o;.ier,
 holoraeese. The calyx is pent aphyllous  and pen  igon 1;
 no corolla: one seed, lenticnlar, superior.  There  aiv 23
 species,  13 of  which are  natives of Britain. Most  of
 thein  have  an aromatic smell.  A species wi'irii g.*"->\vs
 near the Mediterranean is  used by the  Egyptians  in
 sallads, on account of its saltish aromatic taste.   From
 this plant kelp is made in other countries. The most re
 markahle are:
   1. Ohenopodium  ambrosoides, or the oak of Cappa
 docia. These  are  easily propagated from seeds, and
 thrive best in  a rich soil.
   2.  Chenopodium bonus Henricus, or common Knglish
 mercury, found  grow ing naturally in shady lanes in ma-
 ny places in Britain. It  was formerly  used as spinach,
 but is now disused, being greatly inferior. As an  article
 ofthe materia medica, it is ranked  among the emollient
 herbs, but rarely used in practice. The leaves are appli-
 ed by the  country-people for healing slight  wounds,
 cleansing old  ulcers, and the like purposes.  The roots
 are given to sheep that have a cough.  Goats and  sheep
 are not fond of  the herb; cows, horses, and swine, re-
 fuse it.
   3. Chenopodium botrys, or the oak of Jerusalem, like
 that of Cappadocia, thrives  best in a rich light  earth,
 and  may be easily propagated from seeds, as indeed all
 the other species may.
   4. Chenopodium  scoparia, the belvidere, or annual
 mock  cypress, is an ornamental plant. It is eaten in
 China.
   CHERLERIA, a genus of  the decandria trigynia
class of plants. The flower has properly  no petals; the
 nectaria  are five in number, roundish and eniarginated,
very small, and  placed in a circular direction. The fruit
is  a  capsule,  formed of three  valves,  and  containing
three seeds. There is one species.
   CHERMES, in  zoology,  a genus of insects belong-
ing to the order hemiptora. The re-strum is situated on
the breast: the feelers are  longer than  the  thorax; the
 four wings are deflected: the  thorax is gibboes; and the
 feet are of the jumping kind.  There are 17 species. It is
 an insect to be met with  in great numbers upon the fig.
tree. The larva  has six feet.  It is like the insect, when
provided with wings. Its  form is oblong, and its motion 
C H K
CHI
Ls  slow.  The chrysalis differs from it by two flat buds
that spring from the  thorax, and inclose the wings, af-
terwards seen in the perfect insect.  These chrysali-.ls
arc frequently met with on plants; and the two plates of
their thorax give  them a broad  uncouth appearance,
and  a heavy look.  When the little chrvsalicls are going
to be  metamorphosed, they  remain  motionless miller
sonic leaves upon which they fix themselves. Their skin
th/n divides  ;ip.»n the head and thor.ix, and tiie perfect
insect comes forth with  his wings. The perfect insect
is f  rnisiied with tour wings, large in prop »rtion to its
bo e/. Several species  are  provided at the extremity of
their body with a small sharp p inted  implement, but
which lies concealed, and wh.< b they draw out in order
to deposit their  eggs, uy making  a puncture in the plant
that s.:i:S  them. I?y tins  method  the fir-tree chermes
produces that enormous scaly protuberance whh b  is to
be (ound at tie summit of the branches of lhat tree, and
which is formed by the extravasation of the juices oc-
casiMied by  the p-metiires.  The young larva; shelter
themselves in cells contained in the tumour.  The white
down,  under which  the  larva of the pine-chermes is
found,  seems to be produced  much  in the same  man-
ner. That  of tbe box-tree chermes  produces no  timber?
ciih like those;  but its punctures make the leaves of that
tree bend and grow hollow in the shape of a cap, which,
by the  union of those inflected leaves, produces at the
extremity ofthe branches a kind of knobs, in which the
larvae of that insect find shelter.   The box chermes, as
well as  some others, has yet  another  peculiarity, which
is, that the larva and its  chrysalis eject at the anus  a
white sweet-tasted matter, that softens under the touch,
and is  not unlike  manna. This substance is found in
small white grains within the  balls formed by the box-
leaves,  and a string of the same matter is often  seen
depending from the anus ofthe insect.
   CHERT,  among miners,  denotes a kind of  flinty
stone,  found in thin  strata in quarries of  lime-stone.
Thi' stone is usually  amorphous, occurring sometimes
in mass, sometimes in  round balls.  Its specific gravity
is from 2.699 to 2.708; colour usually greyish blue, but
it sometimes is found  grey,  blue,  green, and brown of
different shades. Different colours frequently appear in
the  same specimen. It is called by Kirwan, hornstone,
and by  him it is said to consist of
         72 parts  of silica
         22------alumine
           6------carbonate of lime.
         100.
  CHESS, an ingenious game, performed with different
pieces of wood, on a board  divided into 64 squares or
houses, in which  chance has  so small a share, that it
may be  doubted whether a person ever  lost but by his
own fault.  Each  gamester  has  eight  dignified pieces,
viz. a king, a queen, two bishops, two knights, and two
rooks, also eight pawns; all which, for distinction sake,
are painted of two different colours, as white and black.
  As to  their disposition on the  board, the white king
is to be  placed on the fourth black house from the cor-
ner of the board, in the first and lower rank; and the
black king is to be placed on tbe fourth white house on
the  opposite or  adversary's end of the  board.  Tbe
queens are to be placed next to the kings, on houses of
their own colour. Next to the king and queen, on each
hand,  place  the  two  bishops; next  t»  them  the  two
knights;  and last of all, on the corners of the board, the
two rooks. As to the pawns, tbey are placed without dis-
tinction  on the second  rank of the house, one before
each of the dignified pieces.
  Having thus disposed the men, the onset is common-
ly begun hy the pawns, which march straight forward
in their own  file, one house at  a time, except  the first
move,  when it can advance two houses,   hut never
moves  backwards. The manner of their taking the adver-
sary's  men  is sideways, in the  next  house forwards*
where  having captivated the enemy, they ni:;ve forward
as before. The rook goes forward orcrossways thr >ngh
the whole file and back  again.  The knight  skips back-
ward and forward to the next house,  save one,  ofa dif-
ferent  colour, with a sidling march, or a slope,  and thus
kills his enemies that fall in his way, or guards his friends
that may be exposed  on that side.  The  bishop walks
always in the same  colour ofthe field that he is placed in
at first, forward and backward, aslope, or diagonally,
as far  as he lists.  The queen's  walk is more universal,
as she takes all the  steps of the before-mentioned pieces,
excepting that of the knight: and as to the king's motion,
it is one house at a time, and that either forward, back-
ward,  sloping, or sideways.
  As to the value of the different pieces, next to  the king
is the queen, after  her the rooks, then the bishops, and
last of all  the dignified  pieces comes the knight. The
difference of the worth of pawns is not so great as that
of noblemen; only, it must he observed, that the king's
bishop's pawn is the best in the field, and therefore the
skilful  gamester will be careful of him.  It ought also to
be observed, that whereas any man may he taken, when
he falls within the reach of any ofthe adversary's pieces,
it is otherwise with the king, who, in such a case, is only
to be saluted with the word  check, warning  him of his
danger, out of which it is absolutely  necessary that he
move;  and if it so happens that  he cannot move without
exposing himself to the like  inconveniency, itis check-
mate and, the game is lost.
  CHIAROSCURO,  effect produced in painting or
draw ing, by an artful conduct and union of colours and
light and shade. See Paixtixo.
  Chiaroscuro is  also used, improperly, to express the
general effect of light and shade  produced in painting or
drawing  hy the use  of one tint only, as in designs execut-
ed in while and black, or white and brown, Ace.
  CHIEF, in heraldry, is  that which takes up all the
upper part of the escutcheon, from side to side, and re-
presents a  man's head.
  CHILDREN,  are in  law a man's  issue begotten on
his wile.  In case land is given by will to a man and his
children, who has such alive, the devisee takes only an
estate for life; but if there is no child living, it is held to
be an estate tail. 1  Vent. 214.
  CHILIAD, denotes a thousand of any things, ranged
in several divisions, each whereof contains that  number.
  CHILI AG ON, in geometry, a regular plain figure of
1000 sides and angles. It is easily demonstrable that the
sum of all the angles of such a figure is equal to 196 right
ones.  For  tiie internal angles of every plane figure are 
CH I
QUI
equal to twice as many  right  angles as -the figure hath
sides cxecpt those four which are about tiie centre of the
figure. Hence it may be resolved into as many triangles
as the figure has sides.
   CtllLTURN HUNDREDS, stewards ofthe. Ofthe
hundreds  into which many ofthe English counties were
divided hy king  Alfred for  their better government, the
jurisdi t on  was originally vested jn peculiar courts; but
came afterwards to be devolved to the county courts, and
so remains at present; except with regard to some, as the
Chiitcms in Buckinghamshire, wbich have been by priv-
ilege annexed to the crown. These having still their own
courts, a steward of those  courts is appointed  hy the
chancellor of the exchequer, with a salary of 20.s. and all
fees, &c. belonging to the office.  This  is made a matter
of convenience to the members of parliament. When any
of them wishes to resign, he accepts the stewardship of
the Ciiiltcrn hundreds, which vacates his seat.
   CIJIMARRH1S, a genus of tbe class and  order pen-
tandria monogynia.  The   essential character is; cor.
funnel-form; caps,  inferior, obtuse; two-celled; two-val-
ved;seeds one in each cell.  There is one species, a lofty
tree, a native of Martinicn.
   CHIMES of a ctoek,  a kind of periodical music, pro-
duced at equal intervals of time, by means of a particu-
lar apparatus added to a clock.
   In order to  calculate numbers for the chimes, and
adapt tbe chime-barrel, it must lie observed that the bar-
rel must turn round in tbe same time that tbe tune it is to
play requires in singing. As for the chime-barrel, it may
be made of certain bars that run athwart it, with a con-
venient number of holes punched in them,  to put in  the
pins that are to draw each hammer; and these pins, in
order to play the time of the  tunc rightly, must stand
upright, or hang  down  from the bar, some more some
less. To place the pins  rightly, you may proceed  hy the
way of changes on bells, viz. 1, 2, 3, 4; or rather make
use of tbe musical notes. Observe what is tbe compass of
your tune, and  divide the barrel accordingly from end to
end. Thus in the  following example the tune is eight
notes in compass, and therefore the barrel is divided into
eight parts: these divisions  are struck round the barrel,
opposite to  which are the  hammer-tails; but when two
notes of the same sound come together in  a tune, there
must be two hammers to that bell to strike  it. Then you
are to divide it round about, into as  many  divisions  as
there are musical bars, scmibriefs, minims, Slc. in your
tune. Thus the hundreth Psalm tune has  twenty semi-
briefs, the first note of it is also a semibrief,  and there-
fore on the chime-barrel must be a whole div ision from 5
to  5; as may be understood by conceiving the surface of
a chime-barrel  to be represented by the following tables,
as if the cylindrical superficies ofthe barrel was stretch-
ed out at length, or extended on a plane; and then such a
table so dolled  or divided, if it was to he wrapped round
the barrel, would show  the places where all tbe pins are
to stand in the barrel: for the dots running about the ta-
fclc,  are the places of the pins that play the tunes.

           The notes ofthe hundreth Psalm.
A table for dividing the clime-barrel ofthe hundreth
                      Psalm.
: -m	ll .	>-44- "	"""'1 UI '	
I- M	ii, '	* V	f" ■ r~W--	
::_:£	iT	11*[	i£	.-la
H^X	"•		ih.i	
^-J-t		t j	-i	1 ' '
_ !ji		j j	it	
. ^r		• I,_.	±	
  If you would have your chimes compete, you ought t«
have a set of bells to the gamut notes; so as that cae.h.
bell having  the true sound of* sol, la,  mi, fa, you may
play any tuncwiili its flats and sharps, nay even tiie bass
and treble, with  one barrel.  And by  setting the  names
of your bells at tbe  head of any tune, you may transfer
that tune to your chime-barrel, without any  skill in mu-
sic;  hut observe, that each  line  in tiie  music is three
notes distant; that is, there is a note between each line,
as well as upon it.
  CHIMNEY. Tbe rules for building chimneys, in Eng-
land, are, 1. That no timber be laid within twelve inches of
the fore side of the chimney-jambs. 2.  That al! the joists
on the back of any chimney be laid with a trimmer.  3.
That no timber be laid within the funnel of any chimney.
  CHIMNEY-SWEEPERS.  The overseers,  fcc.   of
any parish,  may  bind  any boy ofthe age of  eight years
or upwards, who is chargeable to the parish, to any per-
son using the trade of a chimney-sweeper, till he shall at-
tain the age of 16 years, provided that it be done with
the  consent of the parent of such boy. And no master
shall have more than six apprentices at one  time.  Eve-
ry master shall cause his name and place  of  abode to he
put upon a brass plate, and to he fixed upon the  front
ofa leathern cap, which  he shall  provide for each ap-
prentice, who shall wear the same  when out  upon Lis
duty; on pain of forfeiting for every  such  apprentice,
above such number, or without having such cap, not ex-
ceeding 10/. nor  less than 51.
  For an  apparatus  for sweeping  chimneys, see Ma-
chines.
  CH LOCO CCA, a genus  of the monogynia order,  in
the  pentandria class of plants, and in the natural method
ranking under the 48th  order, aggregatse. The corolla
is  funnel-shaped  and  equal; the berry unilocular, dis-
permous, inferior. There are two species.
  CH10NANTHLS, the  snow-dr«>p, or fringe-tree, a
genus ofthe monogynia order, belonging to the diandria
class of plants, and in the natural method ranking under
the  44th order, sepiariae. Tiie corolla is quadriiid, with
the segments very long; the  fruit is a plumb.  There are 4
species described by botanists. The most remarkable is the
  Chionantbus Virginica, common in \ iginia and South
Carolina, where it grows by the side of rivulets. It rises
to ten leet.
  CHIRON I A,  a genus  of the monegynia order, in the
pentandria  class of pi.mts,  and in the natural method
ranking under tbe  20th  order, rotac e.*e.  Tim  corolla is
wheel-shaped; the pistil declining dowiiwaid; the stami-
na placed  in the  tube ofthe corolla; the anther* in their
last stage  spiial; the seed-case bilocular.  There  are  10
speeies, of which the most remarkable is the 
CHO
CH 0
   Choronia fruitescens, a native of the Cape of Good
Hope. The flowers are tubulousj  and spread open at the
top. They  are of a bright red colour, and when a large
number of  them open on  the  same plant, they make a
fine appearance. They are produced from  June to au-
tumn, and  the seeds ripen in October.
   CH1ROGRAPHER OF  FINES.  The officer in the
common pleas, who engrosses fines  in  that court, ac-
knowledged into a perpetual record, after they are  ac-
knowledged and fully passed by those officers by whom
they were examined, and that write or deliver the inden-
tures of them to the party.  This officer  also makes two
indentures, one for the buyer and another for the seller;
and makes  one other indented piece, containing also  the
effect of  the  fine, which he delivers over to  the custos
brevium.
   CIIIRURGERT. See Surgery.
   CHITON, a genus of the order of vermes testaceae.
The shell is plated, and consists of many  parts lying up-
on each other transversely. The inhabitant is a species of
doris. There are nine species. See Plate  XXXIII. Nat.
Hist. fig. 117.
   CHIVALRY, a tenure  of land by  knight's service,
whereby the tenant is bound to perform  some noble or
military office to his lord.
   CHLORA, a genus of the monogynia order, in the oc-
tandria class of plants. The calyx is octophyllous, the co-
rolla  monopctalous and octofid; the capsule unilocular,
bivalved. and polyspermous. There are four species.
   CHLORANTHUS, a genus of  the class and order te-
trandria monogynia. The essential character is, calyx
none; corolla three-lobed, petal by the side of the germ;
anthers grow ing to the petal; drupe seeded. There is one
species, a native of China.
   CHLOR1TES, in natural history, a kind of green jas-
per, but almost as pellucid as the coarser emeralds. This
mineral enters as an ingredient into different mountains.
It is sometimes amorphous, and sometimes crystallized in
oblong, four-sided, acuminated crystals. Its texture is fo-
liated; it is  opaque and green. There are four species.
   1. The earthy chlorite is composed  of  scales  scarcely
cohering, either  heaped together,  or investing other
stones. It feels greasy, gives an earthy smell when breath-
ed on; and  is difficult to pulverize. The colour is  grass-
green, sometimes greenish brown, or a very  dark green .
inclining to black.  When the powder ofthe chlorite is ex-
posed to the blow-pipe, it becomes brown: it froths and
melts into  a dark-brown glass; with borax it  forms a
greenish-brown glass.
  2. Common chlorite, textuse earthy; colour dark green;
streak mountain-green.
   .■";.  Foliated clilorite, colour dark green,  sometimes
crystallized in six-sided tubes; greasy or  pearly, texture
foliated.
  4. Shistose chlorite, structure slaty; fragments flatted;
colour giv  nish-grey, or dark green inclining to black;
streak mountain  green.
   Supposing that  these analyses  are accurate, the dif-
ference  between them shows'that the  chlorite is not a
chemical combination, but a mechanical mixture.
   CHOCOLATE, in  commerce, a kind of paste,  or
cake, prepared chiefly from tbe cacao-nut.
   When the cacao is properly roasted, and well cleaned,
 itis pounded in a mortar, to reduce it into a coarse mass,
 which is afterwards ground on a stone till it is of the
 necessary fineness: the paste being  sufficiently ground,
 it is put hot into tin moulds, in which it congeals in  a
 very little time.  The form of these  moulds is arbitrary;
 the cylindrical ones, holding two  or three pounds, are
 the most proper; because the larger  the cakes  are, the
 longer they will keep.  These cakes are very liable to
 take any good or bad scent, and therefore they must be
 carefully  wrapt  up  in  paper, and kept in a dry place.
 Complaints are made, that the Spaniards mix with the
 cacao-nuts too great a quantity of cloves and cinnamon,
 besides other drugs, as musk, ambergris, cxc.  Tbe gro-
 cers of Paris use few or none of these ingredients; they
 only choose the best nuts, which are called caracca, from
 the place whence they are brought; and with these tbey
 mix a very small quantity of cinnamon, the freshest va-
 nilla, and the finest sugar, but very seldom any cloves.
 In England, the  chocolate is made of the simple cacao,
 excepting that sometimes sugar, and sometimes vanilla,
 is added.
   Chocolate, fresh from the mill, as it cools in the tin
 pans into which it is received, becomes strongly electri-
 cal, and it retains this property some time after it has
 been turned out ofthe pans.
   Chocolate ready made, and cacao-paste, are prohibit-
 ed to be imported  from any part beyond the seas. If
 made and sold in great Britain, it pays inland-duty Is.
 6d. per pound avoirdupois: in must he inclosed in paper*
 containing one pound each, and produced at the excise-
 office, to be stamped.  Upon three days notice given to
 the officer of excise, private families may make choco-
 late for their own use, provided no less than half a hun-
 dred weight of nuts are made at one  time.
  CHOENIX, a dry measure, containing  the forty-
 eighth  part of a medimnus, or  six bushels.   Hence the
 celebrated proverb  of Pythagoras,  Super clioenice ne
 sedeas.
  CHOLERA morbus.   See Medicine.
  CHONDR1LLA,  a genus of the  polygamia aequalis
 order, in tbe syngenesia class of plants: and in the nat'iral
 method ranking under the 49th order, composite.  The
 receptacle is naked; the calyx calyculated;  the pappus
 simple  and  stalked; the  florets in  a manifold  series.
 There are three species.
  CHORD, in geometry, a right line  drawn from on«
 extremity of an arch of  a circle to the other. See Geo-
 metrv.
  Chords, Line of,  one ofthe lines  of the sector and
plane scale.  See Mathematical Insthumexts.
  Chords, or Cords, in music, are  strings,  by the vi-
bration of which  the sensation of sound is excited, and
 by the divisions of which the several degrees of tune are
 determined.
  To find the number of vibrations made  by a musical
 chord,  or string, in a given  time, having its  weight,
length, and tension, given. Let I  be the length of the
chord in feet;   1  its weight,  or rather a small  weight
fixed to the middle, and equal to that ofthe whole chord;
 and w the tension, or a weight by which the chord is
stretched. Then  the time of  one ribration will be ex- 
CHRONOLOGY.
pressed by — Va&w?  consequently the number of vi-
           7
                             7   /"32*?c
hrations per second is equal to—V    /   • Thus, if
                            11
•w = 28800,  or the  tension  equal to 28800 times  the
weight of the chord,  and tbe length of it tlnee feet, then
the last  theorem gives 354 nearly for the number of vi-
brations made in each second of time. But if w = 14400,
there would  be only 250 vibrations per second; and if
w = 288, there would be 35^| vibrations per second.
   CHORIAMBUS, in ancient poetry, a foot consisting
of four syllables, the first and last arc long, and the two
middle ones are short; or, which is the same thing, it is
made up of a troclneus and  iambus:  such is the word
nobililas.
   CHOROGRAPIIY, the art of making a map of some
eouiifr;, or province.
   Chorograph; differs from geography, as the description
ofa p.iiiic ular country does from that ofthe whole earth;
and from topography, as the description of  a  country
differs from that of a town or district.
   CIlUoE, in action, is an incorporeal thing, and only a
right, as an annuity, bond, covenant, Sec. and generally
all causes of suit, for any duty or wrong, are accounted
choses in action.   Choscs in action may be  also called
choses in suspense, as having no real existence, and not
being properly in our possession.
   CHRIST, order  of,  a  military order,  founded by
Dionysius I. king of Portugid, to  animate  his nobles
against the Moors.
   The arms of tins order are gules, a patriarchal cross,
charged  with another  cross argent:  they had their re-
sidence at first at Castromarin, afterwards tbey re mov-
ed to the city of Thomar,  as  being nearer to the Moors
of Andalusia and Estremadura.
   CHROMATIC, inthe ancient music, the second ofthe
three kinds into which the consonant inters als were sub-
divided into their coiicinnoiis parts.  The  other kinds
are enharmonic and diatonic.
   CHROMATICS, that part of optics which explains
the seieral properties of colours.   See Optics.
   CHRONIC,  or  I'hro.mcai,, among physicians, an
appellation given to  diseases that continue a long time,
in contradistinction to those that soon terminate and arc
called acute.  See Medicine.
   CHRONICLE, in matters of literature, a species or
kind of history, disposed according to the order of time,
and agreeing in most respects with annals.  The word
chronicle is now become obsolete, being seldom used ex-
cep in speaking of the  old English histories, as Stowe's
tbronicle, Holingshed\s chronicle, K.c.
   CHHONOLOGY. the  art of measuring  and distin-
guishing time; with  the doctrines of dates, epochs, ajras,
Sa. is a science ofthe utmost importance for the right
unclersiaiiding of hist ry.  It depends and is founded on
1st. astronomical observations, especially ofthe eclipses
ofthe sun and moon, combined with calculations of the
v ear, ;ind aTas of differ, nt nations.   2dlv,  On the Testi-
iucm.es of credible authors.   Sdly, Such epochs in histo-
ry as have ncv; r been controverted.  4thly, Ancient me-
dals, coins, monuments, and inscriptions.
  Sir Isaac Newton has shows that the chronology of
ancient kingdoms is involved in the greatest uncertain-
ty; and that the Europeans had no chronology before the
existence of  the Persian empire,  or 536 years before
Christ,  when Cyrus  conquered Darius: that the anti-
quities of the Greeks are full of fables, till this period,
and that after this time several Greek historians intro-
duced the computation by generations.
  The chronology of  the Latins was still more uncer-
tain: their  old records having been burnt by the Gauls
120 yeais after the expulsion of their kings, and 388 be-
fore the birth of C hrist. The chronologers of Gaul, Spain,
Germanv. Scvthia, Sweden, Britain, and Ireland, are of
a still later date; for Scythia beyond the Danube had no
letters till  Ulphilas, their  bishop,  formed them, about
the year 270.  Germany had none tiil it  received them
from the western empire of  the Latins about the year
400.  The  Huns  had none  in the  days  of Proeopius,
about the year 526; and  Sweden and Norway received
them still later.
  Sir Isaac Newton, after a general account of the  ob-
scurity and defects of the ancient chronology, observes,
that though many of the ancients computed  by  succes-
sions and generations, yet the Egyptians, Greeks, and
Latins,  reckoned  the reigns of kings equal to gen  ra-
tions of men, and three of them to a hundred, and some-
times to 120 years, and this was the foundation of their
technical chronology.   He then proceeds, from tbe  or-
dinary course of nature, and a detail of historical facts,
to show the difference  between reigns and generations;
and that, though a generation  from father to son may
at an average be  reckoned  about  33 years, or three of
them equal to 100 years, yet, when they are taken  by
the eldest sons, three of them  cannot be estimated at
more than about 75 or 80 years; and the reigns of kings
are still shorter; so that 18 or 20 years may be allowed
as a just medium.   Sir Isaac then fixes on four remark-
able  periods, viz.  the return of the Heraclidse into  the
t'eloponnesus, the  taking of Troy, the Argonautie  ex-
pedition, and the  return of  Scsostris into  Egypt after
his wars in Thrace: and he settles the epoch of each by
the true value ofa  generation.   To instance only his es-
timate of that of the Argonautie expedition: Having  fix-
ed the return ofthe Heraclidaj  to about the 159th year
after the death of Solomon, and the destruction of Troy
to about the 76 year after that period, he observes, that
Hercules the  Argonaut was the  father  of Hyllus. the
father of Clerdius,  the father of Aristoinachus, the  fa-
ther of Aristodemus, who conducted the Heraclidse into
Peloponnesus: so  that, reckoning  by the chiefs of the
family,  their  return  was  four generations  later than
the Argonautie  expedition,  which therefore  happen-
ed about 43  years after the death of Solomon.  This
is farther  confirmed  by another  argument: JEscula-
pius  and Hercules were Argonauts: Hippocrates  was
the 18th inclusively from the former by the father's side,
and the 19th from the latter by the mother's side: now,
allowing 28 or SO years to each of them, the 17 intervals
by the father, and  the 18 intervals by the mother, will on
a medium give 507 years; and these,  reckoning back
from the commencement of the  Peloponnesian war, or the
431st year before  Christ, when Hippocrates began to
flourish, w  ill place the Argonautie expedition in the  43d
year after  the death of Solomon, or 937 before Christ. 
CHRONOLOGY.
  The other kind of reasoningby which sir Isaac New-
ton endeavours to establish this  epoch, is purely astro-
nomic al.  The sphere was formed by  Chiron and Mu-
s*us for the use of the Argonautie expedition, as is plain-
ly shown by several of the asterismsreferring to that
event: and at the time of the expedition the  cardinal
points of the  equinoxes and solstices were placed in the
middle of the constellations  Aries, Cancer, Chelse, and
Capricorn. This point is established from the considera-
tion ofthe ancient Greek calendar, which consisted of 12
lunar months, and each month of 30 days, which required
an  intercalary month.  Of  course this lunisolar year,
with the intercalary month,  began sometimes a week or
two before or after the equinox or solstices: and hence
the first astronomers were led to the before-mentioned dis-
position of the equinoxes and solstices: and that this was
really the case, is  confirmed by the testimonies of Eu-
doxus, Aratus, and Hipparchus.  Upon these principles
sir Isaac proceeds  to  argue in the following manner.
The equinoctial colure in the end ofthe year 1689 cut the
ecliptic in 8 6° 44'; and by this reckoning the equinox
bad then gone back 36° 44'since the time of the Argonau-
tie expedition.  But it recedes 50" in a year, or 1° in 72
years, and consequently 36° 44'in 2645 years;  and this,
counted backwards from the beginningof 1690, will place
this expedition about 25 years after the death of Solo-
mon.   But as there is no necessity for allowing that the
middle ofthe constellations,  according to the general ac-
count of the  ancients, should be precisely the middle be-
tween the prima Arietis and ultima Cauda, our author
proceeds to  " examine what  were those stars through
which Eudoxus made the coluresto pass  in the primitive
sphere, and in this way to fix the position ofthe cardinal
poinf V  Now from the mean of five places he finds, that
the great circle, whicji in the primitive sphere, described
b> Eudoxus, or which at the time of the Argonautie ex-
pedition, was the equinoctial colure,  did in  the  end  of
 1989 cut the ecliptic in « 6° 29' 15".  In the same man-
ner our author  determines that the mean place ofthe
solstitial colure is  SI 6° 28' 46", and as it is at right an-
gles with the other, he concludes that it is rightly drawn.
And  hence he infers that the cardinal points, in the inter-
val between that expedition and the year 1689, have re-
ceded from those colures Is. 6° 29'; which, allow ing 72
years to a degree, amounts to 2627 years; and these count-
ed backwards, as above, will place the Argonautie expedi-
tion 43 years after the death of Solomon.  Our author lias,
by other methods also of a similar nature,  established
this epoch, and reduced the  age  ofthe world 500 years.
   The use of chronology.—The divisions of time which are
considered in chronology,  relate either to the different
methods of computing days, months, and years, or to the
remarkable seras or epocbas  from wbich any year re-
ceives its  name, and by means of which the date of any
event  is fixed.
   Days have been very differently terminated and divid-
ed by different people in different ages, which it is of some
 importance to a reader of history to be acquainted with.
 The  ancient Babylonians, Persians, Syrians,  and most
 other eastei n nations with the present inhabitants of the
Balearic islands, Greeks, began their day with the sun's
rising. The anient Athenians and Jews, with  the Aus-
trians, Bohemians, Marcomanni, Silesians, modern Ita-
lians, and Chinese, reckon from the sun's setting; the an-
cient Umbri and Arabians, with the modern astronomers,
from  noon; and  the Egyptians and Romans, with the
modern English,  French, Dutch, Germans, Spaniards,
and Portuguese, from midnight.
   The Jews,  Romans, and most other ancient nations
divided the day into twelve hours, and the night into four
watches.   But the custom which prevails in this western
part ofthe world at present is, to divide the day into 24
equal portions: only with some the 24 are divided into
twice 12 hours; whereas others, particularly the Italians,
Bohemians, and Poles, count 24 hours without interrup-
tion.
   Different people have made their years to begin  at dif-
ferent times, and  have  used a variety of methods to give
names to them, and distinguish them from one another.
   The Jews began the  year for civil purposes in t lie month
of Tixri, which answers to our September; but for eccle-
siastit al purposes with  JVisan, which answers to our April,
at which time they kept the pass >ver.   The Athenians
began the year with the month Hecatouibeton, which be-
gan with  the  first new moon after the summer solstice.
The Romans had at first only ten months in their year,
whi'di ended  with December; but Numa added January
 and February.  At present there are in Rome two  ways
of reckoning the year.   One  begins at Christmas, on ac-
count of the nativity of our Saviour; and the notaries of
 Rome use this date, prefixing to their deeds, anativitate:
 and the other at March, on account of the incarnation of
 Christ, and therefore  the pope's bulls are dated annoin-
 carnationis.   The ancient French historians began the
 year at tbe death of St. Martin, who died in the year 401
 or 402; and they did not begin in France to reckon the
 year from January till  1564,  by virtue of an ordinance of
 Charles IX.  Before that time they began the day next
 after Easter, about the 25th of March.  In England, al-
 so, till of kit?, we had  two beginnings of the year,  one in
January, and the other on March 25; hut by act of par-
 liament in 1752, the first day in January was appointed
 to be the beginning of the year for all purposes.
   Most ofthe eastern  nations distinguish the year by the
 reigns of their princes.  The Greeks also had no better
 method, giving names to them from the magistrates who
 presided in them, as in Athens from the Archons.   The
 Romans also named the year by the  consuls; and  it was
 a long time before  any people thought of gh ing names
to the years from any particular ajra or remarkable event.
 But at length the Greeks reckoned  from the institution
 ofthe Olympic games, and the Romans from the building
 of Rome.  They did not, however, begin to make these
 computations till a number  of years  had elapsed since
 those events could not be computed with exactness, and
 therefore they have greatly antedated them.
   About  A. D. 360, the Christians began to reckon tlit
 years from the birth of Christ, but not time enough to en-
 able the chronologers  of that age to fix the true time of
 that event.
   The Greeks distributed their  years into systems  of
 four, calling  thein Olympiads,  from the  return  of the
 Olympic games  every four  years.   And the Romans
 sometimes reckoned by lustra, or periods of five years.
   The greatest difficulty in chronology has been,  to ac-
 commodate the two methods of  computing time  by tbe 
CHRONOLOGY.
course ofthe moon and that of the sun, to each other;
the ii'viest division of the year by months being twelve,
and yet  twelve lunar months falling eleven days short of
a complete year.  This gave birth to many cycles in use
i-inoKg the ancients, the principal of which arc asfollows:
   It appears from the relation which Herodotus has giv-
en of* tiie inte;"\ iew between Solon  and  Crcesus, that, in
the time of Soion, and probably that of Llerodotus also, it
was the custom with tiie Greeks to add, or, as it is term-
ed, to intercalate, a month cxccx other year; but as this
was evidently too  much, tbey probably rectified it,  by
omitting tbe  intercalation  whenever they observed,  by
comparing the seasons  of the year  with their annual fes-
tivals, that they ought to do it.  If, for instance, the first
trie's of any kind were to be carried in procession on any
particular  day of  a month, they would see the necessi-
ty of  intercalating a month, if, according to their usual
reckoning, those fruits were not then ripe, or they would
omit the intercalation if they were ready.   And  had  no
other view interposed, their reckoning could  never have
erred far from the truth.  But it  being sometimes  the
interest ofthe chief magistrates to lengthen or shorten a
year,  for the purpose of ambition, every other considera-
tion was often sacrificed to it, and the greatest confusion
was introduced into their computations.  Finding them-
selves, therefore, under a necessity of having some cer-
tain rule of computation, they first adopted four years,
in  which  they  intercalated  only  one  month.  But this
producing an error of  fourteen days in the  whole cycle,
they invented tbe period of eight  years, in which  they
int* iraiatcd three months; in which was an excess of on-
ly one day and fourteen hours, and therefore this eye le
continued in use much  longer than either of  the preced-
ing.
   But the most perfect of these  cycles was that which
was called the Metonic, from Meton, an Athenian  as-
tronomer, who invented it. It consisted of nineteen years,
in which seven  months  were intercalated.  This brought
the two methods to so near an agreement, that after the
expiration of the  period, not only do the new and full
moons return on the same day of the year, but xevy near-
ly on the same  hour of the day.  This cycle was adopt-
ed by the Christians at the council of Nice, for the pur-
pose of settling the time for keeping Easter, and other
moveable feasts.  This period, however, falling short of
nineteen years  almost an hour and  a half, it has come to
pass that the  new and full moons in the heavens have an-
ticipated the new and full  moons  in the calendar of the
book  of Common Prayer four days and a half.  These
last are called  calendar new moons, to  distinguish them
from  the true new  moons in the heavens.
   It has not been without difficulty and variety that the
computation by years has been accommodated to that by
days: since a year does not consist of  any even number
of days, but of 365 days. 5 hours, and 49 minutes near-
ly. It will appear from what has been observed, that so
long as  mankind computed chiefly  hy monlbs. it was not
of much consequence to determine with exactness the
number of days in the year; and this method sufficiently
answered  every civil and  religious purpose.   But the
Egyptians, and either nations addicted to  astronomy,
wei c not satisfied with the method of computing by lunar
months, the days of which v aricd so very much from one
another in different \ ears. Tbey therefore made the v ear
the standard; and   v «jing that ?nto days, made use of
months only as a commodious intermediate division; and,
without regard to the course ofthe moon, distributed the
days ofthe year into twelve parts, as nearly equal as they
conveniently could.   By this  means the same day of the
month would fall on the same part of the sun's annual re-
volution, and therefore  would more exactly correspond
to the seasons of the year.  The Mexicans divided iheir
year into eighteen parts.
 ,The Egyptians, as  also the Chaldeans and Assyrians,
reckoned at first 360  days to the year, but afterwaeds
o65.  The consequence of  this was, that the beginning
of their year would go  back through all the season, though
slowly; namely, at the rate of about six hours every year.
Of this form too were the years  which took  their -.late
from the reign of Xabonassar of  Babylon,  Yesdiger/1 of
Persia, and the Selcucidse of Syria.
  It must  be observed, however, that the people who
reckoned their  year  from these epochas,  namely, the
Egyptians, Persians, and Jews,  as also the Arabiims, had
a different and  more fixed form of the year for astrono-
mical purposes;  but as no use was made of it in-civil his-
tory, the account of it is omitted in this place.
  The  inconvenience attending the  form  of the year
above-mentioned, was in a great  measure'  remedied  by
the Romans in the time of Julius Cajsar, who added  one
day every fourth year, which (from the place of its inser-
tion, viz. after the sixth of the calends of  March) was
called bissextile, or leap-year.   This form of the  year is
still called the Julian year.  But the true  length of the
year being  not quite six hours more than the  365 days,
this allowan-c wras too much; and pope Gregory XIII.
introduced another amendment, in the year 1582, by or-
dering that once in  133  years a day should betaken out
of the  calender, in the  follow ing manner, viz. from the
year 1600 every hundreth year (which, according to the
Julian  form, is  always bissextile or leap-year) was to be
common; but c\ery  four-hundredth year was to continue
bissextile, as in the Julian account.
  The Mahometans make their year to consist of lunar
months only, without endeavouring to adapt it  to the
course of the sun; so  that  with them  the  beginning of
the year goes  through all the seasons at the  rate of
about eleven days every year. But since the exact time
of twelve moons, besides the 354 whole days,  is about 8
hours and 48', which make 11 days in 36 years, they are
forced  to add  11 days in  30 years, which they  do  by
means of a cycle,  invented by the Arabians,  in which
there are 19 years with 3.5 1 days only, and 11 intercal-
ary of 355 days, and  they are those in which the num-
of hours and minutes more than the whole days in the
year is found to he more than half a day, such as 2, 5,'
7, 10, 13, 16,  18, 21, 24, 26, and 29, by which means
they fill up all the inequalities that can happen.
  It has been of some consequence to Christians to ad-
just the days ofthe week to the days of tbe month, and
of the year, in order  to get a rule for finding Sundav.
Had there been  no bissextile, itis evident that, since the
year consists of 52  weeks and  1  day,  all  the varieties
would  have been comprised in seven years. But the bis-
sextile returning every  fourth year, the series of domin-
ical letters succeeding each other is interrupted,  and 
CHRONOLOGY.
 does not return in order;  but after four times 7 years,
 or 28 years, which is therefore commonly called the so-
 lar cycle, serve as a rule to find Sunday, and consequent-
 ly all the days of the week of every month and year.
   Besides  the above-mentioned periods of years, called
 cycles, there are some other combinations or systems of
 years that are of use in chronology; as that called the
 imliction, which is a period of  15 years, at the  end of
 which a  certain tribute was paid by the provinces of the
 Roman empire, and by which the emperors ordered pub-
 lic acts to  be dated.
   But the  most remarkable of all the periods in chrono-
 logy, is  that called the Julian period, invented by Joseph
 Scaliger; and called Julian, from the years of which it
 consists  being  Julian years.  His object  was to reduce
 to a certainty the different methods of computing time,
 and# fixing the dates of events by different chronologers.
 For this purpose nothing was necessary but a series of
 years, some term of which was fixed (that, for instance,
 by which the present year should he denominated), com-
 prehending the  whole  extent of time; since,  if each
 chr mologer would apply that common  measure to his
 particular  scheme, they would  all perfectly  understand
 one another. To accomplish this, he combined the three
 periods of  the sun, the moon,  and the indiction, toge-
 ther; that  is, multiplying the numbers 28,  19,  and 15,
 into one another, which produces 7980; after which pe-
 riod, and not before, all the three cycles will return in
 the same order every year, being distinguished by the
 same number of each.  In order to fix the beginning of
 this period, he took the cycles as  he then  found them
 settled in the Latin church; and tracing them backwards
 through their several combinations, lie  found that the
 year in which they would all  begin together was the year
 before the  creation 714, according to Usher; and  that
 the first year of  the Christian sera  would he  4714 of
 this period. There is a farther convenience in this period,
 viz. that if any.year is divided by the number compo-
 sing the cycles, viz.  28,  19, or 15, the quotient will
 show the number ofthe eye'es  that have elapsed since
 the commencement of it, and the remainder will  give
 the yrear of the cycle, corresponding to the year given.
   We cannot help observing that this  boasted  period
 seems  to have been unnecessary for the chief purpose
 for which  it was  invented, viz. to serve as a common
 language for chronologers;   and that now little use is
 made of it, notwithstanding  all writers still  speak of it
 in the  same magnificent terms.  The vulgar Christian
 asra answers the same purpose as effectually.
  All that can be necessary  for chronologers to speak
 the same language, and be perfectly  understood by one
 another, and by all mankind, is to give every year the
 same name or designation; which is most conveniently
 done by expressing them in a series of numbers in arith-
 metical progression, any one term of wThich they shall
 agree to  affix to the same  year,  a year in which  any
 well known event happened.  Let it, for example, be that
 in which the peace of Amiens was made, and let it be
 called 1801. If, besides this,  it is only agreed in what
 part of the revolution <■!' the sun, or in wmat month and
 day, the year begins, there can be no difficulty in giving
 a name to every other year  preceding or following it,
and thereby ascertaining the interval between all trans-
actions.  For all the events that took place the year be-
fore that peace, will he referred to the year 1800, and
all in the year after it to 1802.  This period having haj
a commencement since the date of history, is no incon-
venience; for whenever we have gone back to number
1 of this  period, the year preceding it may he called one
before its commetwement, the year  preceding that tw$
before it,  kv.  and thus proceeding ad infinitum both
ways.
   That Christ might not have been born in the first of
that system of years to which it serves to give a name
is no inconvenience whatever; since, whatever differences
of opinion  there may he among chronologers about the
time when Christ was born, they all agree in calling the
present year, and consequently  every either year, bv the
same name; and therefore they have the same idea of the
interval  between the present year  and any other year in
the si stem. The real time e>f Christ's birth can no more
afreet the proper use of this system than that  of  any
other incSiiierent event; since, using the same  system of
dates,  they  may  say  Christ was born in the third,
fourth, fifth, or sixth year before the Christian sera.
   Whenever, therefore, chronologers ceased to datr
events from the Creation, which was very absurb (since
they did not agree in fixing the intervals between the
present  year and  the date of that event, and therefore
gave all  the years different names), they had no occa-
sion to have recourse to any such  period as the Julian;
since another, capable of answering the  same purposes,
was already in common  use, supplying them with a lan-
guage which they all equally understood.
   JKras or epoch as are memorable events from which
time is reckoned, and from  which  any subsequent year
receives  its denomination.  The Greeks for a long time
hau no fixed sera; afterwards they reckoned by Olym-
piads, which were games celebrated in honour of Jupiter
©nee in four years, and began in midsummer, 776 years
before Christ. The Athenians gave names to their years
from their  archons.  The  Romans called  their years
from the names of the  consuls  who presided in them;
and afterwards  they dated events from  the building of
their city, supposing it to have been built 755 years be-
fore Christ.
   Some  histories are regulated by the sera of Nahonas-
sar, who began his reign in the  year 747 before Christ,
ofthe Julian period 3867. It is supposed to have  com-
menced on the 26th of  February, in the aftenmon.
   The Jews before Christ reckoned by the year of the
Seleucidse, sometimes called the year of the Contracts;
which began in the year 312 before Christ, of the Julias
period 4402, some time in the spring.
  The Christians,  about 360 years after the birth of
Christ, began to make use of that  sera, which  is now
used in all Christian countries.
  The Mahometans reckon  their  veal's  from the flight
of Mahommcd from Mecca.  This sera is called the He-
gyra. It  began in the year 622 after Christ, of the Julias
period 5335,  on the 16th of July.
  The old Spanish sera is dated from the year 38 before
Christ, about the time whenthev were subdued by the
Romans. It was used till the year 1333, under John I. of
Castile.
  The Egyptians long reckoned from the battle of Ac- 
CHRONOLOGY.
tium, which happened in the year 31 before Christ, of
the Julian period 4681, on the 3d of September.
  Before the Christian a?ra was used, tbe Christians
for some time made use of the  Dioclesian sera, which
took  its rise from the persecution by Dioclesian, in the
year 284 after Christ.
  The sera of Yerdigerd is dated from the last king of
Persia; who was conquered by the Saracens under Abu-
becher, in  the  battle of Merga,  in the year 632 after
Christ, ofthe Julian period 5 345, on the 16th of June.
   With regard to all these methods of denominating time,
care must betaken that the  ear be reckoned  according
to the method of computation followed by the people who
use it.  Thus, in reckoning from the  Hegyra, a person
would be led into a mistake who should make those years
correspond to Julian years. He must deduct eleven days
from every year which has elapsed since the commence-
ment of it.  Thus, though the first year of this sera cor-
responded to the year 622 after Christ, and began on the
16th of July, the year 326 ofthe Hegyra corresponded to
the year 937 of Christ, and began November 8:  and the
year of the Hegyra 655 commenced on the 19th of Janua-
ry, 1257.
   This compendium of  chronology is sufficient for  the
purpose of reading history, but is by no means a complete
account ofthe methods of computing time in every parti-
cular country which has been mentioned.  To have done
this, would have carried us beyond our  present purpose,
and too far into tbe customs of particular countries. For
a fuller account, the reader may he referred to Dr. Blair,
and other chronologers.
             PROBLEMS IPf  CHRONOLOGY.
   1.  To find whether any given year be leap-year.
   Rule.—Div ide the given year by 4: if 0 remains, it is
leap-year; hut if 1,2, 3, remains, it is  so many years af-
ter.
   Every fourth year is leap-year, so called from leaping
or  advancing a day more that year than any  other; that
year has then 366 days in it, and February 29.
   2.  To find the, dominical letter before the year 1800.
   Rule.—To the given year add its fourth part, omitting
fractions; divide that sum by 7; the remainder taken from
7 leaves the index of the letter in the common year's reck-
oning.
              12   3  4   5  6   7
              A  B  C  D  E  F   G
But in leap-years this letter and its preceding one (in the
retrograde order which these letters take) are the domin-
ical letters.
   The dominical letter i-; that letter of the alphabet which
points out in the  calendar the Sundays throughout  the
year; thence also called I be Sunday letter. Of these let-
ters there arc consequently seven before nient' >ned, be-
ginning with the  first letter of the alphabet; and as  in
leap-year there is an intercalary da;., there are then two;
one' serving January and February, and its following let-
ter tbe remaining part of the year.
   3.  To know on what  day in the week any proposed
day ofthe month will fill.
   Rule. Kirst find the dominical letter, then the day of
the- week the lirsi ofthe proposed month falls on, which
is known by the two following lines:
     VOL. I.             68
       At Dover Dwell George Brown, Esquire,
       Good  Christopher Finch, and David 1'rier:
where the first letter of eac b word answers to  the letter
belonging to the first day of the months in  order, from
January to December.  If I would know on  what (\t\x of
tbe week the 24th of June will be this year (1806,) I find
the dominical letter is  E, and by the  lines just read, E
is the first of June, which is, of course, Sunday; the 22d
also is Sunday, therefore the 24th will be a Tuesday.
  4. To find*the year ofthe solar, lunar or golden num-
ber, and indiction cycles.
  Rule. To the given year add 9 for the solar, 1 for flip
lunar, 3 for the indiction: divide the sums in order by
28, 19,  and 1j. the remainder in  each shows the years
of its  respective cycle.
  The solar cycle, or the cycle ofthe sun, is a period of
28 years; in which time all the varieties of the dominical
letters will have happened,  and the 29th  year the cycle
begins again, when the same order of the letters will re*
turn as were 28 years before.
  At the birth of Christ, nine  years had passed in this
cycle.
  The lunar cycle, or cycle of the moon, or golden num-
ber, is a period of 19 yeai-sj containing all the variations
of the days on which the new  and full moons happen,
after whi b time they fall on the same days  they did 19
years before, and she begins again  with the sun.
  But when a centesimal or hundredth year falls in the
cycle, the new and full moon, according to the new style,
will fall a day later than otherwise.  The birth of Christ
happened in the second  year of this cycle.
  The Roman indictionis a cycle of 15 years, which first
began the third year before Christ.
  5. To find the epact till the year 1900.
  Rule. Multiply the golden number for the given year
by  11$ divide that product by 30, and from the remainder
take 11, leaves the epact. If the remainder is less than
11, add 19 to it, and the sum will be the epact.
  6. To find the moon's age.
  Rule.  To the  epact  add  the number and day  of the
month;  their sum, if under 30, is the moon's age.  But
if that sum is above 30,  the excess in month of ."51 (ivy a,
or the excess above 29  in a month of  30 die  >, sh >vvs
the age or days since the last conjunction.
  The moon's age taken from  30, leaves  the day of the
next new moon.
  When the solar and lunar cycles begin together, tbe
moon's age on the first of each month,  >r ti..  m .nt ily
epacts,  are called the numbers of the month, and are  as
follows, viz.
    For  Jan.  Feb.   March.   April.  May.  June.
These  0.    2.      1.      2.       3.*    4.
    For July. Aug.  Sept.    Oct.   Nov.   Dec.
These   5.     6.      7.       S.       P.     10.
  7. To find  when Eastcr-day will happen.
  Rule.  Find on what day of March the new moon f  lh
nearest to the 21st in common years, or nearest the 2wth
in leap-years; then the Sunday next after the full, or 15th
day of that new moon, will be Easter day.
  If the 15th day falls  on a Sunday, the next Sunday is
Easter-day.
  Among the earliest writers  on chron  logv,  after the
discovery of printing, wasPaulus OonstantiVusPhrvgi >, 
CHRONOLOGY.
whose " Chronicon Regum Rcgnorumque omnium" was
pri.Me 1 at Basil in 1534. A second was Bibliandcr's work,
in 1558; andathird,Eggard's"Tabulae Chronologicse,"
printed at Rostock, 1577.  Among the most  valliable
which are now in use upon the continent, are the tables
of Du Frcsnoy and Berger, both originally published in
1719.  The title only of the latter, we believe, (*• Syn-
ch vonistische Universal Historie,") is known in England;
bul  those ofthe  former have been long received in credit;
although they are now superseded not only by Dr. Blair's
Tables, but by professor Playfair's System of Chronolo-
gy, 1784.
  The following, as the greater epochs in the chronolo-
gy of history, have been selected from Dr. Blair.  Tbe
history of the intervals may be easily supplied by the
memory of a retentive reader.
  [In order to render  the  work more interesting to his
patrons, the American editor lias introduced the most re-
markable  events contained in  the history of America,
and continued the table from  1805, to the present peri-
od, (a)
Before Christ.
4004  Creation ofthe world
3875  The murder of Abel
3874  The birth of Seth
3017  Enoch translated
2348  The deluge
2247  The tower of Babel built
2000  The birth of Abraham
1921  The covenant made with Abraham
1728  Joseph sold into Egypt
1689  The death of Jacob
1635  The death of Joseph, which concludes the book of
        Genesis
1574  The birth of Aaron
1571  The birth of Moses
1491  God's appearance to  Moses in the burning bush
1451  The Israelites under Joshua pass the river Jordan
1285  Deborah defeats the Canaanites
1263  The Argonautie expedition undertaken
1236  The death of Gideon
1188  Jephthah's vow
1184  Troy taken
1117  Sampson  betrayed to the Philistines
1104  The return ofthe Heraclidse to Peloponnesus
1095  The Israelites ask for a king—Saul anointed
1070  Athens governed by archons
1048  Jerusalem taken by David
1044  The migration of the Ionic colonies from Greece
1023 'Absalom's rebellion
1004  Solomon's dedication of the temple
  926  The birth of Lycurgus
  907  Homer supposed to have flourished
  897  The death of Ahab
  896  Elijah's translation
  814  The kingdom of Macedon begins
  800 Jonah prophesies
  790 Amos
  785 Hosea
  758 Nahum
  757 Isaiah, who prophesied above sixty years
  754 Micah prophesies
  753 The sera of the building of Rome
Before Christ.
 750 The rape ofthe Sabines
 731 Habakkuk prophesies
 721 Samaria taken—The first eclipse of the moon upon
        record
 710 Senacherib's army destroyed
 696 Isaiah the prophet put to death
 686 Archilochus the poet flourishes
 677 The combat of the Horatii and Curiatii
 658 Byzantium built
 627 Jeremiah prophesies
 628 Zephaniah
 623 Draco establishes his laws at Athens
 605 The beginning of the captivity
 600 Sappho flourishes
 593 Ezekiel prophesies
 591 Institution of the Pythian games
 587 Jerusalem taken by Nebuchadnezzar
 560 Pisistratus usurped the tyranny of Athens
 558 Daniel prophesies
 539 Pythagoras flourishes
 536 Cyrus gives an edict for the return ofthe Jews
 528 Haggai prophesies
 527 Zechariah
 525 Cambyscs conquers Egypt
 520 Confucius flourishes
 515 The temple of Jerusalem finished
 509 The consular government begins at Rome
 490 The battle of Marathon
 480 The defeat of Salamis
 458 Ezra flourishes
 456 Nehemiah the prophet
 451 Laws of the twelve tables  compiled
 445 Herodotus reads his history at Athens
 431 Beginning ofthe Peloponnesian war
 430 About this time the history ofthe Old Testament
        finishes
 401 The retreat of the 10,000 Greeks under Xenophon.
        5"he thirty  tyrants expelled  from Athens by
        Thrasybulus.
 398 The military catapultse invented
 390 Plato made his first voyage into  Sicily
 357 Dionysius the tyrant expelled Syracuse
 343 The war between the Romans and Samnites
 340 The Carthaginians defeated by Timoleon
 336 Philip of Macedon killed by Pausanias
 327 Alexander's expedition into India
 323 The death of Alexander
 322 Demosthenes put to death by  Antipatcr
 296 Athens taken by Demetrius Poliorcetes
 286 Lysimachus takes possession  of Macedon
 284 The  septuagint translation of the Old Testament
        thought to have been made
 278 The  Gauls under Brennus cut to pieces
 264 The  beginning of the first Punic  war
 260 The  Carthaginians defeated at sea by the Romans
 256 Regulus defeated by the  Carthaginians
 241 Agis, king of Sparta, put to death
 235 The temple of Janus shut the first time after Numa
 224 The  colossus of Rhodes thrown down by  an earth-
        quake
 218 The  second Punic war begins—Annibal passes the
        Alps 
CHRONOLOGY.
Before Christ.
 216 The battle of C amirs
 212 Syracuse,  taken by Marcellus
 202 Annibal defeated at Zama
 200 The first  Mae ed inian war begins
 190 Tbe first  Roman army enters Asia
 187 Antiochus the Great defeated and killed
 167 The first  library erected at Rome
 149 The third Punic war begins
 146 Carthage destroyed by I'ublius  Scipio
 137 Ptolemy  Pbryocon began a new  restoration of
        learning at Alexandria
 116 Cleopatra assumes the government of Egypt
 107  Cicero born
 101  Marius and Catullus defeat the Cimbri
  100 The birth of Julius Csesar
   99  Lusitania conquered by the Romans
   89  The Mithridatic war begins
   81  Cicero made bis first oraliem
   66  Mithridates defeated by Poinpey
   65 The reign of the Seleuciche ends in Syria
   63  Cataline's conspiracy detected
   55  Cassar's first expedition ag.iinst Britain
   50 Cesar besieges Pompey in Brundusiuiu
   48 The battle of Pbarsalia
   44 Ciesar killed  in the senate-bouse
   40 Jerusalem occupied by Antigonus
   31  The battle, of Actium: Marc Antony and Cleopa-
        tra defeated
   25 Tbe Egyptians adopt the  Julian year
    8 Augustus corrects the calendar
    4 Our Saviour's birth: four  years before the common
        sera.
                  CHRISTIAN  -ERA.
 After Christ.
    8 Our Saviour disputes with  the Jewish doctors
   14  Augustus dies at Nola
   17 Twelve cities in Asia destroyed by an earthquake
   26 St. John  tbe Baptist enters on his ministry
   27 John baptizes our Saviour
   33 Our Saviour's crucifixion
   36 St. Paul  converted
   57 Tib"rius  dies  at Misenum
   39 S'. Matthew writes his gospel
   43 Claudius's expedition into Britain
   44 St. Mark wrote his gospel
   51  C.iraetacus carried in chains to Rome
   52 The « mn il ofthe Apostles at Jerusalem
   54 The death of Claudius
   59 N'ero puts his mother Agrippinato death
   61  Boa.'licea, the British queen, defeats the Romans
   62 St. Paul s nt in bonds te) Rime
   64  The first persecution against the christians
   66 The Jewish war begins
   67 St. Peter and St. Paul put to death
   70 Titus destroys Jerusalem
   9."i  The second persecution against the christians
  102 PI ny the Younger sends Trajan  his  celebrated
        account ofthe christians
  107 The third pcrsivution against the christians
  118 The fourth persecution  against the christians
  130 Adrian rebuilds Jerusalem
  135 Conlisi  mi of t'i e Jewish war, when the Jews were
        all banished Judea
After Christ.
 146 The worship of Serapis introduced at Rome
 202 The fifth persecution against the christians
 235 The sixth persecution against the christians
 250 The seventh persecution
 252 A great pestilence in the Roman empire
 257 The eighth persecution of the christians
 269 Zenobia takes possession of Egypt
 272 The ninth persecution against the christians
 293 Carausius killed by Alectus
 286 The Roman empire attacked by the northern na-
       tions. Carausius reigns in Britain.
 303 The tenth persecution against the christians
 312 Maxentius defeated by Constantine
 319 Constantine begins to favour the christians
 525 The first general council of Nice
 340 The death of Constantine the Great
 343 Persecution of the christians in  Persia
 364 The Roman empire  divided into the eastern  and
       western
 388 The tv rant Maximus defeated
 406 The Vandals, Alans, and Suevi, spread into France
       and Spain
 410 Rome taken and plundered by Alaric
 4 20 The kingdom ofthe French begins upon the lower
        Rhine
 426 The Romans leave Britain
 435 The Theodosian codex published
 449 The Saxons arrive in Britain
 452 The city of Venice takes its rise
 455 Rome taken by Genseric
 475 lleiigist's massacre  ofthe British ni.bles
 476 The western empire finishes
 493 The kingdom of Italy passes from the Heruli to the
        Ostro-Goths
 496 Clovis baptized, and Christianity  embraced in
        France
 510 Paris made the capital ofthe French dominions
 511 Arthur defeatsthc Saxons in the battle of Badon-hill
 516 The  computing of time hy  the  christian sera in-
        troduced by Diouysius
 529 The code of Justinian published
 533 Tbe digest of Justinian published
 536 Rome taken by  Belisari.is
 551 The  manufacture of  silk introduced into  Europe
        from India hy some monks
 558 A terrible plague all  over Europe, Asia,  and Af-
        rica, which continues near fifty years
 580  Cosroes the Great defeated, and dies of grief
 597  Augustin the monk arrives in England
 606 The power of the popes begins
 622 The Hegira of Mahomet begins
 637 Jerusalem taken by the Saracens
 640 Alexandria taken hy the Saracens, and the great
        library there burnt
 653 Tbe Saracens take Rhodes, and cut to pieces the
        famous colossus
 709  Ina, king of Wcssex, publishes his  laws
 748  The computing of years from  the birth of Christ
        began to be used in liistories about this time
 750  The Merovingian race ends in  France
 751  The second race of the French kings begins with
        Pepin, suriiamed the little
 762  Bagdad built hy Ahnansor 
CHRONOLOGY.
After Christ.
 774  Pavia taken by Charlemagne
 778 The battle of Roncevaux -
 800 The emperors ofthe West, or of Germany, begin
 822 The Saracens besiege Constantinople
 810 A civil war among the Saracens
 828 The heptarchy of England united under Egbert
 838 The Picts defeated by the Scots
 840 The death of Lewis the Debonnaire
 843 The French  peers make a  new division of the
       French dominions
 853 The Normans get possession of some  cities  in
       > ranee
 867 The Danes conquer Northumberland
 872  Alfred defeated by the Danes
 878  Alfred conceals himself in Arthelney
 879  The kingdom of Aries begins
 886  The university  of Oxford  said  to have   been
       founded
 888  The dominions of Charles le Gros divided into five
       kingdoms
 904  The Hungarians ravage Italy
 912  The Normans establish themselves  in France un-
       der Rollo
 936  The Saracen empire divided by usurpation into
       seven kingdoms
 964  The kingdom of Italy conquered by Otho
  987 The third race of the French kings begins under
       Hugh  Capet
 996  Otho III. makes the empire of Germany elective
 1013  The Danes, under Sueno, get possession of Eng-
       land
 1035  The kingdoms of Castile and Arragon begin
 1043  The Turks take possession of Persia
 1065  Jerusalem taken by the Turks from the  Saracens
 1066  The conquest of England under William duke of
       Normandy
 1080  The Domesday survey compiled
 1096  The first crusade to the Holy Land
 1110  Learning revived  at the university of Cambridge
 1118  The order of the knights templars instituted
 1140  King Stephen defeated  and taken prisoner in the
       battle of Lincoln
 1146  The empress Matilda retires out of  England
 1147  The second crusade
 1151  The canon law composed by  Gratian
 1154  The party names of Guelfs and Gibhelines begin
 1162  The emperor Frederick destroys Milan
 1172  Henry II. takes possession of Ireland
 1177  Saladin repulsed before Jerusalem
 1189  The kings of England and France go to the Holy
       Land
 1192 Richard Coeur de Lion defeats Saladin at Ascalon
 1204  Normandy conquered, and re-united to France
 1215  Magna Charta signed by king John
 1227  The Tartars  under Gingis-kan over-run the Sara-
       cen empire
 1233  The inquisition trusted to the Dominicans
 1253  The famous astronomical tables are composed by
       Alfonso XL king of Castile
 1273  The empire of the present Austrian family begins
 1279  The mortmain-act passed in England
 V2S3  WTales conquered by Edward the First
After Christ.
1293 The regular succession of the English parliaments
       begins
1307 The beginning ofthe Swiss cantons
1310 The knights of St. John take Rhodes
1312 The knights templars condemned
1346 The battle of Cressy
1349 The order of the garter instituted
1352 The Turks enter Europe
1356 The battle of Poietiers
1381 Wat Tyler's insurrection
1388 The battle of Otterburn
1414 The council of Constance
1440 The art of printing discovered
1455 The battle of St. Albans
1471 The battle of Tewksbury
1478 Lorenzo de Medici expelled Florence
1485 The battle of Bosworth
1492 Columbus discovers America
1497 The Portuguese first sail to the East Indies
1498 North America discovered by Cabot
1508 The league of Cambray formed
1517 The Reformation begun by Luther
1522 Rhodes taken by the Turks
1527 Rome taken by Charles V.
1534 The Reformation takes place in England
1545 The council of Trent begins
1571 The victory of Lc-panto obtained
1572 The massacre of Paris
1582 Pope  Gregory introduces the new style
1587 Mary queen of Scots beheaded
1588 The destruction  ofthe Spanish armada
1596 Cadiz taken by  the English
1604 Ostend taken by the Spaniards
1608 The invention ofthe telescope
1609 New York discovered by Henry  Hudson
1614 Napier invents the logarithms
1616 Tobacco first cultivated in Virginia
1618 The synod  of Dort begins
1619 Harvey discovers the circulation of the blood
1621 The civil wrar with the Huguenots in France
1623 The first literary production, by an English colon-
       ist, in America, being a translation of Ovid's
       Metamorphoies, by George Sandays, treasurer
       of the Virginia company
1628 Salem, Massachusetts, founded
1629 Nine  members  imprisoned  for their  speeches in
       the house of commons
1634 Maryland settled by Lord Baltimore
1635 Providence Plantation begun by Roger Williams
1639 First Printing Press in North America establish-
       ed  at Cambridge
1640 The Scots army enters  England
1642 King Charles demands the five members
1645 The baffle of Naseby
1649 King Charles beheaded
1652 The first war between the English and Dutch be-
       gins
1660 The restoration of Charles II.
1661 The Testament translated into the Indian language
       and printed—The Bible  was completed about
       eight years afterwards
1662 The Royal Society established 
CHRONOLOGY.
After Christ.
1680 The great comet observed
1681 Grant of Pennsylvania to Wm. Penn
1682 Wm. Penn arrives in America, and lands at New
        Castle—City of Philadelphia laid out
1683 Loid Russel beheaded
1687 The first Printing Press established in Philadel-
        phia
1688 The Revolution in England
1692 The sea-fight of La  Hogue
1693 The government  of  Pennsylvania assumed by the
        king and queen of England
1694 The government of Pennsylvania restored to Win.
        Penn
1704 The first news-paper published in America, called
        the Boston News Letter—Gibraltar taken by
        admiral Rook
1706 The battle of Ramillies
1709 The battle of Pultowa
1718 William Penn, the founder of Pennsylvania,  dieiL
        aged 74 years
1719 The first news-paper printed in Philadelphia, cal-
        led the American  Weekly Mercury
1720 The South Sea scheme begins
1727 The siege of Gibraltar by the Spaniards
1750 The interest on the public funds reduced to three
        per cent.
1752 The  new style  introduced  into Great  Britain—
        Franklin's electrical discovery
1753 The University of Pennsylvania founded
1766 The American stamp-act repealed
1768 Circular letters against the duties lately imposed,
        sent by Massachusetts to the other colonies—The
        circular letter of Massachusetts gives great of-
        fence to the English  ministers.  The house of
        representatives of that colony arc required to
        rescind the resolution  which authorised it—She
        refuses to rescind  her resolutions—August 4, the
        governor of Massachusetts dissolves the general
        assembly—Sept.   22,   convention meet at Bos-
        ton—28, two  British  regiments arrive at Bos-
        ton from Halifax—Great offence is given to the
        inhabitants of the town, by their being quartered
        in the state  house, and  in other public  buildings.
        The council also re (uses to  provide barracks for
        them
1769 The Massachusetts legislature refuses to make pro-
        vision lor quartering the troops.  On this the go-
        vernor prorogues it to the 10th of January—The
        American  Philosophical Society  instituted—its
        meetings to he held in  Philadelphia—August 15,
        Bonaparte born at Ajaccio in Corsica
1770 March 5, massacre' at Boston—April 22, the duties
        repealed, with  fhe exception of three pence per
        pound on tea.  This occasions an  agreement not
        to make use of tea until the duty thereon should
        be repealed
1772 The Gasper armed schooner burnt hy the  inhabi-
        tants of Provide nee, Rhode Island—The revolu-
        tion in Denmark
1773 The order ofthe Jesuits suppressed
1774 September 5,  the first continental congress meet at
        Philadelphia
Af .er Christ.
1775 The American war commences with Great Britain—-
        Aprill9, battle e»f Lexington, between a detach-
        ment of B ritlsh and Americans. The ob ject of
        the  British was to destroy the military stores
        collected  at Concord, in which they succeeded.
        On their return to Boston, they were very much
        harrassed by the Americans. The loss ofthe Bri-
        tish was 65 killed, 180 wounded, and 28 prisoners.
        The loss ofthe Provincials, or Americans was
        50 killed, 34 wounded, and 4 missing—An army
        of upwards of 20,000 Americans assembled near
        Boston—May  15. congress establishes a paper
        currency—June 14, general Washington appoint-
        ed commander in chief of the forces ofthe confe-
        derated colonies  by the general congress—17.
        Battle of Breeds, or Bunker's Hill, in which the
        Americans, after having twice repulsed the at-
        tacks of the British, are forced to retreat over the
        Charlestow n neck, for want of powder.  The loss
        ofthe British was 226 killed and 828 wounded.
        The Americans had 139 killed, and 314 wounded
        and missing
1776  May 15, congress abolishes the authority of Great
        Britain over the colonies—July 4, the Indepen-
        dence ofthe colonies is declared hy congress, and
        first styled the United States by a resolution of
        congress—December  28, congress  resolves  to
        send commissioners to the courts of Vienna, Mad-
        rid, Prussia and Tuscany
1777  September 11, the battle of Brandywine—27, the
        British general Howe takes possession of Phila-
        delphia—October 17, British general Burgoyne
        surrenders his army, upwards of 5000 men, pri-
        soners to general  Gates
1778  February 6, treaty of commerce  and alliance con-
        cluded between France and the United States-
        June 18, Philadelphia evacuated by the British
1779  The siege of Gibraltar begun
1780  The riots in London
1781  October 19.  Lord Cornwallis surrenders bis army
        to the  Americans  and French—the  prisoners
        amounted to 7073 men
1782  March 4, Resolution of the House of Commons
        against carrying  on  the war in America—No-
        vember 30, provisional  articles of peace agreed
        on—The Bank of North America established—
        The sea-fight under Rodney
1783  The preliminaries of a general peace signed. Ame-
        rica declared Independent—The Independence of
        the United States acknowledged by tbe powers of
        Europe, and treaties concluded with tbein in the
        months of February, March.  April  and July—
        September 23. the definitive treaty of peace signed
        between Great Britain and the United States
1786  September 14, the first meeting of the commission-
        ers in convention, at Annapolis, for the purpose
        of forming a federal constitution
1787  September 17, the federal constitution formed 'by
        the convention assembled at Philadelphia
1789  The revolution in France  begins
1791  March 3, congress establishes a  mint at Philadel-
        phia—Washington City founded 
C  H R
CUR
After Christ.
1793 Above 4000 people die this year ofthe yello.v fever
        in Philadelphia—Louis XVI. beheaded
1794 An insurrection takes place in the western part of
        Pennsylvania on account of duties being laid on
        spirituous liquors  distilled in the country—No-
        vember  19,  Treaty of  commerce between  the
        United States and Great Britain signed at Lon-
        don
1796  Bonaparte appointed to the command of the army
        of Italy
1797  May 16, the French take possession of Verona
1798  May 20, Bonaparte sails for Egypt—About 3000
        people in Philadelphia and 1000 in New York die
        of the Yellow Fever this year—The battle of the
        Nile
1799  Bonaparte made first consul of France—February
        10, the American commodore Truxton, command-
        ing the Constellation, takes the French frigate
        Insurgent—March 26, a treaty of peace conclud-
        ed between the United  States  and Tunis—Au-
        gust 23, Bonaparte sails from Egypt for France
        —November 9, Bonaparte dissolves the conven-
        tional government
1800  Seat of government of the United States  removed
        to Washington
 1802 Definitive treaty between  England and France—
        August 20,  Swiss form of government changed
        by the interference of the  French
 1803 May 18, England declares war against France—
        April 30,  Louisiana purchased of France by the
        United States for 15,000,000 dollars
 1804 The attack  on Tripoli by the Americans under the
        command of commodore Preble—May 18, Bona-
        parte made emperor—November 19, Bonaparte
        crowned by the Pope
 1805 The victory off Trafalgar—April  11, treaty of Pe-
        tersburg, between England, Russia, Austria and
        Sweden—May 26, Bonaparte declared  king of
        Italy—December 9, Battle of Austerlitz
 1806 September 24, Bonaparte  marches against Prussia
        —May, a great part of the French coast dec far-
        ed to be  in a state of blockade by the English
        government—November, the Berlin decree of the
        emperor of France, declaring the British islands
        in a state of blockade
 1807 December 17, the Milan decrees ofthe emperor of
        France—22, a general embargo law  passed by
        congress
 1808 July 7, Bonaparte declared king of Spain
 1809 April 6, war declared by Austria—Embargo law
        repealed
 1810 By the  census taken this  year the inhabitants  of
        the United States amounted to 7,239,903
 1812 June 18, war declared against Great Britain by
        the United States—23, British orders  in council
        revoked—August 13, the  British sloop of  war
        Alert of 20 guns taken by the U. S. frigate Essex
        —September 7, battle of Moskwa, or Borodina
        ■—14, French enter Moscow—October 22, evacu-
        ate it again
 1813  May 16, Messrs. Gallatin and Bayard, commis-
        sioners to negociate with  Great Britain, under
        the mediation of the  emperor of Russia, sailed
After Christ.
        from New Castle, Delaware—June 4, armistice
        agreed on—September28, Bonaparte evacuated
        Dresden—October 18, battle cd'  Lcipsie— De-
        cember 1, declaration of  the allies at Frankfort
1814  February 26, the Hon. Messrs. Clay and Russel,
        commissioners to treat with Great Britain, take
        their departure at New York in the corvette John
        Adams, to join the American commissioners pre-
        viously sent to Gottenburgh—March 31,  Allies
        enter Paris—April 11, Bonaparte abdicates the
        throne—May 8, arrives at Elba—December 24,
        treaty of peace between  the United States and
        Great Britain signed at  Ghent,  and ratified at
        Washington February 17, 1815
1815  February 26, Bonaparte left Elba—March 20, en-
        ters  Paris without  bloodshed, and  re-assends
        the French throne—June 18, battle of Waterloo,
        in  which the French army was  completely de-
        feated—July 4, Bonaparte abdicates uncondition-
        ally the throne of France, and surrenders him-
        self to the British government—Aug. 5th,  sailed
        from Plymouth, England, for  St.  Helena,  to
        which  he was condemned by the British Board
        of  Admiralty

   CHRONOMETER, in general, denotes  any instru-
ment, or machine, used in measuring time. See Clock-
work.
   Several  machines have been invented for measuring
time, under the  name  of chronometers,  upon principle's
very  different from those on  which clocks and watches
are constructed.  The lamp   chronometer consists of a
chamber-lamp, which is a cylindrical vessel  about three
inches high,  and  one inch  diameter,  placed in a  stand.
The inside of this vessel must be  every where exactly of
the same diameter. To the stand is fixed a handle  which
supports a frame, about twelve  inches  high, anil four
wide.  This frame is  to be covered with oiled  paper,
and divided into twelve equal  parts by horizontal  lines;
at the end of which  are  written the numbers fertile
hours,  from 1  to 12,  and between the  horizontal lines
are diagonals that are  divided into halves, quarters, cScc.
On the handle, and close to the glass, is fixed a style or
gnomon. Now as the distance of the style from filename
ofthe lamp is  only half an  inch, if the distance  of the
frame from the style is only six  inches, then, while the
float that contains the  light descends  by the decrease of
the oil one inch, the shadow  of  the style on the  frame
will ascend twelve inches, that is, its whole length, and
show by its progression the regular increase ofthe hours
with their  several divisions.  It is absolutely necessary,
however, that the oil used in this lamp should be always
of the same sort, and  quite pure, and that the wick  al-
so  be constantly of the same size  and substance; as it is
on these  circumstances,  and the uniform figure  of the
vessel, that the regidar progress ofthe shadow depends.
   CHROSTASIMA, in natural history, a genus of  pel-
lucid gems, comprehending all those which appear of one
simple and pennen nt  colour in  all lights: such are the
diamond, carbuncle, ruby,  garnet, amethyst, sapphire,
beryl, emerald, and the topaz.
   CHRYSALIS, or  Aurelia,  in natural  history, a
state of rest and seeming insensibility, which butterflies, 
C  H  R
C  II  R
moths, and several  other  kinds of  insects, must pass
through before they arrive  at their winged or most per-
fect state. In this state, no creatures afford so beautiful a
variety as the butterfly kinds, and they all pass through
this middle state without one exception.  The figure ofthe
aurelia  or chrysalis  generally  approaches to that ofa
cone; or at least the hinder  part  of it is in this shape; and
the creature,  while  in this state, seems to have neither
legs nor wings, nor  to  have any power of walking. It
seems indeed to have hardly so much as life. It takes no
nourishment in this state, nor has it any organs for tak-
ing any; and indeed its posterior part is all that seems
animated, this  having a power of giving itself some mo-
tions. The external covering of the chrysalis is membra-
naceous, and considerably  large, and is usually smooth
and glossy: but some of them have a few hairs: some are
also as hairy as the cattcrpiliars from which they arc pro-
duced; and others arc rough or  shagreened all  over. In
all of these there  may be distinguished two sides; the one
of which is the back, the other  the belly of the animal.
On the anterior part of the latter, there may always be
distinguished certain little  elevations running in ridges,
and resembling the  fillets  wound about mummies: the
part whence these have their origin is esteemed  the head
ofthe animal. The other side, or back,  is smooth, and of
a rounded figure in most of  the chrysalises;  but some
have ridges on the  anterior part, and  sides of this part:
and these usually  terminate in a point, and make an an-
gular appearance on  the chrysalis.
   From this difference is drawn  the first general distinc-
tion of ihese bodies.   Tiny are by this divided  into two
classes; the round and the angular kinds. There are also
several  subordinate  distinctions of these kinds; but, in
general, they are less different  from one another than
the cattcrpillars whence they are produced.  The head of
those ofthe first  class usually terminates itself by  two
angular parts,  which stand separate one from  another,
and resemble a pair of horns.  On  the  back, eminences
and marks are  discovered,  which imagination may form
into eyes, nose, chin, and other parts ofthe human face.
   There are a great variety and  a great deal of .beauty
in the figures and arrangement ol  the eminences and spots
on the other parts of the body ofthe chrysalises of differ-
ent kinds.  It is a  general observation, that those chrysa-
lises which are  terminated  by a single horn, afford day-
butterflies ofthe kind of those which have buttoned anten-
nae, and the wings of which, in a state of rest, cover the
under part of their body, and which use all their six legs
in walking, those of many other kinds  using only four
of them. Those chrysalises  which are terminated by two
angular  bodies,  and which  are covered with a great
number of spines,  and have  the figure of a human face on
their back in the greatest perfection, afford butterflies of
the day-kind;  and of that class the characters of  which
are. their walking on four legs, and using the other two,
that is. the anterior part, in the manner of arms or hands.
The chrysalises which have two angular bodies on their
heads, but shorter than those ofthe preceding, and whose
hack  shows but a faint  sketch of the  human face, and
which have fewer spines, and those less sharp, always
turn to that sort of butterfly the  upper wings of  which
are divided into segments,  one of which is so long as to
represent a tail, and whose under wings are folded over
the upper part of the back. A careful observation will
establish many  more rules of  this kind, which are not
so perfect as to be free from all exceptions;  yet  are of
great use, as they teach us in general what  sort of fly
vvc are to expect from the chrysalis, of  which we know
not the catterpillar, and therefore can only judge from
appearances. These are the principal differences of the
angular chrysalises; the round ones also have their dif-
ferent marks not less regular than those.
  The greater number of  the round chrysalises  have
the hinder part of  their body of the figure of a cone;
hut the upper end, which ought to be its circular plane
base, is usually bent and  rounded into a sort of knee;
tins is usually called the head of the chrysalis; but there
are also some of this knid,  the  head of which is termina-
ted by a nearly plane surface:  some ofthe creeping ten-
legged caterpillars give chrysalises of this kind,  which
have  each of them  two eminences that seem to bring
them towards the angular kind.
  Among the angular chrysalises there  are some whose
colours seem as worthy our observation  as the shapes of
the others. Many of them  appear superbly  clothed in
gold. These elegant species have obtained the name of
chrysalis and aurelia, which are derived from  Greek and
Latin words, signifying gold; and from these all other
bodies of the same kind have been called by the same
names, though less, or not  at all, entitled to them. Some
are all  over of  an  elegant green, as is the chrysalis of
the fennel caterpillar; others of an  elegant yellow; and
some of a bright greenish tinge, variegated with spots of
a shining black;  we have a very beautiful  instance of
this kind in  the chrysalis of the cabbage-caterpillar. The
general colour of the chrysalis  of the common butterflies,
however, is  brown.
  The several species of insects, as a fly, spider, and an
ant, do not differ more evidently from one another in re-
gard to appearance, than do a  caterpillar, its chrysalis,
and a butterfly  produced from it; yet it is  certain, that
these are all the product of the same individual egg; and
nothing  is more certain, than  that  the  creature  which
was  for  a while a caterpillar,  is, after a certain time, a
chrysalis, and then a butterfly.   These  great changes
produced in so sudden a manner, seem like the meta-
morphoses recorded in the fables of the ancients; and in-
deed it is not improbable'  that those fables  first  took
their origin  from such changes.
  The parts being  distinguishable in the chrysalis, we
easily find the difference of the species ofthe fly that  is
to proceed from  it.  The naked eye shows whether it is
one of those that have, or  those that  have not, a trunk;
and the assistance of a microscope shows the antennae so
distinctly, that we are able  to discern whether it belongs
to tbe day or light class; and often to what genus, if
not the very species: nay, in the plumose horned  kinds,
we may see, by the antennae,  whether a male- or  1'cmJe
phalaena is to be produced  from the chrv salis; the horns
ofthe female being in this si He evidently narrower, and
appearing less elevated above the  common surface ofthe
body, than those ofthe male. All these parts of tbe chry-
salis, how ever, though seen very distinc tlv, are laid close
In one another, and seem to form  only .me mass; each of
them is covered  with its own  peculiar membrane in this
state, and all arc surrounded together by a common one; 
C  H  R
C  H R
and it is only through these that we see them; or rather
we sec on these the figures of all the parts moulded with-
in,  and  therefore it requires attention to distinguish
them.  The chrysalis is soft when first produced, and is
wetted on the front with a viscous liquor; its skin, though
very tender at  first, dries and hardens by degrees: but
this vicious  liquor, which surrounds the wings, legs, Sec.
hardens almost immediately; and in consequence fastens
all those limbs, &c. into a mass, which were before loose
from  one another: this   liquor,  as it hardens, loses its
transparency,  and becomes brown;  so that  it is  only
while it is yet moist that these parts  arc to be seen dis-
tinct.
  It is evident from the whole, that  the chrysalis  is no
other than a butterfly, the parts of wdiich are hidden un-
der certain  membranes which fasten them together; and,
when the limbs  are arrived at  their due strength,  they
become able to break through these membranes, and ex-
pand and arrange themselves in their proper order. The
first  metamorphosis, therefore, differs in nothing  from
the second,  except that the butterfly comes from the bo-
dy of the caterpillar in a weak state, with limbs unable to
perform their offices, whereas it comes from the chrysalis
perfect.
   Mr. Reaumur,  in his  History of Insects, vol.  1. has
given many curious particulars on the structure  and use
ofthe several coverings that attend the varieties of the
caterpillar kind in this state. These creatures in general
remain wholly immoveable, and seem  to have no business
in it but a patient attendance on the time when they are
to become butterflies; and this is a change that can hap-
pen to them, only  as their parts, before extremely soft and
weak,  are capable of  hardening and becoming firm by
 degrees,  by the transpiration of that  abundant humidity
 which before kept them soft; and this is proved by an ex-
 periment of Mr. Reaumur,  who, inclosing some chrysa-
 lises in a glass tube, found, after some time,  a small
quantity  of water at the  bottom of it; which  could have
 come there no other way, but from the body of the inclos-
 ed animal.  This  transpiration depends greatly  on the
 temperature ofthe air; it  is increased by heat, and dimin-
 ished by cold; but it has  also its peculiarities in regard to
 the several species of  butterfly to which the chrysalis be-
 longs.
   According to  these  observations, the  time  of the
 duration of the animal in the chrysalis state must be, in
 different species, very  different; and there is  indeed
 this wide difference in the extremes, that some species
 remain  only eight days in this state, and others  eight
 months.
   CHRYSIS, or gold-fly, a genus of insects belonging
 to  the  hymenoptera  order.  The mouth is  armed with
jaws, but has no proboscis; the antennae are filiform,
 bent, aud consists of 12 articulations. The abdomen is
 arched, with a scale on each side; the anus is dentated,
 and armed with a sting; the wings lie plain, and the bo-
 dy appears as if gilt.  There are seven species, of which
 the lucidulais one: it is  beautified with the most splendid
 colours.  The fore part of the head is geen and gold, and
 the hinder  of a bright azure.  The thorax is azure and
 green: the  abdomen is green and gold before, and ofa
 coppery red behind. This species lives in holes of walls.
 The  larva?, which resemble those of the wasp, likewise
inhabit the holes of decayed walls. Sec  Plate XXXIII.
Nat. Hist. fig. 120.
   CHRYSITRIX, in botany: a genus of the ditecia or-
der, in the polygamia class of plants. In the hermaphro-
dite,  the glume is two-valved, the corolla? from  chuff
numerous  and  bristly;  many  stamina, one  within each
chaff; one pistillum. The male is the hermaphrodite: it
has no pistillum. There is one species, a native of the
Cape.
   CHRYSOBALANUS, cocoa  tlum: a genus of the
monogynia order, in the icosandria class of plants;  ;md
in the natural  method  ranking under  the  36th order,
pomacese.  The calyx is quinquefid, the petals live; plum
kernel five-furrowed and five-valved. Ihere is only one
species, the chrysobalanus icaco, a native of the Baliama
islands and many other parts of America,  but common-
ly grows  near the  sea.  It rises  with a shrubby stalk
eight or nine feet high. The  flowers are white, and arc
succeeded by plums like damsons; some blue, some reel,
and others yellow.  The stone is shaped like a pear, and
has five  longitudinal furrows. The plums  have a sweet
luscious taste;  and are brought to  the tables of the in-
habitants by whom they are much esteemed.
   CHRYSOCOMA, goldy-locks:  a genus of the po-
lygamia sequalis order, in the syngenesia class of plants;
and in the natural method ranking under the 49th order,
compositae. The receptacle is  naked;  the pappus simple;
the calyx hemispherical and imbricated; the style hard-
ly longer than  the  florets. There are thirteen  species,
the most  remarkable of which are  the linosyris and the
cernua.   These  are  herbaceous flowering perennials,
growing from one to two feet high, ornamented with nar-
row leaves, and compound floscular flowers of a yellow
colour.
   CHRYSOGONUM, a genus of  the polygamia neces-
saria order,  in the syngenesia class of plants; and in the
natural method ranking under the 49th order, composi-
tae. The receptacle is paleaceous; the pappus monophyl-
lous, and tridented: the calyx pentaphyllous; the seeds
wrapped  up  each in a tetraphyllous calyculus,  or  little
cup. There is one species, a native of Virginia.
   CHllYSOLITE, in natural history,  a gem which the
ancients knew under the name of the topaz; and the true
chrysolite of the ancients, which had its name from ita
fine gold-yellow colour, is now universally called topaz
by modern jewellers.
   The chrysolite  is  found in angular fragments, ia
grains, and crystallized. The primitive form of its crys-
tals is a right angled parallelopid, whose length, breadth,
 and thickness, are as 5, ^/8, i/5. The edges of theprisin
 are usually truncated.  The texture is foliated.  Its frac-
 ture is conclioidal: it causes double refractions, audits
 specific gravity is from 3.265 to  3.45.  Colour green. It
 is infusible at  150 degrees, hut loses its transparency!
 and becomes a blackish grey. With borax it melts with-
 out effervescence into a transparent glass of a green co-
 lour. There  are two varieties.
   1. Common  chrysolite, found in  Ceylon, South Ame-
 rica, and in  Bohemia, amidst sandy gravel. Colour yel-
 lowish  green,  sometimes verging to  olive-green, some-
 times to yellow.
   2. Olive chrysolite, found commonly in  basalt; some-
times in small  grains, sometimes in pretty large pieces. 
C  H  R
C  I  C
It hasnot been observed  in crystals: colour olive-green.
The first variety is, according to the analysis of  Klap-
roth, composed of
               41.5 magnesia
               38.5 silica
               19.0 oxyde of iron.
             99.0
The second is composed of
             37.58 magnesia
             50.00 silica
              11.75 oxyde of iron
               .21 lime
               99.54
  CIIRYSOMELA, in zoology, a genus of insects with
Lracelet-like antennae,  thickest towards  the extremities;
the body of an oval form, and the thorax rounded. Of this
genus,  which belongs to the order of_ coleoptera, there
are 122 different species, denominated from the trees  on
which they feed, as the chrysomela of tansy, beech, alder,
willow, &c. some being of one colour, some of another,
with a tinge of gold-colour diffused through it.
  CHRYSOPHYLLUM, the bully tree: a genus of
the monogynia order, in the pentandria  class of  plants;
and in the natural method ranking under the  43d order,
viz.  dumosae.  The  corolla is campanulated, decemfid,
with the segments alternately a little patent. The fruit is
a ten-seeded berry. There are six species, natives of  the
West Indies. The most remarkable are:
   1.  The ChrysophyUum  cainito,  rises thirty or forty
feet high. The flowers  come out at the extremities of the
branches, disposed in oblong bunches, which arc succeed-
ed by fruit of the size of a golden pippin, very rough to
the palate, and astringent; but when kept some time'mel-
low, as is practised here  with  medlars, they have an
agreeable flavour.
   2.  ChrysophyUum glabrum, never rises to the height of
the cainito, nor do tbe trunks grow to half the size. The
flowers come out, clusters from the side of the branches,
and are succeeded by oval smooth fruit,  about the size of
a bergamot pear. It contains a white clammy juice when
fresh; but after being kept a few days, it becomes sweet,
soft,  and delicious. Inclosed are four  or five black seeds,
of the size of those of a pomkin. Both species are often
preserved in bir^e stoves.
   CIIRYSOPRASE.  This mineral, which  is found in
several  parts of Germany, is always  amorphous.  Its
fracture is eit'-er even or inclined te» the splintery, with
very  little lustre; its colour green; specific gravity 2.479.
In a  heat of ISO degrees Wedgewood, it whitens and be-
comes opacpie. It is found by Klaproth to be composed of
                96.16  silica
                 1.00 oxide of nickel
                 0.83 lime
                 0.08 alumine
                 0.08 oxide of iron.
               98.15
  GlIRYSOSPLEMUM. a genus of the digynia order,
in the d«kca:  Iria class of planfs; and in the natural meth-
od ranking under the 12th order, succulentae.  Tie calvx
is quadrilid or quinquefid, and coloured; no corolla; the
  VOL.1.                  69
capsule birostrated, unilocular, and  polyspermous.  Its
English name i> golden saxifrage. There are two  spe-
cies, common in all the northern parts of Europe.
  CHUPMESS VHiTES, a sect of Mahometans,  who
believed that Jesus Christ was God, and the redeemer of
the world.
  CHURCH, the  place  which christians consecrate te
the worship of God.  By the common  law and general
custom of lhe realm, it was lawf'; 1 for earls, barons, and
others ofthe laity, to build churches; but they could  not
erect a spiritual  body-politic to continue in succession,
and capable of endowment, without the king's licence; and
before die law shall take knowledge of them as such, they
must also have the bishop's leave and consent to he con-
secrated or dedicated by him. 3 Inst. 203.
  CHURCHWARDENS, the guardians or keepers of
the church, are persons annually chosen in Easter week,
by  the joint consent of the minister and parishioners, or
according to the custom of the respective places; to look
after the church and  church-yard, and things thereunto
belonging.  They  are entrusted with the care and man-
agement of the goods and personal property ofthe church,
which they are to order for the best advantage ofthe pa-
rishioners; but they have no  interest in, or power  over,
the freehold of the church itself, or of any land or other
real property belonging to it: these are the  property  of
the parson or vicar,  who alone  is interested in their loss
or  preservation. The churchwardens therefore may pur-
chase goods and other articles for the' use of  the parish;
they may  likewise, with the assent of the parishioners,
sell, or otherwise dispose of, tbe goods of the church, but
without such consent tbey are not authorized to alienate
any ofthe  property under their care. 4 Viner Abr. 526.
   All peers of the realm, clergymen, counsellors, attor-
neys, clerks  in court, physicians, surgeons,  and apothe-
caries, arc exempt from serving the office of churchwar-
dens; as is every dissenting teacher or preacher, in holy
orders, or  pretended holy orders.
   By 2 Geo. III.  c.  20. no Serjeant, corporal, drummer,
or  private  man, personally serving in the militia, during
the time of such service, shall be liable to serve as church-
warden.
   By the 10 and 11  Wm. c. 23. s. 2. persons who have
prosecuted a felon to conviction, and the first assignee
of the certificate thereof, are exempted.
   No person  living out of the parish  may be chosen
churchwarden. Gibs. 215.
   CHYLE, in the animal economy, a milky fluid, secret-
ed from the aliments by means of digestion.  See Physi-
ology.
    CICATRIX, in surgery,  a little seam or elevation of
callous flesh rising on the skin, and rcmaininu; there after
the healing of a wound or ulcer. It is commonly called a
scar. See Surgery.
    CICADA, the Frog-hopper, or flea-locust, a genus of
 insects belonging to the order of hemiptcra. See  Plate
 XXXIII. Nat. Hist. figs. 121,122.12. . The beak *,s inflect-
 ed; the antennae aresectaceous: the four wings are membra-
 naceous and deflected: and the  feet in most" of the spici s,
 are of the jumping kind. The species are fifty-one.  Thu
 larvae of several of this genus evacuate great quantities of
 a  frothy matter upon the branches and leaves of plants,
 in the midst of  which they constantly  reside, probably 
                       C I  c

for shebcr against the search of other animals, to which
thev  woiJd become a prev. Nature has afforded this kind
of defence to insects whose naked and soft bodies might
otherwise very easily he injured; perhaps also the  mois-
ture  of this f.-ain may serve to screen it from the sultry
beams of the sen. On removing the foam, you discover
fhe larva concealed underneath: but it does not long  re-
main uncovered. It soon emits fresh foam, that  hides it
from the eye of observation. It is in the  midst of this
foamy substance that the larva goes through its metamor-
phosis into a chrysalis and perfect  insect.  Other larvae,
whose bodies arc not so soft, run over plants without any
manner of defence; and  escape from insects  that  might
hurt them,  by thenimhlencss of their running, but espe-
cially of their leaping.
   The cbrysalids, and all the larvae that produce  them,
differ little  from each other, only that the former have the
.rudiments of wings, a kind of knob at the place where the
wings will  afterwards he in the perfect insect.  In other
respects, the cbrysalids walk, leap, and run,  over plants
and  trees;  as do the larva and the frog-hopper,  which
ihey are to produce. At length they throw off their tegu-
ments of clny salids, slip their last slough,  and  then the
insect appears in its utmost state of perfection. The male
alone is then endowed with the faculty of singing,  which
it exercises not with its throat, hut with an organ  situa-
ted under the abdomen.  Behind the legs of the male  are
observed two valvulae, which, raised up, discover several
cavities  separated by various membranes. The middle
contains a scaly  triangle. Two  vigorous  muscles give
motion  to another membrane, which alternately becomes
concave and convex. The air, agitated by this membrane,
is modified within the other cavities; and  by tbe help of
this  sonorous instrument, he  amorously solicits his fe-
male. By pulling the muscles ofa frog-hopper lately dead,
it may be made.to sing. This insect begins its song ear-
ly in the morning, and continues it during the heat of the
noontide sun.  Its lively and animated music is,  to the
country people, a presage of a fine summer, a plentiful
harvest, and the sure return of spring. The cicadae have
a head  almost  triangular, an oblong body, their  wings
fastigiated or in form of a roof, and six  legs  with  which
they w ell:  and leap pretty briskly.  In the females,  at the
extremity of the abdomen, are seen two large lamina,
between which is enclosed, as in a sheath, a spine, or la-
mina, somewhat serrated, which serves them  for the pur-
pose of depositing their eggs, and probably to sink them
into  the substance of those plants which the young larvae
are to feed upon.
   CICC A, a genus of the tetrandria order,  in  the mo-
noecia class of plants. The male calyx is tetraphyllous;
there is no corolla:  the female calyx triphyllous;  no co-
rolla; four styles; the  capsule  quadricoccous,  or four-
berried.  There is one species, a shrub ofthe  East In-
dies.
   CICER, the chick-pea, a  genus of the decandria or-
der, in the diadelphia class of plants, and in  the natural
method ranking under the 32d order, papilionaceae. The
calyx is ouinquepartite, as long  as the corolla, with its
four uppermost segments incumbent on the vexillum; the
Ieg*:men is rhomboidal. turgid, and dispermous.  There
is but one species, which produces peas shaped like the
common ones, but much smaller.   They are cultivated
                       C I  C

in Spain,  where they are natives, being one of the in-
gredients  in their olios, as also in France; but are rarely
known in  Britain.
   CICHORIUM, succory,  a genus of  the polygamia
asqualis order, in the syngenesia class of plants; and in
the natural method ranking under the  49th order, com-
positse.  The receptacle  is  a little  paleaceous; the ca-
lyx calyculated; the pappus almost quinqurdrntatcd; and
indistinctly hairy.  There are three species, viz.
   1. Cichorium endivia, or common endive, with broad
crenated  leaves, differs from the wild sort (No. 2.) in
its duration,  being only annual, whereas the wild sort
is perennial.   This  species may be considered both as
an annual and biennial plant.   If  sown  early in the
spring, or even any time before the beginning of June,
the plants very commonly fly up to seed the same sum-
mer, and  perish in autumn.   If sown  in June and July
they acquire perfection in autumn, continue till the next
spring, then shoot up stalks for flower and seed, and soon
after perish.   The inner leaves  are the  useful  parts.
These when blanched white to  render them crisp and
tender, and reduce them from their natural strong taste
to an agreeable  bitter one,  are then  fit for use.  They
are valued chiefly as ingredients in autumn and winter
salads, and for some culinary uses.
   2.  Cichorium intybus, wild succory, grows naturally
by the sides  of roads,  and in shady lanes.  It sends out
long leaves from the roots, from between which the stalks
arise, growing to  the height of three or four feet, .and
branching out into  smaller  ones.   The flowers  come
out from  the sides of the stalks,  and are of a fine blue
colour.   They are succeeded by oblong seeds covered,
inclosed in a down.   The roots and leaves are articles
of the materia medica.  The  former have a moderately
bitter taste,  with some degree of roughness; the leaves
are somewhat less bitter;  and the darker-coloured and
more deeply jagged they are, the bitterer  is their taste.
Wild succory is  an useful  detergent,  aperient, and at-
tenuating medicine,  acting  without much irritation,
tending rather to  cool than to heat the body; and, at the
same time, corroborating the tone of the intestines. All
the parts  of the plant, when wounded, yield a milky sap-
onaceous juice.   This, when taken in large  quantities,
so as to keep up  a  gentle diarrhoea,  and  continued for
some weeks, has been found to produce excellent effects
in scorbutic  and other chronical  disorders.
   3.  Cichorium spinosum, with a prickly forked stalk,
grows naturally on the sea-coast in Sicily, and tbe islands
of the Archipelago.  The flowers are of a pale blue co-
lour, and are succeeded by seeds shaped like those ofthe
common sorts.
   C1CINDELA, the sparkler,  in zoology, a genus of
insects belonging to the order of coleoptera. The anten-
nae are setaceous; the jaws are prominent, and furnished
with teeth; the eyes area little prominent;  and the breast
is roundish and marginated.  There are 14 species. The
campestris,  (See Plate XXXIII. Nat. Hist. fig. 124), or
field sparkler, is one of the most beautiful of the genus.
The upper part of its body is of afine green colour, rough,
and rather bluish. The under side, as also the legs and
antennae, are of a shot  colour,gold and red, of a copper-
ish cast.  The eyes are very prominent,  and  give the
head a broad appearance.  The thorax is angular, and 
C  I  M
C  I  M
 narrower than the head, which constitutes the character
 ofthe cicindela.  It is rough, and of a green colour ting-
 ed with gold, as well as the bead.  The elytra are deli-
 cately and irregularly dott.'d.  Each of them has six
 white spots, viz.  one on  the top of the elytrum,  at  its
 outward angle; three more along  the outward edge, of
 which the middlemost forms a kind of lunula; a fifth on
 tin' middle of the elytra, opposite the luirda; and that
 one is broader, and tolerably round; lastly,  a sixth at
 tbe extremity of the elytra.   There is also  sometimes
 seen a black spot on the middle of each elytrum, oppo-
 site to the second white spot.  The upper lip is also
 white, as is the upper side of the jaws, which are very
 prominent and sharp.  This insect runs  with  great
 swiftness,  and  flies  easily.  It is found in  dry  sandy
 places, especially in  the beginning of spring.  In tbe
 same places  its larva is  met  with, which resembles a
 long, soft,  whitish worm, furnished with six legs,  and a
 brown  scaly head.   It  makes a  perpendicular  round
 hole in  the ground, and  keeps its head at the entrance
 ofthe hole to catch the insects  that fall into it; a spot of
 ground is sometimes entirely perforated in this manner.
 The insects belonging to this genus arc in general xevy
 beautiful,  and merit the attention of the curious in their
 microscopic observations; some are minute, though not
 inferior in splendour, therefore best suited for the experi-
 ment.   Liv ing subjects are ever preferable to  dead ones.
 The larvae of all this genus live underground; and are,
 as well as the perfect insects, tigers in their nature, at-
 tacking and destroying all they can overcome.
   CICUTA, water hemlock, a  genus ofthe order digy-
 nia, in the  pentandria class of plants, and ranking  in tbe
 natural  method under the 45th order, umhellatae. There
 arc three species, viz.
   1. Cicuta bulbifcra;
   2. Cicuta maculata; and
   3. Cicuta virosa.   Phis species is the only one re-
 markable,  and that from the poisonous qualities  of its
 roots, which have  been open known to destroy children
 who eat them for  parsnips.
   CIDARIS, in anthiuity, the mitre used by the Jewish
 high-priests.  The rabbis say, the bonnet  used by the
 priests in general, was ma le of apiece of linen cloth six-
 teen yards loii£, which covered their heads like a helmet
 or a turban; and tbey allow n:> other difference between
 the higli-prie'sl's bonnet, and that of other priests, than
 this: tbatone is flatter, and more in the form of a turban;
 whereas that worn by ordinary priests rose something
 more in a point.   A  plate of gold was an ornament pe-
 culiar fo the high-priest's mitre.
   CIL1ARE. or ligamentum ciliare.ov ciliaris processus,
 in anatomy, a range of black fibres disposed circularly,
 having tbMr rise in the inner part  ofthe uvea, and trr-
 niinatinginlbepromi'ientpartof iltPi-'lny stall ine humour
 ofthe eye. which they surround.  See A v atom v.
   CIMr.X. ovbng, in zoology, a g-musof inserts belong-
 ing 1*)  the order of be nipi mm. (See  Plate XX \III. Nat.
 Hist. figs. 125. 1-V). 12*.) The  rostrum is intlcctcd. The
 antenna' are longer than the thorax.  The winrs  are folded
 together cross.vise: the upoer ones  are coriaceous  from
their base fownrds  Ib-ir mid Me.  '»'!»,> back is 11^; the
thorax margined.   Tbe feet are formed for  riming.
This genus  is  divided into  didVrent  sections, viz.   1,
 Those without wings. 2. Those in which the escutcheon
 is extended so far as to cover the aodouien a.id ilio wings.
 3.   The coleoptrati. whose elytra are wholly coriaceo.is.
 4.  Those whose elytra  are  membranaceous: these arc
 very much  depressed like a leaf.  5. In wbich the tho-
 rax is armed on each side with a spine, ti. Tuose  which
 are of an oval form, without spines on the thorax.  7.
 In  which tiie antennae become setaceous  towards their
 point.  8.  Those of an oblong !• rm.  9. Those whose
 antennae are setaceous, and  as  long as  the  body.  10,
 Those that have their thighs armed with spines.  11.
 Those whose bodies are long and narrow.  Liiinae is enu-
 merates no  fewer than 121 species, to which several have
 been added by other naturalists.  A very peculiar spe-
 cies was discovered by Dr. Sparman at the Cape, which
 he  has  named ci.nex paradoxus.  He observed it as at
 noontide he sought for shelter among the branches of  a
 shrub from  the intolerable heat of the sun.   "Though
 the air  (says he)  was extremely still and calm, so as
 hardly to have shaken an aspen leaf, yet Ith night I saw
 a little withered, pale, crumpled leaf, eaten as it were by
 caterpillars, flittering from the tree.  This appeared to
 ine so very extraordinary,  that I thought it  worth my
 while suddenly to quit ny verdant bovver in order to con-
 template it: and I could scarcely believe my  own eyes,
 when I saw a live insect, in shape and colour resembling
 the fragment of a withered leaf, with the edges turned up,
 and eaten away as it were hy caterpillars, and at the same
 time all over beset with  prickles.   Nature, hy  this pe-
 culiar form, has certainly extremely well  defended and
 concealed, as in  a mask, this insect from birds an i its
 other diminutive foes; in all  probability with  a view to
 preserve it, and employ it  for some important office in
 the system of her economy;  a system with which we are
 too little acquainted, in general  too little investigated;
 and which,  in every part  of it, can never s.iiie ie i.iy
 admire with that respect and veneration which  we > vo
 to the great Author of Nature and ruler of the  -.miveiw-."
  The larvae of hugs only differ from the perfect insect
 by  the want of wings: they run over plants;  and gv ,\v
 and change to cbrysalids, without appearing to uml rgc»
 any material difference.   They have only rudiments of
 wings, which the last transformation  unfolds, and  Lie
 insect is then perfect.  In the first two stages they are
 unable to propagate their species. In their perfect ste.'.e,
 the female,  fecundated, lays a  great  number of  ey,";s,
 which are often found  upon plants, placed one by  lie
 side of another;  manv of which, viewed through agla -,
 present singular varieties of coufiguration.   Some are
 crowned with a row of small hail's, others have a eir  i-
 lar  fillet; and most have  a piece which for.as a cap;  \-.\*
 piece the larva pushes off  when it forces open the e-^.
 Released by nature from their  prison, thev  overspread
 tbe  plant on which they feed, extracting, by the help of
 the rostrum, the juices Appropriated i >r their no irisb-
 ment: even in this state, the larva1 are  not all pe.;c'»a')lv
 inclined: some are voracious in an eminent degree. <i:ul
 spar- neithersex nor specie's tbey can comper. In their
 perfect state they are mere  cannibals, glutting them-
 selves with the blood of animals; thev  destroy raternil-
 lars and  flies; and  even the coleopterous Tribe, whose
 hardness of  elytra one would imagine was proof against
their attacks, have fallen an  easy  prey to the "sharp 
C  I  M
C  I N
piercing nature of ilic rostrum of the bug, and the incau-
tious naiiiialist may even experience  a feeling severity
of its nature.  The cimex lectularius, or house-bug, is
partie .iiarly acceptable to the palate of spiders in gene-
ral, and is even sought after by wood-bugs; which is not
indeed surprising, when tiie general voracity of this ge-
nus is considered.  Trials have been made  of various me-
thods of destroying house-bugs, with oil  of turpentine,
camphor, solutions of sublimate, Sec.
   CIMICIFUGA, in  botany, a genus of the polyandria
order, in the dioecia class of plants.  The male calyx is
almost pentaphyllous;  there  is  no  corolla;  the stamina
ar<- 20  in  number: the female  calyx is  almost  penta-
p'.iyllous; no corolla: the  stamina  20, and  barren; the
capsules from four to seven, polyspermous.  There is but
one  species; of  which Messerschmidius, in the Isis Si-
berica, gives the following character and name:  cimici-
fuga  ftetida, with the leaves of the  herb Christopher,
bearing a thyrsus of yellow male flowers  with a red vil-
lous seed,  the seed-vessel in form of a horn.  This whole
plant so resembles the actea racemosa, that it is difficult
to distinguish them when not in flower; but in the fruc-
tification it greatly differs from it, tbe cimicifuga having
four pistils, the actea  but one.   Jacquin  says, that it is
a native of the  Carpathian mountains.  It  has obtained
the name of cimicifuga, or bnghanc, both  in Siberia and
Tartary, from its property of driving away those insects:
and the botanists of those parts of Europe which are in-
fested by  them, have  long desired to naturalize it in
their several countries.  Gmelin mentions, that in Sibe-
ria the natives also use it as an cvacuant in dropsy; and
that its effects are violently emetic and drastic.
   CIMOLIA alba, the name of the earth of  which tobac-
co-pipes are made.   Its  distinguishing characters are,
that it is a dense, compact, heavy earth, of a dull colour,
and very close texture; it will not  easily  break between
the fingers, and slightly stains the fingers  in handling.
It adheres to the tongue, melts  slowly in the mouth, and
is not readily diffusible in water.   It is found in the Isle
of AVight, Dorsetshire, and  Staffordshire.
   Cimoli a nigra, is of a dark lead-colour, hard, dry, and
heavy; it does not stain the hands, and is  not acted upon
by the acids.  It burns perfectly white,  and acquires a
great degree of hardness.   It is found in Northampton-
shire, where itis used  in the manufacture of pipes.
   CIMOLITE, a species of white earth, found in some
of tiie Grecian  islands, where it  is used for whitening
stuffs.  It is mentioned by Pliny under the name of ciino-
lia, and in more modern authors it is called cimelia terra.
 Colour pearl-grey;  when  exposed to the  air  it becomes
reddish.   Texture earthy, fracture uneven,  opaque, does
not stain, but adheres  strongly to the tongue. It is soft,
and broken with  difficulty: specific gravity  is 2.900; and
 it becomes white before the blow-pipe.  Itis composed,
 according to Klaproth, of
                    63.00 silica,
                    23.00 alumina,
                      1.25 iron,
                     12.00 water.

                     99.25
   CINCHONA, a genus of the monogynia order, in the
 pentandria class of plants, and in the natural method rank
ing with those plants, the order of which is dubious.  The
corolla  is  funnel-shaped,  with a woolly summit;   ths
capsule inferior, bilocular,  with  a parallel  partition.
There are nine species.   The principal are,
   1. Cinchona corymbifera, corymb-bearing cinchona,
or white Peruvian  bark, with oblong  lanceolate leaves
and axillary corymbs. This species particularly abounds
in the hilly parts of Quito, growing promiscuously in the
forests, and is spontaneously propagated from its seeds.
   2. Cinchona caribsea, a native of the West India islands.
In Jamaica it is called the sea-side beech, and grows from
20 to 40 feet high.  The  white, furrowed, thick, outer
bark, is not used; the dark-brown inner bark has the com-
mon flavour, with  a mixed taste, at first of horse-radish
and ginger, becoming at last bitter and astringent. It
seems to give out more extractive  matter than the  cin-
chona officinalis. Some of it was imported from St. Lucia,
in consequence ofits having been used with advantage in
the army and navy during the last  war.
   3.  Cinchona  officinalis,  or coloured Peruvian hark,
with  elliptic leaves, downy underneath, and  the leaves
ofthe corolla woolly. Both the corymbifera and officinalis
are natives of Peru, where  they attain the height of from
15 to 20 feet.  The bark has an odour, to  some people
not unpleasant, and very perceptible in the distilled vv ater;
in wdiich floating  globules, like essential oil, have been
observed.  Its taste is hitter and astringent, accompani-
ed with a degree of pungency, and leaving a considerably
lasting impression on the  tongue.  For its  properties
and preparations, see Pharmacy.
   CINCTURE, or ceinture, in  architecture, a ring, list,
or orlo, at the top and bottom of the shaft of a column,
separating the shaft at one end from the base, and at the
other from the capital. That at  the bottom is particularly
called apophyge, as if the pillar took its rise from it; and
that at top colarin, collar,  or collier, and sometimes an-
nul us.
   CINERARIA, a genus ofthe class and order syngene-
sia polygamia superflua.   The  calyx is  simple, many-
leaved, equal; pappus simple; receptacle naked.  There
are 41 species, most of them ornamental plants, and na-
tives of the Cape; of which the C. cruenta, and the C.
amelloides and lanata, are old and elegant ornaments of
our greenhouses.  The last has  only one unpleasant pro-
perty, that it is apt to be lousy.
   [Cinna,  a genus of the digynia order in the  monandria
class of plants.  The characterestics are the calix, 2 val-
ved, 1 floret;  corolla 2 valved,  1 seeded, cylindrical, A
nativ eof Pennsylvania.  Flowers in June, (a)
   CINNABAR.  See Chemistry.
   CINNAMON-TREE.   See Laurvs.
   No cinnamon can be imported  into Britain except from
the East Indies.  That  which comes thence pays a duty
of 3s. -iVt^' a pound, and draws back on exportation, 35.
29 4
 ■— d. at the rate of 6s. Sd.
   Cinnamon is an astringent in the prima? viaz, hut in
the more remote seats of action  it operates as an aperient
 and alexipharmic.   It stops diarrhoeas, strengthens the
 viscera, assists concoction, dispels flatulencies, and is a
 very pleasant cardiac.  It affords an oil which will sink
 in water; and is in great esteem, and much  prescribed in
 extemporaneous practice.   As it is much adulterated on 
C  1  P
C  I  P
account of itsdearness, the best way to knowit is by drop-
ping it upon sugar, and then  dissolving it in small spirit.
This  oil has been  made genuine  in  England from tbe
common  cinnamon  of  the shops, so as  to  exceed that
brought from Holland.
   Cinnamon-water is made by distilling the bark first
infused in spirit of w ine, brandy, or white wine.
   CI -QUE-FOIL. SecPoTEKTiLLA.
   Civqic-PORTS were tli us called by way of eminence,
on account of their superior importance,  as having been
thought to merit a particular regard by the kings of Eng-
land, fe>r their preservation against invasion. Hence they
have a particular policy; and are governed  hy a keeper,
with the title of lord warden  of the cinque  ports.   The
five  ports are, Hastings, Romncy, Hythe, Dover, and
Sandwich.  Thorn tells  us, that Hastings provided  21
vessels, and in each vessel 21 men.  To this port belong
Scaford, Pevensey, Hedney,  W'inchclsca, Rye, Hamine,
Wakesbourne,  Creneth,  and Forthclipe.  Romnev pro-
vided five ships, and in each 24 men.  To this belong
Bromhal,Lydc, Oswarstone, Dangemares, and Rnmcnhal.
Hythe furnished five ships, and in each 21  seamen. To this
belongs Westmeath.  Dover the same number as  Hast-
ings.  To this belong Folkstone, Feversham, and Marge.
Sandwich furnished the same number with Hythe.  To
this  belong Fordivvie, Reculver, Serre, and Deal.  The
privileges  granted  to them in consequence of these ser-
vices were very great.   Amongst others, they were each
of thein to send two barons to represent  them in parlia-
ment; their deputies were to bear  the canopy over the
king's head at the time of his coronation, and to dine at
the uppermost table in the great hall on his right hand;
to be exempted from subsidies and other aids; their heirs
to he free  from personal  wardship,  notwithstanding any
tenure; to be impleaded in their own towns only, and not
to be liable to tolls, Sec.
   Certioraris, to remove indictments taken in the cinque-
ports, must be directed to  the mayor and jurats before
whom they were taken, and not to  the lord warden; be-
cause they hold plea of it as justices of the peace, by vir-
tue of their commission,  and not hy their ancient cha-
racter.
   CIPHER, denotes certain  secret characters disguised
and varied, used in writing letters that contain some se-
cret, not to be understood but by those between whom the
cipher is agreed on.  There are several  kinds of ciphers,
according to lord Bacon; as the  simple, those mixed with
non-significants, those consisting of two  kinds of charac-
ters, wheel-ciphers, key-ciphers, word-ciphers, &c.  They
ought all to have these three properties, 1.   They should
be easv  to write and read.  2. Tbey should be trusty and
undecipherable.   S. Clear of suspicion.
   There is a new way of eluding the examination of a
cipher, viz. to have two alphabets, the one of significant,
and  the other of non-significant letters; and folding  up
two  writings  together, the  one containing the  secret,
w bile the other is such as the writer might probably send
without danger: in case of a strict examination, the hearer
is  te> produce the non-significant alphabet for the true,
and tbe true for the non-signific aut; by which nrans the
examiner  would fall upon the outward writing, and find-
ing it probable, suspect nothing 'if the inner.  No  doubt
the art of ciphering is capable of great improvement.  It
is said that king Charles I. had a cipher consi^ing only
of a straight line differently inclined: and there are ways
of ciphering hy the mere punctuation ofa letter, whilst the
words of a letter shall lie  ncm-significants, or sense  that
leaves no room for suspicion.  Those who desire a fuller
explanation of ciphering may consult Bacon, where they
will find a cipher of his invention; bishop Wilkin's  Secret
and Swift Messenger; and Mr. Falconer's Cryptomenysis
Patefacta.
   CIPPUS, in antiquity, a low column, with an inscrip-
tion, erected in the high roads, or other places, to show
the way to travellers, to serve as a boundary, to mark
the grave  of a deceased person, Sec.  Those erected in
the highways to mark the miles were called miliar}  co-
lumns.
   CIRCJEA, enchanter's nightshade, a genus of the mon-
ogynia order,  in the diandria class of plants,  and in the
natural method ranking under the 48th order, aggregatae.
The corolla is dipetalous; the calyx diphvllous, superior.
with  one  bilocular seed.  There are two species,  one of
which is a native of Britain, and the other of Germany.
They are low herbaceous plants with white flowers,  and
possessed of no remarkable property.
   [CIRCLE, in geometry, is a plane figure bounded by
a curve line, called the circumference, or periphery;  any
point in which is equidistant from a point within  the fi-
gure, called the centre.
  The quadrature and rectification of the circle  are pro-
blems which have exercised  the abilities of some  of the
most  eminent mathematicians  in former times, and has
been a cause of dispute among some ofthe less profound,
down to the present  day.  But though neither  of these
have  been effected precisely, they have been approxima-
ted to, and series have been given by which we may ap-
proxiininate to them to any assigned degree of accuracy;
and if the  true value was not desirable we need not wish
for a  greater degree of accuracy. If the ratio of the di-
ameter to the circumference were known, these problems,
hy the known properties of the circ le, become very sim-
ple: this ratio was given hy Archimedes to be 2T2 nearly,
which he effected in the following manner: he found the
perimeter of a circumscribed regular polygon of 192 sides
is  to  the diameter in a less ratio than 5 j£ to 1,  and  that
the perimeter of an inscribed regular polygon of 96 sides
is to the diameter in a greater ratio than 344 to 1, there-
fore,  he inferred the above ratio  to ho v ery near the
truth; but  this method,  as  we increase the number of
sides  of the polygon,  evidently approaches to the area
and circumference of the  circle; yet it becomes tedious
in proportion to the number of sides and the degree of
accuracy required in the decimals.
  Since the invention of fluxions, there have been a va-
riety  of series found,  by which we approximate with
ease to any assigned degree of accuracy—the follow ing
is a specimen of this  method: Let r= radius, y = sine,
and x = the versed sine of an arc  a of a  circle; then,
2r—xxx—xj^, by the nature of the circle,  and  .»-=r-f
(r*—if) 1, 'hence  dx=—ydyx (r*—y2) — \. But dx—
(dx2+dy*) \.  tbe general expression for the differential,
or fluxion, of the length ofthe curve x.  Bv  substitution,
dx-rdyx (»•-'—y2) —•§, which put into  aa*infinite-series 
CIR
C I R
                1    y2   5y*    5y*     35i/8
gives dx—rdyx (—* 4----1-----1------1-------f- &c0»
                r    Qr3   Srs    I6r7     128r9
the integral, or fluent, of which is
            y2     3'/4     5 if      35y3
»=yx(l-f---+ ^— +----+---~ + &c.)  Put
            6r2    40r4    112/*    1152r8
                                      *r
£ = the tangent ofthe arc x, then y =------.  And the
                                     (r2+t*)\
preceding equation by substitution  becomes
       t3     ts      P      P
%—t-------1___________|-------Sec. — the length of
       Sr2    5r4     7r6    9rs
the arc in terms of the tangent.  Suppose r=l and the
arc = 45°, whose tangent  = radius = 1;  then the series
            11      11      11     1
is a = 1-----1---------1---------1---------f-, &c.
            3    5     7    9     11   13    15
= the length of an arch of 45°; therefore,
          11     11     11     1
§X (1----4--------f--------1-------.4-&C.) equal
         3   5    7   9    11    13    15
the whole circumference to  a diameter 2, therefore,
          11     11     11     1
4* (1----+------4-----— +------4- &c.)  =
         3    5     7   9    11   13   15
3.141592 &c. the circumference to a diameter unity; con-
sequently by the  known property ofthe circle  3.141592
-r-4=.785398 &c. equals the area of a circle to  diameter
unity, (r)
   Circle of the higher  kind, an  expression used  by
Wolfius, and some others, to denote, for the most part,
                                m       m—i     m
a curve expressed by the equation y    = ax     —x  ;
which indeed will be  an oval when m is an even number;
but whem  m is an odd number, the curve will  have two
infinite legs.
   Circles, druidical,  in  British  topography, a name
given  to certain  ancient  inclosures,  formed  by rude
stones, circularly arranged.
   These, it is now generally agreed, were temples, and
many writers think also places of solemn assemblies for
councils or elections, and seals of judgment.  These tem-
ples, though generally circular, occasionally  differ as
well in figure as  magnitude: with  relation to the first,
the most simple were composed  of one circle.  Stone-
heiige consisted of two circles and two  ovals, respective-
 y concentric; whilst that  at Bottalch near  St. Just in
Cornwall is formed  by four intersecting circles.  The
great temple at Abury in Wiltshire, it is said, described
the figure of a seraph or fiery flying serpent, represented
by circles and right lines.   Some,  besides circles, have
avenues  of stone pillars.  Most, if  not all of them,  have
pillars or altars within their penetralia or centre. In the
article of magnitude  and number of stones, there is the
greatest variety;  some circles being only 12  feet diame-
ter, and formed only of 12  stones; whilst others, such as
St mchenge and Abury, contained, the  first 140, and the
second 652, and  occupied many acres of ground.   All
these different numbers, measures, and  arrangements,
had ih^ir pretended reference, either to the astronomical
divisions ofthe year, or some mysteries of the druidical
religion.
  CIRCONCELLIONES, a race of fanaties. so called
because they were continually rambling round the houses
in the country. They took their rise among the donatists
in the reign of the emperor Constantine.  It is incredible
what ravages and cruelties these  vagabonds connnilted
in Africa through a long series of years.  They were il-
literate, savage peasants, who understood only the Punic
language.  Intoxicated with a  barbarous zeal, they re-
nounced agriculture, professed  continence, and assicned
the  title of "vindicators of justice, and protectors ofthe
oppressed."  To accomplish their mission, they enfran-
chised slaves, scoured the roads; forced masters to alight
from their chariots, and run before their slaves, whom
they obliged to mount  in their place; and  discharged
debtors, killing the creditors if they refused to cancel Tbe
bonds. The counts Ursacius and Tacirinus were employ.
ed to quell  them: they destroyed a great number of them,
of whom the donatists made as many martyrs. Ursacius,
who was a good catholic, and a religious  man,  having
lost his life in an engagement with the barbarians, the
donatists did not fail to triumph in his death, as an effect
ofthe vengeance of heaven. Africa was the theatre of these
bloody scenes during a great part of Constantine's life.
  CIRCUIT, or circuity,  in lawr, signifies a longer
course of proceedings than is  needful to recover the thing
sued for: in case a person grants a rent-charge of 10/. a
year of his manor, and afterwards the grantee disseises
the  grantor, who thereupon brings an assise, and recovers
the  land, and 20/. damages; which being paid, the grantee
brings his action for 10/. of the rent, due during the time
of his disseisin.  This is termed circuity of action, because
as the grantor was to receive  201. damages, and pay  10/.
rent, he might only have received  10/. for the damages,
and the grantee might have retained the other 10/. for his
rent, and by that means saved his action.
  Circuit also signifies the journey or progress  which
the  judges  take twice  every year through  the several
counties of England and Wales, to hold courts and ad-
minister justice,  where recourse  cannot be  had  to the
king's court at Westminster.  Hence England is divided
into six circuits, viz. the home circuit,  Norfolk  circuit,
midland  circuit, Oxford  circuit,  western circuit,  and
northern circuit.  In Wales there are but two circuits,
north and south Wales:  two judges are assigned by the
king's commission to every circuit.  In Scotland there are
three circuits, viz.  the southern,  western and northern,
which are likewise made twice every year, viz. in spring
and autumn.
  CIRCULAR sailing, is the  method  ef sailing by the
arch of a great circle.  See Navigation.
  Circular re/or?/*/, in astronomy, signifies the vel"rity
of any planet or revolving body,  which  is measured by
the  arch of a circle.
  CIRCUL \TIOM of the blood.   See Physioloot.
  CTRCILviFERFX'CE, the-  curve  line which bounds
a circle; and otherwise  called a periphery, the boundary
of a right-lined figure being ex pressed hythe term peri-
meter. Any part ofthe  ci re u inference is called an arch>
and a right line drawn from one  extreme ofthe  arch to
the otber is called a chord. Tbe circumference of every
circle is  supposed to be divined into  360 dcgiees.  The 
L l It
I I s
angle at the circumference of a circle is double that at the
centre.
   ( IRCUMI ERENTOR, an  instrument used by sur-
veyors for taking angles. Ski.  Surveying.
   CIK C U > ISC RI HED, in geometry, is said of a figure
which is drawn round another figure, so that  all its sides
or planes touch the inscribed figure.
   Cinei mscribed hyperbola, one of sir Isaac Newton's
hyperbolas cd'lhe second order,  that cuts its asymptotes,
and contains the parts cut off within its own space.
   CIRCUMSCRIBING,  in geometry, denotes the de-
scribing  a polygonous figure about a circle, in  such  a
manner that all ils sides shell be tangents to the circum-
fe i < nee.  Sometimes the term is  used for the describing a
circle about a polygon, so that each side is a chord; but in
this case it is more usual to say  the polygon is inscribed,
than the  circle is circumscribed.
   CIRCUMSTANTIBUS, in  law, a term used for sup-
plying and making up the number of jurors (in case any
impanncllcd appear not; or appearing, are challenged by
either party), by adding to them so  many of the persons
present as will make up the number,  in case they are pro-
perl v qualified.
   c'lRCLMVALLATION, or line of circumvallation,
in military affairs, implies a fortification of earth, con-
sisting of a parapet ami trench,  made round the town in-
tended to he besieged, when any  molestation is apprehend-
ed from parties of tbe enemy, which may march to relieve
the place.  Care is to be taken to have  the  most exact
plan of it possible; and upon this the line of circumvalla-
tion and the attack are projected. This line, being a for-
tification opposed to  an  enemy that may  come  from the
open  country to relieve the besieged,  ought  to have its
defences directed against them;  that is, so as to  fire from
ibe town; and the bescigers arc to  be encamped behind
this line, and between it and the place. The camp should
be as much as possible out ofthe reach ofthe shot ofthe
place; and the line of circumvallation, wdiich is to be far-
ther distant than the  camp,  ought  still more to  he out of
the reach  ofits artillery.
   As cannon are never to he fired from the rear of the
camp, this line should be upwards of 1200 fathoms from
the place; we will suppose its  distance fixed  at  1400
fathoms from  the covert-way.   The depth of the  camp
may he computed at about 30 fathoms; and from  the head
ofthe camp to the line of circumvallation 120  fathoms,
thai the army may have room  to draw  up in  order of
batile at the head of the camp, behind tbe line. This dis-
tance added to the SOfathc.ms makes 150 fathoms, which
being added to the 1400, makes 1550 fathoms to consti-
tute the distance ofthe line of circumvallation  from the
coveit-way.  The  top of this  line is  generally 12 feet
broad, and seven feet deep. The parapet runs quite round
the top ed  it, and  at certain  distances is  frequently
strengthened with redoubts and small forts: the base 18
feel wide, the height within six, and on the outside five
feet, with a banquette of three  feet wide and one and a
half high.
   ( ib'CUS. in antiquity, a great building of  a round
or oval figure, erected by the- ancients, to exhibit shows
to the people. The Koman circus was a large oblong edi-
fice, arched  at  one  end, encompassed  with porticoes,
and furnished with two rows of seats placed ascending
 over each other. Tn the middle was a kind of foot-hank,
 or eminence, with ohcliks, statues, and posts, at eac b end.
 This s'-rved them for the courses of their bigai and quad-
 riga?. Those that have measured the circus  say that it
 was 2187 feet long, and 960 broad; so that  it was the
 greatest building in Rome.  Some say it would  contain
 150,000 people! others 200,000 or 300,000. The cim.s
 was dedicated to tbe sun. as a little temple ofthe sun in
 the middle denoted. Some say that there were eight cir-
 cuses in Rome, of which several were, either through
 vanity or devotion, built for the ornament of the city.
   CIRRI,  among  botanists, fine strings  or thread-like
 filaments,  hy  which  some  plants fasten  themselves to
 walls, trees, &c. Such arc those of ivy.
   Cirri in ichthyology, certain oblong and soft appen-
 dages, not unlikeTittie* worms, hanging from the under-
 jaws or mouths of some fishes.  These  cirri, commonly
 translated beards,  afford  marks to distinguish the dif-
 ferent species ofthe fish on  which they are found. Their
 use may he to give  notice of approaching danger or prey;
 since by their hanging position, as well as by their soft
 texture, they must be more sensible of any motion in the
 water than any  other part.
   C1RSOCELE, or Hernia varicosa. See Surgery.
   CISSAMPELOS, a genus of the monadelphia or-
 der, in the dioecia class of plants; and in the natural
 method  ranking under the  11th order,  sarmentaccse.
 The male calyx  is  tetraphyllous; no corolla; the necta-
 rium wheel-shaped; four stamina with their filaments
 grown together.  The female calyx is monophyllous and
 ligulated,  roundish, or like a  piece of  garter a little
 remiidish. There is no corolla; three  styles,  and a mo-
 nospermous berry.  There are five species: the
   Cissamplos caapeba is a native of the warmest parts of
 America.  The root applied externally is said to be an
 antidote against the  bites of venomous serpents.  The
 plant being infused in water, quickly fills  the liquor
 with a mucilaginous substance, which is as thick as jel-
 ly; whence the name of freezing wyth, by   which this
 genus of plants  has been  distinguished by the Brazili-
 ans.
   CISSOID, in geometry, a curve ofthe second order,
 first invented hy Diodes, whence it is called the cissoid of
 Dioclcs.
   Sir  Isaac  Newton,  in  his appendix de aequationuni
 constructione  lineari,  gives the following elegant des-
 cription of this curve; and at the same time sliows  how,
 hy means of it, to find two mean proportionals, and the
 roots of a cubic equation, without any previous reduction.
 Let AG (Plate XXXIX. Miscel. fig. 14) bethe diameter,
 and F the centre of the cu*cle belonging to the cissoid;
 and from F draw FD, FP, at right angles to  each other,
 and IetFP  be=AG; then if the spuarcPED  be so mov-
 ed that one side EP always passes through the point P,
 and the  end D of the other side ED  siides  along the
 right line FD, the  middle point C of the side ED will
 describe one leg GC of the  cissoid; and by continuing'
 out ED  on the other side F, and turning  the  square
 about by a like  operation, the other leg'may  be  des-
 cribed.
  This curve  may  likewise  be generated bv points in
 the following  manner.  Draw the indefinite'  rmdit line
BC (fig-  15) at right angles to AB the diameter of the 
CIS
C IT
semicircle AOB, and draw the right lines All, AF, AC,
Ac. then if you take AM=LH, AO=OF, ZC=AN, Sec.
the points MOZ, Sec. will form the curve AMOZ ofthe
cissoid.
  Properties of the Cissoid.—It follows from the genesis,
that drawing the right lines PM, KL.  perpendicular to
AB, the lines AK,PN, AP, PM, as also AP.  PN,  AK,
KL, are continual proportionals, and therefore that AK=
PB, and  PN=LK.  If the diameter AB=a, the absciss
AP=x, and the ordinate PM=y, then is x: a—x :: y2:
x2 or x*=a—xxy2, which is the  equation of the curve.
After the same manner it appears that the cissoid AMO,
bisects the semicircle AOB. Sir Isaac  Newton, in his
last letter to Mr. Leibnitz, has shown how to find a right
line equal to one of the legs of this curve,  by means of
the hyperbola, but  suppressed the investigation, wbich
however may be seen in his Fluxions.  The  cissoidal
space contained  under the diameter AB, the asymptote
BC, and the curve AOZ of tbe cissoid, is triple that ofthe
generating circle AOB. See Dr. Wallis's  mathematical
works, Vol. I. p. 545, et  seq.
   CISSUS, the wild grape, a genus of the  monogynia
order, in the tetrandria class of plants, and in the natural
method ranking under the 46th order,  hederacese. The
berry is monospermous, surrounded by  the calyx,  and a
quadripartite  corolla. There are 15  species, natives of
Jamaica, and  some of the other islands in the warmest
parts of America and the East  Indies. They send out
slender branches, having tendrils at their joints; by which
they fasten to the  neighbouring trees, bushes,  and any
other  support, mounting to a considerable height. The
fruit of some of the species is eaten by the negroes.
   CISTERCIANS, in church-history,  a religious order
founded in the eleventh century by St. Robert, a  benedic-
tinc.  They became so powerful,  that they governed al-
most all Europe, both in spirituals and temporals.  Car-
dinal de Vitri describing their  observances  says,  they
neither wore skins  nor shirts, nor ever eat flesh except
in  sickness;  and abstained from fish,  eggs,  milk,  and
cheese. They lay upon straw beds, in  their tunics  and
cowls: they rose at midnight to prayers; they spent tbe
day in labour, reading, and prayer; and in all their exer-
cises observed a continual silence. The habit ofthe Cis-
tercian monks is a white robe, in the nature of a cassock,
with a black scapulary and hood, and is girt with a wollen
girdle. The nuns wear a  white tunic, and a black scapu-
lary and girdle.
   CIST US, rockrose, a  genus of the monogynia order,
in the polyandria class of plants, and in the natural meth-
od ranking under the 20th order,  rotacese. The corolla is
pcntapetalous; the calyx pentaphyllous, with two  of its
leaves smaller than the rest.  The seeds are contained in
a capsule. There are 66 species, most of them natives of
the southern parts of Europe, hut many of them hardy
enough to  bear  the open air in  this country. They are
beautiful evergreen shrubs,generally very branchy quite
from the bottom, and forming  diffused heads.  They are
very  ornamental in gardens: not only as evergreens,
making a fine variety at all seasons  with the leaves of
different figures,  sizes,  and shades of green and white;
but also as first-rate flowering shrubs, being very profane
in most elegant  flowers of white, purple, and yellow co-
lours. These flowers last only for one  day; but there is a
continual succession of new ones for a month or  six
weeks  on the same plant; and  when there  are different
species, they  exhibit a  constant  bloom for near  tbreg
months. They are propagated either hy seeds or cuttings
and thrive best in  a dry soil. Their proper situation in
shrubbery  works should he  towards the  front of  the
clumps and other compartments, in assemblage with  the
choicest shrubs of similar growth, disposing them  so as
to make a variety, and to  have shelter  from the  other
plants, but they ought by no means to be crowded.  Gum
labdanum is found upon a species of cistus  which'grows
naturally in the Levant, and is therefore called labdanife-
rus.
   CITADEL, a place fortified with four, five, or six
bastions,  built on  a convenient ground near a city, that
it may command it  in  case of  a rebellion. The city
therefore is not fortified on tiie part opposite to the cita-
del; though the citadel is against the city.  The best form
for a citadel is a pentagon, a square being too weak, and
a hexagon too large.
   CITATION, in ecclesiastical courts, is the same with
summons in civil courts.  A person is not to be cited  out
of the diocese where  he  lives, unless it be by the  arch-
bishop in default of the ordinary, or where the ordinary
is party  to th • suit, and in case of appeal.
   CI1HAREXYLUM,  fiddle-wood, a genus of the an-
giospermia order,  in the didynamia class of plants, and
in the natural method ranking under the 40th order, per-
sonatse.  The calyx is quinquedentated, campanulated,
wheel-shaped,  with its segments villous,  on the  upper
side equal. The fruit is a dispermous berry; the seeds bilo-
cular. There  are five species, natives of the warmer parts
of America, where they grow to be large trees, and are
adorned with white flowers growing in spikes. In Britain
they appear only  as shrubs, and must be constantly  re-
tained  in the stove, where they make a fine appearance,
being beautiful  evergreens.  They may be propagated
either by seeds or  cuttings.
   CITRINUS, in natural history, a peculiar species of
sprig crystal, which  is of a beautiful yellow.  Many of
the common crystals,  when  in the neighbourhood of lead
mines, are liable to be  accidentally tinged yellow,  by an
admixture of the  particles of that metal; and all  tliesc,
whether finer or coarser, have been too frequently con-
founded  together under the name citrine;  hut Dr. Hill
has ascertained this to be a peculiar species of crystals
different  from all the others in form as well as in colour;
and distinguished by the name of ellipoinacrostylum luci-
dum fiavesrens, pyramido brevi. It is never found colour-
less  like  the  other crystals, but  has great variety  of
tinges, frni that of  the deeper ochres to a pale leinon-
colour. It is sometimes found in Bohemia. The  pyramid
of this crystal is always finer than  the column.
   CITRUS,  the citron, orange, and lemon  tree, a  genus
of the polyadelphia class and  the icosandria  order of
plants. The calyx is quinquefid; the petals  oblong, and
five in number; the anthers are 20. filaments united into
various bodies; fruit nine-celled. There are five species,
with many varieties, viz.
   1.  Citrus aurantium, tbe orange: of which the varietiei
are, 1. Seville orange. This is a very handsome tree, and
the hardiest of any; as in this  country  it shoots fr < ly,
produces large aud beautiful leaves, flowers stronger, 
                       C IT

Sec. The fruit is large, rougli-rindcd, and sour, of excel-
lent quality for economical uses. 2. The  China orange.
This  tree* has  moderately-sized leaves, and a smooth,
thin-rinded, sweet fruit, of which there are several varie-
ties in warm countries, where  tbey grow  in the open
ground. 3. The forbidden-fruit tree, in  trunk, leaves, and
flowers,  very moe b resembles the common  orange-tree;
but the fruit when ripe  is larger and  longer than the
biggest orange. (See I'latc.) It has somewhat tbe taste of
shaddock, but far exceeds that, as  well as the best orange,
in its delicious taste and flavour.  4. The horned orange
is a tree of moderate size, producing  fruit wdiich divide,
and the rind runs out into divisions like horns. 5.  The
hermaphrodite orange is a common sized tree, producing
fruit shaped partly like an orange and partly like a cit-
ron.  6. The dwarf orange tree, or nutmeg orange,  has a
long  stem and  small bushy head, growing two or three
feet  high;  small oval leaves in  clusters; and numerous
flowers  in clusters, covering the  branches,  succeeded by-
 very  small  fruit.
   2.  Citrus medica, the citron tree. Tbe varieties are, 1.
citron-tree with sour fruit; 2. with sweetish fruit; 3. with
 long fruit;  4. with warted fruit;  5. with, recurved  fruit;
 and 6. with blotched leaves.
   The lemon-tree is accounted a variety of the citron.
 The varieties of lemon are, l. the lemon-tree with  sun*
 fruit; 2.  with  sweetish fruit; 3.  with very large fruit,
 called imperial leaion; 4.  with pear-shaped fruit; 5. with
 furrowed fruit; 6.  with clustered fruit; 7.  with childiug
 fruit; 8. with whitish fruit; 9. with  tricolar striped  fruit;
 10. with silver-striped leaves; and 11. with double flowers.
   These are the most remarkable varieties  ofthe species
 of citrus; but besides these there are a great  nunber of
 others; and indeed in those countries where  tbey grow na-
 turally , the varieties may be multiplied  without end, like
 those of our apples and pears. The flowers  of all the spe-
 cies  and varieties are formed each of five  spreading pe-
 tals, appearing here  principally in May and June, and
 the fruit continues setting in June and July, and ripens
 the year following.
    3. Citrus trifoliata, is a thorny shrub growing  natu-
  rally in Japan, where it is likewise known by the names
 of gees, and karatals banna. The trunk acquires hy age
 and  culture the thickness of a tree. The flowers,  which
 resemble those of the medlar, proceed singly from the
 arm-pits of the lcav es, are white, possessed of no  great
 degree  of  fragrance, and consist of  five petals.  The
 fruit is equally beautiful with  a middle-sized  orange;
 their internal  structure  is also  pretty much the  same;
 only the pulp is glutinous, of an unpleasant smell, and a
  harsh disagreeable taste.  The seed-;  have  tbe same taste
  with the pulp, and are shaped exactly like those of  the
 orange1.
    A.  Citrus decumana. or shaddock,  which derives its
 name from captain Shaddock, who brought it from the
  East to the AVest Indies.
    5. Citrus japonic a, the fruit of  which is no larger
  than a  cherry, lint very sweet and pleasant.
    CITIES, imperial, an  appellation given to  those ci-
 ties of  Germany immediately subject to the emperor:
 tbey make a part of the  (icrmauie  body, are governed
 by their own magistrates, have ibe  privilege of coining
  money, and assist at the diet of the  empire. They  *ae
    vol.  i.                  70
                         CIV

48 in all, and are distinguished in general hy their pros-
perity and opulen e.
  CIVET. See ViVERR.l.
  CIVIL LAW,  is properly the peculiar law of each
stat", country, or  city: but what  is usually meant  by
the civil law, is a body of laws composed out of the best
Roman and  Grecian laws,  compiled from the laws  ot
nature and nations,  and for tbe most part received and
observed throughout all the Roman dominions for above
 1200 years.
  The Romans took the first grounds of this  law from
the twelve tables; wbich were abridgments of the laws of
 Solon, at Athens,  and of  other  celebrated  cities   of
 Greece; to which tbey added their own ancient customs
 ofthe city of Rome. These written laws were subject to
 various interpretations, whence conic >vcisles arising,
 tbey were determined by the judgment of the learned;
 and these determin itions were what  tbey first called
jus  civile,  after their several  cas \s  were composed,
 which,  lest the people should  make them  at pleasure,
 were fixed,  certain, and solemn; rnd this part of their
 law they called actions juris, cases at law. Tbe Romans
 had also their plebicita, wbich were laws made  by the
 commons, without the authority of tbesenvte. The jus
 honorarium was an edict of some particular magistrate,
 the sen it.is consultuni an ordinance  made by the sole
 authority of the s mate, and the principalis constitutio
 was enacted by  the  prince or emperor.   These laws
 grew by degrees to a vast number of volumes,  and there-
 fore the emperor  Justinian  c-.inmandcd his  chancellor
 Trehonianus, with  the assist.in e of some other eminent
 lawyers, to reduce liiem to a perfect body.
   The body of tbe cieil law is divided into three  vo-
 lumes, which are still remaining, viz. the pandects or
 digests, the code, and the institutes: to these were after-
 wards added he authentic  or constitutions of Justinian,
 called also  no veil re, or novels. See Code, Sec.
   The civil law is not received at this  day in any one
 nation,  without  some addition   or  alteration.   For
 sometimes  th? feudal law is mixed with it, or general
 or particular customs: and often ordinances and statutes
 cut off a great part of it. In Turkey the Justinian Greek
 code is only used. In Italy, the canon law and customs
 have excluded a good part  of it.  In Venice, custom has
 almost an rbsilute government. In the Milanese, the feu-
 dal law and particular customs  bear swav.  In  Naples
 and Sicily, the constitutions and laws of the Lombards
 are said to prevail. In  Germany and Holland, the  civil
 law is esteemed  to be the municipal law; but vet many
 parts of it are there grown obsolete,  and others  are
 altered, either hy the canon law, or  a different  usage.
 In r'rirzland it is observed  with more strictness; huAn
 the northern parts of  Germany, the jus  Saxonicum, Lu-
 becensc, or Ciilmcn.se. is preferred to it.  In Denmark
 and Sweden it has  scarcely  any authority at  all.  In
 France only apart of it is received, and that part is in
 some places as a customary law; and  in those provinces
 nearest to  Italy, m micipal written hew.  In criminal ca-
 ses the  civil law is  more regarded  in  France:  bit the
 manner of trial is regulated by ordinances and edicts
 The civil law in Spain and Portugal  is corre. ted bv the
 jus regium, and custom. In Scotland the statat-  s of the
  sederunt, part of the regia; majestatis, and their customs, 
CL A
C L A
controul the civil law. In  England it is used in the ec-
clesiastical courts, in the courts of the admiralty, and in
the two universities: yet in all these it is restrained and
directed by the common law.
  Civil year is the legal year, or  annual account of
time, which every government appoints to he used with-
in its own dominions; and is so called in contradistinction
to the natural year, which  is measured by the revolution
of the heavenly bodies.
  CIVILIAN, in general, denotes something belonging
to the  civil law, but more especially the  doctors and
professors of it are called civilians. Of these  there are  a
college  or society  in London, known hy  the  name of
doctors'-commons.
  CLAIM, in  law, a challenge of interest in any thing
that is in the possession of another, or at least  out of a
man's  own; as claim by  charter, by  descent,  Sec. By
stat. 4 Anne c. 16. sect. 16. no claim or entry shall  be of
force to avoid  any fine  levied with proclamation in the
common-pleas, or in the court of session in the counties
palatine, or of grand session in Wales, or shall be a suf-
ficient entry to claim within the statute of limitation, 21
Jac. 1. c. 16. unless  upon  such entry or claim, an action
be commenced  within one year after making such entry
or claim,  and prosecuted with effect.  Plowd. 359.
  CLAMP, in a ship, denotes a piece of timber  applied
to a mast or yard, to prevent tbe wood from bursting;
and also a thick  plank lying fore and aft under the
beams of the first orlop, or second deck, and is the  same
that the rising timbers are to the deck.
  Clamp  is likewise  the term  for a pile  of  unburnt
bricks built up for burning.
  CLAMPING,  in joinery,  is the  fitting a  piece of
board  with the grain, to  another piece of  board  cross
the grain. Thus the ends of tables are commonly clamp-
ed; to prevent their warping.
   CLANS, in  history, and particularly in that of  Scot-
land. The nations which overran Europe were origin-.1-
ly divided into many small tribes; and when they came
to parcel out the lands which they had conquered, it was
natural for  every chieftain to bestow a portion, in the
first place, upon those of his own tribe or family. These
all  held their lands of him; and as the safety of each in-
dividual depended on the general union, these snail socie-
ties clung together, and were distinguished  by  common
appellation, either patronymical or local, long before the
introduction of surnames or ensigns armorial. But when
these became common, the descendants and  relations of
every chieftain assumed the same name and arms with
him. Other vassals were proud to imitate their example;
and by  degrees they were communicated to   all those
who held  of the same superior.  Thus clanships  were
formed; and in a generation  or two that consanguinity
which was at  first in a great measure imaginary, was
believed to be real. An artificial union was converted in-
to  a natural  one. Men  willingly followed a  leader,
whom they regarded  both  as  the  superior  of  their
lands and the chief of their blood, and served  him not
only with the  fidelity of  vassals, but tbe  affection of
friends. Against such men a king contended with great
disadvantage;  and that cold service wiiich  m mey*pur-
chases, or authority extorts, was  not  an  equal match
for their ardour and zeal.  Some imagine the word clan
to be only a corruption of the Roman colonia;  but Mr.
Whitakcr asserts it to he  purely British, and to signify
a family.
  CLARENCIEUX, the second king at arms, so call-
ed from the duke of Clarence, to whom he first belong-
ed; for Lionel III. son to Edward III. having by his vvife
the honour of Clare, in the county of Thoinonil, was af-
terwards declared duke of Clarence; which  dukedom af-
terwards escheating to Edward  IV. he made this earl a
king at arms.  His office is  to marshal and dispose of the
funerals of all the lower nobility, as baronets,  knights,
esquires, on the south side of  the  Trent;  whence be is
sometimes called Surroy, or South-roy, in  contradis-
tinction to Norrov.
  CLARENDON. The constitutions of Clarendon  are
certain ecclesiastical laws drawn up at Clarendon, near
Salisbury. They were sixteen in number, all tending to
restrain the power of the clergy; and readily assented to
by all the bishops and barons, the archbishop Be ket ex-
cepted, who opposed  them at first, but was afterwards
prev  ailed upon to sign them. The  pope Alexander III.
declared against and annulled most of them.
  CLARIFICATION, in chemistry, the  act of clear-
ing and fining any  fluid  from all heterogeneous matter
or feculancies.  See Chemistry.
  CLARION, a kind of trumpet, the tube of which h
narrower, and its tc.ne acuter and shriller,  than that of
the common trumpet. It is said that the clarion, now
used among the Moors, and Portuguese who borrowed
it from the Moors,  served anciently for a treble  to seve-
ral trumpets, wdiich sounded tenor and bass.
   Claiiiox, in heraldry, a hearing as  represented: he
bears ruby, three clarions  topaz, being the arms ofthe
earl  of Batlr, by the name of Granville. Guillim is of
opinion,  that these three clarions are a kind of old fash-
ioned trumpets; but others say that they  rather resemble
the rudder of a ship,  others a rest for a lance.
  CLARO-OBSCCRO, or Clair-ousccre, in paint-
ing,  the art of distributing to advantage the, liglus and
shadows of a piece, both with regard to the easing ofthe
eye, and the effect ofthe who1  piece. See Painti.yg.
   CLASS,  an appellation given to the most general sub-
divisions of any thing: thus, in the  Linn&an system,
animals  are divided into six classes,  viz. mammalia,
aves,  amphibia, pisces,  insccta, and vermes; these  are
again  subdivided in orders, and these last into genera.
Sec  Natcral History.
   CLATHRUS, in botany, a genus of roundish fungi;
the substance of which is reticulated, or full of boles,
somewhat like the meshes of  a net,  with continuous ra-
mification. There are seven species.
   CLAVA, a genus of vermes mollusca,  having  one
common aperture, dilatable, vertical, surrounded by club-
shaped tentacula. There is only one species.
   CLAVARIA, club-top, a  genus of  the  cryptogamia
class of plants, and ofthe. order of fungi; tiie 58th in the
natural methsd. The fungus is smooth and oblong. Mr.
Miller asserts, that the vvhde genus of  clavaria belongs
to the  tribe of zoophytes, that is, to the animal, and not
to the vegetable kingdom.  According to this method, he
ranks  them  among the vermes, under a subdivision which
he terms femgosa o.sculis atomiferis: supposing them to
be compound animals with  many  orifices on their sur- 
C L A
CLE
fa e, from  v/uich arc protruded atnms  or ani.w\lcu{e<:,
whicn have a visible spontaneous motion, S/Uirth.ng si-
milar to what is n >w acknowledged to be a fact, with re-
gard to a numerous class of m;w\iie bodies, termed coral-
lines. This motion, however, ha-  n it been observed by
other naturalists. Seineffer has figured the seeds of seve-
ral clavaria: as  they appeared t >hi;u through the vactos-
cope; and none of these fungi, when burnt, ennt  die
strong disagreeable smell peculiar to animal substances.
   1. Clavana hemotad-. s, or the oak leather dub-top, ex-
actly resembles tanned leather, except that it is thinner
and softer. It is of no determinate form. It grows in the
clefts and hollows of old  oaks, and sometimes on ash in
Ireland and in  some places of England, &c.  In Ireland
it is used to dress ulcers, and in Virginia to spread plas-
ters upon, instead of leather.
   2. Clavaria  militaris, and one or two other  species,
arc remarkable fior growing only on the  head of a dead
insect  in the nympha state.
   CLAVARIUM, in  antiquity, an allowance the Ro-
man siddicrs  had  for furnishing nails to secure their
shoes  witi). They  frequently raised mutinies, and  de-
manded largesses of the  emperors, under this pretence.
   CLAVES INSULtE, a term used in tbe Isle of Man,
where all weighty and ambiguous  causes are referred to
a jury of twelve, who are called claves insula?, the keys
of the island.
   CLAVICLES.  See Anatomy.
   CLAUSE-ROLLS,  in the Tower, contain all such
matters as were committed to close writ.
   CLAVUS, in antiquity, an ornament upon the robes of
the Roman senators and knights, which was mere or less
broad, according to tbe dignity of the person. Hence the
distinction of tunica angusticlavia and laticlavia.
   CLAW, among  zoologists, denotes the sharp-pointed
nails  with  wdiich  the feet  of  certain quadrupeds and
birds are furnished.
   CL  \Y,  is a mixture of alumina and silica in  various
proportions. The alumina is in the state of an impalpa-
ble powder; but the silica  is almost always in  small
grains, laige enough to he distinguished by the eye. Clay
therefore exhibits tbe character of alumina,  and not e>i'
silica,  even when this last ingredient predominates.  The
particles of silica are already combined with each other;
and  they have  so strong an affinity for each other, that
few bodies can  separate them; whereas the alumina, not
being combined,  readily displays the characters  wdiich
distinguish it from other bodies. Besides alumina and si-
te a, ( by  often contains carbonat of lime, of magnesia,
barytes, oxyd of iron, <Ncc. and  as  (lay is merely a me-
rhanical  mixture, 1 he proportion of its ingredients is ex-
ceedingly various.  Its  specific gravity  is 1.8 to 2.68.
Adheres slightly to the tongue.  Often feels greasy. Falls
to peiwder in  water. Cohiur. when pure,  white,  often
tinged blue ory eli.iw.
   The specific  gravity of potter's clay is 1.8 to 2.  Stains
the fingers slightly. A'quires s line  polish  by  friction.
Colour white; often with a tinge of yellow or blue; some-
times brownish, greenish, reddish.  Totally diffusible in
water: and when duly moistened, very ductile.  A speci-
men from Dreux, analysed by Vauquelin* contained
43.5 silica
53.2 alumina
 3.5 lime
 1.0 iron
18.0 water
                  99.2
Very  common in strata.  Tobacco-pipe clay is a variety
of tins sub-species.
  In I '.rated  clay  does not diffuse itself in water,  but
falls to powder. Discovers  but little ductility.  Colours
grey, yellowish, bluish, greenish, reddish, brownish.
  The* structure of shistose  clay is slaty.  Specific gra-
vity from 2.6 to 2.68. Feels smooth. Streak white or grey.
Cdour commonly  bluish, or yellowish grey; sometimes
blackish, reddish, greenish.  Found in strata, usually in
coal-mines. This variety is sometimes impregnated  with
bitumen. It is then called bituminous  shale.
   CLAVTONTA, in botany,  a genus of the pentandria
monogynia class of plants,  the flower of which consists
of live ovato-oblong, erect,  large petals; tbe fruit is a
roundish unilocular capsule, containing three roundish
seeds. There  are two  species.
   CLEAT, on ship-board,  a piece of wood fixed to the
yard-arm, to keep the ropes from  slipping off.
   CLECUE,  in  heraldry, a kind of cross,  charged
with  another cross ofthe same figure, but ofthe colour
of the ficdd.
   CLEF,  or Cliff, in music, a mark set at tbe  begin-
ning  of tbe lines of a song, which shows the tone  or key
in which the piece is te> begin; or it is  a letter marked on
any line, which explains the rest.
   CLEMATIS, virgin's bower, in botany, a genus of
the polyandria polygynia class of plants, the flower of
which consists of  four oblong lax petals.  There is  no
pericarpiiiui,  but  a  small  receptacle contains  several
roundish compressed seeds, crowned with a slender fila-
ment, somewhat like a feather.  There are 21 species,
chiefly climbing shrubs.  Sec Plate XXXUI. Nat. Hist.
fig. 123.
  CLEOME, a genus ofthe siliquosa order,  in  the te-
tvadynamia class of plants,  and  in the  natural  method
ranking under the 2eth order,  putamime. There  are
three   nectariferous glandules, one at each sinus of the
calyx, except the lowest; the petals all  rising upwards;
the siliqua  unilocular and bivalved. There  arc  15 spe-
cies; ad natives of warm  climates, except two. They are
herbaceous plants, rising from one to  two feet high; and
are adorned with flivvers of various colours, as red, yel-
low, flcsh-cedour, Sec.  They are propagated by  seeds,
and require no other care than what is common to other
exotics which are natives of warm countries.
  CLEPSYDRA, a water-clock, or instrument to mea-
sure time by the fall of a certain quantity of water.
  The construction of a Clefs vim a.  To div ide  any
cylindrical  vessel  into parts,  to be emptied in  each di-
vision of time; the lime  wherein the whole, and  that
whei du any part is to  he evaluated, being given:__
  Suppose  a cylindrical  vessel, whose charge of water
flows  eut in twelve hours, was  required to be divided in-
to parts, to be evacuated each hour.  1.  As the part of
time l is to the whole  time  12, so  is the same  time  12 
CLE
CLE
to a fourth proportional 144. 2.  Divide the altitude of
the vessel into 144 equal parts: here the last will fall to
the last hour; the three next above to  the last part but
one; the five next to the tenth hour; and so the twenty-
three last will fall to the first hour. For since the times
increase in the series ofthe natural numbers 1, 2, 3, 4,
5, Sec. and the altitudes, if the numeration be in a retro-
grade order from the twelfth hour, increase in the series
of the unequal numbers 1,  S, 5, 7, 9,  Sec. the altitudes
computed from the twelfth hour will be as the squares of
the times 1, 4, 9, 16, 25, &r. Therefore the square ofthe
whole time, 144, comprehends all the parts of the altitude
of the vessel to  be evacuated.  But a third proportional
to 1 and 12 is the square of 12, and  consequently itis the
number of equal parts in which the altitude is to be di-
vided, to be distributed  according to the scries of the un-
equal numbers, through the equal intervals of hours.
   There were many  kinds of clepsydrae  among the an-
cients;  hut they all had this in  cowmen, that the water
ran generally through a narrow passage, from one ves-
sel to another; and in the lower was a piece of cork or
ligle  wood, which, as the vessel filled, rose up by de-
grees, and showed the hour. The reader  may see a de-
scription of a very curious clepsydra given by Mr. Ha-
milton, in No. 479 ofthe Philosophical Transactions.
   CLERGY.  The privileges of the English clergy, by
the ancient statutes,  are very considerable: their goods
are to pay no toll in fairs or markets;  they  arc  exempt
from all offices but their own; from  the king's carriages,
posts, Sec. from appearing at sheriff's tourns, or frank-
pledges; and arc not to be fined or  amerced according to
their spiritual, but their temporal  means. A  clergyman
 acknowledging a statute, his body is not to be imprisoned.
 ii he is convicted of a crime for which the benefit of cler-
 gy is allowed, he shall not be burnt in the hand;  and he
 shall have the benefit of clergy in infinitum, which no
 layman can have more than one e.  The cleigy, by com-
 mon law, are not to he burdened in the general  charges
 of the  laity;  nor to be troubled nor encumbered, unless
 expressly named and charged hy the statute; for general
 words  do not affect them. Thus if a bundled is sued for a
 robbery, the minister  .shall not contribute, neither shall
 they be assessed to the highway, to  the watrh, <xc.
   The revenues of the clergy were anciently  more con-
 siderable than at present. Ethelwolf,  in 855, gave them
 a tythe of all goods, and a tenth of all the lands in Eng-
 land, free from all secular services, taxes, Sec. The char-
 ter whereby this was granted  them  was confirmed by
 several of his successors: and  William the Conqueror,
 finding the bishoprics so  rich, created them into baron-
 ies, each barony containing thirteen knight's fees at least;
 but since the Reformation the bishoprics are much im-
 poverished. The revenues ofthe inferior clergy, in gene-
 ral, are small; a third part of  the  best benefices  being
 anciently, by the pope's grant, appropriated to monaste-
 ries, upon the dissolution thereof became a lay-fee.
    Clergy, benejit of,  is an ancient privilege,  w hereby
 one in orders claimed to he  delivered to his ordinary, to
 purge  himself  of  felony.  This purgation  was to be
 by his own oath, affirming his innocence, and the oath
 of twelve  compurgators, as to their belief of  it, be-
 fore  a jury of twelve clerks:  if the clerk failed in his
 purgation, he was deprived of his character,  whereby
he became a mere layman, or be was to be kept in prison
till a pardon was obtained; but if he purged himself, he
was set at liberty.  This was formerly admitted,  even in
cases of murder; but theancient course of the law  is much
altered upon this head.  By t'.e statute of 18 Eliz.  cap.
vii. clerks are no more committed to their  ordinary to
be purged; but every man to whom the benefit of clergy
is granted, though  not in orders, is put to read at the
bar, after he is found guilty and convicted of such felony,
and so burnt in the hand, and  set free  for the first time,
if the ordinary or deputy standing  by, do say, Legit id
clericus: otherwise  he shall suffer death.
   It appears by our law-books, that laymen that could
read had the privilege of the clergy ever since 25 Kdvv.
III. which allowance never was condemned in parlia-
ment,  but rather approved of.
   CLERK, a  word originally appropriated to the cler-
gy, from the Greek *.m%<* (chosen), whence it was after-
wards applied to denote a learned man, or man of letters:
inlaw itis still the designation of a clergyman, or a per-
son in holy orders; in former  times the nobility and gen-
try being usually bred up to the exercise of arms,  and
none left but the ecclesiastics to cultivate the sciences.
   Cleric of the act*, an officer in the  navy office, ap-
pointed for recording all orders, contracts, bills, war-
rants, &c. transacted by the lords  of the admiralty and
commissioners ofthe  navy.
   Clerk of  the affidavits, the officer,  in the court of
chancery, wdio files all affidavits made use of in court.
   Cleric of the assixe, the person  who writes all things
judicially done  by tbe justices of assize in their circuits.
   Clerk of the bails, an officer in the court of kin^
bench, whose  business itis to  file all bail-pieces taken in
that court, where he  always attends.
   Clerk of the crown,  an  officer, in the king's bench,
wdio frames, reads, and records, all indictments again4
offenders, there arraigned or indicted of any public crime.
He is  likewise termed clerk ofthe crown-officer, in which
capacity he exhibits informations hy order of the court,
for divers offences.
   Cleric ofthe crown, in chancery, an officer whose bu-
siness it is constantly to attend the lord-chancellor,  in
person or by deputy, to write and prepare for the great
seal, special matters of state by commission, both ordina-
ry and extraordinary, viz. commissions of lieutenaney,
of justices of assize, oyer and terminer, gaol-.b livery, and
of the peace; all general  pardons, granted  either at tbe
king's coronation, or in parliament: the writs of parlia-
ment, with the names ofthe knights, citizens, and burges-
ses, are also returned into his office. He also makes out
special pardons, and writs of execution on bonds of sta-
tute-staple forfeited.
   Cleric of the declarations, he that files all declarations
 after they are engrossed, in causes depending in  the court
of king's bench.
   Clerk of tiie deliveries, an officer ofthe Tower, whose
function is to take indentures for  all stores and ammu-
 nition used from thence.
   Cleric of the errors, in the court of common pleas,
 an officer who transcribes and certifies into the king's
bench, the tenor ofthe record of the action on which the
wrrit of error,  made out by the cursitor,  is brought  there
to be determined. In the king's hem h, the clerk of the 
CLERK.
errors transcribes and certifies the records of causes, by
bill in that court, into the excheciner. And the business of
the clerk of the errors in the exchequer, is to transcribe
the records certified thither out of the king's bench, and to
prepare them for judgment in the exchequer chamber.
   Clerk ofthe essoins, in the court  of common pleas,
ke< ps the essoin-roll.or enters essoins: he also provides
paicbment, cuts it into rolls, marks the number of them,
delivers out all tbe rolls to every officer, and receives them
again when written.
   Clerk ofthe estreats, an  office in the exchequer, who
ev cry term receives the estreats out of the lord-treasur-
er's remembrancer's  office, and writes  them out,  to be
levied  for the crown.
   Clerk ofthe hamper or hanaper. an officer in chance-
ry, whose business is to  receive all  money  due  lo the
king for the seals of charters, letters patent, commissions,
and writs; also the fees due to the  officers  for enrolling
and examining them.
   Clerk of the  enrolments, an officer of  the court of
common pleas, that enrols and exemplifies all fines and
recoveries, and returns writs of entry.
   Clerk of the juries, an officer ofthe common pleas,
who makes out the writs, called  habeas-corpus and dis-
tringas, for juries to  appear either in that court, or at
the assizes, after the  pannels  are returned upon  the ve-
nire facias. He likewise enters into the rolls the award-
ing these writs, and makes all the  continuances till ver-
dict is given.
   C lekk coutroler of  the king's household, an officer ofthe
king's court, authorized to allow or disallow the charges
ofpoursuivauts, messengers of the green cloth, <\e. to in-
spect and control all defects  of any ofthe inferior officers;
and to sit in the  counting-house with the lord-steward
and other officers  of the household, for regulating such
matters.
   Clerk of the king's  silver, an officer of the common
pleas, to whom every  fine is brought,  after  it has passed
tbe office ofthe custos brcvium; and  who enters the  ef-
fect of wi its of covenant,  into a book kept for that pur-
pose', according to which  all the fines of that term are
recorded in the rolls of the court.
   Clerk of the king's  great  wardrobe, an  officer who
keeps an account of all things belonging to the wardrobe.
   Clerk of the market, an officer  of tbe king's house,
to whom is given tbe  charge of the king's measures and
weights, tbe standards of those that ought to be  used all
over England.
   Clkrk of the nichils, or nihil,-, an officer of the exche-
ciner, who makes a roll of all sue b sums r.s are nichilled
by the sheriffs upon their  estreats of green wax, and de-
livers them in to the  remembrancer of the  treasury, to
have execution done upon them for  the king.
   ( leiik of tin•ordnance, an officer that registers all or-
ders concerning the king's ordnance in the Tower.
   Clerk of  the outlawries, an officer of  the common
pleus. and deputy  to the attorney-general, for making out
all writs cd' capias utlegatum after outlawry, to which
there- must be- the  king's attorney's name.
   Clerk ofthe paper-office, an officer belonging to the
king's bench,  wlnw  business is to make up the papcr-
b.xiks of special pleadings in that court.
   Clerk ofthe parliament-rolls, an officer in the house
of lords, and likewise in the house of commons, who re-
cords all transactions in parliament, and engrossess them
fairly in parchment rolls.
   Clerk of t/ie peace,  an  officer belonging to the ses-
sions of the  peace, whose business is to read indictments,
enrol the proceedings, and  draw the process; he likewise
certifies into the king's-bench, transcripts of indictments,
outlawries,  attainders,  and convictions, had  before  the
justices of peace, within the time limited by statute,  un-
der a certain penalty.  This  office is in  the gift of  the
custos rotulorum, and may be executed by deputy.
   Clerk of the pells, an officer that belongs to the  ex-
chequer, whose business it is to enter every teller's  bill
into a parchment roll called pcllis receptorum, and to
make another roll of payments, called  pellis exituum.
   Clerk of the petty bag,  officers of the court of chan-
cery, of which there are three, the master of the rolls
being the chief: their business is to record the return of
all inquisitions out of every shire, to make out patents of
customers, gaugers,  controlers, Sec. liberates upon  ex-
tents of  statute-staple, conge-d'elires for bishops;  sum-
mons of the nobility, clergy, and  burgesses  to parlia-
ment; and commissions  directed to knights and others,
of every shire, for assessing subsidies  and taxes*
   Clerk of the pipe, an officer of the exchequer, who
having the accounts  of all debts due to the king, deliver-
ed out of the remembrancer's  office,  charges them  in
a great roll, folded up like a pipe. He writes out  war-
rants to sheriffs, to levy the said debts  on the goods and
chattels of the debtors; and if they have no goods, then
he draws them down to the treasurer's remembrancer,
to write  estreats against their lands.
   Clerk of the pleas, an  officer of the exchequer,  in
whose office all the officers of the court, having special
previlege, ought to sue, or he sued, in any  action. In
this  office also actions at law may he prosecuted hy other
persons, but the plaintiff ought  to be tenant or debtor to
the king, or some way accountable to him. The under-
clerks are attorneys  in  all  suits.
   Clerks ofthe the privy-seal, four officers that attend
the  lord  privy seal, for  writing  and  making out  all
things that  are sent  by warrant from  the signet to  the
privy seal, and to be passed the great seal; and likewise
to make out privy seals,  upon special occasions of his
majesty's affairs, as  for loan  of money, or the like.
   Clkiik ofthe rolls, an officer of the chancery, whose
business is to make searches  after, and copies of, deeds,
offices. Sic.
   Cleric  of the  rules, an officer of the  court of king's
bench, who draws up and enters all the rules and orders
made in court, and gives rules of course in divers writs.
   Clerk of the servers, an officer who writes and records
the proceedings of the commissioners of the sewei-s.
   Clerk of the signet, an officer continually attending
upon his majesty's principal secretary, who has the cus-
tody ofthe  privy signet, as well for scaling the king's
private letters, as those grants which pass the  king's
hand by bill  signed. There  are four  of these officers,
who have their diet at the secretary's table.
   Clerks, six, officers in chancery, next in degree be-
low  the twelve masters; whose business is to enrol coin-
m ssions. pardons, patents, warrants, Sec. which pass the
great seal: they were anciently  clerici,  and forfeited 
C  L I
C L I
their places if they married. They arc  also attorneys
for parties in suits depending in the court of chancery.
   Clerk of the supersedeas, an officer of the common
pleas, who makes on!  writs of supersedeas, forbidding
the 'beriff to return the exigent upon a defendant's ap-
pearing thereto on an outlawry.
   Cleric of tiie  treasury,  an officer belonging to the
court of common pleas, who has the charge of keeping
the records  of the court, makes out all  records of nisi
prius, and likewise all  exemplifications of records being
in the treasury.  He has the fees due for all searches; and
has  under him an undcrkecper, who always keeps one
key of the treasury-door.
   Clerk of the warrants, an officer of tbe common pleas,
whose business  is to enter  all warrants of attorney for
plaintiffs and defendants in suit; and to enrol  deeds of
bargain and sale, that are a  knowledged in court, or he-
fore a judge. His office is likewise to estreat into the ex-
chequer all  issues,  fines, estreats, and  amercements,
which grow  due to tbe crown in that court.
   CLERODENDRUM, a genus of  the didynamia
angiospermia class of plants,  the flower of which con-
sists of only one petal, with a slender and long tube; its
upper lip is concave, erect, obtuse, and divided into two
segments; and the under  lip, being of the length of the
upper, is divided into three reflex  and  obtuse segments:
the  fruit is  a roundish  drupe;  and the seed is roundish
and single.  There are eight species, natives of the East
Indies.
   CLETHRA, a genus of the monogynia order, in the
decandria class of plants, and in the natural method rank-
ing under the 18th order, Incomes. The. calyx is quin-
quepartite;  the petals five; the stigma trifid; the capsule
triocular and three-valved. There are four species, of
 which the most remarkable is,
   Clethra alnifolia, a native of Virginia and Carolina,
 where  it grows in moist places,  and near  the  sides of
 rivulets, rising near eight or ten feet high.  The leaves
 are shaped like those of the alder, but longer; the flowers
 arc produced in close  spikes  at the extremities of the
 branches: they are  white.   This plant hears the o^en
 air in Britain, and is one ofthe most beautiful flowering
 shrubs.  Its season is commonly about the beginning of
 July; and,  if not very hot,  there will  be  part of the
 spikes in beauty till the middle of September. It thrives
 best in moist land,  and requires  a sheltered situation,
 where it may be defended from strong winds, which fre-
 quently break offthe branches where they are too much
exposed to their violence.   It  is propagated by layers,
but they are generally two years before they take root.
   CLEW ofa sail, in naval affairs, is the lower corner
 of it, to which  are  made fast the sheets  and tacks:  a
 square sail has no clew.
   Clew-garnet, a rope made fast to  the clew of the
 sail, and running thence to the block, seized to the  mid-
 dle ofthe main and fore yard; which, in furling, hales up
 the clew of the sail close to the middle of the yard.
   Clew-line, the same to the top-sails,  top-gallant-
 sails, and sprit-sails, that the clew-garnet is to the main-
 sail and fore-sail, and ofthe same use.
   CLIBADIUM, a  genus of  the monoecia pentandria
 rlass and order.  The male calyx is imbricate; corolla
 of the disk five-cleft   The female, common calyx the
same: coro'la of the  ray female three or four;  seed an
umbiiicatc drupe.  There is one species, a native of Su-
rinam.
  CLIFFORTIA, a genus ofthe polyandria order, in
the dioecia class of plents: and  in  the  natural method
ranking under the 58th order, trice»rca\ The male calyx
is triphyllous, no corolla; the stamina near 30 in number;
the female calyx triphyllous.  superior to the receptacle
ofthe fruit; no corolla; two styles, with a bilocular cap-
sule, and a single seed. There are 19 species, all natives
of Africa; s> require  to be kept in a greenhouse when cul-
tivated in this country.  Their  flowers  make no great
appearance; hut the plants themselves are very orna-
mental ever-greens.   'fhey grow to the height of four
or five feet; and are propagated by cuttings, which must
be young shoots of five or six inches long.  If planted in
pots in spring or summer, and plunged in a hotbed, they
will readily take root.  They must be watered plentiful-
ly in summer, but very sparingly in winter.
   CLIMACTERIC, among physicians and natural his-
torians, a critical year in a person's life, in which he is
supposed to stund in great danger of death.  According
to some, every seventh year is a climacteric; but others
allow7 only those years produced by multiplying seven by
the odd numbers, 3,5, 7, and 9, to be climacterical. These
years, tbey  say,  bring with them  some remarkable
change with respect  to health, life, or fortune: tie grand
climacteric is the sixty-third year; but some, making
two, add to this the  eighty-first: the other remarkable
climacterics  are the seventh, twenty-first, thirty-fifth,
forty-ninth, and fifty-sixth.  The  credit of climacteric
years can only be supported by the doctrine of numbers
introduced by Pythagoras, and is probably nothing but
superstitious nonsense.
   CLIMATES, in geography, spaces upon the surface
ofthe terrestial globe, contained between two parallels,
so far distant from each other, that the longest day on
one parallel differs half an hour from the  longest day
on the other.  See Geography.
   CLINCH, in the  sea-language, that part of a cable
which is bent about  the  ring of the anchor, and  then
seized, or made fast.
   CLINCHING, in the sea-language, a kind  of slight
caulking used at sea, in a prospect of foul weather, about
the ports: it consists in  driving a little oakum into  their
seams, to prevent the water's coming in at  them.
   CLINIC medicine, particularly used for the method
of visiting and treating sick persons  in  bed, and the
more exact discovery of all the symptoms  of their dis-
ease.
   CLINOPODIX M, field-basil, a genus  of the gym-
nospennia order, in the didynamift class of plants; and
the natural method ranking  under  the  41st order, as-
perifolise.  The involucrum consists of many small  bris-
tles under the verticillus or whorl of flowers.  There
are five species, all herbaceous plants growing from one
to two feet high.  They are remarkable oidy for  their
strong odour,  being somewhat  between marjoram and
basil.
   CLIO, in zoology, a genus of insects belonging to the
vermes mollusca.  The  body is oblong and fitted for
swimming: it has two membranaceous wings placed op-
posite to each other.  There are three  species, princi- 
C  L 0
C  L O
 pally distinguished hy the shape of the vagiifa, and all na-
 tives of the ocean.  See PlateXXXIII.Nat.ilist. fig. 118.
   CLITORIA, a genus of the decandria  order  in the
 diadc Iphia class of plants; and in the natural method
 ranking under the 3 2d order, papilionacese. The corol-
 la is supine, or turned down-side  up; with the  vexil-
 lum or flag-petal very large, patenr., and almost cover-
 ing the alse or wing-petals.  There arc five species, all
 herbaceous  perennials;  or  annual s of the  kidney-bean
 kind, growing naturally in both the  Indies.  The stalk
 is climbing, slender, and of the height of a man.  The
 leaves are-winged. The flowers, which are elegant, stand
 singly, each on its proper footstalk. They are very large,
 and generally of a deep blue, hut sometimes of a white co-
 lour. From the fruit of this plant is distilled an eye-water.
   CLOACA, in Roman antiquity, the common sewer,
 by which the filth of the city of Rome was carried  away.
 It was built with great stones,  in  the  form of an arch,
 so well fastened and cemented together, that the contin-
 ual  running of water and filth had not damaged it  in the
 space of 700 years. There were many sinks in the city,
 which all fell into this common sewer; and the officers ap-
 pointed to take care of this work, and to see it repaired,
 were called euratores cloacarum urhis.
   CLOATHED. in the sea-language.  A  mast is said
 to be cloathed, when the sail is so long as to reach down
 to the gratings of the hatches, so that no wind can blow
 below the sail.
   CLOCK, a kind of movement or machine, serving to
 measure  and strike time.
   The usual chronometers are watches  and clocks: the
 former arc  such as show  the parts of time; the latter,
 such as publish it by striking: though the  name watch
 is commonly appropriated to pocket-clocks; and that of
 clock to larger machines, whether they strike or no.
   Clocks,  invention of.  The invention of clocks with
 wheels is ascribed to Pacificus, archdeacon of Verona,
 who lived in the time  of Loth air sun of Lewis the Dc-
 bonnair, on the credit of an epitaph quoted by Ughilli,
 and borrowed by him  from Panvinius.  They were at
 first called nocturnal dials, to distinguish them from sun-
 dials,  which  showed the hour  by the sun's shadow.
 Others ascribe the invention to Boethius,  about A. D.
 510.   Mr. Derham makes clock-work of a  much  older
 standing; and ranks Arc bimedes's sphere mentioned by
 Claudiau, and that of Posidonius mentioned by  Cicero,
 among the machines of  this kind: not that either their
 form or use was the same with those of ours, but that they
 bad  their motion from some hidden weights or springs,
 with wheels,orpullies, or some such clock-work princi-
 ple.   But be this as it may, it is certain the art of mak-
 ing clocks, such as are now used, was either  first invent-
 ed, or at least revived,  not more  than 200 years ago.
 The < b psydne, or water-clocks, and  sun-dials, have a
 much beti.'i- claim to  antiquity.   The French annals
 mention one of the former kind sent  by Aaron,  kalif of
 Persia, to Charlemagne, about A. I). 807, which seem-
 ed to bear some resemblunee to the modern clocks.  It
was  of brass, and showed the hours by 12 little halls of
the same metal which fell at the end  of each hour, and
in falling struck a bell unci made' it sound.   There were
also  figures of 12 cavaliers which at the end of each hour
came forth at certain  apertures or windows in the side
 ofthe clock, and shut  them again,  &c.   The invention
 of pendulum clocks is owing to ihe happy industry of the
 century before last:    the honour of it  is disputed by
 Huygens and Galileo.   The former, who has written a
 volume on the subject, declares it  was first put in prac-
 tice in 1657, and the  description thereof printed in 1658.
 Becher, c7e?  Nova Temporis dimetien.li Tiieoria, A. D.
 1680, contends for Galileo:  and  relates, though at se'-
 cond-hand,  the  whole  history of the invention; adding
 that  one Tresler, clock-maker to the then father ofthe
 grand duke of Tuscany, made  the first pendulum clock
 at Florence, by direction of Galileo Galilei; a pattern oi
 which was brought into Holland.  The Academy del
 Ciinento says expressly , that the application ofthe  pen-
 dulum to the movement of a clock was first proposed hy
 Galileo, and first put in practice  by his son Vincenzo
 Galilei, in 1649.  Be the inventor who may, it  is  cer-
 tain tbe invention never fl mrished till it came into Huy-
 gens's hands, wdio insists, that if ever Galileo thought of
 such  a thing, he  never brought it to  any degree of  per-
 fection.  The first pendulum clock made in England was
 in 1662, by Mr.  Fromantil,  a  Dutchman.  Before the
 invention ofthe pendulum a balance was used resembling
 the fly of a jack.
   In  Plate XXXII. fig. 1 is the profile of a clock: P is a
 weight that is suspended  by a rope that winds about the cy-
 linder or barrel C, which is fixed upon the axis art; tbe pi-
 vots bb go into holes made in plates TS, TS, in which they
 turn freely.  These plates are made of brass or iron, and
 are connected by  4 pillars ZZ; and the whole together is
 called theframe.  The weight  P, if not restrained, would
 necessarily turn the barrel C with an uniform accelerat-
 ed motion, in the same' manner as if the weight was fall-
 ing freely from a height. But  the barrel is furnished
 with a ratchet wheel  Ivlv, fig. the right side of whose
 teeth strikes against the  click, which is fixed with aserew
 to the wheel  I), so  that the action ofthe weight is com-
 municated to the wheel D, the teeth of which act upon the
 teeth  of  the small wheel d which turns upon the pivots
 cc.  The communication or  action  of one wheel with
 another is called the pitching;  a small wheel liked is call-
 ed a pinion, and its teeth arc leaves ofthe pinion. Several
 things are  requisite to form  a  good pitching, the  ad-
 vantages of which are obvious in  all machinery  where
 teeth  and pinions are employed.   The teeth andpiniou
 leaves should be of  a proper shape, and perfectly equal
 among themselves; the  size  also of the pinion should
 be of  a just proportion to the wheel acting into it; and its
 place  must be at a certain distance from the wheel,  be-
 yond or within which  it  will make a bad pitching.  The
 wheel EE is  fixed upon  the axis ofthe pinion d; and the
 motion communicated to the wheel l)D by  the weight is
 transmitted to the pinion d.  consequently to the wheel
 EE, as likewise to the  pinion e and wheel FF, wbich
 moves the pinion  upon the axis  ed' which the  crown or
 balance wheel G H is fixed.  The pivots ofthe pinion/
play in holes of the plates L, M, which are fixed  hori-
 zontally  to the plates TS.  The motion  begun  by the
weight is transported from the wheel G il  to the plates
I K, and by means of  the fork X U ri vetted  on the  pa-
lettes, communicates motion to the pendulum V H. which
is suspended upon the hook A.   The pendulum V II des-
cribes, on the point A, an arc of a circle alternately go- 
CLOCKS.
ing and returning.  If then the pendulum is once put in
motion by a push of the hand, the weight of the pendulum
at B will make it return upon itself, and it will continue
to go alternately backward and  forward till  the  resis-
tance of the air  upon the pendulum, and the friction at
the point of suspension at A, destroys the original im-
pressed force.   But at every vibration ofthe pendulum,
the teeth ofthe balance wheel, GH, act so upon the pa-
lettes I K (the pivots upon the axis of these palettes play
in two holes of the potence  s t), that after one tooth H
has communicated motion to the palette  K, that tooth
escapes; then the opposite tooth G acts upon the palette
I, and escapes in the same manner; and thus each tooth
of the wheel escapes the palettes I K, after having com-
municated their motion to the palettes in such a manner
that the pendulum, instead of being stopped, continues to
move.   The wheel EE revolves in an hour; the pivot c
of this wheel passes through the plate, and is continued
to r; upon the pivot is a wheel N N with  a long socket
fastened in the centre: upon  the extremity of this socket
r, the minute-hand is fixed.   The wheel N N acts upon
the wheel O; the pinion of which p acts upon the  wheel
q q, fixed upon a socket, which turns along  with the
wheel  N.   This wheel q q  makes  its revolution in 12
hours, upon the socket of which the hour hand is fixed.
Thus  it is plain,  1.  That the weight P  turns all the
wheels, and at the same time continues the motion of the
pendulum.  2. That the quickness of the  motion  of the
wheels is determined by that  of the  pendulum.   3.
That the wheels point out the parts of time divided
by the  uniform motion  of  the pendulum.   When the
cord upon  which the weight is suspended is  entirely
run down from off the barrel, itis wound up again by a
key, which goes on the square end ofthe arbor at Q, by
turning it in  a contrary direction  to that in which the
 weight descends.  For this  purpose, the inclined side of
 the teeth ofthe wheel R, fig.  2, removes the click C, so
 that the ratchet-wheel R turns while the wheel D is at
 rest; but as soon as the cord is wound up, the click falls
 in between the teeth jof the wheelD, and the right side
 fo the teeth again acts upon the end of the click,  which
 obliges  the wheel D to turn along with the barrel; and
 the spring A keeps  the click  between the teeth  of the
 ratchet-wheel R.
    To  explain how time is measured by the motion ofthe
 pendulum;  and how the wheel E, upon the axis of which
 the minute-hand is fixed, makes but one precise revolu-
 tion in an hour; we must observe, that the vibrations of
 a pendulum are performed  in a shorter or longer time
 in proportion to the length ofthe pendulum itself.  A
 pendulum of 3 feet 8| French lines in length, makes 3600
 vibrations in an hour: i. e.  each vibration is performed
 in a second of time, and  for  that reason it is called a
 second pendulum. But a pendulum of 9 inches 2| French
 lines makes 7200 vibrations in an hour, ortwo vibrations
 in a second of time, and is called a half-second pendulum.
    Hence, in constructing a  wheel whose revolution must
 be performed in a given time, the time of  the vibrations
 of the pendulum which regulates its motion, must be con-
 sidered.  Supposing, then, that the pendulum A B  makes
 7200 vibrations in an hour,  let us consider how the wheel
 E shall take up an hour in making one revolution. This
 entirely depends on the  number of teeth in  the wheels
and pinions.*  If  tho balance wheel consists of 30 teeth,
it  will turn  once  in the time that the pendulum makes
60 vibrations:  fir at every  turn ofthe wheel, the same
tooth  acts once on the palette I, and once on the palette
K, which occasions  two separate vibrations in the pen.
duliiin; and the wheel having 30 teeth, it occasions twice
30, or 60 vibrations.  Consequently, this  wheel must
perform  120 revolutions in an hour; because 60 vibra-
tions, which it occasions  at cxevy revolution, are con-
tained 120 times in  7200, the number  of vibrations per-
formed hythe  pendulum in  an hour.   To determine the
number of teeth for the  wheels EE, and their pinions e, f,
it  must be  remarked,  that one revolution of the wheel
E  must turn the pinion e as many times, as the number
of teeth in the pinion is contained in the number of teeth
in the wheel. Thus, if the wheel E contains 72 teeth, and
the pinion e, 6, the pinion will make 12 revolutions in the
time that the wheel makes 1; for each  tooth ofthe wheel
drives forward the tooth of tbe pinion; and when the six
teeth  ofthe  pinion are  moved, a complete revolution  is
performed;  but the wheel  E  lias by  that time only ad-
vanced 6 teeth, and  has still 66 to advance before its re-
volution  is completed,  which will occasion  11 more re-
volutions of  the pinion.   For the same reason, the wheel
F  having 60  teeth,  and the pinion / 6, the pinion will
make 10 revolutions while the wheel performs one. Now,
the wheel F, being  turned by the pinion e, male s 12re-
volutions for one  of the wheel E: and the pinion /makes
10 revolutions for one  of the wheel F; consequently the
pinion/perforins 10 times  12  or 120  revolutions in the
time the wheel E  perf'irms one. But the wheel G, which
is  turned by tbe pinion /, occasions 60 vibrations in the
pendulum each time it turns round; consequent!', the
wheel G occasions 60 times 120 or 7200 vibrations of the
pendulum while  the wheel E perforins one revolution;
but 7200 is  the number of  vibrations  made by the pen-
dulum in  an hour;  and consequently the wheel E per-
forms but one revolution in an hour, and so of the rest.
From this reasoning, it is easy to discover how a clock
may be made  to go  for any length of time without being
wound up:  1.  By increasing the number of teeth in the
wheels; 2. By diminishing the number of teeth in the
pinions;  3.  By increasing  the length of the cord that
suspends the weight; 4. By increasing the length of the
pendulum; and, 5. By adding to the number of wheels and
pinions.   But, in proportion as the time is augmented,
if the weight continues the same, the force which it com-
municates to the last wheel, G H, will he diminished.  It
only remains  to  take  notice of the number of teeth in
the wheels which turn the hour and minute hands. The
wheel E perforins  ons revolution in an hour; the wheel
N N, which is turned by the axis of  the wheel E, must
likewise make one revolution  in the same time; and the
minute-hand is fixed to the socket  of this wheel.  The
wheel Nhas 30 teeth, and acts upon the wheel O, which
has  likewise  30  teeth, and the same diameter; conse-
quently the  wheel O takes  one hour to a revolution: now
the wheel O carries the pinionp, which has six teeth, and
w  hich acts  upon  the wheel qq of 72 teeth; consequently
the pinion p makes 12 revolutions, while the wheel qq
makes one;  and of course the wheel qq takes 12 hours to
one revolution, and upon  the socket of this wheel the
hour-hand is fixed.   All that has been said here con- 
CLOCKS.
ceming the  revolutions of the wheels,  &c.  of clocks,
is equally  applicable to  the  general  movements  of
watches.
   Dr. Franklin contrived a clock to show  the hours,
minutes, and seconds with only three wheels and two
pinions in the whole movement.  The  dial-plate, fig. 3.
has the hours engraved upon  it in spiral spaces along
two diameters of a circle containing four times 60 min-
utes.   The index A goes round in four hours, and counts
the minutes from any hour which it has passed to the
next following hour.   The time, therefore, in the posi-
tion of the index shown in the figure, is either 30 min-
utes past XII, IV, or VIII; anil so in every other quar-
ter of the circle it points to the number of minutes after
the hours which the index  last left in its motion.   The
small hand B, in the arch at top, goes round once in a
minute, and shows the seconds.   The wheel-work of this
clock may be seen in fig. 4.  A is the first or  great
wheel containing  160 teeth, and going  round in  four
hours with the index  A in  fig.  3 let down by a hole on
its axis.  The wheel  turns a pinion of 10 leaves, which
therefore goes round in a quarter of an  hour.  On the
axis of this  pinion is the wheel C of 120 teeth; which
goes round in the same time, and turns a pinion D of 8
leaves round in a minute, with the second-hand B of fig.
3 fixed on its axis, and also the common  wheel  E of 30
teeth for moving a pendulum (by palettes) that vibrates
seconds, as in a common clock.  This clock is wound up
by a  cord going over a pulley on the axis of the great
wheel, like  a  common thirty-hours clock.    Many  of
these admirably simple machines have been constructed,
which measure time  exceedingly well.  It  is  subject,
however,  to the  inconvenience of requiring frequent
winding by drawing up the wreight, and likewise to some
uncertainty  as to the particular hour shown  by the in-
dex A.  Mr. Ferguson has proposed to remedy these in-
conveniences by the following construction: In the dial-
plate of his clock, fig. 5, there is an opening, abed, he-
low the  centre; through  which appears  part of a flat
plate: on  this the 12 hours, with their  divisions  into
quarters, are engraved.  This plate turns round in 12
hours: and the index A points  out the true  hour, e\.c.
B is the minute-hand, which goes round the large circle
of 60  minutes whilst the plate abed shifts its place one
hour  under  the fixed  index A.   There is another open-
ing, efg h, through which the seconds are seen on aflat
moveable ring at the extremity of a fleur-de-lis engraved
on the dial-plate.  A  in fig. 6 is the great wheel of this
clock, containing  120 teeth, and turning round in 12
hours.  The- axis of this wheel bears the plate of hours,
which may he  moved by a pin passing through small
holes  drilled  in the plate, without affecting the wheel-
work.  The great wheel A turns a pinion B of 10 leaves
round in an  hour, and carries the minute-hand B on its
axis round the dial-plate in the same time. On this axis
is a wheel C of 120 teeth, turning round  a pinion D  of
6 leaves in three minutes: on the axis of which there is a
wheel E of  90 teeth, that  keeps a pendulum  in motion,
vibrating seconds  by palettes,  as in  a common clock,
when  the pendulum-wheel  has only 30 teeth, and goes
round in a minute. In order to show the seconds by this
clock, a thin plate must be divided into 3 times  60, or 180
equal  parts,  and numbered 10, 20, 30, 40, 50, 60, three
  \OL. i.                  71
 times successively; and fixed on the same axis with the
 whet! of 90 teeth,  so as to  turn round near the back  of
 dial-plate: and  these  divisions  will  show  the  seconds
 through the opening efg h, fig. 5.   This clock will g«
 a week without  winding,  and  always  show the precise
 hour; but this clock, as Mr. Ferguson candidly acknow-
 ledges, has two disadvantages of which Dr. Franklin's
 clock is free.  When the minute-hand B is adjusted, the
 hour-plate must also be set right by means of a pin; and
 the smallness  of the  teeth in the  pendulum wheel will
 cause the pendulum ball to discribe but small arcs in its
 vibrations: and therefore the momentum of the ball will
 be less, and the times of the vibrations will be more af-
 fected by any unequal impulse of the pendulum wheel om
 the palettes.   Besides, the weight of the flat ring on
 which the seconds are engraved will load the pivots of
 the axis of the pendulum wheel with a great deal of fric-
 tion, which ought by all possible means to be avoided.
 To remedy this inconvenience, the second-plate might be
 omitted.  A clock similar to Dr. Franklin's was made
 in Lincolnshire many years  ago.
   Thus far refers to what is usually called clock-work;
 but watches are so far on a different construction that
 they are set in motion by a spring.  The manner that
 a weight acts upon the cylinder, about which the line or
 cord to  which it hangs is wound, is easy to be understood
 by all; but the action ofthe spring  coiled up within the
 cylindric barrel, or box of a clock  or watch, is some-
 what more nice and mysterious;  and the manner how it
 acts upon the fusee always with  an equal force, by means
 of the  chain and the proper figure of the fusee for that
 purpose is next to he explained.
   The chain being fixed at one end of the fusee, and at
 the other to the barrel; when the machine is winding up,
 the fusee is turned round, and of course the barrel; on
 the inside of which is fixed one  end of the spring, the
 other end being fixed to an immoveable axis in the centre.
 As the  barrel  moves  round, it coils the spring several
 times about the axis, thereby increasing its clastic force
 to a proper degree: all this while the chain is drawn off
the barrel upon the fusee; and then, when the instrument
 is wound up, the spring, by  its elastic force  endeavour-
ing constantly to unbend itself, acts upon the barrel, by
carrying it round, by which  the chain is drawn off from
the fusee, and thus turns the fusee, and  consequently
the whole machinery.  Now as  the spring  unbends it-
self by degrees, its  elastic force, by  which it affects the
fusee, will gradually  decrease; and  therefore,  unless
there was some mechanical contrivance in the  figure of
the superficies ofthe fusee, to cause, that, as the" spring
grows weak, the  chain  shall he removed farther from
 the centre ofthe  fusee,  so that what  is lost in the spring's
elasticity is gained in the length of the lever:  wash: not
for this  contrivance, the spring's force would always he
 unequal upon the fusee, and thus would turn  the fusee
 and consequently the whole machinery, unequally.   All
this is remedied  by the conical figure Of the fusee.  The
fusee being acted upon, or put in motion, by an uniform
force, the  great  wheel, which is  fixed  to it, is  put into
 motion,  and that  drives the pinion   of the centre-wheel,
 which centre-wheel drives the pinion of the third wheel.
 and this drives the pinion ofthe contrate wheel, and this
 the pinion ot the balance-wheel, which plies tbe iwo pa- 
CLOCK-WORK.
lettes on the axis of the balance, and keeps the balance
in motion.
  The balance in a watch is instead of the pendulum in
a clock, both serving to govern tbe  motion of the whole
machinery.   To this balance is fixed a small steel spiral
spring, which regulates its motions, and makes it equa-
ble: whence it has its name of regulator.
  When the watch is wound up, the chain from the spring
exerts a force upon the fusee,  which gives motion to all
the parts of the  machine, in the following manner; as
will be easy to understand, when the number of teeth in
each wheel, and leaves in the pinions which they drive,
are specified, and these in modern  thirty-hour watches
ire as follows:
	Teeth.	Leaves.
Great wheel	* 48	12
Centre-wheel	54	6
Third wheel	48	6
Contrate-wheel	48	6
Balance-wheel	15	2 palettes
  Hence it is easy to conceive how often any one wheel
moves round in the time of one revolution of that which
drives it.
  Thus the great wheel on the fusee, having 48 teeth,
and driving the centre-wheel by a  pinion  of 12,  must
cause the centre-wheel to move round four times in one
turn ofthe fusee, and so for all the rest, as  follows:
12) 48 (4 = turns ofthe centre      ^
^ wheel.
 6) 54 (9 = turns of the third
 6) 48 (8 = turns of the contrate
 6) 48 (8 = turns of the balance    j
Whence it follows, that the turns of each of these wheels
respectively, in one turn of the fusee, will he had by mul-
tiplying those several quotients together successively, as
follows:
4X
       H _~ ffusee-wheel.
1 =    4 j £ j  centre-wheel.
         9X4x1=   36 ^ x <; third-wheel.
      8x9x4x1=  288 |  S  j contrate-wheel.
  8x8x9x4x1= 2304J  £  (J>alance-wheel.

   But all that has been hitherto said shows only the min-
utes of an hour,  and seconds or quarter-seconds of a
minute; for nothing has been yet mentioned relating to
the mechanism for showing the hour of the day.  This
part of the work lies concealed from sight, between the
upper plate of  the watch-frame and the dial-plate.  In
this work, ABC (Plate XXXII. fig. 7.) is the uppermost
side of the frame-plate, as it appears when detached from
the dial-plate: the middle of this plate is perforated with
a hole, receiving that end ofthe arbor of the centre-wheel
which carries the minute-hand; near the plate is fixed a
pinion a & of ten teeth: this is called the pinion of report;
it drives  a wheel c d of forty teeth;  this wheel c d car-
ries a pinion  ef of twelve teeth; and this drives a wheel
g h with thirty-six teeth.
  As in the  body of the watch the wheels every where
divide the pinions, here, on the contrary, the pinions di-
vide the wheels, and by that means decrease the motion,
which is here necessary; for the hour hand, which is car-
ried on a socket fixed on the wheel g A, is required to
 move hut once round, while the pinion ab moves twelve
 times round.  To this end the motion of the wheel cd is
 I of the pinion ab: again, while the wheel cd, or the pi.
 nion ef, goes once round, it turns the wheel g h but '
 part round; consequently  the motion of gh is but i of »
 ofthe motion of ab; but ■} of |  = ,*,,  that is, the hour!
 wheel gh moves once round in the time that the pinion of
 report, on the arbor of the centre or minute-wheel, makes
 twelve motions, as required.
   Cxock-woek,  properly so called, is that part of the
 movement which strikes the hours, &c.on a bell; in con-
 tradistinction to that part of the movement of a clock
 or watch which is designed to  measure and exhibit the
 time on a dial-plate,  and  which is termed watch-work.
 The wheels composing the clock part  are: the great or
 first wheel E (see Plate XXXII. fig. 8),  which is mo-
 ved by the weight or spring at the barrel  D: in sixteen
 or thirty-hour clocks, this has usually pins, and is called
 the pin-wheel; in  eight-day pieces the  second wheel L
 is commonly the pin-wheel, or  striking wheel, which is
 moved by the former. Next the striking wheel is the de-
 tent wheel,  or hoop  wheel m,  having a  hoop almost
 round it, wherein is a vacancy at which the clock locks.
 The next is the third  or fourth wheel,  according to its
 distance from the first, called the warning wheel, n.  To
 these must be added the pinion of report,», which drives
 round the locking wheel, called also  the count wheel;
 ordinarily with eleven notches in it, unequally distant,
 to make the  clock strike the hours.  Besides the wheels,
 to the clock part belong the rash or ratch; a kind of wheel
 with twelve large fangs, running concentrical to the dial
 wheel, and serving to lift up the detents every hour, and
 make the clock strike: the detents or stops, which being
 lifted up and let fall, lock and unlock the clock in striking;
 the hammer, as S, which strikes the bell R; the hammer-
 tails, as T,  by which the  striking pins draw back the
 hammers; latches, whereby the work is lifted up and un-
 locked; and lifting pieces,  as P, which lift up and unlock
 the detent O. The method of calculating the numbers of
 a piece of clock-work  has something in it very entertain-
 ing, and at the same time easy and useful.  We therefore
 shall here give the rules:   l. Regard here needs only
 be had to the count wheel, striking wheel, and detent
 wheel, which move round  in this proportion: the count
 wheel commonly goes round once in twelve or twenty-
 four hours;  the detents wheel moves round every stroke
 the clock strikes, or sometimes hut once in two strokes:
 wherefore it  follows, that, 2. As many pins as are in the
 pin wheel,  so many turns has the detent  wheel in one
 turn of the pin wheel; or, which  is the same, the pins of
 the pm wheel are the quotients of that wheel divided by
 the pinion  of the detent wheel.  But if the detent wheel
 move but once round in two strokes of the clock, then the
 said quotient is but half the number of pins. 3. As many
 turns of the pin wheel as  are required to perform the
 strokes of 12 hours (which are 78), so many turns must
the pinion of report have to turn round  the count wheel
once: or thus, the quotient of 78, divided by the number
of striking pins, shall  be the quotient for the pinion of
report and the count wheel; and this is in case the pinion
of report be fixed to the arbor of the pin wheel, which is
commonly done.  An example will make all plain: the 
CLOCK-WORK.
             locking wheel being 48, the pinion of re-
8) 48 ( 6.   port 8, the pin wheel 78, the striking pins
---------are 13, and so ofthe rest. Note also, that 78
6) 78 (13.   divided by 13 gives 6, the quotient of the
6) 60 (10.   pinion of report. As for the warning wheel
6) 48 ( 8.   and fly wheel, it mallei's little what num-
             bers they have;  their use being  only to
bridle the rapidity of the motion of the other wheels.
  The watch part of a clock or watch is that part ofthe
movement which is  designed to measure and exhibit the
time on a dial-plate; in contradistinction to  that part
which contributes to the  striking of the hour,  &c.  The
several members ofthe watch parts are, 1.  The balance,
consisting of the rim, which is its circular part; and the
verge, which is its spindle; to which belong two palettes,
or leaves, that play in the teeth of the crown wheel.  2.
The potence, or  pottance, which is  the strong stud in
pocket-watches,  whereon  the  lower pivot of the verge
plays, and in the middle  of  which one  pivot of the ba-
lance wheel  plays;  the bottom of the pottance is called
the foot, the middle part the nose, and the upper part
the shoulder.  3. The cock, which is the piece covering
the balance.  4.  The  regulator, or pendulum spring,
which  is the small spring,  in watches, underneath the
balance.   5.  The pendulum (see Plate XXXII. fig. 8),
whose parts are, the verge, palettes 5,5, cocks, the rod,
the fork, the flat, the bob or great ball, and the  corrector
or regulator, being a contrivance for bringing the pendu-
lum to its nice vibrations.  6. The wheels, which are the
crown wheel  F, in pocket pieces, and swing wheel in pen-
dulums; serving  to drive  the  balance or pendulum.  7.
The contratc wheel E, which is that next the crown
wheel, &c. and  whose teeth and hoop  lie contrary to
those of other wheels; whence the name.  3. The great,
or first wheel C;  wrhich is that which the fusee immedi-
ately drives,  by means ofthe chain or string of the spring
box or barrel D;  after which are the second wheel, third
wheel, Sec. Lastly, between the  frame and dial-plate is
the pinion of report, wiiich is that fixed on the  arbor of
the great wheel; and serves to drive the dial wheel,  as
that serves to carry the hand.  The method of calculation
is easily understood: for suppose the great wheel Egoes
round  once in  12 hours; then if it is a royal pendulum
clock, swinging seconds, we have 60 x  60 x 12 = 43200
seconds or beats in  one turn of the great wheel: but be-
cause there are sixty beats or seconds in one minute, and
the seconds are shown  by  an index on the end of the ar-
bor of the swing wheel, which in those clocks is an hori-
zontal position;  therefore it is necessary that the swing
wheel should have  60 teeth; whence t?™L = 720, the

number to be broken into  quotients for finding the num-
ber of teeth for the  other wheels and pinions.
  In the year 1803 the Society for the Encouragement of
Arts, &c. presented to Mr. John Prior,  of  Ncssfield,
Yorkshire, a  reward of thirty guineas, on account of his
contrivance for the  striking part of an eight-day clock.
It consists of a wheel and  fly,  with six  turns of a spiral
line, cut upon tbe wheel for the purpose of counting the
hours. The  pins below this spiral elevate the  hammer,
and those above are for the use of the detent. This single
wheel serves the  purpose of iount-whcel, pin-wheel, de-
tent-wheel, and the fly-wheel, and has six revolutions in
striking the twelve hours. If we suppose a train of wheels
and pinions used in other striking parts to be made with-
out error, and that the wheels and pinions would turn
each other without shake or play; then allowing the
above supposition  to be true  (though every  mechanic
knows it is not),  Mr. Prior's striking  part  would  be
found six times superior to others, in striking the hours
1, 2, 5, 7, 10, 11; twelve times superior in striking 4,
6, 8; and  18 times,  in striking 3, 9, and 12. In striking
2, the inventor purposely made an imperfection equal to
the space  of  three  teeth of the  wheel;  and in striking
3, an imperfection  of nine or ten teeth; and yet both
these hours are struck perfectly correct.
   Clocks, table and rales for regulating.  Hy the follow-
ing table, clocks and watches may be so regulated as to
measure true equal  time.
D.	H.	M.	s.
1	0	3	56
2	0	•7	52
3	0	11	48
4	0	15	44
5	0	19	39
6	0	23	35
7	0	27	31
8	0	31	27
9	0	35	23
10	0	39	19
11	0	43	15
12	0	47	11
13	0	51	7
14	0	55	3
15	0	58	58
D.	H.	M.	s.
16	1	2	54
17	1	6	50
18	1	10	46
19	1	14	42
20	1	18	38
21	1	22	34
22	1	26	30
23	1	30	26
24	1	34	22
25	1	38	17
26	1	43	13
27	1	46	9
28	1	50	5
29	1	54	1
30	1	57	57
  The stars make 366 revolutions from any point of the
compass to the same  point again in 365 days  and one
minute; and therefore they gain a 365th of a revolution
every 24 hours of mean solar time, near enough for regu-
lating  any clock or watch. This acceleration is at the
rate of 3 min. 55 sec. 53 thirds, 59 fourths, in 24 hours;
or, in the nearest round numbers, 3 min. 56 sec. by which
quantity of time every star comes round sooner  than  it
did on  the day before. Therefore if you mark the precise
moment shown hy a clock or watch when any star van-
ishes  behind a chimney,  or any other  object,  as seen
through a  small hole in a thin plate of metal, fixed in a
window-shutter; and  do  this for several nights succes-
sively (as  suppose twenty); if at the end of that  time the
star vanishes as  much sooner than it did the first night,
by the clock, as  answers to the time denoted in the tabic
for so many days, the clock goes true, otherwise not. If the
difference between the clock and the star be less than the
table shows, the clock goes too fast; if greater, it goes too
slow, and must be regulated accordingly, by letting down
or raising the ball of the pendulum, by little and little, by
turning the screw-nut under the  ball,  till you find  it
keeps true equal time. Thus, supposing the star should
disappear behind a chimney any night when it  is 12 by
the clock,  and that on the 20th night afterward the same
star should disappear when the  time is  41 min. 22  sec.
past 10 by the clock, which being subtracted  from  I*
hours,  0 min. 0 sec. leaves remaining 1 hour 18  min. 38 
                       C L 0

sec.  for the time the star is then faster than the clock;
look in the table, and against 30, in tbe left hand column,
you will find the acceleration ofthe star to be 1 hour, 18
min. 38  sec. agreeing  exactly with what the difference
ought to be between the clock and star: which shows that
the clock measures true equal time, and agrees with the
mean solar time, as it ought to do.
   Clock-work, extraordinary pieces of.  Amongst the
modern clocks, those at Strasburg and Lyons are very
eminent  for the richness of their furniture, and the vari-
ety of their motions and figures.  In  the former, a cock
claps his wings, and proclaims the hour; and the angel
opens a door, and salutes the Virgin, and the Holy Spirit
descends on her, Sec. In the latter, two horsemen encoun-
ter, and  beat the hour on each other; a door opens, and
there appear on the theatre the Virgin, with Jesus Christ
in her arms; the magi, with their retinue, marching in
order, and presenting their gifts, two trumpeters sound-
ing all the while to proclaim the procession. These, how-
ever, are excelled by  two which  were lately made by
English  artists, and sent as a present from the East In-
dia company to the emperor of China. These clocks are
in the form of chariots, in which are placed, in a fine at-
titude, a lady, leaning  her right hand upon apart ofthe
chariot; under  which is a clock of curious workmanship,
little larger than a shilling,  that strikes and repeats, and
goes eight days. Upon her finger sits a bird finely model-
led, and set with diamonds and rubies, with its wings ex-
panded in  a flying posture, and actually flutters for a
considerable time on touching a diamond button below it;
the body of the bird (wbich contains part of the wheels
lhat in a manner give life to it)  is not the  bigness ofthe
16th part of an inch. The lady holds in her  left hand a
gold tube,  not much thicker than a large pin, on the top
of which is a small round box, to which a circular orna-
ment set with diamonds not larger than  a sixpence is fix-
ed, which goes round near three hours in a constant regu-
lar motion. Over the lady's head, supported by a small
fluted pillar no  bigger than a quill, are two umbrellas:
under the largest of which a bell is fixed, at  a consider-
able distance from the clock, and seeming  to have no
connection with it; but from which a communication is
secretly  conveyed to a hammer,  that regularly strikes
fhe hour, and repeats the same at pleasure by touching a
diamond button fixed to the clock below.  At the feet of
the lady is a gold dog, before which, from the  point of
i he chariot, are two birds,  fixed  on spiral springs; the
wings and feathers of which arc set with stones of various
colours,  and appear as if flying away with the  chariot,
which, from another secret motion, is contrived to run in
a straight, circular, or any  other direction.  A boy that
lays hold of the chariot behind seems also to push it for-
ward.  Above the umbrella are flowers and ornaments of
precious stones, and it terminates with a flying dragon
set in the same manner. The whole is of gold, most curi-
ously executed, and embellished with rubies and  pearls.
   Clocks, statutes respecting. By stat. 9 and 10  W. III.
cap. 28. § 2. no person shall export, or endeavour to export,
out of this kingdom, any outward or inward box, case, or
dial-plate, of gold, silver, brass, or other metal, forelock
or watch, without the movement  in or  with every such
box, Sec. made up  fit for use, with the maker's name en-
graved thereon; nor shall any person make up any clock
                       C L  0

or watch without putting his name and place of abode *r
freedom, and no other name or place, on every rlock or
watch, on penalty of forfeiting every such box, case, and
dial-plate, dock and watch, not made up and engraved as
aforesaid: and  20/.; one moiety to the king, the other t«
those that shall sue for the same.  By stat. 17 Geo. III.
cap. 108. an  annual duty must be paid  of 5s. for every
clock or time-keeper, of 10s. for every  gold watch, and
2*. 6rf.  for every silver or metal watch, by  the respective
proprietors;  under the penalty of \0l.  for  neglecting to
deliver lists of these articles, or double duty for omissions
in such lists,  and of 10/. more for not giving in a declar-
ation respecting them  within 14 days after receiving no-
tice from the  assessors.  Duties on clocks let with houses
are to be paid by the occupiers, but when these are empty,
by the landlords.  These  duties do  not extend to such
householders as are not liable to the house and window tax,
for one clock, or one silver or  metal watch. Clocks not
worth more than 20s.  are  also exempted, to occupiers of
houses not exceeding ten  windows. The  royal family,
foreign ambassadors,  hospitals, churches, servants ia
husbandry, soldiers, marines, sailors, and licensed watch-
makers, pawn-brokers, and dealers in clocks and watches,
are also exempted. These last must pay 2s. 6d. annually
for their licenses within London and Westminsteiyaml
Is. elsewhere, under a penalty  of 51.  This act has been
since repealed.
  CLOFF,  that in which  any goods are put for the con-
venience of carriage; as the bags of pepper or hops, the
barrels of butter, soap, Sec.
  CLOSE,  in  heraldry.  When any bird  is drawm in a
coat of arms  with its wings close down about it, and in a
standing posture, they blazon it  by this word close; but
if it is flying they call it volant.
  Close-fights, in the sea-language, such bulk-heads
as are  in a close fight put up fore and aft in ship, for the
men to stand  behind them secure, and fire upon the enemy;
and  if the ship is boarded, to secure and clear the decks.
  CLOTH, in  commerce, a manufacture made of  wool
wrove on the  loom.
  The term  is applicable also to  other  manufactures
made of hemp,  flax, Sec. but in a more particular sense
it implies the web or tissue of woollen threads interwo-
ven; some whereof, called the warp,  are extended  in
length from  one end ofthe piece  to the other: the rest,
called  the woof, disposed across the first, or breadthwise
of the  piece.
  The best wool  for the  manufacturing of cloths are
those of England and Spain, especially those of Lincoln-
shire and Segovia.  To use those wools to the best ad-
vantage, they must be scoured, by putting them into a
liquor somewhat more  than lukewarm, composed of three
parts fair water, and  one  of urine.   After the wool has
continued long enough in the liquor to soak, and dis-
solve the grease, it is  drained and well washed in run-
ning water.  When it feels dry, and  has no smell but
that ofthe sheep, is said to be duly scoured.   After this
it is hung to dry in the shade, the heat of the sun mak-
ing  it  harsh  and inflexible; when dry, it  is beaten with
rods upon hurdles of wood, or on  cords, to cleanse it
from dust and the grosser filth; the more it is thus beaten
and  cleansed, the softer it becomes, and the better for
spinning. After beating,  it must be well picked,  to free 
CLO
C L U
it from the rest of the filth that had escaped the rods. It
is now iii a p'opcr condition to be oiled, and carded on
larg.' iron cards, placed slopewise.  Olive-oil is esteem-
the b<st for this purpose: one-fifth of which should he
used for the wool intended for  the woof,  and a ninth for
thai designed for the warp.   After the wool has been
oile'l, it is given to the spinners; who first card it on the
kne«, with  small  cards, and  then spin  it on the wheel;
observing to make the thread ofthe warp smaller by one-
third than that of the woof, and much compacter-twist-
ed.  Tbe thread being thus spun, reeled, and made into
skeins, that designed  for the woof  is  wound on little
tubes, pieces of paper, or rushes, so disposed as that they
may be  easily put into the eye  of the  shuttle.   When
warped, it is stiffened with size, the best of which is that
made of shreds of parchment,  and when dry, is given to
the weavers; who mount it on  the loom.
  The warp being thus mounted, the weavers,  who are
two to each loom, one on each  side, tread alternately on
the treadle, first on the right step, and  then on  the left,
which raises and lowers the threads ofthe warp  equally;
between  which they throw transversely the shuttle from
the one to the other: and every time that the shuttle is
thus thrown, and a thread  of the woof inserted within
the warp, they strike it conjunctly with  the same frame,
to which is fastened  the  comb or reed between  whose
teeth the threads of the warp  are passed,  repeating the
stroke as often  as is necessary.  The  weavers having
continued their work till  the  whole  warp  is filled with
the woof, the cloth is  finished; it is then  taken off the
loom hy  unrolling it from the beam whereon it had been
rolled in proportion as it was  woven; and now given to
be  cleansed of the knots, ends of threads, straws, and
other filth, which is done with iron nippers.
   In this condition it is carried to the fullery,to be scour-
ed with urine; or a kind of potter's clay, well steeped in
water, put along w ith the cloth in the trough wherein it
is fulled.  The cloth, being again cleared from the earth
or urine, is returned to the former  hands to have  the
lchser filth, small straws.  o:c.  taken  oft* as before: then
it is returned to the fuller to he beaten and fulled with hot
water, wherein a suitable quantity of soap has been dis-
solved: after fulling il is taken out to  be  smoothed, or
pulled by the lists lengthwise,  to take out the wrinkles,
crevices, Sec. The smoothing is repeated every two  hours
till the fulling is finished, and the cloth  brought to its
proper breadth:  alter which it is washed in clear water,
to purge it of the soap, and given wet to the carders to
raise the hair or nap on the right side with the thistle or
weed.  Alter this preparation the cloth-worker takes the
♦ loth, and gives it its first cut or  sheering: then the
carders  resume it, and, after  wetting, give  it as many
more courses with the teazle,  as the quality of the stuff
requires, always observing to  begin against the  grain of
the  hair, and to end  with it; as also  to  begin with a
smoother thistle, proceeding still with one sharper and
sharper, as far a< the sixth degree.
   The cloth next is  sent to the dyer: when  dyed it is
washed in fair water, and the worker takes it again wet
as it is, lay s the nap with a brush on the table, and hangs
it on the tenters; where it is stretc lied both  in length and
breadth sufficiently to smooth it, set  it square, and  hring
it to its proper dimensions, without straining it too much;
observing to brush it afresh,  the  way of the nap, while
a little moist, on the tenters.   When quite dry the cloth
is taken off the tenters, and brushed again on tiie table,
to finish the laying of the nap; after  which itis folded,
and laid cold  under a press, to make it perfectly  smooth
and even, and give it a gloss.
  Lastly, the c loth being taken out of the press, and the
papers, Sec. for glossing it removed, it is in acondition for
sale or use.   With regard  to the manufacture  of  mixt
cloths, or those wherein the wools  are first dyed and then
mixt, spun and woven of the colours intended,  the pro-
cess, except what relates to the colour, is mostly the same
with that just represented.
  CLOUD, in physiology, a collection of vapours visibly
suspended in the atmosphere; being a congeries chiefly
of watery particles, drawn up from the  sea and land hy
the solar or subterraneous heat, or both, in vapour.  See
Meteorology.
  CLOVE TREE.  See Carofhyllus.
  Clove, a  term used in weights.  Seven pounds of
wool make a clove.
  In Essex eight pounds of cheese  and butter go to the
clove.
   CLOVER-GRASS.  See  Trifolium.
   CLOUGH, or draught,  among traders, an allowance
of two pounds to every three hundred  weight, for the
turn ofthe scale, that the commodity may hold out when
sold by retail.
  CLUPEA, or herring, in ichyology, a genus belong-
ing to  the order of abcloininales.  The upper jaw is furn-
ished with a  serrated mystache; the branchiostege mem-
brane  has eight rays; a scaly serrated line  runs along
the belly from the head to the tail: and  the belly-fins
have frequently  nine rays.  There are 11 species, viz.
  1. The clupea harengus, or common herring, has n«
spots, and the under jaw  is  longer than the  upper one.
A herring dies immediately after it is taken out of the
water; whence the proverb. As dead as a herring.  Her-
rings are found  from  the highest northern latitudes yet
known, as low as the northern coasts of France; none
are found more  southerly.  They are met with in vast
shoals on the coast of America, as low as Carolina.  In
Chesapeak-bay  is an  annual inundation of these fish,
which cover the shore in such quantities as to become a nui-
sance. The great winter rendezvous ofthe herring is with-
in the arctic  circle: there they continue for many months,
in order to recruit themselves after the fatigue of spawn-
ing; the  seas within that space  swarming with insect
food in a far greater degree than those  of our  warmer
latitudes.  An  immense  number of them begin to ap-
pear off the Shetland  isles  in April and May; but these
are only the  forerunners of the grand shoal which comes
in June; and their appearance is marked by cei tain signs,
by the numbers of birds which follow to prey on them;
but when the main  body  approaches, its breadth  and
depth .arc such  as to alter the appearance  of  the very
ocean.   It is divided into distinct columns of five or six
miles in  length, and three or four in breadth, and they
drive the water before them with a kind of rippling:
sometimes they sink  for the  spare of 10 or 15  minutes,
and then  rise again to the surface; and in fine weatlier
reflect a variety of splendid colours.
  The first check this army meets with in its march 
C  L U
C  LU
southward is from the Shetland isles, which divide it in-
to two parts; one wing takes to the east,  the other to
the western shores  of Great Britain, and fill every bay
and  creek with their numbers; others pass on  towards
Yarmouth, the great and ancient mart of herrings: they
then pass through the British channel, and after that in
a manner disappear. Those which take towards the west,
after offering themselves to the Hebrides, where the great
stationary  fishery  is, proceed  to  the north of Ireland:
here they meet with a second interruption, and are oblig-
ed to make a second division;  one party  takes  to the
western  side, and is scarcely perceived, being soon lost
in the immensity of the Atlantic; but the other, that passes
into the  Irish sea, rejoices and feeds the inhabitants of
most of  the coasts  that border on it.  These brigades,
as we may call them, which are thus separated from the
greater columns, are often capricious in their motions,
and do not show an invariable attachment to their haunts.
   They  are full of  roe in the end  of June, and continue
in perfection till the beginning  of winter, when they de-
posit their  spawn.   The young  herrings begin  to ap-
proach the shores in July and August, and are then from
half an inch to two  inches long: those in Yorkshire are
called herring fie.   Though we have no particularly au-
thority for it, yet as very few young herrings are found
in our seas during winter, it seems certain that they must
return to their paternal haunts  beneath the ice, to repair
the vast destruction of their race during summer by men,
fowl, and fish.   Some of the old  herrings continue on
English coast the whole year: the Scarborough fishermen
never put  down their net but they catch a few; but the
numbers that remain  are not worth comparison with
those that return.  The Dutch are  extravagantly  fond
of pickled herrings, but the art of curing  them wras in-
vented in Flanders. There is as much joy in Holland
on receiving the first buss of herrings (for which a pre-
mium is given), as the Egyptians show on  the overflow-
ing of the Nile.
   2. The  clupea sprattus, or  sprat, has 13 rays in the
back fin.  Itis a native  ofthe European seas, and has
a resemblance to the herring, hut is smaller. They come
into  the river Thames   in November, and leave it in
March.
   3. The clupea cncrasiolus, or anchovy, has the upper
jawr longer than the under one, and is about three inches
long. They are taken in  the Mediterranean, and brought
here and pickled.  The principal fishery is at Georgia,
a small island west of Leghorn.
   4.  Clupea alosa, the  shad,  has a  forked snout, and
black spots on the sides.  According to Belonius and
Hasselquist, this is  a fish of passage in the Nile.  The
latter says it is found in the Mediterranean near Smyrna,
and on the coast of Egypt near Rosctta; and that in the
months of December and January  it ascends the Nile as
high as Cairo, where the people stuff it with pot-marjo-
ram; and when dressed in that manner, it will very near-
ly intoxicate the eater.   In Great  Britain the Severn af-
fords this fish in higher perfection  than any other river.
It makes its  first appearance there in May, but in very
warm seasons in April:  for its arrival sooner or later
depends  much on the temperature ofthe air. It continues
in the river about two months,  and then is  succeeded by
the variety called the tvvaite. [The Severn shad is esteemed
a very delicate fish about the time ofits first appearance,
especially in that part of the river that flows by Glou-
cester, where they are taken in nets, and usually  sell
dearer than salmon: some are  sent  to London, where
the fishmongers  distinguish them  from those  of  the
Thames by the French name alose. Whether they spawn
in this river and the Wye is not determined; for their
fry has not yet been ascertained.   The  old fish come
from the sea into the river in full roe.  In July and Au-
gust multitudes of bleak frequent the river near Glou-
cester; some of them are as big as a small herring, and
these the fishermen erroneously suppose to he the fry of
the shad.   Numbers of these are taken near Gloucester,
in those  months only, but none of the emaciated shad
are ever caught in their return.  The Thames  shad does
not frequent that river till the end of May or beginning
of June,  and is esteemed a very coarse and insiped sort
offish.   The Severn  shad is sometimes  caught in  the
Thames,  though rarely, and called allis by the  fisher-
men in that  river.   About the same time, or rather
earlier, the variety called, near Gloucester, the twaite,
makes its appearance.  It is taken in great numbers in
the Severn, and is held in as great disrepute  as  the
shad ofthe Thames.  The differences between each  va-
riety are  as follows:  the true  shad  weighs sometimes
8 lb. but their general size is from 4 to 5 lb. The twaite,
on the contrary, weighs from half a pound to 2 lb. which
it never exceeds.  The twaite differs from the shad only
in having  one or more round black spots on the sides;
if only one, it is always near  the  gill;  but commonly
there are three or four, placed one under the other.
   5. Clupea atherinoides has a shining line on each side,
and small belly-fins. It is a native of Surinam.
   6. Clupea my stus is shaped like a sword, and the  fins
at the anus are united.  It is found in the Indian ocean.
   7. Clupea sima has yellow fins, those of the belly  be-
ing very small.  The mouth is flat; the upper jaw is very
short;  the body is of a shining silver colour; and the  fins
are yellow. It is a native of Asia.
   8. Clupea Sinensis is very like the common herring,
but broader. It is a native of China, and has no teeth.
   9. Clupea sternicla has no belly fins, and the body is
broad. Itis a native of Surinam.
   10.  Clupea thrissa has 28 rays in the fin at the anus.
It is found in the Indian ocean.
   11.  Clupea tropica has a wedge-like tail, and a white,
broad, compressed body. It is found  at Ascension island.
   CLUSIA, the balsam-tree, a genus of  the polygamia
monoecia class of plants, and in the natural method rank-
ing under those plants the order of wiiich is doubtful.  The
male  calyx  is tetraphyllous or hexaphy Rous, with its
leaflets opposite and imbricated; the corolla tctrapetedous
or hexapetalous; the stamina numerous.  The  calyx  and
corolla ofthe female as in the male; the nectarium of an-
therae or glandules  coalited, including the germen.  The
capsule is quinquelocular, quinquevalved, and full of pulp*
There are six species, all natives of America.  The most
remarkable is the
   Clusia flava. It is pretty common in the British Ame-
rican islands, where the trees grow' to the height of 20
feet, and shoot out many branches on every side, fumish-
ed with thick, round, succulent leaves placed opposite.
The flowers are  produced at the ends of the  branches, 
C  X  I
C  0 A
each having a thick succulent cover. They arc succeeded
hy oval fruit. From every part of these trees there ex-
udes a kind of turpentine, which is called in the West In-
dies  hog gum; because they  say,  that  when any  ofthe
wild hogs arc woun led, they repair to those trees, and
rub their wounded parts against the stem till they have
anointed themselves with this turpentine, which heals all
wounds. The plants are very tender, and in this country
must be kept constantly in a stove.
   CLUYTIA,  a genus ofthe gynandria order,  in the
dioecia class of plants, and in the natural method ranking
under the 38th order, tricoccse. The male calyx is pen-
taphyllous; the corollo pentapetalous; the calyx and co-
rolla of the  female as in the male; the  styles are  three;
and the capsule is trilocular with a single seed. There are
10 species, all natives of warm climates. They are ever-
green shrubby plants, rising six or eight feet, with sim-
ple leaves, and  greenish-white quinquepctalous flowers.
They are propagated by cuttings in spring or summer,
planting them in pots of light earth, plunged in a hot-bed.
The plants must always be kept in a stove.
   Cluytia elutheria.  Dr. Wright in his account of the
medicinal plants of Jamaica, says, that this species is
the same as the  cascarilla  and elutheria of the  shops.
Other medical writers have supposed them  to be distinct
barks, and they are  sold in  the shops as different pro-
ductions. Linnaeus's croton  cas< arilla, Dr. Wright ob-
serves, is the wild ros?mary shrub of Jamaica, the bark
of which has none ofthe sensible qualities of the  casca-
rilla.
   CLYPEOLA, treacle-mustard, a genus of the sili-
culosa order, in the tetradynamia class  of plants,  and in
the natural method ranking under  the 39th order, sili-
quosse.  The silicula  is emarginated, orbiculated, com-
pressed plane, and deciduous. There are three species,
natives of France, Italy, and the warm parts of Europe,
hut hardy enough to bear the winters  in this country.
Oneof them is an annual, and the others perennial plants;
they  are low and herbaceous,  bearing spikes  of white
flowers.
   CLYSTER. See Medicine.
   CNEORUM, widow-wail, a genus  of the monogy-
nia  order,  in  the triandria class of   plants, and  in
the natural method ranking under the 38th order, tri-
coccie.  The calyx is  tridentated; there are three equal
petals, and a tricoccous berry.  There is but one species,
a little evergreen and very  ornamental shrub,  adorned
vvith simple leaves, and tripetalous flowers of a pale yel-
low  colour. It is  propagated from seeds,  and  requires
only to he kept free from weeds.
   CNICLS, blessed thistle, a genus of the  polygamia
aequalis order, in the  syngenesia class  of plants,  and in
the natural method ranking  under the  49th order, com-
positse.  The calyx  is ovate, imbricated  with spinous
branched scales,  and encircled  with bractese. The flow-
rets are equal. There are nine species, of which the only
remarkable one is that used  in medicine under the name
of carduus benedict us. This is an annual plant cultivated
in garde ns:  it flowers in June and July, and perfects its
seeds in autumn. For medical purposes it should be gath-
ered when in flower, dried in the shade, and kept in a
very dry airy place, to prevent its rotting or growing
mouldy, width it is very apt to do. The leaves have a
penetrating hitter taste, not very strong or durable; ac-
companied with an ungrateful flavour, which they are in
a great measure freed from by keeping. Water extracts
in a little time, even without heat, the lighter and more
grateful parts of this plant; if the digestion is continued
for some  hours the disagreeable parts are taken up; a
strong decoction is very  nauseous and offensive to the
stomach.  Rectified spirit gains a very  pleasant bitter
taste, which remains uninjured in the extract. The vir-
tues of this plant are little known in the present practice.
The nauseous decoction is  sometimes used to  provoke
vomiting; and a strong infusion to promote the operation
of other emetics.
   COACHMAN opening and partly destroying a par-
cel left in his coach, is guilty of felony.
   COAK is  used for exciting intense heats, for chemi-
cal purposes, or for smelting iron  ore, and for opera-
tions  in which common coal  would be detrimental, as
the drying malt. Coak is fossil coal previously charred
by an operation similar  to that by which charcoal is
made.
   COAL, or pit-coal, in mineralogy. The substances be-
longing to this genus  are composed chiefly of carbon and
bitumen.  There are  six species, (1.) Jet: this substance
is found in France, Spain, Germany, Britain, and other
countries. It  is found  in detached kidney-form masses,
of various sizes, from an inch to seven or eight feet in
length. The colour is  full black: internal,glossy, opaque:
not so brittle as  asphaltum: texture striated;  fracture
concboidal. Specific gravity 1.259.  It has no  smell ex-
cept when heated, and then it resembles asphaltum in its
odour. It melts in a strong heat, burns with a greenish
flame, and leaves an earthy residuum.  Becomes  electric
by friction; and w hen distilled it yields a peculiar acid.
   (2.) Cannel coal is found in  Lancashire, and in differ-
ent parts of Scotland. The colour is black,  opaque:
structure  sometimes  slaty: texture compact:  fracture
concboidal: brittle. Specific gravity 1.232 to 1.426. Does
not stain the fingers.  Kindles easily, and  burns  with a
bright white flame like a candle, w hich lasts but a short
me.  It does not cake.  See Amtelites.
   A specimen of Lancashire cannel  coal, annalysed  by
Mr. Kirvvan, contained
               75.20 charcoal
               21.68  maltha
                 3.10 alumina and silica
                99.98
  A specimen of the  slaty kind from  Ayrshire,  ealled
splent coal, was composed of
                47.62 charcoal
                32.52 maltha
                20.00 earths
              100.14
  Cannel coal is susceptible  of  polish, and like jet,
is often wrought into trinkets.
  3. Common coal. This very useful combustible is never
found in the primitive mountains, but only in the secon-
dary mountains, or in plains formed of the same materi-
als w ith them. It is always in strata, and generally  alter-
nates with clay, sandstone, or limestone. 
C  O  A                                               COA
  The colour is black, more or less perfect. Lustre usu-
ally  greasy or metallic.  Opaque.  Structure generally
slaty. Texture often foliated. Fracture various. Speci-
fic gravity  1.25  to 1.37.  Usually  stains the  fingers.
Takes fire more slowly, and burns longer, than the last
species.  Cakes more or less during combustion.
  Of this species there  are many varieties, distinguished
in Britain by the names of caking coal,  rock coal, Sec.
These are too well known to require any description.
  Mr.  Kirwan analysed  a variety of different kinds  of
coal. The result of the  experiments may  be  seen by the
following table:
Whiteha-ven coal.	Wigan.	Swansey.	Leitrim.	
57.0 41.3 L7	61.73 36.7 1.57	73.53 23.14 3.33	71.43 23.37 5.20	charcoal. maltha and asph. earths.
100.00	100.00	100.00	100.00	
  (4.) Spurious coal is generally found amidst strata of
genuine coal.  It is also called parrot coal in Scotland.
  The colour is greyish black.  Structure usually slaty.
Texture earthy. Specific gravity  1.5 to 1.6.  Generally
explodes,  and bursts when heated.
  Composed of charcoal, maltha, and asphalt, and above
.20 of stony matter.
  (5.) Anthracite.  This substance, as Dolomieu informs
us, is found exclusively in the primitive mountains. It is
commonly amorphous, sometimes crystallized in short
hexagonal prisms.  Colour  black, or brownish  black.
Structure slaty. Fragments rhomboidal. Specific gravity
1.300. Often stains the fingers.
   Burns  precisely like the last species, and leaves .40 of
white ashes. According to Dolomieu,  it is composed of
about
                64.0  charcoal
                32.5  silica
                 3.5  iron

               100.0
   (6.) Kilkenny coal.   This mineral has been found in
Hungary, Italy, France, Ireland, and  Wales. It occurs
in stratified masses, or in lumps nested in clay. The co-
lour is black. Opaque. Texture  foliated. Specific gravity
1.4 to 1.526. Often stains the fingers. Insoluble in acids.
Deflagrates with nitre. Does not burn till wholly ignited,
and  then consumes  slowly  without emitting flame or
smoke. It consists almost entirely of charcoal.
   Coal,  small, a sort  of charcoal prepared from the spray
and brushwood stripped off from the branches of coppice-
wood, sometimes  bound in bavins for that purpose,  and
sometimes charred without binding, and then it is called
 coming it together.
   The wood they dispose  on a  level floor, and setting a
 portion of it on fire, they throw on m »re and  more, as
 fast as it  kindles,  whence arises a sudden blaze, till all is
 burnt  that was near  the place.  As soon as all the wood
 is thrown on, they cast water on the  heap from  a large
 scoop, and thus keep  playing the heap of glowing coals,
 which stops the fury of the fire; while with a rake  they
 spread it open, and turn it with shovels till no more fire
appears.  Then they shovel them up into great heaps,
and  when thoroughly  cold, put them up in sacks, to he
used by divers artificers to temper and anneal their seve-
ral works.
   [The method of procuring charcoal  in America and
other places where large timber is more plenty, is differ-
ent;  here it is common to place many cords of large wood
in an  upright  position compactly together, and cover it
with earth, leaving an opening to which fire may he in-
troduced; it is then closed up, to prevent  combustion, and
in this way great quantities are procured, (a)
   Coal-laws.  Sea-coal brought into the Thames shall
be sold by the chaldron, containing 36 bushels heaped up,
according to the bushel sealed for that purpose at Guild-
hall.
   All sellers of coals are to keep a lawful bushel, which
bushel and other measures shall be edged with iron and
sealed; and using others, or altering them, incurs a for-
feiture of 50l.
   Any purchaser dissatisfied with the  measure of any
coals,  may, on delivery to him of the meter's  ticket, have
the same  remeasured, by sending notice thereof to the
seller, and to the land coal-meter's office  for  the district
in which  the coals were  sold; on which  a meter (not be-
ing  the same under whose inspection the coals were ori-
ginally measured) must, within two hours, attend to  re-
measure the coals, and shall remeasure the same sack by
 sack,  in the presence of the seller and purchaser (if they
 attend),  and also in  the presence of a meter from  the
two other districts (whose attendance within  London and
 Westminster is enforced by  a penalty of 5l. hut not in -
 Surry); for this attendance the purchaser is  to pay each
 coal-meter  attending 6d. per chaldron. If the coals
 prove deficient measure, the seller shall forfeit 5l. for eve-
 ry bushel deficient, and also forfeit the coals to the poor.
 The meter under whose inspection  the  coals were mea-
 sured at  the wharf, shall also forfeit 5i. per  bushel defi-
 cient, to be recovered (if not in five  days) of the principal
 coal-meter; and coal-porters 2s. 6d. per  bushel. The car-
 man is to be paid  2s. 6d. for his horses, Sec. for each hour,
 whilst the coals are remeasuring.
   Any coal-factor receiving, or coal-owner  giving, any
 gratuity  for buying or selling any particular  sort of coals,
 and selling one kind of coals for and as  a sort which they
 really are not,  shall forfeit 5001. 3 Geo. II. c. 26.
   Owners or masters of vhips shall not enhance the price
 of coals in the river Thames, by keeping turn in deliver-
 ing coals there, under the penalty of lOOf.  4 Geo. II. <"•
 30. Contracts between coal-owners, Sec. and  merchants of
 ships for restraining the buying of coals are void, and
 the parties shall forfeit lOOl.  9 Ann. c. 28.
   Wilfully and maliciously setting  on fire any mine, pit,
 or delph of coal,  or cannel-coal, is  felony without benefit
 or clergy.  10 Geo. II. c. 32.
   Setting fire to, demolishing,  or  otherwise damaging,
 any engine or any other thing belonging to coal-mines,
 is felony and transportation for seven years. 9 Geo. lib
 c. 29.                                           .. ,
   COAMINGS, in ship-building, are those  planks wliim
 raise up  the hatches higher than the rest of the deck, in
 which loop-holes for  muskets to shoot out are usually
 made, in order to clear the deck when the ship is hoarded
 by  an enemy. ^ 
COB
COB
  COASTING, that part of navigation where the places
assigned are not far distant, so that a ship may sail in
sight of land, or within soundings, between them. In this
there are  only  req.ired  a  good knowledge of the land,
and the use ofthe compass and lead, or sounding-line.
  Co AT, or coat of arms,  in heraldry, a habit worn by
the ancient knights over  their arms,  both in war and
tourn inents, and still borne by heralds at arms. It was
a kind cd" sureoat, reaching as low as the navel, open at
the sides with short sleeves, sometimes furred with ermine
and hair, upon which were applied the armories of  the
knights embroidered in gold and silver, and enamelled
with  beaten tin, coloured  black, green, red, and blue:
whence the rule never to apply  colour on colour, or me-
tal cm metal. "
   Coats of  arms and banners were never  allowed to be
worn hy any but knights and ancient nobles.
  Coats, in a  ship, are pieces of tarred canvass put
about the masts at the partners  to keep out water. They
are also used at the rudder's head, and about the pumps at
the decks, that no water may go down there.
  COBALT, in mineralogy, a  mineral ofa grey colour,
first discovered hy Brandt, the celebrated  Swedish che-
mist, in 1733.
  Bergman  confirmed  and extended the discovery  of
Brandt in the year  1780. In the year  1800 a new set of
experiments were made upon it by the school of mines at
Paris, in order to procure it perfectly pure, and to ascer-
tain its properties when in that  state. And in  1802 a new
set of experiments were published by Thenard, which
throw considerable light on  its combinations with oxygen.
   I. 1.  Cobalt is of a grey colour with a shade of red,
and by no means brilliant.  Its  texture varies according
to the heat employed in using it. It is composed of plates,
sometimes of grains, and sometimes of small fibres adher-
ing to each other.  It has scarcely any taste or smell.  2.
Its specific  gravity,  according  to Bergman  and  the
school nT mines at  Paris, is 7.7; but Tassaert makes it
8.5384. 3. Itis brittle, and easily reduced to powder;  but
if we  believe Leonhardi it is somewhat malleable when
red-hot. Its tenacity is unknown. 4. When  heated to  the
temperature of 130 degrees Wedgewood it  melts; but no
heat which we  can produce is sufficient  to cause it to
evaporate.  When cooled slowly in a crucible, if* the ves-
sel  is inclined the moment the surface of the metal con-
geals, it may be obtained  crystallized in irregular prisms.
5. Like iron, it is attracted by the magnet;  and from  the
experiments of Wenzel it  appears, that it  may  be con-
verted  into  a magnet precisely  similar in its properties
to the common  magnetic needle.
   II.  When exposed to the air it undergoes no  change,
neither is it altered when kept under water; its affinity
for oxygen is not sufficiently strong to occasion a decom-
position of the wattr.  When kept red-hot in an open ves-
sel  it  gradually imbibes oxygen; and  is converted into a
powder afJirst blue, but which gradually becomes deep-
er and deeper, till  at last it becomes black, or rather of
so deep a blue, that it  appears  to the eye  black. If  the
heat is  very violent the cobalt takes fire, and burns with
a red  flame.  From the  experiments of Thenard it  fol-
lows, that cobal* is capable of  combining with three do-
ses ofoxv gen at least,  and  of forming three distinct ox-
ides, which may he exhibited in a separate state.
  VOL. I.                  72
  1. The protoxide of cobalt has a blue colour.  It  may
he obtained by dissaving cobalt in nitric acid, and pre-
cipitating the cobalt from the solution by  means  of po-
tass. The precipitate has a blue colour; but when  dried
in the open air it  gradually becomes black.  This  black
powder is to be kept for half an hour in  that degree of
heat known to manufacturers  of iron utensils by the name
of cherry-red. This beat expels the oxygen which it had
absorbed in drying, and converts it into a fine blue colour.
This oxide dissolves  in acids  without effervescence.  The
solution of it  in muriatic acid, if concentrated, is gr-en;
hut if diluted  with  water it is  red  Its solution in  sulphu.
ric and nitric  acids is always of a red colour. 2. When the
protoxide of cobalt,  newly  precipitated  from acids by
potass, is exposed  to the air,  it gradually combines with
an additional  dose of oxygen,  as Thenard ascertained by
experiment, and assumes an  olive-green colour;  and by
cautiously drying it  without  the aid  of beat, it  may be
obtained in that state.  This is  the deutoxide  of cobalt.
When this oxide is treated with diluted muriatic acid, a
moderate heat developes oxymuriatic acid gas, and a red-
coloured solution is obtained.  Hence  we see that the deu-
toxide of cobalt  loses a portion  of its oxygen  during its
solution in muriatic acid. 3. When the protoxide  or deu-
toxide of cobalt, newly precipitated from an acid, is dri-
ed by heating it in the open air, it assumes a flea-brown
colour, which gradually deepens,  till at last it becomes
black. This is tbe peroxide of cobalt.  It dissolves w ith ef-
fervescence in muriatic acid, and a great quantity of oxy-
muriatic acid gas is exhaled. Mr.  Thenard considers the
brown colour which  the oxide of cobalt first assumes be-
fore it becomes  black, as a tritoxide; but his experiments
are not sufficient to decide that point.
  With respect  to the reddish  precipitate which is some-
times obtained  by precipitating cobalt from acids, and
which has been  considered as  a peculiar oxide  of cobalt,
Mr. Thenard suspects, with reason, that it is a combina-
tion ofthe oxide of cobalt with arsenic acid.
  III.  1.  Cobalt does not combine with carbon nor hy-
drogen. 2. It cannot be combined  with sulphur by fusion.
But sulphuret of cobalt may be  formed by melting the
metal along  with sulphur previously  combined   with
potass.  It has a yellowish-white  colour, displays the rudi-
ments of crystals,  and can scarcely  be  decomposed hy
heat.  3. Phosphuret of cobalt may be formed by heat-
ing the  metal  red-hot,  and then gradually dropping
in small bits of phosphorus. It contains  about  one-fif-
teenth of phosphorus. It is white and brittle; and  when
exposed  to the  air, soon loses  its metallic lustre.  The
phosphorus is separated by heat, and the cobalt is at the
same time oxidated.  This phosphuret is much more fusi-
ble than pure cobalt.
  IV. Cobalt does not combine with  azotic gas, nor mu-
riatic acid gas.
  V.  Cobalt seems capable of combining w ith most of the
metals, but its alloys are very imperfectly known,  l.  It
combines with small portions of sold;  hut the alloy scarce-
ly differs from pure cobalt in  its properties. 2. When two
parts of cobalt and one of silver are melted together, the
two metals are obtained separately after the process; the
silver at the bottom of the crucible, and the cobalt above
it. Each of them, however, has absorbed a small portion
ofthe other metal: for the silver is brittle and dark-colour- 
C  0 c
coc
ed,  while the cobalt is whiter than usual. 3.  The alloy
of iron and cobalt is very hard, and not  easily broken.
Cobalt generally contains some iron, from which it is
w ith great difficulty separated. 4. The alloy of tin and co-
balt is of a light violet colour, and formed of small grains.
5. It was supposed formerly that cobalt does not combine
with lead by fusion;  for upon melting equal parts of lead
and cobalt  together, both  metals are found  separate;
the lead  at the bottom,  and the  cobalt  above. Indeed
when this cobalt is melted with iron, it appears that it had
combined with a little lead; for the iron combines with the
cobalt, and the lead is separated. But Gmelin  has shown
that the  alloy may be formed.  He put cobalt in powder
within plates of lead, and covered them with charcoal to
exclude the air. He then applied heat to the crucibles con-
taining the mixtures.  Equal parts of lead and cobalt
produced an alloy, in which the metals appeared pretty
uniformly distributed, though  in some places the lead
predominated. It was brittle, and received a better po-
lish than lead, which it resembled rather than cobalt; its
specific gravity was 8.12. Two parts of lead and one of
cobalt produced an  uniform mixture, more like cobalt
than lead, very little malleable, and softer than the  last.
Its specific gravity was  8.28. Four parts of  lead  and
one of cobalt formed an alloy still brittle, and having
the fracture of cobalt, but the polish of lead. It was har-
der than lead. Six parts of lead and one of cobalt form-
ed  an alloy more malleable,  and harder than lead.  Its
specific gravity was 9.65. Eight parts of lead and oho of
cobalt was still harder than lead, and it received a  bet-
ter polish.  It was  as malleable as lead. Its specific grav-
ity was 9.78.
   COCCINELLA, in zoology, a genus of insects  (see
Plate XXXVI. Nat. Hist. fig. 132) of the order of cole-
optera, the characters of which are these; the antenna? are
subclavated; the palpi are longer than the  antenna?, the
last articulation heart-shaped; the body is hemispheric;
the thorax and elytra are margined; the abdomen is flat.
This genus is divided into sections, from the colour of
the elytra, and ofthe spots with which they are adorned.
The  females, impregnated hy  the males, deposit  their
eggs, which turn  to small larva?, slow in their process,
and  enemies to the plant-louse. Those  larva? are fre-
quently found upon leaves of trees covered with plant-
lice.   On the point of being metamorphosed they settle
on a leaf by the hinder part of their body, then bend and
swell themselves,  forming a kind of hook.  The skin ex-
tends, grows hard,  and in a fortnight's time the chry-
salis opens along  the back. The insect in its perfect state
receives the impressions  ofthe air, that gives its elytra a
greater degree of consistence. It seldom flies,  and  can-
not keep long on the w ing. Of all the different larva? of
the concinclla, the most curious is the white  hedgehog;
a name given it by  M. de Reaumur, on account of the
singularity of its figure, and the tufts ofhair which ren-
der it remarkable.  It seeks  its  food  on the  leaves of
trees. After a fortnight  it settles on one spot,  and with-
out parting with its fur, turns to a chrysalis; three weeks
after which it becomes a coccinella. The  slough appears
nowise impaired by its transformation. M. de Reaumur
has observed it on a plum-tree. It is likewise found upon
the rose-tree. When the coccinella  first  arrives at the
state of perfection, the  colours of its elytra  are  very
pale, nearly bordering upon white or cream-colour; and
its elytra arc very soft and tender, but  soon grow hard,
and change to very lively brilliant colours. Their eeffs
are of an oblong form, and of the colour of amber. This
is not the cochineal insect: for that see  Coccus.
  COCCOLOBO, a genus ofthe trigynia order, in tho
octandria class of  plants,  and  in  the  natural method
ranking under the  12th order, holoracese. The calyx ia
quinquepartite and coloured; there is no corolla; the ber-
ry is formed of the  calyx, and is monospermous.  There
are 19 species: that called uvifera, or sea-side grape (sec
Plate XXX1I1. Nat. Hist.  fig.  129.) It grows upon the
sandy shores of most of the West  India islands; where
it sends up many woody  stems,  eight or ten feet  hMi
covered with brown  smooth  bark, and furnished with
thick, veined, shining, orbicular leaves, five or  six in-
ches diameter, standing upon short footstalks.
  COCCULUS Indicus, the name ofa poisonous berrv,
too frequently mixed with malt liquors,  in order to niaL-
them intoxicating; but this practice is expressly forbidden
by act of parliament.  It is the fruit of the moiiospenniini
cocculus. Fishermen have a way of mixing it with paste;
this the fish swallow greedily; and are thereby rendered
lifeless  for a time,  and float on  the water. The old wo-
men use it with staves-acre, for destroying lice in chil-
dren's heads.
   COCCUS, in zoology, a genus of insects belonging to
the order of hemiptera. The rostrum proceeds from the
breast; the belly is bristly behind; the wings of the male
are erect; and tbe female has no wings. The species are
22, denominated principally from the plants they fre-
quent.  The most remarkable species are,
   1.  The coccus iiespcridum, or greenhouse bug, which
is oval, oblong, of a brown colour,  covered with a kind
of varnish: it has six legs, with a notch and four bristles
at the  tail.  It  infests orange-trees and other similar
plants in greenhouses.  When  young it  runs upon the
trees; but afterwards fixes on some leaf, where it hatches
an infinity of eggs, and dies. The male is a very small
fly.
   2. The coccus plialarides. The male of this species is
small; its antennae  are long for its size; the feet and bo-
dy are  of a reddish colour, nearly  pink, and sprinkled
with a  little white  powder.  Its two wings, and the four
threads ofits tail,  are snow-white; and of those threads
two are longer than the rest. It is to be found upon the
species of  gramen  which Linnseus calls  phalaris.  The
female  contrives, along the stalks of that dog-grass, little
nests, of a white cottony  substance,  in  which she depo-
sits her eggs. The small threads of her tail are scarcely
perceptible.
   3.  The coccus cacti (see Plate XXXIII. Nat. Hist. fig.
 130,  131), a native of the warmer parts of America, is
the famous cochineal animal, so highly valued in every
part of the world for the incomparable beauty of its red
colour, which it readily communicates to  wool and silk,
but with much more difficulty to linen and  cotton.  Tins
insect,  like others, is of two sexes,  but exceedingly dis-
similar in their appearance.  The  female, which alone
is valuable for its colour, is  ill-shaped, tardy, and stupid:
its eyes, mouth, and antenna?, are fixed so deep, and are
so concealed in the  folds ofthe skin,  that  it is impossible 
COCCI'S.
to distinguish them without a microscope.  The male is
very scarce, and is suffic ient for 3d0 females or more:  it
is active, small, and slender, in comparison with tbe fe-
male; its neck is narrower than the head, and still nar-
rower than the rest ofthe body.
  The cochineal insect may,  in some  circumstances, he
compared to the silkworm, particularly in tbe manner of
depositing its eggs.  The insects  destined for this pur-
pose are taken at a proper time of their growth, ami put
into a box well closed, and lined with  a coarse cloth, lest
any of them should be lost; md in this confinement they
lay their eggs and die.  The box is  kept close shut till
the time of placing tbe eggs on the nopal, when, if any
motion is  perceived, it is a sufficient  indication that the
animalcule has life, though the egg is so minute as Jiardly
to be perceived; and this is the seed placed on the foliage
of  the cactus  cochenilifer,  or Indian fig, known to the
Spaniards by the  name of nopal,  the quantity contained
in the shell of a hen's ec;g being sufficient for covering a
whole plant.   At Oaxaca cochineal insects are gathered
in large quantities, and form a branch of commerce; the
cultivation of  these little creatures being there the chief
employment of the Indians.   In trade four sorts of cochi-
neal arc  distinguished, inastique, campeschane, tetras-
chale, and Sylvester; of which  the first  is accounted the
best, and  the last the  worst.   Its principal consumption
is among  the dyers.
   A. The coccus ilic is, or that forming the kermes grains,
inhabits the quercus  coccifera of  the  southern parts of
Europe.   Both ancients and moderns seem to have had
very confused notions concerning the origin  and  nature
ofthe kermes; some considering it as a  fruit, without a
just knowledge- ofthe tree which produced it;  others tak-
ing it fir an excrescence formed by the puncture of a par-
ticular fly, the same as the common  gall observed upon
oaks; but,  it was finally discovered that  the kermes is in
reality nothing else but the body of an insect transformed
into the resemblance of a grain, berrv, or husk, accord-
ing to the  course of nature.   The  progress of this trans-
formation must be considered at three different seasons.
In  the first stage, at the beginning of March, an animal-
cule,  no  larger than  a  grain of millet,  scarcely able to
crawl, is perceived sticking to the branches of the tree,
where  it  fixes itself, and soon becomes immoveable: at
this period it grows most, and appears to swell and thrive
with the sustenance it draws in by degrees."  At the se-
cond stage, in April, its growth is completed; its shape
is then round, and about the size ofa pea: it has then ac-
quired more strength, aud the down which covered it  is
changed into dust; and seems to be nothing but a busk or
a capsule, full of a reddish juice,  not unlike discoloured
blood.   Its third state is towards  the end of May, when
the husk appears replete with  small eggs, less than tbe
seed cd'a poppy.  These are properly ranged under the
belly ofthe insect, progressively  placed in the nest  of
down that covers its bodv, which it withdraws in propor-
tion to the number <d'eggs.  After  this work is performed
it soon dies, though it still adheres  to its position; render-
ing a further service to its  progeny, and shi ] ling them
from the in* -leniency ofthe weather, or the hostile attacks
of an enemy.   In a good season they in ilfiply exceeding-
ly, laying from ISOO  to 2000  v^^*, which produce the
same  number of  animalcules,  in France poor  people
gather the  kermes, letting their  nails grow in order to
pick them off with greater facility.
  5. Tbe coccus lacca, orgi:m-lac animal, is a native of
the East Indies.   This species traverse the branches of
the trees upon which they were produced, for some time,
and  then fix themselves upon  the  succulent extremities
ofthe young branches.  By the middle of January they
arc all  fixed in their proper  situation;  and appear as
plump as before, butsho.v no other murks of life. The limbs,
antennae, and setse of the tail, are no longer to be seen.
Around their edges they are environed with a spissidsub-
pellucid liquid, which  seems to glue them to the branch:
it is  tbe gradual accumulation  of this liquid which forms
a complete  cell for  each insect,  and is what is called gum-
lac.   About the middle of March the cells are completely
formed, and the insect is in appearance an oval, smooth,
red bag, without life, about the size of a small  cochineal
insect, emarginated at the obtuse end, full of a beautiful
red liquid.  In October  and November we find about 20
or 30 oval  eggs, or rather young grubs, within the red
fluid of the mother.  When this fluid is all expended  the
young insects pierce a  hole through  the back of their
mother, and  walk off one by one, leaving their exuvise
behind, which is that white membranous substance found
in the empty  cells of the stick-lac.  The insects are  the
inhabitants of fenff trees:  1. Ficus religiosa, Linn an; 2.
Fiens  iudica, Linnrei;  3. Plaso,  Hortus Malabaric us;
and  4.  Ithaiimus jujuba, Linnsei.   The insects general-
ly u\ themselves so close together, and in such numbers,
that scarcely one in six can have  room  to complete her
cell: the others die, and are eaten up by various insects.
The extreme, branches appear as if tbey were covered
with a red  dust, and their sap is so much exhausted, that
they wither, and produce  no  fruit; the leaves drop  olf,
or turn to a dirty black colour.  A red medicinal gum is
produced by  incision  from tbe plaso tree, so similar  to
the gum-lac, that it may readily be taken for the same
substance.   Hence itis  probable that those insects have
li! lie trouble in animalizing the sap of these trees in  the
formation of their cells.   The gmn-lac of this country is
principally found  upon the uncultivated mountains on
both sides tbe Ganges, where the only trouble in procur-
ing it is in breaking down the branches, and carrying
them toinarket.  The lac is of a deep red colour.
  6. Coccus  ]) tlonicus, an  insect  wbich may properly
enough he called the cochineal  of the northern part of the
world.   As the cochineal loves only the hot climates,
this  creature affects only the cold ones.   Though collect-
ed for the use of the  dyers, it is  greatly inferior to the
true cochineal.  Itis comnionlv  known b\ ihe name of
scarlet  grain of Poland. It is to be met with not only in
Poland, but  in many of the northern  countries.  It is
found affixed to tiie root of a plant, and usually to plants
of that species thence called polygonum cocciferum.  To-
wards the end of June the coccus is in a fit s*atoto be  ga-
thered.  Every one of these creatures is then ncarlv of
a spherical form,  and of a fine  violet colour,   borne of
them, however, are  not larger  than poppy-seeds,  hut
others are  the size ofa pepper corn; and each of them is
lodged,either in part or cntirclv, in a sort of cup like that
of an acorn.  On some plants are found only one or two of
ths.', and on others m ire than  forty; end thev  are some-
times placed near  the origin of the Stalks of the plants. 
C  0 c
DOC
  COCCYX,or coccygis os, in anatomy, a bone situated
at the extremitv of the os sacrum.  See Anatomy.
  COCHINEAL.  See Coccus.
  This article is esteemed a great cordial, sudorific, alex-
ipharmic, and febrifuge;  and  much  used by dyers and
painters, the high crimson colour it affords being scarce-
ly equalled by anything; and making, according to their
different management of it, all the degrees and kinds of
red.
  COCHLEA, in anatomy,  the third part of the laby-
rinth of the ear.  See Ax atomy.
  COCHLEARIA, scurvy-grass, a genus of the silicu-
losa order, in the tetradynamia class  of plants; and  in
the natural method ranking under the 39th order, sili-
quosa. The silicula is e'marginated, turgid, and scabrous;
with  the  valves gibbous and obtuse.  There are eight
species; the most remarkable of which are,
   1.  Cochlearia Anglica, or garden scurvy-grass, it
grows naturally on the sea shore, in the north of Eng-
land  and in Holland, but is cultivated  for use in the
gardens near London.  It has  a fibrous root, from which
arise many round succulent leaves,  which are hollowed
like  a spoon; the stalks rise from  six inches to a foot
high.  The flowers are produced in clusters at the end
of the branches, consisting of four small white petals.
This plant is propagated by seeds, which should be sown
 in July:  in spring they will befit for use.  Scurvy-grass
 is a pungent stimulating medicine, capable of dissolving
 viscid juices, opening obstructions ofthe viscera and the
 more distant glands, and promoting the more fluid  se-
 cretions.  It is particularly celebrated in scurvies, and
 is the principal herb employed in these disorders in the
 northern countries.
    2. Cochlearia armoracia, or horse-radish, is so well
 known as  to  need  no description.  It is propagated by
 cuttings or buds from the sides of old roots.   The root
 has  a quick pungent smell, and penetrating acrid  taste;
 it  nevertheless contains in certain vessels a sweet  juice,
 which sometimes exudes on the surface.   By drying it
 loses all  its iicrimony, becoming first sweetish, and then
  almost insipid: if kept in a cool place, in sand, it retains
 its qualities for a considerable time.  The medical ef-
 fects of it are, to stimulate the solids, attenuate the juices,
  and promote the fluid secretions: it seems to e^end its
  action through the whole habit, and to affect the mi-
  nutest glands.  It has frequently done  service  in some
 kinds of scurvies, and other chronic disorders proceeding
 from a viscidity of the juices or obstructions of the ex-
  cretory  ducts.  Sydenham  recommends it likewise in
 dropsies, particularly  those which  follow intermittent
 level's.   Both water and  rectified spirit extract the vir-
 tues of this root hy infusion,  and elevate  them in dis-
  tillations:  along with the aqueous fluid an essential oil
 rises,  possessing  the whole taste and pungency  of tUc
  horse-radish.
    COCHLITES,  in  natural history,  an appellation
  given to the petrified shells of snails.
    COCK.  See Phasiaxcs.
    Cock-boats, those used only in  rivers, or near the
  shores.
    Cock's-comb.  Sec Celosia.
    Cock-pit, in a ship of war, a place on the lower floor
  or deck, abaft the main-capstan, laying between the plat-
form and the steward's  room, where  arc  partitions for
the purser, surgeon, and his mates.
   Cock-swaiv, or coxon, an officer on board a  ship of
war,  who has the care of the barge  and  all things be-
longing to it, and  must he als > ready with  his crew to
man the boat on all occasions: he sits at the  stern of the
boat, and steers.
   CocK-wrATi:n,  among  miners, a  stream of water,
brought into a trough, to wash away the  sand from tin
ore, while stamping in the middle.
   COCKETT, cockettum, cocketum.  The custom-house
seal, or the office where goods to be wooden shivers, to
ke.-p them from splitting and galling by the  pin of the
block.
   COCKETT, cockettum, cocketum.  The custom-house
or the office where goods to be transported arc first en-
tered, and pay their custom; and are to have a cockett,
signifingthat their merchandises are customed, and may
be discharged,  See Custom-house.
   COCOS, in botany, a genus belonging  to the natural
order of palnise.   It is of the monoecia hexandria. The
calyx of the male is tripartite;  the corolla tripetalous,
with six stamina.  The calyx of the female quinquepar-
tite; the corolla tripetalous; the stigmata  three; and the
plum coriaceous.  There are five species.  The princi-
pal is,
   Coccs nucifera, the  cocoa-nut tree.  It  is supposed
to be a native of  the Maldivc,  and some desert islands
in the East Indies, and  thence to  have  been  trans-
ported to all the warm parts of America: for it is not
found in any of the inland parts, nor any where far dis-
 tant from  settlements.  It frequently rises 60 feet high.
 The body of the trunk, which generally leans  to one side,
 occasioned  by the great weight of nuts it sustains when
 young, is the exact shape of an apothecary's large iron pes-
tle, being of an equal thickness at top and at bottom, but
 some  what smaller in the middle; its  colour is of a pale
 brown throughout, and the bark smooth.  The leaves or
 branches are often 14 or 15 feet long, about 28 in number,
 winged of a yellow colour, straight and tapering. The pin-
 nae are green,often three feet long next the trunk,but di-
 ininshing in length towards the extremity of the branches,
 which are fastened at top by brown stringy threads that
 grow out of them, of the size  of ordinary packthread,
 and are interwoven like  a web.  The nuts  hang at the
 top ofthe trunk,  in clusters of a dozen each. Each nut,
 next the stem, has three holes closely stopped; one being
 wider and more easily penetrated than the rest.   When
 the kernel begins to grow  it incrusts the inside of the
 nut in a hlueish, jelly-like substance: as this grows har-
 der the inclosed liquid, distilled into the nut from the
 roots, becomes somewhat acid; and the kernel, as the nut
 ripens, becomes still more solid, and at length lines the
 whole inside of the nut for above  a  quarter of  an inch
 thick, being  as white as snow, and of the flavour of a
 filherd.  The quantity of liquor  in a full grown nut is
 frequently  a pint and upwards.   The husky tegument
 of the nut consists of strong, tough, stringy filaments,
 which, when removed from the fruit, resemble coarse
 oakum.  Tbe leaves are  wrought  into  brooms, ham-
 mocks in form of nets, mats, sacks, and other useful uten-
 sils. The tree is propagated by planting the nuts, which
 in six or eight weeks will  come up,  provided  they are. 
C  0 F
t  0 F
fresh and thoroughly ripe: but this is what few of them
are when brought into this country: for they are always
gathered before they arc ripe, that they may keep dur-
ing the passage.  The best way, therefore, would be to
gather such nuts as  arc thorougly ripe in their native
country, and plant them in a tub of  dry sand,  to  keep
them  from the vermin during the passage.   Here they
will frequently sprout, wbic h will be an advantage, as
tbey may then be immediately planted  in  pots of earth,
ami plunged in the bark-stove.
   COl'TION, a general term for all  alterations made
in bodies by the application of fire or beat: of this there
are various species, as  maturation, friction, assation,
elixation, usti.m, &.c. Sec Friction,  Sec. and also the ar-
ticles Phahmvc v and Decoction.
   COD. See Uidus.
   CODE, a collection ofthe laws and constitutions of
the Roman emperors, made by order of Justinian. The
code is accounted the second volume of tbe civil law, and
contains 12 books, the matter  of which is nearly the same
with that of the digests,  especially the first eight books;
but the style is neither so pure, nor the method  so accu-
rate, as that of the digests: and it determines  matters *of
daily use, whereas the digests discuss the more abstruse
and subtile questions ofthe law, giving the various opi-
nions ofthe ancient lawyers.
   CODICIL. Sec Will.
   COECUM. See Anatomy.
   COEFFICIENTS, in algebra, such numbers, or gi-
ven  quantities,  as arc put before  letters, or unknown
quantities,  into which letters they are supposed to be mul-
tiplied: thus, in 3 a, of bx.ovcxx; 3 is the coefficient or 3 a,
b of bx, and c of cxx. When no number is prefixed, uni-
ty is supposed to be the coefficient; thus  1 is the coefficient
ofa or of b. See Aluehra.
   Coefficient of any  generating term in fluxions, is
the quantity arising from the division of that term by the
generated quantity.
   COELIAC artery. Sec  Anatomy.
   Coeliac pvision. Sec Medicine.
   Coeliac ykin, ill anatomy, that running through the
intcstiiiuni  rectum, along with  the coeliac artery.   See
Anatomy.
   COENOBITE, in church  history, an order of monks
in the primitive  christian church.  They were so called
etirorov koiibv /3i©i/, from  living  in  common,  in which they
differed from the anachorites, who retired from society.
   COEI R.  in heraldry, a short line of partition in pale,
in the centre of the escutcheon, which extends but a little
way. much short of  the top and bottom,  being met by
other lines, which form an irregular partition of Tbe es-
cutcheon.
   COFr'EA. the coffee-tree: a genus of  the monogynia
order, in the pentandria class of plants:  and in  the na-
tural  method  rauiviug under the  -trth order,  strtlatse.
The corolla is funnel shaped; the stamina above  the tube;
the berry  inferior,  dispermous; the seeds arillaled, or
having  a  proper exterior covering  dropping off of its
own accord.  There are 10 species, but that  which is
most worthv of attention is supposed to be a nalive of
Arabia  Felix. (See Plate WW 1. Nat.  Hist. fig. 133.)
The ro flea \rahira seldom rises  more than 1G or 18 feet
in height;  the main stem grows upright, and is covered
with  a light-brown bark:  the branches arc  produced
horizontally and  opposite,  crossing each other at every
joint.  The leaves also stand opposite; and when fully
grown are about four or five inches long, and two broad
in the middle, decreasing toward each end; the borders
are waved, and the surface is  of  a lucid green.  The
flowers are produced in clusters at the root of the leaves,
sitting close to the branches; they  are  tubulous,  and
spread open at the top, where they are divided into five
parts: they are of a pure  white, and  have  a grateful
odour, but arc of short duration.   The  fruit, which is
the useful part, resembles a cherry.  It  grows in  clus-
ters, and is ranged along the brane lies  under the axillae
of the leaves, of the same green as the  laurel, but some-
thing longer.  When it comes to be of a deep red, it is
gathered for exportation.
   Tbe coffee-tree is cultivated in Arabia, Persia, the East
and West Indies, the isle of Bourbon, and several parts of
America. It is also raised in botanic gardens in several
parts of Europe.  It delights particularly in hills and
mountains, where its root is almost  always dry,  and its
head frequently watered with gentle showers.   It pre-
fers a western aspect* and ploughed ground without any
appearance of grass.   The plants  should be placed  at
eight feet distance from each other, and  in holes twelve
or fifteen ine lies deep.  If left to themselves, they would
rise to the  height of 16 or 18 feet; but they are generally
stinted to  five for the convenience of gathering their
fruit with the greater ease.  Thus dwarfed, they extend
their branches so, that they cover the whole spot round
about them.  They begin to yield fruit  the third year,
but are not in full bearing till the fifth.   With the  same
infirmities that most other trees  are subject to, these are
likewise in danger of being destroyed by a worm or by
the scorching rays ofthe sun. The hills where the coffee-
trees are found have generally a gravelly or chalk bot-
tom.   In the last, it languishes for  some time and then
dies, in the former its roots, which seldom fail of strik-
ing between stones,  obtain  nourishment, and keep the
tree alive and fruitful for 30 years.   This is nearly the
period for plants of the coffee-tree.   The proprietor,  at
the end of that time, not only finds himself without trees,
but has his land so reduced, that it is not fit for any kind
of culture; and unless he is  so situated that he can take
a spot of virgin land,  to make himself amends foi that
which is totally exhausted by the coffee-trees, his loss is
irreparable.
  The cofifee-tree is sometimes cultivated in European
gardens: but it requires a  stove.   It makes a fine ap-
pearance at all sens.ms of the year, but especially when
in flower, and when the berries are red,  which is general-
ly in the winter, so that they continue a long time  iu
that state.   It is  propagated from the berries; but they
must be planted  immediately when  gathered from the
tree,  for they loose  their vegetative quality in a very
short time.
   COFFER, in fortification, a hollow  lodgment across
a dry moat, IV >m six to seven feet deep,  and from  16  to
18 broad, the upper pure being made of pieces of timber,
raised two feet above the level of that moat: which little
elevation has hurdles, laden with earth, for its covering,
and serves as a parapet with embrasure's.  The  he sieg-
ed generally make use of  these coffers  to repulse the 
                       C 0  II

 besiegers, when they attempt  to pass the ditch: they are
 distinguished only by their length  from the caponiers,
 which are likewise somewhat  lrss in breadth; and differ
 from the traverse and gallery, in that these are made by
 the besiegers, and the coife.p by the besieged.  To save
 themselves from the fire of these  coffers the besiegers
 enaule, or throw up the earth, on that side towards the
 coffer.
   COFFERER of tiie king's  household, next under the
 comptroller, who superintends and pays the other officers
 ofthe household their wages.
   COGGSHALL'S sliding-ruJc.   See Sltding-rule.
   COGNATION,  in  the civil law, a term fir that line
 of consanguinity which is between males and females,
 both descended from the same father; as agnation is for
 the line of parentage between males only descended from
 the same  stock.   In France,  for the succession  to  the
 crown, they follow agnation;  in England,  Spain,  &c.
 cognation: women coming to the succession according
 to the degree of proximity, in default of males, or their
 descendants, from branch to branch.
   COGNISOR, or connusor, he that passeth or acknow-
 ledged a fine of lands or teiumienis  to another.   Cog-
 niscc, or  conusee, is he to whom  the  fine is acknow-
 ledged.
   COGNISANCE, sometimes signifies an acknowledg-
 ment of fine, and sometimes a power or jurisdiction; as
 cognisance of pleas  is an ability  to call a cause or plea
 out of another court, which no 0113  can do but the king,
 except he can show charters fir it.
   COGNITION IB LS mittendis, a writ to one ofthe
 king's justices of the common pleas, or other that has
 power to  take a fine,  and who  having taken it, delays
 to certify the same,  commanding him to certify it.
   COGNOVIT actionem, is an acknowledgment by a
 defendant, or confession that the  plaintiff's cause of ac-
 tion is  just;  and who, to  save  law expenses, suffers
judgment to be entered against him; in this case the con-
 fession generally extends to no more than is contained
 in the declaration, with costs.
   COHABITATION, in the civil law, denotes the state
 ef a man and a woman who live together like husband
 and wife, without being legally married.  By the com-
 mon law of Scotland, cohabitation for a year and day,
 or a complete twelvemonth, is deemed equivalent to ma-
 trimony.
   COHESION. The force called cohesion is inherent in
the particles of all bodies, except caloric and  light:  for
all bodies except these constantly  exist in masses compo-
sed of an  indefinite number of particles  united together.
This force possesses  all the characters of affinity.   1. It
acts only  at insensible distances; for whenever wre re-
move the particles of a body  to a  perceptible distance
from each other, they cease to  cohere altogether. 2. Co-
hesion is exceedingly various in different bodies: though
in the same body, if other things be equal, it is always
the same.  Thus  an iron rod is composed of  particles of
iron cohering so strongly, that it requires an  enormous
force to separate them. A smaller force is necessary to
overcome  the cohesion of lead,  and  a still  smaller to se-
parate the particles of chalk from each other.  In  short,
there arc scare ly two bodies whose particles cohere with
the same  force.  The force  of cohesion in solid bqdies is
                      C 0  H

measured by the weight necessary to break them, or ra-
ther to pull them asunder. Thus if a rod of glass is sus-
pended in a perpendicular direction, and weights attach-
ed to its lower extremity till the rod  is broken by them
the weight attached to the rod just before it broke is tho
measure of the cohesive force of the rod. We are indebt-
ed to Muschenbrocck for the most complete set of expe-
riments hitherto made upon  the cohesive force of solid
bodies. Sickengen also has examined the cohesion of se-
veral ofthe metals with much accuracy.   The results of
the labours of the first of these philosophers, with regard
to metals and wood,  may be seen in the following table
in wiiich  the numbers denote the pounds avoirdupois
which are just sufficient to tear asunder a rod of each of
the bodies, whose base is an inch square.
I.  Metals.
Steel, bar	135,000
Iron, bar .	74,500
Iron, cast	50,100
Copper, cast	28,600
Silver, cast	41,500
Gold, cast	22,000
Tin, cast	4,440
Bismuth .	2,900
Zinc .	2,600
Antimony	1,000
Lead, cast	860
II. Woods.	
Locust-tree	20,100
Jujcb . :	18,500
Beech, oak	17,300
Orange	15,500
Alder	13,900
Elm	13,200
Mulberry	12,500
Willow	12,500
Ash .	12,000
Plum	11,800
Elder	10,000
Pomegranate	9,750
Lemon	9,250
Tamarind	8,750
Fir .	8,330
Walnut	8,130
Pitch-pine	7,656
Quince	6,750
Cypress	6,000
Poplar	5,500
Cedar »	4,880
  3. The nature of cohesion has been more happily ex-
plained by Boscovich than hy any other philosopher. In-
deed it forms the most beautiful and satisfactory part of
his theory. According to him, the particles of bodies co-
here together when they are placed in the limit of repul-
sion and  attraction.  Two particles, when situated at a
certain distance from each other, repel each other mutu-
ally; this repulsion gradually diminishes as the  distance
between the particles increases, till at last when the dis-
tance reaches a certain magnitude, the repulsion ceases
altogether. If the distance is increased ever so little, the
particles  now, instead of repelling, attract each other;
and this attraction increases with the  distance till at last 
COHESION.
it reaches its maximum.  From this  point  it gradually
diminishes, till  at last, when the particles have acquired
a certain distance, it vanishes altogether. If the distance
is increased ever so little beyond that distance, the par-
licies now again repel  each other.  He supposes that the
insensible distance, between two particles is divided into
an  indefinite number of portions of alternate repulsions
and attractions.
  Boscovich supposes, that in all cases'of cohesion the
particles of the cohering body are so situated as to be in
these limits of cohesion with respect to each other. Ac-
cording to this very ingenious theory,  cohesion is not,
properly speaking, a force, but an interval between two
forces. And even if we were to modify the theory a lit-
tle, still we must  consider cohesion as  the balancing of
two opposite forces, either of which  becomes prevalent
according  as  the  cohering particles  are  urged  nearer
each other or forced to a greater distance.  Consequently
if we were to speak with precision, cohesion is not itself
a force, hut the absence of a force.  What has been  hith-
erto called the  force of cohesion, is the  attraction which
prevents the cohering  particles from separating  from
each other, and which begins to act, or more precisely.
which becomes prevalent, when the particles are urged
to a greater distance from each other.
  4.  Boscovich has shown, in a very satisfactory man-
ner, bow all the varieties of cohesion may  be produced
by  the differences in tbe size, figure,  and density, of the
Cohering  particles.  It deserves attention,  that in most
cases the cohesive force of simple bodies is greater than
that of compound bodies.  To this indeed there are a great
number of exceptions,  but the observation holds in a va-
riety of instances.  All the metals cohere very strongly;
the diamond probably coheres with  no less force,  if we
can judge from its hardness; and the cohesion of sulphur
is also very considerable. Thus if we except phosphorus,
all  the simple  substances  arc remarkable for cohesion.
Those of them  which are in the state of  elastic fluids must
be  excluded altogether; because in that particular state
the particles, instead of being in the limit of cohesion, are
actually repelled.  In the earths,  too, such of them at
least as arc found  chrystalli/.ed in a  state of purity, the
cohesion is very strong. Thus the sapphire or chrystalli-
zed alumina, and  rock crystal or crystallized silica, are
always verv hard, and exhibit a much stronger cohesion
than lime-stone, or magnesian stones, which arc compos-
ed  of heterogeneous bodies.  This remark, however, by
no  means applies to the metals; for in them the cohesion
is very often encrcased considerably by  alloying them to-
gelher.  Thus the cohesoin of copper is doubled by alloy-
ing with one-sixth ofits weight of tin,  though the cohe-
sion ofthe tin  is scarcely one-sixth of that of the copper.
  The cohesion of metals is greatly increased by forg-
ing them, and  by drawing  them out into wire. By this
last operation gold, silver, and brass,  have their cohe-
sion nearly tripled; copper and iron more than doubled.
  5.  There are three states  in which  bodies exist ex-
ceedingly distinct from each other: the state of  solids,
ofli((iiids, and of elastic fluids. In the  first two states the
particles cohere with more or  less force; but the cohesion
produces in them wrv  different effects. In the first it pre-
vents all relative motion among the particles themselves;
in the second,  this relative motion is  left at full liberty.
Hence in solid bodies the motion of one particle is follow-
ed by the motion ofthe whole mass; or if that is impos-
sible, the cohesion is destroyed altogether. In liquids, on
the contrary, the motion of one particle is not necessari-
ly followed by that ofthe rest, neither does that motion
destroy the cohesion.  Boscovich has shown, that solidity
and fluidity are the consequence of the figure of the co-
hering particles. If that figure is such that the  panicles
may change their position without  altering their rela-
tive distances, the consequence must be fluidity; because
in that case there is nothing to oppose the motion of any
indiv idual particle.  This happens when the particles are
spherical: but if the figure is such that the particles can-
not change their position without altering their relative
distances, the bodies which they compose must he solids,
because all relative motion of an  individual particle is
opposed by the attractions and repulsions of all the sur-
rounding particles; for every motion must bring the par-
ticle out ofthe former limit of cohesion. This happens
when the particles have the figure of parallelopipeds, or
any other figure except that of spheres.
   This explanation  is exceedingly ingenious;  but it
would not be an easy task to explain by means of it all
the phenomena of solidity and fluidity. How comes it, for
instance,  that  the  addition of a certain dose of  caloric
renders a body fluid which was before solid? If it be an-
swered, that it acts by combining  with the particles of
the solid in such a manner as to render them spherical:
how comes it, in that case, that gold and platina, metals
which are  ductile and malleable* properties which indi-
cate a kind of approach to fluidity, and of course sphe-
ricity, in the particles  of these metals,—how  comes  it
that they require so much more  caloric to render them
fluid than bismuth or sulphur, which are altogether brit-
tle? We must rather consider fluidity as a  kind of solu-
tion in caloric,  analogous to  the solution of salts in wa-
ter.  But this explanation, though it would "do  very well
in many instances, would lead us in others to difficulties
as great as those which we are endeavouring to avoid.
   The cohesion of  liquids  is often  very considerable.
According to sir Isaac Newton, it  is nearly proportion-
al to  the density of the liquid. This  holds  pretty accu-
rately in several instances: but it is not easy to ascertain
the cohesion of a liquid with  precision, because the par-
ticles slide upon each other; and the column ofthe liquid,
whose  cohesion we are measuring, always  becomes
smaller; till at last it consists only of a xery small num-
ber of particles.
   Viscid bodies have particles approaching to a spherical
form; but deviating from it so far  as to occasion a cer-
tain resistance to the  relative motion of the particles.
   Solid bodies are of two kinds: tbey may either resist all
change of distance in  their particles so  strongly as not
to be capable  of comprehension or dilatation  without a
breach of cohosion; or tbey may admit of both to a cer-
tain degree with facility. The first  of these constitutes
hardness; the second constitutes softness if lhe*  practicles
retain their new  situation,  or elasticity if  they  return
again to their old position when the external force is re-
moved. Ductility and  malleability depend upon the same
state as  softness,  only the  partic h s require  a greater
force to make them change their situation, and assume
a new one. 
COII
C  O I
  6. When a solid body is  plunged into a liquid, if the
particles of the liquid  attract those of the solid with a
greater force than these last particles attract each other,
they are gradually carried off by the fluid, and combine
with its particles, that  is to say, the solid is gradually
dissolved.  Thus sugar is dissolved by water,  and sul-
phur by oil. The particles ofthe solid thus dissolved are
each of them surrounded and combined with a certain
number ofthe particles of the liquid. Hence they must
be arranged in the liquid in regular order, and at regu-
lar distances from each other. The greater the number of
particles thus dissolved by  the liquid, the smaller is the
affinity by which each of them is retained, because it is
surrounded by a smaller number of  particles of the li-
quid.  But the  greater must be the force  with which
these particles are attracted towards each other, and of
course tend to form the solid again by  cohesion; because
the greater the number of the particles of the solid dis-
solved in the fluid, the nearer they are  to each other.
  Thus it appears that the affinity between the fluid and
solid diminishes with the quantity dissolved; but that the
tendency to cohesion increases with that quantity. Con-
sequently if the solution is supposed to go on, these two
opposite forces must  at last balance  one another; and
whenever that happens, the liquid can dissolve no more
of the solid. If it did, the particles of the solid would in
part cohere, and form a new portion of the solid again.
Whenever this happens, the fluid is said to be saturated.
The saturation of a fluid then does not mean that its affi-
nity for the solid is satisfied, but  that it is not greater
than the tendency of  the combined  particles to cohere.
Now when a liquid is saturated with  a solid, if by any
means we  can abstract part of that liquid, the cohesive
force of the particles  of the solid  must gain the superi-
ority; and the consequence will  be, that they will unite
and form solid bodies anew, till their number is so much
diminished, that their mutual attraction  is again  coun-
terbalanced by the affinity of the liquid. Hence  the rea-
son that evaporation  occasions the  crystallization of
those bodies which are held in solution by these liquids.
   7. These different solid bodies differ excessively from
each other in their tendency to cohesion;  and this difference
can only be ascertained by experiment. Thus the tendency
to cohesion, and the force of cohesion, in silica, is so strong,
that when it has been precipitated from  a solution by eva-
poration, it cr.nnot be dissolved again in the same liquid.
•   This tendency to cohesion, and the  consequent inso-
lubility ofthe compound, produce many ofthe most  im-
portant phenomena of chemistry, as they occasion the
various precipitations  and decompositions which  so of-
ten take place  when different substances are mixed to-
gether. See Attraction, and Mechanics.
   COHORT, colwrs, in Roman  antiquity, the name of
part ofthe Roman legion, comprehending about six hun-
dred men. There  were ten cohorts in  a legion,  the first
of which exceeded all the rest, both in  dignity and num-
ber of men. When the army wras ranged in order of bat-
tle,  the  first cohort took the right of  the first line,  and
the rest followed in their natural order; so that the third
w as in the centre of the first line of the legion, and the
fifth on the left, the second between the first and third, and
the fourth between the third and fifth: the five remaining
cohorts formed a second line, in their  natural order.
   COIF. The Serjeants at law are otherwise called Ser-
jeants ofthe coif, from the lawn coif tbey wear on their
heads, under their caps, when they are created, and al-
ways after.
   COIN denotes all the several stamps and  species  of
money in any nation.  In earlier times, when the neces-
sity  of traffic put men upon the expedient of having
money; and metals, on account of their firmness, clean-
liness, and  durableness, were chosen for timt end; each
person  cut his  metal into pieces of different sizes and
forms,  according to  the quantity to be given for any
merchandize, or according to the demand  of the seller
or the quantity  stipulated between them.  It was usual
then to go  to market laden with metal, in proportion to
the purchase to  be made; and furnished with instruments
for proportioning  it,  and with scale s for dealing it out,
according  as occasion required.  By degrees it was found
more convenient to have pieces ready.weighed: and as
there were different weights required, all those of the
same weight were distinguished with the same mark or
figure.  At length the growing commerce  of money be-
ginning to be disturbed with frauds, both in the weights
and the matter,  and the public authority interposed; and
hence arose the  first  stamps, or  impressions of  money,
to which succeeded the names of the  moneyers, and at
length the effigies of  the prince, the date, legend, and
other precautions to prevent the alteration of the specie:
thus were  coins completed,  pnd gradually brought  to
their present perfection. See Coinage.
   The  following  are  Tables  of the  most remarkable
Coins, both ancient and modern.
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Of these the drachma, didrachma, &c. were of silver;
the rest, for the most  part, of  brass. The Grecian gold
coins were the stater aureus, worth 25  Attic drachms of
silver; the stater Cyzicenus, stater Philippicus, and sta-
ter Alexandrinus, worth 28 drachms; the stater Daricus,
according to Joscphus, worth 50 Attic drachms, and the
Btater Crusius, ofthe same value.

            The value of the Roman coins.
Teruncius				-
2	Semilibella			
1	o	Libella, or As		
1C	5	2|	Sestertius	
20	JO	5	o	Quinarius ") Vicloriatus J
40	20	10	4	il Denarius
	s.	d.	<7-
0	0	0	n 7 75
0	0	0	15 5 105
0	0	0	3tV
0	0	1	H
0	0	3	si
0	0	7	3
Of these the denarius, victoriatus, sestertius, and some-
times the as, were of silver, the rest of brass.  The Ro-
man g Id coin was the aureus, which weighed generally
dou  le the  denarius, tbe value of which, ac-
cording  to the first proportion of coinage  I.
mentioned bv Pliny, was worth
  According to  the  proportion that obtains
among us, worth  -     -    -    -    -
  According to the decuple proportion.'men-
tioned by Livy and Julius Pollux, worth  -
     vol. i.                73
d.
>l
1  0  9
0 12  11
  According to the proportion mentioned by-
Tacitus, and   which afterwards  obtained,
wiierehy the aureus exchanged for 25 dena-
rii, its value is.....0 16  1;
  It must be observed, that in all these tables of ancient
coins, silver is reckoned at five shillings, and gold at four
pounds, the ounce.
  Modern  coins,  current in the four quarters of  the
earth at this day, are either made of metals, or they are
shells and fruits.   The metals are geild, silver,  copper,
tin, and  lead; to which may be added billon, a mixture
of silver and copper in a certain proportion.
  In Europe none are used besides gold, silver, copper,
and billon: in some parts  of  the East  Indies they like-
wise use tin and lead:  as to shells and fruits, they are
the small money of several nations in Asia, Africa, and
America.
  Coins, British.  In England, the current species of
gold  were formerly  the  guinea, half-guinea,  jacobus,
iaureat, angel, and rose-noble; the four last of which are
now seldom met with, having been mostly converted into
guineas, chiefly during the reigns of Charles II. and
James II.
  The silver coins are, the crown, half-crown, shilling,
and  sixpence:  there are  likewise  penny, two-p uny,
three-penny, and grot pieces in silver, but these are on-
ly for curiosity.
  The copper coins are the penny, half-penny, and farth-
ing.

Value and  proportion of the English coins, ancient and
                       modern.
 Farthing
2	Halfpenny		
4	o	Peni	y
4':!	'24	I;":	Sb
240	60	30	2'
	H.i	fif	
960	4K'j	24«'	--'.■
1008	504	252	21
			25
			23
Half-crown
   Crown
34
Pound, accompt
     Guinea
     Jacobus
     Carolus, or laureate.
  In Scotland, by the articles of the union, it is appoint-
ed that all the coins shall be reduced to the. English, and
the same accompts  he observed throughout the whole
island. Till then, the Scotch had their pounds, shillings,
and pence, as in England; but their pound was but twen-
ty pence English, and the others were in proportion;  ac-
cordingly their mark was 13s. 4</. Scots, current in En-
gland at 13|d.; their noble in proportion.
  Besides these they had their tornorer, pence, and half-
pence; their  penny  l-12th of that of England; besides
base money of achison s, bawbees, ani pk.ck.s;  the  bodle;
l-6th of the penny,  \ of the achison, \ of the bawbee,
and i of the plack.
   In Ireland the coins are as in England, viz. guineas,
shillings. Sec. with this difference, that the English shil-
ling passes for twenty-six half-pence, which  are the only-
coin peculiar to that country. 
COINS.
             Coins of the French Empire.
  The current coins of France were formerly the double
louis (gold), the louis (gold), the piece of six livres (sil-
ver), that of three livers, the ecu (silver), twenty-four
sols piece (silver), the twelve (silver), the  six sols piece
(silver), tbe large or double sol (of copper), the sol (of
copper),  and the half and quarter sol, or  pieces of two
and one Hard. There arc also ancient pieces made of cop-
per and silver, denominated pieces of six  liards, value
one sol and a half.
   According to the  new system,  an attempt has been
made, with partial success, to introduce the  following cur-
rency.  The denomination of livre has been changed into
that of franc, with an alteration, in the small proportion
of only three pence to the louis. The franc is then assum-
ed as the  basis or unit of all their computations; and all
values are  reckoned upwards by tens, hundreds, and
thousands of francs,  and downwards by tenth parts and
hundredth parts of francs.
   Some coins have been put into circulation agreeable to
this new  system, viz. in silver pieces of 5  francs, in pie-
ces of 30 sols,  being the fourth of the franc, and in pie-
ces of 15 sols,  being the eighth of the  franc; in copper
pieces of 5 centimes (five hundredths)  equal  to the old
sol, and of 10 centimes  (ten hundredths) or one decime,
equal to the double sol.
   Value of the coinage of both nations.—As  a primary
principle, the traveller must recollect, that whenever the
course of exchange between the two countries is at par,
the French louis is to be considered as of  equal value to
the English pound sterling.
Existing English Coins.                       French Value.
 rm.    •        •      i *  f One louis  and one 24 sols
 The guinea     is equal to |     piece>
 The  crown  piece    — The six livre piece.
 The  half-crown     — The three livre piece.
 The shilling        — The 24 sols piece.
 The sixpence         — The 12 sols piece.
 The penny           — The double sol.
 The halfpenny       — The sol.
 The farthing         — The deux liards.
 Existing French Coins.              French Value.
 The louis containing")  ^        A  ,  ,.
 *  .  ,.       f    ° J-One pound sterling.
    24  livres or francs S
 The six  livre piece   — Five shillings.
 The five franc piece — Four shillings and two pence.
 The livre piece       — Half-crown.
 The 30 sol piece     — Fifteen pence.
 The 24 sol piece      — One shilling.
 The 15 sol piece     — Seven pence half-penny.
 The 12 sol piece     —- Six pence.
 The 6 sol piece       — Threepence.
 The double sol       — A penny.
 The 6 Hard piece    — Three farthings.
 The sol              — One halfpenny.
 The two Hard piece   — One farthing.
 The liard            — Half a farthing.
    The livre or franc  is a nominal  value, equal to ten-
 pence English. The tenth part of a franc is called a de-
 cime, and the hundredth part of a franc is called a cen-
 time.
    Coins, Spanish.  In  Spain, and the  states  depending
 upon it, the gold coin is the pistole; above which arc the
double pistole and piece of four pistoles, and under it the
half pistole; to which must be added the castillansof gold.
The silver  money is the piastre, or piece of eight rials
and its diminutions; as also the simple rial, with its di-
minutions.  The copper coins are the ochavos, or octavos
which are of two kinds: the one equal to only four mara-
vedis, and ordinarily  called  quarta; the  other  double
this,  and called double quarta: and lastly the maravedis.
It must be observed, that in  Spain they have new mo-
ney and old; the old current in Sevil, Cadiz, Andalusia,
&c. is worth 25 per cent, more than the new current at
Madrid, Bilboa, St. Sebastian,  &c. This  difference is
owing to their king Charles II. who, to prevent the ex-
portation of money, raised it 25 per cent, which howev-
ever he was able to effect  only in part, several provinces
still retaining the ancient rate.
   Value and proportion of the Spanish coin.
   Quarta, 4 maravedis
   Octavo, or double quarta, 8 maravedis
   Rial, old piata, equal to                 0  0  6|
   Piece of eight, or piastre               0  4  6
   Pistole                                 0  16  9.3
   Coins,  Portuguese. Those of gold are the mocda
d'oro, or as we call it, moidore, which  is properly their
pistole; above this are doppio moedas or double pistoles,
and quadruple species equal  to five  pistoles.  The silver
coins are the crusada,  pataca, or piece of eight, and vin-
teni,  of which they have two sorts, the one silver and the
other billon. The ree is of copper, which serves them in
 accompts as the maravedis do the Spaniards.
   Res, ree, or  rez, equal to three-fifths  of a farthing
sterling
   Vi ntem. 20 res
    Cruzada, 26 vintems.
                                            I. s.  d.
    Mi-moeda, or half-pistole                 0 13  6
    Moeda  d'oro, or pistole                   17  0
    Doppio mocda, or double pistole           2 14  0
    Ducat of fine gold                        6 15  0
    Besides the above, they have also pieces of gold ofthe
 value of 51. 12s., ll. 16s., and other subdivisions.
    Coins, Dutch.  Those of silver are  crowns or dollars,
 ducatoons, florins, and schellings, each of  which has its
 diminution. The stiver is of billon: the duyt and penny,
 of copper.
                                         I.  s.  d.
    Ducat of Holland                     o   9  3.2
    Ducatoon                             o   5  5.59
    Patagon, or rix dollar                  o   4  4.28
    The three-guilder piece, or sixty stivers 0   5  2.46
    The guider-florin, or twenty stivers    0   1  8.08
    The lion dollar                        o   3  7.07
    The schelling goes for six stivers, and the ortkeis the
 fourth part of a stiver.
    Coins, Flemish. Those of gold are  imperials, rides or
 philips, alberts, and crowns; those ofthe silver are philips,
 rix dollars, patagons, schellings, and guldens; and those
 of copper, patards.
                                          I.  s.  d.
    Groat, 8 patards
    Single stiver                           0  0  l£
    Schelling                              q  n
    Gulden                               0  2  0
n 
COINS.
                                        /.  s.  d.
  Rix dollar, dollar, patagon             0  4  6
  Imperial                              0 11  9
  Coins, German.  Those of gold are ducats, which are
of various kinds, oboli of the Rhine, and florins: of this
last kind there  are some likewise of silver, besides rix
dollars and izelottes, which are all of that metal.
                                          5.  d.
  Ducat ofthe  bishop of Bamberg           9  3.2
  Ducat of Hanover                        9  2.7
  Ducat of Brandenburg                    9  3.2
  Ducatoon of  Cologn                      5  5.02
  Rix dollar or patagon of Cologn           4  4.53
  Rix dollar or patagon of Leige            4  7.48
  Rix dollar of Mentz                      4  7.27
  Rix dollar of Frankfort                   4  6.53
  Rix dollar of the Palatinate of Nuremberg  4  7.55
  Rix dollar of Lunenburg                  4  6.65
  Old rix dollar of Hanover                3  6.03
  Old bank dollar of Hamburgh             4  6.92
  Rix dollar of Luhec                      4  7.54
  Gulden of Hanover                       2  4.14
  Gulden of Zell                           2  3.07
  Gulden of Brandenburg                  2  3.81
  Gulden of Saxony                        2  4.12
  Coins, Italian.  The several states of Italy have seve-
 ral current moneys, though there are some common to all,
 such as the pistole of gold, and the ducatoon and florin
 of silver, which arc of various weights, fineness, Sec. The
 coins peculiar  to Rome are the julios of silver, the pig-
 natelle  of billon,  and  the bayoco,  demi-bayoco,  and
 quadrine, of copper. Venice has its sequins of gold; its
justins, or ducatoons, and dcrlingues, of silver: Naples,
 its carlins:  Genoa its croisats;  Savoy and  Piedmont,
 lys, all silver: the last state has its papiroles and cavales
 of billon.
                  Gold coins of Italy.
                                             s.  d.
   The  sequin of Venice                       9 5.7
   The  old Italian pistole                     16 7.6
   Pistole of Rome, Milan, Venice, Florence,
         Savoy, Genoa                      16 6.7
   Double ducat of Genoa, Venice, and Florence 18 7.7
  Single ducate of the same places             9 3.8
                    Silver coins.
   The  old ducat of Venice                    3 4.50
   The  ducat of Naples                       3 4.43
  The  ducat of Florence  or Leghorn          5 4.62
  Thetarin, or fifth part of the ducat, of Naples   0 8.09
  The  carlin,'or tenth part                   0 4.04
   The  escudi,  or crown, of Rome, or piece of
         ten julios, or one hundred hayocos    5 1
  The  teston of Rome, or  piece of three julios   1 6.32
   The julio of Rome                         0 6.10
  The  croisat of Genoa                      6 6.74
  Justine of Venice                          4 9
   Derelingue,  one -fourth of the Justine          1 2|
   Coins,  Swiss,  are  ratzes  and  blazes  of  billon;  the
 ratzc equal to ^ of a penny sterling: and the blaze of
 Berne, nearly  equal to the ratzc.
  The  German, French,  and Italian coins, are current
liere.
                 Coins, Polish.
                                        s.   d.
The golden ducat                        9   2.1
The old silver dollar of Dantzic           4   6.27
The old rix dollar of Thorn              4   5.85
The rix dollar of Sigismund III. and Ula-
       dislaus IV. kings of Poland        4   6.4
Abra                                    1   0*
Roup                                    0   4|
Groch
Coins, Danish, are,
0	o*
s.	d.
9	3.2
1	11
2	8.2.
1	6
3	0
0	11
0	9
<Vt
  The gold ducat
  The horse
  The four-mark piece
  Marc lubs
  Schesdal, or two marks
  Rix mark
  Slet mark
  Coins, Swedish. Those of copper are the roustique,
alluvre, mark, and money.
                                          s.   d.
  A gold ducat is equal to                  9   3.2
  An eight-mark piece of silver             7   2
  A four-mark piece                       2   7
  A Christine                              1   11
  Caroline                                I   5 \.
  The Swedish  money properly so called, is a kind of
copper, cut into little square pieces, or plates, about the
thickness of three English crowns, and  stamped at the
four corners with the Swedish arms; and current in Swe-
den for a rix dollar, or piece of eight.
  Coins, Muscovite. The proper coins of Muscovy are,
                                          s.   d.
  The copec of gold, worth                  l
  Copec of silver, or denaing               0   1
  Polusk                                   o   0|
  Motofske                                 0   0|
  The ruble of silver, valued at              4   6
  The cheroonitz of gold, called ducat by fo-
         reigners                           9   6
  Coins,  Turkish.  The gold  coins  are  zingerlees,
worth two dollars two-thirds; and tomilees,  worth two
dollars and a half, reckoning each dollar at 108  aspers;
the sultani, xcriff, and  chequeens, each worth about 9s.
4d., 5d., or 6d., sterling.
  The  silver  ones are  the  asper, worth a  trifle more
than a farthing sterling; and the  para, or medin, worth
three aspers.
  Coins of the coast of Barbary. Though the  general
currency  in these parts is  Spanish  dollars,  French
crowns, Hungarian ducats, and the Turkish golden sul-
tanins,  there  are  some  coins struck by the kings or
deys in their different territories.
  At  Morocco, the metacals are a sort of gold ducats
made by the Jews at their pleasure, so  that their stan-
dard is very uncertain.
  There arc also the blanquille of silver,  worth 2|d.; and
the filours of copper, eight of which go to a blanquille.
  At  Algiers, the gold coins are siiltanins and  aspers;
and burbas, of which six go to  an asper. The dubla is
silver, and worth about 4s. 6d. The rubie, median, and 
COINS.
 zian, arc of gold, the first equal to 35 aspers, or Is. 9d.
 and the last 100 aspers.
   At Tunis, they have sultanins of gold, but heavier by
 one-third than those of  Constantinople:  the  nasura of
 silv er, cut nearly square: and dublas  and burbas, of the
 same value with those of Algiers.
   Coins, Persian, arc either of silver or copper: ofthe
 first kind are the
                                            s.   d.
   Abassi, equal to                           1  4\
   Mamoudi                                0  8|
   Shake©                                   0  4\
   The copper coins  are the casbequi, or cabsequi, equal
 lo 5-12ths of a penny sterling. Thetelac, or cherasis, is
 of gold, but it has  no currency among the merchants,
 being only a medal struck by every king of Persia upon
 his accession to the  crown.
   Coins,  Chinese.  Throughout the kingdom of China
 and Tonquin there are not properly any coins struck; in-
 stead of these they cut their gold and silver into little pie-
 ces, of different weights:  those of  gold are  called golt-
 schuts; those of silver the natives call learn, the  Portu-
 guese taels. Besides these they have a small money of lead
 mixed with the scum of copper, having holes in the mid-
 dle to string them on for the ease of numbering; this spe-
 cies is called caxa, cas, and pitis;  and the string, which
 nsually  holds 200, is called santa.  There arc  two sorts
 of goltschuts,  the one of 32 and l-7th ounces, and the
 other but half as much. The tael, or leani, is equal to 6s.
 8cf. sterling. The caxa,  cas, or pitis, is  one-third of a
 fart'sing; 300,000 of them are only  worth about 56 guil-
 ders and 5 stivers of Holland.
   Coins of Japan.  The  Japanese  strike coupants both
 of gold and silver; and copper pieces with  holes in the
 middle, like those of China, six hundred of  which make
 the tael.  The other moneys, which  they cut, like the Chi-
 nese, of different weights, are chiefly three: the largest of
 the weight of six reals, viz. 48 taels, the tael equivalent
 to 75 Dutch stivers; the second equal to 6  and a half,
 and the third to 1 and l-16th.
   Coupant of gold,  wreighs one ounce six drachms; its
 figure is a long oval,  the longest diameter about four
 inches, and the shortest half an inch: worth 6/. 12s. 6u\
   Other  coupants of gold, near  one-third of the former,
 amounting to about 9,1. 4s. 2c/. Coupant of silver current
 at 4s. 6d.
  Copper money, seven-twelfths ofa farthing.
  Coins of Siam.  In the dominions of Siam are  struck
gold pieces five or six grains heavier than the half-pistole
of Spain: but these are rather pieces of curiosity, than of
use in commerce. Their  silver coin is the tical or baat:
the diminutions of which are the mayon or  seling, | of
the tical; the fouang, \ of  the mayon; the page, \ of the
 fouang; and clam, \ of the page; there are also sompays,
 in value f  a fouang. The tical weighs  3 gross and 23
 grains, which, reckoning the ounce of silver at 3| louis
 tournois, is 32 sols  and  4 deniers of that money, as it
 weighs near half an  ounce.
   Coins of the coasts and islands of the Indies. The
 principal, and those most generally current, are pago-
 dos, rupees, larins, lanos or fanoms, and  coupans, each
 of which are struck  both  of gold  and silver.  Besides
 these,  there are also particular  coins:  as at Goa, St.
 Thomases of gold; at Surat, Agra, and the rest of Indos.
 tan, the peeha, or pessa,  and doudus. all of copper-the
 hasarucos and chedas, of  tin.  The gold pagodo is  com-
 mon on all the coasts of Coromandel, and  almost the on-
 ly one in use in the trade carried on there.  The  En°-~
 lish make them at Fort  St.  George, and the Dutch at
 Negapatnam, of the same standard and weight with those
 of the country. The value is 5s. The value of the silver
 pagodo is very different: the smallest are  worth  eieht
 tangas, reckoning the tanga at 90 or 100 hasarucos 8s
   The gold rupee is worth 1/. lis. 6d.
   Silver rupee varies in fineness and value.  There are
 three kinds current, viz.  rupee sicca, worth at Bengal
 2s. Ud.                                         b  '
   Rupee of Madras,  2s. 5\d.
   Rupee of Surat, 2s. 3ci.
   This is to be understood ofthe new rupees; for  as to
 the old ones of each kind,  the value is less; those  of Ma-
 dras are but equal to Is. lid. those of Surat 2s. and the
 siccas 2s. 4c/.
  Larin, in form  of a cylinder, bent into two, and flat-
 ted at each end, worth 9ci.
  Fanoms of gold are of  different fineness, weight, and
 value. The  heaviest are not worth above 5d. or 5irf. and
 the lightest  little more than five farthings.
  The silver fanoms are not worth at  most above 2d.
  St. Thomas, equal to 9s.
  Pecha or pessa of copper, worth about \d.
  Doudou, somewhat less than \d.
  Basaruco, l-5th of a farthing.
  Cheda of pewter is  of  two kinds: the one  octagonal
 current at 1 §e/.
  The other round, at -3:/.
  In the dominions  of the Great Mogul are roupees,
 mamoudas, and pechas; the first, both of gold and silver;
 the second of  silver alone;  and  the  third,  of copper!
 There are others struck by the princes tributary to  him,
 particularly a  silver piece of  the king  of Matoucha,
 worth \d. a silver piece of the king of Ogden, worth 6d. a
 gold piece of the king of  Achein, worth  ll.  3s.  a  gold
 piece  of the king of Macasser, taken for a guilder.  '
  Shells  current for coins are, 1. Cowries, brought from
the Maldives, and pass for ^ of a penny sterling.  The
 natives ofthe coast of Africa call them bougcs.2.  Porce-
laine, in  America, a shell nearly on the same footing
with the  cowrie. 3.  Ziinbi, current particularly in the
kingdoms of Angola and Congo.
  Fruits current for coins are, 1. Cacao,  among the
Americans, fifteen of which are esteemed equivalent to a
 Spanish rial. 2. Maize, which has ceased to he current
 since the discovery of America by the Europeans. 3. Al-
 monds, used in  the East Indies,  where  cowries are not
current. The value of these is higher or lower, according
 as the year is more or less favourable to this fruit; in a
common  year,  an  almond is worth about  l-20th part of
a farthing.
  For real utility the following very short table will an-
swer almost all  practical  purposes with regard to  coins
as far as  relates to Europe:
                             French money. English money.
                               Frs.  Cts. L. s.  d.
  A florin of Germany            2  20    0 110
  A florin of Austria              2  65    0 2  2 
COINAGE.
Rix dollar of Prussia
Dollars of North America
Guinea of England
Rix dollar of Denmark
Piastre of Spain
Lerc of Italy
Scuds of Rome
Du'at  of Naples
Rouble* of Russia
Rix dollar of Sweden
French money. English money.
    4   0    03   4'
    5  40    0 4   6
   25   0    110
    5  70    0 4   9
    5  30    0 4   5
    0  85    0 0   8|
     5  53    0 4   7
    4  30    0 3   7
     4   5    0 3   4
     5  80    0 4  10|
  [Coin's, American, or Federal coin. Those of gold are
the eagle, the half eagle, the quarter eagle; the silver
coins arc the dollar, the half dollar, the quarter dollar,
the clime, and the half dime; the copper, are the cent and
half cent.
       Gold.                      L.  s.  d.
  Eagle, or 10 dollars,              2  5  0  sterling.
  Half eagle, or 5 dollars,           12  6
  Quarter eagle,  or 2 dollars 50 cents,   11  3
       Silver.
  Dollar          100 cts.            4  6
  Half dollar       50                2  3
  Quarter dollar     25                1  1.5
  Dime             10                    5.4
  Half dime         5                    2.7
       Copper.
   Cent and half cent, (a)
   Coin, in architecture, a kind of dye cut diagonally,
after the manner of a flight of a stair-case, serving at
bottom to support columns  in a level, and  at top to cor-
rect the  inclination of an entablature supporting; a vault.
   Coin  is also used foi* a solid angle composed of two
surfaces inclined towards  each other:  whether that an-
gle he exterior, as the coin of a wall, a tree, &e. or  inte-
rior, as the coin ofa chamber or chimney.
   COINAGE, or Coining, the art of making money,
as performed either by the hammer or mill.  Formerly
the fabric of coins was different from what it is at pre-
sent. They cut a  large plate of metal into  several  little
squares, the corners of which were cut off with sheers. Af-
ter ha\ ing shaped these pieces, so as to render them per-
fectly conformable in point of weight to  the  standard
piece, they took each piece  in hand again, to make it ex-
actly round, bv a gentle hammering. This was then call-
ed a planchet. and it was fit for immediate  coining. The
engravers then prepared,  as  they  still do, a couple of
steel masses in form of dyes, cut and terminated by a flat
surf.n e,  rounded off at the edges. They engraved or
stamped on them the hollow of a head, across, a scutche-
on, or any  other figure, according  to the  custom of the
times, with a short legend. As one of these dyes was to
remain  dormant,  and the other moveable, the former
ended in a square prism; that it might he introduced into
the square- hole ofthe block, which, being fixed very fast,
kept the  dye as steady asanv  vice could have done. The
ph'iirhet of metal was horizontally laid upon this interior
mass, to receive the stamp  of it on one  side, and that of
the  upper dve, wherewith it was  covered,  on the other.
This moveable dve. having ils round engraved surface
resting upon the planchet,  bad at  its opposite extremity
a ll.it. square, and  larger surface, upon which they gave
several  heavy blows,  with a hammer  of  an enormous
size, till  the double stamp was sufficiently in relievo,
impressed on each side of the planchet. The strong tem-
pering wbich was and is still given to the two dyes, ren-
dered them capable of bearing those  repeated blow s.
  This art, how ever, has been improved and rendered very
expeditious, by several ingenious machines,  and by a
wise application of  the surest physical experiments to
the methods of fining, dyeing, and  stamping the differ-
ent metals.  The three finest instruments the mint-men
use, are the laminating engine; the machine  for making
the impressions on the edges of coins; and the mill.   Al-
ter they have taken the laminae, or  plates of metal, out
ofthe  mould 'nto which tbey are cast, they  do not beat
them on the anvil as was formerly done, but  make them
pass and repass between the  several rollei-s ofthe lami-
nating engine, which  being gradually brought closer
andcioser to each  other, at last give the lamina its uni-
form and  exact  thickness.  Instead  of  dividing the
lamina into small squares, they at once cut clean out of
it as many planchets as it  can contain, by  means of a
sharp steel trepan, of a roundish figure, hollow within,
and of a  proportionable diameter to shape and cut off
the piece  at one and the same time.   After these plan-
diets  have been prepared  and weighed with  standard
pieces, filed or scraped to get off the superfluous part of
the metal, and then boiled and made  clean,  they arrive
at  last to  the machine (Plate XXXII. fig. 9.), which
marks them upon the edge; and  finally at the mill (fig.
10.), which squeezing each of them singly between two
dyes, brought near each other with  one blow, forces the
two surfaces or fields of the piece to fill exactly all the
vacancies ofthe two engraved figures.
   The principal pieces ofthe machine (fig. 9.) to stamp
coins  on  the  edge,  are two steel lamina, about a line
thick.  One half of the legend, or ofthe ring, is engra-
ven on the thickness of one ofthe lamina, and the  other
half on the thickness of one of the other; and  these two
lamina? are straight, although the planchet marked with
them is  circular.    When  they stamp a planchet, they
first put it between the lamina? in such a manner, as that
these being each of them laid flat upon a copper-plate,
which is fastened upon a very thick wooden table, and
the planchet being likewise laid flat upon the same plate,
the edge ofthe planchet may touch  the two lamina on
each side, and in their thick part.   One of these lamina?
is  immoveable, and fastened with  several  screws; the
other  slides by means of a  dented wheel,  which takes
into the  teeth that  arc on  the  surface of  the lamina.
This sliding lamina makes the planchet turn in such a
manner, that it remains stamped on  the edge, when it has
 m ade one turn. Only crow n and half-crown pieces arc thick
enough to bear the impression of letters on their edge.
   The coining engine or mill (fig. 10.) is so convenient,
that a single man may stamp 20,000 planchets in one day.
Gold, silver, and copper planchets, are all of  them coined
with a mill, to which the coining squares (fig. 11.) common.
ly called  dyes are fastened; that of the face under, in a
square box furnished with male and female screws, to
fix  and  keep it steady, and the other above in a little
box with similar  screws, to fasten  the coining square.
The plane bet  is laid  flat  on the square  of the ctligy,
 which is dormant;  and then they immediately pull the
 bar of the mill hy its cords, which causes the screws set 
C  0 I
COL
within it to turn.   This enters  into  the female screw,
Which is in the body ofthe mill; and turns with so  much
strength, that by pushing the upper square upon that of
the effigy, the planchet, violently pressed between both
squares, receives the impression of both at one pull, and
in the twinkling of an eye.  The planchet thus stamped
and coined, goes through a final examination of the mint
wardens, from whose hands it comes into circulation.
   In the coining of medals,  the process is the same in
effect with that of money; the principal  difference con-
sisting in this: that money, having but a small relievo, re-
ceives  its impression at a single stroke of the engine;
whereas for medals, the height of this relievo makes it
necessary that the stroke be repeated several times: to
this end the piece is taken out from between the dyes,
heated, and returned again; which process, in medallions
and large medals, is repeated fifteen or twenty  times
before the full impression is given: care must be taken
every  time the planchet  is removed, to  take off the su-
perfluous  metal, stretched beyond  the  circumference,
with a file.  Medallions, and medals of  a high relievo,
are usually first cast in sand, on account ofthe difficulty
of stamping them  in the  press, where they are put only
to perfect them; because  the sand does not leave  them
smooth, clear, and accurate enough.
   Coinage, British.   It was  only in the reign of Wil-
liam III. that the hammer-money ceased to be current in
England, where till then it was struck in that manner
as in  other nations.   Before the hammer-specie was
called in, the English money was in a wretched condi-
tion; having been filed  and clipped by natives as well as
foreigners, insomuch that it was scarcely left of half its
value.   The British coinage is now wholly performed in
the Tower of London, where there is an establishment
for it under  the title of the mint.  Formerly there were
here, as there arc still in other countries, the right of
seignorage and brassage: but since the  eighteenth year
of king Charles II. there is nothing taken either for the
king or for the expenses of coining; so that  weight is
returned for weight, to any person who carries his gold
and silver to the Tower.  The specie coined  in  Great
Britain is esteemed contraband, and not to be exported:
but all foreign  specie  may be sent out of the realm, as
weiras gold and silver in bars, ingots, dust, Sec.
    Counterfeiting the king's money, or  bringing  false
money into the realm  counterfeit to the money of  Eng-
 land,  clipping, washing, rounding, filing, impairing, di-
 minishing, falsifying, scaling, lightening, edging, colour-
ing, gilding; making,  mending,  or having in one's pos-
session, any puncheon, counter-puncheon, matrix, stamp,
dye, pattern, mould, edger, or cutting  engine:  all these
 incur the penalty of high treason.  And if any person
 shall counterfeit any such kind of gold or silver, as is  not
 the proper coin ofthe realm, but current therein by  the
 king's consent, he shall be guilty of high treason.
    If any person shall tender in payment any counterfeit
 coin,  he shall for the  first offence be imprisoned  six
 months, for the second offence two years, and for the third
 offence shall be guilty of felony without benefit of clergy.
    Blanching copper or other base metal, or buying or
 selling  the  same; and  receiv ing or paying money at a
 lower rate than  its denomination imports; and also  the
 offence of counterfeiting copper half-pence and farthings;
incur the penalty of felony, but within clergy.  Coun-
terfeiting coin not the proper coin of this realm, nor
permitted to he current therein, is misprison of trea-
son.  A person buying or selling, or having in his pos-
session, clippings or  filings, shall forfeit 500f.  and be
branded in the check writh the letter R.  And any per-
son having in his possession a coining-press, or casting
bars or ingots  of silver in imitation of Spanish bars or
ingots, shall  forfeit 500f.
  A reward of 401. is given for convicting a counterfci-
terof the gold  or silver coin; and 101. for a counterfeiter
ofthe copper coin.  16 Geo. II. and 13 Geo.  III. c. 28
and 77.
  Coining,  in the tin-works, is the weighing and stamp-
ing tbe blocks  of tin with a lion rampant, performed by
the king's officer; the duty for every hundred weight be-
ing four shillings.
  COIX, Job's-tears; a genus of the triandria order, in
the monoecia class of plants; and  in the  natural method
ranking under the 4th order, gramina.  The male flow-
ers grow in spikes remote  from each other; the calyx ia
a biflorous, beardless glume.   The calyx of the female is
a biflorous  glume: the corolla a beardless glume; the
style bipartite; the seed covered  with the calyx ossified.
There are three species, the principal of which, the coix
lacryma,  is a native  of the East Indies, and frequently
cultivated  in  Spain  and  Portugal.   It is an  annual
plant, rising two feet from a fibrous root, with  two or
three jointed stalks, and single, long, narrow leaves at
each joint, resembling those of the reed. At the base of
the leaves come  out  the spikes  of flowers standing on
short  fo'otstalks; the  seeds greatly resemble  those of
gromwell, whence the plant has by some  writers been
called  lithospermum.   It  may  be propagated in this
country by seeds brought from Portugal, and sown on a
hot-bed; after which the young plants should be remov-
ed into a warm border, and planted two feet from each
other.  In Spain and Portugal the poor grind this plant
in times of scarcity, and make a coarse kind of bread of
them.  The  seeds  are inclosed in small capsules about
the bigness of an English pea, and of different colours.
These are strung upon silk, and used instead of bracelets,
by  some ofthe poorer sort in the West Indies, particu-
larly by the  negroes.
   COLARBASIANS, in church-history, Christian he-
retics, in the second century, who maintained  the whole
plenitude and perfection of truth and religion to be con-
tained in the Greek alphabet, and that it was upon this
account that Jesus Christ was called the alpha and ome-
ga: they rejected the  Old Testament; and received only
a part of St. Luke's gospel, and ten of St. Paul's epistles,
in the New.
   COLARIN, in architecture, the little frize  ofthe ca-
pital ofthe Tuscan and Doric columns, placed between
the astragal and the annulets; called also hypotrachelium,
and sometimes cincture.
   COLCHICUM,  meadow-saffron:  a genus of the
trigynia order, in the hexandria class  of plants, and in
the natural • method ranking under the 9th order, spa-
thacea?. The corolla  is sexpartite, with its tube radicat-
ed, or having its root in the grounil; there are three enp-
sules, connected and inflated.   There are three species;
all  bulbous-rooted  perennials, possessing  the singular 
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property of their leaves appearing atone time, and their
[lowers at another; the  former rising long  and narrow
from the root in spring,  and decaying in June; the flow-
ers (which  are inonopetalous, long, tubular, erect, and
six-parted)  rise naked  from the root in autumn, not
more  than four or five  inches.  Their colours afford a
beautiful variety; being purple, variegated purple, white,
red, rose-roloured, yellow, Sec. with  single and  double
flowers.  They are all hardy plants, insomuch that they
will flower though the roots lie out of the ground; but by
this they are much weakened. The root of this plant is poi-
sonous. When young and full of sap, its taste is very acrid;
but when old, mealy and faint.  Two drachms of it kill-
ed  a large dog  in 13 hours, operating violently hy stool,
vomit, and urine.  One grain of it swallowed by aheaVy
man,  produced heats in the  stomach,  and soon after
flushing heats in different parts of the body, with fre-
quent shiverings, followed by colicky pains; after which
an  itching in tbe lions and urinary passage was perceiv-
ed; then came on a continual inclination to  make water,
a tenesmus,  pain in the head, quick pulse, thirst, and
other disagreeable symptoms.   Notwithstanding these
effects, however, an infusion of roots in vinegar, formed
into a  syrup with honey or sugar, proves a safe and
powerful pectoral and diuretic, and is often of service in
dropsies,  Sec.  The virtues of colchicum seem much to
resemble those  of squills.
   Colchicum variegatum, one of the three species above-
mentioned.  Its roots are said to afford the hermodactyle
of the apothecaries.
   COLD.  When caloric combines with our bodies, or
separates from  them, we  experience,  in the first case,
the sensation of heat,  in  the  second cold.  When  the
hand  is put upon  a  hot iron,  part of the caloric leaves
the iron, and enters the hand; this produces the sensation
of heat.   On the contrary, when the hand is put upon
a lump of ice,  the caloric rapidly leaves the hand and
combines  with  the ice;  this produces the  sensation  of
cold.   The sensation of heat  is occasioned by caloric
passing into our bodies; the sensation of cold hy caloric
passing out of our bodies.  Wo say that a hotly is hot
when it communicates caloric to the surrounding bodies;
we call it cold when it absorbs caloric from other bodies.
The strength of the sensations of heat and cold depends
upon the rapidity with which the caloric enters or leaves
our bodies; and this rapidity is proportional to the dif-
ference of the temperature between our bodies and the
hot or  cold substance,  and  the conducting power  of
that substance.   The higher the temperature of a body
in,  the stronger a  sensation of heat does it communi-
cate; and the lower the temperature, the stronger a sen-
sation of cold:  and when  the  temperature  is the same,
the sensations depend upon the conducting power of the
substance.   Thus  what in common  language  is called
cold,  is nothing else than the absence ofthe usual quan-
tity of caloric.  When we say that  a substance is cold,
we mean merely that it contains less caloric than usual,
or  that its temparature  is lower than that of our bodies.
  There has been philosophers, however, who maintain-
ed that cold is produced, not by the abstraction of caloric
merely, but by  the addition of a positive something, of a
pee  uliar body, endowed with specific qualities. According
to them, cold is a substance of a saline nature, very much
resembling nitre, constantly floating in the air, and wafted
about hy the wind  in very minute corpuscles, to which
they gave the name of frigorific particles.   They  were
induced to adopt this hyphothesis, because they could
not otherwise account for the  freezing of water.   Ac-
cording to them, these frigorific particles insinuate them-
selves iike wedges between the molecules of water, de-
stroy their mobility, and  thus convert  water into ice.
Dr. Black, by discovering the cause ofthe freezing of
water, banished the frigorific particles from the regions
of philosophy; because  the advocates for them never
brought any other proof for their existence than the con-
venience with which they accounted for certain  appear-
ances.   Of course, as soon as  these  appearances were
explained without their  use, every reason for supposing
their existence was destroyed.   The only  fact  which
gives any countenance to  the opinion that cold is  a bo-
dy, has been furnished by the following very curious ex-
periments of Mr. Pictet.   Two concave tin  mirrors be-
ing placed at the distance of 10| feet from each  other,
a very delicate air-thermometer was put into one of the fo-
ci, and a glass matrass full of snow into the other. The
thermometer sunk several degrees, and rose again when
the matrass was removed. When nitric acid was poured up-
on the snow (which  increases the cold), the thermometer
sunk five or six degrees lower.   Here cold seems to have
been emitted hy  the snow, and reflected  by  the mirrors
to the thermometer, which could not happen, unless cold
was a substance.   The experiment  is certainly highly
interesting, and  deserving a more accurate examination
than has been hitherto bestowed on it.  In order to ex-
plain it, we must recollect that caloric is constantly ra-
diating from all  bodies.   It is evident that the tempera-
ture of the thermometer, like that of all other bodies, is
maintained partly hy the irradiation of caloric from the
surrounding bodies.  It must therefore, since it is plac-
ed in the focus of one ofthe mirrors, be affected by what-
ever body is placed in the focus ofthe other.   If that bo-
dy  is colder than the surrounding  bodies,  less caloric
will be eradiated  from it, and thrown upon the thermome-
ter; consequently the thermometer will be depressed till
the deficiency is  supplied by some other channel.   Such
nearly is the explanation of this singular fact offered by
Prevost and Dr.  Hutton;  but  it cannot  be  denied that
this explanation, ingenious as  it is, is very far from be-
ing satisfactory.
  A very great degree of cold may be produced by mix-
ing together different solids, which  suddenly become li-
quid.   But as  such  mixtures arc  often employed  in
chemistry,  in order to be able  to expose bodies to the
influence of a low temperature, it will be worth while
to enumerate the different substances which may be em-
ployed for that purpose, and the degree  of cold which
each of them is capable of producing.  The  first person
who made experiments  on freezing mixtures was  Fah-
renheit.  But the subject was much  more completely in-
vestigated  by Mr. Walker, in  a paper published  in the
Philosophical Transactions  for 1795.  Since that time
several curious  additions have been  made by professor
Lowitz, particularly the introduction of muriat of  lime,
which produces a very great degree of cold when mixed
with snow. The  experiments of Lowitz have been lately
repeated and extended by Mr. Walker.   The result of 
COL
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all  these experiments  may be seen in the following ta-
ble.
              Table of freezing mixtures.
         Mixtures.             Thermometer sinks.
                       parts.
Muriat of ammonia       5")
j^tre                    5 I From 50° to 10°
Water                  I6 J
Muriat of ammonia       5~]
Niil'c    ,   .            ? J>From 50 to 4
Sulphat of soda           8 f
Water                  16 J
Nitrat of ammonia       11 From 5Q to 4
Water                   1J
Nitrat of ammonia       1")
Carbonat of soda         1 \ From 50 to 7
Water                   *J
Sulphat of soda          3 j FrQm 5Q tQ 3
Diluted nitric acid        J
Sulphat of soda           6"|
Muriat of ammonia       4 ^From 50 to 10
Nitre                    2 i
Diluted nitric acid        4J
Sulphat of Soda          6
Nitrate of ammonia       5 y From 50 to 14
Diluted nitric acid       4.
Phosphat of soda         9
Diluted nitric acid        4
Phosphat of soda         9
Nitrat of ammonia       6 y From 50 to 21
Diluted nitric acid        4.
Sulphat of soda          8
Muriatic acid            5
Sulphat of soda          5
Diluted sulphuric acid
Snow                    J 1 From 32 to 0
Common salt            * J
Muriat of lime           5 1
Snow                    2 J
Potash                  4 j Fr()m 32 t0__51
Snow                    J J
Snow                    J | From 20 to—60
Diluted sulphuric acid    1 J
Snow or pounded ice     2 j From Q to_g
Common salt            1 J
Snow and diluted nitric acid | From 0 to—46
Muriat of lime           2 j Fpom Q tQ__66
Snow                    J J
Snow or pounded ice     1"^|
Common salt            5 I From_5 to__18
Muriat of ammonia and ni-  f
  tre                    5J
Snow                    2 "l
Diluted sulphuric acid     1 I From—10 to—56
Diluted nitric acid        1J
Snow or pounded ice    12 -\
Common salt            5 (. From—18 to—25
Nitrate of ammonia      5J
Muriat of lime           3 ") ,_       ,   .
Snow                    iJFrom^Oto—S
Diluted sulphuric acid   10 -»
Snow                    8JFl*
| From 50 to 12




| From 50 to 0

| From 50 to 3

 ► From 32 to 0

 • From 32 to—50
rom—68 to—91
  In order to  produce these effects,  the salts employed
must be fresh  chrystallized, and newly reduced to a ve-
ry fine powder.  The vessels in which the freezing mix-
ture is made should be very thin, and just large enough
to hold it, and the materials should be mixed together as
quickly as possible.
  Cold, in medicine,  is found to be productive of in-
flammatory disorders,  as  coughs, pleuresies, pcripneu-
monies, rhumatic pains, consumptions,  &c.  See MEni-
C1NE.
  COLDENIA,  a genus  ofthe tetragynia order, in the
tetrandria  class of plants; and in the natural method
ranking among those of the dubious  order.  The calyx
is tetraphyllous; the corolla funnel-shaped; the styles four;
the nuts  four  with a fungous rind.  There is but one
species, a native of India.  It is an annual plant, whose
brane lies trail  on the ground, extending about six inches
from the root.   They are  adorned with small blue flow-
ers growing in clusters, which come  out from the wings
of the leaves.
  COLEOPTE11A, among  zoologists,  the first order
of insects, comprehending all  those with four wings, the
external pair  of which are hard, rigid, and opake, and
form  a kind  of case  for the  interior pair: add to this,
that the mouth consists of two  transverse jaws.
  According to the Linna?an system, there are about 56
genera in this order, and  in forming them special care is
had to the  antenna?.   They are thus arranged, in Lin-
na?us's general system.
  1. A.  a Club lamellate; scaraba?us, lucanus, syno-
dendron.
  2. b. Club perfoliate; dermestes, melyris, byrrhus, sil-
pha, tritoma,  hydropliilus, tetraloma.
  3. Club  solid or inflated.  Hister, bostrichus, anthre-
nus, nitidula, coccinella, curculio, pausus.
  4. B. Antenna? moniliform; brentus, attelabus, erodius,
staphylinus, zygia,  meloe,  tencbrio, cassida, opatrum,
mordella, chrysomella, horia.
  5. C.  Antenna? filiform; apalus, mantecora, pimclea,
gyrinus, cucujus, cryptocephalus, bruchus, ptinus, hispa,
buprestas,  necydales, lampyris, cantharis, noloxus elater,
calopus, alurnus, carabus lytta.
'  6.  D.  Antenna? setaceous; serropalpus, cerambyx,
septura, rhenomacer, zoniles,  cucindela,  dytiscus, forfi-
cula.
  These animals are known, in English, by the general
name of beetles: whereof authors have  established (as
above) 56  genera, from the different figures of their an-
tenna?, or  horns, and other general distinctions; such are
the scaraba?us, or beetle,  properly so called, the dermes-
tes, and the several other genera as  above noted.
   COLIC, a  severe pain in the  lower venter, so called
because the disorder was  formerly supposed to he seated
in the colon.  See Medicine.
   COLISEUM, or Colisjeum, in ancient architecture,
an oval amphitheatre at Rome, built by Vespasian, where-
in were statues representing all the provinces ofthe em-
pire; in the middle of which stood that of Rome, holding a
golden apple in her hand. This structure was so large, that
it would bold near 100,000 spectators.  When Titus dedi-
cated it, he sacrificed above 4000 beasts of different kinds.
  COLLAR,  in Roman antiquity, a sort of chain put
generally round the  neck  0f slaves that had  run away, 
t  U L
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after they were taken, with an inscription round it, inti-
mating their being deserters, and requiring their being
restored to their proper owners, Slc.
   Collar, in a  modern sense, an ornament consisting
of a chain of gold, enamelled, frequently set w ith cyphers
and other devices, with the badge of the order hanging
at the  bottom; worn by the knights of several military
orders over their shoulders, on the mantle, and its figure
drawn round their armories.  Thus, the collar  of the
order  ofthe garter consists of SS, with  roses enamelled
red, within a garter enamelled blue, and the George at
the bottom.
   Collar of a ship,  a rope fastened about her beak-
head, into which thedead-man's-eye is seized, that holds
her main-stay.  Also the rope which is wound about the
main-mast head, to save the shrouds  from galling, is
also called a collar.   See Dead-man's-eye.
   CoLLAR-fteam,  in  architecture, a beam framed cross
betwixt two principal  rafters.
   Collar of a plough, an iron ring fixed on the middle
of the beam, wherein  are  inserted the tow  and bridle
chains.  See Plough.
   COLLATERAL point, in cosmography, the interme-
diate points of those between the cardinal points.
   Collateral, those relations which proceed from the
same stock, but not in the same ascendants or descen-
dants.   Thus  uncles,  aunts, nephews, nieces, and cou-
sins, are collaterals, or in the same collateral line: those
in a higher degree,  and nearer the  common root, re-
present a kind of paternity with regard to those more re-
mote.
   Collateral, in a  legal sense, is taken  for any thing
that hangs by  the side of another, to which it relates; as
a collateral assurance is that instrument which is made
over and  above the deed itself, for  the  performance of
covenants between man and  man; thus called as being
external, and without the nature and essence of  the co-
venant.
   COLLATION, in  the canon law,  the giving or be-
stowing of a benefice  on a clergyman by a bishop, who
has it  in  bis own  gift or patronage.  This differs from
presentation; the latter being properly the act of a patron,
offering the clerk to the  bishop, to  be instituted  into  a
benefice, whereas  the former is the act of the bishop
himself.   The collator e an never confer  a  benefice on
himself.
   I'ollvtiun, in common law, flic com pii'.\-.ion or pre-
sentation  of a copy with its  original,  to see whether
 m  not  itis conformable; or the report or at of the offi-
cer who made the  comparison.   A collated art is equiva-
lent to its original, provided all the parties  concerned
were present at the collation.
   COLLATIONE/nrtrt itni post mortem alterius, a writ
to the justices ofthe common pleas, cominanclingtbem to
issue their writ  to the- bishop,  for the admitting ot  a
e lerk in the place of another presented by the king; such
other clerk, during the suit between the  king and the
bishop's clerk, being dead.
   COLLEUATORY, in the civil law, a person who has
a  lei^i-'y  left  him ill  common with  one or  more other
persons.  If the thing is bequeathed in solido, the portion
ofthe deceased colh-gatory accrues to the re^t.
  vol.  i.                  74
   COLLEGE, an assemblage of several bodies or so-
cieties, or of several persons into one society.
   College, among the Romans, served indifferently for
those employed in the offices of religion, of government,
the liberal and even mechanical arts, and trades; so that,
with them, the word signified what we  call a corporation
or company.   Each of these colleges had distinct meet-
ing-places or halls;  and likewise,  in imitation of the
state, a treasury and  common chest, a register, and one
to represent  them upon public occasions, and acts of
government.  These colleges had the privilege of manu-
mitting slaves, of being legates, and making by-laws for
their own body, provided they did  not clash with those
of the government.
  There are various colleges on foot among the modems,
founded on the model  of those of the ancients. Such are
the three colleges ofthe empire, viz.
   College of electors,  or  their deputies, assembled in
the diet of Ratisbon.
   College of princes, the body of princes, or their depu-
ties, at the diet of Ratisbon.
   College of cities is, in like manner, the body  of de-
puties which the imperial cities  send  to the diet.   See
Elector, and Diet.
   College of cardinals, or the sacred college, a body
composed ofthe three  orders of cardinals.
   College is also used for a public place endowed with
certain  revenues, where the several branches of learn-
ing are taught.  An assemblage of several of these col-
leges constitutes an university.  In England  the erec-
tion of colleges is part of the royal  prerogative, and not
to be done without the king's licence.  The universityof
Oxford  consists of nineteen colleges and six halls; that
of Cambridge, of twelve colleges and four halls; and that
of Paris, of fifty-four colleges, though, in reality, tliere
are but ten where there is any teaching.
   Colleges in the univei-sities are generally lay corpora-
tions, although the members of the college may be all
ecclesiastical.   2 Salk. 672.  And in the government
thereof, the king's courts cannot interfere, where a visi-
tor is specially appointed.  1 Blacks.  483.
  The two universities, in exclusion of the king's courts,
enjoy the sole jurisdiction over all civil actions find suits,
except where the right of freehold is concerned; and also
in criminal offences or misdemeanors under the degree
of treason, felony, or maim. 3 Black. 83. Their proceed-
ings are in a summary way, according to the practice of
civil law.  Wood,b.4.c.2.  But they have n > jurisdiction,
unless the plaintiff or  defendant  be a scholar or servant
ofthe university, and  resident in it at the time.  An ap-
peal lies from the chancellor's court to the congregation,
thence to the convocation, and thence to the delegates.
   College of civilians, commonly called doctors'-com-
mons, founded by Dr. Harvey, dean  of the arches, for
the professors ofthe  civil law residing  in  tie city of
London.  The judges of the arches, admiralty, and pre-
rogative court,  with  several  other eminent civilians,
commonly reside here.  To this  college belong 34 proc-
tors, who make themselves parties for their clients, man-
age their  causes, give licences for marriages, Kc.
   in the common hall of doctors-commons arc held'se-
veral courts, under the jurisdiction  of the civil luw: par- 
COL
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tieularly the high court of admiralty, the court of dele-
gates, the arches court of Canterbury, and the preroga-
tive court of  Canterbury: whose terms for sitting are
much like those at Westminster, every one of them hold-
ing several court-days; most of them fixed and known
by preceding  holidays, and  the  rest  appointed at the
judge's pleasure.
   College of physicians, a corporation of physicians in
London, whose number, by charter, is not to exceed 80.
The chief of them are called fellows; and the next can-
didates, who fill up the places of fellows as they  become
vacant by death or otherwise.  Next to these  are the
honorary fellows; and lastly the licentiates, that  is, such
a* being found  capable, upon examination, are  allowed
io practise physic.
   This college has several great privileges granted by
charter and acts of parliament.  No man can practise
physic in or within seven miles of London,  without li-
cence of the college, under the penalty of 5l.  Also per-
sons practising physic in other parts  of England, are
to have letters testimonial  from the president and  three
elects, unless  they are graduate physicians of Oxford or
Cambridge.   Every member ofthe college is authoriz-
ed to practise surgery in London or elsewhere; and that
they may be  able at all times to  attend their patients,
they are freed from all  parish offices.  The college is
governed by a president, four censors,  and twelve elec-
tors.   The  censors  have, by charter,  power to  survey,
govern, and arrest, all unlicensed physicians  or others
practising physic in or within seven miles of London; to
fine, amerce, and imprison them at discretion; to search
apothecaries'  shops, Sec. in and about London; to  see if
their drugs, Sec. be wholesome, and the compositions ac-
cording to the form prescribed by  the college in their dis-
pensaries: and to  burn or otherwise destroy those that
are defective or decayed, and not fit for use.   They are
judges of records, and not liable to action for what they
do in their practise hut by judicial process; subject, ne-
vertheless, to  appeal to the college of physicians.  How-
ever,  the college  is not  very rigorous in asserting its
privileges, there being some of very good abilities who
practise in London, &e. without their licence: yet by law,
if any person, not expressly allowed to practise, take
upon him the cure of any disease, and the patient  die un-
der his hand, it is deemed felony in the practiser.
  [A College of physicians w-as formed in Philadelphia in
the year 1787, and incorporated in the year 1789 by the
legislature of Pennsylvania.  The objects of the college,
as stated hy their constitution, are, » to advance  the
science of medicine, and  thereby to lessen human  mise-
ry, by investigating the diseases and remedies  which
are peculiar to this country; by observing the effects of
different seasons, climates and situations upon  the hu-
man body; by recording the changes which arc produc-
ed in diseases, hy the progress of agriculture, arts, po-
pulation and manners; by searching for medicines in the
American woods, waters, and in the bowels of the earth;
by enlarging tbe avenues of knowledge from the discove-
ries and public ations of foreign countries; and by cultivat-
ing order and uniformity in the practice of physic, (a)
  Siou-College,  or the college of the London  clergy,
was formerly a religious house, next a spital or hospital,
and now it is a composition of both, viz.  a coUege for
 the clergy of London, who were incorporated in 1631,
 at the request of Dr. White, under the name ofthe pre-
 sident and fellows of Sion-college; and  an hospital  for
 ten poor men: the first within the gates ofthe house, and
 the latter without.
   This college  consists of a president,  two deans, and
 four assistants,  who arc annually chosen from amougthe
 rectors and vicars  in London, subject to the visitation
 of the bishop.   They have one of the finest libraries in
 England, built and stocked by Mr. Simpson, chiefly for
 the clergy ofthe city, without excluding other students
 on certain terms: they have also a hall with chambers
 for the students, generally filled with the  ministers of
 the neighbouring parishes.
   Gresham College, or College of philosophy, a col-
 lege founded by sir  Thomas  Gresham, who  built  the
 Royal-exchange; a  moiety of  the revenue whereof he
 gave in trust to the mayor and commonalty of London
 and their successors  for  ever, and the  other moiety to
 the company of mercers; the first to find four able per-
 sons  to read in the college divinity, astronomy, music,
 and geometry; and the last three or more able men to
 read rhetoric, civil law, and physic; a lecture upon each
 subject is to be read in term-time, every day except Sun-
 days, in Latin in the forenoon, and the same in  English
 in the afternoon; the lecture on music is to be read alone
 in English.  The lecturers have each 50/. per annum,
 and a lodging in the college.
   College oflieralds, commonly called the heralds' office,
 a corporation founded by charter of  king Richard the
 Third, who granted them several privileges; as to be free
 from  subsidies,  tolls, offices,  Sec.  They had a second
 charter from king Edward the Sixth;  and a house built
 near doctors'-commons by the earl of Derby, in the reign
 of king Henry the Seventh, was given them by the duke
 of Norfolk in  the reign of queen  Mary, which  house is
 now rebuilt.  This  college is  subordinate to  the carl
 marshal of England.   They arc assistants to him in his
 oouvt of chivalry, usually held in the common-hall of the
 college, where they sit in their rich coats  of his majesty's
 arms.
  COLLEGIATE church, a church built  and  endowed
 for a society, or a body corporate of a dean or other pre-
 sident, and secular priests, as canons or  prebendaries in
 the same church.
  [COLLEMA, in botany, a genus of lichenes order in
 the cryptogamia class of plants, (a)
  COLLET, in glass-making, is that part of glass ves-
 sels which sticks to the iron instrument  wherewith the
 metal was taken out of the melting-pot: this is afterwards
 used for making green glass.
  COLL1NSONIA, in botany, a genus ofthe monogynia
 order, in the decandria class of plants, and in the natural
 method ranking  under the 40th  order,  personata?. The
 corolla is unequal, with its under-lip  multifid,  and  the
 segments capillary.  There are  two species, natives  of
North America, but possessed of no remarkable proper-
ties.
  COLLUTHIANS, in church history, a religious sect
which arose in the sixth century, on occasion of the in-
dulgence  shown  to Arius by Alexander, patriarch  of
Alexandria; they held  that God was not the author of the
evils and afflictions of this life, &c. 
COL
COL
   COLLYRIDIANS, in church history, a sect of ancient
 heretics, who paid divine  honours to the Virgin Mary,
 offering her little cakes called collyrida.
   COLLYRIUM. See Pharmacy.
   COLON, in anatomy, the second of  the three large
 intestines.*  See Anatomy.
   Colon, in  grammar, a  point  or character marked
 thus (:), showing the preceding sentence to be perfect or
 entire; only that some remark, farther illustration, or
 other matter connected therewith, is subjoined.
   COLONEL, in military matters, the commander in
 chief of a regiment, whether horse, foot, or dragoons.
   A colonel may lay any officer of his regiment in arrest,
 but must acquaint the general with it; he is not allowed
 a guard,  only  a sentry from the quarter guard.
   COLONNADE, in architecture, a peristyle of a  cir-
 cular figure, or a series of columns disposed in a circle,
 and insulated withinsidc.  Such is that of the little park
 at Versailles, consisting of 32 Ionic columns, all of solid
 marble, and without incrustation.  A polystile colonnade
 is that whose  number of columns is too great to be taken
 in by the eye at a single view.  Such is the colonnade of
 the palace of St. Peter's at Rome, consisting of 284  co-
 lumns of the  Doric order,  each  above  four feet and a
 half diameter, all in Tiburtine marble.
   COLOPHONY.  See Pharmacy.
   COLOSSUS,  a statue of a gigantic or enormous size.
 The most famous of this kind was the colossus of Rhodes,
 made  in honour of Apollo, by  Chares the disciple  of Ly-
 sippus. It was 86 feet high, and its thumb so large that
 few people could embrace  it.  This  statue was  placed
 across the mouth ofthe harbor at  Rhodes, and the ships
 in full sail passed betwixt its legs.
   COLOUR.  See Optics.
   Colock, in painting, is applied  both to the drugs, and
 lo the tints produced by those drugs variously mixed and
 applied.
   We shall in this article give a brief account of the dif-
 ferent pigments or colours which are used either in wa-
 ter or oil for the  purposes of drawing or painting.
   Red. Lakes. This term is used  to denote a species of
 colours formed by  the combination of alumina, or  the
 oxyd of  tin, with the  colouring matters of vegetables.
 The lakes chiefly used are red colours; and these are of
 different qualities, according to the basis and colouring
 matter emploved; such as carmine,  Florence-lake, and
 madder-lake.
   Carmine- is  a very rich bright   crimson  colour, and
 s1 amis well  in  water.  For the preparation of carmine,
 four ounevs of finely pulverized cochineal arc to be pour-
 ed inlo four or six quarts of rain or distilled water, that
 has been  previously boiled in a pewter kettle, and boiled
 with it for the space of six minutes longer. Eight scru-
 ples of Roman alum, in powder,  arc to be then added,
 and the whole kept upon tbe fire one minute longer.  As
 soon as the gross powder has subsided, and the decoction
 has become clear, itis  to be carefully decanted into large
 eyiindrical glasses covered  over,  and kept undisturbed
 till a fine  powder is observed to have  settled at the bot-
tom. The liquor is then to be poured off  from this pow-
der, which is  to be gradually  dried.  From the liquor,
which  is  still much coloured,  the  rest of the colouring
matter may be separated  by means  of  the solution of
 tin, when it yields a carmine little inferior to the for-
 mer.
   Florentine lake is  the kind in general use, known hy
 the name of lake. It is used in water, and also in oil, but
 does not stand; which is much to be lamented, as it is a
 very beautiful colour,  and there  is no  substitute  that
 will completely answer all the purposes of lake.   The
 best sort maybe prepared from the sediment of cochineal
 that remains in the kettle after making carmine, adding
 to it a small quantity of cochineal or Brazil-wood, and
 precipitating the colouring matter  with a solution  of
 tin.
   Madder lake is very little known as a colour.  It is not
 so bright and rich as the last-mentioned lakes, but has
 this valuable advantage; that it stands much  better, and
 may answer many of the purposes of Florence lake.  It
 is prepared  nearly in the same manner as  the forego-
 ing.
   Rose-lake. This  is generally called rose-pink. It is a
 lake made by a basis of chalk, coloured by Brazil or
 Campeachy wood.  It does not stand, and  is only used
 for house-painting and paper-hanging.
   Vermilion, a bright scarlet pigment,  formed from sul-
 phur and quicksilver; when of a coarse  kind, it is call-
 ed  cinnabar. Its goodness  is  known by  its brightness,
 and inclining to a crimson hue. It is  a very useful colour
 in oil,  where it stands very well; but in water it is apt to
 turn black.
   Red-lead, or minium, is lead calcined till it acquires  a
 red colour, hy exposing i*  with a  large  surface to the
 fire. It is also  ma le  from litharge, which  is a calx or
 oxyd of lead; but is not so good as when made directly
 from metallic lead. This colour is very apt to turn black,
 both in water and oil, and is therefore seldom used but
 for very coarse purposes.
  Indian-red is a very useful colour, answering some of
 the purposes of lake: it stands well both in water and
 oil. It is  difficult to procure the  genuine  kind, which
 comes  from the East Indies. What is sold for Indian-red
 is said to  be chiefly made in England.
  Venetian-red, is a native red-ochre, rather inclining to
 the scarlet than the crimson hue; it  is not  far different
 from the common Indian red, but fouler, and  is chiefly
 used by house-painters.
  Spanish-brown is  also an earthy substance, found in
 the same state  in which it is used; it  is nearly of the
 same colour as Venetian-red, hut coarser. It is used only
 for  the commonest purposes. It does not change.
  Light-red, or burnt ochre.   This is common  yellow-
 ochre, heated red-hot  in the  fire, till the colour changes
 from yellow to a red.  It is a very excellent colour, both
 in water and oil; having the quality in common with all
 the  ochres, of standing perfectly well.
  Red-chalk. This is the same substance as is^uscd  for
 drawing on paper, in  the manner ofa crayon. It is very
 much like light-red,  and is used instead  of it for some
purposes.  It stands  perfectly w ell, and may he used  both
in water and oil.
  Burnt terra di Sienna. This colour is made by calcin-
ing raw terra di Sienna till it  acquires a red colour. It
is of a very rich tint, and is much used both in water and
oil.  It stands well in both.
  Blue. Ultramarine is preivn-cd from  lapis  lazuli, by 
COLOURS.
calcining and washing it very clean. When genuine, it is
an extremely bright blue colour, somewhat transparent
both in oil and water, and stands perfectly well.  On these
accounts it is ofthe utmost value, being excellent in eve-
ry kind of painting, even in enamel; but its great price
prevents the general  use of it.
  Ultramarine ashes. This is the residuum, after wash-
ing the lapis lazuli, in which a portion of the ultramarine
still remains.  It is very subject to  be adulterated.  It is
not so bright as ultramarine; being like that colour, with
a tint of red  and white in it.   When genuine it stands
well.
  Prussian-blue. This colour is iron combined with a pe-
 uliar acid, called the prussic acid.  It is made in the fol-
lowing manner:
  Two parts of purified potass are most intimately blend-
ed with three  parts of dried and  finely pulverized bul-
lock's blood. The mass is first calcined in a covered cru-
cible,  and on  a moderate fire,  until no more smoke  or
flame appears; and it is after this brought to a complete
yet moderate ignition: or equal  parts of potass and fine-
ly-powdered  coals, prepared from  bones, horns, claws,
&c. are mingled, and heated in a  covered crucible to a
moderate redness. This done, either of those two calcin-
ed masses is, after cooling, lixiviated w ith boiling water,
and the lixivium filtred.  Nothing remains now but to
make  a solution of one part  of green vitriol and two
parts of alum;  and to add to it  while yet hot the above
lixivium, little  by little  however; and to separate the
greenish-blue precipitate which  then forms, by means of
a filtre.  If afterwards a slight quantity of diluted muri-
atic acid is affused upon this precipitate, it assumes a
beautiful  dark-blue colour. The operation  is terminated
by edulcorating and drying the pigment thus prepared.
Prussian-blue is an extremely beautiful colour when pro-
perly  prepared, and stands well. Common Prussian-blue
is apt to contain some iron,  which  causes  it  to turn
greenish  or olive.
   Verditer is a blue pigment, obtained by adding chalk
or  whitening to the solution of copper in aqua-fortis.
The best sort is prepared by the  refiners; who employ
for this purpose the solution of copper which they obtain
in the process of parting,  by precipitating, silver  from
aqua-fortis by plates of copper.   Common verditer is
made  from the sulphate of copper or blue, by the manu-
facturers in Sheffield and Birmingham. Verditer is only
used for very coarse purposes, chiefly by the paper-stain-
ers. It has been sometimes called  sanders-hlue, from  ig-
norance of the meaning of the term cendres blues, or blue
ashes, which the French call it.
  Indigo. This colour is extracted  from a plant that
grows in the East and West Indies. It is not so bright as
Prussian-blue, but it is  cooler, and has the advantage of
being very durable. It  cannot be dissolved by water,  but
may by the sulphuric  acid; and  it then  forms Scott's
liquid blue, so  much used for colouring silk stockings,
&c.
   Smalt. This  is glass  coloured with cobalt,  and ground
to a fine  powder. Its coarseness prevents its being used
much for painting in oil or water.  It is employed some-
times by strewing it upon a ground of oil-paint.  It is
also used in enamel-painting. It stands well.
  Bice is only smalt more finely levigated.
  Fellow. Indian-yellow.  This is tbe brightest of all vel-
lows for water-colours, and is perfectly durable. It is said
to he procured from the urine of the buffalo.  In the East
Indies it is a very common and cheap colour; the natives
there use it commonly for colouring their calicoes, which
they do without any mordant; so that the colour  is wash-
ed out again when the cloth is dirty.
  King's-yellow. This colour is orpiment  refined; which
is a substance dug out of the earth, and consists of sul-
phur joined  to arsenic; or it may be prepared by sublim-
ing sulphur  with arsenic.  It is of a very  bright yellow
but does not stand well; and great caution should be used
in emyloying it, as it is a strong poison.
  Naples-yellow. This is a very durable and bright v el-
low; it comes from Naples, and is supposed to he  prepar-
ed from lead and antimony.
  Yellow-ochre.  This is an earth  coloured by oxyd of
iron. It is a cheap colour, and not very  bright, but is
valuable on  account of its standing well. Roman-ochrc
is a superior kind of yellow-ochre.
  Dutch-pink. This pigment is formed of chalk, colour-
ed with the juice of French berries, or other vegetables
affording a yellow colour. It does not stand, and is chiefly
used for  common purposes.
  Gamboge is a gum brought from the East Indies.  It
readily dissolves in water,  and is  a fine bright yellow. It
is used only  in water, and is very serviceable.
  Massicot is an oxyd of lead, prepared by calcining
white-lead.  It is very little  used, the colour net being
very bright.
  Gall-stones.  This is a concretion or hard substance,
formed in the gall-bladders of beasts; or it may be ob-
tained from the gall of animals. It is  a very rich colour,
but does not stand.
  Raw terra di Sienna, is a native ocherous earth brought
from Italy.  It is a fine warm colour,  and  stands well.
  Orange-lake is the tinging part of annotto precipitated
together with the earth of alum.  It does not stand.
  Brown-pink is the tinging part of some vegetable sub-
stance precipitated upon the earth of alum.  It is of a fine
rich greenish yellow, but docs not stand.
   Green. There are few colours that are useful as greens;
accordingly, it is the practice  with artists to form their
greens by the mixture of blue and yellow colours. By va-
rying these,  a vast variety of green tints may he obtain-
ed.
   Sap-green is the concreted juice of the  buckthorn ber-
ries.  It is never used in  oil.  It is employed chiefly in
flower-painting and colouring prints, &c.
   Verdigris. If plates of copper, moistened from time to
time with vinegar, are left exposed to the air, they will
be converted into a green oxyd, called verdigris: this is
an imperfect oxyd of copper, combined with a small por-
tion of acetic acid,  carbonic acid, and water. It is pre-
pared in large quantities, chiefly in France near Mont-
pellier, by  stratifying  copper-plates  with  the husks of
grapes yet under vinous fermentation, which soon grow
acid, and  corrode the copper.   After the plates have
stood in this situation for a sufficient time, they are mois-
tened with water, and exposed in heaps to the air. The
verdigris is scraped off from  their surface as it forms. 
COL
COL
Verdigris is of a blueish-green colour, but  has no body,
and does not stand. It is only used for xvry coarse pur-
poses.  It answers best when used in varnishes.
  Distilled verdigris, sometimes called crystals of ver-
digris, is prepared from common verdigris, by dissolving
it in vinegar. It is ofa very bright green; and is used
chiefly for varnishes, and in colouring maps, &c.
  Brown colours. Bistre is the finer part extracted from
the soot of burnt wood. It is much used alone for sketches
in wafer colours, being a transparent warm colour. There
is an excellent sort prepared  in Ireland.
  Cologne-earth is a mineral substance of a blackish
brown colour. It is a very useful colour; though what is
generally sold in the shops for Cologne-earth, is an arti-
ficial mixl ore of several colours.
  Raw -umbre is a native ochreous earth, of a light brown.
It stands well.
  Burnt-umbre is only the last-mentioned colour calcin-
ed in the fire. It then acquires a rich deep brown, and is
of greal use, being a fine colour, and standing perfectly
well.
  Asphaltum is used in oil, and is a very rich deep brown.
It is a transparent or glazing colour.  It will not work in
water; but when dissolved in turpentine, it becomes a
useful  substance for giving deep and spirited touches to
drawings.
  H hite.  Flake-white is an oxyd of lead, formed by cor-
roding lead with vegetable acids or vinegar.
  White-lead is the same colour as  flake-white,  only of
an inferior quality.  It is the only white used«n oil paint-
ing, and is a very useful colour; hut in water it always
turns black,  and should never he used.
  Pure carbonate of  lime  is very useful as a white in
water-colours, as it stands perfectly well.
  Egg-shell  white, and oyster-shell white, arc only egg-
shells  or  oyster-shells calcined,  by which the  animal
gluten  is destroyed, leaving the lime behind, which soon
attracts the carbonic  acid again from the atmosphere.
Well-washed Spanish-white, or common whitening, an-
swers  the same purpose.
  Black.  Lamp-black is the soot of oil, collected after
it is formed by burning.  It is very generally used, both
in oil and water, ami  stands perfectly well.
  Ivory-black is the coal of ivory or bone, formed by gi-
ving them a great  heat, while they are deprived of all
access  of air. It is of a more intense black than lamp-
black.
  Blue-black is the coal from  burning vine-stalks in a
close vessel.  It is like ivorv-black, with a tint  of blue.
  Colour, in dyeing.  See Dyking.
  Colour, in heraldry. The colours  generally used in
heraldry are  red, blue, black, green, and  purple;  which
the  heralds call  gules, azure, sable, vert or sinople, and
purpure; teune or taw in. and sanguine, are not so com-
mon: as to \ el low and white, called  or and argent, they
are metals, not colours.
  Colocr,  in law, some probable plea, though  really
false in itself, and onlv calculated to draw the trial of the
cause  from the jury to the judge;  for which  reason  it
ought to he' matter in  law  or doubtful to the jurors.
  Colour of o^rcr. signifies some unjust action done un-
der countenance of an office, and is opposed to virtute
officii, which  implies a man's  doing a right  and just
thing in the execution of his office.
   CoLorr.s. in the Latin and Greek churches, are used to
distinguish several mysteries and feasts.
   To Colour strangers' goods,  in commerce, is when a
freeman allows a foreigner to enter goods at tbe custom-
house in his name.
   COLOURING, in painting, is the art of applying and
disposing  various colours in such a manner as to he pro-
ductive either of an imitation ofthe natural hues of the
objects represented, of harmonious arrangement of tints,
or of force and brightness of effect. See Painting.
   COLUBER,  a genus of_serpents.  Tbe generic  cha-
racter is, scuta or undivided lamellae under the abdomen,
broad alternate  scales under the tail.  This is by far the
most numerous  of all the Linnsean genera of serpents:
and the species differ greatly in size and habit, according
to their respective tribes; some, as  the  vipers, having
large,  flatfish,  and subcordate   heads, with rather short
than long bodies and tails; while others, as the major part
of the harmless serpents, have, in  general, small heads,
with longer bodies and tails in proportion.  In sonic few
species, exclusive of the usual subcaudal scales, are a few
scuta or undivided lamella, either at the  beginning or
towards the tip of the tail. It is to  he  observed, that in
the  investigation of  this genus the  subcaudal scales,
though alternate, are reckoned by pairs, so that the num-
ber marked under the respective species is  always to be
understood to mean so many pairs. There are ninrty-
seven species:  the following are  the most remarkable.
   1. Coluber  Berus, or  common  viper,  (See Plate
XXXVI. Nat. Hist. fig. 136), which appears to be pret-
ty generally diffused over the whole ancient continent,
and  which is by no means  uncommon in England, has
been known from times of remote  antiquity, though all
the particulars relative to its nature  and manners are
even yet not fully understood.
  The general length of the viper is  about a  foot and
half, or two feet, though some have been seen of much
greater length, measuring near three feet: the fangs are
situated, as in other poisonous serpents, on  each side the
fore part ofthe upper jaw; and are  generally two in num-
ber, with a few smaller ones lying near the principal or
large fangs, as if intended by nature to supply the place
of the former, when lost either by age or accident.
  The viper  has always been considered  as the  most
poisonous  of  the European serpents,  and  innumerable
are the cases recorded by  medical  and other writers  of
the fatality of its bite; yet the instances  seem to he far
less frequent  than generally supposed; and though the
bite of this animal produces a painful and troublesome
swelling, yet it  is rarely of any  other bad  consequence.
No doubt  the cases must differ,  as in the bite of ev cry
other poisonous  serpent, according to the nature of the
part bitten, the  constitution  of the person, the  strength
and vigour of the animal,  the season of the year, <\e.
and if the  bite happens directly  on a vein, it  may  per-
haps be productive of the most alarming symptoms, and
even  sometimes prove fatal: yet  Fontana, even in the
warm climate of Italy, seems  to doubt  whether any
well-attested instance could he adduced in which the vi-
per had killed any person by its bite.  The poison of the 
COLUBER.
viper was in ancient times collected by barbarian nations
as a poison for their arrows; the Scythians, according
to Pliny,  using it for that purpose mixed with human
blood: the  poison of other serpents is used in a similar
manner by savage nations at the present day.
   The most established application for the bite of a vi-
per is the common olive-oil,  thoroughly rubbed on  the
wounded part,  and about a wine-glassful taken internal-
ly: this the viper-catchers use, as  is pretended, with per-
fect success; and all other applications, as volatile alkali,
&c. seem of far less certain efficacy.
   The viper, though so much dreaded on account of its
bite, has been very highly esteemed, both by the ancients
and  moderns, in a medical view,  and used as a restora-
tive  and  strengthening diet. This  idea seems to have
originated from the animal's casting its skin, like other
snakes, and thus  appearing, as it were, in a state of re-
novated youth; and the snakes being made the emblem of
health, and consecrated to iEsculapius, must have de-
pended on the  same idea. "We are indeed of opinion, that
it is possible (could we  overcome our reluctance to it,)
that viper's flesh might prove nutritious  food, but that
to ascribe any  medical virtues to  itis  a vulgar error.
   The viper is viviparous, producing its young towrards
the close of the summer. " On the 4th of August, 1755,"
says Mr.  White, « we surprised a large female viper,
 which seemed very heavy and bloated, as it lay on the
grass, basking in the sun.  When we came to cut it up,
we found that  the  abdomen was  crowded with  young,
fifteen in number; the shortest of which  measured full
seven inches,  and  were about  the  size  of  full grown
 earthworms. This little fry  issued into the world  with
the true viper-spirit about them,  showing great alertness
 as soon as disengaged  from the belly of the  dam: they
 twisted and wriggled about,  and set themselves up, and
 gaped  very wide when touched  \vi'!i a stick,  showing
 manifest tokens  of  menace and defiance;  though as
 jet  they  had  no  manner of fangs that  we could  find,
 even with the help of our glasses." Mr. White, in another
 part of his work, informs  us, that in the month of May
 a female viper was opened,  which  had in it a chain of
 eleven eggs, about the size of those ofa blackbird; but not
 so far advanced as to show the rudiments of the young.
   " Several intelligent persons," adds Mr. White, " as-
 sure me that  they have seen the viper open her  mouth,
 and admit her  helpless young down her throat on sudden
 surprises,-just as the opossum does  her brood  into the
 pouch under her belly  upon the like emergencies;  and
 yet  the London viper-chatchers insist on it to Mr.  Bar-
 rington that no such thing ever happens.
   Sir Thomas Brown, however, seems  inclined to be-
 lieve this circumstance. The young, says he, supposed
 to break through  the belly of the dam,  will upon  any
 fright,  for protection,  run  into it; for  then the old
 one receives them in at her mouth: the fright being past,
 they will return  again, which is a peculiar  way of re-
 fuge, and although it seem strange, it is avowed by fre-
 quent experience and undeniable testimony.
   Tliere is a variety of this specis entirely black.
   2. The cerastes or  horned viper, which  commonly
 grows  to  the  length of about a foot or  fifteen  inches,
 and sometimes to a larger size, is  distinguished bv a pair
 of horns or curved processes, situated above the eyes,
and pointing forwards: these horns have nothing analo-
gous in their structure to the horns of quadrupeds, and
arc by no means to be considered in the light of cither
offensive or defensive weapons: they increase, however,
the natural antipathy so generally felt againt the serpent
tribe, and give the animal a more than ordinary appear-
ance of malignity.  The  cerastes is a native of many
parts of Africa, and is principally found in sandy deserts
and dry places.   Its usual colour is a pale yellowish or
reddish brown, with a few rather large, distant, round,
or transversely oblong spots ofa deeper colour, dispers-
ed along the upper parts of the body, the belly or under
part  being of a  pale  lead-colour. In Syria  and Arabia
the cerastes is particularly frequent, and is also found in
many parts of Egypt, Sec. It bears a very great affinity
to the common viper, and its bite is perhaps still more
to he dreaded; since,  exclusive of the general danger of
treading accidentally on this reptile, and thus irritating
it unawares, it is said to  possess a propensity of spring
ing with great  suddenness to  a considerable distance,
and assailing  without provocation  those  who happen hi
approach it.
   The celebrated Abyssinian traveller, Mr.  Bruce, is of
opinion that this was the aspic employed by Cleopatra
to procure her death. He adds  some  incredible stoiirs
respecting the power of  certain persons in Africa to
charm these and other  serpents so  as to prevent their
biting them. If these narratives have any foundation, the
animals must  in  some way have been previous disarmed
of their fangs, as the cobra de capellois  by the Indian
jugglers.  « *
   3.  Coluber nasicornis, or horn-nose snake, adds to the
number of those malignant reptiles whose bite, in  the
hotter regions of the globe, proves the dreadful forerun-
ner of a speedy and  painful death. If at the first glance
of most ofthe  serpent tribe an involuntary sort of  hor-
ror and alarm is so often felt hy those who are  unaccus-
tomed to the examination of these  animals, how much
greater dread must the unexpected view  of the spec ics
here exhibited be supposed to inflict! when to th" general
form ofthe creature  are superadded the pecu'^.' fierce-
ness  and forbidding  torvity  with  which  nature  has
marked its countenance; distinguished hy the very un-
common appearance of  two large and sharp-pointed
horns,  situated,  not as in the cerastes, above the eyes,
hut on the top of the  nose or anterior part ofthe upper
jaw.  These horns  stand nearly  upright,  hut incline
slightly backwards and  a little outwards on each  side,
and are ofa substance not absolutely horny, but in some
degree  flexible: their shape is somewhat triangular or
three-sided; they are about half an inch in length, and at
the fore-part ofthe base of each stands an upright strong
scale, of nearly  the same  shape with the horn itself, and
thus  giving the appearance of a much smaller pair of
horns. The mouth is furnished with extremely large and
long fangs or tubular teeth, situated as in other poison-
ous serpents,  and capable of inflicting the most severe
wounds: two of  these fangs appear on each side of the
mouth, the hinder pair being  smaller than the others.
The length of this animal is about thirty-five inches. Its
colour is a yellowish  olive-brow n, very thickly  sprink-
led all over with minute  blaekish specks:  along  the
whole length of the back  is placed a scries of yellowish- 
COLUBER.
brown oblong spots or marks, each of which is imVdded
in a patch of black;  and on each side ofthe body, from
head to tail, runs an  ac utely-flexuous or zigzag  line or
narrow band of  an oc hre-co! mr: the horn-nose snake is
supposed to be a native of the interior parts of Africa.
  4.  The coluber naja, or ce>bra de cape!!••■■,  (See Plate
XXXVI. Nat. Hist. fig. 158.) is a native of India, where
it appeals to be one of the nnst common, as  well  as
most noxious,  of the  serpent tribe; very frequently prov-
ing fatal, in the space of a few minutes, to those who un-
fortunately experience  its bite.  Its remarkable form and
colours arc such as to distinguish it with great case from
almost every other snake.  lis general  length  seems to
be three or four  feet, and the diameter of the body about
an inch and a quart'1!-.  It has obtained its Portuguese
title of cobra de capello, or hooded snake, from  the ap-
pearance  which it presents when viewed in  front in an
irritated state, or when preparing to  bite; at which time
it bends the head rather downwards, and seems  hooded
in some  degree by  the expanded skin of the neck.  In
India it  is every where  exhibited  publicly  as  a show,
and is, of course, more universally known in that coun-
try than almost  any other of the race of reptiles.  It is
carried  about  in a covered basket, and so managed  by
its proprietors as to assume,  when exhibited, a kind of
dancing  motion; raising itself up cm its lower part, and
alternately moving its  head and body  from side to side
for some minutes, to the sound of some musical  instru-
ment which is played during the time.  The Indian jug-
glers, who thus exhibit the  animal, first deprive it ofits
fangs, by which means they are secured from the  danger
of its bite.
  Dr. Russel,  in his  account of experiments made in In-
dia with this serpent, observes, that, as a general standard
for a comparison of  the effect  of its bite with that of
other poisonous serpents, he never knew it prove mortal
to a  dog in less than twenty-seven minutes,  and to a
chicken in less than half a minute.  Thus, fatal as it is,
its poison secerns not so  speedy in operation as that of tbe
rattle-snake, which has been known to kill a dog in the
space of two minutes.
   5. The coluber aquaticus, or  water viper, is called in
Carolina the water rattle-snake; not that it has a rattle;
but is a large snake, and coloured  not  much unlike the
rattle-snake, and the bite is said to be as mortal. This
snake  frequents the water, and is  never  seen at any
gre;»1 distance from it: the back an! lead  are brown; the
belly transversely  marked  with black and yellow alter-
nately, as are  the sides  of  the ne k: the neck is sni.Jl,
the head large, and armed with  the like destructive wea-
pons as the rattle-snake: it is very  nimble, and particu-
larly dextrous  in  catching fish. In summer great num-
bers are  seen  lying  on the branches of trees  banging
over rivers, from which at the approach of a boat  they
drop down into the water, and often into the boat on the
men's heads: they lie in this manner to surprise either
birds or fish, after which last they  plunge, and  pursue
Ihem with great swiftness, and cat h some of a large.size,
which they carry  on shore and swallow whole. The tail
is small towards the  end, and terminates in a blunt hor-
ny point about half an inch in length, and which, though
harmless, is considered as of dreadful elficacy by the cre-
dulous vulgar, who briiere that the animal is able, with
this weapon, not r.nly to kill men and other animals, but
even to destroy a tree hy wounding it with it; the tree
withering, turning black, and dying.
  6. Coluber argus, or argus snake. (See Plate XXXVI.
Nat. Hist. fig. 135.) is a large and elegant species,  mea-
surii.g, according to Seba, above five feet in length, and
being of a moderate thickness in proportion: the head is
large, flatfish, covered in front with small scales, and so
vei'v protuberant on each side at the hind part as to ap-
pear  heart-shaped, or rather  bilobate:  the teeth large
and strong: the whole upper surface of the animal is of a
dusky chesnut colour, the scales being small, ovate, and
each marked by a white  speck; while the body is beauti-
fully marked from head  to  tail  by numerous transverse
rows of round read spots; the tail is moderately slender,
tapering to a point, and seemingly measuring about a
fifth ofthe whole length. This snake is, according to Se-
ba, a native  of  Arabia. The  appearance of the head
seems strongly to indicate a poisonous species.
  7. The coluber natrix,  or ringed  snake (See Plate
XXXVI. Nat. Hist. fig. 137.) appears to be pretty gene-
rally  diffused  throughout all parts of Europe,  frequent-
ing woods, moist hedges, and shady places; in colour it
occasionally varies, but is  generally either ofa blueish
grey or pale olive on the upper parts, marked along the
sides by a row of small'transv erse  black  streaks, alter-
nating with some smaller spots of the same colour; and
on each side the .neck is  a black and somewhat semilunar
patch, the horns or tips  pointing forward: this  is bound-
ed in front by  a second patch of a pale yellow or whitish
colour, thus forming a kind of collar  on each  side the
ne; k. This animal is of an innoxious nature,  and may
be tamed to a considerable degree. Mr.  White, in his
History of Selborne, has the following remark on this
subject: " I knew a gentleman who kept a tame snake,
which was in its person as  sweet as any  animal; but as
soon as a stranger, or  a dog or cat, came in, it fell to
hissing, and filled the room  with  such nauseous effluvia
as rendered  it hardly supportable."  The snake chiefly
lives by  preying on frogs, mice,  small  birds, insects,
worms, Sec. It  is  known to frequent the water occasional-
ly,  for the sake  of frogs, Sec.  and is capable  of swim-
ming, though not with any  great degree  of celerity. It
deposits its eggs in  any warm and moist situation,  as
under hedges,  in dunghills,  Sic. in the form of a continu-
ed chain or necklace of ov a, to the number of twelve,  four-
teen, sixteen, or even twenty, of the size of those of  a
blackbird, and of a whitish  colour: these,  according to
the observations of  Mr. White, do  not hatch till'the
spring fed low ing.
  During the  winter the  snake  conceals itself in any
convenient retreat,  and  becomes nearly  torpid, re-ap-
pearing in the spring,  when it casts  its  skin, which
cracking or opening on  the edges of the  lips,  is, bv tiie
efforts of the animal, gradually thrown off, in an invert-
ed direction, throughout its whole length,  to the very
terminal  scale of the tail; and so complete is the spoil or
exuvium, as to exhibit the very coat or membrane of the
eyes themselves:  the whole  skin is entirely transparent.
  8. The coluber atrovirens, or French snake,  is an ani-
mal of a perfectly harmless  nature, and, liketh<> former,
is capable of being tamed to a considerable degree.  The
count jle Cepede relates, from Mr.Bomare,  an anecdote 
COL
COL
relative t» a snake which he supposes to have been of this
species, which had been so completely tamed by a lady,
as to come  to her whenever she  called it.  follow her in
her walks, wreathe itself round  her arms, and sleep in
her bosom. One day, when this lady went in a boat, to
some distance up a large  river, she' threw the snake into
the water,  imagining that it would readily recover  the
boat hy swimming; but  the  current proving unusually
strong, at that juncture, owing to the advance ofthe tide,
the poor animal, in spite of all its efforts to reach the ves-
sel, was unfortunately drowned.
  9. The coluber constrictor, or black snake, is a large
and very long snake: some being six feet hi length: they
are all over of a shining black, never changing their co-
lour; and are very nimble and beneficial in killing rats,
which  they pursue with wonderful agility to the roofs
and all parts of houses and barns, where rats are able to
run, for which service they are preserved by most of the
inhabitants: they are bold and  furious, leaping at and
biting those that  attack  them, though no  harm ensues;
their  bite not being venomous:  it is commonly said in
Carolina that they will attack and swallow rattle-snakes:
it is certain that most  or all  snakes will devour  one
another, not only of their own but of other kinds. They
are the most numerous of all snakes in North America.
  " Many ridiculous frights," says Mr. Pennant, " have
happened  from this innocent reptile.  As every one in
America is full of the dread of the rattle-snake, they are
apt to  fly at the sight  of any of the serpent kind. This
pussues, soon overtakes, and twisting round the legs of
the fugitive, soon brings him to the ground; but he hap-
pily receives no hurt, but what may result from the fright;
all the mischief this species docs is  to the housewives, for
it will skim their milk-pans of the cream, and rob their
hen-roosts  of all the eggs."
   10.  The coluber austriacus, or smooth  snake, is found
in France  and several other parts of Europe,  It inhabits
moist meadows, hedges, watery places, Sec. It is of a fierce
disposition in its wild state,  biting with much eagerness
such animals as happen  to attack it; but is incapable of
producing  any injury, being unprovided with poisonous
fangs, and is easily tamed, in which state it shows a con-
siderable degree of attachment. It occasionally varies
somewhat in colour, the upper  parts having a strong
tinge of  rufous, and the abdomen  of  dusky  brown  or
even blackish,  while the sides have a cast of yellow or
green.
  11. The coluber gemmatus, or bugle snake, is a beau-
tiful species: length about fifteen  or sixteen inches, colour
of  the upper parts blue, with three narrow  equidistant
stripes from head  to tail; the two  lateral stripes  being
white,  the  middle one black, marked by a row of small
white specks alternately  oblong  and round, representing
a small string of beads and bugles: head large-scaled, and
marked on each side hy three or four spots  forming a
band  across the eves,  the top  spotted  with pale blue
marks bordered with black:  the  abdomen is white, each
scutum being marked  at its edge, near the body, with a
small black speck, forming two rows down  the abdomen:
native  country unknown: described by  Cepede from a
specimen in the royal cabinet.
  12. The coluber  myeterizans,  or longsnouted  snake,
is in colour grass-green, with a  yellow line on each side
the abdomen: habit remarkably slender, measuring about
three feet and a half in length, and about half an inch in
diameter: head moderately large, long, and  very sharp.
snouted, the  upper  jaw running far  beyond the lower-
sometimes this species varies in having an additional pair
of yellow abdominal lines, running down the middle of
that part: it is an innoxious snake, though  erroneously
marked as poisonous in the Systema Nature, owm1* to
the fanglike appearance of its  large and long teeth iiAhe
upper jaw. It is a native of many parts of North America
where it is principally seen on trees, moving with great'
velocity in pursuit of insects, on which it is  said  princi-
pally to feed.
   13. The coluber ah abulia, or iridescent snake, is one
of the most beautiful ofthe whole serpent tribe (See Plate
XXXVI. Nat. Hist. fig. 134;)  and in general, easily dis-
tinguished by its blue-green gilded tinge, accompanied by
iridescent hues: its  habit is long and slender, measuring
about three feet and a  half, or four feet, in  length, and
about half or three  quarters of an inch in diameter: the
skin, between the scales, is blackish, and in some parts
gives an additional  beauty to  the general colour: across
the cheeks,  passing  through the eyes, is a jet-black
streak:  the head is covered above with large scales, and
the snout is slightly elongated, but by no means pointed:
the abdomen is pale and  flatfish, as in the  myeterizans
and some others of this  tribe,  and the tail is angular,
thin, and of very considerable length.  This species is
entirely  innocent,  and is a native of several parts  of
India.
   COLUBRINUM lignum,  snake-wood. See  Mate-
ria Medica.
   COLUMBA, in ornithology, the pigeon, a genus be-
longing to the order of passeres. The characters  of this
genus are as follow: the hill is  straight towards the point;
the nostrils are oblong, and half-covered over with a soft
tumid membrane; and the tongue is entire, that is,  not clo-
ven. There are about  70 species,  natives of different
countries. The following are the most remarkable:
   1. Columbia coronata, or great crowned pigeon, a ve-
ry large species, about the size of a turkey. The bill is
black, and two inches long; the irides are red; the head,
neck, breast, belly, sides,  thighs, and under tail-coverts,
cinereous blue; the head  is crested;  the sex of  a deep
ash-colour. This species inhabits the Molucca isles and
New Guinea, and has been brought to England alive.  In
size it far exceeds any of the pigeon  tribe;  hut  its form
and mannersteJl us it can belong to no other. Its note is
cooing and plaintive, like that  of other pigeons, only
louder in proportion. The mournful  notes of these birds
alarmed  the  crew  of  Bougainville  much, when in the
neighbourhood of them,  thinking they were the  cries of
the human species.  In France they  were never observed
to lay eggs, nor in Holland,  though they were kept for
some time.
  2. Columba malaccensis, the Malacca pigeon described
by  Sonnerat, is little larger than the house-sparrow. It in
a most  beautiful species,  and  the flesh is said to be ex-
tremely delicate. It  has been transported into the Isle of
France, where it has multiplied exceedingly.
  3. Columba migratorie, or pigeon of passage,  is about
the size of an English wood-pigeon; the bill black: itis
red; the head of a dusky blue; the breast and  bellv of  a 
COL
COL
 faint  red;  above the shoulder of the wing there is a
 patch of feathers shining like gold; the wing is coloured
 like the head, having some few  spots of black; the tail is
 very  long,  and covered with  a  black feather,  under
 which the rest are white; the legs  and  feet are red. They
 come in prodigious numbers from  the north, to winter in
 Virginia and Carolina.  In these countries they roost
 upon one another's backs in such numbers that they often
 break down the limbs of oaks which support them, and
 leave their  dung some inches thick below the trees.   In
 Virginia Mr. Catesby has seen them fly in such continu-
 ed trains for three days  successively, that they were not
 lost sight of for the least interval of time, but somewhere
 in the air they were seen continuing their flight south-
 ward.   They breed in rocks by the sides of rivers and
 lakes far north of St. Laurence.  They fly to the south
 only in hard winters, and are never known  to return.
   4.  Columba oenas, or the domestic pigeon, and all its
 beautiful varieties, derive their  origin from  one species,
 the stock dove; the English name  implying its being the
 stock  or stem,  whence  the other domestic birds have
 sprung.   These birds,  as  Varro observes, take their
 Latin name, columba, from their  voice or cooing: and,
 had he  known it, he might have added  the  British
 also;  for k'lommen, kylabmano, kulm, and  kolm, sig-
 nify the  same bird.   They were, and still  are, to be
 found  in most parts of England  in a state of nature; but
 probably the Romans first  taught the  Britons  how  to
 construct pigeon-houses, and make birds domestic. The
 characters of the domestic pigeon are these.   It  is of a
 deep blueish  ash-colour; the breast dashed with a fine
 changeable green and purple; it weighs fourteen ounces.
 In the wild state it breeds in holds of rocks and hollows of
 trees; for which reason some style it columba cavernalis,
 in opposition to the ring dove,  which makes  its nest on
 the houghs  of trees.  Nature always  preserves some
 agreement in the manners, characters, and colours, of
 birds reclaimed from the wild  state.   This species of
 pigeon soon takes to build in artificial cavities, and from
 the temptation of a  ready provision becomes easily do-
 mesticated.   Multitudes  of these wild  birds migrate in-
 to the south  of  England; and,  while  the beech-woods
 were suffered to cover large tracts  of ground, they used
 to haunt them in myriads, reaching a mile in length, as
 they went out in the morning  to feed.   They visit Bri-
 tain the  latest of any bird of passage, not appearing till
 November, and  retiring in the spring.  Mr. Pennant
 imagines, that their  summer haunts are in  Sweden, as
 Mr. Eckmark makes their retreat thence coincide with
 their arrival  in  Britain.  Numbers of them, however,
 breed in  cliffs on the coast of Wales, and of the Hebrides.
 The varieties produced from the domestic breed are nu-
 merous, and extremely elegant; they are distinguished by
 names  expressive of their several properties, as tumb-
 lers, carrici-s. jacobines,  croppers, pouters, runts, tur-
 bites, owls, nuns, &c. The most  celebrated of these is
 the carrier.   They are gregarious; lay only two eggs,
 and breed many times in the year.  So  quick is their
 increase, thai the author  of the Economy of Nature ob-
 serves, that in the space of four years 14760 pigeons may
come from a single pair.  The male and female sit, and
also feed  their young, by  turns:  they  cast provision out
  vox.  i.                    75
 of their  craw into the young one's mouth; they drink,
 not by sipping, but  by continued  draughts like  qua-
 drupeds.
    5. Columba palumbus, the ring-dove or wood-pigeon,
 is a native of Europe and Asia.   It is the largest pigeon
 we have, and might be distinguished from all othei-s by
 its size alone.   Its weight  is about twenty ounces; its
 length 18, the breadth 30, inches.  The head, back, and
 covers of the wings, are of a blueish ash-colour: the low-
 er side ofthe neck and breast are of a purplish red, dash-
 ed with ash-colour; on  the hind part  of the neck  is  a
 semicircular line of white; above and beneath that, the
 feathers are glossy,  and of changeable colours.  This
 species forms its nest of a few  dry sticks in the boughs
 of trees. Attempts have been made to domesticate them by
 hatching their eggs under the common pigeon in dove-
 houses; hut as soon as they  could fly, they always took
 to their proper haunts.   In  the beginning of winter .they
 assemble in greatiflocks, and leave off cooing, which they
 begin in March, when they  pair.
   6.  Columba passerina, or the  ground-dove of Caroli-
 na, is about the size of a lark.   The hill is yellow,  and
 black at the end; the iris red; the breast and whole front
 of a changeable purple, with dark purple  spots; the legs
 and feet of a dirty yellow; but the whole bird has such  a
 composition of colours in it, that a very particular  de-
 scription is impossible.  They  fly in great numbers
 together, and  make short flights from  place to place,
 generally lighting on the ground.
   7.  Columba tutur, or turtle-dove, is a native of India.
 The length is twelve inches and a half: its breadth twenty-
 one; the weight four ounces. The irides  are of a  fine
 yellow, and the eye-lids  encompassed with a beautiful
 crimson circle.  The chin and forehead are whitish; the
 top ofthe head ash-coloured, mixed with olive. On each
 side of the neck is a spot of black feathers prettily tipt
 with white: the hack ash-coloured, bordered with olive-
 brown: the scapulars  and coverts of a reddish  brown
 spotted with black: the breast of a  light purplish  red,
 having the verge of each feather yellow; the belly white.
 In the breeding season these birds are found in Bucking-
 hamshire,  and in several parts of the west of England.
 They  are very shy, and breed in thick woods, generally
 of oak; in autumn they  migrate into  other  countries.
 See PI. N. H. fig. 139.
   COLUMN,  in the military art, a long  deep  file of
 troops or baggage.   The first and second lines  of  the
 army as t-;ey are encamped, make generally two columns
 on a march, filing off cither from the right or left: some-
 times the army marches in four, six, or eight columns,
 according as the ground will allow:  and each column is
 led by a general officer.
   Colum.v.  See Architecture.
   COLUMNA.  See Anatomy.
   COLUMNEA, a genus ofthe angiospermia order, in
the didynamia class of plants; and in the natural method
ranking under  the 40th  order,  personatae.  The calvx
is  quinquepartite; the  upper lip  of  the corolla arched
and entire; gibbous above the base; the anthera conver-
ted; the-capsule bilocular.  There are six species, natives
of the  East and AV est Indies.
   COLUItES, in astronomy and geography, two ereat
circles supposed to intersect  each other  at right angles 
COL
COL
in the poles of the world, and to pass through the solsti-
lial and equinoctial points of the  ecliptic.  See Geo-
graphy.
  COLUTEA, bastard-sena: a genus of the decandria
order, in the diadelphia class of plants; and in the natu-
ral method ranking under the 32d order, papilionaceae.
The calyx is quinquefid; the legumen  inflated, opening
at the upper part of the base.  There are  nine species,
deciduous flowering shrubs, adorned with many-lobed
leaves, and butterfly-shaped flowers, of a deep yellow or
red colour.   They are propagated both by  seeds and
layers,  and are hardy enough, though they  sometimes
require a little shelter when the weather is very cold.
  COLYMBUS, diver,  in ornithology, a genus of
anseres.  The bill has no teeth, is subulated, straight,
and sharp-pointed; the teeth  are in the throat; the  nos-
trils are linear, and at the base of the bill;  and the  legs
are  unfit for walking.  This  genus  includes  several
species, viz. the divers, guillemots, and grebes; of which
the following are the most remarkable.
   1. Thegrylle, or black guillemot, is in length fourteen
inches,  in breadth twenty-two; the bill is an inch and an
half long, straight, slender, and black; the inside of the
mouth red; on each wing is a large bed of  white, which
in young birds is  spotted; except those in  which the
whole plumage is black, the legs are red.  These birds
are found on the  Bass isle in Scotland; in  the island of
St. Kilda; and, as Mr. Ray imagines, in the Farn islands
off the coast of Northumberland.   They have also been
seen on the rocks of Llandidno,  in  Caernarvonshire, in
Wales.   Except in breeding-time,  the grylle keeps al-
ways at sea; and is very difficult to be shot, diving at the
flash ofthe pan.  The Welsh call this bird cascanlongur,
or " the sailor's hatred," from a notion that  its appear-
ance forebodes a storm.
   2. The troile, or foolish guillemont, weighs 24 ounces;
its length is 17 inches, the  breadth  27|;  the bill is three
inches long, black, straight, and sharp-pointed; the inside
of the mouth yellow; the feathers on the upper part of
the bill arc short and soft like velvet; from  the eye to the
hind part of the head is a small division of the feathers:
the  rest is of a  deep  mouse colour.   The chief places
they are known to breed in are  the uninhabited  isle of
Priestholm, near the isle of Anglesey;  on a rock called
Godreve, not far from St. Ives in  Cornwall; the Farn
isles, near the coast of Northumberland; and the cliffs
about Scarborough in Yorkshire.  They are also found
in most ofthe northern parts of Europe.
   3. The septentrionalis, or red-throated diver, is more
elegantly shaped than the others. It weighs three pounds.
The length to the end of the tail is two feet;  to the toes
two feet four inches,  the breadth three feet five  inches.
This species breeds in the northern parts of Scotland,
on the borders of the lakes.  It is found also in Russia,
 Siberia, and Kamtschatka; but does not haunt the inland
 lakes. *
   4. The glacialis, or northern diver, is three feet five
 inches in length; the breadth four feet  eight; the bill to
 the corners of the mouth four  inches  long,  black, and
 strongly made.   This species inhabits several parts of
 the north of Europe, but is not  very frequent  on our
 shores, nor ever seen southward except in very severe
 winters.  It is seldom met with on land,  being  for the
most part on the open sea, where it is continually diving
for fish, which it does with great agility, and flies high
and well.  It is common in Iceland and Greenland, where
it breeds, and at that time frequents the fresh waters.
It  is sufficiently plentiful in Norway, and all along the
arctic coasts, as far as the River Ob, in the Russian domin-
ions.  The natives of Greenland use the skinsfor clothing*
and the Indians about  Hudson's-bay  adorn their heads
with circlets of their feathers.  At the last place it is
known by the name of athinue-moqua.  As they are sel-
dom seen on the sea-coasts, but chiefly among the lakes
they are called by the Indians inland loons.
   5. The immer, or ember-goose, is superior in size to
a common goose.  The head is dusky; the back, coverts
of the wings, and tail, clouded with  lighter and  darker
shades of the same.  The under side ofthe neck spotted
with dusky; the breast and belly silvery; the legs black.
They inhabit the seas about the Orkney islands; hut in
severe winters visit the southern parts of Great Britain.
They are found also in Iceland, and most parts of nor-
thern Europe; likewise in Kamtschatka; but not in any
part of Siberia or Russia.  It likewise inhabits Switzer-
land, particularly on the lake of Constance, where it is
known by the name of fluder.  It is said to dive won-
derfully well, and to rise to an  amazing  distance  from
the place where it plunged.   The female makes its nest
among the reeds and flags, and places it in the water; so
that it is continually wet, as in some ofthe grebe genus.
It is difficult to be taken, either on land or swimming on
the water; but is not unfrequently caught under the wa-
ter by a hook baited with a small fish, its usual food.
   6.  The Chinese  diver, supposed  to inhabit  China.
From the various and uncertain accounts of authors, we
are not clear what birds the  Chinese use for catching
fish: the custom, however, of doing it, is manifest, from
the relations of many travellers.  The bird used for this
purpose has a ring fastened round the middle ofthe neck,
in order to prevent its swallowing: besides this it has  a
slender long string fastened to it; and, thus accoutred,
is taken by its master into his fishing-boat, from the edge
of which it is taught to plunge after the fish as they pass
by.
   7.  The cristatus, crested diver, or cargoose, weighs
two  pounds and a  half.  Its length is 21 inches, the
breadth 30; the bill  is two inches and a quarter long,
red at the base,  and black  at the point.   The cheeks
and  throat are surrounded with a long pendant ruff, ofa
bright tawny colour, edged with black; the chin is white;
the  breast  and belly are of a most beautiful silvery-
white, glossy as satin;  the outside of the legs and the
bottom of the feet are dusky; the inside of the  legs and
the toes of a pale green. These birds frequent the meres
of Shropshire and  Cheshire, where they breed; and the
great fen of Linconshire, where they are called gaunts.
   8. The urinator, or tippet-grebe, is thought  by Mr.
Latham not to be a different species from the former,
being only  somewhat less, and  wanting the crest and
ruff. The sides of the neck are striped downwards from
the head with narrow lines of black and white; in other
respects  the colours and marks agree with that bird.
This species has been shot on Bostern-mere in Cheshire.
It is rather scarce  in England, but is common in the
winter time on the lake of Geneva.   They appear there 
COM
COM
in flocks of ten or twelve; and are killed for the sake of
their beautiful skins.   The under side of them, being
dressed with the feathers on, is made into muffs and tip-
pets; each bird sells for about fourteen shillings.
  9. The horned grebe is about the size of a teal; weight,
one pound; length, one foot; brcadlh, sixteen inches. It
inhabits Hudson's-hay; and first appears in May, about
the fresh waters.   It lays from two to four  white eggs
in June, among the aquatic plants; and it is said to cover
them when abroad.   It retires south in autumn;  and  ap-
pears then at New York, staying till spring,  when it re-
turns to the north.  For its vast quickness in diving it
is called the water-witch.  At Hudson's bay,  this bird is
mostly known by the name of seekeep.
  COMA.  See MEniciNE.
  Coma Berenices,  Berenice's hair, in astronomy, a
constellation  of the northern hemisphere, composed of
stars  near the lion's tail.  Sec Astronomy.
  COMARUM, marsh-cinquefoil;  a genus of the poly-
gynia order,  in the icosandria class of plants, and in the
natural method ranking under the 35th order, senticosae.
The calyx is dccemfid; the petals five, less than the calyx;
the receptacle of the seeds ovate, spongy, and persisting.
There is but  one species, a native of  Britain.   It rises
about two feet high, and bears fruit  somewhat like that
of the strawberry.
  COMB, an instrument to dean, untangle, and dress,
flax, wool, hair, Sec.   Combs for wool are prohibited to
be imported into Britain.
  Comb, in a ship, a little piece of timber set under the
lower part of the beakhead, near the middle. It has two
holes in it, and supplies to the fore-tacks what the chest-
trees  do to the maintacks; that is, to bring the foretacks
abroad.
  COMB-MAKING.  Combs are generally made of the
horns of bullocks, or of elephant's and sea-horse's teeth;
some are made of tortoise-shell, and  others of box or
holly-woods.  Bullock's horns are thus prepared in order
to manufacture combs.   The tips are first sawn off; they
are then held in  the flame of a  wood fire: this is called
roasting, by wdiich they become nearly as soft as leather.
While in that state they are slit  open on one side, and
pressed in a machine between two iron plates; they  are
then plunged into a trough of water, from which they
come  out  hard and  flat.  The comb-maker next saws
them  into lengths according to the sized combs he wants.
To cut the teeth,  each piece is fixed in a tool called a
clam.  The teeth are cut with a fine saw, or rather a
pair of saws,  and they  are finished with a file.
  The process used for making  ivory combs is nearly
the same as that already described, except that the ivory
is first sawed  into thin slices.  About eight years ago
Mr. Bundy, of Camdcn-town, obtained a patent for cut-
ting combs by means of machinery.   It  will  be thought
a very singular c ire uinstance, that before this period no
method  was  practised in this country  for cutting  the
teelh  of combs, but that in which a pair of saws, rudely
faslened in a  wooden back, were directed by the human
hand.   With these implements, however, itis, that the
very delicate  superfine ivory combs, containing from 50
to 60 teeth in an inch,  were manufactured.
  By Mr. Bunch's machine the business of comb-mak-
ing is greatly expedited; the teeth of two combs may be
cut in about three minutes.  The combs are afterwards
pointed by applying them to  an arbor or axis clothed
with cutters having chamfered edges and teeth.
  Tortoise-shell combs are very much used,  and there
are methods of staining horn  so  as to imitate tortoise-
shell; of which the following is one: The horn to be dyed
must be first pressed into a flat form, and then spread
over with  a paste made of two parts of quick-lime and
one of litherage, brought into a proper consistence with
soap-ley.  This paste must be put over all the parts of
the horn,  except  such as are proper to be left transpa-
rent, to give it a nearer resemblance to  tortoise-shell.
The horn  must remain in this state till the paste is quite
dry, when it is to be brushed off.  It requires taste and
judgment  to dispose the paste in such a  manner as to
form a variety of transparent  parts, of different  magni-
tudes and figures, to look like nature.   Some parts
should also be semi-transparent; which may be effected
by mixing whiting with a part of the paste,  to weaken
its operation in particular places: by this means spots of
a reddish  brown will be  produced so  as greatly  to in-
crease  the beauty of the work.  Horn  thus dyed  is ma-
nufactured into combs, and these are frequently sold for
real tortoise-shell.
   COMBATANT, in heraldry, a term for two  beasts,
as lions, &c. borne in a coat of arms in a fighting posture,
with their faces to each other.
   COMBINATION,  in chemistry, the union of  bodies
of different natures  from which a new compound body
results.  Thus an acid unites with an alkali, and it is
said there is a combination betwixt these  two salts, be-
cause  from the union  a neutral salt results.   Again,
metals unite with oxygen, and  form a combination ofthe
metallic oxides.  Whether there exists a reciprocal affi-
nity between every species of the particles  of bodies, is a
point which cannot easily be determined, though it is
certainly  very probable  that  there does.   But  as the
particles of bodies are usually found  cohering together
in masses,  it is  evident that no heterogeneous  bodies
can  combine  unless  their affinity for each other  be
stronger than the cohesive force which  unites the re-
spective particles of each.  Now whenever two  bodies
constantly refuse to combine,  in whatever situation we
place them, we say that they  have no affinity for each
other; meaning merely that their affinity is not so great
as to produce combination.  Thus we say that there is
no  affinity  between  oil  and water, because  these  two
liquids refuse to combine together; yet when oil is united
with alkali, and in the state of soap, it dissolves in
water; a proof that tliere does exist an affinity between
water  and  oil, though not strong enough to  produce
combination.  We say also, that tliere is no affinity be-
tween  azote and  lime,  because  azotic gas  cannot be
combined  with  that earth; yet nitric acid  dissolves lime
readily, which shows  us that the refusal of lfonc  and
azotic  gas to combine is  not the consequence of the; want
of an affinity between these two bodies, but of some other
cause.
  We  may present a  body to another with which it is
capable of combining in two different states,  either in-
sulated or already combined with  some other body.
Thus we  may  present lime to nitric acid, cither in the 
COMBINATIONS.
 state of pure lime, or Combined with carbonic acid, and
 consequently in the state of a carbonat.
   In the first case the affinity is opposed by the cohesion,
 and combination does not take place unless that force can
 be overcome. Hence the reason that combination seldom
 succeeds well, unless some one of  the bodies to be com-
 bined is fluid, or is assisted by heat, which  has the pro-
 perty of diminishing the force  of cohesion.  Indeed there
 are not wanting numerous instances of solid bodies com-
 bining together without the assistance of heat; but  they
 are always bodies  which have the property of becoming
 liquid in the act of combination. Thus common salt and
 snow, muriat of lime and snow, Sec. combine rapidly when
 mixed, and are converted into liquids.
   It is to the force of cohesion that the difficulty of dis-
 solving the diamond, the sapphire, and many other natu-
 ral bodies, is to be ascribed, though composed of ingre-
 dients very readily acted on by solvents when their co-
 hesive force is sufficiently diminished. If pure alumina is
 formed into a paste, and  heated sufficiently, it becomes
 so hard that no acid can act upon it; yet its nature is not
 in the least changed.  By proper trituration it may be
 again rendered soluble; and when precipitated from this
 new solution, it has recovered all its original properties.
 The effect of the fire then was merely to increase the co-
 hesion, by separating all the water, and allowing the par-
 ticles to approach nearer each other.
   Even  when the cohesive  force of the particles  to be
 combined is not very great,  it may be still sufficient to
 prevent combination  from taking  place, provided the
 other body  can only approach in a very  small mass.
 Hence the reason that carbonic acid gas, and other elas-
 tic fluids, have  scarcely any action on the greater  num-
 ber of bodies, though they combine with them readily
 when the force of cohesion presents no opposition. Thus
 the  oxygen of the atmosphere does not combine  with
 sulphur in its natural state, though it unites with it readi-
 ly when the sulphur is combined with hydrogen and pot-
 ash, bodies which diminish its cohesion very considerably,
 or when it is converted into its integrant particles by the
 action of  heat.
   In the second case, or when the body presented to be
 combined with  another is already  in combination with
 some other body, it does not altogether leave the old bo-
 dy and combine with the new, but it is divided between
 them in proportion to the mass and the affinity of these
 bodies.  Thus, when lime, already in combination with
 phosphoric acid, is presented to sulphuric acid,  it does
 not altogether leave the  phosphoric to combine with the
 sulphuric  acid; but it divides itself between these  two
 acids, part combining with the one and part with the
other, according to the respective quantities of each of
these acids, and the strength of their affinity  for the lime.
 Chemists  had formerly, in a great measure overlooked
the modification produced on the action of heterogeneous
bodies on  each other by the different proportions of each;
 supposing that  in  all cases a substance A, which has a
stronger affinity for C than B has, is capable of taking
 C altogether from B, provided it be added  in sufficient
 quantity,  how great soever the proportion of B exceeds
 that of A.  Several exceptions, indeed, have been pointed
 out to this general law. Thus Cavendish ascertained,
that lime-water is incapable  of depriving air completely
of carbonic acid.  But Berthollet has demonstrated, that
this pretended law never holds;  that no substance what-
ever is capable of depriving another of the whole of a
third,  with which it  is combined, except in particular
circumstances, however strong its affinity for that third
may be, and in how great a proportion soever it he added.
Thus  no portion of lime whatever is capable of depri-
ving the carbonat of potash of the whole  of  its arid.
Neither does sulphuric acid decompose phosphat of lime
completely, nor ammonia sulphat of alumina, nor potash
sulphat of magnesia.
   In short, it  may  be considered as a general law in
chemistry, that the smaller the  proportion of a body  in
combination with a given  quantity  of another body  is
with the greater energy is  it retained; so that at last the
force of its affinity  becomes stronger than any direct
force that can be applied to separate it.  Hence the im-
possibility of depriving sulphuric acid and several other
bodies completely of water.
  Berthollet has  shown also, that every body, how weak
soever its affinity for another may be, is capable of ab-
stracting part of that other from a third, how strong so-
ever the affinity of that third is, provided it be applied
in sufficient quantity. Thus potash is capable of abstract-
ing part of the acid from sulphat of barytes, from oxat
of lime, phosphat of lime, and carbonat of lime. Soda
and lime abstract part ofthe acid from sulphat of potash,
and nitric acid abstracts part of the base from oxalat of
lime.  Hence it  follows that substances are capable of de-
composing each other reciprocally, provided they be ad-
ded respectively in the proper quantity. Indeed this was
known  formerly  to be the case, though it had not been
considered as a general  law till  Berthollet  drew the at-
tention of chemists to it. Sulphuric acid decomposes ni-
trat of potash altogether by the assistance of heat. The
nitric acid is driven off, and tliere remains behind sul-
phat of potash with an excess of acid. On the other hand,
if nitric acid is poured into sulphat of potash in sufficient
quantity, it takes a part of the  base from the sulphuric
acid. In the same manner phosphoric acid decomposes
muriat of lead,  and muriatic acid on the other hand de-
composes phosphat of lead.
  COMBINATIONS, in law are persons assembled to-
gether  unlawfully, with an  intent  to do unlawful acts;
and these offences are punishable before such acts  are
carried into effect, in order to prevent the consequence
of combinations and conspiracies.  9 Rep. 57.
  Combinations denote the alterations or variations
of any  number of quantities, letters, sounds, or the like,
in all possible ways.
  Father Mersenne gives  the  combinations of all  the
notes and sounds  in music, as far as 64; the sum of wbich
amounts to a number expressed  by 90 places of  figures.
And the number of possible combinations of the 24 letters
of the alphabet, taken first two  by  two, then three  by
three,  and  so  on, according  to  Prestef s calculation
amounts to 1391724288887252999425128493402200.
  Father Trutcbet, in Mem. de l'Acad. shows that two
square pieces, each divided diagonally into two colours,
may be arranged and combined 64 different ways, so as to
form so many different kinds of chequer-work: a thing
that may be of use to masons, paviours, &c. 
COM
COM
   Doctrine of Combinations.
   I.  Having given any number of things, with thenumber
 in each combination; to find the number of combinations.
         1. When only two are combined together.
 One thing admits of no combination.
 Two, a tind b, admit of one only, viz. ab.
 Three, a, b, c, admit of three, viz. ab, ac, be.
 Four admit of six, viz. aft, ac, ad, be, bd, cd.
 Five admit of ten, viz. ab, ac, ad, ae, be, bd, be, cd, ce, de.
   Whence it appears that the number of combinations of
 two-and-two only,  proceed according to the triangular
 numbers 1, 3, 6,10,15,21, &c. which are produced by the
 continual addition  of ordinal series 0, 1, 2,  3, 4, 5, &c.
 And if n be the number of things, then the general formula
 for expressing the sum of all their combinations by twos,

        n.n—  1
 will be-------.
          1.2
                              2.1
   Thus, if n= 2;  this becomes ---- = 1.
                               2
                  3.2
   If  n =  3; it is----   -     -   = 3.
                   2
                  4.3
   If  n = 4; it is----   -     -   = 6, &c.
                   2
        2. When three are combined together;  then
   Three things admit of one order, abc.
   Four admit of four;  viz. abc, abd, acd, bed.
   Five admit often; viz. abc, abd, abe, acd, ace, ade, bed, bee,
 bde, cde. And so on according to the first pyramidal num-
 bers 1,4,10, 20, &c. which are formed by the continual ad-
 dition ofthe former, or triangular numbers 1,3,6, 10,  &c.
 And the general formula for any numbern of combinations,

                 n.n— 1 n—2
 taken by threes, is------------.
                     1 .2.3
                     3.2.1
   So, if n = 3;  itis------= 1.
                     1.2.3
                     4. 3.2
      If n = 4; it  is —i----= 4.
                       6
                     5.4.3
      If n = 5; it  is------= 10, &c.
                       6
   Proceeding thus, it is found  that a general formula for
 any number n of things,  combined by m  at each time, is

    n.n—1  .n—2 .« — 3 &c.
 s  =------------------------continued to m factors,
      1.   2.     3.     4. Sec.
or terms, or till the  last factor in the denominator  be m.
   So, in six things, combined by fours, the number of
               6.5.4.3
combinations is--------=15.
               1.2.3.4
   3.  By adding aO  these  series together, their sum will
 be the whole number of possible combinations of n things
 combined by twos, by threes, by fours, &c.  And as the
 said series are evidently the co-efficients of the power n
 of a binomial, wanting only the first two, 1 and n; there-
 fore the said sum, or whole number of all such combina-
 tions, will be 1 + 1  1—to—l,or22— nl.  Thus if the
 number of things be 5; then 22 — 5 —1=32—6 = 26.
   II.  To find the number of changes and alterations which
 any number of quantities can undergo, when combined in
 all  possible varieties of ways, with themselves and  each
 other, both as the things  themselves, and the order or posi-
 tion of them.
   One thing admits  but of one order or position.
   Two things may be varied four ways; thus, aa, ab, ba,
 bb.
   Three quantities taken by twos, may be varied nine
 wrays; thus aa, ab, ac, ba, ca, bb, be, cb, cc.
   In like manner four things, taken by twos, may be va-
 ried 42 or 16 ways;  and five  things, by twos, 52 or 25
 ways; and, in general,  n things, taken by twos,  may be
 changed or varied to2 different ways.
   For the same reason, when taken by threes, the changes
 will be to3; and when taken by fours, they will he n4; and
 so generally, when taken by tos, the changes will be to".
   Hence then, adding all these together, the whole num-
 ber of changes or combinations in to things, taken both
 by twos, hy threes, by fours,  Sec. to tos, will be the sum
 ofthe geometrical series n-f-n2 -f n3+n* - - - -. nn, which
         to"— 1
 sum is =-----x to.
         to —1
   For example, if the number of things n be 4; this gives
 4< —1      255
 ------X 4 =---x 4 =  340.
 4—1       3
   And if to be 24, the number of letters in the alphabet,
                  2424  — 1          ________   24
 the theorem gives--------x 24  = 2424 — l  x — =
                  24   — 1                     23
 1391724288887252999425128493402200.   In so many
 different ways, therefore, may the 24v letters ofthe al-
 phabet be varied or  combined among themselves, or so
 many different words may be made out of them.
   COMBRETUM,  a genus ofthe class  and  order oc-
 tandria monogynia. The calyx is five-toothed, bell-sha-
 ped, superior corolla  four-petalled,stam. very long, seed
 one, four or five angled, angles membranaceous. There
 are four species, natives of South America and the West
 Indies.
  COMBUSTION.  There is perhaps no phenomenon
 more wonderful in itself, more interesting on account of
its utility, or which has  more closely  occupied  the at-
tention  of chemists than combustion.  When a stone or
a brick is heated, it undergoes no change except an aug-
mentation of temperature; and when  left to itself, it
soon cools again, and becomes as at first. But with com-
bustible bodies the case  is very different.  When heated
to a  certain  degree in the  open air, they suddenly  be-
come much hotter of themselves; continue for a consider-
able time intensely hot, sending out a copious  stream of
caloric and light to the surrounding bodies. This emis-
sion, after a certain  period, begins to diminish,  and at 
COMBUSTION.
last ceases altogether. The combustible has now under-
gone a most complete change; it is converted into a sub-
stance possessing very different properties,  and no lon-
ger capable of combustion. Thus when charcoal is kept
for some time at the  temperature of about 800°, it kin-
dles, becomes intensely hot, and continues to emit light
and caloric for a long time.  When the emission ceases,
the charcoal has all disappeared, except an inconsidera-
ble residuum of ashes; being almost entirely  converted
into  carbonic acid gas, which makes its  escape, unless
the experiment is conducted in proper vessels.   If it is
collected, it is found to exceed greatly in weight the whole
of the charcoal consumed.
   The first attempt to explain combustion was crude and
unsatisfactory.  A certain elementary  body, called fire,
was supposed to exist, possessed of the property of de-
vouring certain other bodies, and  converting them into it-
self.  When  we set fire to a grate full of charcoal,  we
bring, according to this hypothesis, a small portion of the
element of fire, which immediately begins to W.our the
charcoal, and to convert it into fire. Whatever part of the
charcoal is not fit for being the food of fire is left behind
in the form of ashes.
   A  much more ingenious and satisfactory hypothesis
was proposed in 1665 by Dr. Hooke.  According to this
extraordinary man, tliere exists in common air a certain
substance, which is like, if not the very same with,  that
which is fixed in saltpetre. This substance has the pro-
perty of dissolving all combustibles;  but only when their
temperature is considerably raised.  The solution takes
place with such rapidity, that it occasions both  heat and
light, which in his opinion are  mere motions.
   About ten years after the publication of Hooke's  Mi-
crographia, his theory was adopted by Mayow,  without
acknowledgment, in a tract which he published at Oxford
on saltpetre. We are indebted to him for a number of ve-
ry ingenious and important experiments, in which he an-
ticipated several modern  chemical philosophers; but his
reasoning is for the most part absurd, and the additions
which he made to the theory  of  Hooke are exceedingly
extravagant. To the solvent of Hooke he gives the'name
of spiritus nitro-aereus. It consists, he supposes, of very
minute particles, which are constantly at variance with
the  particles of combustibles,  and from  their  quarrels
all the changes of things proceed. Fire consists in the ra-
pid motion of these particles, heat in their less rapid mo-
tion.  The sun  is merely nitro-aerial particles  moving
with  great rapidity.  They fill space.  Their motion be-
comes more languid according to their distance from the
sun;  and when they approach near the earth, they become
pointed, and constitute cold.
   The attention of chemical philosophers was soon drawn
away from the theory of  Hooke and Mayow to  one of a
very  different kind, first proposed by Beccher, but new-
modelled by  his disciple Stahl with so much skill, arran-
ged in such an elegant sytematic form, and furnished with
such numerous appropriate and convincing illustrations,
that it almost instantly caught the fancy,  raised Stahl to
the highest rank among philosophers, and constituted him
the founder of the  Stahlian theory of combustion.
   According to Stahl, all combustible substances contain
m them a certain body, known by the name of phlogiston,
to which  they owe their combustibility.   This substance
is precisely the same in all combustibles.  These bodies of
course owe their diversity to other ingredients which they
contain, and with which the flogiston is combined.  Com-
bustion, and  all its attendant phenomena, depend upon
the separation and dissipation of this principle; and when
it is once separated, the remainder of the body is incom-
bustible.  Phlogiston,  according to Stahl,  is peculiarly
disposed to be affected by a violent whirling motion. The
heat and the light, which make their appearance during
combustion, arc merely two properties of phlogiston when
in this state of violent agitation. Ingenious as this theory
was, it wanted the support of demonstration. The exis-
tence of phlogiston was gratuitously admitted, and every
one was at liberty to attach his  own idea to the term.
The theory accordingly underwent many  changes in the
hands of Macquer, Priestley, Crawford, and Kir van, but
difficulties multiplied in proportion to the progress of dis-
covery in other departments of the science.  The last of
these  philosophers took much pains to prove that hydro-
gen performed the office which the Stahlian theory assign-
ed to phlogiston.  This he attempted in a treatise publish-
ed on purpose, entitled, 'An Essay on Phlogiston, and the
Constitution of Acids.'
   In 1777 the celebrated Swedish  chemist, Scheele, pub-
lished a treatise, entitled, < Chemical Experiments on Air
and Fire,' which perhaps exhibits a more striking display
ofthe extent of his genius than all his other publications.
After  a vast number  of experiments, conducted with as-
tonishing ingenuity, he concluded, that caloric is compo-
sed of a certain quantity  of oxygen combined with phlo-
giston; that radiant heat, a substance which he supposed
capable of being propagated in straight lines like  light,
and not capable of combining with air, is composed of ox-
ygen  united  with a greater quantity of phlogiston, and
light of oxygen united with a still greater quantity. He
supposes too, that the difference between the rays depends
upon  the  quantity of  phlogiston.  The red, according to
him,  contains the least; the violet, the most phlogiston.
By phlogiston Mr. Scheele seems to have meant hydro-
gen. Itis needless therefore to examine his theory, as it is
now known that the combination of hydrogen and oxygen
forms not caloric but water. The whole fabric, therefore,
has fallen to the ground; but the importance of the mate-
rials will  always be admired, and the ruins of the struc-
ture must remain eternal monuments of the genius ofthe
builder.
   During these different modifications  of the Stahlian
theory, the illustrious Lavoisier "was  assiduously occu-
pied  in studying the phenomena of combustion.  He
seems to have attached himself to this subject, and to have
seen the defects of the prevailing theory, as early as 1770.
The first precise notions, however, of whatever  might
be the real nature of combustion, were suggested to him
by Raven's paper on the oxydes of mercury, which  he
heard read before the Academy  of Sciences  in 1774.
These first notions,  or rather conjectures, he pursued
with  unwearied industry, assisted by the numerous dis-
coveries which were  pouring in from all quarters; and
by a long series of the most laborious and accurate ex-
periments and disquisitions ever exhibited in chemistry,
he fully established the existence of  this general law:
«In every case of combustion, oxygen combines with the
burning body." This noble discovery, the fruit of genius, 
COMBUSTION.
industry, and  penetration, has reflected  new light on
every branch of chemistry, has connected and explained
a \ast number of facts formerly insulated  and inexplica-
ble, and has new-modelled the whole, and moulded it into
the form of a science.
  Mr. Lavoisier's explanation of combustion depends up-
on the two laws discovered hy himself  and Dr. Black.
When a combustible body is raised to a  certain tempera-
ture, it begins  to combine with the oxygen of the atmos-
phere, and this oxygen during its combination lets go the
caloric and light with which  it was  combined while in
the gaseous state. Hence their appearance during every
combustion.  Hence also the change which the combusti-
ble undergoes  in consequence of combustion."
  Thus Lavoisier explained combustion without having
recourse to  phlogiston; a principle  merely supposed to
exist, because combustion could not be explained without
it. No chemist had been able  to exhibit phlogiston in a
separate state, or to give any proof of  its existence, ex-
cepting only  its convenience in explaining combustion.
The proof of  its existence consisted entirely in the im-
possibility of explaining combustion without it. Mr. La-
voisier therefore, by giving a  satisfactory explanation of
combustion without having recourse to  phlogiston, prov-
ed that there was no reason for supposing any such prin-
ciple at all to exist.
   But the hypothesis of Mr. Kirwan, who made phlogis-
ton the same with hydrogen,  was not overturned by thi«
explanation, because there could he no doubt that such a
substance as hydrogen actually exists.  But hydrogen, if
it is phlogiston, must constitute a component part of every
combustible, and it must  separate from the combustible
in every case of combustion. These were points accordingly,
which Mr.  Kirwan undertook to prove. If he  failed, or
if the  very contrary of his supposition  holds in fact, his
hypothesis of course falls to the ground.
   Lavoisier and his associates saw at once the important
uses which might  be  made of Mr. Kirwan's  essay. By
refuting an  hypothesis which had been embraced by the
most respectable chemists in  Europe, their cause would
receive an eclat which would make it  irresistible. Accor-
dingly, the  essay was translated into French, and each
ofthe sections  into which it was divided was accompani-
ed by a refutation.  Four of the sections  were refuted  hy
Lavoisier, three by  Berthollet, three by  Fourcroy, two
by Morveau, and one by Mongc;  and, to do the French
chemists justice, there never was a refutation more coin-
jdetc.  Mr. Kirwan himself, with that candour which dis-
tinguishes superior minds, gave up his opinion as unte-
nable, and declared himself a convert to  the  opinion of
Lavoisier.
   Thus Mr. Lavoisier, destroyed the existence of phlo-
giston altogether; and established  a theory of combustion
almost preris<iy similar to that which had been proposed
long ago by Dr. Hooke. The  theory of Hooke is only ex-
pressed in general terms, that of Lavoisier is much  more
particular. The first was an hypothesis or fortunate con-
jecture which the infant state  of the science did not ena-
ble him to verily; whereas Lavoisier was lead to his con-
clusions hy accurate experiments, and a train of ingeni-
ous and masterly deductions.
   According to the theory of Lavoisier,  which is now
almost generally received, and considered by chemists as
a full explanation ofthe phenomena, combustion  consists
in two tilings: first, a decomposition; second, a combina-
tion. The oxygen of the atmosphere being in the state of
gas, is combined with caloric and light.  During combus-
tion this gas is decomposed: its caloric and light escape,
while its  base combines  with the combustible, and forms
the  product. This product is incombustible; because its
base, being already saturated with oxygen, cannot com-
bine with any more. Such is a short historical  detail of
the  improvements which have been gradually introduced
into this interesting part of the science of chemistry. Let
us now take more particular view of the subject.
  By combustion is meant a total change in the nature of
combustible bodies, accompanied by the copious emission
of heat and light. Every theory of combustion must ac-
count for tl    two things; namely, the change which the
body und' fy- ^s, and the emission of heat  and light which
accompanies this change.
  Mr. Lavoisier explained completely the first of these
phenomena, by demonstrating, that in all cases oxygen
combines with the burning body; and that the  substance
which remains behind, after combustion, is the  compound
formed of the combustible body  and  oxygen.  But  he
did not succeed so well in accounting for the heat and the
light which are evolved during combustion. Indeed this
part of the subject was in a great measure overlooked by
him. The combination of oxygen was considered as the
important and essential part of the process.  Hence his
followers considered the  terms oxygenizement and com-
bustion as synonymous; but this was improper,  because
oxygen often unites to bodies without any extrication of
heat or light.  In this way it unites to  azote,  muriatic
acid, and mercury; but the extrication of heat and light is
considered  as essential to combustion in common lan-
guage. The union of oxygen without that extrication is
very different  from its union when accompanied by  it,
both in the phenomena  and in the product; they ought
therefore to be distinguished.
  To account for the emission of heat and  light,  which
constitutes a part of combustion,  Mr.  Lavoisier had re-
course to the theory of Dr. Crawford.  The  heat and the
light were combined with the oxygen gas, and separated
from it when that gas  united to the  combustible body.
But this explanation, though it answers pretty well in
common cases, fails altogether in others. Heat and light
were supposed to be combined with the oxygen of the at-
mosphere, because it is in a  gaseous state; and  to sepa-
rate from  it, because it loses its gaseous state.  But as
violent combustions take place when the oxygen employ-
ed is solid or liquid, as when it  is in the state of a gas.
Thus if nitric acid be poured upon linseed-oil,  or oil of
turpentine, a very  rapid combustion takes  place, and
abundance  of caloric and light is emitted. Here  the oxy-
gen forms a part of the liquid nitric acid, and is already
combined with azote; or, according co the language of the
French chemists, the azote  has  undergone combustion.
Now in this case the oxygen is not only  in a liquid state,
but it has  also undergone the change produced  by com-
bustion.  So that oxygen is capable of  giving  out caloric
and light, not only when liquid,  but even after combus-
tion, which is directly contrary to the theory.
  Farther: gunpowder, when kindled, burns  with great 
COM
COM
rapidity in close vessels, or under an exhausted receiver.
This substance is composed of nitre,  charcoal, and sul-
phur; the two last of which ingredients are combustible;
the first supplies the oxygen, being composed of nitric
acid and potash. Here the oxygen is not only already
combined with azote, but forms a component part of a
solid; yet a great quantity of caloric and light is emitted
during the combustion, and almost the whole product of
the combustion is in the state  of gas. This appears dou-
bly inconsistent with the theory; for the caloric and light
must be supposed to be emitted from  a solid body during
its conversion into gas, which ought to require more ca-
loric and light for its existence in the gaseous state than
the solid itself contained.
  Mr. Brugnatelli, the celebrated professor of chemistry
at Pavia, seems to have  been the first who saw this  ob-
jection in its proper  light.  He has endeavoured to obvi-
ate it in the following manner. According to this very
acute philosopher, the substance commonly called oxy-
gen combines with bodies in two states:  1. Retaining the
greatest part of the caloric and light with which it is
combined when in the state of  gas.  2.  After having let
go  all the caloric and light with which it was combined.
In the first state, he  gives it  the name  of thermoxygen,
in the  second of oxygen. Thermoxygen exists as a com-
ponent part, not only of gaseous bodies, but also of several
liquids and  solids. It is only in those cases where ther-
moxygen is a component part  of liquids  or  solids, that
caloric and  light are emitted.  All metals, according to
him, combine with thermoxygen; those substances, on the
contrary, which by combustion are converted into acids,
combine with oxygen.  This ingenious theory obviates
the objection completely, provided its truth can be  estab-
lished  in a satisfactory manner. But as  the  evidence
for it  rests  almost entirely upon its convenience  in ex-
plaining several difficult points in the phenomena of com-
bustion, we must consider it rather in the  light of an
ingenious conjecture than as  a theory fully established.
   It was long the general opinion of chemists, that light
exists in a fixed state in all combustible  bodies.  The  dis-
coveries of  Lavoisier induced the greater number of them
to give up this opinion,  on the supposition that combus-
tion could be explained in a satisfactory manner without
it.  Indeed the followers of that illustrious philosopher
considered it as incumbent upon them to oppose it with all
their  might,  because the fixed light,  which had been
supposed to constitute a part of combustibles,  had been
unfortunately denominated phlogiston, a term which they
considered  as  incompatible  with truth. The hypothesis,
howrever, occasionally revived; first by Richter and De-
lametheric, and afterwards in a more formal manner by
 Gren. But little attention has been paid  to it in this coun-
try till lately.  The very  curious phenomena observed by
 Mr. Chenevix in his experiments on the hyperoxymuri-
 atic acid, induced him to incline to the same opinion.
   That the light exists combined with the combustible,
 will appear exeedingly probable, if we recollect that the
 quantity which appears during combustion depends al-
 together upon the combustible.  Phosphorus emits avast
 quantity, charcoal a smaller, and hydrogen the smallest
 of all; yet the quantity of  oxygen which combines with
 the combustible during these processes,  is  greatest in
 those  cases where the light is smallest. Besides, the co-
lour of the light depends in all cases upon tbe combusti-
ble that burns; a circumstance which could  scarely be
supposed  to take place, unless the  light was separated
from the combustible. It is well known too,  that when
vegetables are made to grow in the dark, no combusti-
ble substances are formed in them; the presence of light
being absolutely necessary for the  formation  of these
substances. These facts, and several others which might
be enumerated, give a considerable degree of probability
to the opinion that light constitutes a component part of
all combustible substances; but they by no means amount
to a decisive proof.  Nor indeed would it be easy to an-
swer all the  objections which might be started against
this opinion.   At the same time, it  will be allowed that
none of these objections amount to a positive proof of the
falsehood  ofthe hypothesis. It is always a proof of  the
difficulty of an investigation, and  of the little progress
which has been  made in it, when  plausible arguments
can be brought forward on both sides ofthe question.
   Were we to  suppose  that  the  oxygen employed in
combustion contains caloric as  a component part,  while
combustibles  contain light, it would not be difficulty to
explain what takes place  during combustion. The com-
ponent parts  of the oxygen so employed are two; namelv.
1. a base;  2. caloric. The component parts of combusti-
bles are likewise two; namely,  1. a base; 2. light. Dur-
ing combustion  the base of the oxygen combines with
the base of the combustible,  and  forms the  product;
while at the same time the caloric of the oxygen combines
with  the  light of the  combustible,  and the  compound
flies off in the form of fire. Thus combustion is  a double
decomposition;the oxygen and combustible divide them-
selves  each into two portions, which combine in pairs:
the one compound is the  product,  and the other the fire
wiiich escapes.
   COMET, an opake, spherical, and solid body, like  a
planet, performing revolutions about the sun in  elliptical
orbits, which have the sun in one of the foci.  See As-
tronomy, p.  177..
   COMETARIUM, a curious  machine exhibiting  an
idea of the revolution of a comet about the sun. It is
contrived in  such a manner, as by elliptical wheels to
show the  unequal motion of a comet in every part of its
orbit.  See Instruments Astronomical.
   COMETES, a genus of the petandria monogynia
class and order. The involucrum is four-leaved, three-
flowered; calyx four-leaved, caps,  tricoccus.  There is
one species, a native of Suratte.
   COMITUM, in  Roman antiquity, a large hall in the
forum, where the comitia, or  assemblies of the people,
were ordinarily held. This hall was a long time open at
top, for which reason the assemblies were often interrupt-
ed by  bad weather. It was  first covered in the time of
the second Punic  war;  and according to Rosinus,  the
counsuls  and tribunes were not created in the comitium,
but in the Campus Martius.
   COMMA, among grammarians, a point or character
marked thus (,);  serving to denote a short stop, and to
divide the members of a period.
   COMMANDING ground,  in the  military art,  an
eminence overlooking any post or strong place. A com-
 manding ground is of three kinds;  first, a front ground,
 being an height opposite to the face of some post, which 
COM
COM
plays upon its front. Secondly, a reverse ground, being
an eminence that can play upon  the back of any post.
Thirdly, an enfilade commanding ground, or curtin com-
manding ground, being an eminence that with its shot
can scour all the length of astraight line.
  CO MM EX DAM. When a benifice is void, or to pre-
vent its becoming void, it is commended to the charge of
some sufficient clerk, to be supplied till it may be conve-
niently prov ided with a pastor.  When a parson is made
bishop, there is a cession of his benifice by the promotion;
but if the king give him power to  retain his benefice, he
shall continue parson, and is  said to hold it in commen-
dam; but it must be always before consecration, for after-
wards it comes too late, because the benefice is then ab-
solutely void.
   COMMELINA, in botany, a genus  of the triandria
monogynia class of plants, whose  corolla consists of six
petals; the exterior three of  which  are  small, oval, and
concave, ofthe dimensions ofthe perianthium; the three
interior and alternate petals are large, roundish, and co-
loured.  The fruit is a naked, roundish capsule, contain-
ing three cells, and divided by three valves; the  seeds,
being two only, arc angulated.  There are 12 species.
   COMMENSURABLE, among geometricians, an ap-
pellation given to such quantities as  are measured by one
and the same common measure: thus if a line A a be equal
to 8, and a line B  b equal to 4 inches, these two lines will
be commensurable, since the  same common measure 2,
measures them both.
   Commensurable numbers, whether integers or frac-
tions, are such as  can be measured or divided by some
other number, without any remainder.   Such are 12 and
18, as being measured by 6 or 3.
   Commensurable in power, is said of right lines, when
their squares are measured by one and  the same space,
or superficies.
   Commensurable surds, those that being reduced to
their least terms,  becomes true figurative quantities of
their kind, and are therefore  as a rational quantity to a
 rational one.
   COMMERCE, the exchange of commodities for other
 articles, or for some representative of value for  which
 other commodities can be procured.  At first, commerce
consisted merely in exchanging the surplus of some par-
ticular  article of produce which an  individual possessed
beyond what he found necessary for his  own use, for the
similar surplus of some other  article possessed by another
in  ividual, which kind of traffic is now  generally called
barter. By the introduction of metallic and paper money,
the operations of commerce were much facilitated, while
the increase cd'population rendered them of greater mag-
nitude:  improvements in the  art of navigation extended
their boundaries, the advancement of science and increase
of luxury multiplied the objects of trade, and the various
duties and regulations established hy  different govern-
ments rendered the subject more complicated to individ-
uals, but at the same time of  increased importance to the
State.
   The  advantages  of  commerce  began to engage the
attention of mankind at a very early period. About 1300
years after ihe  Flood, the commerce ofthe Phoenicians
had attained It) a considerable extent: they possessed ma-
nufac tiires, entered into commercial partnerships, made
     vol.  i.               76
long voyages, had resident agents in foreign countries.
and had adopted the practice of lending  money on bot-
tomry.
  The Greeks and Romans, particularly the latter, car-
ried  on an extensive trade, considering  the imperfect
state of navigation.  The reign of Augustus was parti-
cularly  favourable to commerce, as the general  peace
which then prevailed enabled the merchants to pursue
their concerns unmolested.  At this period, Malta was
famous for its number of workmen  and its various ma-
nufactures, particularly of fine cloth.  The inhabitants
were the  descendants  of the  ancient Phoenicians, and,
like  thein, pursued  commerce with avidity.  Under Ti-
berius we find the Romans extending their protection to
the north; and the town of Havern, the most ancient in
Friesland, founded.  The cultivation of vines in France,
Spain, and Portugal, seems to have increased about this
time; and from the inhabitants' neglecting  to  cultivate
corn, and turning much of their arable land into vine-
yards, we may presume the latter afforded considerable
profit.  About the year 50, the capital of England was
first described as a place famous for merchants and plenty
of merchandize.
  The establishment of Christianity in the northern parts
of Germany, in consequence of the conquests of Charle-
magne, produced a connection between those parts and
the southern parts of Europe, which naturally led to an
interchange of produce, and gradually introduced foreign
commerce, in the north.  The Germans  had, however,
previously to this period, cultivated a commercial inter-
course with the  neighbouring states; which was  after-
wards much increased by the discovery of valuable mines
in Saxony, and the establishment of some manufactures
in Flanders.
  In the 9th century, the  Venetians carried on a very
beneficial commerce with the Levant; whence they brought
spices, silks, drugs, and fruits  from  the East in great
abundance, and supplied the greater part of Europe with
these commodities.
  The crusades contributed materially to the revival of
commerce during the 12th and 13th centuries,  by intro-
ducing an acquaintance with the luxuries of the East.
which multiplied the objects of foreign trade. About this
time, the commercial towns bordering on the coasts ofthe
Baltic, finding their trade much interrupted by pirates,
entered into an agreement  for mutual support and assis-
tance.  This union,  which became very celebrated under
the title ofthe Hanseatic league, at first consisted of only
twelve towns, but finally of upwards of seventy, including
all the principal  commercial towns of Europe, and em-
bracing nearly all the foreign trade then carried on.
   The invention of the mariner's compass, which ena-
bled trading vessels to make much  longer voyages, and
 led to the discovery of a passage to the  East  Indies by
 the Cape of Good  Hope,  with the settlements made on
 the coast of Africa, in Arabia, and in India, affected ve-
 ry materially the commerce of the Mediterranean and of
 the  Hanse  towns,  and threw the principal part of the
 foreign trade of Eftrope into the hands of the Portuguese.
 The Venetians, however,  still carried on a great trade
 with India by way of Egypt, for spices and other  eastern
 commodities: the Indian goods were first landed at Vile*
 in Arabia, carried across that country  on camels to the 
COMMERCE.
 Red Sea, thence over land to the Nile, down that river
 to Cairo  and Alexandria, and thence transported to Ve-
 nice, whence tbe Venetians circulated them through eve-
 ry part of Europe.
   The Dutch .-, ion began to rival the Portuguese in trade;
 and in a  little time not only dispossessed them of nearly
 the whole, but from their industry and skill in naviga-
 tion, and their attention to the fisheries, acquired an ex-
 tent of foreign trade considerably greater than  had been
 previously possessed by any European power.
   The discovery of America opened  a new and extensive
 field for  commercial adventure, while the establishment
 of manufactures produced new articles of trade.  The
 persecutions of  the Spaniards drove great numbers of
 industrious workmen from the Netherlands into England
 and  otiieir countries,  who introduced several manufac-
 tures into England, and greatly improved others which
 were already established.   While the different branches
 of its  manufactures were thus  improving, its  colonial
 possessions in the  East and West Indies were greatly
 increased, and Great Britain was enabled to  rival the
 Dutch not only in manufactured goods,  but also in all
 the principal articles of colonial produce.  During the
 last century, the trade of Holland has rapidly  declined;
 and since the invasion of that  country by the  French,
 has been almost annihilated; while the decided naval su-
 periority long maintained by Great  Britain, has extend-
 ed and secured its commerce, and raised  it to a magni-
 tude unparalleled in tbe history ofthe world.
   The vast extent to which the commerce  of this country
 has expanded, appears astonishing when  it is Considered
 how great a proportion of the materials ofits manufactures
 are of foreign produce, and the many  duties with which
 the increase of the national expenditure has loaded most
 articles of foreign trade.  The natural advantages aris-
 ing from the situation of this country, its  formidable na-
 vy, and extensive colonial possessions, particularly in the
 East Indies, have favoured and protected  its commercial
 intercourse; while the accumulated capital of individuals
 has gradually  enabled them to  give very considerable
 credit to  their customers, which of late years, while some
 of the principal European powers have  been in a very
 unsettled state, has been of much importance in increas-
 ing the commerce of Great Britain to its present  ex-
 tent.
   In the reign of Edward III. the countries with which
•England had commercial intercourse were chiefly France,
 Spain, Portugal, Lombardy, Flanders,  Brabant, and
 Germany.  The total value of all the commodities ex-
ported in  one year was reckoned at 294,184/., and of all
the imports at only 38,970/., sums that are considerably
less than the value  of the goods now frequently entered
in one day.   The exports consisted of wool of the value
of 277,606/., leather 96/., and  cloths 16,260/.   The im-
ports were, cloths of the value  of 11,083/., wax 815/.,
wine 3841/., linen cloth, mercery, and grocery,  22,943/.
The policy of the times was by no means  calculated to
encourage trade: our merchants were very jealous of
foreignei-s participating in their commercial   profits,
though it was to such persons they were indebted for the
little knowledge of trade they possessed; and the govern-
ment being at times still more jealous in this respect than
individuals, many injudicious restrictive laws were made:
                          2
 among others, an  act  was passed in 1429, prohibiting
 persons from selling merchandize to alien;, except for
 ready money.   It was, however, soon found necessary to
 repeal this prohibition, and permission was then given
 to sell to aliens, upon giving not more than six months
 credit.
   Charles II. imposed a duty of 5 per cent, on goods ex-
 ported as well as imported, on domestic manufactures as
 well as on foreign merchandize, and double taxes on all
 goods when exported by aliens.   In 1672, however the
 duties payable by aliens  on the exportation of British
 manufactures were repealed.  This salutary principle
 was still more extended in 1700, by reinovingtheimposts
 on every kind of woollen goods exported, and  on corn
 meal, and bread.  It was, however, by the law" for the
 further encouragement of manufactures," passed in 1722
 that every one was allowed to export duty-free  all kinds
 of merchandize, the produce of  Great Britain,  except a
 few particular articles; wild drugs, and other commodi-
 ties used for dying, were also permitted to  be imported
 duty-free.  This  period forms a memorable epoch in
 commercial policy; and the subsequent increase of trade
 is  the best proof of the  wisdom of  the regulations then
 adopted.
   The various articles of foreign commerce being sub-
 ject to great fluctuations in their value, a book  of rates
 was adopted at the custom-house in 1696, for the purpose
 of valuing uniformly the several articles imported and
 exported; and consonant to these estimates, the following
 statement shows the total amount ofthe imports and ex-
 ports of Great Britain on an average of four years from
 the above period, and of each five years subsequent.
       Years.         Imports.          Exports.
       1700      L. 4,956,975       L 6,034,724
       1705        4,794,071         6,310,945
       1710        4,321,717         6,713,246
       1715        5,304,343         7,401,946
       1720        6,054,800         8,132,669
       1725        6,628,280         9,663,528
       1730        7,273,342         10,808,213
       1735        7,470,454         11,855,227
       1740        7,270,743         10,822,696
       1745        7,363,079         11,920,982
       1750        7,429,739         12,877,129
       1755        8,264,834         13,406,530
       1760        8,877,145        14,253,377
       1765       10,266,644        15,544,627
       1770       11,910,778        14,138,469
       1775        13,803,842        17,420,309
       1780       11,663,211         13,337,562
   The American war produced a memorable effect on the
 foreign trade of this country.   Previous to that event,
 our manufacturers were not much in the habit of export-
 ing on their own accounts.   The prohibition in  America
 of importation from this country compelled them to seek
 new markets, and to improve those already known; and
 from this date commenced that  rapid increase of export
 to the  continent of Europe, which has chiefly enabled us
 to sustain the burthens  of that war, and of those  in which
 we  have been since engaged.   From the peace  of 1783,
 our manufacturers have almost universally acted as mer-
 chants, and  shipped their goods on their own  account.
They have gained possession ofthe foreign markets, in part 
COMMERCE.
from the superiority of their skill, but far more from the
superiority of their capital,  which has enabled them
to give a credit considerably greater than the exporters
of other countries can allow.  The rapid increase oi our
commerce since that time will appear  by the following
account.
   Years.            Imports.            Exports.
     1784        L 15,272,877        £15,734,062
     1785           16,279,399          15,117,649
     1786           15,786,072          46,300,730
     1787           17,804,014          16,870,114
     1788           18,027,188          17,472,408
     1789           17,821,102          19,340,548
     1790           19,130,886          C0,120,121
     1791           19,669,782          22,731,995
     1792           19,659,358          24,905,200
     1798           19,256,717          20,390,180
     1794           22,288,894          26,748,967
     1795           22,736,889          27,312,338
     1796           23,187,319          30,424,184
     1797           21,013,956          28,917,010
     1798           27,857,889          33,591,777
     1799          26,837,431          35,991,329
    1800          30,570,605          43,152,019
    1881          32,795,557          42,301,701
    1802           31,442,318          46,120,962
     1803           27,992,464          33,792,386
     1804           -       -           37,471,388
   These accounts, formed from rates of value established
 above a hundred years ago, must of course give a very
 inadequate idea ofthe actual total value ofthe commerce
 of this country: the accounts are, however, from the very
 circumstance of being  uniformly made up  at the same
 rates, the more correct in a comparative view, and show
 a  progressive increase, which  has arrived to an amount
 never before known in the commerce of any nation. Dur-
 ing the last twenty  years it appears that the  amount of
 the imports has more than  doubled, and  the amount of
 the exports  has increased in a still greater proportion.
 The declared value of British produce and manufactures
 exported during the year ending 5th January  1804, was
 40.100,642/.; the amount of foreign merchandize export-
 ed in the  latter year was Rafter correcting the value of
 coffee, which is rated too  high) 10,515,574/.; the actual
 total value of the exports of Great  Britain, in the year
 ending the 5th  January 1805,  was therefore at least 50,
 865,2*1 6/.
   Of the total exports of Great Britain, about two-thirds
 of the corrected official value consists of British produce
 and manufactures, and  one-third e»f foreign merchandize;
 of the former little  more than  one-fourth  is exported to
 the continent of Europe, about the same  amount to  the
 Cni.ed States of America, and  the remainder to tbe East
 and  West Indies, and  all other parts.  The  following
 statement of the exports of the year 1800 will show the
 proportions of the commerce of Great Britain with differ-
ent parts ofthe world; and the  accounts that succeed fur-
nish  some particulars of all the principal branches.
                                        L.
To Ireland     ...     -      3,741,499
   Russia       ....      1,025,335
  Denmark     -     -     .             540,698
  Prussia      -                      794,452
s.	d.
19	4
4	0
0	9
8	6
			L. s.	d.
To Germany	-	-	12,664,591 6	5
Holland	-	-	3,208,613 9	11
Flanders	-	-	808,826 13	5
France	-	-	1,325,419 13	3
Portugal	-	-	1,011,893 6	4
Italy	-		568,732 6	11
British West Indies		-	3,416,972 9	6
United States of America			6,885,508 2	9
British America	-	-	975,989 13	1
Asia	-	-	2,835,063 6	9
Africa -	-	-	1,017,365 11	5
All other parts	.	-	2,331,057 13	2
Total			- 7*43,152,019 5	6
In
1710
1720
1730
1740
1750
1760
1770
   In the commercial intercourse between Great Britain
 and Ireland, a very unjust and oppressive species of po-
 licy was long exercised, by which the latter country was
 debarred from the enjoyment and use of its own resour-
 ces, to make it entirely subservient to the  interests and
 opulence of the  former.   It was not suffered to share in
 the bounties of nature or the industry of its citizens, but
 was shut out from every species of  commerce  and re-
 strained from sending the produce of its soil to foreign
 markets.   Under such circumstances it cannot he suppo-
 sed that its commerce even with the country that mono-
 polized it, could be very great; its amount was as follows:
                      Imports.           Exports.
                     L 310,846         L 285,424
                       282,812            328,583
                       294,156            552,698
                       390,565           628,288
                       612,808          1,316,600
                       904,180          1,050,401
                      1,214,398          2,125,466
   At an early period in the last century, some little re-
laxation of the restrictive system had taken  place, and
something more  had been done in the reign of George IL;
but it is only  since the year  1780 that the system has
been completely  done away, and Ireland has enjoyed the
natural  right of  exporting its produce to such places as
offer  the best market.  The want  of sufficient  capital
among its manufacturers, and the defective state of culti-
vation, will  however long retard the advancement of Ire-
land to that degree of commercial importance of which it
is capable.  In the mean time  a considerable proportion
ofits  imports will continue to consist of the manufactures
of Britain.
Value of British  manufactures  exported  from  Great
                  Britain to Ireland.
                                     L.
                                  1,470,972
                                  1,511,844
                                  1,055,276
                                  1,281,316
                                  1,612,270
                                  1,781,789
  But though  Ireland receives a considerable amount of
foreign merchandize  as well as manufactured goods from
Great Britain, the balance  >t the commercial trau-ac ions
between the two countries is certainly considerably in
In 1791
   1792
   1793
   1794
   1795
   1796
s.	d.
7	8
5	9
6	2
15	5
5	0
5	6
 
COMMERCE.
favour of the former, owing principally to the increased
importations by Great Britain of Irish  linens,  which
has amounted of late to upwards of 36,600,000 yards an-
nually. But this unfavourable balance of trade with re-
spect to Great Britain is probably counteracted by other
circumstances.  The total value ofthe imports of Ireland
from all parts was, in the year ending 5th January 1805,
5,718,945/. and the total value of exports, 5,063,073; the
latter  consisted of   Irish  produce and  manufactures
4,902,915/., and of British and foreign articles 160,158.
The total number of vessels which entered inwards was
8019, of which number 7055  were from Great Britain;
the total  number that cleared outwards was 6624, of
which number 5808  were to Great Britain.
   The trade with Russia is carried on chiefly from the
ports  of London,  Hull,  Liverpool, Newcastle, Bristol,
Leith, Dundee, and Grangemouth.  The principal arti-
cles of import  are  iron, hemp, flax, tallow,  pot-ashes,
coarse linens, deals  and  lath-wood, hog's bristles,  Sec.
The exports consist  of broad-cloth and woollen stuffs,
refined sugar,  cotton, lead,  tin,  iron and  steel ware,
earthenware and glass, alum, salt, coals, horses, Lon-
don porter, and various articles of less importance.
        Total amount of imports from Russia.
              England.       Scotland.       Total.
   1800     L. 1,990,295     L. 391,803     £.2,382,098
   1801       2,001,663       245,214       2,246,877
   1802       1,834,265       347,864       2,182,430
        Exports from Great  Britain to Russia.
              British        Foreign
          Manufactures.   Merchandize.     Total.
 In 1800     £ 557,374    £ 467,961     1,1,025,335
    1801        594,617       325,126        919,843
    1802       834,412       541,987       1,376,399
   The trade with this country is highly beneficial to
Russia, as it is from Great Britain only that it receives
a large balance in cash,  which enables it to import the
wines of France, Spain, and Portugal, brandy, oil, indi-
go, and many other articles of foreign produce.  The to-
tal number of vessels that entered inwards  from Russia
in the year 1804 was 859, of which 830 were British ships:
the total number that cleared out for Russia was  661, of
which 558 were British.
   The exports to Denmark and Norway consist chiefly
of West India produce, and other foreign merchandize:
of the imports, timber and corn are the most considera-
ble.
    Years.            Imports.           Exports.
     1800           £ 241,563         £ 540,698
     1801              208,794           416,475
     1802             155,672           537,517
  The total  number of vessels that entered inwards from
Denmark and Norway, in the year 1804,  was 1418, of
which 460  were British, ships:  the total  number that
cleared outwards was 1684, of which 713  were British.
   The trade between Great Britain and Sweden  has re-
mained of nearly the same extent for the last 20 years.
Itis carried on chiefly in  ships of that country; the total
number of  vessels that entered  inwards in  1804 being
252, of which only 106 were British; and the total num-
ber  that cleared outwards  229, of which only 96 were
British.
    Years.           Imports.          Exports.
    1801           £ 295,645        L 111,254
    1802             327.350           108,296
    1803             288,651            98,045
  The imports consist principally of iron of a superior
quality to that of any other country, pitch, tar, deal
boards, and sail-cloth.  The exports are chiefly colonial
produce.
  The trade with Prussia is likewise carried on princi-
pally in foreign vessels; the total number of vessels from
that country which entered inwards in the ports of Great
Britain in the year 1804, being 1911, of which only 720
were British, and the total number that cleared outwards
1622, of which only 390 were British vessels.
    Years.            Imports.          Exports.
    1801           £1,387,149       £ 660,739
    1802             1,057,602        1,071,896
    1803               831,225        1,916,502
  The export to  Prussia is chiefly colonial produce, as
the manufactured goods of other countries  have of late
years been much discouraged  by the government, with
the view of promoting its own manufactures.
  The trade with Germany had  not  been subject to any
great fluctuation with respect to  its extent,  from the
commencement of the last  century  till the year 1794,
when  it suddenly became the channel through  which the
principal  part  of the continent  has since procured the
goods which before they  had received direct from Eng-
land.   The following account of exports to  Germany
shows the rapid increase of trade  with that country in
the course of a few years.
                      British             Foreign
    Years.         Manufactures.      Merchandize.
    1791           £778,213         £1,111,532
    1792             811,140           1,327,970
    1793             718,474"           1,764,221
    1794           1,634,530          4,308,695
    1795           1,760,133          6,311,876
    1796           1,591,810          6,582,179
  The produce and manufactures  of Great Britain ex-
ported to Germany, with the exception of consignments
to particular mercantile  houses, are sold  at the great
fairs of Frankfort, Leipzig, Brunswick, and Nuremberg.
The Easter fair at Leipzig is greatly celebrated for the
immense quantities of British manufactures sold there.
Towards the end of March, numberless bales of muslins,
calicoes, printed cottons, and other goods, are sent from
Glasgow, Paisley, Manchester,  &c. to Hamburgh, be-
sides vast quantities of English hardware from Birming-
ham, as buttons, buckles, saddlery, and a thousand various
articles, useful  or ornamental: for though the Germans
possess many of the materials of at least equal  quality,
and the wages of workmen are  much lower, it will be
long before they can rival England in such articles, from
the superiority it derives from the use of powerful ma-
chinery, and a great division of labour.
       Total amount of imports from Germany.
            England.      Scotland.    Great  Britain.
 In 1800 £ 2,182,927    £ 169,270    £ 2,352,197
    1801   1,900,936      143,238      2,044,175
    1802   1,070,941      121,089      1,192,030 
COMMERCE.
             Total exports to Germany.
British Manufactures.  For. Merchandize.     Total.
In 1800  £4,364,120    £8,300,471    £12,664,591
   1801    4,928,617      6,186,687      11,115,304
   1802    3,992,601      6,322,765      10,315,366
  The total number of vessels that entered inwards from
Germany, in the year 1804, was 189, and the number
that cleared outwards 500.
  The trade  with Holland was  formerly the principal
branch of our European commerce.  It was at its height
about the year  1745. On the French taking  possession
of Holland during the late war, the trade with this coun-
try was of course in a great measure suspended, parti-
cularly during the years 1795 and 1796. Some little re-
laxation of the restrictions  which had been imposed was
afterwards found necessary; and on the peace, its com-
mercial connexion with this  country immediately revived,
till it was checked again by war.
  Years.            Imports.            Exports.
  1800           £.972,600           £.3,208,613
  1801            1,025,958             3,496,744
  1802              974,537             4,957,997
  1803              630,403             1,565,355
  The total number of vessels  which  entered inwards
from Holland, in the year 1804, was 790, and the num-
ber which cleared outwards 521.
  The export to Flanders  was formerly  considerable;
but of late  years the trade with that part of the continent
has  been carried on through  other  ports.  The value of
goods exported to Flanders in 1792  was 1,031,093/., of
which 381,287/.  was British manufactures, and 649,800/.
foreign merchandize.
  Commercial  intercourse with France  has been so
much deranged for some years past, that it  would be
useless to give  any account of  the little that remains,
which, during the time of war, must be entirely carried
on by the vessels of neutral powers. In the year 1792, the
exports to  France  amounted to 1,228,165/.,  of  which
743.280/. was British manufactures, and484,885/. foreign
merchandize.
  The trade with Portugal  was formerly a very benefi-
cial  branch of our commerce, but has decayed much of
late. The balance, which some years ago was greatly in
favour of  this  country, being estimated on an average
of thirty years previous to the peace in 1753 at 800,000/.
per annum, declined  to nothing, and has  been latterly
against this  country.  The export of grain from Great
Britain to  Portugal was very much reduced previous to
the scarcity in 1800, and the consequent prohibition. The
exports consisted almost wholly of British produce and
manufactures, the total value of the exports in 1792 being
760,655/., of which 720,984/. was British manufactures
The imports from Portugal have  increased  in cotton-
wool, wines, and indigo; but the merchants   frequently
remit cash and bullion to  this  country in payment of
their debts in trade with other countries, though this has
not been the case so much lately as  formerly. In  1785,
the quantity of gold and silver imported intothis country
from  Portugal was 1,101,700/.; but in the  year 1795 it
was reduced to about 186,000/.
  The following account of the number  of ships which
entered inwards from Portugal and cleared out for that
country, during twelve years, will give some idea of the
present extent of this trade, and ofthe effect of war with
respect to the employment of neutral vessels.
	Inwards,			Outwards.	
Years.	British.	| Foreign.		British.	| Foreign
1789	495		7	215	9
1790	505		6	225	11
1791	555		8	267	17
1792	561		9	285	17
1793	300		29	162	26
1794	345		23	224	28
1795	344		35	211	90
1793	254		26	216	106
1797	294		63	185	73
1798	265		61	229	69
1799	374		57	180	75
1800	270		70	203	126
  The totol number of vessels which entered inwards in
the year 1804 was  372;  the number that cleared out-
wards 31.4.
  The Mediterranean trade has suffered much interrup-
tion since the year 1793:  Great Britain,  however, still
retains a considerable share of it, though certainly less
than at former periods. In the year 1792,  the exports to
Italy  .and Venice amounted to  963,232/,;  but they have
since fallen much below that amount. The goods usually
imported from Venice are currants loaded at Zante or
Cephalonia, or some port in the  Morea, silks, cream of
tartar, glass  beads  for the East and  West Indian and
African trades, whisks of rice-weeds, sponge,  and some
Levant drugs, cotton, oil, and vallonea. The  exports to
Italy  and Venice  are pilchards and  red-herrings,  of
wbich the consumption is considerable, a small quantity
of salmon, salted  ox-guts, of which  about 100 or 150
casks are yearly consumed for making salt puddings,
tin, lead and litharge, alum, woollens, and hardware; be-
sides  sugars, cocoa, pepper, and other foreign articles.
The number of vessels which entered inwards from Ve-
nice in the year 1800, was only 4, the number that clear-
ed out 12.
  The trade with Turkey has been less disturbed than
that of any other part ofthe Mediterranean, particular-
ly since Malta has been in the bands of the English: this
branch of trade is by  no means equal  in importance to
what  it has formerly been. Tbe exports consist chiefly
of lead in  pigs,  lead-shot, tin, wrought  and cast iron,
hardware,  cloths and stuffs, glass  and   earthenware,
clocks and  watches,  West India coffee, sugar, pepper,
bee. The imports are cotton-wool, cotton-yarn, silk, mo-
hair,  madder, galls,  figs, raisins,  and a few other ar-
ticles.
     Years.           Imports.           Exports.
      1801            141,137/.          172,198/.
      1802           182,424/.          180,000/.
      1803           175,427/.          155,369/.
  The number of vessels that  entered  inwards  from
Turkey, in the year 1803, was 27; in 1804, 16.
  The West India trade is in some respects the most
important branch of our commerce. The capital en-
gaged in it has been  stated at no less than 70,000,000/.
The value ofthe goods exported from Great  Britain on
an average of four years, ending 5th January 1796, was
estimated, according to their  real value, at 3,900,000/.;
but besides the goods sent directly hence to the West In 
COM
COM
dies, merchandize to a considerable amount is exported
to the coast of Africa, for the purchase of slaves. Adding,
therefore, the value ofthe slaves annually imported and
retained in the islands, the whole export to the West In-
dies may he estimated at least at 4,672,000/.  The value
of  the imports is considerably greater; and the annual
balance is to be considered in part as a remittance of the
income or property of persons who possess estates in the
West Inches, and who are wholly or occasionally  resi-
dent here; and of persons who have lent money on mort-
gage or otherwise in the West Indies, and receive the in-
terest through the medium of these remittances: a further
part defrays the freight and other charges in  this coun-
try of West India produce.
         Total imports from the West  Indies.
       British West Indies.   Conquered Islands.      Total.
  1801    6,759,617/.       4,105,839/.    10,865,456/.
  1802    7,293,316       2,699,504      9,992,820
  1803    5,786,432          362,014      6,148,436
  The number of British vessels that entered inwards, in
the year 1804, was 714, containing 202,974  tons,  and
navigated by 11,819 seamen. The number of vessels that
cleared  outwards was 785.
  The trade with the  United States of America has ra-
pidly  advanced to considerable importance; and we now
supply them with commodities to a far greater amount
than in the most favourable years previous to their sepa-
ration from this country.  The imports consist chiefly of
unmanufactured American produce, such as corn, tobac-
co, rice, &c. of which  about four-fifths of  the tobacco is
re-exported. In the year ending 5th January  1793, the
number of British ships in the trade between  this coun-
try and the Anglo-American ports was only 193, while tbe
American vessels in the same trade were no less than 313.
In the year ending 5 th January 1805, the number of British
vessels  which entered inwards was only 72,  while  the
American vessels were 363; and unless  the British ship-
masters can advantageously maintain a  competition with
those of America, we shall  soon   lose this  important
branch of our carrying navigation.  The exports of Bri-
tain to  America consist of British manufactures  only;
for  which America will in all probability long continue
an improving market.
  The export to Canada,  and the remaining possessions
of Britain in North America, amounted, in the year 1792,
to 1,120,091/., of which 908,105/. was in British manu-
factures,  and 211,886/. in foreign  merchandize: it has
since been rather  under this amount. The imports consist
of skins and furs of all  kinds. The  total number of ves-
sels which entered inwards, in the year 1804, was 270,
the number which cleared outwards 384.
  The East  India trade  is a concern of vast magnitude,
if considered merely in a commercial point of view.  The
annual sales ofthe imports ofthe company for 16 years
preceding 1757,  amounted to about 2,055,000/. on the
average; during the succeeding 10 years, their sales of
imports increased to 2,150,000/. per annum;  in the fol-
lowing 10 years  tbey rose to 3,330,000/. per annum.
During the  American war, the sales of imports fell off
about 200,000/. per annum;but from that period to 1792,
they increased again,  and amounted on an average to
4,761,242/.  The accounts of the following years show  a
still greater  increase.
  Amount of the East India company's  sales in the
years ending 1st March, 1801,1802, 1803, and 1804.
             India.            China.         Total.
1801      £.3,978,800      £.3,616,381     £.7,595,181
1802       3,086,943        3,539,404       6,626,347
1803       2,289,274        3,753,252       6,042,526
1804       2,236,396        3,629,677 *      5,866,07S
  The exports to India are chiefly woollens, metals, and
naval and military stores; for the purchase of teas in
China a  considerable amount of  bullion is  annually ex-
ported. The investments in India are  formed from the
proceeds  of the exports of the company, from the pro-
ceeds of part of the territorial revenues invested in mer-
chandize, and fiom the fortunes  of private individuals
and the profits of their trade remitted to  this country,
which are paid  into the company's exchequer, and re-
mitted by the company in merchandize from India.
  The trade  to Africa is cluefly for the purchase of
slaves to supply the West India islands.! The total num-
ber of vessels which entered inwards from Africa in the
year 1804 was 38, the  number which cleared outwards
was 176.
  The vast extent of  the  foreign commerce of Great
Britain has been shown from the  custom-house accounts
of the imports and exports: it will be further illustrated
by the following statement of the  whole number of mer-
chant-vessels, the amount of their tonnage, and the
number of men and boys usually employed in navigating
them, which belonged to the several ports of the British
empire on the 30th September, 1804.
                   Great Britain.
   Ships.               Tons.              Men.
   17,794            2,017,240            134,032
                      Ireland.
   Ships.              Tons.              Men.
   1,061               58,060              5,176
                   The Colonies.
   Ships.               Tons.              Men.
   2,870               196,6*28             15,091
                        Total.
   Ships.               Tons.               Men.
   21,725             2,271,928            154,299
  This numler of vessels, great as it appears, is still in-
creasing; the number of new vessels each year considera-
bly exceeding the losses to which such an extensive navi-
gation must unavoidably be subject. The number of vessels
built and registered in  the different ports of the British
empire, in the year ending the 5th January, 1804, was
1402; and the amount of their tonnage 135,349 tons.
  CGMMERSONIA, a genus ofthe penfagynia e.rder,
in the pentandria class of plants.  The calyx is a mono-
phyllous,  five-parted,   coroliiferous  perianthium, with
sharp ovated segments; the carolla has five linear petals;
the stamina are  five very short filaments at the bases of
the petals; pericarpium a globular, hard,quinquclocu!ar
nut, with two ovated seeds in each division. There is
one species, a tree of Otaheite.
  COMMISSARY, a title  of ecclesiastical jurisdiction,
appertaining to one who exercises spiritual jurisdiction
in places so remote from the chief city, that the chancel-
lor cannot call  the subjects  to the  bishop's principal
consistory, without exposing them to great inconvenience.
  Commissary general of (lie  musters,an officer appoint- 
COM
COM
 ed to  muster the army, as often  as the general thinks
 proper, in order ti know the strength of each regiment
 and company, to receive  an 1  inspect the  muster-r ills,
 and to keep an exact state of tbe strength of the army.
   Commissary general of stores, an officer in the  artil-
 lery, who has the charge of all the stores,  for which he
 is accountable to the  office of ordnaiu e.
   Commissary general of provisions, an officer who has
 the inspection of the  bread and provisions of the army.
   COMMISSION, is  taken for the warrant or letters
 patent, that all men  exercising jurisdiction, either ordi-
 nary or extraordinary, have for their power to hear or
 determine any cause  or action; thus the judges and most
 of the great officersjudical and ministerial of this realm,
 are made by commission.
   Commission of bankruptcy. See Bankrupt.
   Commission of delegates,  a commission  under the
 great seal, directed  to certain persons usually two or
 three temporal lords, as many  bishops, and two judges
 of the law, authorising them to sit upon an appeal to the
 king,  in the court of  chancery, from a sentence given by
 the archbishop in any ecclesiastical cause.
   Commission of lunacy issues out of the court of chan-
 cery,  to inquire whether a person represented to be a
 lunatic is so or not.
   Commission  of peace. See Justice of tiie peace.
   Commission of rebellion, generally  termed a writ of
 rebellion,  issues where a person, after proclamation made
 by the sheriff, on a process out of the chancery or ex-
 chequer, required, upon pain of his allegiance, to pre-
 sent himself to the court by a day assigned, neglects to
 appear.
   Commission  of sewers  is a commission directed to
 certain persons, to inspect and see drains  and  ditches
 well kept in the marshy and fenny  parts of England, for
 the better conveying  of water into  the sea, and preserv-
 ing the grass on the land.
   Commission, in commerce. See  Factorage.
   COMMISSIONER, a person authorised hy commis-
 sion, letters-patent, or other lawful warrant, to examine
 any matters, or execute any public  office, Sec.  See Cus-
 toms, Excise, Navy, Treasury, Sec.
   COMMITMENT, is the sending a  person to prison
 by warrant or order,  either for a crime or for contuma-
 cy. If for a crime the warrant must be  until discharged
 according  to law; but for contumacy, until he comply,
 and  perforin the thing required. Carth. 153.  The com-
 mitment should be in writing; otherwise, by the  habeas-
 corpus act, the prisoner may be admitted i> bail whatev-
 er his offence may have been. 1 Burn.  379.
  Who may commit.—Wherever a constable or person
 may justify the  arresting another for a felony, or trea-
 son, he may justify the sending him or bringing him  to
 the common gaol. 2 Haw. 116. But it is most  advisable,
 for any private person who arrests  another for felony,  to
 cause him to be  brought as soon as possible before some
justice of the peace, that he may be committed or bailed
 by him. Dall. c. 118.
  The privy-council,  or anyone or two  of them, or a se-
cretary of state,  may  lawfully commit persons for trea-
son, and for other offences against the state. 2 Haw. 117.
  To what place.—All felons shall  he committed  to the
common goal and not elsewhere. 5 Hen. IV. c. 10.  But
 vagrants and  otVr criminals,  offenders and persons
 charged with  small ofiVives, may, for such offend s, or
 fir vwn! of sureties, be committed either to die common
 gaol or house of correction, as the justices in their judg-
 ment shall think proper. 6 G. c. 19.
   Who may be committed.—All persons who are appre-
 hended for offences not bailable, and those who negiert to
 offer hail for offences which are bailable, must be com-
 mitted; and wlierever a justice of peace is empowered to
 bind aperson over, or to cause him to do a certain thing,
 he may commit him, if in his presence he shall  refuse to
 he so bound or do such a thing. 2 Haw.  116.
   A commitment must be in writing, either in the name
 of the king, and only tested by the person, who makes it;
 or it may be made by such person in his own name, ex-
 pressing his office or authority, and must be directed to
 the gaoler or keeper of the prison. 2 Haw. 119. The com-
 mitment should contain the name and surname ofthe par-
 ty committed, if known; if not known,  it may be suffi-
 cient to describe the person by his age,  &e. and to add,
 that he refuses to tell his name. 1 H. H. 557.  It ought
 to contain the causes, as for treason or felony; and also
 the special  nature of the felony, briefly, as for  felony
 for the death of such a one, or for burglary, in  breaking
 the house of such a one. 2 H.  H. 122. A commitment
 must also have  an apt conclusion; as if for felony, till he
 be thence delivered by due course of law. 2 II. If.  123.
 All commitments grounded on acts of parliament ought
 to be conformable to the method prescribed by them. 2
 Haw.  Not.  33. and where a statute appoints imprison-
 ment,  but does not limit tbe time, in such cases the pri-
 soner must remain at the  discretion of the court.  Dalt.
 c. 170.
   The duty of a gaoler respecting commitments.—If the
 gaoler shall refuse to receive a felon, or take any thing
 for receiving him, he shall he punished for the  same by
 thejustices of gaol-delivery. 4 Ed. III. c. 9. But noper-
 on can justify the detaining a prisoner in custody, out of
 the common gaol, unless there be some particular reason
 for so doing; as if the party should be so dangerously ill,
 that it would apparently hazard his life to send him  to
 gaol, or  that there is evident danger of a rescue from
 rebels or the like. 1 Haw. 118. By the 3 Hen. VIL c. 3.
 the sheriff or gaoler shall certify the commitment to the
 next gaol-delivery.
   By the habe'as-corpus act, the charge of conveying an
 offender  is limited not to exceed 12d. a mile.
   Commitment discharged.—A person legally committed
 for a crime, certainly appearing to have been done by
 some person or other, cannot be lawfully discharged but
 by the king, till he is acquitted upon his trial, or has an
 ignoramus found by the grand jury, or none shall prose-
 cute him, on a proclamation for that purpose by the jus-
 tices of gaol-delivery.  2 Haw. 121.
   COMMITTEE of parliament, a certain number of
 members appointed by the house, for the examination of
 a bill, making report of an inquiry, process of the house,
 Sec.
   When  a parliament is called, and the speaker and
 members have taken the oaths, there are  committees  ap-
pointed to sit on certain days, viz. the committee of pri-
vileges and elections, of religion, of trade, &c. which are
standing committees. 
COM                                              COM
  Sometimes the whole house resolves itself into a com-   down of bushes,  ferns,  &c.   A  commoner may abate
mittee, on which occasion each person has a right to speak   hedges made on his common;  and may drive the beasts
and reply as  often as he  pleases,  which is not the case   of a commoner mixed with the beasts of a stranger to a
when the house is not in a committee.                    convenient place to sever them, and may drive the beasts
  COMMODORE, in maritime affairs, an officer of the   of a stranger out ofthe common without  any  custom.
British navy, commissioned by the lords of the admirality,   Godb. 123.   2 Mod. 65.  3 Lev. 40.   It  is a  general
or by an Admiral, to command a squadron of men-of-   rule, that a commoner cannot  distrain or chase out the
war in chief.                                          cattle of the lord, or terre-tenant, damage-feasant: and
  COMMON, is a right or privilege which one or   if the lord surcharge the common, his proper remedy is
more persons claim to take or use, in some part or por-   an action on the case.   Godb. 182.
tion of that, which another man's lands, waters, woods,     Common intendment, is common meaning  or un-
&c.  naturally produce;   without  having an absolute   derstanding according to the subject matter, and not
property in such lands, woods, waters, &c.    2 Inst. 65.   strained to  an extraordinary or foreign sense.
  The general divisions of common  are, into common     Common Law.  The common law of England, is the
of pasture, which is a right of liberty that one or  more   common rule for administering justice  within the king-
have to feed or fodder their beasts or cattle  in another   dom, and asserts the king's royal prerogatives and like-
man's land.  Common of turbary, or a liberty of cutting   wise the rights and liberties of the subject.  It is gener-
turves in another man's land or soil. Common of piscary,   ally that law by which the determination  in the king's
or a right  and liberty of taking  fish in another's fish-   ordinary courts are guided.  It  is distinguished from
pond, pool, or river.  Common of estovers,  which is a  the statute  laws or acts of parliament, as having been
right of taking trees or loppings, shrubs and underwood,  the law of the  land before any acts of parliament which
in another's woods, coppices, &c.  and lastly, a  liberty  are now extant were made.  Hale's Hist. 24.44. 45.
which the tenants have in some manors, of digging and    COMMON-PLACE BOOK is a sort of register,  or
taking sand, gravel, stone, &c. in the lord's soil.  1 Bac.  orderly collection of things worthy to be noted, and re-
Abr. 385.                                             tained in  the course  of a  person's  reading;  and  so
   But the  word common is usually understood of com-  disposed, as that among a multiplicity of  subjects, any
mon of pasture, of which there are four kinds; common  one may be easily found.
appendant, common appurtenant, common in gross, and    In Mr. Locke's  method, the  first page, or first two
common by reason of vicinage.                         pages that  front each  other of the book, serve as a kind
   Common appendant, is a right belonging  to the ow-  0f index to the whole.  This part is to he divided  by
acrs or occupiers of arable  land, to put commonable  parallcd lines into twenty-five  equal  parts; of which
beasts upon the  lord's waste, and upon the lands of other  every fifth line is to be distinguished by its colour. These
 persons within  the same manor.  Commonable beasts  lines* are to be cut perpendicularly by others drawn from
 are either beasts of the plough, or  such as  manure the  top to  bottom, and in the several spaces of which, the
 land.  1 Inst. 122.                                   several letters, both small and  large, of the alphabet,
    Common appurtenant, can only be  claimed by pre-  are to be written.  The form of the lines  and divisions,
 scription,  and is a right of commonage for  beasts,  not  both horizontal and perpendicular,  with the manner of
 only commonable, as horses, oxen, cows, and sheep, but  writing the letters, will be readily  understood from the
 likewise for beasts not commonable, as swine, goats,  following specimen; in which what is to be done in the
 and geese.  Co. Lit. 122.                             book for all the letters of the alphabet, is  here shown in
    Common in  gross, is a right of commonage which  the first four, A, B, C, and D.
 must be claimed by deed or prescription,  and  has no
 relation to any  land belonging to the commoner;  it may
 be for a certain number of cattle, or  without number.
 He that has common in  gross for  a  certain number of
 cattle, may put in the cattle of a stranger, and use the
 common with them.  2  Inst. 427.  2 Rol. Abr. 402.
    Common by reason of vicinage, is a liberty that the
 tenants of one lord, in one town, have  to common with
 the tenants of another town.  Those who challenge this
 kind of common (which is usually  called intercommon-
 ing) may  not put their cattle in the common ofthe other
 town, for  then they are distrainable; but turning them
 into their own fields,, if they  stray  into the neighbour
 common, they must be suffered.   Cowcl.
    A commoner has only a special and limited  interest
 in the soil, but yet he shall have such remedies as are com-
 mensurate to his right, and therefore may distrain beasts
 damage-feasant, bring  an action on the case,  Sec. but
 not being absolute owner of the soil, he cannot bring  a
 general action of trespass, for a trespass done upon the
 common.   Nor can he do any thing to the soil  wiiich
 tends to the melioration or improvement of it, as cutting
		~					>		
rA	©	^i.	ct	S>	S	o	<s>.	C5 Oi	3
 
COM
COM
  The index thus formed, and  the  pages of the book
numbered, every thing is  ready for taking down any
passage that is worthy of being registered. We will, for
example, suppose the reader desirous of inserting in his
common-place hook, a passage of poetry.   He miist con-
sider to what particular head it may most naturally be
referred, and under which a person would he led to look
for such a thing.   The prominent idea, in this instance,
is death.   D  then is the initial letter, and e the first
vowel: looking into the index for the partition D, and
the line e (which is the place for all words whose first
letter is D, and first vowel e,  as Death, Deity, Dress,
Sec.) and finding no numbers already down, which direct
to any page ofthe book where words of this character-
istic have  been entered, he must  turn forward to the
first blank page,  suppose number  4: here the passage
must be written, placing the characteristic  word in the
margin, thus:
Death.
11hou must expire, my soul, ordained to range
Through unexperienced scenes, and mysteries strange,
Dark the event, and dismal the exchange    &c &c
   This being done, the page in which it stands must be,
 entered m the space De of the index, from  which time
 tbe 4th and  5th pages are to he devoted to subjects the
 characteristic  letters of which  are De.
   Again if the reader wishes  to  insert an argument
 against anger, revenge, &c. he must determine for him-
 self what is  the characteristic of the passage, say ancer-
 he looks for the next vacant page, suppose 6: there  he
 inserts the argument, and in the space Ae he writes 6
 the number  of the page in which the passage stands, and
 then the 6th and seventh pages are  devoted  to subjects
 the characteristic words of which begin with A and the
 first vowel is r, as anger, angel. Sec.   When these pages
 are full, and another passage  of the same class is to' be
 entered, look for the next vacant leaf of the common-
 place book,  suppose it to be number 12; at the bottom of
 p. 7 write t. p. 12, which signifies to turn to p. 12, then
 at the top of p. 12, write 7; enter the passage which is to
 be registered,  and write 12 in  the index, which  shows
 that pages 12 and 13 are devoted to  subjects whose cha-
 racteristic words begin with A  and the first vowel is e.
   COMMON  PLEAS, pleas or suits regularly divided
 into two sorts; pleas of  the crown,  which comprehend
 all crimes and  misdemeanours wherein the king (on he-
 half of the public) is plaintiff; and common-pleas, which
 include all civ il actions depending between subject and
 subject.  The former of these were the proper object of
 the court of  king's-bench, the latter ofthe court of com-
 mon-pleas; and in this court only can real actions,  that
 is, actions which concern the  right of freehold or the
 reality, he originally brought; and in this court also, all
 other or personal pleas between man and man are deter-
 mined, but in some of these the  court of king's bench has
 a concurrent  authority.   But a writ of error, in the na-
 ture of an appeal, lies from the  court of common-pleas to
the court  of  king's-bench.   3  Black. 37.  This court
can hear and determine causes  removed out of inferior
courts hy pone, recordare, or other  like writs.  They
can also grant prohibitions, to keep other courts, as well
ecclesiastical  as temporal, within due bounds.
  In this court are four judges, created hy letters patent;
  vol,. I,                  ■j j
  the seal of the  court is committed to the custody of tin-
  chief justice.
     COMMON PRAYER.  It is tbe partic ular duty of a
  clergyman every Sunday, Sec. to use the public form ot
  prayer, prescribed by the book of common prayer.  And
  the 13 and 14 Ch. II. enacts  that every incumbent resi-
  ding upon a living and keeping a curate,  shall at least
  once a month, public ly read the common prayer,  and if
  there be occasion, administer  the sacraments, and  iiber
  rites ofthe church, on pain of 51. to the poor, on confes-
  sion or conviction thereof before two justices.
     COMMUNICATION of motion,  the  act  whereby n
  body at rest is put into motion by a moving boclv;  or h
  is the acceleration of motion in a body already movisi■-"
  See Mechanics.
    Communication, lines of,in military matters, trenches
  made to continue  and preserve a safe  correspondence
  between two forts or posts;  or at a siege,  between two
  approaches, that they may relieve one another.
    COMOCLADA,  a genus of the class  and order tri-
  andria monogynia.   The  calyx is  three-parted:  the
  corolla the same; drupe oblong with a two-Iohed nucleus.
  Ihere are three species, trees ofthe West Indies.
    COMPANY,  in a commercial sense, is a society of
  merchants, mechanics, or  other traders, joined  together
  in  one common interest.
   When there are only two or three joined in this  mau-
  ner, it is called a partnership; the term company bein-
  restrauied to societies consisting of a considerable  mini"!
  ber of members, associated together by a charter ob-
  tained from the sovereign.   The mechanics of all corpo-
  rations,  or towns incorporated,  are thus erected  info
  companies, which have charters or privileges and laree
  immunities.  Those of London are very numerous  The
 mercers were incorporated in the 17th of king  Richard
 II. in the year 1393;the grocers, in the 20th Edward III
 ann.1345; the drapers, in the 17th Henry VIL , n1430*
 the  fishmongers, in the 28th of Henry VIII. ann  1536*
 the goldsmiths, in the 16th of Richard II.  a„n "392  the
 skinners m the 1st of Edward III. ann. 1327; the  met!
 chant-taylors, in the 17th Henry VII. ann  1501 • th^

  n 1 ^.f He8' °r  vn™8' iB  26tU He^ ^ anm V4 7
 and 17th Henry  MI. ann.  1501; the salters,  i„  20th

  V 7n,i  ueo^tt1530/ ^ h'or°nSer8> i« 3d Edward
   a   IV  I?62' the vintnei's»  m the reign of Edward III
 and 15th Henry VI.; and the clothiers, or clothZ,kcis
 in 22d Henry VIII.                         vvoikcis,

 nie^eofdTeS tUr9 +7Mch "* the twelve mncApal  compa-
 ?J?h?H  nd°,' th6re are °ther ve^ Answerable ones;
 as the dyers,  brewers,  leather-sellers, pewterc,s  hai -
 hers, surgeons, armourers, white-bakers, wax chandler
 cutlers, girdlers, butchers,  saddlers, cal-penters  cord-'
 feumSS Paint.erS- iCUITierS' mas0M' P,umb^> inholders,
 founders,  embroiderer*,  poulterers,  cooks, coopers
 bricklayers,  and  tylers; also bowers, Hoteliers, black-
 smiths, joiners, plaisterers, weavers, fruiterers,  scrive-
 ners.bottle-makers,  and homers; likewise stationers
 marblers, wool packers, farrier,  pavfours,  lorimeis ov
 onnei*, tallow-chadlers, brown-bakers,  wood-7nonger7

 Set^^
  The word seems now more particularly annronri-itej
to those grand associations  se{aa foot forVeToZerce
I I

I I

I 4

I I 
COMPANY.
ofthe remote parts ofthe world, and vested  by charter
with peculiar privileges.  When companies do not trade
upon a joint stock, hut are obliged to admit  any person
properly qualified, upon paying a certain fine and agree-
ing to submit to the regulations of the company,  each
member trading upon his own stock, and at his own  risk,
they are called regulated companies.  When they trade
npon a joint stock, each member sharing in the common
profit or loss in  proportion to his share in  this stock,
i hey are called joint  stock companies.  Such companies,
whether regulated or joint-stock,  sometimes have, and
sometimes have  not,  exclusive privileges.
  However  injurious companies with joint  stock, and
incorporated with exclusive privileges, may at this  time
be reckoned to the nation in general, it is yet certain
that they were the general parents  of all our foreign
 ommerce,  private traders being discouraged from  haz-
arding  their  fortunes in  foreign  countries,  until the
method of traffic had been first settled by  joint-stock
companies.  But since the trade of this kingdom and the
number of traders have increased; and the  methods of
assurance of shipping and merchandize, and the naviga-
tion to all parts ofthe known world, have  become fami-
liar to us; experience has shown, that the trade of the
nation has advanced  in proportion as these  monopolies
have been discouraged; all restrictions of trade whatever
having been found manifestly prejudicial.
  1. Regulated  companies resemble, in every respect,
the corporations of trades, so common in the cities and
towns of all  the different countries of Europe; and are
a sort of enlarged monopolies of the same kind.  As no
inhabitant  of a town  can exercise an  incorporated
trade, without first obtaining his freedom in the corpora-
tion; so in most cases no subject of the state can lawfully
carry on any branch of foreign trade, for which a regu-
lated company is established,  without first becoming a
member of  that company. The monopoly is more or
less strict according  as the terms of admission arc more
or less difficult; and  according  as  the directors of the
company have more  or less authority, or have it more
or less in their power to confine  it  to themselves and
their particular friends.  The  regulated companies for
foreign  commerce, which  at present subsist  in Great
Britain, are, the Hamburgh company, the Russia com-
pany, the Eastland company, the Turkey company, and
the African company.
  1. The Hamburgh company is the oldest trading es-
tablishment in the kingdom; though not always  known
by that name, nor restrained  to  those narrow bounds
under which it is now confined.   It was first called  the
company of merchants trading to Calais, Holland, Zea-
land, Brabant, and Flanders: then it acquired  the general
title of merchant-adventurers  of England; as being
eomposed of all the English merchants who traded to the
Low-countries, the  Baltic, and  the  German  ocean.
Lastly, it was called  the  company of merchant-adven-
turers of England trading to Hamburgh.  This company
was first incorporated by Edward I. in 1296; and their
privileges have been confirmed by many of his successors.
The revolutions  which  happened in  the Low-countries
towards the end  ofthe sixteenth century, and which laid
the foundation of the  republic of Holland, having hinder-
ed the  company from continuing their commerce  with
their ancient freedom, they were obliged to turn it almost
wholly to the side of Hamburgh,  and the cities on  the
German ocean; from which the name was changed to
that of the Hamburgh, company, though the ancient title
of  merchant-adventurers is  still retained in all their
writings.
  2. The Russia company was first projected towards
the end of the reign of king Edward VI.  and executed
in the first and second years  of Philip and Marv; but
had not its perfection till its  charter was confirmed  by
act of parliament, under queen Elizabeth, in  1566.  It
had its rise from  certain adventurers, who were sent in
three vessels on the discovery of new  countries, and to
find out a northeast passage to China: these, falling into
the White  Sea, and making up to the port Archangel,
were exceedingly well  received by the Muscovites; and
at their return, solicited letters patent to secure  them-
selves  the commerce  of Russia, for which  they had
formed  an association.  This company  subsisted with
reputation almost a whole century, till the time of the
civil wars.   It is  said,  the czar then reigning, hearing
ofthe death of king Charles I., ordered all the English
in his states to be expelled;  of which the Dutch taking
advantage, settled in their room.  After the Restoration
the remains of the company re-established part of their
commerce at Archangel, but never with the same success
as before, the Russians being now  well  accustomed  to
the Dutch merchants and merchandize.   This company
subsists  still, under the direction of a governor, four
consuls, and assistants; and by the 10th and 11th of Wil-
liam III. c. 6. the fine for admission was reduced to 51.
  5. The Eastland company was  incorporated by cpiecn
Elizabeth. Its charter is dated in the year 1579. By
the first article the company  is erected into a body po-
litic, under the title of the company of merchants of the
East; to consist of Englishmen, all real merchants, who
have  exercised  the business  thereof,  and  trafficked
through the Sound, before the year 1568, into Norway,
Sweden, Poland,  Livonia, Prussia, Pomerania, &c. ex-
cepting Narva, Muscovy, and its dependencies. Most of
the remaining articles grant them  the usual prerogatives
of such companies; as a seal, governor, courts, laws, cxc.
  4. The Turkey or Levant company had its rise un-
der queen Elizabeth, in 1581. James I. confirmed its
charter  in  1605,   adding  new privileges.  During the
civil wars, there happened some innovations in the gov-
ernment  of the company; many  having been admitted
members, not qnalified by the charters of queen Eliza-
beth and king  James, or that did  not  conform to the
regulations prescribed.  Charles  II. on his restoration
endeavoured to  set it  upon its ancient  basis; to which
end, he  gave them a charter  containing not only a con-
firmation of their old one, but also several new articles
of reformation.    By this the  company is erected into a
body-politic, capable, of making laws, Sec. under the title
of the company of merchants of England trading to the
seas of the Levant. The number of members is not lim-
ited, but is ordinarily  about three hundred.   The prin-
cipal qualification required is, that the  candidate be a
freeman of London, and a wholesale merchant either  by
family or serving  an apprenticeship of seven years.
  5. The company of  merchants  trading to Africa, es-
tablished in 1750.  Contrary to the former practice with 
COMPANY.
 regard to regulated companies, who were reckoned un-
 fit for such sort of service, this company was  subjected
 to the obligation of maintaining forts and garrisons. It
 was expressly charged at first with the maintenance of
 all the British forts and garrisons that lie between Cape
 Blanc and the Cape of Good Hope; and afterwards that
 of those only which lie between Cape  Rouge and the
 Cape of  Good  Hope. The act  which establishes  this
 company (the 23d of Geo. II.  c.  31) seems to have  had
 two distinct objects in view; first, to restrain effectually
 the oppressive and monopolizing spirit which is natural
 to the directors of a regulated company; and,  secondly,
 to force them as much as possible to give an attention,
 which is not natural to them, towards the maintenance of
 forts and garrisons.
   For the first of these purposes, the fine for admission
 is limited to forty  shillings. The company is prohibited
 from trading in  their corporate capacity, or upon a joint
 stock;  from borrowing money upon a common seal; or
 from laying any restraints upon the trade, which may be
 carried on freely from all places, and by all persons, be-
 ing British subjects, and paying the fine. The govern-
 ment is in a committee of nine persons, who meet in Lon-
 don, but who arc chosen  annually by the freemen of the
 company at London, Bristol, ami Liverpool; three from
 each place. No  committee-man can be continued in of-
 fice for more than three years  together. Any committee-
 man might formerly  be removed by the board of trade
 and plantations; now by a committee of council, after be-
 ing heard in  his defence. The committee are forbidden
 to export negroes  from  Africa, or to import any Afri-
 can goods into Great Britain. But as they arc charged
 with the maintenance of forts  and garrisons, they may
 for that purpose export from  Great Britain to Africa
 goods and  stores of different kinds. Out of the money
 which they  shall receive from the company, they are al-
 lowed a sum not exceeding eight hundred pounds for the
 salaries of their clerks and agents at London, Bristol,
 and Liverpool; the  house-rent  of their office in  London;
 and all other expenses of management, commission, and
 agency, in England. What  remains of this sum, after
 defraying  those  different expenses,  they  may divide
 among themselves, as a compensation for their trouble,
 in what manner  they think  proper.
   For the second purpose mentioned, the maintenance of
 the forts and garrisons, an annual sum has been allotted
 to them by parliament, generally about 13,000f.  For the
 proper application of this sum, the committee is obliged
 to account annually to the cursitor baron of  the exche-
 quer; which account is afterwards to be laid before par-
 liament.  But it is said great abuses have, notwithstand-
 ing, subsisted with regard to this part of the company's
 engagements.
   II.'  Joint-stock companies, established either by roy-
 al charter, or hy act of parliament, differ in several res-
 peels, not only from regulated companies, but from pri-
 vate copartneries. 1.  In a private copartnery nopatner,
 vv ithout the  consent of the company, can transfer his
 share to another person, or introduce a new member into
 the company;  each  member liowever may, upon proper
 warning,  withdraw from the  copartnery, and demand
 payment from them of his share of the common stock.
In a joint-stock company, on the contrary, no  member
    o------------     i   * '     ---   --
    •---------     »   m ,     --  - --
 can demand payment of his share from the company; hut
 each member can,  without their  consent,  transfer his
 share to another person, and  thereby  introduce a new
 member. The value  ofa share  in a joint stock is always
 the price which it will bring in the  market; and this may
 be either  greater or less, in  any  proportion, than tbe
 sum which its owner stands credited for in the stock of
 the company. 2. In a private copartnery each partner is
 hound for the debts  contracted by the company to the
 whole extent of his fortune. In a joint-stock  company,
 on the contrary, each partner  is bound only to  the ex-
 tent of his share.
   The trade of a joint-stock company is always managed
 by a court of directors. This court indeed is frequently
 subject,  in many respects, to the controul of a general
 court of  proprietors. But the  greater  part of  the
 proprietors  seldom  pretend  to understand any  thing
 of the business of the company,  and  give themselves
 no trouble  about  it,  but receive contentedly   such
 half-yearly or yearly dividend as the directors think
 proper  to  make  to  them. Tins total  exemption from
 trouble and risk, beyond a limited sum, encourages ma-
 ny people  to become adventurers in joint-stock compa-
 nies, who would upon no account hazard their fortunes
 in any private copartnery. Such companies, therefore,
 commonly draw to themselves  much greater stocks than
 any private copartnery can boast of. The principal joint-
 stock companies at present subsisting in Great  Britain
 are, the South Sea  and  the East India companies; to
 which may be added, though of very inferior magnitude,
 the HudsonVs-bay company.
   1.  The  South  Sea  company. During the long  war
 with France  in the reign of queen Anne, the payment of
 the  sailors of the royal navy being neglected, they re-
 ceived tickets instead of money, and were frequently ob-
 liged by their necessities to sell these tickets to avari-
 cious men  at a discount of 40 and sometimes  50  per
 cent.  By this and other means the debts of the nation
 unprovided for by parliament,  and which amounted to
 9,471,321^. fell into the hands of these usurers: on which
 Mr. Harley, at that time chancellor of the exchequer,
 and afterwards earl  of Oxford, proposed a scheme to
 allow the  proprietors of these debts and deficiencies 6
 p«r cent,  per annum,  and to  incorporate them for the
 purpose of  carrying  on a trade to  the  South Sea; and
 they were  accordingly incorporated under the title of
 « the governor and  company  of  merchants of Great
 Britain trading to  the South  Seas, and other parts of
 America, and for encouraging the fishery," &c.
   Some other sums were lent to the government in the
 reign of queen Anne  at 6 percent. In the third of George
 I.  the interest of the whole was reduced to 5 per cent.
 and the company advanced two millions more to the gov-
ernment at the same interest. By the  statute of the 6th
of George I. it was declared, that they might redeem all
or any of the redeemable national debts; in consideration
of which the company were empowered to augment their
capital according to the sums they should discharge; and
for enabling them to raise such  sums for purchasing an-
nuities, exchanging  for ready money new  exchequer
bills, carrying on their trade, Sec. they might,  by such
means as they should think proper, raise such  sums of
money as in  a general court of the company should be 
COMPANY.
judged  necessary. The company wrcre also empowered
to raise money on.contracts, bonds, or obligations, un-
der their common seal,  on the credit of tiieir  capital
stock. But if the sub-governor,  deputy-governor,  or
other members of the  company, should purchase lands
cr revenues of the crown upon account of the corporation,
or lend money hy loan or anticipation on any branch of
the revenue, other than such part only on which a cred-
it of loan was granted by parliament, such sub-governor,
or other member of the company,  should forfeit treble
the value of the money  so lent.  The  fatal South  Sea
scheme, transacted in the year  1720, and the particulars
of which are very generally known, was executed upon
the last-mentioned statute.
   The South  Sea company never had any forts or gar-
risons to maintain, and therefore were entirely exempted
from one great expense, to which other joint-stock com-
panies for foreign trade are subject. But  they  bad an
immense capital divided among an immense number of
proprietors. It  wras naturally to be expected, therefore,
that folly,  negligence, and profusion, should prevail in
the whole management of their affairs. Their stock-job-
bing  speculations were succeeded by mercantile projects
which, Dr. Smith observes,  were not much better con-
ducted. At length, in the year  1722, this company peti-
tioned parliament to be allowed to divide their immense
capital of more than 33,800,000/. the whole of which had
 been lent to government,  into two equal parts: the one
 half, or upwards of 16,900,000/. to be pnt upon the same
 footing with other government annuities,  and not to be
 subject to the debts contracted, or losses incurred, by the
 directors of the company, in the prosecution of their mer-
 cantile projects; the other half to remain as before, a trad-
 ing stock,  and to be subject to those debts and losses.
 The petition  was too reasonable not to be  granted. In
  1733 they  again petitioned the parliament, that three-
 fourths of their trading stock might he turned into annu-
 ity-stock; and only  one-fourth remain as trading stock,
 or exposed to the hazards arising from  the bad man-
  agement of their directors. Both their annuity and trad-
  ing  stocks had, by  this time, been reduced  more than
  2,000,000/. each, by several  different  payments from
  government; so that this  fourth amounted only  to
  3,662,784/. 8s.  6d. In 1784 all the demands ofthe com-
  pany upon the  king of Spain,  in consequence of the As-
  siento contract, were, by the treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle,
  given up for what  was supposed an equivalent; an end
 .was put to thciw trade in  the Spanish West Indies, the
 remainder of their trading stock was turned into annuity
 stock, and the company ceased in every respect to be a
  trading company.
   This company is under the direction  of a governor,
  sub-governor, deputy-governor, and 21 directors; but no
  person is qualified  to be a governor, his majesty except-
  ed, unless  such governor has, in his own name and right,
  5000/. in the trading stock; the sub-governor is to have
  4000/. the  deputy governor 3000/. and a director 2000/,
  in the same  stock.  In every  general court every mem-
  ber  having, in his own name and right, 500/. in trading-
  stock,  has one vote; if 2000/.  two votes; if 3000/. three
  votes; and if 5000/. four votes.
    2. The East India company.  The first, or, as it is
  called; the old East India company, was  established by
a charter from queen Elizabeth in 1600;  but for some
time tbe partners  seem  to have traded with separate
stocks, though only in the ships belonging to the whole
company. In 1612  they joined their stocks into one com-
mon capital;  and though  their charter was not as yet
confirmed by act of  parliament, it was  looked upon in
that early period to be sufficiently valid,  and  nobody
ventured to interfere with their trade.  At this time their
capital amounted to about 740,000/. and the shares were
as low as 50/. Their trade was in general successful, not-
withstanding  some heavy  losses,   chiefly  sustained
through  the malice of the  Dutch East India company.
In process of time, however, it came to be understood that
a royal charter could not by itself convey  an exclusive
privilege to traders; and the  company was reduced to
distress by the multitude of interlopers, who carried off
most of their trade. This confined during the latter part
of the reign of Charles II. the whole of that of James
II. and part of William III. when, in 1698, a proposal
was made to parliament for  advancing   the sum of
2,000,000/. to government, on  condition of erecting the
subscribers into a  new company with exclusive privile-
ges. The old company endeavoured to prevent| the ap-
pearance of such a formidable rival, by  offering govern-
ment 700,000/. nearly the amount of their capital at that
time;  but such were the exigencies of the state  at that
time, that the larger sum, though at eight per cent, in-
terest, was preferred to  the smaller at one-half the ex-
pense.
   Thus  were two  East India companies erected in the
same  kingdom, which could not but he very prejudicial
to each other. Through the negligence of those who pre-
pared the act of parliament also, the new company were
not obliged to unite in a joint stock.  The  consequence
of this was,  that a few private traders, whose subscrip-
tions  scarcely  exceeded 7200/. insisted on  a right of
trading  separately at their own  risk. Thus a kind of
third company was established: and by their mutual con-
tentions with  one another, all  the three  were brought
to the brink of ruin.  Upon a subsequent occasion, in
 1700, a  proposal was made to parliament for putting the
trade under the managementof a regulated company, and
thus laying it in some measure open. This, however, was
 opposed by  the company; who represented in  strong
 terms the mischiefs likely to arise from such a proceed-
 ing. In 1702 the companies were in some measure unit-
 ed  by an indenture tripartite, to which the queen was
 the third party; and in 1708, they were, by act of parlia-
 ment, perfectly consolidated into one company by their
 present name of  « the  united  company  of merchants
 trading to the East Indies." Into this act it was thought
 worthy  to insert a clause, allowing the separate traders
 to continue their traffic till Michaelmas 1711; but at the
 same time empowering the directors, upon three years
 notice, to redeem their capital of 7200/. and thereby con-
 vert tbe whole capital of the company into a joint stock.
 By the same act the capital of the company, in  c°ns*:
 quence  of a new  loan to government, was  augmented
 from 2,000,000/. to 3,200,000/. In 1743 another  million
 was advanced to  government; but this being raised, not
 by a call upon the proprietors, but by selling annuities
 and contracting bond-debts, it did not augment the stock
 upon which the proprietors could claim a dividend. Thusj 
COMPANY.
however,  their trading stock was augmented; it being
equally liable with the other 3,200,000/. to the losses sus-
tained and debts contracted by the company, in the pro-
secution of their  mercantile projects. From  1708, or at
least from 1711, this company, being freed from all com-
petitors,  and fully established in the monopoly of the
English commerc e to the East Indies, carried on a suc-
cessful  trade; and from  their profits made annually a
moderate dividend to their proprietors. Unhappily, how-
ever, in  a short time, an  inclination for war and con-
quest  began to take place among its servants; which,
though it  put them in possession of extensive territories
and vast nominal  revenues, yet embarrassed their affairs
in  such a manner, that they have not to this day been
able to recover themselves. During the war of 1755, in-
deed, they acquired the revenues of a rich and extensive
territory, amounting as was then said, to near 3,000,000/.
per annum.
   For several years they  remained in quiet possession
of the revenue arising from this territory, though it cer-
tainly never answered the expectations that had  been
formed concerning it. But in 1767 the British ministry
laid claim to the  territorial possessions of the company,
and the revenue  arising from them,  as of right belong-
ing to the crown; and the company, rather than yield up
their territories in this manner,  agreed to pay govern-
ment a yearly sum  of 400,000/. They  had  before this
gradually augmented their dividend  from about six to
ten per cent, that is, on their capital of 3,200,000/. they
bad raised it from 192,000/. to 320,000/. a year. About
this time also they were attempting to raise it still fur-
ther, viz. from ten to  twelve and a half percent, but from
this they were prevented by two successive acts of par-
liament, the design of which was to enable them to make
a more speedy payment of their debts, at this time esti-
mated at  more than six  or seven millions sterling.  In
1769 they renewed their agreement with government for
five years more, stipulating, that during the course of
that period they should be allowed gradually to augment
their dividend to  twelve and a half per  cent, never in-
creasing it, however, more than one per cent, annually.
Thus their annual payments could only he augmented by
608,000/.  beyond  what they had  been before their late
territorial acquisitions. By accounts from India in the
year 1768, this   revenue, clear  of  all deductions and
military charges, was stated at 2,048,747/.  At the same
time they w ere said  to possess another revenue, arising
partly from lands, but chiefly from the customs establish-
ed  at their  different settlements, amounting to about
439,000/.  The profits of their trade, too, according to
the evidence of their chairman before  the house of com-
mons,  amounted to at least 400,000/.  per annum; their
accountant made it 500,000/. and the lowest accountant
stated it at least equal to  the highest dividend paid  to
their proprietors.  Notwithstanding this apparent wealth,
however,  the affairs  of the  company from this time fell
into disorder; insomuch that, in 1773, their debts were
augmented by an arrear to the treasury in the payment
of the 4(i(i.<)00/. stipulated; by  another to the  custom-
house for  duties unpaid; hy a large sum  borrowed iVmn
the Bank: and by  bills drawn upon them from  Indh  to
the amount of more than 1,200,000/. Thus they were not
only obliged w reduce their dividend all at once to six
 percent, but to apply to government for assistance. Here
 it may be mentioned  in general, that the event proved
 very unfavourable to the  company, as  they were now
 subjected to  an interference of  government  altogether
 unknown  before.   Several important alterations were
 made in their constitution both at home and abroad. The
 settlements of Madras, Bombay, and Calcutta, which
 had hitherto been entirely independent of one another,
 were subjected to a governor-general, assisted by a coun-
 cil of four assessors.  The nomination ofthe fir>,t gover-
 nor and council, who were  to reside at Calcutta, was as-
 sumed by  parliament; the  power ofthe court of Calcut-
 ta, which had gradually extended its  jurisdiction over
 the rest, was now reduced and  confined to  the trial of
 mercantile causes, the purpose for which it was original-
 ly instituted.  Instead of it, a new supreme court of judi-
 cature was established; consisting of a chief justice and
 three judges, to be appointed by the crown. Besides these
 alterations, the stock necessary to entitle any proprietor
 to vote  at the general courts was raised from 500/.  to
 1000/. To vote on this qualification, too, it was necessa-
 ry that  he should have possessed  it, if acquired by  his
 own purchase  and not by inheritance, for at least one
 year, instead of six months, the term requisite formerly.
 The court of 24 directors had before been chosen annual-
 ly; but it was now enacted  that each  director should  for
 the future be chosen for four years; six of them,  how-
 ever, to  go out of office by  rotation every year, and not
 to be capable of being rechosen at the election of the six
 new directors for  the ensuing year. It   was expected
 that in consequence of these alterations the courts, both
 of the proprietors and directors, would be likely to act
 with more dignity  and steadiness than  formerly.  But
 this was far from being the case. The company and its
 servants showed the utmost indifference  about the hap-
 piness or misery of the people who had the misfortune to
 be subjected to their jurisdiction. This indifference, too,
 was more likely  to be increased than diminished  by
 some of  the  new regulations.  The  house of commons,
 for instance, had  resolved, that  when the 1,600,000/.
 lent to the company by government should be paid, and
 their bond-debts reduced to 1,500,000/. they might then,
 and not till then, divide eight per cent, upon their capi-
 tal; and that  whatever remained of  their revenues and
 nctt profits at home should  he divided  into four parts*
 three of them to be paid into the exchequer for the use  of
 tbe public-, and the fourth to be reserved as a fund, either
 for the further reduction of their bond-debts, or for the
 discharge of other contingent exigencies which the com-
 pany might labour under.  But it could scarcely be ex-
 pected that if the company were bad stewards and bad
 sovereigns when the whole of their nett revenue and pro-
 fits belonged to themselves, they would be better when
 three -fourths  of these belonged  to  other  people.  The
 regulations of 1773, therefore, did not put an end to the
 troubles of the company.  Among other institutions it
 had been at this time enacted, that the  presidency of
 Bengal should have a superiority over  the other pre-
 sidencies in the country; the salary of the chief justice
 was fixed at 8000/. per annum, and  those  of the other
judges at 6000/. each. In consequence of this act sir Eli-
jah Impey, who w as created a baronet  on the occasion,
 set sail,  with three  other judges,  for India in the  year 
COMPANY.
1774.   The powers with which fhey were invested were
very  extraordinary.  They  had  the  title of his  ma-
jesty's supreme court of judicature in India.  Civil  law,
common  law, ecclesiastical,  criminal, and  admiralty
jurisdiction,  belonged  of right to  them.   They were
empowered to try Europeans on personal actions,  and
to assess damages, without a jury.    Every native,
either   directly or  indirectly in the service of  the
company,  or in their territories, was made  subject to
their jurisdiction,  with a view  to prevent the Europeans
from  eluding justice under the pretence of employing
natives in the commission of  their crimes: so that in
fact they were absolute lords and sovereigns ofthe whole
country.
   Such excessive and unlimited powers conferred on any
small number of men, could not but be extremely disa-
greeable to the Europeans, who had been accustomed to
enjoy a liberty almost equally unbounded before; nor was
it to he supposed that the judges, then suddenly raised
from the rank of  subjects to the height of despotism,
wrould  always nsc their power in an unexceptionable
manner. The design of the establishment was to preserve
the commerce and revenues of the  company from depre-
dation,  by subjecting its servants to the controul of the
court;  to relieve the subject from oppression by  facilita-
ting the means of redress;  and to fix a regular course of
justice for the security of liberty and property.  Instead
of considering the circumstances of the country, however,
or the manners and customs of the natives, the judges
now precipitately introduced  the British  laws in their
full extent, without the least modification to render them
agreeable to  the Asiatics,  who had been accustomed to
others of a quite different nature; nor did they even pay
the least regard to the religious institutions or habits to
which the Indians are so obstinately attached, that they
would sooner part with life itself than break through an
article of them.
   To remedy these and  other abuses,  in the year 1783,
Mr. Fox, then secretary of state, brought in a bill « for
vesting the affairs of  the East India company in  the
hands of certain commissioners, and also for the better
government of the territorial possessions and dependen-
cies in India."  The bill vested the principal power for
four years  in seven directors, with nine assistant direc-
tors, being proprietors, to  be nominated in the  first in-
stance by  parliament; and all future vacancies among
the directors  to be filled  up by  his majesty; and all va-
cancies among the  assistant  directors to be filled up hy
the proprietors of India stock, by open poll.  The bill
passed the commons; but a clamor being raised against
it, was rejected by the lords;  and  the ministry was  dis-
missed.  In the following year  Mr. Pitt, who succeeded
to the administration, brought in a bill, which was after-
wards passed into a law, authorising his majesty to ap-
point certain  commissioners  from the members of the
privy council, to check,  superintend,  and controul, all
concerns, civil and military, of the India company; and
in this, which is now called the board  of controul, rests
the principal direction  of the company's affairs; though
the court of directors still conduct the commercial busi-
ness of the  company.
   In conclusion of this detail we shall only mention the
petition  last presented to the house of commons by the
company. This stated certain pecuniary embarrassments
which they  apprehended  to  take  place  on the  1st of
March, 1790, owing to the arrears of the war, to the go-
vernment claim of 500,000/., to the  debt  incurred  in
China, and to the advances necessary to be made for the
purposes of the China trade.  In compliance with their
petition, the  chancellor of the exchequer moved, on the
following day, that they should be empowered to borrow
a sum not exceeding  1,200,000/.  He at the same time
observed, that in all probability the company  in  ir9l
would have upwards of 3,000,000/.  sterling more than
sufficient to discharge their debts. We are sorry to add
this prediction has not been verified.
   3.  Hudson's-bay company.  The vast countries which
surround Hudson's-bay  abound with animals whose furs
and skins are excellent, being far superior in quality to
those found in less northerly regions. In 1670 a charter
was granted to a company,  which does  not consist of
above nine or ten persons, for the exclusive trade to thin
bay; and they have acted under it ever since with great
benefit to themselves.  The company employ four shins,
and 130 seamen. They have several forts, viz. Prince of
Wales's fort, Churchill  river, Nelson, New Severn, and
Albany, which stand on the west side of the hay, and are
garrisoned by 186 men.  The French, in May 1782, took
and destroyed these forts, and the settlements, &c. valued
at 500,000/.  They export commodities to the value of
16,000/. and bring home returns to  the value of  29,340/.
which yield to the revenue  3734/.  This includes  the fish-
cry in Hudson's-bay. This commerce,  small as  it is, af-
fords  immense profits to the company, and even some
advantages to Great Britain in general: for the commo-
dities we exchange with  the Indians for their skins and
furs, are all manufactured in  Britain; and as the Indians
are not very nice in their choice, such things are sent of
which we have the greatest plenty; and which, in the mer-
cantile phrase, are drugs with us: and although the work-
manship happens  to be in many respects so deficient,
that no civilized people would take it off  our hands, it
may be admired among the Indians. On the other hand,
the skins and furs we bring from  Hudson's-bay,  enter
largely into our manufactures, and afford  us materials
for trading with many nations of  Europe to great ad-
vantage. These circumstances tend to prove incontesta-
ble the immense benefit that would  result  to Great Bri-
tain, by throwing open the trade to Hudson's-bay, since
even  in  its  present restrained state  it  is so advan-
tageous.   This company, it  is  probable, do not find
their trade so advantageous now as it was before we gof
possession of Canada.  The only attempt made to trade
with Labrador has been  directed towards the  fishery,
the annual produce of which exceeds 49,000/.
  Company, in military affairs, a small body of foot,
commanded by a captain,  who has under him  a lieute-
nant and ensign.
  The number of sentinels, or private soldiers, in a com-
pany, may be from 50 to 80;  and a  battalion consists of
13 such companies, one of which is always grenadiers, and
posted on the  right; next them stand the eldest company,
and on the left the second  company; the  youngest one
being always posted in the centre. Companies not incor-
porated into regiments are called irregulars, or indepen-
dent companies. 
COMPARATIVE  ANATOMY.
   COMPARITIVE  ANATOMY  has  been  defined
««that branch of anatomy wbich considers the secondary
objects, or the bodies of other animals;  serving for tbe
more accurate distinctions of several parts, and supply-
ing the defects of human subjects."
   From the general view, however, which we are about
to present of this  science,  it will appear that the above
is  by no means a correct definition.  Comparative  does
not, in strict propriety, stand in  contradistinction to hu-
man  anatomy; but, on the contrary, while it embraces
the whole circle  of animated existence, considers man
as the standard of its comparisons, and the primary ob-
ject of its inquiries.
   To ascertain the differences among animals in  their
several organs, is  the proper object of comparative ana-
tomy. In  treating of this subject, therefore, it is our in-
tention to describe, in the first place, the most important
of those varieties;  which  will lead to a classification or
division of animals, founded on the whole of their organ-
ization, those being connected in one class which  have
the nearest resemblance to each other in anatomical cha-
racters; we shall then select two individuals of the first
classes for the more particular description of tbe inter-
nal organs, especially of the thoracic and abdominal vis-
cera; and  conclude by taking a general survey; first of
the structure of animal bodies, as it relates to their loco-
motive powers; and secondly, in reference to the external
form and  relative quantity  of brain or encephalon, as
connected with a gradation of the sentient principle and
intellectual fac ulties.
General differences which animals exhibit in  their organs
                 of sense and motion.
   As the principal characteristics of animal life are sen-
sation and loco-motion, we are  naturally led to inquire
into the differences of those organs in which the former
faculty is  found to reside, and  likewise  into those by
which the latter  is exerted,  for the  purpose of es-
tablishing a  general  and obvious classification of the
objects  of comparative anatomy:  accordingly  we  find
the variations ofthe internal part of the nervous system
to present three well-marked divisions; the first of which
commencing with  the lowest  order of animals, compre-
hends those in which neither vessels nor nerves have hi-
therto been discovered;  such are the zoophytes, or  poly-
pi, which  perhaps  may be regarded as preferring but an
equivocal claim to the denomination of animals. The second
division consists of those in which there is only the  brain
above the  alimentary canal, while the remaining portion
of the common bundle  of nerves is situated  beneath it,
and is contained in the same cavity with the  other visce-
ra: these  form the class of mollusca,  Crustacea, insects,
and some  of the articulated worms.  The third division
romprchends animals in which the common fasciculus of
nerves is placed entirely in the back, and above the ali-
mentary tube, being inclosed within a canal which pas-
ses through the vertical column: these are the vertebral
animals, in which  man is included.
   With respect to the external sens"s. we shall find  the
difference to  consist in the number, and degree of energy,
which appertain to each.
   All vertebral animals possess the same senses as man.
   Sight appears to be wanting in the zoophytes, in seve-
ral kinds of  articulated worms,  in many of the insects,
and in the acephalous mollusca.  The organ of hearing
has not been discovered in some of the mollusca and in-
sects. The remaining three senses, but particularly those
of taste and touch, appear in no instance to be wanting.
   The organs  of motion present likewise  the three fol-
lowing  important and  primary distinctions.  1st.  The
bones either form an internal skeleton,  articulated, and
covered by muscles;  or, 2dly, these last are placed ex-
ternally,  and enveloped by scales or shells:  in the last
division there is  not any hard part that can serve as a
lever or fulcrum for motion.
   Animals of the first kind  have the whole body sup-
ported hy a bony column formed of distinct pieces, which
is called the spine, vertebral column, or back-bone: these,
therefore, are the vertebral animals.
   The animals destitute of vertebra, according as they
are entirely soft, have their bodies covered with scales,
or are enclosed  in shells, belong  to the classes of soft
worms, insects, or Crustacea.
   Besides, however, the leading distinctions above point-
ed out from varieties in animal organization and func-
tions, we  shall find important  differences likewise  in
those that arc called vital and natural functions, and  in
the organs appropriated to each.
   Varieties in t/ie organs of digestion and assimilation.
   The organs of digestion afford two leading differences
in their  general  dispositions.  In the major part of the
zoophytes the  intestines from a sac, which has  but a
single  aperture, serving at once for the entrance of the
aliment  and discharge of the  excrement: all other ani-
mals  have  two  distinct openings  for  these  purposes
(mouth and anus), placed at the two extremities of what
is  called the alimentary canal.
   The chyle, formed by the action  of the digestive or-
gans, is  transmitted to the several  parts  of the body in
two different ways.  It  either simply transudes through
the sides ofthe alimentary canal, thus in a manner bath-
ing all the interior ofthe body, as in the zoophytes, and
perhaps  in insects; or it is received by a distinct  sys-
tem of vessels, through the medium of which it is con-
veyed  into the mass of blood.  Some of those animals
that  have absorbent vessels,  as man, and other of the
vertebral class, have the contents of these vessels white,
while  the blood is red; in others the chyle, lymph, and
blood, are of tiie same colour.
   Differences in the organs of circulation, respiration,
                     and voice.
  The circulation ofthe blood itself is accompanied with
very considerable differences.
   In the first place,  there are animals, viz.  the insects
and  zoophytes, which have no circulation; others have
a single, and others a duhlc circulation.   The reptiles
afford an example ofa single circulation;  while in man,
indeed in all the mammalia, as likewise in  birds,  fishes,
and many of the mollusca, it is double.
   Where  the circulation is single, a great part  of the
venous  blood  re-enters the  arteries without passing
through the lungs: in this manner the blood is distribut-
ed in the amphibia.  Here there is only one heart;  when
the circulation  is double, there are sometimes one heart
at the base of the pulmonary artery, and another at the
base ofthe aorta, or principal artery of  the body; and
these  two hearts  are either united/ us in man, some 
COMPARATIVE ANATOMY.
other ofthe mammalia, andliirds; or they are separate,
and placed at a distance, as in the genus sepia, or cuttle-
fish.
  Where there is only one ventricle,  it is  sometimes
placed  at the base of the  aorta,  as  in snails and other
molluscula, or at the root  of the pulmonary artery, as in
fishes.
  Great varieties are also observable in the organs sub-
servient to respiration. When the element that acts on
the blood  is atmospheric air, it penetrates the interior
of the respiratory organ; while it simply glides over a
multiplied surface, when  that element  is water: in  this
latter case the lamellae of which the organ is composed
are called gills, or branchiae: these are common to fishes,
and many ofthe mollusca; in  some instances, in place of
branchiae, we meet with fringes, or tufts.
  The  air penetrates into the interior ofthe body, either
by  a single aperture, or by several: the former is observ-
ed in all animals which have  lungs, properly  so called.
When there are several apertures, which is the case only
in insects, the vessels that receive  the air are ramified
ad  infinitum, and convey it to  every  part of the body.
This last is called respiration by tracheae.
  Lastly,  scarcely any of the zoophytes have percepti-
ble organs of respiration.
  The  organs of voice present but two general differen-
ces.  In birds the glottis is situated  at  the  interior, in
quadrupeds and reptiles it is placed at the superior, ex-
tremity of the trachea, and at the root ofthe tongue.  It
is only the above three classes  of animals that are fur-
nished  with  a glottis.   Sounds are produced in  other
animals by different means.  Sometimes the friction of
certain elastic parts is employed for this purpose; some-
times the animal beats the air with other parts, or oc-
casions  a  rapid motion in  certain  portions  of that air
which is retained in its body.
            Varieties in the generative  organs.
   Generation essentially  differs both in its mechanism
and produce. This function is performed in some of the
zoophytes  without  copulation; and the  young animal
grows on the body  of the parent like  the shoots of vege-
tation.   In other animals the sexual  organs are either
found united in the  same individual, as in the mollusca,
and some of the zoophytes, or are placed in two sepa-
rate  individuals, as in insects, and all the vertebral class
of animals.
  Some hermaphrodites, as  the bivate shell fish, gene-
rate singly; in others of  this  class  a  conjunction of two
individuals is absolutely necessary for the production of
offspring;  each individual performing, at the same time,
the function  of both male and female: this is the case
with  snails, and other species of mollusca that crawl  up-
on the belly.
  The product of generation  is either a bud  projecting
from the parent like the branch of a tree, till completely
developed;  or a foetus, which arrives  at maturity in the
womb ofits mother, and from  which it issues a living
animal; or, finally, it is  an embryo, inclosed in a shell,
with a substance adhering to,  and connected with, it hy
vessels; which substance  it absorbs and  converts  into
nutriment before it  is completely hatched.   The above
varieties form the three modes of generation denominat-
ed gemmiparous, viviparous,  and oviparous.   The first
is confined to a few zoophytes and articulated worms;
the second takes place in man and other mammalia only;
the third  is common to all other animals, with the partial
exception of those which, although in reality oviparous,
 are actually generated living animals, on account of the
eggs being hatched in the oviduct of the mother.  This
is  the case for instance, with the  viper.    Some  animals
have at birth the same form which they afterwards retain'
Others vary considerably in their perfect state from tin*
form which they received at birth, and are said therefore
to undergo a metamorphosis. Hitherto this change has
only been observed in insects, and in reptiles without
scales, that is, in frogs and lizards.
                  Organs of secretion.
   The organs of secretion likewise vary materially in dif-
ferent animals: in the zoophytes  secretory vessels have
not been detected; in insects secretion is effected by tubes
of different length; and in the vertebral animals,  as like-
wise in  some of the mollusca, this function is performed
by glands, or at least vascular expansions.
   Classification of Animals,  FouirnEn on the
          WHOLE OF THEIR  ORGANIZATION.
   The comparative anatomist divides the whole animal
kingdom into two great families: the first comprehends
those animals which have vertebrae and red blood: the se-
cond is composed of those which are destitute of vertebne,
and which, for the most part,  have white blood.
   The general anatomy of the first class is the following.
      Anatomy of vertebral animals with red blood.
   The skeleton is  invariably covered hy fleshy substance.
and is articulated.  Its principal support is the vertebral
column,  which always joins the  head at its anterior ex-
tremity, and  is frequently prolonged at its posterior ex-
tremity to form the tail.   The ribs, which arc constantly
met with  in animals of this  class, are attached  to both
sides of the spine. There are never more than four limbs;
two, or all of which, are sometimes wanting.  The brain
is always contained in the cranium; the senses are inva-
riably five in  number; the eyes are two; the ear has at
least  three semicircular canals;  the  sense of smell lias
always its seat in the cavities  at the anterior part of the
head.
   The circulation is maintained by a heart consisting of
at least one ventricle: if there are two,  these are never
separate.   The absorbent  is  distinct from the venous
system.
   The two jaws are situated horizontally: the mouth al-
ways opens by their separation from  above downwards.
The intestinal canal is continued  from the mouth to the
anus, which  is uniformly found  at the posterior part ot
the pelvis. The intestines are surrounded  hy a perito-
neum.  A liver, pancreas,  and spleen, are always met
with.
   The kidneys are placed on each side the  spine and
without the peritoneum. The testicles are  two in number.
Above the kidneys two bodies  are found, the use of which
has not hitherto been  discovered.
   This first class is again subdivided into two branches,
consisting 1st of animals  with warm blood, and 2dly of
animals with  cold blood.
          Vertebral animals with warm blood.
   The first of these have invariably two ventricles and a
double circulation.  Animals  of this class cannot exist 
COMPARATIVE  ANATOMY.
 without respiration.   Their brain occupies the whole ca-
 vity of the cranium.   Their eyes close  by  palpebra'.
 The tympanum of the ear is sunk in the scull.  The la-
 byrinth of this organ is enveloped by the bone; and (here
 is always  observed in it, besides the semicircular  canal,
 an organ resembling the shell of a snail (cochlea).  Their
 nostrils  have  a  communication with  the  back of the
 i.toutb.  Their trunk is invariably surrounded with ribs;
 the greater number of this class of animals have four
 limbs.
                    With cold blood.
   The second subdivision of this first class, the vertebral
 animals  with  cold blood, are  frequently without ribs;
 some have no articulated  limbs.   Their brain never fills
 up the whole cavity of the cranium.   The eyes are sel-
 dom furnished with moveable  palpebrae.  When there is
 a tympanum to the organ of hearing, it is  always level
 with the head.  The cochlea  is wanting.  The various
 parts of the car are not attached closely to tbe cranium;
 sometimes they are at liberty in the same cavity with the
 brain.
   Each of these  two branches  of vertebral  animals, is
 again subdivided  into two classes; the two divisions ofthe
 first branch are the mammalia and birds.
 first class of vertebral animals with warm blood—The
                     Mammalia.
   The mammalia are viviparous: they nourish their young
 with milk which is furnished by  their mammae; they have
 always an uterus with two cornua; the males have a pe-
 nis, wbich in copulation is introduced into the genital or-
 gan of the female.
   The head ofthe mammalia is jointed to the first  verte-
 bra hy two eminences: the cervical vertebrae are  never
 less than six, nor more than nine; the brain is extremely
 complicated: it has parts which are not met with in other
 classes of animals, such as  the corpus callosum, fornix,
 pons Varolii, &c.  Sec Anatomy.
   The eyes of the mammalia have only two palpebrae;
 their ears have four articulated bones, and a spiral coch-
 lea; their tongue is soft and fleshy, the skin is in a great
 number of instances covered with hair, and there  is some
 hair on all of them.
   The lungs are enclosed within the thorax: there is al-
 ways a diaphragm: there is  only one larynx, which is
 situated at the base  of the tongue, and covered by the
 gl-jftis during deglutition.
   The inferior maxilla only is moveable; both jaws arc
 furnished with  lips.
   Tbe biliary  and pancreatic ducts  are inserted  at the
 same  point: the lacteal vessels contain a milky chyle, and
 pass through the mesenteric glands. The epiploon covers
 the anterior portion of the intestines.
   The spleen is invariably situated on  the left side; be-
 tween  the stomach, ribs, and diaphragm.
                 Second class—Aves.
   Birds arc oviparous; they  have but one ovarium and
 one oviduct, a structure peculiar to this class.  The head is
 connected with the vertebrae  hy one eminence only: the
 vertebrae ofthe neck arc very numerous.  The sternum
 is much expanded: the anterior members are only used in
 flying, the  posterior in walking.
   The eyes of  birds have three  palpebrae; they have no
external ear: the tympanum has  only one bone: the coch-
   vol. i.                 78
 lea is in the four: of a cone slightly twisted; the  inngne
 has a bone internally; the body is covered with fe.ttliers
 the lungs are attached to the ribs; in the acr of inspiration
 air is communicated to all tbe body, as birJs have no di-
 aphragm.  The windpipe has a larnyx at each extremi-
 ty; the upper extremity is without  an epiglottis.  Their
 mouth is formed hy a bill or beak of a horny consistence,
 the two mandibks of which arc moveable.
   Several ducts  pass out from  the pancreas  and livrv,
 and penetrate the intestinal canal at different parts.  Tbe
 chyle is transparent,  and  there are neither mescnteri:
 glands nor omentum.  The spleen is in the centre of the
 mesentery.
   The urinary ducts (ureters) terminate  in a cavity cal-
 led the cloaca, which is the receptacle both of the  excre-
 ments and eggs.  Birds have no urinary  bladder.
 Gt iwral anatomy of animals with cold  blood  belonging t«
   the vertebral class;  these are reptiles and fishes:  third
   class of animals—Reptiles.
   There is less uniformity in the organization of reptiles
 than  in that of any  other class; some walk, some fly,
 others sw im, and many can merely crawl.  Their organs
 of sensation, particularly the car, exhibit nearly as many
 varieties as those of motion. Reptiles are howrever univer-
 sally without cochlea; their skin  is either  naked, or enve-
 loped with  a scaly covering: their brain is invariably
 small; the lungs are contained in the same cavity with the
 other viscera, but they do not admit the air to pass be-
 yond  them.   The pulmonary cells  are very capacious;
 tliere is only one larynx which has an epiglottis: both the
jaws are moveable; they arc without omentum or mesen-
 teric glands; the spleen, as in birds, is in the centre of the
 mesentery. The female has two ovaries and two oviducts;
 reptiles have an urinary bladder.
                Fourth class-—Pisces.
   Fishes respire hy organs in the shape of gills situated
 on either side of the neck,  between which they transmit
 the water;  they have  therefore  no  trachea, larynx, nor
 voice; their bodies  are formed for  swimming, but  they
 have sometimes no fins. Besides the four  which represent
 the extremities, they  have vertical fins on the back, un-
 der the tail, and at its extremity.
   Their nostrils do not assist them in respiration:  their
 car is concealed within the cranium: their skin is either
 without any covering, or is scaly; their tongue is bony;
 each jaw is moveable; the intestinula caeca often occupy
the place of the pancreas; they have an urinary bladder:
 their ovaries are double.
     General anatomy of animals without vertebra;.
   The organization of the second family of animals, the
invertebral,  presents  a less regular series to  assist the
comparative anatomist in his classification.   If animals
of this class have an articulated and hard skeleton,  it is
for the most  part external.  Their nervous system, in-
stead of being enclosed in a bony case,  floats in the same
cavity with the other viscera.  The brain furnishes two
branches which envelope the oesophagus; the continuation
of these branches forms the  remainder of the common
mass of nerves.
   Animals  without vertebrae  never respire  by cellular
lungs; and in no instance have they voice: their jaws  have
various  directions, and often their mouths  are merely
suckers;  they have neither kidneys nor urine; if  they 
COMPARATIVE  AXATOMY.
have articulated members they are always at least six in
number.   The  invertebral  animals may be divided into
five classes; the jnollusca, Crustacea, insects, worms, and
polypi or zoophytes.
First order of invertebral animals, forming the fifth gene-
                 ra! class—Mollusca.
  The body of the mollusca is soft,  fleshy,  and destitute
of articulated members: sometimes tbey have hard parts
situated internally.  They  respire by  branchiae.  Their
brain is  a distinct mass, from which proceed the nerves
and a medulia oblongata.   They have ganglions.  Their
external senses vary  with  respect to number.   In some
the eyes and ears are perceptible, while in others we are
not capable of detecting any other senses  than those of
taste and touch.  Many of the mollusca can masticate,
while others can merely swallow'.  This class of animals
has a voluminous liver, which secretes a large quantity of
bile.  Their generative organs are exceedingly various.
               Sixth class—Crustacea.
   In the Crustacea the body is covered with scales: these
animals have often a  considerable number of articulated
members; their nervous system  is  composed of a long
knotted cord, from the ganglions of which all the nerves
are distributed. The Crustacea have hard moveable eyes;
their ears are  very imperfect in their organization: the
sense of  touch is furnished by  antenae and  feelers, as in
insects: they have a heart with arterial and venous  ves-
sels, and they respire by branchiae: their jaws are trans-
verse, strong, and numerous; teeth are found in the sto-
mach; a number of intcstinula cceca afford a brown fluid,
which appears  to supply the office of bile.   The  male of
the Crustacea has two penes, the  female two ovaria.
               Seventh class—Insecta.
   Insects have antennae and articulated members,  like
the Crustacea.   Some of these animals  have wings, in
which case they have existed in different forms,  and in
certain stages of their existence have been  entirely  mo-
tionless.   Insects have a  nervous system,  like  that of
the  Crustacea; they  have, however, neither heart nor
vessels, and respire only by tracheae. Not only the liver,
but all the secretory glands, arc  in  insects replaced by
long vessels, which float in  the abdomen.   As the animal
passes through its different states of existence, the form
ofthe intestinal canal varies considerably  in the same
individual.
               Eighth class—Vermes.
  These  animals,  which  greatly resemble the insect
tribe, might be joined with  insects, but they do  not  un-
dergo a metamorphosis.  Some of them have a distinct
vascularity, and  they may be  regarded as forming an
intermediate class between the  mollusca, Crustacea,  and
insects; such are the terrestrial worms, and  leeches.
               Ninth class—Zoophyta.
  The parts ofthe body in this class  of equivocal animals
are formed like the radii  of a circle,  in  the  centre of
which the mouth is placed.  The anatomist has  not hi-
therto been able to trace in the zoophytes,  heart, blood-
vessels, brain,  or nerves.
   The following table will present at one view, without
the necessity  of detail, the various subdivisions ofthe
classes  of animals  above   described.   To render  this
description more intelligible, the  Linnsean  classification
and generic names of animals have been connected with
the anatomical divisions and nomenclature.
   Mammalia.
   A. With nails.
   «. Having each kind of teeth.
I. Thumbs only separate on the superior extremities.__
   Genus homo; ofthe primates of Linnaeus.— Bimanu.
II. Thumbs separate on all four feet.—Genera  simia
   lemur; primates Linnaei.—({uudrnmana.
III. On the fore feet, no thumbs separate.
   1. Hands elongated; membranes from the neck to the
    anus.—Gen. vespertilio,  galeopithecus;  primates
     Lin.—Chi roplcra.
   2. The whole of the soles  of  the feet resting on the
    ground.—G. crinaceus, sorex, talpa, ursus; fer»
    Lin.—Plantigrada.
   3. Feet resting only on the toes—G. mustela, viverr.i,
    felis, canis; ferae Lin.—Carnivora.
   4. Thumbs separate on the hind feet.—Genus  didel-
    phis; ferae Lin.—Pedimana.
   b. Without some kinds of teeth.
IV. Without canine teeth.—G. kangarus, hystrix, lepus,
   cavia, castor, sciurus, cheioromys, mus; glires Lin.—
   Bodentia.
V. With no incisive or  canine teeth.—Gen.  myrmecop-
   haga, orycteropus, dasypus; bruta Lin.—Edentula.
VI. SVithout incisive teeth.—G. bradypus; bruta Lin.—
   Tardigrada.
   B. With hoofs.
VII. More than two toes  and two hoofs.—G.  elephas;
   bruta Lin.  Sus, hippopotamus, hyrax, and rhinoceros;
   belluae \An.—Pachodermia.
VIII. With two toes and  hoofs.—Pecora Lin.—Rumi-
   nantia.
IX. One  toe  and one  hoof.—G.  equus; belluae Lin.—
   Solipeda.
   C. With finny feet.
X. Four feet.—G. phoca;  ferae Linnaei: and trichecus,
   bruta Lin.—Amphibia.
   Aves.
I. Feet short, toes  with  long claws, beak hooked.—
   Accipitres Lin. except lanius.—Accipitres.
II. Four toes, tjiree  anterior  and  one  behind;  external
   toes entirely or  partially joined.—G. laneus; passeres
   Lin. except columba, and some ofthe picse.—Passeres.
III. Two anterior toes and two behind.—Part of the G.
   picas Lin.—Scansores.
IV. Anterior toes united at their base by a short mem-
   brane.—Gallinae,  and some  of the grallse, Lin.—
   Gallincc.
V. Legs long and naked.—Most  of the grallae Lin.—
   Gratia;.
VI. Toe united by extensive membranes.—-Anseres Lin.
   —Anseres.
   Reptiles.
   A.  Heart with two anricles.
I. Upper  part ofthe body enveloped by shell, jaws cov-
   ered with horn.—G.   testudo; reptiles  pedati  Lin.—
   Chelonii.
II. Body  covered  with  scales,  teeth.—Reptiles  pedati
   Lin.—Saurii.
   B.  Heart with only one  ventricle. 
COMPARATIVE ANATOMY.
 III.  Body covered with scales,  no feet, no branchiae  at
  any period.—Serpentes apodes Lin.—Ophidii.
 IV.  Skin naked, feet, branchiae in the first  period.-
  Reptiles pedati Lin.—Batrachii.
  Pisces.
  A. Skeleton cartilaginous.
 I. Branchiae fixed.  Part of the amphibia nantia Lin.—
  Chondropterygii.
 II.  Branchiae loose.  Part of the amph.  nan. Lin.—
  Branchiostegi.
  B. Skeleton bony.
 HI.  No ventral fins.—Apodes Lin.—Apodes.
 IV.  With ventral fins anterior to the pectoral.—Jugu-
  lares Lin.—Jugulares.
 V.  Ventral  fins below the  pectoral.—Thoracici.—Tho-
  racici.
 VI.  Ventral fins behind the pectoral.—Abdominales Lin.
  —Abdominales.
  Mollusca.
 I. Head with tentacula  supplying the place  of feet.—
  Saepia belonging to the mollusca, and argonauta and
  nautilus to the cochleae, Lin.—Cephalopoda.
 II.  Head free, and which crawl on the belly.—Cochleae
  Lin—Gasteropoda.
 III.  Without a distinct head.—Principally conchae Lin.—
  Acephala.
  Crustacea.
 I. Monuculus.
 II.  Cancer.
  Insecta.
  A. With jaws.
 I. No wings.—Gnathaptera.
 II.  Four reticulated wings.—Neuroptera.
 III.  Four veined wings.—Hymenoptera.
 IV.  Four wings,  superior hard, inferior folded trans-
  versely.—Coleoptera.
 V. Four wings, superior hard, inferior folded longitudi-
  nally.—Orthoptera.
  B. Without jaws.
 VI.  Four wings  much  crossed,  rostrum articulated.—
  HemipteYa.
 VII.  Four wings covered with scales, trunk spirally
  con vol uteil.—Lepidoptera.
 VIII. Two wings only.—Diptera.
 IX.  No wings.—Aptera.
  Vermes.
 1. With external organs  of respiration, and hairs on the
  sides  of their bodies.—Some of the mollusca, and some
  of the testacea, Lin.
 II.  Without external  organs of respiration.
  1.  Hairs on the  sides of the body.—Xais, lumhricus,
     thallaserna.
  2. No hairs on the side of the body—Hirudo, fasciola,
     planaria, gordius.
  Animals  hearing  a resemblance to the  vermes, the
organization of wiiich is  not sufficiently known to deter-
mine whethrr they belong to that order, or ought to form
one contiguous to the zoophyta.
  1st family.—Tenia, hvdatigenia, ligula, lingnatiula.
  2d  fainih—Ascaris, and some other intestinal worms.
  Zoophv ta.
  A,  .Not attached.
 I.  With a calcareous or coriaceous envelope,  and intt -.
   tines floating in the interior cavity.—Echinodermia.
 II. With a fleshy or gelatinous envelope, intestines hollow,
   and adhering in the mass ofthe body.—Urticaria.
 HI. Very small,  swimming in fluids.—Infusoria.
 IV. Gelatinous bodies,  increasing by bud's.—Polypi.
   B. Attached to a solid trunk.
 V. In which the  medullary substance crosses a corneous
   axis,  and terminates in polypi on its  branches.—-
   Zoophyta.
 VI. In which each polypus is inclosed  in a horny or cal-
   careous shell, and  is  not connected by a  medullary
   axis.—Esdiara.
 VII.  In which a solid axis is  covered with a  sentient
   flesh,  from cavities in which the polypi issue.—Ce-
   ratophyta.
 VUL In which a stony axis or base serves for the re-
   ceptacle of the  polypi.—Lithophyta.
 IX. In which the base is spongy, friable, or composed of
   fibres.—Spongia.
                 ANATOMY OF A  COW.
   Class 1st, order 2d, genus 8th,  species ruminantia.
                     Fcetal state.
   For the production of  the fcetus in this animal, as
 well as in the  human species, something is  necessarily
 derived from the ovaria.   The uterus of the cow has
 large cornua, in  wiiich  a portion  of the  secundines  is
 contained: consisting principally of the  allantois, with
 the contained liquor.  The muscular fibres of the uterus
 are plainly marked.    Upon its  internal  surface  are
 found a number of glandular bodies,  which are formed
 by the termination of the  uterine vessels.   When the
 womb is in an impregnated state, a kind of mucilaginous
 liquor may be pressed  out of these glandular bodies.
 These are called the papillae of the uterus.  The mouth
 ofthe womb  (os uteri)  is  entirely closed by a muci-
 laginous substance, that is  common to  the females of all
 animals when in a state of  pregnancy.   The first of tbe
 proper membranes of the foetus is the chorion; on the ex-
 ternal surface  of which  are spread a number of fleshy
 bodies; called cotyiedones,  or placentitis,  which answer
 the same purpose with the  placenta in the human sub-
ject.  These, though  indented among  the papillae, have
 no vascular connection with the.n.
  The allantois, or allantoides. is  the second  membrane
 of the uterus.   This is extremely  fine and transparent;
 it is not an entire involucrum of the foetus, hut is chiefly
 lodged in the cornua uteri.   In mares,  bitches, and rab-
 bits, it envelopes  the amnios.   In  sheep and goats, the
 form and comparative extent of this membrane, arc near-
 ly the  same  as in the animal we  arc now  describing,
 while in swine  and  in rabbits it covers still  less of the
 amnios.   A quantity of urine is commonly found in the
 sac. which this  membrane forms, probably by the dilata-
tion ofthe urachus, which  is connected at its  other ex-
tremity to the fundus of the bladder.  This membrane is
 exceedingly vascular; its existence in the human female
 has been a subject of much  dispute. See Midwiferv.
  The third proper involucrum of the foetus is the  am-
 nios.   This membrane  is thinner  aud  firmer than the
chorion.   Rainilieau-  ns  of the umbilical arteries and
veins are spread out upon it, by the terminations of which, 
COMPARATIVE  ANATOMY.
at its lateral parts,  a liquor is  secreted into the cavity
of the membrane.  This liquor is, in the first instance,
in a small quantity;  it afterwards increases; and again,
towards the end of pregnancy, decreases.   The amnios
does not enter the cornua uteri.
   We find in the foetus of this animal two venae  urnbili-
cales, the circulation of which is performed in the follow-
ing manner.   The blood from the placenta of the mother
is conveyed into the  capsula glissoniana, where it be-
comes blended with the blood of the vena portarum. Part
of this blood  proceeds immediately  to the  cava by the
ductus venosus; the rest circulates through the liver.
The whole is transmitted from the cava into the right
auricle, whence part is sent by the  foramen ovale into
the left auricle:  the  rest passes directly into the pulmo-
nary artery, through  the right ventricle.  A small por-
tion of this last circulates through the lungs, while the
greater part is conveyed immediately from the pulmona-
ry artery through the medium of the canalis arteriosus
into the descending  aorta.
                      Adult state.
   There are no dentes incisores in the upper jaw of this
animal; but the gums are hard, and the tongue remarkably
rough; its substance being covered by long sharp-point-
ed papillae, which are turned towards the throat, for the
purpose  of retaining the received aliment.  The ceso-
phagus of this  animal is composed of a double  row of
spiral fibres, which  decussate each  other.  In common
with all the ruminating animals, the cow has more than
one  stomach.   Some of the ruminantia  have two, some
three; while the subject  under  examination has four
stomachs,  or rather ventricles; the first  of these  is the
largest; it. is vulgarly called the paunch; this lies upon
the left side, and immediately receives the aliment. Up-
on the internal surface of this ventricle, there are  a great
number of small blunted processes, which give the whole
a general roughness and considerable extent.   By the
 force ofthe muscular coat ofthe paunch, aided by the gas-
tric: liquors, the food is in this cavity sufficiently macerated;
after which it is returned through the oesophagus into
the  mouth, where it is now masticated.   This process is
what is  called  chewing the cud, or rumination.  After
rumination tbe  food is sent down into  the second sto-
mach, into which  the oesophagus opens directly, as well
as into the first.  This second  stomach is  smaller than
the  first; it is situated anteriorly: the cells on its  internal
surface cause, it to  assume  the appearance  of a  honey-
comb.  Here the food is further macerated, and  i  hence
protruded into  the  third; the interior surface of which
forms a number of plicae  or folds; from this stomach it
passes into the fourth, the structure and function of which
greatly resemble  the  human stomach.   This  perhaps
ought, in strict propriety, to he alone  denominated the
stomach.   It is  worthy of remark, that in consequence of
the  elaboration  of  the aliment in ruminating animals,
much less food is required by them than by othci-s, who
have only one stomach.  In the horse there  is but one
 ventricle  for  the maceration of the ingesta, from which
 a liquor for nourishment is  extracted, and the remainder
 discharged, by the anus, very little altered.
   The intestinal  canal of  the  cow  is  of  considerable
 length; there is scarcely any difference  in the diameters
 of the large and small guts.   The ccecum is capacious and
long; the spleen is attached to the diaphragm; the liver
is not divided into so many lobes as in man; the vesica
urinaria is of  a pyramidal shape; it is exceedingly ca-
pacious; the cornua of the uterus are contorted  in  the
form of a snail; the heart differs  in form from that of
man principally in  having a more acute point, which
point is composed only of the left ventricle; the aorta is
properly,  in this animal,  divided  into ascending and
descending.
          ANATOMY OF A  DOMESTIC FOWL.
         Class 2d, genus 4th, species galling.
  This  animal, like all others of the same class, is ovi-
parous.   The cesophagus of this creature passes down
its neck, inclining  somewhat to the right side: it termi-
nates in a large membranous sac, which is the ingluvies or
crop, where the aliment is macerated and dissolved; then
passing out, it proceeds down the remaining portion of
the oesophagus into what has been called the ventricuhis
succentarius, formed by a continuation of the gullet, with
more numerous glands.  These glands separate a liquor,
by which the food is still  more  diluted, before it enters
the true stomach, gizzard, or ventriculus callosus.
  The duodenum begins nearly at the same place where
the oesophagus enters; the two orifices are however di-
vided by means of a protuberance, called septum medium.
The duodenum is chiefly situated in the  right side;  its
two extremities are attached to the liver; the ductus cho-
ledochus enters near its termination, and discharges its
contents into the gut, contrary to the course of the food.
  The  small intestines  are of considerable length.   At
the termination ofthe ilia, there arc two large cceca,one
on each side proceeding in an ascending direction from
the side of the rectum.   The excretories  of  the urine
have already been described,  as discharging their con-
tents into the cloaca.  See general anatomy  of the class
aves.
  The pancreas lies between the two folds of the duo-
denum; the spleen sends  its  blood into the vena porta-
rum; the liver is divided into  two equal lobes hy a pel-
lucid membrane.  The principal peculiarity to be obser-
ved in the heart, is the want ofthe valvule  tricuspides,
and their  place being supplied by one fleshy substance:
the form and mechanism of the lungs are the .same as in
the other genera of the  class.   Cells arc found in every
part of  the body, wiiich communicate with those of the
lungs; and, as before remarked, are filled with air, wiiich
even  penetrates into the cavities of the bones.  The
trachea at its division is very much contracted.  Hence,
in part, the shrillness of voice peculiar to this class of
animals.  That birds are  without diaphragm has alrea-
dy  been remarked.  In the animal we are now describ-
ing, the whole thorax  and abdomen are divided by  a
longitudinal membrane, or mediastinum, attached to the
lungs, pericardium, liver, stomach,  and likewise cover-
ing the stomach and intestines; this is analogous to tbe
omentum in the human species.
   The lacteals pass  from the intestines upon the mesen-
teric vessels; those of the  duodenum run  along the side
of the pancreas; afterwards they arrive upon the caeliac
artery: here they receive the lymphatics  from the liver
and gizzard, and shortly after another from the inferior
part of the oesophagus.  At the root of the coeliac artery
they  are joined by the lymphatics  of the  glands; and 
COMPARATIVE ANATOMY.
 near the same part by the lacteals of the small intestines.
 A particular branch passes  from the rectum* which re-
 ceives some small vessels from the  kidneys at  the root
 of the  c celiac artery.   The lymphatics of the inferior ex-
 tremities appear to unite with those from the intestines.
 At the root of the cceliac artery the junction of the lym-
 phatics forms a kind of net-work, from which arise  two
 thoracic ducts, one  lying on each side of the spine, which
 terminate near the  angle formed by the jugular and sub-
 clavian veins.  The ducts are joined by the lymphatics
 ofthe  neck, and probably by those of the superior mem-
 bers or wings, at the  place of their entrance into  the
jugulars.  The chyle,  it has already been observed, in
 all birds is like the  lymph, transparent and colourless.
   The kidneys lie  in the hollow of the back-bone, from
 which the  ureters pass into  the cloaca.   The  testicles
 are placed on each  side of jthe spine, and arc remarkably
 large in this animal: the seminal vessels pass from these
 at first in a straight direction, but afterwards are con-
 voluted,  like the epididymis of the human subject.  These
 convolutions  partly supply  the  want of vesiculae semi-
 nales;  the coition however of these animals is very short;
 the vasa seminifera terminate in the penes, of which, in
 the cock, there are two.   Birds in general are without
 prostrate gland.  From the  large size of the testes this
 animal is remarkably salacious, and is capable of impreg-
 nating many females.  Impregnation is  effected in  the
 following manner: The racemus vitellorum ofthe female
 being analogous to  the human  ovaria, is attached by  a
 membrane to the  spine, which membrane  is continued
 down to  the uterus. The orifice of the womb is averse
in respect to the ovaria; notwithstanding, by the force of
the venereal orgasm, it turns round and grasps the  v i-
tellus:  the substance from the racemus,  in its  passage
through the duct, receives a gelatinous liquor, by which,
 with what it afterwards receives in the uterus itself,  the
 white of the egg is formed.   The shell is lined with  a
 membrane, and in the larger end there is a bag filled with
 air, for which there is  no outlet.
   When the egg is completed, it is pushed  out from  the
 uterus, through an  aperture at the side ofthe common
cloaca.  When the hen lays eggs that are not impregna-
ted, tbe  semen ofthe  male has  not been applied to  the
vitelli.  These eggs appear to be complete, with the  ex-
ception of a  small black spot, which is that from which
the rudiments of the chick are formed.
General view of the  organs subservient to animal motions.
             FIRST, OF TIIE SKELETON.
  The bones of which  the skeleton is composed  are  for
the mo.vt part articulated, so as to form a whole.  To
this rule, however,  there  arc  exceptions.   In birds and
in quadrupeds, the  bones which support the tongue  are
only connected hy soft  parts with the general skeleton.
In those quadrupeds which have no clavicles, all the  os-
seous parts ofthe  anterior extremities are only attached
hy muscles; in other quadrupeds they are merely joined
to the sternum by single  clavicles,  and hy double ones
in the class aves.
  In fishes they are connected with the vertebral column
by a bony girdle.   In this class of animals the posterior
extremities are generally free, and simply  fixed in  the
muscular substance, while in other animals they have a
 firm connection with the rest of the skeleton through the
 medium ofthe pel vis.
   There are three primary divisions ofthe skeleton;the
 head, the trunk, and the extremities.
   The first is in no instance wanting.  In serpents, and
 in some fishes, the extremities are totally wanting.  In
 those  fishes that are without ventral fins (apodes Lin-
 naei), and in the cctacea among the mammalia (cete Lin.),
 the posterior extremities are wanting.  The anterior ex-
 tremities only are wanting in one species of lizard.
   No vertebral animal has more than four extremities,
 unless we include the kind of wing which belongs to the
 flying-dragon, a small animal  nearly similar to our li-
 zard.
   The trunk is formed by the vertebrae, ribs, and ster-
 num; the  number of the vertebrae is variable.  The ster-
 num is absent in serpents and fishes. The ribs are want-
 ing in frogs, rays, sharks, and anumber of cartilaginous
 fishes.
   It is but a small number of the vertebral animals that
 are without coccyx: these are  the ternate bats, and the
 frog kind.  Several fishes have no neck. The false ribs
 arc always posterior in quadrupeds.  In birds they are
 both before and behind.  In the crocodile, and some other
 animals, there are ribs which proceed from the sternum,
 hut wiiich do not join  the  vertebrae: others come from
 the vertebrae, and unite anteriorly with the correspond-
 ing ribs, without any intermediate sternum, as in the
 cameleon. The head is invariably placed at the anterior
 extremity of the  vertebral column.  It is divided into
 three parts, which, although they differ in  relative pro-
 portions, are never wanting.  These parts are, 1st, The
 cranium, in which the brain is contained, and in the par-
 titions of which the cavities ofthe internal ear, and fre-
 quently those of the nose, are situated.  2. The face,
 wiiich  contains the orbits of the eyes, and the nasal ca-
 vities, and which terminates inferiorly by the upper jaw.
 3. The lower jaw, which in  all animals  is moveable,
 even in the crocodile.   The upper jaw is immoveable in
 man, in quadrupeds, and in some reptiles, as the tortoise,
 the crocodile, and others; it is more or less moveable in
 birds, serpents, and fishes.  The extremities when per-
 fect, are divided into four parts: those wiiich belong to
the anterior members are the shoulder, the arm, the fore-
 arm, and  the hand;  those of the posterior are the hip,
the thigh,  the leg, and the foot.  These  distinctions do
not obtain  among fish, whose extremities are merely form-
ed of osseous rays, or bones, constituted like a fan, and
articulated to parts  corresponding with  the shoulder or
hip.   The shoulder  is  formed of  the  scapula  placed
against the back, and the clavicle attached to the ster-
 num.   The last is  wanting in  some quadrupeds and the
cetacea; it is double in birds, tortoises, frogs, and many
lizards.  Where extremities exist, the scapula is always
found.  The arm is constituted by one bone; the fore-arm
has almost always two; even when this last part consists of
 noly one bone, tliere generally appears a kind of separating
furrow. The hand,  as it  respects the  number of its
bones, considerably varies,  but the osseous portions of
which it consists always form a carpus, metacarpus, and
fingers.  This is the case even in birds, the fingers of
which arc enveloped in a skin covered by feathers. This 
COMPARATIVE  ANATOMY.
organization likewise obtains in the cetacea, in which the
whole anterior member is reduced to the figure of an oar
or fin.
  The various parts ofthe skeleton are usually disposed
with a strict attention to symmetry; so that when divided
by a longitudinal section, the tw7o halves are counter-
proofs of each other.  In one kind of fish, however, call-
ed pleuronectes, which comprehends soles, plaice, turbots,
&c. the head is so constituted, that the two eyes and the
two nostrils are on the same side.
  It may be proper to remark, before we  conclude this
general account of the skeleton, that although an animal
of one class may appear similar to  that of another, the
resemblance is merely outward; and affects the skeleton,
not in the number or arrangement of its bones, but mere-
ly in its total proportions.  Bats, for instance, appear to
have wings; but an anotomical examination demonstrates
these to be in reality hands, the fingers  of wiiich are
merely somewhat lengthened.  In like manner, although
dolphins appear to have fins, composed of an entire piece,
we find under the external covering all the bones that
compose the anterior extremities of the other mammalia,
short, and nearly immoveable.
     Of the forms and actions of muscles.
  While the  form and number of bones,  and the mode
in which they are articulated, determine the number,
kind, and  direction, of motions they are capable of, the
number and situation of the muscles determine the num-
ber, kind, and direction, of the motions that are actually
performed.
  Muscles are attached to the bones by tendons.  The
tendons, like the  muscles, are composed of fibres, but
they are more close and firm, and haxe a silver white-
ness.  The form  ofthe tendon varies as much as that of
the muscle.  Heavy birds,  that  walk  much, have the
tendons of their  limbs ossified at a very early period.
The same thing takes place in the jerboa,  and other
animals, that always  leap with their posterior extremi-
ties.
  The tendons of the Crustacea and insects are frequent-
ly articulated with the scaly case they have to move, in
the same manner as one bone is articulated with another;
with this case they are  connected by a  membranous li-
gament.  This structure  is particularly observable in
the great claws of cray-fish.
  The tendons of the mollusca are not  perceptible; but
this is in consequence of the tendinous and fleshy parts, ,
both having the same colour.  The muscles are divided
into simple and compound: the first comprehend those
in which the fibres have  one direction  only; the  most
common are the ventriform, the fibres of which are near-
ly parallel, and compose a long bundle of a round shape;
their fleshy portions swell in the centre, which is called
the belly of the muscle. The second kind of simple mus-
cle is flat, and has parallel fibres.  These form a sort of
fleshy membrane, which, instead of terminating in small
tendons, ends by aponeurosis, or a kind of tendinous
membrane.
  In the action of muscles it appers that the elementary
fibres, all individually, exercise the same power at the
moment of contraction; but the sum total of force is di-
rected hy the manner in which these fibres are disposed,
or the situation ofthe whole muscle. It  is obvious then;
that in either kind of these simple muscles above describ-
ed, the total action is equal to the sum of all the particu-
lar actions, wiiich however is not the case with the two
other* kinds of simple muscles, the radiated and pemii-
form.  Muscles are said to be radiated, when the fibres
of which they are composed are disposed like the radii of
a circle, which, proceeding from a base of a greater or
less magnitude, incline towards  each other, and are in-
serted :n a small tendon.
   Penniform mus'ies have their fibres arranged in  two
rows, which unite in a middle line,  and form with each
other angles  more or less obtuse, assuming the appear-
ance of the feathers of  a quill.  Their tendon is a pro-
longation of this central line.
   In these two last kinds  of muscles the resulting force
must  necessrily be less than the collective sum  of the
component forces: it is only equal to the sum of the dia-
gonals of the parallelograms, which are formed from eve-
ry two fibres that unite in the production of one angle.
   Compound muscles are produced by the union of seve-
ral in one common  tendon.   Sometimes these uniting
muscles are of a similar nature:  at others the compound
muscle is formed  by  an assemblage of various kinds, as
the radiated, the ventriform, and others.
   There are some muscles with only one belly with di-
vided tendons; others have several fleshy parts and ten-
dons interlaced in various ways. These last may be  de-
nominated complicated muscles.
   Muscular origin and insertion may he considered as
of eight distinct  kinds.  A muscle, or muscles, may be
destined to compress the soft parts contained in a cavity,
which is then enveloped by the muscular fibres in differ-
ent directions, in the form of membranes or bands. Such
is the arrangement in the abdominal muscles and dia-
phragm of the human species; such is the disposition of
the muscles of slugs, other mollusca, and naked worms,
which can contract themselves in every direction.  When
a number of such  muscles  act in conjunction, it is for the
purpose of expelling some matter from the body, as ex-
cremement,  or ova; their more usual action however is
alternate, and then their effect is to increase one  of the
diameters of the cavity they surround, and diminish the
other.  Thus, for example, during every inspiration the
abdomen becomes wider and shorter, while exactly the
contrary takes place on each expiration. In like manner
slugs and leeches lengthen and shorten themselves, by
first moving  their annular, and then their longitudinal
muscles.
   Upon this principle likewise, those muscles act which
are destined to lengthen or shorten, and to relax or com-
press, any soft part J  sueh as the tongue of man, or the
horns of snails. The heart, the arteries, the intestines and
other organs, are furnished with muscles of this kind.
   Some muscles are calculated to enlarge or diminish a
soft aperture; of these some  surround the orifice as the
sphincters; others are  inserted more or less directly m
the margins of the apertures.  When they are uniformly
extended  round the orifice,  such orifice  preserves its
figure,  and  is always dilated or contracted in the same
manner. The eyelid of the moon-fish, and the anus ofthe
snail, present examples of this species of muscular mo-
tion. When these muscles  are inserted in different direc-
tions, the form of the aperture is very variable; as for 
COMPARATIVE ANATOMY..
 Instance, in the lips of man.  The  expressive variety of
 the human physiognomy arises in a great measure from
 the great mobility of this part.
   Another employment of tiie muscles is to extend and
 fold back in the manner of curtains, membranes that
 furnish coverings to certain parts; such as the eyelids of
 man, quadrupeds, and birds. When s'uii muscles are m
 the bodies of these membranes, their descriptions are the
 same as above desc ribed; but when their situation is ex-
 ternal, they form  complicated pulleys.
   Again, muscles arc employed in the act of turning or
 rolling a globular mass, which, although free, is support-
 ed on every side, as the human eye  in the  orbit, or the
 mouth of a snail in its head. The muscles surround such
 parts in the form of a  hoop, and  the body which they
 move is turned to that part in which the muscle contracts
 with most vigour.
   These four modes of action may all be referred to that
 of the sphincters  or circular muscles.
   The following mode in which  the muscles  perform
 their action may he compared to the action of  ropes,
 drawing a resisting object;  the muscular fibres pulling
 in the direction in which the motion of the part operated
 upon is to be  performed; or if the muscles diverge, an
 equal quantity of action is produced on  either side, and
 the resulting force is employed to still more advantage.
 Of the first kind  of action, the sterno-hyoideus  and
 genio-hyoidcus form  examples, and the motions of the
 mylo-hyoideus and scapulo-hyoideus are instances ofthe
 second.
   When the bone on which the muscular agency is dis-
 played, cannot be elevated  or depressed all at once, it
 must then be regarded as a lever, the articulation afford-
 ing the fulcrum.
   When the articulation is between the two extremities,
 and the  muscles  are situated at one of them, the bone
 forms  a lever of the  first rank; such is the case in the
 mandible  of the cray-fish; an example of a similar kind
 is likewise furnished by the olecranon and os calcis, with
 their respective muscles; but the most remarkable is, the
 tibia of those birds called grebes and divers;  the long
 apophysis of which, raised  above the knee, serves as a
 substitute for the patella.
   But the most common case of muscular attachment is,
 that in which the articulation is at one extremity ofthe
 bone; then the most favourable position ofthe muscle is,
 when it  originates  from another bone  parallel to that
 which it has to move, or when it  forms with the latter
 only a very small angle; such is the  case with the inter-
 costales,  interspinales,  and  intcrtransversi;  and  the
 muse les which draw together hones  of a fan-like shape,
 as the wings of the flying dragon.
  The muscles which close the mouth of man and the bill
 of birds  may be  also compared to the preceding; these
 however are inserted nearer to the  point of support, and
 by consequence their force is dimbiished.
  The last and most usual mode of insertion is, when a
 muscle united  w ith one bone is inserted into  another
 which last is  articulated with the  first, and  may be
 extended  so as to form together a right line,  or bent
 into a very small  angle; this mode is the most disadvan-
tageous, on account of the extreme obliquity ofthe inser-
 tion when the moveable hone is extended, and because
of its proximity to the fulcrum; this inconvenience, how-
ever, is in some measure obviated by the heads of bones,
or enlargements  of their articular extremities; so that
the tendons turning round a convexity in order to  be
inserted below it, form more obtuse angles.
   It was necessary that the fulcrum of motion should he
near, to prevent  the  members from being inordinately
large,  and likewise for the  production of a ready and
complete flexion,  as the muscular fibre loses only a de-
terminate fraction of its length in contraction.  Examples
are afforded of muscles inserted at a great distance from
the fulcrum: birds have one which extends from the top
of the shoulder near to the carpus; this however happens
because all the angle formed by the radius and ulna is, in
these animals, occupied by a membrane intended to aug-
ment the surface of the wing.
  It is in consequence of the small  contraction of the
muscular fibre, that the short bones in which complete
inflexion is required, are moved  by muscles attached to
bones at a distance: the vertebrae and  phalanges of the
fingers are in this situation.  Muscles extended from one
to the other of these small bones could  not  have  pro-
duced  a sufficient flection:  besides, in  the  phalanges
they would  have made the fingers  disproportionately
thick: it is also necessary that the tendons of these nnis-
eles be fixed  down to the bones over wbich they pass;
otherwise whenever the phalanges were bent, the mus-
cles and tendons would remain in a straight line like the
string of a bow; hence the utility of the carpal ligaments,
the sheaths, and perforations.  In animals that have but
three phalanges, as in man, tliere is but one perforation;
but birds, wiiich  have one toe  with four and another
with five phalanges, have two perforations and  conse-
quently three muscles,—one perforated, one perforating
and perforated,  and one perforating.
  Those vertebrae which have  much motion,  for exam-
ple, those of the neek in birds, and of  the tail in quad-
rupeds, have likewise very  distant muscles; but their
long tendons are enclosed in sheaths, which continue to
bind them, until they arrive opposite the place of termi-
nation.
External form as an indication of the nature
          of the sentient organization.
  In the general description which we have already given
of the  skeleton, the head of vertebral animals was said
to be capable of division into three parts, viz. Uie cra-
nium, face, and inferior maxilla; as it relates however to
the sentient organization, the head will only admit of two
primary divisions: the cranium, containing  the brain;
and the face, in the cavities of wiiich are lodged the or-
gans of sight, smell and taste.  The organs of hearing
are situated on  the sides of the cranium. A capac ious
cranium and a small face are- the indices of a large brain
and less developed senses of smell and taste.
  The relative  proportion of  the cra.iuiii and the face,
also indicates a greater or less degree of perfection in
those faculties wiiich are general'.;, denotii ,.atcd intel-
lectual or reflective, compared with the external or sen-
sitive.  In man the cranium is relatively the hirgi^i, ami
the face the smallest;  and animals, as they depart from
these proportions, become in the sam« ratio more stupid
and ferocious. To this general rule,  however, there are
some exceptions.  See  the article Physiognomy. 
                       COM

  dne of the most simple means of ascertaining these
proportions is by means of the facial line of Camper, and
the angle which it forms with the basis of the cranium.
The facial line is supposed to pass in contact with the
upper incisores teeth, and the most prominent part ofthe
forehead; and the basilar line of the cranium  is that
which bisects longitudinally a plane passing through the
external openings of the  car, and along the lower edge
of the anterior aperture of the nostrils. In proportion as
the forehead projects  or  the  cranium is enlarged, the
angle made by these lines must necessarily increase; on
the contrary, as the cranium diminishes in size, or the
forehead recedes, the facial line will incline further back
and diminish the angle. In man the facial angle is w ider
than in  any  other animal, and it becomes always more
acute in the different animals as they are removed from
man.
  In the European, it is 85°; negro, 70°; orang-outang,
67°; pug-dog, 35°; polecat, 31°, Sec.
  Still more important relations, how ever, arc discovered
by means  of  a vertical and longitudinal section of the
head.  In  the European  the area of the section of the
cranium is nearly four times as large as that of the face,
exclusive ofthe inferior maxilla. In  the negro the face
is increased about one-fifth. The proportion of the cra-
nium is still less in the  orang-outang; in the sapajous the
face is   nearly  one-half  of the cranium;  in  most of
the carnivora it is nearly equal.  In the rodentia, pachy-
dermata, ruminantia, and solipedia, the area of the sec-
tion of the face is larger than that of the cranium.  Of
the  rodentia, the hare and marmot have  it  one-third
larger.  In the porcupine it is more than double, a little
more than double in hogs, nearly triple in the hippopo-
tamus,  and almost quadruple in the horse.  (N.  B. The
above proportions are given on the authority of M.  Cu-
vier.)
  These remarks are particularly interesting in relation
to the mammalia order of animals, as in these the cavity
of the cranium is occupied entirely  hy brain; so that the
description ofthe osseous part, indicates pretty accurate-
ly the external form of the whole encephalon.
  The proportion wiiich the cranium bears to the face in
birds, does not  authorise the same inductions as in the
mammalia; and with respect to reptiles and fishes (the re-
maining class of vertebral animals) no important infer-
ences oan be  made from the magnitude and  form of the
cranium, as the brain only occupies  a small part of its
cavity.   In the nervous system of the mollusca, Crusta-
cea, and insects, the utmost irregularity obtains; and it
has already been stated that in the zoophytes,  which oc-
cupy  the lowest rank  in the scale of animal life, a dis-
tinct sentient organization has not hitherto been detect-
ed.  For the  internal organization  and functions of the
nervous system, consult the article Physiology.
  COMPARISON, in rhetoric, a figure that illustrates
and sets off one  thing, by resembling and comparing it
with another, to which it bears a manifest relation and
resemblance, as in the following figure in Shakspearc:

           She never told her love,
          But let concealment, like a worm,
          Feed on her damask cheek: she pined in thought,
           And sat like Patience on a monument,
           Smiling at Grief.
                      COM

  COMPASS, or mariner's compass, an instrument by
wiiich the ship's course is determined.  See Magnetism
and Navio vtio.y.
  Compasses, or pair of compasses, a mathematical in-
strument for describing circles, or measuring figures. See
Instruments Mathematical.
  COMPENSATION, in the civil law, a sort of rieht
whereby a  debtor, sued by his creditor for the payment
of a debt, demands  that  the debt may be compensate!
with what  is owing him by  the creditor, which, in that
case, is equivalent to payment.
  COMPERTORIUM, in  the civil law, signifies a ju-
dicial inquest made hy delegates to search out and relate
the truth of a case.
  COMPITALIA, or Compitalitia, in Roman anti-
quity,  feasts iustitutcd by Servius  Tullius in honour of
the Lares.  These feasts were observed on the l2tli of
January and 6th of March.  Tarquinius  Superbus con-
sulting the oracle upon the subject of the sacrifices to be
offered on that occasion, was answered that he should
offer heads to Lares: for wiiich reason, the Romans pre-
sented the  heads of young children in sacrifice to those
deities.  But Junius Brutus ordered poppy-heads to  be
offered in their stead. Macrebius relates, that they satis-
fied the Lares, by  offering the images of men anil wo-
men made in  straw;  and that  for each slave in their
family, they threw in so many bales of wool.
  COMPLEMENT, in astronomy,the distance of a star
from the zenith: or the arch comprehended between the
place of the star above the horizon and the zenith.
  Complemknt,  in  geometry,  is what remains of a
quadrant of a circle, or of 90°, after any certain arch
has been taken away from it.  Thus, if the  arch taken
away be 40°, its complement is 50: because 50+40=90.
The sine of the complement of an arch is called the co-
sine, and that of the tangent the  co-tangent, &c.
  Complements   in  a  parallelogram,  are the two
smaller parallelograms made by  drawing two right lines
through  the  diagonal, and  parallel to the sides of the
parallelogram.
  In every parallelogram, these  complements are equal.
See Mechanics.
  COMPLEX terms, or ideas, in logic, arc such as arc
compounded of several simple  ones.  Complex ideas arc
often  considered  as single  and  distinct beings, though
they may be made up of several simple ideas, as a body,
a spirit, a horse, a flower; but when several of these
ideas of a  different kind are joined together, which are
usually considered as distinct single  beings, they are
called  a compound idea,  whether these united ideas be
simple or complex. Complex ideas, however compound-
ed and recompounded, though their number is infinite,
and their variety endless, may be all reduced under these
three heads, modes, substances, and relations.
  Complex proposition, is either that which  hu> at
least one ofits terms complex; or such as contains several
members,  as  casual propositions; or it i« several ideas
offering themselves to our thoughts at once, by w'> !:h
we are led to  affirm the same thing of different objects,
or different things of the same object.  Thus, God is in-
finitely wise, and infinitely powerful. In like manner, in
the proposition, Neither kings  nor people  are  exempt
from death. 
C  0 M
C  0 M
   COMPLEXIS, in anatomy, a broad and pretty long
 muscle, lying along the back part and side of the neck.
 See Anatomy.
   COMPOSITE ni'Mbehs,  are such as can he mea-
 sured exactly by  a  number exceeding unity: as 6 by 2 or
 .;, or 10 by 5, <\c so that 4 is the lowest composite num-
 ber.  Composite  numbers between themselves, arc those
 which have some common measure besides unity; as 12
 and 15,  as being  both measured by 3.
   Composite oudeh. See Architecture.
   COMPOSITION, in grammar, the joining  of two
 words together; or  prefixing a particle to another word,
 to augment, diminish, or change its signification.
   Composition, in lo^ic,  a method of reasoning, by
 which we proceed from some general  self-evident truth,
 to other particular and singular ones.
   Composition, in music, the art of disposing musical
 sounds into airs,  songs, Sec. either in one or more parts,
 to be sung by a voice, or played on instruments.
   Under composition are comprehended the rules, 1. Of
 melody,  or the art of making a single  part; that is, con-
 triving and disposing the simple sounds, so as that their
 succession and progression  may he agreeable to the ear.
 2. Of harmony, or the art of disposing and concerting
 several single parts together, so as that they make one
 agreeable whole.  It may  be proper to observe here, that
 melody being chiefly the business  of the imagination, the
 rules of its composition  serve only to prescribe certain
 limits to it, beyond wiiich the imagination, in searching
 out the variety and beauty of airs, ought not to go; but
 harmony being the work of the judgment, its rules are
 more certain and extensive, and more difficult in practice.
   Composition',  in painting, consists of two parts, in-
 vention and disposition; the first of wbich is the  choice
 of th" objects which are to enter into the composition of
 tbe  subject the painter intends to  execute, and is either
 simply historical  or allegorical. Sec Painting.
   Composition,  in commerce, a contract between an
 insolvent debtor and his  creditors, by which  the latter
 accept of a part  of the  debt  in  compensation for the
 whole, and give a  general acquittance accordingly.
   Composition,  in printing, commonly termed com-
 posing, the arranging of several types, or letters, in the
 composing-stick, in order to form  a line; and of several
 lines ranged in order in the galley, to  make a page;  and
 of several pages to make  a form. Generally the compos-
 ing-stick is made of iron, sometimes of wood; more or
 less in length or depth, according to the page to be com-
 posed, or tbe fancy of the compositor. It has two sliding-
 pieces, fastened by means of a nut and screw, which arc
 slipped forwards  or backwards, according to the  space
 wbich tbe lines, notes. Sec. are m take up, or the com-
 positor thinks proper.  The  composing stick ordinarily
 contains seven or eight  lines of  a middle-sized  letter:
 these lines, when  set, are taken out by means of a thin
 slip  of brass called  a rule, and disposed in the galley:
 then ethers are composed, until a page is formed,  which
 being done, it is tied up and  set by; the rest ofthe pages
 that make up a sheet, being prepared in the same man-
 ner, are carried to flic imposing or  correcting-stone,  and
 being there ranged in order, they are disposed in an
 iron frame, fitted  with wooden furniture: then the quoins
being stuck in, the chace, or frame, is  put  in the  press,
in order to their being printed. See Printing.
  vox. i.                   ' 79
   Composition of motion, is an assemblage of several
 directions of motion, resulting from several powers act-
 ing in different, though  not opposite, directions. Sec
 Mei ii v.mcs.
   Composition of proportion, is the comparing the sum
 of the antecedent and consequent, with the consequent in
 two equal ratios; as suppose, 4 : 8 : : 5 : 6, they say. by
 composition of proportion, 12 : 8 : : 9 : 6. The samehokls
 of the sum of tbe antecedent and consequent, compared
 with the antecedent:  thus we likewise s.iy  12 : 8 :: 9 : 6.
 Tliere is a great difference between composition of pro-
 portion by addition and by multiplication.  See Propor-
 tion.
   COMPOST,  in  husbandry  and gardening, several
 sorts of soils, or earthy matters, mixed together, in or-
 der to make a manure, for assisting the natural earth in
 the  work of  vegetation, hy way t>f amendment or  im-
 provement.
   COMPOSTO, in  music,  means compounded or  dou-
 bled, as a fifteenth is an octave doubled, or an octave is
 compounded ofa fifth and a fourth.
   COMPOUND flower; one consisting of several dis-
 tinct lesser flowers, or corollulee, each furnished with a
 style, stamina, Sec. The corollulse are of two kinds, viz.
 tubulated andligulatcd: the tubulated are always  fur-
 nished with a campanulated limb, divided into four or five
 segments;  whereas the  ligulatcd corollulaj have only a
 fiat,  linear limb, terminated by a singh point, or by a
 broader extremity, divided into three or live segments.
 Tbe plants with  compound flowers are extremely nurae-
 roiis. forming a class by themselves, called  hy Linnseus,
 syn.i,- t'ticsia.
   Compounds, primary, in chemistry. If  the science of
 chemistry had  made sufficient  progress,  the division
 would comprehend all the primary compounds which the
 simple combinable substances  arc capable of forming.
 These might all be classed under six heads. Three of
 these would consist of compounds which  oxygen forms
 with t!ie other simple  substances; for all these compounds
 are cither combustible oxyds, products,  or supporters.
 The fourth class would consist of the compounds which
the simple combustibles form with one another and with
the metals; the fifth class, of the combinations of the me-
tals with one another; and the sixth would consist of the
 combinations of the simple incombustiblcs with the com-
 bustibles and  the metals.  But in the present imperfect
 state of the science, the advantages attending  this ar-
rangement would not compensate for the violence of the
changes which it would introduce. It would oblige us to
classify substances together wiiich have alvvav sheen con-
sidered as distinct, and to separate many  bodies wiiich
have  hitherto been always grouped together.  Hcsidcs,
we should he  forced to omit a number of  substances
which are still undecompouncled, and which are not the
less important because  they  cannot  with  propriety he
 introduced among the simple substances. For these  rea-
 sons the primary compounds  may he arranged under the
 five following heads:
   1. Alkalies. 2. Earths. 3. Oxyds. 4. Acids.  5, Com-
 pound combustibles.
   Compounds, secondary.  Many of the primary com-
pounds are susceptible of forming combinations with each
other.  Thus acids  combine with alkalies,  with  earths, 
CON                                               CON
and  with metallic oxyds,  and form  compounds called
salts; the earths combine with the  fixed alkalies, and
form  glass; oils combine with alkalies, and form soaps.
To these is given the name of secondary compounds,
which, as far as we are at present acquainted with them,
may be arranged under  the five following  classes.  1.
Combinations of earths with each other, and with metal-
lic oxyds.  2. Combinations of earths with alkalies.  3.
Combinations of acids with alkalies,  earths,  and metal-
lic  oxyds.   4.  Combinations of sulphureted hydrogen
with alkalies, earths, and metallic oxyds.  5.  Combina-
tions of oils with alkalies, earths, and metallic oxyds.
   COMPREHENSION,  or Synecdoche, a trope or
figure in rhetoric, which puts the name of the whole for
a part, or of a part for the whole; a general for a parti-
cular of the same kind, or a particular for a general. By
this trope a round and.certain number is often set down
for an uncertain one.
   COMPRESS, in  surgery, a bolster  of   soft linen
cloth, folded in  several doubles,  frequently  applied to
cover a plaster,  in order not only to preserve  the part
from the external air, but also the better to retain the
dressings,  or medicines.  See Surgery.
   COMPTONIA, a genus of  the monoecia ^triandria
class and order.  The male cal. is an anient two-leaved;
cor.  none; anthers two-parted.  The female is also an
ament, cal. six-leaved; cor. none; styles two; nect. ovate.
There is one species, a shrub of North  America, named
after bishop Compton, eminent for his taste in botany.
   COMPLLSOR,  an officer under  the Roman empe-
rors, despatched from court into the provinces,  to  com-
pel the payment of taxes,  Sec. not paid within the time
prescribed. These were charged with so many exactions,
that Honorius cashiered them.
   COMPUTATION, inlaw, is used with respect to the
true account or construction of  time: so understood, as
that neither party to an agreement, Sec. may do wrong
to the other; and that the determination of time he not
left at large, or taken otherwise than according to the
judgment and intention of law.
   If a lease is engrossed, bearing date January  1, 1806,
to have and to hold for three year from henceforth, and
the  lease is not executed till the 2d of January; in this
case the words < from henceforth' shall he accounted from
the  delivery of the deed,  and not by any computation
from the  date. And if  the lease be delivered  at four
o'clock in  the afternoon on  the said  second day, it shall
end the first day of January, in the third  year; the law
in such computations, rejecting all fractions or divisions
of the day.
   COMPITO, in law, a  writ to compel a bailiff, re-
ceiver, or  accountant, Sec.  to deliver up his accounts.
The same  lies for  executors of executors, ani  against
the  guardian in socage for waste made in the minority of
 the heir.
   CONCENTRATION, in general, signifies the bring-
 ing things nearer a centre.  Hence the particles of salt in
 sea-water are said to be concentrated, that  is,  brought
 nearer each other, by evaporating the watery part: thus,
  also, wine is said to be concentrated, when its watery
 parts are  separated in the form of ice by frost.
   CONCENTRIC, in mathematics, something that bas
the same centre with another: it stands in opposition to
excentric.
  The method of Nonius for  graduating instruments
consists in describing with the same  quadrant 45 con-
centric arches, dividing the outermost into 90 equal parts
the next into 80, &c.
   CONCERT, a musical performance in which any
number of practical  musicians, either vocal  or instru-
mental, or both, unite in the exercise  of then? respective
talents. The concerts of the ancient  Greeks were exe-
cuted only in the unison or octave.
   CONCERTO,  (Ital.)  a composition expressly writ-
ten for  the display of some particular instrument, with
accompaniments for the band.
   CON CERT ANTE, (Ital.)   a concerto for two or
more instruments, with accompaniments for a band.
   CONCERTINO,  (Ital.) the principal instrument in
a concerto  or concertante; as oboe concertino, the prin-
cipal hautboy.
   CONCERTATO intimates the piece of music is com-
posed in such a manner,  as that all  the parts  may have
their recitativos, be it for two, three, four, or more voices
or instruments.
   CONCESSION, in rhetoric, a figure, whereby some-
thing is freely allowed, that yet  might bear dispute, to
obtain something that one would have granted to them,
and which  he thinks cannot  fairly  be denied; as in the
following concession of Dido, in Virgil:
          The nuptials he disclaims, I urge no more?
          Let him pursue the promis'd Latin shore.
          A short delay is all I ask him now;
          A pause of grief, an interval from woe.
   CONCHA, in anatomy, the larger cavity of the exter-
nal ear, situated before the meatus auditorius, or passage
into the internal ear. See Anatomy.
   CONCHOID, in geometry, the name of a curve, giv-
en it bv its inventor, Nicomedes, and  thus generated.
   Draw the right line QQ (Plate XXX. Miscel. fig. 16.),
and AC perpendicular to it in the point E;  and from the
point C draw right lines CM, cutting the right line QQin
Q; and make QM = QN, AE =EF, viz, equal to an in-
variable line: then the curve in which  are the points M, is
called the first conchoid; and the other,in which are the
points N, the second; the right line QQ being the directrix,
and the point C the pole:  and from  hence it will be very
easy to  make an instrument to describe the conchoid. The
line QQ is an asymptote to both the curves, which have
points of contrary flexion. If QM =  AE = a, EC = b,
MR =  EP = x, ER = PM = y; them will a?b2 — 2a* b
x -f a2 x2 = b2 x2 — 2 b x3 4- x* 4- x2 y2, and  express
the nature of the second  conchoid; and x4 -f- 2 b oc3 4- J/2
x2 -f bl x2 — a2 b2 -f 2 a2 b a -f-  a2 x2, the nature of the
first; and so both these curves are of tbe third kind.
   This curve  was used by Archimedes and other an-
cients,  in  the construction of  solid   problems; and  sir
Isaac Newton says that he  himself prefers  it before
other curves, or even the conic sections, in the construc-
tion of cubic and biquadratic equations, on  account  of
its simplicity and easy description. See sir Isaac New-
ton's Universal Arithmetic.
   CONCLAMATION,  in Roman antiquity, a custom
of calling the  dead party by  his name for  eight days 
CON
CON
 successively; on the ninth, concluding him past all hopes
 of recovery, they carried him forth and buried him.
   CONCLAVE, the place in which the cardinals of the
 Romish church meet, and are  shut up,  in order to the
 election of a pope. The conclave is a range of small cells,
 ten feet square, made of wainscot:  these are numbered,
 and drawn for by lot. They stand in a line alorg the
 galleries  and hall of the  Vatican,  with a small space
 between  each. Every cell has the arms of the cardinal
 over it. The conclave is not fixed to any one  determi-
 nate place, for the constitutions of the church  allow the
 cardinals to make choice  of  such a place for the con-
 clave as  they think most convenient; yet it is generally
 held in the Vatican. The conclave is very strictly guard-
 ed by troops: neither the cardinals, nor  any person shut
 up in the conclave, are spoken to, but  at the hours al-
 lowed of, and then in Italian or Latin; even the  provi-
 sions for the  conclave are examined, that no letters he
 conveyed by that means from the ministers of foreign
 powers,  or  other persons who  may have an interest in
 the election of the pontiff.
   After  this  assembly  has continued three days, they
 are only allowed one dish for one meal; and after  five
 days, only bread and water: but this rule is not very re-
 ligiously observed.
   CONCOCTION. See Physiology.
   CONCORD, in grammer, that part of  construction
 called syntax, in which the words of a sentence  agree;
 that is, in which nouns  are put in the same gender,
 number, and  case; and verbs  in the same number and
 person with nouns and pronouns.
   Concord,  in common  law,  the  agreement  between
 parties, who intend to levy a fine of lands to one  another,
 how and in what  manner they shall pass.
   Coxcord, in music, an union of two or more sounds,
 which by their harmony produce an agreeable effect up-
 on the ear.  Unisonance being  the  relation of  equality
 between  the pitch of two or more sounds, all unisons are
 considered by most theorists as concords in the first de-
 gree. But an interval  being a difference of pitch, or a
 relation of  inequality between  two  sounds,  will form a
 concord or discoid,  according  to  the circumstances of
 that particular relation. Of concords there are two kinds,
 the one called perfect, the other imperfect; perfect concords
 consist ofthe fifth and eighth, imperfect concords of the
 third and sixth.   The  imperfect concords  have also
 another distinction; that of the greater  and lesser third
 and sixth.  The concords are again divided into conso-
 nant and  dissonant.  The  consonant  concords  are the
 perfect concord and its derivatives; every other is a dis-
 sonant concord. We apply the  word  concord also to the
 state <fan instrument in respect of its tuning, as also to
 the  agreement of two or mere voices:  as when we say
 '• That instrument is not in concord,"or "not intone;"
 " Those  voices do not concord," or " do not harmonise
 and agree."
   CONCORDANT verses, arc such  as have several
words in common, but which hy the addition of other
 words  convev an opposite  or at least a xery  different
 meaning;  as,
 ,-,. f canis") .     ,    fa atur I  f     .  fservat.
 Et {lupus j »  VW»  {„„<,*„.}  &<"""»a{>aSlat.
   CONCORDAT, in the  canon law, a  covenant or
 agreement in soni- beneficiary matter, as  relating to a
 resignation,  permutation, or  other ecclesiastical cause.
 This word is used absolutely among the French for  an
 agreement between pope  Leo  I. Francis I. of France,
 for regulating the manner of nominating to benefices.
   CONCRETE, in logic, is used in contradistinction to
 abstract; for example, when we consider any quality, aa
 whiteness, inhering in any suhject, as suppose in snow; if
 we say the snow is white, then we speak only of whiteness
 in the concrete: but if we  consider whiteness by its if, as
 a quality that may be in paper, in ivory,  and in other
 things, as well as in snow, we are then said to consider,
 or to take, it in the abstract.
   CONCRETIONS, morbid. Hard  substances occa-
 sionally make their sppearance in different parts of the
 animal body, both in the solids and in the cavities  des-
 tined to contain the fluids. In the first case, they are usu-
 ally denominated concretions or ossifications; in the se-
 cond, calculi. The knowledge of these bodies is of im-
 portance both to  the physiologist and physician. Their
 formation is an irregularity  in the animal economy, and
 is likely therefore to throw  light upon its functions; for
 we succeed best in detecting the sec rets of nature when
 she deviates from that regularity which she usually fol-
 lows. They often produce the most excruciating diseases;
 and the sufferings of the patient can only  he effectually
 relieved hy removing their cause. The different animal
 concretions at present known may he divided into five
 classes:
   1. Ossifications,
  2. Intestinal concretions,
  3. Biliary calculi,   ")  c,, r» .,-„.„,
   .  TT •   J    ii-   J- See Calculi.
  4. L rinary calculi,  J
  5. Gouty concretions.
  I. Ossifications.  All the  concretions which  make
their appearance in the solids  of the  animal body  may
be comprehended under this title with propriety; because
they have all a close  resemblance to  bone, being com-
posed of similar  constituents.   The following  are  the
most remarkable  of these concretions.
  1. Pineal concretions.  It is  well known to anatomists
that small concretions like sand are often lodged in that
part of the brain called the pineal gland. It was suspect-
ed from analogy  that they consisted chiefly of phosphat
of lime; but Dr. Wollaston  was the first who examined
them chemically, and  proved the  truth of this  opinion.
He  dissolved  some of the  sand  in nitric acid, and evapo*
rated the solution; small  crystalline needles  made their
appearance, indicating  the  presence  of  phosphat  of
lime.
  2. Salivary concretions. Small concretions occasion-
ally  make  their appearance in the salivary glands, espe-
cially the parotid and sublingual. From the experiments
of Wollaston  and Fourcroy, we learn that the basis of
these concretions is phosphatof lime united to a membra-
neous substance, which retains the shape of the concre-
tion after the solution ofthe phosphat.  Tlrs at least was
the  case in a small salivary calculus whlh  we  examin-
ed.  The same chemists ascertained that the tartar of th<5
teeth is phosphat of lime.
  3. P. ncreatic concretions.  The hard substances some-
times found in the pancreas are said to be ofthe same na* 
CON
CON
ture with those  of the  salivary gland:. The assertion,
we presume, is merely from analogy.
   4.  Pulmonary concretions. Many  people subject to
cough, or threatened with  consumption, occasionally
i-oiigh up small rounded  white  concretions.  It is  very
common to  find the  lungs of such persons  filled  with
similar bodies. We examined some of these bodies cough-
ed up by a consumptive patient, and found  them com-
posed of phosphat of lime united to a thick membraneous
substance,  which retained the form  of the  concretion.
The same result had  been obtained long before by Four-
croy.
   5.  Hepatic concretions. The liver also is sometimes
full of similar bodies. The shape of the hepatic concre-
tions, as far as  our observations go, is  more irregular,
and we have seen them of greater size, than the pulmo-
nary concretions. By analysis,  their composition is the
same as that of the last species.
   6.  Concretions in  the prostate. From  the experi-
ments of Dr. Wollaston, we learn that the  concretions
which sometimes form  in the prostate gland have like-
wise phosphat of lime for their basis.
   7. The extremities of the muscles and the larger blood-
vessels sometimes  harden, and assume the  appearance
of bone. Itis believed that this change is a real ossifica-
tion,  or that these bodies are converted into real bone.
We do not know whether any such  ossifications' have
been  analysed.
   II.  Concuetions, intestinal.   Concretions of very
considerable size are  sometimes found lodged in  the
stomach and intestines; seldom indeed in the human bo-
dy, but more frequently in some ofthe  interior animals.
Some of these bodies have acquired  great celebrity under
the name of  bezoars; but their medical  virtue, at least
in this country,  has long ago sunk to its just level. We
are in possession of a chemical  analysis of only  a very
small number of such concretions; even their figure and
external characters have been but imperfectly described.
   1. Of toe horse.  Two concretions, taken from the in-
testines of the horse, have  been  analysed; the first by
Fourcroy, the second hy  Bertholdi; and both of them
were composed of the same constituents. The  first was of
a gwy colour, round, and weighed five pounds. It was radi-
ated or crystallized in its structure. In the centre were
several cavities filled with vegetable matter. It was inso-
luble  in cold, but slightly  soluble in boiling  water. It
was composed almost entirely of  phosphat of magnesia
and ammonia.  The second was  brownish-grey, round,
and above four inches in diameter. Its  specific gravity
was 1,670. It was composed of eight concentric strata,
all  crystallized.  In the  centre there was found a small
plate  of iron.  Its constituents were
                18.0  magnesia
                26.0 phosphoric acid
                 3.2 ammonia
                46.0 water
                 4.0 animal matter

                97.2
   2. Bezoars. The substances called  bezoars, are sup-
posed to be concretions formed in the stomach or intes-
tines  of  different  graminivorous  animals.  They   are
brought to Europe from India  and America, and vary
 c xcccdingly  both in their appearance and properties.
 To attempt a description would be useless, till we know
 more precisely the animals in which  they  arc formed
 and how many different  animals yield  them.  Dr.  Pear-
 son analysed one specimen, and found it entirely coin-
 posed of vegetable matter. See Calculi,  and Bezoar.
   III. Concretions, gouty.  It is well known that con-
 cretions occasionally make their  appearance in joints
 long subject  to gout.  These concretions, from their co-
 lour and softness, have received the name of chalkstones.
 They are usually small, though they have  been observed
 of the size of an egg.  It had long been  the opinion of
 physicians that these concretions were  similar to the
 urinary calculi. Of course, after  the  discovery of uric
 acid by Scheele, it  was  usual to  consider the gouty
 chalkstones as collections of that acid. They were sub-
jected to a chemical analysis by Dr. Wollaston, in  1797,
 who found them composed  of uric acid  and soda.
   Gouty concretions are soft and friable. Cold water has
 little  effect  upon them; but  boiling water dissolves a
 small portion. If an acid is added to this solution,  small
 crystals of uric acid  are deposited on  the sides of the
 vessel.
  These concretions are completely soluble in potash,
 when the action of the alkaline solution  is assisted by
 heat.
  AVhen treated with diluted sulphuric or  with muriatic
 acid, the  soda is separated;  but the uric  acid remains,
 and may be  separated by  filtration.  The liquid, when
 evaporated, yields crystals of sulphat or muriat of soda,
 according to  the acid employed.  The residuum possesses
 all the characters of uric acid.  When distilled it yields
 ammonia, prussic acid, and the acid sublimate of Scheele.
 When dissolved in  a little nitric acid,  it tinges the skin
 of a rose  colour, and when evaporated, leaves a rose-
 coloured deliquescent residuum.  It is soluble in potash,
 and may he  precipitated by any acid and  by ammonia;
 first in the state of a jelly,  and then breaking down into
 a white powder.
  When uric acid, soda,  and a little warm water, are
 triturated  together,  a mass is formed, which, after the
 surplus of soda is washed off, possesses the chemical pro-
 perties of gouty concretions.
  COND, Cox, or Coxn,  in the sea-language, to guide
 or direct the ship to her right course, by giving direc-
 tions to the man at the helm how to steer.
  CONDENSER,  a pneumatic  engine or syringe,
 whereby an uncommon quantity of air may be crowded
 into  a given  space; so that sometimes  ten atmospheres,
 or ten times as much air as there is at the same time' in
the same  space without  the engine, may  be thrown in
 by means  of  it,  and its egress prevented by valves pro-
perly disposed.
  It consists of a brass cylinder, wherein  is a moveable
 piston; which being drawn  out,  the air rushes into  the
 cj Under, through a hole  prov ided on purpose; and when
 the piston is again forced into the cylinder, the air is
 driven into the receiver through  an orifice, furnished
 with a valve  to hinder its getting out. See Pxeumvtics.
  CONDERS,  a term  used in  the herring fishery, for
 people who stand on cliffs or eminen es  near the sea-
 coast, to direct the  fishermen which  way the slioal of
 herrings passes; their course being more conspicuous to 
CON                                              CON
those who  stand  on high cliffs  ashore, than to those on
board the vessels.
  CONDITION, in the civil law, a clause of obligation
stipulated as an article of  a treaty  or contract; or in a
donation of testament, legacy, Sec: in which last case a
donee does not lose his donative, if itis charged with any
dishonest or impossible conditions.  The conditions under
which  a donation can be made, arc  distinguished into
three kinds: 1. The  casual, which  depends merely  on
chance; 2. The potestative,  which is ohsolutely in our
power; and, 3. The mixed condition, which is compound-
ed of the other two.
  Condition, in common lawr, a restraint annexed to a
thing,  so that by the non-performance the party to it
shall sustain loss,  and  by the performance receive ad-
vantage; or it  is a  restriction of men's acts, qualifying
or suspending the  same, and  making them uncertain
whether they shall take effect or not. Also  it is defined to
be, what is referred to a contingency, which may or may
not take place.
  CONDITIONAL  syllogism, in logic, a syllogism
where the major is a conditional proposition. Thus,
  If there is a God, he ought to be worshipped:
  But there is a God;
  Therefore he ought to be worshipped.
  The Arminian divines maintain, that all  the decrees
of God relating to the salvation and damnation of man,
are  truly conditional; and the calvinists  that they  are
absolute.  The science of conditionals, that is, of condi-
tional truths, is the knowledge which God  has of things,
considered not according to  their essence, their nature,
or their real existence, but under a certain supposition
which imports a condition never to he accomplished.
  CONDORMIENTES,  in church-history,  religious
sectaries, who hold their name from sleeping all togeth-
er, men and women, young and old.  They arose in the
thirteenth century near Cologne, where they are said to
have worshipped an  image of  Lucifer, and to have re-
ceived answers and oracles from him.
  CONDUCTOR, in surgery,  an instrument which
serves to conduct the knife in the operation of cutting
for the stone,  and in laying up  sinuses and fistulas.  See
Surgery.
  Conductor, in electricity. All bodies are divided in-
to conductors and non-conductors.  The latter are called
electrics. See  Electricity.
  Commctors, in  military affairs, are assistants given
to the commissary ofthe stores to receive  or deliver out
stores to the army, to attend at the magazines by turns
when in garrison, and to look after the ammunition-wag-
gons in  the field. Tbey bring their accounts every night
to the iciminissary,  and are immediately under his com-
mand.
  CONDYLOMA, in medicine, a  tubercle or callous
eminence which arises in the folds ofthe anus, or rather
a swelling or hardening  of the wrinkles of that part.
See Sum; rev.
  CONE,  in geometry, a  solid figure, having a circle
for its base, and its top terminated in a point or vertex.
See Conic Sections.
  CON E ami  K.I.Y, accounts and key. A  woman at the
age of 14 or \5, might take the  charge of her house and
receive cone and key; so that a woman was held to be of
competent years, when she was able to keep the accounts
ani key of her house.
   CONFECTION signifies a liquid or soft electuary,
of which there are various sorts directed in dispensato-
ries. See Pharmacy.
   COXFECTOR, in Roman antiquity, a sort of gladia-
tor hired to fight in the amphitheatre against beasts.
thence also denominated bestiarius.
   CONFEDERACY, in lavv1, is when two or more con-
federate, to do any damage or injury to another, or to
commit any unlawful act.  And though a. writ of confe-
deracy do not lie if the party he not indicted and in a
lawful manner acquitted, yet false confederacy between
divers persons shall he punished, though nothing be put
in execution.
   CONFERVA, a genus belonging to the cryptogamia
class of plants; and in the natural method ranking under
the 57th order, alga?.  The  tubercles are of different
sizes, on capillary, very long fibres. There are21 species,
most of which grow  on stoics in slow  streams, on the
sides of cisterns, or in ponds.
   CONCESSION of offence, in law, is when a prisoner
is appealed or indicted of treason or felony, and brought
to the  bar to be arraigned, and his indictment being read
to him, the court demands what he can say thereto: then
cither  he confesses the offence, and the indictment to be
true, or pleads Not Guilty.
   Confession is two-foli, either express  or implied.  An
express confession is, when a person directly confesses
the crime with which he is ci»-.ir^-ed, wiiich is the highest
conviction that can be.  2 Haw. 333.  But it is usual for
the couit, especially if it be out of clergy, to advise the
party to plead, and put  himself  upon his trial, and not
immediately to  record his confession, but to admit him
to plead. 2 II. H. 225.  An implied confession is, where
a defendant in  a case not capital, does not directly own
himself guilty, but in  a  manner admits it, hy yielding
to the king's  mercy, and desiring to submit to a small
fine; which submission the conn mav  accept if they think
fit, without putting him to a direct confession.  2 Haw.
233.
   Confession in a civil action.  Sometimes there is a con-
fession in a civil action, but not usually of the  whole
complaint;  for  then the defendant would probably end
the matter sooner, or  not plead at all,  but suflerjudg-
ment  to go by default; but sometimes, after t-iider aid
refusal of debt, if the creditor harass his debtor with an
action, it then becomes  necessary for the  defendant to
confess the  debt and  plead the tender;  for a tender it v
the debtor  and  refusal by the creditor,  will in all cases
discharge the costs. 4 Black. 303. So in order to strength-
en the creditor's security, it is usual for the debtor to
execute a warrant of attorney to confess judgment in an
action  to be  brought by  sue ii  creditor: which judgment
when confessed, is complete and bin ling.  3  Mark.'397.
   Confession, among  divines, the verbal  acknowledg-
ment wbich a  Christian makes of bis sins.
  The Romish church requires confess!  u. not onlv as a
duty,  but has advance.! it to the dignitv  ofa sacrament:
this confession  is made to the priest, and is pri.ate and
auricular; and the priest is not in reveal it under pain
ofthe  highest punishment.
  Confession  of faith,  a list of the several articles of 
CON
CON
belief in any church, as the Augsburg confession is that
of the Lutheran church.
   CONFESSIONAL, or Concessionary, a  place  in
churches, under the great altar, where the bodies of de-
ceased saints, martyrs, and confessors,  were deposited.
This  word is also used by the Romanists for a desk  in
the church where the confessor takes the  confessions  of
the penitents.
   CONFIRMATION, in" law, is a conveyance of  an
estate or right in esse, whereby avoidable estate is made
sure and  unavoidable, or whereby a particular estate is
increased. Thus  a bishop grants his chancellorship  hy
patent, for the term of the patentee's life; this is no void
grant, but voidable  by the  bishop's death,  except it  be
Strengthened by the confirmation of the dean and chap-
ter. 2 Black. 325.
   CONFISCATE, in law: if a man be indicted that  he
feloniously stole the goods of another man, when in truth
they  are the  proper goods of him indicted, and which
being brought into court  against him he disdains them,
by this disclaimer he shall lose the goods, although  af-
terwards he be acquitted of the felony, and the king  shall
have them as confiscated. Staundf. pi. cor. 1. c. 24.
   CONFORMATION, in medicine, that make and con-
struction ofthe human body,  which is peculiar to  every
individual.  Hence those diseases called  morbimalse con-
formations, or organical diseases, are those which de-
pend upon the bad conformation of the parts.   Those, if
external, may admit  of chimrgical cure; and proper ex-
ercise, regimen, and medicine, may sometimes contribute
much to the relief even of those which are internal, or at
least may render them supportable.
   CONGE' d'elirc, in ecclesiastical polity, the king's
permission royal to a dean and chapter in the time of a
vacancy, to choose a bishop;  or to an abbey, or priory,
of his own foundation, to choose  their  abbot  or  prior.
 The king of  England, as sovereign patron of all arch-
 bishoprics, bishoprics, and other ecclesiastical benefices,
 had of ancient time free appointment to all ecclesiastical
 dignities, whenever  they chanced to be void;  investing
 them first per baculum and anuulum, and afterwards by
 his letters patent; and in course of time he made the elec-
 tion over to others, under certain  forms and limitations;
 as that  they should, at every vacation,  before  they
 choose,  demand  the king's conge  d'elirc, and after  the
 election, crave his royal assent, &c.
    Conge', in  architecture,  a  mould in form of a quarter-
round, or a cavetto, which serves to separate two mem-
bers from one another; such as that which joins the shaft
of the column to the cincture, called also apophyge.
   Coxges are also rings or ferrels formerly used in  the
extremities of wooden pillars, to keep them from split-
ting, afterwards imitated in stone-work.
    CONGELATION, freezing, or such a change pro-
 duced by cold in a fluid body, tiiat it quits its former
 state smu becomes congealed.  See Com, and Freezing.
    CONGIARY,  Congiarium, in  Roman antiquity, a
 kind of donative of wine or oil, bestowed on that people
 by their emperors,  and so  called from the  congius,
 wherewith it was measured out to them.  Sometimes,  in-
 deed, the congiary was made in money or corn; and  the
 medals struck on such occasions, are known by the same
 name.
  CONGIUS, a liquid measure of the ancient Romans
containing the eighth part of the amphora, or the fourth
of tho urna, or six sextarii. The congius in English mea-
sure contains 207,0676 solid inches; that is, seven pints
4,942 solid inches.
  CONGLOBATE gland, in anatomy, a little smooth
body, wrapt up in fine skin, by  whi' h  it is separated
from  all other parts,  only  admitting an artery  and a
nerve to pass in, and giving way to a vein and excretory
canal to come out, of which sort  are the glands of the
brain.
  CONGLOMERATE gland, that which is composed
of several little conglobate glands,  all tied up together in
one common tunitie or membrane.  Sometimes all their
excretory  ducts  unite, and make  one  common  pipe,
through which the liquor of them all runs,  as the pancreas
and parotides do. Sometimes the ducts uniting, form se-
veral pipes,  which only communicate with one  another
by cross canals; and such are the mammre: others  again
have several pipes without any communication with one
another, of wiiich sort  are the glandula; lachrymah \s and
prostata}:  and a fourth sort, is when each little gland lias
its  own excretory  duct, through which  it transmits its
liquor to a common bason; as the kidneys.
  CONGLUTINATION, the gluing or fastening any
two bodies together by the intromission of a third, whose
parts are  unctuous  and tenacious in the nature of glue.
  CONGREGATION, an assembly of several ecclesias-
tics united, so as to constitute one body;  as an assembly
of cardinals, in the constitution ofthe pope's court, met
for  the  despatch  of some particular business. These as-
semblies,  being sixteen in number, are distributed into
several  chambers,  after the manner of  our offices and
courts:  the first whereof is the pope's congregation,
whose business it is to prepare the most  difficult benefi-
ciary matters to he afterwards debated in the consistory:
the second is the congregation of the holy office, or the
inquisition:  the third is the congregation de propaganda
fide:  the  fourth  is the congregation for explaining the
council  of Trent: the fifth is the congregation of the in-
dex,  deputed  to  examine into pernicious and heretical
books: the sixth is the congregation of immunities, esta-
blished  to obviate the difficulties  that arise in the judg-
ments of such suits as  are carried  on against churchm n:
the seventh is the congregation of bishops and regulars:
the eighth is the congregation for the  examination of
bishops. Sec.
  CONGREGATIONALlSTS,inchurch history, asect
of protestants who reject all church government,  except
that of  a single congregation.  In  other matters, they
agree with the presbyterians.
   CONGRESS, in political affairs, an assembly of com-
missioners, envoys, deputies, Ace. from several courts,
meeting to concert matters for their common good.
   CONIC  SECTIONS  are curve lines formed  by the
intersections of a cone and a plane. Before we speak of
these sections, we shall briefly describe the cone itself
 and some of its properties.
   A cone may be conceived to be generated in the follow-
 ing manner: Take an immoveable point A (Plate XXXIV.
 Conic Sections, fig. 1.) elevated above the plane of a cir-
cle  BCDE;  and  suppose  a straight line XZ  dra*n
through the point and extended  both ways from it to an 
                                           CONIC  SE

indefinite length, to be earned quite round the circle, all
the while touching its circumference, and continuing still
fixed to the  immoveable point; the  line by this motion
will describe two conic surfaces, which are vertical or op-
posite, having their common  vert x at the  immoveable
point.
  The solid contained within this conic surface,  between
the immoveable point A ani the circumference of the cir-
cle BCDE, is a cone: the immoveable point A is  the ver-
tex; the circle BCDE is  the base; and a straight line AF
drawn from the vertex to the centre of  the  base, is the
axis of the cone: all straight lines drawn from the vertex
to  the circumference of  the base, as AB, AC, AD, AE,
&c. are sides of the cone. If the axis of a cone be perpen-
dicular to its base, it is  called a  right cone, as in fig. 2.;
if the axis be inclined to  the base, it is called a scalene or
oblique cone, such as that in fig. 3.; and aright cone is al-
wavs understood, when  the contrary is not expressed.
   if this  leg or axis  he  greater  than half the base, the
solid produced is an acute-angled cone; if less,  it  is  an
obtuse -angled cone;  and if equal, a right-angled  cone.
Thus the cone BAC (fig. 4.) is less acute than  the cone
 BDC, because the angle  BDF is less than the angle Bx\F.
   Properties of the cone.  1. Cone and pyramids having
 the suae bases and altitudes, are equal to each other.  It
 is shown that every triangular prism may be divided into
 three equal  pyramids;  and therefore that  a triangular
 pyramid is one-third of a  prism standing  on  the same
 base, and having the same altitude.   Hence, since every
 multangular body may  be resolved into  triangular ones,
 every pyramid is the third part of a prism, standing upon
 the same base, and having the same altitude;  and  as a
 cone may be esteemed an  infinite-angular  pyramid, and
 a cylinder an infinite-angular prism, a cone is a third
 part of a cylinder which has the same base and  altitude.
 Hence we have a method of measuring the solidity and
 surface of a cone and pyramid.  Thus, find the solidity
 of a prism or c v lindcr, having the  same base  with the
 cone or pyramid: wiiich found, divide by 3, the quotient
 will be the solidity ofthe cone or pyramid: or the solidity
 of any cone is equal to  the area of the base multiplied
 into one third part of its  altitude.  As  for  the surface,
 tliat ofa right cone, not taking in the base, is equal to a
 triangle  whose base is  the periphery,  and altitude the
 side of the cone; therefore the surface of a right cone is
 had by multiplving the  periphery of the base into half of
 the side, and adding tbe product to that of the base.
    2. The altitudes of similar cones are as the radii of the
 hases; and the axes  likewise are as the radii of the hases,
 and form the same angle with them.
    3. Cones are to one another in a ratio compounded of
 the ir bases and altitudes.
    4. Similar cones are in  a  triplicate ratio of their ho-
 mologous sides, and likewise of their altitudes.
    5.  Of all cones standing upon the same base, and hav-
 ing the same altitude,  tbe s.iperficies  of that which is
 most oblique is the greatest,  and s »the superficies of the
 ri-bt cone is the least; but the proportion of the superfi-
 cies of an oblique cone to Coat of a right one, or which is
 the same thing, the comparison  there \f to a circle,  or the
 conic sections, has not  \et been  determined.
    If a cone he cut by a plane  through the vertex, the
 jection will be a triangle ABC, Plate fig. 6.
  If a cone be cut by  a plane parallel to its base, the
section will be a circie.   If it be cut by  a plane DEF,
fig. 6. in such a direction that the side  AC of a  triangle
passing through the vertex, and having its base BC per-
pendicular to EF, may be parallel to DP, the section
is a parabola; if it be cut by a plane DK, fig. 7,  meeting
AC, the section is an ellipse;  and if it be cut hy  a  plane
DMO, fig. 8, which would meet AC extended beyond A,
it is an hyperbola.
  If any line HG, fig. 6, be drawn in a parabola perpen-
dicularto Dil, the square of HG will be  to the sepiare of
EP as DG to DP; for let LHK be a section parallel to
the base, and therefore a circle, the rectangle LGK  will
be equal to the square  of HG,  and the  rectangle BPC
equal to the square of EP; therefore  these squares  will
be to each other as their rectangles, that is,  as BP to
LG, that is,  DP to DG.
   There are three modes of investigating the  properties
of these curves.   1.  By taking the demonstrations from
the sections of a cone, which, from the many intersections
of planes with planes, and planes  with solids,  is  apt to
perplex the learner, and is now seldom adopted.   2.  By
taking some general property of the figures on  a  plane,
from which all the rest may be determined geometrically;
or by taking the general property of each  curve singly,
and from thence deducing geometrically all the  other
properties of that curve.  3.  By taking the equation to
all the  curves,  from whence  their  respective  properties
 may be discovered algebraically; or by taking the equa-
 tion to  each single curve, from whence its properties may
 be discovered algebraically.
   By whichever of these three methods the properties of
 conic sections are investigated,  the general property is
 discovered, which makes the bases ofthe other  methods.
 If they are considered as curves on a plane surface,  they
 are shown to have the same properties with those formed
 by the  intersections of a plane w ith a cone; and again,
 the equation is produced, which makes  the basis of the
 algebraical  process.   For a beginner, the geometrical
 method seems clearly  to have the preference;  and that
 which deduces from a common property the relations of
 each curve to the other, as well as the respective proper-
 ties of  each curve, seems to be  better than that wiiich
 considers each curve separately, and, after an examina-
 tion of its properties,  enters  into a comparison of each
 curve  with  the others.  Boscovich  in a very elegant
 manner has  deduced the properties ot the three curves,
 from a property  common to all; and his method has been
 made still easier for beginners lately by Mr. Newton, of
 Jesus-ceil ge, Cambridge; who, laying aside the music al
 proportion on wiiich Boscovich founds his demonstrations,
 has, within a  short  compass,  introduced even thing
 requisite for the study of the  Principia and  the higher
 mathematics.  The basis of this method is the relation of
 two lines to each other, drawn the one  from a given point,
 the other perpendicular to a line given in position.
    (1) If any point S be assumed without the line DX (fig.
 9,10.), and, whilst the line SP revolves  about S as a cen-
 tre, a point P moves in it in  such a manner that  its dis-
 tance from the point S shall always he to PE (its distance
 from the line DX) in  a given ratio, the curve  ch s- ribed
 by the point P is called a conic section,  a narabola, an
 ellipse, or an hv perbola, according as SP is equal to, les?, 
CONIC  SECTIONS.
or greater than, TE.   (2) The indefinite right line  DX
is called the directrix.  (3) The point S is called the
focus.  (4) The ratio of SP to  PE  is  called the  deter-
mining ratio.   (5) If a line SD  be  drawn through the
focus perpendicular to the directrix,  which is produced
indefinitely, it is called the axis of the conic section.  (6)
The point A, where the curve meets  the  axis, is  called
the vertex.  (7) A right line LST,  drawn through the
focus parallel to the directrix, and  terminated  by the
curve in the points L, T, is called the principal parame-
ter^ or the latus rectum.
  Cor.  1. SP being greater than PE in the hyperbola,
two curves  will be described,  one on  each side  of the
directrix; which are called opposite hyperbolas.
  Cor. 2. When the revolving line  SP comes into the
position SAD; SP, PE, will be equal to SA, AD;  there-
fore, SA is to AD in the determining ratio.
  Cor.  3. When the line SP comes into the position SL
or ST,  the distance of P from the directrix will be equal
to SD, and SL or ST will be to SD  in  the determining
ratio; and therefore the latus rectum LT is bisected in S.
  Cor.  4. The latus rectum in  the parabola is equal to
twice the distance of the focus from  the directrix, or to
four times its distance from the vertex: for SL is equ; 1 to
SD, and SA is equal to  AD; therefore LT  is equal to
twice SD, or to four times SA.
  (8) The tangents DLQ, DT17 (figs. 11, 12.),  which
are drawn through the extremities of the latus rectum,
are called focal tangents.  (9) The right line AM, in the
ellipse and hyperbola,  is called the  transverse axis, or
the axis major.  (10) If the transverse  axis  be bisected
in C, the point C is called  the centre  of the  ellipse or
hyperbola.  (11) If a line BCb, which is bisected in C, be
drawn perpendicular to the transverse axis, and CB, Cb,
be each of them a mean proportional  between  SA, SM,
the segments of  the axis intercepted between  the focus
and the vertices BC6,  is called the conjugate axis,  or the
axis minor.  (12) A right line PNp, drawn through  any
point N in the axis parallel to the tangent KAG, or per-
pendicular to the axis, and  terminated  by the curve in
the points P and p, is called an ordinate to the axis. (13)
And the segment of this axis AN, intercepted between
the ordinate and the vertex, in all the sections, as  also
the other segment NM in the ellipse and  hyperbola, is
called an abscissa.  (14) Any line passing  through the
centre of an ellipse or hyperbola, which  is terminated
both ways by the curve in the former, and hy the  oppo-
site curves in the latter,  is called  a  diameter.  (15) A
line drawn  through  any point in the parabola parallel
to the axis, is called  a diameter to the parabola.   (16)
Any point where a diameter meets the curve is called  a
vertex to that diameter.  (17)  If from  the centre C, at
the  distance CA (fig. 13.) half the transverse axis, a circle
be described, cutting the directrix of the  hyperbola in
the  points, H,  h, and lines  be drawn  from the centre
through the points of  intersection, these lines are called
the asymptotes.  (18) If AM be the  transverse axis,
and Bhthe conjugate axis, of any two opposite hyperbolas;
and  two  other  hyperbolas  be described,  of wiiich the
transverse axis is B6,  and the conjugate axis AM; these
hyperbolas are said to be conjugate to the former.   (19)
When the two axes are equal, the hyperbolas are said to
be equilateral.  (20) If a right line be drawn through any
point in the diameter of  a conic section parallel to the
tangent at its vertex, which is terminated both ways by
the curve, it is called an ordinate to that diameter/ (21)
The segments of any diameter of a conic section, which
is intercepted between an  ordinate and tiie vertex,  is
called an  abscissa.   (22) A diameter  which is  parallel
to  the  tangent at  the vertex of any diameter of the
ellipse or hyperbola, is called a conjugate diameter.  (23)
A line which is a third proportional to any diameter of the
ellipse or hyperbola and its conjugates, is called a para-
meter to that diameter. (24) If a line be drawn through
the focus  ofa parabola, parallel to  the ordinates of any
diameter, which is  terminated both ways by the curve,
it is called a parameter to  that diameter.
  From these fundamental properties all the others are
derived, and the curves may be described iiKvhanicallv.
This description depends for  the parabola,  on  the pro-
perty that a line from any  point in  the curve to the focus
is equal to the line  drawn from the same point perpen-
dicularly  on the directrix;  for the ellipse, on the property
that the sum of the lines drawn from the  foci, to any
point is equal to the major axis; for the hyperbola, that
the difference ofthe lines  drawn from the  foci  to any
point in the curve is equal  to the major axis.  Hence te
draw the  parabola.
        Description of conic sections on a plane.
  1. Parabola.  Let AB (fig. 14.) be any right line,
and C any point without it,  and DKF a ruler, wbich
let  he placed in  the same plane in which the right line
and point are, in such  a manner that one side of it, as
DK, be applied  to the  right line AB, and the other side
KF coincide with the point C; and at F, the extremity
of the side KF,  let  be fixed one end ofthe thread FNC,
whose length is  equal to KF,  and the other extremity
of it at the point C; and let part ofthe thread, as FN,
be brouglit close to  the side KF by a small pin N; then
let the square DKP' be removed from B towards A, so
that all the while its side  DK be  applied  close to the
line BA; and in the mean time the thread being extend-
ed,  will always be applied to  the side  KF,  being stopt
from going from it  by  means of the small  pin; and by
the  motion of the small pin N there will be  described a
certain curve, which is called a semi-parabola.   And if
the  square be brought to its first given position,  and 111
the  same manner be moved along the line AB, from B
towards H, the other semi-parabola will be described.
  2. Ellipse.   If any two  points, as A and B (fig. 15.),
be taken in any plane,  and in them are fixed the ex-
tremities of a thread, whose length is  greater than the
distance between the points, and the thread  extended by
means of a small pin C; and if the pin  be moved round
from any  point until it return to the place from  whence
it began to move, the thread being extended during the
whole time ofthe revolution, the figure wiiich the small
pin hy this revolution describes is called an ellipse.
  3. Hyperbola.  If to the point A (fig.  16.)  in any
plane, o'ne end of the ruler AB be placed in such a man-
ner, that about that point, as a centre, it may freely
move; and if to the  other end B of the  ruler AB be fixed
the extremity of the thread BDC, whose length is less
than the ruler AB,  and the other end of the thread being
fixed in the point C, coinciding with the side of the ruler
AB  which is in the same plane with the given point A;
let part of the thread, as BD, be brought close to the 
CONIC SECTIONS.
 side of the ruler AB, by means of a small pin D;  then
 let the ruhr be moved about the point A, from C towards
 T, Ibe thread all the while being extended, and the re-
 maining part coinciding with the side ofthe ruler being
 stopt from going from it by means ofthe small pin; and
 by the  motion of the small pin D, a certain figure is de-
 scribed, which is called the semi-hyperbola.
   The ellipse returns into itself. rl be parabola and hy-
 perbola may be ex! ended without limit.
   Every line perpendicular to the directrix ofa parabo-
 la meets it in one point, and i ills afterwards within it;
 and every  line drawn from the focus meets it in one
 point, und  fails afterwards  without it.  And every line
 that passes through a parabola, not perpendicular to the
 directrix, will meet it again, but only once.
   Every line passing through the centre of an ellipse is
 bisected by it;thc transverse, axis  is the greatest of all
 these lines, the lesser axis the least, and those nearer tbe
 transverse axis greater than those more remote.
   In the hyperbola, every line passing through the cen-
 tre is bisected by the opposite hyperbola, ami the trans-
 verse axis  is the least of* all these lines; also the second
 axis is  the least of all  the second diameters.  Every line
 drawn  from the centre within the angle contained by the
 asymptotes,  meets at  once, and falls afterwards within
 it; and every line drawn through the centre" without the
 angle,  never meets it; and a line wbich cuts one of the
 asymptotes, and cuts the other extended beyond the cen-
 tre, will meet both the opposite hyperbolas in one point.
   If a line  GM (fig.  14.) be drawn  from a point in a
 parabola perpendicular to the  axis,  it will be an ordi-
 nate to the axis, and its square will be equal to the rectan-
 gle under the abscissa MI and latus rectum; for because
 GMC is a right angle, GM2 is equal to the difference of
 GC2 and CM2; but GC is equal to GE, which is equal
 to MB; therefore  GM2 is equal to BM2—CM2; which,
 because CI  and IB  are equal, is  (8 Euc. 2.) equal to
 four times the rectangle MI and IB, or equal to the rec-
 tangle under MI and the latus rectum.
   Hence it follows, that if different ordinates be drawn
 to the axis, their squares, being each equal to  the rectan-
 gle under the abscissa and latus rectum, will  be to  each
 other in the proportion of the  abscissas;  which is the
 same property as  takes place in the parabola  cut from
 ibe cone, and proves those curves to be the same.
   This property is extended al o to the ordinates  of
 other diameters, whose squares  are equal to the rectan-
 gle under the abscissas and parameters  of  their respec-
 tive diameters.
   In the ellipse, the square ofthe ordinate is to the  rec-
 tangle under the segments of the diameter, as  the square
 ofthe diameter parallel to the ordinate is to  the square
 ofthe diameter to  which it is drawn, or as the first  dia-
 meter to its latus  rectum;  that is, LK2 (fig. 15.)  is to
 EK  xKFasEFUo Gil2.
   In the hyperbola, (fig. 16.)  the square of the ordinate
 is to the rectangle contained under the segments of the
 diameters betwixt its vertices, as the  square  ofthe  dia-
meter parallel to the ordinate, to the square of the diame-
ter to which it is drawn, or as the  first diameter to its
l.itus rectum; that is. SX- istoEXxXK asMN'to KE2.
   Or if an ordinate1! be drawn to a second diameter, its
square  will be to the sum of the squares of the second
   VOL. I.                80
diameter, and of the line intercepted betwixt the ordinate
and  centre, in tiie same proporti n: that is, RS*  (fig.
16.) is to Z G2 added to GM2 as KE2 to MN-'.
   These are the most important properties of the conic
section-; and by means of these, it is demonstrated, thai"
the figures are the same des, ribed on a plane as cut wif::
a cone; which we have demonstrated  in the case of to
parabola.
   From the genesis of the sections it may be observed
how one section clc generates  into another.  For an ellip-
sis being that plane of any section of the  ie v.e which is
between the circle and parabola, it will be  easy to con-
ceive that there may be  a great variety of ellipses  pro-
duced from the same cone; and when the section comes
to be exactly parallel to one side of the cone, then the
ellipsis degenerates into a parabola.   Now a  parabo-
la being that section  whose plane  is  always  parallel
to the side of the cone, cannot vary as  the ellipsis may;
for as soon as it begins to  move out  of  that position
of being parallel to the side of the cone, it  degenerates
either into an ellipsis or hyperbola: that is, if the section
inclines towards the plane of the cone's  base, it becomes
an ellipsis; hot if it incline towards the  cone's vertex, it
then  becomes an hyperbola, which *is the plane of any
section that falls between tbe parabola and the triangle;
and therefore tliere may be as many varieties of hyperbo-
la produced from one and the same cone as tliere may be
ellipses.
   In short, a circle may change into an ellipsis, the ellipsis
into a parabola, the parabola into an hyperbola, and the
hyperbola into a plain isosceles triangle. And the centre of
the circle, which is its focus, divides itself into two focuses,
as soon as the circle begins to degenerate into an ellip-
sis; but when the ellipsis changes into  a parabola, one
endof its foci vanishes, and the remaining focus goes along
with the parabola when it degenerates into an hyperbola,
And when the hyperbola degenerates into a plain isosceles
triangle, this focus becomes the vertical point of the tri-
angle, namely, the vertex of the cone.   So  that the cen-
tre of the cone's base may be truly said  to pass gradually
through all the sections until it arrives at the vertex of
the cone, still carrying  its latus  rectum along with it.
For  the diameter of a circle being that right line which
passes through its  centre or focus, and by which all other
right lines  drawn within the circle are regulated and val-
ued, may be called the circle's latus rectum; and though
it lose the name of diameter when the circle degenerates
into an ellipsis, yet it retains the name of latus rectum
with its  first properties  in  all the sections,,gradually
shortening as the focus carries it along  from one section
to another, until at last both it and the focus become co-
incident, and terminate in the vertex ofthe cone.
  Equations of the conic sections are derived from the
above properties. The equation of any curve is an algebra-
ic expression, which denotes the relation betwixt the ordi-
nate and abscissa; the abscissa being equal to x, and the
ordinate equal to y.
  If p be the parameter of a parabola, then y*=px; which
is an equation for all parabolas.
  If a be the transverse diameter of any ellipses, p its pa-
                   V
rameter; then y2 = — (ax — x2), an equation for an el-
lipses. 
CONIC SECTIONS.
  If a be a transverse diameter of a hyperbola, p its pa-
                  p----------
ramcter; then y2 =•— x ax+x2.
       j     J    a
  If a be  a second  diameter of a hyperbola,  then y2
  p__________
=.— x a2 + .x-*;   which  are equations for all hyperbolas.

  As all these  equations are expressed by  the second
powers ofa: and y, all conic sectiems are curves of the
second order; and conversely, the locus of every quad-
ratic equation is a conic section, and is a parabola, ellipse,
or hyperbola, according as the form ofthe equation cor-
responds with the above ones, or with some other deduc-
ed from lines drawn in a different manner with respect
to the section.
  General jjroperties  of conic sections.—A tangent  to a
parabola bisects the angle contained by the lines drawn
to the focus and directrix; in an ellipse and hyperbola, it
bisects the angle contained by the lines  drawn to the
foci.
  In all the sections, lines parallel to the tangent are or-
dinates to the diameter passing through the point of con-
tact; and in the ellipse and hyperbola, the diameters pa-
rallel to the tangent, and  those passing through the
points of contact, are mutually conjugate to each other.
If an ordinate be drawn from a point to a diameter, and
a tangent from the seme point which meets the diameter
produced;  in the parabola, the part of the diameter be-
twixt the ordinate and tangent will  be bisected in the
vertex; and in the ellipse and hyperbola, the semidiame-
ter will be a mean proportional  between the segments of
the diameter,  betwixt the centre and ordinate, and be-
twixt the centre and tangent.
  The   parallelograms  formed  by  tangents  drawn
through the vertices of any conjugate  diameters, in the
same ellipse or hyperbola, will he equal to each other.
  Properties peciiliar  to the hyperbola.—As the hyperbo-
la has some curious  properties arising from  its asymp-
totes which appear at first view almost incredible, we
shall briefly demonstrate them.
  (1)  The hyperbola and its asymptotes never meet: if
not, let them meet in S (fig. 16.); then by the  property
of the curve KX x XE is to  SX2 as GE2  to GM2 or
EP2; that is, as GX2 to SX2; wherefore KX x XE will
be equal to the square of GX; but KX x XE, together
with the square of  GE, is  also equal to the square of
GX; which is absurd.
  (2) If a line be  drawn through an  hyperbola parallel
to its second axis, the rectangle contained hythe segments
of that line, betwixt the point in the  hyperbola and the
asymptotes, will be equal to the square of the second axis.
  For if SZ (fig. 16.) be drawn  perpendicular to the
second axis, by the property ofthe curve MG2, that is,
PE2, is  to  GE2, as the squares ZG  and the square of
MG together, to SZ2 or GX2;  but RX2 and  GX2 are in
the same proportion, because the triangles RXG, PEG,
are equiangular; therefore the square ZG and  MG are
equal to RX2, from wiiich, taking the equal squares of
SX and ZG, there  remains the rectangle RSV, equal
MG2.
   (3) Hence, if right  lines be  drawn parallel to the se-
cond axis, cutting an hyperbola and its asymptotes, the
rectangles contained betwixt the hyperbola and points
■where the lines cut the asymptotes will be equal to each
other; for they are severally equal to the square of the
second axis.
  (4) If from  any  points, d and S, in an hyperbola.
there be drawn lines parallel to the  asymptotes d a SQ
and  S b d c,  the  rectangle  under d a  and d c w ill  be
equal to  the rectangle under QS  and S  b; also  the
parallelograms d a G c, and  SQG b, which  are equian-
gular, and consequently proportional to the rectangles,
are equal.
  For draw YW RV parallel to the second axis, the rec-
tangle Y d x d W is equal to the rectangle RS  x S\V;
wherefore WD is to SV as RS is to d Y.  But  because
the triangles RQS,a YD, and GSV, c d W, are equian-
gular, \V d is to SV as c d to S b,  and  RS is to DY as
SQ to  d a; wherefore, d c is to S b as SQ to d a; and
the rectangle d  c, d a, is equal  to the rectangle QS,
S b.
  (5) The asymptotes always approach nearer the hv-
perbola.
  For, because the rectangle under SQ  and S b or QG.
is equal to the rectangle under d a and  d c, or AC and
QG  is  greater  than a G; therefore,   d  a is  greater
than QS.
  (6) The asymptotes come  nearer the  hyperbola than
any  assignable distance.
  Let X be any  small line. Take any point, as d in the
hyperbola, and  draw d a, d c, parallel to the  asymp-
totes: and as X is to d a, so let a G be to GQ. Draw QS
parallel to a d, meeting the hyperbola in S; then  QS will
be equal to X. For the rectangle SQ x QG will  be equal
to the rectangle d a x a G; and  consequently SQ is tod
a as AG to GQ.
  If any point be taken in the asymptote below Q, it can
easily be shown that its distance  is less  than the line X.
  Uses of conic sections.—Any body, projected from the
surface ofthe earth, describes a parabola, to which the
direction wherein it is projected is a tangent: and the dis-
tance of the directrix is equal to  the height from which
a body must fall to acquire the velocity with which it is
projected: hence the properties of the parabola are the
foundation of gunnery.
  All bodies acted on hy a central force which decreases
as the square of the distances increases, and impressed
with any projectile motion making  any angle with the
direction of the central force, must describe parabolas,
ellipses, and hyperbolas, according to the proportion be-
tween the centi*al and projectile force.   This is proved
by direct demonstration.
  The great principle of gravitation  acts in this  manner:
and all the heavenly bodies describe conic sections, hav-
ing the sun in one of the foci; the  orbits of the planets
are ellipses, whose transverse and lesser diameters are
nearly equal. Itis uncertain whether some of the comets
describe ellipses with very unequal  axes, and so return
after a great number of years; or whether they describe
parabolas  and  hyperbolas, in which case they will ne-
ver return.
   They are of great use also in many other parts ofthe
mathematics; in  dialing, for delineating the signs  in the
projection ofthe sphere, many of whose circles  are pro-
jected into the curves; in optics, to reflect or refract rays
accurately to a focus; in logarithms, and in the higher
parts of algebra, one or other of them is continually ap- 
C  0 N
C  0 N
 plied; and no one can  make  any great progress in the'
 mathematie s, without understanding thoroughly the chief
 properties of conic seel ions.
   The  principal writers  on conic sections in modern
 days are, Hamilton, Robertson, Vincc,  Newton,  Sim-
 son and Mutton.
   CONJUGATE diameter,  or axis of an  ellipsis, the
 shortest ofthe two diameters, or that bisecting the trans-
 verse axis.
   L'oxji.'kvtk  hyperbolas. See Conic  Sections.
   CONJ I GAT10N. in grammar, a regular distribu-
 tion of ihe several inflections of verbs in their different
 voices, moods, lenses, numbers, and persons, so as to dis-
 tinguish them from  <;iie' another.
   The Latins have four conjugations, distinguished by
 thet erminations of the infinitive  are  ere,  ere, and ?re;
 the vowels be lore re of the infinitive in the first, second,
 and fourth conjugations, being long vowels, and that be-
 fore re in the infinitive of the third being a short one. See
 Vowel.
   The English have scarcely any natural inflexions, de-
 riving all their variations from additional particles, pro-
 nouns, Sec. whence there is scarcely any such thing as
 strict conjugation in that language.
   CONIUM, hemlock, a genus ofthe  digynia order,  in
 tbe  pentandria class of plants, and in the natural meth-
 od ranking under the 45th order, umbellatse. The  par-
 tial invc.lucra arc halved, and most triphyllous: the fruit
 subglobose and quinquc-striated, the striae  c renated on
 each side.  There are five species;  the most remarkable
 are:
   1. Conium Africanum, with prickly  seeds, a native of
 the  Cape of Good Hope, and rarely growing above nine
 inches high: the lower leaves are divided like those  of
 the  small wild rue, and are ofa greyish colour; those up-
 on the stalk  are narrow, hut of the same colour: these
 are terminated by umbels of white  flowers,  each of the
 larger umbels being composed of three small ones; the
 involucrum  has three narrow leaves situated under the
 umbel.
   2. Conium maculatum, or the greater hemlock, grows
 naturally on lhe sides of banks and roads in many parts
 of America.  It is a biennial plant, which perishes after it
 has ripened its seeds. It has a long taper root like a pars-
 nip, but smaller.  The stalk is smooth, spotted with  pur-
 ple; and rises from four to  upwards  of six feet high,
 branching out  towards" the  top,  with decompounded
 Icav es.  The  stalks are terminated by  umbels of white
 flowers. This species is sometimes applied externally in
 the-  form of decoction, infusion, or  poultice, as a discu-
 tient. These are apt to excoriate, and their vapour is to
 some particularly disagreeable and hurtful.  Tbe stalks
 arc  insignificant, and the roots very virulent. "With re-
 gard to  its virtue, when taken internally, it has been
 generally accounted poisonous; which  it doubtless is, in
 a  high decree, when used in any considerable quantity.
 Rut Dr. .Ste>erk has lately found, that in certain small
 doses it may be  taken with great safety; and that, with-
 out  disordering the constitution, it sometimes proves a
 powerful resolvent  in obstinate disorders.  In scirrhus,
 fhe internal and external use of hemlock has been found
 useful, hut mercurv has been generally  used  at the same
time. In open cancer, it often abates  the pains,  and is
 fire from the constipating effects of opium.  It is like-
 wise used in srrophulous tumoir- and ul«  rs in general.
 It is also recommended by some in  chiin ough  and other
 diseases, fs common and perhaps  best form  ',••>  that of
 the powdered leaves,  in thedo.se at  first of two or three
 groins a (\<iy, which in some case's has been  giadi? -.Hy
 increased to upwards of two ounces without producing
 giddiness.  An extract from  the seeds is said to pruluce
 giddiness sooner than that from  I lie  leaves,  ijence,
 while both the London and Edinburgh colleges have giv-
 en a place to the succus spissatus cicuta;,  iut >  the phar-
 macopoeia ofthe latter an extractum seminum cicuta;  is
 also introduced.
  3. Conium tcnuifolium,  with striated  seeds,  differs
 from the last in having taller stalks, which are  not so
 much spotted. The leaves are much narrower, and ofa
 paler green; and this  difference is constant. It is a bien-
 nial plant, and grows  naturally in Germany.
  CONJUNCTION, in astronomy, the meeting of two
 stars or planets in the same  degree ofthe zodiac.
  Conjunction, in grammar,  an indeclinable word or
 particle, which serves to join words and sentences togeth-
 er, and thereby shows their relation or dependence one
 upon another.
  CONJURATION.  To  use conjuration, witchcraft,
 «Scc. was made felony  by the  1st Jac. I. c. 12.; but that
 superstitious statute having produced many pernicious
 effects, it was wisely  repeal' el by the 9th Geo. II. c. 5.,
 wherein it  is enacted, that no proscc otion, suit, or pro-
 ceeding, shall be commenced or carried on against  any
 person for witchcraft, sorcery, enchantment, or conjura-
 tion, or for  charging  another with  any such offence, in
 any court whatsoever. But, by the  same statute, if any
 person  shall pretend to  exercise  or use  any kind of
 witchcraft, sorcery, enchantment, or conjuration,  or un-
 dertake to   tell fortunes, or pretend  from his skill or
 knowledge  in any occult or crafty  science to  discover
 where  or in  what manner any goods or chattels suppos-
 ed to have been stolen  or lost may be  found; every per-
 son so offending, being convicted on  indictment or infor-
 mation, shall suffer imprisonment for a year without bail
 or mainprize; and once in each quarter of the year, in
 some market-town of  the proper county upon  the mar-
 ket-day there, stand openly  on the pillory for one hour;
 and shall also (if the court by which  such judgment shall
 be given shall think fit) be  obliged  to give sureties for
 his good behaviour, in such sum and for such time as tho
 court shall judge proper, according  to the circumstances
 of the offence; and in such  case shall be further  impri-
soned till such sureties shall be given. 4 Black. 60.
  CONNARUS, Ceylon sumach, a genus of the decan-
dria order in the monadelphia class of plants, and in the
natural method ranking with those of which the order is
doubtful. The stigma is  simple-; the  capsule  bivalved,
unilocular,  and monospermous. There arc four species;
the most remarkable is:
  Connarus monocarpus, a native of India. It rises with
a ligneous  stalk eight or  ten feet high, which is hard,
rigid,  and  covered  with a  black bark; and divides up-
wards  into two or three branches with trifoliate leaves,
having 1 ing footstalks placed alternate. It is propagated
by cuttings, and is treated like other tender exotic s]
  CO.NMYENT valves, in anatomy, those  wrinkles, 
CON
CON
 eUulcs, and vascules, which arc found In the  inside of
the two great intestines, the ileum and jejunum.
  CONOID,  in geometry, a  solid body, generated by
the revolution of a conic section about its axis. See Co-
nic Sections.
  Conoid, elliptical, is  a solid formed by the revolution
of an ellipsis about one of its diameters, and more gene-
rally called a spheroid.
  Conoid, parabolical, is generated by the revolution of
a parabola about its axis.
  CONOID, hyperbolical, is generated by the revolution
of an hyperbola about its axis.
  CONOIDES, in anatomy, a gland found in the third
ventricleof the brain, called pinealis from its resemblance
to a pine-apple. Descartes fixed the seat ofthe rational
soul in this gland.
   CONOPS, in zoology, a genus of insects belonging to
the order  diptera;  the characters of which are: the ros-
trum is porrected and  joined like a knee; the antennas
terminate by a flat and solid articulation, resembling the
bowl  of a spoon,  with a  lateral bristle,  which, when
closely examined, appears to be veryjiairy. Of this ge-
nus there  are thirteen species.
  1. The calcitrans is to be found every where, especi-
ally in  autumn, when it harrasses the horses, and  draws
blood from them with its sting.
  2. The  macrocephala might at first sight he  mistaken
for a species of wasp. It is smooth: the  forepart  of  the
head is lemon-colour,  as  are the poisers; the feet  arc
dun-coloured; the thorax is variegated  with black and
reddish dun: the same takes place with respect to the
segments  of the abdomen, some of wiiich arc edged with
lemon-colour, chiefly the second and part of the third to-
wards the sides: the wings are brown, watered,  and
clouded.  This beautiful conops is found  in medows. The
eleven other species are not deserving particular  notice.
   CONOPLEA, in botany, a genus ofthe cryptogamia
class, order fungi;  there are but one  species known.
   CONSANGUINITY, or  kindred, is the connection
or relation of persons descended from the same stock or
common ancestor; and is either lineal or collateral.   Li-
neal consanguinity is that which subsists between  per-
sons, of whom one is descended in a direct line from the
other;  as grandfather, father, and son.  Collateral con-
sanguinity is that which subsists between persons  de-
scended from the same common  ancestor, but not from
one another;  as  brothers,  uncles,  and  nephews.  2
Black. 204.
  Consanguinity terminates in the sixth and seventh de-
gree, except in the succession of the crown,  in  which
rase itis continued to infinity. Marriage is prohibited by
the church to the fonrth degree of  consanguinity inclu-
sive; but by the law of nature, consanguinity is  no ob-
stacle to marriage,  except in the direct line.
  The civilians call fraires consanguine, those born of
the same father,  in  opposition to fratres  uterini, who are
only born ofthe same mother. It is the  common opinion
that the former was not allowed to complain of  an inoffi-
cious  testament, that is, of being disinherited without
cause, except from the turpitude of the person appointed
heir in their place.
   CONSCRIPT, conscriptus, in Roman antiquity, an
appellation given to the senators of Rome, who were call-
ed conscript fathers on account of their names being en-
tered all in one register.
   CONSECRATION, among medalists, is the ccremo-
ny of the apotheosis of an emperor.  The consecration on
medals is represented thus: on one side is the emperor's
head, crowned with  laurel, and  sometimes veiled, and
the inscription gives him the title divvs; on the revei'se
is a temple or altar, or an eagle taking flight toward
heaven; and sometimes the emperor is  seen in the air
borne  up by  the eagle;  the  inscription  always  co>-
SECRATIO.
   CONSEQUENT of a ratio, in mathematics, the lat-
ter of the two terms of a ratio, or that to which the antece-
dent is compared; thus in m : n, or  m to n, n is the con-
sequent, and m the  antecedent.  See Ratio, and Pro-
portion.
   CONSEQUENTIAL losses or damages, inlaw. It is a
fundamental  principal of  law and  reason, that he who
does the first wrong, shall answer for all the consequen-
tial damages.  12  Mod. 639. But this admits of limita-
tion. Though a man do a lawful thing, yet, if any dam-
age  thereby befal another, he shall answer if he could
have avoided it.
   CONSERVATOR, an officer ordained for the securi-
ty and preservation of the privileges of some cities and
communities,  having a commission to judge of and de-
termine the differences among them.
   In most  catholic universities there are two conserva-
tors; one of wiiom decides the differences between the
regents, students, Sec. and the other takes cognizance  of
spiritual matters between ecclesiastics: the former is call-
ed conservator of royal  privileges, or those granted by
kings; the latter is called the conservator of apostolical
privileges,  or those granted  by the  pope.
   Conservator of the peace,  in  our ancient customs, a
person who had  a special charge  to keep the king's
peace. The chamberlain of Chester  is still a conservator
in that county; and petty constables are,  by the  com-
mon law, conservators, &c. of the king's peace.
   Conservator of the truce and safe-conducts, an officer
formerly appointed by the king's letters patent, whose
business it  was to make inquiry of  all offences commit-
ted against the king's truce and  safe-conducts upon the
main seas out of the liberties of the cinque-ports.
   CONSERVATORY are  musical schools establish-
ed for the instruction of children in music. There are
four of  these  at Venice, designed for the  education of
girls, and three at Naples for  the instruction of boys.
   CONSIDERATION, is the material cause of aeon-
tract, without which it would not be etfectual or binding.
Consideration in contracts, is something given in ex-
change, something that is mutual and reciprocal: as mo-
ney given for  goods sold, or w7ork performed for wages:
and a consideration of some sort or other is so absolute-
ly necessary to the forming of a contract, that a nudum
pactum', or  agreement  to do or  pay any thing on one
side without any compensation on  the other, is totally
void in law; and a man cannot be compelled to  perform
it. 2 Black. 445. A consideration is necessary to create a
debt,  otherwise it is a nudum pactum-. Jenk.  290.  in
PI. 27.
   CONSIGNMENT, the sending, or delivering over,
goods, money, or other property, to another person.  It 
CON
CON
may be either consigned  unconditionally, or  for some
particular purpose.  Consigned  goods are supposed in
general to be the property of him by whom they are con-
signed, but to be at the disposal of him to whom they are
consigned.
  CONS1LUM, in law, is used to signify a speedy day
appointed to argue a demurrer; which the court grants
after the demurrer joined, on reading the records ofthe
cause.
  CONSISTENTES, in church history, an appellation
given  to such penitents as were permitted to assist at
prayers, but not to partake of the sacrament.
  CONSISTORY, at itome, is an ecclesiastical assem-
bly held  in the presence ofthe pope, for the reception of
princes or their ambassadors,  for the  canonization of
saints, for the promotion of cardinals, and other impor-
tant affairs.
  When  a  public consistory is to  be  held, the pope's
throne is erected in the great ball ofthe apostolic palace:
the  pope is seated on cloth of gold, under a canopy of
the same, and the foot of the throne  is covered with red
cloth.  The cardinal bishops and priests sit on the right,
below the throne,  and the deacons  on the left, but so as
to have their faces towards the pope. The archbishops,
bishops,  prothonotaries, and  other prelates, sit on the
steps of the throne: on the lowest step the subdeacons,
auditors, clerks  of the chamber, and  acolyths with wool-
len cowls; and  the ecclesiastical officers of the pope's
court on the ground.  The nephews of the reigning pope,
and other Roman  princes, are ranged on each side ofthe
throne; and the entrance of the passage leading to the
throne is occupied  by the pope's guard.  Besides the
public consistory,  there is  also a private one,  held in a
retired  chamber,  called  the chamber of papegay, into
which none  are admitted but cardinals: here the pope ap-
pears in a white sdk cassock, and a red vellet cap laced
with silver; and here are first  proposed and passed all
bulls for bishoprics, abbeys, &c. which are thence calkd
consistorial  benefices.
  In England, the archishopand bishop of every diocese
has a consistory court, held before his chancellor or com-
missary  in  his cathedral  church,  or other  convenient
place in his diocese, for ecclesiastical causes.  From the
bishop's court the  appeal is to the archbishop; from the
archbishop's court to the delegates.
  CONSOLE, in architecture, an ornament  cut  upon
the key of an arch, which has a projecture, and, on oc-
casion, serves to support little  cornices, figures, busts,
and vases.
  CONSOLIDATION, in the  civil law, signifies the
uniting the possession or profit of land with the proper-
ty, and vise versa. Thus, if* a man has by legacy usu-
fructuin fundi, and afterwards  buys  the property or fee
simple of tiie heir, this is called  a consolidation.
  Coxgi.i.in vtion. in our law, is the uniting two bene-
fices into one by assent  of the ordinary, patron, and in-
cumbent.
  CONSONANCE, in music, if we are to deduce the
definition of the word from its  etymology, is the cflert
of two or more  sounds h ard at the same time; but its
general signification is confined to concluding  intervals.
\S ben the interv ul of a consonance  is  invariable, it  is
railed perfect; and when it may be either major or minor,
it iu t.'i'inpfl  iniiwrfWit.
  CON SONANT, a letter that cannot be sounded with-
out some single or double vowel before or after it. Con-
sonants are first divided into single and double; the dou-
ble  are x and  z, tbe rest  are  all single: and these are
again divided into mutes and liquids; eleven mutes, b. c,
d.f, v, g,j, k, p, q, t: and four liquids, /, m,  n, r.  But
the most natural division of  consonants is that of the
Hebrew grammarians, who have been imitated by the
grammarians of other oriental languages.  These divide
the consonants  into five classes, with  regard to the five
principal organs of the voice; which all contribute, it is
true, but one more notably than the rest, to certain mo-
difications, which make five general kinds of consonants.
Each class comprehends several consonants, which result
from the different degrees of  the same modification,  or
from the different motions of the same organs: these or-
gans arc the  throat, palate,  tongue, teeth, lips; whence
the five classes  of consonants are  denominated guttural,
palatal, lingual, dental, and labial.
  CONSPIRACY, in law,  tbe unlawful confederation
of any persons  by oath or other covenant, that  each of
them shall aid and bear the other falsely and malicious-
ly to indict or cause to  be indicted, or  falsely to me>ve or
maintain pleas.  From which it seems clearly to follow,
that not only those who actually cause an innocent man
to be indicted,  and also to be tried  upon the indictment
(whereupon he  is lawfully acquitted),  are properly con-
spirators: but that those also are guilty of this  offence
who basely conspire  to indict a man falsely and mali-
ciously, whether they do any act in prosecution of such
con fee! .racy or not.  1 Haw.  189. For  this offence the
conspirators  (for there must be  at least two to form a
conspiracy)  may be indicted at the suit of the king, and
may be  sentenced to fine, imprisonment, and  pillory.
4 Block. 136.
  CONSTABLE.  Lord high constable, an ancient offi-
cer ofthe crown both of England and France, whose au-
thority was so very extensive, that the office has  been
laid aside in both kingdoms, except upon particular oc-
casions, such as the king's coronation. The constabl" of
France had his person privileged, and during the king's
minority  was named  next  to the princes  of the blood.
The  army obeyed him next the  king. He managed all
that  belonged to  war, either for punishment of delin-
quents, distribution of booty, surrender of places, k.c.
The  jurisdiction and functions of this office were after-
wards in the mareschals of France. The function of the
constable of England consisted in the care of the  com-
mon  peace of the land, in deeds of arms, and matter of
war. By a law of Ri-'iiard II. the constable of England
had the  determination of things ceiue rning wars and
blazonry of arms, which could not be discussed by the
common  law.  The first constable  was ' routed  by the
Conqueror:  the office continued hereditary till  the l.nh
of Hinry VIII.; when it was laid  aside, as being so pow-
erful as to become troublesome to the  king.
  Covstable: by the laws of Alfred, tbe  freemen were
to distribute tliem-elves into  decennaries him! hundreds;
and every ten freeholders chose an annual officer, whom
they called constable, borslnddei, tithingman, or head.
borough, as the bead ofthe decennnry or ten. These in
every hundred where there was a feudal lord, were sworn
in and admitted  by the lord of his steward, in his leet;
but where there  was no feudal lord, the  sheriff, in his 
CON
CON
turn, had the swearing of them in.  So i f there was no feu-
dal 1  rd of the hundred, an annual officer was chosen,
who was to preside over the whole hundred, and was cal-
led the high constable.
   CONSTAT, in law, a certificate that the clerk ofthe
pipe and auditors of the  exchequer grant at the request
of any person who intends to plead or move in that court,
for tiie discharge of  any  thing.  A constat is superior to
an ordinary certificate,  because it contains nothing but
what is evident on record.
   CONSTELLATION, in astronomy, a system of se-
veral stars that are seen in  the heavens near to one ano-
ther.  Astronomers not only mark out the stars, but, that
they may better bring them into order, they distinguish
them by  their situation and position in respect to each
other; and therefore they distribute them  into asterisnis,
or constellations, allowing several stars  to make up'one
constellation; and for the better distinguishing and ob-
serving thein, they reduce the constellations to the forms
of animals, as men, bulls, bears, &e. or to the images of
some things known, as  of a crown, a harp, a balance,
Sec. or give them the names of those  whose memories, in
consideration of some notable exploit, they had a  mind
to stransmit to future ages. The division ofthe stars by
images and figures is  of  great antiquity, and seems
to  be as old as  astronomy itself;  for  in the  ancient
book of Job, Orion,  Arcturus, and the Pleiades, are  men-
tioned: and we meet with the names  of many ofclhe con-
stellations in the writings of the first poets, Homer and
Hesiod. Sec Astronomy.
   The ancients, in their division of the firmament, took
in only so much as came under their notice, distributing
it into forty-eight. Modern astronomers divide the whole
starry firmament into three regions:  1.  The zodiac, or
that  portion of the heavens in which the planets would
appear to move, to an eye placed in the sun. The breadth
of this  space depends on the inclination of the orbits in
which the planets  move,  to one another; and includes
twelve constellations, commonly called the signs of the
zodiac, viz. aries,  taurius, gemini, cancer, leo, virgo,
libra, scorpio,  Sagittarius, capricomus,  aquarius, and
pisces. 2.  All that region of the heavens  that lies on the
north side of the zodiac,  which contains 21 constellations,
viz. the ursa minor  and major,  draco, cepheus, bootes,
corona septentrionalis, hercules, lyra, cygnus, Cassiopeia,
perseus, andromeda, triangulum, auriga, pegasus, equu-
leus, dclphinus, sagitta, aquila,  serpentarius, and ser-
pens;  to which were added afterwards two others, viz.
that of antinous, which was made of the stars not includ-
ed in any  image, near  the eagle; and  Berenice's hair,
consisting of stars which are near the lion's tail.  3. That
region  on the southern  side  of the  zodiac, which con-
tains 15 constellations, known to the ancients, viz. cetus,
the eridanus, lepus, orion, canis major, canis  minor,
argo, hydra, crater, corvus, centaurus, lupus, ara, corona
meridionalis, and  piscis australis:  to  these are lately
added twelve more  constellations,  which  are not to be
seen by those who inhabit the northern regions, because of
the convexity of the earth, but in the southern parts they
are very conspicuous; these are the phoenix, grus,  pavo,
indus,  avis  paradisi, triangulum australe, musca, cha-
meleon, piscis volans, toucan, hydrus,  xiphias.  The
galaxy, or milky-way, is also to be reckoned among the
constellations.  Sec each constellation, and the number
of stars it contains, under its proper head; and also the
article Astronomy.
  CONSTITUTION,  an  ordinance,  decision,  regula-
tion, or law, made bv authority of any superior, eccle-
siastical  or civii.  The constitutions of the Roman em-
perors make a part of the civil law, and  the constitu-
tions cd' the church make a part ofthe canon law.
  Constitution, by way of eminence, is an appella-
tion given to  that bull of pope Clement XI. which be-
gins with the word unigenitus.
  Constitution, apostolical, a collection of regulations
attributed  to the  apostles,  and •supposed  te> have been
collected by St. Clement, whose name likewise thev bear.
It is the general opinion, however, that they are spuri-
ous, and that St. Clement had  no concern in them.
They appeared first in the 4th  age. but have been much
changed ami corrupted since that time. They are divid-
ed into eight books, consisting  of a great number of rules
and precepts, relating to  the  duties of  Christians, and
particularly the ceremonies and discipline ofthe church.
Mr. Whiston, in opposition to the general opinion, as-
serts them to be a part of the sacred writings dictated
by the apostles in their meetings, and written down from
their own mouths by  St. Clement; and intended as a
supplement to the New Testament, or rather as a sys-
tem of christian  faith and  polity. The  reason why the
constitutions are suspected by the orthodox, and perhaps
the reason  also  why their  genuineness is defended by
Mr. Whiston, is, that they seem to favour Ariauisni.
   Constitution, in a physical sense, is  that particu-
lar disposition of the human body, which results from
the properties and mutual actions of tbe solids and fluids,
and which renders them capable of exercising tbe func-
tions proper and  conformable to nature.
   CONSTRUCTION, in geometry,  is  the  drawing
such lines, such a figure, Sec. as are previously necessa-
ry for the making any demonstration appear more plain
and undeniable.
   Constkuction of equations, in algebra, is the finding
the  roots or unknown quantities of an  equation, by
geometrical construction of right lines or curves; or the
reducing given equations into geometrical figures. And
this is effected by lines or curves,  according to the order
or rank ofthe equation.
   The roots of any equation may be determined, that is,
the equation may he  constructed, by the intersections of
a straight line with  another line or curve of the same
dimensions as the equation to be constructed; for the
roots  of the equation are the ordinates of the curve at
the points of intersection with the right line, and it is
well  known that a curve may be cut by a right line in
as many points as its dimensions amount to. Thus, then,
a simple equation will be constructed by the intersection
of one right line with another; a quadratic equation, or
an effectei equation  of the 2d rank, by the intersection
of a right line with a circle, or any of the conic sections;
which arc ail lines of the 2d order, and which may be
cut by the right  line in two points, thereby giving the
two roots of the quadratic equation.  A cubic equation
may be constructed by the intersection of the right line
with a line of the 3d  order, and so on.
   But if, instead of  the right  line, some other line of  a 
CON
C  0 N
 higher order be used, then the second line, whose inter-
 scctions  with the former are to determine  the roots of
 fhe equation, may be taken as many dimensions lower as
 the former is taken higher. And in general an equation
 of any height will  be  constructed by the intersections of
 two lines whose dimensions,  multiplied together,  pro-
 duce the dimension ofthe given equation. Thus,  tbe in-
 tersections of a circle  with the conic sections, or of these
 with each other, will construct the biquadratic equations,
 or those of tire- fourth  power; and the intersections ofthe
 circle or conic  sections with a line of the third  order,
 will construct the equations of the fifth and sixth powers,
 and so on. For example:
   To construct a simple equation.  This  is  done by  re-
 solving the given simple equation into a proportion, or
 finding a third  or fourth proportional, Sec.   Thus 1.  If
                                         be
 the equation be  axz=bc; then a : b :: c : x=— the fourth
                                          a '
 proportional to a, b, c.
                                   b2
   2. If ax = b2; then a : b:: b : x = —,  a third propor-
 tional to  a and b.
   5. lfax = b2—c2; then, since b2 — c* = b -f c x b — c, it
   •„ ,     ,      ,          b+cx b — c
 will be a: b +c  :: 6— c: x =------------, a fourth pro-
 portional to a, 6-f-c, and b—c.
   4. If «x=62xc2; then construct tbe right-angled trina-
 glc ABC, (See Plate XXXIX. Miscel. fig. 17.) whose base
 is b, and  perpendicular is  c, so shall the square of the
 bypothenuse be b2 + c2, which  call  h2; then the equation
                  h2
 isax = h2, and#=—-,  a third proportional to  a and h.
                  a3
   To construct a quadratic equation.  1. If it he a simple
 quadratic, it may he reduced to  this  form x2 = ab', and
 hence a : x .: x : b, or « = \/ab a mean  proportional
 between a and b.  Therefore upon a  straight line (fig.
 18) take AB = a;and BC=6; then upon tbe diameter A
 C describe a semicircle, and raise the perpendicular BO
 to meet it in U; so shall BD he = x the mean proportional
 sought between  AB and BC, or between a and b.
   2. If the quadratic be  affected, let it first be x'~ + 2ax
 = ft-'; then form the right-angled triangle  whose base AB
 (fig. 19) is a, and perpendicular BC is b; and with  the
 centre A  and iv.dius AC, describe the semicircle DCE;
 so shall DB  and BE be the two roots ofthe given qua-
 dratic equation x- -f 2  a x = b2.
   5.  If the quadratic he x2—2 a x = 62, then the construc-
 tion will he the  same  as of the preceding  one x2+ 2 a
 a: = 62.
   4.  Hut  if the form he 2 civ—x2 = b2;  form a  right-
 angled triangle whose  bypothenuse FG is a, (fig. 20.)
 ami  perpendicular OH is b; then with the radius FG
 and  centre F describe a semicircle  IGK; so shall  IH
 and  HK be the two roots ofthe equation  2a x—x2 = b2
 or .r2—2 a x =—b2.   Se e- Maciaurin's Algebra, part iii,
 ca]).  ?. and Simpson's  Algebra, p. 2(\T.
   To construct cubic  and biquadratic equations.—These
 are construe ted by the  intersections of two conic sections;
 for the equation  will rise to four dimensions,  by which
 are determined the  ordinates  from the  four  points  in
 which these conic see ti <ns may cut one another; and the
conic sections may be assumed  in such a  manner,  as  to
 make this equation coincide with any proposed biquad-
 ratic, so that the ordinates from these four intersections
 will be equal to the roots of the proposed  biquadratic.
 When one of the intersections of tbe  conic section talis
 upon  the axis, then one of the  ordinates vanishes; and
 the equation by which  these  ordinates are  determined,
 will then be of  three dimensions  only, or  a cubic;  to
 which any  proposed cubic equation may be accommo-
 dated.  So that  the three remaining ordinates will  be
 the roots of that jiroposed cubic.  The conic setions for
 this purpose should he such as are most easily described;
 the circle may be one, and the parabola is usually assu-
 med for the other.
    CONS INSTANTIATION, a tenet ofthe  lutheran
 church with regard to the manner of the change made
 in  the bread and wine in the eucharist.  The divines  of
 that profession  maintain,  that after consecration, the
 body and blood of our Saviour are substantially present,
 together  with  the substance of the bread  and  wine;
 wiiich is called consubstantiation or impanation.
    CONSUL,  is an officer established by virtue of a
 commission from the king and other princes, in all for-
 eign countries of any considerable trade, to facilitate and
 despatch business, and protect the merchants of the na-
 tion.  The  consuls arc  to maintain a correspondence
 with the ministers of England residing  in  the courts
 whereon their consulate  depends.  Tbey are to  support
 the commerce and the interest of the nation;  to  dispose
 of the  sums given and  the presents  made  to  the lords
 and principals of places, to obtain their protection, and
 prevent the insults of the natives on the merchants  of
 the nation.   l>y  the treaty of  L'trecht  between  Great
 Britain and Spain, the  consul  residing in tbe  king of
 Spain's dominions shall take inventories of the estates
 of the  English dying intestate in Spain;  and these es-
 tates shall be intrusted to two or  three merchants, for
 the security and benefit of the heirs and creditors.
   CONSULTATION, in law, a writ by  which a cause
 being  removed from the spiritual court  to  the king's
 court,  is returned thither again; and the  ivas m  is, that
 if the judges ofthe king's court, by comparing the libel
 with the suggestion of  the party, find  the  suggestion
 false or not proved, and  on that account the cause, to be
 wrongfully called from the ecclesiastical court, then upon
 this consultation  or deliberation they decree it to  be re-
 turned. This writ is in the nature of a procedendo; yet
 properly a consultation ought not to be granted, only in
 cases where a person cannot recover at the common law.
 In causes of wbich the ecclesiastical and spiritual courts
 have jurisdiction, and they are not mixed  with any t ,n-
 poral thing; if suggestion is  made for a  prohibition,  a
 consultation shall be awarded.  See Prohibition.  '
  CONSUMPTION, in medicine, a word of very ex-
 tensive signification, implies  all disorders that  bring
 any decay or waste upon the  constitution.  See Mkui-
 CINE.
  CONTACT,  is when one line, plane, or body,  is
made to touch another, and the parts that do thus  touch
 are called the points or places of contact.  The contact
of two spherical  bodies,  and of a tangent with  the cir-
cumference of a circle, is only in one point.
  CONTAGION. See Medicine. 
CON
«:  o n
  CONTENT, in  geometry, the area or quantity of
matter or space included in certain bounds.
  CONTIGUOUS angles,  in  geometry, are such as
have one leg common to each angle; and are sometimes
called adjoining angles, in contradistinction to those pro-
duced by continuing their legs through the point of con-
tact, which are called opposite or vertical angles.
  CONTINGENT,  something  ca-ual  or  uncertain.
Hence future contingent, in logic, denotes a conditional
event which may or may not happen, according as cir-
cumstances fall out. The ancient Socmians maintained
that God cannot forsee future contingents, because de-
pending on the free motions of the will of man.
  Contingent is also a term of relation for the quota
that falls to any  person  upon a division.  Thus each
prince in Germany, in time of war, is to furnish so ma-
ny men, so much money and munition, for his contingent.
  Contingent use, in law, is an use limited in a con-
veyance of lands which may  or may not happen to vest,
according to the contingency mentioned in tbe limitation
of the use. And a contingent remainder is where no pre-
sent interest passes; but the estate is limited to take ef-
fect, either to  a dubious and uncertain person, or upon  a
dubious and uncertain event; so that tbe particular estate
may chance to be determined, and the remainder never
take effect.
   CONTINUANCE, in law, is the continuing of a cause
in court by an  entry made for that purpose upon the re-
cords there.
   Continuance of a writ or action, is its continuing in
force from one term to another, where the sheriff has not
returned a former writ issued out in the same action.
With respect to continuances, the court of king's bench is
not to enter them on the roll till after issue or demurrer,
and then they enter the continuance of ail on the back
before judgment.
   CONTINUANDO,  a term used in a special decla-
ration  of trespass, where the plaintiff would  recover
damages for several trespasses in one and the same action.
To avoid multiplicity of suits, a person may in one ac-
tion of trespass recover damages for many trespasses
committed, by laying  the same to be done with a con-
tinuando.
   CONTINUED  proportion, in  arithmetic,  is that
where the consequent of the first ratio is the same with
the antecedent of the second; as 4 : 8 :: 8 : 16, in contra-
distinction to the discrete proportion. See Discrete.
   CONTINUO, in music, signifies the thorough bass,
as basso continuo is the continual or thorough bass; which
is sometimes marked in music books by the letters B. C.
   CONTOBARDITES, in church history, a  sect of
heretics in the sixth century, who allowed of no bishops.
   CONTOUR, the outline of a figure.  It is sometimes
used  with great latitude, to  express the general cast or
lineaments ofthe visage.  See Painting.
   CONTOURNE', in  heraldry, is used when a beast is
represented standing  or running with its face  to  the
sinister side of the escutcheon; they being always sup-
posed to look  to the right, if not otherwise expressed.
   C ONTO URN I ATE D, a term among antiquaries ap-
plied to medals, the edges of which appear as if turned
m a lathe. This sort of works seems to have had its ori-
gin in  Greece, and to have been designed to perpetuate
the memories of great men, particularly those who had
borne away the  prize at, the  solemn games.  Such arc
those remaining of Homer, Solon, Euclid, Pythagoras.
Socrates, and several athleta*.
   CONTRA form am  coi.lattonis,  a  writ that lies
where a man had given lands lo the warden and master
of an hospital, to support certain poor men: if they alie-
nated the land, then the donor or his heirs should brine
this writ to recover them.
   CONTRV  FORM AM  STATCTI, the USlial Conclusion of
every indictment oir an offence created by statute.
   CONTRA formam  tEOFFVMENTi,  is a writ which
lies for t'i• ' heir  of a person enleolfed of lands or tene-
ments, who is distrained by the  lord for  more  service's
than are contained in the charter of feoffment.
   CONTRABAND, in commerce, a prohibited commo-
dity or merchandise bought or sold, imported or exported,
in prejudice to tlu' laws and,ordinances of a state, or tbe
public prohibitions of the sovereign.  Contraband goods
are not only liable to confiscation themselves, but also
subject  all  other merchandise found with them in the
same box,  bale, or parcel,  together  with the  horses,
waggons, Sec. which conduct them.  There are contra-
bands likewise,  which, besides the forfeitures of the
goods, arc attended with several  penalties and disabili-
ties.
   The principal goods  prohibited to be  imported  into
Great Britain, are *alamodes and lustrings, except in
the port of London, and by licence; *ammunition, with-
out licence from the king;  *arms, without licence  from
the king; *bits  for bridles;  ^popish books; brandy  or
rum, in casks less than 60 gallons, or in ships less  than
15 tons burden;  ^buttons of all  sorts;  printed, painted,
stained, or dyed callicoes; cards for wool, and  playing
cards; chocolate ready made, or cocoa  paste; cinnamon
without  licence, except from India;   *waollen cloths;
*diccj leather gloves;  East India, Persia, and China
wrought silks, Bengals, .stuffs mixed with silk, orberba,
except into the port of London,  and under special regu-
lations; -^fringes of silk or thread; gold or silver thread,
lace, fringe, or other works  made thereof; *malt  from
beyond se,o; *salt in ships  under twenty  tons, or not in
bulk;  *silk embroidered,  twined  silk"; * wrought silk
mixed with gold, silver, or other materials; *tea, except
by the India company; tobacco manufactured; * utensils
of war, without licence from the king;  *cut whale-bone.
   Goods prohibited to be exported, arc boxes, cases, or
dial-plates, for  clocks  and watches, without tbe move-
ment and makers' names;  bullion, without proper certi-
ficates, Sec; frames for stockings; metal  not of British
ore,  except copper-bars;  wool;  scouring and  fuller's
clay; sheep and sheep-skins with the wool; tallow;  uten-
sils used  in the silk  and woollen manufactory;  whita,
ashes, Sec.
   N.B. Such goods in the  preceding list  as  have an
asterisk perfixed before them,  besides  the forfeiture in
common   with   the rest,  are attended  with  several
penalties.
   CONTRAMANDATIO pxaciti,   countermanding
what was  formerly ordered,  and giving the defendant
further time to answer
   CONTRACT, a covenant or agreement between two
or more persons, with a lawful  consideration or cause. 
C  0 IN
CON
 Contracts are two-fold, either express or implied.  Ex-
 press cemtracts are, wliere the terms of  the  agreement
 arc openly uttered, as to pay a stated price for certain
 goods.   Implied, are such as reason and justice dictate,
 and which therefore the law presumes that every man
 undertakes to perform: thus if a  man takes  up wares
 from a tradesmen, without any agreement of price, the
 law concludes that he contracted to pay their real value.
 2 Black. 443.
   These are good contracts in law, because there is one
 thing in  consideration  for an another;  but if a person
 promises to give or pay 20s, wiiich afterwards, on being
 demanded, he refuses to pay, no action  lies  to recover
 it; because such a promise will not amount to a contract,
 it being  no more than a  bare  promise,  termed in law
 n«dum pactum.  Yet if any thing was given in consid-
 eration of such a promise, was it but to  the value of a
 penny, it is deemed  a good  contract; and consequently
 will be binding.  In contracts the time is  to be regarded,
 in and from which they are made; and there is a differ-
 ence where a day of payment is  limited  thereon, and
 where not: for when it is  limited,  the contract is good
 immediately, and an action lies on it without  payment;
 but in the other case it is  otherwise.
   Contract, usurious, is an  agreement to pay  more
 interest for money than the  laws allow.   See Usury.
   It is a devastavit in executors, to pay  a debt upon an
 usurious contract.
   CONTRA-HARMONIC AL proportion, in arithmetic,
 is that relation of three terms, wherein the difference of
 the first  and second  is to the difference  of the second
 and third as the third is to the first:  thus,  3, 5, and 6,
 are numbers contra-harmonically proportional, for 2 : 1
 ::6:3.
   CONTRAST, the artificial opposition in works of
 painting  and sculpture, of groups,  attitudes, or colours;
 so as by  their  variety  and striking difference, to en-
 hance  the value of each other.   See Painting.
   CONTRATE-WHEEL, in watch-work, that next to
 the crown, the teeth and hoop of which lie contrary to
 those of the other wheels,  whence it takes its name.  See
 ClOCK-WORK.
   CONTRA VALLATION, in the military art, implies
 a line formed in the same manner as the line of circumval-
 lation, to defend  besiegers against the enterprises of the
 garrison; so that the army  forming a siege lies between the
 lines of circumvallation and contravallation.  The trench
 of this line is towards the town, at the foot of the parapet,
 and  is never made but when the garrison is  numerous
 enough to harass and interrupt the besiegers by sallies.
 This line is constructed in the rear of the camp, and by the
 same rule as the line of circumvallation, with  this differ-
 ence; that as it is only intended to resist a body of troops
 much inferior to a force which might attack the circumval-
lation, so its parapet is not made so thick, nor the ditch
so wide and deep; six feet is sufficient for the first, with the
ditch eight leet broad and  five feet  deep.
   CONTRAYERVA. in  the materia medica, the name
by which the root of the dorstenia plant is known in the
shops.  See Matkuia Mi.oica.
   CONTRE, in heraldrv, an appellation given to several
bearings, on account of their cutting the shield contrary
and  opposite ways.  Thus  we meet with contre-bend,
   vol. i.                    81
contre-chevron, contre-pale, Sec. when there arc two or-
dinaries ofthe same nature opposite to each other, so a->
colour may be opposed to metal, and metal to colour.
  CONTRIBUTIONS/aciewta, in law, a writ that lies
where the tenants in common are bound to do the same
thing, and one or more of them refuse to contribute their
part;  as where they jointly  hold a mill pro indiviso, and
equally share the profits of it, if the mill fall to decay, and
one or more of the persons refuse to contribute to it-:
reparation, the rest shall have this writ to compel them.
  CONTROL, Comptrol, or Controle, is properly a
double register kept of acts, issues, &c. of the officers or
commissioners in the revenue, army, &c.  in order to per-
ceive  the true state thereof, and to certify the truth, and
the due keeping of the acts subject to the enregisterment.
  CONTROLLER, an officer appointed to control or
oversee the accounts of other officers, and, on occasion, to
certify whether or not things have been controlled or exa-
mined. In England there are several officers of this name;
controller of the king's house, controller of the navy, con-
troller of the customs, controller of the mint,  &c.
  Controller of the hanaper, an officer that attends the
lord chancellor daily, in term and in seal-time, to take all
things sealed in leather bags, from the clerks of the hana-
per; and  to mark the number and effect thereof, and enter
them  in a book, with all the duties belonging to the king
and other officers for the same, and so charge the clerk of
the hanaper with them.
  Controller of the pipe, an  officer of the  exchequer,
that makes out a summons trice every year, to levy  the
farms and debts of tbe pipe.
  Controllers ofthe pells, two officers ofthe exchequer,
who are the chainbeiiain's  elerks, and keep  a control of
the pell of receipt, and goings out.
  CONTUMACY, in law, a refusal to  appear in court
when  legally summoned, or the disobedience to the rules
and orders of a court having power to punish such offence.
In a criminal sense, the contumacious is condemned, not
because the crime, is proved on him, but because he is ab-
sent.   In England contumacy is to be prosecuted to out-
lawry.
  CONTLSION, in medicine and surgery,  any hurt of
the body that is inflicted by a blunt instrument; and since,
in this case,  an indefinite  number of small vessels ami
fibres are injured and broken, a contusion may properly
be said to be a congeries of an indefinite number of small
wounds.   See Suygkry.
  CONVALLARIA, or lily ofthe valley, a genus ofthe
monogynia order, in the hexandria class of plants, and in
the natural method ranking under sarmentacese, or  I Ith
order. The corolla is  sexfid; the berry spotted and tri-
locular.  The species are 11, two of wiiich are natives of
Britain, viz. the maialis, or May lily; and the multiflora,
or Solomon's seal.  Tbey are plants of considerable beau-
ty, and may he easily propagated by tiieir creeping roots.
  CONVENTICLE, a diminutive of convent;  denoting
properly  a  cabal, or secret assembly, of a  part of the
monks of a convent, to make a brigueor partv in the elec
tion of an abbot.  From the ill use of these assemblies the
word  is come into disrepute; and now stands for any mis-
chievous, seditious, or irregular assembly. The t  rm con-
venticle is said, by some, to  have been first appli-d in In
gland  to the schools of Wickliffe; and has been since used 
CON
CON
to signify the  religious assemblies  of  all in England
who do not conform to the established  doctrines and wor-
ship ofthe church.
  By 22 Car. II. cap.  1, itis enacted, that if any persons
ofthe age of 16 years,  subjects of the kingdom, shall be
present at any conventicle, where there are five or more
assembled, they shall be fined five shillings for the first of-
fence, and ten shillings for the second; and persons preach-
ing incur a penalty of  twenty pounds.  Also suffering a
meeting to be held in  a house,  &c.  is liable  to twenty
pounds penalty.   Justices of the peace have power to en-
ter such houses, and seize persons assembled,  &c. and if
they neglect their duty they shall  forfeit one hundred
pounds.  And if any constable, &c. know of such meetings,
and do not inform a justice of peace, or chief magistrate,
&c. he shall forfeit five pounds.   But the 1st W. and M.
cap. 18, ordains, that protestant dissenters shall he exempt
from penalties: though if they meet in a house with  the
doors locked, barred, or bolted, such dissenters shall have
no benefit from the act.  Officers  of the government, &c
present at any conventicle, at which there shall be ten per-
sons, if the royal family be  not  prayed for  in  express
words, shall  forfeit forty pounds, and be disabled.  Stat.
10 Anne, cap. 2.
  CONVENTUAL, in  general,  denotes something be-
longing to a convent or monastery: thus monks who actu-
ally reside in a convent are called conventuals, in contra-
distinction to those who  are only guests, or in possession
of benefices depending on the house.
   CONVERGING or convergent lines, in geometry, are
such as continually  approach  nearer  one another,  or
whose  distance  becomes still less and  less.  These  are
opposed to divergent lines, the distance of which becomes
continually greater: those lines which converge one way
 diverge the other.
    Converging hyperhola,  is one  whose concave legs
  bend in towards one another, and run both the same way.
    Converging rays, in optics, those rays that, issuing
  from divers points of  an object, incline towards another,
  till at last they meet and cross, and then become diverg-
  ing rays. See Optics.
    CONVERSE,  in  mathematics.  One proposition is
  called  the converse of another, when, after a conclusion
  is drawn from something supposed in the converse pro-
  position,  that  conclusion is  supposed; and  then, that
  which  in the other was supposed, is now drawn as a con-
  clusion from it: thus,  when two sides of a triangle are
  equal,  the angles under these sides  are equal; and, on
  the converse, if these angles are equal, the two sides are
  equal.
    CONVERSION, in war, a military motion whereby
  the front of a  battalion is turned where the flank was,
  in case the  battalion  is attacked in the  flank.
    Conversion of equations, in algebra, is when the
  quantity sought, or any part or degree of it, being in
  fractions, the whole is reduced to one common denomina-
  tion, and then  omitting the denominators, the equation
  is continued in the numerators only. Thus suppose

  a — b —----11 +b + b-, multiply all hy d, and it will

  stand thus, da — db = aa -f cc -f dh + db.
    Conversion of propositions, in logic, the changing of
  the subject  into the place of the predicate, and the pre-
dicate  into  the place of the subject; and yet always re-
taining the same quality of both propositions: as, Every
right lined triangle  has the sum of its angles equal to
two  right ones: Every right-lined figure that has the
sum of its angles equal two right ones, is a triangle.
  CONVEX, an appellation given to the exterior sur-
face of gibbous  or globular bodies; in opposition to the
hollow inner surface of  such bodies, which is called con-
cave: thus we say, a cenvex lens, mirror, superficies, &c.
See  Optics.
  CONVEYANCE, in law, a deed which passes  land
from one to another.  The most common conveyances
now in use are, deeds of gift,  bargain and sale,  lease
and  release, fines and recoveries, settlements to uses, 6cc.
A conveyance cannot be fraudulent in part, and good as
to the rest; for if it is fraudulent and void in part, it is
void in all,  and  it cannot be  divided.  Fraudulent con-
veyances  to deceive creditors,  defraud purchasers, Sec.
are  void, by stat. 50 Ed. III. c. 6. 13 Eliz. c. 5__27.
Eliz. c. 4.
  CONVICTION  is either where a man is outlawed,
or  appears and confesses, or else is found guilty by the
inquest.  Cromp. Inst. 9.
  Summary proceedings  are directed by several acts of
parliament  for  the conviction of offenders, and the in-
flicting certain penalties imposed by those acts. In  those
there is no  intervention of a jury, but the party accused
is acquitted or condemned by the suffrage of such person
only as the statute has appointed for his judge.
  The law implies that there must be a conviction before
judgment,  though  not so mentioned  in a statute; and
where any statute makes a second offence felony, or sub-
ject to a heavier penalty than the first, it  is alwajs im-
plied that such second  offence ought to be committed af-
ter a conviction of the first. 1 How. 13—107.  Judgment
amounts to a conviction, though it does not follow that
every one who is convict is adjudged.  1 Horn. 14. A
conviction  ought to be in the present tense,  and not in
the  time past. Ld. Raym. 1376. Str.  608. A conviction
ought to be on an information or claim precedent.  Ld.
Raym. 510.
   \Vhen an act of parliament orders the conviction of
offenders before justices of the peace, &c. it must be in-
tended after summons to bring them in, that they may
have an opportunity of making their defence;  and if it
be  otherwise the conviction shall be quashed.
   CONVICT-RECUSANT, one who has been legally
presented,  indicted, and convict, for refusing to come to
church to hear the common prayer, according to the se-
veral  statutes of 1  Eliz.  2. 23 Eliz. 1. and 3 Jac. 1.
   CONVIVIUM,  banquet, in our old customs, a kind
of  tenure whereby  the tenant was obliged to provide an
entertainment  for  his lord once, or oftener, every year.
 It corresponded with the procuration of the clergy.
   CONVOCATION,  is the assembly of all the clergy
to consult of ecclesiastical matters in time of parliament
There are two houses of convocation:  the one called the
higher convocation-house, where all the archbishops and
bishops  sit severally by themselves; the other the lower
 convocation-house,  where all  the rest of  the clergy sit;
 that is, all the deans and archdeacons, one proctor for
 every chapter,  and two  proctors for all  the clergy of
 each diocese: in all  166 persons. 
CONVOLVULUS.
  The archbishop of Canterbury is the president of the
convocation, and prorogues and dissolves it by mandate
from the king. The convocation is not only to be assem-
bled by  the king's writ, but the canons made by them are
to have  the royal assent.  They are to have the examin-
ing and censuring of  heretical and scbismatical books
and persons. &c. but appeal lies to the king in chancery,
or to  his delegates.  4 Inst. 322. 2 Rol. Abr. 225.  The
clergy called to the convocation, and their servants, Sec.
have the same privileges as members of parliament. Stat.
8 H. VI. c 1.
  CONVOLVULUS, bind-weed,  a genus of the pentan-
dria class, and monogynia order, and in the natural me-
thod  ranking under the 29th orde.ir, campanacese.  The
corolla  is campanulated and plaited; there are two  stig-
mata, the capsule is bilocular,  and the cells are disper-
m ous.
  Of this genus there are 110 species, the most remarka-
ble of which are the following:
  1. The sepium,.or large white bind-weed, is often a
troublesome weed in gardens, when its roots are inter-
woven with those of trees and shrubs, or under hedges,
as every small piece of root is apt to grow. It flourishes
under moist hedges,  and has white or purplish blossoms.
  2. The scammonia,  or  Syrian  bind-weed, grows na-
turally  in Syria. The roots are thick, run deep into the
ground, and arc covered with a dark bark.  The branches
extend  on every side to the distance of 10 or 12  feet:
they are slender, and trail on the ground; and are fur-
nished with narrow, arrow-pointed leaves. The flowers
arc of a pale yellow; and come out from the side of the
branches, two sitting upon each long foot-stalk: these are
succeeded  by roundish seed-vessels, having three cells
filled with  seeds.  From this  species the scammony of
the shops is produced.
   3.  The purpureus, or convolvulus major, an  annual
plant growing naturally in Asia and America, has been
long cultivated in the British gardens.  If these plants
are properly supported, they will rise 10 or 12 feet high
in warm summers.  There are  three or four lasting v a-
rietics:  the  most common has a purple flower; the others
have a  white, a red, or a whitish-blue flower, which last
has white seeds. They flower in June, July, and August,
and their seeds ripen in autumn.
   4.  The nil, or  blue bind-weed, rises with a twining
stalk 8  or  10 feet high; with heart-shaped leaves, divid-
ed into  three lobes, which end in sharp points.  These are
woolly, and stand upon long footstalks. The flowers also
come out on long footstalks, each sustaining two flowers
of a  very deep blue colour, whence their name of nil  or
indigo.   This is one of the most beautiful plants of the
genus: it flowers all the latter part of the summer, and in
good seasons the seeds ripen very well in the open air.
   5.  The batatas, or Spanish potatoe, has esculent roots,
which  are annually  imported from Spain and Portugal,
where they are greatly cultivated for the table; but they
are too tender to thrive in the open air in Britain. Their
roots are  like the common potatoe, but  require  much
more room: for  they send out  many trailing  stalks,
which  extend six or eight feet  ever}  way, and at their
joints send out roots which in warm countries grow  to  be
vcrv  large  bulbs; so that from a single root planted 40
or 50 large potatoes arc produced*
  6. The canariensis,  with soft woolly leaves, fs a na-
tive ofthe Canaries, but has long been preserved in the
British  gardens.  It has strong fibrous roots,  whence
arise several twining woody stalks, which, where  th y
have support, will grow more than 20 feet high;garnish-
ed with oblong heart-shaped leaves, wiiich are soft and
hairy.  The flowers arc produced from the  wings of the
leaves, several standing upon one footstalk. They are for
the most part of a pale blue; but there is a variety  vviiii
white flowers.  They appear in June, July,  and Aug.ist.
  7. The tricolor, or  convolvulus minor, is a nalive of
Portugal, but has long  been cultivated in the gardens of
this country.   It is an annual plant, which has several
thick herbaceous stalks growing about two  feet long;
which do not  twine like the other sorts, but decline to-
wards the ground, upon which many of the lower branches
lie prostrate: they  have spear-shaped  leaves, which sit
close to the branches; the footstalks of the flowers conic
out just above the  leaves of the same joint, and at tiie
same side of the stalks. They are about two inches long,
each sustaining one large open bell-shaped flower, which
in some is  of a fine blue colour with a white bottom;  in
others it is pure white, and some are beautifully varie-
gated with both colours. The white flowers are succeed-
ed by light seeds, and  tbe blue by dark-coloured seeds:
which difference is pretty constant.
   8. Thesoldanella, or sea bind-weed, styled also brassi-
ca marina, grows  naturally  on  the sea-beach in  many
parts of England, but cannot be long  preserved in gar-
dens.  It has  many small  white stringy roots, which
spread wide, and send out several weak trailing branches.
These twine about the neighbouring  plants  like those
of the  common bind-weed,  with kidney-shaped leaves
like those of the lesser  celandine.  The flowers are pro-
duced on the side of the branches at each  joint.  They
arc of a redish-purple colour, and appear in July. They
are succeeded  by round capsules, having three cells, each
containing one black seed.
   9. The turpethum is a native of the island of Ceylon.
litis has  fleshy  thick roots which  spread  far in the
ground; and abound with  a milky juice that flows out
when the roots are broken or wounded, and soon hardens
into a resinous substance when exposed to  the sun and
air. From the root shoot forth many  twining branches,
which twist about each other, orthe neighbouring plants,
like the common bind-weed. They  have  heart-shaped
leaves that are soft to the touch, like those of  the marsh-
mallow.  The flowers  are  produced at the joints on the
side of the stalks, several standing together on the same
footstalk: they are white, and  shaped like those of the
common great bind-weed; and are  succeeded by round
capsules, having three cells containing two seeds each.
   10. The jalappa, or jalap, used in  medicine, is a na-
tive of  Aleppo in  Spanish America, situated between
La Vera Cruz and Mexico. It has  a large root of an
oval form, full of milky juice; from which come out ma-
ny herbaceous twining stalks, rising eight  or ten feet
high,  with valuable leaves; some of them being heart-
shaped, others angular, and some oblong and pointed.
They are  smooth, and stand upon long footstalks: the
flowers  are shaped  like those of the common  greater
bind-weed, each footstalk supporting only one flower
 See PI. XXXVI. Nat. Hist. fig.  142. 
CON
COP
   The !>econd.sort is propagated  by seeds,  which must
 be sown cm a bordr-r of light earth. The plants must have
 some tall stakes pko. ed near them for their  brenHics to
 twine about, otherwise they will spread on  the ground,
 and  t.ake a bad appearance.  The third sort is annual,
 and  must be propagated  by seeds sown  on a hotbed in
 spring; and  towards  the  end of  May they should be
 planted out in warm  borders, and treated  in the same
 manner with the former. The fourth species is sometimes
 propagated in  this country.  The roots  must be placed
 on a hotbed in  the spring: and if the plants  are covered
 in the  bad weather with glasses, they will produce flow-
 ers,  and some small bulbs from the joints of the stalks;
 but if they are  exposed to the open air they seldom  grow
 to any size. The fifth is propagated by laying down  the
 young shoots in the  spring, which generally put  out
 roots in three or four months: they may then be taken
 from the  old plants, and each  placed in  a separate
 pot,  which  is to  be  set  in the shade  till  they  have
 taken new root; after which  they may be  placed  with
 other  hardy greenhouse plants till autumn, when they
 should be  removed into the greenhouse, and  afterwards
 treated in the same manner as myrtles  and other green-
 house plants. The turbith and jalap are too tender to live
 in this country, unless they are constantly  kept in a stove.
 The  other species  require no particular directions  for
 Iheir cultivation.
   The root of the first sort proves  a very acrid purgative
 to the human race, but is eaten by hogs in large quanti-
 ties  without  any detriment.  The inspissated juice  of
 the second species is used in medicine as a strong pur-
 gative; as are also the roots of thejalappa and turpethum.
 The  soldanella has likewise been  used with the same in-
 tention. Half an ounce of the juice, or a  drachm of the
 powder, is an acrid purge. The leaves applied externally
 are said to diminish dropsical swellings of the feet.  See
 Materia Medica.
   CONVOY,  in marine  affairs, one or more ships of
 war, employed to accompany and protect merchant ships,
 and prevent their being insulted by pirates, or the ene-
 mies ofthe state in time of war.
   Convoy,  in  military affairs, a detachment of  troops
 employed to guard any supply of men, money, ammuni-
 tion,  provisions, stores, &c. conveyed in time of war,  by
 land  or sea,  to a town or army.  A body of men  that
 marches to secure any thing from falling into the  ene-
 my's hand, is also called a convoy.  An  officer having
 the command of a convoy must take all possible precau-
 tions  for its security; and endeavour, before its inarch, to
 procure some good intelligence concerning the enemy's
 out-parties. And as  the commanding officer of the place
 from  which the convoy is to march, and those of such
 other places as  he is to pass  by, are the most proper
 persons  to  a^ply to for  assistance; he must therefore
 take such measures as  will enable him to keep up a con-
 stant  intercourse with  them.  The conducting a convoy
 is one of the most important and most difficult of all mili-
 tary operations.
   CONVULSION, spasmus. See Medicine.
   CO^SYZA, fieaban-e, a genus ofthe polygamia super-
 flua order, in the syngenesia class of plants, and in the natu-
ral method ranking und-r the 49thorder, composite. The
pappus is simple, the calyx imbricated and roundish, the
 coroll iilac ofthe radius trifid.  There arc 41 species, none
 of which merit any particular description.
    COOMB or comb of com,  a  dry measure containing
 four bushels, or  half a quarter.
    COOPER, one who manufactures casks, tubs of all
 sizes, pails, and some other similar articles used in do-
 mestic concerns.
    COPAIBA, or balsam  of copaiba, a  liquid resinous
 juice, flowing from incisions made in the trunk ofthe co-
 paifera balsamum. Pure balsam of copaiba dissolves en-
 tirely  in rectified spirit,  especially if the menstruum is
 previously  alkalized. Distilled with water it  yields a
 large quantity of a limpid  essential  oil; and in a strong
 heat, without addition, a blue oil.  See next article.
    COPAIFERA, a genus of the monogynia order, in
 the decandria class  of plants, and  in the natural meth-
 od ranking under those of  wiiich  the order is  doubtful.
 There  is no  calyx;  there are four petals; the legumen
 ovate;  one  seed  within  an arillus, or coat, resembling
 a berry.  We know  of but one species,  the officinalis,
 which yields  the copaiba balsam  mentioned in  the pre-
 ceeding article.  This tree  grows near a village  called
 Ayapcl, in the province of Antiochi, in the Spanish West
 Indies, about ten days journey from Carthagenia. There
 are great numbers of these trees in the woods about this
 village, wiiich grow  to the height  of SO or 60 feet. Some
 of these trees do  not  yield any of the balsam; those which
 do are distinguished by a ridge which runs along their
 trunks. These trees are wounded in the centre; and cala-
 bash shells, or some other vessels, are applied to the
 wounded part to receive  the balsam, which will all flow
 out in a short time.  One  of these  trees will yield five or
 six gallons  of balsam: but  though they will thrive well
 after being tapped, yet they never afford any more.
   COPAL, a substance of great importance as a varnish,
 obtained from the rhus copalinum, a tree in North Ame-
 rica. Itis a beautiful transparent resinous-like substance.
 When  heated it melts like other resins; hut it differs
 from them in  not being soluble in alcohol, nor in oil of
 turpentine without peculiar management. Neither does
 it dissolve in the  fixed oils like other resins. The specific
 gravity of copal varies from  1.045 to 1.139. Mr.  Hatchet
 found it soluble in alkalies and nitric  acid  with the usual
 phenomena; so that in this respect it agrees with the other
 resins.  The solution of copal in alkalies he found indeed
 opalescent, but it is nevertheless permanent. It deserves
 attention, that he found  resin when dissolved  in nitric
 acid, and then thrown down hy an alkali, to acquire a
 smell resembling  that of copal.
   When copal is dissolved in any volatile liquid,  and
 spread thin upon  wood, metal, paper, &c. so that the vo-
 latile menstruum  may evaporate, the copal remains per-
 fectly transparent, and forms  one  of the most beautiful
 and perfect  varnishes that  can well  be conceived. The
 varnish thus  formed  is  (ailed copal varnish, from the
 chief ingredient in it.  This varnish was first discovered
 in France, and was long known by the name of vernis
 martin.  The  method of preparing it is concealed; but
different modes of dissolving copal in volatile menstrua
have been from time to time made public.  The following
are the  most remarkable of these:
  When copal is kept melted till a sour-smciling aroma- 
COP
COP
lie odour has ceased to proceed from it, and then mixed
with an equal quantity of linseed oil which has been de-
prived of all colour by exposure to the sun, it unites with
the oil, and forms a  varnish, which must he dried in the
sun.
  When copal  is treated  with oil of turpentine in close
vessels, the vapour,  being prevented from escaping,  ex-
erts a greater pressure, and the heat rises above the boil-
ing point. This additional heat is said to enable the oil to
dissolve' the copal. The solution, mixed with a little pop-
py oil, forms a varnish which is distinguished from  the
vernis martin  merely in  having a very  slight  tinge of
brown.
  The method of dissolving copal  in  oil of turpentine,
published by Mr. Sheldrake,  seems to depend upon the
same princ iple with the last solution.  On two ounces of
copal,  broken  into small  pieces, is poured a mixture of
four ounces of ammonia, with a pint of oil of turpentine.
The whole is kept boiling very gently, so that the bubbles
may be counted as thcyx rise,  if the beat is allowed to
diminish, or if it is  raised too high, the process  stops,
and cannot be again resumed.  The matrass in which the
mixture is boiled, is stopped with a cork, secured in its
place by a brass wire, and  perforated by a pin.  When
the copal is nearly dissolved, the process is stopped,  and
the whole allowed to cool before uncorking the  matrass.
This varnish has  a deep  colour; but  when  spread thin
and allowed to dry,  it becomes colourless.  Its  defect is
the difficulty with which it dries. This defect Mr. Shel-
drake remedies by  throwing the  solution  into its own
weight of nut  oil,  rendered drying by white-lead,  and
agitating till the turpentine is separated.
  To  dissolve copal in alcohol Mr. Sheldrake dissolves
half an ounce  of camphor in a pint of that liquid,  and
pours the solution on four ounces of copal. The matrass
is placed in a sand-hath,  and the process is  conducted
exactly as that last described. The solution  thus formed
contains a great deal of  copal,  and  forms a varnish
which is perfectly colourless; but considerable heat is ne-
cessary to drive off the camphor. See Varnish.
  COPARCENARY. An estate held in coparcenary, is
where lands of inheritance descend from the ancestor to
two or more persons. It arises either by common law,
or particular custom. By  common law, as where a per-
son seised in fee-simple, or fectail, dies, and his noxt
heirs are  two or more females, his  daughters, sisters,
aunts, cousins, or their representatives; in this case they
shall all inherit: and these coheirs are then called copar-
ceners; or, for brevity  sake, parceuers.  Parceners by
particular custom are, where lands descend, as in gavel-
kind, to all tbe  males in equal  degree, as sons, brothers,
unc les, or other kindred; and in either of these cases, all
Ibe  parceners put together make but one heir, and have
hut om'estate among them. 2 Black. Mr.
  COl'E,  among ecclesiastical  writers, an ornament
usually worn by ehantors and  subchantors,  when they
officiated in the  church solemnity. It is  also worn by Ro-
mish bishops, and other ordinaries; ami reaches from the
shoulders to lhe feet.
  Coce, among miners,  a  duty of 6d. for every load
of ore.
  COPERMCAN SYSTEM,  that system  of the  world
in w hirh the sun is supposed at rest in the centre, and
 the planets, with the earth, to move in ellipses round him.
 See Astronomy.
   COPIITIC, or Coptic language, is that  spoken bv
 the Cophts; being the ancient language ofthe Egyptians,
 intermixed with the Greek, and the characters of it  being
 those of the Greek.  The  ancient  Coptic is now a dead
 language,  to be met with no where but in  hooks; and
 those only translations of the scriptures, and of ecclesi-
 astical offices, or others that have a relation thereto: the
 language now used over all the country being the Arabic.
   Coptic  monks, religious,  among the Christians of
 Egypt, who have the highest veneration for  a monastic
 life, considering it as the philosophy ofthe law of Jesus
 Christ, and the monks as terrestrial angels or celestial
 men. Tbey are obliged to part with their possessions, to
 renounce marriage for ever, to live in deserts, to be cloth-
 ed in wool, and to eat no meat.
   COPIA libeilideliherasda,a writ that lies where
 a person cannot get the copy of a libel from a judge of
 the spiritual court.
   COPING or copping of a wall, in architecture, the top
 or covert of a wall, made sloping to carry off the wet.
   COPPER, a metal next to iron in specific gravity, but
 lighter than gold, silver, or lead.
   If  we except gold and silver, copper seems to  have
 been  more early known than any other  metal. In the
 first ages of the world, before  tbe method of working
 iron was discovered, copper was the principal ingredient
 in all domestic utensils and instruments of war.  Even
 during  the  Trojan war, as we learn from Homer, the
 combatants had no other armour but what was  made of
 bronze, which is a mixture of copper and tin.  Tbe  word
 cuprum, or  copper,  is  derived from the island of Cy-
 prus; where it  was first discovered, or at least wrought
 to any extent, by the Greeks.
  This metal is ofa fine read  colour, and has a great
 deal of brilliancy. Its taste is styptic and nauseous; and
 the hands, when rubbed  for some  time on it, acquire a
 peculiar and disagreeable odour.  Its  specific  gravity,
 when incited, is 8,667;  but  after being hammered it is
 8.9.  Its malleability is great: it may he hammered out
 into leaves so thin as to be blown about by  the slightest
 breeze.  Its ductility  is also considerable. Its  tenacity is
 such, that a copper wire 0.078 inch in diameter is capa-
 ble of supporting  302.26 pounds  avoirdupois without
 breaking. When heated to the temperature of 27° Wedge-
 wood, or, according  to the calculation of Mortimer, to
 1450 decrees Fahrenheit, it melts,  and if the  beat  is in-
 creased it evaporates in visible fumes.  When allowed to
coed slowly it  assumes a crystalline form.  Tbe  abbe
 Mongez, to whom we owe  many  valuable experiments
on the crystallization of metals, obtained it in quadrangu-
lar pyramids, often inserted into one another.
  Copper is not altered  by water:  it is incapable of de
composing  it even at a red heat, unless air has free ac-
cess to it at the  same time; in that ca.se  the surface ofthe
 metal becomes  oxydated.  Every one must have remark-
 ed, that when water  is kept in a copper vessel, a green
 crust of ven-de^ris, as it is called, is formed  on that part
 of the vessel which is in contact with tbe surface of the
 water. When copper is exposed to the air its surface is
gradually tarnished;  it  becomes brown, and is at Jasi
 covered with a  dark-grccn cri^t. This crust consists c£ 
COPPER.
 oxyd of copper com'ined with carbonic acid gas. At the
 common temperature of the air, tins oxy elation of copper
 goes on hut slowly; but when a plate of metal is heated
 red-hot, it is covered in a few minutes with a crust of
 oxyd,  which  separates  spontaneously in small scales
 when the plate is allowed to cool.  The copper plate con-
 tracts considerably in cooling, but the crust of oxyd con-
 tracts but very  little; it is therefore broken to piece-,
 and thrown off, when the plate contracts under  it. Any
 quantity of this oxyd may he  obtained by heating a plate
 of copper, and plunging it alternately into cool water.
 The scaleslall down to the bottom of the water.
   In a violent heat,  or  when copper  is exposed to a
 stream  of oxygen and hydrogen gas, the metal takes fire
 and burns with great brilliancy, emitting a lively green
 light of such  intensity,  that the  eye can scarcely bear
 the glare. The product is an oxyd of copper.
   There  are  two  oxyds of  copper at present  known;
 and it does not appear that the metal is capable of being
 exhibited in combination with more than two doses  of
 oxygen. The protoxide  is of a fine  orange-colour;  but
 the peroxide is black, though in combination it assumes
 various shades of blue, green, and brown.
   1.  The protoxide of  copper was  first  observed by
 Proust; but we are indebted  to M. Chcnevix, who found
 it native in  Cornwall, for the investigation ofits proper-
 ties.  It may he prepared by  mixing together 57.5 parts
 of black oxyd of copper,  and  50 parts of copper  reduced
 to a fine powder by precipitating it from muriatic acid
 by an iron plate. This mixture is to he triturated in a
 mortar, and  put with muriatic acid into a well-stopped
 phial. Heat is disengaged, and almost all the copper is
 dissolved.  When potash is dropt into this solution,  the
 orange oxyd of copper is precipitated. But the easiest
 process is to dissolve any quantity  of copper in muria-
 tic acid by means of heat. The green liquid thus obtain-
 ed is to be put into a phial, together with some pieces of
 rolled copper, and  the whole is to be corked up  closely.
 The  green colour  gradually disappears; the liquid  be-
 comes dark brown and opaque; and a number of dirty-
 white crystals,  like grains  of sand, are gradually  de-
 posited. When this liquid, or the crystals, are  thrown
 into a solution of potash, the  orange-coloured oxyd pre-
 cipitates in  abundance. This oxyd is composed of 88.5
 parts of copper and  11.5 oxygen.  It  attracts  oxygen
 with such avidity, that it can scarcely be dried without
 becoming bluish-green, at least on the surface: but when
 once dry it retains  its colour pretty well.
   2. The peroxide of copper is easily procured pure from
 the scales which are formed upon the surface of red-hot
copper.   These scales have  a violet-red colour, owing
 to the presence of a little metallic copper upon their un-
 der surface; but when  kept for some  time red-hot in an
 open  vessel,  they become black,  and are then pure pe-
 roxide of copper. The same  oxyd may be obtained  by
 dissolving copper in sulphuric or  nitric acid, precipitat-
 ing by means of potash, and then heating the precipitate
 sufficiently to drive off any water which it may retain.
 The peroxide of copper is composed of 80 parts  of copper
 and 20 of oxygen. When  mixed with somewhat less than
 its own weight of copper in powder, and heated  to red-
 ness, the whole is converted into protoxide. The oxides of
 copper are easily reduced  to the metallic state when
heated  with charcoal,  oils, or other fatty bodies; and
even with some of the metals, especially zinc.
   3. When copper is dissolved  in nitric acid,  and a
sufficient quantity of potash is added  to the  solution  a
blue powder falls to  the bottom, which  was formerly
considered as a peculiar oxyd of copper, and accordingly
called blue oxyd  of copper.   But Mr. Proust has  shown
that it  is  nothing  else than the black oxyd combined
with water; and has therefore called it by drat of copper.
When distilled, 100 parts cd'it yield 25 parts of water*
and there remain behind 75 parts of black oxyd.  M he n
this blue powder  is exposed moist to the atmosphere, it
gradually becomes green.  This  was formerly supposed
to be owing to the absorption  of oxygen;  accordingly
the green powder was called green  oxyd of copper. But
Mr. Proust has shown that this change is not owing  to
the absorption of oxygen, but to  the combination of the
black oxyd of copper  with carbonic acid.
   Copper  has never been  combined  with  carbon nor
hydrogen;  but it  combines  readily with  sulphur and
phosphorus, and f rms with them compounds called sul-
phuret and phosphuret of copper.
   When equal parts of sulphur and copper are stratified
alternately in a crucible,  they  melt,  and  combine at a
red heat.   Sulphuret  of copper thus obtained is a brittle
mass, of a black or very deep blue grey colour  much
more fusible than copper; and  composed, according  to
the experiments of Mr. Proust, of  78 parts  of copper,
and 22  of sulphur.  The same compound may be formed
by mixing  copper flings and sulphur together, and ma-
king them into a paste with  water,  or even by merely
mixing  them together without any water,  and allowing
them to remain  a sufficient time  exposed  to the air.
Eight parts hy weight  of copper  fillings, mixed with
three parts of flowers of sulphur, are  put  into a glass
receiver, and placed  upon  burning coals: the mixture
first melts, then  a kind of explosion takes place; it be-
comes red-hot, and, wiien taken from the fire, continues
to glow for some  time like a live coal.  If we now exam-
ine it,  wc  find it converted into sulphuret  of copper.
This experiment  has  excited great attention, and has
been very often repeated; because it is the only instance
known of apparent combustion without the presence of
oxygen. Mr. Proust has shown  that the  sulphuret of
copper is capable of combining with an additional dose
of sulphur,  and of forming a new compound which may
be called supersulphuret of copper.   It is brittle,  lias a
yellow colour, and a metallic lustre; and is found native
abundantly, being well known  to mineralogists by the
name of copper pyrites.
   M. Pelletier formed phosphuret of copper  hy melting
together 16 parts of copper, 16 parts of phosphoric glass,
and one part of charcoal. Margraf was the first person
who formed this phosphuret.  His method was to distil
phosphorus and oxyd  of copper together.  It is formed
most easily by projecting phosphorus into red-hot cop-
per. It is of a white colour; and, according to Pelletier,
is composed of 20 parts of phosphorus  and 80 of copper.
This phosphuret is harder than iron:  it is not ductile,
and yet  cannot easily  he pulverized.  Its specific gravity
is 7.1220.   It crystallizes in four-sided prisms.  It is
much more fusible than copper.  When exposed to tbe
air it loses  its lustre, becomes black, falls to pieces, the 
COP
COR
copper is oxydated, and the  phosphorus converted into
phosphoric acid.  When heated sufficiently the phospho-
rus burns, and leaves  the  copper under the form  of
black scorise.
  Copper is not capable of combining with azote.  Mu-
riatic acid gas readily converts it into oxyd, with which
it enters into combination.
  Copper  is capable of combining with most  of the
metals; and some ofits alloys are of very great utility.
  The  alloy  of gold and copper is  easily  formed  by
melting the two metals  together.  This alloy is much
used, because copper has the property of increasing the
hardness of gold without injuring its colour.   Muschcn-
broeck has as'•ertained that  the hardness of this alloy is
a maximum when it is composed of seven parts of gold
and one of copper.   The gold coin both in  Britain and
France is an alloy, containing eleven parts  of gold and
one of copper.  Its specific gravity is considerably above
the mean; consequently the  density of the metals is  in-
creased by alloying them together.  It ought to  be  17.
153, but it  actually is  17.48C; so that the  density is
increased one-forty-eigbtb part.  This alloy being more
fusible than gold, is employed as a solder to  join pieces
of that metal together.
  Platinum may be alloyed  with copper by fusion, but a
strong heat is  necessary.   The alloy is ductile, hard,
takes a fine polish, and is not liable  to tarnish.  This
alloy has been employed with  advantage  for  composing
the mirrors of reflecting telescopes.
   Silver is easily alloyed with copper by fusion.  This
alloy is harder and more sonorous than silver,  ami yet
the density ofthe metals is diminished.  Thus when 137
parts of silver  and 7 of copper are alloyed together,  (he
specific gravity ought to be  10.3016,  but it  actually is
10.1752;  consequently the bulk ofthe two metals is  in-
creased by alloying them together about -g\ part.  When
the proportion of copper is small the colour of the silver
is not altered.  The silver coin of this country is compo-
sed of 1 part of copper and 11 of silver; that of France
of 7 parts of copper and 137 of silver, or 1 part  copper
and 12.57 silver.  The  French silver coin  therefore is
purer than the  American.
   The amalgam of copper cannot  be  formed by  simply
mixing that metal with mercury, nor even by the appli-
cation of heat; because  the  beat necessary to  melt
copper sublimes mercury.   It may  be obtained  by tri-
turating mercury with common salt and verdigris, or  by
keeping plates of copper in a solution of mercury and
nitric; acid.  The amalgam  is at first soft, and will take
any impression; but it soon becoms hard when exposed
to the air.
   The affinities of copper and its oxyds are exhibited
by Bergman iu the following order:
     Copper.               Oxyd  of Copper.
Gold,
Silver,
Arsenic,
Iron,
Manganese,
Zinc',
Antimony,
Platinum,
Oxalic acid,
Tartaric,
Muriatic,
Sulphurir,
Saciactic,
Nitric,
Arsenic,
Phosphoric,
Copper.

Tin.
Lead,
Nickel,
Bismuth,
Cobalt,
Mercury,
Sulphur,
Phosphorus.
Oxyd of Copper.

Succinic acid,
Fluoric,
Citric,
Lactic,
Acetic,
Boracic,
Prussic,
Carbonic.
  Copper is not unfrequently found native and malleable,
sometimes in small and slender fibres, and sometimes in
little globular and irregular masses. However, it is most
frequently found in the state of ore,  sometimes blended
with the strata of stones, where it discovers itself in blue
or green  efflorescences.  The green and blue  ochres also
are a sort of ores of copper, and the pyritse and  marcas-
itcs frequently contain large quantities of this metal.
There is  also a rich kind of copper ore of a reddish-grey
colour; and another of a dusky-purple or blackish colour.
But besides all these there are two other appearances of
copper ore, known  by the names  of lapis lazuli, and the
turcols or turquoise.
  In Germany and Sweden there  are very good mines of
copper ore; and some in England, particularly in  Corn-
wall, not inferior to the finest Swedish.
  In order to discover whether the pyrites contains any
copper, let  it be r.lasted  in an  open fire, and a  solution
made by  pouring upon it a quantity of warm  water: into
this solution let iron plates, perfectly clean and free from
grease, be immersed; and if tbe pyrites contains  any cop-
per it will stick to these iron plates,  in form of a fine yel-
low powder.
  As to the method of obtaining copper from the  ore, this
last being previously washed and  powdered, is smelted by
means of a black flux; and the  metal is found at the bot-
tom ofthe vessel when cold,  in the form  of  a solid and
malleable mass; wiiich may be farther refined by repeat-
ing the operation.  See Mineralogy.
  COPERAS, a name given to  the martial  or  sulphate
of green vitriol. See Iron.
  COPULA,  in  logic, the verb that connects  any two
terms in  an affirmative or negalive:  as, " Riches make a
man happy;" where make is the  copula: « No weakness
is any virtue;" where is  is the copula.
  COPULATIVE propositions,in logic, those  where
the subject and  predicate are so linked together by copu-
lative conjunctions, that they may be all severally affirm-
ed or denied one of another.  Example, " Riches and ho-
nours are apt to elate the mind, and  increase  the number
of our desires."
  COPY, in a legal sense, is the transcript of an original
writing; as the copy of a patent, of a charter, deed, Sec.
but a clause out of either cannot  be given in  evidence to
prove the original, as it must be  absolutely a true  office-
copy ofthe whole.
  COPY-RIGHT. Sec Literary  Property.
  COR,  the heart.  See  Anatomy.
  Cor Caroli, in astronomy, an extra-constellated star
in the northern hemisphere,  .situated between the coma
Beren.. es and ursa major; so called by Dr. Halley in ho-
nor of king C harles. 
C  0 R
COR
   Con hydrt:, a fixed sear of the first magnitude, in the
 consicilation of hydra.
   Cor i/eoms. or regulus, in astronomy, a fixed star of
 ihc lir.rt magnitude, in the constellation leo.
   COR A CIAS, the roller, in ornithology; a genus  of
 birds  of the order of pica, the characters of which are:
 the  bill is straight, bending towards the tip,  with the
 edges  cultrated:  tiie nostrils are narrow and naked; the
 legs for the most part short: the toes placed three before
 and on1 behind, and divided to their origin.  Sixteen spe-
 cies have been enumerated, though some of them arc sus-
 pected to be only  varieties. This genus is notconlined  to
 one spot ofthe globe, as one or other of the different spe-
 cks may be met with in all the four quarters of it.   The
 following are the most remarkable:
   1. The garrula, or garrulous roller, is about the size
 of a jay; the bill black, and at the base beset with bristles,
 which do not cover the nostrils:  the head, neck, breast,
 and belly, are ofa light-bluish green; back and scapulars,
 reddish brown; coverts on the ridge of  the  wing,   riii
 blue, beneath them pale green; upper part and tips of the
 quills dusky; the lower parts of a fine deep blue; tail fork-
 ed of a light blue; the legs are short and of a dirty yel-
 low. Mr. Pennant observes that these birds arc frequent
 in several parts of Europe, in most parts of which it is a
 bird of passage. Mention is made of them in Sweden and
 Denmark, on the one hand, and as far as Africa on the
 other:  not that they are found in all  the parts  between,
 nor  in the same plenty.  Willughby tells us, that in  Ger-
 many,  Sicily, and Malta,  they are  so common as  to be
 sold in the markets, and in poulterers' shops.  Adanson
 says,  " it comes to reside for some months ofthe summer
 in some parts of Europe, and goes back to spend the re-
 mainder of the year in Senegal," having shot one on
 board  the ship, on its passage, in April. Frisch  observes,
 that it makes its nests in woods, where  tliere  is birch;
 that it does not come to its colour till the second year;
 flies in troops  in autumn; often seen in  tilled  grounds,
 with rooks  and other birds, searching for worms, small
 seeds, and roots.  Its flesh tastes like that of a turtle.  It
 is said also sometimes  to  make its nest in holes in the
 ground, in one of which nests two eggs were found.
   2. The cyanea, or blue-striped roller is in length  eight
 inches; the  bill three quarters of an  inch long, bent  at
 the tip, and of a black colour: the irides are red; the ge-
 neral colour ofthe plumage deep blue-black, dashed with
 streaks of greenish blue;  the tail and legs  arc black;  it
 inhabits New Caledonia.
   3. The Sinensis, or Chinese roller, is of the  size of a
jay: the bill and irides are red; the head, hind part of the
 neck, back, rump, and upper tail-coverts, are green; the
 under parts of  the body, from  the chin to the vent, are
 yellowish white, tinged with green; but the thighs are
 grey;  the wing-coverts are olive brown; quills the same,
 with a mixture of chesnut in some; the legs  and claws
 are of a pale red, and longer than in other rollers. It in-
 habits  China, and is called at Canton Santa-hoang. Itis
 not very common.
   CORAL fishery.  Red coral is found in the  Mediter-
 ranean,  on the shores of Provence, from  Cape  de la
 Couronneto that of St. Tropez; about the isles  of Ma-
 jorca and Minorca; on the south of Sicily; on the coasts
 of Africa; and, lastly, in the Ethiopic ocean, about  cape
 Negro. The divers say, that the little branches are found
 only in  the caverns whose situation is parallel to  the
 earth's  surface and open to the south. The manner of
 fishing being nearly the same wherever coral is found it
 will suffice to instance the method used at the  bastion of
 France, under the  direction of the company established
 at Marseilles for that fishery. Seven or eight men go in
 a boat commanded by the patron or proprietor, and when
 the net is thrown by the caster, the rest work  the vessel
 and help to draw the net in. The net is composed of two
 rafters of wood tied cross-wise, with leads fixed to them:
 to tlr\se they  fa-ten a quantity  of hemp twisted  loosely-
 round, and intermingled  with some large netting.  This
 instrument is let down where  they  think there is coral,
 and pulled up again when the coral is strongly entangled
 in the  hemp and netting.  For this  purpose six boats are
 sometimes required; and if  in hauling in, the rope hap-
 pens to break, the fishermen run the hazard of being lost.
 Before the fishers go to sea, they agree for the price of tbe
 coral; which is sometimes more, sometimes less, a pound;
 and they engage, on pain of  corporal punishment, that
 neither they nor their crew shall embezzle any, but deliv-
 er the whole to the proprietors. When the fishery is ended;
 which  amounts one year with another to twenty-five quin-
 tals for each hoat.it is divided into thirteen parts, of which
 the proprietor has four, the caster two, and the other six
 men one each: the thirteenth belongs  to the company for
 payment of the boat furnished them.  Red or white coral
 in fragments, for physic, pays  on importation 7|dL the
 pound, and draws back on exportation 6$i. Whole coral
 unpolished, the pound, pays 3s. 10|d. and draws back  Is.
 4|ti. Whole coral polished, the pound, pays 5s. l|ci. and
 draws back 4s. 7ji.
   CORALLINA, or coral, in zoology, a genus belonging
 to the  order of vermes zoophyta. The trunk is radicated,
jointed, and calcareous. The species arc distinguished  by
 the form of their branches, and are found in the ocean ad-
 hering to stones, bones, shells, &c.  The corals were for-
 merly  believed to be vegetable substances hardened by the
 air; but  are now known to be composed ofa congeries of
 animals, which are even endued with the faculty of mov-
 ing  spontaneously.  The islands in the South-sea are
 mostly coral rocks  covered over with earth.  The little
 creatures, which have scarcely sensation enough to distin-
 guish  them from plants,  build up a  rocky structure from
 the bottom of that sea, too deep to be measured by human
 art, till it reaches the surface.  Some of the coralline isl-
 ands appear to be of a much older date than others; parti-
 cularly the  Friendly Islands: and it is probable  that, as
 these submarine works arc continually going on, new isl-
 ands may by that means frequently be produced.  M. de
 Peyssonel of Marseilles, in consequence ofa series of ex-
 periments and observations  from about  the year  1720 to
 1750, seems to have been the  first  who threw a  proper
 light upon the nature and productions of coral and similar
 marine substances.  Those bodies wiiich the count de Mar-
 sigli imagined to be flowers, this ingenious naturalist dis-
 covered to be insects inhabiting the coral; for upon taking
 branches of it out of tbe water, the flowers, which proceed-
 ed from a number of white points answering to the holes
that pierced the bark, and the radiaton of  which resem-
bled the  flower of the olive-tree, entered into the bark,
and disappeai'ed:  but upon  being again restored to the 
COR
COR
water, they were some hours after perceptible.   These
flowers spread on white paper lost their transparency, aud
became red as they dried.  The holes in tbe bark corres-
pond to small cavities upon the substance of the coral;
and when the bark is removed tliere may be seen  an infi-
nite quantity of  little tubes connecting the bark with  tbe
inner substance, besides a great number of sm;il glands
adhering to them; and from these  tubes  and glands  the
milky juice of coral issues forth: tbe holes in  tbe bark are
the openings through  which the insects that form  these
substances for  their  habitation com"  forth: and  those
cavities which are partly in the bark, and partly in  the
substance, are the cells which tbey inhabit.  Tbe organs
of the animal are contained in tbe tubes,  and  the  glan-
dules arc tbe extremities ofits feet; and the milky liquor
is the blood and juice of tbe animal,  which are more or
less  abundant in proportion to its  health  and  vigour.
When lhe insects are dead, they corrupt,  and communi-
cate to the water the smell of  putrid fish.  TbejuiCe or
liquor runs along the furrows  perceived upon the proper
substance or body of coral, and stopping by little  and  lit-
tle becomes fixed, and hard, and is changed into stone;
and being stopped in the bark, causes the coral to increase
proportionably and in every direction.  In forming coral,
and  other marine  productions of this  class, the animal
labours li'.e those ofthe testaceous kind, each  according
to his species; and their productions vary according to
their several forms, magnitudes, and colours.
   The coral insect, or polype, expands itself in  water,
and contracts itself in air, or when it is touched with the
hand in water, or acid liquors are poured upon it: and he
actually saw these  insects move their daws  or legs, and
expand  themselves, when tbe sea-water containing coral
was placed near the fire, and keep them in their expand-
ed state when separated from the coral in boiling water.
Broken branches of coral have been observed  to  fasten
themselves to other branches, and have continued to grow;
and this is the case when they are connected with detach-
ed pieces of rock and other substances,  from  which no
nourishment could be derived.  The coral insects in their
cells, not having been  injured, continue their operations;
and as  they draw no nourishment from the  stone of  the
coral, they are able to increase in  a detached and separ-
ate state.   Coral was found to be equally red  in the  sea
as out of it; and it was more shining w hen just taken out of
tbe water than even when it is polished; and the bark by
being dried  becomes somewhat pale.  It grows in differ-
ent  dircctb us.  sometimes perpendicularly  downwards,
sometimes horizontally, and sometimes upwards; and in
the caverns of tbe sea, open to every exposure.
   M. Donati of Turin has also  adopted the same hypo-
thesis, viz. that coral is a mass of animis of the polype
kiue!; and instead of representing the coral beds and cells
which contain them as the work of polypes,  he thinks it
more just to sa\, that coral and other coralline bodies
have  the  same  relation to the  polypus united to them,
that there is between  tbe shell of a snail and the snail
itself, e,r the bones of an animal and the animal itself.
   There are projierly butthree kinds of coral; red, white,
and  black:  the  black  is the rarest and most esteemed;
but the  red was formerly in great  repute as  a medicine.
When coral is newly  taken up out ofthe sea, the  small
protuberances on its surfae e are soft, and yield, on being
pressed, a milky juice which effervesces with acids. The
  voi,. 1.                     82
cortical part with which the coral is all over covered is
not near so compact as the internal, and may be easily
taken off whilst fresh; and from this part it is usually
freed before it comes to the market, lhe greatest coral
trade is in Genoa and Leghorn.  See  Plate  XXXVI.
Xat. Hist. fig.  143.
   CORALLINES, in  natural history,  were  formerly
reckoned a genus of plants, and Mr. Tournefort enume-
rates 3G species of them; but in the Linnaean system
they belong to  the class zoophytes, and are defined by
modern naturalists to be submarine plant-like bodies,
that consist of many slender finely divided and jointed
branches, resembling some species of moss; or animals
growing in the form of plants, having their stems fixed
to other bodies; these  stems are composed of capillary
tubes, whose extremities pass through a calcareous crust,
and open  into pores on the surface.  The branches are
often jointed, and always subdivided into smaller branches
which  arc either loose  and  unconnected,  or joined as if
they were glued together. They  are distinguished from
plants by their texture and hardness: they also yield in
distillation a considerable quantity of volatile salt; and
their smell, in burning, resembles  that of burnt horns
and  other animal substances. Many of the  corallines
seem to consist of a single tube, containing a single pa-
rent animal. Every branch emitted contains an  offspring
of this parent dependant upon it, and yet capable of pro-
ducing its like  in the emission of a new branch.  Others
consist.of many such tubes  united, rising together, and
encircling the deserted tubes of their progenitors, whose
exuviae  become the  substratum of a rising generation.
Mr. Ellis distributes corallines into the vcsiculated, tu-
bular, celliferous, and articulated kinds.
   Vcsiculated corallines are distinguished  by their horny
hollow  ramifications: most of them are furnished with
little denticles on their branches, like leaves on mosses;
and at certain seasons of tbe year tbey are  furnished with
small bodies like bladders, proceeding from their steins
and  branches,  and differing in form' according to  the
different species. Their colour, when dry. is of a yellow-
ish or pale brown, and their nature is elastic.  They are
found adhering to rocks, shells, and fucuses, by smalf root-
like tubes: they recover their form in water, after having
been dried;  and when  put into vinegar,  thev cause no
effervescence.  See Plate XXXV.  fig! l, where a repre-
sents the sea-tamarisk in its natural size, and A the den-
ticles considerably magnified.  Fig. 2. b, B, are the sea-
cypress: fig. 3. cd, CD, the small climbing coralline- with
well-shaped cups.
  "Tubular corallines are composed of a number of sim-
ple tubes, growing up nearly together; or of s u h branch-
ed ones as have .neither denticles nor  vesielcs.  These
are horny and clastic like the former, and recover their
original form  in water.  Some of them appear  wrinkled
like the windpipe, and others like the intestines of small
animals. See E, fig. 4.
  Celliferous corallines are those which  appear, when
magnified, to he fine thin  cells, the habitations  of sm il
animals connected together, and disposed in a variety of
elegant forms like brane lies. These efferv  s; e with acids
See fig.  5. F,/, with a part (Gil)  magnified.
  Articulated corallines consist of short pieces ofa stonv
or creta, eons  brittle  matter,  whose surface is covered
With pores or cells which are joined  by a  tough,  me* 
con
COR
branous, flexible substance, composed of many small tubes
of the like nature compacted together.  The stony part
is soluble in vinegar, and the other part remains entire.
Fig. 6 is the coralline of the shops.   It is fixed to rocks
and shells by stony joints, which, as they rise, arc united
to others by extremely fine and slender tubes: these may
be discovered by a good eye, or a common magnifier. As
the stems extend themselves, they become penetrated by
side-branches which come out opposite to each other, and
are joined in the same manner; the joints of this species
are  like the upper part of an inverted cone, but a little
compressed: the whole surface  is covered over with very
minute circular-shaped  cells like pores. If a branch  of
this coralline is put into vinegar, these cells are dissolv-
ed with  the whole cretaceous substance; instead of which
there appear rows of minute ramifications, which seem
to have  communicated  with each of these cells.  Upon
some specimens of this coralline, we may observe small
figures  like  seed-vessels, with wiiich the  branches fre-
quently  terminate: they are also found on the  sides,  as
may be seen at A, where they are  magnified.  When a
branch  is rendered  soft by being  steeped in  vinegar,
there may  be squeezed out from the little knobs at the
ends and sides, small twisted figures.  We frequently find
this coralline of different colours, as  red, green, ash, and
white; but all of it,  being exposed to the sun and air on
the  shore, becomes white. Besides the above, Mr. Ellis
enumerates other genera of marine productions; as the
keratophyta eschara  fig. 7, sponges, and alycon:-.m; all
which are the nests or matrices of sea-animals. This class
of marine bodies is formed like fungi of various figures,
and with different sorts of covering; some having a gritty,
and some a callous skin, with spongy substance in the
inside: other species  are of a fleshy substance.
   C and C 1 are views of one  of the warts magnified:  C
2 is the appearance  of the polype, when the cretaceous
matter  was  dissolved:  C   3  represents  the   particles
that compose the incrustation, magnified; D fig. 8, is a
sea-willow, or keratophyton  dichotomum.
   CORAN1CII, among the Scotch and Irish, the cus-
tom of singing at funerals,  anciently  prevalent in those
Countries, and still practised in several parts.  Of this
custom  Mr.  Pennant gives  an account, having assisted
at one in the south of Ireland, where  it was performed
in the fullness of horror. « The cries (says he) are called
by the  Irish ugohene and hullulu;  two words very ex-
pressive  of the sound uttered on these occasions; and be-
ing the Celtic stock,  etymologists would swear to be the
origin of the eXtXnya* of the  Greeks, and ululatusof tie
Latins.  Virgil  is very fond of using the last whenever
any  of his females are distressed; as  are others of the
Roman poets, and generally  on occasions similar to this.
It was my fortune to arrive  at a certain town in Kerry
at the time that a person of some distinction departed this
life;  my curiosity led  me to the house, where the funeral
seemed conducted in the purest classical form. The con-
clamatio was  set  up  by the  friends  in the same manner
as Virgil describes that consequential of Dido's death.
Immediately  after this followed another ceremony, fully
described by Camden in his account of the manners of
the ancient Irish; the  earnest expostulations  and re-
proaches given to  the deceased for quitting this world,
where she enjoyed so many blessings, so good a husband,
and such fine children.  But when the time approached
for carrying out the corpse, the cry was redoubled. * Tre-
mulis ulutatibus anthera complent' a  numerous band  of
females waiting in the outer conrt to attend the hearse
and to pay in chorus the last tribute of their voices.  The
habits of this sorrowing train, and the neglect of their
persons, were  admirably suited to the occasion; their
robes were  black and flowing,  resembling the  ancient
pillia; their feet naked,  and their hair long and dishevel-
led. The corpse was carried slowly along the verve  of a
most beautiful lake, the ululatus was continued, and the
whole procession ended among the venerable ruins of an
old abbey."
   The same custom prevailed among the Hebrews, and is
beautifully described in bishop Lowth's justly celebrated
Lectures on the Sacred Poetry of the Hebrews.
   COR13AN, in Jewish antiquity, where those offerings
which had  life, in opposition to the minchab, or those
which had not.  It is derived from the  word karab, which
signifies "  to approach;"  because  the  victims were
brought to the door of the tabernacle. Thecorbnns were
always looked upon as the most sacred offerings.  The
Jew s are reproched with defeating, by means oi' the cor-
ban, the precept of the fifth commandment, which enjoins
the respect due to  parents: for when a child bad no mind
to relieve* tiie wants of  his father or mother, he  would
say to tin m, « It is a gift (corban) by  whatsoever thou
migbtest be profited by me;" i.  e. « 1 have devoted that
to God  wiiich you  ask of ine, and it is no longer mine to
give."
   Coruan  is also a ceremony  which the Mahomctana
perform at  the foot of mount Ararat  in  Arabia, near
Mecca. It consists in killing a great number of sheep, and
distributing them among the poor.
   CORBEILS, in fortification,  little baskets about a foot
and a ;.alf high, eight  inches wide at  the bottom, and
twelve at fhe top;  wiiich being filled with earth, arc fre-
quently set one against another upon the parapet or else-
where, leaving certain port-holes, whence to fire upon the
enemy under covert, without being seen by them.
   CORBEL, in architecture,  the representation of a
basket, sometimes seen  on the heads of caryatides. The
word is also  used, in building, for a short piece of timber
placed in a  wall,  with  its  end sticking out six or eight
inches,  as  occasion serves, in manner of a shouldcring-
piece.
   CORCELET, in natural history, that part of the  fly-
class which is analogous in  its situation to the breast in
other animals.  Many have called it the breast in these
also, hut improperly; because the breast of other animals
is the seat of the lungs and trachea, but these organs are
in the fly-class distributed through the whole body. Tho
wings are affixed to this part in the fly-class; and there
are some distinctions of great consequence in regard to
the arrangement  and distribution of these animals  into
genera. Some flies have a double corcelet,  or one divid-
ed into two parts; and this is the case of the fly produced
from the formica, leo, which therefore does not carry its
only distinction in  the figure ofits antennae. One pairof
the legs of  this fly are attached to the first or anterior
corcelet, which  is also capable of moving on the other.
  The corcelcts of some flies are also much more eleva-
ted than those of others; and in some this elevation i» 
COR
COR
 carried so far, that the head is  forced by it to be bent
 downward, and the creature is nearly made hump-back-
 ed by it.  The gnat kind,  and  the  tipulae, furnish  in-
 stances of this elevated and  hump-backed form.  A series
 of flies of two wings  are known by a very  particular
 armament which they carry  on the corcelet, usually call-
 ed their breast. This consists of two  long slender sharp-
 pointed  prickles, which are immoveable in their inser-
 tions, and seem meant as offensive or defensive weapons;
 but in what manner they are used is  not easily to  be  de-
 termined.  All these flies are produced from long water-
 worms with open and funnel-fashioned tails, or furnished
 with  their aperture for respiration at the  hinder  extre-
 mity.
   CORCHORUS, a genus of the monogynia order, in
 the polyandria class of plants, and in the natural method
 ranking under the 37th order, columneae. The corolla is
 pentapetalous, the calyx pcntaphyllous and  deciduous,
 and the  capsule many-valved and many-celled.  There
 are 16 species; of which the most remarkable is the oli-
 torius, an  annual, and a native of Asia, Africa,  and
 America. It rises with  a round, striated, upright, branch-
 ed stalk, to near two feet, with leaves differing in shape;
 some being oval, some cut off straight  at their base, and
 others almost heart-shaped.  The flowers come out at  the
 sides ofthe branches opposite to the leaves. They stand
 singly on very short  peduncles; are  composed of five
 small yellow petals, and a great number of stamina sur-
 rounding  an oblong  germen, which  becomes  a long,
 rough, sharp-pointed capsule, opening in four parts, each
 filled with greenish angular seeds. This plant is sold by
 the Jews about Aleppo, and is therefore  called  Jew's
 mallow.  The  leaves are a favourite salad among that peo-
 ple; and they  boil and  cat them with their meat.
   CORCULUM.  See  Botany,  and  Plants.
   CORD of wood, a certain quantity of wood for burn-
 ing, so called  because  formerly  measured with a cord.
 The dimensions of a statute cord of wood are eight feet
 lone:, four feet high, and four feet broad.
   CORDAGE, a term used, in  general, for all sorts of
 cord, whether small, middling, or great, made use of in
 the rigging of ships.  Cordage cable-laid, as the seamen
 term  it,  is made  with  nine  strands,  i. e. the first three
 strands are laid  slack,  and then three of them  being
 dosed together, make a cable. See Cable.
   The same for tacks,  but they are laid tapering.
   Cordage hawser-laid, is made only with three strands.
 Cordage-stays are  cable-laid,  but made  with  four
 strands, as cables are with three; with  the addition of a
 heart, wiiich goes through the centre of them.
   M'hite cordage is that which has not yet  been tarred.
 Cordage tarred in spinning is that  which is  made  of
rope-yarn ready tarred.
   Cordage  tarred in the stove is that which has passed
 through hot tar, in coming out of the stove. Every  quin-
 tal of cordage* may take about  twenty pounds of tar.
 Cordage remade is that wiiich is made of ropes used be-
 fore. Cordage, when very old, is used for oakum to caulk
 the seams of ships.
   When  a rope is said  to be  six inches  it is understood
of its circumfereii' e.   A rope  of sixty threads is one
composed of so many r pe-yarns.
   CORDED, in heraldry.   A cross-corded some au-
 thors take for a cross-wound or wrenched about with
 cords.
   CORDELIER,  in church history, a Franciscan, or
 religious of the order of St. Francis.  The cordeliers
 are enjoined to live in common:  those who are admitted
 into the order, arc first to sell all they have and give it
 to the poor.   The priests are to fast from the feast of
 All Saints till the Nativity.
   CORDIA,  a  genus of the  monogynia order,  in  the
 pentandria class of plants,  and in  the natural  method
 ranking under the 41st order, asperifolise. The corolla
 is funnel-shaped; the style dichotomous or divided into
 two tlireads, and each of these divided into other two.
 There are five species, of which the principal are  the
 myxa and sebestcna.
   1.  The myxa, or  Assyrian plum, grows  wild   in
 Assyria or Egypt, and also on the coast of Malabar. It
 rises to the height of a middling plum-tree;  and  its
 branches are furnished with oval woolly leaves, standing
 without order.  The flowers are produced in bunches;
 are white, and consist of one tubular petal, and  a like
 calyx, nearly of  an equal length, and both are  cut into
 five parts to their brims.  In their centre  are five very
 small stamina, and one slender style crowned  with  an
 obtuse stigma.  The germen is roundish,  and swells  to
 a plum of the same form, and about the size of a dam-
 son, of a dark brown  colour, a sweet taste, and very
 glutinous.  In some parts of Turkey they cultivate this
 tree in great abundance,  not only for  the sake of the
 fruit to eat, but to make  birdlime of,  which is  a great
 artic .e of trade in a town called Seid.
   2. The  sebestcna,   or rough-leaved cordia,  grows
 naturally in both the Indies, and  sends  forth several
 shrubby stalks eight or ten feet high.   The young leaves
 are serrated,  but the full-grown ones arc not."  They
 are of an oblong oval form,  rough, of a deep green, and
 stand alternately on footstalks.   The flowers terminate
 the branches in large  clusters ofthe shape and colour of
 the marvel of  Peru, and wear a most beautiful  appear-
 ance.  Each has five  stamina and one bifid style.  The
 plums  are much of the shape of those of the myxa, and
 are eaten in the same  manner.  The fruit  of this tree is
 less valuable  than  the wood,  a small  piece of  which
 thrown upon a clear fire  will perfume a  room  with a
 most agreeable odour.
  CORDIAL, in medicine,  whatever raises the spirits,
 and gives them a  sudden  strength and  cheerfulness.
 See Meoicine.
  CORDON,  in  fortification,  a row  of  stones, made
 round on the outside,  and set between  tbe wall  cd" the
 fortress which lies aslope, and lhe parapet which stands
 perpendicular, after such a manner, that this  difference
 may not be offensive  to  the eye; whence the cordons
 serve  only as  an ornament, ranging round about the
 place, being only used in fortifications of stone-work:
 for in those made with earth the void spaces is filled  up
 with pointed stakes.
  CORDWAIXKRS,  the term whereby the statutes
 denominate shoemakers.   The word is  formed from the
 French cordonnier, which  Menage derives from cor-
douan, a kind of leather brought from Cordova, of which
they formerly made the upper  leathers of their shoes.
Others  derive it  from cords, because  anciently  shoes 
COR
COR
were made of cords; as they still  are in some parts of
Spain, under the name of alpargate«.  But the former
etymology is better warranted: for, in effect, the French
workmen who prepare the cordovas are still called cor-
douanniers.  In Paris, before  the revolution,  they  had
two pious societies under the title of  freres cordonniers.
The produce of their shoes went into  a common stock, to
furnish necessaries for their support; and the rest  was
distributed among the poor.
   COREOPSIS, tickseeded sunflower:  a genus of the
p iygamia frustranea order, in the syngenesia class of
plants, and in the natural  method  ranking under the
49th order, composite.   The  receptacle is  paleaceous;
the pappus two-horned; the calyx  erect and polyphyllous,
surrounded with-patent radiated leaflets  at  the base.
There are 20 species, most of them herbaceous peren-
nials.  They rise from 3 to 8 feet; terminated by clusters
of compound radiated flowers of a yellow colour.  They
have all  perennial  fibrous  roots,  and  annual  stalks,
which rise in the spring, flower from July  to  October,
and  decay to the root in November.  The  flowers are
all shaped like sun-flowers, but  smaller, and are very-
ornamental.  They  are  easily propagated  by  slipping
or dividing the roots in autumn.
   CORIANDRUM, coriander, a genus of the  digynia
order, in  the pentandria class  of plants, and in the natu-
ral method ranking under the 45th order, umbcllatae.
The corolla is  radiated; the petals inflcxed-emarginated;
the involucrum universal and  monophyllous; the partial
involucra halved; the fruit  spherical.   There are only
twro species, both of them herbaceous annuals, the leaves
of which  are useful  for the  kitchen,  and the  seeds  for
medicine.    Both  species  have  divided small  leaves,
somewhat resembling parsley: but there is only  one spe-
cies generally cultivated,  namely, the sativum.  This
has  a small  fibrous  white  root,  crowned by many-
parted leaves,  having broadish  segments; and in  the
centre an upright,  round, branchy stalk, two feet high,
having all the branches terminated by umbels of  flowers,
which are succeeded by globular fruit.  It is propagated
by seed, wiiich, when a good crop is wanted, ought to be
sown  in March, either in drills  a foot asunder, or by
broadcast,  and then raked in. When the plants are an
inch or two high, they should be hoed to six or eight
inches distance.  The seeds,  when fresh, have a .strong
disagreeable smell, wiiich improves by  drying,  and  be-
comes  sufficiently  grateful: they are recommended as
carminative and stomachic.
   CORIARA, the  tanner's  or myrtle-leaved sumach,  a
genus  of the  decandria order;  in  the dieecia  class of
plants, and in the  natural method  ranking  under  the
54th order, miscellanea.  The male calyx is penfaphyl-
lous; the corolla pentapetalous, very like the calyx, and
united with it; the antherae  bipartite. The female calyx
is pentaphyllous; the corolla like that of the  male;  the
styles five, seeds five, covered with a like number of suc-
culent petals, forming altogether the resemblance  of  a
berry. There are three species, the myrtifolia, rusufolia,
 and the sarmentosa.  The  first two are natives of the
south of France, but the last is most commonly cultiva-
ted  in this country.  It  is  a  pretty ornamental plant,
with  a shrubby pithy brown stem, closely  branching
from the bottom; and forms a bushy head three or four
feet  over,  with oblong, pointed,  bright-green leaves
having small spikes of whitish flowers at the ends of the
branches.  It is easily propagated  by suckers from the
root, in which it abounds plentifully, and may be taken
off with fibres every autumn or winter.  It is much used
in France for tanning leather, whence its name tanner's
sumach.
  CORINTHIAN ORDER.   See Architecture.
  CORIS, a genus ofthe monogynia order, in the pen-
tandria class of plants, and in the  natural method rank-
ing  with those of which the order is doubtful.  The
corolla is monopetalous and irregular; the calyx prickly
the capsule quinquevalved, superior.  There is only one
species, viz. the monspeliensis,  or  blue  maritime coris.
There are two varieties of this plant,  one with a red,
and the other with a white  flower;  but tbese are onlv
accidental, and arise from the same seeds.   Tbey grow
wild about Montpelier,  and in most places  in tbe south
of France: they seldom grow above six inches high, and
spread near the surface of the  ground like heath;  and
in June, when  they  arc full  of flowers,  make a very
pretty appearance. They may be propagated by sowing
their seeds in  a bed of fresh earth,  and afterwards re-
moving the young plants, some in  pots, and others into
a warm border.  They  generally bear out  winter colds
well enough, but severe frosts will sometimes  destroy
them; for which reason it is proper to keep some of them
in pots, which should be put under a hotbed frame ia
winter.
  CORISPERMUM, lickseed, a  genus of tbe  digynia
order,  in  the  monandria class of plants,  and in tbe
natural method ranking under the  12th order, holoracese.
There is no calyx; two petals, and one oval naked seed.
There are two species; but neither of them are remark-
able for their beauty, or any other quality.
   CORK.  See Quercus.
   Cork-fossil, a name given  to a kind of stone.  It is
a  species  of amianthus, consisting of flexible fibres
loosely interwoven, and somewhat resembling vegetable
cork.   It is the lightest of all stones; by fire it is fusible,
and forms a black glass.
   Cork-jacket, a kind of waistcoat, composed of four
pieces of cork, two for the breasts,  and two for the
back: each pretty  near, in length and breadth, to the
quarters of a waistcoat without flaps; the whole is cov-
ered with coarse canvas, with two  holes to put the arms
through.  Tliere is a space left between the two  back-
pieces, and the same betwixt each back and breast-piece,
that they may set the easier  to  the  body. Thus the
w aistcoat is only open before, and  may  he fastened oa
the wearer with strings; or, if it should be thought more
secure, with buckles and leather straps.  This waistcoat
is the invention of Mr. Duhourg:   but it  has  been  im-
proved by Dr. Wilkinson, of Woodford,  who rendered
it much more accommodating to the motions of the body
in swimming, by cutting the cork  into small pieces and
quilting them between two waistcoats of canvas.  Even
the most timorous, with one of these jackets may safely
venture into a rough sea.
   A cork spencer has lately been invented to save from
drowning, in cases of shipwreck; which consists of a belt,
containing refuse pieces  of cork, or old bottle-corks,
enclosed in any kind of covering, and fastened round the 
COR
C  0 It
body with tapes.  The excellence of this consists in its
cheapness, the whole being made for five shillings.  See
Drowning.
  ( OR-MASS, the  name of a grand  procession,  said
to have been established at Dunkirk during the dominion
of Charles V. and renewed on St. John's day, the 24th of
June. After the celebration of high mass, the procession,
consisting of the several  tradesmen of the town, began.
Each person had  a burning taper of wax  in his hand;
and alter each  company  came  a  pageant,  followed by
the patron saint,  usually of solid silver, richly wrought
and adorned.  The companies were followed by music;
and after the musicians,  the friars in the habits of their
order, tbe secular priests, and then the abbot magnifi-
cently adorned, and preceded by the  host.  Machines
likewise  of various fantastical forms and devices, and as
Variously accoutred, formed a part of the show on this
occasion; which has been described  as  one of the most
superb and magnificent in the world.
  CORN, in country affairs, the grain or seeds of plants
separated from the spica or  ear,  and  used for  making
bread.   See Husbandry.
  Corn-laws.  It is against the common law of Eng-
land to buy or sell corn in the sheaf, before it is thrashed
and measured: the reason whereof seems to be,  because
by such sale, the  market is in effect forestalled.   3 Inst.
197.
  Every person who shall sell or buy corn without mea-
suring, or otherwise than by the Winchester measure,
sealed and stricken by  the brim,  shall on  conviction
before one justice on the oath of one witness forfeit 40s.
besides the whole of  the corn so sold or bought,  or
tbe value  thereof,  half  to the poor,  and half to  the
informer.
  On complaint to a justice, that  corn has been  bought,
sulci, or delivered, contrary to the act,  the proof shall
lie upon  the defendant, to make it appear by oath of one
witness,  that he sold or bought  the same lawfully: and
if he shall fail therein,  he shall forfeit  as  before men-
tioned, to be levied by distress and sale.  22  and  23
C.  II. c. 8 and 12; and K. v. Arnold, T. 33 G. III.
   And if any  mayor, or other head officer,  shall know-
ingly  permit  the same,  he  shall on conviction at  the
minify sessions, forfeit 50/. half to  the prosecutor and
half to the poor, by  distress and sale.  For  want of
distress,  to be imprisoned by warrant of the justices, till
pav ment be made.   22 C. III. c.  8. s. 3.
  The last acts now in force to regulate the returns of the
prices of grain, are statutes 31 G. III. c. 30. 33. G. III. c.
65. Bv the fui-merthe statutes I Jac. 11. c. 19:1 >V. and M.
C. 12:" 1 G. II. c.  12: 10 G. III. c. 39: 13 G. III. c. 43: 21
G.  III. c. 50: and 29 G. III. c. 58, are all repealed; as
also every provision in any other act regulating the im-
portation of wheat,  Sec. except such as relate to the mak-
ing of malt for exportation, and the exportation thereof.
So much of the 15 Car. II. as prohibits the buying of corn
to se 11 again, and the laying it up in granaries, is also
repealed.
  By the statutes of  31 G. III. r. 30, and 33 G. III. c. 65,
bounties are granted on exportation at certain prices, and
the exportation prohibited when at higher prices; the
quantity of corn to be exported to foreign countries is set-
tled: and the maritime counties of England are divided into
districts. The exportation  of corn is to be regulated in
London, Kent,  Essex, and Sussex, by the prices at the
corn-exchange; the proprietors of which are to appoint  n
inspector of corn-returns, to whom weekly returns are to
be made by the factors; and he is to make weekly ac-
counts, and transmit the average price to the receiver of
the returns, to be transmitted to the officers ofthe customs,
and inserted in the London Gazette. The exportation in
other districts and in Scotland, to be regulated by the
prices at different appointed places, for which mavors,
justices, &c. arc to elect inspectors. Declarations are to
be truly made by factors, of corn sold by  them.  Orders
of council may regulate importation, Sec. such orders to
be laid  before parliament.  32 Geo. III. c. 50. and 35
Geo. III. c.  3.
   Corn, in medicine and surgery, a hard tumour like a
flat wart, growing in several parts  of the feet, especially
upon the joints ofthe toes.  This disorder is not unjustly
attributed to the wearing  of too strait or narrow-toed
shoes, which never fail to produce these tubercles, espe-
cially if the  person is obliged to stand or walk much, and
in the summer time.
   CORNEA TUNICA, in anatomy, the  second coat of
the eye; so called from its substance, which resembles
the horn of a lanthorn.  See Anatomy.
   CORNER-STONES, among builders,  the two stones
which  stand one in  each  jaumb  of  a chimney.  The
breadth of each stone ought to be equal to that  of the
jaumb, and  its face to be hollowed in the^sweep of a cir-
cle;  their height ought to  reach from the  hearth to the
mantle-tree: they are commonly made of Ryegate or fire-
stone.
   CORNET, in the military art of the ancients, an in-
stilment much in the nature of a trumpet: when only it
sounded, the ensigns were to  march alone without the
soldiers: whereas when the trumpet  only sounded, the
soldiers were to move without the ensigns. The cornets
and  buccinae sounded the  charge and retreat, and the
cornets and  trumpets sounded during the course of the
battle.
   Cornet  is also  a commissioned officer in  a troop of
horse or dragoons.
   CORNICLLARIUS, in Roman antiquity, an officer
of tbe army,  appointed to assist the military tribune in
quality of lieutenant.
   CORNUCOPIJE, a genus  of  the digynia  order, in
the triandria class of plants, and in the natural method
ranking under the 4th order, gramina. The involucrum is
monophyllous, funnel-shaped, crenated, and multiflorous;
the  calyx bivalved; the corolla onevalved.  There are
two species.
   CORNUS, cornel tree, cornelian cherry, or dogwood, a
genus of the monogynia order, in the tetrandria class of
plants, and  in the natural method ranking under the 47th
order, stellatae.   The involucrum is most frequently mo-
nophvllous; the petals above the receptacle of the fruit,
four; the fruit itself a bilocular kernel.   Of this  genus
there are  12 species; the most remarkable are the follow
ing: l.  The mas or cornelian cherry-tree, has an upright
tree-stem, rising 20 feet high, branching  and forming a
large head,  with oblong leaves, and small umbels of vel-
lowish-grecn flowers, at the sides and ends of the branch 
COR
COR
es; appearing early in the spring, and succeeded by small,
red, cherry-like, eatable, acid fruit.  2. The sanguinea,
bloody-twig,  or common dogwood, has an upright tree-
stem, branching  10 or 12 feet  high,  having blood-red
shoots,  with  oblong pointed  nervous leaves  two inches
long; and all  the branches terminated by umbellate white
flowers, succeeded by blackberries: of this there is a kind
with variegated leaves.  3.  The Florida or Virginian
dog-wood, has a tree-stem branching 12 or 15 feet high,
and fine red shoots, with large heart-shaped leaves; and
the branches  terminated by umbellate white flowers, hav-
ing a large involucrum  succeeded by dark-red  berries.
Of this species there are several  varieties, chiefly distin-
guished by  the colour of their berries, which are red,
white, or  blue.  All the species  may be propagated by
seeds, which ought to be sown in autumn, otherwise they
will lie a year in the ground. They may also be propa-
gated by suckers, of which they  produce great plenty, or
by laying down the young branches.
  CORNUTIA, a genus of  the angiospermia order, in
the didynamia class of plants, and in the natural method
ranking under the 40th order, personate.  The calyx is
quinquedentated; the stamina longer than the corolla; the
style  very long; the berry  monospermous.  There  are
two species: the pyramidata has blue pyramidal flowers
and hoary leaves.   It grows  plentifully in several of the
islands of the West Indies, also at Campeachy, and at La
Vera Cruz.  It rises to the height of 10 or 12 feet, with
rude branches, the leaves being placed opposite.  The
flowers are produced in spikes at the end of the branches,
and are of a  fine blue.   They usually appear in autumn,
and will sometimes remain in beauty for two months  or
more.   It is propagated either by seeds or cuttings, and
makes a fine appearance in the stove, but is too tender to
bear the open air in this country.
   COROLLA, among botanists,  the  most conspicuous
part of a flower, surrounding the organs of generation.
See  Botany.
   COROLLARY, is  a consequence drawn from some-
thing already advanced  or demonstrated: thus,  it being
demonstrated that a triangle  which has two  equal sides,
has also two angles equal, this corollary will follow; that
a triangle which has three sides equal, has also its three
angles equal.
   CORONA, among botanists, expresses any thing grow-
ing on the head of a seed.  See Botany.
   Corona borealis, the northern  crown or garland, in
astronomy, a constellation of the northern hemisphere,
whose stars in Ptolemy's cataloge are 8,  in  Tycho's as
many, and in Mr. Flamsteed's 31.
   CORONAL, coronalis, in anatomy, the first suture of
the scull. See  Anatomy.
   CORONARY vessels, vasa  coronaria, in anatomy,
certain vessels which  furnish the substance  of the heart
with blood.
   CORONATORE eligendo, in law, a writ that lies di-
 rected to the sheriff, out of the  court of chancery, on tiie
 death or discharge of any coroner, commanding him to
 call the freeholders of the   county for the  election of a
 new coroner, and to certify to the said  court both the
 election  and the name of the  party chosen, and to ad-
 minister Ms oath to him, Sec.
   CORONErR, a very ancient officer at the  common
law: he is called coroner, because he acts principally in
the pleas of the crown; and  coroners were of old time
the conservators of the peace. This officer ought to be a
sufficient person,  that is,  the  most wise and  discreet
knight that best would and might attend upon  such an
office.  St. Westm. c. 10. By the 14 Ed. III. st. 1, c 8
no coroner shall be chosen unless  he shall have land in
fee sufficient in the same county wherein he may an
swer to all manner of people. The lord chief justice of
the king's-bench is the sovereign  coroner of the whole
realm.
  How elected.  In ancient times, none  under the deerc*
of knight were  chosen. 2 Inst.  32.176. But as the chief
intent was  to prevent the choosing of  persons of mean
ability, it seems the design of it is sufficiently answered
by  choosing men of substance and credit;  and as  the
constant usage  for several  ages past  has been  accoid-
ingly,  it seems to be no objection at this day that the
person chosen is not a knight. 2 Haw.  42, 43.
  By the 28 Ed. III. c. 6. it is enacted, that all coroners
of the counties  shall he chosen in full county-courts, by
the commoners of the said counties, of the most meet
and lawful people that shall be found in  the same, to exe-
cute the said office. But though they are chosen  by the
county, it  must be pursuant  to the king's writ, issuing
out of and  returnable into  chancery; and none but free-
holders have a  voice at such  election, for they only are
suitors to the county-court. 2 Inst. 99.  2 Haw.  43, 44.
When chosen they shall be sworn  by the sheriff for  the
due execution of their office.  2 Hale. H. 55.
  His  duty in  taking inquisitions.  When any  person
comes to an untimely death, the township shall give no-
tice thereof to the  coroner;  etherwi.se if the body be  in-
terred before he  come, the township shall be amerced.
Hale's PI.  170.  And if the township shall suffer the body
to lie till putrefaction without sending for him, they shall
be amerced. 2 Haw. 48.
   When the  coroner has received notice, he  shall issue
a precept to the constables of the four, five, or six next
townships, to return a competent number of good  and
lawful men of  their townships, to appear before him in
such a place, to make  an inquisition touching that mat-
ter. 4 Ed. I. st. 2. Or he may send a precept to the con-
stable of the hundred. Wood, b. 4. c. 1. And there must
be twelve jurors at the least. 2  Inst. 148. If tbe consta-
ble make no return, or if the jurors returned shall not ap-
pear, their defaults are to be  returned to the coroner,
and they shall be amerced before the judses of the assize.
2 II.  H. 55.                       J  5
   The jury, after being sworn, is to be charged by the
coroner to inquire, upon the view of the body, bow the
party came hy his death. 2 H. H. 60.
   Every coroner  upon an inquisition before him found,
whereby  any  person shall he  indicted for murder or
manslaughter,  or  as an accessary  before the offence com-
mitted, shall put in writing the effect of the evidence giv-
en to the jury before him being material; and shall bind
over the witnesses to the next general gaol-delivery to
give evidence;  and shall certify  the evidence, the recog-
nizance, and the inquisition or indictment before him ta-
ken and found, at or before the trial, on pain of being
fined hythe court. 1 &2 P. Se M. c. 13. s. 5.      \
   But the coroner cannot inquire of accessaries afterSfe6 
COR
COR
  fact.  He ought to inquire into the death of all persons
  dyiiur in prison, that it may be known whether they died
  by violem e or any unreasonable hardships.
    His general power and duty. Besides his judicial place,
  the coroner  has an authority ministerial, as a sheriff;
  namely, when there is a just exception taken to the she-
  riff, judicial process shall be awarded to the coroner for
  the execution ofthe king's writ. And in some special ca-
  ses the  king's original writ shall be immediately direct-
  ed to him. 4 Inst. 271. He is bound to be present in the
  county-court to pronounce judgment of  outlawry upon
  the exigent, after quinto exact us, at the fifth court, if the
  defendant do not appear. Wood, b. 4. c. 1.
    It is his duty to inquire of treasure that is found, who
  were  the finders, and  likewise who  is suspected thereof.
  He may also receive the appeal of an approver for an of-
  fence in the same, or in a different county; and   if the
  appellee be in the  same county, he may award process
  against him to the sheriff till  it come to the exigent; hut
  if the appellee be in a foreign county, the coroner can-
  not award process  against him, but must leave it to the
 justices of a gaol-delivery, before whom the appeal is af-
 terwards recorded. 2 Haw. 52.
    Punishment for misdemeanour. Justices of aSsize and
  peace have power to inquire of and punish  the defaults
  and extortions of coroners.  1 Hen. \ ill. c. 7. and 25
  Geo. II. c. 29. s. 6.
    His fees. The coroner shall have for his fee, upon every
 inquisition taken upon the view ofthe body slain, 13s.
 4d. of the goods and  chatties of him that is the slayer
 and murderer, if he have any  goods; and if he have no
 goods, of such amerciament, as any township should hap-
 pen to be amerced for the escape ofthe murderer. 3 Hen.
 VII. But as the said fee of 13s. 4<t. is not an adequate
 reward for the general execution ofthe said office, there-
 fore for every inquisition taken upon view of a body dy-
 ing in gaol, the coroner shall have 20s., and also 9d. for
 every mile he shall be  compelled to travel from his usual
 place  of abode to take  such inquisition, to be paid by or-
 der of the justices in sessions,  out ofthe county rates. 25
 Geo. II. c. 29. s. 1.
   CORONTLLA, jointed podded colutea,  a genus of the
 decandria order, in the diadelphia class of plants, and in
 the natural method  ranking under the 32d order,  papi-
 lionaceae. The  calyx is bilabiated, with two segments
 above coalited; the vexillum scarcely any longer than the
 ala?; the legumen much contracted between the seeds. To
 this genus Linnseus also joins the emerus, or scorpion
 srna,  though  Mr.  Miller makes it  a distinct species.
 There are 14 species, all plants of considerable beauty,
 with  very bright yellow flowers. All of them, however,
 are rather too tender for this climate, except the emerus.
 This  species rises with a shrubby stem, branching nu-
 merously six or eight  feet high,  -ith winged leaves of
 three pair of lobes, terminated  by an odd one; and at the
 sides ofthe  branches numerous long flower-stalks, each
 Supporting two or three large  yellow flowers, succeeded
 by longish pods; it   is  easily propagated by  seeds, and
 likewise  by  layers or cuttings.  The  leaves of this plant
 are esteemed laxative,  and used as a  substitute for  com-
mon sena in some  parts of Europe.  A dye is procured
by fermentation from the leaves, like that  of indigo.
  CORPORA carvernosa, in anatomy. See  Anatomy.
    CORPORAL, an inferior officer under a s ij  nir, »:
  a company of foot, who has charge over one of the divi
  sions, places and  relieves sentinels, and keeps good  or-
  der in the corps-de-garde: he also receives the word from
  the  inferior rounds which pass by his  corps-de-gardc.
  This officer carries a fusee, and is commonly an old sol-
  dier. There are generally three corporals in each com-
  pany.
    Corporal ofa shipofwar, an officer under the master
  at arms, employed to  teach the  officers the exeivise of
  small arms, or of  musketry, and to attend at the gang-
  way on entering ports, and observe that no spirituous
  liquors are brought into the ship, unless  by express leave
  from the officers.  He is also to extinguish  the fire and
  candles at  eight o'clock in  winter and  nine in summer,
  when the  evening-gun is  fired; and to walk frequently
  down in the lower decks in his watch, to see that there
  are no light but such as are under the charge of proper
  sentinels.
    CORPORATION, a body politic, or incorporate, so
  called because  the persons or members  are joined into
  one body, and are qualified to take and grant, Sec. Cor-
  porations  are either spiritual or temporal; spiritual as
  bishops, deans, arch-deacons,  parsons, vicars, &c. tem-
  poral as mayor,  commonalty, bailiffs,  burgesses,  Sec.
  And some corporations are of a mixed nature, composed
  of spiritual and temporal persons, such as heads of colle-
  ges and hospitals, Sec.  All corporations are said to be
  ecclesiastical or lay; ecclesiastical are either regular, as
  abbeys, priories, chapters, &c. or secular,  as bishoprics,
  dcanries, archdeaconries,  &c.  lay,  as  those of cities,
 towns, companies, or communities of commerce. Corpo-
 rations may be established three different ways, viz.  by
 prescription, letters patent, or act of parliament; but are
 most commonly established by patent or charter. Lon-
 don is a corporation by prescription: but though corpo-
 rations may be by prescription,  yet it shall be intended,
 that it did  originally derive its authority by a grant fiom
 the king.
   A corporation may be dissolved; for it is created upon
 a trust; and if it be broken, it is forfeited. No person shall
 bear office in any corporation but such as have received
 the sacrament, taken oaths, &c. A corporation cannot
 sue or appear in person, but by  an attorney.  Ordinances
 made hy corporations to be observed on pain of impri-
 sonment, forfeiture of goods, &c. are contrary to Magna
 Charta. Actions arising in any corporation may be tried
 in the corporation courts; but if they try actions not with-
 in their jurisdiction, and encroach upon the common law,
 they are liable to be punished for it. The corporation
 ofthe city of London is  to answer for all  particular* mis-
 demeanors committed in any of the courts of justice with-
 in the city, and for all other general misdemeanors com-
 mitted in the city.
   CORPS he garde, a post in an army, sometimes un-
 der ce»ver, sometimes in the open air, to receive a number
 of soldiers, who  are relieved from time to time, and are
 to watch in their turns for the security of  some more con-
siderable post.
   Corps-de-garde is frequently  used for the men who
watch in this post.

  Coeps, in architecture, a term  to signify any  part 
COR
COR
that projects or advances beyond the naked of a wall,
serving as a ground for some decoration.
  CORPSE. If any person steal the shroud or other ap- *■
parel  from a dead body, it wiil be a felony. 3 Inst.  110.
12  Rep. 113. But stealing the corps itself only, is not fe-
lony; but it is punishable as a misdemeanour, by indict-
ment  at common law. 2 Black. 236.
  CORPULENCY, in medicine, the state of a person
too much loaded with flesh or fat.
  An excessive degree of corpulency or fatness becomes
a disease, when the whole body, as well as  the belly,  is
grown into such a bulk, that the actions, especially  with
respect to motion and respiration, are greatly impaired,
if not entirely impeded.  Boerhaave observes, that cor-
pulency does not consist in the solids of the body being
increased, but in their being distended to a greater pitch
by  the  abundance of humours collected in them. Corpu-
lency is supposed to arise from a copious, oily, soft blood,
and is promoted by any thing that tempers and softens
the blood; such are want of exercise and motion, an in-
dolent life, too much sleep, nourishing foods, &c.
  There is not a better remedy to  reduce a corpulent hab-
it,  than acetum sciliticum drunk upon an empty stomach.
Semen fraxini, or bird's-tongue as it is called, 3j, drunk
in  a morning in a glass of wine,  is very much commen-
ded as  an effectual diuretic, and  on that account abates
corpulency.  Borellus recommends the chewing of tobac-
co; but it is not safe for all  persons to use  it, lest  it
should throw them into a consumption.  Dr. Flemming
recommends from one  to four grains of Castile soap to
be  taken at bed-time.   Those that are naturally  gross
and fat, oftener die suddenly than  other  people.   The
most extraordinary instance of corpulency perhaps ever
known, was that of Edw. Bright of Maiden, in Essex,
who, dying in Nov. 1750,  at the  age of 29 years, weigh-
 ed 616 pounds;  his  waistcoat,  with  great  ease, was
 buttoned round seven  men of ordinary size.
    CORPUS,  in  anatomy,  a term applied to several
 parts of the animal structure, as  corpus callosum, corpus
 cavernosum, Sec.
    Corpus  callosum, a medullary part  of the brain,
 which  covers the whole lateral ventricles.
    Corpus  gavernosum,  a cavernous  substance, sur-
 rounding the vagina.
    Corpus cum causa, in law, a writ issuing out of the
 chancery to remove both the body and  record, touching
the cause of any man  lying for execution  upon a judg-
 ment for debt, into the king's bench, there to  lie till he
 has satisfied the judgment.
    CORPUSCLE,  in  physics,  a  minute particle, or
physical atom, being such as a natural body is made up
of. By this word are not meant the elementary particles,
but such,  whether  of a simple or  compound nature,
whose parts will not be dissipated by  ordinary degrees
 of  heat.  Sir Isaac Newton, in the second book of his
 Optics, shows  a way of assuming,  with great accuracy,
 the size ofthe component corpuscles of bodies.
    CORRECTION, in printing, the pointing out or dis-
 covering the faults in  a printed sheet, in order  to be
 amended by the compositor before it be printed off.
    The corrections are placed  on the margin  of  every
 page, against the line in which the faults are found; and
 there arc different characters used to express different
corrections: thus B- is put for dele, to intimate that some-
thing, as a point, letter, word, ice. dashed in that lino is
to be taken out.   If any thing is to  be inserted, the
place is to be marked thus \ and the thing to be inserted
added  in the  margin.   When tliere are two or more
corrections in  the same line, then they  are all separated
in the margin  by little  bars, thus j . If a space  is omit-
ted, its place is marked with a caret, and  in the margin
thus tf. When a letter is inverted, it is expressed in the mar-
gin thus®. When any thing is to be transposed it is direct-
ed thus,  Extraordinary scarce ever  fail of/attainments*
exciting  envy,  for Extraordinary  attainments scarce
ever fail of exciting envy, and in  the  margin is added
tr.  If Italic characters  are to be  changed for  Roman,
or vice versa,  a  line is drawn thus — under the letters,
and  Rom. or Ital. is written in the margin.   If a space,
or an m  or n quadrat,  stick up, and print black,  it is
marked  in the margin with a dash, thus | .   If a word,
sentence, or paragraph  is entirely omitted, the place is
marked  with a caret, and in the  margin is put the word
out.   If the letters of a word* stand  too far asunder, a
line  is drawn  under them, and  in the  margin  is put a
crooked line or  hook,  thus ^-.   There  are many other
marks used in correcting, as ^/ for superior, cap. for cap-
ital, I. c. for lower case, &c.
   CORRECTOR of  the staple,  a clerk belonging to
the staple, wiiose business it is to write down and record
the bargains that merchants make there.
   Corrector,  in medicine and  pharmacy, an ingredient
in a composition which guards against or  abates the
force of another.  See Pharmacy.
   CORRELATIVE, something opposed to another in
a certain relation. Thus, father and son are correlatives.
Light and darkness,  motion and rest, are correlative
 and opposite terms.
   CORROSION, in  a general  sense,  the action of
gnawing away, by degrees, the continuity of the parts
of bodies.  Acids corrode most natural bodies.
   CORROSIVES, in surgery, are medicines which cor-
 rode whatever  part of the body they are applied to:
 such are burnt  alum, white precipitate of mercury, white
 vitriol, red precipitate of mercury, butter of antimony,
 and lapis infernalis.
   CORRUGATOR.  See Anatomy.
   CORRUPTICOLJE, in church-history, a  sect of
heretics, so called from their maintaining that the body
of Christ was corruptible, that the fathers had owned it,
 and that to deny  it  was to deny  the  truth  of our Sa-
 viour's passion.
   CORRUPTION, the destruction,  extinction, or at
 least cessation for a time, of the proper mode of existence
 of any natural body.
   Corruption of blood, in law,  an infection  accruing
 to a man's state attainted of felony and treason, and to
 his issue; for as he loses all to the prince, Sec.  his issue
 cannot be heirs to him, nor  to any other  ancestor by
 him; and if he was noble, his heirs are  rendered ignoble.
   CORSELET, a little cuirass; or, according to others,
 an armour or coat made to cover the  whole  body; an-
 ciently worn by the pike-men, usually  placed in the fr'int
 and flanks of  the battle,  for  the  better resisting the
 enemy's assaults, and guarding the soldiers placed be-
 hind them. 
COR
COR
  CORTUSA, bear's-car saniclc; a genus of the mono-
gynia order, in the pentandria class of plants, and  in
the natural method ranking under the 21st order, precias.
The  corolla  is  wheel-shaped,  with its throat like  an
elevated  ring, the capsule  unilocular,  oval, and quin-
quevalvcd at the top.  There are two  species; both  of
them very low, flowery, herbaceous perennials, crowned
by umbels of monopetalous wheel-shaped  flowers, of a
fine red colour. They are natives of mountainous rocky
parts abroad, so must have a dry lean sod; or they may
be kept in pots of dry sandy earth placed in  the shade,
and in the summer  must  be  duly  watered; and their
propagation here is hy slipping the roots in October.
  CORUNDUM, a mineral, of wiiich there arc two
species, the perfect and imperfect.   Perfect corundumor
sapphire is found in the  East Indies, especially in Pegu
and the Island of Ceylon; and it is most commonly crys-
tallized.   The crystals are of no great size; their pri-
mitive form, as has been  demonstrated  by Bouinm,
is  a rhomboid whose  angles are  86° and 94°,  and
which  therefore  is  nearly  rectangular.  Sometimes  it
occurs in this form, though but  seldom.   Bournon lias
described no less than eight modifications of it.
  Tbe texture of the sapphire  is foliated;  but in fhe
more  perfect specimens  the  plates are separated wiib
difficulty.  Fracture concboidal. It causes only a single
refraction.  Specific gravity from 3.207 to 4.161.  Colour
most frequently blue: sometimes red, purple,  yellow, and
asven; and  sometimes colourless:  imperfect corundum
is usually crystallized; sometimes  found in  amorphous
masses.  The figures of tbe  crystals  are the  same  as
those of the last species;  opaque, except when in  Very
thin pieces; specific gravity from 3.710 to  4.180; colour
grey, often with various shades of blue  and green.
  Mr. Chenevix obtained the following constituents from
different specimens of corundum subjected to  chemical
analysis.
                 Imperfect corundum.
        From the    From    From     From
        Carnatic.  Malabar.   China.     Ava.
Silica       5,0       7,0       2,25      6,5
Alumina   91,0     86,5      89,50      87,0
Iron        1,5       4,0       6,50      4,5
Loss        2,5      2,5       1,7 5      2,0
100,0 100,0	100,00 100,0
Perfect cm	nindum.
Blue, or	Red, or
sapphire.	oriental ruby.
Silica 5,2*5	7,0
Al.unina 92,00	90,0
Iron 1,00	1,2
Loss 1,75	1,8
                  100,00           100,0
  Mr. Klaprmh's analysis  of sapphire differs a little
from the abe»\e, but his analysis of imperfect corundum
agrees wilh it.  He found the sapphire composed of
             98,5 alumina
              1,0 oxyd of iron
              0,5 lime
100,0
VOL. I.
83
  CORUS, Omer, Homer, or Chomer, in the Jewish anti-
quities,  a measure  containing 10  baths, or 75 gallons
and 5 pints, as a measure for things liquid, and 32 pecks
and 1 pint, as a measure ft»r things dry.
  CORUSCATION, a glittering or gleam of light issu-
ing from any thing.  It is chiefly used for the electrical
fluid when rendered visible, as in a flash of lightning, Sec.
There are methods of producing artificial  coruscations,
or sparkling fiery meteors, which will be visible not only
in the dark but in the day time.
  CORVUS, the raven or crow kind, in ornithology;  a
genus of birds of the order of pic«, the  distinguishing
characteristics  of which are these: the beak is convex
and cultrated; the nostrils are covered  with bristly fea-
thers; the tongue is forked and cartilaginous; and the
feet  are ofthe  walking kind. The species are 19, the
most remarkable of wiiich are (see  Plate  XXXVI. Nat.
Hist. fig. 144.)
  1. The corax, or raven  of English  authors, weighs
three pounds, and is about two feet two inches in length;
the colour is  black, finely glossed with a rich blue, the
belly excepted,  which is of  a dusky colour.  They are
very docile birds, and may  be trained up to fowling like
hawks, or to fetch and carry like spaniels; they may be
taught to speak like parrots; and, what is most extraor-
dinary of ail, they  may be  taught to imitate the human
voice in singing. Tlioy have a great propensity to  pilfer,
often hiding things of value, to the great loss ofthe ow-
ner, without use to themselves. Tbey frequent the neigh-
bourhood of great towns, where they are useful in de-
vouring  tbe  carcases and  filth wiiich  would otherwise
prove a nuisance.   They, however, also destroy many
living animals;  such as  rabbits, young ducks and  chick-
ens, and not unfrcqucntly lambs which have been dropped
in a weak state. In clear weather  they fly in pairs to a
great height, making a deep loud  noise, different from
tiie common croaking.  Their scent is remarkably good,
and they are very long lived. The  raven  builds her nest
early in the  spring, laying  five or  six  eggs, of a pale
bluish-green colour, spotted with brown.
  2. The corone,  or carrion-crow, in the form of its
body agrees  with the raven; also  in its  food, which  is
carrion  and other filth. It will also  eat grain and insects;
and like the  raven will pick out the  eyes  of animals;
whence  it was  formerly  distinguished  from the  rook,
which feeds entirely on grain and insects, by the name of
the gor, or gor-crow. Virgil says that its croaking fore-
bodes rain; « Turn cornix plena pluviam vocat improba
voce." It was also thought a bird of bad omen, especially
if it  happened to be seen on the left hand:" Ssepe sinis-
tra cava  prjedixit  ob ilice  cornix."  England breeds
more of this  kind of birds than any other countrv in Eu-
rope.  But though the crow abounds in Britain, it is se>
rare in Sweden, that Linnwus speaks of it only as a bird
that he once knew killed there.  It lays the same number
of eggs  as the  raven, and  of the same colour.   Imme-
diately after  deserting their young they go  in pairs.—.
Both these birds are often found white or pied,  an acci-
dent that befals black birds more frequent than any
others.   Mr. Pennant says, he has observed one entire-
ly of a pule brown colour, not only in  its plumage, but
even in its bill and feet.  The  crow  weighs  about 20 
CORVUS.
ounces.  Its length is 18 inches; its breath two feet two
inches.
  3. The frugilegus, or rook, is the corvus of Virgil; no
other species of this kind being gregarious. It differs not
greatly in its form from the carrion-crow; the most re-
markable difference is  in the nostrils and  root of the
bill; which parts in the crow are well clothed with fea-
thers,  but in the  rook  are bare, or coveicd only  with
some bristly hairs.  This arises  from its thrusting the
Mil into the earth continually, after  the various worms
and crucae of insects, on which it feeds; for it does not
live on carrion, like the last species or the raven. Besides
insects, it also feeds on  all sorts of grain, to some incon-
venience perhaps to the husbandman, but no doubt he is
doubly repaid by the good done to him in extirpating the
maggot of the chafer-beetle, which in some seasons des-
troys whole crops of corn by feeding on the roots.  The
rook is  a gregarious bird,  sometimes being seen in im-
mense  flocks, so  as almost to darken the air.   These
flights they regularly perform morning and evening, ex-
cept in breeding-time, when the daily attendance of both
male and female is required for the use of incubation, or
feeding the young; for it is observed that they do both
by turns.  As these birds are apt to form themselves in-
to  societies, such places as they frequent  during the
breeding-time are called rookeries; and they  generally
choose a large clump of tbe tallest trees, for  this pur-
pose, but make so great  a litter, and such  a perpetual
chatter, that nothing but habit and a length of time can
 reconcile one to the noise.   The eggs are like those of
 crows, but  less,  and the spots  larger.  They begin to
 build  in March, and after the breeding season  forsake
 their nest-trees, going to roost elsewhere, but  have been
 observed to return to them in August.  In October they
 repair their nests.  In Britain they remain the whole
 year; yet we  are told that  both in France  and Silesia
 they are birds of passage.
    4.  The cornix, or Royston crow, in its habits resem-
 bles the rook, feeding on insects, and flying together in
 great flocks; but is easily distinguished by its plumage;
 its back, breast, and belly, being ash-colour, inclining to
 light  blue, and consequently much handsomer; it is also
 rather larger  than the rook, weighing 22 ounces.  In
 England it is a bird of passage, visiting that kingdom in
 the beginning  of winter, and leaving it with the wood-
 cocks.  In the maritime parts they feed on  crabs and
 shell-fish. They  are very common in Scotland; in many
 parts ofthe Highlands, and in all the Hebrides, Orkneys,
 and Shetlands, it is the only  species of genuine crow,
 the carrion and rook being unknown there.  It breeds
 and continues in those parts the tvhole year round.  In
 the Highlands they breed  indifferently in all kinds of
 trees; lay six eggs; have a shriller note than the common
 crows; are much more mischievous; pick out the eyes of
 lambs, and even of horses when entangled in bogs. They
 are, therefore, in many places proscribed,  and rewards
 given for killing them.  For want of other  food these
 birds will eat cranberries or other mountain berries.
    5.  The daurlcus, or white-breasted crow, is in  length
  about 12 inches; the bill is black; the head  and throat
  are black, glossed with blue; the neck and breast white;
  the rest of the body, wings,  and tail, blue-black; the
 legs of a lead-colour; the claws black.  Pallas describes
the same species, which he says cam** early in the spring
in great flights from China, and the southern Monguls
country, into  the parts about the lake Baikal, but most
frequent about the towns and villages on the river Lena,
in which part  the jackdaws and Royston crows are very
seldom seen. They live chiefly on insects.
   6. The monedula, or jackdaw, weighs nine ounces; the
length 13 inches, the breadth 28.  The head is large in
proportion to  its body;  wiiich  Mr.  Willughby says,
argues him to be ingenious and crafty. It is a docile and
loquacious bird. Jackdaws breed in steeples, old  castles.
and in  high rocks, laying five or six eggs.  Sometimes
they have been  known to breed in hol'ow trees near a
rookery, and  join those birds in their foraging  parties.
In some parts of Hampshire, they  make their  nests in
rabbit-holes.  They also build in the interstices between
the upright and transum stones of  Stonehenge;  a proof
of the prodigious height of that stupendous antiquity,
for their nests are placed beyond the reach of the shep-
herd-boys, who are always idling about this spot. Thev
are gregarious birds, and feed on insects, grain, and
seeds. These  birds are  frequently brought up tame; tbey
have a practice of hiding that part of their food which
they  cannot eat; and often, along with it, they secrete
small valuables, sometimes occasioning injurious suspi-
cions of theft  in  servants or others not guilty.
   7.  The glandarius, or jay, is one of the most beauti-
ful of British birds.  The weight is between six and se-
ven ounces; the length  13 inches. The forehead  is white
streaked with black; the head is covered with very long
feathers, which  it can  erect at pleasure into the form of
a crest; the whole neck, back, breast, and belly,  are ofa
faint purple dashed with grey;the covert-feathers ofthe;
wings are of  the same  colour.  The first quill-feather is
black; the exterior webs of the nine next areash-rolour-
 ed; the interior webs dusky; the six next are black, but
 the lower sides of their exterior webs are white tinged
 with blue;  the two next wholly black; the last of a fins
 bay-colour, tipt with black.  Jays build chiefly in woods,
 making their nests of sticks, fibres  of roots, and tender
 twigs;  and  lay five or six eggs, of the size of a pigeon's,
 cinereous olive  marked  with pale  brown. The young
 keep  with the  old ones till the next  pairing-time in
 spring, when they choose each his mate to produce their
 future  progeny. In general they  feed on acorns, nuts,
 seeds,  and  fruits of all kinds, but will sometimes destroy
 young chickens and eggs, and will also take away birds
 that have been caught in a trap, or entangled with bird-
 lime. They arc often kept in cages, and will talk pretty
 well.
    8. The caryocatactes, or nutcracker, is somewhatless
 than the jackdaw-, the  bill is strong, straight, and black;
 the colour of the whole head and neck, breast and body,
 of a rusty brown;  the crown of the head and rump are
 plain; the other parts marked with triangular white spots;
 the wings  are  black;  the  coverts  spotted in  the  same
 manner as the body; the tail is rounded at the end, black
 tipt with white; the vent-feathers are wliite;  the legs
 dusky.  We  find these birds scattered in many parts of
 Europe, but  no where so plenty as in Germany. Tbey
 visit England very seldom;  and are also found  in North
 America, but not near the sea-coasts.
    9. The pica,  or magpie, is in length above 18 inches* 
COR
COR
and weighs eight or nine ounces.  In manners it  ap-
proaches the crow, feeding almost on every thing in turn,
both animal and vegetable; and like that will kill young
ducks and chickens, and suck the eggs. It builds its nest
with art, making a thorny cover at top, leaving a hole in
the side feir admittance; lays six or seven pale-greenish
eggs, thickly spotted with black.  It is a crafty bird in
every state, and, if brought up young, becomes exceed-
ingly familiar; and will talk a great many sentences, as
well as imitate every noise within hearing, like a parrot,
but not so plain.
   10. The graculus, or red-legged crow, is but thinly
scattered over the northern world: no mention is made
of it by  any of the Faunists; nor do we  find it in other
parts of Europe, except Britain and the Alps.  It is pro-
duced in the island of Candia in Asia; and  it visits Egypt
towards the end of the  inundation of the Nile. Except in
Egypt, it affects mountainous and rocky places;  builds
its nest in high cliffs or ruined towers; and lays four or
five eggs, white- spotted with a dirty yellow.  It feeds on
insects,  and also on new-sown corn. They commonly fly
high, make a shriller  noise than the jackdaw, and may
be taught to speak. It  is a very tender bird,  ani unable
to bear very severe weather; is  of an elegant, slender
make; active, restless, and  thieving; much  taken wi!h
flitter, and so meddling as not to be trusted where things
of consequence lie.  It is \ ery apt to catch up bits of light-
ed sticks, s> that there are instances of houses being set
on fire by its means; on wlich account Camden calls  it
incendiaria avis.   It  is found in Cornwall, Flinsbirc,
Caernarvonshire, and  Anglesea, in the rocky cliffs along
the shores. It is also found in Scotland as far as Strath-
navern, and in some of the Hebrides.  Its colour is whol-
ly black, beautifully glossed over with blue and purple:
the legs and bill are of a bright orange-colour inclining
to red; the tongue  is  almost as long as  the bill,  and a
little cloven; the claws  are1 large, hooked, and black.
   11.  The cristatus, or blue jay, is much smaller than
the common jay.  The bill is black, and above an inch
long: the head is crested and blue: a streak on each side
of the head and  throat  are of a bluish white, and there
is a spot of the same over the eye: the hind  part ofthe
neck and bafk i■; blue:  the wings and tail the same; all
the feathers of the last, except tbe two middle ones, tip-
ped with white; the feathers of both it and the wings ele-
gantly barred with black,  and the greater coverts and
second quills Hpped with white: the breast is of a blossom-
colour: the  bcilv and  under tail-coverts  white: the legs
are dusky brown: the tail is nearly as long as the rest of
the bird.   The colours  of the female are less bright than
those of th' male.  The species is said to be peculiar to
North America, but not seen farther north than the town
of Albany.
   12. The canadensis is in length nine inches, and weighs
two ounces. The bill is blackish, and not quite an inch
long: the irides are black: the forehead and throat are of
a dirty yellow-white; the hind-head and sides of a black-
ish brown: the upper parts  of the body are  brown: be-
neath, pale ash. These birds inhabit Canada; and are
frequent  near  Hudson's  bay, where they  are  called
whiskijohn and  whiskijaek.   They  breed early  in  the
spring; build in pine-trees: and hav e two, rarely  three,
young at a time. The eggs are blue. They arc not gre-
garious.  Their food is black moss, worms, and flesh*
They are very bold pilfering birds, stealing from the tra-
veller even salt meat; and devouring often the bait from
the traps set for the martins, as soon as the persons  who
set them turn their backs.  They lay up stores for win-
ter; at which time they are seldom seen unless near ha-
bitations.
   Corvus, the raven, in  astronomy,  a constellation of
the southern hemisphere, wherein, according to Ptolemy
and Tycho's catalogue,  are  seven stars; whereas  the
Britannic catalogue reckons no less than ten.
   Corvus, in Roman antiquity, a military engine, or
rather  gallery, moveable  at pleasure by means of  pul-
leys, chiefly used in boarding the enemy's ships, to cover
the men.
   CORYB ANTES, in antiquity, priests ofthe goddess
Cybele, who, inspired with a sacred fury, danced up and
down, tossing their heads, and beating on cymbals or
brazen drums. They inhabited mount Ida, in the island of
Crete, where they nourished the infant Jupiter, keeping
a  continual rattling with their cymbals, that his father
Saturn, who had resolved to devour all his male offspring,
might not hear the child's cries.
   CORYBANTICA, in Grecian antiquity, a festival
kept in hommr of the corybantes.
   CORYCOMACHIA, among the ancients, was a  sort
of exercise  in which they pushed  forwards a ball,  sus-
pended  from the ceiling, and at its return  either caught
it  with  their hands, or suffered it to meet their body.
Oribasius informs us it was recommended for extenuat-
ing too (gross bodies.
   (CORYDALIS, in botany, a genus of the diadelphia,
hexandria class  and order; there are five species, na-
tives of Pennsylvania aud New York. (\>)
   CORYLUS, tbe  hazel,  a genus  or the polyandria
order, in  the  monoecia class of plants; and  in the na-
tural method ranking under the  50th order, amenta-
cese.  The male  calyx  is monophyllous, scale-like, tri-
fid, and uniflorous; there is no corolla; the  stamina eight
in number: the female calyx diphyllous and lacerated;
no corolla; two styles; and an egg-shaped nut. There
are three species: 1st. The coryius avellana (from Avel-
lino, in  Italy, where they were first cultivated), or haze),
of which the filbert is a variety.  2d.  Coryius rostrata,
or American cuckoldnut.  3d.  Coryius columo, Constan-
tinopolitan hazel.  They are all ofthe large shrub kind,
hardy and deciduous; and have several varieties valuable
for their nuts, as  also for their variety  in large wilder-
nesses and shrubberry works. They will  prosper in al-
most any soil or situation, and turn to* good account when
growing in coppices to cut as under wood, and as poles
for various  uses; as hoops, spars, hurdler, handles to
husbandry implements, walking-sticks, fishing-rods, Sec.
for which  purposes they may be cut every  fifth, seventh j
or eighth year, according to the  purposes  to which they
are designed.  The best method of propagating them is
by layers, though they may also he raised  from the nuts.
  The kernels of the fruit have a mild, farinaceous, oily
taste, agreeable to most palates. Squirrels and mice are
fond of them, as well as some birds,  such as jays,  nut
crackers,  &c.  A kind of chocolate has been prepared
from them, and there are instances of their havinc been
formed into bread. The oil expressed from them is little 
COR
COS
 inferior to the oil of almonds;  and is U9cd by painters,
 and by chemists, for receiving and retaining odours.
   Evelyn tells us, that no plant is more proper for thick-
 ening of copses than the hazel, for which he directs the
 following expeditious method: Take a pole of hazel (ash
-or poplar may also be used) of 20 or 30 feet in length*
 the heads a little lopped, giving it a chop near the ground
 to make it succumb; this  fastened to the earth with a
 hook  or two,  and covered with some fresh mould at a
 competent depth  (as gardeners lay their carnations),
 will produce a great number of suckers, and thicken and
 furnish a copse speedily.
   CORYMBIUM, a genus of  the monogamia order, in
 the syngenesia class of plants,  and in the natural method
 ranking under the 49th order, composite.  The calyx is
 diphyllous, uniflorous, and prismatical; the corolla mono-
 petalous and regular; there is one w oolly seed below each
 floret. There are four species.
   CORYNOCARPUS, a genus of the monogynia order,
 in the pentandria class of plants.  The  calyx is a pen-
 taphyilous perianthium: the corolla consists of five round-
 ish, erect, and hollow petals; the stamina five subulated
 filaments arising from the base  of the petals; the anthera?
 are erect and oblong; the pericarpium a monospermous,
 turbinated, clavated  nut.  There is one species, a native
 of New Zealand.
   CORYPHA, mountain palm, or umbrella-tree, a genus
 of the order of palmse, belonging to the monoecia  class
 of plants.   The corolla is tripetalous; the  stamina six,
 with one pistil; the fruit a monospermous plum.  There
 are two species. The umbracula is a native of the West
 Indies, where it is called  codda pana.   It rises to a con-
 siderable height, and produces  at the top  many large,
 palmated, plaited leaves, the lobes of which  are  very
 long, and are placed regularly  round the end of a long
 spiny footstalk, in a manner  representing  a  large  um-
 brella.  The flowers are  produced on a branched spadix,
 from a compound spatha  or sheath; they are hermaphro-
 dite, and each consists of one petal, divided  into three
 oval parts, and contains six awl-shaped stamina, sur-
 rounding a short  slender style, crowned  with a simple
 stigma.  The germen is nearly round,  and becomes a
 large globular fruit of one cell, including a large round
 stone.  These plums having a pleasant flavour are held
 in esteem by the Indians.
   CORYPHJENA,  in ichthyology, a genus belonging
 to the order of thoracici.   The head is declined  and
 truncated; the  branchiostege membrane has  six rays;
 and the back-fin,  runs the whole length  of the back.
 There are twelve species, most of them natives of foreign
 seas.   The most remarkable are the  blue and parrot
 fishes, described by Mr. Catesby.   The head ofthe first
 is of an odd structure, resembling that of the spermaceti
 whale: the mouth is  small, each mandible armed  with
 a single row of even teeth,  so closely joined  that they
 seem  entire bones; the iris  of the  eye  is  red.   On the
 back  is a long pliant fin, somewhat  indented on the
 edge; behind the gills are two fins, one under the abdo-
 men and another behind the anus.  The tail is forked;
 and the whole  fish entirely blue.  They are  taken on
 tiie coasts of the Bahama islands, and  in  most of the
 seas between the tropics.   The parrot-fish  has a large
mouth, paved as it were with  blunt teeth, closely con-
nected after  the manner of the lupus marinus.  The
body is covered with large green scales; the eyes are red
and yellow; the upper part of the head brown, the lower
part and the gills blue, bordered with a dusky red* a
streak of red extends from the throat behind the gills' at
the upper end of which is a bright-yellow spot. The fins
are five in number: one extending  almost the length of
the back, of a bay or  cinnamon colour; there are two
behind the gills, blended with black, green, and purplish
colours, with the upper edge verged with blue; under the
abdomen is another red fin verged with blue;  under the
anus extends another long narrow green fin, with a list
of red through the middle of it.  At the basis of the tail
on each side is a large yellow spot.  The  tail is large,
forked,  and  green; with a  curved  red line runnin0*
through the middle  parallel to  the curve,  and  ending
in two points.  The fish  is more esteemed for  beauty
than the delicacy of its taste.  They are  taken  on the
coasts of  Hispaniola,  Cuba,  and the  Bahama  islands.
See  Plate XXXVI. Nat. Hist. fig. 145.   PI. XL. fig.
146.
   COS, the whetstone, in natural  history, a genus of
vitrescent stones, consisting of fragments of an indeter-
minate figure, subopakc and granulated.   Of this genus
there are several species, some consisting of rougher and
others of smoother, or even of altogether impalpable,
particles; and used not only for whetstones, but also for
mill-stones and other similar purposes.
   Cos turcica, turkey-stone, a species of stones ofthe
garnet kind,  belonging to the siliceous class.  It is of a
dull white, and often of an unequal colour; some parts
appearing more compact than others. Its specific gravity
is 2598: it strikes fire  with steel, and effervesces with
acids.  Mr. Kirwan found that  100 parts  of it contain
25 of mild calcareous earth (carbonate of lime), and no
iron.  Cronstedt is of  opinion that there  are probably
two sorts of stones known by this name, as that described
by "Wallerius neither gives fire with steel nor effervesces
with acids.  It is used as a whetstone; and those of the
finest grain are the best hones for the most delicate cut-
ting tools, and even for razors, lancets, Sec.
  CO-SECANT, in geometry, the secant of an arch
which is the complement of another to 90°.  See Tri-
gonometry.
  COSHERING, a seignoral prerogative, whereby the
lord and  his followers lay and feasted  themselves at
his tenant's house.
  CO SIN AGE, a writ that lies where the tresayle or
great-grandfather is seized in his demesne, as of fee at
the day of his death, of certain lands or tenements, and
dies, and then a stranger enters, and abates;  for then
shall  his heir have this writ of cosinage.
   CO-SINE, in trigonometry, the sine of an arcb,
which is the complement of another to 90°. See Trigo-
nometry.
   COSMOGRAPHY, a description ofthe several parts
ofthe visible world; or the artof delineating the several
bodies according to their magnitudes, motions, relations*
Sec.   It consists  of  two parts, astronomy and  geogra-
phy.
   COSTIVENESS, obstructio alvi, in medicine, a pre-
ternatural detention of the feces, with an unusual dry- 
COS
C  0  1
ness and hardness of them, and thence a suppression Qi
their evacuation.   Sec Medicine.
  COSTS, in law.  By the statute of Gloucester, 6 Ed.
I. c. l.  it is provided that the demandant may recover
against  the tenant, the costs of his  writ, together with
his damage; and that this act shall hold place in all cases,
when the party is to recover damages.   1 New. Abr.
511.  Costs of the writ extend to all legal costs of suit,
but not  expenses of travel, loss of time, &c.  2 Inst. 288.
AVhen double damages are given by act of parliament, the
costs shall be double ! also; for damages include costs.
Str. 1048. Persons suing in forma pauperis,  shall  not
pay costs. 3 Black. 400.
  It is an action, wherein tliere can be no such certify -
in:;-, as debt, assumpsit, trover, trespass for taking goods,
trespass for spoiling goods, trespass for herding a ser-
vant whereby he lost his service, it  is out of the statute,
and the plaintiff may have full costs. Salk. 208. Where
Costs are  allowed, it is not necessary for the jury to give
them, but they may leave it to the court to do it, who are
the best able  to judge of what costs are fitting to be giv-
en.  It  is the course of the court of king's-bench, to re-
fer  the taxation of costs to the proper officer ofthe court,
and not to make any special rules for such matters,  ex-
cept it he in extraordinary cases.  1 Lit. Abr.  338.
  The matter of costs in equity, is not held a point of right,
but merely discretionary, according to the circumstances
ofthe case, as they appear more or less favourable to
the party vanquished. 3 Black. 451.  If costs be refus-
ed  to be paid, an attachment lies. 1 Nils. Abr. 550.
The king and any person suing to his use shall neither
pay nor receive costs.  Stat.  24 H.  VIII. c. 8.
  The 18 Geo. III. c.  19.  authdrizes any justice, who
shall have heard and determined the matter of a coin-
plaint made before him to award such costs to be paid by
either party and in such manner  as to lain shall seem
meet, to the party injured: and if the person so ordered
hv  t lie justice, shall not forthwith  pay, or give satisfac-
tion te> the juslice, the same shall bv levied by distress:
and if goods and chattels of such person cannot  be found,
the j ust ic e shall commit him to the  house of correction
for the  place  where such person shall  reside; to be kept
to hard labour for any time  not exceeding one month,
nor less than ten  days;  or till such sum, with the ex-
penses attending the commitment, he first paid.
  Provided, that upon the conviction  of any person up-
on  a penal statute, where the penalty shall be at or ex-
ceed the sum of 5l. the  said costs shall be deducted  by
the justice, at his discretion, out of the penalty, so that
such deduction shall not exec eel one-fifth part of the pen-
alty; and  the  remainder of the penalty shall be divided
among the persons who would have  been entitled to the
whole thereof, if this act had not  been  made.  Costs
double or treble are allowed to defendants sued for act-
ing under almost every statute relating to officers of jus-
tice, customs  or  other duties, highways,  paving,  Kc.
For more matter concerning costs, see Bac. Abr.  K 6
Yin. Abr. tit.  Costs.
  COSTUME, a term among painters: thus,  a painter
must observe the costume:  that is, he must make every
person and thing sustain its proper character: and  not
only observe  the story, but the circumstances, the scene
of action, the country or place,  ml make tiie habit*.
arms, manners, pr .portions, and the like, to correspond.
  COSTUS, in  botany, a genus of the monandria-nio
nogynia class of plant-;,  the  flower of which coir-lsli of
three lanceolatodj concave,  equal petals, placed pretty
erect: the fruit is a roundish, coronated,trivalviilr.r cap-
sule, with three cells, containing several triau;;! Jar seeds.
There are three  species.   The.  root of this plant, or the
costus Arabicus in pharmacy, is an attcnuant,  a diure-
tic, and a sudorific: it is  given in  obstructions of the
menses, and in chronic cases, in which there are infrac-
tions of the  viscera:  its  dose is from ten grains to half
a dram, but  we seldom  hear of its being given singh.
It is used in tbe Venice treacle, mithridate,  and caryo-
costine electuary.  Costus must be chosen recent, dense.
odorous, bitterish, and not carious.
  CO-TANGENT, the tangent of an arch, which is the
complement of another.   See Tkigoxometuy.
   COTESIAN  theorem, in geometry, an  appellation
used for an elegant property of the circle discovered by-
Mr. Cotes.  The theorem is this:
                               c   c
  If the factors of the binomial a -f- x be required, the

index c being an integer number. "With the centre O, (Plate
XXXIX. Miscel. fig. 21,) and radius AO = a, describe a
circle, and divide its circumference into as many  equal
paris as there are units in 2c, at the points A, B, C, D,
Sec; then in the radius, produced if  necessary, take OP
= x; and from the point P,  to all the points  of division
in the circumference, draw  the lines PA, PB, PC, Sec;
so shall  these  lines  taken  alternately be the factors
sought: viz.
                        c  c
     pb x td pfx Sec = a -f x,
                        c   c      c    c     c   c
and ta XPCXPE&c =  flM  x, viz. a —x, or x—a, ac-
cording as the point P is within or without the circle.
  For instance,  if c — 5, divide the circumference into
10 equal parts, and the point P being within the circle,
then will
     OAs-f 0Ps=BP X DP X EPXHPX KP,
and  o.i5 — ops = apx cpx ep x gp x ip.
  In like manner, if c=6,  having  divided the circum-
ference into twelve equal parts, then will
OA6 -f OP6 = BP X DP X FP X HP X KP X MP,
OA6 — OP6 = AP X CP X EP X GP X IP X IP.
  The demonstration of this theorem may be seen in Dr.
Peinberton's Epist. de  Cotcsii Inventis.  See  also Dr.
Smith's Theoremata Logometrica  et  Trigonomctiica,
added to Cotes's Harm. Mens. pa. 114; De Moivre Mis-
cel. Analyt. pa. 17; and  Waring's Letter to Dr. Powell,
pa. 39.
  By means of this theorem, the author was enabled to
make a^farther progress in the inverse method effluxions,
than  had been done  before.  But in the application of
his discovery there still remained a limitation, which was
removed by  M. Dcmoivre.
  ( OTICE, or  Cotise,  in  heraldry, is the fourth part
of the bend.
  COTINL'S.   SecRm-s.
  COTTAGE,  in law, a little house  for  habitation,
without lands belonging to it, stat. 4 Edw. I.   But by a 
COTTON.
later statute, 3t Eliz. c. 7, no man may build a cottage
unless he lays four acres of land to it, except in cities or
market-towns, or within  a mile of the sea, or for the
habitation of miners, sailors, foresters, shepherds, &c;
excepting also cottages erected  by justices of the pca^e
for poor impotent persons.  The above four acres of land
must  be freehold, and land of inheritance; copyhold, or
lease  for years, are not sufficient tenure by the  statute.
   COTTON, a  soft downy  substance  found on  the
gossypium, or cotton-tree.   See Gossypicm.  Cotton
is separated from the seeds ofthe plant by a mill,  and
then spun and prepared  for  all sorts of  fine work, as
stockings, wraistcoats, quilts, &c.   With it they likewise
make calico and muslin; and sometimes it  is mixed with
wool, sometimes  with silk, and even with gold itself.
The finest sort comes from Bengal and the coast of Co-
romandel.   Cotton makes a very considerable article in
commerce, and is distinguished into cotton-wool and cot-
ton-thread.   The first is brought mostly from the West
India islands, and Smyrna: the most esteemed is white,
long, and stf't.   Those who buy it in bales should see
that it has not been wet, moisture being very prejudicial
to it.
   Of cotton-thread, that of Damas, called cotton-d'ounce,
and that of Jerusalem, called bazas, have  been the most
esteemed; as also that of the West Indian islands.  But
with  the help  of the machines' now in general  use,
we are able to  spin  it of almost any  degree of fine-
ness.  Cotton of Siam  is  a kind of silky cotton in the
Antilles, so  called because the grain was brought from
Siam.  It is of an extraordinary fineness, even surpass-
ing silk in softness.   They make hose of it there, pre-
ferable to silk for their lustre and beauty.  They sell at
from 10 to 12 and 15 crowns a pair, but there are very
few made unless for curiosity.
   The manner of packing cotton as practised in the An-
tilles is thus:  The bags are made of coarse cloth, of
which they take three ells and a half each; the breadth
is one ell and three inches. When the bag has been well
soaked in water, they hang it up, extending the  mouth
of it to cross pieces of timber nailed to posts, fixed in the
ground seven or eight feet high.  He who packs it goes
into the hag, which is six feet nine inches deep, er there-
about, and presses down the cotton, which another throws
in, with hands and feet; observing to tread it equally
every where, and putting in hut little at a time.  The
best time of packing is in rainy moist weather, provided
the cotton is under cover. The hag should contain from
300 to 320  pounds.   Tiie tare abated in the Antilles is
three in ihc hundred.
   Cottoh-spinning, the art or process of reducing cot-
ton-wool into yarn or thread.
   The most simple method for this purpose, and the on-
ly one in use for a long time in this country, was by the
hand, upon  the well-known domestic machine called a
one-thread wheel.  But as the demand for cotton good3
began to increase, other inventions were thought of for
expediting this part of the manufacture.  About 60 years
ago,  one Paul and others of London contrived an engine
for a more easy and expeditious method of spinning cot-
ton, and for wiiich  they  obtained a patent; but tiie un-
dertaking did not prove successful.   Some years after,
various machines were constructed by different persons
for facilitating the spinning of cotton, but without pro-
ducingany very material or lasting advantage. At length,
about the year 1767, Mr. James Hargrave, a weaver in
the neighbourhood of Blackburn  in  Lancashire,  con-
structed a mac nine by wbich a great number of threads
(from 20 to 80) might be spun at once, and  for which be
obtained his  majesty's letters-patent. This machine is
called a jenny, and is the best contrivance for spinnino>
wroof Gr shoot that has  hitherto appeared.  It is  now
commonly constructed for 84 threads; and with it one
person can spin 100 English hanks in the day, each hank
containing 840 yards.
   Carding of Cotton,  as a preparation for spinning
used formerly to be performed by the hand, with a sin-
gle pair of cards, upon the knee:  but this being a t dious
method, ill.suited to the rapid operations of the nevvspin-
ning-machir.es, other methods were contrived for afford-
ing a quicker and more adequate supply.  The first im-
provement f r this purpose was likewise made by Mr.
Hargrave; and consisted in applying two or three cards
to the same board, and fixing them to a stool or stork;
whence they obtained the name of stock-cards.  "With
these one  woman could  perform two  or three times  as
much work as she could do before in the common way.
A still more  expeditious method of carding, however,
by what are ommonly called cylinder-cards, was soon
afterwards invented, and is that which is now most com-
monly practised: but as  several persons lay  claim to tins
invention, it is not easy to determine to whom in par-
ticular the merit of it is due.
   The next and most capital improvements which this
branch of manufacture received were from Mr. Ark-
wright, a native of Lancashire,  afterwards  sir Richard
Arkwright of Cromford in Derbyshire. He first brought
forward his new method of spinning cotton  in 1768, tor
which he  obtained a patent in 1769: he afterwards, in
1775, obtained a patent for engines wiiich  he had con-
structed to prepare Jhe materials for spinning; though
one of tliere  patents, being challenged at law, was set
aside some years before it  expired.  The result of Mr.
Arkwright's different inventions and  improvements, is
a combination of machinery, by which cotton is carded,
roved, and spun, with the utmost exactness and equali-
ty; and sue h  a degree of perfection rttained in spinning
warp, as  is not to be equalled in any other part of the
world.  To  these improvements England  is entirely
indebted fcr the great extent of its cotton-manufactures;
large buildings having been erected for that branch both
in England and Scotland, many of which contain seve-
ral thousands of spindles, each driven by one or more
large water-wheels; and some of such extent as to spin
at the rate of one thousand yards of twist or warp-yarn
in a minute.
   Other u a bines have  been invented at different timed,
and  a variety of improvements  made by different me-
chanics and manufacturers; one of which in particular we
must not omit to mention.  It is called a mule, being a
kind of mixture of machinery between the warp-machine
of Mr. Arkwright and the  woof-machine or hand-jenny
of Mr. Hargrave; and was also invented in Lancashire.
This machine promises to be of great use  in  spinning 
COT
C  0 V
 rotton-yarn for mucins to a degree of fineness never be-
 fore known in this country, being nearly equal in quali-
 fy to those usually brought from India.
   COT'l US, or Bull-head, in ichthyology, a genus be-
 longing to the order of thoracici. The head is broader than
 the body, and the gill  membrane has six rays.  There
 are six spcries, of which the most remarkable are: 1. The
 gobio, or river-bullhead, very common  in all our clear
 brooks:  if lies almost always at the bottom, either on
 the gravel or under  a  stone1: it  deposit; its spawn in a
 hole which it forms among the gravel, and quits it with
 great reluctance.  It feeds em water-insects,  'ibis fish
 seldom exceeds the length of three inches and a half: the
 head islaige, broad, bat. and thin at its circumference,
 being well adapted for insin lating itself under stones: on
 the  middle part of  the  covers of  the  gills is a small
 crooked spine turning inwards.   The eyes  are  very
 small, the irides yellow; the body grows slender towards
 the tail,  and is very smooth.  The  colour of this fish is
 as disagreeable as its  form,  being  dusky  mixed with a
 dirty yellow; the belly  is whitish. The taste, however, is
 e\c ellent.  2. The c atapbractus (See Plate XL. N. 11. fig.
 1 17) is very common on most of tbe British coasts.  It
 seldom exceeds five ine lies and a half in length, and even
 seldom arrives at that size. The head is large, bony, and
 very rugged: the end of the nose  is armed with four
 short upright  spines;  on  the throat are a number  of
 sin,it white beards;  the body is octagonal, and covered
 with a number of strong bony crusts divided into several
 compartments, tiie ends of  whie h  project into a sharp
 point, and torm  several ecbinated lines along  the  back
 and sides from the head to the tail.   3. Tbe scorpins, or
 father-lasher, is  iu>t uncommon on  fhe rocky coasts of
 England; it lurks under stones, and will take  a  bait.
 It seldom exceeds 8 or 9 inches in length. The head  is
 huge', and bus a m<»st formidable appearance, being arm-
 ed with  vast spines, which it can oppose to any enemy
 that attacks it, by swelling out its checks and gill-covers
 to a large size.   The  nose and space- contiguous to the
 eyes are  furnished with short .sharp  spines; the covers of
 tbe gills arc terminated by exceeding long ones, wbich
 are both strong and  very sharp-pointed. The  mouth is
 large, the jaws covered with very small teeth; the roof of
 ihe mouth is furnished with a triangular spot  of  very
 minute teeth. This species  is veiy frequent in the New-
 foundland sens, where it  is called sculping: it is  also as
 common  on the coast of Orcenland, in deep water near
 the shore.  It is a principal food  of  the natives, and the
 soup made of it is said  to be agreeable as well as whole-
 some.
  COTULA, may-weed; a genus of the polygamia su-
 perflua order, in fhe  syngenesia class of plants.  Tbe re-
 ceptacle is almost naked; the pappus marginated; the flo-
 rets of the disc quadrifid, ofthe  radius frequently none.
 There are 15  species,  must of them herbaceous annu-
 als, rising six or eight inches high, and  adorned with
 yelleiw flowers. None of them are natives of this country,
 and most of them require artificial  heat.
  Coti la, or Cotylu,  in  antiquity,  a  liquid measure
 among the Greeks, equal to the hemina of the  Romans,
containing half a scxtary, or four acetabular hence it ap-
pears that  it contained ten ounces of wine, and  nine of
oil.  L is  observed that the cotula  was used as a dry mea-
sure as well as a liquid one, from the authority of Thucy-
didis, who in one place mentions two cotulx of wine,
and in Jinotbi-r two cotulse of bread.
  COTYLEDON, navel-wort; a genus ofthe penfagy-
nia order in tbe decandria class of plants: and in the na-
tural method ranking under  the 13th order, succub otae.
The calyx is quinquefid; the  corolla monopetalous: there
are five  nectariferous scales  at  the base of the germen,
p.nd five cppsules.  There are nineteen species, m«st of
them succulent perennials for the green-house; though
some require to be kept  in a stove. They rise fiom  half
a foot to a yard and a half high,  and are  adorned with
yelJ'iw flowers growing  in umbels. They are easily pro-
pagated, either by seed or cuttings of their branches.
  COUCH, in painting, a term used for each lay or im-
pression of colour, either in oil or  water, with which the
painter covers his canvas, wall, wainscot, or other matter
to be painted. The weird is also used  for a lay or impres-
sion on any thing, to make it more firm and consistent, or
to screen it from the weather. Thus, paintings are cover-
ed with a couch or varnish; a canvas  to  be painted must
have two couches of size, before the colours are laid on;
two or three  couches of white lead  are laid on wood, be-
fore the gold is applied.  The leather-gilders lay a couch
of water and whites of eggs on the leather, before tbey
apply the gold or silver leaf.  Tbe gold wire-drawers  also
use the word couch for the gold or silver leaf, wherewith
they cover the mass to be gilded or silvered. The gilders
use the term couch, for the quantity  of gold and silver
leaves applied on the metals in gilding and silvering. It
is often vulgarly pronounced coat.
  COL CHANT, in heraldry, is understood of a lion, or
other beast, when lying  down, but vv ith  his head raised;
which distinguishes the  posture of couchant  from  dor-
meant, wherein  he is supposed quite  stretched out and
asleep.
  Ct) UCHE', in heraldry, denotes any thing lying along:
thus, chevron chouche is a chevron lying sideways, with
the two  ends on one side of the shield, wiiich should pro-
perly rest on the base.
  COUCHING ofa cataract, in surgery, one of the two
chief methods of curing a cataract, by couching with the
needle. See Surgery.
  COVENANT,  the agreement  or consent of two or
more by deed in writing, sealed and delivered; whereby
either, or one of the parties, promises to the  other, that
something is done already, or shall be done afterwards:
he that  makes the covenant,  is called  the covenantor,
and he to whom it is  made the covenantee. Shep. Touch.
160.
  A covenant is generally either in  fact, or in law.  In
fact, is that which is expressly agreed between the  par-
tics, and inserted in the deed.   In law, is that covenant
which the law intends and implies, though it be not ex-
pressed  in words; as if a lessor demise and grant to his
lessee, an house or lands for a certain term, the law will
intend a covenant on the lessor's part, that  the lessee
shall, during the term, quietly enjoy the same against all
incumbrances.  1 Inst. 384.
  (:< vi \ ant to stand seiseu to uses, is when a man
that has a wife, children, brother,  sister, or kindred, by
covenant in writing under hand and seal agrees, that for
their, or any of their provision or preferment, he or his 
cou
corj
heirs, will stand seised of land to their use, either in fee-
simple, fee-tail, or for life.
  CO-VERSED sine, in geometry, the remaining part
of the diameter of a circle, after the versed sine is taken
from it. See Trigonometry.
  COVERT WAY, or Corridor, in fortification, a space
of ground, level with the field, on the edge of the ditch,
three or four fathoms  broad,  ranging quite round the
half-moons, and other works toward the country. It  has
a parapet raised on a level,  together with its banquets
and glacis.   The greatest effort in sieges, is to make  a
lodgment on the covert-way, because the besieged usually
palisade it along the middle, and undermine it on all sides.
  COVERTURE, in law, is applied to the condition of
a married woman, who by the  laws of England  is  sub
potcstate viri,  and therefore disabled to  make bargain
with any, to the.prejudice of herself or her husband, with-
out his  assent and privity, or at least without his allow-
ance and confirmation.
  COUGH, tussis, in medicine, a  convulsive  motion of
the diaphragm, muscles of the larynx, thorax, and abdo-
men, violently shaking, and expelling the air that  was
drawn into the lungs by inspiration. See  Medicine.
  COVIN,  is  a  deceitful assent or agreement between
two or more, to the prejudice of another.  As if a tenant
for term of  life, or tenant in tail, will secretly c nspire
with another, that the other will recover  against the  ten-
ant  for life, the  lands  which he holds, &c. in prejudice
of him  in the reversion.
   COULTER, is husbandry, an iron instrument, fixed
in the  beam of a plough, and serving to cut the  edge  rff
each furrow.
   COUNCIL, Common, in the city of London, is a court
wherein are made all bye-laws wbich bind the citizens.
It consists, like the parliament,  of two houses: an upper,
composed of the lord-mayor and aldermen; and a lower,
ofa number of common-councilmen chosen by the several
 wards, as representatives of the body of the citizens.
   Council, Privy, the executive part of the civil gov-
ernment of Great Britain.  It  is composed  of eminent
 persons, the number of whom is at the sovereign's plea-
 sure, who are bound by oath to advise the king to the  best
 of  their judgment, with all the fidelity and secrecy  that
- becomes their station. The king may declare to, or con-
ceal from, his privy-council whatever he thinks  fit; and
 has a select council out of their number commonly called
the  cabinet-council,  (generally the principal officers  of
state)  with whom his  majesty  determines such matters
as are most important, and require the  utmost secrecy.
All  proclamations from the king and the privy-council
ought to be grounded on law, otherwise they are not bind-
ing to  the subject. Privy-counsellors, though but gentle-
 men, have precedence of all the knights and younger sons
 ot barons and viscounts, and are styled right honourable.
   Council of war, an assembly of the principal officers
 of an  army or fleet, occasionally called by the general  or
 admiral to  concert measures for  their conduct with re-
 gard to sieges, retreats, engagements, Sec.
   Council,  in church-history, an assembly of prelates
 and  doctors, met for the regulating matters relating  to
 the doctrine, or discipline, ofthe church.
   Council, axumenical or general, is an assembly which
 represents  the whole body of the  universal church.  The*
Romanists reckon eighteen of them;  Bullinger, in his
treatise de Conciliis, six; Dr. Pridcaux, seven; and bis-
hop Beveridge has increased the  number to eight, which,
he says, are all the general councils which have ever
been held since the time of the first christian emperor.
They are as follows: 1. The council of Nice, held in the
reign of Constantine the great, on account of the heresy
of Alius. 2. The council of Constantinople, called under
the reign and by the command of Theodosius the Great,
for much the same end that the former council was sum-
moned. 3.The council of Ephesus, convened by Theodosius
the Younger, at the suit of Nestorius.  4. The council of
Chalcedon, held  in  the reign of Martianus,  which ap-
proved of the Eutychian heresy.  5. The second council
of Constantinople, assembled by the emperor Justinian,
condemned the three chapters taken out of the books of
Theodorus  of  Mopsuestia, having first decided that it
was lawful to  anathematize the dead.  Some authors tell
us, that they likewise condemned the several errors ol
Origcn  about the Trinity,  the plurality of worids, and
the pre-existence of souls.  6.  The third council of Con-
stantinople, held by the command of Constantino i'o-
gonatus the emperor, in which they received the defini-
tions of the first five general councils, and particularly
that against Origcn  and Theodorus  of Mopsuestia. 7.
The second Nicene council.  8.  The fourth  council of
Constantinople, assembled when Lewis II. was emperor
of the West. The regulations wiiich they made are at-
tained in twenty-seven canons.
   CO UNSEL^or prisoners. The judges nev; r scruple to
allow  a prisoner counsel, to instruct him what questions
to a^k, or even to ask questions for him with respect to
matters of fact; for as to matters of law, arising on the
trial, they are entitled to the assistance of a counsel. 4
Black. 335.
   COUNSELLOR, or Counsel, one retained by a cli-
ent, to plead his cause in a court of judicature. A coun-
sellor in law  retained, has a privilege to enforce any
thing  which he is informed of by his client, and to give it
in evidence, it being pertinent to the matter in question,
and not to examine whether it is true or false; but it is at
the peril of him  who informs him; for a counsellor is at
his peril to give in evidence, that which his client informs
him, being pertinent to the matter ia  question, otherwise
action upon the case lies against hi in  by his client.  Cro.
Jac. 90.
   The fees to counsellors are not in the nature of wages or
pay, or that which we call salary or  hire; which are du-
ties certain, and grow due by contract for labour or ser-
vice;  but what is given them, is honorium, not merccs;
being a gift, which gives honour as well to the taker as
the  giver, nor is it certain or contracted; for n> price or
 rate can be set upon counsel, which is invaluable and in-
 estimable, so as it is  more or less according to the cir-
 cumstances, namely, the ability of the client, the worthi-
 ness of the counscltor, the weightincss of the cause, and
 the custom of the country.  It is a gift of su'ii a nature,
 that the able client may not neglect  to give it, withont
 ingratitude, for it is but a gratuity or token of thankful-
 ness:  yet the worthy counsellor may not demand it with-
 out doing wrong to his reputation.  Prsef. to i)av. Rep-
 22, 23,
   COUNT, comes, a nobleman who possesses a domain 
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creeled into a county. The dignity is a medium between
that of a duke and a baron.  See Earl.  Counts were
originally  lords of the court, or of the emperor's retinue,
and had their name comites a comitando. Euschius tells
us, that Constantine divided them into three classes: of
the two first the senate  was composed: those of the third
had no place in the senate,  but enjoyed  several other
privileges  of senators.  There are counts that served on
land, others at sea; some in a civil, and some in  a legal
capacity.  The  quality  of count is  now no more than a
title which a king grants upon erecting a territory into
a county, with a reserve of jurisdiction and sovereignty
Lo himself. A count has a right to bear on his  arms a
coronet adorned  with  three precious stones,  and sur-
mounted  with three large pearls, whereof those in the
middle aud extremities  ofthe coronet advance above the
rest.
  Count, in law,  signifies  the original  declaration of
complaint in a real action, as a declaration is in a per-
sonal one.
  Count-wheel, in the striking  part of a clock,  a
wheel which moves round once in twelve or twenty-four
hours.
  COUNTER-APPROACHES, in fortification, lines
and  trenches made by the besieged in order to attack
the works of the besiegers, or to hinder their approaches.
  Counter-approach, line  of. a trench  which  the be-
sieged make from their covered way to the right and left
of the attacks, in  order to  scour  the enemies'  works.
This  line must  be perfectly  enfiladed from the covered
way and the half-moon, that it may be of no service to the
enemy, in case he gets  possession of it.
  Cocnter-batterv, is a battery raised to play upon
another to dismount the guns.
  Counter-bond, a bond of indemnification given to
one who has given his bond as a security  for another's
payment of a debt, or the faithful discharge of his office
or trust.
  Counter-charged, in heraldry, is when any  field or
e barge is  divided or parted, by any line or lines of parti-
tion, consisting all interchangeably of the same tinctures.
  Counter-deed, a secret writing either befoi'e a nota-
ry or under a private seal, which destroys, invalidates,
or alters,  a public one.
  Counterfeits,  in law, are persons that obtain  any
c xmey or goods by counterfeit  letters or false  tokens;
who, being convicted before justices of assize or of the
peace, Sec. are  to  suffer such punishment as shall be
thought fit to he inflicted under death, as imprisonment,
pillory, Ac.
  Counter-faced, or  Contre-face', in heraldry,  is
the same that we call harry per pale coiinterchanged; but
then the number of panes into which the field is divided,
is always specified.
  Counter-foil, or Counter-stock, in the exchequer,
that part  of a tally which is kept  hy an officii- of the
court.
  Counter-forts, spurs or buttresses serving as props
to a wall subject to bulge or  to he thrown down.
  Ceu NTEu-Fi ci e, a  fugue in which the subjects move
in contrary directions.
  Cor-N ikr-gage, in carpentry, a method used  in mea-
suring the joints. For example, they transfer the breadth
  VOL. I.                     fil
of a mortis to the place in the timber w )i--c^ the ten m i-
to be, in order to make them fit each other.
  Counter-guard, in fortification, is a work raised
before the point of a bastion, consisrnigof two lor;- face ^
parallel to the faces ofthe bastion, imping a saliani an
gle:  they  are  sometimes of olher shapes, ore'herwi.se
situated.
  Countermand, in the English law, is where a thing
before executed is by some act or ceremony afterwards
made void by the party that did it.
  Countermarch, in military affair--., a change of im-
face or wings of a battalion, by which means those that
were in the front come to be in the rear. It also .signifies
returning or marching back again.
  Counter-mark, a mark put upon poods that have
been marked before. It is also used for the several marks
put upon goods belonging  to several persons, to -how
that  they  must not be opened  but in the presence of them
all or their agents.  In Goldsmith's work, the counter-
mark is the mark punched upon the work at the hall, to
show that the metal is standard.
  Counter-mark of a medal is a mark added to it a long
time after its being struck.  It is sometimes an emperor's
head, sometimes a cornucopia, Sec. Counter-marks are
distinguished from  the monograms in this, that  being
struck after the medal, they  are indented; whereas the
monograms being struck at the same time with the me-
dals, have a little relievo.
  Counter-mine, in war, a well  and gallery driven
and  sunk till  it meets the enemy's mine, to prevent its
effect.
  Counter-paled, contre-palle, in heraldry, is when
the escutcheon is divided into  12 pales parted per fesse, •
the two colours being coiinterchanged; so that the upper
are of one colour, and the lower of another.
  Counter-part, in music, denotes one part to be ap-
plied to another.  Thus the bass is said to be a counter-
part to the treble.  In law, it  is the duplicate or copy of
any indenture  or deed.
  Counter-passant, is when two lions are in a coat of
arms,  and the one seems to  go quite the contrary way
from the other.
  Counter-plea,  in  law, a cross  or contrary plea;
particularly such  as  the demandant alleges  against a
tenant' in courtesy or dower, who prays the king's aid,
Sec. for his defence.
  Counterpoint, in  music, the act of combining and
modulating consonant sounds. This branch  of  musical
practice derives its name from the points formerly em-
ployed in composition instead of notes, and may be  un-
derstood point against point, or note  against note. This
was  the primitive state of counterpoint, which has since
been called plain or simple counterpoint, in contradis-
tinction to the modern figured or florid counterpoint, in
which, for the purpose of beautifying the melody and en-
riching the general effect, many notes in succession are
frequently set in one part against a single note in another.
  Counter-Quartered,  in  heraldry,  denotes  the
escutcheon, after being quartered, to have each quarter
again divided  into two.
  Cointer-sajlient, is when two beasts are borne in a
coat leaping from each other directly the contrary way.
   Countebcabp, in fortification, is properly the extc- 
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con
rior talus or slope of the ditch; but it is often taken for the
covered way and the glacis.   In this sense we say, the
enemy have lodged themselves on the counter-scarp.
  Counterscarp, angle of the, is  that made by two
sides of the counterscarp, meeting before the middle of
the curtin.
  Countersigning, the signing the writing of  a su-
perior in quality of secretary. Thus charters are signed
by the king, and countersigned by a secretary of state
or lord chancellor.
  Counter-swallowtail, in fortification, an outwork
in form of a single tenaille, wider at the gorge than the
head.
  Counter-tenor, high tenor,-a term applied to the
highest natural  male voice.
  Counter-tripping, is when two beasts are borne in
a coat in  a walking posture, the head  of the  one  being
next the tail of  the other.
   Counters in a ship, are two. 1. The hollow arching
from the gallery to the lower part of  the straight piece
of the stern, is  called the upper counter. 2. The  lower
counter is between the transom and the lower part  of the
gallery,
   COUNTY, in geography, originally signified the ter-
ritory of a count or earl, but now it is used in the same
sense with shire, and contains a circuit or  portion  of the
realm, into which the whole land is divided, for the better
government of  it, and the more easy administration of
justice; so that there is no part of this nation which is not
within some county; and every county is governed by an
annual officer, whom we call a sheriff.  Fortescue, c. 24.
 See Sheriff.
   Counties palatine,  are those of Chester,  Durham,
 and Lancaster.  Of these  three, the county of Durham
is now the only one remaining in the hands of a subject;
for the earldom of Chester was united to the crown by
king Henry III.  and has ever since  given title to the
king's eldest son. And the county-palatine or duchy of
Lancaster, in the reign of king Henry IV., was by act
of parliament vested in the king, and his heirs, kings of
 England, for ever.  1 Black. 118.
   There  is a court of chancery in the counties-palatine
 of Lancaster  and  Durham, over which there are chan-
cellors; that of Lancaster called the chancellor of the
 duchy: and there  is a court of exchequer at Chester, of
a mixed nature, for law and equity, of which the cham-
berlain of Chester is judge.  There are also a chief jus-
tice of Chester, and other justices in the other counties-
palatine, to determine civil actions and pleas ofthe crown.
In all of these the king's ordinary writs are of no  force;
and the judges of assize, who sit within these franchises,
sit by virtue of a special commission from the owners
thereof, and under the seal thereof, and not by the usual
 commission under the great seal of England. 3 Black. 79.
   County-corporate, a title given to  several cities
on which the English monarchs have thought proper to
 bestow extraordinary  privileges,  annexing to them a
particular territory of land or jurisdiction; as the coun-
ty  of  Middlesex  annexed  to the city of  London, the
county of the city of  York, the county of the city of
Bristol, Sec.
   County-court.  This was formerly a court of great
dignity and  plendour; the bishop and the  earl, with the
                           2
principal gentlemen of the shire, sitting therein to ad-
minister justice, both in  lay  and ecclesiastical causes.
But its dignity was much impaired when the bishop was
prohibited, and the  earl neglected, to attend it: and in
modern times, as the proceedings are immoveable hence
into the king's  superior courts, by writ of pone or re-
cordare, this has occasioned Hie business of the county-
court in a great measure to decline.
  By the  2d and 3d Ewd. VI. c. 25,  no county-court
shall be longer deferred than one month  from  court to
court; so that  the  county-court shall he kept every
month, and not otherwise;  and only 28 days shall be
reckoned to the month.  2  Inst. 74.   And it may be
kept at any place within the county,  unless restrained
by statute.  Wood, c. 4.  c. 1.
  The suitors, that is, the freeholders, are the judges of
this court; except that in re-disseisin, by the statute  of
Merton, the sheriff is judge.
  The jury in this court ought to be freeholders; but the
quantum of their estate is not material.
  This court shall hold pleas between party and party,
where the debt or damage  is under 40*.  4 Inst. 266.
But in replevin the sum may exceed 40s.  Id.
   It has not cognizance of trespass vi et armis, because
a fine is thereby due to the king, which it cannot impose.
Id.  But by virtue of a writ of justices, the court may
hold plea of trespass vi et armis, and of any sum, or of
all actions personal  above 40s.  Id.
   Causes may be removed from this court by  a writ of
recordare, issuing out of the  chancery, directed to the
sheriff,  commanding him to send the plaint that is be-
fore him in his county-court (without writ of justices)
into the court of king's bench  of common  pleas, to the
end that the cause may be there determined; whereupon
the sheriff is to summon the other  party to be in that
court (into which the plaint  is to be sent) at a day cer-
tain; and he is to make certificate of all this  under his
own seal, and the  seal  of the  four suitors  of  the same
court.  Read, County-court.
   Causes may also be removed by pone, which differs in
nothing from a recordare, except that it removes such suits
as are before the sheriff by writ of justices, and a recordare
is to remove the suit that is by plaint only, without writ.
Id.   And though the plea be discontinued in tbe county,
yet the plaintiff or defendant may remove tbe plaintinto
the common pleas  or king's bench,  and it shall be good,
and he shall declare upon the same.  Id.
   County-rate.   By the 12th Geo.  II. c. 29. the jus-
tices at their general or quarter sessions, or tbe greater
part of them (and by 13  Geo. II. c. 18. justices of liber-
ties and franchise not subject to county-commissioners,)
shall have power to make one general county-rate, to an-
swer all former distinct rates,  which shall be assessed on
every parish, &c.  and collected and paid  by the hign
constables of hundreds to  treasurers appointed by  the
justices, which money shall be deemed the public stock,
&c: but appeal lies by the churchwardens and overseers
against the rate of any particular parish.   22 Geo. III.
c. 17.  This rate is,—
   For the  repairing of bridges and  highways  thereto
adjoining; and salaries for the surveyors of bridges; for
building and repairing county-gaols; for repairing shire-
halls; for the salary of the master ofthe house of correc- 
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C  0 u
 tion, and relicvingthe weak and sick in his custody; for
 the relief of the prisoners in the king's  bench and mar-
 shalsea prisons, and of poor hospitals in the  county, and
 of those who shall sustain losses by fire, water, the sea, or
 other c acuities, and other charitable purposes for the re-
 lief of tbe poor,  as the justices in sessions shall think fit;
 fi»r the relief of the prisoners in the county-gaol; for the
 preserva'ion ofthe health ofthe prisoners; for the salary
 of the chaplain  ofthe  county-gaol; for setting prisoners
 to work:  salary of persons making returns ofthe prices
 ofroiii; for charges attending the removal of any of the
 said  general county-rates  by certiorari; for money for
 purchasing lands at the ends of county-bridges; for char-
 ges of rebuilding or repairing houses of correction, and
 for fitting up and furnishing the same, and employing the
 persons  sent thither; for charges of apprehending, con-
 veying,  and maintaining,  rogues  and vagabonds;  for
 charges of soldiers' carriages over and above  the offi-
 cers' pay for the same, by the several yearly acts against
 mutiny and  desertion, and by the militia act;  for the
 coroner's fee of 9d. a mile for travelling to take an inqui-
 sition, and  20s. for taking it;  for  charges of carrying
 persons to the goal or  house of correction; for the gaol-
 er's  fees for persons acquitted of felony or discharged by
 proclamation; for charges of prosecuting and convicting
 l'el >iis; for charges of prosecuting and convicting  persons
 plundering shipwrecked goods; for charges of maintain-
 ing Hie mililia-men's families by the several militia acts;
 for charges of bringing insolvent debtors to the  assizes,
 in order to their discharge, if themselves are not able to
 pay;  for the  charges of transporting felons, or convey-
 ing them to the places of  labour and  confinement;  for
 charges of carrying parish  apprentices, bound to the sea
 service, to the port to wiiich the master bclongeth.
  By the  12th Geo. II.  c. 29, the churchwardens and
 overseers shall, in 30 days after demand  made, out of
 the money collected for relief of the poor, pay the sums
 so assessed on each parish or place:  and if  they shall ne-
 glect or refuse so to pay, the high-constable  shall levy
 the same by distress and  sale of their goods, by warrant
 of two or morcjustices  residing in or near such parish or
 place. Where there is no poor-rate, the justices, in their
 general or quarter sessions, shall by their  order direct
 the sum assessed on such parish, township, or place, to
 he rated and levied by the petty constable or other peace-
 officer, as money for the relief of the poor is by law to be
 rated or levied. The high-constables, at or before the
 next  session  respectively after they have received the
 money, shall pay the same to the treasury; and the mo-
 ney so paid shall  he deemed the  public stock: and the
 !»aid   high-constables shall deliver in  a true account on
 oath (if required)  ofthe  money by them received, before
 the said justices at their  general  or quarter sessions.
 Tbe treasurer shall pay so much of the money in  his
 hands to such persons, as the justices in session shall
 from  time to time  appoint,  for any  uses and purposes to
 which the public stock of  any  county, city, division, or
 liberty, is or shall  be  applicable;  and shall deliver in
 a true account on oath (if required) of his receipts and
 disbursements to the justices at  every general or  quarter
 session, and also the proper vouchers for the same, to he
kept amongst the records ofthe sessions: and the discharge
ofthe said  justices, by their order at their general or
 quarter session, shall be a sufficient di >charge to the trca
 surer: and no new rate shall be made until it appears  by
 the treasurer's accounts or otherwise, that three-fourth'
 of the money collected has been expended for the pur-
 pose  aforesaid.  If the churchwardens and overseers  of
 any  parish or place  shall think such parish or place ;-
 overrated, they may appeal to the next general or quar-
 ter session.
   COUP-DE-MAIX, in military affairs, implies a des-
 perate resolution in all small expeditions of surprise, Sec
 The favourable side of the proposed  action must ever
 he viewed; for if what may happen, arrive, or fall out,
 is chiefly thought upon, it will  at the very best, not only
 greatly discourage, hut in general it will produce a total
 failure. The very name of an expedition  implies risk,
 hazard, precarious warfare, and a critical but desperate
 operation or coup-de-main.
   Coup-d'oeif, in a military sense, signifies that fortu-
 nate  aptitude of eye  in a general or other officer, b}
 which he  is enabled at one glance on the map to see the
 weak parts of an enemy's country, or to discern the
 strongoncs of his own. By possessing a ready coup-d'oeil,
 a  general  may surmount the greatest difficulties, parti-
 cularly in  offensive  operations. On a small scale this
 faculty is of the greatest utility.  Actions  have  been re-
 covered by a sudden  conception  of different openings
 upon  the enemy, wiiich could  only be  ascertained by a
 quick and ready eye, during the rapid movements of op-
 posing armies.
   COUPED, coupe', in heraldry, is used to express the
 head  or any limb of an animal cut off from the trunk
 smooth; distinguishing it from  that which is called  eras-
 ed, that is, forcibly torn off, and therefore is ragged and
 uneven.
   Coupeo  is also  used to signify such crosses,  bars,
bends, chevrons,  &c.  as do not touch the sides of the
 escutcheon, but are, as it were, cut off from them.
   COUPLE-CLOSS, in heraldry, the fourth part of a
chevron, never borne but in pairs, except tliere is a chev-
ron between them.
   COUPURE,  in fortification, are passages sometimes
cut through the glacis, of about 12 or 15  feet broad,  in
the re-entering angle of the covert-way, to facilitate the
sallies of the besieged.  They are sometimes made through
the lower curtain, to let boats into  a little haven built on
the rentrant angle of the counterscarp of the out works.
   COURAP, the modern name for a distemper very com-
 mon in Java and other parts ofthe East  Indies. Itis a
sort of herpes or itch on the arm-pits, groins, breast and
 face:  the itching is almost perpetual; and the scratching is
followed by great pain and a discharge of matter, which
 makes the linen stick so to the skin as not easily  to  be
 separated without  tearing off the crust.  Courap is a
 general name for any sort of itch; but this distemper is
 thus called by way of eminence. It is so contagious that
 few escape it. For the cure, gentle and repeated purging
 is  used, and externally the ointment of nitrated quick-
 silver.
   COURSE, in navigation, the point of the compass or
 horizon which a ship  steers on, or the angle which the
 rhumb-line on which  it sails makes  with the meridian*
 being sometimes reckoned in degrees, and  sometimes i/i
 points of the compass. 
C  0 TJ
cou
  When a ship sails either due north or south, she sails
on a meridian, makes no departure, and her distance
and difference of latitude are the same.
  When she sails  due east or  west, her course makes
right-angles with the meridian, and she sails either upon
the equator or a parallel to it; in  which case she makes
no difference of latitude, but her distance and departure
are the same.
  But when  the ship sails between the cardinal points,
on a course making always the same oblique angle with
the meridians,  her path is then the loxodromic  curve,
being a spiral cutting all the  meridians in  the same an-
gle, and terminating in the pole.
   Course, in architecture, a continued range of stones,
level or of the same height throughout the  whole length
of the building.
   COURSES, in a ship, the mainsail and foresail: when
the ship sails under  them only,  without lacing on any
bonnets, she is  then said  to go under a pair of courses.
To sail under a main course and bonnets,  is to sail un-
der a mainsail and bonnet.
   COURT.  A court is defined to be a place  appropri-
ated to the judicial administration of justice. The law
has  appointed a considerable number  of  courts, some
with a more limited, others with a more extensive juris-
diction; some of these are appropriated to inquire only,
others to hear and determine;  some to determine in the
first instance, others upon appeal  and by way of review.
   The most general division of our courts is into such
as are of record, or not;  those of record are again di-
vided into such as are supreme, superior, or inferior.
   A court that is not a court  of  record, cannot impose
any fine on an offender, nor award a capias against him,
nor hold plea of debt or trespass, if the debt or dama-
ges amount to 40s.; nor of trespass done  vi  et  armis,
though the damages are laid to be under 40s.
   Court-baron, is  a court  which every lord of the
mannor (anciently called the barons) has within his own
precincts.  This court is an inseparable ingredient of ev-
ery manor; and if the number of the suitors should so
fail as not to leave sufficient to make a jury or homage,
that is, two tenants at  the least,  the manor itself is
lost. 2 Black.
   The court-baron is of two natures: the one is a custo-
mary court, appertaining to  the copyholders or other
customary tenants, and of this the lord or his steward
is the judge; the other is a court  of common law, and is
before the freeholders  who owe suit and service to the
manor, the steward being rather register than judge.
   The  copyholders,  or customary  court,  is for  grants
and admittances upon surrenders and descents, on pre-
sentment of the homage or jury. The homage may in-
quire of the death of tenants  after the  last court, and
who is the next heir; of fraudulent  alienation of lands,
to defeat the lord of his profits; of rent or  service with-
drawn; of escheats and forfeitures; of cutting down trees
without licence or consent; of suit not performed at the
lord's mill; of waste  by tenant for life; of surcharge of
 iommon; of trespass in corn, grass, meadow, woods,
hedges; of pound-breach;  of removing mere-stones and
land-marks; of by-laws not observed, and the like.  The
method  of punishment is by amercement.
   Court of chancery. See Chanceu.gr, and Chancery.
  Court of chivalry, otherwise called the marshal court,
the judges of which were the lord constaMe of England
and the earl marshal of England; but  since the extin-
guishment  of the  hereditary office of  constable in the
reign of Henry VIII. this court has been holden before
the earl marshal only; and if it exceed its jurisdiction,
it may be prohibited by the common law courts.  2 Haw.
602. It seems at this day to have a jurisdiction as to dis-
putes concerning precedency and points of honour and
satisfaction therein; and may  proceed against persons
for falsely  assuming- the name and arms of honourable
persons. 2 Haw. 11. This court is to be governed bv
its own usages, as far as they go, and in other cases bv
the civil law; but since it is no court of common  law, no
condemnation in it causes any forfeiture of lands or cor-
ruption of  blood; neither can an error in it  be remedied
by a writ of error, but only by appeal to the king; yd
the judges ofthe common law take notice of its jurisdic-
tion, and give credit to a certificate of its judges.
   Court  christian,  so called  because, as in  .secular
courts, the king's laws sw,ay and decide causes, so in ec-
clesiastical courts, the laws of Christ  should rule and
direct; for  which cause  the  judges in these courts are
divines, as  archbishops, bishops, archdeacons, kc.
   Court of common pleas. See Common Pleas.
   Court of delegates, is the highest court for civil affairs
that concern the church.  See Delegates.
   Courts, ecclesiastical, are those courts which are held
by the  king's  authority, as supreme governor of the
church, for matters which  chiefly concern religion. As
to suits in spiritual or ecclesiastical courts, they  are for
the reformation of manners; as for punishing of heresy.
defamation,  laying  violent hands  on  a clerk, and the
like; and some of their suits are to recover something
demanded, as tithes, a legacy, contract of marriage,
&c; and in  cases of this nature, the court may give
costs, but  not damages. The proceedings in the eccle-
siastical courts are according to the civil and canon law:
they are not courts of record.
   Court of exchequer.  See Exchequer.
   Court of hustings, the highest court of record holden
at Guildhall, for the city of London, before the lord mayor
and aldermen, the sheriffs, and recorder.  4 Inst. 247.
This court determines all  pleas, real and mixed; and
here all lands, tenements, and hereditaments, rente, and
services, within the city of London and suburbs of the
same, are  pleable in two hustings; one called hustings
ofthe plea of lands, and the other hustings ofthe com-
mon picas.   In the hustings of plea of lands are  Iroiight
writs of right patent, directed to the sheriffs of London.
In the hustings of common pleas are pleaded writs ex
gravi querela, writs of gravclet, of dower, wraste, kc.
iff an erroneous judgment be given in the  hustings, the
party grieved  may sue a commission out of  chancery,
directed to certain persons, to examine the record, and
thereupon do right.
   Court  of king*s bench.  See King's Bench.
   Court of the legate, was a court obtained by cardinal
Wolsey of pope Leo X. 9  Hen. VIII. wherein he had
power to prove wills, and dispense with offences against
the spiritual laws,  &c.  This court was, however, of short
continuance.
   Court of marshalsea.  See Marshalsea. 
cou
C  R A
  Court martial, is a court for punishing the offences
of officers and sddiers in time of war.  See 22, 29, and
32 Geo. II. c. 3, 6, 25, and 34.
  Court of nisiprius.   See Nisi Prius.
  Court of peculiars,  a spiritual court, held in such
parishes as are exempt from  the jurisdiction of the
bishops, and are peculiarly belonging to the archbishop
of Canterbury, in whose province tliere are  57  such
peculiars.
  Court of piepowder,  a court held in fairs to do jus-
tice to buyers and sellers, and for redress of disorders
committed in them; so called because they are most usual
in summer, when the suitors to the  court  have dusty
feet; and from the expedition in hearing causes proper
thereunto, before the dust goes off the feet of the plain-
tiff and defendant.   The court  of piepowder  may hold
plea of a sum above 40s.  The steward before whom the
court is held is the judge, and the trial is by merchants
and  traders  in tbe fair; and the judgment against the
defendant shall  be, quod amercietur.  If the steward
proceeds contrary to the statute 17 Edw. IV. he shall
forfeit 51.
  Court of requests, was a court of equity, ofthe same
nature with the court  of chancery,  but inferior to it.
This court having assumed great power to itself, so that
it became burthensome, Mich, anno 40 and 41 Eliz. in
the court of common pleas, it was upon solemn argument
adjudged, that the  court of requests was  no court of
judicature, Sec; and hy the statute  16 and  17  Char. I.
c. 10, it was taken away.  4 Inst. 97.
  By 41 Geo. III. c. 14, for extending the powers of the
court of requests within the city of London,  all debts
amounting to less than 5l. due from any  person within
the jurisdiction of the city, are to be exclusively sued
for and recovered.  Two aldermen, and not less than
twenty  inhabitants, householders of  the  several wards
and districts, are appointed commissioners and sit in ro-
tation.  The process is hy summons; and the commis-
sioners have power to award payment by such instal-
ments as are consistent with the circumstances and abili-
ty of the debtor.  In this court an attorney's privilege
is of no avail.
  Court of ihc lord steward oftfie king's household. The
lord steward, or, in his absence, the treasurer and comp-
troller of the king's house, and steward of the marshal-
sea, may inquire of, hear and determine, in this court,
all treasons  murders,  manslaughters,  bloodsheds, and
other malicious strikings, whereby blood shall  be shed,
in any of the  palaces and houses of the  king, or in
an\ other house wherein his royal person shall abide.
  Comits  of universities.  These courts are called the
chancellor's courts, and are kept by the vice-chancellors
of Oxford and Cambridge.   Their jurisdiction extends
to all causes ecclesiastical and civil (exceptfor maihem,
felony,  and relating to  freehold) where a scholar, ser-
vant, or mimster of the universities, is one of the parties
to the suit.  They proceed in a summary way, accord-
ing to the practic c of the civil law; and the  judges in
their sentences follow the justice and equity of the civil
law, or the laws, statutes* and customs of the universi-
ties,  or the lawsof the land, at their discretion.  If any
erroneous judgment he given in these courts, appeal lies
to the congregation;  thence  to  the convocation; and
thence to the king in chancery by his delegates.
  Courts of Wales.  By 34  and 35 Hen. VIII. c. 26,
it is enacted, that there shall  be  a court of great session
kept twice in every year in each of  the twelve counties
of Wales; and the justices of those courts may hold pleas
of the crown in as large a manner as the king's bench,
&c; and also pleas of assize, and all other pleas and ac-
tions real and personal, in as large a manner as the com-
mon pleas, &c.
  Writs of error shall lie from  judgments in this great
session, it being a court of record to the court of king's
bench at Westminster.  But the ordinary original writs
of process from the king's courts at Westminster do not
run into the principality of Wales, though process of ex-
ecution does, as do also prerogative writs.
  COURTESY, or Courtesy of England,  a certain
tenure whereby a man marrying  an heiress seized of
lands of fee simple or fee tail  general, or seized as heir
of the tail special, and having a  child by her that comes
alive into the world, though both it and his wife die forth-
with, yet if she was in possession, he shall keep the land
during his life, and is called tenant per legem Anglia, or te-
nant by the courtesy of England; because this privilege is
not allowed in any country except Scotland, where  it is
called curialitas Scotia;.
  COUSU, in heraldry, signifies  a piece of another
colour or metal  placed on  the ordinary, as if it were
sewed on, as the word imports.
  COVERT, in heraldry, denotes something like a piece
of hanging, or a pavilion, falling over the top of a chief
or other ordinary, so as not to hide but only to be a co-
vering to it.
  COWARD, in heraldry, a  term given to a lion borne
in an escutcheon with  his tail doubled  or turned in be-
tween his legs.
  COWL, or Coul, a habit worn by the Bernardins and
Benedictines, of which there  arc two kinds: one white,
very large,  worn in ceremonies; the other black, worn
on ordinary occasions in the streets, &c.
  CRAB, in zoology.  See Cancer.
  Crab's-claws.  See Materia Medica.
  Crab's-eyes.  See Materia Medica.
  Crab, or gin, an engine used for mounting large guns
on their carriages,  Sec.   It is  composed of three long
and stout legs, meeting together  at their tops; these legs
are round poles of about 12 or 13 feet long, whose dia-
meters at the lower end are about four inches, five just
below  the roller besides the  cheeks that  are added to
them in that place, and about  three inches and a half
above.
  Two of these poles can  be fixed at a certain distance
from each other, by means of two iron  bars placed hori-
zontally, one being about four feet long, the other about
seven; and  a roller is made to run upon pivots turning
on, or in, these two poles: this roller is commonly seven
inches and three-fourths in diameter, and six feet long.
A portion of twenty inches is left square at  each endj
and holes made in  each to  receive the handspikes  by
which the men turn the roller:  but  the middle  part is
made cylindrical, to wind  the cable upon.  The trans-
verso iron bars are fixed with one end to one of the polci 
C  R A
C  R A
by means of a bolS  and with the other end to the other
pole with a bolt and key; so as to be readily taken out,
in order that when the gin is to be removed from place
to place the poles may lie close together upon the car-
riage.  There are two  iron band and two iron bolts to
fasten each cheek (for the pivots)  to the poles, and iron
plates round the poles where the  iron bars  are fixed.
The poles arc hooped at each end; and the upper ends have
straps through which an iron bolt passes: this bolt keeps
the upper ends together, as well as serves to support the
iron to which the windlass is hooked.  The windlass con-
tains two  brass  pulleys, about which the cable goes,
which is fixed to the dolphins of the gun or mortar with
another windlass, containing two brass pulleys likewise.
When this machine is used, the whole is laid flat on the
ground, the lower end of the single pole extending the
contrary way, in order to fasten the upper windlass when
the cable has been turned round both: after this the up-
per end is raised gradually till  the feet of the three poles
("each of which has an iron prong) stand nearly at equal
instances; in such a  manner as the legs of a theodolite,
or plain table, when set up for use in the practice of sur-
veying.
   CRADLE, in surgery, a case in which a broken leg
is laid after beine: set.
   Cradle, among  shipwrights,  a timber frame made
along the outside of  a ship, for the convenience  of
launching her with ease and safety.  See Plate XXXIX.
Miscel. fig. 22.
   CRAFT, in the sea-language, signifies all manner of
nets, lines, books, &c. used in fishing. Hence all such
little vessels as ketches, hoys,  and smacks, &c. used in
the fishing trade, are called small craft.
   CRAMBE,  Sea-cabbage, Sea-beach Kale,  or
 Sea-colewort, a genus ofthe siliquosa order,  in the
tctr adynamia class of plants; and  in the natural method
  anking under the 39th order, siliquosse. The four longer
filaments are forked at top, with an anthera only on one
point of each; the fruit is a dry, globose, and  deciduous
berry.  There are six  species, three of them herbaceous
esculents with perennial roots, producing annually large
leaves  resembling those of cabbage spreading on the
ground, with strong flower-stalks and yellowish flowers.
Only one ofthe species is a native of Britain.   It grows
wild  on the shores of many of  the maritime counties of
England, hut is cultivated in many gardens as a choice
esculent; and the young robust shoots of its leaves and
flower-stalks, as they  issue forth from the earth after
the manner of asparagus-shoots, are then in the greatest
perfection for use.  At this period, if covered when they
rise with a garden-pot, they appear white as if blanched,
and when boiled cat exceedingly sweet and tender.   Its
principal season for use is in April and May. This plant
may also be employed in the pleasure-ground as a flow-
ering perennial, for the stalks divide into fine branchy
heads of flowers. It is propagated by seeds sown in any
common light earth in autumn or spring, where the plants
are to remain, which, when two years old, will produce
shoots fit for use, will multiply exceedingly hythe roots,
and continue for many years.  The crainbe fruticosa is
a greenhouse plant.
  CRAMP, in medicine, a convulsive contraction of a
muscular part ofthe body.  It  affects all parts indiffer-
ently; but the hams, calves, feet, and toes, oftener than
the arms and hands.
   Cramp-iron, or C ramps, a piece of iron bent at cadi
end, which  serves  to fasten together  pieces of wood,
stones, or other things.
   CRAMPONE'E^ in heraldry, an epithet given  to a
cross which  has at each end a cramp or square piece
coming from it; that from the arm in chief towards the
sinister angle, that from the arm on that side downwards
that from the arm in base towards the  dexter side, and
that from the dexter arm upwards.
   CRANE.  See Grus.
   Crane, a machine used in building, on wharfs, and
in warehouses, for raising  and lowering huge stones,
ponderous weights, packages, &c.
   Cranes, until of late years, were commonly construct-
ed as follows: The principal member is  a strong upright
beam or arbor, firmly  fixed in the ground, and sustain-
ed by eight  arms, coining from the extremities of four
pieces of wood laid across, through the middle  of wbich
passes the foot of the beam.  About the  middle ofthe ar-
bor the arms meet, and are mortised into it: its  top ends
in an iron pivot, on which is borne a transverse piece,
advancing out to a good distance,  something after  the
manner of a crane's neck, whence the machine has its
name.  This projecting piece is now  more commonly
called the jib or gibbet.   The middle and extremities of
this arc again sustained by arms from tbe middle of the
arbor:  and over it  comes a  rope or cable, to one end of
which the weight is fixed; the other is  wound about the
spindle of a wheel, which when turned  (commonly by
means of men walking upon the inside ofthe riin ofthe
wheel) draws the rope, and that heaves up the weight;
which may afterwards be applied to any side or quarter
by the mobility of the transverse piece on the pivot.
These cranes have usually been made  of two kinds: in
the first, called the rat-tailed crane, the whole machine
with the load turns upon a strong axis: in the second
kind the gibbet alone moves on its axis.  But in either
kind, if the machinery is put into motion by men walk-
ing within the wheel, as has been till lately the almost
universal practice in this country, the labourers employ-
ed are exposed to  extreme danger, and have frequently
met with the most  shocking and fatal accidents. It is
not  then to be wondered at,  that skilful  machanists
should  at length  have devised  cranes  that are not only
more safe, but more powerful in their operation, than
the common walking crane.
   The late Mr.  Ferguson  invented a  crane which has
three trundles, with different  numbers  of  staves, that
may be applied to  the cogs of a horizontal  wheel with
an upright axle;  round which  is  coiled the rope that
draws up the weight.  This wheel has  96 cogs; the
largest trundle  24  staves, the next  12, and the smallest
6; so that the largest revolves four times for one revo-
lution  ofthe wheel, the next 8,  and the smallest 16.  A
winch is occasionally fixed on the axis of either of these
trundles for turning it; and is applied to the one or the
other according as the weight to be raised is smaller or
larger.  While tins is drawing up, the ratch-teeth  of a
wheel slip round below a catch that falls into them, pre-
vents the crane from turning backwards, and detains the
weight in any part of its ascent, if the  man  who works 
GRANE.
 at the winch should accidentally quit  his hold, or wish
 to rest • iinsclf before the weight is completely raised.
 Making a due allowance for friction,  a  man may raise
 by such a crane, from three times to twelve times as much
 in weight as  would balance his effort at the winch, viz.
 from 90 to 360lbs. taking the average labour.
   But several cranes which are preferable to the com-
 mon walking-crane, while they are free from the dan-
 gers attending that machine, lose  at the same time one of
 its advantages; that is, they do not avail themselves  of
 that  addition to the moving power wiiich the  weight of
 the men who  are employed may furnish.  Yet this ad-
 vantage has been long since ensured by the mechanists
 on the continent, who cause the labourers to walk upon
 an inclined plane, turning upon an  axis.   The same
 principle has  been lately brought into notice, probably
 without ever knowing it had been adopted before, by Mr.
 James White, of Chevening, in  Kent: his crane is ex-
 hibited in  fig.  1. as it was described in the Transactions
 ofthe Society for the Encouragement of the Arts. See
 Plate XXXVII. Cranes.
   A (fig.  1.)  is a circular inclined plane, moving on a
 pivot underneath,  and carrying  round with it the axis
 E. A person walking on this plane, and pressing against
 the lever B, throws off the gripe D, by means of an iron
 rod C; and thus admits the plane and its axis to move
 freely, and raise the weight G by the  coiling of the rope
 F round the axis E.
   To show more clearly  the construction and action of
 the lever and gripe, a plan of the circular inclined plane,
 with the level and gripe,  is added, (see fig. 2.) where B
 represents the level, D the spring or gripe. In this plan,
 where the  level B is in the situation in which it now ap-
 pears, the  spring or gripe D presses  against  the peri-
 phery of the plane, as shown by the double line, and the
 machine cannot move; but when the lever B is pressed
 out to the line II, the gripe is also thrown off to the line
 I, and the whole machine left at  liberty to more. One
 end  of a rope or cord, of a proper length, is fixed near
 the end of  the lever B, and the other  end made fast to
 one of the  uprights, serving to prevent the lever moving
 too far when pressed by the man.
   The supposed  proprietors of this crane, for which the
 premium of 40 guineas was adjudged by the society to the
 inventor, are as follows:
   1.  It is simple, consisting merely ofa wheel and axile.
 2. It has comparatively little friction, as is obvious from
 the bare inspection of the figure*.3. It is durable, as is
 evident from the two properties above-mentioned. 4. It
 is safe; for it c annot move but  during the pleasure of a
 man, and  while  he is actually  pressing  on  the  gripe-
 lever. 5. This crane admits of an almost infinite vaiiety
 of different powers, and this variation  is obtained with-
 out the least alteration of any part ofthe machine. If, in
 unloading a vessel, there  should be found goods of any
 weight: from a few  hundreds to a ton and upwards,  the
 man that does  the work will he able  so  to adapt  his
 strength to each as to raise it in a space of time propor-
 tionate to its weight; he walking always with the same
 velociiv as nature and his greatest ease may teach him.
   It is a great disadvantage in  some cranes, that they
take  as long time to raise the  smallest as the largest
weight, unless  the man who works them turns or walks
 with such velocity as must soon tire him. In other cranes,
 perhaps two or three different powers may be procured;
 to obtain which, some pinion must  he shifted, or fresh
 handle applied or resorted to. In this crane, on  the con-
 trary, if the labourer finds his load so heavy as to permit
 him to ascend the wheel without its turning, let  him on-
 ly move a step or two towards the  circumference, and
 he will be fully equal to tbe task. Again, if the load is
 so light as scarcely to  resist the  action of his feet, and
 thus to oblige him to run through so much space as to
 tire him  beyond necessity, let him move laterally to-
 wards the centre, and he will soon feel the place where
 his strength will suffer the least fatigue  by raising the
 load in question. One man's weight applied  to the ex-
 tremity ofthe wheel would raise upwards ofa ton; and
 it need not be added, that a single-sheaved block would
 double that power.  Suffice it to say, that the size may
 be varied in any required  ratio; and  that this wheel will
 give as great advantage at any  point of its plane as a
 common walking-wheel of equal diameter, as the incli-
 nation  can be varied at pleasure, as far as expediency
 may require.  It may be necessary to observe, that what
 in the figure is the frame, and seems to  form a part of
 the crane, must be considered as  a part of the house  in
 which it is placed; since it would be mostly unnecessary
 should  such cranes be erected in houses already built.
 With respect to the horizontal part, by walking on which
 the man who attends the jib occasionally assists  in rais-
 ing the load, it is not an essential part of this invention,
 where the crane  is not immediately contiguous to the
jib;  although, where it is,  it would certainly be very
 convenient and economical.
  Notwithstanding, however, the advantages which have
 been enumerated, Mr. White's  crane is suhject to this
 objection, that it, derives  less use than might be wished
 from the weight of the man or men: for a great part of
that w eight  (half of  it, if  the inclination be 30 degrees)
lies directly upon the plane, and has no tendency to pro-
duce motion.  Besides, when this crane is of small di-
mensions, the effective power of the men is very unequal,
and the barrel too small for winding a thick rope: when
large,  the weight of the materials added to that of the
men put it out of shape, and give it the appearance of a
large unwieldy moving floor.
  Fig.  3  represents  a crane in common use, in situa-
tions where no building  is  wanted over  it.   A B is a
strong upright shaft, working through a collar in the
timber-floor of the wharf, and on a pivot in the  bottom
of a well,  some feet below it.  D E are the timbers form-
ing the jib to support the  pulley I over which  the chain
passes.  G H I is a cast iron cross bolted to the framing
at two  of its extremities: another cross fixed in the same
manner to the other side, makes a frame for the wheels
K, L. M, N. K is a pinion with 15 teeth: the ends of its
spindle  Q pass through the cross, and  are squared for
winch handles by which it turned.  This works into the
wheel L of 22 teeth,  its spindle P, and has also  square
ends for the winches.  It has a pinion N of 7 teeth upon
it, which works the wheel  M of 100 teeth, fixed to the
roll on which the chain  winds, whose spindle is Q.  This
crane has the  advantage  of traversing a whole circle,
which  for many purpo.scs is very useful. It has  several
different powers  by men working at winches put on the 
C  R A                                              C II A
different spindles separately  or combined.  When the
man works by the spindle P, the pinion K is thrown out
of gear by slidi'ig ils spindle along, and when he works
by the spindle Q, the wheels K and L are thrown out.
This is prevented from happening accidentally by a col-
lar on each spindle acting against a double clep R, fig.
4.  moviog on a centre at  S, and is made to act by the
v.eight  T: when thi • weight is lifted up, both  spindles
are at liberty t<> be slid along.  In figure 5, is shown the
method, in common  use,  of  slinging a large block of
stone, by which the necessity of passing the chain under
it is avoided.
   Fig.  6 is a simple and effective crane at a wharf on the
banks of the Thames, between Greenwich and Woolwich.
 \BC arc three upright posts connected at the top by a
triangular frame, across the middle of which is a beam
1), between this and a block on the  ground the jib plays:
on each side of the  upright  shaft E, two bars FG are
bolted, spreading out as they recede from it to receive
the wheel Ii;  I  I are  braces to support the bars. At that
part where the braces are bolted to the upright, an hori-
zontal frame  K is fixed for carrying the roll and winch:
die rope which winds round this goes over the pully L,
and round the large wheel H.  The rope which lifts the
goods winds on each end of the axle of this wheel; and
the middle of it  passes through a pully-block 0,to which
the goods are hooked.
   Fig. 7 is a crane used  at several of the wharfs belong-
ing to the Grand-junction canal company at Paddington:
the frame of it is the  same as fig. 6. A is the main shaft.
BB are the horizontal bars of greater  length than usual,
bolted to the shaft  A, near the middles, and having two
struts (EE and FF)  at each end, which makes this kind
of jib very strong.  The wheel G  is placed  at the short
end of the jib; and  the rope which  winds round  its axis,
passes over pulleys H at the other end.
   Crane-lines, in a ship, are lines going from the up-
per end of the spritsail-topmasttothe middle ofthe fore-
stays. They serve to keep the spritsail-topmast upright
and steady in its place, and to strengthen^it.
   CRANICHIS, a genus ofthe class and order gynandria
decandria. The essential character is, nectary galeated.
Tliere are five species.
   CRANIOLARIA, a genus of the angio-spermia order,
in the duly namia class of plants; and in  the natural me-
thod  ranking under the 40th order,  personatse.  The
calyx of the flower is  double, the under one tetraphyllous,
the upper one  a monophyllous spatha; the tube of the
corolla  very long; the capsule almost the same with that
of the martynia. Tliere is  one species, a native of New
Spain, not possessed of any remarkable property.
   CRANK, a contrivance  in machines, in manner of an
elbow, only of a  square form, projecting from a  spindle,
and serving by its rotation to raise and fall the pistons of
engines.
   Crank likewise denotes the iron  support for a lantern,
and also the iron, made fast to a stock of a bell for ring-
ing it.  In the sea-language, a ship is  said to be crank-
sided when she can bear but small sail, for fear of over-
setting: and when a ship cannot be brought on the ground
without danger,  she is said to be crank'by the ground.
  CRANZIA, a genus  of the pentandria  monogynia
class and order. The calyx is five-parted, petals' fire;
nee. none; berry or berried caps. There is one species. <i
native ofthe East Indies.                     l    ,a
   CRAPE, a light transparent stuff, in manner of gauze
made of raw silk gummed and twisted on the mill, woven
without crossing, and much used in mourning.  Crapes
are either craped (i. e. crisped), or smooth; the first dou-
ble, expressing a closer mourning; the latter single, used
for that less deep. The white is reserved for young pe0.
pie. The silk destined for the first is more twisted  than
that for the second; it  being the  greater or less dc-ree
of twisting, especially of the warp, which produces the
crisping given it when taken out of the loom, steeped in
clear water, and rubbed with a piece of wax for the  pur-
pose. Crapes are all dyed raw.  The invention of this
stuff came originally from Bologna; but, till of la! e years,
Lyons is said to have had the chief manufacture of it.
   CRASPEDIA, a genus of the  class and order synge-
nesia polygamia. The calyx is imbricate. Florets in de-
pressed bundles, down  feathered, reccpt. chaffy. There
is one species, a native of New Zealand.
   CRASSULA, lesser  orpine, or  live-ever; a genus of
the penfagynia order, in the pentandria class of  plants;
and in the natural method ranking under the 13th order,
succulents. The calyx  is pentaphyllous; the petals five,
with five nectariferous scales at the base of the germen,
and five capsules. There are 64 species, all of them na-
tives of warm climates.  Several  of them are cultivated
in this country, but require the  assistance of artificial
heat for their preservation. They  rise from one foot to
six or eight in  height, and are ornamented with oblong,
thick, succulent leaves, and funnel-shaped pentapetaloui
flowers of a scarlet, white, or greenish colour. They are
propagated by offsets or cuttings; and must be potted in
light sandy compost, retained in a sunny part of the
greenhouse  all winter,  and very  sparingly watered. In
summer they may be placed in the full air in a sheltered
place, and in dry weather watered twice a week.
   CRATAEGUS, wild  service-tree,  hawthorn, &c. a
genus of the  digynia order, in the icosandria class of
plants; and in the natural method ranking under the 36th
order, pomacese. The  calyx  is  quinquefid; the petals
five; the berry inferior,  dispermous. There  are 23  spe-
cies, all of  the tree  and shrub kind, hardy, and decidu-
ous. Those most valuable  for economical and ornament-
al purposes in gardening are the following;
   1. The oxycantha, hawthorn, or white thorn, grows
naturally all over Europe.  In the state in which we are
used to  observe it,  it is nothing  better than a tall, un-
couth, irregular shrub; but trained  up as a standard, it
swells to a large timber size,  with  a tall stem and a full
spreading head.  The standard-hawthorn, whether we
view its flowers in the spring, its  foliage in the summer,
or its fruit in the autumn or winter, is one of the most
ornamental plants, standing singly, that can be scatter-
ed over a park or lawn.
   The common hawthorn sports  in the following varie-
ties: the large scarlet hawthorn;  the  yellow hawthorn;
the white hawthorn; the maple-leaved hawthorn; the dou-
ble-blossomed hawthorn;  the  Glastonbury thorn.  The
last of these differs in no respect from the common  haw-
thorn, only that it sometimes flowers in the winter.  It is
said to have originally been the staff of Joseph of Arima-
thea, who, attended by eleven companions, came over inte 
C  R A
C  R A
 Britain, and founded, in honour of the  Blessed Virgin,
 the first Christian church in  this isle.  As a proof of his
 mission, he is said to have stuck his staff into the ground,
 which immediately shot forth and bloomed.  This tree is
 falsely said to have blossonicd  on Christmas-day  ever
 since, and is universally distinguished  by  the name of
 the Glastonbury thorn.
   2.  The  azarolus,  or  parsley-leaved thorn, is a native
 of Italy and  the south of France.  It will grow to be fif-
 teen  or sixteen  feet high. The leaves  are large, nearly
 trifid,  serrated, and  obtuse.  The flowers  are large,
 come out in May, and in the different  varieties are suc-
 ceeded  by  fruit  of different size, shape, and  relish.  The
 principal varieties of this species arc: the azarole with
 strong  thorns;  the azarole with  no thorns; the jagged-
 leaved  azarole; the oriental medlar.
   3.  The  aria,  called the white-beam tree, is a native of
 most ofthe cold countries of Europe. It will  grow to be
 more than twenty feet high. This tree is  engaging at
 all times of  the  year, and catches the  attention even in
 the  winter;  for  then we  see it stand,  though naked  of
 leaves,  with  a straight stem,  with smooth branches spot-
 ted with white,  at the end of which are the buds, swelled
 for the  next year's shoot,  giving the tree a bold and fine
 appearance.  In the spring the leaves come out, of course,
 and look delightfully, having their upper surface green
 and the lower white.  Their figure is oval; tbey are un-
 equally serrated, about three inches long,  and half as
 wide. Several strong nerves ruh from  the mid-rib to the
 border,  and  (bey are placed alternately on the branches,
 which appear as if powdered with the finest meal.  The
 flowers are produced at the end  ofthe branches in May:
 they are white; grow in  large  bunches,  having mealy
 footstalks; and are succeeded by red berries, which  will
 be ripe  in autumn.
   4. .The terminalis, wild service, or maple-leaved  ser-
 vicers a large growing tree,  native of England, Germa-
 ny,  Switzerland,  and Burgundy. It will arrive at near
 fifty feet, and is worth propagating for the  sake of the
 timber, which is very white and  hard.  This  tree grows
 naturally  in several woods  in  England; and it is the
 fruit  of this species that is tied  in bunches and exposed
 for sale  in  the autumn:  it is gathered in the woods, and
 by some persons is much liked.  The leaves in some de-
 gree resemble those of the maple-tree in shape; their up-
 per surface is a fine green, their under hoary: and they
 grow alternately on the  branches. The flowers come out
 in May, exhibiting themselves  in large clusters at the
 end of the  branches.  Tbey are white, and are succeeded
 by the fruit,  which, when  ripe, is of a brown colour, and
 about the size of a large haw.
   5. The  coccinea,  or  great American  hawthorn,  is a
 native of Virginia and  Canada.  It will grow to  be near
 tw enty feet high. The stem is robust, and covered with a
 light-coloured bark. The branches are produced without
 order, are ofa dark-browri colour, and possessed ofa few
 long sharp thorns.  The leaves  are spear-shaped, oval,
 smooth,  and serrated; of a thickish consistence, and often
 remain  on  the tree the greatest part of the winter. Each
 separate flower is large; but as few of them grow togeth-
 er, the umbels they form  are rather small.  They come
 out in May,  and are succeeded by a large dark-re I co-
loured fruit, which ripens late in the autumn.  The vari-
  vol. I.                85
 eties of this species are: the pear-leaved thorn; the plum-
 leaved thorn with very long strong spines and lar ;< fruit;
 the plum-leaved thorn with short spines and small fruit.
   6. The crus galli, or cockspur-thorn,  is a native of
 Virginia and  Canada, and grows to  about twenty  feet
 high. It rises with an upright stem, irregularly sending
 forth branches, which are smooth, and of a brownish co-
 lour, spotted thinly  with small white spots.  It is armed
 with thorns that resemble the  spurs of cocks, which gain-
 ed it the appellation of cockspur-thorn. In  winter  the
 leaf-buds  appear large,  turgid, and  have a bold  and
 pleasant look among others of different appearances.  In
 summer this tree is very delightful. The leaves are oval,
 angular,  serrated, smooth, and bend backwards.  They
 are about  four inches long, and three  and  a half broad;
 have five or six  pair of strong nerves  running from the
 mid-rib to the border; and dye to a brownish-red colour
 in the autumn. The flowers are produced  in very large
 umbels, making a noble show in May; and  arc succeeded
 by large fruit of a bright red colour, which have a good
 effect in the winter.  The  principal varieties  of this spe-
 cies are: the cockspur hawthorn with  many thorns; the
 cockspur hawthorn  with no thorns; the cockspur haw-
 thorn vv ith eatable fruit.
   7. The tomentosa,  woolly-leaved hawthorn, grows to
 about seven or eight feet high. The branches are slender,
 and closely set  with sharp thorns. The leaves are cunei-
 form, oval, serrated, and hairy underneath. The flowers
 arc small, and of a white colour: they are produced from
 the sides ofthe branches about the end of May; and  are
 succeeded by yellow fruit, which ripens late in autumn.
 There is a variety of this  called the Carolina hawthorn,
 which has  longer and  whiter leaves, large flowers and
 fruit, and no thorns.
   8. The viridis, or green-leaved Virginia hawthorn,  has
 the stem and branches together destitute of thorns. The
 leaves are lanceolate, oval, nearly  trilobate, serrated,
 smooth, and green on  both sides. The flowers are white,
 moderately large, come out the end of May, and are suc-
 ceeded by a roundish fruit, which will be ripe late in  the
 autumn.
   The respective species  are  all propagated by sowing
 the seeds;  and the varieties are continued  by budding
 them upon stocks of the  white  thorn. This latter method
 is generally practised for all the sorts; though, when good
 seeds can be procured, the largest and most beautiful
 plants are raised that  way.
   CRATER, in astronomy, a constellation  of the south-
 ern hemisphere, consisting of  seven stars  according to
 Ptolemy's catalogue, of eight in Tycho's, and eleven in
 the Britannic catalogue.
   CRATE VA, the garlic pear; a genus of the monogynia
order, in the dodecandria class of plants; and  in the natural
method ranking under the 25th  order,  putaminese. The
corolla is tetrapetalous; the calyx quadrifid; the berry
inferior, dispermoiis.  There are five species, natives of
both Indies. They are of the tree  kind; and arc chiefly
distinguished by their fruit.  The tapia, or garlic pear,
has a  smooth round fruit  about  the size of an orange,
 with a hard brown shell or cover, which inclose a mealy
pulp,  filled  with  kidney-shaped seeds.  It  has a strong
 smell  of garlic,  and communicates the same  to such ani-
mals as feed upon it  The tender buds  from the  young 
C  R A
C  R A
 branches being bruised and  applied  to the naked skin,
 will blister as effectually as cantharides.  It rises to the
 height of about thirty feet. The  marmelos  grows to the
 size of a very large tree, with trifoliate leaves. The flow-
 ers have  the smell of roses, and are succeeded by an ob-
 long fruit of  the  size of an apple, covered with a very
 hard bony shell, and containing a soft fleshy pulp, hav-
 ing the taste of quinces.  From the  flowers of this plant
 is obtained by distillation a water highly odoriferous  and
 cordial; and the pulpy part of the fruit is prepared into
 various kinds of marmalades. Both species may be pro-
 pagated in this country by seeds.
    CRAX, in ornithology, the curassou, a genus of birds
 belonging to the order of gallinse. The base of the beak
 of each mandible is covered with wax; and the feathers of
 the head are  curled.   There are five species, viz.  1. the
 alccator, or India hen of Sloane, is about the size of a
 small turkey. It is black, with a white belly. A yellow
 wax covers  about half of each mandible; the tongue is
 entire; the temples are bare and black; the tail is round-
 ish,  and consists of 14 prime feathers; the legs are strong,
 and  ofa dusky brown colour. They are frequent at Guia-
 na; and are called powese by the natives from their cry,
 which  is somewhat similar; are pretty numerous  in the
 woods; and  make no small  part of the food of the plan-
 ters, who are supplied with them by the  Indian hunters;
 and  their flesh is reckoned delicate, much like that of a
 turkey.  They are easily  brought up tame, and are  fre-
 quently found in the  Dutch settlements of Berbice, Esse-
 quibo, and Deinerara. They are called at Brasil by the
 name of curasso.  2.  The rubra, or Peruvian hen, is red,
 with a blueish head.  These birds are natives of Mexico
 and Peru.  They  feed on fruits, and perch at night on
 trees:  the flesh is white,  and esteemed  very good food.
 They  are frequently kept tame in the menageries in Eng-
 land,  and readily  mix with other poultry, feeding on
 bread and grain; but this climate is not warm enough for
 their nature, they not being able to bear  the dampness of
 the  grass of our meadows, which renders them  subject to
 have their toes rot off. They will often live in  this state
 some time; and in one instance which Mr. Latham  saw,
 the  whole of one  foot was gone,  and but  part of one toe
 left on the other, before the  creature died.  3. The mitu,
 or Brazilian pheasant, is black,  with a dusky belly, and
 red wax: it is a native of Guinea and Brazil. 4. The glo-
 bicera,has a yellow protuberance between the nostrils, and
 is of a blueish-black colour: it is likewise a nativ e of  Bra-
  zil. 5. The pauxi, or Mexican pheasant of Brisson, is of
 a blueish colour, with blue wax, and the tip of the tail and
 belly white:  is a native of Mexico. See PI. XL. Nat. Hist.
 figs. 148, 149.
    CRAY-FISH, or Craw-fish. See Cancer.
    CRAYON, a  name for all coloured stones,  earths, or
- other  minerals, used in designing or painting  in pastel.
  Crayons may be made of any colour, and adapted for the
  faces  of men, women, landscapes,  clouds, sun-beams,
  buildings, and shadows, in the following manner.  Take
  plaister of Paris, or alabaster calcined, and of the colour
  of which you intend to make your crayons, a sufficient
  quantity:  grind  them  first asunder, and then together,
  and with a little water  make them into paste: then roll
  them  with  your hand upon the grinding-stone into long
  pieces,  and  let  them dry  moderately in  the  air;  when
they are to be used, scrape them to a point like a com
mon pencil.
  Crayon-painting. Whether the painter works with
oil-colours, water-colours,  or crayons, the  grand object
of his pursuit is still the same: a just imitation of nature.
But each species has its  peculiar rules and  metbod.s.
Painting with  crayons  requires, in  many  respects, a
treatment different from painting in oil-c olours; because
all  colours used dry are in their nature of a much warm-
er complexion than when wet with oils, Sec For this rea-
son, in  order to produce a picture, a much greater por-
tion of what painters term cooling tints must be applied
in crayon-painting, than it would be judicious  to use in
oils. Without any danger of a mistake, it is to be sup-
posed, the  not being acquainted with this observation is
one great cause why so many oil-painters have  no better
success when they  attempt crayon-painting. On the con-
trary, crayon-painters being so much used to those tints
which are of a cold nature when used wet, are apt to in-
troduce them too much when they paint with oils, which
is seldom productive of a good effect.
  We shall now  endeavour to give the student some di-
rections towards the attainment of excellence in this art.
   Of the application ofthe crayons, with some previous
dispositions.—The  student  must  provide himself with
some strong blue paper, the thicker the better, if the
grain is not too  coarse or knotty,  though it  is almost
impossible to get  any entirely free from knots.  The
knots should be levelled with  a penknife or razor, other-
wise they will prove exceeding  troublesome.  After this
is done the paper must be pasted very smooth on a linen
cloth, prev iously strained on a deal frame, the size ac-
cording to the artist's pleasure: on this the picture is ta
be executed; but  it is most eligible not to paste tbe paper
on till the  whole subject  is  first  dead-coloured. Tlitf
method of doing this is very easy, hy laying the paper
with the dead-colour on its face, upon a smooth board or
table, when, by  means of a brush, the back side of the
paper must be covered with paste; the frame with the
strained cloth must then belaid on the pasted side of the
paper; after which turn the painted side uppermost, and
lay apiece of clean paper upon it, to prevent smearing it:
this being done, it may be stroked gently over with the
hand; by wiiich  means all the air between the  cloth and
 the paper will be forced out.
   When the paste is perfectly dry, the student may pro-
 ceed with the painting.  The advantages arising from
 pasting the paper on the  frame according to this method,
 after the picture is begun, are very great, as the cray-
 ons will adhere much  better than any other way; which
 will enable the student to finish the picture with a firm-
 er body of colour, and greater lustre.
    Wlien the painters want to make a very correct copy
 of a picture, they generally make use of tiffany or black
 gauze, strained tight on a frame; which they lay flat
 on the subject to be imitated, and with a piece of sketch-
 ing chalk trace all  the  outlines on  the tiffany.  They
 then lay the canvas to be painted on flat upon the floor,
 placing the tiffany  with the chalked  lines upon  it, and
 with an handkerchief brush the  whole over: this presents
 the exact outlines of the picture  on the canvas.  The
 crayon-painter may also make  use of this method who
 the subject of his imitation is  in oils; but in copying * 
CRAYON-PAINTING.
crayon-picture  he must have recourse to the following
method, on account ofthe ^lass:
  Tbe picture being pia ed upon the easel, let the out-
lines b<' drawn cm tliegla>s with a small camcl's-buir pen-
cil dipped in lake, ground thin with (ils, which must be
done  wilh great exactness. After this is accomplished,
take asheet of paper ofthe same size  and place it on the
rclass, stroking  over all  the  lines  with the hand,  by
which means the colour will adhere to the paper, which
must be pierced  with pin-holes pretty close to each other.
The  paper  intended to  be used for the painting must
next be laid upon a table, and the pierced paper placed
upon it;  then with some fine pounded charcoal, tied up
in a piece of lawn, rub over tbe pierced lines, which will
give an exact outline; but great care must be taken not
to brush this off till the whole is drawn over with sketch-
ing chalk;  which is a composition made of whiting and
tobacco-pipe clay, rolled like tbe crayons, and painted at
each end.
   When a  student  paints immediately from  the life,
it will be most prudent to make a correct drawing of
the outlines on another  paper, tbe size of the picture he
is going to paint, wiiich he may trace by the preceding
method, because erroneous strokes ofthe sketching chalk
(wbich  are  not to be avoided without great expertness)
will prevent the crayons  from adhering to the paper, ow-
ing to a certain greasy quality in the composition.
   The  student  will find  the  sitting  posture, with the
box of crayons  on his lap, the mo.st  convenient method
f«»r him to paint. The part ofthe picture he is immedi-
ately painting should be rather below his face, for if it
is placed too high tbe  arm will be fatigued.  Let  the
windows of  the room where he paints be darkened, at
least  to the height of six feet from the ground; and the
pubject to be painted should he situated in such a man-
uer that the light may fall with every advantage on the
face, avoiding  too much  shadow, which seldom has a
good effect in portrait-painting, especially if the face he
paints from has  any degree of delicacy.
   Before he  begins  to  paint let him  be attentive to his
.subject,  and appropriate  the  action or attitude proper
to the age of the subject: if a child, let it be childish; if a
young lady, express more vivacity than in the majestic
beauty of a middle-aged woman, who  also should not he
expressed with the same gravity as a person far advanc-
ed in years. Let the embellishments of the picture, and
introduction  of  birds, animals, &c.  be regulated by the
rules of propriety and consistency.
  The features  of the face being correctly drawn with
chalks,  let the student  take a crayon of  pure  carmine,
and carefully draw the nostril  and edge of the nose next
the shadow; then, with the faintest carmine tint, lay  in
the  highest light upon  the nose and forehead, which
must be executed broad. He is then to proceed gradual-
ly with the second tint,  and the  succeeding ones, till he
arrives at the shadows, which must be covered brilliant,
enriched with much lake, carmine, and deep green. This
method  will at  first  offensively strike the ev e, from  its
crude appearance; but in the finishing it will be a good
foundation to produce a  pleasing effect, colours being
much more  easily sullied when  too  bright, than, when
the first  colouring is dull, to  raise the picture into a
brilliant state.  The  several pearly tints  discernible  in
fine complexions must  be imitated with  blue verditer
and white, which answers to the ultramarine tints used
in oils. But if the parts of the face where these tints ap-
pear are in shadow, the crayons composed of black and
white must be substituted in their places.
   Though all the face when first coloured should be laid
in as brilliant as possible, yet each part should be kept
in its proper tone; by which means the rotundity of the
face will be preserved.
   Let  the student be careful when be begins the eyes,
to draw them with a crayon inclined to the carmine tint,
of whatever colour the  irises are of;  he must lay them
in brilliant,  and at first not loaded with colour, but exe-
cuted lightly: no notice is to be taken ofthe pupil yet.
The student must  let the light of the eye  incline  very
much  to  tbe blue  cast, cautiously  avoiding a staring
white  appearance (which when  once  introduced is sel-
dom overcome), preserving a broad shadow thrown on
its upper part by the eyelash. A black and very heavy
tint  is  also to be avoided in the eyebrows; it is therefore
best to execute them like a  broad glowing shadow at
first, on which, in  the finishing, the  hairs of the brow
are  to  be painted;  by which  method  of proceeding the
former tints will show themselves through, and produce
tbe most pleasing effect.
   The student should begin the  lips with pure carmine
and  lake, and in the shadow ure some carmine and black;
the strong vermilion tints should be laid on afterwards.
He must beware of executing them with stiff harsh lines,
gently  intermixing each with the neighbouring colours,
making the shadow beneath broad, and enriched with
brilliant crayons. He must form  the corner of the mouth
with carmine,brown ochre, and greens, variously inter-
mixed. If the hair is dark, he should preserve much of
the lake and deep carmine tints therein; this  may easily
be overpowered  by the warmer hair tints, which, as ob-
served  in  painting the eyebrows, will produce a rich ef-
fect when the pic ture is  finished; on the contrary, if this
method is unknown or neglected, a poverty of colouring
will  be discernible.
   When the head is brought to some degree of forward-
ness, let the back-ground be laid in, Which must  be
treated in a different manner, covering it as thin as pos-
sible, and rubbing  it into the  paper with a leather
stump.  Near the face the paper should be almost free
from colour, for this will do great service to the head,
and by its thinness give both a soft and solid appearance.
In the  back-ground also no crayon that has  whiting in
its composition should he used,  but chiefly  such as are
the most brilliant and the least adulterated. The ground
being painted thin next the hair, will give the student
an opportunity of painting the edges of the hair over in a
light and  free  manner when  he  gives  the finishing
touches.
   The  student having proceeded thus  far, the face, hair,
and  back-ground, being entirely covered, he  must care-
fully view  the  whole at some distance,  remarking in
what respect it is out of keeping, that is, what parts are
too light and what too dark; being particularly attentive
to tiie white or chalky appearances, which must be sub-
dued with lake and carmine.  The above method beine
properly  put into execution, will  produce  the appear-
ance of a painting principally composed of three colours, 
CRAYON-PAINTING.
viz. carmine, Liack, and white, which is the best prepa-
ration a painter can make  for producing a fine  crayon
picture.
  The next step is to complete the back-ground and the
hair, as the dist, in painting these, will fall on the face,
and would much injure* it if that was completed  first.
From thence proceed to the forehead, finishing downward
till the whole picture is completed.
   In painting over the forehead the last time, begin the
highest light with the most  faint vermilion tint, in the
same place where the  faint carmine was first laid, keep-
ing it broad in the same manner. In the next shade suc-
ceeding  the  lightest,  the student must work  in  some
light-blue  tints, composed of verditer and white, inter-
mixing with them some of the  deeper vermilion tints,
sweeten ing them together with great  caution, insensibly
melting ihem into one another,  increasing the proportion
of each colour as his judgment shall direct. Some bril-
liant yellows may also be  used, but sparingly;  and  to-
wards the roots of the hair  strong verditer tints, inter-
mixed with green,  will be of singular service.  Cooling
crayons, composed of black and white, should succeed
these, and melt into the hair. Beneath the eyes the sweet
 pearly  tints are to be preserved, composed of  verditer
and  white; and under the  nose  and  on  the  temples
the same may be used; beneath the lips tints of  this
kind also are proper, mixing them with die light greens
and some vermilion.
   In finishing the cheeks let the pure lake clear them
from any  dust contracted from the other crayons; then
with the  lake  may be intermixed the bright vermilion;
 and last of all (if  the  subject should require it),  a few
 touches ofthe orange-coloured crayon, but with extreme
 caution; after, sweeten that part with the finger as little
 as possible, for fear of producing a  heavy disagreeable
 effect on the cheeks; as the beauty of a crayon-picture
 consists in one colour showing itself through, or rather
 between, another; this the student  cannot too often re-
 mark, it being the only method of imitating beautiful
 complexions.
   The eye  is the most difficult feature to execute in
 crayons, as every  part must be expressed with  the  ut-
 most nicety to appear finished; at the same time that the
 painter must preserve its  breadth and solidity  while he
 is particularizing the parts. To accomplish this, it will
 be a good general rule for the student to use his crayon
 in sweetening as much, and his finger as little, as possible.
When he  wants a  point to touch a  small part with, he
may  break off a little of his  crayon  against the box,
which will produce a corner  fit  to  work with in the
minutest parts. If the eyelashes  are  dark,  he must use
pome of the carmine and  brown ochre, and the crayon
of carmine and black; and with these he may also touch
the iris of the  eye  (if brown or hazel), making a broad
shadow, caused by the eyelash. Red tints of vermilion,
carmine, and lake, will  execute the  corners of the eye
properly; but if the eyelids are too red, they will have a
disagreeable sore appearance. The pupil of the eye must
be made of pure lamp-black: between this and the lower
part of the iris the light will catch very strong, but it
must not  be  made too  sudden,  but  be gently  diffused
round the pupil till it is lost in shade. When the eyeballs
are sufficiently prepared, the shining spect must be made
with a pure white crayon, which should be first broken
to a point, and then laid on firm; but as it is possible
they may be defective  in neatness, thev should  be  cor-
rected with a pin, taking off the redundant parts, by
which  means they may be formed as neat as can be re-
quired.
  The difficulty with respect to the nose, is to preserve
the lines properly determined; and at the same time so
artfully blended into the cheek, as  to express its projec-
tion, and yet no real line to  be preceptiblc upon a clost
examination; in some  circumstances it should be quite
blended with the cheek, which appears behind it, and de-
termined  entirely with a slight touch of red chalk.  The
shadow caused by the nose is  generally the darkest in the
whole face, partaking of no reflection from its surround-
ing parts. Carmine and brown ochre, carmine and black,
and such brilliant crayons, will compose it best.
  The student having before  prepared the lips with tlw
strongest lake and carmine, &c. must with these colours
make them completely correct; and when finishing intro-
duce the strong vermilions,  but with great  caution, as
they are extremely predominant. This, if perfectly touch-
ed, will give the lips an appearance equal, if notsuperi-
or, to those executed in oils,  notwithstanding the seem-
ing  superiority the latter have by means of glazing, of
which the former are entirely destitute.
   When the student paints the neck, he should avoid ex-
pressing the muscles too strong in the stem, nor should
the bones appear too evident on the chest, as  both have
an unpleasing effect, denoting a violent agitation of the
body;  a circumstance  seldom necessary to express in
portrait-painting. The most necessary part to be ex-
pressed, and which should ever be observed (even in tin
most delicate subjects,)  is a strong marking just above
the place where the collar-bones unite; and if the  bead ia
much thrown over the  shoulders, some  notice should be
taken ofthe large muscle that rises from behind the ear,
and is  inserted into the pit between the collar bones.  All
inferior muscles should be, in general, quite avoided. The
student will find this caution  necessary,  as most subjects,
especially  thin persons, have  the muscles of the neck
much more evident than it would be judicious to imitate.
As few necks are too long, it may be necessary to give
some addition to the stem, a fault on the other side being
quite unpardonable, nothing  being more ungraceful than
a short neck. In colouring the neck, let the student pre-
serve the stem ofa pearly hue, and the light not so strong
as on the chest. If any part of the breast appears, its
transparency must also be expressed by pearly tints; but
the upper part ofthe chest should be coloured with beau-
tiful vermilions  delicately blended with the other.
  Of the drapery.—Dark blue, purple, black, pink, and
all kinds  of red draperies also, should be first tinged
with carmine, wiiich will render the colours much more
brilliant than any other method; over this should be laid
on the paper the middle tint (a medium between the light
and dark  tints,  of which the  drapery is to be painted),
except the dark masses of shadow, which should be  laid
on at first as deep as possible: these, sweetened with the
finger,  being destitute of the smaller folds, will exhibit
a masterly breadth which the lesser folds, when added*
ought by no means to destroy.  With the light and dark
tints the smaller parte are next to be made with freedom; 
C  R E
CRE
executing as much  wi*h the crayon, and  as little  with
the finger, as possible; in each  fold touching the  last
stroke with the crayon, which stroke the finger must ne-
ver touch. In the case of reflections, the simple touch of
the crayon will be too harsh, therefore fingering will be
necessary afterwards, as reflected  lights  are always
more gentle than those which are direct.  With respect
to reflections in general, they must always partake of the
same colour as the object reflecting; hut in  the case of
single figures it may be useful to make some particular
observations.
   In  a blue  drapery, let the reflections he of a greenish
cast:  in green draperies, make them of a yellow tint; in
yellow, of an orange; in orange, reflect a reddish cast; in
all reds, something of their own nature, but inclined to a
yellow: black  should have  the  reddish reflection;  the
reflection of a reddish tint will also present purples to the
best advantage.
   Of whatever colour the drapery is, the reflection ofthe
face  must partake  of  it; otherwise the picture,  like
paintings on glass, will have but a gaudy effect.
   Linen, lace, fur, &c. should be touched spiritedly with
the crayon, fingering very little, except the latter; and
the last touches even of this, like all other parts,  should
be executed  by the crayon,  without sweetening by the
finger.
   The methods above recommended have  been practis-
ed by the most celebrated crayon-painters, whose works
have  been held in public estimation: but the knowledge
ot, and ability to execute, each separate part with bril-
liancy and truth, will be found very insufficient to consti-
tute a complete painter, without  his jndgment enables
him to unite them  with each  other, hy correctness of
drawing, propriety of light  and shadow, and  harmony
of colouring. In order to accomplish this, the student
should carefully avoid finishing one part in  particular,
till he has properly considered  the connection it is to
have  with the rest. The neglect of this is  the  principal
reason why the performances of  indifferent painters are
so destitute of what is termed breadth; so conspicuously
beautiful in  the works of great  masters. It  must be
granted that this observation relates more particularly
to large  compositions, where a diversity of figures  re-
quires such a judicious disposition, that each  may assist
in the combination of a kind of universal harmony; yet,
even in portrait-painting, the student should be particu-
larly  attentive to observe  this idea of breadth, if he is
desirous of acquiring that importance and dignity which
constitute excellence in painting.
  CREAM of tartar, called also chrystals of tartar. See
Phaumacv.
  CREDITORS shall recover their debts of executors,
or administrators, who in their  own  wrong, waste, or
convert to their use, the estate of the deceased.  30 C.
II. c. 7. Wills and devises of lands, Sec. as to creditors
on bonds, or other specialties, arc declared void: and the
creditors may have actions  of debt against the heir at
law and divisecs, 3  and 4 W. and M. c. 14: and in fa-
vour  of creditors, whenever it appears to  be the testa-
tor's intent,  in a will, that his land should he liable  for
paying his debts, in  such case equity will make them
sabject, though there are n»  express wordsj  but there
must be more than  a bare declaration, or it shall be iu
tended out of the personal estate. 2 Vcrn. Rep. 708.
  CREEPER.  Sec Certhta.
  Creeper, at sea, a sort of grapnel, but without Hooks.
used for recovering things  fallen overboard.  See  PI.
XXXIX. Miscel. fig. 23.
  CRENATED. See Botany.
  CRENCLES, in a ship, small ropes spliced into the
bolt ropes ofthe sails at the main-mast and  fore-mast.
They are fastened to the bow-line bridles; and are also
to hold by, when a bonnet is shaken off.
  CRENELLE', or embattled, in heraldry, is used when
any honourable ordinary is  drawn  like the battlements
on  a wall.
  CRENOPHYLAX, in antiquity, a  magistrate  at
Athens, who had the inspection of fountains.
  CREP1S, bastard hawk-weed, a genus ofthe poly-
gamia order, in the syngenesia class of plants, and in the
natural method ranking under the forty-ninth order, com-
positae.  The receptacle is naked; the calyx calyculated,
with deciduous scales; the pappus feathery and stalked.
There are twenty species, most of them herbaceous an-
nuals, rising to the height ofa foot or a foot and a half,
and having their branches terminated by ligulatcd  com-
pound red and yellow flowers.  These are very large,
and consist of many flat flowrets spread over one another
imbricatim, and when fully blown appear as if radiated.
They are very  conspicuous  and beautiful;  and appear
in June, July, and August. They are succeeded by plen-
ty of seed, which if permitted to scatter on the ground,
will produce a number of young plants without further
trouble.
  CREPITATION, that noise wtiich some salts make
over the fire in calcination, called also detonation.
  Crepitation is also used in  surgery, for the noise
made by the ends or pieces of bones, when the surgeon
moves a limb to assure himself by his ear of the  exis-
tence ofa fracture.
  CREPONDIA, in antiquity, a term  used to express
such things a«» were  exposed along with children,  as
rings, jewels, &c. serving as tokens whereby they af-
terwards might be known.
  CREPUSCULUM, in astronomy, twilight; the tim«
from the first dawn or appearance of the morning to the
rising of the sun; and again, between the setting of the
sun and the last remains of day.  The  crepusculum is
usually computed to begin and end when the sun is about
eighteen degrees below the horizon; for then the stars of
the  sixth magnitude disappear in the morning, and ap-
pear in the evening. It is of longer duration in the sol-
stices than in the equinoxes, and longer in an oblique
than in aright sphere. The crepuscula are occasioned by
the  sun's rays refracted in our atmosphere.
  CRESCENT, in heraldry, a bearing m form  of a
new moon*
  Crescent is also an order of knights, instituted by
Rennatus  of Anjou, king of Sicily, about the year 1448$
so called from the badge of this order, which was an en-
amelled crescent of gold.                             *
  CRESCENTIA, the calabash-tree; a genus of the
angiospermia order, in the didynamia class of plants;
and in the natural method ranking under the 25th order,
putajnincie. The calyx is bipartite and equal} the corol- 
cue
e  r i
!a gibbous; the berry pedicellated or stalked, Unilocular,
and polyspermous; the seeds bilocular.
  There are two species: 1. the cujete, with oblong nar-
row leaves and a large oval fruit, is a native of Jamaica
and the Leeward islands. It has a thick trunk covered
with a  whitish bark, and rises from  twenty to thirty
feet high,  and  at the top divides into  many branches,
forming a large and regular head: the flowers  are pro-
duced from the sides of the  large branches, and some-
times from the trunk; standing upon long  footstalks.
They have but one petal, which is irregular;  and are  of
a greenish-yellow   colour,  striped  and spotted with
ftrown.  These are succeeded by very large fruit, gene-
rally spherical, sometimes oval; and at other times they
have a contracted neck like  a bottle; and are so large,
that when  the pulp and seeds are cleaned out, the shells
will contain three pints or  two  quarts of liquid. The
fruit is covered externally with a thin skin, of a greenish-
yellow colour when ripe. When this is peeled off, there
appears a hard ligneous shell, inclosing a pale-yellowish
soft pulp ofa tart unsavoury flavour, surrounding a great
number of flat heart-shaped seeds. 2.  The cucurbitina,
or broad-leaved calabash, seldom rises more  than 15  or
20 feet high, with an upright  trunk, covered pith a white
smooth bark, sending out many lateral branches at the
top, with leaves three inches in length, and  one and a
quarter broad, ranged  alternately. The flowers come out
as in the former species; hut are smaller, and of a deep-
er yellow  colour. The fruit of this sort is sometimes
round, sometimes oval, but of very unequal sizes. Both
these species are easily propagated  by seeds; but the
plants are too tender to live in  tins country, unless they
are constantly kept in a stove.
   The shells of  calabashes are made use of for various
purposes.   At  Barbadoes, besides  drinking-cups and
punch-bowls, there are made of them spoons, dishes, and
other utensils for the slaves.  Some of these shells are so
large, as to be capable of holding fifteen pints  of water.
The pulp is seldom eaten, except by cattle in  the time of
drought. The wood, which is hard and smooth, is made
into stools, chairs, and other furniture.
   CRESSA, a genus  of the  class and order  pentandria
digynia. The essential character is, calyx five-leaved:
corolla, salver-form; filaments setting on the tube; cap-
sules two-valved, one-seeded. There are 2 species.
   CREST, in armoury, the  top part ofthe armour, for
the head, mounting over the helmet.  It was for the most
part made  of feathers, or the hair  of horses' tails  or
manes.
   Crest, in heraldry, is the uppermost part of an ar-
moury, or that part of the casque or helmet next to the
mantle. It is esteemed a greater mark of nobility than
the armoury, being borne at tournaments, to which none
were admitted till such time  as  they had  given proof of
their nobility: sometimes it serves to distinguish the seve-
ral branches of a family; and it has served, on occasion,
as  a  distinguishing badge   of factions: sometimes the
crest is taken for the device; but more usually is form-
ed of some piece of the arms.   Families  that exchange
arms do not change their crest.
   CREUX, a French term  used among artificers, and
literally signifying a hollow cavity, or pit, out of which
something has been scooped or dug; whence it is used to
signify that kind of sculpture, where the lines and figures
are cut and formed within the face or plan ofthe plate,
or matter engraved; and thus it stands in opposition to
relievo, where the lines and figures are embossed, and
rise  prominent above the face of the matter engraved
on.
  CREW, the company of sailors belonging to a shin,
boat, or other vessel. The sailors that are to work and'
manage a ship, are regulated by the number of lasts it
may carry, each last making  two ton. The crew of a
Dutch ship, from forty to fifty lasts, is seven sailors and
a swabber; from fifty to sixty lasts, the crew consists of
eight men and a swabber; and thus increases at the rate
of one man every ten lasts. English and French crews
are  usually stronger than  Dutch, but always in about
the same proportion. There arc  in a ship several parti-
cular crews or gangs, as the gun-room crew, the carpen-
ter's crewr, &c.
  CRIBBAGE, a game at cards, in which no cards are
to be thrown out, and the set to make sixty-one; and as
it is an advantage to deal, on account of the crib, it is pro-
per to cut  for it, and he that has the least card deals.
There are  only two players at this game, in  which the
cards are dealt out one hy one; the first to the dealer's
antagonist, and the next to himself, and so on, till each
has  five; the  rest being set  down in  view on the table.
This done, the  dealer lays  down the two  best cards he
can for his crib;  and bis antagonist lays down the other
two, the very worst in his hand, the crib being tbe pro-
perty ofthe dealer.  They next turn up a card from the
parcel left after dealing, and then count their game thus:
Any fifteen upon the cards is two; as king and five, ten and
five, nine and six, eight and seven, Sec.  A pair is also two;
a pair-royal, or three aces,  kings,  Sec.  six; a double
pair-royal, or four aces, &c. twelve.  Sequences of three
cards, as four five and six, is three; sequences  of four,
four; five, five, Sec. and the same holds ofa flush. Knave-
noddy, or ofthe suit turned up, is  one in hand,  and two
to the dealer. If, after the cards for the crib are  laid out,
you  have in your hand a nine and two sixes, that makes
six,  because there are two fifteens and a pair; and if a
six chance to be turned up, then you have twelve  in
your hand, viz. the pair-royal, and three fifteens. These
are to be marked with pegs, counters, or otherwise. If
you  happen to have sequents, as of four five and six, in
your hand, and six is the turned  up card, they are count-
ed thus: first, the sequents in your hand make three; and
the sequents ofthe four and fivein your hand,added to the
six turned up, make other three: there are likewise two
fifteens, counting first with the  six in your  hand, and
then with that turned up.
  This done, the antagonist to the dealer plays first, sup-
pose a six; and if the dealer can make  it fifteen, by
playing nine, he gains two; otherwise they play on, and
he that reaches thirty one exactly,  or conies nearest
under it, gains two or one.  Here too, in  playing tbe
cards, you may make pairs,  pairs-royal, flushes, &c.
\yhich are all counted as above.
  As to the crib, it is the dealer's; who may make as ma-
ny as he can out  of it, together with the card turned up,
counted as above; if he can  make none, he is said to be
bilked. Thus they play and deal by turns, till the gam?
of sixty-one is up: and if either of  the gamesters reach 
C  R  I
C  It I
this before the other is forty-five, this last is said to he
lure bed, and the other gains a double game.
  CRIME, crimen, the transgression of a law, either
natural or divine, civil or ecclesiastic. Civilians distin-
guish between crimen and diiictem. By  the first, they
mean capital offences, injurious to the whole community,
as murder, perjury, kc. the prosecution of which was per-
mitted to all persons, though no ways immediately in-
terested. By the latter, they understand private  offences
committed against individuals, as theft, occ. By the laws,
nobody was allowed to  prosecute in these, except those
interested.
  With  us, crimes arc distinguished into capital, as
treason,  murder,  robbery,  Sec and common, as perju-
ries,  kc Again,  some crimes  are  cognizable  by  the
king's judges, as the above-mentioned; and others  are
only cognizable in the spiritual courts, as simple forni-
cation.
   CRIMSON, one ofthe seven red colours of the dyers.
See Dyeing.
   CRINGLE, a  small  hole made in the  bolt-rope of  a
sail, by intertwisting one of the divisions of a rope, called
a strand, alternately round itself and through the strands
of the bolt-rope,  till it becomes  threefold, and  assumes
the shape of a wreath or ring. Tbe use of the cringle is
generally to contain the end of some rope, which is  fas-
tened thereto for  the purpose of drawing up the sail to
its yard, or of extending the skirts by the means of  bri-
dles, to stand upon a side-wind. The word seems to he
/derived from krinckelen (Belg.), " to run into twists."
   CRINODRENDRUM,  a genus of tbe  class  and
order monadelphia decandria.  There is no calyx; the
corolla is  bell-shaped, six-petalled:  capsule  one-cel-
led,  gaping elastically at top.  There  is  one species,  a
native of Chili.
¥■  CRINUM, a genus of the monogynia order, in  the
hexandria class of plants; and  in the natural  method
ranking  under the ninth order,  spathacca. The corolla
is funnel-shaped, monopetalous, and   sexpartite, with
three  alternate segments having hooked appendages;
the germen is  covered in the bottom of the corolla,  the
stamina  standing asunder.  They are very beautiful
green-house plants, rising two or three feet high; each
of them crowned by a large umbellate cluster of spatha-
ceous, monopetalous, long, funnel-shaped flowers, blue,
white, or striped,  having  a  very fragrant smell. They
are propagated by offsets. There are six species.
   CRITI1MUM, samphire; a genus of the digynia or-
der, in the pentandria class of plants; and in the natu-
ral method  ranking under the 45th order, umbellatse.
The fruit is oval and compressed: the florets equal. There
arc three species, the principal of which is the mariti-
mum, or  common  maritime  samphire. It has a fibrous
penetrating root:  thick, succulent, branchy stalks,  ris-
ing two  feet high; winged fleshy  leaves, consisting of
many small spear-shaped lobes; with round yellow flow-
ers growing in umbels.  It is produced naturally on the
sea-coasts, among the gravel and rocks. Its leaves  arc
an excellent pickle usedfor sauces, and are by many ea-
ten raw in salads. It is of a saltish relish,  palatable,  and
comfortable to the si'mi.nb. It is not veiy easily preserv-
ed in gardens. It must be sown on gravelly or rocky
ground, half an inch deep; in w hich situatiou the plants
will come up, and last some  years. The leaves of this
plant are said also to be aperient and diuretic.
  CRISP-LEAF, among botanists, is one folded over
and  over at  the edges,  which are  always  serrated,
dentated, or lacerated. It is otherwise called curled.
  CRITICISM may be  regarded as embracing three
separate branches: 1st. The establishing rules and prin-
ciples for correct composition; such are the incompara-
ble treaties of Cicero and Quinctilian upon oratory, and
of Longinus on the sublime.  In English we have many
valuable essays  and treatises of this class.  The prefa-
ces of Mr.  Dry den are a rich mine of critical principles
finely illustrated. Some of Mr. Addison's papers in the
Spectator, and Mr. Pope's and Dr. Johnson's prefaces to
Shakspeare, are excellent specimens of rational criticism.
In more modern times we have had some excellent com-
pendiums of criticism: among which lord Kaiinc's Ele-
ments of Criticism, Dr. Blair's Lectures, Dr. Priestley's
Lectures on  Oratory and Criticism, and  particularly
bishop Lowth's  Lectures on the Sacred Poetry of the
Hebrews, deservedly hold a very high rank. See the ar-
ticles Rhetoric and Poetry.
  The.second branch of critical science relates to the
commenting upon ancient authors, explaining difficult
passages, and elucidating their beauties. Eustathiusand
the scholiasts, Vida, Scaligcr, the Stephenses, and above
all, the gentlemen of Port Royal, have been great bene-
factors to the public in this way. The delphin and vario-
rum  editions ofthe classics do great credit to the learn-
ed persons by whom they were edited. Many editions of
Shakspeare  have been  published with critical  notes.
Mr.  Theobald's  was better  than  Mr. Pope's except
for the preface.  Dr. Warburton entirely failed, for the
same reason  as Dr. Bently  in his  edition of Milton,
viz. indulging too freely in conjectural criticism.   Dr.
Johnson's explanatory notes on Shakspeare are excel-
lent; and the profound  reading of Malcme, Steevens,
and Farmer,  in British and Saxon literature, have been
excellently applied to the illustration of  the first of dra-
matic poets.
  The third branch of criticism regards the forming a
correct judgment ofthe merits and demerits ofcotempo-
rary witers. In  this  every man of  education ought to
qualify himself to see with his own eyes, aud determine
with his own understanding; and  this is to be effected
by the attentive study  of the best works,  ancient  and
modern, on the  general principles  of criticism  (sec
above.) For to form our judgment on that of any other
men  is a species of literary slavery.  The various parti-
alities  and conflicting interests by wiiich  mankind are
governed, render it also very unsafe to resc our opinion
upon that of others; and itis peculiarly unfortunate  that
this department of literature is seldom exercised by per-
sons  adequate,  from education and experience, to the
task. W here  it is, there  is no reason why  the  name of
the critic should not be as public as that of the author;
when that is  not the case, bis motive will he suspected;
nor can the reader assent to observations from an au-
thority, of the competency of which he is  not assured.
For these reasons but little credit is attached, except in
remote count ry places, to annony mous critic ism.
  The great  v ices of modern criticism are pertness and
flippancy.  >N iiters of this class  seem  to  consider the 
C  R 0
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 study of Joe Miller as of more importance to their craft
 than that of Quinctilian; and a readiness in the art of
 punning, as the highest praise and principal qualifica-
 tion of a critic.
    CROCODILE. See Lacerta.
    Crocodile, fossil, one of the  greatest curiosities  in
 the fossil world which late ages have produced.  It is the
 skeleton of a large crocodile, almost entire, found  at a
 great depth  under ground, bedded in stone. This  was
 in the possession of  Linkius, who wrote many pieces of
 natural history, and  particularly an accurate description
 of this curious fossil. It was found in the side of a large
 mountain  in  the midland part of Germany, and  in a
 stratum of black fossile stone, somewhat like our com-
 mon slate, but of a coarser texture, the same with  that
 in which the fossil fish  in many  parts of the world are
 found. The skeleton had the back and ribs very plain,
 and was of amuch deeper black than the rest of the stone;
 as is also the case in the fossil fishes  which are preserv-
 ed in  this  manner.  The part of the stone  where the
 head lay was not found, this being broken off just at the
 shoulder, but that irregularly; so that in one  place apart
 ofthe back of the head wras visible in its natural form.
 The two shoulder-bones were very fair, and  three ofthe
 feet were well preserved; the legs were of their natural
 shape and size,  and the feet preserved even to  the ex-
 tremities of the five toes of each.
   Crocodile, crocodilus, in rhetoric, a captious and so-
 phistical kind of argumentation, contrived to seduce the
 unwary, and draw them speciously  into a snare.  It has
 its name crocodile from the following occasion, invented
 by the poets:  A poor woman begging a crocodile,  that
 had caught her son walking by the river-side, to spare
 and restore him, was answered, that he would  restore
 him, provided that she should give a true answer  to a
 question he should propose. The question was, Will I re-
 store thy son or not? To this the poor woman, suspecting
 a deceit, sorrowfully answered,  Thou wilt not; and de-
 manded then to have hiin restored, because she had  an-
 swered truly.  Thou  liest, says the crocodile: for  if I
 restore him  thou hast not  answered  truly: I  cannot
 therefore restore him without making thy answer false.
 Under this head may be reduced the propositions called
 " mentientes," or " insolubiles,"  which destroy them-
 selves.  Such is that  of the  Cretan poet: " Omnes ad
 unum Cretenses semper mentiuntiirp' "AH the Cretans,
 to a man, always lie." Either, then, the poet lies when
 he asserts that the Cretans all lie,  or the Cretans  do  not
 all lie.
   CROCUS, saffron, a genus of the monogynia  order,
 in the triandria class of plants, and in the natural meth-
 od ranking under the  sixth order, insatse. The corolla is
 sexpartite and equal; the stigmata convoluted, or rolled
 spirally inwards. There are two species of  this genus,
 which, however, comprehend many beautiful varieties.
   1. The officinalis, saffron, or autumnal crocus, has a
 •mall, roundish, brown, bulbous root, compressed at  the
 bottom. Directly from theroot issue many narrow leaves,
 ©f a deep-geen colour; and amidst them the flowers  are
 protruded from a thin univalvular radical spatha;  the
 tulfe of the flower is long, standing  on the  root, and
serving as a foot-stalk to the limb or upper part,  which
is erect, six-parted, widens gradually  upward,  and grows
 from about three to five or six inches high.  The saffron
 has a long-tubed blueish-purple flower, with three stig-
 mata of a fine golden colour, which form the saffron of
 the shops. The varieties are  the autumnal  small blue
 crocus; deep blue, sky blue, whitish blue, many-flower-
 ed \vhitish blue, purple, autumnal white crocus, and au-
 tumnal yellow crocus.
   2. The vernalis,  or  vernal crocus, the varieties of
 which are, small and large, and golden yellow crocuses
 and the yellow black-striped, the yellow purple-striped!
 and double cloth of gold; the white, white purple-striped)
 white purple bottom, white black-striped, whitish cream-
 coloured,  whitish ash-coloured,  little narrow-leafed
 white, and white blue-striped  crocuses. Besides  these
 there are a great many others of a blue and purple co-
 lour  finely variegated.  The autumnal crocuses flower
 about the beginning of  October, but never ripen theii-
 seeds in this country.
   CROISADE, crusade,  or crusado,  a name given to
 the expeditions ofthe christians against the infidels, for
 the conquest of Palestine; so  called because those who
 engaged in the undertaking wore a cross on then* clothes,
 and bore one on their  standard. This expedition was
 also called the holy war, to which people flocked in  great
 numbers from pure  devotion;  the pope's bulls, and the
 preaching of the priests of those days, making it a point
 of conscience.  The several nations  engaged in the holy
 war were distinguished by the different colours of their
 crosses:  the  English wore white, the  French red, the
 Flemish green, the Germans black, and the Italiansyel-
 low.  From this enterprise several orders of knighthood
 took their rise. They reckon eight croisades for the con-
 quest of the holy land; the first begun in the year 1095,
 at the solicitation of the Greek emperor and the patri-
 arch of Jerusalem.
   CROISIERS, cross-bearers,  a religious order founded
 in honour ofthe invention or discovery of the cross by
 the empress  Helena. They follow the rule of St. Au-
 gustine.
   CROISSANTE, in heraldry, is said of a cross, the
 ends  of which are fashioned   like  a crescent or half-
 moon.
   CROMLECHS, in British antiquities, are huge,
 broad, flat stones, raised upon other stones set up on
 end to support them. They are  common on Anglesey.
 These monuments are spoken  of largely by Mr. Row-
 land, by Dr. Borlase, and by Wormius, under the  name
 of ara, or altar.  Mr. Rowland, however, is undecided
 in his opinion; for he partly  inclines  to the notion of
 their having been altars, partly to their having been se-
 pulchres:  he  supposes them to  have  been  originally
tombs, but that in after-times sacrifices were performed
 upon them to  the heroes deposited  within.  Mr. Keillcr
preserves an account of king Harold having been  inter-
red beneath a  tomb of this  kind in  Denmark, and Mr.
 Wright discovered in Ireland a  skeleton deposited  under
one of them.  The great  similarity of the monuments
 throughout the north,  Mr. Pennant observes, evinces
the same religion to  have been  spread in  every part,
perhaps  with  some slight deviations.   Many of these
 monuments are both  British and Danish; for we find
 thein where the Danes never penetrated.
   The cromlech, or  cromleh,  chiefly differs Xrom the 
C  R 0
C  R O
kist-vaen, in not being closed up at the ends and siih-s,
that is, in not so much partaking of tiie chest-like figure;
it is also generally of larger dimensions, and sometimes
consists ofa greater number of stone: the terms cromleh
and kist-vaen are h nvever indiscriminately  used for the
same monument.  The term cromlech is by some derived
from the Armoric word  crum, "crooked or bowing,"
and hii, "stone," alluding to the reverence which per-
sons paid to them by bowing,  Rowland derives it from
tbe Hebrew words car: m-luacii,  signifying  "a devoted
or consecrated  stone."  They are called by the vulgar
coetiie Arth-ir.  or Arthur's quoits, it  being a custom in
Wales, as in Cornwall, to ascribe all great and  wonder-
ful  objects to prince Arthur, the hero of those countries.
See Plate XXXIX. Mis-el. fig. 24.
  CROSIER,  or crozier, a shepherd's crook; a symbol
of pastoral authority, consisting of a gold or silver staff,
crooked at the  top, carried occasionally before bishops
and abbots, and held in the hand when they gave the
solemn benedictions.
  Ciiosi;:k, in astronomy, four  stars in  the  southern
hemisphere, in  the form of a cross,  serving those who
sail in southern latitudes to find the antarctic pole.
  CROSLET. in heraldry, is when a cross is crossed
again at a small distance from each ofthe ends.
  CROSS,  invention  ofthe, a festival observed  May 3,
hy  the Latin church,  in  memory ofthe empress Helena
(the mother of Constantine) finding  the  true  cross of
Christ, on mount Calvary, where she caused to be erec-
ted a church for the preservation of it.
  Cross, order of the, an order  of ladies instituted in
t668, by the empress  Eleanora  de Gonzagua, wife of
the emperor Leopold, on occasion of the miraculous re-
covery of a  little golden cross,  in which were enclosed
two pieces of the true cross, out of the ashes of a part of
tbe palace that had been  burned down: though  the  fire
burnt the case wherein it was enclosed, and melted the
crystal, it appears that the wood had  not received the
least damage.
  Cioss, in heraldry, is defined by Guillim, an ordinary
composed of fourfold lines, whereof two arc perpendicu-
lar, and the other two  transverse.  The  content of  a
cross is not  always the same; for  when it is not charged,
it has only the fifth part of the field;  but if it is charged,
then it must contain the third part thereof.  This bearing
was bestowed on such as had performed, or at least un-
dertaken, some service for Christ and the christian pro-
fession; and is therefore  held  by several authors  the
most honourable charge in all  heraldry. What  brought
it into such  frequent use, was the ancient  expeditions
into the holy land, the cross being the ensign  of that
war.
  Cross, in surveying, an instrument consisting of  a
brass circle, divided into four equal parts, by two lines
intersecting each other at the centre; at the extremity of
each line there  is a sight, fixed, standing perpendicularly
over the line, with holes below each slit, for the  better
discovery of distant objects.  See Surveying.
  Cross-rar shot, a bullet with an iron  bar  passing
through it, ani  standing six or eight  inches out  at both
sides: it is used at seafor destroying the enemy's rigging.
  Cross-trees, in a ship, four pieces of timber, bolted
and let into one another across, at the head of the mast.
  reii. i.                     86
Their use is to keep and bear the top-mast up;  for tine
foot ofthe t-p-masi is always fastened into them.
   CROSSELET, a little or diminutive cross, used in
heraldry, where  the  shield is frequently  seen covered
with crossclets; also fess -s and other honourable  ordina-
ries, charged or accompanied with crossclets.  Crosse*
frequently terminate in crosselets.
   CROS*SOTYLUS, a genus of the polyandria order,
in the monadelphia class of plants.  The calyx is quad
rifid; the corolla consists of four petals; the stamina are
20 filiform filaments,  almost the length ofthe calyx; tin
anthera small and roundish: the pericarpium an hemis-
pherical, unilocular berry, with many stria; on its upper
part; the seeds numerous  and roundish.   Tliere is one
species, a native of the Society Isles.
   CROTALARIA, rattle-wort, a genus of the decandria
order, in the diadelphia class of plants, and in the nato
ral method ranking under the 52d  order, papilionacive.
The legumen is turgid, inflated,  and pedictilated; the
filaments are connate, with a fissure on the back. There
arc 52 species, all of them natives of warm climates.
They rise from eighteen  inches to  five feet  in  height,
and arc adorned with flowers ofa  red, blue, or yellow
colour. The most remarkable species  is tV retu.sa, with
simple and oblong wedged  leaves.   It is a native of the
island of Ceylon, and some other parts  of the East
Indies.  The flowers  are v ellow; the pods  smooth,  cy-
lindrical,  inflated, and placed horizontally;  they  are
filled with seeds, which, when dried, and shaken by the
lightest wind, produce a rattling noise; and this, by the
rude inhabitants  of the countries  where the  plant is
native, is attributed to the devil, who is thought to de-
liver his oracles in this whimsical manner.
   CROTALUM  (from  the Greek),  synonymous with
cymbalum. The name of an ancient musical instrument.
See Cyme alum.
   CROTALUS,  rattle-snake, a genus belonging to the
order of amphibia serpentes, the  generic character of
which is, scuta on the abdomen;  scuta  and  squainse
beneath the tail; rattle terminating the tail.
   1. Crotalus horridus,  or banded rattlesnake.  The
genus crotalus, or rattlesnake, affords the most signal
examples  of the powerfully destructive  poison  with
which some of the serpent tribe are furnished; instances
having frequently occurred in which the bite of these
snakes has proved fatal to mankind, in the space even
of a very few minutes.
   Till the discovery of  the western hemisphere, the
knowledge of these serpents was concealed from the rest
of the world:  and philosophers then first beheld with
amazement a reptile ofthe most fatal nature, furnished,
as if by a peculiar institution of Providence, with an in-
strument capable, in  general,  of warning mankind of
tiieir danger in too near an approach.
   The different  species  of rattlesnakes seem to have
been generally  confounded with each other; and  even
Catesby, who travelled in those parts  of North America
where it is found, seems to have been  unacquainted with
one ofthe most remarkable species; and to have parti-
cularly described  the banded  rattlesnake only, which he
has also figured with  sufficient clearness to prevent its
being confounded with any other kind, though not with
that minute attention  to  all  the particulars  which the 
CttOTALJS.
more improved state of natural history at present de-
mands.
  This species is found, in general, from  three to four
or five feet in length; and is of a yellowish-brown colour,
marked throughout its whole length with several trans-
verse and somewhat irregular fascige of deep  brown,
and from  the head to some distance down the neck run
two or three longitudinal stripes of the same colour; the
head is large, flat,  and covered with  small scales; the
rest of the upper parts with moderately large oval ones,
all strongly carinated or furnished with a prominent line
down the  middle: the under parts are of a dingy yellow-
ish-brown colour, marked with numerous dusky  varie-
gations and freckles:  at  the extremity  of the  tail is
situated  the rattle, consisting of several  hard, dry,
horny processes, the peculiar structure of which  will be
more amply described  hereafter; and which, on the least
disturbance or  irritation,  is elevated and shaken in
such a manner as to cause  a strong  or  brisk rattling
sound.
  " The largest rattlesnake," says Catesby, «• which I
ever saw, was about eight feet in  length, and weighing
between eight and  nine pounds.   They  are the most
inactive and slow-moving snake," adds this  author, "of
all others, and are never the aggressors, except in what
they prey upon; for unless they are disturbed they will
not bite; and when  provoked they give warning by sha-
king their rattles."
  The charming, as it is commonly called, or attractive
power this snake is said to have, of drawing to it small
animals, and devouring them, is generally  believed in
America.   The manner of the process is said to be, that
the animals,  particularly  birds  and squirrels  (wiiich
principally are their prey),  no  sooner spy the snake
than they skip from spray to spray,  hovering and ap-
proaching gradually nearer to their enemy; regardless
of any other danger; but with distracted  gestures  and
outcries,  descend, though from  the  top  of the  loftiest
trees, to the mouth of the snake,  who opens his jaws,
fakes them in, and  in an instant swallows them.   This
we believe to be merely an effect of fear in the  victim,
and the account is probably exaggerated.   « With res-
pect to the use of the rattle," says Dr. Mead, " a vulgar
error has obtained, even among the learned, about it.
It is commonly said that  it is  a kind contrivance of
divine Providence, to give warning to passengers by the
noise which this part makes, when the creature  moves,
io keep out ofthe way of its mischief.  Now this is a
mistake.    It  is beyond all dispute  that  wisdom  and
goodness shine forth in all  the works of the creation;
hut the  contrivance here  is of another  kind  than is
imagined.  All the  parts of animals are made either for
the preservation ofthe individual,  or for the propagation
of its species: this before us is for the service of the indi-
vidual.  This  snake lives  chiefly upon squirrels  and
birds, which a reptile can never catch without the ad-
vantage of some management to bring them within  its
reach.  The way is this.  The snake creeps to the foot
of a tree,  and, by shaking his rattle, awakens the little
creatures  which are lodged in it. They are so frightened
at the sight of their enemy, who fixes  his lively piercing
eyes upon one or other of them, that they have no power
u» get away, hut lca^i about, from bough  to bough, till
they are quite  tired, and at last, falling to the ground,
they are snapped into his  mouth.  This is by the peo-
ple of the country  called  charming  the squirrels  and
birds."
   Dr. Barton,  professor of natural history in the uni-
versity of Pennsylvania,  in a memoir on the supposed
fascinating power of the rattlesnake, imagines the whole
to be no more than the fluttering of old  birds in defence
of their young,  and which are themselves  occasionally
caught by the rattlesnake in consequence of too near an
approach.
   Rattlesnakes in  general swarm  in the less inhabited
parts of North  America;  but  are now almost extirpated
in the more populous  parts.    None  are found farther
north  than  the mountains near lake Cbamplain;  but
they infest South America, even as far as Brasil.  They
love woods  and lofty  hills, especially where the strata
are rocky or chalky:  the pass near Niagara abounds with
them.  Being slow of motion, they  frequent the sides of
rills,  to make prey of frogs,  or  such animals as resort
there to quench their thirst: are generally found during
summer in pairs; in winter collecting  in multitudes, and
retiring under ground, beyond the reach of frost: tempt-
ed by the warmth of a spring day, they are often observ-
ed to creep out weak and languid:  a  person has seen a
piece of ground covered with them,  and killed with a  rod
between sixty and  seventy, till overpowered with  the
stench he was obliged to retire.
   The rattlesnake is a viviparous animal, producing its
young in the month  of June,  generally about twelve in
number;  and wiiich by September acquire the length of
twelve inches.   It is said to practise  the same extraor-
dinary mode of preserving its  young from danger as is
attributed to the viper in Europe, viz. of receiving them
into its mouth, and swallowing them.   Fortius we have
the attestation of M. de Beauvois, who declares hinwlf
an eye-witness  of the process.  This gentleman  saw a
large rattlesnake,  which  he happened to disturb  in his
walks, and which immediately  coiled itself up, opened
its jaws, and instantly five small ones, which were lying
by it, rushed into its mouth.  He retired,  and watched
the snake, and in a quarter of  an hour saw her again dis-
charge them.   He  then approached it a second  time,
when the young retired into its  mouth with greater ce-
lerity than before, and the snake immediately moved off
among the grass, and escaped.  See P'.  XI. N. II. fte.150.
   2. Crotalus durissus,  or striped rattlesnake.  This
species may, in general,  be readily distinguished from
the former  by the  different disposition of its  colours;
being of a deep brown above, with a very regularly con-
ducted pattern of pale-yellow  streaks, so disposed as to
form a continued series of large rhombs or lozenges dovvu
the back, the stripes growing  somewhat less  distant as
they descend on the  sides.  The  size and  general pro-
portions ofthe animal resemble those ofthe  former, with
which indeed it appears  to have been  very  frequently
confounded.   It is  also a native of  the same  parts of
America.  Its bite, so far as can be ascertained by expe-
riments made with such  specimens  as have been trans-
ported into Europe,  appeal's to be equally fatal with that
of the former species.
   3. Crotalus dryinas, or wood  rattlesnake.   This is
said to be of a paler or lighter tinge than the two former 
C  R 0
C  R 0
species, and to be variegated with yellowish marks on
the back.
  4. Crotalus miliarius, or miliary rattlesnake.  Mr.
Catesby, the first described of this animal, seems to en-
tertain  some doubts whether it really differs  from the
common rattlesnake in any other respect than in colour,
its  prevailing tinge being grey-brown,  shaded on the
back with  red,  and marked by large black spots with
white indented edges.   It appears, however, to be a tru-
ly distinct specb s, differing not only in colour but in the
smaller number  of its  abdominal scuta.   This is the
smallest species of rattlesnake yet known, rarely exceed-
ing the length of two feet.   In its general habits it resem-
ble-i the preceding kinds.
   CROTAPH1TES, in anatomy, a muscle ofthe lower
jaw,-serving to draw it upwards.
   CROTCHES, in ship-building, very crooked timbers
in the hold or bread-room, from the mizen-step aft, fay-
ed across the keelson, to strengthen the ship in  the wake
of the half-timbers.
   Crotches, iron, crooked pieces of iron, used onboard
sloops and long-boats which go with shoulder-of-mutton
sails, for the boom to lodge on.
   CROTCHET, in music, one of the notes or charac-
ters of time, marked thus [, equal to half a minim, and
double of  a quaver.  A dot  added to the crotchet thus
p., increases its time by one-half, that is, makes it equal
i.o a crotchet and a half.
   Crotchets,  marks or characters, serving  to inclose
a word  or sentence, wiiich is distinguished from the rest,
being generally in the  form [ ], or this ().
   CROTOX, wild ricinus, a genus ofthe monadelphia
order, in the monoecia class of plants, and in  the natu-
ral method ranking under the 38th  order,  tricocca.
The male  calyx is  cylindrical and  quinquedentated;
i be corolla is pentapetalous ; the stamina from  10 to 15.
The female calyx is polyphyllous;  no  carolla;  three
bifid styles;  the  capsule trilocular; one seed.  There
arc 53 species,  of which the most remarkable are:
   1. The tinctorium,  or plant from which the French
turnsole is made.  This grows  naturally  in the south of
France;  it K an annual plant,  rising  about nine inches
high, with an herbaceous branching stalk, with irregu-
lar or rhomboidal figured  leaves, which are  near two
inches long.  The flowers are produced in short spikes
from the sides of the stalks, at the end of the branches;
the upper part of the spike is composed of male flowers,
kaving  many stamina which coalesce at the  bottom;
the lower  part has female  flowers, which  have each a
roundish three-cornered germen; these  afterwards be-
come a roundish capsule with three lobes, having three
cells,  each including one roundish  seed.  This flowers
in July;  but unless the plants are brought forward on a
hotbed,  they do not ripen seeds in this country.  From
this plant  is made the turnsole  used for colouring wines
and jellies.  It  is made of the juice  which is lodged be-
tween the empalement  and  the  seeds;  which,  if rubbed
on cloths, al  first appears of a lively green, but after-
wards  changes to a  blueish-purple colour.    If these
cloths are put into water, and  afterwards wrung,  they
will dye the water to a claret-colour.  The  rags thus
dyed are brought to this country, and sold in the drug-
gists' shops under the name of turnsole.
  C. The seviferum, or tallow-ircc,  with  liiomboida
egg-shaped leaves,  pointed,  smooth,  a-.i very entire.
It is about the height of a cherry-tree:  it-, leaves in
form ofa heart, of a deep shining red colour, aro i'-
bark xery smooth.  Its fruit is enclosed in a kind of pod.
or cover, like a chesnut;  and consists  of three round
white grains, of the size and form of a small nut, each
having its peculiar capsule, and within that a little stoj; •.
This stone is encompassed with a white pulp, which hov
ever is not the tallow, as is erroneously supposed, for
that is  expressed  from the kernels;  and the  Cbiiu-v-
make their candles  of it; which would doubtless be as
good as those in Europe, if  they  knew how to purif.
their vegetable tallow as well as we do our animal kinc,
and to make their wicks as well.
  3. The aromaticum, with heart-shaped serrated leaves.
and an arborescent stem.  The bark of this tree i  th<
same as  the cascrilla and eleufheria, thong's these hav
been considered by sonic as distinct barks,  and sold i;.
the shops as  different productions.  It is a hot, acri .
aromatic bitter, resembling in appearance tiie Peruvian
bark, but is more bitter and pungent, though not so rough
and astringent.   It was first introduced into  Enron**
about the end of the last century, and -seems first to ha •-•«'
been used in  Germany, where it is still in  very high es-
teem.  There it is frequently employe.' in intermittent
fevers, in preference to the Peruvian hark, as being less
subject to some inconveniences to which the latter is deem-
ed  liable.  It is also  said to have been employed with
great success in some very dangerous  epidemic fevers
attended with petechia;;  and it is frequently employ, i
with advantage in dysenteries, diarrhoeas, &c.   In Bri-
tain it has also been  used by some practitioners.   Its
virtues are partly extracted by water, and totally by rec-
tified spirit,  but it is most effectual when  given in suD-
stance.
  4. The cascarilla, described hy Linnams as producing
the  officinal  bark of that  name, is, according to Dr.
Wright,  the wild-rosemary shrub ef Jamaica, the bark
of which has none of the sensible  qualities of  the true
cascarilla or eleutheria above described.
  [CROTONOPSIS, in botany, a genus of the monoecia
pentandria class and order; the essential characters are,
calix, five parted; corolla ofthe male, five petals; capsule
ovate;  there are two species, both nativ es of Carolina;
the  c. linearis,  and c. elliptica.   (6)
  CROTOPHAGA,  in  ornithology, a genus  of birds
belonging to the order of picse.  There are two species,
the  characters of which are:  the bill is  thin, compress-
ed,  greatly arched, half oval, and cultrated at top; the
nostrils are round;   the tongue flat,  and  pointed at the
end; the tail consists of ten feathei-s;  and the toes are
placed two and two.   The most remarkable species is the
ani, wiiich is about  the size of a blackbird:  the colour
of the whole  bird is black,  in some parts glossed with
purple, and about the neck faintly tinged  with green on
the  margins:  the base of the bill is furnished with black
bristles,  wiiich turn forwards:  the  eyelids have  long
hair-like eyelashes:  the  tail is six inches long,  and
much cuncated;  and the legs are black.   This species
is found  in Jamaica, St. Domingo, and other Islands in
the West Indies;  also at Cayenne,  and  other parts of
South America.  Contrary to all other biiils, they have 
C  R 0
C  R 0
the singularity of many lying in the same nest; to make
which they all unite in concert, and, after  laying their
eggs, sit on them close to each other to hatch them, each
amicably striving to do  the best for the general good;
and when the young are hatched, the parents, without
reserve, do their best to feed the whole flock.   Still a
greater singularity occurs, which is, that as soon as each
female lays her eggs she covers them with leaves, doing
the same thing whenever she is obliged to leave the nest
for food:  this might be necessary in a cold climate;  but
why it should be wanted in a hot one seems not clear, es-
pecially as  it  has  not  been  observed in other birds.
The famale has two broods in a year, except accidents
happen; in which case she has been known to make three
nests.  The eggs are about the size of those of a pigeon,
of a sea-green colour, spotted at  the ends.  Their food
is various;  worms, insects, fruits, and grain, according
to the season.  There is a variety called the greater ani,
which is about the size of a jay,  differing no otherwise
from  the former but in size.   They ought,  however, to
be  considered as two distinct species:  for they  never
mix together, though each has the same manners, with
this difference only, that  the smaller frequent the  savan-
nas, the larger only the salt-marshes near the sea-coasts.
It is said that they  arc easily made tame, and will learn
to talk like  parrots.   The male and female are both
alike.   Both  species are easy to be shot,  not being so
wild  as many other birds;  but are known to chatter
much on the sight of a man, though they do not fly to a
great distance.
   CROUP ofa horse, in the manege,  the  extremity of
the reins above the hips.
   CROW.   See  Corvus.
   Crow, in mechanics, a kind of iron lever with  a claw
at one end, and a sharp point at the other: used for heav-
ing or purchasing great  weights.
   Crow's biix,  among surgeons, a kind of forceps,
for drawing  bullets and other  foreign bodies  out of
wounds.                                           '
   Crow's feet, in the»military  art, machines of iron,
having  four points, each  about three or four inches long,
so made that whatever way they fall there is still a point
up: they are thrown upon breaches, or in passes where
the enemy's cavalry arc to march, proving very trouble-
some, by ruining  into  the  horses'  feet,  and  laming
them.
   Crow's feet, in a ship, small lines or  ropes, some-
times eight or ten, reeved through the  dead-men's-eyes;
and scarcely of any other use than  to make a show of
small  rigging.  They are usually placed at the bottom
of the back-stays of the fore-top-mast, mizen-top-mast,
and top-gall ant-mast. See Plate XXXIX. Miscel. fig. 25.
  Crow-net, is an invention  for catching  wild-fowl in
the winter season? and  may  be used in the day-time.
This net is made of double thread, or fine pack-thread;
the meshes should be two inches wide, the length about
ten yards, and the depth three:  it must be verged  on the
side with good strong cord,  and stretched out very stiff
on long poles  prepared for that purpose.    When  you
come  to the place where you would spread your net,
open it, and  lay  it out at its  full lernrth and"breadth:
then fasten the lower end  of the net all along the ground,
so as e?ly to move  it up and  down;  the upper  end of
 the net must stand extended on the long cord, the further
 end being staked first to the earth 'by a strong cord
 about five yards distant, from the net.  Place this cord
 in an even line with the  lower edge of the net.  The
 other end must be at least 25 yards distance, to reach in-
 to some natural or  artificial  shelter,  by  the means of
 which you may lie concealed from the fowl, otherwise
 no good success can  be expected.   The net must be plac-
 ed in such exact order that it may  give way to play on
 the fowl on the least  pull of the cord, which must be done
 smartly,  lest the fowl should prove too quick for you.
 This net may be used for pigeons, crows, or other birds
 on corn-fields newly sowrn; as also in stubble-fields, pro-
 vided the stubble conceals the net from the birds.
   CROWN, in heraldry, is used for the representation
 of that ornament, in the mantling of an armoury, to ex-
 press the  dignity of persons.
   Crown, the imperial, is a bonnet or tiara, with a se-
 micircle of gold, supporting a globe with a cross at top.
   Crown, the British, is adorned with four crosses, be-
 tween which there are four fleurs-de-lis: it is covered with
 four diadems, which meet at a little globe supporting a
 cross.
  Crown, the French, wTas a circle of eight fleurs-de-lis,
 encompassed with six diadems, bearing at top a  double
 fleur-de-lis, which was the crest of France.
  Crown, the Spanish, is adorned with large indented
 leaves, and covered with diadems terminating in a globe,
 surmounted with a cross.
  The crowns of almost all other kings are adorned with
 large leaves, bordered with four, six, or eight diadems,
 with a globe and cross at top.
  Crown, the papal, is composed of a tiara and a triple
 crown encompassing it, with two pendants  like tiie
 bishops' mitres.  These crowns represent the pretended
 triple capacity ofthe pope, as high-priest, supremejuihje,
 and sole legislator of Christians.                *
  Crown, electoral,  or coronet, is a scarlet cap turned
 up with ermine, and closed with a semicircle of gold, all
 covered with  pearls, with a globe  at top, surmounted
 with a golden cross.
  Crowns of British princes oftfie blood.   1. The prince
 of Wales's  crown consists alternately of crosses and
 fluers-de-lis, with one arch, in the  middle of which are
 a ball and cross, as in the royal diadem.   2. That of
 all the younger sons and brothers of the  king,  consist
 likewise of crosses and fleurs-de-lis alternately, but with-
 out any arch,  or being surmounted w ith a globe and cross
 at top.  3. That of  the other princes of the blood con-
 sists alternately of crosses and leaves like those in tbe
 coronet of dukes.
  Crowns of noblemen, area duke's, composed of leaves
 of smallage, or parsley:   that of a marquis, of  flowers
 and pearls placed alternately:  an earPs has no  flowers
 about the  circle, like the duke's and marquis's, but only
points rising, and  a  pearl on every one of them:  avis-
count has  neither flowers nor points raised above the cir-
cle, like the other superior degrees, but only pearls plac-
ed on the  circle itself without any limited number:  a
baron's has  only six pearls on the golden border, not
raised, to  distinguish him from the earls;  and the num-
ber of them limited, to show  he is inferior to the vis-
count. 
C  R 0                                             C  R U
  Crown, in commerce,  a general name for coins both
foreign and domestic, which are of, or very near, the va-
lue of five shillings sterling.   See Coin.
  Crown, in architecture, denotes the uppermost mem-
ber of the cornice, called  also corona, and larmier.
  Crown, in astronomy,  a name given to two constella-
tions, the one called borealis, the other meridionalis.
  Crown is used also for the clerical tonsure, which is
the mark and character  of ecclesiastics of the Romish
church.   It is a little circle  of hair shaved from the
crown ofthe head, more  or less large, according to the
quality of the orders received.  That of a mere clerk is
the smallest, that of priests and monks the largest.
  [Crown, in geometry,  is the space inclosed between
the two peripherys  of two concentric circles: the area
of it may be found by multiplying its breadth by half the
sum  of the bounding perimeters, which may be  proved
thus: Put tiie circumference of the outer circle = c and
a = its radius, also r = the radius of the  inner circle,
      a c
then----= the area of the greater circle, and a2: r2::
      2
 ac   cr2                                  ac   cr2
----:----= the area ofthe inner circle;  then--------
  2   2a                                  2    2a
                                   c           ____
= (the area ofthe crown) = a*—r2x----=a +i"X a—r
                                   2a
   c                                      c
X----. But a—r = the breadth and a -f r x----= half
   2a                                    2a
the sum  of the bounding perimeters.  Because a: r :: c:
 re                                          re
----=the perimeter of the lesser circle, and------f-c
  a                                           a
        rc + ac            c
X i =--------=r-fax----•   Therefore  the rule is
          2a              2a
manifest, (r)

   Crown of colours, certain coloured lings  which like
halos appear about tbe body of the sun or moon, but of
the colours of the rainbow,  and at a less distance than
the common halos.   These  crowns sir Isaac Newton
has shown to be made by the  sun's shining in a fair day,
or the moon in a clear  night, through a thin cloud of
globules of water or hail  all of the same bigness.  And
according as the globules are greater or less,  the diame-
ters  of these crowns will  be larger or smaller;  and the
more equal these globules are to one another, the more
crowns of colours  will appear, and the colours will be
the more lively.
   (icowN-OFi ice.   The court of king's bench is divid-
ed into  vhe plea side and the crown side.   In the plea
side  it takes  cognizance  of civil  causes;  in the crown
side  it takes rognizance of criminal causes, and is there-
fore called  the  crown-office.   In the crown-office are
exhibited informations in the name of the  king, for
crimes and misdemeanors at common law, as in theease
of batteries,  conspiracies, libelling, kc. for which the
offender is liable to pay a fine to the king.
   Crowx-po*t, in architecture,  a post which in some
building stands upright in the middle between two prin-
cipal rafters, and from it there go struts  or braces to
the middle  of each rafter.   It is sometimes called a
king's piece, or joggle piece.
   Crown-wheel ofa watch, the upper wheel next the
balance, which by its motion drives the balance, and in
royal pendulums is called the swing-wheel.
   Crown-work,  in fortification,  an  outwork having a
very large gorge, generally  the length of the curtin of
the place, and  two long sides terminating towards the
field in two  demibastions, each joined by a particular
curtin to a whole bastion, which is the head ofthe work.
The crown-work is intended to inclose a rising ground,
or to cover the head of a retrenchment.
   CROWTH, or Cruth, a musical instrument former-
ly much in use among the  common  people  in Wales.
It resembles  in some respects the violin. See PI. XXXIX.
Miscel. fig. 26.
   CRUCIANELLA,  petty madder, a genus  of the
monogynia order, in the tetrandria class of plants; and
in the natural method ranking under  the 47th order,
stellat?e.   The corolla is monopetalous and funnel-shap-
ed, with a filiform tube and a tailed  border: the calyx
is diphyllous, and  there  are two linear seeds.  There
are nine  species,  natives of the southern parts of Eu-
rope; but none  of them possessed of any remarkable
quality.
   CRUCIBLE, a chemical vessel made of earth, and
so tempered and baked as to endure  the greatest fire.
They arc used to melt metals, and to flux minerals, ores,
kc.  See Chemistry.
   CRUCITA, or cruzita, a genus ofthe digynia order,
in the tetrandria  class of plants, and in  the natural
method ranking with those the order of which is doubtful.
The interior calyx is tetraphyllous,   the exterior calyx
triphyllous;  there is  no corolla, and only one seed.
There is one species.
   CRURjEUS, or crurasus musculus.  Sec Anatomy.
   CRURAL, in anatomy, an epithet given to the artery
which conveys the blood to the crura  or legs, and to the
vein by  which this blood returns towards the heart.
See Anatomy.
   CRUSCA, an Italian term signifying bran, is in use
among us to denote the celebrated academy called Delia
Crusca, established at Florence, for purifying and per-
fecting the Tuscan language.
   CRUST.  By crusts we understand those bony cover-
ings of which the whole external surface of crabs, lob-
sters, and  other, similar  sea-animals,  is  composed.
These consists of, 1.  Cartilaginous substance, possess-
ing the properties of coagulated albumen. 2.  Carbonate
of lime.   5. Phosphat of lime.  By the presence of the
phosphat  of lime,  they  are distinguished from bones.
Thus the crusts lie as an intermediate substance between
bones and shells,  partaking of the properties and con-
stitution of each.   The shells of the  eggs of fowls must
be referred likewise to the  class of  crusts,  since they
contain  both phosphat and carbonat of lime;  the animal
cement  in them, however, is much smaller in quantity.
From the experiments of Berniard and Hatchett, it is
extremely probable that the shells of snails are compos-
ed likewise of the same ingredients,  phosphat of lime
having been delected in them by these chemists.
   Mr. Hatchett examined the crust of crabs, lobvt n■<*,
9 
CRY
CRY
prawns, and cray-fish. When immersed in diluted nitric
acid, these crusts effervesced  a little, and gradually as-
sumed the form of a yellowish-white soft elastic cartilage,
retaining the form of the crust.  The solution yielded a
precipitate to  acetat of lead, and  ammonia threw down
phosphat of lime.   Carbonat of ammonia threw down a
much more copious precipitate of carbonat of lime.  On
examining the  crust which covers different species of
echini, Mr. Hatchett found it correspond with the other
crusts in its composition. Some species of star-fish yielded
phosphat of lime, others none: hence the covering of that
genus of animals seems to be intermediate between shell
and crust.
   With these observations of Mr. Hatchett the analysis
of  Merat-Guillot corresponds.    From lobster-crust he
obtained
              60 carbonat of lime
              14 phosphat of lime
              26 cartilage
       100.
One hundred parts of c ray-fi*$h crust contain
        60  carbonat of lime
        12  phosphat of lime
        28  cartilage
        100.
One hundred parts of hen's egg-shells contain
        89.6 carbonat of lime
         5.7 phosphat of lime
         4.7 animal matter
          100. 0

  CRUSTACEOUS jwA, in natural history,  are those
covered with shells consisting of several pieces or scales;
as those of crabs, lobsters, &c.  These are usually soft-
er than the shells of the testaceous kind,  which consist
of a single piece, and generally are thicker and stronger
than the former;  such as those of the oyster, scallop,
cockle, &c.   Dr. Woodward  observes, in his Natural
History, that of all the shells found in beds, and of all
the different matters  dug out of the earth, there are
scarcely any of the crustaceous kind:  the reason he gives
for it is, that these being much lighter than the rest,
must have floated on the surface at the time of the De-
luge, when all the strata were formed, and there have
corrupted and perished!
   CRYPSIS, a genus of the diandria digynia class and
order.  The calyx is a glume, two-valved, one-flowrered;
corolla glume, two-valved, awnless. There is one species,
a grass of Siberia.
   CRYPTO CEPHALUS,  a genus of insects of the
coleoptera class; antennae filiform; feelers four; thorax
margined; shells immarginate; body somewhat cylindri-
cal.   This is a  very extensive genus, and consists of
 268 species.  See PI. N. H. figs. 151, 152.
   CRYPTOGAMIA, one of Linnseus's classes of plants,
the organs of fructification  of which are either  con-
cealed within the fruit itself, or so minute as to escape
observation.  It embraces 4  orders; filices. mr.«*ci. aigje,
and fungi, which see.
  CRYPTOSTOMUM, a genus ofthe pentandria class
and order. The calyx is five-cleft; tube of corolla insert-
ed into the throat of the calyx; borders five-cleft; nect. five-
toothed;  berry,  seeds  scarred.  There is one species, a
shrub of Guiana.
  CRYSTAL,  in natural history, the name of a very
large class of fossils, hard, pellucid, and naturally colour".
less.
  CRYSTALLIZATION.   The word crystal original.
ly signified ice; but it was afterwards applied by the an-
cients to crystallized silica, or rock crystal; because. 'ch
Pliny informs us, they considered  that body as notlin*
else than water congealed by the action of cold.  Che-
mists afterwards applied the word to all transparent bo-
dies of a regular shape; and at present it is employed to
denote in general the regular figures which bodies assume
when their particles have full liberty to combine accord-
ing to the laws  of cohesion.   These regular bodies occur
very frequently in the mineral kingdom, and have long;
attracted attention on account of their great bea;;ty and
regularity.  By far the greater  number of the salts as-
sume a  crystalline  form; and as these substances arc
mostly soluble in water, we have it in our power to give
the regular shape of crystals in some degree at pleasure.
   All the substances with wiiich we are acquainted may
be divided into  solid, liquid, and gaseous.   Crystals are
obviously confined to the first set, the fluidity of the two
last rendering them  incapable of retaining a regular form;
but many of them may he made to assume a solid state,
 and in that case they  usually crystallize.   Most solid bo-
 dies either occur in  the state of crystals, or are capable of
being made to assume that form.  Now it has long been
 observed by chemists and mineralogists,  that there is a
 particular form which every individual substance always
 affects when it  crystallizes:  this indeed is considered as
 one of the best marks for distinguishing one substance
 from another.  Thus common salt is observed to assume
 the shape of a cube; and alum that of an octahedron, con-
 sisting of two four-sided pyramids, applied base to base.
 Saltpetre affects the form of a six-sided prism; sulphat of
 magnesia, that of a four-sided  prism; and carbonat of
 lime is often found  in the state of a rhomboid.   Not that
 every individual substance always uniformly crystallizes
 in the same form; for this is liable to considerable varia-
 tions, according to the  circumstances of the case; hut
 there are a certain number of  forms peculiar to every
 substance; and the crystals of that  substance, in every
 case, adopt one or other of these forms, and  no other;
 and  thus common  salt, when  crystallized, has  always
 either the figure of a cube or octahedron, or some figure
 reducible to these.
    As the particles  of bodies must be at liberty to move
 before they crystallize, it is obvious that we cannot re-
 duce any bodies to the state of crystals, except those
 which we are  able to make fluid.   Now there are tw»
 ways of rendering bodies fluid, namely, solution in liquid*
 and fusion by heat. These of course are the only method*
 of forming crystals in our power.
    Solution is the common  method of crystallizing salts.
 They are dissolved in water: the water is slowly evapo-
 rated; the saline particles gradually approach each other,
 combine together, and form small crystals; which become
 constantly larger by the addition of other particles, till at 
CRYSTALLIZATION.
 last they fall by their gravity to the bottom ofthe vessel.
 Or a saturated solution being prepared in hot water, it is
 set hy to cool.  On the escape of the caloric, by which,
 in fact, the solution was  in great part, accomplished, ihe
 salt crystallizes.   Such salts commonly firm  in geenps,
 attached to tbe sides or bottom ofthe vessel, or depending
 From a pellicle. They usually contain more water of crys-
 tallization than the former class.
   There are many substances, however, neither soluble
 in water nor other liquids,  which,  notwithstanding, arc
 capable of assuming a crystalline form. This is the case
 with the metals, with glass, and some other bodies.  The
 method employed to crystallize them is fusion, which is a
 solution by means of caloric alone.  By this method par-
 ticles are separated from one another; and if  the cooling
 proceeds  gradually, they are at liberty to arrange them-
 selves in regular crystals.
   To obtain large artificial crystals of a  regular shape
 requires considerable address and much patient attention.
 This curious branch of practical chemistry has been much
 improved by Mr. Leblanc; who has not only succeeded
 in obtaining regular crystals of almost any size at plea-
 sure, but lias made many interesting observations on crys-
 tallization ingeneral. His method is as follows: The salt
 to be crystallized is dissolved in water, and evaporated to
 such a consistency that it shall crystallize on cooling. Set
 it by,  and when quite cold pour the liquid part from the
 mass of crystals at the bottom, and put it into a flat-bottom-
 ed vessel. Solitary crystals form at some distance from each
 other,and these may be observed gradually increasing. Pick
 out the most regular of  these, and  put them into a flat-
 bottomed  vessel at some distance from each  other, and
 pour over them a quantity of liquid obtained in the same
 way by evaporating a solution  of the salt till  it crystal-
 lizes on cooling.  Alter the position  of every crystal once
 at least every day with a glass rod,  that all the faces may
 be alternately exposed to the action ofthe liquid: for the
 face on which the crystal rests never receives any  incre-
 ment.   By this process the crystals gradually increase
 in size. When tbey have acquired such a magnitude that
 their  form can easily be  distinguished, the  most regular
 are to be chewen,  or those having the exact shape which
 we v\ ish to obtain; and each of them is to be put seperately
 in a vessel filled with a portion of the same liquid, and
 turned in the same manner several times a day.  By this
 treatment they may be obtained  of almost any size we
 think proper.  After the  crystal has continued in  the  li-
 quid for a certain time, the quantity of salt held in solu-
 tion becomes so much diminished, that the liquid begins to
 act upon the crystal and re-dissolves it.  This action is
 first perceptible  on the angles  and  edges  of the crystal.
 Thev  become blunted, and gradually lose their shape alto-
 get her.  Whenever this begins  to be perceived, the liquid
 must be poured off, and a portion of new liquid put in its
 place; otherwise the crystal is infallibly destroyed.  Mr.
 Leblanc has observed,  that this singular change begins
 first at the surface of the liquid, ami  extends gradually
 to the  bottom: s > that  a  crystal, if  large,  may be often
 perceived  in a state of increase at its lower end, while it
 is disappearing at its upper extremity. Mr. Leblanc even
 affirms that saline solutions almost always increase in den-
sity according to their depth from the  surface.
  It has been observed, that those salts which crystal-
 lize upon cooling,  do not assume a  crystalline form so
 readily if they are allowed to cool in close vessels.  If a
 saturated solution of sulphat of soda, for instance, in hot
 water, is put into a phial, corked up closely, and allowed
 to cool  without being moved, no crystals are formed at
 all;  but the moment the glass is opened the salt crystal-
 lizes with such rapidity that the whole of the solution in
 a manner becomes solid.   It seems then that the caloric,
 or rather the last portions of it, cannot  be carried off
 without  the air or the atmospherical pressure in the li-
 quid.
   Not only salts, but water itself, which commonly crys-
 tallizes  at  32°, may be made to exhibit the same phe-
 nomenon: it may be cooled much lower than 32 degrees
 without freezing. This, as Dr. Black has completely pro-
 ved  depends entirely upon the retention of caloric.
   The phenomena of crystallization seem to have attract-
 ed but little of the  attention  of the ancient philosophers.
 Their theory, indeed, that the elements of bodies possess
 certain regular geometrical figures, may have been sug-
 gested by these phenomena; but we are ignorant of their
 having made any attempt to explain them.  The school-
 men  ascribed  the regular figure of crystals to their sub-
 stantial  forms, without giving themselves much trouble
 about explaining the meaning of  the term.  This notion
 was attacked  by Boyle;  wiio proved that crystals are
 formed by the mere aggregation of particles. But  it still
 remained to explain why that aggregation took  place;
 and  why the particles united in such a manner as to form
 regular figures.
  The aggregation is  evidently the consequence  of at-
 traction, but to explain the cause  of the regular figures is
 a more  difficult task.  Newton hns remarked, that  the
 particles of bodies, while in  a  state of solution, are ar-
 ranged in the solvent in regular order and at regular dis-
 tances; the consequence of which  must be, that when the
 force of cohesion becomes sufficiently strong to separate
 them from  the solvent, they will naturally combine in
 groups, composed of those particles which are nearest each
 other.  Now all the particles of  the  same body must be
 supposed to have the same figures:  and the combination
 of a determinate number of similar bodies  must produce
 similar figures.  Hauy has made it exceedingly probable
 that  these integrant particles always combine in the same
 body in the same way; that is to say, that the same faces, or
 the same edges, always attach themselves together; but
 that  these differ in different crystals. This can scarcely be
 accounted for, without supposing  that the particles of bo-
 dies are endowed with a certain polarity which makes them
 attract one part of a different particle and  repel the other
 parts. This polarity would explain the regularity of cry-
 stallization; but it is itself inexplicable.
  It is remarkable that crystals not only assume regular
 figures, but are always bounded by plane surfaces.   It is
 very rarely indeed  that curved surfaces arc observed in
 these bodies; and when they are, the crystals always give
 unequivocal proofs of imperfection.  But this constant
 tendency towards plane surfaces is  inconceivable,  unless
 the particles of which the crystals are composed are them-
 selves regular figures,  and bounded  by plane surfaces.
  If the figure of crystals depends u pon the figure of their
 integrant particles, and Hpon the maimer  in  which they
combine, it is reus mable to suppose that the same parte 
CRYSTALLIZATION.
cies when at full liberty, will always combine in the same
way, and consequently that the crystals of every particu-
lar body will be always the same.   Nothing at first sight
can appear farther from the truth than this.  The differ-
ent forms which the crystals of the same  body assume
are often very numerous, and exceedingly different from
each other.  Carbonat of lime, for instance, has been ob-
served crystallized in no fewer than forty different forms,
iluat of lime in eight different forms, and sulphat of lime in
nearly an equal number.
   But this inconsistency is not so great as  might at first
sight appear.  Rome/ de Lisle has shown that  every body
susceptible of crystallization has a particular form which
it most frequently assumes, or at least to  wbich it does
most frequently approach.  Bergman has demonstrated,
that this primitive form,  as  Hauy has called it, very
often lies concealed in those very crystals  wiiich appear
to deviate farthest from it. And Hauy has demonstrated,
that all  crystals either have this  primitive form, or at
least contain it as a nucleus within them;  for it may be
extracted out of  all of them by a skilful mechanical di-
vision.  See Plate  XXXVIII. Crystallization.
   Happening to take up an hexangular prism of calca-
reous spar, or carbonat of lime, which had been  detach-
ed from a group of the same  kind,  he observed that a
 ■mall portion of the crystal was wanting, and that the
 fracture presented  a very  smooth surface.  Let abed
 efg h (fig. 1.) be  the crystal: the fracture lay obliquely
 as the trapezium p s u t,  and made an angle  of  135 de-
 grees, both with the remainder  of  the base a b c s p h,
 and with t u  ef, the remainder of the side i /: ef.   Ob-
 serving that the segment p sutin thus cut off had for its
 vertex i n, one of the edges of the base ab c nih of the
 prism,  he attempted to detach  a similar segment in the
 part to which the next edge c n belonged; he employed for
 that purpose  the blade of a knife,  directed  in the same
 degree of obliquity as the trapezium p s u  t,  and  assisted
 by the strokes of a hammer.  He could not succeed: but
 on making the attempt upon the next edge  b c, he detach-
 ed another segment, precisely  similar to the first, and
 which had for its vertex the edge b c.   He could produce
 no effect on the next edge a b; but from the next following,
 a h, he  cut a segment similar to the other two.  The sixth
 edge likewise proved refractory.   He then went to the
 other base of the prism, d efg k r,  and found that the
 edges which admitted sections similar to  the  preceding
 ones were not the edges ef, d r, g k, corresponding with
 those which had been found divisible at the opposite base,
 but the intermediate edges de, kr,  g f. The trapezium
 lq y v  represents the section of  the  segment  which had
 k r for  its vertex.  This section was evidently parallel to
 the section p  s ut, and the other four sections were also
 parallel two and two. These sections were, without doubt,
 the natural joinings of the layers of the crystal; and he
 easily succeeded in making others parallel to them, with-
 out its being  possible for him to  divide the crystal in any
 other direction.  In this manner he detached  layer after
 layer, approaching always nearer and nearer the axis of
 the  prism, till at lastj the base disappeared  altogether,
  and the prism was converted into  a solid  OX (fig. 2),
 terminated by twelve pentagons  parallel two and two; of
  which those  at the extremities, that is to say, ASRIO,
  IGEDO, BAODC, at one end, and FKNPQ, MNPXU,
ZQPXY, at the other, were the result of mechanical di.
vision, and  had their common vertices <», I', situated at
the entrance of the bases of the original prism.   Tbe six
lateral pentagons RSLXY, ZYRIO, kc were the remains
ofthe six sides ofthe original prism.
  By continuing sections parallel to the former ones, the
lateral pentagons  diminished in  length; and at last the
points R G  coinciding with the  points  Y Z, the points
S R with the points U Y, kc there remained nothing of
the latteral  pentagons but the triangles, YIZ, UXY, &c.
(fig. 5.).  By continuing the same sections, these trian-
gles at last  disappeared, and the  prism was converted
into the rhomboid, a e (fig. 4.).
   So unexpected  a result induced  him to make the same
attempt upon more of these crystals:  and he found that
all of them could  be reduced to  similar rhomboid.;. He
found also,  that the crystals of other substances could be
reduced in the same manner to certain  primitive forms;
always the same  in the same substances, but every  sub-
stance having its own peculiar form.  The  primitive
form of iluat of lime, for instance, was an octahedron;
of sulphat of barytes, a prism  with  rhomboidal bases;
of  feltspar,  an oblique-angled  parallelopiped, but not
rhomboidal; of adamantine spar, a rhomboig, somewhat
acute; of  blende, a dodecahedron,  with  rhomboidal
sides; &c.
   These primitive forms must depend upon the  fi;nro-
of the integrant particles composing these crystals, and
upon the manner in wiiich they combine with each other.
Now by continuing the mechanical division of the crys-
tal, by cutting off slices parallel to each of its faces, we
must at last reduce it  to so small a size that  it  shall
contain only a single  integrant particle; consequently
this ultimate figure of the crystal must be the figure of
the integrant particles of which  it is  composed.  The
mechanical  division,  indeed, cannot be continued so far,
but it may  be continued till it can be demonstrated that
no subsequent division  can  alter its figure; consequently
it can be continued till  the  figure which  it assumes  is
similar to that of its integrant particles.
   Hauy has found that the figure of the integrant parti-
cles of bodies, as far as experiment  has gone, may be
reduced to  three; namely,
   1. The  parallelopiped,   the  simplest  of the solids,
whose faces are six in number, and parallel two and two.
   2. The triangular prism, the simplest of prisms.
   3. The tetrahedon, the simplest of pyramids.   Even
this small number of primitive forms, if we consider the
 almost endless diversity of size, proportion, and density,
to which particles of different bodies, though they have
the same figure, may still be liable, will  he found fully
 sufficient to account  for all the  differences in cohesion,
 and heterogeneous affinity,  without having recourse to
 different absolute forces.
   These integrant particles, when they unite  to form
 the primitive crystals, do not always  join together  in
 the same way.   Sometimes  they  unite by their  faces,
 and at other times by their edges, leaving considerable
 vacuities between each.  This  explains  why  integrant
 particles, though they have the  same form, may compose
 primitive crystals of different figures.
    Mr. Hauy has ascertained, that the primitive fonns
 of crystals are six in number; namely, 
CRYSTALLIZATION.
   I. The parallelopiped; which includes the cube,  the
rhomboid, and all solids terminated by six faces, parallel
two and  two.
   2. The regular tetrahedron.
   3. The octahedron with triangular faces.
   4. The six-sided prism.
   *. The dodecahedron terminated by rhombs.
   G. The dodecahedron with isosceles triangular fares.
   Each of these may be supposed  to  occur as the pri-
mitive form or the nucleus in a  variety of bodies:  but
those only which are regular, as the  cube of the  octa-
hedron,  have hitherto been found  in any considerable
number.
   But bodies, when  crystallized, do not always appear
in the primitive form; some of them indeed very seldom
affect that form, and all of them have  a certain latitude
and a certain number of forms which they assume occa-
sionally  i'.s the primitive form. Thus the primitive form
of Iluat of lime is tbe octahedron;  but that salt is often
found crystallized in  cubes, in rhomboidal dodecahedrons,
and in other forms.  All these different  forms which  a
body  assumes, the primitive excepted, have been deno-
minated  by Hauy  secondary  forms.  Now what is the
reason of this latitude in crystallizing?  why  do  bodies
assume so often these secondary  forms?
   To this it may be  answered:
   1st, That these  secondary forms are sometimes owing
to the variations in the  ingredients which compose  the
integrant particles of any particular  body.  Alum, for
instance, crysti Uizes in octahedrons; but when a quan-
tity of alumina  is  added,  it  crystallizes in  cubes; and
when there is an excess of alumina, it docs not crystal-
lize at all.  If the proportion  of alumina vary between
that which produces  octahedrons and  what produces
cubic crystals, tbe crystals become figures  with fourteen
sides, six of which are parallel to those ofthe cube and
eight to those of the  octahedron;  and  according as  the
proportions approach nearer to those wiiich form cubes
or octahedrons,  the crystals assume more or less of  the
form  of cubes or octahedrons. What  is still  more, if  a
cubic crystal of alum is put into  a  solution that  v\ould
afford octahedral crystals, it passes into an octahedron:
and, on the other hand, an octahedral crystal put into  a
solution that would afford  cubic crystals  becomes itself
a cube.  Now, how  difficult a matter  it is to proportion
tbe different ingredients with absolute exactness,  must
appear evident to all.
   iJd, The secondary fenns are sometimes owing to  the
solvent in which the  crystals are formed. Thus if com-
mon salt  is dissolved in water, and then crystallized, it
assumes  the firm  of cubes;  but  when  crystallized in
urine, it  assumes the form not of cubes, but of regular
octahedrons.  On the other  hand,  muriat of ammonia,
when crystallized in  water, assumes the octahedral form,
but in urine it crystallizes in cubes.
   3d,  But even when the solvent is the same, and  the
proportion of ingredients, as  far as can be ascertained,
exactly the same, still tliere are  a  variety of secondary
forms which are usually found to make their appearance.
These secondary forms have been happily  explained by
the theory of crystallization for which we are indebted
to  the sagacity of Mr. Hauy: a theory  which, fir its  in-
genuity, clearness, and importance, must ever rank high,
  vol. I.                 87
and which must be considered as,one of the greatest ac-
quisitions which  mineralogy and even chemistry have
hitherto attained.
  According to this theory, the additional matter wiiich
envelopes the primitive nucleus consists of thin slices or
layers of particles laid one above another upon the faces
of that mid us;  and  each  layer decreasing in size, in
consequence of the abstraction of one or more rows of
integrant particles from its edges or angles.
  Let us suppose that ABFG  (fig. 6.) is a cube com-
posed «f 729 small cubes: each ofits sides will consist of
81 squares, being the external  sides of as many cubic
particles, which  together  constitute the  cube.   Upon
ABCD,  one  of  the sides of this cube, let us  apply a
square lamina, composed of cubes equal to those of which
the primitive crystal consists.  It will of course  be com-
posed of 49 cubes, 7  on each side; so tha,t its lower base
onfz (fig. 7.) will  fall  exactly on the square marked
with the same letters in fig. 6.
  Above this lamina let us apply a second, / m p u (fig.
10.) composed of 25; it will be situated exactly above the
square marked with the same letters (fig. 6.)  Upon this
second let us apply a third lamina, v xy z (fig. 8.),con-
sisting only of 9 cubes: so  that its base shall rest upon
the letters v  xyz (fig.  6.) Lastly, on the middle square
r let us place the small cube r (fig.  5.), which will re-
present the last lamina.
  It is evident that by this process a quadrangular py-
ramid has  been formed upon the face  ABCD (fig. 6),
the base of which is  this face, and the vertex the cube r
 fig. 5). By continuing the same operation upon the other
 ve sides ofthe cube, us many similar pyramids will be
formed; which will envelope the cube on every side.
  It is evident, however, that the sides of these pyramids
will  not form continued planes, but that, owing to the
gradual  diminution ofthe  lamina? of the cubes  which
compose them, these sides will resemble the steps of a
stair-case.  We can suppose however (what must certain-
ly be the case),  that the  cubes of which the nucleus is
formed are exceedingly small, almost imperceptible; that
therefore a vast number of lamina? are  required to form
the pyramids, and consequently that the channels  which
they perform are imperceptible. Now  DC BE  (fig. 9.)
being the pyramid resting upon the face ABCD (fig. 6.),
and CBOG (fig.  9.)  the pyramid applied  to the next
face BCGH (fig.  6.), if we consider that every thing is
uniform from E to O (fig. 9.), in tbe  manner in  which
the edges of  the lamina?  of superposition (as the abbe'
Hauy calls the lamina? which compose the pyramids)
project  beyond each other, it will readily be conceived
that the face  CEB of the  first pyramid ought to be ex-
actly in the same  plane with the face COB ofthe adja-
cent pyramid, and that therefore the two faces together
will form one rhomb ECOB.  But all the sides ofthe six
pyramids amount to  24  triangles similar to CEB; con-
sequently they will form 12 rhombs, and the figures of
the whole crystal  will be a dodecahedron.
  Thus we see that  a body which has  the cube for the
primitive form ofits crystals,  may have a dodecahedron
for its secondary form. The formation of secondary crys-
tals, by the superposition of lamina? gradually decreasing
in size, was first  pointed  out  hy Bergman. But  Hauy
has carried the subject much farther:  he has not only 
CRYSTALLIZATION.
ascertained all tiie  different #ays by which these decre-
ments of the lamina? may take place, but pointed out the
method of calculating all the possible varieties of secon-
dary  forms which  can result from a given primitive
form; and consequently of ascertaining whether  or not
any given crystal  can  be the secondary form ofa given
species.
  The decrements of the lamina? which cover the primi-
tive nucleus in secondary crystals are of four kinds:
  1. Decrements on the edges, that is, on the edges of
the slices which correspond with the edges of the primi-
tive nucleus.
  2. Decrements on the angles; that is to say, parallel to
the diagonals of the faces ofthe primitive nucleus.
  3. Intermediate decrements; that  is to say, parallel to
lines situated obliquely between the diagonals and edges
ofthe primitive nucleus.
  4. Mixed decrements.  In these  the superincumbent
slices, instead of having only the thickness of one inte-
grant  particle, have the thickness of two or more inte-
grant particles; and the decrement, whether parallel to
the edges or angles, consists not of the abstraction of
one row of particles, but of two or more. Hauy denotes
these decrements by fractions, in which the numerator
indicates the number of rows of particles which  consti-
tutes  the  decrement,  and the  denominator represents
the thickness of the lamina?. Thus | denotes lamina? of
the thickness of three integrant particles, decreasing by
two rows of particles.
  An  example of  the  first law of decrement, or of de-
crement on the edges,  has been given above in the con-
version of the cubic nucleus to a rhomboidal dodecahe-
dron.  In that example the  decrement consisted  of one
row of particles, and it took place on all the edges. But
these decrements may be more rapid: instead of one, they
may consist of two, three, four, or more rows; and in-
stead of taking place on all the edges, they may be con-
 fined to one or two of them, while no decrement at all
fakes place on the others. Each of  these different modi-
fications must produce a different secondary crystal. Be-
sides this, the lamina? may cease to be added before they
have  reached  their smallest possible size; the conse-
quence of which  must be  a different secondary form.
Thus, in the example given above, if the superposition
of lamina? had ceased before the pyramids were complet-
ed, the crystal would have consisted of 18 faces; 6 squares
parallel to the faces of the primitive nucleus,  and 12
hexahedrons parallel to the faces of the secondary dode-
cahedron.  This  is the figure of the barat of lime and
magnesia found at Luneburg.
  The second law in which the decrement  is on the an-
gles, or parallel to the diagonals of the faces of the pri-
mitive nucleus, will be understood from the  following
example:  Let  it be proposed to construct around the
cube ABGF (fig. 11.), considered as a nucleus, a secon-
dary solid, in which the laminae of superposition shall de-
crease on all sides by single rows  of cubes, but in a di-
rection parallel to the  diagonals. Let  ABCD (fig. 12),
the  superior base of  the nucleus, be divided into 81
squares,  representing the faces of the small cubes  of
which it is composed.  Fig.  13 represents  the superior
surface ofthe first lamina of superposition; which must
be placed above ABCD (fig. 12) in such a manner, that
the points abed (fig. 15) answer to the points ab od
(fig. 12). By this disposition the squares An, Bb, Cr,
Dd (fig. 12), which compose the four outermost  rows
of squares parallel to the diagonals AC, BC, remain un.
covered. It is evident also, that the borders QV,  ON
IL, GF (fig. 13), project by one range beyond the bor'
ders AB,  AD, CD, BC (fig. 13);  which is necessary,
that the nucleus may be enveloped towards these edecs:
for if this were not the  case, re-entering  angles would
be formed towards the parts AB, BC, CD, DA, of the
crystal; which angles appear to be excluded by the  laws
which determine the formation of  simple  crystals, or-
wiiich comes to the same thing, no such angles are  ever
observed in  any  crystal. The solid  must increase, then
in those parts to  which  the decrement does not extend.
But as this decrement is alone sufficient to determine the
form ofthe secondary crystal, we may set aside all the
other variations  which intervene only in a subsidiary
manner; except when it is wished, as in the present case,
to construct artificially a solid representation of a crys-
tal, and to exhibit all the details which relate to its struc-
ture.
  The superior face ofthe seeond lamina will be AGLK
(fig. 14.). It must be placed so that  the points a, b,  c, d,
correspond to the points a, b, c, d (fig. 13); which will
leave uncovered a second row of cubes at each angle,
parallel to the diagonals AC and BD, The  solid still
increases towards the sides.  The large faces of the lami-
na? of superposition, which in fig. 13 were  octagons, in
fig. 14 arrive at the form of a square; and when they
pass that  term they decrease on all sides; so that the
next lamina has for its superior face the square RMLS
(fig. 15) less by  one range  in every direction than the
preceding lamina (fig. 14). This square must be placed
so that the  points e,f, g, h (fig. 15), correspond to the
points e,f,  g, h (fig. 14). Figures  16,  17, 18, and 19,
represent the four lamina? which ought to rise successive-
ly above the preceding; the manner of placing them be-
ing pointed out by  corresponding  letters, as  was done
with respect to the first three lamina?.  The last lamina
z (fig.  20) is a  single cube, which ought to be placed
upon the square » (fig.  19).
   The lamina? of superposition, thus applied upon the
side  ABCD (fig. 12),  evidently  produce four faces,
which correspond to the points A,  B, C, D, and  form
a pyramid. These faces, having been formed hy lamina?
which began by  increasing, and afterwards decreased,
must be quadrilaterals of the figure represented in fig.
21; in which the inferior angle  C is the same point with
the angle C ofthe nucleus (figs. 11 and 12,) and the dia-
gonal LQ  represents  LQ of  the  lamina AGLK (fig.
 13). And as the number of lamina? composing the  trian-
gle LQC  (fig. 21), is  much  smaller than that of the
lamina?  forming the triangle  ZLQ, it is evident that
the latter triangle will have a much greater height than
the former.
   The surface, then, ofthe secondary crystal thus pro-
duced,  must evidently  consist of 24 quadrilaterals, for
pyramids are raised on the other 5 sides of the prima-
ry  cube  exactly in the same manner, disposed three
and three around each  solid angle of the  nucleus. But
in consequence of the decrement by one range, the three
quadrilaterals which belong to  each solid a«glc, as C 
CRY
CUB
(4rg 11.), will be in the same plane, and will form an
equilateral triangle ZIN (fig. 22.).  The  24 quadrilate-
rals th*-n will produce 8 equilateral triangles; and conse-
quently the secondary crystal will be a  regular  octahe-
dron. This is the structure of the octahedral sulphuret
of lead, and  of muriat of soda.
  The third law  is occasioned  by the  abstrac tion  of
double, triple, Sec. particles.  Fig. 23  exhibits an in-
stance of the subtractions in question: and the  niolecu-
la? which compose the range represented  by that figure
arc assorted in such a mariner as if of  two there were
formed only one; so that  we need only to conceive the
crystal composed of parallelopipcdons having their ba-
ses equal to  the small rectangles abc d,e dfgh i I, kc.
to reduce this case under that ofthe common decrements
on  the angles.
  This particular decrement, as well as the fourth law,
which requires  no  further explanation,  is uncommon.
Indeed Hauy has met with  mixed decrements  only  in
some metallic crystals.
  These different laws of  decrement account for all the
different forms of  secondary crystals.  But in order to
see the vast number of secondary forms which may re-
sult from them, it is necessary to attend to the different
modifications which result from their acting separately
or  together. These modifications  may be reduced  to
seven.
  1.  The decrements  take plane sometimes on all the
edges, or all the angels, at once.
  2.  Sometimes only on certain edges, or certain an-
gles.
  3.  Sometimes they are uniform, and consist of one,
two, or more rows.
  4.  Sometimes  they vary from one edge to the other,
or from one angle to another.
  5.  Sometimes decrements on the edges and angles
take  place at the same time.
  6. Sometimes the same edge or angle  is  subjected suc-
cessively to different laws  of decrement.
  7.  Soincfimes  the secondary crystal has faces  parallel
to those of the primitive nucleus, from the superposition
of lamina? not going beyond a certain extent.
  Hence Mr. llatiy  has divided secondary forms  into
two kinds,  namely, simple and compound. Simple  se-
condary  cry stals  are those which result from a single
law of decrement, and  which entirely  conceal  the pri-
mitive nucleus. Compound secondary crystals are those
which result from several  laws of decrement at once; or
from  a single law  which has not reached its limit,  and
wbich of course  has left  in the secondary crystal faces
parallel to those  ofthe primitive nucleus.
  «• If amidst this diversity of laws (observes Mr. Hauy)
sometimes united  by combinations more or less com-
plex,  the  number  of ranges subtracted  was itself ex-
tremely variable; for example, were these decrements
by  12, 2i), 30, or 40 ranges,  or more, as might absolute-
ly  be possible; tbe multitude of the forms which might
exist  in each kind of mineral  would be  immense,  and
exceed vs bat could  be imagined. But the power which
effects the  subtractions seems  to have a very  limited
a'tion. These subtractions, for the most pint, take place
by  one or tuco ranges of molecules.  I have found none
which exceed four ranges, except in u variety oi* calcare-
ous spar forming part ofthe collection of C. Gillet Lau-
mont, the structure of which depends on a decrement by
six ranges; so that if there  exist laws which exceed  the
decrements  by  four ranges, there  is reason to believe
they rarely take place in nature.  Yet notwithstanding
these narrow limits by which the laws of crystallization
are  circumscribed, I  have  found,  by confining my-
self to two of the simplest laws, viz. those which produce
subtractions by one or two ranges, that calcareous spar
is susceptible of 2044 different forms,  a number  which
exceeds  more than 50 times that of the forms already
known: and if we admit into the combination decrements
by three or four ranges, calculation will give 8,388,6c4
possible forms in regard to the same  suhstauce. This
number  may still be very much  augmented in conse-
quence of decrements either mixed or intermediary.
   In the crystallization of metals, of salts,  and other
substances,  soluble in caloric alone, as  well as those so-
luble in water by the aid of caloric, the latter substance
is given out in  abundance (as in the freezing, or more
properly, crystallization of water): hence the tempera-
ture of large masses of hot saline solutions  diminishes at
last very  slowly  during the increase of the crystals
which  have begun  to form in them.
   CRYSTALLINE-HUMOUR. See Optics.
   CUBjEA, a genus of tbe decandria  monogynia class
and order.  The calyx is turbinate, five-parted, unequal,
permanent; petals  five, unequal; filaments  villose, three
shorter; germ pcdicellcd; legume villose,  six or seven-
seeded. There are two species.
   CUBE,  a regular or solid body, consisting of six
equal sides or fases, which  arc squares.
   It is also called a hexahedron, because of its six sides,
and is tbe second of the five Platonic or regular bodies.
   The cube is supposed to be generated by the motion of
a square plane, along a line equal and perpendicular to
one of  its sides.
   To describe a rete, or net, for forming a  cube, or with
which  it may be covered.—Describe six squares  as in
figure 27, upon card, paper, pasteboard, or the like, of
the size of the faces ofthe proposed cube; and  put  it half
through by the  lines AB, CD, EF, AC, BD; then fold
up the  several squares till their edges meet, and so form
the cube, or a covering over one,  as in the  figure  an-
nexed.  See PI. XXXIX. Miscel. fig. 27.
   To determine the surface  and solidity  ofa cube.—Mul-
tiply one side by  itself, which  will give one  square or
face: then this multiplied by 6, the number of  faces, will
give the whole surface.  Also multiply one  side by itself
and that product again by the side, and that will be the
solid content.
   Cubes, or Cubic Numbers, are  formed by multiply-
ing any numbers by themselves and their products by
the numbers again.
     So the cubes of 1,  2 ,  3 , 4 ,  5 ,  6 ,  &c
                are 1,   8,  27, 64, 125, 216, kc.
   The  third differences ofthe cubes of the  natural num-
bers are all equal to each other,  being the constant num-
ber 6.  For, let m,  n, p, be any  three adjacent cubes in
the natural  series as above, that is, whose roots m, n v
have the common differences 1;  then, because        '
   n =  m -f 1, therefore n3 = ms -f 3m* -f- 3 m  -f 1,
   p =  n -f 1, therefore p* = n* +  Sn* + 3n  + 1 • 
CUBE.
m + 1, \
in -f 1,J
the 1st differences;
so that  the  difference between the 1st and  fid, and he-
tween the 2d and 3d cubes, are
m — ms = 5mt 4- 3m
p3 — ns = 3n2 +
and the difference of these differences, is        ___
3  ."n*^"™"2 + 3 . n. — m = 3 . n + w+ 1 =6 .m + 1,
the 2d difference.                            _______
   In  like manner  the  next 2d difference is 6 . n + 1:
Le.ice  the difference of these  two  2d  differences  is
6. n — m = 6, which is therefore the constant 3d differ-
ence of all the series of cubes.   And  hence that series
of cubes will be formed by addition only, viz. adding al-
ways the 3d difference 6 "to find the column or series of
2d differences, then these added a'ways for the 1 st differ-
ences,  and lastly,  these always added for the cubes
themselves, as below:
3d Difs.	2 Difs.	1st Difs.	Cubes.
6	6	1	0
G	12	7	1
6	18	19	8
6	24	37	27
6	30	61	64
6	36	91	125
6	42	127	216
6	48	169	343
  Peletarius,  among various  speculations concerning
6quare and  cubic  numbers,  shows that the  continual
sums of the cubic numbers, whose roots are 1, 2,3, kc.
form the series of squares whose roots are 1, 3, 6,  10,
15, 21, &c.
    Thus,          1 =    1 =  l2
              1 4.   8 =   9 =  32
         I +  8 + 27 =  36 =  62
     1 +8 + 27 -f 64 = 100 = IO2, kc.
    Or, in general, l3 + 22 + 33 + 43, &c. to u^
  = 1+2+3+4-- _"?i\2 —\n.n-\-l.
  It is also a curious property, that any number, and
the cube of it, being divided by 6, leave  the same re-
mainder; the series of remainders being 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5,
continually repeated. Or that the differences between
the numbers and their  cubes,  divided by 6, leave  al-
ways 0  remaining;  and the quotients, with  their suc-
cessive differences, form the several orders of figurate
numbers.  Thus.
Num.

   1
   2
   3
   4
   5
   6
   7
Cubes.

    1
    8
   27
   64
  125
  216
  343
Difs.	Quot. | 0	1 Dif. |
0		0
6	1	1
24	4	3
60	10	6
120	20	10
210	35	15
336	56	21
2 Dif.

  0
  1
  2
  3
  4
  5
  6
  Cube, duplication of, is the finding the side of a cube
that shall  double in solidity a given cube,  which is a
celebrated problem, much discussed by ancient geome-
tricians.  It was first proposed by the oracle of Apollo
at Delphos, which declared that the plague, then raging
at Athens, should cease when Apollo's altar, a cube, was
doubled.  Upon this the mathematicians applied them-
selves  seriously to  seek the duplicafure  of the cube-
hence it is called the Delian problem.  It cannot, how-
ever, be effected geometrically, as it requires the solutb n
of a cubic equation, or requires the finding of two mean
proportionals, viz.  between the side of the given cube
and the double ofthe same, the first of which two mean
proportions is the side ofthe double  cube, as was first
observed by Hippocrates of Chios.   For, let a be tbo
side of the given cube, and z the side of the double cube
sought; then it is «3 = 2a3, or a2: z2:: %-. 2a; so that, if
a and % be the first and 2d terms  of a set of continued
proportionals, then as:  a2 is the ratio  of the square of
the first to the square ofthe 2d, which, it is known, is
the same as the ratio  ofthe first term  to the 3d, or of
the 2d to the 4th, that is, of* to 2a; therefore z being
the 2d term, 2a will be  the 4th.  So that «, the side of
the cube sought, is  the 2d of four terms in continued pro-
portion, the first and 4th being a and 2a, that is, the
side ofthe  double cube is the first of two mean propor-
tionals between a and 2a.   The thing has been frequent-
ly done mechanically by Archimedes,  Eutochius, Pap-
pus, kc.
   Cube, or Cubic number, in  arithmetic, that  which ia
produced by the multiplication of a  square number by
its root: thus,  64 is a cube number, and  rises by mul-
tiplying 16, the square of 4, by the root 4.
   Cube, or Cubic quantity, in algebra, the third power
in a scries of geometrical proportionals continued; as a
is the root,  aa the square, and  aaa the cube.  All cubic
numbers may he ranged into the form of cubes; as 8 or
27, whose sides are 2 and 3,  and their bases 4 and 9j
whence it appears,  that every  true cubic  number, pro-
duced from a binomial root, consits of these parts, viz.
The cubes of the greater and  lesser parts of  the root,
and of three times  the square of the greater part mul-
tiplied hythe lesser, and of three times the square ofthe
lesser multiplied hythe  greater, as,
             aa +2«6 + 66
               a + b

             aaa + 2aa6 + abb
                   aab-j-2abb-j-bbb
            aaa + Saab + 5abb + bbb
From hence it is  easy to understand both ^he composi-
tion of any cubic  number, and the reason of the method
for extracting the cube root out of any number given.
See the following article.
   Cube root of any number, or quantity, such a number, or
quantity, which, if multiplied into itself, and then, again*
the product thence arising, by that number or quantity,
being the cube root, this last product  shall be equal to
the number or quantity whereof it is the cube root: as 2
is the cube root of 8, because two times 2 are 4, and two
times 4 are 8; and a + 6 is the cube root of a3 +3fl*H
Sab2 + b*.                                          .
   Every rube number has three roots, one real root, anfl
two imaginary ones; as the cube number 8 has one real
root 2,  and two imaginary  roots, viz. ^/ — 3—1» *n&
v__3 + l; and generally if a be tiie real root of any cube 
cue
c  u c
number,  one of the  imaginary, roots of that number
      a + \/—3aa               a—v—3tta
will be------------, and the  other------------Sec
             2                         2
Algebra.
  CUBEBS,  cubeba of the shops, in the materia medi-
ca, a small  dried fruit, resembling a grain of pepper,
but often somewhat longer, brought  into Europe from
the island of Java.  See Mateuia Medica.
  CUBIC,  or Cubical, Equation,  in algebra, one
whose highest power consists of three dimensions, as
.rs = a3 — 63, or xz + rxx—p6, kc.
  CUBIT,  in the mensuration of the ancients, a long
measure, equal to the length  of a man's  arm, from tbe
elbow to the tip of the fingers.  Dr. Arbuthnot  makes
the English cubit equal to 18 inches; the Roman cubit
equal to one  foot, 5,406  inches; and  the cubit of the
scripture equal to one foot, 9,888 inches.
   CUBIT^US.  Sec Anatomy.
  CUBITUS, in anatomy, a  bone ofthe  arm, reaching
from  the elbow to the wrist, otherwise called the  ulna.
  CUCKING-stool,  anciently called tumbrel,  an en-
gine invented  for the punishment of scolds and  unquiet
women, by ducking them.  This instrument was a sort
of chair, placed at the end of a plank, in which the offend-
er was placed, and so ducked: it was  formerly made use
of to  punish bakers and brewers, upon transgressing the
laws  made in  relation to their several trades; for upon
offending in this respect,  they were  ducked,  or plung-
ed in some stinking muddy pond, by means of this chair.
   CUCUBALUS, berry-bearing chickweed, a genus of
the trigynia order in the decandria class of plants, and
in the natural method ranking under the 22d  order,
caryophyhi. The calyx is inflated, the petals 5, unguicu-
lated without; a nectariferous corona at the throat; the
capsule is trilocular.    There  are 17 species;  the most
remarkable  of which are,
   1.  The beben, Swedish lychnis,  or gumsepungar, a
native of several parts of Europe.  The empalement of
its fiovver is curiously wro ight like a network, and is of
a purplish colour.  The  leaves  have somewhat of the
flavour of p; as,  and proved of great  use to the inhabit-
ants of Minorca in  1685, when a swarm of locusts had
destroyed the  harvest.   The  Gothlanders apply the
leaves to erysipelatous eruptions.  Horses, cows, sheep,
and goats, eat this plant.
  2.  The catholic-us, or night-flowering lychnis,  grows
naturally in Spain and Italy.  It is a perennial plant,
rising with an upright branching stalk a foot and a half
high, with very narrow  leaves placed opposite.  The
flowers stand upon long naked footstalks, each support-
ing three or four flowers which have  long tubes with
striped empalcnienls. the petals are large, deeply divid-
ed at to]), and ofa pale-blueish colour.  The flowers are
closed all tiie dav; but when the sun  leaves them, they
expand,  and then emit a very agreeable scent.   It may
be propagated by seeds sown in the spring on a bed of
light earth, and will flower the following year.
   3.  The otites, or catch-fly,  is a native of Britain and
other European  countries.    It has a  thick,  fleshy,
perennial root,  which  strikes into the ground,  whence
rises a jointed stalk three or four feet  high.  At (he
joints there exudes a viscous clammy juice,  that sticks
to the fingers when handled: and the small insects whic ii
settle upon those parts of the stalks are so fastened that
they cannot get  off.  The flowers are small, and of a
greenish colour.
   CUCUJUS, a genus of  insects of the coleoptera or-
der: antennae filiform; feelers four, equal* the last joint
truncate and thicker; lip short, bifid; the divisions linear
and distant;  body depressed.  There are 11 species be-
longing to this genus.
   CUCULLANUS, a genus of worms of the order in-
testina:  body sharp, pointed behind and obtuse before;
mouth orbicular, with a striated hood.  They are most
of them viviparous.   There are  eight species,  which
take their names from the animal in which they are found.
Thus, the cucullanus talpre inhabits the common  mole,
is  gregarious, inclosed in a membrane, spirally twisted,
white, and found in  the fat about the peritoneum.
   CUCULLARIS, see Anatomy.
   CUCULUS, the cuckow, in ornithology, a genus be-
longing to the order of picae; the essential characters of
which are: the bill is smooth, and more or less bending;
the nostrils are bounded by a small rim; the tongue is
short and pointed; the feet and toes formed for climbing.
See PI. XXXIX. N. II. fig. 153.  There  are 46 species.
The most remarkable are:
   1.  The canorns, or common cuckow,  weighs  about
five  ounces,  and is  in length 14 inches, in breadth 25.
The bill is black, and  about  two-thirds of  an inch in
length.   The head, hind part of the neck, coverts of the
wings and rump, are of a dove-colour, darker on the
head and paler on the rump.  The legs  arc  short, and
the toes disposed two backwards and two forwards, like
those of the woodpecker, though it is never observed to
run up the sides of trees.   The female differs in some re-
spects.
   This bird  appears in England early in  the  spring,
and makes the  shortest  stay there of any bird of* pass-
age. It is directed thither by that constitution of the air
which causes the fig-tree to put  forth its fruit; though it
has been supposed that some of these birds do not quit
that island during the winter, but that they seek shelter
in hollow trees, and lie torpid,  unless animated by un-
usually  warm weather.  Mr. Pennant gives two instances
of their being heard in February; one in irri, in the
end of that month; the other in 1769, on the fourth day;
but after that they were heard no more,  being probablv
chilled into torpidity.  There  is a remarkable coincid"-
ence between the song of these birds, and the mackarels
continuing in full roe; that is, from about the middle of
April to the latter part of June.  The cuckow is silent
for some time after his arrival.  His note is so uniform
that his name in all languages seems to have  been deriv-
ed from it; and in all countries it is  used in the same
reproachful sense.
   On the natural history of this singular bird, we have
a very curious paper by Dr. Jenner, published  in tiie
1 philosophical  Transactions for 1788, part  II. art. u
The first appearance  of  cuckows in  the   county of
Gloucester is about  the  middle  of April.  The sone of
the male, which is well known, soon proclaims ite  arriv- 
CUCULTJS.
al.  The song of the female (if the peculiar notes of which
it is composed may be so called) is widely different, and
has been so little attended to, that perhaps few are ac-
quainted with it:  the  cry of the dabchick bears some
resemblance to it.
  Unlike the generality of birds, cuckows do not pair.
When a female appears on the wing, she is often attend-
ed by two or three males. From the time of her appear-
ance till after the middle of summer, the nests of the birds
selected to receive her egg  are to  be  found in great
abundance;  but, like the other migrating birds, she does
not begin to lay till some weeks after her arrival.
  It is on all hands allowed that  the cuckow does not
hatch its own eggs;  for  which different reasons have
been given, as will be  afterwards noticed.   The hedge-
sparrow, the water-wagtail, the titlark, the redbreast,
the yellow-hammer, the green-linnet, or the winchat,  is
generally the nurse of the  young cuckow: but Buffon
enumerates  20 sorts  of nests at least in which they have
deposited their  eggs.   It may be supposed that the fe-
male cuckow lays  her egg in the absence of the bird  in
whose nest she intends to deposit it; as it has been known
that on sight of one of these, a redbreast  and its mate
jointly attacked her on approaching the nest, putting
her to flight; and so effectually  drove her away, that she
did not dare to return.  Among the birds above-mention-
ed, it generally, according to Dr. Jenner's observ ations,
selects the first three, but shows a much greater partiali-
ty to the hedge-sparrow.  This last commonly takes up
four or five days in laying her eggs.  During this time
(generally  after she has  laid one or two)  the cuckow
contrives to deposit her egg  among the rest, leaving the
future care  of it entirely  to the hedge-sparrow.   This
intrusion often occasions some discomposure: for the old
hedge-sparrow at intervals, whilst she is sitting, not un-
frequently throws  out some of her .own  eggs, and some-
times injures them in such a way that they become addle;
so that it more frequently happens that only two or three
hedge-sparrow's eggs are hatched with the cuckow's than
otherwise.   But whether  this is the  case or not, she sits
the same length of time as if no foreign egg had been
introduced, the cuckow's egg requiring no longer incuba-
tion than her own.
   When the hedge-sparrow has sat  her usual time, and
disengaged the  young cuckow and some of her own off-
spring  frem the shell, her own young ones, and any  of
"her eggs that remain  unhatched,  arc soon turned out,
the young cuckow remaining possessor  of the nest, and
the sole object of her future care.  The  young birds are
not previously killed,  nor are the  eggs  demolished; but
all are left to perish together, either entangled about the
bush which  contains the nest, or lying on the ground un-
der it.
   "The early fate of the young  hedge-sparrows (Dr.
Jenner observes) is a circumstance that  has been noticed
by others,  but attributed to wrong  causes.  A variety
of conjectures  have been formed  upon it.  Some have
supposed the parent cuckow the author  of their destruc-
tion; while others, as erroneously, have pronounced them
smothered hy the  disproportionate size of their fellow-
nestling.   Now the cuckow's egg being not much larger
than the hedge-sparrow■% it necessarily follows, that at
first there can be  no difference in the size of the birds
just burst from the she'll.   Of the fallacy of the  former
assertion also I was some  years ago convinced by hav-
ing found that many cuckow's eggs were hatched in the
nests of other birds after the old cuckow had disappear-
ed; and by seeing the same fate then attend the nestling
sparrows as during the appearance of old cuckows in this
country."   But before he enters on the facts relating to
the death of the young sparrows, our author proceeds to
state various examples of the incubation of the egg, and
the rearing of the young cuckow; a point wiiich had been
controverted by thehon. Daines Barrington, and disbe-
lieved by others.   For these, however,  on account of
their great length, we refer the reader to the original
paper.
   It appears a little extraordinary that two cuckows'
eggs should ever be deposited in the same nest, as the
young one produced from  one of them must  inevitably
perish; yet two instances of this kind fell under our au-
thor's observation, one of which he thus relates: « June
27,  1787.   Two cuckows  and a hedge-sparrow were
hatched in the same nest this morning; one hedge-spar-
row's egg remained unhatched.  In a few hours after, a
contest began between the cuckows for the possession of
the nest, which continued undetermined till the next af-
ternoon; when one of them, which was somewhat supe-
rior in size, turned out the other, together with the young
hedge-sparrow  and the  unhatched egg.   This contest
was very remarkable.  The combatants  alternately ap-
peared to have  the advantage, as each carried the other
several times nearly to the top of the nest, and then sunk
down again, oppressed by the weight of its burden; till at
length, after various efforts, the strongest prevailed, and
was afterw ards brought up  by the hedge-sparrows."
   But the principal circumstance  that has agitated the
mind of the naturalist respecting the cuckow is, why,
like other birds, it should not build a nest, incubate its
eggs, and rear its own  young?  There  is no  apparent
reason, Dr.  Jenner thinks, why this  bird, in common
with others, should not perform all these  several offices;
for it is in every respect perfectly formed for collecting
materials, and building a nest. Neither its external shape
nor internal structure prevents it from incubation; nor
is it by any means incapacitated from bringing food to
its young.   It would be needless to enumerate the vari-
ous opinions of authors on  this subject from Aristotle to
the present  time.  Those of the ancients appear to be
either visionary or erroneous; and the attempts of the
moderns towards its investigation have been confined
within very narrow limits:  for they have gone but little
further in their researches  than to examine the constitu-
tion and structure of the bird; and having found it pos-
sessed of a capacious stomach, with a thin external cover-
ing, concluded  that the pressure upon this part, in a sit-
ting posture, prevented incubation. They have not con-
sidered that many of the  birds which  incubate  have
stomachs analogous to those of cuckows.  The stomach
of the owl, for example, is proportionably capacious, and
is almost as  thinly covered with external integuments.
Nor have they considered that the stomachs of nestlings
are always much distended with food; and that this very
part, during the whole time of their confinement to the
nest, supports in a great degree the weight of the whole
body, whereas, in a sitting bird, it is not nearly so much 
CUCTJIXS.
 pressed upon; for the breast in that case fills up chiefly
 the cavity of the nest; for which purpose, from its na-
 tural convexity,  it  is admirably well fitted.  These ob-
 servations sufficiently show tb tt the cuckow is not ren-
 dered incapable of sitting through  any peculiarity either
 in the situation or formation of the stomach.
   In considering to what causes may be attributed the
 singularities of the  cuckow, Dr. Jenner suggests the fol-
 lowing as the most probable: "The short residence this
 bird is allowed to make  in the country  where it is des-
 tined to propagate its species; and the call that nature
 has upon it, during  that short residence, to produce a nu-
 merous progeny."  The  cuckow's  first appearance here
 is about the middle of April, commonly on the 17th. Its
 egg is not ready for incubation till some weeks after its
 arrival,  seldom before the middle  of May. A fortnight
 is taken up by the sitting-bird in hatching the egg. The
 young bird generally continues  three weeks in the nest
 before it flies, and  the foster parents  feed it more than
 five weeks after'this period; so  that if a cuckow should
 be ready with an egg much sooner than the time point-
 ed out, not a single nestling,  even one  of the earliest,
 would be fit to provide for itself before its parent would
 be instinctively directed  to seek a new residence, and be
 thus compelled to abandon its young one; for old cuckows
 take their final leave of this country the  first week in
 July.
   There  seems to be no precise time fixed for the de-
 parture of young cuckows.  Our author believes they go
 off in succession, probably as  soon as they are capable
 of taking care of themselves*; for although they stay here
 till they  become nearly equal in size and growth of plum-
 age to the old cuckow, yet in this  very state  the foster-
 ing  care of the hedge-sparrow is  not withdrawn from
 them.
   It is supposed that there are more  male cuckows than
 females;  since two are often seen in dispute where a third
 has been in sight; which, no doubt, was  ofthe opposite
 sex.  Mr.  Pennant  observed, that five male birds were
 caught in a trap in  one season; and Mr. Latham says,
 that " out of at least half a dozen that I have attended
 to, my chance has never  directed me to a female; and it
 is to  he  wished  that future observers  may  determine
 whether our observations have risen only in chance,  or
 are  founded on  general circumstances."  He believes
 that the male birds are more liable to be shot, their note
 directing the gunner where to take aim, while the female
 is secured  by her silence.
  Cuckows may be, and  often are, brought up tame, so
 as to become familiar.  They will eat in this state bread
 and milk, fruit, insects, eggs,  and  flesh either cooked or
 raw; but  in a state  of nature chiefly live  on eaterpillars
 ofthe smooth kind.  Some have fed on vegetable matter,
 beetles, and small stones. When fat, they are said to be
 as good eating as a  land-rail.  The French and Italians
 cat them to this day. The ancient Romans admired them
 greatly as food; and  Pliny says that there is no bird
 which can be compared to them for delicacy.
  In migrating, the major part of these  birds are sup-
posed to go into Africa; since they  arc observed to visit
the island of Malta  twice in a year in their passage hack-
wards and  forwards, as is supposed,  to that part of the
world. The cuckow i i well known also at Aleppo. To
the north, it is said io be common in Swede i; but not to
appear so early by a month as with us.  1  i;-sia is not
destitute of this bird; and Mr. Latham has seen a .•.peri-
men brought from  Kamtschatka, now in the possesion
of sir Joseph Banks.
   2. The indicator,  or honey-guide, is  a native of
America.  The following  description is  given of  it
by Dr. Sparrman, in the Philosophical  Transactions
for 1777.  "This curious  species of  cuckow is found
at  a  considerable distance  from the Cape  of Good
Hope, in the interior parts  of  Africa, being  entire-
ly unknown at that settlement. The first place I heard
of it  was in a wood  called the Groot-Vaader's Bosch,
the  Grandfather's Wood,  situated  in a desert near
the river which  the Hottentots call  T'kaut'kai.  The
Dutch settlers  thereabout  have given this  bird  the
name  of honiguyzer,  or  honey-guide, from its  quali-
ty of discovering wild honey to travellers.  Its colour
has nothing  striking or beautiful:  its size is smaller
than that of our cuckow in  Europe; but in return, the
instinct which prompts it to seek  its food in a singular
manner is  truly  admirable.   Not only the Dutch and
Hottentots,  but  likewise a species of quadruped named
ratel (probably a new species  of badger), are frequently
conducted to wild bee-hives  by this bird, which, as it
were,  pilots thein to the very spot.  The honey being
its favourite food, its own interest prompts it  to be in-
strumental  in  robbing the hive,  as   some scraps  are
commonly left for its support.  The morning and even-
ing are its times of feeding,  and it is then heard calling
in a shrill tone, cherr, cherr,  which  the honey-hunters
carefully attend to as the summons to the chace.  From
time to time they answer with a soft whistle, which the
bird hearing always continues its note. As soon as they
are in sight of each other, the  bird gradually flutters  to-
wards  the place where the hive is situated, continually
repeating its former call of cherr, cherr; nay, if it should
happen to have  gained a considerable way before  the
men (who may easily be  hindered  in the pursuit  by
bushes, rivers,  or the  like), it returns to  them  again,
and redoubles its note, as if to reproach them with their
inactivity.   At last the bird is observed to hover for a
few moments over a certain spot;  and then silently  re-
tiring to  a neighbouring bush or resting-place, the "hun-
ters are sure of finding the  bees' nest in  that identical
spot; whether it be in a tree or in the crevice of a rock,
or (as  is most commonly the case) in the earth.  Whilst
the hunters are busy in taking the honey, the bird is seen
looking on  attentively to *vhat is going forward, and
waiting for its share of the spoil. The bee-hunters never
fail to leave a  small  portion  for their conductor;  but
commonly take care not to leave so much as would satis-
fy his hunger.  The bird's  appetite  being  whetted  by
this parsimony, he is obliged to commit a  second trea-
son,  by discovering another  bees*  nest, in hopes of a
better  salary.  It is further observed, that the nearer
the bird approaches the bidden hive, the more frequently
it repeats its call, and seems the more impatient.   1
have bad frequent opportuiutics of seeing this bird, and
have been witness to the destruction of several republics
of bees by means of its treachery,  I had, however, but
two opportunities of shooting it, which I did to  the great
indignation of my Hottentots.   It is about seven inches 
cue
cue
in length, and is of a rusty-brown colour on the back,
with a white breast and belly." A nest which was shown
to Dr. Sparrman for that of this bird, was composed of
slender filaments of hark, woven together in the form of
a bottle; the neck and opening hung downwards,  and a
string, in an  arched shape, was suspended across the
opening, fastened by the two ends,  perhaps for the bird
to perch on.
   3. The capensis  or  Cape cuckow (Buffon) is a trifle
smaller than the common.  It inhabits the Cape of Good
Hope; and is most likely the  same bird  which is  called
cdolio, from its pronouncing that word frequently in a low
melancholy  tone.   Voyagers  also  mention  another
cuckow wiiich is common to Loango in Africa. It is also
larger, but of the  same colour, and  repeats the word
cuckow like that bird,  but in  a different inflection of
voice.  It is said that  the  male and female together go
through the whole  eight notes of the gamut; the  male,
beginning  by itself, sounds the first three, after which
he is accompanied by the female through the rest of the
octave.
   4. The honoratus,  or sacred cuckow, is  somewhat
less than that of England.  This species inhabits Malabar,
where the natives  hold  it  sacred.   It feeds on reptiles,
which perhaps may be such as are  the most noxious:  if
so, this seeming superstition  may  have arisen from a
more  reasonable foundation  than  many others of the
like  sort.
   5. The vetula is  rather larger than a blackbird. This
species inabits Jamaica, where it is frequent in the woods
and  hedges  all the year round.  It  feeds on seeds, small
worms, and caterpillars, and is very tame.   This bird
has the name tacco  from its cry,  which is like that  word;
the first syllable of this is pronounced hardly, the other
following in a full octave lower than the first.  It has
also another cry like qua, qua, qua, but that only when
alarmed by an enemy.  Besides  insects, it will  also eat
lizards, small  snakes, frogs, young rats, and sometimes
even small birds.   The snakes they swallow head fore-
most,  letting the tail hang out of the mouth till the fore
parts are digested.  This bird, it is most likely, might be
easily tamed, as it  is  so gentle  as  to suffer the  negro
children to catch it with their  hands.  Its gait is that of
leaping like a magpie, being  frequently seen  on the
ground; and  its  flight but short, chiefly from  bush to
bush.  At the time when other  birds breed, they likewise
retire into the woods, but their nests have never yet been
found; from which  we  should be inclined to think that
tbey were indebted  to other birds for the  rearing of their
young, in the manner of the common cuckow.  It has the
name  of rain-bird,  as it is said to  make the greatest
noise before rain.   It is common all the year at Jamaica.
In another species or variety,  common in Jamaica, the
feathers on the throat appear like a downy beard, whence
probably the name of old-man rain-bird, given it there,
and by Ray, Sloane, and others.
   6. The cayanus,  or  Cayenne cuckow,  is the size of a
blackbird.  This inhabits Cayenne,  where it goes by the
name of the piaye  or  devil.  The  natives give  it that
name, as  a bird  of ill-omen.  The flesh they will not
touch; and  indeed not without reason, as it is very bad
and lean.   It is a very  tame species, suffering itself to he
almost touched by  the hand before it offers to escape.
Its flight is almost like that of a king's-fisher, and it fre,,
quents the borders of rivers  on the low branches,  feed-
ing on insects, and often  wagging its tail on changin*
place.
   CUCUMIS, the cucumber, a genus of the syngenesia
order,  in the monoecia class of plants, and in the natural
method ranking under the 34th order, curcubitacese. The
male calyx is qiiinquedentated,the corolla quinquepartite
the filaments three.  The female calyx is also quinque-
dentated, the corolla quinquepartite,  the pistil trifid; the
sides of the apple sharp-pointed.  In this genus Ljnnams
includes also the melon.
  There are 13  species,  of which the following are the
most remarkable.
   1.  The  sativa, or common cucumber, has roots com-
posed of long, slender, white  fibres; long slender stalks,
very branchy at their joints,  trailing on the ground, or
climbing by their claspers,  adorned at every joint by
large angular leaves on long erect footstalks, wilh nu-
merous and  monopetalous bell-shaped flowers of a yellow
colour,  succeeded by oblong  rough fruit.  The varieties
of this kind are,  1. The  common rough  green prickly
cucumber; a middle sized fruit, about six or soven inches
long, having a dark-green rough  rind, closely set with
very small prickles: the plant is of the hardiest sort, but
does not show its fruit early.   2.  The short green prick*
ly cucumber is about three or four inches long, the  rind
rather  smooth, and set with small prickles.  It is valua-
ble chiefly for being one of the earliest and hardiest sorts.
3. The long green prickly cucumber,  grows from six to
nine inches in length, and  is rather thinly set with prickle::
and as there are an early and a late cu umber, itis con-
siderably the best vaiiety for the  main crops, both in the
frames and hand-glass, as well as in the open ground for
picklers.  Of this there  is another variety with white
fruit.  4.  The early green cluster cucumber is ashortish
fruit, remarkable for growing in clusters, and appearing
early.   5. The long smooth green Turkey cucumber is a
smooth  green rinded-fruit, growing from 10 to 15 inches
in length, without prickles.  The plants arc strong grow-
ers, with very large leaves.  6. The  long smooth white
Turkey cucumber, is a smooth-rinded fruit, irom 10 to
15 inches  long without prickles.  7.  The large smooth
green Roman cucumber is a very large and long smooth
green fruit, produced from a strong-growingplani  8. Tbe
long white prickly Dutch cucumber is a white fruit, eight
or ten inches long, set with small black prickles.
  2.  The chata, or hairy cucumber.   According to Mr,
Hasselquist this grows in the  fertile earth near Cair.i. af-
ter the inundation of the Nile,  and  not in any other
place in Egypt, nor does it grow in any other soil.  The
fruit is  a little watery; the flesh almost of the same sub-
stance  with  the  melons;  it tastes somewhat sweet and
cool, but is  far from being so cool as the water-melons.
This the grandees and Europeans in  Egypt cat as the
most pleasant fruit they find, and that from wbich they
have the least to apprehend.  It is the most excellent fruit
of this tribe, of any yet known.
   3. The inelo, or melon.  The varieties of this species
are almost endless.  The  most esteemed are,  1. Tiie
canteloupc, a small melon good for early culture.  2. The
Roman.  3. The galloway,  or Portugal  melon.  Tnc 
cue
cue
grand mistake in the culture of melons is, planting? them
early; for without  sun to ripen them well, melons are
not worth the trouble of eating.
  Cucumbers in this country arc raised at three different
seasons of the year: 1. on hot-beds,  for early fruit; 2.
on the common ground, for the middle crop: 3. which is
for a  late < rop or to pickle.  Tie cucumbers  which are
ripe before April are unwholsome,  being raised  wholly
by the heat of the dung without the assistance of the
Mm.  Those raised in April are good.
  Besides the above-mentioned species, which  arc proper
for the table, this genus  affords also two articles for the
materia medic a.  1. The elaterium  of the shops, is the
inspissated fsecula of the juice of a kind of wild cucum-
ber, called also the elatinum or ass's cucumber. It comes
to this  countiy  from  Spain  and the southern parts of
France, where the  plant is very common.  It is brought
to us  in small flat whitish lumps or cakes that are dry,
and break easily between the fingers.  It is of an acrid,
bitter and nauseous taste, and has a strong offensive
smell when newly  made: hut these, as well as its other
qualitic s,  it loses after being kept some time.  Elaterium
is a violent purge  and vomit, and is now  very  seldom
used.   The plant is commonly called spirting  cucumber,
from its casting out its seeds with great violence, together
with the vie id juice in which they are lodged, if touched
when ripe: from this circumstance it has obtained the ap-
pellation  of  noli me  tangere, or  touch-me-not.   2. The
colocynthis, colocynth, coloquintida, or bitter apple of the
shops, is brought to us from Aleppo  and the island of
Crete.  The leaves of the plant arc large,  placed alter-
nate, almost round, and stand upon footstalks four inches
long.   The flowers are white;  and are  succeeded  hy a
fruit resembling the gourd," of the size of a large apple,
and wiiich is yellow when ripe.  The shelly or husky out-
side incloses a bitter pulp interspersed with flatfish seeds.
If a hole is made in one of these ripe gourds, and a glass
of rum  poured in  and suffered to  remain  24 hours, it
proves a powerful  purgative.  The pulp itself dried and
powdered is commonly used as a purgative in this coun-
try, but is one of the most drastic, and if taken in a large
dose, somewhat hazardous.
   CUCl'RBIT, in chemistry,  an earthen or glass ves-
sel, so called from its resemblance to a gourd, arising gra-
dually from a wide bottom, and terminating in a narrow
neck.
   CUCURB1TA,  the gourd and  pompion, a genus o^
the sv ngenesia order,  in the moncecia  class of plants*
and in the natural method ranking under the 34th order,
cucurbitac ea-.  The ca! \ x  ofthe male is quinquedentat-
ed. the  corolla quinqiuiid,  the filaments three: the calyx
ofthe female is quiiiqiiedeiitated, the corolla quinquefid,
the pistil quinquefid, the seeds ofthe apple with a tumid
margin.
   There are seven species, viz.

   1. The  laginaria.  or  bottle-gourd, rises with thick
trailing iv\ny stalks, branching into many spreading
runner  .  These extend  along the ground sometimes 15
or 20 fee t in  length.  The leaves are large; the  flowers
are large .•(,   white, succeeded by long  ine urvated whi-
tish yellow ft uii, attaining from about two to  five or six
  vol. i.                  68
feet in length, and from about nine to twenty-four biches
in circumference, having a ligneous aud durable shell.
  2. The pepo or pompion,  commonly called  pumpkin.
has strong  trailing rough stalks, branching into  nume-
rous runnels.  These are much larger than the former,
extending from ten to forty or fifty feet cadi way. They
have yellow  flowers.  The flowers are succeeded  by-
large, round, smooth fruit, of different forms and sizes;
some as large as a peck,  others as big as half a bushel
measure; some considerably less, and others not exceed-
ing the bulk of an orange,  ripening to a yellow,  and
sometimes to  a whitish colour.  This species is the most
hardy  of any,  as well as the  most extensive in their
growth.  A single plant, if properly  encouraged,  will
overspread 10  or 15 roods of ground,  and produce a
great number of fruit, which, when young, are generally
a mixture between a deep blue and pale white, but change
as they increase in bulk.
  3. The verrucosa,  or warted gourd, has trailing stalks
very branchy,  and running upon  the ground  10 or 13
feet each way; large tobated leaves,  and yellow flowers,
succeeded by roundish, knobby, warted, white fruit, of a
moderate size.
  4. The melopepo,  erect gourd, or squash, rises with
an erect  strong stalk several feet  high,  rarely sending
forth side-runners,  but becoming bushy upward.  It is
adorned with large lobated leaves; and the flowers arc
succeeded by depressed knotty fruit, both white and yel-
low, commonly  of a moderate size.
  5. The hispida.
  6. The ovifcra.
  7. The citrullus, or water-melon, the fruit of which is
often a foot or a foot and a half in diameter.  It is much
admired in hot climates for its refreshing coolness; but
to an English palate it is always insipid.
  Of all  these species there are a great many varieties,
and the fruit of every species is observed to be surpris-
ingly apt to change its form.
  All the species of gourds and pompions, with their res-
pective varieties, are raised from seed sown annually in
April or the beginning of May, either with or without the
help of artificial  heat.  But the  plants  forwarded in a
hotbed till about a month  old, produce fruit a  month or
six weeks earlier on that account,  and ripen proportion-
ably sooner.
   In England  these plants are  cultivated chiefly for
curiosity; though, mixed with apples, their pulp makes
excellent tarts.   In the places  where  they  arc natives,
they answer many important purposes.  In both the In-
dies, bottle-gourds  are very commonly cultivated and
sold in the markets.  They make the principal food of the
common people, particularly in the warm months of J one,
July, and August.  The Arabians call this kind of gourd
charrah.   It grows commonly on the mountains in their
deserts.  The natives boil  and season it with vinegars
and sometimes, filling the shell with rice and meat, make
a kind of pudding of it.  The hard shell is used for hold-
ing water,  and some of th?m are capacious enough  to
contain 22  gallons; these,  however, are very uncommon.
The fruit of  the  pompion  constitutes a great part of the
food of the common people during the hot months, in those
places where  it grows.  If gathered when not much big-
ger than a  hen or goose egg, and properly seasoned with 
C  U L
C  U L
butter, &c.  it makes a tolerable good sauce for butcher's
meat, and is also used in soups.   In England it is seldom
used till grown to maturity.  The third species is also
used in America  for culinary purposes.  The fruit  is
gathered  when about half-grown, boiled, and eaten as
sauce to butcher's meat.  The squashes are also treated
in the same manner, and esteemed delicate eating.
   CUDDY, in great ships,  a place lying between  the
captain-lieutenant's cabin  and the quarter-deck, under
the poop.  It is divided into partitions for the master
and other officers.
   CUI ante divortium,  a  writ that  a  woman divorced
from her husband  has to recover her lands and tenements,
which, before her coverture,  she held in fee  simple,  in
tail, or for life, from a person to  whom her husband had
alienated  them during the  marriage, when it was not in
her power to gainsay it.
   Cui in vita, a writ of entry which a widow  may have
against him to whom her husband in his life-time alien-
ated her lands or tenements, without her consent first
had, and her lawfully joining therein.
   CUIRASS, a piece of defensive armour, made of iron
plate, well  hammered, serving to cover the body from
the neck to the girdle, both before and  behind: whence,
   CUIRASSIERS, cavalry armed  with cuirasses,  as
most ofthe Germans formerly were.
   CULDEES, in the church history, a sort of monkish
priests, formerly inhabiting Scotland and Ireland.  Be-
ing remarkable for the religious  exercises of preach-
ing and praying, they were called,  by way of emi-
nence, cultores Dei;  whence is  derived the  word cul-
dees.  They made choice  of one of their own fraternity
to be their spiritual head,  who was afterwards called the
Scots bishop.
   CULEUS, in Roman antiquity, the  largest measure
of capacity for things liquid,  equal to 20 amphorse, or 40
urna.  It contained  143  gallons  three pints, English
wine measure, or 11,095 solid inches.
   CULEX, the gnat, a genus of insects belonging to
the order of diptera.  The  mouth is formed by  a flexible
sheath,  inclosing bristles  pointed  like  stings.   The
antenna of the males are  filiform; those of the females
feathered.   There are  seven species.   These insects,
too well known by the severe punctures they inflict, and
the itcbings thence arising,  afford  a  most interesting
history.   Before  they  turn to flying insects, they have
been in some measure fishes, under two different forms.
"You may observe in stagnate  waters," says Barbut,
" from the  beginning of May till winter, small grubs
with their heads downwards, and  their hinder parts  on
the surface  of  the water;  from which  part arises side-
ways a kind  of vent-hole, or small hollow tube  like a
funnel; and  this is the  organ  of  respiration.   The head
is armed with hooks that serve to  seize on insects and
bits of grass, on which it feeds.  On the  sides are placed
four small fins,  by the  help of which the insect  swims
about,  and dives to  the bottom.  These larva? retain
their form during a  fortnight  or  three weeks,  after
which period  they turn to chrysalids.   All the parts of
the winged insect are  distinguishable through the out-
ward rube that shrouds them.  The cbrysalids  are rolled
up into spirals.  The situation and shape of the windpipe
is then altered;  it consists of two tubes near the head
which occupy the place of the  stigmata, through these
the winged insect is one day to breathe.  These chrys-
alids, constantly on the surface of the water in order to
draw breath, abstain now  from eating;  but  upon the
least motion are seen to  unroll themselves, and  plunge
to the bottom, by means  of little paddles situated at the
hinder part.  After  three or four days  of strict fastin*
they pass to  the state  of a gnat.   A  moment before'
water was its element;  but now it becomes an aerial
insect, he can no longer exist in it.   He swells his head,
and bursts his inclosure. The robe  he lately wore turns
to a ship, of which the insect is the mast and the sail. If
at the instant when the  gnat  displays  his wings there
arises a breeze, it proves to him a  dreadful hurricane'
the  water gets into the ship, and the insect, who  is not
yet loosened from it, sinks, and is  lost.  But in  calm
weather, the  gnat forsakes his slough, dries himself, flies
into the air,  and seeks to pump the alimentary juice of
leaves,  or the blood  of men  and beasts.  The sling
which our naked eye discovers, is but a tube, containing
five or six spiculaof exquisite minuteness; somedentated
at their extremity like the head of an arrow, others sharp-
edged like razors.  These spicula, introduced into the
veins, act as  pump-suckers, into which the blood ascends
by reason of the smallness of the capillary tubes.  The
insect injects a small quantity of liquor into tbe wound,
by  which the blood becomes  more fluid,  and is seen
through  the  microscope passing through those spicula.
The animal swells, grows red,  and does not quit his hold
till  it has gorged itself.  The liquor it has injected causes
by its irritation  that  disagreeable itching which we ex-
perience; and which may be removed by volatile alkali,
or by scratching the part newly stung, and washing it
with vinegar. Rubbing  one's self at night with fullers'
earth and water, lessens the pain and inflammation. Gnats
perforin  the copulation in the air.  The female deposits
her eggs on the water, by the help of her  moveable hinder
part and her  legs, placing them one by the side of another
in the form  of  a little boat.  This  vessel, composed of
two or three  hundred eggs, swims on the water for two
or three days, after which they are hatched.  If a storm
arises, the boats are sunk.   Every month there is afresh
progeny of these insects.  Were they not devoured by
swallows, other birds, and by several carnivorous insects,
the air would be darkened by them."
  Gnats in this  country, however troublesome they may
be,  do not make us feel them so severely as the musketo
flies (culex pipiens) do in foreign parts.  Both day and
night they come into the houses; and when the people are
gone to bed, they begin their disagreeable humming, ap-
proach always nearer to the bed, andat last suck up so
much blood that they can hardly fly away. The bite causes
blisters in people of a delicate constitution.  When the
weatlier  has been cool for some days, the musketoes dis-
appear; but where it changes again, and especially after
rain, they gather frequently in  such quantities about the
houses, that their number is astonishing.  In sultry even-
ings they accompany the cattle in great swarms from the
woods to the houses or to town; and when they are driven
before the houses, the gnats fly in wherever they can. I"
greatest heat of summer, they are  so numerous in soni*
places, that the  air seems to be quite full of them, espeo 
C  U N
CUP
 ally near swamps and stagnate waters, such as the river
 Morris in New-Jersey.  The inhabitants therefore make
 a fire to expel these disagreeable guests by the smoke.
   CULMINATION, in astronomy, the passage of any
 heavenly body over the meridian, or its greatest altitude
 for that day.  Sec Clowes, use of.
   CULPRIT, is not (as is vulgarly imagined) an oppro-
 brious name given to the prisoncrbeforeheis found guilty,
 but it is the reply of the clerk  of  arraigns to the prisoner,
 after he had pleaded Not Guilty; which pica was anciently
 entered upon the minutes in an abbreviated form, non cul';
 upon whiiii the clerk of the arraigns, on behalf of the
 crown, replies that the prisoner  is guilty, and that he is
 ready to prove him  so; which is done by a like kind of ab-
 breviation, cul'prit, signifying that the king is ready  to
 prove him guilty (from cul. that is, culpabilis,  guilty; and
 prit.  pnesto sum, I am ready to verify it).  4 Black. 339.
   CLLM. or Culmus.   Sec Botany.
   CULTURE of lands.   See IIusnANnnv.
   CULVERIN, a long slender piece of ordnance or ar-
 tillery, serving to carry a ball to a great distance.  Ma-
 nege derives the word from the Latin colubrina;  others
 from  coluber,  « snake;"  either on account of the
 length and slenderncss of the piece, or of the  ravages it
 makes.  There are three  kinds of culverins, viz. the ex-
 traordinary, the ordinary, and the least-sized.  1. The
 culvcrin extraordinary has 5\ inches bore; its length 32
 calibers, or 13 feet; weighs 4800 pounds; its load above
 12 pounds;  carries a shot 5| inches diameter, of twenty
 pounds weight. 2. The ordinary culvcrin is 12 feet long;
 carries a ball of 17 pounds 5 ounces; caliber 5| inches; its
 weight 4500 pounds.  3.  The culverin of the least size
 has its  diameter 5 inches; is 12 feet long; weighs about
 4000 pounds; carries a shot 3| inches diameter, weighing
 14 pounds 9 ounces.
   CULVERTAIL, among shipwrights, signifies the fas-
 tening or letting of one timber into  another, so that they
 cannot slip out, as the codings into  the beams ofa ship.
   CUMIN UM, cummin, a genius of the digynia order,  in
 the pentandria class of plants, and in the natural method
 ranking under the 45th order, uinbcllatie.  The fruit  is
 ovate and striated; there are four partial umbels, and the
 involucre are quadrifid.  There is but one species, viz.
 the cyiniiium. It is an annual plant, perishing soon after
 the seed is ripe. k It rises  nine or ten inches high in the
 warm countries, where it is cultivated, but seldom rises
 above four in this  country.   It has sometimes flowered
 very  well here, but never brings its seeds to perfection.
 The leaves are divided into long narrow segments, like
 those of fennel, but much smaller: they are ofa deep green,
 and generally turned backward at their extremity.  The
 flowers grow in small umbels at the top of the stalks: they
 are composed of five unequal petals, of a pale  blueish co-
 lour,  which  are succeeded  by long,  channeled,  aromatic
 seeds.  The plant  is propagated for sale in the island  of
 Malta.  The seeds have a  bitterish warm taste, accompa-
 nied  with an aromatic flavour, not ofthe most agreeable
 kind.  They are retained in  the revised Pharmacopoeia
 ofthe college, particularly in the emplastrum  cumini.
   CUN1CULUS, in  mining, a term used by  authors in
 distinction from  puteus, to express the several sorts of
 passages and  cuts  in these subterranean works.  The
cuniculi arc  those direct passages in mines where they
Walk on horizontally; but the putei are the perpendicular
cuts or descents.  The miners in Germany call these by
the name stollen and schachts; the firat word expressing
the horizontal, and  the second the perpendicular cuts,
   CUMLA, in botany, a genus of the monogynia order,
in the  monandria class of plants, and in the natural me-
thod ranking  under the 42d  order, vcrticillat*.   The
corolla is ringcnt, with its upper lip erect and plain; there
are two  filaments,  castrated, or wanting  antherae;  the
seeds are four.  Tliere  are  four species, none of which
has any remarkable property.
   CLNNINGIIAM1A, a genus ofthe tetrandria mono-
gynia  class and order.   The calyx is four-toothed;  the
corolla four-cleft, with a short tube; berry crowned with
a two-seeded nut.   There is one species.
   CLNONTA,  a genus of the digynia order, in the de-
candria class of plants, and in the natural method rank-
ing with those of wiiich  the order is doubtful.   The co-
rolla is pentapetalous;  the calyx pentaphyllous; the  cap-
sule bilocular, acuminated, polyspermous; the styles longer
than the flower.  There is one species, a native of the
Cape.
   CUOGOLO, in natural  history, the name of a stone
much used by the Venetians in glass-making, and found
in the  river  Fcsino.   It is  a small stone of an impure
white, of a shattery texture, and is of the shape  of a peb
ble.
   CXP-galls, in  natural history, a name  given by au-
thors to a very singular kind of galls, found on the leaves
of the  oak and some other trees.  They are of the figure
ofa cup, or drinking-glass without its foot,  being regular
cones adhering by their point or apex to the leaf; and the
top or broad part is hollowed a little way, so that it  ap-
pears like a drinking-glass with a cover, which was made
so small as not to close  it at the mouth, but fall a little
way into it.  This cover is flat, and has in  the  centre a
very small protuberance, resembling the nipple of a wo-
man's  breast.   This is  of a  pale green, as is   also the
whole ofthe gall, excepting only its rim that runs round
about the  top: this latter is of a scarlet colour, and that
very beautiful.  See Cynips.
  CUPANIA, a genus  of the monadelphia order, in the
monoecia class of plants, and in the natural  method rank-
ing under the 38th  order, tricoccse.  The calyx of the
male is triphyllous; the corolla pentapetalous; the stami-
na five.  The calyx of  the female is triphyllous; the co-
rolla tripetalous; the style  trifid; and a pair  of seeds.
There are three species, small trees of the West Indies,
which  possess no remarkable property.
   CUPEL, in metallurgy, a small  vessel which absorbs
metallic bodies when changed by fire into a fluid scoria;
but retains them as  long as they continue in their metal-
lic state.   One ofthe most proper materials for making a
vessel  of this kind is the ashes of animal bones; there is
scarcely any other substance which so strongly resists ve-
hement fire, and which so readily imbibes metallic scoria?.
See Chemistry.
  CUPELLATION,  the act of refining gold  or silver
by means  of  a cupel.  For  this purpose another vessel
called  a muffle is made use of, within which one or more
cupels  are placed.   The muffle is placed upon a grate in
a proper furnace, with its mouth facing the door, and as
close to it as may be.  The  furnace being filled up with 
CUP
CUP
fuel, soine  lighted charcoal is thrown on the top,  and
what fuel is afterwards necessary is supplied through a
door above.  The cupels are set in the muffle; and being
gradually heated by the successive kindling of the fuel,
they arc kept red-hot for some time, that the moisture
which they strongly retain may be completely dissipated;
for if any vapours should issue from them after the metal
is put in, they would occasion it to sputter, and a part of
it to be thrown off in little drops.   In the sides of the
muffle are some perpendicular slits, with a knob over the
top of each, to prevent any small pieces of coals or ashes
from falling in.  The door, or some apertures in it, be-
ing kept open, for the inspection  of the cupels, fresh air
enters into the muffle, and passes off through these slits;
by laying some burning charcoal on an iron plate before
the door, the air is  heated before its admission; and by
removing the charcoal, or supplying more, the heat in
the cavity of the muffle may be somewhat diminished or
increased more speedily than can be effected hy suppres-
sing or exciting the fire in the furnace on the outside of
the muffle.  The renewal ofthe air also is  necessary for
promoting the scorification of the lead.  Sec Chemistry.
  The cupel being of a full red heat, the lead, cast  into
a smooth bullet that it may not scratch or injure the sur-
face, is laid lightly in the  cavity; it immediately melts,
and then the gold  or silver to be cupelled is  cautiously
introduced, either by means of a  small  iron ladle, or by
wrapping them in paper,  and  dropping them on the  lead
with a pair of tongs.  The quantity of lead should be at
least three or four times that of the fine metal; but when
gold is very impure, it requires 10 or  12 times its quan-
tity of lead for  cupellation.   It is reckoned that copper
requires for its scorification about 10 times  its weight of
lead; that when copper and gold arc mixed in equal quan-
tities, the copper is so much defended by the gold, as not
to be separable with less than 20 times  its weight of lead;
and that when copper is in very  small proportion, as a
lI0th or 30th part of the gold er silver,  upwards of 60
parts of lead are necessary for one of the copper.   The
cupel must always weigh at least half as much as the lead
and copper, for otherwise it will not be sufficient for re-
ceiving half the  scoria; there is little  danger, however,
of cupels being made too small for the quantity of a gold
assay.
   The mixture being brought into thin fusion, the heat
is to be regulated according to the appearances, and in
this consists the principal nicety of the operation.   If a
various-coloured skin rises at the top, which liquefying,
runs off to the sides, and is there absorbed by the cupel,
visibly staining the parts it enters;  if  a fresh scoria con-
tinually succeeds, and is  absorbed nearly as fast as it is
formed, only a  fine circle of it remaining round the
edge of the metal;  if the lead appears in  gentle motion,
and throws up  a fume a little  way from the surface;
then the fire is  of the proper degree, and the process
 goes on successfully.
   Such a fiery brightness of  the cupel as prevents its
 colour from being distinguished, and  the fumes  of the
 lead rising up almost to the  arch of the muille, are
 marks of two strong a heat: though  it must be observed,
that the elevation of the fumes is' not always in propor-
tion to the degree of heat; for if the heat greatly exceeds
the due limits, both the fumes and ebullition will entirely
co se.  In these circumstances the fire  must necessarily
be diminished; for while the lead boils and smokes ve-
hemently, its fumes are apt to carry off Some part ofthe
gold; the cupel is liable to crack, from the hasty absorp-
tion of the scoria; and part of the gold ani silver is di-
vided  into globules,  which  lying  discontinued on the
cupel after the process is finished, cannot easily be col-
lected; if there is no ebullition or fumes, the scorification
does not appear to go on.  Too weak  a heat is known
by the dull redness ofthe cupel,  by the fume not rising
from the surface of the lead, and the  scoria appearini*
like bright drops in languid motion, or accumulated, or
growing consistent all over the metal.   The form of tbe
surface affords  also  an useful  mark  of tbe degree  of
heat; the stronger the fire the more convex is tbe surface,
and the weaker  the more flat;  in  this point, however,
regard must be had to  the  quantity of  metal; a large
quantity being always  flatter than a small one in an
equal fire.
  Towards the end of the process, the fire must be in-
creased; for the greatest part of the fusible metal lead
being now worked off,  the gold  and silver v\i!I not con-
tinue melted in the heat that was sufficient before.   As
the last remains of the lead are  separating, the rainbow
colours on the surface become more vivid, and variousl)
intersect one another with  quick motions.  Soon alter,
disappearing all at once, a sudden  luminous brightness
of the button of gold  and silver shows the process to be
finished.  The cupel is then drawn forwards towards
the  mouth of the muffle;  and the button, as  soon as
grown fully solid, taken out.
  CUPHEA, in botany, a genus of the monogynia order,
in the dodecandria class of plants.  The calyx is six
toothed; the corolla six petalled,  purple  colour; annual.
There is but one species known, a native of Pennsylvania;
flowers in September, (c)
  CUPOLA, in architecture, a spherical vault; or the
round top of the  dome of a church, in  form of a cup
inverted.
  CUPPING,  in surgery,  the operation of applying
cupping-glasses for the discharge of  blood, and other
humours, by the  skin.  See  Suugery.
   CUPRESSUS,  the  cypress-tree, a  genus of the mo-
nadelphia order, in the monoecia class of plants, and in the
natural method ranking under the 51st order, conifer*.
The male calyx is a scale ofthe catkin; there is no corol-
la;  the anthera? are four, sessile, and without  filaments.
The calyx of the female is a scale of the s'robihis, and
uniflorous; instead of the stylus there arc hollow dots; the
fruit is an angulated  nut. There are seven species; tbe
most remarkable are the following: 1. The sempervirens,
or  evergreen, with an  upright straight  stem, closely
branching all round, almost from the bottom upwards, in-
to numerous quadrangular branches, rising in the differ-
rent varieties from 15 to 40 or  50 feet  in height, with
small, narrow, erect evergreen leaves, placed imbricating
and flowers and fruit from the sides of the branches.  2.
The thyoicles, or evergreen American cypress, commonly
called  white cedar, has an'' upright stem  brauciiingout
into numerous two-edged branches, rising 20 or 50 feet
high, ornamented with the flat  evergreen leaves, imbn- 
CUR
CUR
cated like the arbor vita, and small blue cones, the size
of juniper-berries.  3. The disticha, or deciduous Ame-
rican cypress, has an erect trunk, retaining a large bulk,
branching wide and regular; grows 50 or CO feet high,
with small spreading deciduous leaves, arranged distich-
ous, or  along two sides of the branches.   All these spe-
cies are raised from seeds, and will sometimes also grow
from cuttings; but those raised from s-rds prove the hand-
somest plants.  The seeds  are  procured in  their cones
from the seedsmen, and by exposing them to a moderate
heat, they readily open, and discharge their seeds freely.
The season for sowing them is any time in March;  and
they grow freely on a bed of common light earth, especi-
ally the first and third species.
  The wood  of the  first species is said to resist worms,
moths, and putrefaction, and to last many centuries. The
coffins in which the Athenians were used to bury their he-
roes, were made, says Thucydides, of this wood; as were
likewise  the  chests containing the Egyptian mummies.
The doors of St. Peter's church at Rome were originally
of the same materials.  These, after lasting upwards of
600 years, at the end of which they did not discover the
smallest tendency to decay,  were  removed by  order of
pope Eugcuius IV.  and gates of brass substituted in their
place.   The same tree has been extolled as a remedy in
pulmonic diseases, from its supposed  property of melio-
rating the air by ifs balsamic- exhalations; upon which ac-
count  many ancient physii ians of the eastern countries
used to send their patients to the  island of Candia, where
these trees grew in great  abundance.  In that  island, says
Miller, the cypress-trees  were so lucrative a commodity,
that the  plantations were called dos  filae; the felling of
one of them being reckoned a daughter's portion. Cypress,
says Mr. Pococke,  is  the only tree that grows towards
the top of mount Lebanon, and being nipped hy the cold,
grows like a small  oak.   Noah's ark is commonly sup-
posed to have been made  of this kind  of wood.
   CURATE, is he  who  represents the incumbent  ofa
church, parson, or vicar, and performs divine service in
his stead; and in case of pluralities of livings, or where a
clergyman is  old and infirm, it is requisite there should be
a curate to perform the cure of the church.  He is to be
licensed and admitted  by  the bishop of the diocese, or hy
an ordinary having episcopal jurisdiction: and when a cu-
rate has the  approbation of the bishop, he  usually ap-
points the salary too; and in such case, if he is not paid,
the curate has a proper remedy in the ecclesiastical court,
by a sequestration of the profits of the benefice; but if he
has no licence from the bishop, he is put to his remedy at
common law. where he must prove the agreement.
  CURATELLA, a genus of the digynia order, belong-
ing to the polyandria class of plants,  and in the natural
method ranking with those of which the order is doubt-
ful.  The calyx is  pentnphyllous; the petals four; the
styles  two; the capsules bipartite,  with the cells dis-
pennous.
  CURATOR, among civilians, a person regularly ap-
pointed to manage the affaii-K of  minors, or persons mad,
deaf, dumb,  &c.   In countries where the civil  law  pre-
vails, minors have tutors assigned them till they arc of
the age of M, between wiiich and 25  they have  curators
appointed tlnni.  There are  also curators for the estate
of debtors, and of persons dying without heirs.
  CURCULIO, in zoology, a genus of insects belong-
ing to the order of coleoptera.  The feelers are suhcla-
vated,  and rest upon the snout, which is prominent and
horny.  These insects  arc divided  into the following
families : 1. Those which have the rostrum longer than
the thorax, and  whose thighs  are  simple. 2.  Those
which have the rostrum longer than the  thorax, and the
thighs thicker and made for leaping.   3. Those which
have the rostrum longer than the thorax, and the  thighs
dentated.   4. Those which have dentated thighs,  and a
rostrum shorter than the thorax.  5. Those whose thighs
are without teeth or spines,  and  the  rostrum shorter
than the thorax.   There are no  less than 95 species,
principally distinguished by their colour.
  The larvre of the curculiones do not differ from those
of most coleopterous insects.  They  bear a resemblance
to  oblong  soft worms.   They are provided anteriorly
with six scaly legs, and the head likewise is scaly.  But
the places  where those larva1 dwell,  and their transfor-
mations, afford some singularities.  Some species of them,
that are dreaded for the mischief they do in granaries,
find means to introduce themselves, while yet small, into
grains,of corn, and there make their abode.  It is very
difficult to discover them, as they lie concealed within the
grain.   There  they grow at leisure,  enlarging their
dwelling-places as tbey grow, at the expense of the inte-
rior meal  of the grain  on  which they feed.   Corn-lofts
are often laid waste by these insects, whose numbers are
sometimes  so great as to devour and destroy all the grain.
When the insect, after having eaten up the meal, is come
to its full size, it remains within the grain, hidden under
the empty husk, which  subsists alone; and  there trans-
formed, it becomes a chrysalis, nor does it leave it till a
perfect  insect, making its way through  the  husk  of the
grain.   It  is no easy matter to discover by the eye the
grains of corn thus attacked and hallowed out by those
insects, as  they outwardly appear large  and full: but the
condition the curculio has reduced them to, renders them
much lighter; and if you throw corn infested  by these in-
sects into the water, all the spoiled  grains will swim, and
the rest sink to the bottom.  Other larvae of curculiones
are not so fond of corn, bu,t fix in the same manner on
several other seeds.  Bcaris, peas, and  lentils,  that arc
preserved dry, are liable to be eaten by these little ani-
mals;  which prey upon the inward  part of the  grain,
where  they have taken  up  their habitation, and  do not
come forth till they have completed their transformation,
by breaking through the outward husk ofthe grain: this
is discoverable by casting those grains into water; those
that swim  are generally perforated  by  the  curculiones.
Other species are lodged  in the inside of plants.  The
heads of artichokes and thistles are often bored through
and eaten  away  by the larvae  of  large  curculiones.
Another species smaller,  but  singular,  pierces and in-
wardly consumes the leaves of elms.   It frequently hap-
pens that almosUull the leaves of an  elin appear yellow,
and, as it were,  dead towards  one of their edges, while
the whole remainder of the leaf is green.  Upon inspect
ing these leaves, the dead part appears to form a kind of
bag or small bladder.  The two la mime or outward pel-
licles ofthe leaf, as well above as  below, are entire, but
distant and separated from each other: whilst the  paren-
chyma that lies between them has been consumed by so 
CUR
CUR
vera!  small  larvae of the curculio, which have  made
themselves that dwelling,  in which  they may be met
with.   After their transformation they come forth, by
piercing a kind of bladder,  and give being to a curculio
that is brown, small, and hard to catch,  from the nim-
blencss with wiiich it leaps.  The property of leaping,
allotted to this single species, depends on the  shape and
length of its hinder legs.
  CURCUMA, turmeric, a genus of the monogynia or-
der, in the monandria class of plants, and in the natural
method ranking under the eighth order, scitamiiiea.  It
has four barren stamina, with a fifth fertile.   There are
three species: 1. The rotunda, with a round root, hav-
ing a fleshy-jointed  root like that of ginger,  but round;
which sends up several  spear-shaped  oval leaves, that
rise upw ards of a foot high, and are of a sea-green colour.
From between these arise the flower-stalks, supporting
a loose spike of flowers of a pale yellowish colour, in-
closed in several different  spatha?, or sheaths,  which
drop  off.  The flowers are never succeeded by seeds in
England.  2. The  longa  has long  fleshy roots of  a
deep-yellow colour,  which  spread under  the  surface of
tiie ground like those  of ginger;  they  are  about the
thickness of a man's finger, having many round knotty
circles, from which  arise four or five large spear-shaped
leaves, standing upon  long foot-stalks.   The  flowers
grow in loose scaly spikes on  the top of the  footstalks,
which rise from the larger knobs ofthe roots, and grow
about a foot high; they are of a yellowish-red colour, and
shaped somewhat like those of the Indian reed.   3. The
pallida, which  differs from the others in bein.^ an annual
plant.  These  plants grow  naturally  in  Inciia,  whence
the roots arc brought to Europe for use.  They are very
tender, so will not live in this country unless kept con-
 stantly in  a stove.  They  arc propagated by parting
the roots.   The root communicates  a  beautiful but per-
 ishable yellow  dye, with  alum, to woollen,  cotton, or
 linen.  In medicine it  is esteemed an aperient and em-
menagogue, and of singular efficacy in the jaundice.
   CURIA,  in Roman antiquity, a  certain division, or
 portion of a tribe.  Romulus divided the people  into 30
 curiae, or wards, whereof there were 10 in every tribe,
 that each might keep the ceremonies of their feasts and
 sacrifices in the temple, or holy place, appointed for every
 curia.  The priest of the curia was called curio.
   Curia, in the English law, generally signifies a court;
 and has been taken for the  customary tenants, who do
their suit and service at the court of the lord.
   Curia advisare vult,  a deliberation which a court of
justice takes upon some point of difficulty that arises in
 a cause, before they give judgment.
   Curia aqua; curms, a court held by the lord of the
manor of Gravesend, for the better management of bar-
 ges and boats that use the  passage on the Thames be-
 tween that place and London, &c.
    Curia claudenda, a writ  that lies to compel a man to
 make a fence,  or wall, between his lands and that ofthe
 plaintiff.

 w^^vm^^' an °*ncer °f t')e Roman  empire,  during
 the  middle  age; when  one or two were despatched an-
 nually into  each province to take care that no frauds or
 abuses were committed with regard to  the posts and
call-
roads, and to bring intelligence to court of what pass
in the provinces.  They answer nearly to what arc ca
ed comptrollers.
   CURRANS, or Currants.   See Hires.
   Currants  also signify  a smaller kind  of cranes
brought principally from Zante  and Cephalonia  Thev
are gathered off the bunches, and laid to dry in the sun
and so put up in large butts.  They  are opening and nee'
toral, but are more used in the kitchen than in medicine
   CURRENT, in hydrography, a stream  or flux of wa-
ter in any direction.  In the sea currents are either nr.
tural,  occasioned by  the  diurnal motion  of the earth
round its axis,  or accidental, caused by the waters beine
driven against promontories, or into gulphs and streicht>,
where wanting room to spread, they are  driven hack
and thus disturb the ordinary flux of the sea.  Dr. Hal-
ley makes it highly probable "that in the Downs there are
under-currents, by which as much water is carried out
as is brought in by the upper currents.
   Currents,  in navigation, are certain settings ofthe
stream,  by which ships are compelled to alier their
course or velocity, or both, and submit to the motion im-
pressed upon them by the current.   The knowledge of
them  being so  necessary  an article in navigation, we
shall show a more accurate way of discovering the way
they  set, together with  their strength,  than that  of
guessing  hy the ripplings  of the  water, and by the
driving of  the froth along shore.   Take your ship's
boat,  with  three or  four men,  a compass,  a log-line
with a large log to it, and a kettle  or iron pot, with a
coil or two of inch rope fastened to its bale.  When at a
proper distance from  the ship, heave vour kettle over-
board, and let it sink 80 or 100 fathoms,  which will
ride the boat nearly as fast  as if at anchor.  Heave your
log, and turn your half-minute  glass, observing at the
same  time to set the drift  of the log by  the compass:
then will the knots run out during the half-minute, give
the current's strength, and the compass its setting. Now
to know how to make proper allowances for currents, it
is evident, if a current sets just with the  course of the
ship,  then the  motion of the ship  is  increased by as
much as  is the  drift or velocity of the current; and if a
current sets directly against the ship's course, then the
motion is retarded in  proportion to the velocity of the
current.   Hence  it is plain,  1. If the velocity of the
current he less  than that of the ship, then the ship will
get so much ahead, as is the difference of these veloci-
ties.  2.  If the velocity of the current be  greater than
that of the ship, then the ship will  fall so much astern
as is the difference of these velocities.  3.  If the veloci-
ty of the current be equal to that of the ship, then the
ship will stand still, the one velocity destroyingthe other.
   If the  current thwarts the course of a ship, then  it
not only lessons or augments her velocity, but gives her
a new direction;  compounded of the course she steers,
and the setting of the current.  Suppose a ship sails by
the compass directly  south, 96 miles in 24 hours, in a
current that sets cast 45 miles in  the same time: re-
quired the ship's true course and distance.  It is evi-
dent  that the ship will run  upon the diagonal of a pa-
rallelogram, of  which the  sides are 96 and 45: the
length of this  diagonal is found to  be 106 miles, equal
to \/902 -f-45«.  See Navigation. 
CUR                                             CUR
  CURRIERS.  In England no  currier shall use the
trade of a butcher, tanner, &c. or shall curry skins in-
sufficiently tanned, or gash any hide of leather, on pain
of forfeiting for every hide or skin, 6s. Sd. If any cur-
rier do  not curry leather sent to him, within 16 days
between Michaelmas and Lady-day,  and in eight days
at other times, he shall on conviction thereof  forfeit 51.
12 Geo. II. c. 25. Every currier or dresser of hides in
oil, shall annually take out a licence from the commis-
sioners or officers of excise.
  CURRYING,  the method of preparing leather with
oil, tallow, kc.   The chief business is to soften and sup-
ple cows' and  calves' skins, which make the  upper-
leathers  and quarters  of shoes, coverings of saddles,
coaches, and other articles which must keep out water.
1. These skins, after coming from the tanner's yard,
having many fleshy  fibres on them, the currier soaks
them some time in common  water.  2.  He takes them
out, and  stretches them on a very even wooden horse;
then with a  paring knife, he scrapes off the superfluous
flesh, and puts  them into soak again.   3.  He puts them
wet on a hurdle,  and tramples them with his heels, till
they begin to grow soft and pliant.  4. He soaks them
in train oil, which, by its unctuous quality, is the best
liquor for the  purpose.  5.  He spreads them on large
tables, and fastens them at the ends.   Then, with the
help of an instrument called a pummel, which is  a thick
piece of wood, the under side of which is full of furrows
crossing each other, he folds, squeezes, and moves them
forwards and backwards several times, under the teeth
of this  instrument,  which  breaks their too great stiff-
ness.  This is  what is properly called currying.  The
order and number of these operations are varied by dif-
ferent curriers, but the material partis always the same.
6. After the skins are  curried, there may be occasion to
colour them.  The colours  are black,  white, red, yel-
low, and green: the other colours are given by the skin-
ners, who differ from curriers in this,  that they apply
their colours on the flesh side, the curriers on the hair
side.  In order to whiten skins, they are rubbed with
lumps of chalk, or white lead, and afterwards with pu-
mice-stone.   7. "When a skin is to  be made black, after
having oiled and  dried it, he passes over it a puff dipt in
water impregnated with iron; and after this  first wet-
ting, he  gives it another in a water prepared with soot,
vinegar, and gum arabic.  These  different dyes  gradu-
ally turn the skin black, and the operations  are repeat-
ed till it  is of a shining black.  The grain and wrinkles
which contribute to the suppleness of calves'  and cows'
leather,  are made  by  the reiterated folds given to the
skin in every direction, and by the care taken to scrape
off all hard  parts on the coloured side.
   CURSING and  sweating, an  offence against God
and religion, and a v ice of all others the most extrava-
gant  and unaccountable, as having no benefit or ad-
vantage  attending it.  [By  the  last act against this
crime, if any person of the age  of sixteen  years  or
upwards, shall  curse or swear  by the name of God,
Christ Jrsns. or the Holy Ghost, every person so «,('-
fending,  being thereof convicted, shall folic ii and pay
the stun of sixt.v-seven  cents for every such profane
curse or oath; and in case he or she shall refuse  or ne-
glect to pay the said forfeiture, or goods and chattels
cannot be found, whereof to levy the same by distress,
he or she shall be committed to the house of correction
of the proper county,  not exceeding twenty-four hours,
for every such offence of which such person shall be
convicted: and whosoever of the age of sixteen years or
upwards, shall curse or swear by any other name or
thing as aforesaid, and shall be convicted thereof, shall
forfeit and pay the sum of forty cents for every such
curse or  oath; and in  case such offender shall neglect or
refuse to satisfy such  forfeiture, or no goods or chattels
can he found, whereof to levy the same by distress, he
or she shall  be committed to the house of  correction of
the proper county, not exceeding twelve hours for every
such offence. (6)
   CURSITOR,  an officer or clerk belonging to the
chancery, who make  out original writs; of these there
are  24 in number,  and to each are allotted several
counties.
   CURSOR, in  mathematical  instruments, is   any
small  piece  that slides;  as the piece  in an equinoctial
ring-dial that slides to the day of the month; the little
label of  brass divided like a line of sines,  and sliding
in a groove along the middle of another label, repre-
senting the  horizon in  the  analemma; and likewise  a
brass  point screwed on the beam-compasses, which may
be moved along the beam for the striking of greater or
less circles.
   CURTATE distance, in astronomy, the distance of
a planet from the sun to that point where a perpendi-
cular let fall from the planet meets with the ecliptic.
   CURTEYN, cur tana, in the British customs, king
Edward the Confessor's sword,  borne before the prince
at coronations.   Its point is said to be broken off, as an
emblem  of mercy.
   CURTIN. Curtain, or Courtin, in  fortification.,
is that part of the rampart of  a place which is bctwixi
the flank of two bastions bordered with a parapet  five
feet high, behind which the soldiers stand to fire upon
the covered way  into  the inoat.   As it is the best  de-
fended of any part of  the rampart, besiegers never car-
ry on  their  attacks against the curtain, but against the
faces of  the  bastions, because of their being defended
only by one flank.
   CURTIS A, a genus of the tetrandria monogynia class
and order. The calyx is four parted; petals four; drupe
superior, roundish, succulent, with a four  or five celled
nut. There is one species, a tree of the Cape.
   CURVATURE of  a line, is the peculiar  manner of
its bending or flexure, by which it becomes a curve of
such and such peculiar properties.
   Any two arches of curve lines touch each other when
the same right line is the tangent of  both at the same
point;  but when they are applied upon each other in
this manner, they never perfectly coincide, unless they
are similar arches of equal and similar figures; and the
curvature of lines admits of indefinite variety. Because
the curvature is uniform in a given circle, and may be
varied at pleasure in them by enlarging or diminishing
their diameters, the curvature of circles serves for mea-
suring that of other lines.
   Of all  the circles that touch a curve  in  any given
point, that is said  to  have the  same  curvature with it,
which  touches it so closely, that no circle can be drawn 
*
CURVE.
iliroiigh  the  point  of contact between them: and this
circle is called the circle of  curvature; its centre, the
centre; of curvature;  and its  semidiameter, the ray of
curvature belonging to the point of contact.  As in all
figures,  rectilinear ones  excepted,  the position of the
tangent is continually varying, so the curvature is con-
tinually varying in all curvilinear figures, the circle on-
ly excepted.  As the curve is separated from its tangent
by  its curvature, so it is separated  from the circle  of
curvature in consequence of the increase or decrease of
its  curvature; and as its curvature is greater or less,
according as it is more or less inflected from the tangent,
so the variation of curvature is greater or less  accor-
ding as  it is more or  less  separated from the circle of
curvature.
  When any two curve lines touch each other in such a
manner that no circle can pass between them, they must
have the same curvature; for the circle that touches the
one so  closely that no  circle  can pass between them,
must  touch the other  in the same manner. And it can be
made appear, that circles may touch curve lines in this
manner; that there may be indefinite degrees of more or
less intimate contact between  the curve and the circle of
curvature;  and that  a conic section may be  described
that shall have the same curvature  with a given line at
a given point, and the same variation of a curvature, or
a contact ef the same kind with the  circle of  curvature.
The rays of curvature of similar arcs, in similar figures,
are in the same ratio  as any  homologous lines of these
figures,  and  the variation of curvature is the  same.
   CURVE, in geometry, a line wiiich, running on con-
tinually in  all directions, may  be cut by one right line
in  more points than one.
   In a curve, the line AD (See PI. XXXIX. Miscel. fig.
 28), wiiich  bisects all the parallel lines MN,  is called a
 diameter, and the point A, where the diameter meets the
curve, i» called the vertex; if  AD bisect all the parallels
 at right angles, it is called  the axis.  The parallel lines
 MN  are called ordinates, or applicates, and their halves
 P M, or PN, semi-ordinates.  The portion of the diame-
 ter AP, between the vertex, or any other fixed point,
 and an ordinate, is called the  absciss; also tbe concourse
of all the diameters,  if they meet all in one point, is the
centre.  This definition ofthe diameter, as bisecting the
parallel ordinates, respects only the conic sections, or
such  curves  as are cut only in  two  points  by the ordi-
nates; but in the lines of the 3d  order, which may be cut
in three points hy the ordinates, then the diameter is that
line which cuts the ordinates  so, that the sum of the two
parts that lie on the one side  of it, shall be equal to the
part on  the other side; and so on for  curves of higher
orders; the sum ofthe parts of the ordinates on one side
of the diameter, being always  equal to the sum of the
parts on the other side of it.
   Curve lines are  distinguished  into algebraical or
geometrical, and transcendental or  mechanical.
   Algebraical or geometrical curves are those  in which
 the relation of the abscisses  A P, to the ordinates PM,
 can be expressed by  a common  algebraic equation.
   And transcendental or mechanical curves are such as
 cannot be so defined or expressed by  an algebraical equa-
 tion.
   Thus suppose, for instance,  the   curve be the circle,
(PI. Mis. fig. 28)  and that the radius AC = r, the ab-
sciss AP = x, and  the ordinatePM = y; then, because
the nature ofthe circle is such, that the rectangle AP v
P B is always = P M2, therefore the equation is x .2r— i
= y%, or 2rx—x2 = i/2, defining this  curve, which is
therefore an algebraical or geometrical line. Or suppose
C P = x, then is  C M2—C P* = P M % that is, r"-l** ^
y2; which is another form ofthe equation ofthe curve.""
  The doctrine of curve lines in general,  as expressed by
algebrical equations, was first introduced by Des Cartes
who called algebraical curves geometrical ones,  as ad-
mitting none else into the  construction of problems, nor
consequently into geometry.  But Newton, and after hira
Leibnitz and Wolfius, arc of another opinion; and think,
that in the construction of a problem, one curve is not
to be preferred to another for  its being defined by a more
simple equation, but for its being more easily described.
  Algebraical or geometrical lines are best distinguished
into orders according to the number of dimensions ofthe
equation expressing the relation between its  ordinates
and abscisses, or, which is the same thing, according to
the number of points in which  they may be cut by a right
line.  And curves of  the same kind or order are those
whose equations rise to the same dimension.  Hence, of
the first order, tliere is the right line only; of the second
order of lines, or the first order of curves, are the circle
and conic sections,  being four  species only, viz. dx—a^
               c2 ________                  c2
= y2 the circle — .dx — x2 = y2  the ellipse, —.dx+x*
               d2                         d2
= 7/2 the hyperbola, and dx=y2the parabola; the lines of
the third order, or curves of  the second  order, are ex-
pressed by an equation ofthe third degree; having three
roots; and so on.  Of these lines of the third order, Mew-
ton wrote an express treatise, under the title of Enumeratio
Lincarum Tertii  Ordinis, showing their  distinctive cha-
racters and properties, to the number of 72 different spe-
cies of  curves; but Mr. Stirling afterwards addeci four
more to that number, and Mr. Nic Bernouilli and Mr.
Stone added  two more.
  As to the curves ofthe second order, sir Isaac Newton
observes, they have parts and  properties  similar to those
of the first: thus, as the conic sections have  diameters
and axes,  the lines cut by these are called ordinates, and
the  intersection of the curve  and diameter, the vertex.
So  in curves of the second order, any two parallel lines
being drawn so as  to meet the curve in  three points,  a
right line cutting these parallels, so as that the sum ofthe
two parts between the secant and the curve on one side,
is equal to the third part terminated by the curve on the
other side, will cut in the same  manner all other right
lines parallel to these, and meet the curve in three parts,
so as that the sum  of the two parts on one side will be
still equal to the third part on  the other side.
  These three parts, therefore, thus equal, may be cal-
led ordinates or applicates; the secant may be styled the
diameter; the intersection of the  diameter and the curve
the vertex; and the point of concourse  of any two diame-
ters the centre.  And if the diameter  be normal to the
ordinates, it may be called axis; and that point where
all the diameters terminate, the general  centre.  Again,
as an hyperbola of the first order has two asymptotes,
that of the second three, that  of the third four, kc. and 
C  U  K
C  U S
 as the parts ol  any right line lying between  the conic
 hyperbola and its true asymptotes are every where equal,
 so in the liyberbola of th—^ second orcii r, if any right
 line be  drawn cutting  both the curve  and  its three
 asymptotes in three points, the sum ofthe two parts of
 that right line being drawn the same way from any two
 asymptotes to two points of the curve, will  be equal to
 a third part drawn acontrary way from the third asymp-
 tote to a third point of the  curve.  Again,  as in conic
 sections not parabolical, the square of the ordinate, that
 is, the rectangle under the ordinates drawn  to contrary
 sides ofthe diameter,  is to the rectangle  ofthe parts of
 the diameter which are terminated at the  vertices ofthe
 ellipsis or hyperbola,  as the latus rectum is to the latus
 transversum;  so in  nonparabolic curves of the second
 order, a parallelopiped under the three ordinates is to a
 parallelopiped under the parts of the diameter, terminat-
 ed at the ordinates,  and the three vertices ofthe figure,
 in a certain given ratio; in which ratio, if you take three
 right lines situated at the three parts of the diameter
 between the  vertices  of  the  figure,  one  answering  to
 another,  then these three right lines  may be called the
 latera recta of the figure, and the parts of tbe  diainetor
 between the vertices, the latera transversa.  And, as in
 the conic parabola, having to one and the same diameter
 but one only vertex, the  rectangle  under the ordinates
 is equal  to  that under the  part of the diameter cut off
 between the ordinates and the vertex  and the latus rec-
 tum; so in curves of the  second order, which  have hut
 two vertices to the same diameter, the parallelopiped un-
 der throe ordinates. is equal to the parallelopiped under
 the two parts of the diameter cut off between  the ordi-
 nates and those two  vertices and a given  right line,
 which therefore may be called the latus rectum.  More-
 over, as  in the conic sections, when two parallels termi-
 nated on  each side ofthe curve,  are  cut hy two other
 parallels terminated on each by the  curve, the first by
 lhe third, and the  .second by the fourth; as here the rect-
 angle under the parts ofthe first is to  the rectangle un-
 der the  parts of  the third,  as the rectangle under the
 parts ofthe second is to that under the parts of the fourth;
 so when  four such right lines occur in a curve of the se-
 cond kind, each in three points, then shall the parallelo-
 piped under the parts of the first  right line, be to that
 under the parts ofthe third, us the parallelopiped under
 tbe parts of the second  line, to that under the parts ofthe
 fourth.  Lastly, the  legs of curves, both of the first, se-
 cond, ant! higher kinds, are either of  the parabolic or
 hyperbolic kind; an hyperbolic leg being that which ap-
 proaches infinitely tow aids some asymptote; a parabolic,
 that which has no asymptote. These legs are  best dis-
 tinguished by their tangents; for if the point of contact
 go off to  an infinite distance,  the tangent of  the hyper-
 bolic leg will coincide with the asymptote;  and that ofthe
 parabolic leg recede  infinitely and vanish.  Theasvmp-
 lote, therefore, of any leg  is found by seeking the tangent
 of that leg to a point infinitely distant; and the hearing
 of an infinite  leg is found by  seeking tbe position of a
 right line parallel to the tangent, when the point of con-
fact is infinitely remote; fur this line tends the same way
towards which the infinite leg is directed.  For the other
properties of curves  of the second order, we refer the
  vol. l.                   89
 reader to  Mr.  Maclaunn's   treatise De  Linearuu.
 Geometricarmn Proprietatibus generalibus.
   Sir Isaac Newton reduces all curves of the second or-
 der to the four fallowing particular equations, still ex-
 pressing them all.  In the first, the relation between the
 ordinate and  the absciss, making the absciss x and the
 ordinate y, assumes this form,  xy2 + eif —ax1 -f-fe.i2 -fcr
 -f-rf.  In the second case,  the equation takes this form,
 xy = ax3+bx2+cx-fd.  In  the third case, the equation
 is yi = ax3-r.bx2 + ci -frf.  And  in the fourth case, the
 equation is of this form, y+ix3 +bx2 +cx + d.
   Curves, family of, according to Wolfius, is a congeries
 of several curves of different  kinds, all defined by the
 same equation of an indeterminate degree, but different-
 ly, according to the diversity of their kinds.  For ex-
 ample: let the equation of an  indeterminate  degree  be
  mi— 1    Ml
 a      x—y  •  If m=2, ax will be equal to y2.  If m~3,
 then  will a2x=y\  If  m=4, then will  a3x=y4, kc all
 which curves are  said to be of the same family.  Tin-
 equations, however, by which the families of curves are
 defined, must not  be  confounded  vv ith transcendental
 ones; though with regard to  the whole family they he of
 an indeterminate dearer, yet  with respect to each several
 curve ofthe family, tbey are determinate; whereas trans-
 cendental equations are of an indefinite  degree with res-
 pect to the same curw.  Tbe genesis and properties of
 particular curves, as the conchoid, cycloid, &.c. see un-
 der their proper heads Conchoid, Cycloid, iScc.
   CURULE chair, in Roman antiquity, a chair adorn-
 ed with ivory,  wherein the great magistrates of Rome
 had a right to sit, and be carried.
   C US CUT A, dodder,  a genus ofthe digynia order,  in
 the tetrandria class  of plants, and in the natural method
 ranking under those of  which the order is doubtful.  The
 calyx is quadrifid;  the corolla monopetalous: the cap-
 sule bilocular.  There are four species,  one of which s
 a native of Britain, viz.  theEuropsea, dodder, hell-weed,
 or deviPs-guts.  This is a  very singular  plant, alums!
 destitute of leaves, parasitical, creeping, fixing itself to
 whatever is next to  it.   It decays at the  ro;i, and after-
 wards is nourished by the plant which supports it.  Hops.
flax, and nettles, are it> common support, but principal-
ly the common nettle.  Its blossoms are  white.  As soon
 as the shoots have twined a'Miut an adjacent plant, tbey
 send out from  their inner surface a number of little vesi-
cles or papillae,  which attach thems.lv \s to the bark or
rind of the plant.  By degrees the longitudinal  vessels
ofthe stalk, which appear u have accompanied the vesi-
cles, shoot from their extremities, and  make their  way
into the softer plant, by dividing the vessels, and insinu-
ating  themselves into the tenderest part of the stalk; and
so intimately are they united with it, that it is easier to
break than to disengage them from it.  The whole plant
is  bitter. It affords a pale reddish colour.  Cows, sheep,
and swine, eat it; horses  refuse it; goats eat it reluctantly.
   CUSSONIA,  a genus ofthe pentandria digynia class
and order.  The petals are three-cornered; margin of the
receptacle divined inn a five-toot bed calyx.  There are
two species, natives ol the Cape.
   CUSTODE admittendo, and custode amovendo, are
writs for the admitting or removing of guardians. 
CUSTOMS.
  C USTOM, is a law or right, not written, which being
established by long use, and the consent of our ancestors,
has been and is daily practised.  If it is to be proved by
record, the continuance of a hundred years will serve.
Custom is either general or particular.  General,  wiien
allowed through all the country. Particular is that which
belongs to this or that county, as gavelkind to Kent. See
Gavelkind.
  General customs which are used throughout England,
and are the  common law, are to be determined by the
judges: but particular customs, such as are used in some
certain towns, boroughs, cities, kc. shall be determined
by  a jury.  1 Inst. 110.  But the judges of the courts of
king's-bench and common-pleas, can overrule a custom,
though it he one of the customs of London, if against na-
tural reason.  1 Mod. 212.
  Custom of London.  The ancient city of  London, be-
ing the metropolis  and chief  town for trade and com-
merce within the kingdom, it was necessary, that it
should have certain  customs and privileges for its better
government, which  though derogatory from the general
law of the realm, yet, being for the benefit ofthe citizens,
and for the advantage of those who trade  to and from
the city,  have not only  been allowed good by the judg-
ments in the superior courts, but have also been confirm-
ed  by several acts of parliament.
  The customs of London differ from all others  in point
of trial, for if any of the customs are pleaded and deni-
ed, and issue is taken thereupon, the existence of such
customs  shall be tried  by a writ directed to the mayor
and aldermen, to certify whether tliere is such a custom
or  not, and they shall make their certificate by the mouth
of the recorder.
   These customs  of London relate to divers particulars
 with regard  to trade, apprentices, widows, orphans, and
 a vaiiety of other matters; the custom relative to the
distribution of a freeman's estate, extends only  to cases
of  intestacy, or express agreements made in considera-
tion of marriage.  It is a custom of London, that where
a person is educated in one trade, he may set up another;
that where a woman uses a trade, without her husband,
she is chargeable alone, as a feme sole merchant, and if
condemned, shall  be put in prison till she pays the debt;
likewise the  bail for her are liable, if she absent herself,
and the husband, in these cases,  shall not he charged. If
a debtor be a fugitive, by the custom of London, he may
be  arrested before the day, in order to find better secu-
rity, kc  These are customs of this city, different from
those of other places.
   Custom of merchants.  If a merchant gives a charac-
ter of a stranger to one who sells him goods, he may  be
obliged to satisfy the debt of the stranger for the goods
sold, by the  custom of merchants.  And when two per-
 sons  are found in arrears, upon an account  grounded on
the custom of merchants, either of them may be charged
 to  pay the whole sum due.  See Bills  of  Exchange,
 Bankrupts, Insurance, &c.
    Customs, taxes levied upon goods  when exported
 from or imported into a state.  This mode of raising a
 public revenue is of great  antiquity, as it may be traced
 back to the time of Solomon; but in modern times it has
 been extended by different states to almost every article
 of commerce.   It is a mode of taxation generally less
objected  to than any  other, as most persons pay their
share of the duty in the price of the article from which it
arise, without distinguishingrihe tax; if, however, these
duties arc high,  they become a great impediment to
foreign trade, and give rise to smuggling; of this truth
the Dutch were well convinced, and  long derived grcai
commercial advantages from  the very low duties thev
imposed on the importation and exportation of merchan.
dize.  Duties on goods  imported into a country werr"
originally laid upon the subjects of the realm under the
pretence of defraying the charges of guarding the coasts
from pirates; and upon foreign merchants for the liber
ty given them by the sovereign of trading in his domiui
ons.  The custom-house duties in  Great Britain  ait
principally levied either according to the supposed value
of the different commodities conformably to particular
rates, or in proportion to the weight or measurement ol
the articles,  making  some  difference  according to the
country whence the goods  are brought, and giving ad-
vantages to the ships  belonging to and manned by Brit-
ish subjects over those of a different description.
  The customs of England were formerly divided into
three branches: viz. 1st, The  duties upon wool and lea-
ther; 2. A duty upon  wine, which being imposed at so
much a ton was called a tonnage; and 3. A duty upon
all  other goods, which being imposed at so much in the
pound of  their supposed value, was  called a poundage.
In the 47th Edward III. a duty of six-pence in the pound
was imposed on all goods exported or imported, except
wool, wool-fells, leather, and wine, on which particular
duties had been granted before. In 14th Rich. II. it was
raised to one shilling  in the pound,  but three  years af-
terwards was again reduced to six-pence. It was raised
to eight-pence in 2d Hen. IV.  and in the fourth year of
the same  prince to  one shilling, from which time to the
9th of Wil. III. it continued at one shilling in the pound.
The duties of tonnage and poundage were  generally
granted by the same act, and  were called the subsidy of
tonnage and  poundage.  The subsidy of poundage Lav-
ing continued so long at Is. in the pound or  at five per
cent, a subsidy came in the language of finance to de-
note a general duty of this kind at five per cent.  These
duties on  the estimated value  of goods imported  or ex-
ported being liable to  great inaccuracy and irregularity,
the value  oi*  the different articles of commerce was as-
certained by  a book of rates, and computed on the quan-
tities: there was a mode also by which duties were im-
posed on goods not rated; this was  by a proportion on
the real value as sworn to by the merchant. These prin-
ciples once adopted, were pursued in every new subsidy;
till the various additional duties imposed on articles of
foreign trade in almost every year of war since the
Revolution, with the occasional repeal of some ofthe old
duties, and the different bounties and drawbacks allowed
on  exportation, caused an accumulation of  perplexity»
which in time had rendered the custom-duties a complete
mass of confusion,  attended with infinite inconvenient*
and delay in business.  To remedy this evil, in the be-
ginning of 1787,  all the old duties were abolished, anil
a single duty on each article  substituted in then1 steatj.
This arrangement, which was at the same time extend-
ed  to the  excise and  stamp duties,  may perhaps be re-
corded as the most useful financial measure of Mr. Pitt8 
CUSTOMS.
administration; and it is much to  be  regretted that al-
though the same principle has been since  resorted to,
the many  new duties which the exigencies of the state
have rendered necessary, have again  destroyed in some
degree the simplicity effected, which had been attended
with great practical convenience.
  The progress of this branch of revenue shows the vast
importance of foreign trade, if considered merely as fur-
nishing a convenient mode of taxation. In the reign of
king John, the whole of the duties  payable by merchants
in England  were farmed for 1000 marks.  From some
acts of Henry III. it appears  that considerable frauds
were  committed in the revenue  of customs; it  began
however to increase, and in the reign of Edward III. the
customs ofthe port of London alone amounted to 12,000
marks per annum.  In 1590, the produce of the customs
was considerably improved; and in 1613 it amounted to
148,075*. 7s. 8c*. of which 109,572*. I8.s. 4d. was collect-
ed in the port  of London, while only 38,502*. 9s.  4d.
was received from all the other ports of England.  Of
the total,  16,794*.  16s. 2d.  arose  from duties outward,
and 61,280*. 1 is. 6ii. from duties inward.  By the act of
union in  1706, the  customs of Scotland  are stated  at
30,000*. per annum, and those of England at 1,341,559*.
per annum;  since which  period,  the  great increase of
foreign trade,  and the many new duties which have been
imposed,  have swelled the revenue of the  customs to a
far more important  magnitude.
  The following account shows the total  gross  receipt
of the customs of Great Britain, for the year ending 5th
January  1805, with the various payments to which it
was subject, and the nett  amount  paid into the exche-
quer.
Balance in the hands ofthe collector,
  and  of the  receiver-general of
  Scotland,  on  the  5th  January
   1804       -      -
Bills arising and remitted out of the
   revenue of 1803, but which were
   not brought to account till 1804
Gross  receipt within the year
£65,166  8  5|
Total
Paid drawbacks on exportation
Repayments on  over-entries and
  damaged goods    ...
Bounties on exportation
Bounties for promoting national ob-
  jects       -      -
Money imprest in the hands of out-
  port collectors       -
Paid  towards the expenses of  the
  civil government of Scotland
Advanced  for the purchase  of legal
  quays     -
Charges of management
Payments  into the exchequer
Balances  in the  hands of the col-
  lectors,  and the receiver-general
  of  Scotland, on the 5th January
  1805     -
Bijls  arising aud remitted out  of
200,003 10,949,087	3 11	5|
11,214,257	3	4§
355,768	11	n
98,513 1,132,678	0 16	5|
304,056	3	8
1,465	6	5
54,476	1	6|
76,689 566,999 8,357,871	12 6 5	6 10 H
98,059	10	6§
the revenue of 1804, but which
were not brought to account till
1805       -            -    -
167,678 12 10£
Total  2.11,214,257  3  4§
  Deducting  from the gross  receipt of 10,949,078*.
lis. 5|d. the sum.s paid for drawbacks on exportation,
and as bounties for promoting national objects, together
659,824*. 15s.  3|o*., the total nett produce of the year
will be 10,289,262*. 16s. 2d. arising as follows:
From duties inwards             L 8,640,425
    Duties outwards                 658,968
    Duties coastways                934,464
    Quarantine tonnage duty          13,295
    Remittances from the plantations    23,634
    Condemned tobacco, wine, &c.     18,475
10	H
14	n
0	i
0	4
7	8
3	6
L 10,289,262 16  2
  The total produce of the  customs of  Ireland for the
year ending 5th January 1805, may be stated thus:
From duties inwards
    Duties outwards
    Storage    -
    Prizage
    Light-money
    Fines and seizures, &c.
L 1,850,776
     22,237
      1,794
        799
      5,944
     17,096
16
15
13
 6
16
 4
2|
S

3
0|
Deduct appropriated duties
                                L 1,898,649 11   7$
                                     14,927  8   9

                                L 1,883,722  2  10|

  The total produce of the customs of the united king-
dom will therefore be as follows:
    England    -    -    -     L 9,606,584  9
    Scotland     -       -      .    682,678  6
    Ireland      -       -         1,883,722  2
io|
L 12,172,984 19  0|
  The expense of collecting the customs of Great Bri-
tain is at the rate 'of 5*.  Is. id. percent, on  the gross
revenue, or  6*. 5s. 2d. per cent, on the nett produce.
  Custom-house, an office established by the king's au-
thority in maritime cities, or port-towns, for the receipt
and management of the customs and duties of importa-
tion and  exportation,  imposed on merchandises,  and
regulated by books of rates.  There are several custom-
houses in the  several parts of England, but  the  most
considerable is that of London. It is under the direction
of commissioners, appointed by patent, who  have the
charge and  management of  all the customs in  all the
ports of England. Other officers are a secretary, solici-
tor, receiver-general,  comptroller-general,  surveyor-
general,  &c. all holding  their places  by patents;  with
other inferior officers,  appointed by warrant  from the
board of the  treasury.
  Custom-officers shall not have any  ships of their
own, nor may they use merchandise, factorage, nor keep
a tavern, *tc. They are prohibited to  trade in brandy,
coflee, o.c. or any excisable liquor, on pain of 50*.  For
taking a bribe they shall forfeit 100*., and 500*. for mak- 
CUT
CUT
ing collusive seizures, Sec. Every merchant, making an
entry of goods, either inwards or  outwards, shall he
despatched in such order as he comes in; and if any offi-
ce r or  his clerk shall for favour or reward, put  any
merchant or his servant, duly  attending to make cn-
tric s, by his turn, to draw any reward  or gratuity from
him, besides what is limited  in the act of tonnage and
poundage, cScc. he shall be strictly admonished to  his du-
ty:  or, if found faulty, he shall be discharged, and not
permitted to sit any more in the custom-house. The of-
ficers who sit  above  in the custom-house of London,
shall attend their several places,  from nine to twelve in
the f.;renoon;andoue officer, or clerk, shall attend with
ihe book, in the afternoon, during such time as the offi-
cers are appointed to wait at the water-side.
  CUSTOS brevium, the principal clerk belonging to
the court of  common pleas,  whose business it is to re-
ceive and  keep all the writs made returnable  in that
court, filing every  return by itself; and, at the  end of
each term, to receive of the  prothonotaries all  the re-
cords of the  nisi  prius, called the posteas. The posteas
are first brought in by the clerks of assize of every  cir-
cuit to that prothonotary who entered  the issue in the
causes, in order to enter judgment; and after the protho-
notary has entered the verdict and judgment thereupon
into the rolls of the court, he delivers them over to the
custos brevium, who binds them into a bundle. The cus-
tos brevium makes likewise entries of writs of covenant,
and the concord upon every fine: by him also are made
out exemplifications and copies of all writs and records
in his office, and of all fines levied, which being engross-
ed, are  divided between him and the chirographer, which
last keeps the writ of  covenant and the note, and the
former  the concord and foot of the fine.  The custos
brevium is made by the king's letters patent.
   Custos rotulorum, an officer who has the custody
of the rolls and records ofthe sessions  of peace,  and al-
so of the commission of  the peace itself.  He  usually is
some person of quality, and always a justice of the peace,
of the quorum, in the county where  he  is appointed.
This  officer is made by writing  under the king's sign
manual, being the lord chancellor's  warrant to put him
in commission. He may execute his office by a deputy,
and is empowered to appoint the clerk of the peace, but
he may  not sell the place under divers penalties.
  CUT-vv ater,  or knee ofthe head,  the sharpness of
the head ofthe ship, below the beak; so called because
it cuts or divides the water before it comes to the bow.
  CUTICLE, cuticula, in anatomy, a thin membrane
closely lying upon  the skin,  or cutis, of which it seems
a part,  and to which it adheres very firmly, being as-
sisted by the intervention of the corpus reticulare.
  CUTIS, the skin, in anatomy,  is that strong thick
covering which envelopes the whole external  surface of
animals. It is composed chiefly of two parts: a thin white
elastic layer on the  outside, which  is called the  epider-
mis, or  cuticle; and a much thicker layer, composed of
a great  many fibres, closely interwoven,  and disposed
in different directions;  this is called the cutis,  or true
skin.  The epidermis is that part of the skin which is
raised in blisters.
  1. The  epidermis is easily  separated from the  cutis
by mac eration in hot water.   It possesses a  very great
degree of elasticity.  It is totally insoluble in water and
in alcohol.  Pure  fixed alkalies dissolve it completely
as  does lime likewise, though slowly.  Sulphuric and
muriatic acids do not/lissolve it,  at least tbey have no
sensible action on it for a considerable time; but nitric
acid soon  deprives it of  its elasticity, and  causes it to
fall to pieces.  It is well known that the living epider-
mis is tinged yellow  almost instantaneously by nitric
acid;  but this effect does not take place, at least so .speedi-
ly, when the dead cuticle is plunged in  nitric acid alto-
gether.  If the cuticle is tinged with nitric acid, the ap-
plication of  ammonia to it is well known to give it in-
stantaneously a deep orange-colour.  Now as Mr. Hatch-
ett has shown that this  change is also  produced upon
coagulated albumen in the same circumstances, and as
the epidermis resembles that substance in all the proper-
ties above  detailed, it can  scarcely be doubted that it is
nothing else than a peculiar modification of coagulated
albumen.
  2. The cutis is a thick dense membrane, composed of
fibres interwoven like  the  texture of a hat.   When it is
macerated  for some hours in water, and agitation and
pressure are  employed to accelerate  the effect, the blood,
and all the extraneous matter with which it was loaded,
are separated from it, but  its texture remains unaltered.
On evaporating the water employed, a small quantity  of
gelatine may be obtained.   No subsequent maceration io
cold water has any  farther effect.   When  distilled  it
yields the same products as fabrina.  The concentrated
alkalies dissolve it, converting it into oil and ammonia.
Weak  acids soften  it, render it transparent,  and at last
dissolve it.  Nitric acid converts  it into oxalic  and fat,
while,  at the  same time, azotic gas and prussic  acid are
omitted.  When heated it contracts, and then swells, ex-
hales a fetid odour, and leaves  a dense charcoal, difficult
to incinerate.  By  spontaneous decomposition  in water
or moist earth, it is converted into a fatty matter, and
into ammonia, which compose a kind of soap. When al-
lowed  to remain long in water, it softens and putrefies,
being converted into a kind of jelly. When long boiled
in water it becomes gelatinous, and dissolves completely,
constituting a viscid liquor, wiiich,  by proper evapora-
tion is converted  into glue.  Hence the cutis of animals
is commonly  employed in the manufacture of glue.
  From these facts the cutis appears to be a peculiar mo-
dification of gelatine enabled to resist the action of water,
partly by the compactness of its texture, and partly by
the viscidity of the gelatine of which it is formed;  for
those skins which dissolve' most readily in boiling water
afford  the worst glue.  Mr. Hatchett has observed, that
the viscidity of the gelatine obtained from skins is ncar-
yin versely as their flexibility, the supplest hides always
yielding the weakest glue; but this glue is very  soon ob-
tained from them by  hot  water.  The skin  of the eel ii
very flexible, and affords  very readily a great propor-
tion of gelatine.   The skin of the shark also readily
yields  abundance of gelatine; and the same remark ap-
plies to the skins of the hare, rabbit, calf,  and ox; the
difficulty of obtaining the  glue and  its goodness always
increasing with the toughness of the hide.  The hide ot
the rhinoceros, wiiich is exceedingly strong and toughi
far surpasses the  rest in the  difficulty of solution and ii
the goodmss  of its glue.  When  skins  are  boiled the? 
CUT                                              CUT
gradually swell and-assume the appearance of horn, then
tlc-y dissolve slowly.
  It is from the skin or cutis of animals that leather is
formed;  and the goodness of the leather, or at least its
strength, depends in some measure on the toughness of
the hides.  Those easily soluble, as seal-skins,  afford a
weaker leather than  those  which  are  more difficultly
soluble  in  water.   The process by which the  skins  of
animals are converted into leather is called tanning.  It
seems to have been known and practised in the earliest
ages; but its nature was totally unknown till after the
discovery of the tanning principle hy Seguin.   That
chemist  ascertained that  leather is a compound  of tan
and skin;  that it is to the tan that leather owes its in-
solubility and its power of resisting putrefaction.  The
subject has lately  engaged the  attention of Mr.  Davy,
who has examined it with his usual ingenuity, and added
several important facts to our former knowledge.
   When skins are to be tanned, tbe first step of the pro-
cess is to deprive them of their hair and  cuticle.  This
is either done by steeping them in water till they begin
to putrefy,  or by steeping them in lime and water. The
lime seeais  to combine with the  cuticle, and to  render it
brittle and easily detachable from the hide.  It produces
the same effect upon the hair and the matter at its  root.
When the  hides have been steeped for a sufficient time,
they are taken out, the hair, cuticle, &c. scraped off, and
then they are washed in water.
   After this preliminary process, the skins are subject-
ed to different treatment according to the kind of leather
which is to be made.
   The large and thick  hides arc introduced for a short
time into a strong infusion of bark.  They arc then said
to be coloured.  After this they are put into water slight-
ly impregnated with sulphuric acid, or with  the acid
evolved during the fermentation of barley and rye.  This
 renders them harder and denser than they were  before,
 and fits them for forming sole-leather. Mr. Davy thinks,
 that by this process a triple  compound is formed of the
 skin, tan,  and the acid.  The light skins of cows, those
 of calves, and all  small skins, are steeped for some days
 in a lixivium made by the infusion of  pigeon's dung in
 water.  This lixiv iuin is called the graincr.  By this pro-
 cess they are rendered thinner,  and softer and more pro-
 per for making flexible leather.  Mr, Davy considers the
 effect of this lixivium to depend  upon the fermentation
 which it undergoes; for dung that has undergone fermen-
 tation docs  not answer the purpose.  After these preli-
 minary processes, the skins are exposed to the action of
 the infusion of bark till they are converted  into leather.
 The infusion of oak-bark contains two ingredients, name-
 ly tan and  an extractive.  The  first is more soluble than
 the second. Hence in saturated infusions there is a much
 smaller proportion of tan than of extractive; whereas in
 weak infusions,  the extractive  beai-s a greater propor-
 tion, to the tan. Mr. Dnvy considers it as doubtful whe-
 ther the infusion of oak-bark contains any gallic acid.
 This chemist has ascertained, that the hides extract both
 the tan and extractive from the infusion, and leave noth-
 ing behind but pure  water, provided they are  employed
 insufficient quantify.  Hence it is obvious, that both the
 tan and extractive must enter into the  composition of
 leather.  Tho extractive gives the hide a brovv n  colour,
but docs not render it insoluble in boiling water; the tan
renders it  insoluble,  hut  its colour continues  whitish.
Hence it  is likely that the lightest kinds of leather con-
tain little else than tan, while the brown kinds contain
both tan  and extractive.   While the hides are allowed
to remain in the infusion of bark, they combine of course
with tan and extractive, and the new compound is leather.
Hence the reason of the increase of its weig!:t.
   Calf-skins,  and those hides which are  prepared hy
lite graincr, are first  steeped in weak iiu'u.ions of oak-
bark, and gradually removed to stronger and stronger,
till they are  completely  impregnated, which  takes up
from two to four months.  As the weak infusions contain
a greater proportion of extractive, the consequence of
this process is, that the skin combines in the first place
with a portion of it, and afterwards with the tan.  When
saturated solutions of tan are employed,  the leather ia
formed in a much shorter time.  This was the process
recommended by Seguin; but it has been observed, that
leather tanned in this way is more rigid and more liable
to crack  than leather tanned in  the  usual way.   Hence
it is likely,  as Mr. Davy  has observed, that the  union
of tbe extractive is requisite to  form pliable and tough
leather.  Leather rapidly tanned must he less equable
in its texture than leather slowly tanned, as the surface
must he saturated with tan before the liquid has time to
penetrate deep.   Mr. Davy  has ascertained that skins,
while  tanning,  seldom absorb more  than  one-third of
their weight of vegetable matter.
   Skins intended for sole leather are generally kept from
the first in an  infusion preserved nearly saturated by
means of the strata of bark, with which they alternate.
The  full  impregnation requires from ten  to  eighteen
months.  It is likely  from this process that sole leather
contains a greater  proportion of tan than soft leather.
While drying, it is  smoothed with a rolling-pin, and
beaten with a mallet, which must add considerably to it6
density.
   3.  As to the rete mucosum, or the mucous  substance
situated  between the  cutis vera and epidermis, its com-
position  cannot be determined  with precision, because
its quantity is too small to admit of examination.  It is
known that the black colour of negroes depends  upon  a
black pigment, situated in this substance.  Oxymuriatic
acid deprives it of its black colour, and renders it yel-
low.   A negro, by keeping his foot for some time in wa-
ter impregnated  with that acid,  deprived it of its colour,
and rendered it nearly white; hut in a few days the black
colour returned again with its  former intensity.  This
experiment was first made  by Dr. Beddoes on the fin-
gers of a negro.  See Anatomy,  Physiology, and Tan-
ning.
   C UTTER of the tallies, an officer of the exchequer,
 whose business is to  provide wood for the tallies, to cut
 or notch the sum paid upon them: and then to cast them
 into court to be written upon.
   CUTTING,  in heraldry,  is used for the  dividing a
 shield into two equal parts, from right to kft, parallel
 to the horizon, or in  the fessc-vvay.
   Cutting in wood, a particular kind  of sculpture, or
 engraving, denominated  from the matter on which it is
 employed.  That sort of engraving which is called cut-
 ting  in wood, was the first invented. It is used for initial 
CYC
C  Y C
letters,  head  and tail pieces of books,  and even  for
schemes and other figures,  to save the expense  of  en-
graving on copper: and for  prints and stamps for paper,
calicoes, linen, &c. The art of cutting in wood was cer-
tainly carried to very great perfection  about one hund-
red and fifty years ago,  and has since been revived with
very  great success by Mr. Bewick, whose  engravings of
animals, &c. on wood may vie in beauty and excellence
with  the  choicest copper-plates.  The cutter in wood
needs no other  instruments than  little  sharp  knives,
chisels, and  gravers of  different sizes.  The first thing
he does, is to take a plank or block of pear-tree, or box,
which he prepares of the size and thickness intended,
and makes it very even  and smooth on the side to be
cut; on this block he draws  the design with a pen or pen-
cil just as it  ought  to  be printed.  Those who  cannot
draw their  own designs, make use of those  done by
another, which they  fasten on the block with paste, the
strokes or lines being turned towards  the wood: when
the paper is dry, they wash it gently over with a spung
dipped in water; which done, they take off the paper by
degrees, still rubbing it a little with the tip of the finger,
till there is nothing  left on the block but  the strokes of
ink that form the design, which mark out so much of the
block as is to be spared, or left standing;  the rest they
 cut off and take away as curiously as they can, with the
 point of their sharp instruments.
   CYANELLA, a genus ofthe hexandria  monogynia
 class and  order.  The cor. is six-petalled; stamens
 lower, declined larger than the rest.  There are three
 species; natives of Africa.
   CYANILE, a stone commonly found in  granite rocks.
 The primitive form of its crystals is a four-sided oblique
 prism, the sides of  which  are  inclined at  an angle of
 130°.  The base forms with one side of  the prism an
 angle  of 103°,  with another an angle of  77°. It is
 sometimes  crystallized  in six-sided prisms.  Its  texture
 is foliated; fracture radiated; rays curved and interlac-
 ed;  fragments long and splintery.   It causes single re-
 fraction, and its specific gravity is from 3.5  to 3.6: feels
 somewhat greasy.   Its colour is white, with shades of
 sky or Prussian blue.
    CYATHUS, in Roman antiquity, a liquid measure,
 containing  four ligulas, or half a- pint  English wine-
 measure, being 469| solid inches.
    CYC AS, in  botany,  a genus of plants belonging to
 the first natural order, palmse.  The fruit is a dry plum
 with a bivalved kernel.   There are two species:  1.
 The circinalis, or sago-tree, grows spontaneously in
 fhe East Indies, and particularly on the coast of Mala-
 bar.  It runs up with  a straight  trunk  to 40  feet or
 more, having many circles the whole length, occasioned
 by the old leaves falling off; for, standing in a circular
 order round the stem* and  embracing it with their base,
 whenever they drop, they  leave the marks  of their ad-
  hesion behind.   The leaves are pinnated, and  grow to
  the  length of seven or eight feet.   The pinnse or lobes
  are long, narrow, entire, of a shining green, all the way
  of a  breadth,  lance-shaped at the point,  are closely
  crowded together,  and stand  at  right angles  on  each
 side the midrib, like the teeth of a comb.   The flowers
  are produced in Jong  bunches  at  the foot-stalks of the
leaves, and are succeeded by oval fruit,  about the size
of large plums, of a red colour when ripe, and a sweet
flavour.  Each contains  a hard brown nut, inclosing a
white meat, which tastes like a chesnut.
  This is a valuable tree to the inhabitants of India, as
it not only furnishes a considerable part of their con-
stant bread, but also supplies them with  a great article
of trade.  The trunk contains a farinaceous substance,
which they extract from it and make into bread in tlih
manner:  They saw the body into small pieces, and af-
ter beating them in a mortar, pour water  upon the mass*
this is left  for  some hours  to  settle.  When fit, it is
strained through a cloth;  and the finer particles of tbe
mealy substance running through with the water, the
gross ones are left behind  and  thrown  away.   After
the farinaceous part has sufficiently subsided, the water
is poured off, and the meal being properly dried, is oc-
casionally made into cakes and  baked.  These cakes
are said to eat nearly as well as wheaten  bread, and are
the support of the inhabitants for three or four months
in the year.
  The same meal more finely pulverized, and reduced
into granules, is what is called sago, which is sent into
all parts  of Europe,  and sold in the shops as a great
strengthener and restorative.   There is a sort of sago
made in the West Indies, and sent  to Europe,  in the
same manner as  that from the East; but tbe West In-
dia sago is far inferior  in quality to the other.  It is
supposed to be made from the pith of the areca olerace.u
See Areca.
  £.  The cycas  revoluta, or  brood boom (or  bread-
tree) of the Hottentots, a plant discovered by professor
Thunberg.  The pith, or medulla, which  abounds in the
trunk of this little palm,  Mr.  Sparman  informs us is
collected and tied up in dressed calf or sheep-skins, and
then buried in the earth for the space of  several weeks,
till it  becomes sufficiently mellow and tender to be
kneaded up with water into a paste, of which tbey af-
terwards make small loaves or cakes, and bake them
under the ashes.   Other Hottentots not  quite so nice,
nor endued with patience enough to  wait this tedious
method of preparing it, are said to dry  and  roast the
pith  or marrow, and afterwards make a kind of frumen-
ty of it.   See PI. XXXIX. N. H. fig. 154.
  CYCLAMEN, Sowhread, a genus of the monogy-
nia order, in the pentandria class of plants; and in the
natural method ranking under the 21st  order, precise.
The corolla is verticillated, with the  tube very short,
and the throat prominent; the berry is covered with the
capsule.  There are five  species, which  produce many
beautiful varieties.  They are low,  herbaceous, flowe-
ry perennials, of the tuberous-rooted kind, with nu-
merous angular, heart-shaped, spotted, marbled leaves;
with many fleshy footstalks  six inches high, carry-
ing  monopetalous, five-parted, reflexed  flowers,  of
various  colours.   All  the  varieties  arc  extremely
ornamented,  and some of the flowers  very fragrant.
They  may be planted in any of the common border,
but require to be sheltered from hard frosts by being
covered with mats.  They should also have a light dry
soil, otherwise their roots are  apt to rot.  The species
are  propagated by seeds,  and the  particular varieties 
CYC
C  Y C
 by dividing their roots.  The root of the cyclamen has,
 when fresh, an extremely acrimonious  taste, which it
 loses upon being dried.
   CYCLAS, a genus ofthe decandria monogynia class
 and  order.  The cal. is four-parted; cor. none; filaments
 inserted  in the  neck  of the  style,  flexuose; legume
 roundish, winged, one-seeded.  Tliere are two species,
 trees of Guiana.
   Cycla.s, a genus of testacea ofthe class of bivalves;
 shells somewhat transverse, without a fold on the ante-
 rior side:  exterior ligament recurved; hinge  of three
 teeth; lateral teeth elongated, lamelliform, and let into
 a  groove in the opposite valve.
   This genus  contains  seven or eight  species, mostly
 "inhabiting fresh water pools. Animal acephalous, with
 two tubes projecting on one side,  and on the other,  a
 foot lingiiiform, or tongue-shaped.  According to Geof-
 froy, it is viviparous: the species  most common in Eu-
 rope is the cyclas cornea,  which is  globous,  smooth,
 horn-coloured, with transverse furrows, size of a large
 pea, inhabits pools of fresh water. See Plate Nat. Hist.
 tig. 155.
   CYCLE, in chronology, a certain period or series of
 years, which regularly proceed from the first to the last,
 and then return again  to the first, and circulate perpe-
 tually.  The most considerable cycles are those of  the
 sun, of the moon, and of the Roman indiction.
   The cycle of the sun consists of twenty-eight years,
 which contain  all the possible  combinations  of the do-
 minical letters, in respect to their successive order, as
 pointing out the common years and leap-years; so that,
 after the expiration of the cycle,  the days ofthe month
 return in the same order to the same days of the week,
 throughout the next cycle; except that upon every cen-
 tesimal year wiiich is not a leap-year, the letters must
 always be removed  one place forward, to make them
 answer to the years of the cycle.   For instance, if  the
 year 1800 was a leap-year, as every centesimal year is
 in the Julian account, the dominical letters would be
 ED, and  C would be the dominical letter of the next
 year; but as it  is a common year  in the  Gregorian ac-
 count, D  is the dominical  letter  of  1801,  which an-
 swers to the eighteenth of the cycle, C to the nineteenth,
 &c. until  the next  centesimal  year.  Sec Dominical
 letter.'
   To find the  year  of this cycle for  any year of  the
 christian sera,  add 9 to the current year of Christ,  be-
 cause the  cycle commenced nine years before the chris-
 tian aera,  and  divide the sum  by 28, the quotient will
 show the number of cycles which have revolved since
 the beginning of that  in which the christian #ra com-
 menced; and the remainder, if any, shows the current
 jear  of the cycle:  but if  there  be no remainder,  it
 shows that it is the last  or twenty -eighth year of  the
 cycle.
   Cycle of the  moon, or lunar cycle,  called also the
 golden  number,  is a  period  of  nineteen years, after
 which the  new and full  moons return on the same days of
 the months,  only one hour twenty -eight minutes sooner;
so that,  on whatever days the new and full moon fall this
y ear, they v ill  happen  nineteen years hence on the same
days of the months, except when  a centesimal common
year falls within the cycle, which will move the new and
full moons a day later in the calender  than otherwise
they  would have  fallen; insomuch  that a  new  moon
which fell, before the centesimal year, suppose on March
10, will fall nineteen  years afterwards on  Mar  ;*  ll.
The number of years  elapsed in this cycle is called  the
prime, from its use In pointing out the  day of I'iil- new
moon, primum lunse; and the golden number, as desen -
ing to be written in letters  of gold.
  The golden  numbers  are those placed in  the  nrs'
column ofthe calendar, betwixt March £1 and April 18.
both inclusive,  to denote the days upon which those  full
moons fall, wiiich happen upon,  or next after. Marc!'
21, in those years of which they  are respectively  the
golden numbers.  See Calendar.
  For finding the golden number,  add one to the cur
rent year of our Lord,  because one year of this cycle
was elapsed before the christian  sera began, and divide
by nineteen, the remainder  is the  current year of tin-
cycle, or the golden number; but if nothing  remains, ii
shows that it is the last  year of the cycle,  and conse
quently the golden number  is 19.
  Cycle of the Roman indiction, is a period of fifteen
years, in use among the Romans, commencing from  the
third  year before Christ.  This cycle has no  connection
with the celestial motions; but was instituted, according
to Baronius, by Constantine; who, having reduced  the
time which the Romans were obliged to serve to fifteen
years, was consequently obliged, every fifteen years, to
impose, or indicere according to the Latin expression,
an extraordinary tax for the payment of those who were
discharged;  and hence arose this cycle.
  To find the cycle of indiction for any given year, add
S to the given year, and  divide the sum by 15, the  re-
mainder is the current year of the cycle of indiction; if
there  be no remainder, it is the fifteenth or last year of
the  indiction.
  These three cycles  multiplied into one another, that
is, 28 x 19 x 15, amount to 7980, which is  called  th©
Julian period,  after  which the three foregoing cycles
will begin again together.  This period had  its imagin-
ary beginning 710 years  before the creation, according
to the common opinion among chronologers  concerning
the  age of the world, and  is  not  yet complete.  It is
much used in chronological  tables.   See Chronology.
  CYCLOID.   The Cycloid is a curve of such impor-
tance, that the honour of its invention  has  been much
contested among mathematicians.   The  French ascribe
it to their countryman Robervall; but there is  sufficient
evidence that  he was not the original  inventor of it.
Torricellus  informs  us,  in a treatise containing  a  de-
monstration of one of the properties of this  curve, viz.
that its area is triple that of the generating  circle, and
published in 1644, that this curve was known forty-five
years before this period, or  in 1599, to his master  Gali-
leo, and distinguished by the appellation of Cycloid.
Besides, Dr. Wallis has  discovered among  the mathe-
matical  works  of Bovillus. published at several  times
between the years 1501  and 1510, that this curve had
been considered in his time:  and he has also  found, that
it was known  to cardinal  Cusanus,  who gave an  ac-
count of it in a copy  of his works transcribed in  1451.
But its various properties have been gradually discov-
ered;  and the method of regulating the motion  of a pen- 
CYC
CYC
 dulum by this curve, which is the most useful applica-
 tion of it, was the invention of Huygens  in  the last
 century.
   The cycloid  is a curve generated by  the motion  of
 any point in  the periphery of a circle,  whilst the peri-
 phery itself revolves on a right line, till  that point which
 touched  the  line  at the beginning of the  motion  be
 brought to touch it again.
   Let the rolling circle be HFI (PI. XXXIX. Mis. fig.
 29); Fthc point in the periphery, which at the beginning
 ofthe motion touched the line BC in B;  and the curve
 BGC described by  that point,  whilst it is moving from
 B to C, will  be the cycloid, or trochoid, so called from
 the manner of its formation.   The circle HFI,  by the
 revolution of which the curve  is formed, is called the
 generating circle; the right line BC is the base; the line
 GA bisecting the base in A is the axis;  and G is the
 vertex:  a line OF parallel to the base,  and intercepted
 between'the curve and the axis, is an ordinate; and the
 space included by the curve and base, viz. BGCAB, is
 the  cycloidal  space.
   The curve  BGC is called the primary cycloid, to dis-
 tinguish it  from the protracted cycloid  MN, and from
 the  contracted cycloid QR, described by the  contempo-
 rary motion ofthe corresponding points p and r,  in the
 circles OpN less, and 0*R greater, than the circle ODG
 respectively.  The protracted cycloid is applied by Dr.
 Wallis to the  solution of Kepler's problem for dividing
 the area ef an ellipse in a giving ratio, of which an ac-
 count is given in Keill's Astronomy, Leet. 25 and 24.
   We shall now enumerate the chief properties  of the
 common cycloid.  (1) The whole base  BC (fig. SO),  is
 equal to the periphery of the generating circle; and any
 part of the  base BH is equal to the arc FH of the same
 circle in the position HFI.  (2) Any right line Ii3 in-
 tercepted between the  curve  and the generating circle
 in the position GAD, where  AB is =  AC,  is equal to
 the  corresponding  arc  DG  of the  generating  circle.
 For AB =  HFI, and BH = FH. ••• HA = FI  = DG,
 and HA = FD; FD =  DG.   (3) The  ordinate FO =
 FD 4- DO =  DG 4- DO = to the sum ofthe arc inter-
 cepted  between the ordinate and the  vertex,  and its
 right sine.  (4) The  line LI drawn parallel to the chord
 MG, is a tangent to the cycloid in L.
  [Draw the  ordinate LMN  parallel to AB, join MG;
 put r= the radius  of the generating circle AMG, x =
 NG, y= NL, z = the arc MG, and s =  its sine =NM,
 and  by the preceding we have y = s -f z, the differential
 of which is dy = ds -\-dz.  Draw PR indefinitely near and
parallel to LN and Mm parallel to N», and suppose M»
an indefinitely small  right line  at right angles  to MO the
radiusof the circle; that is, Mn = flta, nm — ds, and Mm
= dx.  Then,  since the triangles Mnm, MNO are simi-

lar, we have sir—x::dx: ds, and therefore d.s —r  x
expression
dxy #
for the  subtangent we have   *M
X dy, also s : r :: dx : d%; therefore d% =
dx x r
Now
by substitution we obtain dy =
x x dx   rdx
Now since 2r — x : s
V; s»bt™gent,  it follows that
' 2r — x x dx
and this substituted for dy in the general
 the tangent LI is parallel to the chord MG  (r)
   The semicycloid GC  is equal to 2G A, or double nf
 the diameter of the generating circle;  and the whole p!
 cloid BGC =4GA = four times the diameter of the ^J"
 crating circle.                                 ° '"
   (6) If GX be parallel to B AC, the base of the cvcldA
 and LX parallel to its axis, GA: the space GXL t«•'
 initiated by the cycloidal arc  GL,  and the riehtV1
 GX and LX, will  be  equal to  the circular area GM\8
   Let  Tx be parallel to  LX;  and by what has been
 shown  above, Yp:  Lp ::  MN : NG; = NG* Pn= M\
 X Lp, i. e. Xx x LX =  MN x N*, or the small space
 LXa?P = the small space MNwi.  Consequently the areas
 GXL and  GMN increasing by equal increments, are
 equal.  Hence, if BY be  perpendicular to the base BC
 at B, and  meet GX produced at Y, the space GYBP(J
 will be equal to the semicircle GMA:  and the rectangle
 GABY under the diameter GA and BA = \ the circum-
 ference of the  generating circle, will be four times tbe
 semicircle  GMA;  and therefore the  area GLT5AG -
 three times the area of the generating semicircle  GM \
 and the whole  cycloidal area BLGCAB will be equal t<>
 three times the areaW the generating circle GMAT.
 Also, if GB be drawn, the area intercepted between tbe
 cycloid GLB,  and  the right line GB, will be equal to
 the semicircle  GMA; for the area GLBAG = 3GMA,
 and the triangle GBA =  ±GA x AB = the rectangle of
 the  radius and  semicircumference = the area  of tiie
 generating circle GMAT = 2GMA; and  therefore CL
 BAG — GBA = 3GMA — 2G1MA = GMA.
  (7) The cycloid is the  curve of swiftest descent; or a
 heavy body, descending by the force of its own gravity,
 will move  from one  point of this curve  to  any other
 point in less time,  than it will move by any other line
joining  these points.
  (8) A body falls through any arc, FG, LG, kc. (fig.
 30), of  an  inverted cycloid, whether it be great or smail,
 in the same time.   Hence, if a pendulum be made to vi-
 brate in the arc of  a cycloid, all the  vibrations will be
performed  in the same time.
  CYCLOPTERUS, the sucker, in ichthyology, a se-
mis belonging  to the order of  amphibia  nantes.  Tbe
head is  obtuse,  and furnished with saw-teeth; there are
four rays in the gills; and the  belly-fins are  connected
together in an orbicular form. Tliere are  three species:
  1. The lumpus,  or lump-fish, grows to the length of
nineteen inches, and  weighs seven pounds.  The shaj>«
of the body is  like that of the  bream, deep  and very
thick, and  it swims edge-ways.  The back is sharp and
elevated; the belly flat,  of a  bright crimson colour.
Along the  body there run several rows of sharp and bo-
ny tubercles, and the whole skin is covered with small
ones.  The tail and vent-fins are purple.  The pectoral
fins  are large and broad,  almost uniting at  their base.
Beneath these  is the part by which  it adheres to tiie
rocks, kc  It consists of an oval aperture, surrounded
with a  fleshy,  muscular,  and obtuse substance; edged
with many small threaded appendages, which concur as
so many claspers.  By means of this part it adheres with 
C  Y D
CYD
vasi force to any thing it pleases.  As a proof of  its
tenacity, it has been known, that in flinging a fish of this
species into a pail of water, it fixed itself so firmly to the
bottom, that on taking the  fish by the tail, the whole pail
by that means was  lifted,  though it  held some gallons,
without once making the fish quit its hold.  These fish re-
sort in multitudes during spring to the coast of Sutherland
near the Ord of Caithness.  The seals wiiich smarm be-
neath, prey greatly upon them, leaving the skins; numbers
of which, thus emptied, float ashore at that season. Great
numbers of  lump-fish arc found in the Greenland  seas
during the months of April and May, when they resort near
the shore tojspawn.  See Plate XL. Nat. Hist. fig. 15rj.
   2. The hparis takes  the name  of sea-snail from the
soft and unctuous texture of its body, resembling that of
the land-snail.   It is almost transparent, and soon dis-
solves and melts  away.  It is found in  the sea near the
mouths of great rivers, and has been seen full of spawn in
January.  The length is five inches: the colour a pale
brown, sometimes finely streaked  with a darker.  Be-
neath the throat is a round  depression of a whitish colour
like  the impression ofa seal, surrounded by twelve small
pale yellow tubera, by which  probably  it adheres to the
stones like the other species.
   3. C.  minor,  or the lesser sucking-fish, is found  in
different parts ofthe British  seas.  It is about four inches
in length; the skin without scales, slippery, and elf a dusky
colour.  It has also an apparatus for adhering to stones
and  rocks, similar to the oihcrs.
   CYDER, or Cidkr, an excellent  drink made of the
juice of apples.   In making this drink, it has long  been
thought necessary in every part  v.f England,  to lay tbe
harder cyder fruits in heaps for some time before break-
ing their pulps; but the Devonshire people have much im-
proved this practice: in other  countries the method is, to
make these heaps of apples  in a house, or under some co-
vering, inclosed on every side; this method has been found
defective, because,  by  excluding the free air,  the heat
soon became too violent, and a great perspiration ensued,
by which, in a short time,  tic b ss of juice was so great
as to reduce the frit to half their former weight, attended
with a general ro'feniiess, rancid smell,  and disagreeable
taste.  In the southern parts  a middle way has been  pur-
sued; to avoid the inconveniences  attending the above,
they make their heaps of apples in an open part of an or-
chard; where by means ofa free air and less perspiration,
the desired maturity is  brought  about, without any  con-
siderable waste of the juices, or decay  of the fruit,  and
entirely free  of rankness;  and though  some apples rot
even in this manner, tbey are verv few, and are still fit for
use, all continue plump and full of juices, and very much
heighten tbe colour of tbe cyder, without ill-taste or smell.
In pursuing the Devonshire method it is to be observed:
first, all the promiscuous kind of apples that have dropped
from the trees from time to time, are  to be gathered up
and laid  in a heap by themselves, to be made into cyder
after having so lain about ten days; secondly, such apples
as are gathered from the tree, having already acquired
some degree of maturity, are likewise tube laid in a  heap
by themselves for about a  fortnight; thirdly,  the later
hard fruif. wiiich are to he left on tbetrecstill the a p pre■■■u U
of frost is apprehended, are to be Iain in separate heaps,
w here they are to remain a month or six weeks, by which,
  vtu#. i.                  90
 notwithstanding frost, rain, &c. their juices will receive
 such a maturation as will prepare them for a kindly fer-
 mentation, and which they could not have attained on the
 trees from the coldness ofthe season.
   It is observable, that the riper and mellower the fruits
 are at the time of collecting them into heaps, the shorter
 should be  their continuance there; and on the  contrary,
 the harsher,  more immature,  and harder they are, the
 longer they should rest.   These heaps should be made in
 an even and open part of the orchard, without any regard
 to covering from rain, dews, or what  else may  happen
 during the apples staying there; and  whether they be
 carried in and broken in wet or  dry weather, the effect is
 all the same.  If it should be objected, that during their
 having lain together in the heaps, they may have imbibed
 great humidity, as well from the air, as  from the ground,
 rain, dews, &c. which are  mixed with  their juices; the
 answer is, that this will have no other effect, than a kindly
 diluting natural to the fruits, by which  means a speedier
 fermentation ensues, and all heterogeneous humid parti-
 cles are thrown oi'. The apples are then ground, and the
 pumices received in a large open-mouthed vessel, capable
 of containing  as much thereof as is sufficient for one mak-
 ing or one cheese, though  it has been a custom to let the
 pumice remain some hours in the vessel appropriated to
 contain it: yet this practice is by no means commendable;
 for if the fruits did not come ripe from the trees, or other-
 wise matured, the pumice remaining in the vat too long,
 will acquire such harshness and coarseness from the skins
 as is never to  be  got rid  of; and if the pumice is of well-
 ripened fruit,  the continuing too long there will occasion
 it to contract a sharpness that very often is followed with
 want of spirit and pricking; nay, sometimes it even be-
 comes vinegar, or always continues of a wheyish colour,
 all  which proceeds from the heat of fermentation, that it
 almost instantly falls into on lying together; the pumice,
 therefore, should remain not longer in the vat than until
 there may be enough broken for one pressing, or that all
 be made into a cheese and pressed the day it is broken.
  The stooming or stumming of cyder,  is done by burn-
 ing a match or scent in a clean hogshead, moist from re-
 cent rinsing, and racking the cyder on the fret  into it.
 If much on the fret, when the  cyder is  half-racked into
 the matched or scented cask, burn another match i;; each
 cask, roll and  tumble theni well about  (if there are no
 lees) for a couple of hours, and then finish the racking.
 Stum is the rich must of good cycler, blended with the va-
pour  ofthe burning match or scent, stoomed as above.
which prevents its fermenting;  and when disposed to fret,
must be racked into another cask well matched: if this is
neglected, and it once ferments,  itis no  longer stum, but
becomes good  cyder.   Stum is  used to  merid declining
cyder, make it ferment afresh,  and give life and sweet-
ness to it, a kind of reaniination.   Boiled cyder  makes
the best keeping stum.
  It would doubtless be  a great improvement  to many
estates to cultivate the land not fit for corn, by planting
the proper sorts of apples and pears, for the production
of so wholes ine and pleasant a beverage  as  cyder or
perry.  In the preparation of this very estimable'liquor;
there is no expense of fuel to brew it; and the labour is v
but once a year, and when sold it yields a very  encour-
aging profit. The larger quantity there is made together, 
CYDER.
ihc better it succeeds; in large vessels it will keep sound
and good for many years.   Besides, it is a  pursuit  in
which any  gentleman can engage, without being consi-
dered as a  trader.  A man may exercise or amuse him-
self in any manufacture from the produce of his own land,
as a necessary or usual mode of reaping or enjoying that
produce, and bringing it advantageously to market; and
he shall not be  considered as a  trader, though he buy
necessary ingredients or materials to fit it for the mar-
ket; for this is the  way of enjoying the  land  in cyder
countries:  but where the produce  of the land is merely
the raw materials of a manufacture, and  used as  such,
and not according to the usual mode of enjoying the land;
in short, where the produce ofthe land is an insignificant
article, in  comparison with the whole expense of the ma-
nufacture; there he ought to be considered as a trader,
and so the law decides.
   The manufacturing of cyder and perry forms a capital
branch in  fruit countries,  and  of which the  improve-
ment nidst be considered as  of great importance to the
public, but - particularly so to the inhabitants of those
districts were these liquors constitute the common beve-
rage.
   Cyder and perry, when genuine, and in high perfec-
tion, are excellent vinous liquors, and are certainly far
more wholesome than many others which are at present
in higher  estimation.   When the must  is prepared from
the choicest fruit, and undergoes the exact degree of vi-
nous fermentation requisite to its perfection, the acid and
 the sweet  are  so admirably blended with the aqueous,
 oily, and spirituous principles, and the  whole so imbued
 with the grateful flavour of the rinds  and the  agreeable
 aromatic  bitter  of the kernels, that it assumes  a new
 character; grows lively, sparkling, and exhilarating: and
 when completely mellowed  by time, the liquor becomes
 at once highly delicious to the palate, and friendly to the
 constitution; superior,  in every respect, to  most other
 English  wines;  for such (says  Dr. Fothergill) would it
 be pronounced by all competent judges,  was it not for the
 popular prejudice annexed to it, as a cheap home-brewed
 liquor, and consequently within  the reach of the vulgar.
 To compare such  a liquor with some of the foreign, fiery,
 sophisticated mixtures, sometimes imported, would be no
 credit to it; for it certainly surpasses them in flavour and
 pleasantness, as  much as it excels them in  cheapness:
 but rarely do we meet with perry or cyder of  this supe-
 rior quality; for what is generally  sold by dealers and
 inn-keepers, is a poor, meagre,  vapid liquor, disposed to
 the acetous fermentation, and, of course, very injurious
 to the constitution.  It is very mortify ing, after the  ex-
 perience of so many centuries, that the art of  preparing
 those liquors should still be so imperfectly understood as
 to seem to be' in their very  infancy; that, throughout the
 principal  cyder  districts,   the  practice should still rest
 on the most vague undeterminate principles;  and that the
 excellence of the liquor should depend  rather on a lucky
 accident  than  on good management:  yet such appears
 to be really the case, even amongst the most experienced
 cyder-makers.
    Mr. Marshall, that nice observer of rural affairs, in his
 late tour through Herefordshire and Gloucestershire, (ex-
 pressly undertaken for the purpose of inquiry on this sub-
ject), informs us,  that scarcely two of the professional
makers are agreed as to the management of some ofthe
most essential parts ofthe process;  that palpable errors
are committed, as to the time and manner of gathering the
fruit, in laying it up, in neglecting to separate the unsound
and to grind properly the rinds, kernels, kc. that the method
of conducting the vinous fermentation, the most critical
part ofthe operation, and which stamps the future value of
the liquor, is by no means ascertained; for while some  pro-
mote the  fermentation in a  spacious open vat, others re-
press it, by inclosing the liquor in a hogshead, or strive fo
prevent it altogether; that no determinate point of tem-
perature is regarded, and that the use ofthe thermometer
is unknown or neglected; that they are as little consistent
as to the time of racking  off, and whether this ought to be
done only once, or five  or six times repeated; that for
fining  down the liquor many have recourse to that odious
article bullock's blood, when the intention  might be much
better answered by whites of eggs or isinglass; and final-
ly, that the capricious  taste of particular customers ia
generally  consulted, rather than the real excellence of
the liquor; and consequently that a very imperfect liquor
is often vended, which tends to reduce the price, to  dis-
grace the vender,  and to bring the use of cyder and perry
into disrepute.
   The art of making vinous liquors is a curious chemical
process: and its success chiefly  depends  on a dextrous
management of the vinous  fermentation,  besides a close
attention  to several minute  circumstances, the theory of
which is not, perhaps, yet fully understood by the ablest
chemists.
   The general  method of preparing cyder and perry is
very much the same. The mill is not essentially different
from that of a common tanner's mill for grinding bark; it
consists of a mill-stone from two feet and a  half to four and
a half in diameter, running on its edge on a circular stone-
trough, from nine to twelve inches in thickness, mid from
one to two tons in weight:  the bottom of the trough in
which this  stone runs is somewhat, wider than the thick-
ness of the stone itself; the inner side of the groove rises
perpendicularly, but the outer is bevelled in such a man-
ner as to make the top  of the trough six or eight inches
wider than the bottom, by which means there is room for
the stone to run freely,  and likewise for putting in the
fruit,  and stirring it up while grinding.   The bed of a
middle-sized mill is about nine feet, some ten, and some
twelve; the whole being composed of two, three, or  four
stones,  cramped  together, and finished  after being
 cramped in this manner: the best stones are found in the
forest of  Dean, generally a dark-reddish gritstone, not
 calcareous; for if it was of a calcareous quality the acid
juice ofthe fruits would act upon it and spoil the liquor;
 a clean-grained grindstone grit is the fittest for the pur-
 pose.  The runner is moved hy means of an axle passing
 through  the  centre, with a long arm reaching without
 the bed ofthe mill, for a horse to draw by; on the other
 side is a shorter arm, passing through the centre ofthe
 stone, as represented in the figure.  An iron bolt, with  a
 large head,passes through an eye in the lower part"!
 the swivel, on which the stone turns into the end of the
 inner arm of the axis; and thus the double motion of it is
 obtained, and the stone kept perfectly upright. There
 ought also to be fixed on the inner aim of the axis,  about 
CYDER.
a foot from the runner, a cogged wheel, working in a
circle of cogs  fixed upon the bed of the mill; the  use of
these is to prevent the runner from sliding, which it is
apt to do  when  the  mill is full; it likewise makes the
work more easy for the horse: these wheels ought to be
made with great exactness. Mr. Marshall observes, that
it is an error to make the horse draw by traces. " That
acting point of draught (says he), the horse's shoulders,
ought, for various reasons, to be applied immediately at
the end of the arm ofthe axis; not two or three yards
before it, perhaps in a small mill near one-fourth of its
circumference." Thebuilding in which the mill is inclos-
ed ought to be of such a  size that the horse may have
a path of three feet wide betwixt the mill and the wall,
so that a  middling-sized mill, with its horse-path, takes
up a space of fourteen or fifteen feet every way. The
whole dimensions of the  mill-house, according to  our
author, to render it any way convenient, are twenty-
four feet  by  twenty; it ought to  have a floor thrown
over it  at the height of seven feet, with a door in the
middle of the front,  and a window opposite, with the
mill on one side and the press on tbe other side of the
window: the latter must be as near the mill  as conveni-
ence will allow, for the more easy conveying the ground
fruit from the one to the other. The press, of which the
principle  will be understood from the figure, has its bed
or bottom about five feet square: this ought to be made
entirely either of wood or of stone, the practice of cov-
ering it  with lead being  now universally known to be
pernicious.  It has a channel cut a few inches  within its
outer edges, to catch the liquor as it is expressed, and
convey it  to a lip formed by a projection on  that side of
the bed opposite  the mill; having  under it a stone
trough or wooden vessel,  sunk within the ground, when
the bed is fixed low, to receive it. The press is worked
with levers of different lengths, first a short, and then a
moderately long one, both worked hy hand; and  lastly,
a bar, eight or nine feet  long, worked by a capstan or
windlass. The expense of fitting up a mill-house is not
very great.  Mr. Marshall computes it from twenty to
twenty-five pounds, and on a small scale from 10 to 15
pounds, though much depends on the distance and car-
riage of the  stone:  when  once fitted up it will last ma-
ny years.
   The making of the fruit-liquors under consideration
requires an attention to the following particulars:
   1. The fruit. II. The  grinding. III.  Pressing. IV.
Fermenting. V. Correcting. VI. Laying up. VII. Bot-
tling.   Each  of  these heads is subdivided  into several
others.
   I. In the  management of the fruit, the following par-
ticulars are to be considered:
   1. Tbe time of gathering;—which varies  according
to the nature of the fruit. The early pears are fit  for
the mill in  September;  but  few apples are ready f>r
gathering before Michaelmas; though, from  accidental
circumstances, they are frequently manufactured before
that time; for sale cyder  and keeping drink, they  are
suffered  to hang upon the trees till  fully  ripe; and the
middle  of October is generally looked upon to be a pro-
pel time forgathering the stire apples. The criterion of
a degree  of ripeness is, the fruit falling from the tree;
and to force it away before that time, in Mr. Marshall's
opinion, is robbing it of  some of its most valuable pro-
perties; " the harvesting of fruit (says he) is widely dif-
ferent  in  this  respect from the harvesting of grain,
which has the entire plant to feed it after the separation
from the soil; while fruit, after it is severed from the tree,
is cut off from all possibility of a further supply of nour-
ishment; and although  it may have reached its wonted
size, some of its more essential particles are undoubtedly
left behind in the tree." Sometimes, however, the fruits
which are late in ripening are apt to hang on the tree un-
til spoiled by frosts, though weak watery fruits seem to
be most injured in this manner;  and  Mr. Marshall re-
lates an instance of very  fine liquor being made from
golden pippins, after the fruit had been frozen as hard
as ice.
  2. The method of gathering. This, as generally prac-
tised, is directly contrary to the principles laid down by
Mr. Marshall, viz.  heating  them down with  long slen-
der poles.  An evident  disadvantage of this method is,
that the fruit is of  unequal  ripeness: for the apples on
the same tree will differ many days, perhaps even weeks
in  their time of coming to perfection, whence some part
of the richness and  flavour of the fruit will  be effectual-
ly  and  irremediably cut off.  Nor is this the only evil to
be dreaded;  for as every thing depends on the fermenta-
tion it has to undergo, if this is interrupted, or rendered
complex by  a mixture of ripe and unripe fruits, and the
liquor  is not,  in the first instance, sufficiently purged
from its feculencies, it is difficult to clear it afterwards.
The former  defect the cyder-makers attempt to remedy,
by a mixture of brown sugar and brandy, and the latter
by  bullock's blood and brimstone; but neither of these
can be  expected to answer the purpose very effectually.
The best method of avoiding the inconveniences arising
from an unequal ripening of the fruit is,  to go over the
trees twice,  once with a hook  when the  fruit begins to
fall spontaneously; tbe second time when the latter are
sufficiently ripened, or when the winter is  likely to set
in, when the trees are to be cleared with the poles  as
above-mentioned.
   3. Maturing the gathered fruit.  This is  usually done
by making it into heaps, as has been already mentioned:
but Mr. Marshall entirely disapproves of  the practice;
because, when the whole  are laid in a heap together, the
ripe fruit will begin to rot before the  other has arrived
at that degree of artificial ripeness which it is capable of
acquiring.  « The due degree of maturation of fruit  for
liquor," he  observes, <» is a subject about which men,
even in this district, differ much in their ideas. The pre-
vailing practice of gathering into heaps until the ripest
begin to rot, is wasting the best of the fruit, and is by no
means an accurate criterion. Some shake the fruit, and
judge by the rattling of the kernels; others cut through
the middle,  and judge by their  blackness: but none of
these appear to be a proper test.  It is not the state of the
kernels, but of the  flesh; not of a few individuals, but of
the greater  part ofthe prime fruit; which renders the col-
lcc five body fit or  unfit to be sent to the mill; the most
rational test of the ripeness of  the fruit is, that of the
flesh having acquired such a degree of mellowness, and
 its texture  such a  degree of tenderness, as to yield to
 moderate pressure; thus, when  the  knuckle or the end
of the thumb can with moderate exertion be forced into 
CYDER.
4ie*pulp of the. fruit, is deemed in a fit  state for grind-
ing.
  4. Preparation for the mill.   The proper manage-
ment of the  fruit is to  keep the ripe and unripe fruit
separate from each other; but this cannot be done with-
out a considerable degree of labour; for as, by number-
less accidents,  the ripe and unripe  fruit are  frequently
confounded together, there cannot be any effectual me-
thod of separating them except by hand; and Mr. Mar-
shall is of opinion,  that this  is one ofthe grand secrets
of cyder-making, peculiar to  those who  excel in the bu-
siness; and he  is surprised that it should not before this
time have come into common practice.
   5. Mixing fruit for liqour.  Our author seems to doubt
 the propriety of this practice; and  informs us, that the
 finer liquors are made from select fruits;  and he hints,
 that it might be more proper to  mix liquors  after they
 arc made, than to put together the  crude fruits.
   II. Grinding,  and management of  the  fruit  when
 ground.—For the greater convenience  of putting fruit
 into the  mill,  every mill should have  a fruit-chamber
 over it, with a trap-door to  lower the  fruit  down into
 the mill. The best  manner in which this can be accom-
 plished is to have the valve over the bed of the mill, and
 furnished with a hose  or tunnel reaching down to the
 trough in which the stone moves;  no straw is used  in
 the lofts, but sometimes the  fruit is turned.  In Here-
 fordshire it is  generally believed, that grinding the
 rinds and seeds of the fruit as well as the fleshy part to
 a pulp, is necessary towards the perfection of the cyder,
 whence it is proper that  every kind of  pains should  be
 taken to perform the grinding in the  most perfect man-
 ner.  Mr.  Marshall complains, that the mills are so im-
 perfectly finished  by the workmen, that for the first
 years they cannot perform their  work in a proper man-
 ner.   Instead of being nicely fitted to one another with
 the square and chisel, they are hewn over with a rough
 tool, in such a careless manner that horse-beans might
 lie in safety in their cavities.  Some even imagine that
 to be an advantage, as if the fruit was more  effectually
  and  completely  broken by  rough than smooth  stones.
  Some use  fluted rollers of iron, but these will be cor-
  roded by the juice, and thus the liquor might be tinged.
  Smooth rollers will not lay hold of the fruit sufficiently
  to force it through.
     Another improvement requisite in  the cyder mills, is
  to prevent the  matter in the trough  from rising before
  the stone in the last stage of grinding, and a method of
  stirring it up in the trough more effectually than can be
  done at  present. To remedy the former of these defects,
  it might perhaps be proper to grind the fruit first in the
  mill to a certain degree; and then put it between two
  smooth rollers to finish the operation in the most perfect
  manner.  It is an  error to  grind  too much at once, as
  this clogs up the mill, and prevents it from going easily.
  The usual  quantity for  a middle-sized  mill is  a bag,
  containing four corn-bushels; but our author bad an op-
  portunity  of seeing a mill in which only half a bag was
  put, and thus the work seemed to go on more easily and
  more quickly than when more was put  in at once.  The
  quantity put in at one time is to be taken out when
  ground.   The usual quantity of fruit  ground in  a day
is as much as will make three  hogsheads of perry «
two of cyder.
  Management of the ground fruit.  Mr. Marshall con-
demns in very strong terms the  practice of pressing the
pulp of the fruit as soon as the grinding is finished, be-
cause thus neither the rind nor seeds have time to com-
municate their virtues to the liqour, or to extract these
virtues in the most proper manner; some allow the
ground fruit to  lie twenty-four  hours  or more after
grinding, and even regrind  it, in  order to have, in the
most perfect manner, the flavour and virtues of the seeds
and rind.
  III. Pressing the fruit, and management of the resi-
duum.  This is done by folding up the ground fruit in
pieces of hair-cloth,  and piling  them  up  above one
another, in a square frame or mould, and then pulling
down  the press upon them, wiiich squeezes out tbe juice,
and forms the matter into thin and  almost dry cakes.
The first runnings  come off foul  and muddy, but the
last, especially in perry, will be as clear and fine as if
filtred through paper.  It is common to throw away the
residuum as useless; sometimes it is made use of, when
dry, as fuel; sometimes the pigs  will eat it, especially
when  not thoroughly  squeezed;  and sometimes it is
ground a second  time with water, and pressed  for an
inferior kind of liquor used for the family.  Mr. Mar-
shall advises to continue the pressure as long as a drop
can be drawn.  «« It is found  (says he) that even by
breaking the cakes  of the refuse  with the hands only,
gives  the press fresh power over it:  for, though it has
been pressed to the  last drop, a gallon or more of addi-
tional liquor may be got by this means: regrinding them
has a still greater effect; in this state of  the materials,
the mill gains a  degree of power over the more rigid
parts  of the fruits^  which in the first grinding it could
 not reach.  If the face of the runner, and the bottom of
 the trough, were dressed with a broad chisel, and made
true to each other, and a moderate quantity of residuum
 ground at once, scarcely a kernel would  escape unbro-
 ken, or a drop of liquor remain undrawn."
   But though the  whole virtue of the fruit cannot be
 extracted without grinding it very fine, some inconve-
 niences attend this  practice, as a part of the pulp thus
 gets through the  hair-cloth, and  may perhaps be inju-
 rious to the subsequent fermentation.  This, however,
 may be in  a great measure remedied by straining the
 first runnings through a sieve:  the whole should also be
 allowed to settle  in a cask,  and drawn off into a fresh
 vessel previous to the commencement of the fermenta-
 tion.  The reduced fruit ought to remain some time be-
 tween the grinding and pressing, that the liquor may
 have an opportunity of forming an extract with the
 rind and kernels; hut this must  not be  pushed too far,
 as in that case the colour of the cyder would be hurt;
 and the most judicious managers object to the pulp re-
 maining longer  than  twelve  hours without pressure;
 «  thence (says our author) upon the whole,  the most
 eligible management in this stage of the process ap-
 peal's to be  this:  grind one press-full a day; press, ana
 regrind the residuum in the evening; infuse the reduced
 matter all night among part of the first runnings, and
 in  the morning  repress  while the next press-fun  ts
 grinding." 
OYDEIv.
    IV. Fermentation. The common practice is, to Lave
 the liquor tunned, that is, put into casks or hogsheads.
 immediately from the press, and to fill them quite full;
 but it is undiubtedly m ire proper to leave some space
 empty to be filled up afterwards.  No accurate experi-
 ment has been made with regard to the temperature of
 t!ie air proper to  be kept up in flu place where the fer-
 mentation goes on.
    Frost  is prejudicial; but when tbe process usually
 commences, that is,  about the middle of October, tbe
 liquor is  put into airy sheds,  where  the  warmth is
 scarcely greater  than in the open  atmosphere; nay, it
 is frequently exposed to the open air without any cov-
 ering farther than a piece of tile or flat stone over the
 bung-hole, propped up by a wooden pin on one side to
 rau«e the. rain-water to run off.  In a complete manu-
 factory of fruit  liquor, the fermenting room should  be
 under the same roof  with the mill-bouse, a continuation
 of the press-room, or at least opening into it  with win-
 dows or doors on every side, to give a free admission
 of air into it, with sufficient defence against frost; fruit-
 lofts over it, and  vaults underneath, for laying up the li-
 quors after fermentation,  with small holes in the crown
 of the arch to admit a hose or  pipe for the purpose of
 conveying the liqours occasionally from the one to the
 other.
    In making of fruit-liquors  no ferment is used, as in
 making of beer;  though,  from Mr. Marshall's account
 of the matter, it seems  far from being unnecessary.
 Owing to this omission, the time of the commencement
 of the fermentation is entirely  uncertain; it takes place
 sometimes in one, two, or three  days, sometimes not in
 a week or a month,  after tunning; but it has been ob-
 -•erved. that liquor which has  been agitated in a car-
 riage, though just taken from the press, will sometimes
 pass almost immediately  into  a state of fermentation.
 The continuance  of the fermentation  is no less uncer-
 tain than the commencement of it. Liquors, when much
 agitated, will go through  it  perhaps in one day; but
 when allowed to remain at rest,  tbe fermentation com-
 monly goes on two or three days, and sometimes five or
 six.   The fermenting liquor, however, puts on a differ-
 ent appearance according  to circumstances; when pro-
 duced from fruits  properly matured, it generally throws
 up a thick scum, resembling that of malt liquor, and of
 a  thickness proportioned to the  species and ripeness of
 the fruit; the riper the fruit, the more scum is thrown
 up. Perry  gives but little scum, and cyder will also
 sometimes do the same: sometimes  it is intentionally
 prevented from doing it.
   After having remained some time in the fermenting-
 vessel, the liquor  is racked or drawn off from the lees,
 and put into fresh casks.   In this part of the operation
 also Mr. Marshall complains greatly of the. little atten-
 tion that is paid to the liquor.   The ordinary time for
 racking perry is before  it has done hissing, or some-
 times when it begins to emit fixed air  in plenty.   The
 only intention of the operation is, to free the liquor from
 its l.eculencies, by a cork placed at a little distance from
 the bottom,  alter  which the remainder is to be filtred
 through  a  canvass or  flannel bag;  this filtred liquor
 di tiers from the rest in  having a  higher colour, having
no longer any tendency to  ferment, but, on the  con-
 trary, checking the firinciUauon oi vhaf. which is raokec
 off; and if it loses its brightness, it i- no longer easily
 recovered. Afresh fermentation usually c^iimcnci s af-
 ter racking,  and if it becomes violent,  a fresh  rar-kh;£
 is  iv.vessary in order to  check it,  in  consequence <.•;'
 wbich  the same liquor will  be racked  off five or six
 times:  but if only  a small degree of fermentation takes
 place, wiiich is called  fretting, it is allowed  to remain
 in  the same  cask,  though  even here the degree of fer
 mentation which requires racking is by no means de
 termineil.  Mr. Marshall informs us, that the best manu-
 facturers, however, repeat the rackings  until the liquor
 will lie quiet, or nearly so; or if it be found impractica-
 ble to accomplish this  by  the ordinary  method of fer-
 mentation, recourse must be had to fumigation with sul-
 phur, which is called stumming the casks.  For this fu-
 migation, it  is necessary to have matches made  of thick
 linen-cloth,  about ten ine lies  long,  and  an  inch broad,
 thickly coated with brimstone for about  eight inches of
 their length.  The cask is then properly seasoned,  and
 every vent,  except the bung-hole, tightly stopped; a
 match kindled is lowered  down into the  cask, and  held
 by the undipped end until it is  well lighted,  and the
 bung  driven in;  thus suspending  the  lighted match
 within the cask.  Having burnt as long as the contained
 air will supply the fire, the match  dies, the bung is
 raised, the remnant of the match drawn out, and the
 cask suffered to remain before the liquor is put into it
 for two or three hours, more or less, according to the
 degree of power the sulphur ought to have. The liquor
 retains a smell of the sulphureous acid; but  this goes
 off in a short time, and no had effect is ever observed
 to follow.
   In  some places the  liquor is left  to ferment in open
 casks, in which it stands till  th» first fermentation is
 pretty well over; after which the froth or yeast collected
 upon  the surface is taken off,  it being supposed that it
 is this yeast  mixing with the clear  liquor which causes
 it to fret after racking. The fermentation having totally
 ceased, and the lees subsided, the liquor is racked off into
 a fresh  cask, and  the  lees filtred, as above  directed.
 Our author mentions a way of fermenting fruit-liquors
 in broad shallow vats, not less than five feet in  diame-
 ter, and little more than two  feet deep,  each vat con-
 taining about two hogsheads.  In these the liquor re-
 mains until it has done rising, or till the fermentation
 has nearly ceased;  when it is  racked off  without skim-
 ming,  the  critical  juncture being  caught  before  the
 yeast  falls, the whole sinking gradually together as the
 liquor is drawn off. In this practice also the liquor is
 seldom drawn off a  second time.
  Cyder is made of three different  kinds, viz.  rough,
sweet, and ofa middle richness.  The first kind, being
 usually destined for common use, is made with very little
 ceremony; if it is but cyder (says Mr. Marshall), and has
 body enough to keep, no matter for the richness and fla-
vour. The rougher itis the further it will go; and the moro
acceptable custom has rendered it, not only to the workmen
 but to their masters. A palate accustomed to sweet cyder,
 would judge the rough cyder of the farm-house to be a mix -
ture of vinegar and water, with a little dissolved alum
 to give it roughness. The method of producing this aus
tere liquor  is, to grind the fruit in a crude  under-ripe 
CYDER.
state, and subject the liquor to a full fermentation; for
the sweet liquor, make choice of the sweeter fruits, ma-
ture them fully, and check the fermentation of the li-
quor. To produce liquors of a middle richness, the na-
ture of the fruit, as well as the season in which it is ma-
tured, must be considered. The fruits to be made choice
of are such as yield juices capable of affording a suffi-
ciency both of richness and  strength; though much de-
pends on a proper management. Open vats, in our au-
thor's opinion, are preferable to close vessels; but if casks
are used at all, they ought to be very large, and not filled;
nor ought they to lie upon their sides, but to be set on their
ends, with their heads out, and to be filled only to such
a height as will produce the requisite  degree of fermen-
tation; hut in whatever way the liquor he put to ferment,
Mr.  Marshall  is of opinion that the operation ought
to be allowed to go  on  freely for the first time, though
after being racked off any second fermentation ought to
be prevented  as much as possible.
   V. Correcting, provincially called doctoring. The im-
perfections which art attempts to supply in these liquors
are, 1. Want of strength. 2.  Want of richness.  S. Want
of flavour. 4. Want of colour and brightness.
   The want of strength is  supplied by brandy, or any
other spirit, in sufficient quantity to prevent the acetous
fermentation. The want of richness is supplied by what
are generally termed sweets, but prepared in a manner
which our author says has never fallen within his notice.
To supply  the want of  flavour, an  infusion of hops is
sometimes  added, wiiich  is said  to  communicate an
agreeable  bitter, and at the  same  time  a fragrance;
whence it becomes a substitute for the juices ofthe rinds
 and kernels thrown away  to the pigs  and poultry, or
otherwise  wasted. The want of colour is sometimes sup-
 plied by elder-berries, but more generally  by burnt su-
 gar, which gives the desired colour, and a degree of bit-
 ter wiiich  is very much liked; the sugar is prepared
 either by burning it on a salamander, and suffering it to
 drop as it melts, or by boiling it over the fire (in wiiich
 case brown sugar is  to be  used)  until it acquires an
 agreeable bitter, then pouring  in  boiling water in the
 proportion of a gallon to two pounds of sugar,  and stir-
 ring it until  the liquor becomes uniform:  a pint of this
 preparation will colour a hogshead of cyder. Brightness
 is obtained by  a mixture of the blood of bullocks or
 sheep, that of swine being rejected,  though it  does not
 appear to be more unfit for the purpose than either  of
 the other two; the only thing necessary to be done  here
 is, to stir the blood well as itis drawn from the animal,
 to  prevent the parts from separating, and it ought to be
 stirred both  ways  for a quarter of an hour: the liquor,
 however, is not  always in a proper  condition for being
 refined with this ingredient, on which account a little of
 it ought frequently to be tried in a phial: a quart, or less,
 will be sufficient for a hogshead.  After the blood is pour-
 ed in, theliquor should  ne violently agitated^ to mix the
 whole intimately together:  this is  done by a stick slit
 into four,  and  inserted into the bung-hole, working  it
 briskly about in the liquor until the whole  be thoroughly
 mixed; in about 24  hours  the blood will have subsided,
 and the liquor ought instantly to be racked off, as bv re-
 maining upon the blood even for two or  three day's,  it
 will receive a taint not easily to be got rid of. It is re-
markable that  this  refinement  with the blood  carries
down not only the fasculencies, but the colour also, ren-
deringthe liquor, though ever so highly coloured before,
almost as limpid  as water. Isinglass and  eggs are some
times made use of in refining cyder  as weil as wine.
  VI. Laying up, or shutting up the cyder in close casks
according to Mr. Marshall, is as little understood as any
ofthe rest of the parts; the  bungs being commonly put
in at some certain time, or  in some particular  month,
without any regard  to the state the liquor itself is in
" The only  criterion (says  he)  I  have met with  foi
judging the critical time for laying up, is when a fine
white cream-like matter first begins to  form upon the
surface.  But this may be too late; it is probably a si nm.
torn at least of the acetous fermentation, which, if it tak«
place in  any degree, must be  injurious: yet if the casks
be bunged tight some criterion is necessary; otherwise if
the vinous fermentation have not yet finally  ceased, or
should recommence, the casks would be endangered, and
the liquor injured.  Hence, in the practice of the most
cautious manager, whose practice I have had an oppor-
tunity of observing, the bungs arc first driven  in lightly,
when the liquor is fine, and the vinous  fermentation is
judged to be over; and some time afterwards, when all
danger is  past,  the casks are  filled  up, and the bung
driven securely with a rag,  and both rosined over at
top. Most farmers are of opinion, that  after the liquor
has done fermenting, it ought to have something to feed
upon; that is, to prevent it from running  into the acetous
fermentation.   For this  purpose some put in parched
beans,  others  egg-shells, some mutton-suet," kc. Mr.
Marshall does  not doubt that something may be useful,
and thinks that isinglass may he as  proper as any thing
fiat can be got.
  VII. Bottling. This depends greatly on the quality of
the liquors themselves: good cyder can seldom be bottled
with propriety until a year old; sometimes not till two.
The proper time is, when it has acquired the  utmost de-
gree of richness and flavourin the casks; and this it will
preserve for many years in bottles.  It ought to be quite
fine at the time of bottling, or if not so naturally, ought
to be fined artificially with isinglass  and  eggs.
  The liquor called cyderkin, purre, or perkin, is made
of the mark, or gross  matter remaining after the cyder
is pressed out. To make this liquor, the mark is put into a
large vat, with a proper quantity of boiled water, which
has stood till it is cold again; if  half the quantity of wa-
ter is used that there was of cyder, it will be good; if
more, the cyderkin  will be small. The  whole is left to
infuse 48 hours,  and then well pressed: what is squeezed
out by the press is immediately tunned up and stopped;
it is fit to drink  in a few days.  It clarifies of Hself, and
serves in families instead of small beer.  It will  keep, if
boiled after pressing with  a convenient quantity of hops.
   We must not conclude this subject without particular
notice of the liquor called cyder-wine, wiiich is made
from  the juice of the  apples taken  from the press and
boiled; and which, being kept three or four years, is said
to resemble rhenish. The method of preparing this wine, as
communicated by Dr. Rush, consists in evaporating in*
brewing-copper the fresh apple-juice, till half of it is wast-
ed; the remainder is then immediately conveyed into *
wooden cooler, and afterwards put into a proper cask, w»» 
C  Y D
C  Y D
an addition of yeast: and is fermented in the ordinary way.
Tbe process has been evidently borrowed from what has
long been practised on the recent juice of the grape, un-
der the term of vina cotta, or  boiled wine,  not only in
Italy, but also in the islands of the Archipelago from time
immemorial.
  This process has lately become an object of imitation
in the cyder countries,  and  particularly in  the west of
England, where it is asserted, that many hundred hogs-
heads of this wine have been  already made; and it is said
to betray no sign of an impregnation of copper by the
usual chemical tests; it is considered as  perfectly whol< -
some, aud is accordingly drunk without  apprehension by
the common people.  Others, however,  suspect its inno-
cence; whence it appeared an object of no small moment
to determine,  in so  doubtful a matter, whether or not
the liquor acquires any noxious quality  from the copper
iu which it  is boiled.   With this  view Dr. Fothergill
made a variety of experiments, and the  result seemed to
afford a strong presumption that the cyder-wine does con-
tain a minute impregnation of copper, not very conside-
rable indeed, but yet sufficient, in the doctor's opinion,
to put the public on their guard concerning a liquor that
conies in so  very questionable a shape.
   In the present  process the liquor is properly directed
to be passed into a wooden cooler as  soon as the boiling
is completed.  But as all acids, and even common water,
acquire an unpleasant taste from standing in copper ves-
sels in the cold, why may not the acid juice of apples  act
in some degree on the copper before the  boiling com-
mences? Add to this, that brewing coppers, without far
more care and attention  than is generally bestowed  on
them in keeping them clean, are extremely apt to contract
verdigris (a real  poison), as appears from the blue or
green streaks very visible when these vessels are minute-
ly examined;  should  the  unferinented juice be thought
incapable of acting on the copper cither  in a cold or boil-
ing state, yet no one will venture to deny its power of
washing off, or dissolving, verdigris  already formed on
the  internal surface  of. the vessel.  Suppose only one-
tighth  part  of a grain of verdigris to be contained in a
little of this wine,* a quantity that may elude the ordi
nary tests, and that a bottle should be drunk daily by a
person without producing any violent symptom of inter-
nal  uneasiness;  yet  what person in his  senses would
knowingly choose to hazard the experiment of determin-
ing how long he could continue even this  quantity of
slow poison, in his daily beverage, with impunity? And
yet, it is to  be feared, that the experiment is but too  of-
ten unthinkingly  made, not only with cyder-wines, but
also with many ofthe foreign wines prepared by a simi-
lar process; for  the grape-juice, when evaporated in a
copper  vessel, under the denomination of vina  cotta, or
boiled  wine, cannot  but acquire an equal,  if not yet
stronger,  impregnation of the metal, than  the juice of
apples; since verdigris itself is manufactured merely hythe
application ofthe  acid husks of grapes to plates of copper.
   Perry is a most wholesome pleasant liquor of the cy-
cler kind, s jine of  which is so excellent as to  pass  for

  •  The one-hundredth part  of a grain may be discovered in a quart,
by adding a f« drops of volatile alkali to a glass-full, which will im.
med-ati-Iy strike a blue, darker or lighter, in proportion to the im-
pregnation, a quantity too minute to do any injury.
champaign in i'averr.s and other places of public resort -
indeed more wines than this have been imitated with cy-
der and perry, particular by the Hollanders, and some-
times by the Flemings.  Dr. Haliey observes,  that the
London market alone took off upwards of 20,000 hogs-
heads of Devonshire cyder annually. It was in *he year
1721  he made this remark, and then  sugp'.sted a was
not all sold as cyder. Whether tbe demand has  increas-
ed we cannot say. We have drunk in Flanders some per-
ry  that might pass on ordinary judges for mantling
champaign. Perry is prepared from pears in the same
manner cyder is from apples. The harsher sorts of pears
make the  best perry. They are infinitely too harsh ic.nl
acerb, or tart, for eating,  so much so  that even hungry-
swine reject them. The most esteemed for the purpose
are the Bosburv  pear, the Bauland and the horse pear
in Worcestershire, and the squash pear, as it is called,
in Gloucestershire; in both which counties, as well  as in
some of the adjacent parts, tbey are planted in the hedge-
rows, and  most common fields. There is this advantage
attending  pear-trees, that they will thrive on land where
apples will not so much as live; and that some  jf  them
grow to such a size, that a single pear-tree, particular-
ly of the  Bosbury and the squash kinds, has been fre-
quently known to yield in one .-.eason from one to four
hogsheads of perry.  The Bosbury pear is thought to
yield the most lasting and  most vinous liquor. The John-
pear, the Harpary-pear,  the drake-pear, Mary-pear,
the  Lullum-pear, and several others of the  harshest
kind, are  esteemed  the best for  perry; and the redder
or  more tawny  they are, the more they are preferred.
Pears as well as apples should be  fully ripe before they
are ground. Crab-apples  are frequently mixed  with the
pears, and are said to improve the }>«-rry.
  CYGNUS,  in  astronomy, a constellation of  the nor-
thern hemisphere, consisting of 17 stars  according to
Ptolemy's catalogue, of 19 in Tycho's, and in the Britan-
nic catalague of  107.
  CYLINDER, in  geometry, a solid  body, supposed to
be generated by the rotation of a parallelogram.  See Ge-
ometry.
  Cylinder, properties of the. 1.  The section  of every
cylinder by a plane oblique to  its base is an ellipsis. 2.
The superficies of a right  cylinder is  equal to the peri-
phery ofthe base multiplied into the length ofits side. 3.
The solidity ofa cylinder is equal to the area of its base
multiplied  into its  altitude. 4.  Cylinders  of the  same
base, and  standing between the same parallels, are equal.
5.  Every cylinder is to a spheroid inscribed in it as 3
to 2.   6. If the altitudes of two right cylinders  be equal
to the diameters of  their bases, those cylinders are to
one another as the cubes of the diameters of their bases.
  To find a circle equal to the surface of a cylinder we
have this theorem: the surface of a cylinier is equal to a
circle whose radius  is a mean proportional  between the
diameter and heightof the cylinder.  The diameter of a
sphere, and altitude of a cylinder equal thereto, being
given, to find the diameter of the cylinder, the  theprem
is:  the square of the diameter of  the sphere  is to the
square ofthe diameter ofthe cylinder equal to  it, near-
ly as triple the altitude of the cylinder to  double the dia-
meter of the sphere. 
CYN
C  Y N
  Cylinder, resistance of. See the article Resistance.
  Cylinder, rolling,  or loaded, in philosophy, a cylin-
der which rolls up an inclined plane.  See Mechanics.
  CYLISTA, a genus of the class and order diadelphia
decandria. The calyx  is large, four-parted, upper divi-
sion cleft at the  end;  corolla permanent.  There is one
species.
  CYMATITJM, in architecture, a  member or mould-
ing of the cornice, the profile of which is waved, that is,
concave  at the top, and convex at bottom.
  CYMBACHNE, a genus of the class and order poly-
gamia monoecia.  The inflorescence is half-spiked. There
is one species,  a grass of Bengal.
  CYMBAL, or cymbalum, a musical instrument of an-
tiquity,  similar to the tympanum or drum. The cym-
bal was round, and made of brass, like our kettle-drums;
but is generally thought to have been  smaller. The Jews
had their cymbals, or instruments wiiich translators ren-
der  by that name. Ovid gives  cymbals the epithet ge-
nialia, because they were  used at weddings.
  CYMBARIA, a genus of the class and order didyna-
mia angiospermia. The calyx is ten-toothed;  capsule
cordate, two-celled. There is one  species, an herbaceous
plant ofthe mountains of Dauria.
  [CYMBIDUM, in botany, a genus of the ordcrmonan-
dria, in the gynandria class of plants. The corolla is five
petalled, erect; the capsule one celled, oblong.  There are
four species, all natives of Pennsylvania: 1. the  C.  pul-
chellum, or tuberous cymbidium, flowers in July; 2. the
 C. hyemale, or winter green, flowers in May; 3. the C.
odontorhizon, or large tooth-rooted,  flowers in Septem-
ber; 4. the corallorhizon small coral-rooted,  flowers in
August, (b)
   CYMOPHANE, the oriental chrysolite of jewellers.
This  stone has  been  found only in  Brazil,  the island
of Ceylon, and at North-schink in Siberia. It is usually
met with in round masses about the size of a pea, but it
is  sometimes  crystallized.  The  primitive form of its
crystals is a four-sided rectangular prism, the height of
which is to the breadth as ^/5 to 1,  and to its thickness
as y/2 to 1. The most common  variety is an eight-sided
prism, terminated by six summits. Two of the faces of
the  prism are hexagons,  two are rectangles, and four
trapezia: two faces of the summits  are rectangles, and
the  other  four trapezia. Sometimes two of the edges of
the  prism  are wanting, and small faces  in their place.
Its texture is foliated: it causes double refraction. Its
specific  gravity from  3.7  to 3.8. The colour  ycllovvish-
green, surface sparkling. It is infusible by the blow-pipe
per se, and  also with soda. By analysis it is found by
Klaproth to contain,
                    71.5  alumina,
                     18.0  silica,
                      6.0 lime,
                      1.5 oxide of iron.
                    97.0
   CYNANGHE, among physicians, denotes an inflam-
mation of the larynx. See Medicine.
   CYNA1N CHUM, bastarddogsbane, a genus of the digy-
nia order, in  the pentandria class of plants, and in the
natural method ranking under the 30th order, contort^.
The nectarium is cylindrical and quinquedentated. There
are 27 species, of which the following arc  the most re-
markable:
  1. The acutum, commonly called Montpellier scam-
mony; and,
  2. The monspeliacum, or round-leaved Montpellier
scammony.   They abound with a milky juice like the
spurge, which issues out wherever they are broken; and
this milkyjuice when concreted has frequently been'sold
for scammony. These plants propagate so fast by tiieir
creeping roots, that few people care to admit them into
their  gardens.
  CYNARA, the artichoke, a  genus of the polygamia
a?qualis order, in the syngenesia class of plants. The ca-
lyx is dilated,  imbricated with carnous  scpianne  and
eiuarginated with a sharp point. Of this genus there arc
six species, but  only two  are cultivated for use.
  1.  The scolynius, or garden antichoke, has kiree,
thick, perennial roots, crowned by a considerable  clus-
ter of large,  pinnatifid, erect leaves. In  the middle arc
upright stalks rising a yard high,  on the top of vvliicb
is a large  round  scaly head,  composed of numerous,
oval, calycinal scales,  inclosing the florets, sitting  on a
broad fleshy  receptacle, wiiich, with the fleshy base of
the scales, is the only eatable part of the plant.' Tbe va-
rieties of this species are, 1. The conical green-headed
French  artichoke, having the  small leaves terminated
by spines,  the  head of a light-green colour, with  the
scales pointed at top, opening, and turning outward. 2.
The globular-headed  Dutch  artichoke, having leaves
without spines, a strong stalk,  the head large, globular,
a little compressed at top, and  of a brown colour; broad
obtuse scales emarginated at top,  growing close,  and
turning inward.   Of these varieties the last is deserved-
ly the most esteemed, both on account of its superiority
in size and the agreeahlencss of its  flavour. Both varie-
ties are perennial in their root:  but  the leaves and fruit-
stem die to the ground in winter; and their roots remain-
ing, send up  fresh leaves  and stems every summer, pro-
ducing a Supply of artichokes  for 20 years if required.
The flowers and seeds of all the plants of this genus arc
produced in  the  centre of the head; the scales of which
are the proper calyx ofthe flower, which consists of nu-
merous small blueish florets, succeeded by downy seeds
sitting naked on the receptacle.
  2. The cardunciilus, or cardoon, greatly resembles the
artichoke,  but is of large and more regular growth;
the leaves being more  upright,  taller,  broader,  and
more regularly  divided; and  the  stalks of the leaves
blanched are the only eatable parts of the plant.
  Both the above varieties of  the  artichoke are propa-
gated by slips  or. suckers, arising annually  from  the
stool  or root of the old plants  in  spring, which are to
be taken from good plants of  any  present plantation in
March, or the beginning of April, and planted in the
open  quarters of the kitchen-garden, in rows  five feet
asunder; and they will produce  artichokes the same year
in  autumn.   It  should,  however,  be remarked, that
though  artichokes are of many years  duration, the an-
nual produce of their fruit will gradually  lessen in *uC
size of the eatable parts after  the third  or fourth year,
so that afresh plantation should be  made every tlirceor
four years. The cardoon is a very hardy plant, and pros- 
C  Y N
C  Y P
pers in  the open quarters  of the kitchc n-garden.  It is
propagated by seed sown annually in the full ground in
March: cither in  a  bed for transplantation, oi in the
place where they are designed to remain.  The plants
are  very large, so must stand at considerable  distance
from one  another. By this means you may  have  some
small temporary crops  between the rows, as of lettuce,
spinach, endive, cabbage, savoy, or  brocoli plants.  In
the latter  pail of September, or in October, the cardoons
will be  grown very large,  and their  footstalks  have ar -
quired a thick substance; you must then tie up the leaves
of each plant, to admit of earthing them closely all round
for blanching, which will  take up six or eight weeks;
and thus  the plants  will come in for  use in November
and December, and continue all winter.
   CYNIPS, in zoology, a genus of insects belonging to
the hymenoptcra order. The mouth is  armed with jaws,
but has no proboscis: the sting is spiral, and mostly con-
cealed within the  body. The quercus  folii,  or  oak-leaf
cynips, is of a burnished shining brown colour. It is in
the little, smooth, round,  hard galls, found under the
oak-leaves, generally fastened to the  fibres, that this in-
sect is produced, a single one in each  gall. These latter
arc ligneous, of a hard  compac t substance, formed like
the rest by the extravasation ofthe sap of the leaf,  occa-
sioned by the puncture of  the gall-fly when it deposits
its eggs.  Sometimes, instead of the cynips, there is seen
to proceed from the gall a large insect of a brown colour,
which is an ichneumon. This ichneumon is  not the real
inmate of the gall, or he  that formed it. He is a  parasite,
whose mother deposited her eggs in the yet tender gall;
which, when hatched, brings forth a larva that  destroys
the larva ofthe cynips,  and then comes out when  it has
undergone its metamorphosis and acquired its wings.
   The quercus gemma?, or oak-bud cynips, is ofa very
dark green, slightly gilded. It deposits its eggs in oak-
buds, and produces one  ofthe finest galls, leafed like  a
rose-bud beginning to blow. When  the gall is small, a
great quaniity of the leaves is compressed, and  they are
set upon one another like the tiles of a roof. In the centre of
the gall there  is a kind of ligneous kernel, in the middle
of wiiich is a cavity; and in that is found the little larva,
who feeds there, takes its  growth, undergoes its meta-
morphosis, and breaks through  the inclosure of that kind
of cod in order to get out.  The whole gall is often  near
an inch  in diameter, sometimes more when dried; and it
holds to a branch by a pedicle. There  are 19 species of
this insect.
   CVNOISLOSSUM, hound's-tongue; a  genus of the
monogynia  order, in the  pentandria class of plants;
and in the natural  method ranking under the 41st order,
asperifolia*.. The corolla is funnel-shaped, with its throat
closed up  by little arches formed in it; the seeds  depress-
ed, and fixed to the style of the receplacle only  on  their
inner side. There  are 12 species, none of them  remark-
able for iheir  beauty. The root of one of them, the offi-
cinale, or common greater  hound's-h nguc, was former-
ly used in medicine,  and supposed to  possess  narcotic
virtues; but il is now discarded from  practice. The smell
of the whole plant is very disagreeable. Goats eat it:
sheep, horses, and swine, refuse it.
  CYNOMETRA, a genusof the monogynia order, in
the decandria class of plants; and in the natural method
  vol. i.                  Q«
ranking with those of which the order is doubtful. The
calyx  is tetraphyllous; the anthera bifid at top: the le-
gumen carnous,  crescent-shaped, and monospermous.
There are two species.
   CVNOMOR1UM, a genus of  the monandria order,
in the monoecia  class of plants; and  in the natural
method ranking under the 50th order,  amentaceae. The
male calix is an  imbricated catkin; there  is no corolla;
the calix of the female is in the same catkin; no corolla;
one style; and one roundish seed. There are three spe-
cies, of no note.
   CYNOSORLS, a genus  of the digynia  order,  be-
longing to the triandria class of plants; and in the natu-
ral method ranking under the 4th order, gramina. The
calix is bivalved and multiflorous;  the receptacle pro-
per, unilateral, and  foliaceous. There are  20  species,
four of which are natives of Britain, viz.  the cristatus,
or crested dog-tail grass; the echinatus, or rough dog-
tail grass: the cserulcus,  or blue dog-tail grass; and the
paniceus, or bearded dog-tail grass.
   CYPERUS, a genus  of the monogynia order, in the
triandria  clase of plants; and in the natural method
ranking under the 3d order,  calamaria;.  The glumes
are  paleaceous, and imbricated towards each side; the
corolla is wanting, and there is one naked seed. There
are 53 species; the Only  remarkable are the round, the
long sweet cyperus,  and the papyrus.  The former is a
native of the East Indies, and grows by the sides of  ri-
vulets, ditches, &c. The root is knotty, wrapped round
with fibrous strings  not easy to break, of a brown co-
lour without, and grey  within: of a pleasant scent, es-
pecially when well dried; the  leaves are green, and re-
semble those ofthe reed and leek.
   2. The  long-leaved,  commonly called  English  or
Biemish cyperus, grows  in the water, and along the banks
and river sides. Its  root is as thick as an olive, full of
little knots or specks, of an oblong figure, grey colour,
sweet  and somewhat sharp tasted, and almost without
smell  when it is newly  taken out of the  ground.  The
roots of both plants  are  esteemed cordial  and diuretic,
and  the long cyperus is  much used  by perfumers and
glovers.
  3. The papyrus is famous both in ancient and modern
history, and  a very minute description of it  is given  by
Pliny.  It grows in the lakes of Ethiopia and Egypt. It
was very  early in use as paper,  Numa  having  left a
number of books written on papyrus.   The paper was
made from the pellicle between the pith and the bark.
Boats  were  also made of the  whole plant  together,  a
piece of acacia wood being used as a keel.   It was also
used for cordage.  Cups, moulds, kc. were made of the
lower part.
  CYPRvEA, or gowrie, in  zoology, a genus of insects
belonging to the order of vermes testacea.   It is an ani-
mal of the limax or snail kind; the shell is one involut-
ed, subovated, obtuse, smooth valve.  The aperture on
each side is linear,  longitudinal,  and  toothed.  There
are 44  species, distinguished by the form of their shells.
This genus is called rypraa,  and venerea, from its be-
ing peculiarly dedicated  to Venus; who is said to have
endowed a shell of this genus with thepowcrs of a remora,
so as to impede the course of the ship  which  was sent
by Pcriander, tyrant of Corinth, with orders to destroy 
C  \ P
C  Y P
*:he young nobility of Corcyra.  See PI. XL. Nat. Hist.
fig. 157.
  CYPRESS.   See Clpressus.
  CYPRIN US. in ichtyology, a genus of fishes belong-
ing to the order of abdominales.  The mouth is tooth-
less; there are three rays in the gills; the body is smooth
and white, and the belly-fins have frequently nine rays.
There arc 31 species,  principally distinguished hythe
number of rays in  the vent-fin.  The most remarkable
arc:
   L.  The carpio, or  carp.   This was  introduced  into
England about  the year 1514, by Leonard Maschal, to
whom they are also indebted for that excellent apple the
pepin.  Russia  wants  these fish  at  this day.  Sweden
has them  only in the ponds of people of fashion.  They
chiefly  abound in the rivers and lakes of Polish Prussia,
where they are  sometimes taken of  a vast size.  They
are there a great article of commerce, and sent in well-
boats lo Sweden and Russia. The merchants purchase
them out  of  the waters, of the noblesse of the country,
who draw a  good revenue from this article.
   Carp are  very long  lived. Gesner brings an instance
of one that was  near 100  years old. They grow also to a
very great size. Some authors speak of carp weighing
200 pounds,  and five feet in length.  The carp is a pro-
digious breeder; its quantity of roe has been sometimes
found so great, that when taken out and weighed against
thefish itself, the former has been found to preponderate.
From the spawn of this fish, caviare is  made for the
 Jews,  who hold the sturgeon in  abhorrence.  The carp
 is extremely cunning,  and  on that account is sometimes
 styled  the river fox.   They will sometimes leap over the
 nets, and escape that  way; at other times they will im-
 merse  themselves  so deep  in the mud  as to let the net
 pass over them.  They are also very shy in taking a bait;
 yet at  the spawning-time they are so simple, as to suffer
 themselves to be tickled, handled, and caught, by any
 body that will  attempt it.   This fish  is apt to mix its
 milt with the; roe of other fish, from which is produced
 a spurious breed,  as has been observed in the offspring
 of the  carp  and tench, which bore the greatest resemb-
 lance to  the first.  The same has also been observed  of
 the carp  and bream.
    In Polish Prussia, and many other parts of Germany,
 the sale of carp constitutes a part of the revenue of the
 nobility and gentry,  so that the proper management of
 that fish is  reduced to a kind of system, founded on the
 experience of several generations.  Of the methods there
 practised, we have an account in the Philosophical Trans-
 actions for  1771, communicated by  Mr. J.  Reinhold
 Forster; who says he has  seen carp treated and  main-
 tained according to those methods, " above a yard long,
 and of 25 pounds weight;" but had no opportunity of as-
 certaining their age.   «• In the pond, however, at Char-
 lottenburg,  (he adds,) a palace belonging to the king of
 Prussia, I saw more  than two or three hundred  carp,
 between two and three feet long; and I was told hy the
 keeper they were between 50 and 60 years standing.
 They  were  tame,  and came to the  shore  in order to  he
 fed."  Mr.  Forster,  in  this paper, also vouches for a
 most extraordinary circumstance, namely, the possibili-
 ty  of  the carp's not only living for a  considerable time
 out of water, but of its growing fat in its new element.
The author has seen the experiment successfully tried,
and  attended  to  the  whole process,  in  a nobleman's
house, where he then resided, in the principality of An-
holt-Dissau.  The fish being taken out of the water, is
wrapped up in a large quantity of wet moss, spread on
a piece of net, which is then gathered into a purse, in
such a manner however as to allow him room to breathe.
The net is then plunged into water, and bung up to the
ceiling of a cellar.  At first the dipping must be repeat-
ed every three or four  hours, but afterwards the  carp
need only be plunged into the water once  in about six or
seven hours.  Bread soaked in milk is first given him in
small  quantities.  In a short time,  the  fish will  bear
more, and grow fat under this seemingly unnatural treat-
ment.  Mr. Daines Barrington, in a note, confirms a
part of the preceding account, by mentioning the prac-
tice ofa certain fishmonger near Clare-market, who, in
the winter, frequently exposed a bushel, at least, of carp
and tench for sale, in the same dry  vessel, for six or
seven hours, many of which were not sold, and yet con-
tinued in health, though breathing nothing but air  dur-
ing the time above-mentioned,  for several days succes-
sively.
   2.  The barbus, or barbel, is so extremely coarse, as
to be overlooked by the ancients till the time of tbe poet
Ausonius, who gives it no great character.  They fre-
quent the still and deep parts of rivers, and live in socie-
ty, rooting like swine with their noses in  the soft banks.
It is so tame as to suffer itself to be taken hy the hand;
and people have been known to take numbers by diving
for them.  In summer, they move about during night in
search of food; but towards autumn, and  during winter,
confine themselves to the deepest holes.  The barbel is
about the length of three feet, and will weigh 18 pounds;
the belly white; the dorsal fin is armed with a remarka-
bly strong  spine, sharply serrated,  with which it can
inflict a very severe and dangerous wound  on the in-
cautious handler, and even do much damage  to nets.
They are the worst and coarsest fresh-water fish, and
seldom eaten hut by the poorer sort of people, who some-
times boil them with a bit of bacon, to give them a rel-
ish.  Their roe is very noxious, affecting those who un-
 warily eat of it, with a nausea, vomiting, purging, and
 a slight swelling.
    3. The tinea, or tench, was treated with the same dis-
 respect by the ancients as the barbel; but is now in  much
 more repute.  It has by some been called the physician
 of the fish; and its slime has been said to be of so heal-
 ing a nature, that the wounded fishes apply it as a styp-
 tic.   In England it is reckoned a wholesome and deli-
 cious food; but the Germans are of a different  opinion.
 By way of contempt, they call  it the shoemaker.  Ges-
 ner even says, that it is  insipid and unwholesome.  It
 does not commonly exceed four or five pounds in weight*
 though some have been known to weigh  10 or 20. They
 love still waters, and are rarely found in rivers.  They
 are very foolish,  and easily caught.  The tench is tliick,
 and short in proportion to its length. The colour ofthe
 back is dusky; the dorsal and ventral fins of the same
 colour; the head,  sides,  and belly,  of a greenish catf,
 most beautifully mixed with gold, which is in its great-
 est splendour when the fish is in the highest season.
    4.  The gobio, or gudgeon, is generally found in g<?«* 
CYPRINUS.
tie streams, and is of a small size,  the largest not ex-
ceeding | lb. weight.  They bite eagerly; and are as-
sembled by raking the bed of tbe river: to this spot they
immediately crowd in shoals, in expectation of food.
  5. The brama, or bream, is an inhabitant of lakes, or
the deep parts of still rivers.  It is a fish that is very
little esteemed, being extremely insipid.
  6. The rutilus, or roach, is a common fish, found in
many of the still deep rivers. They are gregarious, keep-
ing in large shoals.  It has never  been  known to ex-
ceed five pounds in weight.
  7. The leuc iscus, or dace, like the roach, is gregari-
ous, haunts  the same place,  is a great  breeder, very
lively, and during summer is very  fond of  frolicking
near  the surface of the water.   It  never exceeds the
weight of a pound and a half; tbe scales are smaller than
those of the roach.
   8. The cephalus, or chub, is a very coarse.fish, and
full of bones.  It frequents the deep holes of rivers, and
in summer commonly lies on the surface beneath the shade
of some tree or bush.  It  is very timid,  sinking to the
bottom on the least alarm, even at the passing of a sha-
dow; but it  will soon resume  its former situation.  It
feeds on worms, caterpillars,  grasshoppers,  and other
coleopterous insects that happen to fall  into  the water;
and it will even feed on cray-fish.  It will rise to a fly.
Some of this kind have been known  to weigh eight or
nine pounds.
   9. The alburnus, or bleak.  These fish are  very com-
mon in many of our rivers, and keep together in large
shoals. At certain seasons they seem to be in  great ago-
nies; they  tumble  about near  the surface of  the water,
and are incapable  of swimming  far  from  the  place: but
in  about two hours they recover and disappear. Fish
thus  affected,  the Thames fishermen call mad bleaks.
Thev seem to be troubled  with a species  of gordius, or
hair-worm, which torments them so, that they rise to the
surface and then die.   The bleak seldom exceeds five or
six im Ins  in length.  Artificial  pearls are made  with
tbe scales  of this fish; and probably also with those of
the dace.  They are  beaten into a fine powder,  then
diluted with water, and introduced into a thin  glass bub-
ble, which  is  afterwards filled with wax. The French
were tiie inventors of ihis  art.  During tiie month of Ju-
ly  there appear in the  Thames, near Blackwall and
Greenwich, innumerable multitudes of small fish, known
to the Londoners by  the name of white-bait.  They are
esteemed very delicious when  fried  with  fine  flour, and
occasion,  during the season,  a  vast resort ofthe lower
order  of epicures to the taverns at the places where they
are taken.  There are various suppositions concerning
these  fishes,  all of which terminate in reckoning them
the fry of some other  fish.  Mr. Pennant thinks they are
of the carp kind; though he cannot determine  the species
to  which thev belong.  Tbey have a greater similarity
to  the bleak than to any oher.  but he thinks tlicy can-
not be the young fry  of this specie s: because the bleak
is found in many of the British  streams, but  the white-
bait only in  the Thames.   The usual length of this fish
is only two inches.
    10.  The auratus, or golden fish,  a small fish, domes-
ticated by  the Chinese, and generally kept for ornament
by great people in their courts  and gardens. They breed
them in small ponds  made  for the purpose,  in basons,
and even in porcelain vessels.  This fish is no larger
than our pilchard.   The male is of a bright red colour,
from the top of the head to the middle of the body: the
rest is of a gold colour; but it is so bright and splendid,
that the finest gilding, according to F. le Comto, cannot
approach it.  The  female is  white, but its tail and half
ofits  body resemble the lustre of silver.   F. du Ilalde.
however,  observes, that  a red and a white  colour  are
not always the distinguishing marks ofthe male and fe-
male;  but that the females are known by several  white
spots,  which are seen  round  the orifice that serves them
as organs of hearing; and the males, by  having  these
spots  much brighter.  Gold-fish  are  light and lively;
they love to sport  on  the surface ofthe water, so in be-
come familiarized, and may  even he accustomed to come
and receive their food on sounding a small  rattle. Great
care is necessary to preserve them; for they arc extreme-
ly delicate,  and sensible ofthe  least injuries  ofthe air;
a loud noise, such  as that of  thunder or cannon; a strong
smell,  a violent, shaking ofthe vessel, or a single touch,
will often destroy thein.  These fish live with little nou-
rishment; those small worms which are engendered  in
the water, or the  earthy particles that are mixed with
it, are sufficient for their food.  The  Chinese, however.
take care from time  to time, to throw into the basons
and reservoirs where they are kept, small halls of paste,
which  they are very fond of  when dissolved;  tbey give
them also lean pork, dried in the sun, and reduced to a
fine and delicate powder, and sometimes snails: the slime
which  these insects leave at the bottom ofthe  vessel is a
great delicacy for  them, and they eagerly hasten to feed
on it.  In winter they are removed from the  court to a
warm chamber, where they  are kept generally shut  up
in a porcelain vessel.   During that season they receive
no nourishment; however, in spring, when  they are car-
ried back to their former bason, they sport an I play with
the same strength  and liveliness as they did the preced-
ing year.
  in warm countries  these  fish  multiply fast provided
care is taken to collect their spawn, wiiich floats on the
water, and  which they almost entirely devour.  This
spawn is put into a particular vessel, exposed to the sun,
and preserved until vivified by the heat.  Gold-fish, how-
ever, seldom multiply when they are kept in close vases,
because tbey are then too  much confined.   In order  to
render them fruitful,  they  must be put into reservoii-s of
considerable depth in some  places at least,  and which
are constantly supplied with fresh water.  At a certain
time ofthe year, a prodigious number of barks may  be
seen in the great river Yangtsekiang,  which g> thither
to purchase the spawn ofthe fish.  Towards the month
of May, the neighbouring inhabitants shut up the river
in several places with mats  and hurdles, which occupy
an exlent of  almost  0 or  10 leagues; and  they leave
only a space in the middle sufficient for the  passage of
barks.  The spawn of the fish, which the Chinese  can
distinguish  at first sight, although a stranger could per-
ceive no traces of it in the  water, is stopped by  these
hurdles.  The water  mixed with  spawn is then drawn
up, and after it has been put into large vessels, it is sold
to merchants,  vv ho transport it afterwards to  everv part
of the empire. This water is sold by measure, and pur- 
CYT
C Y T
>J.«ised by those who are desirous of stocking their ponds
and reservoirs with fish.
  CYTISUS, tree trefoil, a genus of the decandria or-
der, in the diadelphia class of planls, and in the natural
method ranking  under  the S2d order,  papilionaceje.
The calix is bilabiated, with the  upper lip bifid;  inferior
tridentate; the legumen attenuated at the base.   There
are eight species, of which the most remarkable are: 1
The laburnum, or large  deciduous cytisus;  has a laree
upright tree-stem, branching into a full-spreading head,
20 or 30 feet high, having smooth greenish branches!
from the sides  of which numerous yellow  flowers col-
lected into long spikes hang loosely downward, and  ap-
pear in May.  2. The scssilifolius, often called  cytisus
secundus clusii, has a slow shrubby stem dividing into
numerous erect brownish branches, forming a bushy
head five or six feet high, with small oval leaves grow-
ing by threes; and bright yellow flowers in  short erect
spikes at the end ofthe branches, in June.   3, The ni-
gricans grows with a short shrubby  stem, dividing low
into many erect slender branches, forming a bushy head
four or five feet high, with oblong, oval, trifoliate leaves,
and yellow flowers  terminating all the branches in up-
right spikes, appearing in July.  4. The hirsutus,  or
hairy evergreen  Neapolitan cytisus, rises with  an up-
right shrubby grey  stem, sending out many erect green-
ish hairy  branches, forming a  fine head six or eight
feet high, with small hairy trifoliated  leaves, and yel-
low flowers from the sides of the branches in short pen-
dulous spikes, appearing in June.   5. The austriacus,
Austrian, or Tartarean evergreen cytisus, has a shrub-
by  stem,  dividing  low into  many greenish branches,
forming a bushy head three or four feet high,  having
smooth whitish-green leaves, and bright yellow  flowers
in close umbeliatc  heads at the ends of the branches,
having a cluster of leaves under each head.  These flow-
ers appear in May.  All the sorts are hardy, and will
prosper in any common  soil and exposure:  though, as
the hirsutus is sometimes affected by severe frost, it
should have a dry soil, and a somewhat sheltered situa-
tion. They may all be propagated by seeds or cuttings,
and  all the  culture they require in the nursery is to
have the ground kept clear from weeds, and dug annu-
ally between the rows. Though  they are generally con-
sidered only as ornamental shrubs, yet the first species,
if originally trained to a stem, and suffered to stand, will
grow to a size of pretty large timber-trees.  They grow
naturally on the Alps, the mountains of Dauphiny, and
in the Highlands of Scotland; and the timber being very
hard, and taking a fine  polish,  is frequently used  for
making household  furniture, and is said to equal  the
finest mahogany in beauty.  A species of cytisus, called
by Linnseus cytisus cajan, is known in the West Indies,
where it is  a native, by the name of the  pigeon-pea,
from the seeds being the common food  of  these birds
in that part of the world.  These seeds are also some-
times used as food for the human species; and  as they
are of a very binding quality, afford  a wholesome nour-
ishment during the wet season,  when dysenteries are so
frequent.
  Notwithstanding the tenderness of these fish even in
their native climates, they are now naturalized in Bri-
tain, where they even breed.  They were first introdu-
ced into  England about the year  1691;  but were not
generally known till 1728,  when a great  number were
brought over, and presented first to Sir Matthew Dek-
ker, and by him circulated round the neighbourhood of
London, whence they have been  distributed  to  most
parts of the country.
  Nothing can be more amusing than a glass bowl, con-
taining such fishes:  the  double refractions of the glass
and water represent them,  when moving, in a shifting
and changeable variety  of  dimensions,  shades, and co-
lours;  while the two mediums,  assisted by the convex
shape of the vessel,  magnify and  distort them vastly;
not to mention that the introduction of  another element
and its inhabitants into our parlours, engages the fan-
cy in a very agreeable  manner.   See Plate XL. Nat.
Hist. fig. 158.
   CYPRIPEDIUM, lady's slipper,  a genus of tbe di-
andria erder,  in the gynandria class of plants, and in
the natural method ranking under the 7th order,  orchi-
dese.   The nectarium is ventricose, inflated, and hol-
low.   There  are five species; of which only one, viz.
the calceolous, is  a native of Britain. It grows in rough
ground  in different parts  of the  island.  The other
species  are natives of America.   None of them are
easily propagated in gardens,  and therefore must be
transplanted from  those places where they are natives.
They  are curious and beautiful flowers.  The English
species is yellow.
   CYPRUS,  knights of, an order instituted by Guy de
Lusignan,  titular king of Jerusalem, to whom Richard
I. of England, after conquering this island, made over
his right.
   CYRILLA, a genus  of  the class and order didyna-
mia angiospermia.   The calyx  is  five-leaved;  the cor.
funnel-form; filaments inserted in the margin of the co-
 rolla; anth. cohering; germ inferior; style bent  down;
stigma two-lobed; caps, half two-celled; seeds nume-
rous.   There is  one species, a handsome plant of the
West-Indies.
   CYRTANTHUS, a  genus of  the class and order
hexandria monogynia.   The corolla is  tubular,  inser-
ted in the tube.   There are two species, bulbs of the
Cape.
   CYST,  the bag or tunic including  all • incysted tu-
mors, as the scirrhus,  atheroma, steatoma, meliceris.
See Surgery.
   CYTINUS, a genus of the dodecandria order, in the
gynandria  class  of plants, and  in the  natural method
ranking under the 11th  order, sarmentacege.  The calix
quadrifid, superior;  there  is no  corolla; the anthera?
are 16, and sessile; the fruit an  octolocular polysper-
mous berry.  There is one species. 
D M  M
D  A L
D.
 f\   the fourth letter of the alphabet, as a numeral de-
    1 notes 500; and  with a dash over it, thus D, 5000.
 Used in abbreviation, it has various significations: thus,
 D. stands for doctor, as M.  D. doctor of medicine; D. T.
 doctor of theology; D. D. signifies doctor of divinity; D.
 D. D. is used for dat, dicat, dedicat; and four D.D. D. D.
 for  dignum  deo donum dedit. In music D marks in tho-
 rough basses what the Italians call descanto, and intimates,
 that the treble ought to play alone,  as T does the tenor,
 and B the bass.  D C, in the Italian music, an abbrevia-
 tion of da capo,  that is, from the head, or beginning.
 Among Roman writers D stands for divus, decimus, de-
 votus, diebus, and diutius.
   DAB.  See Plecronectes.
   DACTYL,  Jw*Tt»A«t, dactylus, in  ancient poetry, a
 metrical foot, consisting of one long and two short  syl-
 lables,  as ct\x.i/*et, and candidils.  The dactyle and spon-
 dee are the only feet or measure used in hexameter ver-
 ses, the former being esteemed more sprightly, and the
 latter more solemn and grave. Accordingly, where great
 activity is signified, we find  the dactyls used with much
 propriety, as in the following verses of Virgil.
     Quadrupedante putrem sonitu quatit ungula camputn;
 and,
     Ferte cito ferrura, date tela,  scandite muros.
   DACTYLIS, cock's-foot grass, a genus ofthe digynia
 •rder, in the triandria class of plants, and in the natural
 method ranking under the 4th order,  gramina. The ca-
 lix is bivalved and compressed, with one valve longer
 than the other, carinated, or having  the rachis  promi-
 nent and sharp. There are  seven species. The cynosu-
 roides, or smooth cock's-foot grass, and the glomeratus,
 or rough cock's-foot  grass, are natives of Britain; the
 first grows on  marshy places, and  the  latter is com-
 mon in meadows  and pasture grounds. This last is ea-
 ten by horses, sheep, goats, and cows, and all herbiverous
 animals eat it greedily. Horses prefer it to that of any
 other grass.
   DACTYLONOMY, the  art of counting by the  fin-
 gers. The rule is this; the left thumb is 1, the forefinger
 fi, and so on to the right thumb,  which is the tenth, or
 last, and is denoted by the cypher.
   DACZAJ1E, a silver money current in Persia, and
 worth five mamoudis.  See Mamocoi.
   [DjEDALEA, in botany, a plant ofthe class crypto-
 gamia,  order fungi, (a)
   DAEMON, a  name given by the ancients to certain
 spirits, or genii, which appeared to  men,  either to do
 them service,  or to hurt  them.  The  Platonists  distin-
 guish between gods, daemons, and heroes. The gods are
 those whom Cicero calls dii majorum gentium. The dae-
 mons ace those whom we call angels. Christians, hy the
 word daemon, understand only evil spirits, or  devils.
 Justin  Mi.rtyr speaks ofthe nature of daemons as if he
 thought Ihem  not  absolutely spiritual and incorporeal,
 for which reason he attributes such actions to them as
cannot he performed witheut the intervention ofa body.
   The Mahometans allow severe! sorts of daemons: ami
 the  miners of Hungary pretend that while they are i0
 work in the mines, they often see daemons in the shape
 of little negro-boys, doingth em no other harm  than of-
 ten extinguish ing their lights.
   DJEMONIACS, in  church-history, a branch of the
 anabaptists, whose distinguishing tenet is, that the de-
 vils shall be saved at the end of this wprld.
   DAGGY9A,  a genus of the vermes class, and mollus-
 ca order, of  which there is only a single species. The
 body is loose, noyant, angular, tubular, and open at each
 extremity:  it is marked at one end with a brown spot.
 The dagysa inhabits the  Spanish  sea, is  about three
 inches long, and one  inch thick. They adhere to each
 other by the  sides, and so nearly  resemble  the genus
 sal pa, that it  is thought they might, with propriety, be
 incorporated into one.
   DAIS, a genus of the  monogynia order,  in the  de-
 candria class of plants,  and in the natural method rank-
 ing  under the 31st order, vepreculae. The involucrum is
 tetraphyllous; the corolla quadrifid or quinquefid;  the
 fruit a monospermous  berry. There are three  species,
 natives of India and the Cape.
   DARIR, in our  statutes, is useed  for the twentieth
 part of a last  of bides.  According  to the statute of 51
 Hen. III. de compositione ponderum and mensurarum, a
 last  of hides consists of 20  dak i is,  and every dakir of
 10 hides. But by 1 Jac. cap. 33. one  last of hides or skins
 is 12 dozen.
  DALBERGIA, a genus of the  decandria order,  in
 the diadelphia class of plants. There  are two filaments
 or stamina quadrifid at top.  The fruit is pedicellated,
 not  gaping,  leguminous,  membrano-compressed, and
 bearing seeds. There are two species, trees of Malabar
 and Surinam.
  [DALE A, in botany, a genus ofthe diadelphia, decan-
 dria  class and order.  The calix is quinquefid, the pod
 one seeded; there are six species, mostly annual; the co-
 lour  of the flowers varied. They are natives of Tennes-
see, Illinois, and Georgia, (b.)
  DALIBARDA, in botany, a genus of the class icosan-
dria, order polygynia.   The calix is quinquefid, the co-
rolla quinquepetalous; there are two species, persisting,
natives of Pennsylvania. Flowers in  May and June, (c.)
  DALECHAMPIA, a genus of the monadelphia or-
der,  in the monoecia class of plants, and in the natural
 method  ranking under the 38th order, tricoccae.  The in-
 volucrum of the male is  common and quadripartite; the
 calyces  hexaphyllous; corolla none; the nectarium lami-
nated or scaly; the stamina monadclphous or coalited at
the base;  and  polyandrous or numerous. The  female
involucrum  is common  and  triphyllous; corolla none;
style one; the  capsule tricoccus. There are two species,
of which the scandens is a  native of Jamaica.   It is a
climbing plant, which rises to a considerable height, and
is remarkable  for nothing  but having its leaves  armed 
DAM
DAM
   with bristly hairs, which sting the hands of those who
   touch them.
     DALLE, a nominal money, used in keeping books of
   account in many cities of Germany. It is worth 32 sols
   Subs, which make 40 French sols.
     DAMAGE, generally signifies any hurt or hindrance
   that a man receives in his estate;  but  in the plural in
   common law, are the recompence that is given to a man
   by a jury as a satisfaction  for some  injury sustained;
   as for battery, imprisonment, slander, or  trespass. 2
   Black. 438.
     In actions upon the case, the jury may find less dama-
   ges than the plaintiff lays in his declaration, though they
   cannot find more; hut costs  may be increased beyond the
   sum mentioned in the declaration for damages; for costs
   are given in respect of the plaintiff's suit to recover his
   damages, which may be sometimes  greater than the
   damage. 10 Co. 115.  A jury may, and now frequently
   do, give interest on book-debts, in name of damages.
     For a more general  account of damages, see 7 Vin.
   Abr. and 2 Bac. Abr. title Damage.
     Dam\GY.-feasant or faisant,  is where  the  beasts of
   another come  upon a man's land, and there  feed, tread,
   or spoil his corn or grass there growing; in  which case
   the owner of the  ground  may  distrain and  impound
   them, till satisfaction be made. Wood, b. 4. c. 4.
     Damage deer, was formerly a fee or gratuity (gene-
   rally  a tenth part of the damages recovered) paid to the
   prothonotaries or  clerks of the  king's-bench, common-
   pleas  and exchequer. But this is abolished by  17 C. II.
   c. 6. s. 2. and if any officer  shall take any money in the
   name of damage cleer, or in lieu thereof, or  shall delay
   to sign any judgment until damage cleer is paid, he shall
   forfeit treble the sum so taken or demanded to the party
   grieved.
     DAMASK, a silk stuff, with a raised pattern, so that
   the right side  of the damask is that which has the flow-
   ers raised or saturated.  Damasks should he of dressed
   silk, both in warp  and  woof;  and in France, half an ell
   in breadth: they are made.at Chalons in Champagne, and
   in some places in Flanders, as at Tournay, kc. entirely
   of wool, 3-8ths of an ell wide, and 20 ells longJ
     Damask  is also a kind of  wTought linen  made in
   Flanders and  in this country. It takes its name on ac-
   count of  its resemblance to damasks.  It is chiefly used
   for tablo linen.
     Damask is  also applied  to a very fine steel, in some
   parts  of the  Levant, chiefly  at Damascus in Syria;
   whence its name.  It  is  used for  sword and cutlass-
   blades, and is finely tempered.  See Steel.
     DAMASKEENING, ur Damasking, the art or ope-
   ration of beautifying iron, steel, kc. by making incisions
   m them,  and filling them up  with gold  and  silver wire;
   chiefly used for adorning  sword-blades, guards,  and
   geipes, locks of pistols, kc  Damaskeening partakes of
   the mosaic, of engraving, and of carving: like the mosa-
   ic,  it  has inlaid works; like engraving, it cuts the metal
   representing different  figures;  and as in  chasing, gold
   and silvr are wrought in relievo. There are two ways of
   damasking: the one, which is the finest, is wiien the  me-
   tal is  cut deep with proper  instruments, and inlaid with
   gold and silver wire; the other is superficial only.
\    DAMASONIUM, a genus of the hexandiia class and
order. The spathe is one-leafed; perianthium one-leafed
three-parted; berry  ten-celled, inferior.  There  is one
species, a native of India.
   DAMELOPRE, a kind of bilander, used in Holland
for conveying merchandize from one canal to another.
being very commodious for passing under the bridges.
   DAMIANISTS,  in church history, a branch  of "the
ancient acephali severitae. They agreed with the  catho-
lics in admitting the fourth  council, but  disowned any
distinctions of persons in the Godhead;  and professed
one single nature, incapable of any difference; and yet
they call God the Father, Son, and Holy Ghost.
   DAMPS, in natural history, arc certain  noxious ex-
halations issuing from some parts of the earth, and wbich
prove almost instantly fatal  to those who  breathe them.
These damps are chiefly observed  in mines and coal-
pits; though vapours of the  same kind often issue from
old lavas of burning mountains; and in those  countries
where volcanoes are common, will frequently enter bou-
ses, and kill people suddenly without the least warning
of their approach. In mines and coal-pits they arc chief-
ly of two kinds, called by the  miners and colliers the
choke and fire damps (see air); and both go under one
general name of foul air. The choke-damp  is carbonic
acid gas; and usually  infests those places which  have
been  formerly  worked,  but long  neglected, and arc
known to the miners by the  name of wastes. No place,
however, can be reckoned safe  from this kind of damp,
except where tliere is a due circulation of air; and the
procuring of this is the only proper means of preventing
accidents from damps of all kinds. The choke-damp suf-
focates the miners suddenly.  Being heavy, it descends
towards the lowest parts of the workings, and thus is
dangerous to the miners,  who can scarcely avoid breath-
ing it. The fire-damp, which  seems chiefly to be com-
posed of hydrogen gas, rises to the roof of the workings,
as being specificially lighter than the common atmos-
phere; and hence, though it  will suffocate as well  as the
other, it seldom proves so  dangerous in this way as  by its
inflammable property, by which it often takes fire from
the candles, and explodes with great violence.
   In the Philosophical  Transactions,  No. 119, there-is
an account of some explosions by damps of this  kind,
on which we have the following observations: 1. Those
who are in the place where the vapour is lirod, suddenly
find themselves surrounded  with  flames,  hut hear little
or no noise; though those who are in places adjacent, or
above-ground, hear a very great one. 2. Th ise who are
surrounded  by the  inflamed vapour feel  themselves
scorched or burnt, but are not moved out of their places,
though such as unhappily stand in the way of it are com-
monly killed by  the  violence of  the  shock, and often
thrown with  great force out  at the mouth of the pit; nor
are the heaviest machines found able to resist the  impet-
uosity of the  blast.  3.  No smell is  perceived before the
fire, but a very strong one of brimstone is afterwards felt.
4. The vapour lies towards the roof, and is not perceiv-
ed if  the candles are held low; but when these are held
higher, the damp descends like a black mist, ani catches
hold of the flame, lengthening it to two or three handfuls;
and this appearance ceases when the candles are held
nearer the ground. 5. The flame continues in the vault
for several minutes after the explosion. 6. Its colour  is 
DAP
DAP
 blue, something inclining to green, and very  bright, r.
 On the explosion of the  vapour, a dark smoke like that
 proceeding  from  fired   gun-powder  is  perceived.  8.
 Damps are  generally observed to come about the end of
 May, and to continue during the heat of summer. They
 returti  several times during the summer season, but ob-
 serve no certain rule.
   Among the other uses to  which oxygen  might be ap-
 plied, Mr. Cavallo reckons that of securing people from
 the dangerous effects of damps in mines, and other sub-
 terraneous places.  " Ifalarge bladder," says he, "into
 which a solution of lime  in water is introduced, is filled
 with dephlogisticated air, (oxygen-gas),  and a small
 wooden or glass pipe is adapted to its nee k, a man  may
 hold that pipe in his mouth, and may breathe the dephlo-
 gisticated air; and thus  equipped,  lie may venture into
 these subterranean places,  amidst the various  elastic
 fluids contained in them. A large bladder of dephlogisti-
 cated air will serve for above a quarter of an hour, which
 is a length of time  sufficient  for various  purposes; be-
 sides, if longer time is required to be spent in these pla-
 ces, a person may have two or more bladders of dephlo-
 gisticated air along with  him,  and may shift as soon  as
 the  air of one is contaminated. >\ ithout the necessity of
 any  more complicated apparatus, the bladders full of
 dcphlngisiicatcd  air may be kept stopped by  putting
 corks into the glass or wooden pipes that are tied to their
 necks.  This air might also be used for diving-bells."
   DANAE, in  antiquity, a  coin somewhat more than
 an obolus, used to be put into the  mouths  of  the dead,
 to pay their passage over the river Acheron.
   DANCE, a silly  amusement ofthe idle and thought-
 less.
   D ANCETTE, in heraldry, is when the outline of any
 bordure or ordinary is indented very largely, the large-
 ness ofthe indentures being the only thing that distin-
 guishes it from indented.
   DANK, a piece of silver current in Persia, and some
 parts of Arabia, weighing the  16th part of a drachm.  It
 is also a weight used hy the Arabians to  weigh jewels
 and  drugs.
   DAPHNE, spurge-laurel, a genus of the monogynia
 order, in the octandria class of plants, and in the natural
 method ranking under the 31st order, vepreculae. There
 is no calix;  the corolla is quadrifid  and  withering,  in-
 closing the stamina. The fruit is a monospermous berry.
 There are 28 species,  of which the  following are the
 most remarkable:
   1.  Mczereum, the mezercon or spurge-olive, is a low
 deciduous shrub.   It is a native of Germany,  and has
 been discovered in this country in some woods near  An-
 dover in Hampshire.  Of this elegan; plant  there are four
 varieties:  1. the white;  2. the pale red; 3. the crimson;
 and  4. the purple-flowering.   Hanbury is very lavish in
 praise of these shrubs. He says, " they have each every
 perfection to  recommend them as flowering shrubs.   In
 the first place, they are of low growth, seldom rising to
 more than three or four feet in height, and therefore are
 proper even for the smallest gardens.  In the next place
 ihey   will be in bloom when few trees, especially of the
shrubby tribe, present their honours.   It •• ill be* in Feb-
ruary , nay sometimes in January; then will the twigs he
adorned with flowers all around from one end to the other.
 Each tvv ig has the appearance of a spike of flowers of the
 most consummate lustre; and as the leaves  are not yet
 out, whether you behold this tree near or at a distance,
 it has a most enchanting appearance.  But this is not all
 the sense of smelling is peculiarly regaled by the flowers;
 their spicy sweetness is diffused around,  and  the air is
 perfumed  with  their odours to  a considerable  distance.
 Many flowers deemed sweet, are not liked by all; but the
 agreeable  inoffensive sweetness of the mezereon has ever
 delighted the  sense of smelling, whilst the lustre  of its
 blow lias feasted the eye.  Neither is this the only pleasure,
 the tree bestows; for besides  the beauty of the  leaves
 which come out after the flowers arc fallen,  and  which
 are of  a pleasant green colour  and an oblong  figure, it
 will be full of red berries in June, which  will continue
 growing till the autumn.   Of these berries the birds are
 very fond; so that whoever is delighted with those  song-
 sters,  should have a quantity of them planted all over the
 outsides of his wilderness quarters."
   2.  Cnidium, the flax-leaved daphne, is a low deciduous
 shrub; a native of Italy, Spain, and  about Montpellier.
 This species seldom  grows higher than three  feet.   The
 branches are very slender, and ornamented with narrow,
 spear-shaped, pointed leaves, much like those ofthe com-
 mon flax.  The  flowers are produced  in panicles at the
 ends of the branches; they are  small, come out in  June,
 but are rarely succeeded by seeds in England.
   3.  Cneorum,  the  spear-leaved daphne, is  a very low
 deciduous shrub; a native of  Switzerland, Hungary, the
 Alps, and  the Pyrenean mountains.  This rises with a
 shrubby branching stalk, to about a foot or a foot and a
 half high.   The leaves are  narrow, spear-shaped, and
 grow irregularly on  the branches.   The flowers are pro-
 duced  in clusters at the ends of the little twigs:  they  make
 their appearance in  March, are of a purple colour, and
 possessed of a fragrance superior even to that of the me-
 zereon; but they are seldom succeeded by seeds in Eng-
 land.
  4. Tartonraira, the oval-leaved daphne or tartonraire,
 a very long deciduous shrub, is a native of France and
 Italy.  This  rises with a woody stalk to the height of
 about two feet.  The branches are numerous, irregular,
 tough, and covered  with a light-brown-coloured hark.
 The leaves are oval,  very small, soft to the touch, and
 shining.  The flowers are produced in clusters from the
 sides of the stalks: they are white, come out in June, and
 are succeeded  hy roundish berries,  which seldom ripen
 in England.
  5. Alpina, the alpine daphne or  chamclaea,  is a low
 deciduous shrub; native of the Alps, Geneva,  Italy, and
 Austria. This will grow to the height of about a*yard.
 The leaves are spear-shaped, obtuse,  and hoary under-
 neath.   The flowers  come out in clustei-s from the  sides
 of the branches, and  are  very fragrant: they appear in
 March, and are  succeeded by red berries, that  ripen in
 September.
  6. Thymelaea,  the milkwort-lcaved daphne, or the
thymelaea,  a low deciduous shrub,  native of  Spain and
the  south of France.  The thymelaea will  grow to the
height  of a yard.  The stalks of this species  are upright,
branched,  and covered  with a light-brown  bark.  The
leaves are  spear-shaped, smooth, and in some respect
resemble those of milkwort.  The flowers are produced 
D A  R
D A R
in clusters  from the  sides of the stalks;  they are of a
greenish colour, have  no footstalks,  appear in March,
and are succeeded by small yellowish berries, which will
be ripe in August.  This  and the two forme** sorts re-
quire a dry soil, and a warm situation.
   7. Villosa, the  hairy-leaved daphne, a very low de-
ciduous shrub, native of Spain and Portugal.  The stalks
are ligneous, about two feet high.  The flowers have ve-
ry narrow tubes,  are  small, and make no great show:
they come  out in June, and  are not succeeded by ripe
seeds in England. This shrub, in some situations,  re-
tains its leaves all winter in such beauty,  as to cause it
to be ranked among the  low-growing  evergreens;  but
as in others it is sometimes shattered with the first bleak
winds, it is left to the gardener whether to place this
shrub among the deciduous trees or evergreens.
   8. Laureola,  the spurge-laurel or evergreen daphne,
a  low  evergreen  shrub, common  in  some parts  of
Britain,  also in Switzerland and France.  This shrub
seldom grows more than a yard or four feet high; and
is also valuable on occount of its flowers;  not because
they make any great  show, but from their fragrance,
and the time they  appear; for it will be  in flower tbe be-
ginning of January, and will continue so  until the mid-
dle or end  of April before the flowers fall off.
   9. The odora is a charming shrub, which has its spe-
cific name from the delightful fragance of its flowers. In
appearance it much resembles the common spurge-laurel,
but must be treated as a greenhouse plant.
   The root of the mezereon was long used  in the Lis-
bon  diet-drink, a remedy said to  be  good for several
Domplaints, particularly  nodes and other  symptoms re-
sisting the use of mercury.  The composition of this diet-
drink is described in the Edinburgh Physical Essays,
by Dr. Donald Monro of London. On chewing the root
of the mezereon, it proves very pungent, and its acrimo-
ny is accumulated about the fauces,  and is very  dura-
ble.  It is employed chiefly under the form of decoction,
and it enters the  decoctum  sarsaparillae compositum of
the London college; but  it has also been used in powder
combined with some  inactive one, as that of liquorice-
root.  It is apt to occasion  vomiting  and purging;  so
must be begun in  grain-doses, and gradually increased.
It is often usefully combined with mercury.  The bark
of the root, which is the most acrimonious part,  is re-
commended in the  Pharmacopoeia Chirurgica,  to  be
steeped in vinegar, and applied to promote the discharge
of issues.  Mezereon  has also been of use in tumours
and cutaneous  eruptions  not venereal.  The whole plant
is very corrosive; and six ofthe berries,  it is said, will
kill a wolf. A woman gave 12 grains of the berries to
her  daughter,  who  had  a  quartan  ague; she vomited
blood, and died immediately.
   DARAPTI, among logicians, one of the modes of syl-
logisms ofthe third figure, whose premises arc universal
affirmatives, and the conclusion is a particular affirma-
tive: thus,
   Dar-  Every body  is  divisible:
   Ar-    Every body  is  a substance;
   ti.     Therefore  some substance is divisible.
   DARIC, in antiquity, a famous piece of gold, first
coined by Daiius the Mede about 538 years before Christ;
probably  during  his stay at Babylon, out of the vast
quantity of gold which had been accumulated in the tr*
sury.  It  was  dispersed over the East,  and also into
Greece; so that the Persian daric, which was also cal-
led stater, was the gold coin best known in Athens  in
ancient times.  According to Dr. Bernard,  it weighed
two grains more than one of our guineas;  but as it Was
very fine,  and contained little alloy, it may be reckoned
worth  about 25s. of our money.
   DARII, in logic,  one of the modes of syllogisms of
the first figure,  in  which the major proposition is an
universal affirmative, and the minor and conclusion par-
ticular affirmatives: thus,                        v
   Da-  Every thing that is moved, is moved by another-
   ri-   Some body is moved;
   I.     Therefore, some body is moved by another.
   DARRIEN, in law, a corruption ofthe French word
dernier, last, is used  in this sense in our law, as darrien
continuance, &c.
   Darrien presentment, the last presentation to a church
on which an assize lies.
   DASYPUS, armadillo,  a genus of quadrupeds of the
bruta order. The generic character is:  grinders seve-
ral,  without either cutting or canine teeth; body coated
with a shelly armour, divided into zones.
   The armadillos are natives of South America, and are
readily distinguished from  all other quadrupeds by the
singular covering with which nature  has ornamented
them; and which forms a complete suit of armour, divid-
ed into bands or shelly zones, in such a manner as to
accommodate itself to the various postures of the body;
and  exhibiting a most  beautiful example of deviation
from the general structure and appearance in quadru-
peds.  The  armadillos arc innoxious animals, and inha-
bit subterraneous retreats or burrows, which they rea-
dily  excavate by means of their large and strong claws.
They wander about chiefly by night, and devour various
roots and  grain;  and therefore considered as injurious
to plantations.   They  also  occasionally  prey  on the
smaller animals of different kinds; as worms, insects,
&c.  In a state of captivity, they readily eat animal food,
and that in considerable quantity.
   They are themselves considered as excellent food, and
are  therefore dug out of their subterraneous cavities,
and  sold for the table.  When old, however,  their flesh
acquires a strong musky  scent, and  becomes unfit for
use.   When attac ked, the armadillos roll themselves up
into  the form of a ball,  and thus become,  in  a great de-
gree,  invulnerable.   Nothing can  exceed the  curious
mechanism  by wiiich this is performed; nor is it possi-
ble to  view without  admiration the  appearance of the
animal thus coiled up,  and secured from common con-
tingencies.
   Armadillos are said to drink frequently, and they oft-
en grow extremely fat.  They are very prolific animals;
and  are said to breed three or four times a year, and to
bring  several young at  a birth.  The species are deter-
mined by the  number of shelly zones on the body.  In
enumerating these, however, it is remarkable that most
authors vary;  and the  exact discrimination of all the
species seems yet a desideratum in natural history. This,
perhaps, arises partly from the inattention of draughts-
men and engravers, when representing the animals, and
partly from different authors counting differently  the 
DAS
DAT
bands on wmc of the species; which are so placed as to
make it difficult in some instance* to distinguish the ul-
timate or bounding zones of the body, from the scaly di-
visions on the fore and hind parts of the animal; and
which, like the bands, are disposed into a kind of zones,
though less strongly  marked.  Some  species, however,
are so clearly defined by this mode of distinction, as to
be at all  times readily ascertained.
  1. Dasypus  tricinetus, or  threc-banded  armadillo,
may be considered,  perhaps, as the most elegant of the
whole species; the pattern of the armour being peculiar-
ly neat  and well  defined,  and the colour of  the animal
more pleasing than in most other species, viz. a clear
yellowish-white.  The head, shoulders, and hind part of
the body, arc coated with regular hexagonal divisions,
curiously studded or tuberculated on the surface; and
the zones of the  body arc extremely distinct, and only
three in  number.  The ears are rather large,  and the
claws smaller than in most other species. It is a native
of Brazil.
  2. Dasypus  sexcinctus, or  six-banded armadillo, is
also a species of great elegance; and much resembles the
former, but is furnished with six bands instead of three.
The tail  is very thick at the base, and  is short in pro-
portion to the animal; the claws are very large and strong.
The bands arc marked into oblong  squares, as in the
former.
   3. Dasypus septemcinctus, or seven-banded armadillo.
It is impossible to consider this in any other light than
as a mere variety of the nine-banded armadillo, in which
the pattern of the armour, and the relative proportions
of the parts, arc sufficient to ascertain the species, what-
ever may happen to be the number of the zones.
  4. Dasypus novemcinctus, or nine-banded armadillo.
The number of bands or zones in this species is general-
ly nine: they are extremely distinct or well defined, and
are transversely marked by very numerous wedge-shap-
ed or acutely-triangular figures alternating with smaller
opposite  ones: and the head  is smaller, longer in pro-
portion,  and sharper-snouted, than in any other species;
the fore and  hind parts of the shield  or covering are
marked by very numerous flat rounded scales, or tuber-
cles, with smaller ones interposed; the ears are mode-
rately large, and upright; the tail is longer than in any
other species, and  tapers  gradually  to the tip.   It is
marked  by transverse rows of, longish hexagonal divi-
sions on each joint; on the fore feet are four toes, and five
on the  hind; the claws moderately large and strong.
  5. Dasypus cingulis duodecim.  This, according to
the character generally given in authors, should have
twelve zones or hands; but it is certain that this  number
is not very accurately observed by nature, and perhaps
13 or 14 is the more general number.  The  individuals
al»o appear to vary in some  other  particulars.  That
described by Buffon and Mr. Pennant,  under the title
of the twelve-banded armadillo, has broad upright ears;
the  head is thick  and broad, and is marked above into
large angular divisions; the crust on the shoulders into
oblong pieces inclining to a  squarish form:  that on the
rump into hexagonal ones.  The length of this  animal,
from the nose to the tail, is about a foot; the tail about
seven inches or less.
  6. Dasypus cinguiu octodecim, or eightccn-banded
  vji.. #.                 98
armadillo, was first described by Grew,  in the la.-J cen-
tury,  under the name of the  wcezlc-hcaded armadillo.
This species seems most allied to the twelve-handed ar-
madillo.
  DATA, among mathematicians, a term for such things
or quantities  as are given  or known, in order to find
other things that arc  unknown.   Euclid uses  tbe word
data for such spaces, lines, and  angles,  as are given in
magnitude, or to which we can assign others equal.
  In algebra the given quantities or data are expressed
by the first letters  of  the alphabet, and the unknown
quantities by the last letters; thus, if the problem be from
the sum and product of two quantities given, to find the
quantities themselves,  the quantities are represented by
y and «; and y-f *=« the  sum  given,  and y  % — b th*
product given.  See Axgebra.
  DATE, in law, is the description ofthe day, month.
year of our Lord, and year ofthe reign  ofthe  king, in
which a deed or other writing  was made. Anciently
deeds had no dates but only of the month and year, anil
now, if in the date of any deed, the year of our Lord is
right,  though the year of the king's reign is wrong, it
shall not hurt the same.  A deed is  good, though it lias
no date of the day, or  if that be mistaken, or though it
contains an impossible date; but then he that pleads such
a deed must set forth the time when it was delivered: for
every deed or writing has a date in  law, and that is the
day of the delivery, and where there is none, a plaintiff,
it is said, may count it of any date.
  In writings of importance, the date should be written
in words at length.  An antedate is a date prior to the
real time when the instrument was signed.  A post-date
is that posterior to the real time when the instrument was
passed.
  Date. See Phcenix.
  DATISCA, .a genus of the dodecandria order, in the
dioecia class of plants, and in the natural method rank-
ing under the 54th order, miscellaneae.  The male calyx
is pentaphyilous;  there  is no  corolla; the  antherae  are
sessile, long, and 15  in number.  The  female calyx is
bidented; no corolla; the styles three; the capsule trian-
gular, three-horned, unilocular, previous, polyspermous,
inferior.  There arc two species.
  DATISI, in logic,  a mode of syllogism in  the third
figure, in which the major  is an universal affirmative,
and the minor and conclusion particular affirmative pro-
positions. For example,
  Da- All who serve God are kings:
  ti-  Some who serve God are  poor;
  si.   Therefore some who are poor are kings.
  DATIVE, among grammarians,  the third case in the
declension of nouns, expressing the relation of a thing to
whose profit or loss some other  thing is referred.  It is
called dative, because  usually governed by a verb,  im-
plying something to be given to some person.  In Eng-
lish the dative is expressed by the signs to or for.
  DATURA, the thorn-apple, a  genus ofthe monogynia
order, in the pentandria class of plants, and in the na-
tural method ranking under the 28th order, luridae. The
corolla is funnel-shaped and plaited; the calyx  tubular,
angulated,  and  deriduoi:-;  the  capsule quadrixafved.
There are eight species: the most remarkable arei
  1. The stramonium, or common thorn-apple, rises 
D A  U
DAY
about a yard high, with an erect, strong, round, hollow,
green stalk, branching luxuriantly, having the branches
widely extended on every side;  large, oval, irregularly
angulated, smooth, dark-green leaves; and from the di-
visions of the branches, large white flowers singly, suc-
ceeded by large, oval, prickly capsules,  growing erect,
commonly called thorn-apples.  At night the upper leaves
rise up  and inclose the flowrers.  The blossoms have
sometimes a  tinge of purple or violet.  The flowers con-
sist of one large funnel-shaped petal, having a long tube,
and spreading  pentagonal  limb,  succeeded by large
roundish capsules of the size of middling apples, closely
beset with sharp  spines.  An  ointment prepared from
the leaves gives case in external inflammations and in the
haemorrhoids.  The seeds  were recommended by Dr.
Storck  to be taken  internally  in cases of  madness;  but
they seem to be a very unsafe remedy.  Taken even in a
small dose, they  bring on a delirium, and  in a large one
would certainly prove fatal.  Cows,  horses,  sheep, and
goats, refuse this plant.
   2.  Datura arborea, is a stove-plant,  much esteemed
for the beauty  and fragrance of its large  white flowers.
   DAUCUS,  the carrot, a genus of the  digynia order
in the pentandria class of plants, and in the natural me-
thod ranking under the  45th order, umbellatae.  The co-
rolla is a little radiated, all hermaphrodite; the fruit brist-
ly  with short hairs.  There are seven species, but the only
one which merits attention is the carota or common carrot.
This is so well known as to need no description. There
are several  varieties, as the white, the orange, and the
purple  carrot;  but of these the orange carrot  is  the most
 esteemed.  It  grows  longer, larger, and is  commonly
 more handsome,  than the  others, being  often  15 or 18
 inches  long  in the eatable part, and  from  two to four in
 diameter at top.  Carrots are propagated by seeds; wiiich
 are sown at different seasons of the year, in order to pro-
 cure a supply  of  young roots for  the table at all times.
 The season  for sowing for the earliest crop is soon after
 Christmas;  the  manner of cultivating  them is too well
 known to need any particular description.
    Carrots have  been  greatly recommended as proper for
 fattening hogs; but from some experiments mentioned in
 the Georgical  Essays it appears, that though the bacon
 thus fed is of excellent quality, the feeding is considera-
 bly dearer than when fed with peas,  pollard,  &c. In the
 same  essays,  an experiment is mentioned by Dr. Hun-
 ter, concerning  the propriety  of raising carrots for the
 use of  the distiller.   From a gross calculation he is in-
 duced  to think that a good acre of carrots so manufac-
 tured will leave a profit of 40l. after deducting the land-
lord's rent,  cultivation, distillation,  and other incidental
 expenses. In this calculation he presumes that the spirit
 is  worth fj.s. per gallon,  and  not  excised.  An acre of
 barley will by  no means produce so much  spirit.  A rich
 iar.iy loam  is the best land for carrots; which, after the
 crop is removed, will he in high cultivation tor corn.  At-
 tempts have also been made to prepare sugar from car-
 rots. A poultice of carrots mitigates the pain ani abates
 the stencii of foul and cancerous ulcers. Crickets are very
 fond of carrots;  and are  easily destroyed by making a
 paste of powdered arsenic, wheat-flower, and scraped
 carrots, which must  be placed near their  habitations.
 The seeds have been reckoned diuretic; and  were for-
merly much used as a remedy  for the stone, but are at
present little regarded.  Carrots were first  introduced
into England by the Flemings in the  reign of queen
Elizabeth.
  DAVIDISTS, in church history, a sect of Christian
heretics in the 16th century; so called from David George,
their leader,  who began by giving out that he was the
Messiah, and was sent into the world in order to people
the kingdom of heaven,  which  was quite empty of inha-
bitants for want of virtudhs and good men:  he rejected
marriage and denied the resurrection.
  DAVIT, in a ship, a  long beam of timber, represent-
ed by a, a, Plate XLIII. Miscel. fig. 31,  and used as
a crane to hoist the flukes of the anchor to the top of the
bow, without injuring the sides of the ship as it ascends-
an  operation  which  by  mariners  is called  fishing the
anchor.  The anchors being situated on both tbe bows,
the davit may be  occasionally shifted, so as to project
over either side of the ship, according to the position of
that anchor on wiiich it  is employed.  The inner end of
the davit is secured  by  being  thrust into a square ring
of iron b, which is bolted to the deck, and forelocked un-
der the beams.  This ring, which is  called the span-
shackle,  exhibited by the figure, is fixed exactly in the
middle of the deck, and  close behind the foremast. Up-
on the  outer  end of the davit is hung a large block c,
through which a strong rope traverses, called the fish-pen-
dant, d; to whose foremost end is fitted a large iron hook e,
 and to its after-end a tackle or complicatiorfnf pulleys/;
the former of which  is called the fish-hook, and the lat-
ter the fish-tackle.   TJbe davit,  therefore, according to
the sea-phrase, is employed to  fish the anchor; which be-
 ing previously catted, the fish-hook is fastened upon its
flukes; and the efforts of the tackle being transmitted to
the hook by means of the fish-pendant, it draws up that
 part ofthe anchor sufficiently  high upon the bow to fas-
 ten it,  which is  done by  the  shank-painter. There is
 also a  davit of a  smaller kind occasionally  fixed in the
 long-boat, and employed to weigh the anchor.
   DAY, according  to  the most  natural  and obvious
 sense of the  word,  signifies that  space of time during
 which  it  continues  to  he  light; in contradistinction to
 night,  being  that  partition of time  wherein it is dark;
 but the space of  time in which  it is light, being some-
 what  vague  and indeterminate, the time  between tbe
 rising and setting ofthe sun is  usually looked on as the
 day, and the time which  lapses  from  its setting to its
 rising again  the night.
   The word day is often taken  in a larger sense, so as
 to include the night also; or to denote  tbe time of a
 whole apparent revolution of the sun  round the eart»»
 in wiiich sense it  is called by sonic a  natural day, an(>
 by others an artificial one:  but  to avoid ccuifisb.n it  is
 usual to call it in the former  sense simply the day, and
 in the latter a nyrhthemcron, by which  term  that ac-
 ceptation of it is aptly denoted, as it implies both day
 and night.                                         ,
    The nychthemcron is  divided  into 24 parts, called
 hours:  which are of two  sorts; equal,  and uncqal  or
 temporary.
    Different nations begin their day at a  different h«ur;
 thus the Egyptians  began  their day at miclnight, from
 whom Hipparchus introduced  that way of reckoning illt0 
D A  V
D  E  A
 astronomy:  and Copernicus and  others  have followed
 him:  but* the.  greater part of astronomers  reckon the
 day begun at  noon, and so count 24 hours, till the  noon
 of the next day;  and not twice twelve, according to the
 vulgar computation. The method of beginning the day at
 midnight prevails also in America, Great Britain, France,
 Spain, and most parts of Europe.   The Babylonians
 began their day at sun-rising; reckoning the  hour imme-
 diately before its rising again the 24th hour ofthe day,
 whence  the hours  ree koncd this way are called the
 Baby Ionic.   In several parts  of  Germany,  they  begin
 their day at sun-setting, and reckon on till  it sets next
 day,  calling that the 24th hour:  these are generally
 termed Italian hours.  The Jews also began their nych-
 themeron at sun-setting;  but then  tbey  divided it into
 twice twelve hours,  as we do; reckoning twelve for the
 day,  be it long or  short, and twelve for tbe night; so
 that their  hours  continually  varying with the day  and
 night, the hours of  the day were longer than that ofthe
 night for one half-year,  and the contrary the other;
 whence their  hours are called temporary: those at the
 time  of the equinoxes became equal, because then those
 of the day and night are so.  The Romans also reckoned
 their hours after this manner, as do the Turks at this day.
 This kind of hours  are  called  planetary,  because the
 seven planets were  anciently  looked upon as presiding
 over  tbe affairs of the world, and taking it by turns  each
 of these hours, according to the following order: Saturn
 fir>t,  then Jupiter,  Mars, the Sun,  Venus, Mercury,
 and last of  all the Moon;  hence they  denominated  each
 day of the week  from that planet whose turn it was to
 preside the  first hour of the nychthemeron.   Thus as-
 signing the first  hour of Saturday  to Saturn, the se-
 cond  will fall to Jupiter, the third to  Mars, and so the
 22d of the same nychthemeron will fall to Saturn again;
 and therefore the 23d to Jupiter,  and the last to Mars:
 sn that on the first hour of the next day  it will fall to
 the Sun to preside; and by the like manner  of reckon-
 ing, tbe first hour of the next will fall to the Moon; of the
 next, to M ars; of the next, to Mercury; of the  next, to Ju-
 piter; ofthe next, to Venus: hence the days  ofthe week
 came to be distinguished by the Latin names of dies Satur-
 7ii, Solis, Luna, Marlis, Mercurii, Jovis, and Veneris; and
 among us, by the names of Saturday, Sunday, Monday, kc
  Dav,  in a leg.d sense, relates to the day  of appear-
 ance  of parties, or the continuance of suits, where a
 day ih given.   In real actions there are common days,
 and special  days given by the judges in an assize, kc
  Dav s in bank,  are days set down hy statute or order
 of the court, when  writs shall be returned, or when the
 party shall appear on the  writ served.  They say  also,
 if a person is  dismissed without day, he is  finally dis-
 charged.
  I).v\ s of grace, arc those granted by the court at the
 prayer of the defendant or plaintiff,  in whose delay  it is.
  Days of grace, in commerce, are a customary  num-
 ber of davs allowed for the payment  of a  bill of ex-
 chunge, \c. after the same becomes due.  Three  days
 of grace are allowed in the United States and in England;
 ten  in France  and  Dantzic; eight at Naples; six at Ve-
nice,  Amsterdam.  Rotterdam,  and Antwerp; four at
I'Yaiikh.rt; five at Lcipsir; twelve at Hamburgh; six in
Portugal; fourteen in  Spain;  thirty in Genoa, kc.
   Day-light,  in  our law.  the time  after sun-ri-m;.
 and before sun-setting, being accounted part ofthe d:r ■
 when the hundred is liable for any robberies commit'ei
 within that time.
   DEACON, hcexons,  one of the three sacred orders n;
 the christian churib.  In its restrained sense, it is ii!; :
 for the third order of  the clergy.
   In the Romish church  it is the deacon's office to in
 cense the officiating priest or prelate; to layr the  corpo-
 ral on the altar; to receive tbe  patern  or cup from tbe
 sub-deacon, and present them to the person  officiating:
 to incense the choir; to receive the pax  from  the oflicia
 ting prelate, and carry it  to the  sub-deacon;  and at the
 pontifical mass, when  the bishop gives  the blessing, t
 put the mitre on his head, and to take  off the archbish-
 op's  pall, and  lay it  on the altar.  In  Englfind, the
 form of ordaining deacons declares that it is their office
 to assist the priest  in  the distribution of the boh  com
 munion; in which, agreeably  to the practice of  the an
 cient church, they  are confined to the administering ol
 the wine to the communicants.   A deacon with us is not
 capable of any ecclesiastical promotion; vet he may b"
 a chaplain  to a family, curate  to  a beneficed  clergy
 man, or lecturer to a parish-church.   lie may be or-
 dained at 23 years  of  age, anno currentc; but it is  ex-
 pressly provided, that the bishop shall not  ordain  the
 same person a priest and  deacon in  the  same day.
   DEACONESS,  a female deacon, an  order of women
 who had their distinct offices and services in the primi-
 tive church.
   DEACONRY, diaconia, is also the name of the cha-
 pels and oratories in Rome, under the  direction  of the
 several cardinal deacons in  their respective  quarters.
 Anciently they were seven in number; as the deaconry of
 St. Maria in the broad-way, the deaconry of St. Eus-
 tachio near the  Pantheon, &c. answering to the seven
 regions of the city.   They had hospitals annexed to
 them for the distribution of alms, and an administrator
 for temporal concerns,  called the father of the deaconry,
 who was sometimes  a  priest and sometimes  a layman.
 At present, there are 14 of these  deaconries, or hospitals,
 under the direction of  as many cardinals.
  DEAD-mex's-eyes, in the sea-language, a kind of
 blocks with many holes in  them, but no sheevers, by
 which the shrowds are  fastened to the chains: the crow-
 feet reeve also through these holes;  and, in some ships,
 the main-stays are set tavvt in them;  but then they have
 only one hole, through which  the lanyards  arc  passed
 several times.  See Plate  XLIII. Miscel. fig.  32.
  Dead-reckoning,  in  navigation,  the  calculation
 made of a ship's place by means of the compass and log;
 the first serving to point out the course she sails on, and
 the other the distance run. From these two things given,
 the skilful mariner, making proper  allowances  for the
variation of the compass, lee-way, currents,  kc. is ena-
bled, without any observations of the sun or stars, to
 ascertain the ship's  place tolerably well.
  Dead-rising, among  sailors, that  part  of  a ship
 which lies aft, between the keel and the floor-timbers,
 next adjoining to the .stern-post, under the bread-room,
in a ship of war.
  Dead-ropes,  on bard a ship, such  ropes as do n>l
run in any block. 
D E  A
D E  A
  Dead-water, at sea,  the eddy-water just astern of
a ship, so called because it does not pass away so swift
as the water running by her sides does.  They say that
a ship makes much dead water when she has a great
eddy following her stern.
   DEADLY feud, in law> a profession of an irrecon-
cilfeble hatred, till a  person  is revenged even by the
death of bis adversary. This enmity was allowed in the
old Saxon laws; for  where any person  was killed, if a
pecuniary satisfaction was  not made  to the kindred of
the slain,  it was lawful for them to revenge themselves
by arms on the murderer.
   DEADS, among miners, denotes the earth or other
fossil substances which inclose the ore on every  side.
Hence, breaking up  the  deads  is the  removing these
substances for the conveniency  of carrying  on  their
work.
   DEAF, dumb, and blind: a man  born deaf, dumb,
 and blind, is considered by the law as  an idiot; he being
supposed  incapable  of understanding,  as not  having
 those senses which furnish the mind with ideas. Black.
 308.
   DEAFFORESTED, a  term  found in law-books,
 signifying that a place is discharged from being a forest,
 or freed from the forest-laws.
   DEAFNESS, the state of a person who either wants
 the sense of hearing or has it greatly impaired.
   The causes  of deafness are a cutting off the external
 ear, or an obstruction of the auditory passage,  from
 wax or other things; a rupture of the membrane of the
 tympanum; or when it is corroded, or ulcerated, or the
 auditory nerve is obstructed or compressed.   External
 causes are, great falls; excessive noise, such as the ex-
 plosion of cannon;  likewise acute diseases or inflamma-
 tions, which are likely to terminate by a critical haemor-
 rhage.
    Those born deaf are also dumb, as not being able to
 learn any language,  at  least in the common way.  As
 the  eyes, however, in some measure serve them for ears,
 they may understand what is said by the motion of the
 lips, tongue,  kc. of the speaker; and even  accustom
 themselves to move their own as  they see other people
 do,  and by this means learn  to speak.  This  fact was
 observed by bishop Burnet with respect to a young lady,
 the  daughter of a Mr. Goddy, minister of St. Gervais'
 church in Geneva.   At two  years of age it was ob-
 served that she had  lost her  hearing; and was ever af-
 terwards, though  she had some  perception of  great
 noises, incapable of  healing an articulate sound.   Be-
 yig, however, of quick parts,  she carefully observed
 %m  motions of "^he lips of those who  spoke to her; and
 by an imitation of these she enabled herself  to ai-ticu-
 late a  number of words  so  as  to hold a conversation
 with those who were in habits of familiarity  with her.
 She however was incapable of this in the dark, as  she
 could not distinguish the motions of their lips. But the
 most extraordinary  of all is,  that she had a sister with
 whom she was accustomed to sleep; and  by laying  her
 hand on  her  sister's  mouth, she was  able to  perceive
 what was spoken even in the dark.
    Like the blind, this unfortunate class of persons were
ykmg neglected; they were considered  as idiots, and con-
 ymed as such by this cruel inattention.  The author of
this article, however, knew a most beautiful and accom-
plished young lady in the north of England,  who, by
the force of an extraordinary genius, though labouring
under this misfortune, taught herself to read and write
and various other branches of science,  with no regular
instruction. She wrote a fine hand,  and her composition
in her letters was easy and  rather elegant though not
perfect or quite free from errors. She was an excellent
arithmetician, and at the age of twenty  actually kept
her father's books, who was a man in a considerable
line of business.  Dr. Wallis is said to have taught two
young gentlemen who were deaf  and dumb to under-
stand what was said to them, and to return pertinent an-
swers.   A  Swiss physician,  at Amsterdam, of the
name of Ammen, was equally successful  with several
children;  and reduced the art to a system, which was
published at Amsterdam in 1692, under the title of Sur-
dus Loquens.  It was probably upon  these hints that
the celebrated Abbe' de I'Epe'c instituted his school for
the deaf and dumb.  The plan has also been most  suc-
cessfully  pursued in England by  the  late Mr. Braid-
wood, Mr. Telfair, and others; and a public charity
has even been established in Southwark,  for the bene-
volent purpose of instructing such of the children of the
poor,  as through this misfortune would otherwise have
been lost to society.
   It  is  observed,  that  deaf persons,  or  rather those
who are hard of hearing, hear better  and more easily
 if a loud noise be raised at  the time when we speak to
 them: which is owing, no doubt, to the greater tension
 of the  ear-drum on that occasion.   Dr.  Wallis  men-
 tions a deaf woman, who if a drum was beaten in the
 room could hear  any thing very  clearly; so that hei
 husband  hired  a  dummer  for  a  servant, that by this
 means he might hold conversation with his wife.  Bat
 with regard to this opinion  there may be much decep-
 tion; the sense of  feeling being so nearly  allied to that
 of hearing as to convey  certain vibrations which afford
 information to the mind, although  the party be com-
 pletely deaf.  See Medicine, and Dumbness.
   DEAL, a thin kind of  fir-planks, of great use in
 carpentry: they  are formed by sawing the trunk of a
 tree into a great many longitudinal divisions, of more
 or less thickness, according  to the purposes tbey are in-
 tended to serve.   Deals are rendered much harder, by
 throwing them into salt-water as soon as tbey are saw-
 ed,  keeping them there three or four days, and  after-
 wards drying  them in the  air  or sun; hut neither this
 nor any other method  yet  known will preserve  them
 from shrinking.
   DEAN, an"ecclesiastical officer, or dignitary:  heis
 next under the bishop,  and chief of the chapter,  ordi-
 narily  in a cathedral chruch.  There 'are four sorts
 of deans and deanries.   The first is a dean who has a
 chapter consisting of prebendaries or  canons, subordi-
 nate to the bishop, as a  council assistant to him in mat-
 ters spiritual, relating to religion, and in matters tem-
 poral,  relating  to the  temporalities of his  bishopric^
 The second is a dean who  has no chapter, and yet  is
 presentative and has  cure of souls:  he has a peculiar,
 and a court wherein he  holds ecclesiastical jurisdiction,
 but is not subject to the  visitation of the bishop or ordi-
 nary; such is the dean of Battle in Sussex.  The thud 
D  £  A
DEB
dean is also ecclesiastical, but the deanry is not pres:n-
tativc, but donative; nor has he any cure of  souls, Uut
16 only by covenant or condition; and he has also a court
and peculiar,  in which he holds plea and jurisdiction, of
all  such  matters and things as  are ecclesiastical,  and
which arise within  his peculiar,  which often extends
over many parishes; such deans constituted by commis-
sion from the metropolitan of the province, are the dean
of  the Arches, and the dean of Bocking in Essex. The
fourth sort  of dean, is he who is  usually called the ru-
ral dean; having no absolute judicial power in himself,
but being to order the  ecclesiastical affairs  within his
deanry and precinct, by the direction of  the bishop or
of  the archdeacon;  he  is a substitute of  the bishop in
many cases.
   DEATH of persons.   There are a natural death of a
man,  and a civil death; natural where nature itself ex-
pires and extinguishes, and civil where a man is not ac-
tually dead but is adjudged  so by  law.  If any person,
for whose life any estate has been granted, remain be-
yond sea, or is otherwise absent,  seven  years, and no
proof is made of his being alive,  such person shall be
accounted naturally  dead; though  if the party be after-
wards proved living at the time of eviction of any per-
son,  then the tenant, 6cc. may reenter; and recover the
profits.   Stat. 19 C. II. c. 6.  And persons in rever-
sion or remainder after the death of another,  upon affi-
davit that they have cause  to believe  such other dead,
may  move the lord chancellor to order the person to be
produced; and if he be not produced,  he shall be taken
as  dead, and those  claiming may enter,  &c. 6 Anne,
C.  18.
   Death's  Part,  or dead-man's part,  is that portion
of  his personal  estate,  which remained  after his wife
and children had received thereout their respective rea-
sonable parts; which was, if he had both a wife and a
child or children, one-third part; if a wife and no child,
or  a child or children and no wife, one-half;  if neither
wife nor child, he had  the  whole  to dispose of by his
last will  and testament:  and if he made no will, the
same was to go to his administrators.   And  within the
city of London,  and throughout the province of York,
at this day, in case of intestacy, the wife and children
are entitled to their said reasonable part, and the residue
only is disputable, by the statute of distribution.
   Deatu-watch, in natural history,  a little insect fa-
mous for a ticking noise, like the beat of a watch, which
superstitious people take for a presage of death in the
family where it  is heard:  whence  it is also called pedi-
culus fatidicus,  mortisaga,  pulsitorius, kc  There are
tw o kinds of death-watches.  Of the first we have a good
account in the Phil. Trans, by Mr. Allen.  It is a small
beetle, 5-l6ths of an inch long, ofa darkbrown colour,
spotted; having pellucid wings under the vagina,  a large
cap or helmet on the head, and two antennae proceeding
from beneath the eyes, and doing the officeof proboscides.
The part it beats with,  he observed,  was the extreme
edge of the face,  which  he chooses to call the upper-lip;
the ijouth being protracted by this bony part, and lying
underneath out of view. This account is confirmed by
Dr. Derham;  with this difference,  that instead of  tick-
ing with  tbe upper lip, he observed the insect to draw
bm k its mouth, and beat with its forehead.  That author
had two death-watches, a male  and a [female, which he
kept alive in a box several months; and could bring one
of them  to beat  whenever he pleased,  by imitating its
beating.  By this ticking noise,  he could frequently in-
vite the male to coition with the other.  When the male
found he got up in vain, he would get off again, beat ve-
ry eagerly, and then up again; whence the ingenious
author concludes those pulsations to be the way whereby
these insects woo one another, and find out and invite
each other to copulation.
  The second kind of death-watch is an  insect in ap-
pearance quite different from the first. The former only
beats seven or eight strokes at a time, and quicker: th*
latter  will beat some hours together without intermis-
sion; and his  strokes are more leisurely, and like the
beat of a watch.   This latter is a small greyish insect,
much like a louse when viewed with the naked eye.
  It is very common in all parts of the house  in the
summer months.   It is very nimble in running to shel-
ter, and shy of beating when disturbed; but will beat
very freely before you,  and also answer the beating, if
you can view  it without giving it  disturbance, or sha-
king the place where it lies, &c.   The author cannot
say whether they beat in any other thing,  but he'never
heard  their noise except in or near paper.  As to their
noise,  the same person is in doubt whether it is made
with their heads, or rather snouts,  against the paper;
or whether it is  not made after some such manner as
grasshoppers  and crickets make their  noise.  He  in-
clines to the former opinion.  The reason  of his doubt
is, that he observed the animal's body to shake and give
a jerk  at every beat, but he could scarcely perceive any
part of its body to touch the paper.  But its  body is so
small and near the paper,  and its motion in  ticking so
quick,  that he thinks it might be, yet he did not per-
ceive it.  The ticking, as in the other, he judges to be
a wooing act; as  having observed another, after much
heating,  come and make offers to the  beating  insect;
who, after some offers, left off beating, and got upon
the hack of the other.   When they were joined he left
off again; and they continued some hours joined tail to
tail, like dog and bitch in coition.  Whether or not this
insect changes its shape, and becomes another animal,
he cannot Bay; though he has some cause to suspect that
it becomes  a sort of fly.  It is at first a minute white
egg, much smaller than the nits of lice;  though the in-
sect is  nearly as big as a louse.  In March it is hatched,
and creeps about  with its shell on.   When it first leaves
its shell, it is  even smaller than its egg; though that is
scarce  discernible without  a microscope.   In this state
it is perfectly  like the mites in cheese.  From the mite-
state they grow gradually to their mature perfect state.
When  they become like the old  ones, they are at first
very small, but  run about much  more  swiftly than
before.
  DE  BENE ESSE,  in law signification is to  accept
or allow a thing as well done for the present: thus judges
frequently take bail, and declarations are frequently de-
livered, de bene esse, or conditionally,  until special or
common bail be filed.
  DEBENTURE, is a certificate delivered at thecus
torn-house, when the exporter of any goorjs or merchant
dize has complied with the regulations prescribed by cer- 
DEC
D. E  C
tain acts of parliament, in consequence of which he is en-
titled to a bounty or drawback on the exportation.  Steal-
ing debentui'es was made felony by 2 Geo. II. chap. 25.
s. 3.
   DEBET DE DETINET, are Latin words used in
the bringing of writs  and actions.  And an action shall
always be in the debet et detinct,  when he who makes a
bargain or contract, or lends money to another, or he to
whom a bond  is made, brings the action against him who
is the bounden party to the contract or bargain.
   DEBET ET SOLET.   If a man sues to recover
any right by writ, whereof his  ancestor was disseised by
the tenant of his ancestor, then he uses only the word debt
in his writ; because solct is improper, as his ancestor was
disseised, and the custom discontinued:  but if he sues for
any thing that is now first of all denied, then he uses both
these words debet et solet;  because his ancestor  before
him, and  he himself usually, enjoyed the thing sued for.
   DEBT, a sum due from one person to another, in con-
sequence of work done, goods  delivered,  or  money or
other value, for which reimbursement has not been made.
The  non-payment in these cases is an injury, for which
the proper remedy is by action of debt, to compel the per-
formance of the contract, and  recover  the special sum
due.   4 Co. 90.
   Actions of debt are now seldom  brought  but upon spe-
cial contracts under seal, wherein the sum  due is clearly
and precisely  expressed: for  in case of such  an action
upon simple contract,  the plaintiff labours  under two dif-
ficulties: first, the defendant has here the same advantage
as in an action of detinue, that of waging his law, namely,
purging himself of the debt by oath, if he thinks proper;
secondly, in an action of debt, the plaintiff must recover
the whole debt he claims, or nothing at all.  For the debt
is one single cause of action, fixed and determined! but in
an action upon the case, or what is called an indebitatus
assumpsit,  which  is  not brought to  compel a specific
performance of the contract, but to recover damages for
its non-performance,  these damages are in their nature
indeterminate,  and will therefore adapt and proportion
themselves to the truth of the case which shall be proved,
 without being confined to the precise  demand stated in
the declaration.  3 Black. 154.
   Debt, national.   See National Debt.
   DEBTOR.  The gaoler shall not put, keep, or lodge,
prisoners for  debt, and felons, together in one room or
chamber, on pain of forfeiting his office, and treble da-
mages to the party grieved. 22 and 23  C.  II. c. 20. But
every gaoler  ought  to keep  such prisoner in safe and
close custody;  safe,  that he  cannot esc ape;  and  close,
without conference with others, or intelligence of things
abroad.   Dalt. c. 170.
   DECACHORDON, in  antiquity,  a musical instru-
ment with ten strings, called by the Hebrews liasur; be-
ing almost the same as our harp, of a triangular figure,
with a hollow belly,  and sounding from the lower part.
   DECAGON, in geometry,  a  plane  figure with ten
sides and ten angles: it is called a regular decagon, when
all the sides and angles are equal.
   If we suppose the radius of a circle to be r, then will
   ___           \/5 — 1
P\{r2—• \r, or--------x r, be  the side of a decagon
inscribed in that circle.  Again, supposing the side of a
decagon to be 1, the area will be  8.G9; whence as l to
8.69, so is the square of a side of any given decagon to
the area of that decagon.
   DECALITRON,  in antiquity, a  coin equivalent to
10\ Attic oboli.
   DECANDRIA, in the Linnaan system of botany, R
class of plants, the great characteristic of which  is, that
they have hermaphrodite flowers, with ten stamina in
each.
   DECAPROTI, decemprimi, in  Roman antiquity, offi-
cers for gathering the tributes and taxes. The  decaproti
were also obliged to pay for the dead; or to answer to
the.emperor for the quota  parts of such as died, out of
their own estates.
   DECEIT is an offence both by common law  and by
statute.  All practices of defrauding,  or endeavouring to
defraud, another of his  right, arc  punishable by fine and
imprisonment, and sometimes pillory, &c. and  there is a
writ called deceptione, that lies for one who receives in-
jury or damage, kc.  A writ of deceit lies against attor-
neys for losses sustained by their default;  also against
bakers, brewrers, and artificers, for not selling good com-
modities, or refusing to perform a bargain: in  all wbich
cases,  they are,  hy statute, liable to penalties in propor-
tion to their offence.
   DECEMPEDA,  in antiquity,  a rule or rod divided
into ten feet, each of which was subdivided into  inches,
and those into digits; used  in measuring of land,  and by
architects in giving the proper dimensions and propor-
tions to the parts of their buildings.
   DCEMVIRI, in  Roman antiquity, ten magistrates
chosen annually at Rome, to govern the commonwealth
instead of consuls, with an absolute power to draw up
and make laws  for  the people.  One of the decemviri
had all the ensigns and honours ofthe function, and the
rest had the like in their turn, during the year of their
decemvirate.  In them was vested all the legislative au-
thority ever enjoyed by the kings, or after them by tbe
consuls.   The decemviri drew up the laws  of the twelve
tables, thence called leges decemvirales, which were
the whole of the Roman law for a considerable time.
   DECENNARY,  was originally a district of ten men
with their families,  the inhabitants  whereof living to-
gether, were  sureties or  pledges  for each  others' good
behaviour.  See Constarle.
   DECEPTIONE,  a  writ that  lies properly  against
him who deceitfully does any thing in the name of another,
for one that receives  damage or hurt  thereby.
   DECIDUOUS, an appellation  chiefly used  in respect
to plants: thus,  the calyx or cup of  a flower is said to
be deciduous, when it falls along with the flower-petals;
and, on the contrary, it is called permanent, when it re-
mains  after they are fallen.  Again,  deciduous leaves
are  those which fall in autumn;  in contradistinction to
those of the evergreens, which remain all the winter.
   DECIES  TANTUM,  a writ which lies  against a
juror who has taken money for giving his verdict;  cal-
led so  of the effect, because it is to recover ten times aa
much  as he took. Stat.  98  Edw. III.  c. 12 and 13. Dc-
cies taut urn lies against  sheriffs  taking a reward for
arraying a punnel.  11 H. VI. c. 14.  See Vin. Abr. 378
and 382. 
DEC
DEC
  DECIMAL Arithmetic, the art of computing by
decimal fractions.  See Arithmetic.
  DECK of a ship, is a planked floor from stem to stern,
upon which the guns lie, and where the men walk to and
fro.  Great  ships have three  decks, first, second,  and
third,  beginning to count from  the  lowermost.  Half-
deck reaches from the main-mast to the stem ofthe ship.
Quarter-deck is that aloft the steerage, reaching to the
round  house.  Flush-deck is  that which  lies even in a
right line fore and aft, from stem to stern.  A rope-deck
is made of cordages, interwoven and stretched over a
vessel, through which it is easy to annoy an enemy  who
comes  to board her.  They are little  used but by small
vessels, to defend them from privateers. See SHirnuiLn-
INO.
  DECLARATION,  an  exposure in writing, of the
grief  and complaint  of the demandant,  or plaintiff,
against the defendant or tenant, wherein he is supposed
to have done some wring.  Aid  this  ought to be plain
and certain,  because it  both  impeaches the defendant,
and also  compels him to answer to it.  Such a declara-
tion in an action real, is termed a count; and it is essen-
tial that the count or declaration ought to contain de-
monstration, declaration, and conclusion; and in the con-
clusion the plaintiff ought to aver, and  offer to prove,
his suit, and show the damages he has sustained by the
wrong done hiin.  Declaration must be certain, contain-
ing:  1. Such sufficient certainty whereby the court  may
give a peremptory and final judgment upon the matter
in controversy.  2. That the defendant may make a di-
rect answer to the matter contained   therein.  3. That
the jury, after issue joined, may give a complete verdict
thereupon.   4. No blank or  space to be  left therein.
Brown's  Annal. 3.  By the general rules of law, a plain-
tiff must declare against a defendant within twelve months
after the  return of the writ; but by the rules of court, if
he does not deliver his declaration within two terms, the
defendant may sign judgment of non  pros.; though un-
less he takes such advantage of  the plaintiff's neglect,
the plaintiff may still deliver a declaration within a year.
  Declaration is also used in Great Britain for a  con-
fession which the quakers are obliged  to  make and  sub-
scribe, instead of the oaths of supremacy.
  Dkci.a ration of war. a public proclamation made by
the herald at  arms to the members or  subjects of a state,
declaring them to beat war with any foreign power, ami
forbidding all and every one to aid or assist the common
enemy at their peril.
  DECLENSION, in grammar, an inflection of nouns
aecording to their cas-s, as nominative, genitive, dative,
&c.  It is a  different thing in the modern languages,
which  have not properly any cases,  from what it is in
the ancient Greek and Latin.  With respect to languages
where the nouns admit of changes either in the beginning,
t'ue middle, or ending, declension is properly theexpre*-
sroi of all those changes in a  certain order, and by  cer-
tain  decrees  called casts.  With regard to languages
where  the nouns do  not admit of changes  in the same
number,  d- tension is  the  expression of the different
states a noun is  in, and the  different relations it  has;
which iiffemue of relations is marked by particles, as
of. to. from,  by. kc
  DECLINATION, in astronomy, the distance of any
celestial object from the equinoctial, either northward or
southward.  It is either true  or apparent, according as
the real or apparent place of the  object is considered.
See Globes, use of.
  Declination of the sea-compass, or needle, is its va-
riation from the true meridian.
  DECLINATOR, or Declinatory,  an instrument
contrived  for taking the declinations,  inclinations, and
reclinations, of planes.  It is constructed in the follow-
ing manner:  On a square wooden board,  ABCD (Plate
XLIII. Mis. fig. 33) describe a semicircle AED; and di-
vide the two quadrants AE and ED into 90° each, begin-
ning from E, as in the figure:  then having fixed a pin
in the centre F, fit a ruler HI upon the same, moveable
thereon, with a box and needle K (fig. 34).  In order to
take the declination of a plane, apply the side AD  to the
plane proposed, as MN  (fig. 35.); and move the ruler
FG, with the  compass G, about the centre F, till the
needle rest upon the line of the magnetical meridian of
the place: if the ruler cut  the quadrant in E, the  plane
is either directly northern or southern: but if it cut be-
tween D and E. the plane declines to the west, and if
between A and E, to the east,  by the quantity  of the
angle GFE.
  Would you take  the inclinations and  reclinations of
planes with this  instrument, instead  of  the ruler and
needle, a thread with a plummet is fitted on a pin  in the
centre F; then the  side B C  ofthe declinator ABCD
(fig. 36.) being applied to the proposed plane, as I L, if
the plum lineFG cut the semicircle AE  I) in the point
E,  the plane is horizontal; or if it cut the  quadrant E D,
in any point at G, then will E F G be the angle of incii-
nation: lastly, if applying the side A B to the plane, the
plummet cut 111, the plane is vertical.  Hence if the quan-
tity of the angle  of inclination be compared with the
elevation of the pole and  equator, it is easily known
whether the plane be inclined or reclined.  See Incli-
nation and Rinclination.
  DECOCTION, in pharmacy,  the boiling simples op
other drugs, in order to extract their virtues  for some
medicinal purpose.  See Pharmacy.
  DECOMPOSITION, in chemistry.  Caloric not on-
ly increases the bulk of bodies,  and changes their state
from solids to liquids, and from liquids to elastic fluids,
but its action decomposes a  number  of  bodies.  Tiius
when  ammonia is heated to redness,  it is resolved into
azotic and  hydrogen gases.  Alcohol,  by the same heat,
is converted into carbureted hydrogen and water.
  1. This  decomposition is in many cases owing  to the
difference between the volatility of the ingredients of a
compound.  Thus when weak spirits,  or a combination
of alcohol and water, are heated,  the alcohol separates,
because it is more volatile than the water.
  2. In general, the compounds which are hut little or
not at all affected by heat, are those bodies which have
been formed by combustion.  Thus water is not decom-
posed by any heat which can be applied to it; neither are
sulphuric, phosphoric, or carbonic acids.
  3. Almost all the combinations  into which oxygen en-
ters without having occasioned combustion, are' decom-
posable by  heat.   This is the case  with nitric acid,  hy-
pe roxy muriatic acid, and many ofthe metallic oxides.*
  i. All bodies that contain combustibles as cmupauen 
DEC
DEC
parts are decomposed hy heat.  Perhaps the  metallic al-
loys are exceptions  to this rule;  at least it is not in our
power to apply a temperature high enough to produce
•Jieir decomposition, except in a few cases.
   5.  When  two combustible ingredients  and  likewise
oxygen  occur  together in bodies, they are always very
easily decomposed by heat.  This is  the  case  with the
greater number of animal and vegetable substances.  But
it is unnecessary to enjarge  any  farther on this subject,
as no satisfactory theory can be given.
   DECOUPLE', in heraldry, the same as uncoupled:
thus a chevron decouple, is  a chevron wanting so much
of it towards the point, that the two ends stand at a dis-
tance from one another, being parted and uncoupled.
   DECREE, in  civil  law,  is a determination that the
emperor pronounces upon hearing a particular cause be-
tween plaintiff and defendant.
   Decrees of councils, are the  laws made by them,  to
 regulate the doctrine and policy of the church.
   Decree is  a sentence pronounced by the lord chan-
cellor in the court of chancery, and it is equally binding
upon the parties as a judgment in a court of law.
   By the laws of England, a decree (notwithstanding
any contempts thereof) shall not bind  the goods or move-
ables, but only charge the persons.  Chan. Rep. 193.
   If a decree is obtained and inrolled, so that the cause
cannot be reheard, then there is no remedy but by bill of
 review; which must he on error appearing on the face of
the  decree, or on matters subsequent thereto,  as  a re-
 lease or a receipt discovered since.  3 M'm's. Rep. 371.
   DECOY, in naval affairs, a stratagem employed hy a
 ship of war  to betray a vessel of inferior force into an in-
 cautious pursuit, till she has drawn her within the range
 of her  cannon,  or  what is  called within gunshot.  It is
 usually performed by painting the stern and sides in such
 a manner as to disguise the ship, and represent her either
 much smaller and of inferior force, or as  a friend to the
 hostile  vessel, which she endeavours to ensnare, by as-
 suming the emblems and ornaments of the nation to which
 the stranger is supposed  to  belong.   When she has pro-
 voked the adversary to chase, in hopes of acquiring a
 prize, she continues the decoy, by spreading a great sail,
 as  endeavouring to escape; at the same  time that her
 course is considerably retarded by an artful alteration of
 her trim till the enemy approaches. Decoying is also per-
 formed  to elude the  chase of a ship of a superior force in
 a dark night, by throwing out a lighted cask of pitch into
 the sea, which will burn for a considerable time and mis-
 guide the enemy.  Immediately  after the cask is thrown
 out, the ship changes her course, and may easily escape,
 if at any tolerable distance from the foe.
   Decoy,  in military affairs, a stratagem to carry  off
 the enemy's horses in a foraging party, or from the pas-
 ture; to execute which, you  must be disguised, and mix
 on horseback in the pasture, or amongst the foragers on
 that side on wiiich you propose to fly: you must then be-
 gin by firing a few shots, which are  to he answered  by
 such of your party  as are appointed to drive up the rear,
 and are posted at the opposite extremity of the pasture
 or foraging-ground; after which th y arc  to gallop  from
. their different stations towards the side fixed for the flight,
^shouting and firing all the way:  the  horses, being thus
 ^alarmed and  provoked by the example oA1  others, will
break loose from their pickets, tlirow down their riders
and the trusses, and setting up a gallop, will naturally
direct their course to the same side;  insomuch,  that if
the number of them was ever so great, you might lead
them in that manner for several leagues together; when
you are got into some road, bordered by a hedge or ditch
you must stop as gently as possible, and without makin»
any noise; the horses  will then suffer themselves to be
taken  without any  opposition.   It is  called  in French
haraux,  and count  Saxe is the only author that men-
tions it.
  Decoy, among  fowlers, a place made  for catching
wild-fowl. A decoy is generally made where there is a
large pond surrounded with wood, and beyond that a
marshy and uncultivated country: if the  piece of water
is not thus  surrounded,  it will  be attended  with noise
and  other accidents which may be expected to frighten
the wild-fowl from a quiet haunt,  where they mean to
sleep, in the day-time, in security. If these  noises or dis-
turbances are wilful, it has been held  that an action will
lie against the disturber. As soon as the evening sets in,
the decoy rises, and the wild-fowl feed during the night.
If the evening is still, the noise of their wings during
their flight is heard at a very great distance; and is a
pleasing, though rather melancholy, sound. This rising
of the decoy  in the evening is, in Somersetshire, called
radding.
  The  decoy-ducks are fed  with  hempseed, which is
thrown over  the screens in  smalL quantities, to bring
them forwards into the pipes or canals, and to allure
the wild-fowl to  follow, as this seed is so light as to float
There are several pipes, as they are called, which lead
up a narrow ditch that closes  at last with a funnel-net.
Over these pipes  (which grow narrow from their first
entrance)  is  a continued arch of netting suspended on
hoops.  It is  necessary to have a pipe or  ditch  for al-
most every wind that can blow, as  upon  this circum-
stance it depends which pipe  the fowl will take to; and
the decoy-man always keeps on the leeward side of the
ducks, to prevent his scent reaching their sagacious nos-
trils.  All along  each pipe,  at intervals, are placed
screens  made of reeds, which are  so situated that it is
impossible the wild-fowl should see  the decoy-man  be-
fore they have passed on  towards the end of the pipe,
where the purse-net is placed. The inducement to the
wild-fowl to go up one of these pipes is, because the de-
coy-ducks trained  to this lead the way, either after
hearing the whistle of the decoy-man, or enticed by the
hemp-seed; the latter  will dive under water,  whilst the
wild-fowl fly on and are taken in the  purse.
   It often happens, however, that the wild-fowl are in
such a state of sleepiness and dozing, that they will not
follow the decoy-ducks. Use is then generally made of
a dog  that is taught  his lesson: he  passes  backwards
and forwards between the red-screens (in  which are h.»
tie holes, both for the  decoy-man to see,  and the little
dog to pass through); this attracts the eye of the wild-
fowl,  who, not  choosing to be interrupted, advance to-
wards the small and contemptible animal, that they may
drive him away. The dog all the time, by the direction
of the decoy-man, plays  among the screens of reeds,
 nearer and nearer  the purse-net; till  at last perhaps the
 decoy-man appears behind a screen, and  the wild-fowl 
DEC
D  E  F.
not daring to pass hy him  in return, nor being able co
escape upwards on account of the net-covering, rush on
into the  purse-net. Sometimes the dog will 1. >t  attract
their attention if a red handkerchief, or something very
singular, is not put about him.
  The general season for catching fowl in decoys is from
the end of October  till February; the taking of them
earlier is prohibited by an act 10 Geo. II.  c. 32, which
forbids it from June 1st to October 1st, under the penal-
ty of five shilling-, for each  bird destroyed within that
space.
  The Lincolnshire decoys  are commonly let at a cer-
tain annual  rent,  from five  to, twenty  pounds  a year;
and  there  is one in  Somersetshire that  pays thirty
pounds. Tbe  former contribute principally to supply the
markets in London.  Amazing numbers of ducks, wi-
gcons, and teal, are  taken: by  an account of the num-
ber caught a  few winters past, in one season, and in on-
ly ten decoys, in the neighbourhood  of Wainfleet, it ap-
peared to amount to 31,200, in which are included seve-
ral other species of ducks. Itis also to be observed, that
in the above  particular a couple of  wigeon or  teal are
reckoned but  as one,  and consequently  sell but at half-
price  of the ducks.
  It was customary formerly  to have in  the fens an an-
nual driving ofthe young ducks before they took wing.
Numbers of people assembled,  who beat a vast tract, and
forced the birds into  a net placed at the spot where the
aport  was to terminate. Thus a hundred and fifty do-
zens have been taken at once; but this  practice, being
supposed detrimental, has been abolished hy act of par-
liament.
  DECRETE, in the law of Scotland, a final decree or
judgment of the lords of session, from  which an appeal
lies only to parliament, where we find them but  two of-
ten reversed,  a circumstance surely not much to the hon-
our of the august bench whence the appeal lies.
  DECREMENT, in heraldry, signifies  the wane of
the moon from the full to the new.
   DECREPITATION. See  Chemistry.
   DECRETAL, in  the canon-law, a letter of a pope
determining some point or question  in the ecclesiastical
law. The decretals composed  the second  part of the ca-
non-law. The first genuine  one acknowledged  by all
the learned as such, is  a letter of pope Siricius,  written
in the year 385, to Himerus  bishop of  Tarragona in
Spain, concerning some disorders which had crept into
the churches of Spain. Gratian published a collection of
decretals, containing all the  ordinances made  by the
popes till the year 1150. Gregory IX. in  1227, following
the example of Theodosius and Justinian, formed a con-
stitution of his own;  collecting into one body all the de-
cisions, and all the causes, which served  to advance the
papal power:  which collection  of decretals was called the
Pentateuch, because it contained five books.
  [DECU MARIA, in botany, a genus of the monogynia
order, in the  dodecandria class of plants. The caiyx is
from  eight  to ten phyllous; the corolla eight or ten pe-
talled, frutescent;  capsule seven celled,  polyspermous.
There are two species, natives of Carolina and Pennsyl-
vania: 1. the  D. barbarn, of- climbing; 2. D. sannentosa,
or running decumaria. (a)
  vol. i.                  93
   DECURIO,in Roman antiquity, a commander of tcf:
men in the army, or the chief of a decury.
   DECUSSORIlTiI, a surgeon's instrument, wine';, bj
pressing gently  on the dura mater, causes an  evacua-
tion of the pus collected  between the cranium  and the
before-mentioned membrane,  through the  perforation
made by the trepan.
   DEDIMUS,  potestatem, in law,  a commission
granted to one or more persons, for the forwarding and
despatching some act appertaining to a judge, or some
court; as to take answers in chancery, depositions of
witnesses in a cause depending in that court, and levy a
fine in the common pleas, &c.  where persons live in the
country, or cannot travel.
   DEED, is a written contract sealed and delivered.
It  must be written  before  the  scaling  and delivery,
otherwise it is no deed;  and after  it is once formally
executed by the  parties, nothing can be added or inter-
lined; and therefore, if a  deed is sealed  and delivered
with a blank left for the sum,  which the obligee fills up
after seal ing and delivery, this  will make the deed void.
   A deed must be made by parties capable of contract-
ing, and upon a good consideration; and the subject must
be legally and formally set out.
   The formal parts of a deed are:
   The premises, containing the number, names, addi-
tions, and titles, of the parties.
   The habendum, which  determines the  estate  and in-
terest intended to be granted by the deed.
   The reddendum, or reservation, whereby the grantor
reserves to himself something out of the thing granted.
   A condition, which is a  clause of contingency,  on the
happening of which the estate  granted may be defeated.
   The warranty, whereby the  grantor, for himself and
heirs, warrants  or secures to  the grantee the estate so
granted.
  The covenants, which are clauses of agreement con-
tained in the deed, whereby the contracting parties stip-
ulate for the truth of certain facts, or bind themselves to
the performance  of some specific acts.
   The conclusion, which  mentions the execution  and
date of  the deed, or the time of its being given  or exe-
cuted, either expressly, or with reference to some day
and year before  mentioned.
  A deed may be either an indenture or a deed-poll. The
former derives its name from being indented or cut'in an
uneven manner,  so as to tally with the counterparts, of
which there ought to be as many as tliere are parties-
the latter, or deed-poll, of which there is one part only'
is  so called from  its being polled or shaved quite even.
  A deed is the most solemn  act of law which a man
can perform with respect to the disposition of his pro-
perty, and  therefore  no person shall be permitted to
aver or prove any thing against his own deed.
   All the parts of a deed  indented, constitute in law but
one entire deed;  hut every part has the same operativfe
force as all the parts taken together; and they arVdeeui
cd the mutual or reciprocal acts of either of the partite-
who may be bound by either part of the  same, and the
words of the indenture may be considered as the words
of either party.                                 wu«^
   If the name of baptism or surname of a party to a ,W.i
be mistaken, as  John for Thomas, kc  thkhii
held to be dangerous. 2 Bulst 70            has b°En 
DEE
DEE
   But any mistake  as spelling, &c. not deviating from
the substance of the  deed, will not render it void.
   If a man gets  another  name in common esteem than
his right name, any  deed made to him under such name
will he vallid.
   Every deed must  be founded upon good  and sufficient
consideration; not upon an usurious contract, nor upon
fraud or collusion, either to deceive bona fide purcha-
sers, or just and  lawful creditors; any of which conside-
rations will vacate the deed, and subject the parties to
forfeiture, and in some cases to imprisonment.
   A deed also without any consideration is void, and is
construed to enure only to the benefit of the party mak-
ing it.
   Considerations may be express or implied. An express
consideration, is  where a man contracts to do a certain
act for a certain sum of money, or other equivalent act;
and an implied consideration is, when it may be enforced
by law; thus if a  person does any work, or receives any
goods  from another, the law implies a consideration,
which it will enforce although there  was  no specific
agreement for remuneration.
   The written matter of a deed must be set forth in a le-
gal and orderly manner, so that there are words sufficient
to explain the meaning of the parties, and at the same
time to bind them to the execution of their contract; and
of this sufficiency the courts of lawr are to determine.
Although it is not indeed absolutely necessary in law, to.
have all  the formal  wTords which are usually drawn out
in deeds, provided there arc sufficient words  legally and
clearly to explain the meaning of the parties; yet as these
formal  or orderly parts are calculated to  convey the
meaning of the parties in the most clear, distinct, and ef-
fectual manner, and  have been well considered and sanc-
tioned by the wisdom of successive ages, itis prudent not
to depart frpm them without good reason,  and the most
urgent necessity.
   The  force  and  effect which  the law  gives  to  a
deed  under seal, cannot exist, unless such deed is exe-
cuted  by the party  himself, or  by another  for him,  in
his presence, or with his  direction;  or in his absence
by an  agent  authorised  so to do, by another deed also
under seal, and in every such case the deed must be made
and executed in the  name ofthe principal.
   A deed takes effect only from the day of delivery: and
therefore if it has no date, or a date impossible, the de-
livery will in all cases ascertain the date  of it;  and  if
another party seals the deed', yet if the party delivers it
himself he adopts  thesealingand signing, and by such de-
livery  makes them both his own.
   The delivery of a deed may be  alleged  at any time
after the date; but unless it is sealed, and regularly de-
livered, it is no deed.
   Another requisite of a deed  is, that it  be properly
witnessed or attested; the attestation is, however,  neces-
*ary rather for  preserving the evidence, than  as intrinsi-
cally essential to the validity ofthe instrument.
  There are four principles adopted by the  courts of law
fir the exposition of deeds, viz.
  That they be beneficial to the grantee, or person in
wh >se favour they are intended to operate.
  That where the words may be employed to some in-
terest, they shall  not be void.
   That the words be construed according to the mean-
 ing of  the parties, and not otherwise; and the intent of
 the parties shall be carried into effect, provided such in-
 tent can possibly stand at law.
   That they are to be  consonant to the rules of law
 and deeds shall be expounded reasonably without injury
 to  the  grantor, and to the greatest advantage of the
 grantee.  Deeds are  further expounded upon the whole-
 and if the second part contradicts the first,  such second
 part shall be void; but if the .latter expounds or explains
 the former, which it may, both parts may stand.
   In construction of law the first deed and the last will
 stand  in force;  and where a deed is by indenture be-
 tween parties, none can have an action upon such deed
 but the  person who is a party to it. In a deed-poll bow!
 ever, one person may covenant with another who is not
 a party, to do certain  acts, for the non-performance of
 which he may bring his action.
   Where a man justifies title under any deed, he ought
 to produce that deed; if it bealledged in pleading, it must
 be produced to the court, that it may  determine whether
 the deed contains sufficient words to make a valid con-
 tract.
  Deed-poli, is a deed polled,  or  shaved, quite even;
 in contradistinction from an indenture, which is cut une-
 venly, and answerable to another writing that compre-
 hends the same words.  A deed-poll is properly single, or
 of one part, and is intended for the Use of feoffee, gran-
 tee, or  lessee; an  indenture always  consists of two or
 more parts and parties. Every deed that is pleaded, shall
 be intended to he a deed-poll, unless it is alleged to  be
 indented.
  DEEMSTERS, or  demsters. All controversies in the
 Isle of  Man are decided  without process,  writings, or
 any  charges, by certain judges chosen  yearly  from
 among  themselves, called deemsters; there  being two of
 them for each division  of the Island: they  sit as judges
 in all cnurts, either for life or property; and with the ad-
 vice of  the twenty-four keys, declare what is law in un-
 common emergencies.
  DEEP SEA-LINE,  or dip sea-line, in the sea-lan-
 guage,  a small line to  sound with: some a hundred and
 fifty fathoms long, with  a hollow plummet  at the head,
 and tallow put into it,  to bring up stones, gravel, sand,
 shells, and the like, from the bottom, in order to know
 the differences of the ground; which being entered from
 time to  time in their books, hy comparing of observa-
 tions, th«y guess by their  soundings, &c.  what coasts
 they arc on, though they cannot see land.
  DEER. See Cervus.
  Deer-stealebs, in England, are  punishable by va-
 rious laws and statutes, made from time to time.  Any
 offender convicted of  deer-stealing,  before a judge of
 gaol-delivery, may be  transported, by 5 Geo. I. c. 28.
 And it  is felony for persons to appear armed and dis-
 guised in a forest or park, and  hunt or kill  the deer, by
 6 <5eo. I. c. 22.
  DE ESSENDO qtjietem de tolonio, inlaw, awrit
which lies for those who, by privilege, are free from the
payment of toll.
  DE  EXPENSIS militum, in law, an ancient writ,
commanding the sheriff to levy the expenses of a knight
ofthe shire, for his attendance in parliament, being foul 
D  E F
DEI
 shillings a day. There is also another writ of the like
 nature,  de  expensis civium et bnrgenisum, for levying
 two shillings a day for the expenses of every citizen and
 burgess of parliament.
   DE FACTO, something actually in fact, or existing;
 in contradistinction to de jure, where a thing is only so
 in justice, but not in fact:  as a king de facto  is a person
 thatis in actual possession of a crown, but has no legal
 light to the same; and a king de jure is the person who
 has just right to the crown, though he is out of possession
 of it.
   DEFAMATION, the offence of speaking slanderous
 words of another; and where any person  circulates any
 report  injurious to the credit or character of  another,
 the party injured may bring an action to  recover dama-
 ges proportioned to the injury he has sustained; but it is
 incumbent upon the party to prove he sustained an inju-
 ry, to entitle him to damages. In some cases however,
 as for words spoken which hy law are in themselves ac-
 tionable,  as calling a tradesman a bankrupt, cheat, or
 swindler. &c. there is no occasion to prove any particu-
 lar damage; but the plaintiff must be particularly atten-
 tive to state words precisely as they were spoken, other-
 wise he will be nonsuited.
   DEFAULT, is commonly taken for non-appearance
 in court at a day assigned. If a plaintiff make default in
 appearance  in a trial  at law,  he  will be nonsuited; and
 where defendant makes a  default, judgment shall be had
 against  him by default.
   Default in criminal cases. If an offender, being
 indicted, appears at the capias, and pleads to issue, and
 is let  to bail to attend  his trial, and then  make default;
 here the inquest, in  case of felony, shall never be taken
 by default; buta capias ad audiendum juratum shall issue,
 and if the party is not taken, an exigent; and if he appear
 on that writ, and then makes default, an exigi facias de
 novo may be granted: but where,  upon the capias on ex-
 igent, the sheriff  returns cepi corpus, and  at the day
 has not his body, the sheriff shall  be  punished; but no
 new exigent awarded, because in custody of record. 2 H.
 H. 202.
   Default of jurors. If jurors make default in their
 appearance  for trying of causes, they shall forfeit their
 issues, unless they have any reasonable excuse proved
 by witness, in which case the justices may discharge the
 issues for default.  Stat. 35 H. VIII. c. 6.
   DEFEASANCE, a condition  relating to  a deed;  as
 to a recognizance or statute, which being performed by
 the recognizor, the deed is defeated, and made void, as
 if it had never been done.  The difference between a pro-
 viso or a condition in a deed, and a defeasance, is, that
 the condition is annexed to, or inserted in, the deed  or
 grant; and a defeasance is a deed by itself concluded and
 agreed on between the parties, and having relation to
 another deed.
   DEFENCE, in fortification, all sorts of works that
 cover and defend the  opposite posts; as flanks, case-
 mates, parapets, and fausscbrays. It is almost impossi-
 ble to fix the miner to the face of a bastion, till the de-
fences of the opposite one are ruined, that  is, till  the
parapet  of its flank is beaten down, and the cannon, in
all parts that can fire upon that face which is attacked,
are dismounted.
    Defence, line  of, a supposed line drawy. irom the
 angle of the curtin,  or from any other part in the cur-
 tin, to the flanked angle of the opposite bastion.  A Iin*1
 of defence represents the flight of a musqnet-ball from
 the place where the musqueteers stand, to sc our the
 face of the bastion, and ought never to exceed the reach
 ofa musquet.  It is cither fichant or rasant; fhe first i>
 when it is  drawn  from the angle of the curtin to the
 flanked  angle; the last when it is drawn from a point ir
 the curtin, raising the face  of  the bastion.
   Defence, in law, signifies a plea, or what the de-
 fendant ought to make after the plaintiff's count, or c!e
 claration, viz. that he defends all the wrong, force, and
 damages, where and when he ought, kc.  If the de-
 fendant  would plead  to the  jurisdiction,  he must omi:
 the words «« where  and when he ought;" and if he woulo"
 show any disability in the plaintiff, and demand judgment
 if the plaintiff shall be answered, then he ought to omit the
 defence ofthe damage.  There is a full defence usually
 in personal  actions.
  DEFERENTIA VASA.  See Anatomy.
  DEFICIENT NUMBERS, those whose parts or
 multiples added together fall  short of the integer, of
 which they are tbe  parts: such is 8,  its parts, 1, 2, 4,
 making only 7.  See the article Number.
  DEFILE, in fortification, a straight narrow passage,
 through which a company of horse or foot can pass only
 in file, by making a small front; so that the enemy may
 take an opportunity to stop  their  march, and to charge
 them with so much the more advantage, as those in the
 front and rear cannot reciprocally come to the relief of
 one another.
  To Defile,  is to reduce an army to a small front, in
 order to  march through a defile.
  DEFINITION,  in rhetoric, is described by Cicero,
 a short comprehensive explanation.
  The special rules for a good definition  are these:  1.
 A definition must be universal,  or adequate, that is, it
 must agree to all the particular species  or individuals
 that are  included under the  same  idea.  2*  It must be
 proper, and  peculiar to the thing  defined,  and agree to
 that alone. These two rules being observed will always
 render a  definition reciprocal  with  the thing defined,
 that is, the definition may  be used in the place of  the
 thing defined: or they may be mutually  affirmed con-
 cerning each other.  3. A definition should he clear and
 plain;  and indeed it  is a general rule concerning  the
 definition both of names and things, that no word should
 be used in either of them which has any difficulty in it,
 unless it has been before defined. 4.  A definition should
 be short, so that  it must have  no tautology in it, nor..
 any words superfluous.   5.  Neither  the  thing defined,
 nor a mere synonymous name should make any part of
 the  definition.
  DEFLAGRATION.  See Chemistry.
  DEFOLIATION (from de,  and folium a leaf),  the
 fall ofthe leaves; a term opposed to frondescentia, the an-
 nual renovation of the leaves,  produced by the unfold-
 ing of the buds  in  spring.  Most plants  in cold and
 temperate climates  shed  their  leaves every year- this
happens in autumn, and is generally announced by the
aowenng-of the common  meadow-saffron.   The term is 
D E  F
D E  G
only applied to trees and shrnbs;  for herbs perish down
to the root every year, losing stem, leaves, and all.
  All plants  do  not drop their leaves at the same time.
Among large trees,  the ash and the walnut,  although
latest in  unfolding are soonest  divested of them: the
latter seldom carries its leaves above five months.  On
the oak and hornbeam the leaves die and wither as soon
as  the  cold  commences; but  remain attached to the
branches till they are pushed off by the new ones, which
unfold themselves in the following spring.   These trees
are doubtless a  kind of half evergreens: the leaves are
probably  destroyed only by cold; and perhaps would
continue longer on  the  plant  but for the force of the
spring-sap, joined to the moisture.
  In mild and dry seasons the lilac, privet, yellow jes-
samine of the  woods,  and  maple of  Crete,  preserve
their leaves green until spring,  and do not drop them
till the new  leaves are beginning to appear.   The fig-
tree, and many other trees that grow between the tro-
pics, are of this particular class of ever-greeifs.   The
trees in Egypt, says doctor Ilassclquist, cast their leaves
in  the end of December and the beginning of January,
having young leaves ready before all the old ones  arc
fallen off;  and to forward this operation of nature few
of  the trees have buds:  the scycamore and willow, in-
 deed,  have some, but with  few and quite loose stipula
 or scales.  Nature  did not imagine buds so necessary
 in  the southern as in the northern countries: this occa-
sions a great difference between them.
    Lastly, some  trees and shrubs preserve their leaves
 constantly through  the whole  year, and are not in the
 least influenced by clemency or inclemency of seasons.
 Such are the firs, juniper, yew, cedar, cypress, and ma-
 ny other tress,  bonce denominated evergreens.  These
 preserve their old leaves a long time after the formation
 of the new, and do not drop them at any determinate
 time.  In general, the leaves of evergreens are harder,
 and less succulent, than those  which are renewed  annu-
 ally.  These trees  are generally natives of warm cli-
 mates; as the alaternuses of France and Italy,  the ever-
 green oak of Portugal and  Suabia.
    The following' table, respecting  the mean  times in
 which different trees shed their leaves, is founded upon
 observation:
 Gooseberry-tree and blad-der-sena,  "*j  3 fOct.
 Walnut and ash,    -
 Almond-tree, horse-chesnut, and
    lime-tree,     -
 Maple, hazel-nut, black poplar, and
    aspen-tree,    -
 Birch, plane-tree, mountain osier,
    false acacia, pear, and apple-tree,    «   Nov. 1.
 Vine, mulberry, fig, sumac, and an-     M
    gelica-trce,                        =£  ----10.
 Elm-tree and willow,    -     -        «   ----15.
 Apricot and elder-trees,     -     -   J «  L----20.
    It deserves to be  remarked, that an evergreen tree
 grafted upon a deciduous,  determines the  latter to re-
 tain its leaves.   This  observation is confirmed by re-
 peated experiments,  particularly hy grafting the laurel,
 or cherry-bay,  an evergreen, on the common cherry;
 and the ilex, or evergreen oak, on the oak.
    DEFORCEMENT, in law, the casting any one out
W
1.
15.

20.

25.
of his land, or a withholding of lands and tenements by
force from the right owner.                        J
  Deforcement, in the law of Scotland, is used for
resisting,  or offering violence to the officers of the law
while they are actually employed in the exercise of their
functions, by putting its orders and sentences in execu-
tion.  The punishment of this crime is  confiscation of
moveables, joined with some arbitrary punishment,  as
fine, imprisonment, banishment, or corporal pains/ ac-
cording to the degree  of violence,  and other circum-
stances which aggravate the crime.
   DEFORCEOR,  in law,  is a person that overcomes
and casts  forth another from his lands and tenements by
force, and differs from a disseisor on this account:  1.
That a man may be disseised without force.   2. A man
may deforce  another that never was in possession*  as
where many  have a right to lands, as common heirs
and one of them  enters and  keeps out the rest.  A de-
forceor likewise differs from an intruder, who is made
by a wrongful entry only into land,  kc.  void of a pos-
sessor, whilst  a  deforceor is he that holds out against
the right  heir.
   DEFTERDAR,  or deftardar,  in the Turkish and
Persian  polity, an officer of state,  answering to our
lord treasurer,  who  appoints deputies  in every pro-
vince.
   DEGLUTITION,  in medicine, the act of swallow-
ing the food: performed by  means of the tongue driv-
ing the aliment into the cesophagus, which, by the con-
traction of the sphincter, protrudes  the contents down-
wards.
   DEGRADATION, a punishment of delinquent ec-
clesiastics.  The canon-law distinguishes it into two
sorts:  the one summary, by word only; the other so-
lemn,  by stripping the person degraded of those orna-
ments and lights which are the ensigns of his order or
degree.   The  canonists likewise  distinguish  degrada-
tion from deposition;  understanding by the latter the
depriving a man of  his clerical orders, but by the for-
mer only the removing him from his rank or degree.
In the ancient primitive church,  degrading  a clergy-
man was reducing him to the state and communion of
laymen. The full import of  the phrase, however, is the
depriving him of his  orders,  and reducing him to the
simple condition  of a layman; a punishment inflicted
for several offences, as adultery,  theft, or fraud: and
clergymen thus reduced were seldom allowed to recover
their ancient station, except upon some great necessity,
 or very pressing reason.  Degradation in the Romish
church is attended with a great deal of ceremony. The
offender is stripped  of his pontifical vestments, and at
the same  time the  person  who degrades him scrapes
his fingers with a knifc, or a little  piece of glass,  de-
 claring to him that the power of consecrating, blessing,
 and sanctifying,  is taken from him: he erases the marks
 of the tonsure in the same manner, which a barber com-
 pletes by shaving his  head all over.
   Degradation, in  painting, expresses the lessening
the appearance of distant objects in a landscape, in the
 same manner as they would appear to an eye placed at
 that distance  from  them.   See the  articles Peusfec-
 tive and Painting.
   DEGRADED CROSS, in heraldry, a cross divided 
DEGREE
into steps at each  end,  diminishing as they ascend to-
wards the centre, called by the French peronne'e.
  DEGREE, in geometry, a division of a circle, in-
cluding a three hundred and sixtieth part of its circum-
ference.
  Every circle is supposed to be divided into three hun-
dred and sixty parts, called degrees,  and each degree
divided into sixty other parts, called  minutes;  each of
these minutes  being again divided into sixty seconds,
each second into thirds,  and  each third into fourths,
and so on.   See the articles Minuti;, Secoxd, kc.
  By this means no more degrees or parts are reckoned
in the greatest circle than in the least that is; and there-
fore if the same  angle  at the centre  be  subtended by
two concentrical arches, as many degrees are counted
in the one as in the other; for these two arches have the
same proportion to their whole peripheries.
  A degree of the meridian on the surface of the globe
is variously determined by various observers.
  Pluh-my fixes the degree at 68| Arabic miles, coun-
ting 7 £ stadia to a  mile.  The Arabs  themselves,  who
made a computation of the dianvtcr  of the earth, by
measuring the distance of two places under the same
meridian, in the plains of Sennar, by order of  Alma-
mon, make it only  56 miles.   Kepler, determining the
diameter of the earth by the distance of two mountains,
makes a degree 13 German miles; but his method is far
from being accurate.   Snell,  seeking the diameter of
the earth irom the distance between two parallels ofthe
equator, finds the quantity of  a  degree by one method
57,064 Paris  toises, or 342,384   feet;  by another  me-
thod 57,057 Paris toises, or 342,342  feet.   The mean
between which two numbers M. Picard found by men-
suration, in 1669, from  Amiens to Malvoisin, the most
« ertain; and he makes the quantity of  a degree 57,060
toises, or 342..?60 feet.  However, M. Cassini,  at the
king's command, in the year 1700, repeated the same
labour; and measuring  the space of  6° 18',  from  the
observatory at Paris, along the  meridian,  to the  city
of  Coliiouiv m Roussillon, that the greatness of  the in-
terval might  diminish  tbe error, found  the length of
the degree equal to 57,-292 toises, or 343,742 Paris feet,
amounting to  365,184 English  feet.
  And  with this account nearly agrees  that of Nor-
wood,  of England, who,  about  the  year 1635, mea-
sured  the  distance  between  London   and  York,  and
found that distance 905,761 English feet;  the difference
of latitude being 2° 28', hence lie determined the  quan-
tity of one degree  at 367,196  English feet,  or 57,300
Paris toises, or 69 miles,  288 yards.
  M. Cassini, the son,  completed the  work of measur-
ing the  whole  arc of the meridian through France, in
1718.   For This purpose  be divided   the meridian of
frame  into hvo arcs,  which be  measured separately.
Tbe one from Paris to Colihune gave him  57,097 toises;
lite other,  from  Paris  to Dunkirk,  5G,%0; and  the
wh.ie arc from Dunkirk to Collioure 57,060; the saino
as M. Picard's.
  M. Muschcnbroek, in 1700, resolving to  correct the
eri-ois of Smil, found by particular observations, that
the degree  between  Alcmaer and  Brrgen-op-^oou con-
tained 57,033 toisrv.
  Messieurs  Mauprrtui^, Clairaut, Camus, Monnier,
and Outheir, of France, were  sent on a  northern  ex-
 pedition; and began their operations, assisted  by M.
 Celus, an eminent astronomer of Sweden, in Swedish
 Lapland, in July 1736, aiid finished them by tbe end of
 May following.   They obtained the  measure of that de-
 gree,  whose middle point was in lat. 66° 20' north, and
 found it 57,439 toises, when reduced to the level of the
 sea.   About the same time another company of philoso-
 phers  was sent to South America, viz. messieurs Godin,
 Bouguer, and  Condamine, of France, to  whom were
 joined don Jorge Juan,  and don Antonio de  Ulloa,  of
 Spain. They left Europe in 1735, and began their ope-
 rations in the province of Quito, in Peru, about Octo-
 ber 1736, and finished them, after many interruptions,
 about  eight years  after.  The  Spanish gentlemen pub-
 lished a separate account, and assigned for the measure
 of a degree of the meridian at the equator 56,768 toises.
 M. Bouguer  makes it 56,753 toises, when reduced to the
 level of the sea; and M. Condamine states it at 56,749
 toises.
  M. La CaiHe, being at the Cape of Good Hope irt
 1752,  found  the length of a  degree  of the  meridian in
 lat. 33° 18' 30" south, to he 57*,037  toises.  In  1755 fa-
 ther Boscovich found the length of a degree in lat. 43°
 north  to be about  56,972 toises, as measured between
 Rome and Rimini,  in Italy.  In  the year 1740 messrs.
 Cassini and La Caille again examined the former mea-
 sures in France; and  after making  all the necessary
 corrections, found the measure of a"degree,  whose mid-
 dle point is  in lat. of 49° 22' north, to be  57,074 toi-
 ses; and in the lat.  of 45° it was 57,050 toises.
  In 1764 F. Beccaria completed the measurement ofa
 portion of the meridian  near Turin; from  which itis
 deduced that the length of a degree,  whose middle lat.
 is 44° 44' north, is 57,024 Paris toises.
  At  Vienna three  degrees of the meridian were mea-
 sured; and the medium for the latitude of 47° 40' north
 may be taken at 57,091 Paris toises.   Se» an account of
 this measurement in the Phil. Trans. 1768.
  Finally,  in the same  volume is  an account of the
 measurement of a part of the meridian in Maryland aud
 Pennsylvania, 1766, by messieurs Mason  and Dixon;
from which it follows that the length  of a degree whose
middle point  is 39° 12' north, was 363,763 Enaiish feet,
or 56.904 {.Paris toises.
  Hence from the whole  we may collect the following
table ot the principal measures of a deeree in  different
parts ot the  earth,  as  measured  hy  different  persons,
viz.                                         r      '
Mean Latitude
Length ofa]
Degree in J
Paris toises'
Names of the Mea-
     surers.
66°  20' N

49   2S  N
47
45
44

43

S9

 0

S3
40 N
 0 N
44 N

 0 N

12 N

0  N

18  S
57422

57074

57091
57028
57069

56979

56888

56750

57037
jars of Measure-
   ment.
  Maupertuis, ovc.
J"Maupertuis. kc
\   and Cassini
  Liesganig
    Cassini
  Beccaria
f Boscovich and
1   Le Maire
  Mason k Dixon
  {Bouguer and
    Condamine
  LaCaille
 1736 and 1737

 1739 and 1740
 1766
 1739 and 1740
 1760 to 1764

 1752

1764 to 1768'

1736 to 1744

1752 
DEGREE,
  The. method of obtaining the length of a degree ofthe
terrestrial  meridian, is to measure a certain  distance
upon  it by a series  of triangles, whose angles may be
found  by actual observation,  connected with a base
whose, length may  be taken  by an actual survey or
otherwise; and then to  observe  the different altitudes of
some star at the two extremities of that distance, which
gives the difference of  latitude between  them: then, by
proportion, as this  difference of latitude is to one de-
gree, so is the  measured length  to the length of  one
degree of the meridian sought. This method was first
practised by Erastothenes, in Egypt.
  Degree of longitude, is the space between two meri-
dians that make an angle of 1° with  each  other at the
poles; the quantity or length of which is variable, accor-
ding to the latitude, being every where as the cosine of
the latitude; viz. as the cosine of one lat. is to the cosine
of another, so is the length of a degree in the former lat.
to that in the latter; and  from this theorem is computed
the following table of the length of a degree of long, in
different latitudes, supposing the earth to be a globe.
  Note. This table is computed on the supposition, that
the degrees of the equator are equal to those of the me-
ridian at the medium  latitude  of 45°, which length is
69TY English miles.
  The expressions latitude and longitude are borrowed
from  the ancients, who happened to be acquainted with
a much larger extent of earth in the direction  east and
west.than in that of north  and south; the former of which
therefore passed, with them, for the length of the earth,
or longitude; and  the latter for the breadth, or shorter
dimension, viz.  the lititude.
JJeir. int.	Kng. miles.	Heir, lat	Eng. miles.	Deir. lat.	Kng. miles.
0	69.07	31	59.13	61	33.45
1	69.06	32	58.51	62	32.40
2	69.03	33	57.37	63	31.33
3	68.97	34	57.20	64	30.24
4	68.90	35	56.51	65	29.15
5	68.81	36 .	55.81	66	28.06
6	68.62	37 '	55.10	67	26.96
7	68.43	38	54.37	" 68	25.85
8	68.31	39	53.62	69	24.73
9	68.15	40	52.85	70	23.60
10	67.95	41	52.07	71	22.47
n	67.73	42	51.27	72	21.32
15	67.48	43	50.46	73	20.17
13	67.21	44	49.63	74	19.02
14	. 66.95	45	48.78	75	17.86
15	66.65	46	47.93	76	"*. 16.70
16	66.31	47	47.06	77	15.52
17	65.98	48	46.16	78	14.35
18	65.62	49	45.26	79	13.17
19	65.24	50	44.35	80	11.98
20	64.84	51	43.42	81	10.79
21	64.42	52	42.48	82	9.59
22	63.97	53	41.53	83	8.41
23	63.51	54	40.56	84	7.21
24	63.03	55	39.58 '	85	6.00
25	62.53	56	38.58	86	4.81
26	62.02	57	37.58	87 ■	3.61
27	61.48	58	36.57	88	2.41
28	60.93	59	35.54	89	1.21
29	60.35	60	34.50	90	j 0.00
30	59.75				
  Our theory of navigation being founded- upop an by,.
pothcsis ofthe degrees of latitude being all equal, musto^
consequence be very erroneous, wherefore wc here insert
a table of the degrees in the quadrantal arch of the me-
ridian, both in the sphere and spheriod, with their differ-
ences, as calculated by the Rev. Mr. Murdoch.

A TABLE  of Arches of the Meridian to the Spheriod
        and Sphere, in minutes ofthe Equator.
Degr.	Spheroid. ; Sphere. | DifF.		
1 2 3 4 5	58,7 117.3 176.0 234.7 293.4	60.0 120.0 180.0 240.0 300.0	1.3 2.7 4.f| 5.3 6.6
6 7 8 9 10	352.1 410.8 469.6 528.3 587.0	360.0 420.0 480.0 540.0 600.0	7.9 9.2 10.4 11.7 13.0
11 12 13 14 15	645.8 704.5 763.3 822.1 880.9	660.0 720.0 780.0 840.0 900.0	14.2 15.5 16.7 17.9 19.1
16 17 18 19 20	939.7 998.5 1057.4 1116.3 1175.2	960.0 1020.0 1080.0 1140.0 1200.0	20.3 21.5 22.6 23-7 24.8
21 22 23 24 25	1234.1 1293.0 1352.0 1411.0 1470.0	1260.0 1320.0 1380.0 1440.0 1500.0	25.9 27.0 28.0 29.0 30.0
26 27 28 29 30	1529.0 1588.1 1647.2 1706.3 1765.5	1560.0 1620.0 1680.0 1740.0 1800.0	31.0 31.9 32.8 33.7 34.5
31 32 33 34 35	1824.7 1883.9 1943.1 2002.4 2061.7	1860.0 1920.0 1980.0 2040.0 2100.0	35.3 36.1 36.9 37.6 38.3
36 37 38 39 40	2121.0 2180.4 2239.8 2299.2 2358.7	2160.0 2220.0 2280.0 2340.0 2400.9	39.0 39.6 40.2 40.8 41.3
41 42 43 44 45	2418.2 2477.7 2537.3 2596.8 2656.6	2460.0 2520.0 2580.0 2640.0 2700.0	41.8 42.3 42.7 43.6 43.4
 
D E  G
<><-gr.	Spheroid.	Sphere.	riifr.
46	2716.4	2760\0	43.6
47	2776.2	2820.0	43.8
48	2835.9	2880.0	44.1
49	2895.5	2940.0	44.5
50	. 2955.3	3000.0	44.7
51	3015.2	3060.0	44.8
52	3075.0	3120.0	44.9
53	3135.0	3180.0	45.0
54	3194.9	3240.0	45.1
55	3254.9	3300.0	45.1
56	3314.9	8360.0	43.1
57	3370.0	3420.0	45.0
58	3435.1	3480.0	44.9
59	3495.2	3540.0	44.8
60	5555.5	3600.0	44.7
61	5615.5	S6Ji).u	44.5
62	3675.7	3720.0	44.3
63	3736.0	3730.0	44.0
64	3790.2	3340.0	43.8
65	3856.5	3900.0	43.5
'.;<;	3916.8	3960.0	43.2
67	3977.2	4020.0	42.8
68	4037.5	4080.0	42.5
69	4097.9	4140.0	42.1
70	4158.4	4200.0	41.6
71	4218.8	42C0.0	41.2
—.■>	4279.3	4320.0	40.7
75	4339.8	4380.0	40.2
74	4400.3	4440.0	39.7
75	4460.8	4500.0	39.2
76	4521.3	4560.0	38.7
77 «	4581.9	4620.0	38.1
78	4642.5	4680.0	37.5
79	4703*1	4740.0	36.9
80	4763.7	4800.0	36.3
81	■4824.3	4860.0	35.7
R2	4884.9	4920.0	35.1
83	4945.5	4980.0	34.3
84	5006.2	5040.0	33.8
85	5066.8	5100.0	33.2
86	5127.5	5160.0	3.2.5
87	5188.2	5220.0	31.8
88	5248.8	5280.0	31.2
89	5309.5	5340.0	30.5
90 ,	5370.2	5400.0	29.8
  Degree, in the civil and canon law. denotes an in-
terval in kinship by which proximity and remoteness < f
blood are computed. In computing degrees of consan-
guinity, the rule ofthe civil law is urmcroal, either in
the direct  or  collateral, otherwise called the oblique
line; lor as many generations as there are, so many de-
grees there are likewise.  But in the canon law, the rule
                      D E L

 is different for the oblique line. And here a distinction is
 made between the equal  and the unequal oblique  line.
 In the first case the rule is, as many degrees as rhe per-
 sons alliejl are distant from the common stock, so many
 they are distant from one another. In the other case the
 rule is,  as many  degrees  as the  most remote is distant
 from the common  stock, so many the persons  are dis-
 tant from one another.  Hence the sister of a person's
 grand-father by the civil law is distant from that person
 in the  fourth degree; whereas, by the canon law, she is
 only in the third degree.
   Degree, theoretical, in  music, the difference of posi-
 tion or elevation between any two notes. There are con-
 junct and disjunct degrees. When two notes are situated
 so as to form the interval of a second, the degree is said
 to  be  conjunct; and  when  they form a third,  or any
 greater interval, the degree is called disjunct.
   Degree, in universities, denotes a kind of rank or dis-
 tinction  conferred  on the students or members as a tes-
 timony of their proficiency in the arts or si iences, and
 entitling them to certain privileges. The  degrees  are
 much the same in  all universities, but the laws and the
 previous discipline or exercise differ.  The  degrees are
 batcleior, master,  and doctor;  instead of which last, in
 some foreign universities, tbey have licentiate.
   M ith regard to  obtaining degrees at Oxford and Cam-
 bridge, mailers are  nearly on the same footing.
   To pass bachelor of divinity, the candidate must have
 been seven years master of arts: he must have opposed
 a bachelor of  divinity act,  and preached before the uni-
 versity once in Latin and once in English.
   DELEGATES,  court  of, is so called,  because  by
 stat. 26  H. VIII. c.  19, the judges are delegated hy the
 king's commission  under the great seal, to hear and de-
 termine appeals in the three following cases:  1. Where
 a sentence is  given  in any ecclesiastical cause  by the
 archbishop or his official.   2. When a sentence is given
 in any ecclesiastical cause in the places exempt. 3. When
 a sentence is given in the admiral's court,  in suits civil
 and maiine, by order of the civil  law.  This commission
 is usually filled with  lords spiritual and temporal, judges
 of the  courts at Westminster, and doctors of the civil
 law. 4 Inst. 339.
  DELEGATION, in the civil  law, is a kind of nomi-
 nation, by  which a debtor appoints one that is debtor to
 him, to answer a creditor in his place. This delegation
 differs  from  transferring,  or translation, in  this;  that
 three persons intervene in a delegation, viz. the creditor,
 the debtor, and a third indebted  to the debtor; whereas
 in a transfer, it is enough that the transferer  and the
 transferee be present.
  DELF,  from to delve,  or dig, denotes a quarry  or
 mine, v.iiere either stone or coal is dug; but  is more par-
 ticularly used for the veins of coal lving under ground
 before it is dugup. A delf, or delve of coals, also denotes
 a certain quantity  when dug.
  Dfiii, in heraldry, is hy some  supposed to represent a
 square rod or turf, and to he so called from  dtlvine.  or
 Egging.                                        s'  ot
  DELFT ware, a kind of pottery of baked earth, co-
>cred with an enamel or white glazing, which  rives it
the appearance an(l ncat|less of polrc,ai    Som* J™
of this enamelled pottery differ much from others  ei her 
DEL
DEL
in their susta:oiiig sudden heat without breaking, or in the
beauty and regularity of their  forms,  of their enamel,
and of the pain 'ing with which  they are ornamented. In
general,  lhe fine L-aid beautiful enamelled ware,  which
approaches the nearest to porcelain in external appear-
ance, is at the same time that which least resists a brisk
fire. Again, those which sustain a sudden heat are coarse,
and resemble common pottery.
  The basis of this pottery is clay, which is mixed, when
too fat, with such a quantity of sand, that the earth shall
preserve enough  of its ductility to be worked, moulded,
and turned easily; and yet that its fatness shall be suffi-
ciently taken from it, that  it may not crack or shrink too
much in drying or in baking.  Vessels formed of this
earth  must be dried very gently, to  avoid cracking.
They  are then  to be placed in a furnace, to receive  a
slight baking, which is only meant to give them a certain
consistence or hardness. And lastly,  they are to he co-
vered with an enamel or glazing, which is defrie by put-
ting upon the vessel thus prepared the  enamel, which has
been ground very fine, and diluted with water.
   As vessels on  which the enamel is applied,  are but
slightly baked, they readily imbibe the water in which
the enamel is suspended, and a layer of this  enamel ad-
heres to their surface. These vessels may then be paint-
ed with colours composed  of metallic calces, mixed and
ground with fusible glass.   When they are become per-
fectly dry,  they are to be placed in the furnace, included
in cases of baked earth called  seggars, and exposed to
 a heat capable of fusing  uniformly  the enamel which
 covers them.  The heat given to fuse the enamel being
 much stronger than that which was applied at first to
 give some consistence to the ware, is also the heat ne-
 cessary to complete the baking of it.  The furnace and
 colours  used for painting this ware,  are the same as
 those employed for porcelain.  Delft-ware is not so much
 used in  England as formerly.
   DELI AC,  or Delian problem,  a problem  much
 celebrated in the writings of  the ancients,  concerning
 the duplication of the cube. See Cube.
   DELIMA, in botany, a genus of plants belonging to
 the polyandria monogynia class, with an elongated style:
 it has no flower-petals; the cup consists of  five leaves;
 the fruit is a bivalve capsule, and contains two seeds.
 There is one species.
   DELIRIUM. See Medicine.
   DELIVERY. See Midwifery.
   DELPHINIUM, dolphin-flower, or larkspur, a
 genus of the trigynia order, in the polyandria class of
 plants, and in the natural method ranking under the 26th
 order, multisiliquae.  Tliere is no  calyx; the petals are
 five; the nectarium bifid, and horned, behind; the siliquse
 three or one.  There are  11 species; four are cultivated
 in gardens. Two of these are annual, and two perennial:
 they are herbaceous plants of upright growth, .rising
 from 18 inches to 4 feet in height, garnished with finely
 divided leaves, and terminated by long spikes of penta-
 petalous flowers, of blue,  red, white, or violet colours.
 One annual species, the consolida, is found wild in seve-
 ral parts of Britain, and grows in corn-fields. According
 to Dr. Withering, the expressed juice of the petals, with
 a little alum,  makes a good blue ink.  The seeds are
 acrid and poisonous. When cultivated, the blossoms of-
ten become double.   Sheep and goats cat this plant-
horses arc not fond of it; cows and swine refuse it.    '
   DELPH1NUS, or dolphin, a genus  of  fishes  be-
longing to the order of cete. There are three  species:
   1. The delphinus, delphis. or dolphin. Historians and
philosophers seem to have contended who should invent
most  fables concerning this fidi. It was consecrated to
the gods, was celebrated in the earliest time for its fond-
ness ofthe human race, was honoured with the title of
the sacred fish, and distinguished by that of philanthro-
pist. At present the appearance of  this fish, and the por-
posse, arc far from being esteemed  favourable  omens In
the seamen; for their bounding-;, springs, anil  frolics, in
the water, are held to be certain signs of an approaching
gale. It is from their leaps out of that element that tbey
assume a temporary form that  is not natural to them;
but which the old painters and sculptors have  almost al-
ways given them. A dolphin  is scarcely ever exhibited
by the ancients in a straight  shape,  but almost always
incurvated: such  are those on the coin of Alexander the
Great, which is preserved by Belon, as well as on  seve-
ral other pieces of antiquity; and the poets describe them
much in the same manner. The natural shape of the dol-
phin, however, is almost straight,  the  back being  very
slightly incurvated, and the body slender; the nose is long,
narrow, and pointed, not much unlike the beak of  some
birds, for which  reason the French call it l'oie-de-mer.
It has in all 40 teeth, 21  in the upper jaw  and 19 in the
lower; a little above an inch long, conic at their upper
end, sharp-pointed, bending a little in. They  are placed
at  small distances from each other; so that when the
mouth is shut, the teeth of both jaws lock into one ano-
ther; the spout-hole is placed in the middle of the  head;
the tail is semilunar; the skin is smooth, the colour of
the back and sides dusky, the belly  whitish; it swims
with great swiftness, and its prey  is fish. It was former-
ly reckoned a great delicacy. This species of dolphin,
however,  must not  be confounded with that to which
seamen give the name; the latter being quite  another
kind of fish, the  coryphsena hippuris of Linnseus, and
the dorado ofthe  Portuguese.
   2.  The phocsena, or porpesse.  This species is found
in vast multitudes in  all parts ofthe British seas; but in
greatest numbers at  the time  when fish of passage ap-
pear, such as mackarel,  herrings, and salmon, which
they pursue upthe hays with the same eagerness as adog
does a hare. In some places they almost darken the sea,
as they rise above water to take breath: but porpesses
not only seek for prey near the surface,  but often de-
scend to the bottom in search of sand-ells and sea-worms,
which they root out  of the sand with  their  nosos.  Their
bodies are very thick towards the head, but  grow slen-
der towards the  tail. The nose projects a little, is much
shorter than that of  the dolphin,  and is furnished with
very strong muscles,"which enable it the readier to turn
up the sand.  The colour of  the  porpesse is generally
black, and the belly whitish;  but  they sometimes vary.
In the river St. Lawrence there is a white kind; and Dr.
Borlase,  in his  voyage to the  Scilly isles,  observed a
small species of cetaceous fish, which he calls thornbacks,
from their broad  and sharp fin on the back.  Some of
these were brown, some quite  white, others spotted: but
whether they were only a variety of this fish,  or whether 
DEL                                            DEM
 they were small grampuses, which are aiso spotted, we
 cannot determine.  The porpesse is remarkable for the
 vast  quantity  of fat that surrounds the body,  which
 yields a great  quantity of excellent oil. From this, or
 from their roothig like swine, they arc called in many
 places sea-hogs.  This was once a royal dish, even so
 late as the reign ol* Henry VI11. and from its magnitude
 must have held a very respectable station, at the table;
 for in a household-book of that prince, extracts of which
 are published in the third volume of the Archseologia, it
 is ordered,  that if a porpesse should be too big  for a
 horse-load,  allowance should be made to the purveyor.
 This fish continued in vogue even in the reign of Eliza-
 beth.
   3.  The orca, or grampus, is found from the length of
 15 feet to that of 25.  It is  remarkably thick in propor-
 tion to its length; one of 18  feet being  in  the thickest
 place 10 feet diameter.   With reason then did Pliny call
 this " an immense heap of flesh armed with dreadful
 teeth."  It  is extremely voracious;  and will  not even
 spare the  porjics.se, a congenerous fish.   It is said to be
 a great enemy  to the whale, and that it will fasten on it
 like a dog on a bull, till the animal roars  with  pain.
 The nose  is flat, and turns up  at the end.  There are
 30 teeth in each jaw; those  before are blunt, round, and
 slender; the farthest sharp and thick: between each is a
 space adapted to receive the teeth of the opposite  jaw
 when the  mouth is closed.  The spout-hole is in the top
 of the neck. The colour of the back is black, but on each
 shoulder is a large white spot;  the  sides marbled with
 black and white; the belly of a snowy whiteness. These
 fishes sometimes appear on  our coasts, but are found in
 much greater numbers off the North Cape  in Norway,
 whence they arc called the north-capers. These and all
 other whales are observed to swim against the wind; and
 to be much  disturbed,  and tumble about with unusual
 violence, at  the approach of a storm.
   4. The leucas, a species called by the Germans and
 Russians »• white fish."  The body is oblong, and rather
 slender, tapering from the back  (which is a little elevat-
 ed) to the tail.  It is  quite destitute of the dorsal fin. Its
 length is from  12 to  18  feet.  It makes great use of its
 tail in swimming; for it  bends  that part under it, as a
 lobster does its  tail,  and works  it with such  force as to
 dart along with the rapidity of an arrow.  It is common
 in all the Arctic seas, and forms an article of commerce,
 being taken  on  account of its blubber.  They are nume-
 rous in the Gulph of St. Lawrence, and go with the tide
 as high as Quebec.  Tliere are fisheries for them and the
 common porpesse in that river.  A considerable quantity
 of oil is extracted, and of their skin is made a sort of
 morocco leather, thin, yet strong enough to resist a mus-
 ket-Vill. They are frequent in the Dwina and the Oby,
 go in small families from five to  ten, and  advance pretty
 far up the rivers in  pursuit of fish.  They  are  usually
 caught  in nets, hut arc sometimes harpooned. They
 bring only  one young at a time, which is dusky; but
 they grow white as they advance in age, the change first
 commencing on the belly. Thev are apt to follow boats,
 as if they were tamed, and appear extremely beautiful
 b> their resplendent  whiteness.
  Dkli'hims,  in astronomy,  a constellation  of the
northern  hemisphere,  whose stars in Ptolemy's  and
  v OL. l.                 94
Tyclu/s  catalogues  are ten,  and in Mr. Flamstecd's
eighteen.
  DEM A1N, or demesne, inEugland signifies tbe king's
lands appertaining to him in property.  No common person
has any demains simply understood, for the;, have no land
(that of the crown only excepted) which  is not holden
of a superior, as all depends cither mediately, or imme-
diately, on the  crown: thus,  when  a man  in pleadi:ig
would signify his land  to be his own, he says that he i^
or was seized thereof in his  domain as of  fee; whereby
he means, that although his  land is to hi in and his heirs
for ever; yet it is not true demain, but depending upon
a superior lord, and holden by service, or rent in lieu of
service, or by both service and rent.
   DEMAND, calling  upon  a  man for any sum or sums
of money, or any other thing  due. By  the several sta-
tutes of limitation, debts, claims, kc. are to be demand-
ed and made in time, or they will be  lost in law. There
are two manners of demands, the one in deed, the other
in law: in deed,  as in every  precipe there  is an express
demand; in law, as in  every entry in land, distress for
rent, taking or seizing of goods, and such like acts, which
may be done without any words,  are demands in law.
Where there is a duty  which the law makes payable on
demand, no demand need be made; but if there is no du-
ty till demand,  in such case  there must  he a  demand to
make the  duty.   1 Lit. 432.  Upon a penalty the  party
need not make a demand; as if  a man he  bound to pay
20/. on such a day, and in default thereof to pay 40/. the
40/. must  be paid without demand.  If a person release
to another  all demands, this is the best release the re-
leasee can have,  as he is thereby excluded from all ac-
tions, duties, and seizures.
  [DEM ATIUM, in botany,  a genus of the class cryp-
togamia, order fungi; there are three species, (b)
  DEMI-cadence,  in music, a term used  in church-
music.  When the last or final sound of a verse in a chant
is on the key-note, it is  called a full or complete cadence;
but if it fall on any  other than the key-note, as  the fifth
or third, it takes the  name of  an imperfect or demi-
cadence.
  Demi-culverin, apiece of ordnance usually4| inches
bore,  2700  pound weight,  10 feet long,  and carrying
point-blank 175 paces.
  Demi-culverin of the  least size,  is  4 J inches bore,
10 feet long, and 2000  pounds  weight.  It carries a ball
of four inches diameter, and of nine pounds weight, and
its level range is 174 paces.
  Demi-culverin ofthe largest sort, is4| inches bore,
lOf feet long, and weighs 3000 pounds.  It carries a ball
4\  inches  diameter, weighing  12 ponnds  11  ounces,
point-blank 178  paces.
  Demi-ditone, a minor third.
  Demi-gorge, in fortification,  is that part of the poly-
gon which  remains  after the  flank is raised, and goes
from the curtin to the  angle of the polygon. It is half
of the vacant space or entrance into a bastion.
  Demi-luxe, half-moon, in  fortification, an outwork
consisting of two faces and two little flanks, frequently
[milt before the angle of a bastion, and  sometimes also
before the curtin, though now  much disused.
  Demi-tone,  an interval  of half a tone.  See Slmi
tone. 
DEM
DEN
  DEMISEMIQUAVER,  a note of the ninth degree
of length, reckoning from the large, or of the sixth de-
gree of length, reckoning from the scmibreve, or longest
note nowr in common use, of which it is a thirty-second
part.
  DEMISE, is applied to an estate in fee simple, fee
tail, or for term of life, and so it is  commonly taken in
many writs, 2  Inst. 483.  The king's death is in law
termed the demise of the king to his successor.
  DEMONSTRATION, in logic, a series of syllogisms,
all the premises of which are either definitions, self-evi-
dent truths, or propositions already established.
  DEMURRAGE, is an allowance made to the master
of a ship by  the merchants, for being detained in port
longer than the time appointed and agreed for his de-
parture.  The rate of this allowance is generally settled
in the charterparty.  It is now  firmly established, that
the claim of demurrage ceases as  soon  as  tbe ship is
cleared out, and ready for sailing.   Jameson v. Lawrie,
house of lprds, Nov. 10, 1796.
   DEMUHRER, is a kind of pause or stop,  put to the
proceedings of an action upon a point of difficulty, which
must be determined by the  court before any farther pro-
ceedings can be had therein.  He  that demurs  in law
confesses the facts to be true, as stated by the opposite
party; but denies that by the law arising upon those facts,
any injury is done to the plaintiff, or that the defendant
has made out a lawful excuse.  As if  the matter of the
plaintiff's declaration be insufficient in law, then the de-
fendant demurs to the declaration: if, on the other hand,
the defendant's excuse or plea be invalid,  the  plaintiff
demurs in law to the plea; and so on in every other part
 of the proceedings, where either side perceives any ma-
terial objection in point of law, upon which he may rest
 his case. 3 Black. 314.  General demurrer being enter-
ed, it cannot be afterwards waved,  without leave of the
 court; but a special demurrer generally may, unless the
 plaintiff has lost a term, or the assizes, by  the defend-
 ant's demurring.  Impey,  i. K. B.  And upon  either a
 general or special demurrer,  the opposite party avers it
 to  be sufficient, which is called a rejoinder in demurrer,
 and then the parties are at issue in point of law;  which
issue in law, or demurrer, is  argued by counsel on both
 sides:  and if the points are  difficult,  then it is argued
 openly by the judges of the court, and if they, or the ma-
jority of them, concur in opinion, accordingly judgment
is given; but in case of great difficulty, they may adjourn
into the exchequer-chamber, where it shall be argued by
a)i the judges. J Inst. 71.
   Demurrer  to evidence, is where  a question of law
arises thereon; and because  juries, hy direction  of the
court,  usually  find a doubtful matter  specially,  de-
murrers upon evidence are  now seldom used.  5 Rep.
 104.
   Demurrer  to indictments.  If a criminal joins issue
upon a point oflaw  in an indictment or appeal, allowing
the fact to be true as laid therein, this is a demurrer in
taw, by which he insists that the fact as stated is no felo-
ny or  treason,  or whatever the crime is alleged to be.
But demurrer to indictments are seldom used, since the
same advantages may betaken upon a plea of not guilty;
or afterwards in arrest of judgment, where  the verdict
has established the fact. 4 Black. 333.
  DEN, a syllable which added to the names of places
shows them to be situated in valleys, or near woods; as
Tenterden,  in Kent.
  DENARIUS, in Roman antiquity, the chief silver-
coin among the Romans, worth in our money about seven-
pence three farthings.  As a weight, it was the  seventh
part of a Roman ounce.
  Denarius tertius comitatus, a third part of the pro-
fits of county-courts.  When these  courts had superior
jurisdictions,  before others were erected, two parts of
the profits went  to the king, and  a third part to the earl
of the county.
  DENDRITES, or Arborizations.  This appella-
tion is given to figures of vegetables which  are frequent-
ly observed in fossil substances.  They are of two kinds*
the one superficial, the other internal.
  The first are chiefly found on the surface of stones, and
between the strata and in the fissures of those of a cal-
careous nature.  Stones of a similar kind, when very
compact, sometimes also exhibit  internal arborizations;
such are the marbles  of Hesse, of Angersburg in Prus-
sia, and of Baden-Dourlach on the left bank ofthe  Rhine.
Several of these dendrites  bear  a striking resemblance
to the poplar; while  others exhibit the straight stem,
pyramidal form, and pendant branches, ofthe fir. Some
specimens of dendrites found in Switzerland, represent,
in a very surprising manner, plantations of willows; and
many of them are so beautiful,  as  really to appear the
work of art.
  The superficial dendrites are mostly ofa brown, chang-
ing gradually to a reddish yellow. The internal  den-
drites are of a deep black.  The most esteemed dendrites
are those found in agates; and more particularly in the
sardonyx, cornelian, and other precious stones, brought
from the East,  and  which  are commonly denominated
Moka stones.  The Oriental agates display  the most
varied and beautiful forms.  Sometimes they exhibit the
appearance of terraces covered with different species of
moss, interspersed with plants of the fern-tribe, having
large leaves, and the outlines exquisitely finished:  the
colours are likewise  extremely brilliant.
   These colours  are supposed  to he owing to metallic
oxides; others are of a different, and perhaps of a bitu-
minous nature.  The first are dissolved, and wholly dis-
appear, on immersing the  stone in any of the mineral
acids; while the others resist their action in a greater or
less degree.  Some naturalists  suppose that dendrites
 are owing to  metallic solutions, or other colouring mat-
ters, finding their way through  the pores of the stone,
 and being afterwards  forced into the smallest fissures by
 a mechanism similar to that by  which  fluids  ascend in
 capillary tubes. But a careful examination of the struc-
ture and disposition of dendrites,  must evince  this opi-
nion to be merely hypothetical; as the principal branches,
in diverging from the common stem, observe a great re-
 gularity; they are nearly parallel to one another on each
 side, and always proceed in one direction, like the stems
 and branches of a real tree; a circumstance inconsistent
 with the  supposition of capillary attraction,  which ex-
 tends equally in all directions.
   The same  observation is equally applicable  to mica-
 ceous dendrites, which are frequently found in  the gra-
nite of the  Pyrenees.  These dendrites,  which greatly 
DEN
D E  N
resemble  bunches  of  ostrieh  feathers,  arc certainly
neither the effect of chance, nor of capillary attraction,
but of a principle much more active than that by which
simple crystallization is produced.
  A species of metallic dendrites is sometimes formed
by  means  of tire.   For example, some kinds of copper
ore, on being subjected to the action of heat, and after-
wards withdrawn from the furnace, appear covered with
brilliant yellow spots, some inches in diameter, exactly
resembling in  form lichens growing on  rocks.  These
arborizations, which are of pure copper, are very sin-
gular: being composed of vertical threads, of about a
line in  height, united in  fasciculi, like  so many small
sheaves standing upright by the side of each other.  The
finest specimens of this kind of metallic  dendrites are
produced  at a foundry on the  Oural  mountains.  The
ore with which this foundry is supplied, is brought from
the nines of Touria, where the most beautiful native cop-
per in a state of vegetation yet known, is to be found.
In  whatever manner we may be inclined to account for
this wonderful  phenomenon,  it should seem,  from the
above fact, that the same cause  which produces these
arborizations  in the  mine, must  likewise produce the
same effect after tbe ore has been subjected to the action
of fire.  See Plate XL1L Nat. Hist. figs. 160 and 161.
   DENEB, an Arabic term,  signifying tail,  used by
astronomers to denote several fixed stars.  Thus dencb
elecet, signifies tiie bright star in the lion's tail; deneb
adigege, that in the swan's tail; &c.
   DENDROMETER, from <fev«r?e», a tree, and ftir^iu, I
measure, an instrument invented by Messrs. Duncombe
and Whittel, for which they obtained a patent,  so called
from its use in measuring trees.  It consists of a semi-
circle A,  plate X.L1H. Misccl. fig. 57 and 38, divided
into two quadrants, and graduated from the middle; up-
on the diameter B there  hangs a plummet L for fixing
the instrument  in a vertical position; there are also a
chord D parallel to  the diameter, and a radius E passing
at right angles through the diameter and chord. From
a point on  tbe radius hangs an altimeter C, between the
chord and  diameter, to which are fixed a small semicir-
cle G, and a screw, to confine  it in any position.  The
altimeter, which is contrived to form the same angle with
the radius  of the instrument as the tree forms with the
horizon, is divided from its centre  both  ways into forty
equal parts; and these parts are again divided into halves
and quarters.   Upon the small  semicircle G, on which
is accounted the quantity of  the angle made by the al-
timeter and radius, are expressed degrees  from 60 to
120,  being 30 on each quadrant.  The radius  is num-
bered with the same scale of divisions as the altimeter.
There is also a nonius to the small semicircle, which
shows the  quantity  of an augle to every five minutes.
On the back of the instrument the stock M (fig. 38) of
the sliding piece is confined to the  a\is N, which moves
concentric ally parallel to the elevation index F on the
opposite side, to which it  is fixed.  This index is num.
bered by a scale of equal divisions with  the altimeter
and radius.  Ar the end  of the index is a nonius,  by
w hich the  angles of elevation above, tir of depression be-
low, the horizon, measured upon the semicircle of the
instrument, an-deterniin   . -. eve-y fiv;; minutes. There
is also a groove in tbe radius, that slides across the axis
by means ofa screw I, working between the chord and
semicircle of the instrument;  and this screw is turned
hy the key 0.  Upon the stock  M is a sliding piece P.
that always acts at right angles with the altimeter,  by
means of a groove  in the latter.  To the shank of the
sliding piece is affixed a moveable limb Q, which forums
the same angle with the altimeter as the  bough forms
with the body or trunk of tbe tree.  This limb may be
of any convenient lenglh, divided into ejual parts of th-:-
same scale with all the foregoing division*. At the.  \-
tremity of the fixed axis, on a centre,  an index R, with
telescopic sights, works horizontally upon the moveable
limb of the sliding piece. Upon  this  horizontal index ft
may be fixed a small quadrant  T, describee!  with any
convenient radius  from the  centre on  which  the index
moves, and divided into 90 degrees, beginning at arigV
line drawn from the centre  at right angles with the fi-
ducial edge of the said index: and upon the extremity of
the axis is a nonius, whereby to  determine the quantity
of an angle upon the quadrant every five minutes. There
are also two small  semicircular  arches S, S, serving to
keep the sights in a parallel position, ear!; containing an
equal number of degrees.  Upon these arches is measur-
ed the angle subtending a side equal  to tbe difference of
the altitudes of the observed objects above the plane of
the horizon, and whose base is the nearest distance be-
tween the perpendiculars in which these objects are si-
tuated.  The dendrometer is fitted to a theodolite; and
may be used either with or without it, as occasion re-
quires.
  The principal use of this instrument is for measuring
the length and diameter of any  tree,  perpendicular or
oblique to an horizontal plane, or in any situation of the
plane on which it rests,  or of any figure, whether regu-
lar or irregular, and also the length and diameter of the
boughs, by mere inspection;  and the inventors of it have
calculated tables, annexed to their account of the instru-
ment itself, by the help of which the quantity  of timber
in a tree is obtained without calculation,  or the use of
the sliding rule.  The instrument is rectified by setting
it in a perpendicular position, by means of the plummet,
and screwing it to  the staff; then the altimeter is placed
in the exact position of the tree, whether perpendicular,
reclining, or inclining, and screwed fast.  If* the tree
stands on level ground, the horizontal  distance from the
tree  to the axis of the  instrument is  measured with  a
tape-line, and the radius is moved with the key till that
distance be cut upon it by the inside of  the diameter; but
if the ground be slanting, the distance from the tree to
the instrument is measured,  and the elevation index is
moved till the point of the face from which the distance
was  measured is seen through the sights,  and  there
screwed fast;  and  the radius is moved backwards or
forwards with the key, till this distance is cut upon the
elevation index by the perpendicular line of the altime-
ter; and  the horizontal line will be marked upon the ra-
dius by the inside of the diameter.  In order to obtain
the length of the tree, the elevation index  i» first moved
downwards, till the bottom ofthe tree cut by the horizon-
tal wires is observed through the sights, and the feet and
inches marked by the index  upon the altimeter below
the point of sight or horizontal line are noted down; then
the index; is moved upwards till the part to which you 
D  E  N
DEN
would  measure, cut by  the  horizontal  wires, is seen,
and tiie feet and inches marked on the  altimeter above
the point of sight are noted:  these two quantities added
together give the exact length of the tree, which is in-
serted  in a field-book.  For the girth of the tree, the cir-
cumference in that  part where the  horizontal distance
was taken, is measured  with the tape-line; and  a sixth
part of this circumference is  added to the distance on the
radius, which was before cut by the inside of the  diame-
ter, because the tape-line, in taking the distance,  can-
not be applied to the centre ofthe body of the tree; then
the elevation index is lowered to that part of the  tree of
which  the diameter is to he taken, and screwed fast. Set
the moveable limb ofthe sliding piece quite straight, and
the edge of the horizontal index upon the first division
of it.   Turn the whole instrument  about to the left hand,
till you see through the sights the left side  of the tree
cut exactly hy the perpendicular wires; then, the  instru-
ment being fixed, move the sights only  upon the  sliding
piece,  till  you see the right side of the  tree cut  also by
the perpendicular wires; and you will  find the true  di-
ameter marked by the horizontal index upon the slid-
ing piece, which is to  be entered in a distinct column of
the field-book.
   For the boughs.  Let the distance on the radius be
now reduced to its former quantity, and the elevation in-
dex moved upwards  till the bough  is seen through the
sights, and screwed fast.  Set the moveable part of the
sliding piece in a position parallel to the bough,  and the
edge of the horizontal index on the first division of it.
Turn the  whole instrument  about till you  see through
the sights  the shoot of the bough close  to the trunk cut
by the perpendicular wires;  then move the sights  till you
see the other end of the bough cut  by  the said wires,
and note the feet and inches marked hy the horizontal in-
dex on the moveable  limb of the sliding piece, which
will give the true length of  the bough  to be inserted in
the field-book.  And the girth of the bough may be ob-
tained by directing the sight to that part of it whose girth
is desired; then by moving the elevation index down-
wards till  you see the under side of the bough cut by the
horizontal wires,  and there  noting the  feet and inches
marked by the said index on the altimeter; after which,
let the elevation index he moved upwards, till the upper
side of the bough  cut by the horizontal wires is seen;
the feet and inches marked  upon the altimeter are  to be
noted  as before.  The former quantity  subtracted from
the latter will give the true diameter ofthe bough, which
is entered  in the field-book.  The true  solidity  both of
the body of the tree and of the  houghs may  be found
from the diameter and lengths in tables calculated  for
this purpose.
   The dendrometer, fitted to a theodolite, may be  applied
to measuring the heights and distances of objects, acces-
sible or inaccessible, whether situated in planes parallel or
oblique to the plane in which the instrument is placed. It
may be also used for taking all angles, whether vertical,
horizontal, or oblique, in any position of the  planes in
which they are formed; and thus for facilitating the prac-
tical operations of engineering, land-surveying, level-
ling, mining, &c. and for performing the various  cases
of plane trigonometry without calculation, of which the
inventors  have subjoined to their  account of this instpa-
racnt many examples.
  DENIER, a small French copper coin, of which 12
make a sol. There were two kinds of denicrs, the one
tournoise, the  other parisis, whereof the latter  was
worth a fourth  part more than the former.
  DENIZEN. A denizen is an alien-born, who has ob-
tained letters patent whereby he is constituted an Eng.
lishsubject. A  denizen is in a middle stale, between an
alien and a natural-born or naturalized subject, partak-
ing of the nature of both. He may take lands by purchase:
or derive a title by descent through his  parents or an)
ancestor, though they be aliens. By stat. 25  Geo. II. c
39, no natural-born subject shall derive a title through
an alien parent or ancestor, unless he be born at the time
of the death of the ancestor, who dies seized of tbe estate
which he claims by descent; with this exception, that if a
descent shall be cast upon  a daughter of an alien, it shall
be divested in favour of an after-born son, and in case of
an  after-born daughter or daughter only, all the sisters
shall be  coparceners.  The children born previous to the
denization of their  parent cannot inherit by descent,
whilst those of a foreigner naturalized are in  every
respect entitled to the same privileges as British sub-
jects. See Aliebt.
  DENOMINATOR, in  arithmetic, a term used in
speaking of fractions. The denominator of a fraction is
the number below the line, showing into how many parts
the integer is supposed to be divided. Thus in the frac-
tion f,  the number 4 shows that the integer is divided
into four parts. So in tlte fraction__, 6 is the denomina-
                                 te
tor.
   DENSITY  of bodies, is that property directly oppo-
site to  rarity, whereby they contain such a quantity of
matter under such a bulk.  Accordingly, a body is said
to have  double or triple  the density of another body,
when their bulk being equal, the quantity of matter in
the one is double or triple the quantity of the matter in
the other. See Gravity.
   Density of the planets.  In  homogeneous,  unequal,
spherical bodies,  the gravities  on their surfaces  are as
their diameters when  the densities  are equal, pr the
gravities are as the densities when the bulks are equal;
therefore, in spheres of unequal magnitude and density,
the gravity is  in  the  compound ratio of the  diameters
and densities, or the densities are as the gravities divid-
ed  by the diameters.  Knowing therefore the diameters
of  the planets by observation and comparison, and the
gravities at their surface by means of the revolution of
the  satellites,  the relation of  their  densities becomes
known.  And as the mean density of the earth is found to
be  about 4| times that of water (Philos. Trans. 1778),
hence the densities of the planets, with respect to water
become known, and are as follow.
                                    Densities.
       Water         ...       l
       The Sun
       Mercury     -
       Venus       -       -
       The Earth
       Mars                            af
       The Moon  -
       Jupiter       -
       Saturn               -
       Herschel     -
1  *
KI 1
3T\-
■V*
013
 
DEO
DEP
  As it is not likely that any of these bodies w homo-
gencal, the densities here determined are supposed to be
the mean densities.
  DENTVLIUM,  in natural history,  a genus of  the
vermes testacca order. The shell has no hinge,  and is
formed only of one piece. The figure approaches to  cy-
lindric or conic; and is sometimes crooked, sometimes
straight, sometimes close at one end, sometime open at
both: its inhabitant is called  nereis.  There  are eight
species. The name dentalium has been given  this shell,
from the  great resemblance it  has to the dentes canini
of quadrupeds. Several species of it frequent  the shores
of Italy, Portugal, kc. In England they arc found fossil
in clay-pits, some smooth, some striated, but in much
greater abundance in the mountains of France  and Italy.
   DENT ARIA, toothwort or tooth-violet, a genus of the
siliquosa order, in thetetradynamia class of plants, and
in the natural method ranking under the S9th order,
siliquosa?. The siliqua parts with a spring,  and the val-
vules roll spirally backwards; the stigma isemarginated,
the cab x closing longitudinally. There are  four species,
hardy perennials;  producing annual stalks  12 or 18
inches high,  adorned  with  many-lobed  leaves, and
spikes of quadrupetalous cruciform flowers of a red or
purple colour. They delight in shady  places, and are
propagated  either by seeds or parting the roots.
   DENTEL1A, a genus of the monogynia order, in the
pentandria class of plants. The  calyx is a five-parted
perianthium, with small subulated leaves;  the  stamina
five short subulated  filaments;  the antherae  small; the
pericarpium a globular bilocular capsule; the  seeds egg-
shaped, and very numerous. There is one species, a na-
tive of New  Caledonia.
   DENT1LES, or Dentils. Sec Architecture.
   DENTITION, the breeding, or cutting, the teeth in
children. Among all the disorders which afflict children,
there are none that generates such grievous  symptoms
as difficult dentition. About  five or six months after
birth, the teeth generally begin to make their appearance:
 first, the incisures, or fore-teeth; next, the canini,  or
dog-teeth; and  lastly, the molares, or grinders.  About
the seventh year  there come a new set; and at twenty-
one  the two inner grinders,  called dentes sapientae, or
teeth of wisdom.  See Anatomy, aud Medicine.
   DENUNCIATION, a solemn publication or promul-
gation of any thing. All vessels of enemies  are lawful
prize, after denunciation  or proclamation of  war. The
design of the  denunciation of excommunicated persons
is, that the sentence may be the more fully executed by
the person's being more known.
   DEODAND, is where any moveable thing inanimate,
 or beast animate, moves or causes the death of any rea-
sonable  creature, by  mischance,  without the will or
fault of himself, or of any  person.  3 Inst.  57. Former-
 ly whereverthe thing which was the occasion  of a man's
 death was in  motion at the time,  not only that  part
 thereof which immediately  wounded him, hut all things
 which moved together with it,  and helped to make the
wound more dangerous, were forfeited also. 1  Haw. 66.
But  juries  have lately determined  very differently.
As these forfeitures seem to have been originally found-
 ed in the superstition of an age of ignorance, they are
now discountenanced in \\ estminster-haJl. Fost. 266.
  DE  ONER AND A  pro rata portion is, is a writ
that lies where one is distrained for a rent, that ought to
be paid by others proportionably with him.
  DEPARTURE from a plea or matter,  is where  a
man pleads a plea in bar of an action, which being repli-
ed to, he in his rejoinder shows another matter contrary
to this  first plea: ibis is called a departure from his bar.
It may also be applied to a plaintiff, who in  his replica-
tion show s new matter from his declaration. Plow. Com.
7, 8. Co. 2. par. fo. 147.
  Departure, in navigation, is the  easting or westing
ofa ship in respect of the meridian it departed or sailed
from; or it is the difference of longitude, either east or
west,  between the present meridian  the ship is  under,
and that  where  the last reckoning  or observation was
made.  This departure, any where but under the equator,
must be counted according to the number of miles in a
degree proper to the parallel the ship is under. The de-
parture, in plane and Mercator's sailing, is  always re-
presented by the base of a right-angled plane triangle,
where the course is  the angle opposite to it, and the dis-
tance sailed is the  hypothenuse; the perpendicular or
other leg being the difference of latitude. And then the
theorem  for finding it,  is always this: as radias, is to
the sine of the course, so is the distance sailed, to the
departure sought.
  DEPORTATION, a sort of banishment  used by the
Romans, whereby some island or other place was allot-
ted to  a criminal for the place of his abode, with a prohi-
bition  not to stir out of the  same on pain of death.
  DEPOSIT, among civilians,  something that is com-
mitted to the custody of a person, to be kept without any
reward, and to  be returned again on demand. Deposit
is distinguished into simple and judiciary.
  DEPOSITION.  Proof in the high court of chancery
is by the depositions of witnesses; and the copies of such,
regularly taken  and published, are read as  evidence at
the hearing. For the purpose of examining witnesses in
or near London, there is an examiner's office appointed;
but for such as live  in the country, a commission to ex-
amine  witnesses  is usually granted to four commission-
ers, two named on each side, or any three or two of them,
to take the depositions  there. And if  the witnesses re-
side beyond sea, a  commission may be had to examine
them tliere, upon their own oaths; and if foreigners, up-
on the  oaths of two skilful interpreters. The commission-
ers are sworn to take the examinations truly, and with-
out partiality, and not  to divulge them till  published in
the court of chancery; and their clerks are also sworn to
secresy.  The witness are compellable by process of sub-
poena, as in the courts of common law, to  appear  and
submit to examination; and  when their depositions arc
taken, they are  transmitted to the  court with the same
care that the answer of a defendant is sent. 3 Black. 445.
  DEPOT, any particular place in which military stores
are deposited for the use of an army. In a  more exten-
sive sense, it means several magazines collected together
for that  purpose.  It also signifies an appropriated fort,
or place, for the reception of recruits, or detached par-
ties, belonging  to  different regiments.  The barracks
near Maid stone are depots for the British cavalry, and
Chatham is allotted to the infantry.   During hostilities,
the greatest attention shouidme given to preserve the seve- 
DEP
D E  R
val depots which belong to the fighting army. Hence the
line of operation  should  be invariable  connected with
them; or rather no advance  should  be made upon that
line, without the strictest regard being paid to the one of
communication.
   Depot is also used to denote a particular  place at the
tail of the trenches, out of the reach of the cannon of the
place: where the troops generally assemble who are or-
dered to attack the outworks, or support the troops in the
trenches, when there  is reason to imagine the  besieged
intend making a vigorous sally.
   Depot likewise means a temporary magazine for for-
age, for fascines, gabions, tools, and every other thing
necessary for  the support of an army, or for carrying on
a siege.
   DEPRESSION of Ihopo'e.  When a person sails or
travels towards  the equator, he is said to depress the
pole; because as many degrees as he approaches nearer
the equator, so many  degrees will the  pole be nearer the
horizon. This phenomenon arises  from  the spherical
figure of the earth. When a star is under the  horizon,
it  is termed the depression of that star under the horizon.
The altitude or depression of any star is an arch of the
vertical intercepted between the horizon and that star.
   Depression ofthe visible horizon, or dip of the horizon,
denotes its sinking or dipping below the true horizontal
plane, by the  observer's eye being raised above the sur-
face of the  sea; in consequence of  wiiich the observed
altitude of an  object is by so much too great.
   Thus, the  eye being at E, the height AE above the
surface of the earth,  whose centre  is  C, then EH is the
real horizon, and Eft the visible one, below the former by
the angle HEft, by reason of the elevation AE of the eye.
   To compute the depression or dip of the horizon.—In
the  right-angled triangle CEA (PI. XLIII.  Miscel. fig.
39), are given Ch, the earth's  radius =21000000 feet,
and the bypothenuse  CE = the radius increased  by the
height AE of  the eye; to find the angle C, which is = the
angle HE/i, or depression sought;
     As Ch  : CE :  : radius : sec.   ZC,
   or As CE :Ch: : radius : cosin.  Z.C.
   By either of these theorems are computed the numbers
in  the following table; which shows the depression or dip
of the horizon of the  sea for different heights of the eye,
from 1  foot to 100 feet.
Height of the	Dip of the hori-	Height of the	Dip of the ho-	Height ofthe	Dip of the ho-
eye.	zon.	eye.	rizon.	eye.	rizon.
Feet.	/ //	Feet.	/ //	Feet.	i n
1	0 57	13	3 26	26	4 52
2	I 21	14	3 34	28	5 3
3	1 39	15	3 42	30	5 14
4	1 55	16	3 49	85	5 39
5	2 8	17	3 56	40	6 2
6	2 20	18	4 3	45	6 24
7	2 31	19	4 10	50	6 44
8	2 42	20	4 16	60	7 23
9	2 52	21	4 22	70	7 59
10	3 1	22	4 28	80	8 32
11	3 10	23	4 34	90	9 3
12	3 18	24	4 40	100	' 9 33
  DEPRESSOR. See Axatomy.
  DEPRIVATION, in the canon law, is an ecclesiasti-
cal censure, by which a clergyman is deprived of his per-
sonage, vicarage, or other spiritual promotion of dignitv.
Degg's Parson's Conncellor, c. 9.
  Causes of deprivation.  If a clerk obtains preferment in
the church by simonical contract; if he is an excommu-
nicate, a drunkard, fornicator, adulterer, infidel, or here-
tic; or guilty of murder, manslaughter, perjury, forgery,
&c; if a clerk is  illiterate, and not able to perform the
duty of his church; if  he  is a scandalous person in life
and  conversation, or bastardy is objected against him;
if he is under age, viz. the age of twenty-three years- is
disobedient and incorrigible to his ordinary, or a noncon
formist to the canons; if he refuses to use the common-
prayer, or preaches in derogation of it; does not adminis-
ter the sacrament, or read the articles of religion, &c if
any  parson, vicar, &c. has  one benefice with cure'of
souls, and takes plurality  without a faculty or dispensa-
tion; or if he commits waste in the houses and lands  of
the church, called  dilapidations: all these have been held
good causes for deprivation of priests. Deg. Par. Coun.
98, 99.
  DEPTH, in geometry, the same with altitude; though,
strictly speaking, we only use the term depth to denote
how much one body, or part of a body, is below another.
See Height, &c.
  Depth of a battalion,  squadron, ire.  the  number  of
men in a file, or who stand before each other in a straight
line. In  the ancient armies this was very great.
  DEPUTY, is one that exercises an office in another's
right; and the forfeiture or misdemeanour of such deputy
shall cause the person, whom he represents, to lose his
office.
  Tliere is a great difference between  a deputy and as-
signee of an office; for an  assignee has an interest in the
office itself, and does  all  things in his  own name, for
which  his grantor shall not answer unless in special ca-
ses;  but a deputy has not any interest in the office, but ia
only the shadow^ of an officer, in whose name  he does all
things. 9 Rep. 49.
  A superior officer must answer for his  deputy in civil
actions if he  is not sufficient;  but in criminal cases it  is
otherwise,  where deputies  are to answer for themselves.
2 Inst. 191.
  DERMESTES, in zoology, a genus of insects belong-
ing to  the order of coleoptera. The antennae are clavated,
with three of the joints thicker than the rest; the breast
is convex; and the  head  is  inflected below the breast.
There are thirty species, of which the following deserve
notice:
  1. The lardarins is of an oblong form, and of a dim-
black  colour, easily distinguishable by a light-brown
stripe,  that occupies  transversely almost the anterior
half of the elytra. That colour  depends  on small grey
hairs situated on that part. The  stripe is irregular at its
edges; and is intersected through the  middle by a small
trans versed streak of black spots, three in number on
each ofthe elytra, the middlemost of  which is somewhat
lower than the rest, which gives the black streak a ser-
pentine form.  Its larva, that is oblong, somewhat hairy*
and divided into segments alternately dark and light-co-
loured, gnaws and destroys preparations of animals pre- 
                         D E  R

  served  in  collections, and even feeds Upon  the insects.
  See Plate XLII. Nat. Hist. fig. 162.
    2. The domestic us  varies greatly in size and coloir-;
  some being  found of  a dark-brown,  cithers of a  much
  lighter hue.  The- form of it is oblong,  almo.st cylindrical.
  The elytra arc striated; the  thorax is thick, and rather
  gibbous. This little animal, when  touched,  draws in its
  head under its thorax, and its feet beneath its abdomen;
  remaining so motionless, that one would suppose it dead.
  This is the same insect which makes in wooden furniture
  those little round holes that reduce it to powder.
    3. The violaceus is a beautiful little insect; its  elytra
  arc of  a deep violet-blue.  The  thorax is  covered with
  greenish hairs; the legs are black.  The whole animal be-
  ing of a glittering brilliancy renders it a pleasing object.
  Tbe larva, as well as the perfect insect, inhabits the bo-
  dies of dead animals.
    4. The fumatus is ofa light-brown colour, except the
  eyes, which are black. It is, however, sometimes  more
  or less deep.  The thorax is  m a ruinated, and the  insect
  has the whole carriage of a scarnbHHis;  but its antenna;
  have the character of those ofthe dei mestpe.  This little
  creature is found in dung. It also frequently finds its way
  into houses.
    5. The ferruginous is the largest of  the genus; its co-
  lour is a rusty iron, having many oblong, velvety, black
  spols upon the elytra,  which  give  the insect a gloomy,
  yet elegant,  appearance. The antenna? difTcr from the
  preceding species, the last three articulations being con-
  siderably longer, thicker, and not perfoliated.
    The  twenty-five other species  are distinguished by
  their colour.  Many varieties of this genus, as well as the
 larva;, are to  be met with in dried skins, bark of trees,
 wood, carcases of dead  animals,  kc.
    DERVIS,  a name given to  ail Mahommedan monks,
  though of various orders. The most noted among them
 arc the bcktashi, the mcvelevi, the kadri, ami the seyali.
  The bektashi, who arc allowed  to marry and  live in
  cities and towns, are obliged, by the rules  of their or-
  der, to visit remote lands, and to salute  every one they
 meet with gazel,  or love-songs;  and with  esma, or the
 invocation of the names of (iod, and humbly to  wish
 him prosperity, which  they do  by  repeating the word
 civallah, a solemn exclamation ofthe wrestlers, by which
 the conquered yields the palm  to  the conqueror.  The
 mcvelevi,  so  called from Mevelava their founder,  are
 used to turn round for two or three hours together with
 such swiftness, that you cannot see  their faces; they are
 great lovers of music: in their monasteries they profess
 great humility and poverty, and when visited make no
 distinction of  persons;  they first  bring their guests coflVe
 to drink; and, if the ways have been dirty, they wash
 their feet and sandals. The  kadri, with a peculiar su-
 perstition, emaciate their bodies; they  go cjuiu naked,
 except their  thighs, and often  join hands and dance,
 sonutimesa whole day, repeating, with great vehemence,
 •• Hu! hu! lui!" (one ofthe names of find) till, like mad
 men, they fall  on the ground, foaming at the. mouth,  and
 running down with sweat: the prime  vizir  Kupruli
 Achincd Pasha, thinking fhi> sect unbecoming the  Me-
 houmiedau rel^ion, ordered  it  to be s : pn"^'!; but, af-
 ter his death,  it retired, and  is  at present more nume-
rous than ever, especially at  Constantinople  The seyah
                       D E S

  are wanderers,  and though they have monasrerics, yet
  they often spend their  whole  life in travelling;  when
  they are sent out, their superiors impose upon them such
  a quantity of money or provisions,  forbidding them  to
  come back till they have procured it, and sent it to the
  monastery; wherefore when a seyah comes  into a town,
  he cries aloud in the market-place, « Ya allah senden,"
  kc. " 0 God! give me, I pray, five thousand crowns, or
  a thousand measures of rice."  Many of these dervises
  travel over the whole Mahommedan world, entertaining
  the people wherever they come with agreeable relations
  of all the curiosities they have met with. There are der-
  vises in  Egypt, who  lives with their  families, and exer-
  cise their trades,  of which kind are the dancing dervises
  at Damascus. They are  all distinguished among them-
  selves by the different forms and colours of their habits;
  those of Persia wear  blue;  the  solitaries and wanderers
  wear only rags of different colours; others curry on their
  heads a plume made ofthe feathers ofa cock; and those
  of Egypt wear an  octagonal badge of a greenish-white
  alabaster at  their girdles, and a  high stiff cap, without
  any thing round it.
    DESCANT, in the old music, the art of composing
  in several parts.  Descant is threefold, viz.  plain, figu-
  rative, and double.
   DESCENSION, in astronomy, is  either right or ob-
  lique.  Right descension is an  arch of the equinoctial,
  intercepted between the next equinoctial point and the
  intersection ofthe meridian, passing through the centre
  ofthe object, at its setting, in a right sphere.  Oblique
 descension is  an arch  of the equinoctial intercepted be-
 tween the next equinoctial  point and the horizon, pass-
 ing through the centre of the object, at its setting, in an
 oblique sphere.
   DESCENT, in general, is  the tendency of a  body
 from a higher to a lower place. Heavy hodies,  meeting
 with no  resistance, descend with  an  uniformly  accele-
 rated motion, for the laws of which see Mechanics.
   Laws of descent of  hodies. 1st. Heavy bodies, in an
 unresisting medium,  fall  with an  uniformly accelerated
 motion. For it is the nature of all constant and uniform
 forces, such as that of gravity, at the same distance from
 the centre of  the  earth,  to generate or produce  equal
 additions  of velocity in equal times. So that if in one se-
 cond of time there  is produced one degree of velocity, in
 two seconds there will be two degrees of velocity, in three
 seconds three  degrees, and so on; the degree or'quantity
 of velocity being always proportional to the length ofthe
 time.
  2d. The space descended  by  an uniform  gravity, in
 any time, is just the half of the space that might he uni-
formly described in the same time by the last velocity ac-
quired at the  end  of that time, if uniformly  continued.
For as the velocity increases uniformly in an arithmeti-
cal progression, tbe whole space descended bv the varia-
ble velocity will  be equal to the  space that would be
described  with the  middle velocity  uniformly  continued
 or the same time;  and this again will he only the space
that would be  with the half of the last velocity, also uni-
 ormly continued for the same time, because the last \o

a doubhdtTnuIe °f t5'C ,nidtHC VCl°dt-V' bein« Poured in
  3d. The spaces  descended by  an uniform grauty, in 
DESCENT.
different times,  are proportional to the squares of the
times, or to the squares of the velocities. For the whole
space descended in any number of particles of time,  con-
sists ofthe sums of all the particular spaces or velocities,
which arc  in  arithmetical progression; but the sum of
such  an arithmetical progression, beginning at  0, and
having the last term and the number of terms the same
in quantity, is equal to half the square of the last term,
or ofthe number of terms; therefore  the whole sums are
as the squares ofthe times, or of the velocities.
   This theory of the descents by gravity was first discov-
ered  and taught by  Galileo, who afterwards confirmed
the same by experiments; which have often been re-
peated in various ways by many other persons since his
time,  as Grimaldi,  Riccioli, Huygens, Newton,  and
others, all confirming the same laws.
   The experiments of Grimaldi and Riccioli were made
by dropping a  number of balls, of half a pound weight,
from the top of several towers, and measuring the times
of falling by a pendulum.  An abstract of  their experi-
ments is exhibited here below:
Vibrations			Space	Space
of the	The time.		at the end of	descended
pendulum.			the time.	each time.
	n	m	Roman feet.	Roman feet.
5	0	50	10	10
10	1	40	40	30
15	2	30	90	50
20	3	20	160	70
25	4	10	250	90
6	1	0	15	15
12	2	0	60	45
18	3	0	135	75
24	4	0	240	105
  The space  descended by a heavy body  in any given
time, being determined by experiment, is sufficient, in
connection with the preceding theorems, for  determin-
ing every inquiry concerning the times, velocities, and
spaces descended,  depending  on an  uniform force of
gravity. From many accurate experiments made in Eng-
land, it has been found that a heavy body descends freely
through 16 feet  1 inch,  or 16T*T feet; in the first second
of time; and consequently, by  theorem  2, the velocity
gained at the end  of  1  second, is 32|-  feet per second.
Hence, by the same, and theorem 3, the  velocity gained
in any other time t is 52£t, and the space descended is
16-j-1^2. So that, if v denotes the velocity, and s the space
due to the time t, and there be put g = 16-^; then is
                                   2S
              V ~ 2gt = 2 ^/gS = —.
                    ■v       s    2s
                 ~ 2g~ ^"g ~~ v'
  The  experiments with pendulums give also the same
space for the descent of a heavy body in a second of time.
Thus, in the latitude of London,  it is found by experi-
ment, that the length of a pendulum vibrating seconds,
is just 39} inches; and it being known that the circum-
ference of a circle is to its diameter, as the time of one
vibration of any pendulum is to the time in which a hea-
vy body will fall through half the length of the pendulum-

therefore, as 3.1416:  1 : : 1 :  —L_> which is the time
                             3.1416
of descending through 19-^ inches, or half the length of
the pendulum; then, spaces being as  the  squares of the

times, as ------ : I2  : :  197V : 193 inches, or 16  font i
         3.141b2                                u l
inch, which therefore  is the space a heavy body will des-
cend through in one second; the very same as before
  4th, For any other  constant force, instead of the per-
pendicular free descent by gravity, find by experiment
or otherwise, the space descended in one second by that
force, and substitute that instead of 16T^ for the value of
g in these formulae: or, if the proportion of the force to
the force of gravity be known, let the value of » be ah
tered in the  same proportion,  and the same lormulje
will  still hold  good. So,  if the descent he on an  in-
clined plane,  making,  for  instance, an angle of 30°
with the horizon;  then,  the force of descent upon the
plane being always as the sine of the angle it makes with
the horizon, in  the present  case it will be as tbe sine of
30°, that is, as \ the radius; therefore, in  this case, the
value of £ will be but half the former, 8^-,  in all the
foregoing formula?.
  Or, if one body  descending perpendicularly  draw
another after it, by means of a cord sliding over a pulley;
then it will be, as the  sum of the two bodies is to the de-
scending body, so is  16T^ to the value of g in this case;
which value of it being  used in the said formula;, they
will still hold good. And in like  manner for any other
constant forces whatever.
  5th, The time of the oblique descent dowTi any chord
of a circle, drawn  either from the uppermost or lower-
most point of the circle, is equal to the perpendicular de-
scent through the diameter ofthe circle.
  6th, The descent, or vibration, through all arcs of the
same cycloid, are equal, whether great or small.
  rth, But the descent, or vibration, through unequal
arcs of a circle, are unequal; the times being greater in
the greater arcs, and less in the less.
  Descent, line of swiftest, is that which a body, falling
by the action  of gravity, describes in the shortest time
possible, from one given point to another. Aud this line,
it is proved by  philosophers, is the  arc of a cycloid,
when the one point is not perpendicularly over the other.
See  Cycloid.
  Descent, inlaw, or hereditary succession,is the title
by which a man on the death of his ancestor acquires his
estate by right of representation as his heir at law; and
an estate so descending to the heir is in law called inheri-
tance. 2 Black. 201.
  Descent is of three  kinds; by common law, by custom,
or by statute.  By common law, as where one has land of
inheritance in fee-simple, and dies without disposing of
it in his life-time, and  the land goes to the eldest son and
heir of course, being cast upon him by the law.  Descent
of fee-simple hy custom, is sometimes to all the sons or to
all the brothers (where one  brother dies without issue),
as in gavelkind; sometimes to the youngest son, as
borough-English; and sometimes to the eldest daugbter,
or the youngest,  according to the customs of particular
places. Descent by statute is of fee-tail, as  directed by
the statut#of Westminster 2, de donis. 
D E  S
D E  S
  Descent at common law is either lineal  or collateral.
Lineal consanguinity is that which subsists between per-
sons, of whom one is descended in a direct line from the
other, as between a man and his  father,  grandfather,
and great-grandfather, and so upwards in a direct as-
cending line; or between a man and his son, grandson,
great-grandson, and so downwards in the direct descend-
ing line.  Every generation, in this lineal direct consan-
guinity, constitutes a different  degree, reckoned either
upwards or downwards; the father is related in the first
degree, and  so likewise are the son, grandsire,  and
grandson, in the second;  great-grand si re,  and great-
grandson, in the third. This is the only natural way of
reckoning the degrees in the direct line, and  therefore
universally obtains, as well in the civil and canon as in
common  law. Collateral kindred answers to  the  same
description: collateral relations agreeing with the lineal
in this, that they descend from the same stock or an-
cestor; but  differing in this, that tbey do not descend
one from  the other. Collateral  kinsmen  are  therefore
such  as lineally sprung from one and  the same ancestor,
who is the stirps orroot, stipes, trunk or common stock,
whence these relations  are branched  out.  As  if a man
has two sons, who have each a different issue, both these
issues are lineally descended from him as their common
ancestor; and they  are collateral kinsmen to each other,
because they are all descended from this common ances-
tor; and  ail  have a portion of his blood  in their veins,
which denominates them  consanguineors.  Inheritances
shall lineally descend to the issue of the person last ac-
tually seized, in infinitum,  hut shall  never lineally as-
cend. 3 Black. 208.
   The male  issue shall he admitted before the  female;
and where there are two or more males in equal degree,
the eldest only shall inherit (except where there are par-
ticular local  customs to the contrary); but tiie females
shall  inherit  all together, except in case of succession to
tbe crown, which is indivisible; and of succession to dig-
 nities and  titles of honour: yet  where a  man holds an
earldom to him and the heirs of his  body, and dies, his
eldest daughter shall not succeed of course to the title of
countess, but the dignity is in suspense or abeyance till
 the king shall declare which ofthe daughters shall have
 that title. 2  Black. 21G.
   Df.sci.nt or crown lands.  All the lands whereof the
 king is seized in jure corona?, shall attend upon and fol-
 low the  crown; so that to whomsoever the crown des-
cends, those lands and possessions descend also. Plowd.
 247.
   Descent of dignities. The dignity of peerage is
 personal, annexed  to the blood, and so inseparable, that
 it cannot be transferred to  any person, or surrendered
 iweii to the crown: it can  move neither  backward nor
 forward, but only  downward to posierity; and nothing
 but corruption of blood, as if the ancestor be attainted of
 treason  or felony, can  hinder the descent to the right
 heir. Lex Const.' 85.
   Descent, in heraldry, is used to express the coming
 down of any thing from above; as, a lion en descent, is a
 lion  with his head  towards the base  point and his heels
 towards one of tbe  corners of the chief, as if he w ere leap-
 ing down from same high place.
   Descents, in fortification, arc the holes, vaults, and
   vol. i.                   95
hollow places, made by undermining the  ground. The
descent into the moat or ditch is a deep passage made
through the esplanade  and  covert-way,  in  form of  a
trench, whereof the upper part is covered with madriers
and clays, to sec ure the besiegers from the enemy's fire.
In wet ditches this trench is on a level with the surface
of the water,  but in dry ones it is sunk as deep  as the
bottom of the ditch.
  DESCRIPTION, in law.  In  deeds and grants there
must  be a certain description of the lands granted, the
places where they lie, and the person to whom granted,
kc. to make  them good.  But wills are more favoured
than grants as  to those descriptions; and a wrong des-
cription of the  person will not  make a devise  void, if
there be otherwise a sufficient certainty what person was
intended hy the testator.  1 Nels. Abr. 467.
  Where  a first description of land, kc. is false, though
the second  be true, a deed will be void: contra, if the first
be true, and the  second false.   3  Rep. 2, 5, 8, and 10.
  DESERTER,  in a military sense, a soldier who, by
running away from his regiment or company, abandons
the service.
  A deserter is, by the articles  of war,  punishable by
death, and, after conviction, is hanged at the head of the
regiment he formerly belonged to, with his crime written
on his breast, and suffered to hang till the army leave
that camp, for a terror to others.
  DESACHE', in heraldry, iswhere a beast has its limbs
separated from its body, so that  they still remain on the
escutcheon, with only a small separation from their na-
tnral places.
  DESIGN, in a general sense,  the plan, order, repre-
sentation or construction ofa building, book, painting, &c.
  In building the term ichnography may  be used, when
by design is only meant the plan of a building,  or a flat
figure drawn on paper: when some side  or  face of the
building is raised from the ground, we may use the term
orthography; and when both front and sides  are seen, in
perspective, we may call it scenography.
   Design, in manufactories, expresses the figures with
which the workman enriches his stuff, or silk, and which
he copies after some painter, or eminent draughtsman, as
in diaper,  damask, flowered silk, tapestry, and the like.
   In undertaking of such kinds  of figured stuffs, it is ne-
cessary, says M. Savary, that  before the first stroke of
the shuttle, the whole design be represented on the threads
of the warp; we do not mean in colours, but with an infi-
 nite number of little packthreads, which,  being disposed
 so as to raise the threads of the warp,  let the workmen
 see, from time to time, what kind of silk is to be put in  the
 eye of the  shuttle,  for woof.   This  method of preparing
 the work  is called reading the design and reading  the
 figure, which  is performed in the following manner: A
 paper is provided, considerably broader than tbe stuff, and
 ofa length proportionate to what is intended to he repre-
 sented on  it.   This  they divide lengthwise by as many
 black lines as there are intended threads in the warp; and
 cross these lines, by others  drawn breadthwise,  which,
 with the former, make little equal squares; on the paper
 thus squared, the draughtsman designs his figures, and
 heightens them with colours as he sees fit. When the de-
 sign is finished, a workman reads it, while  another lays
 it on the simblot. 
DES
D  E  T
  To read the design, is to tell the person who manages
the loom, the number of squares, orthreacs,.comprised in
any  space,  intimating  at the  same time whether it is
ground or figure.  To put what is read on the simolot, is
to fasten little strings to the several packthreads,  which
are to raise the threads, named; and thus they continue
to do till  the whole design is  read.  Every  piece being
composed of several repetitions of the same design, when
the whole design is drawn, the drawer, to begin the design
afresh, has nothing to do but raise the little strings, with
slip-knots, to the top of the simblot, which he had let down
to the hot torn: this he is to repeat as often as  is necessary
till the whole is manufactured.  The ribbon-weavers have
likewise a design, but far more simple than that now de-
scribed.   It is drawn on paper, with lines and squares
representing the threads of the warp and woof.  But in-
stead of lines of which the figures ofthe former consist,
these are constituted of points only, or dots, placed in cer-
tain ofthe little squares, formed by the intersection of the
lines.  These points mark the threads  of the warp that
arc to be raised and the spaces left blank denote the threads
that are to  keep their situation: the rest is  managed as
in the former.
   Design  is also used, in painting, for the  first idea of
 a large work, drawn roughly, and in little, with an in-
tention to be executed and finished in  large.  The art of
painting has been by some of the greatest masters divid-
 ed into the design or draught, the proportion,  the ex-
 pression, the claro-obscuro, the  ordonnance, the colour-
 ing, and  the perspective.
   Design,  in painting, is the simple contour or outlines
 of the figures intended to  be represented,  or the lines
 that  terminate and  circumscribe them: such design is
 sometimes  drawn in crayons, or ink without  any shadows
 at all. Sometimes it is etched; that is,  the  shadows are
 expressed  by sensible  outlines,  usually drawn  across
 each other with the pen, crayon, or graver.   Sometimes,
 again, the shadows are done with the crayon rubbed so
 as that  there do not  appear  any lines: at  other times,
 the grains or strokes of the crayon appear,  as not being
 rubbed:  sometimes the design is washed, that is, the sha-
 dows are done with a pencil in Indian ink, or some other
 liquor;  and sometimes the design is  coloured,  that is,
 colours arc laid on much like those intended for the grand
 work.
    The essential requisites  of a design are correctness,
 good taste, elegance,  character, diversity, expression,
 and perspective.   Correctness  depends on  the justness
 of the proportions, and knowledge of  anatomy.  Taste
 is a certain manner of correctness peculiar  to the artist,
 derived either from nature, masters, or studies, or  all  of
 them united.  Elegance gives a delicacy that not only
 strikes persons of judgment, but communicates an agree-
 ableness that pleases universally.  The  character is what
 is peculiar to each thing, in which there must be diver-
 sity, insomuch that every thing has its peculiar charac-
 ter to distinguish it.  The expression is the representa-
 tion of an object, according  to the circumstances it is
  supposed to  be in.  Perspective is the  representation  of
 the parts of a painting, or a figure, according to the si-
  tuation tbey are  in with regard to the  point of sight.
    The design or draught, 'is  a part of the  greatest im-
 port and extent in painting.  It is acquired chieiiv  by
genius ani application, rules being of le-;- avail here
than in any other branches ofthe art, as colouring, kc.
The. principal rules that regard design arc, that novices
accustom themselves to copy good originals atfirst sight*
not to .use squares in drawing,  lest they stint and con-
fine their judgment; to design well from life, before they
practise perspective;  to lcain to adjust the size of their
figures to the visual angle,  and the distance of the eye
from the model or  object;  to mark out all the parts of
their design before they begin to shade; to make  their
contours in great pieces, without taking notice of the lit-
tle  muscles, and other breaks; to make themselves mas
ters of the rules of perspective; to observe the perpen-
dicular, parallel, and distance, of every stroke; to com-
pare and oppose the parts that meet  and traverse the
perpendicular, so as to form a kind  of  square in the
mind, which is the great and  almost the only rule of de-
signing justly; to have regard not only to the model, but
to the parrs already designee!, there being no such thing
as  designing with strict justness, but by comparing and
proportioning every part to the first.  All  the other rules
relate to  perspective.  See Painting, and PERsrEc-
TIVE.
   DESON tort  demesn,  in law, a formula used in
action of trespass,  by way of reply to the defendant':;
plea; signifying that the trespass was his  own voluntary
and free act.
   DETACHED  PIECES,  in fortification, are  such
outworks as are detached or at a distance from the bo-
dy of the place; as demilunes, ravelins, bastions, &c. In
painting the figures are said to be well detached, when
they stand free and disengaged from each other.
   DETACHMENT, in military affairs,  a certain num-
ber of soldiers drawn out from several regiments or com-
panies equally, to be employed as the general thinks pro-
per; whether on an attack, at a siege, or in parties to
scour the country.   A detachment of two or three thou-
sand men, is a command for a brigadier;  eight hundred,
for a colonel;  four  or five hundred, for a lieutenant-
colonel. A captain never marches  on a detachment with
less  than  fifty  men, a lieutenant,  an ensign, and two
 Serjeants. A lieutenant is allowed  thirty, and a serjeant;
 ami a serjeant ten  or twelve  men.  Detachments are
 sometimes made of entire squadrons and  battalions.
    DETENTS, in clock-work, are  those stops, wbich
 by being lifted  up  or let down, lock or unlock the clock
 in striking.   See Clock-work.
    Detent-wheel, or hoop-wheel, in a clock, that wheel
 which has a hoop  almost  round it, in which there is a
 vacancy at which the clock locks.
    DETERGENTS, in pharmacy, such  medicines as
 are not only softening and adhesive, but also, by apecuhar
 activity, conjoined wto a suitable configuration of parts,
 are apt to abrade, urn; carry  along with them, such par-
 ticles as  they lay  hold on in  their passage. See Phar-
 macy.
    DETERMINATE  problem,  in geometry,  that
 which has but  one, or at least, a limited number of an-
 swers.
    D ETINUE  is a writ which lies where any man comes
 to goods or chattels either by delivery or  by finding, and
 refuses to re-deliver them; and it lies for the detaining;
 when the  detaining was unlawful.   1  Inst. 28G. 
D  E  V                                             DItE
  In this writ the plaintiff shall recover the thing detain-
ed; and therefore it must be so certain, as that it may he
specifically known.  Therefore it. cannot be brought for
money, corn, or the like, for that cannot be known from
othc r money or corn, unless it is in a bag or sack,  for
then it may be distinguishably marked.   Ibid.
  But detinue may be brought for a piece of gold of the
price of 21s. though notfor21.s. in money;  for there is a
demand ofa particular piece.  Buller, N. P. 50.
  In order therefore to ground an action of detinue,
which  is only for the detaining, these points are neces-
sary: 1.  That the defendant came lawfully by the goods,
as either by delivery to him,  or finding them.  2. That
the plaintiff has  a property.   3. That the goods them-
selves are of value.  And 4. that they be ascertained in
point of identity.  Upon this,  the jury,  if tbey find for
the plaintiff, assess the respective values of the several
parcels detained, and also damages for the. detention;
and the judgment is conditional, that the plaintiff recov-
er the said goods1, or (if they cannot be had) their  re-
spective  values,  and also  the damages for  detaining
them.  lb.
  Detince of charters.  An action of detinue lies
for charters which make the title of lands; and the heir
may have detinue of charters,  although he have not  the
land.  But if they concern the freehold, the action must
be in the common-pleas, and no other court.
  DETONATION, in  chemistry,  the noise and explo-
sion which any substance makes upon the application of
fire to it.  It is also called fulmination; such are the  ex-
plosions of gunpowder,  of fulminating silver, gold, kc
  DETRAN CHE', in heraldry, a line  bendwise, pro-
ceeding always from the dexter side but not from the ve-
ry angle, diagonally athwart the shield.
  DEVASTAVIT, or devastaruntbonatcstatoris, inlaw,
is a writ which lies against executors, for paying debts
for simple contract, before  debts or bonds, and speciali-
ties, or the like; for in this place the executors are as li-
able to action, as if they had wasted the goods of the tes-
tator riotously, or converted them to their own use; and
are compellable to pay such debts  by speciality  out of
their own goods,  to the value of what they so paid ille-
gally.  Cowcl.
  By the 30 C. II.  c. 7.  if  an excecutor de son tort
waste the goods and die, his executors shall be liable in
the same manner as their  testator  would have been, if
he had been living.  And  it has since been adjudged,
that a rightful  executor, who wastes the goods of the tes-
tator, is in effect  an executor  de son tort, for abusing
his trust.  5 Mod. 113. And  his executor  or adminis-
trator is made  liable to a devastavit by 4 and 5 W. and
M. c. 24.
  DEVENERUNT, in law,  a writ directed to the  es-
rheator, when  any tenant of the king holding in capite,
died: and when his s n and heir, within age, and in the
king's custody, died; then this writ issued,  commanding
the esc heator,  that he,  by the oath of good and  lawful
men, inquire what lands and tenements,  by the death of
the tenant, came to the. king.   Dyer, 360. pi. 4.
  DEVESTING, in old law-books, the reverse of  in-
vesting or in>c.->titurc.  See the article Investiture.
  DEVISE, ov device, in heraldry, painting, and sculp-
ture, any emblem  usod to represent a certain family, per-
son, action, or quality; with a suitable motto, applied in
a figurative sense.
  Devise,  in law, the act whereby a person bequeaths
his lands or tenements to  another, by his last will and
testament.   The  person  who  makes  this act, is called
the devisor, and he in whose favour the act is made, is
termed in law the devisee.
  DEVOTION,  devotio, a sincere and ardent worship
of the deity.
  DEVOURING, in heraldry, is when  fishes  are borne
in an escutcheon in a feeding posture, for tbey swallow
all the meat whole.
  DEW,  a dense moist vapour, falling on the earth in
form of a misling rain.  See Meteorology.
  DEXTANS, in Roman antiquity, ten ounces, ori° of
their libra.
  DEXTER, in heraldry,  an appellation given to what-
ever belongs to the right side  of the  shield,  or coat of
arms: thus we say,  bend-dexter, dexter point,  &c.
  DIABETES,  in physic, an excesssive discharge of
urine, whi  h comes away crude, and exceeds the quan-
tity of liquids drunk.   See Medicine.
  DI ACAUSTIC curve, a species of the caustic curves
formed bv  refraction. Thus if you imagine an  infinite
number of rays BA, BM, BD, See. (PI. XLIII.  Miscel.
fig. 40)  issuing from the same luminous point B to be
refracted to or from the perpendicular MC by  the given
curve AMD, and so that CE,  the  sines ofthe  angles of
incidence CME, be always to  CG, the sii;;s  ofthe re-
fracted angles CMG,  in  a  given  ratio; then  the curve
HFN,  which  touches all the refracted  rays,  is called
the diacaustic, or  caustic refraction.   See  Caustic
curve.
  DIACHYLON, in pharmacy, an  emollient digestive
plaster.   Sec Pharmacy.
  DIADELPHIA, in the Linnaean system of botany, a
class of plants, the seventeenth in order; comprehending
all those with papilionaceous and hermaphrodite flowers,
and leguminous seed-vessels.  See  Botany.
  DIADEM, in antiquity, a head-hand, or allet, worn
by kings,  as a badge of  their royalty.  It was made of
silk, thread, or wool, and  tied round the temples and
forehead, the ends being  tied behind, and let fall on the
neck. It was usually white, and quite plain, though some-
times embroidered with  gold,  and set with pearls and
precious stones.   In latter  times,  it came to be  twisted
round crowns, laurels, &c. and even appears to have
been worn on divers parts of the body.
  Diadem, in heraldry,  is applied to certain  circles or
rims, serving to inclose  the crowns of sovereigns  and
to bear the globe  and cross,  or the  flower-de-iuccs for
their crest.
  DIAERESIS, in surgery, an operation serving to di-
vide and separate the part when the continuity is  a
hindrance to cure.  See Surgery.
  Debresis, in medicine, is the consuming ofthe vessels
of an animal body.  Sec Medicine.
  Dijsresis, in  grammar, the division of one syllable
into two. which is usually  noted by  two points  over a
letter, as  aulai instead  of aulae,  dissolucnda for dis-
solvenda.
  DLETETjE,  in Grecian antiquity, a kind of judges,
of which there were two sorts, the eleroti and dialluc- 
D I A
D I A
corii.  The former were public arbitrators, chosen by lot
to determine all causes exceeding ten drachms, within
their own tribe, and from their sentence an appeal lay to
the superior courts.
   DIAGNOSTIC,  in medicine,  a term given to those
signs which indicate the present state of a disease, its
nature and cause.  See Medicine.
   DIAGONAL, in  geometry, a right line drawn across
a quadrilateral  figure, from  one  angle to another, hy
some  called the diameter.  Thus  ab in  plate  Miscel.
fig. 41. is called a diagonal. It is demonstrable, 1. That
every diagonal divides a parallelogram into two equal
pails.  2. That two diagonals drawn in any parallelo-
gram bisect each other.  3. A line/£, passing through
the middle point of the diagonal of a parallelogram, di-
vides the figure into two equal parts. 4.  That the dia-
gonal of  a square is incommensurable  with one of its
sides.  5. That the sum of the squares ofthe  diagonals
of every parallelogram is  equal to the sum of the squares
of the four sides.
   DIAGRAM, in geometry, a scheme for explaining
and demonstrating the properties of any figure, whether
triangle, square, circle, &c.
   Diagram, among  musicians (from the Greek), the
name given by the  ancients to the table,  or model, re-
presenting all the sounds of their system.
   DIAL, or sun-dial, is a plane,  upon which lines are
described in such  a manner, that the shadow of a wire,
or of the upper edge of  a plate stile,  erected  perpendi-
cularly on the plane of the dial, may show the true time
of the day.  The edge of the plate by which the time of
the day  is found,  is called the stile of the dial, which
must be parallel to the earth's axis; and the line on which
the said plate is erected, is called the substile.  The an-
gle included between  the substile and stile, is  called the
elevation, or height of the stile.
   Those dials whose planes are parallel to the plane of
the horizon, are called horizontal  dials; and those dials
whose planes are perpendicular to the plane of the hori-
zon, are called vertical or erect dials.
   Those erect  dials, whose planes directly  front the
north or south, are called direct north or south dials;
and all other erect dials  are  called decliners,  because
their planes are turned away from the north or south.
   Those dials, whose planes  are neither  parallel nor
perpendicular to the plane of  their horizon,  are called
inclining or reclining dials, according as their planes
make acute or obtuse angles with  the  horizon; and if
their planes arc also turned aside from  facing the south
or north, they are called declining-inclining  or declin-
ing-reclining dials.
   The intersection of the  plane of the dial, with that of
the meridian, passing through the stile,  is called the me-
ridian of the dial, or the  hour-line of XII.
   Those meridians, whose planes pass through the stile,
and make angles of 15, 30, 45, 60, 75,  and 90 degrees
with  the meridian of the place (which  marks the hour-
line of  12), are called hour-circles; and their intersec-
tions with the plane ofthe dial, are called hour-lines.
   In all declining dials, the substile makes an angle with
the hour-line of XII; and this angle is called the distance
of the substile from the meridian.
   The declining plane's difference of longitude, is the
angle formed at the intersection of the stile and plane of
the dial, by two meridians; one of which passes through
the hour-line of XII, and the other through the substile.
  AVe shall now proceed to explain the different princi-
ples of their construction.
  The universal principle on  which dialing depends.—
If the whole  earth a P cp  (Plate  XLl. fig. l.) were
transparent and hollow, like a sphere of glass, and had
its equator  divided into twenty-four equal parts by so
many meridian semicircles, a, b, c, d, e,f, g, &(v one of
which is the geographical meridian of any given  place
as London (which is supposed to be at the point aV and'
if the hours of XII were marked at  the equator, both up-
on that meridian and the opposite one, and all the rest
of the hours in order on the rest of the meridians; those
meridians would be the hour-circles of London: tben, if
the sphere had an opake  axis, as PE/>, tcrminatm" in
the poles P and p, the shadow of the axis would fall up-
on every particular meridian aud  hour, when the sun
came to the plane of the opposite meridian,  and  would
consequently show the  time at Londou, and at all other
places on the  meridian  of London.
  Horizontal  dial.—If  this  sphere  was cut through the
middle hy a solid plane  AB  CD, in the rational horizon
of London,  one  half of the axis  EP would be  above tbe
plane, and the other half below it; and if straight lines
were  drawn from the centre of the plane, to those points
where its circumference is cut by the hour-circles  of the
sphere, those  lines would be the hour-lines of a horizon-
tal dial for London:  for the  shadow of the axis  would
fall upon each particular hour-line of the dial, when it
fell upon the like hour-circle of the sphere.
  Vertical dials.—If the plane which cuts the sphere be
upright, as AF C G (fig. 2), touching the given place
(London) at F, and directly facing the meridian of Lon-
don, it will then become the plane of an erect direct south
dial;  and if right lines he drawn from its centre E, to
those points of its circumference where the hour-circles
of the sphere cut it, these will be the hour-lines of a ver-
tical or direct south dial for London, to which the hours
arc to be set as in the figure (contrary to those on a ho-
rizontal dial); and the lower half Ep of the axis will cast
a shadow on the hour of the day in  this dial, at the same
time that it would fall  upon the like hour-circle of the
sphere, if the dial-plane was not in the way.
   Inclining and reclining dials.—If the plane (still fac-
ing the  meridian) be made to incline, or recline, by any
given number of degrees, the hour-circles ofthe sphere
will still cut  the edge  of the plane  in those points to
which the hour-lines must be drawn straight from the
centre; and the  axis of the sphere will cast a shadow oi
these lines at the respective hours.   The liko will still
hold, if the plane be made to decline by any given num-
ber of degrees from the meridian,  towards the east or
west:  provided the declination  be  less than  ninety de-
grees, or the reclination be less than the co-latitude ot
the place; and the axis of the sphere will be a gnomon,
or stile, for the dial. But it cannot be a gnomon, when
the declination  is quite 90 degrees, nor when the recli-
nation is equal to the co-latitude; because, in these tw»
cases, the axis has no  elevation above the plane of the
di.*!.
   And thus it appears, that the plane of every dial re- 
DIAL.
presents the plane of some great circle upon the earth;
and the gnomon the earth's axis;  whether it be a small
wire, as in the above figures, or the edge of a thin plate,
as in the common horizontal dials.
  The whole earth, as to its bulk, is but a point, if com-
pared to  its distance from the sun:  and therefore, if a
small sphere of glass be placed upon any part  of the
earth's surface, so that its axis be parallel to the axis of
the tHitb; and  the  sphere have such lines upon  it, ami
such planes within it, as  above described; it will show
the hours#of the day as truly  as if it were placed at the
earth's centre, and the shell of  the earth were as trans-
parent as glass.  See figs.  1 and 2.
  But because it is impossible  to have a hollow sphere
of glass perfectly true, blown round a solid plane; or if
it was, we could not get at the plane within the glass to
set it in  any  given position; we make  use  of a wire
sphere to explain  the principles of dialing,  by joining
twenty-four semicirc les  together at the poles, aud put-
ting a tlnn flat plate of  brass w ithin it. *
  Dialing by the common  terrestrial  globe.—A common
globe, of twelve inches diameter, has generally twenty-
lour meridian semicircles drawn upon it. If such a globe
be elevated to  the latitude of  a given place,  and turned
about until any of  these meridians  cuts  the  horizon in
the north point, where the hour of XII is supposed  to
be marked; the rest of the meridians will cut the horizon
at the respective distances of all the other hours from
XII.  Then, if these points of distance be marked on the
horizon;  and the globe be taken out of the horizon, and
a fiat board or plate be put into its place, even with the
surface of the horizon;  and if  straight lines  be drawn
from the centre of the hoard, to those points of distance
on the horizon which were cut by the twenty-four meri-
dian semicircles; these lines  will be the hour-lines of a
horizontal dial for that latitude, the edge of whose gno-
mon must be in the very same situation that the axis of
tb'' globo was, before it was taken  out of the horizon:
that is, the gnomon must make an angle with the plane
of the dial, equal  to the latitude of  the place for which
flic dial is made.
  If the pole of the globe be elevated to the co-latitude*
of the given place, and any meridian be brought to the
north point of the  horizon, the rest of the meridians will
cut the  horizon  in the  respective distances  of  all  the
hours from XII, for a direct south  dial, whose gnomon
must make an angle with the  plane ofthe dial, equal to
the co-latitude of the place; and the hours must be set
the contrary way  on this dial, to what they  are on the
horizontal.
  But if jour globe have more than twenty-four meri-
dian semicirc les  upon it, you must take the following
method for making horizontal and south dials by it.
   7.) construct a horizontal dial.—Elevate the  pole to
the latitude of your place, and turn the globe until any
particular meridian (suppose the first) comes to the north
point of  the horizon, and the opposite meridian will cut
the horizon in  the south. Then, set the hour-index to the
uppermost Ml on its circle;  which done, turn the globe
westward until fifteen degrees of the equator pass under
  *  T ihe latitude be subtracted from  90 degrees, the remainder is
called Ujc colaUude, or complement of the latitude.  See Geo&ha.
PHY
the hrason meridian, and then Ihc hour-index  will be at
I (for the sun moves fifteen degrees every hour); and
the first meridian will cut the horizon in the number oi'
degrees from the north point, that I is distant from XII.
Turn on, untilfifteen more  degrees of the  equator pas-
under the brazen meridian, and the hour-index will be-
then at II, and the first meridian will cut the horizon in
the number of degrees that II is distant from  XII: and
so,  by making fifteen degrees of the equator pass under
the brazen meridian for every hour, the  first meridian oi
the globe will cut the horizon in the distances of  all the
hours from XII to VI, which is just ninety degrees; and
then you need go no farther; for the distances of XL X,
IX, VIII, VII, and VI, in the forenoon, are the same from
XII, as the distances of I, II, III,  IV, V, and  VI, intue
afternoon: and  these hour-lines continued through  the
centre, will give the opposite hour-lines on the other half
of the dial: but no more of these lines  need  be drawn,
than what answer to the sun's continuance above the ho
rizon of your place on the longest day, which may be ea-
sily found.
  Thus, to make an horizontal dial for the latitude of
London, which is about 51 \ degrees north, elevate  the
north pole of the globe 51 \  degrees above the north point
of the horizon, and then turn the  globe, until the first
meridian  (which is that of London on the English ter-
restrial globe) cuts the north point of the  horizon, and
set the hour-index  to XII at noon.
  Then,  turning the globe westward  until  the index
points successively to I, II, III, IV, V, and VI, in the
afternoon; or until 15, 30, 45, 60, 75, and 90 degrees of
the equator pass under the brazen meridian, you will find
that the first meridian of the globe cuts the horizon in
the following numbers of degrees from the north towards
the east, viz. 11|,  24|, 38T^, 53§, 71TlT, and 90; which
are the respective distances  of the above  hours  from XII
upon the plane of the horizon.
  To transfer these, and the rest of the hours to a hori-
zontal plane, draw the parallel right lines a c and b d
(fig. 3) upon that  plane,  as far from each other as is
equal to the intended thickness of the gnomon or  stile of
the dial, and the space included  between them will be
the meridian or twelve-o'clock line on  the dial.  Cross
this meridian at right angles with the six-o'clock line
g h, and setting one foot of your  compasses in  the in-
tersection «, as  a centre, describe the quadrant £ e with
any convenient radiup or opening of  the compasses;
then setting one foot in  the intersection b as a centre,
with the same radius  describe the quadrant/ h, and di-
vide each quadrant into ninety equal parts or degrees,
as in the figure.
  Because the hour-lines are less distant from each other
about noon, than in any other part of the dial, it  is best
to have the centres of these quadrants at a little distance
from the centre of the dial-plane, on the side opposite to
XII, in order to enlarge the hour-distances  thereabout
under the same angles on the plane. Tliu.i, the centre of
the plane is at C, but the centres of the quadrants at a
and 6.
  Lay a ruler over the point b; and keeping it there for
the centre of all the afternoon hours in the quadrant Th;
draw the hour-line of I, through l if degrees in the qua-
drant; the hour-line of II,  through 241  degrees; of III, 
DIAL.
through 38T\ degrees; IV through 53|, and V through
71-^:  and because the sun rises about four in the morn-
ing on  the longest days at  London, continue the hour-
lines of IV and V, in the afternoon, through the centre
b to the opposite side of the dial. This done, lay the ru-
ler to the centre a of the quadrant e g, and through the
like divisions or degrees of that quadrant, viz. llf, 24£,
38T^,  53|, and 71TXT, draw the forenoon hour-lines of
XI, X, IX, VIII, and VII; and  because the  sun sets
not before eight in the evening on the longest days, con-
tinue the  hour-lines of VII and VIII in the forenoon,
through the centre a, to  VII and VIII in the afternoon;
and all the hour-lines will be finished on this dial; to
which the hours may be set, as in the figure.
   Lastly, through 51 § degsees of either quadrant,  and
from its centre, draw thej$ght line a g for the hypothe-
nuse or axis of the gnoh^fca g i; and from g,  let fall
the  perpendicular g i, upon the meridian line a i, and
there will be a triangle made, whose sides are a g, g i,
and i a.  If a plate similaj0o this triangle  be made as
thick as the distance betWegftrthe lines a c and  b d, and
set upright between them, touching at a and b; its hypo-
thenuse a g will  be parallel to  the axis  of the world,
when the dial is truly set, and will cast a shadow on the
hour of the day.
   The trouble of dividing  the two quadrants may be
saved,  by means of a scale with a line of chords upon it:
for  if we extend the compasses from 0 to 60 degrees of
the  line of chords; and with that extent, as a radius, de-
scribe the two quadrants upon their respective centres,
the  above distances may be  taken with the compasses
upon the line,  and set off upon the quadrants.  See In-
 struments MATHEMATICAL.
   To make an erect direct south dial.—Elevate the pole
 to the co-latitude  of your place, and proceed in all res-
 pects as above taught for the horizontal dial, from VI in
 the morning to VI in the afternoon; only the hours must
 be reversed as in figure 4, and the bypothenuse a g, of
 the gnomon a g f, must make an  angle  with the dial-
 plane equal to the co-latitude of the place.  As the sun
can shine  no  longer on this dial, than  from six in the
 morning until six in the exening,  tliere is no occasion
 for  having any more than twelve hours upon it.
   To make an erect dial, declining from the south towards
the  east or west.—Elevate the pole to the latitude of
your place,  and screw  the quadrant of  altitude to the
 zenith. Then if the dial declines towards the east (which
we will suppose it to do at present), count in the horizon
the  degrees of declination, from the east  point towards
the  north, and bring the lower end of the quadrant to
that degree of declination at which the reckoning ends.
This done, bring  any particular meridian of your globe
 (as  suppose the first meridian) directly  under the gra-
duated edge of the upper  part of- the brazen meridian,
and set the hour-index to XII  at noon.  Then, keeping
the  quadrant of altitude at the degree of declination in
the horizon, turn  the globe eastward on its axis, and ob-
 serve the degrees  cut  by the  first meridian  in the qua-
 drant of altitude (counted from the zenith) as the hour-
 index comes to XI, X, IX, *cc. in the forenoon, or as 15,
 30, 45, &c. degrees of the equator pass under the brazen
meridian  at these hours respectively; and the degrees
'then cut in the quadrant by the first meridian,  are the
respective distances of the  forenoon hours from XII on
the plane of the dial.  For the afternoon hours, turn the
quadrant of altitude round  the  zenith until  it comes-to
the degree in the  horizon opposite to that where it was
placed before; namely, as far from flic west point  of the
horizon towards the south, as it was set at first from the
east point towards the north;  and turn the globe west-
ward  on its axis,  until the first meridian comes to the
brazen meridian again, and the hour-index to XII: then
continue to turn the globe westward,  and as the  index
points to the afternoon hours I,  II, III, kc. or as 15 30
45, kc. degrees ofthe equator pass under tiie brazen
meridian, the first meridian will cut the quadrant of al-
titude in the respective number of degrees from the ze-
nith, that each of  these hours is  from XII on the dial.
And note, that when the first meridian goes off the qua-
drant at the horizon, in the forenoon, the hour-index
shows the time when the sun will come upon  this dial-
and when it goes off the quadrant in the afternoon, the
index will point to the time when the sun goes off the
dial.
  Having thus found all the hour-distances from XII,
lay them down upon your dial-plate, either by dividing
a semicircle into  two quadrants of ninety degrees each
beginning at  the  hour-line of  XII, or by the line of
chords.
  In all declining dials, the line on which the stile or
gnomon stands, commonly called the substile-line, makes
an  angle with the twelve-o'clock line, and falls among
the forenoon  hour-lines, if the dial declines toward the
east; and among the afternoon  hour-lines, when the dial
declines towards the west; that is, to the left hand from
the twelve-o'clock line in the former case, and to the right
hand from it in the latter.
  To find the distance of the substile from the twelve-
o'clock line.—If your dial declines  from the south to-
wards the east, count the degrees of that declination in
the horizon from the east  point towards the north, and
bring the lower end of the quadrant of altitude to that
degree  of declination where the reckoning ends:  then,
turn the globe until the first meridian cuts the horizon
in the like number of degrees, counted from the south
point toward the east; and the  quadrant and first, meri-
dian will then cross one another at  right angles;  and
the number of degrees ofthe quadrant wbich are inter-
cepted between the first meridian and the zenith, is equal
to the distance of the substile line from the twelve-o'clock
line; and the  number of degrees of the-first meridian,
which  are intercepted between  the  quadrant and the
north pole, is equal to the elevation of the stile above the
plane of the dial.
  If the dial declines westward  from the south,  count
that declination from the east point of the horizon to-
wards  the south,  and bring the quadrant  of altitude to
the degree in  the horizon at which the reckoning ends;
both for finding the forenoon hours, and the distance of
the substile from  the  meridian;  and for  the  afternoon
hours, bring the quadrant to the  opposite degree  in the
horizon, namely, as far from the west towards the  north,
and then proceed in all respects as above.
  Thus we have finished our  declining dial: and in so
doing, we made four dials, viz.
   1. A north dial, declining eastward by the same num- 
DIAL.
 ber of degrees; 2. a north «H;0, declining the same num-
 ber west; .3. a south dial, declining east: and, 4. a south
 dial, declining west: only, placing the proper number of
 hours, and the stile  or gnomon respectively, upon  each
 plane.  For. in  the south-west plane, the substilar line
 falls amoticr the afternoon horns, and in the south-east of
 the same declination, among the forenoon hours, at equal
 distances from XII.  And so all  the morning hours on the
 west dccliner will be like the afternoon hours on the cast
 decliner: the south-east  dccliner will produce tbe north-
 west decliner; and the south-west decliner, the north-east
 dccliner; by only extending the hour-lines, stile, and sub-
 stile, quite through the  centre: the axis of the stile,  or
 edge that casts the shadow on the hour of the day, being
 in all dials whatever parallel  to tbe axis of the  world,
 and consequently pointing towards tiie north pole of the
 heavens in north latitudes, and towards the south pole iu
 south latitudes.
   An easy method for construct! :>g of dials.—But because
 every one win; would like to make  a dial, may perhaps
 not be provided with a globe to assist him, and may pro-
 bably not understand the method of doing it by logarith-
 mic calculation;  we shall  show how to perform it by the
 plain dialing-lines, or scale  of latitudes and hours (see
 fig. 5).  Scales of this kind are sold by all mathematical
 instrument-makers.
   This is the easiest of all mechanical methods, and hy
 much the be st. when the lines are truly divided: not only
 the half hours and  quarters may  be laid down by all of
 them,  by every  fifth minute by most, and every single
 minute by those where the line of hours is a foot in length.
   Having drawn a double meridian line a b,c d (fig. 6),
 on the plane intended for an horizontal dial, and crossed
 it at right angles by the six-o'clock  line/e (as in fig. 3),
 take the latitude of your place with the compasses, in the
 scale of latitudt s, and set that extent from c to e, and from
 a to/, on tbe six-o'clock  line; then,  taking the whole six
 hours between the points of the compasses in the scale of
 hours, with that extent set one foot in the point e, and let
 the other toot fall where  it will upon the meridian line c
 d, as at d.   Do the same from/to 6, and draw the right
 lines e d and fb, each of  which will be equal in length to
 the whole scale of hours.   This done, setting one foot of
 the compasses in the beginning of the scale at XII, and
 extending the other to each hour on the scale, lay off these
 extents from d to e for the afternoon hours, and from b to/
 for those of the forenoon; this will divide the lines de and
 bf in the same manner as the hour-scale is divided, at 1,
 C, 3, 4, 5, and 6; on which the quarters may also be laid
 down, if required.  Then laying a  ruler on the point c,
 draw the first five hours in the afternoon, from that point,
 through  the dots at the numeral figures 1, 2,  5, 4, 5, on
 the line d e; and continue the lines  of IV and V through
 the centre c  to the other side ofthe dial, fur the like hours
 of tlie morning; which done, lay the ruler on the point a,
 and draw the last five hours in the forenoon through the
 dots 5, 4, ;", 2. 1, on lhe lin/6: continuing the hour-lines
 of VII and VIII through the centre a to the other side of
 the dial, for the  like houi> of  the  evening; and set the
 hours to their respective  lines as in the figure.   Lastly,
make the gnomon the same way as taught above for the
horizontal dial, uud the whole will be finished.
  To viake cr. erect south dial.—Take the co-latitude of
 the place from this scale of latitudes, and then proceed in
 all respects for the hour-lines as in the horizontal  dial;
 only reversing the hours, as in fig.  0; and making the an-
 gle ofthe stile's height equal to the co-latitude.
   The dialing-lines (fig. 5) arc  large enough for makin.?
 a dial of nine inches or more in diameter, and tbey are
 drawn sufficiently  exact for common practice,  to every
 quarter of an hour.  This scale may be cut  off from the
 plate and pasted upon the wood or p.isreboard, which wii!
 render it somewhat more exact than it is on the plate: for
 being  rightly  divided upon the copper-plate, and printer'
 off on  wet paper, it s'iriiiks as the paper dries; but when
 it is wetted again, it stretches to the same size as when
 newly printed; and if pasted on  while wet, it will remai:.
 of that size afterwards.
   We shall now show how to make a dial without these
 helps.  Divide a quadrant into 90 equal parts or degrees
 for taking the pr >per angle of the stile's elevation, which
 is easily done.
   To describe  an horizontal dial.—With any opening of
 the compasses, as Z L (fig. 7),  describe tbe two semicir-
 cles L F k and L Q/c,  upon the centres Z and z, v. !;ere
 the six-o'clock line crosses the double meridian line, and
 divide each semicircle into twelve equal parts, beginning
 at L;  then  connect tbe divisions which are equidistant
 from L, by the  parallel lines K  M, J N, II 0, G P, ami
 F Q.  Draw V Z for  the hypothenuse ofthe stile, ma-
 king the angle V Z E equal to the latitude of your place;
 and continue the line V Z to R.  Draw the line R r pa-
 rallel to the six-o'clock line, and set off the distance a K
 from Z to Y, the  distance  6 I from Z to X, c II from Z
 to W, -f d g from Z to T,  and e F from Z to  S.  Then
 draw the lines S s, Tt, Ww, Xx, and Y y, each parallel
 to R r.  Set off the distance Y y from a to 11, and from
/to 1; the distance x X from 6 to 10, and fromgto 2; w
 W from c to 9, and from h to 3; t T from d to 8, and from
 i to 4; s S from e  to 7,  and from n to 5.  Then laying a
 ruler  to  the  centre  Z, draw the  forenoon  hour-lines
 through the points 11, 10,  9, 8, 7;  and  laying it to the
 centre %, draw the afternoon lines through the points 1, 2,
 3, 4, 5: continuing the fore-noon lines of VII and VIII
 through the centre Z, to the opposite side of the dial, for
 the like afternoon hours; and the afternoon lines IV and
 V through the centre «. to the opposite side, for the like
 morning hours.   Set the hours to  these  lines as in the
 figure, and then erect the stile or gnomon; and the hori-
 zontal dial will be finished.
   To  construct a south dial, draw  the line V Z, making
 an angle with the  meridian Z L equal to the co-latitude
 of your  place;  and proceed  in all  respects  as in  the
 above horizontal  dial  for the same latitude,  reversing
 the hours,  and making the elevation of  the gnomon
 equal to the co-latitude.
   We shall now,  to  render this article complete,  ex-
 plain tbe method of constructing the dialing-lines, and
 some others.
   With any opening of the compasses, as E A (fig  8)
 according to the intended  length ,,f the scale,  describe
 the circle ADCB, and cross it at right angles by  the
 diameters C E A and DEB.  Divide the quadrant \ B
 first into nine equal parts,  and then each  part into ten-
 so shall the quadrant be divid-,1 into ninety equal parti
 or degrees.  Draw the right line  AFB for the chord 
DIAL.
 of this quadrant, and setting one foot of the compasses
 in the point A, extend the other to the several div isions
 of the  quadrant, and transfer  these  divisions to the
 line  AFB by  the arcs  10  10, 20 20, &c. and  this
 will be a line of chords, divided into  90 uneqal parts;
 which, if transferred from the line back again to the
 quadrant,  will  divide it equally.  It  is  plain by the
 figure, that  the distance  from A to 60  in  the line of
 chords, is just  equal to AE, the radius of the circle
 from which that line is made.
•   And therefore, in  laying down  any number of de-
 grees on a circle by the line  of chords, you must first
 open the compasses, so as to take in just 60 degrees  upon
 that line, as from A to  60: and then,  with  that extent
 as a  radius,  describe a circle which will be of the  same
 size with that from which the line  was divided: which
 done, set one foot of the compasses in the beginning of
 the  chord line,  as at A,  and extend  the other to the
 number of degrees  you want upon  the line, which ex-
 tent, applied to the circle,  will include the like number
 of degrees upon it.
   Divide the quadrant CD  into 90  equal parts, and
 from each point of division draw right lines as i,  k, I,
 &c.  perpendicular to the line E C, which will divide it
 into a line of sines; and although these arc  seldom put
 among the dialing-lines on a  scale, yet they  assist in
 drawing the line of latitudes.   For, if a ruler  be  laid
 upon the point D, and over each division in the line of
 sines, it will divide the quadrant C B into  90 unequal
 parts, as B a, ab, kc. shown by the right lines  10 a, 20,
 b, 50 c,  Sec. drawn along the  ei\ge ofthe ruler. If the
 right line  B C  be drawn, subtending this  quadrant,
.and the nearest distances B a, B b, B c, kc. be taken in
 the compasses from  B,  and set upon this  line in the
 same manner as directed for the line of chords, it will
 make a line of latitudes B  C, equal in length to the line
 of chords  A B, and of an equal number of divisions,
 but unequal as to their lengths.
   Draw the right line D GA, subtending the  quadrant
 ~B A; and parallel to it, draw the right line r s, touch-
ing the quadrant  D A at the numeral figure  3.   Divide
 this quadrant into six equal parts,  as  1, 2,  3,  &c. and
 through these points  of division  draw right lines  from
 the  centre E  to the line r s, which  will divide  it at
 the points where the six hours are  to  be placed,  as in
 the figure.  If every sixth  part of the quadrant be sub-
 divided into  four equal parts;  right lines drawn  from
 the centre though these points of division, and contin-
 ued to  the line  r s, will divide each hour upon it into
quarters.
  A dial on a Card.—In fig. 9, we have the representa-
 tion of a portable dial,  which may be easily drawn on
 a card, and carried in a pocket-book.  The  lines a d,
*l b, and b c, of the gnomon, must be cut quite through
 the card; and as the end a b  of the gnomon is raised
 occasionally  above the plane  of the dial, it turns  upon
 the uncut line c d as on  a hinge.  The dotted line A B
 must be  slit quite  through the  card; and  the thread
 must he nut through the slit,  and have a knot tied be-
 hind, to keep it from being easily drawn out.   On the
 other end of this  thread is  a small plummet D, and on
 the middle of it a small bead for showing the  time of
 the day.
   To rectify this  dial, set the thread in the slit right
against the day  of the  month,  and stretch the thread
from the day of the month  over the angular point
where the curve-lines meet at XII; then shift the bead
to that point on the thread,  and the dial will  be rer
tified.
   To find the hour of the day,  raise the gnomon (no
matter how much or how little), and hold the  edge of
the dial next the gnomon towards the  sun, so that the
uppermost edge of the shadow of the gnomon may just
cover the shadow-line; and the bead then playing freely
on the face of the dial, by the weight of the plummet
will show the  time of the day among the hour-lines as
it is forenoon or afternoon.
   To find the time of sun-rising and setting,  move the
thread among the  hour-lines, until it either covers sonic
one of them, or lies parallel  betwixt any two;  and then
it will cut the time  of sun-rising among the  forenoon
hours, and of sun-setting among the afternoon hours,
on that day  of the year for which  the thrtad is set in
the scale of months.
   To find the sun's declination, stretch the thread from
the day ofthe  month over the angular point at XII, and
it will cut the sun's declination, as it is north or  south,
for that day,  in the arched  scale of north and  south
declination.
   To find on what days the sun enters the signs; when
the bead, as  above rectified, moves along  any  of the
curve lines which have the signs of the zodiac marked
upon them, the sun enters those  signs on the da)*;
pointed out hy the thread i» the scale of months.
   The construction of this dial is very easy, especially
if the  reader  compares  it all  along with fig. 10, as he
reads the following explanation of that figure.
   Draw the occult line A B  (fig. 10),  parallel  to th«
top of the card,  and cross it at right angles with the
six-o'clock line E C D;  then upon  (J, as a centre, with
the radius C A, describe the semicircle A E L, and di-
vide it into twelve equal parts (beginning at A), as A
r, A s, kc. and from these points of division, draw the
hour-lines r, s, t, u, v, E, w, and x, all parallel  to the
six-o'clock line E  C.  If each part of the semicircle he
subdivided into four equal parts, they will give the half-
hour lines and quarters, as  in fig. 9.  Draw the right
line A S D o, making the  angle S A B equal to the lati-
tude of your place.   Lpon the  centre A describe the
arch R S T, and set off upon it the arcs S R and S T,
each equal to 25£  degrees, for 1ho sun's greatest decli-
nation;  and divide them into 23\ equal parts, as in fig.
9.  Through the intersection D of the lines E C D and
A D o,  draw the right line  F D G at  right angles to
A D o.  Lay  a ruler to the points A and R, and draw
the lineARF through 23| degrees of south declination
in the arc S R; and then laying the ruler to the  points
A and T, draw the line ATG through 23 J degrees of
north  declination in the  arc  ST: so shall  the lines
ARF and ATG cut the line FDG  in  the  proper
length for the scale of months.    Upon the centre D,
with the radius DF, describe the semicircle F o  G; and
divide it into six equal parts, F  m, m n, n o, kc. and
from these points of division draw the right lines mh,
n i, p k, and  q I,  each  parallel to o D.   Then .setting
one foot of tbe compasses in the point  F, extend the 
DIAL.
r.iher to A, and describe the aiv A Z II for Ihc tropic of
vj; with the same extent, setting one foot in G. describe
the arc A E O for the tropic of s.  >'ext setting one
foot in the point /», and extending the other to  A, de-
scribe the arc A C I for  the beginnings of the signs «*
and i; and with the same extent, setting one foot in the
point /, describe the arc  AN for the beginnings ofthe
signs n  and  SI.  Set one foot in the  point ?, and having
extended the other to A,  describe the  arc A K for the
beginnings of the sl^-iis x  and ni,: and with the same ex-
tent,  sci one foot in k, and describe the arc A M for the
beginnings of the  signs «  and tijj.   Then, setting one
foot in the point D, ard extending the other to A, de-
scribe the curve A L for the beginnings of T and =£=; and
the signs will he finished.  This done, lay a ruler from
tt:< point A over the sun's declination in the arch R ST
(found by the following table) for every fifth day ofthe
year; and  where the ruler cuts the  line F D G, make
marks;  and place the days of the months rig;.: against
these marks,  in  the manner shown by fig. 9.   Lastly,
draw the shadow-line P Q, parallel  to  the  occult line
A B; make the  gnomon, and set the hours to their re
spective lines, as in fig. 9, and the dial will be finished.
  The following table shows  the sun's place  and de-
clination, in degrees and minutes, at the noon of every
day of the second year after leap-year; which is  a mean
between those of leap-year itself, and the first and third
years after.  It is useful for inscribing  the  months and
their days on sun-dials, and also for finding the  lati-
tudes of places.
C3
4j  9
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	o ii zr' u	%n Vi Oi Oi rf « ~ ~ Ol CO rf rj" ^ rf	CO O? Tf C^ 00 01 CO CO CO CO Tf -r t rf rf	Oi 00 b, VJ CO CO co CO co co ^* Tf Tj- Tf ~"f	om o moo Ol Ol Ol —> ^* ^J- ^f Tt* *f	W Tf to SCO «o ^< CO Ol rr co co co co	CO 00 K i— V) '^ CO Ol
							
	c "u 4) Q Oi 'c 3 VI	XI >.0 'OOOOW t- IO CO Gl o t» to <o to to	*tf Ol Tf CI »o >o io Tt* ^r	Oi Oi Oi Oi Oi Tf Ol T}> -r co co co oi	00 K. to VJ CO ©J Tt Ol Ol Ol — — —	woeotot Tf Ol Vi CO i-( O O Oi Oi Oi	«o 01 00 00 00
							
	o a E M e s en	o t-i oi co *r 0 oi co ^r >o to r-1 ri ri i-c r-t 1!	KCOOOh hhhMO)	oo Oi a © o ol co rf io to Ol Ol Ol Ol (»	—' -h Ol Ol Ol KOOOOh Ol Ol Ol	CO co CO Tf rf Ol CO tJ< io to	^ ^t Vi S CO O)
	W	-^ Ol CO Tf m	O KOO 010	r- (H O Tf m -1 !-* T—1 !-H I—1	(O N CO O) O H Ft H H Ol	—> oi co ■<* m Ol Ol Ol Ol Ol	'O K 00 oi oi oi
		*-i Ol	CO	Tf	IO	to	b-	00	Oi	©	r_	Ol	CO	Tf	Vi	to	s.	00	Oi	©	^	Ol CO	t	>o	to	l^	00	Oi	o	T-H
	a									1-1										Ol	Ol	Ol Gl	Ol	Ol	Ol	Ol	Ol	Ol	CO	«
	(+-	+																												
		00 «5	Tf	Ol	Oi	to	CO	Oi	•<*	en	w?	K	©	Ol	tf	^r	IO	■^	CO	T-*	CO	IO »H	to	©	CO	to	00	Oi	Oi	o>
	•M	TT rt	■Tf	^	co		CO	«o	Ol	^"	'"■'	CO		Ol	■^		Ol	rr		Ol	CO	IO *H	Ol	Tf	V5		1-1	Ol	CO	Tf
	3 r-i w	"co -f	Tf	m	Vi	to	to	to	l^	K	00	00	C3	Oi	Oi	©	©	©	rH	rH	-	-H Ol	Ol	Ol	Gl	CO	CO	CO	CO	CO
	rt	03																												
--	~	"^ 5£	CO	K	o	•<*	to	Oi	o	Ol	CO	CO	CO	CO	Ol	T—1	©	00	IO	CO	o	to OJ	00	Tf	Oi	f	00	GJ	tn	§
•<	01			^r	Tf	CO	Ol	1—1	rH		>o	^r	CO	Ol	T—		IO	CO	<N	I-H		^r co	ri		-<f	CO	1-1		Tf	
a	a	o																												
y.		CO Ol Ol Ol	Ol	Ol	Ol	Ol	Ol	Ol	Ol	Ol	i-H	i-H	I-H	1-1	1-1	1-1	©	o	©	©	o	Oi Oi	o>	c»	00	on	no	on	K	K.
1-1			IN	w	Ol	Ol	©I	Ol	Ol	Ol	Ol	Ol	Ol	Ol	Ol	Ol	Ol	Ol	Ol	Ol	Ol									
	6	^_																												
	u	N. CO « Ol	Oi Ol	—	Ol	CO	f	Vi	b-	00	Oi	o	r-	Ol	CO	Tt	to	K	00	Oi	©	rH Ol	CO	T	V5	to	K.	on	<n	(Tl
	ft.			l-'J		CO	CO	t'i	CO	CO	CO	rr	^f	rr	^t	"V	t	^	TT	Tt<	>o	«o IO	IO	»o	«o	Vi	IO	Vi	»o	«
	n	O -H	Ol	CO	TJ<	>o	to	K	00	o	©	_	Ol	CO	1"	Vi	to	K	X	Oi	o	rH Gl	CO	^*	Vi	to	K.	on	m	O.
	3	£									Ol	Ol	Ol	Ol	Ol	Ol	Ol	Gl	Ol	Ol	n									
	m	*h ol	CO	^"	>o	to	K	00	Oi	©	rH	Ol	CO	-<r	>o	to	l^	00	Oi	©	r,	Ol CO	■^	m	to	1^	m	rn	n	
	a													11	1—1	1-1	ri	r-i	w*	Ol	Ol	Gl Ol	Ol	01	Gl	Gl	Ol	01	CO	CO
  In these tables, N .signifies North, and S. South, Declination.  The signs + and -, denotes that the equation
of time must be added to, or substracted from, the time shewn by a sun dial, or apparent time, in order to obtain the
mean tune, or the time shewn by a well-regulated clock or watch.
  vojl. I.                      96 
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	O . c u • s e CP" W	J Gl © K CO Oi 1 ri p| pi CO CO *0 CO CO	«o CO CO	© Tf CO ri Tf Tf tt io CO CO CO CO	ttO K f> If) if! CO CO CO	00 Oi >o >o CO CO	Oi co »o IO CO CO	K Vi co io m io CO CO CO	o to 01 00 CO »0 Tf Tf CO CO CO co CO co co	oi ci th io m CO CO CO CO pi pi
	"3 a SO "e 3 oo	^ IO co p CO J> t-( co »o o Tf IO Vi Vi to	»o PI to	<N 00 Tf © T if) hO CO to k-^ b-	tO TH h, Tf rH K. 00 00	TH tO GO Tf 00 «0	© Tf TH Oi Oi	K TH CO CN Tf IO Oi OJ Oi	tO CO O TH CO ri « ^i If) © © © © © Gl PI G| Gl p|	CO Tf Tf CO CO d TH CN CO Tf If) ^ TH TH TH TH TH CI CN PI CN CN CN
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	ca ST	TH Gl GO Tf Vi	to	K* OiO TH	TH PI CO TH rH TH	Tf >0 TH TH	to k-TH TH	00 Oi © TH TH PI	n Ol CO Tf lO CI CI PI PI PI	tO K 00 Ci C -(N pi pi pi co ej
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		b» Oi Tf	th CO Vi CO H If)	K. © CI Vi CO GO PI Tf PI	ci «o n IO	Oi CO 00 CO CI	»*.	PI CI	to CO	© Tf IO	1-, © n CO	PI Tf IO Tf IO	to © to m to TH PI CI Tf" LO
5	cr ta	"rf so	GO CO PI	Gl d CI TH r-	TH ©	© © ©	o	o	©	© TH	ri TH	TH TH Ol	PI N PI CN PI
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		th CN	CO	Tf	IO		ri	d	CO	Tf	IO		n	~	d	CO	CO	Tf	Tf	IO	IO	IO									
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	V n in "fa 3 X	CO Oi OOKtOI1 ^ © IO TH CO o Tf T? Tf VS IO	CO rH X © X IO TH d Tf io © © © K.	© © x os Tf N«n« d KKKO0 0O	OS Tf OS X k^ X "O d X X X O) OS OS	TH Tf k^ © d >C Tl CO Tf OS © o © © TH d d d d	X V) to © to V) IH p| CO £ r? *■* *■* « CI d PI d d
	0) u E en "fa 3 X	"d d co co co d d d d d o X Ol © TH PI	X Tf Tf Tf Tf d CI d d d X Tf IO © b.	IO IO © © K. CI d d CI d X Oi O th d	k^ X X OS o d d d d X CO Tf IO © K. d d d d d	28 30 29 31 / 0 32 1 33 2 33	Tf in to k oo x co «e co tn x Tf vj to t.
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  To fnd the latitude of any place by observation.—The
latitude of any place is equal  to the elevation of the pole
above the horizon of that place.  Therefore it is plain,
that if a star was fixed in the pole, there would be no-
thing required to  find the latitude, but to take the al-
titude of that star with a good instrument.  But although
there is no star in the pole, yet the latitude may be found
by taking the greatest and least altitude of any star that
never sets: for if half the difference  between these alti-
tudes be added to the least altitude, or subtracted from
the greatest, the sum or remainder will be equal to the
altitude of the pole at the place of observation.
  But  because  the  length of the night must  be more
than 12 hours,  in order to have two  such observations;
the sun's meridian altitude and declination are general-
ly made use of for finding the latitude, by means of its
complement, wiiich  is equal to the elevation ofthe equi-
noctial above the horizon* and  if this complement be
subtracted from 90 degrees,  the  remainder will be the
latitude, concerning which the following rules  seem to
take in all the various cases.
  1. If the sun has  north declination, and is on  the me-
ridian,  and  to the south of your place, subtract the de-
clination from the  meridian  altitude (taken by a good
quadrant), and the  remainder will be the  height of the
equinoctial or complement of the latitude north.
                     EXAMPLE.
Suppose the sun's meridian altitude
And his declination, subt.

Remains the complement ofthe latitude
Which subtract from

And the rem. is the latitude
  2. If the sun has souf.i declination, and is southward
of vuur place at noon, aid the declination to the meridi-
an altitude; the sum, if less than 90 degrees, is tin- com-
plement of the latitude  north: but if the sum cx.'-ec:is 90
degree-,  the latitude is south; ani if'..o be taken from
that sum, the remainder will be the latitude.
42° 10	20' 15	south north
32 90	5 0	
57	55	north.
                    Examples.
The sun's meridian altitude
The sun's declination, add

Complement of the latitude
Subtract from

Remains the latitude

The sun's meridian altitude
The sun's declination, add

The sum is
From which subtract

Remains the latitude
65°  10' south
15   30  south
80  40
90   0
 9  20 north

80° 40' south
20  10 south
100  50
 90   0
10 50  south
  3. If the sun has north declination, and is on the me-
ridian north of your place, add  the  declination to the
north meridian altitude; the sum,  if less than 90 degrees,
is ihe complement of the latitude south:  hut if the sum
is more than 90 degrees,  subtract 90 from it,  and the re-
mainder is the latitude north.

                    Examples.
Sun's meridian altitude.
Sun's declination, add

Complement of the latitude
Subtract from

Remains the latitude

Sun's meridian altitude
Sun's declination, add

The sum is
From wiiich subtract

Regains the latitude

  4. If the sr.n has south declination, and  is north of
ye./ place at noon, subtract the declination from the
60° 20	so' 10	north north
80 90	40 0	
9 70° 23	20 20' 20	soufh north north
93 90	40 0	
3	40	north
 
D  I A
D I A
north meridian altitude, and the remainder is the com-
plement of the latitude south.
                      Example.
Sun's meridian altitude                  52° 30' north
Sun's declination, subtract               20  10  south
32  20
90   0

57  40 south.
Complement of the latitude
Subtract this from

And the rem. is the latitude

  5. If the sun has no declination, and is south of your
place at noon, the meridian altitude is the complement of
the latitude north:  but if  the sun be then north of your
place, his meridian altitude is the complement of the la-
titude south.
                     Examples.
Sun's meridian altitude                  38° 30' south
Subtract from                .          90   0
Remains the latitude

Sun's meridian altitude
Subtract from
51  30  north

38° 30' north
90   0
Remains the latitude                     51  SO  south.
  6. If you observe the sun beneath the pole,  subtract
his  declination from 90 degrees,  and add the remainder
to his altitude; the sum is the latitude.
Example.
Sun's declination
Subtract from
20°
90
30'
 0
Remains
Sun's altitude below the pole

The sum is the latitude
69  301  nAA
10  20 j  add
79  50.
   Which is north or south, according as the sun's decli-
 nation is north or south: for when the sun has south de-
 clination, he is never seen below the north pole; nor is
 he ever seen below the south pole, when his declination
 is north.
   7.  If the sun he in the zenith at noon, and at the same
 time has  no declination, you are then under the equinoc-
 tial, and  so have no latitude.
   8.  If the sun be in the zenith at noon, and has decli-
 nation, the declination is equal to the latitude, north or
 south.  These two cases are so plain, that they  require
 no examples.
   DIALECTICS, dialectics, in the literary history of
 the ancients, that branch of logic which taught the rules
 and modes of reasoning.
   DI ALL AGE, in mineralogy, called also resplendent
 hornblende.  This stone was called sinaragdite by Saus-
 sure,  from the resemblance it has to emerald.  It is ne-
 ver crystallized.  Its texture is foliated, and it is easily
 divided into plates.  The lamina?  are inflexible, and the
 specific gravity is 3.  The colour in some cases is line
 green; in otheis it has the  grey colour,  and metallic lus-
 tre, of mica: it assumes all the shades of colour between
these  two extremes.  According to Vauquelin, it is com-
posed of
50.0	silica
13.0	lime
11.0	alumina
7.5	oxide of chromium
6.0	magnesia
5.5	oxide of iron
1.6 oxide of copper.
94.2
   DIALLING,  the art of constructing  all  manner of
 dials.   See Dial.
   Having described the most useful dials under the word
 Dial, we now proceed to explain the philosophical prin-
 ciples of the art of dialling. In order to this, therefore
 we are to consider, that as the time which passes between
 any meridian's leaving the sun, and returning to it again,
 is divided into 24 hours, so if we conceive a sphere to be
 constructed with twenty-four of these meridians, the sun
 will orderly come upon one of them at the beginning of
 every  hour.  Such a sphere may be represented by the
 figure P D S B (fig.  11), where the several  meridians
 are represented by P 1  S, P 2 S,  P 3 S, and so on to
 twenty-four in all; since these meridians divide the equi-
 noctial into twenty-four equal parts, each part will con-
 tain just 15°, because 15 x 24 = 360, the whole circle;
 and since all the meridians pass through the poles of the
 wrorld, the planes of those meridians all intersect each
 other in one common line P S, which is the axis of the
 sphere, therefore the said axis PS  is in the plane of each
 of the twelve  meridians.  Suppose  Z to be the zenith of
 any place,  and DWBE the plane of the horizon fixed
 within the sphere, constructed with the twelve meridians,
 1, 1; 2,2; 3, 3; 4,4; &c. then will the axis of the sphere P
 S pass through the centre of the plane at N; so that one
 half N P will be above the plane,  and the other half N
 S below it.  Suppose now this dialling-sphere to be sus-
 pended by  the point Z,  and moved about  so as to have
 the points D and B exactly in the south and north points
 of the horizon, and E and W in the cast and west points,
 then will the sphere have a situation every way similar
 to that of the  earth and heavens with respect to the giv-
 en place, and the axis of the sphere to that of the earth.
 The sun, therefore, shining on such a sphere, will be at-
 tended with all the same incidents, and produce all the
 same effects, as would happen if the said sphere were at
 the centre of  the earth,  or the centre N of the sphere
 coincided with the centre of the earth, because the dis-
tance between the surface and centre of the earth is in-
sensible at the distance of the sun.  Now it is evident, as
the sun revolves about such a sphere, it will every hour
he upon one half or other of the twelve hour-circles, viz.
from midnight to noon,  it will be on those parts of the
circles which  are  in the eastern  hemisphere; and from
noon to midnight, it will pass over all those in tbe wes-
tern.  It is also farther evident, that while the sun is in
the eastern  hemisphere,  it will be first below and then
above the plane of the horizon,  and vice versa on the
other side.  Again, when  the sun is upon any of these
hour-circles, hy shining upon the axis it causes it to cast
a shadow on the contrary side,  on the plane of the ho-
rizon,  on the  lower or upper surface,  as it is below or
above the said plane.  This shadow of the axis will be 
D I A
D I A
  precisely in the line in which the plane of the hour-cir-
  cle  would intersect the plane of the horizon:  if,  there-
  fore, lines were drawn through the centre N, joining the
  points  on each side  the plane where  the hour-circles
  touch it, as 4N4, 5N5, 6^6, kc. the shadow ofthe axis
  would fall on those lines at the beginning of each res-
  pective  hour, and thereby indicate the hour-circle the
  sun is  in for every hour of the day. These  lines are
  properly called  hour-lines,  and among the  rest that
  which represents the hour of 12 at noon is NB, half the
  meridian line DB; whence it appears that the hour-lines
  Nl, N2, N3,  kc. which serve for the afternoon,  lie on
  the east side of the plane,  and are numbered from the
  north to the east; and on the contrary.
    It also appears, that as  the sun's altitude above the
  plane is greater or less, the number of  hour-circles the
  sun will possess above the horizontal plane will be also
  greater or less.   Thus when  the sun is at  S  in the
  equinoctial, its diurnal path for that day being the equi-
  noctial circle itself jEEQW, it is plain, since the arch
  JE — EQ, the sun will apply to six hour-circles below
  the horizon, and to six above it, in each half of the day;
  and consequently that on this day the shadow will occu-
  py but 12 ofthe hour-lines on each surface ofthe  plane,
  beginning and ending  at  six.   But when the sun is
  in the tropic of Cancer, its diurnal path for that day be-
  ing the tropic  itself, TCRF, it is manifest the sun in the
  forenoon ascends above  the plane in passing between the
  hour-circles of 3 and 4 in the morning, and descends be-
  low it  in the  afternoon between the hours of 8 and 9:
  therefore on the summer tropic the shadow  will pass
  over 16 of those hour-lines.  On the contrary, when the
  sun is in the winter tropic at O, its path being then
  OG1II,  it rises  above the plane  between 8 and 9,  and
  leaves it between 3 and 4.
    From what has been said it is evident, that if the cir-
  cles be supposed removed, and only the horizontal plane
  remains, with the half of the axis above it in the same
  position as before, then should we have constituted a ho-
• rizontal dial, every way the same with those in common
t use; with only the addition  of a substile  to render the
  stile very firm.  Hence appears  the  reason why the
  gnomon or stile in those dials in our latitude is always
  directed to the north pole, and  always contains such an
  angle PNB, with the hour of 12 line NB,  as is equal to
  tbe latitude  of the place.  Lastly, the reason appears
  why the number of hour-lines  on these dials exceeds not
  16, and they are all drawn from 6 to 12 and 6 again on
  the northern  part, the  rest  on the southern;  and why
  the hour-line of  6 lies directly cast and west, as that of
  12 does north and south.
    Dialling-globe,  an instrument of  brass  or  wood,
  with a plane fitted to the horizon, and an index, so con-
  trived as to give a clear illustration ofthe  principles on
  which dials arc made.
    Dialling-links or scales, arc graduated lines plac-
  ed on rulers or the edges of quadrants and other instru-
  ments, to expedite the construction of dials.  These are,
  1. A scale of six hours, which  is only a double tangent,
  nr two lines of tangents, each of 45t\ set together  in the
  middle,  and equal to the whole line of sines, with the de-
  clination set against the meridian  altitudes in the lati-
  tude ofthe place.  2.  A line of latitudes, which is tiried
to the hour-scale, and is made by this canon; As the ra -
dius: to the chord of 90°: : so are  the tangents of each
respective degree of the line of latitudes: to the tangents
of other arcs.  And then the natural sines of these arches
are  the numbers, which taken from a diagonal scale of
equal parts, shall graduate the divisions of the line of la-
titudes to any radius.   The lines of hours and latitudes
are general, for pricking down all dials with centres.
  The other scales are particular,  and give the several
requisites for  all upright  declining dials  by inspection.
They  are, 1.  A  line of chords.  2. A line for the sub-
stile's distance  from  the meridian.  3. A line for the
stile's height.  4. A line ofthe angle of 12 and  6.  5. A
line of inclination of meridians.  See Dial.
  Dialling-sphere, an instrument made of brass, with
several semicircles sliding over each other upon a move-
able horizon, serving to demonstrate the nature of sphe-
rical triangles; as well as to give the true  idea of draw-
ing  dials on all sorts of planes.
  DIALIUM, a genus of  the monogynia order, in the
diandria class  of plants.  The corolla is pentapetalous;
no calyx; the stamina at the upper side of the recepta-
cle.  There is  one species, a tree ofthe East Indies.
  DIALOGISM, in rhetoric, is used for the soliloquy
of persons deliberating with themselves, as the following
of Juno, in the first jEncid of Virgil:
                Mene incepto desistere victam,
         Nee posse Italia Teucrorum averteie legem,
         Quippe vetor fatis? &c.
  In this sense it is distinguished from dialogue.
  DIAMETER, in geometry,  a right  line  passing
through the centre of a circle,  and terminated  at  each
side by the circumference thereof.  The chief property of
the diameter is, that it divides the circumference of a cir-
cle into two  equal parts: hence we have a method of de-
scribing a semicircle upon any line, assuming its  mid-
dle point for the centre.  The  diameter is the  greatest
of all chords.  For finding the ratio of the diameter to
the circumference, see Circle.
  How to find the diameter of shot or shells.—For an iron
ball, whose  diameter is given, supposing a  nine-poun-
der, which is nearly four inches, say the cube root  2.08
(of nine pounds), is to four inches, as the cube root of
the given weight, is to the diameter sought,  Or, if 4 be
divided by 2.08,  the cube root of 9, the quotient 1.923,
will  be the diameter of a one-pound shot; which being
continually  multiplied  by  the  cube root  of the given
weight, gives the diamet t required. Or by  logarithms
much shorter,  thus:  If the logarithm of 1.923,  which is
.283979, be constantly added'to the third part ofthe lo-
garithm ofthe weight, the sum will he the logarithm of
the diameter.  Suppose a shot to weight 24 pounds: add
the given logarithm .283979 to  .460070 the third part of
the logarithm  1.3802112 of 24, the sum  .7440494 will
be the logarithm  of the diameter  of a shot weighing 24
pounds, which is  5.5468 inches.
  If the weight should be expressed by a fraction, the
rule is still the same: for instance, the diameter of  a 11
pound ball, or  f,  is  found by  adding the logarithm
.2839793 found above, to .0586971 one-third of the lo-
garithm of j; the sum  .3426764 will be the logarithm of
the  diameter required, i. e. 2.2013 inches.
  As the diameter of the bore, or the caliber of the piece, 
D I A
D I  A
J;S iili'/'e !•
ing to the
putcd.
20th prr', larger than that of the shot, accord-
 present  practice,  the following table is com-
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  The numbers in the first horizontal line are units, and
those in the first vertical column tens; the other numbers,
under the one, and opposite to the others, are the respec-
tive diameters of  shot  and calibers.   Thus, to find the
diameter of the shot, and the caliber  of a 24-pounder,
look for the number 2  on the left hand  side, and for 4 at
top; then the number 5.547, under 4, and opposite 2, will
be the diameter of the shot in inches and decimals, and
the number 5.824, under  the first, the caliber  of a  24-
pounder, &c.
  Diameters of leaden bullets, from 1 to  29 in the pound.
	0	1	2	3	4	5	6	7	8	9
0	0	1.671	1.326	1.158	1.05	.977	.919	.873	.835	.803
1	.715	.51	.730	.711	.693	.677	.663	.650	.637	.626
2	.615	.605	.596	.587	.579	.571	.564	.557	.550	.544
3	.538	.536	.526	.521	.517	.511	.506	.501	.497	.493
  The diameter of musket-bores differs  about  l-50th
part from that of the bullet. The government allows 11
bullets in the pound for the proof of muskets, and 14 in
the pound, or  29 in two pounds, for service; 17 for the
proof of  carbines, and 20  for service; 28 in the  pound
for proof of pistols, and 34  for service.
  Diameter of a curve, is a right line AC (PI. XLIII.
Miscel.  fig. 42.) bisecting  the  right  lines DE,  DE,
drawn parallel to one another; and either of a finite oi'
infinite length. Though a right line, bisecting all paral-
lel lines drawn from one point of a curve to another, is
taken in a strict sense only  for the diameter of a curve
line, yet it may not be amiss more generally to define
a diameter in saying that it is  that line, whether ri'ht
or curve, wiiich  bisects all  parallels  drawn  from one
point of a curve to another, so  that, according to  this
every curve  will have a diameter: and then  sir Isaac
Newton's curves of the second order  have all either a
right-lined diameter, or else the curves of some  one of
the conic sections for diameters;  ami many geometrical
curves ofthe higher orders may also have for diameters
curves of more inferior ones, and that ad infinitum. See
Curve.
  Diameter ofa sphere, is the diameter of the semicir-
cle, by whose rotation the sphere is generated; in which
sense it is the same with axis.  See Axis.
  Diameter of gravity, in any surface or solid, is that
line in which the centre of gravity is placed. Sec Cen-
ter or gravity.
  Diameter, in astronomy. The diameters of the plan-
ets are either apparent or real: the apparent diameters
are such as they appear to the eye; and being measur-
ed by a micrometer, are found different in  different cir-
cumstances and parts of their orbit. See Astronomv.
  Tbe mean  apparent diameters of the planets, as scon
from the sun, are as follows:
  Merc.  Vcn.   Ear.  Moon  Mars Jup.   Sat  Her.
   20"    30"    17"   6"     11"  37"   16"   4"
  DIAMOND, is a  precious stone,  which has  been
known from  the remotest ages.  When pure, it  is per-
fectly transparent like crystal, but much more brilliant.
Its figure varies considerably;  but most  commonly  it
is crystallized in the form of a six-sided prism, termina-
ted by a six-sided  pyramid. It is the hardest of all bo-
dies; the best-tempered steel makes no impression on it.
Diamond-powder can only be obtained by  grinding one
diamond against another.  Its  specific gravity is ratherf
more than 3.5. It is a nonconductor of electricity.     9
  As the diamond is not affected by a considerable heat,
it was for many ages  considered  as incombustible. Sir
Isaac Newton, observing that combustibles refract light
more powerfully than other bodies, and that the diamond
possesses this property in great perfection, suspected it,
from that circumstance, to be capable of combustion.
This singular  conjecture wras verified in 1694 by the
Florentine academicians, in the presence of Cosmo III.
grand duke  of Tuscany. By means of a burning-glass,
they consumed several diamonds.  Francis  I. emperor of
 Germany, afterwards witnessed the destruction of seve-
ral more in the heat of a furnace. These experiments were
repeated by Rouclle,  Macquer, and Darcet; who  prov-
ed  that the diamond was not merely evaporated, but ac-
tually burnt; and that if air was excluded, it underwent
 no change.
   No attempt, however, was made to  ascertain the pro-
 duct till 1772.  Lavoisier,  in a Memoir published that
 year, showed that  when the diamond is burnt, carbonic
 acid gas is obtained, and that there is a striking analogy
 between it  and charcoal.  In  1785,  Guyton-Morveau
 found that the diamond is combustible when dropped in- 
DIAMOND.
 to melted nitre; that it burns without leaving any resi-
 duum, and in a manner analogous to charcoal. This ex-
 periment was repeated with more precision by Mr. Ten-
 nant in 1797. The conclusion which he drew from it was,
 that when a diamond is burnt the  whole of the  product
 is carbonic  acid gas; that  a given weight of diamond
 yields just as much carbonic acid gas as the same weight
 of  charcoal; and that diamond aud charcoal are both
 composed of the very same  substance. The conclusion
 that diamond is nothing else than charcoal, was  directly
 contrary to what one would havccxpyctcd from compar-
 ing the two substances together. Their colour, hardness,
 specific gravity, and electrical properties, are exceeding-
 ly different: nor do they resemble each other more near-
 ly in their combustibility. Charcoal takes fire at a read
 beat;  and when once kindled  in  oxygen gas continues
 to burn till it is wholly consumed. According to Morvcau,
 the diamond, before it can be burnt, must be exposed to
 the sun's rays in the focus ofa large burning glass,  or
 to a heat  not under  5000°.  Uut sir George M'Kcnzie
 found that diamonds  will burn in a muffle, when heated
 no  higher than 14° or 15° Wedgewood; which must  be
 considerably lower than 5000° Fahrenheit.  Its surface
 assumes a black colour like charcoal: this crust is soon
 wasted, and another is formed in its place. It wasjin this
 manner that a diamond weighing 3.089 grains troy,
 gradually wasted away completely  when  exposed   by
 Morvcau for one hour and 40 minutes in the focus ofthe
 celebrated burning glass of Tschirnhausen, while a ther-
 mometer exposed to the sun  stood at  104°.
   Morvcau found that one part of diamond during its
 combustion combines  with 4.592 parts of oxygen, and
 the  carbonic acid gas formed  amounts to 5.592 parts:
 consequently, carbonic acid gas is composed of one part
.of diamond and 4.592 of oxygen; or, which  is the same
 thing, 100 parts of carbonic acid gas are composed of
                  17.88 diamond
                  82.12 oxygen

                 100.00
 But Lavoisier ascertained that one  part of  charcoal,
 when burnt, combines with 2.5714 parts of oxygen, and
 forms 3.5714 parts of carbonic acid gas: consequently,
 100 parts of carbonic acid gas are composed of
                  28  Charcoal,
                  72 oxygen.

                 100.
 But 100 parts of carbonic acid gas are  also composed
 of 17.88 diamond, and 42.12 oxygen. We have therefore
 this  equation:
          Diamond. Oxygen. Char. Oxygen.
             17.88 -f 82.12  =  28 4- 72.
 Consequently, subtracting 72 parts ofoxygen from both
 sides ofthe equation, we have
         Diamond. Oxygen.
           17.88 4- 10.12 = 28 charcoal.
That is  to say, 28  parts of  charcoal  are composed of
 17.S8 diain.Mid and io. 12 oxygen. Of course, 100 parts
of charcoal are composed of
                  63.85 diamond,
                  36.15 oxygen.

                100.00
  vol. I.                    97
   Thus we see why diamond and  charcoal possess dif-
 ferent  properties:  the  one is  a simple  substance; the
 other is a compound of the diamond and oxygen, or it i^
 what the French  chemists call an oxide of diamond. The
 diamond, then, is that substance in a state of purity to
 which Lavoisier  and his associates gave the name of car-
 bon, as they supposed, but the oxide of carbon.
   Diamond-mines are  found only  in the  East Indies,
 and in  Brazil in  South America; in the kingdoms of Gol-
 conda,  Visapour, Bengal, and the island of  Borneo.
 There  are  four  mines, or Father two mines and  two
 rivers,  whence diamonds  are  drawn.  1. The mine of
 Raolconda, in the province of Carnatica,  five  days jour-
 ney  from Goleonda,  and eight  from  Visapour, which
 has been discovered about 200 years.  2.  That of Gani,
 or Coolour, seven days journey from  Goleonda cast-
 wardly. It was discovered 140  years ago by  a peasant,
 who, digging in the ground, found a natural fragment of
 twenty-five carats.  3. That of Soumelpour, a large town
 in the kingdom of Bengal, near the diamond-mine. This
 is the most ancient of all, and  should  rather be called
 that of  Gonal, which is the name  of the river, in the
 sand whereof these stones are found. Lastly,  the fourth
 mine, or rather the second river, is that of Succudan, in
 the island of Borneo.
   The diamond, we have already observed, is the hardest
 of all precious stones. It can only be cut  and  ground by
 itself and its own substance. To bring it  to that perfec-
 tion which augments its price so considerably, they be-
 gin by  rubbing several  against  each other while rough,
 after having first glued them to  the ends of two wooden
 blocks,  thick enough to be held in  the hand.   It is this
 powder thus rubbed off the stones, and received in a lit-
 tle box  for the purpose, that serves to grind and polish
 the stones. Diamonds are cut and polished  by means of
 a mill, which turns a wheel of soft iron sprinkled over
 with  diamond-dust mixed with oil of olives. The same
 dust well ground and diluted with  water and vinegar,
 is  used  in the  sawing of diamonds;  which is performed
 with an iron or brass wire, as fine as a hair. Sometimes,
 in lieu of sawing  the diamonds, they cleave them, espe-
 cially if there are any large shivers in them. But  the
 Europeans are not usually daring or expert enough to
 run the  risk of cleaving, for fear of breaking.
  The first water in diamonds, means the greatest puri-
 ty and perfection  of their complexion, which ought to be
 that of  the purest water. When diamonds  fall short of
 this perfection, they are said to be ofthe second or third
 water, &c. till the stone may be properly called a colour-
ed one:  for it would be  an impropriety to speak of an
imperfectly coloured diamond, or one that has other de-
fects, as a stone of a bad water only.
  Mr. Boyle has observed, from  a person  much conver-
sant in diamonds,  that some of these gems, in their rou^h
state, were much heavier than others of the same size,
especially if they were cloudy or foul.  With  regard to
their specific gravities, Mr. Ellicot, who made  manv ex-
periments, has drawn out a table of their  several differ-
ences with great care and accuracy.  This, taking in all
the common varieties in  diamonds, mav indeed serve as
a general rule for their mean gravity,  and differences.
 from this the mean specific gravity ofthe  Brasil ilia- 
DIAMOND.
mends appears to be 3513; of East India diamonds, 3519;
the mean of both, 3.317. Therefore, if any thing is to be
concluded as to the specific gravity of the diamond, it is,
that  it is to water as 3517 to 1000.
  For the valuation of diamonds of all weights Mr. Jef-
feries lays down the following rule. He first supposes the
value oi a rough diamond to be settled at 21. per carat at
a'medium; then to find the value of diamonds of greater
weights, multiply the square of their weight by 2, and
the product is tbe value required: e. g. To find the value
ofa  rough diamond of two en rats: 2x2  = 4,  the square
of the weight; which, multiplied by 2. gives Si. the true
value of a rough diamond of two carats. For finding the
value of manufactured diamonds, he supposes half their
weight to he lost in manufacturing them; and therefore,
to find their value, we must multiply the square of dou-
ble their weight by 2, which will give their true value in
pounds.  Thus, to find the value ofa wrought diamond
weighing two carats; we first find the square of double
the  weight, viz. 4*4 = 10; then 16x2 = 32. So that
tiie  true value  of a wrought  diamond  of two carats is
32/. On these principles Mr. Jefferies has constructed ta-
bles ofthe price of diamonds from 1 to  100 carats.
   The largest diamond ever known  in the world is one
belonging to the king of Portugal,  which was found in
 Bi-asil.  It  is still uncut: and Mr. Magellan informs us,
tlr.it it was of a larger size; but a piece was  cleaved or
broken off by the ignorant countryman  who  chanced to
 find this great gem, and tried its hardness by the stroke
 ofa large hammer upon  the anvil. This prodigious dia-
 mond weighs 1680 carats; and though uncut,  Mr. Rome'
 de PIsle says that it is valued at 224 millions sterling;
 which gives the estimation of  79.36 or about 80 pounds
 sterling for each carat, viz. for the multiplicand of  the
 square ofits whole weight. The famous diamond in  the
 sceptre of the  emperor  of Russia, weighs 779  carats,
 and is worth at least 4.854,728 pounds sterling, although
 it hardly cost 135,417 guineas. This diamond originally
 was one of the eyes of a Malabarian idol named Sche-
 ringham; and a French  grenadier, who had deserted
 from the  Indian service, contrived to become  one of
 the priests  of  that idol,  and by that means to steal it.
 Aiicr passing through   several hands, the  late  prince
 Orloff purchased it at Amsterdam in 1766, for his sove-
 reign the empress of Russia.  The diamond of the great
 Mogul is cut in rose, weighs 279T9T carats, and is worth
 380,000 guineas, though  it has a small flaw near the bot-
 tom; and Tavernier, who fully examined it, valued the
 carat at 150 French livres. Another diamond belonging
 to the king of Portugal weighs 215 carats, is extremely
 fine,  and is worth at least 369,800 guineas. The dia-
 mond ofthe empeior of Germany weights 159§ carats,
 and is worth at least 109,520 guineas.  It  is said  this
 diamond has a little hue  of a citron colour. The diamond
 once the property ofthe late  unfortunate king of France,
 called the  Pitt or Regent, weighs 13( |  carats: this  gein
 is  worth at least 208,333 guineas,  although it did not
 cost above half that st.m. Another diamond  ofthe same
 monarch, called the Saucy, weighs 55 carets, Ost25,000
 guineas, and is said to be worth much  more.
    Diamond, brilliant, is that which is  cut in faces both
  at  top and betton.; and whose table, or principal face at
 top, is flat. To make a complete square brilliant, if the
rough diamond is not found of a square figure, it must he
made s--.; and  ii  the  work is  perfect!v executed '  the
length ofthe axis will be equal to the side ofthe square
base of the pyramid. Jewellers then  form the table and
collet by dividing the  block or length of  the axis into 18
parts.  To render a brilliant perfect, each corner of tlm
table-diamond must be shortened hy  l-20th of its nriri
mil.  The corner ribs of the upper sides must be flattened
or run towards thecentreof the table  l-Gtli less th;tn the
sides; the lower  part, which terminates in the gjn'k
must be l-8th  of one side ofthe girdle;  and each corner"
rib ofthe under side  must be flattened at tiie top to m
swer the above  flattening at the girdle, and  at bottom
must be 1 -4th of each  side of the collet. The parts of the
small work which completes the brilliant or the star and
skill facets, are of a triangular figu;e.  Both of these up-
take equally ofthe depth ofthe upper sid(s from the ta-
ble to the girdle, and  meet in the middle of each side of
the table and  girdle,  as also at the corners. Thus they
produce  regular lozenges on  the four upper yides and
corners of the  stone. The triangular facets, on the under
sides, joining  to the girdle, must be  half as deep again
as the above facets, to answer to the collet p.if.  The
stone here described is said to  be a full-substan; ed bril-
liant.  If the stone is thicker than in the pr«.p rtion here
mentioned, it  is said to he  an over-weighted brilliant.  If
the thickness is less than in this proportion, it is railed
a spread brilliant.  The beauty of brilliants is diminish-
ed from their being either over-weighted or spread. The
true propc rfi-n of the axis or  depth of  the stone to  its
side is as 2 to 3. Brilliants are distinguished into square,
round, oval, and drops, fr ,m the figure of their respec-
tive  girdh s.
   Diamond,  Cornish, a name given  by many people to
tbe crystals found in digging  the mines of tin in torn-
wall. These crystals are of the nature of the Kerry-
stone of Ireland, but somewhat inferior to it. Thev are
usually bright and clear, except towards the root, where
thev are coarse and  foul,  or whitish. They are usually
found in the common form ofa hexangular column, ter-
minate!  at each end by an hexangular pyramid.
   Diamond,  rose, is one  that is quite  flat underneath,
with its  upper pi.rt cut in  many little faces, usually tri-
angles, the  uppermost of which terminate in a point  In
rose-diamonds the depth ofthe stone from the base to the
point  must be  half  the breadth of the diameter of the
base of the stone. The diameter of the crown must be
two-thirds of  the diameter ofthe base.  The perpendicu-
lar, from the  base to the crown, must  be three-fifths of
the  diameter  of  the stone. The lozenges which  appear
in all circular rose-d:amcnds, will be equally divided bj
the  ribs that form the cmvn:  and  the  upper  angles or
facets will terminate in the extreme point of the stone,
and the lower in the base or girdle.
   Diamond, rough, is the stone as nature produces it
 from the mine.  Ii sh old  be chosen  uniform, of a good
 shape, transparent, not quite  white, and free from flaw*
 and shivers.  Black,  rugged, dirty, flawy, veiny stores,
 and all s ch as afe not fit for cutting,  are pounded in a
 steel mortar inaue for that purpose:  and when pulveris-
 ed,  the  dust  serves to saw,  cut, and polish the rest
 Shivers are  occasioned  by the miners attteuiptmg t«
 get them more easily out of the vein,  which winds be- 
D  I A
D  I A
tween two rocks, hy breaking tlnvwirks with huge iron
levei s, which shake, and thus fill he stone with tracks
and shivers. The air ionts had two  mistaken notions
with regard to the diamon.I: the first, that it became soft
by steeping it in hot goat's blood; and the second,  that it
Ls malleable, and bears the hammer.
  Diamonds and precious stones maybe imported duty-
free, saving the duty granted to the East India compa-
ny on diamonds imported from any place within the.lim-
its of  their character. 6 Geo. IT. c. 7. s. 1. 2.
  Divmovd, in 1 he glass trade, an instrument usedfor
squaring the large plates or pieces; and, among glaziers,
for  cutting their glass.  These diamonds arc  differently
managed. Th t used for large pieces, as looking-glasses,
is set  in an  iron  feuie, about two inches long, and a
quarter of an inch in diameter; the cavity of the  ferule
being  filled up  with  lead,  to keep the  diamond firm:
tliere  is also a handle of box or ebony fitted to the  ferule,
and by which it is held.
  Diamond, in heraldry, a term used  for  expressing
the black colour in the achievements of peerage. Guil-
lim does not approve of blazoning the coats of peers
by  precious stones instead of metals and colours; but
the English practice allows it.   Morgan says the dia-
mond is an emblem of fortitude.
  DIANvE ardor or Aiinon Lunae, in chemistry, the
beautiful rrysiaUizations of silver dissolved in aqua-for-
tis, to which some quicksilver is added; and  so called
from  their resembling the trunk, branches,  leaves, &c.
of a tree.  See Argentum  Vrboresci:\s.
   DIANDRIA,  the name of the  second class in Lin-
n?eus's sexual  system, consisting  of hermaphrodite
plants, which,  as the name imports, have flowers with
two stamina or male organs.  The orders in this class
arc three, derived from the number of styles or  female
parts.  Most plants with two stamina have one style;
as  jessamine, lilac,  privet,  veronica, and bastard ala-
tcrnus: vernal grass has two styles;  pepper, three.
   DIANTHERA,  in botany, a genus of the monongy-
nia order, in  the diandria class  of plants,  and  in the
natural method ranking under thc40th order,  personate.
The  corolla is  ringcnt: the capsule  bilocular, parting
with a spring at  the heel; the stamina each furnished
with  two anthera?, placed alternately.  There  are 12
species.
  DIANTHUS,clove-giIliflower, carnation, pink, sweet-
william, kc. a genus of the digynia order, in the  decan-
dria class of plants, and in the natural method ranking
under the 22d order,  caryophyllei.  The calyx  is cy-
lindrical and inouophvllnus, with  four scales at the base.
There are five petals, with narrow heels; the capsule is
cylindrical and unilocular.  There are 30 species; but
not more  than four that have any considerable  beauty
as garden-dowers, each of which furnishes some beau-
tiful varieties.
  1. The ranopl.yllns,  or  clove-gilliflower, including
all the varieties of carnation.  It rises with many short
trailing shoots from  the root,  with long, \cv\ narrow,
ever-green leaves:  and  amidst  them upright slender
flower-stalks, from one to three feet high, emitting many
side-shoots; all <»f which, as well as the main stalk, are
terminated by large solitary flowers, having short oval
scales to the calyx, and crenated petals.  The varieties
of this are very numerous, and unlimited in the diver-
sity of flowers.
  2. The deltoides, or common pink, rises with nume-
rous short leafy shoots crowning the root, in a tufted
head close to  the  ground, with small narrow leaves;
and from the ends of the shoots many erect flower-stalks,
from about 6 to 15 inches high, terminated by solitary
flowers of different colours, single and double, and some-
times finely  variegated. This species is perenni;!, as all
the varieties of it commonly cultivated also are.
  3. The chinensis,  Chinese, or Indian pink, is an an-
nual plant,  with upright  firm flower-stalks, branching
erect on every side, a foot or  15 inches high, having all
the branches terminated by solitary flowers of different
colours and  variegations, appearing from July to No-
vember.
  4. The barbatus, or bearded dianthus, commonly cal-
led sweet-william.    This rises with many thick leafy
shoots, crowning the root in arluster close to the ground,
with spear-shaped  evergreen leaves,  from half  an inch
to two inches  broad.   The stems are upright and firm,
branching erect two or three feet high,  haying all the
branches and main-stem  crowned by numerous flowers
in aggregate Hesters of  different colours  and  variega-
tions.  The culture of these  is very  generally known.
   DIAPASON, in  music.  By this  term the ancient
Greeks expressed  the interval  of the octave:  and cer-
tain musical instrument-makers have a kind of rule or
scale,  called the diapason, by which they determine the
measures of the pipes, or other parts of their instru-
ments.  There is a diapason for trumpets and serpents:
bell-founders have also a diapason for the regulation of
the size,  thickness, weight, &c. of their bells.  Diapa-
son is  likewise the appellation given to certain  stops in
an organ.   See Stop.
  Diapason diapente (from the Greek), the  interval
compounded of an  octave  and  a fifth  conjoined:  a
twelfth.                                   J     '
  Diapason diatessarox  (from  the Greek), the in-
terval  compounded of an  octave and a fourth conjoined;
an eleventh.
  DIAPEXSIA, in botany, a genus ofthe pentandria-
monogynia class of plants, the flower of which consists
of one saucer-like  petal,  the tube being cvlindrical, and
the limb  divided into  five obtuse and plane  segments;
the fruit  is a trilocular roundish capsule, contain!; °-  a
great many  roundish seeds.  There is one species. °
  DIAPENTE, in the ancient music, an interval mark-
ing the second of the concords; and,  with the diate-sa-
ron, an octave.  This  is  what in the modern music  is
called  a fifth.
  DIAPERED, or Diapre', in heraldry, the dividing
of a field in planes,  like fretwork, and filling the same
with variety of figures.
   DIAPHRAGM, in  anatomy, a large, robust, muscu-
lous membrane or skin, placed transversely in  the trunk
and dividing the thorax  from  the abd ,men, whence the
Latin  writers call it septum  transversum.   See \v*
TOMY.                                        -^ *-
   DIARRJKEA.  See Medicine
   DI ARTHROSIS.   See Anatomy
   DIASCORLMUM, in pharmacy, a celebrated comnn
sitionso   called from scordium, one of its ni^St 
D  I C
D  I  C
  ii :s otherwise termed confectio fracastorv.   See Phar-
  MAC Y.
    DIASTOLE, among physicians, signifies  the dila-
  tation ofthe heart, auricles, and arteries; and stands op-
  posed  to  the systole, or contraction of the same parts.
  See Physiology.
    Diastole, in grammar, a figure of prosody, whereby
  a syllable naturally short is made long:  such is the first
  syllable of Priamides,  in the following  verse of Virgil:
  Atque hie Priamides: nihil 6 tibi, amice, relictum.

    DIASTYLE.  See  Architecture.
    D3ATESSARON, in music (from the Greek), a term
  applied hythe ancient Greeks to that interval  which we
  call a fourth; consisting of a greater tone, a lesser tone,
  and one  greater semitone.   The word is now used for
  the four gospels, arranged  after  the  manner  of a har-
  mony.
    Diatessaron, in pharmacy, the name of a composi-
  tion so called from the  four ingredients it comprehends.
  See Pharmacy.
    DIATONIC (from the Greek),  a term applied by the
  ancient Greeks to that of their three genera, which con-
  sisted, like  the  modern system of intervals, of major-
  tones  and semitones.  The diatonic genus has long since
  been considered as more natural than either the chroma-
  tic  or enharmonic.  Aristoxenus asserts it to have been
  the first,  and informs us that the other two were formed
  from the division of its intervals.
    DIATONUM  intensum,  or sharp  diatonic, the
  name given by  musical theorists to those famous pro-
  portions of  the  intervals proposed by Ptolemy, in his
  system of that  name:  a system  which,  long  after the
  time of this ancient speculative musician, was received
  in our counterpoint, and is pronounced by  Dr.  Wallis,
  Dr. Smith,  anil the most learned writers on harmonics,
  to be  the best division of the scale.
     DIAZEUXIS  (Greek), division, separation;  the
  name given by the ancients to the  tone which separated
  two disjunct tetrachords. The diazeuxis was placed be-
  tween the mesis and paramesis,i. e. between tbe highest
  note of the second tetrachord, and the lowest of the
  third; or between the  note synnemenon, and  the para-
  mesLs hyperbolcon.
     DICE, among gamesters, cubical  pieces of bone or
  ivory, marked  with dots on each of  their faces,  from
  one to six, according to the number of faces.  Sharpers
 /have  several ways of falsifying dice: 1.  By sticking a
  hog's bristle in  them so as to  make  them run  high or
  low as they please.  2. By drilling  and loading them
  with quicksilver;  which cheat is  found out by  holding
  them  gently by two diagonal corners; for if false, the
  heavy sides will turn always down.  3. By filing and
  rounding them.   But all these ways fall far  short of the
  art of tiie dice-makers; some of whom  are  so dextrous
  this way,  that sharpers  will  repay them  with  any
  money.
     DICERA,  a genus of the  polyandria  monogynia
  class  and order.  The petals are four, ovate and trifid;
  nectarium four  or five emarginate corpuscules;  anthers
■»two horned. There are two species, trees of New Zea-
  land.
     DICHONDRIA, a genus of the class and order pen-
tandria digynia.  The calyx is five-leavod; corolla ro-
tate, inferior; capsule dicoccous.* There is one. species
an herb of New Zealand.
  DICKORD (from the Greek),  the name given to the
two-stringed lyre, said to have been  invented by the
Egyptian Mercury.  Apollndorus accounts for its in.
vention in the following manner: " Mercury," savs lie
" walking on the banks of the river Nile,  happened ui
strike his foot against the shell of a tortoise, the  flesh
of which had been dried away by the heat of the sun
and nothing  left of its contents but the nerves and car-
tilages; he was so pleased with the sound it produced
that he thence  conceived  the idea of a lyre, which he
afterwards constructed in the form of a tortoise, and
strung it with the dried sinews of animals."
  DICHOTOMY, a term  used  by astronomers for
that phasis or appearance of the moon, wherein she is
bisected, or shows just half her disk.  In this situation
the moon  is said to be in a quadrate aspect, or to be in
her quadrature.
  Dichotomy.  See Botany.
  [DICIIROMA, in  botany, a genus of the triandria
monogynia class and order.   The calyx one-valvcd, co-
rolla none; seed one.  There are three species, natives of
Carolina,  Georgia and Florida,  (c)
  DICKSONIA., a genus of the class and  order cryp-
togamia filices.  Tliere are twro species, one of which is
supposed to be the same with the baromets  or Scythian
lamb.
  [DICRANUM, in  botany, a genus of the class cryp<
togamia, order musci.  There are 23 species, (c)
  D1CTAMNUS, white dittany, or fraxinella, a ge-
nus of the monogynia order, in the decandria class of
plants,  and in the natural  method ranking under the
26th order,  multisiliquse.   The calyx is pentaphyllous;
the petals are five and patulous; the filaments sprinkled
with  gland ulous  points;  the  capsules five, coalited.
There are two .species.
  The  dalbus, or  fraxinella,  has  thick, penetrating,
perennial roots,  collected into a head at top, sending up
erect stalks annually, two or three feet high, garnished
with pinnated alternate leaves, of three or four pair of
oblong  stiff lobes, terminated  by an odd one; and the
stalks crowned by long, pyramidal, loose spikes of flow-
ers, of  white, red, and purple colours.  They are very
ornamental  plants, and succeed in  any of the common
borders.
  DICTATOR, in the policy  of the ancient Romans,
a magistrate invested with sovereign and even arbitrary
power.  He  had power of life  and death; also to raise
or disband troops, make war or peace, and that without
the consent either of  the senate or people, or being ac-
countable for his proceedings.  He was  elected by one
of the consuls in the night-time on the frontiers of the
commonwealth,  and  no where  else;  and the ordinary
duration of his  office was only for six months, during
which time all other  magistracies ceased,  the tribune
ship excepted.  Whenever  he appeared in public, ■»
was attended by 24  Iictors, or double  the number al-
lowed a  consul.  However, notwithstanding all thtf
power, he could not  go out  of Italy, nor even ride on
horseback during a march,  without leave from the peo-
ple.  This office was accounted the safeguard  of the 
D1DELPHIS.
commonwealth  for 400 "years together,  till Sylla and
Crsar, by assuming the title of perpetual  dictators,
converted it into tyranny, and rendered the very name
odious.
  DIDELPIIIS, opossum, a genus of quadrupeds  of
the order  of ferae.  The generic character is:  front
teeth  small,  rounded;   superior ten,  the  two middle
ones longer; inferior eight, the two middle ones broader
and very  short; canine teeth long;  grinders denticula-
ted; tongue ciliated with papillae;  abdominal pouch,  in
most species, containing the teats.
  The animals of this  highly singular genus first be-
came  known to  naturalists  on the  discovery of the
western continent, and mast justly excited the admira-
tion of the philosophic  world; by the strange, and, till
then,  unheard-of, contrivance of nature for the protect
tion and preservation  of the young;  which, instead  of
being exposed, like other animals, during their state of
helpless imbecility, to the casualties incident to that pe-
riod,  were securely concealed in a pouch or receptacle
situated under the body of the parent.
  The opossums were  long supposed to be peculiar to
America; but later discoveries have evinced that several
species, unknown to America,  exist in  other parts  of
the globe.  The following arc  the  most remarkable
species:
   1. Didclphis Virginiana, or Virginian opossum. This,
which seems to have been the species first discovered in
America, is  not much  inferior in size to  a cat,  but is
of a  thicker form,  owing to  the  length  and upright
growth of the fur.   The general measure seems to be
about one foot four inches from the nose to the tail,
which is commonly about a foot or thirteen inches long.
It is an animal of an elegant aspect; having along shar-
pened face, and very wide mouth,  armed with very nu-
merous sharp teeth: the tail  is blackish at its origin,
and covered with longish hair; but from  that part  to
the end is naked, and covered with a scaly  skin, the di-
visions of  which  are marked in such a manner as to
give  the tail very much the appearance of a  whitish
snake:  it  is  strongly  prehensile,  or  possessed  of the
power of coiling,  like those of several monkeys,  round
any object from  which  the animal  pleases to suspend
itself.   Its general colour is a dingy yellowish white;
the legs blackish; the belly is white, and its lower part,
in the female, is furnished with a  large cavity  or re-
ceptacle,  which can be opened and closed  at pleasure:
in this are situated  the teats; and in it the young, im-
mediately after birth,   are either placed by the  parent
animal, "or introduce   themselves;   for  this is one  of
those  particulars  in natural history  which hitherto seem
to have eluded investigation:  it is, however, more than
probable that the parent herself places them there; since,
even long after their residence in it, they are void  of
hair,  and resemble foetuses  or  embryos, strongly ad-
bearing to the teats.  When they have attained sufficient
growth and strength,  they  emerge,  after which they
occasionally  take refuge in tbe same  receptacle on the
appearance of any danger, and are  carried about  by
the parent. This is the practice with most ofthe opos-
sum tribe: but there are two species which have no ven-
tral pouch for the reception of their young, but a kind
of depression or furrow in its stead.
  When imported into Britain, the opcssums have never
been known to breed; the late Mr. John Hunter having
frequently  procured several for this purpose,  but cou!^
by no means succeed in his endeavours to ascertain the
particulars of their history  in this respect.  The. kang.;
roo however, which is an example of a similar contri-
vance of nature, has  afforded opportunities of illustra-
ting the subject more satisfactorily.
  The Virginian opossum,  like all the other American
species, is  a carnivorous animal, and preys on poultry,
small birds, &c. in the manner of the European  polecat:
it is also  frugivorous,  eating  several kinds of roots,
fruits, &c.  It is of a gentle disposition, and may easily
be tamed; but like some other species, it has a disagree-
able smell:  its  voice is  a sort of grunting squeak;  its
pace in running is not swift, but  it is very  expert in
climbing trees,  and  readily passes, by means  of its
clinging tail, from bough to bough,  in the manner of a
monkey.   The female produces  four or five  at a birth,
and has the power of closing the pouch  so strongly as
to make it extremely difficult to open it by the hand;
nor will any torture compel the animal to  loosen it. This
power of strongly closing the  pouch is performed by
certain bones and muscles which  nature has provided
for that purpose. These were  observed  and described
by the celebrated Cowper,  in the last century, as also
by  Dr. Tyson.   The female, when ready to  produce
her young,  is said to make herself a nest of  dry grass,
in some bush, near the root of a tree. See plate XLII.
Nat. Hist.  fig. 165.
  S. Dideiphis marsupialis, or Molucca opossum. This,
which is a larger specic9 than the former, Is of a thin-
ner or more slender habit than the Virginian opossum,
with the snout  longer, and the mouth wider in propor-
tion.  The count de  Buffon, however,  considers it as
the same species, and accuses Seba of negligence or ig-
norance  in representing it as a native of the East In-
dies, contending that all the animals of  this genus are
natives of the New  World.  Subsequent discoveries,
however, have  amply justified Seba's account of its re-
sidence,  specimens  having been  frequently imported
from the India islands,  &c.  Its colour is a moderately
deep brown, paler beneath; the ears are  moderately
large, and somewhat longer in proportion than in the
Virginian  opossum,  or not of so rounded a form; the
tail nearly similar to that of the Virginian; but the su-
perior size  and thinner  form both of body  and limbs,
together with its much darker colour, sufficiently distin-
guish it,  even at first sight, from the  former species.
It  is reckoned  a  delicate  food, and is said  to be often
seen at the tables of the  great in  India, where it is
reared with rabbits.
  3. Dideiphis bracbyura,  or short-tailed opossum. This
is one of the smaller species, and is said seldom to ex-
ceed the length of five inches from nose to tail, and  in
general to be somewhat  smaller than this; and the tail
scarcely ever exceeds the length of two inches.   Its co-
lour is a reddish-brown on  the upper parts, and whitish
beneath; it is  destitute of an  abdominal pouch, the
young fastening themselves  to  the  teats.  The fur  of
this animal is very  soft and elegant; tbe tail is very
thick at the base, and gradually tapers  to the  end.   it
is a native of S. America. 
DIDELPHIS.
  4. Dideiphis oricntalis, or phalangcr.  The phalan-
gcr is of the size of a very large rat,  measuring about
nine inches from nose to tail, and tbe tail measures ten
inches.   It is a native of the Molucca islands, and  is
supposed  to be unknown in America,  though the count
de Buffon informs  us that the specimens which he ex-
amined were transmitted to him under the name of rats
of Surinam.  The  colour  of the phalanger  is rufous
grey on the upper part,  and yellowish  white beneath,
and along the top of the head and tbe back runs a black-
ish line: the tail is hairy for about two inches and a half
from the base, and the remainder is naked.  Its voice  is
said to  resemble that of a squirrel, and it often assumes
the attitude of a squirrel when feeding.  The muzzle is
rather thick; the ears sh >rt  and covered with hair:  in
the upper jaw are eight cutting teeth, and two in the
lower.
   5.  Dideiphis philander.  The  philander  is about the
size of a large  rat; the  head is large, the  snout thick,
and the ears rounded and  upright;  the tail is longer
than the body, and is hairy for some little distance from
the base, the remainder being naked, and  towards the
end prehensile.   The length of the body is  nine inches.
and of the tail thirteen.  The philander is of a reddish
brown  above, and  whitish  beneath; the eyes are sur-
rounded  with a brownish  border; the mouth on each
side  is  beset with  very long  vibrissa? or  whiskers;
down the forehead runs  a  brownish stripe; the thumbs
on the  hind feet  are rounded, as in most others of this
genus.   It has ten upper fore teeth,  of which the mid-
dle ones are rather longer than the rest;  and eight lower
fore teeth,  the middle ones rather longest, and standing
distant.  It is a native of  Surinam, and, in all proba-
 bility, of several other parts of South America.
   6. Dideiphis dorsigera,  or Merian  opossum.  This
species is so named from the celebrated madame Merian,
who has introduced a figure of it into her splendid work
on the insects of Surinam.   Madame Mcrian's own ac-
count of the animal as follows;  « By way of filling up a
plate, I have represented a kind  of wood-rat, which al-
ways carries her young ones (of which there are com-
monly five or six)  upon  her back: she is of a yellowish
brown colour, and white beneath.   When these rats come
out of their hole, either to play or to seek their food, they
run about with their mother;  but when they are satisfied
with food, or are apprehensive of danger, they climb  up
again on the back of  their  mother, and twist their tails
round that  of the parent, who  runs with them into her
hole again."
  7. Dideiphis lemurina, or lemurine opossum.  This is
a large species, being equal in size to  a cat, but longer-
bodied  in proportion.  Its  colour is a fine  brownish  or
iron-grey above, and  pale yellowish-brown  beneath,  in
some specimens nearly white: the  sides of the  neck and
the feet have also a tinge of this colour; the fur on the
whole animal is extremely thick,  rich, and soft, scarcely
yielding in elegance to that of the petaurius or great fly-
ing  opossum: the muzzle  is short  and  roundish; tire
whiskers large and black; the ears upright,  large, and a
little inclining to apointed form at the tips; the eyes bright
and  reddish; the hind feet furnished with a rounded inte-
rior toe; the tail, which is thick, long, and very furry, is
prehensile,  and is of the same colour with the body for
about a fourth of its length, the remainder being black-
it is naked beneath to a great distance from the tip. The
general length of the body is about 18  inches, of the tail
about 12.
  8. Murina. In this species the tail is hairy at the base
and a fold includes the teats.  It inhabits South Ameiir/
and eats fruit, grain, fish, &c. It is slow and stunid  S«J
Plate LH. Nat.  Hist. fig. 164.                 *  '  w
  9. Dideiphis viverrina.  or viverrine opossum.   This
animal is remarkable for its slender form; and this, foirc-
ther with its sharpened visage and long brush} tail,'gives
it, at first view, the appearance of one of the vveose'l tribe
rather than that of an  opossum.  Its general size s«>etns
to be that of a stoat, measuring about ten inches from nose
to tail, and the tail itself about eight inches.  It is impos-
sible to say critically what the various forms ofthe teetli
are adapted for from the general principles of teeth.  ln
the front we  have what may divide and tear off; behind
those there are holders and destroyers; behind the hitter
such as will assist in mashing, as the grinders of the lion
and other carnivorous animals;  and, last of all, grinders
to divide parts into smaller portions, as in the gramini-
vorous tribe: the articulation of the jaw in some degree
admits of all  those motions.
   10.  Dideiphis petaurus, or petaurinc opossum.  The
size, colour,  and form, of  the petaurine or great flying
opossum of New Holland, conspire to render it one of the
most beautiful of quadrupeds.   It measures about 22 in-
ches from the tip of the nose to the beginning ofthe tail,
which is 20 inches in length.  The body is about thesize
of a half-grown  cat or a small rabbit, and the general ap-
pearance of the animal is similar to that of a flying sq.iir-
rel;  an expansile membrane, covered with fur, stretching
from the fore legs to the hind on each side ofthe body,
and  thus enabling the animal to spring to a considerable
distance at pleasure.
   The general colour of this species is a very fine, sable,
or deep grey-brown above, varied with a cast of ferrugc-
nous:  beneath it is nearly white; a stripe, of darker or
blacker brown than the  rest runs along the back from
head to tail; the fur near the  edge of the flying mem-
brane on its upper part  has also a darker  tinge than on
the other parts, while the edge itself is white, thus form-
ing  a beautiful  contrast of colour round the whole bor-
der  of the membrane; a darker or blacker shade than on
the rest of the  fur prevails on the  upper parts of the
shoulders, extending over each side of the nek.  The
tail is at least equal to the whole length of the head and
body, and is extremely full of long, soft fur, of a black-
er  cast  than the  rest,  particularly  towards the end,
where it is longer or more floccy than towards the base:
the  whole is of a roundish or subcvlindric f< rm, but
from the disposition of the long fur, has a slightly flat-
tened appearance towa.'ds the extremity.
   11. Dideiphis sciurea,  or squirrel  opossum.  This is
perhaps the  most beautiful quadruped, if we except the
petaurus or  great flying opossum,  of all the Australa-
sian species yet discovered.  In its general asp'-ct is has
so much the  appearance of a squirrel, that, on a cursory
view, it might readily pass for such.  A more exact in-
spection into its characters will, however,  evince it to be
a genuine opossum. Its size is nearly that of a common
squirrel^  but from the fulness and particular growth of 
D  I D
D I D
 the fur, which, like that ofthe lemur, grows in a sube-
 rec t manner,  it appears somewhat larger.  Its general
 colour is exactly like that of the  sciurus  cinereus, or
 American  grey squirrel.  A black stripe  passes over
 each  eye along the top ofthe head: under each ear is a
 black patch surrounded with white, the hair on the wliite
 part having a more  soft or ilocculcnt  appearance than
 the black.  The tail, which is prehensile, is of the s.une
 colour with tiie body for about half its length,  the re-
 mainder being black.  It is very full of hair, and tapers
 a little  towards the extremity,  but without any acute
 termination.   The eyes are black,  rounded, and full: the
 cars round, shortish,  and very  thin;  the whole  under
 side of the animal  is milk-white; the upper parts ofthe
 feet arc also white, and the edge of the lateral or flying
 membrane, which  extends from the fore feet to the hind,
 is edged with a blackish  border, as in the  flying squir-
 rels.  The abdominal pouch  is of considerable size, and
 is situated, as in other opossums,  on  the lower part of
 the abdomen:  the hind feet arc furnished with a rounded,
 unarmed, or mutic thumb. Nothing can exceed the soft-
 ness and delicacy of this animal's fur, which is, if possi-
 ble, still finer than that of the petaurus, to which indeed,
 though  very greatly inferior  in size,  as  well as  widely
 different in colour,  it yet bears a striking affinity.  It
 is a nocturnal  animal, and continues torpid the greatest
 part of the day, but during the night is full of activity.
 In this, as well as  in other Australian opossums, the two
 toes on the hind feet nearest  tbe thumb or rounded one,
 arc connate,  or both conjoined under one common skin.
   12. Dideiphis pygmsea, or pygmy opossum. This is
 by far  the most minute of all the  opossums, and, from
 its diminutive size, not  exceeding that of a common
 mouse,  has been named the pygmy opossum.  It is  fur-
 nished on each side  the body  with an expansile mem-
 brane, exactly in  the manner of the flying squirrel, by
 the. assistance of which  it is enabled to spring to a con-
 siderable distance.  The fur  on the whole animal is ex-
 tremely fine; the colour is a soft or palish brown above,
 and almost white beneath; the edges of the flying mem-
 brane are also white; the  nose, feet, and  cars, internal-
 ly arc of a light pink or flesh-colour; the tail is of a flat-
 tened form, and is beautifully edged on  each side with
 soft silky hail's. The opening of the abdominal  pouch
 in this species  is of a semilunar form:  on opening this
 receptacle, in  the specimen described in the  New Hol-
 land Zoology, was discovered on each side a young one,
 large in proportion  to the parent animal,  and totally
 chstitutc ofhair: they had. therefore, not approached to
 thw period  of  their second birth.  In such specimens as
 were not in a pregnant state, the mammas or teats were
 extremely sni ill, and only four in number.  The tongue
 in this animal is remarkably large an ' long, and of a
 fl-ttened firm; the hind feet have rounded and unarmed
 thumbs, and the two interior toes are  united under a
 common skin.
   l.l. Mai  rotarstis:  tail slender,  miked, hairy  at  the
 tip. heels ofthe hind-feet long, naked, thumb-nail flat
 See Plat- XL1I. Nat. Hist. fig. 163, and  also the article
KANCiAHO).
   DIDELT \, a genus ofthe  (lass and order syngenesia
polyga'nia  friiKtruiiea.  The ly x is  expanding; recepta-
cle hone} -combed  into  parts, which retain  the seeds;
down chaffy, many-leaved.  There arc  twv> species, an-
nuel s ofthe Cape.
   DIDUS, or Dodo, in ornithology,  a genus belonging
to the order of gallinse.  The bill  is  contracted  in the
middle by two transverse rugaj; each mandible is inflect-
ed  at  the point;  and the face is bare behind the eyes.
Only one species, the ineptus, is mentioned by Linnaeus.
Other naturalists have added two  more.
   1. The  dronte, or hooded dodo (ineptus,  Lin.),  is
somewhat  larger than a swan, and near  three  feet  in
length.  The  bill is strong,  large, and hooked  at the
end; the gape stretches beyond the eyes: the colour is a
very pale  blue, except the end of the upper mandible,
wdiich  is yellowish, and has a red spot on the bend of it;
the end of the lower is blackish; the irides are while. The
general colour of the  plumage is cinereous: it is  soft  to
the touch;  the belly and thighs are whitish.  The head is
large,  and seems  covcied with a black hood or  cowl.
The wings are very short, and of a yellowish ash-co-
lour; the tail feathers ai-e curled, stand up on the rump,
and in line to yellow. The legs have four toes, three be-
fore and one beyind;  are very stout, short, and yellow-
ish; the claws are black.  It inhabits the islands of Mau-
ritius and  Bourbon in the  Indian  Ocean.   See Plate L.
Nat. Hist. fig. 169.
   2. The  solitaire,  or solitary dodo, is a large bird,
and the male is said to weigh sometimes 45 pounds. The
neck is of  a proportionable length, and the eye black
and lively; the head is not crested, and the general co-
lour of the plumage  is grey  and  brown mixed:  it has
scarcely any tail,  and the  bastard wing swells out into
a round  knob; the wings are too short for flight; and
the hind parts arc rounded like a horse's  rump, being
clothed with feathers, which  may be termed coverts.
The females  are  covered with sometimes brown and
sometimes  light-yellow feathers, and appear very beau-
tiful.  The feathers on each side of the breast enlarge
into two wliite tufts,  somewhat  resembling the bosom of
a woman.  Those of the thighs are rounded at the end
like shells; and, according to Lcguat, the bird has al-
together a noble and elegant  gait.  This is an inhabi-
tant of the isle of Rodrigue, where it  is  not uncommon;
but not met with in flocks, scarcely more than two be-
ing found together.  It makes its nest in by-places,  of
leaves  ofthe  palm, a  foot and a half  in thickness, and
lays one egg,  bigger than that of a goose. The male
sits in  his turn, and does not suff m- any bird to approach
within  200 yards  of  the spot while the i.en is'sitting,
which is seven  weeks. The young is so in.*, months be-
fore it can  shift for its -If; the old ones, in the mean U ue,
are affectionate to it, and faithful to each other after-
wards, though they  occasionally  may mix with  others
of their kind.  The young birds, though timid, are stu-
pid enough to  suffer the approach  of uuv one: but when
grown up. are more shy, and will  not be t  ion ■!.  They
are chased in  the  winter season,  viz. from March  to
September, being th n fat,  and the  young birds are
much esteemed for the table.
  3. The Nazarene,  dodo  is  larger than a swan. Tic
bill Is a lit'Ie bent downwards, and  large; ins;'ad  of
feathers, the whole is covered over with a  black  down-
but the  wings are feathered, and it lias some  fr". -■■{  d
ones upon the rump,  which serve  instead, of a tail; the 
D I B
DIF
 legs  are long and  scaly, and there  are three  toes on
 each foot.   This was met  with, in the  Isle of  France,
 and described as above by Fr. Cauche;  who adds, that
 the female lays only one egg, which is white, and as big
 as  a penny-loaf, and  that there is always found with it
 a white stone of the size of a hen's egg;  that it makes a
 nest of leaves and dry herbs in the forests on the ground;
 and that there is likewise found a grey stone in the giz-
 zard of the young bird.
  [DID YMODON, in botany, a genus of the class cryp-
 togamia, order musci. (c)
  DIDYNAMIA, the name of the  14th class in Lin-
 nous's sexual method, consisting of plants  with herma-
 phrodite flowers, which have four  stamina  or male or-
 gans, two of which are long and two short.  See Bo-
 tany.
  [DIERVILLA, in botany, a genus of the class pentan-
 dria, order monogynia. The calyx is five-leaved; the co-
 rolla is five-leaved, luted, frutescent;  the capsule inferi-
 or, four-celled, many seeded.  There  is  but one species
 known, the D. canadensis,  or yellow-flowered  diervil-
 la.(c)
  DIES, in common law, are of two kinds, dies juri-
 dici,  and non juridici.  Dies juridici, or fasti, are all clays
 wherein justice is administered in court. Dies non ju-
 ridici, or nefasti,  are all Sundays in the year:  and,  in
 Easter term, the feast of ascension of our Lord; in Tri-
 nity term, the nativity of St. John the Baptist; in Mi-
 chaelmas term, the feasts of all saints and all souls, and
 in Hilary term,  the purification ofthe Blessed Virgin.
  Dies datus, is a day,  or time of respite, given by
 the court to the defendant in a cause.
   DIESIS,  (from  the  Greek,)  the name  given  to
 the smallest interval  used in the music  of the ancient
 Greeks.  In  harmonic calculations, those are called
 diesis which are greater than a comma,  and less than a
 semi-tone.  Diesis, in modern music, is the name given
 to the elevation of a note above its natural  pitch.  This
 raising of the sound is, however, only a kind of insensi-
 ble gliding through the interval of a semi-tone, and does
 not produce any change in the denomination of the note
 upon which it operates.  With some  authors, diesis  is
 only another name for the quarter of a tone.
  DIET.   See Materia Medica.
  Diet or  Dvet, in matters of policy, is used for the
 general assembly of the states or circles ofthe empire of
 Germany, and formerly  of Poland,  to  deliberate and
 concert measures proper to be taken for  the good  ofthe
 public. The general  diet of the  empire  is usually held
 at Ratisbon: it consists of the emperor, the ten  electors,
 and the ecclesiastical  princes;  viz. the archbishops,
bishops, abbots, and abbesses; the secular princes, who
 are dukes, marquises, counts, viscounts,  or barons; and
 the representatives of the  imperial cities.  It meets on
 the emperor's summons, and any  of the princes may
 Send  their deputies thither in their  stead. The diet
 makes laws, raises taxes, determines differences between
 the several princes and states, and can relieve  the sub-
jects from the oppressions of their sovereigns.
  DIEU et mon droit,  God and my right, the motto
 of  the royal arms  of England,  first assumed  by king
 Bichard I.  to intimate that he did not hold his empire
 in vassalage of any mortal authority.  It  was afterwards
taken by Edward the Third, and was continued without
interruption  to the time of king William III. who used
the motto je maintiendray, though  the  former was still
retained upon the great seal.  After him, queen Anne
used the motto  semper eadem, which had been before
used by queen Elizabeth; but  ever since queen Anue
dieu et mon droit continues to be the royal motto.
   Dieu son act, words anciently often used in our law
and to this day,  it is a maxim in law,  that the act of God
shall prejudice no man: therefore, if a house is blown or
beaten down by a  tempest, thunder, or lightnin^. the
lessee, or tenant for life or years, shall be quit of an ac-
tion of waste; and, by the law,  he has likewise a special
interest or liberty allowed to take timber, to rebuild the
house for his habitation.
   DIFFERENCES, in heraldry,  certain addttamenti
to coat armour,  whereby something is added or altered
to distinguish younger families from the elder.
   DIFFERENTIAL calculus.  See Calculus niF
ferentialis.
   DIFFERENTIO,  differentials calculus, is a
method of differencing differential quantities.
   We have observed, under the  wrord Calculus,  that
the differential of a quantity is  expressed by the letter d
prefixed to it, as the differential  of x is called dx; vvc
are to  remark, therefore, in this place, that the differen-
tial of dx, is ddx; and the differential of ddx, is dddx;

or, as sir Isaac Newton would express it, x, &c. These
differentials may be expressed more compendiously thus,
d2x, d3x,  kc. whence we have powers or degrees of dif-
ferentials.   The differential of an ordinary quantity, is
called a differential of the first  degree, as dx. The dif-
ferential of the  second degree, is an  infinitesimal of a
differential quantity of the first degree, as ddx, dxdx,
or dx2, dxdy,.kc  The differential of the third degree,
is an infinitesimal of a differential quantity of the second
degree, as dddx, dx3, dxdydz, and so on.
  The powers of differentials are  differenced after thr
same manner as the powers of  ordinary quantities: and
as compound differentials either multiply or divide each
other,  or  are perfect or imperfect powers of differen-
tials of the first degree, the differentio-differcntialis cal-
culus is in effect the same with the differential calculus.
See Calculus differentialis.
  DIGASTRICUS,  in anatomy, a muscle of the lower
jaw, called also  biventer.
  DIGESTION,  in  medicine, is the dissolution of the
aliments into such minute parts  as are fit to enter the
lacteal vessels, and circulate with the mass of blood.
  There is a very great difference in the quantity oi
aliment which animals require,  and  in the time which ,
they can pass without it.  In general,  those animal'!
which are  most active require  most, and  those which
are most indolent'.require least  food.  The cause of this
is obvious: the bodies of animals do not remain stationa-
ry, they are  constantly wasting;  and the waste is pro-
portional to the activity of the animal. Hence the body
must receive, from time to time,  new supplies, in place
of what has been carried off.  The use  of food answers
this puimpose.
  We are much  better acquainted with the food of ani-
mals than of vegetables.  It consists of an infinite va» 
DIGESTION.
riety of animal and vegetable substances:  for there are
but very few of cither which som%animal or other does
not use'as food.  Man uses  as food chiefly the musdes
of animals, the seed of certain grasses, and a variety of
vegetable fruits.  Almost all the inferior  animals have
particular substances on  which they  feed exclusive!}.
Some of them feed on  animals,  others on vegetables.
Man has a greater range; he can feed on  a very  great
number of substances.  To enumerate these substances
would be useless,  as we are  not able to point out with
accuracy what it is  which renders one substance more
nourishing than another.
   Many substances do not serve as  nourishment at all;
and some, instead of nourishing, destroy life. These last
arc called poisons.  Some poisons act chemically, by de-
composing the animal body.   The action of others is not
so well  understood.
   The food is introduced  into the body by the mouth,
and almost all animals reduce it to a kind of pulpy con-
sistence.  In  man and  many other animals this is done
in the mouth  by  means of teeth, and the saliva with
which it is there mixed; but many other animals  grind
their  food in a different manner.  After  the food  has
been thus ground,  it is introduced  into  the  stomach,
where it is subjected to new changes. The stomach is a
strong soft bag,  of different forms in different animals:
in man it has some resemblance to the bag of a bagpipe.
In this  organ the  food is converted  into a soft  pap,
which has no resemblance to  the food when first  intro-
duced.  This pap has been called chyme.
   Since chyme possesses new  properties, it is evident
that the food has undergone some changes in the stomach,
and that the ingredients of which it was composed have
entered into new combinations.
   The formation of chyme,  in  fact, is  owing to the
stomach; and  it has been concluded,  from the experi-
ments of Stevens, Reaumur, Spallanzani, Scopoli, Brug-
natelli,  Carimini, eve. that its formation is brought about
by the action of a particular liquid secreted by the sto-
mach, and for that reason  called gastric juice.
   That it is owing  to the action of a liquid is evident;
because, if pieces of food are inclosed in close tubes, they
pass through  the stomach without any farther alteration
than would have taken  place at the same temperature
eut ofthe body; but if the tubes are perforated with small
holes, the food is converted into chyme.
   This liquid does not act indiscriminately upon all sub-
stances: for if grains of corn are put into a perforated
tube, and a granivorous bird  is made to swallow it, the
corn will remain the usual time in the stomach without
alteration; whereas, if the husk of the grain is previous-
ly taken off, the whole of it will be converted into chyme.
It is well known, too, that many substances pass unalter-
ed through the intestines of  animals, and consequently
are not acted  upon by the  gastric juice. This is the case
frequently w ith grains of oats when they have been swal-
lowed by horses entire with  their husks on. This  is the
case  also with the seeds of apples, kc when swallowed
entire by man; yet  these  very substances, if tbey have
been previously ground sufficient!}  by the  teeth, are di-
gested.  It appears, therefore, that it is chiefly the husk
or outside of these substances which resists the action of
  vol.I.                      9i
the gastric juice. We see also, th.it trituration greatly l'.i
cilitates the conversion of food into chyme.
   The gastric juice is not 'he s-.imc in all animals; for
many  animals cannot  digest  the  food on which others
live. Toe conium maculatum  (hemlock), lor iintarr'e,
is a poison to man instead of food, yet the goat often
feeds upon it. Many animals, as sheep, live wholly up-
on vegetables; and if they are made to feed upon animals,
their stomachs will  not  digest thorn:  others  again, as
the eagle, feed wholly on animal substance., and cannot
digest vegetables.
   The gastric juice does  not continue always of the same
nature, even in the same animal: it changes gradually
according to circumstances.  Graminivorous  animals
may be brought to live on animal food; and after  they
have been accustomed to this for  some time, their sto-
machs become incapable  of digesting vegetables. On the
other hand, those animals which naturally digest nothing
but animal food may be  brought to digest vegetables.
   What is the nature of  the gastric juice,  which posses-
ses these singular properties? It is evidently different in
different animals; but it  is a very difficult task, if not
an impossible one, to obtain it in a state of purity.  Va-
rious attempts have indeed been made  by very ingenious
philosophers to procure it; but their analysis of it is suf-
ficient to show us, that they  have never obtained it  in a
state of purity.
   The methods which have been used to procure gastric
juice are, first, to kill the animal whose gastric juice is
to be examined, after it has fasted for some time.  By
this method Spallanzani  collected 37 spoonfuls from the
two first stomachs ofa sheep. It was of a green colour,
undoubtedly owing to the grass which the  animal had
eaten.  He found also half a spoonful in the  stomach of
some young crows which he killed before  they had left
their nest.
   Small tubes of metal pierced  with holes, and contain-
ing a dry sponge, have been swallowed by animals; and
when vomited up, the  liquid imbibed by the sponge  is
squeezed out. By  this  method,  Spallanzani collected
481 grains of gastric juice  from  the stomachs  of  five
crows.
   A third  method consists in exciting  vomiting in the
morning, when the stomach is without food. Spallanzani
tried this method twice upon himself, and collected one
of the  times, 1 oz. 32gr. of liquid; but  the pain was so
great, that he did not think proper  to try the experiment
a  third time. Mr.  Gosse,  however,  who could  excite
vomiting  whenever he thought  proper, by swallowing
air, has employed that method to collect gastric juice.
   Spallanzani has observed  that eagles tlirow up every
morning a quantity of liquor, which he considers as
gastric juice; and he has availed himself of this to collect
it in considerable quantities.
   It is almost unnecessary to remark how  imperfect
these  different methods  are, and how far  every conclu-
sion drawn from the examination of suh juices must de-
viate from the trifth. It  is impossible  that  the gastric
juice,  obtained  by any one of these p. cess s, can be
pure; because in the stoinachit must be constantly ui.xed
with large quantities ofsalhu, mucus, bile, food*, k  .  It
may be questioned, indeed, whether any gastvi  i ti< c at
all can be obtained by these methods; tor as the Uu union 
DIGESTION.
ofthe gastric juice is to convert the food into chyme,  in
all probability it is only secreted, or at least thrown into
the stomach, when food is present.
  We need not  be surprised, then, at the contradictory
accounts concerning its nature, given us by those philo-
sophers who have attempted to examine it; as these re-
late not so much to the gastric juice,  as to the different
substanees found  in  the  stomach.  The idea that the
gastric juice can be obtained  by  vomiting, or that it is
thrown up spontaneously by some animals, is, to say the
least of it, very far from being probable.
   According to Brugnatelli, the  gastrie juice of carni-
vorous  animals, as hawks, kites, &c. has an acid and
resinous odour, is very bitter, and not at all watery; and
is composed of an uncombined acid,  a resin, an animal
substance, and a small quantity of muriat of soda.  The
gastric juice of herbivorous animals,  on the contrary, as
goats, sheep, kc. is very  watery, a little muddy, has a
bitter saltish taste, and contains amonia,  an animal ex-
tract, and a pretty large quantity of muriat of soda. Mr.
 Carminati found the same ingredients: but he supposes
 that the ammonia had been formed by the putrefaction of
 a part of their food, and that in reality the gastric juice
 of these animals, is of an acid nature.
   The accounts which have been given of the gastric
juice of man are so  various,  that it  is not worth while
 to transcribe them.  Sometimes it has been found  of an
 acid nature, at other times not. The experiments of Spal-
 lanzani are sufficient to  show,  that this acidity is not
 owing to the  gastric juice, but  to the  food. He never
 found any acidity in the gastric juice of birds of prey,
 nor of serpents, frogs, and fishes. Crows gave an acidu-
 lous gastric juice only when fed  on grain; and he found
 that the  same  observation  holds  with respect to  dogs,
 herbivorous animals, and domestic  fowls. Carnivorous
 birds threw up pieces of shells and coral without altera-
 tion; but these  substances were sensibly diminished in
 the stomachs of hens, even when inclosed in perforated
 tubes. Spallanzani  himself  swallowed  calcareous sub-
 stances inclosed in tubes; and when he fed on vegetables
  and fruits, they were sometimes altered and a little di-
 minished in weight, just as if they had been  put into
 weak vinegar; but wdien  he used only animal food, they
  came  out  untouched.  According to this philosopher,
  whose experiments have been by far  the most numerous,
 the gastric juice is naturally neither acid nor alkaline.
  When poured on the carbonat of potass, it causes no ef-
 fervescence.
    Such are the, result ofthe experiments on the juices
  taken from the stomach of animals. No conclusion  can
 be drawn from them respecting the nature of the gastric
 juice. But from the experiments which  have been made
 on the digestion of the stomach, especially by Spallanza-
  ni, the following facts are established.
    The gastric juice attacks the surface  of bodies, unites
  to the particles of them, which it carries off, and cannot
  be separated from them by filtration.  It  operates with
  more energy  and rapidity the more  tlae food is divided,
  and its action  is increased by a warm temperature. The
  food is not merely reduced to very minute parts; its
  taste and smell are quite changed; its sensible properties
  are destroyed, and it acquires new and  very different
  ones. This juice does not act as a ferment; so far from it
that it is a powerful antiseptic; and even restores flesb
already putrefied. Tbjjjre is not the smallest appearance
of such a process; indeed, when the juice is renewed fre-
quently, as in the stomach, substances dissolve in it with
a rapidity which excludes all idea cd'fermentation.  Only
a few air-bubbles make their  escape, which adhere to
the alimentary matter,  and buoy it up to the top, and
which are probably extricated by the beat ofthe solution.
   With respect to the substances  contained in the sto'
mach, only to facts have  been  perfectly ascertained.
The first is, that the juice contained in the stomachs of
oxen, calves and sheep,  invariably contains uncombined
phosphoric acid, as Macquartand Vauquelin have demon-
strated: the second, that the juice contained in the stomach,
and even the inner coat of the stomach itself, has the pro-
perty of coagulating milk  and the serum of blood. Dr.
Young  found, that seven  grains  of  the inner coat ofa
calf's  stomach,  infused in  water, gave a liquid which
coagulated more than 100 ounces of milk; that is, more
than 6857 times its own weight; and yet, in all probabili-
ty, its weight was not much diminished.
   What the substance is which possesses this coagulat-
ing property, has not yet been ascertained; but it is evi-
dently not very soluble, in water: for the inside of a calf's
stomach, after being steeped in water for six hours, arid
then well  washed with water,  still furnishes a liquor on
infusion which coagulates milk: and Dr. Young  found
that a piece of the inner coat of  the stomach, after be-
ing previously washed with water, and then with a dilut-
ed solution of carbonat of potass, still  afforded a liquid
wdiich coagulated milk and serum.
   It is evident,  from these facts, that this coagulating
 substance, whatever itis,  acts very powerfully; and that
 it is scarcely possible  to separate it completely from the
 stomach.  But we know at present too little of the na-
 ture of coagulation to be able to draw any inference from
 these facts. An almost imperceptible quantity of some
 substances seems to be sufficient to  coagulate milk: for
 Mr. Vaillant mentions in his  Travels in Africa, that a
 porcelain  dish which he procured,  and which had lain
 for some  years at the  bottom of  the sea, possessed,  in
 consequence, the property of coagulating milk when put
 into it; yet it communicated no taste to the milk, and did
 not differ  in appearance from other cups.
   It is probable that the saliva is of service in the conver-
 sion of food  into chyme as well as the gastric juice.  It
 evidently  serves to dilute  the food; and probably it may
 be  serviceable   also  by  communicating oxygen.  The
 chyme, thus formed,  passes from the stomach into the
 intestines, where it is subjected to new changes, and at
 last converted into two very different  substances, chyle
 and excrementitious matter.
    The chyle is a white-coloured  liquid, very much re-
 sembling milk. It is exceedingly difficult to collect it in
 any considerable quantity, and for that reason it has ne-
 ver been accurately analysed.  We know only in general
 that it resembles milk; containing, like it, an albuminous
 part capable of being coagulated, a serum, and globules
 which have a resemblance to cream. It contains also  dif-
 ferent salts;  and, according to some, a substance scarce-
 ly differing from the sugar of milk.
    Concerning the process by which chyle is formed from
 chyme, scarcely any thing is known. It does not appeav 
DIGESTION.
that the, chvle is precisely the same  in all animals; for
those which arc herbivorous have a greater length of in-
testine than  those which are carnivorous. It is  certain
that tbe formation of the chyle is effected by a chemical
change, although we cannot say precisely what  that
change is, or what the agents are by which it is produc-
ed. But that the change is chemical, is evident,  because
the chyle is entirely different, both in its properties and
appearance, from the chyme. The chyme, by the action
of the  intestines, is  separated into two parts, chyle and
excrement: the first of which is absorbed by a  number
of small vessels called  lacteals; the second is  pushed
along the intestinal canal and at last thrown out of the
body altogether.
   After the chyme has been converted into chyle and ex-
crement, although  these two substances  remain mixed
together, it  does not appear that they arc able to decom-
pose each other; for persons have been known seldom  or
never to emit any excreincntitious matter per anum for
years.  In these, not only  the chyle, but the excremen-
titious matter also, was absorbed by  the  lacteals; and
the excrement was afterwards thrown out of the body
by other outlets, particularly by the  skin: inconsequence
of which, those persons have constantly that particular
odour about them which distinguishes excrement. Now
in these persons it is evident that the chyle and excre-
ment,  though mixed together, and even absorbed togeth-
er, did not act on each other; because these persons have
been known to enjoy good health for years, which could
not have been the case had the  chyle been destroyed.
   It has been supposed by some that the decomposition
of the chyme, and  the formation of chyle,  are  prduced
by the agency of the bile, which is poured out abundant-
ly, and mixed with the chyme, soon  after its entrance in-
to the intestines.  If this theory was true, no chyle could
be formed whenever any accident prevented the bile from
passing into the intestinal  canal: but this  is obviously
not the case; for frequent  instances have occurred  of
persons labouring under jaundice from the bile-ducts be-
 ing stopped, cither by gall-stones or some  other cause,
 so completely, that no bile could pass into the intestines;
 yet these persons have lived for a considerable time in
 that state.  Consequently digestion, and  therefore the
 formation of the chyle, must be possible, independant of
 bile.
   The principal use of  the bile seems to be to  separate
 the excrement from the chyle, after both have been form-
 ed, and to produce  the evacuation of the excrement out
 ofthe  body.  It is probable that these substances would
 remain mixed together, and that  they would  perhaps
 even be partly absorbed together, was it not for the bile,
 which seems to combine with the excrement, and by this
 combination to facilitate its separation from the  chyle,
 and thus to prevent its absorption. Fourcroy  supposes
 that the bile,  as soon as it is mixed with the contents of
 the intestinal canal, suffers a decomposition; that its  al-
 kali and saline ingredients combine with the chyle, and
 render it more liquid, while its albumen and resin combine
 with  the excrementitious  matter, and gradually render
 them  less and less  fluid; and this then is  certainly ve-
 rv probable.The bileals<; stimulates the intestinal canal,
 and causes it to evacuate its contents sooner than it other-
wise would do; for when there is a deficiency of bile, I: \c
bodv is constantly costive.
  The excrementitious matter, then, which is evacuate*'
per  anum, consists  of all that  part  of  the food and
chyme which was not converted  into chyle; entirely al-
tered,  however,  from its original state, partly by the.
decomposition which it underwent in the stomach a;vJ
intestines, and partly by its combination with tiie resm
and  albumen of the bile. Accordingly, we find in it ma-
ny  substances which  did  not exist at all in the food.
Thus in the dung of cows  and horses there  is found  a
very considerable quantity  of benzoic acid. The excre-
ments of animals  have not yet been subjected to an ac-
curate analysis,  though such an analysis would throw
much light upon the  nature of digestion: for if we knew
accurately the substances which were taken into the body
as food, and all the new substances which were formed
by digestion; that is to say, the component parts of chyle
and  of excrement, and the variation which different
kinds of food produce in the excrement; it would be a ve-
ry considerable step towards ascertaining precisely the
changes produced  on food by digestion.
  Vauquelin has ascertained that the faeces are constant-
ly acid, always  reddening vegetable  blues.  They  run
very quckly  into  fermentation,  becoming at first more
acid, but very soon begin  to exhale ammonia.  Pigeon-
dung contains an acid of a peculiar  nature, which in-
creases when the matter is diluted with water; but grad-
ually gives place to  ammonia, which is at  last exhaled
in abundance.
  To the same excellent chemist we arc indebted for an
analysis of the fixed parts of the excrements of fowls,
and a  comparison of them with the fixed parts  of the
food; from which  some very curious consequences may
be deduced.
  He found that a hen devoured  in ten days 11111.843
grains troy of oats.  These contained
                  136.509 gr. of phosphat of lime
                  219.548 silica.
                 356.057
  During these ten days she laid four  eggs;  the  shells
of which contained 98.776 gr.  phosphat of  lime, and
453.417 gr. carbonat of lime. The excrements emitted
during these ten days contained  175.529 gr. phosphat of
lime, 58.494 gr. of carbonat of lime, and 185.266 gr. of
silica.  Consequently the fixed parts thrown  out of the
system during these ten days amounted to
                  274.305 gr. phosphat of lime
                  511.911 carbonat of lime
                  185.266 silica.
Given out  971.482
Taken in  356.057
      Surplus    615.425
  Consequently the quantity of fixed matter given oufc
of the system in ten days exceeded the quantity taken in
by 615.425 grains.
The silica taken in amounted to 219.548 gr.
That given out was only       185.266 gr.
Remains 34.282 
DIG                                               DIG
  Consequently  there  disappeared  34.282  grains of
silica.
The phosphat of lime taken in was 136.509 gr.
That given out was       .       274.305 gr.
                                  137.796
  Consequently there must have been formed, by diges-
tion in this fowl, no less than 137.796 grains of phosphat
of lime, besides 511.911 grains of carbonat. Consequent-
ly lime (and perhaps  also phosphorus) is not a simple
substance, but a compound,  and formed of ingredients
which exist  in oat-seed, water, or air, the  only sub-
stances to which the fowl had access. Silica may enter
into its composition,  as a part of the  silica had disap-
peared; but if so, it must be combined with a great quan-
tity of some other substance.
  These consequences are too important to be admitted
without a very rigorous examination.  The experiment
must be repeated frequently, and we must be absolutely
certain that the  hen  has no access to  any calcareous
earth, and that she hasnot diminished in weight; because
in that case some of the calcareous earth, of which part
of her body is composed, may have been employed. This
rigour is the more necessary, as it seems pretty evident,
from  experiments made long ago,  that some  birds  at
least cannot produce eggs,  unless they have access to
calcareous earth.  Dr. Fordyce found, that if the cana-
ry-bird was not supplied with lime at the time of her lay-
ing, she frequently died, from her eggs not coming for-
ward  properly. He divided a number of these birds at
the time of their laying eggs into two parties: to the one
he  gave a piece of old mortar, which the little animals
swallowed greedily; they laid their eggs as usual, and
all of them lived; whereas many of the other party,
which wrere supplied with no lime, died.
    The chyle, after it has been absorbed by  the lacteals,
is carried by them into a pretty  large vessel, known by
the name of thoracic duct. Into the same vessel likewise
is  discharged a transparent fluid, conveyed by a set of
vessels which  arise  from all the  cavities  of the body.
These vessels are called lymphatics, and the fluid which
they convey is called lymph. In the thoracic duct, then,
the chyle and the lymph are mixed together.
   Very little  is known concerning the nature of the
lymph,  as it  is scarcely possible to collect it in any
quantity. It is colourless, has some viscidity, and is said
to  be specifically heavier than water.  It is  said to be
coagulable by  heat; if so, it contains albumen; and from
its appearance it probably contains gelatine. Its quantity
is  certainly considerable,  for the  lymphatics  are very
numerous.
   The chyle and lymph being thus mixed together, are
conveyed directly into the blood-vessels. The effect pro-
duced hy their union in the thoracic u\uct is not known,
but neither the colour nor external properties ofthe chyle
are altered.  In man, and many other animals,  the tho-
racic duct enters at the junction of the  left subclavian
and carotid veins, and the chyle  is conveyed directly to
the heart, mixed with the blood,  which already exists in
the blood-vessels.  From the heart, the  blood and chyle
thus mixed together are propelled into the lungs, where
in  their united state they undergo farther changes.
   Such arc the phenomena of digestion, as far as they
have been  traced.  The food is  first  conveyed to  the
stomach, where  by means ofthe gastric juice it is con-
verted into chyme.  The chyme passes into the intesti-
nal canal, where it is subjected to a new process, being
gradually decomposed and converted into chyle and  ex
crementitious matter, which by means  of the bile are se-
parated from each other. The excrementitious matter is
evacuated, but the chyle is  absorbed by the lacteals, and
conveyed to the blood-vessels hy  the lungs.
   DIGESTOR, in chemistry,  a  strong vessel,  made of
copper or iron, and fitted with a close cover and screws-
so as to remain perfectly tight in a considerable degree of
heat, whilst water, common air,  and the subject of the
operation, are contained in it. The cover of the dicestor
should always be provided with a valve to let  out a part
of the steam, otherwise the vessel will certainly burst, by
which  it  may prove fatal to  the by-standers.  Of  all
chemical vessels hitherto invented, the digestor seems
best calculated for increasing the action ofthe menstru-
ums.  Water,  confined  in a digestor, is susceptible of so
much heat as to melt lead; and it is frequently found to
melt the solder of lead and tin, with which the copper
vessel  was held together: hence appears the necessity  of
using hard solder, made of spelter, or silver and brass,
for this purpose; otherwise, the digestor cannot contain
the water, when much heated, without melting in the
joints. In this vessel, fresh ox-bone will be so digested
in the space of  a quarter of an hour,  as to become soft
and tender, and capable of being cut  with a  knife; and
the water, in which it was boiled, turned into  a hard jel-
ly, and a large cake of fat on its surface, when all is pro-
perly cooled.
   DIGGING, among miners, is appropriated to the ope-
ration of freeing any kind of ore from the bed or stratum
in which it lies, where every stroke of their tools turns
to account: in contradistinction to the  openings made in
search of such  ore, which are called  hatches or essay-
hatches, and the operation itself, tracing of  mines,  or
hatching. When a  bed of ore is discovered,  the beelc-
men, so called from the instrument they use,  which is a
kind of pick-ax, free the ore from the fossils  around  it,
and the  shovel-men throw it  up from one shamble to
another, till it reaches the  mouth of the hatch. In some
mines, to save  the  expense as  well as fatigue of the
shovel-men,  they  raise the ore by means of  a winder,
and two buckets, one of which goes up as the other comes
down.
   DIGIT,  digitus,  in  astronomy,  the 12th part of
the diameter of the sun or moon, is used to express the
quantity of an eclipse.  Thus an  eclipse is said to be of
six digits, when six of these parts are bidden.
   Digits, or Monades, in arithmetic, signify any  in-
teger under 10, as 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9.
   Digit is also a measure taken from the breadth of the
finger. It is properly 3-4ths of an inch, and contains the
measure of four barley-corns laid breadthwise.
   DIGATALIS, fox-glove, a genus of the  angiospcr-
mia order, in the didynamia class  of  plants; and in the
natural method ranking under the 28th  order, lurid*.
The calyx is quinquepartite; the  corolla campanulated,
quinquefid, and ventricose; the capsule ovate  and bilo-
cular. There are 12 species; 5 of which are hardy,  'ier*
baceous, biennial) and perennial  plants. The herbaceous 
D* I L
D  I M
apeciesrisetwo or three feet high, crowned with spikes
of yellow iron-coloured or purple flowers. The ' anarien-
sis or shrubby  sort rises five or six feet high, having
spear-shaped rough leaves,  four or five inches long, and
half as broad; the branches being ail  terminated  with
flowers growing in loose spikes. All the species are easily
raised by seeds. An ointment made ofthe flowers of pur-
ple fox-glove and fresh butter, is  much commended  by
some surgeons for  scrophulous  ulcers  which  run much
and are ill-conditioned.  Taken internally, this plant is a
violent purgative and emetic; and is therefore only  to be
administered to robust constitutions. An infusion of two
drams ofthe leaf in a point  of water, given in half-ounce
doses every two hours,  till  it begins to vomit or purge,
is recommended in dropsy, particularly thatof the breast.
It issaid to have produced an evacuation of water so co-
pious and sudden, in ascites, by stool and urine, that the
compression of bandages was found necessary. The use
of this remedy, however, is thought dangerous by many
physicians, yet the Edinburgh  pharmacopoeia has re-
tained it.
  DIGITATED, among botanists, an appellation given
to compound leaves, each of which is composed of a  num-
ber of simple foliola, placed regularly on a common pe-
tiole; though strickly speaking, there must be more than
4 foliola to make a digitated leaf.
  DIGNITY  ecclesiastical:  ecclesiastical dignities
are those of archbishop, bishop,   dean, archdeacon, and
prebendary,  and  the  possessors of these dignities are
called  dignitaries.  Of dignities  and prebends, Camden
reckons 544 in England.
  DIGYNIA,from ><$ twice, and  yvn a woman,the  name
of an order or secondary division, in each of the first 13
classes except the 9th, in Linnaus's sexual method; con-
sisting of plants, which  to the classic character, whatev-
er it is, add the circumstance of having two styles or  fe-
male organs.
  DlLAPlDATION,is where an incumbent of a church-
living sufferers the parsonage house or  out-houses to fall
down,  or be in decay, for want of necessary reparations;
or it is the {Hilling  down or  destroying any of the houses
or buildings belonging to a spiritual living, or destroying
ofthe woods, trees, kc. appertaining to the same; for it is
said to extend to  committing or  suffering  any wilt ii
waste,  in or upon  the inheritance of the church.  Deg.
Pars. Conns. 89. By 13 Eliz. c.  10, if any ecclesiastical
persons, who are bound to  repair tbe  buildings whereof
they are seised in right of their place or function, suffer
the m to  fall into decay for want  of repair, and make
fraudulent gifts of their personal  estate, with intent  to
hinder  their successors from  recovering dilapidations
against their executors or  administrators, in such case
the successor shall  have like remedy in  the ecclesiastical
court, against  the graijtee of such personal estate, as he
might have against the executor  or administrator of the
predecessor. By 14 Eliz. c. 11. all monies recovered  by
dilapidations, shall within two years be employed  upon
the  buildings for which they were paid, on pain of forfeit-
ing <h nble so much as shall not  be so  employed, to the
queen.
  D'LATATORES. sec A.vatomy.
  DILATOR y ruus,  are such as are  jut in merely
for delay, and arc of three kinds: 1. To the jurisdiction
of the court, alleging, that it ought not to hold plea  of
the  matter  in  hand, as  belonging to some other court.
2. To the disability ofthe plaintiff, by reason whereof he
is unable to commence or continue the suit, as that he is
outlawed,  attainted, an  infant, or the like. 3. In  abate-
ment, as for some defect in tbe writ, as a misnomer ofthe
defendant, or other want of form in any material respect.
These pleas were formerly used as merely dilatory, with-
out any foundation of truth, and calculated only for delay;
but now by stat. 4  and  5 Anne,  c. 16. no dilatory plea
shall  be admitted, without affidavit  made of the truth
thereof, or some probable matter shown to the court to
induce them to believe it true. 3 Black. 301.
  D1LATRIS, in botany, a genus of the monogynia  or-
der, belonging to the triandria class of plants. There is
no  calyx; the  corolla has six petals, and is shaggy;  the
stigma is simple. Three  species, herbaceous plants of the
Cape.
  DILEMMA, in logic, an argument consisting of two
or more propositions, which divides the whole into all its
parts, or members, by a  disjunctive proposition, and then
infers something concerning each part, which is  finally
referred to concerning the whole.
  DILLENIA, in botany,  a genus of  the polyandria-
polygynia class of plants; the corolla of which consists of
five coriaceous,  large, roundish, and  hollow  petals:  the
fruit is  roundish, and externally  covered with a number
of capsules, which are oblong, and divided by a furrow;
within,  there  is a large column or pulpous receptacle:
the seeds are  numerous, and \ery small; and nidulated
underneath the capsules. There  are^even species, beau-
tiful trees ofthe East Indies.
  DIMENSION, in geometry,  is either length, breath,
or thickness; hence  a line has one dimension, Yiz.length;
a superficies two, viz. length and breadth; and a body or
solid has three, viz. length, breadth, and thickness.
  Dimension is used with regard to the power of  the
roots  of an equation, which are called the dimensions of
that root. Thus in a simple  equation  x = a -f 6, the un-
known quantity is only of one < intension: in a quadratic
equation x2 = a2 -f  b2, it is of two dimensions: in a cubic
X* =  o3 + Z>3 it is of three dimensions; and so on.
  DIMUs UT1UN, in architecture, a contraction of  the
upper partof acolumn, by which its diameter is made less
than that ofthe lower part.
  Diminution, in  law, is where the plaintiff or  defen-
dant in  a writ of error, alleges on an appeal to a superior
court, that part of the record is omitted, and remains in
the  inferior court not certified;  whereon he :prays that
it may be certified by certiorari. Co. Ent. 222. 242.
  Diminution, in  music,  is when  there are several
words which are to make tones, and several quick mo-
tions in a cadence,  several  quavers,  seniiquavcrs,  kc.
corresponding to a  crochet or minim, as when a semi-
breve is divided into two minims, four crotchets. rVc.
  Diminution, in rhetoric, the  exaggerating what you
have to  say b\  an expression thst seems to diminish it.
  DIMINL'T1VE, in grammar, a word firmed  iVoni
some  other, to soften  or diminish the force of  ir, or to
signify a thing is little in its kind. Thus cellule is a di-
minutive of cell, globule  of gioln , hill .ek of hill.
  DIMISSORY lktikks, are sm h  •■•$ are nsvii where a
candidate for holy orders has a title in one diocese, and is 
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to be ordained in another; the proper diocesan sends his
letters dimissory, directed to some other ordaining bish-
op, giving leave that the bearer may be  ordained, and
have such a cure within his diocese.
  DIOCESE, the circuit of every bishop's jurisdiction:
for England has two sorts of divisions;  one into shires
or  counties,  in respect of the temporal state; and anoth-
er into provinces, in regard to the ecclesiastical state;
which  provinces are  divided into dioceses. The provin-
ces  are two,  Canterbury  and York; whereof Canterbury
includes twenty-one dioceses, or sees of suffragan bishops;
and York three, besides the bishopric of the Isle of Man,
which was annexed to the province of York by king Hen-
ry the VIII.
   DIODIA, in botany, a genus ofthe monogynia order,
in the  tetrandria class of plants; and in the natural meth-
od  ranking under the 47th order, stellatse.  The corolla
is monopetalous and funnel-shaped;  the capsule bilocular
and dispermous. There are six species.
   DIODON, or sun-fish, a genus of fishes belonging to
the order of amphibia nantes.
   There  are three  species.  1.  The atinga, grows  to a
great bulk; one examined by  Sylvianus  was above  100
pounds in weight; and Dr. Borlase mentions  another ta-
ken at Plymouth, in 1734, that weighed 500  pounds. In
form it resembles a bream or some deep fish cut off in the
middle.  The mouth is very  small, and contains in each
jaw two broad teeth with sharp edges. The eyes are little;
before each is a small semilunar aperture; the pectoral
fins are very small, and  placed behind them. The colour
of the back  is duskv and dappled;  the belly  silvery: be-
tween the eyes and*he pectoral fins are certain streaks
pointing  downwards. The skin is free from scales. When
boiled, it has been observed to turn into a glutinous jelly,
resembling boiled starch when cold, and serving the pur-
 poses of glue  on being tried on paper  and leather. The
 meat  of this fish is uncommonly rank: it feeds on shell-
 fish. Care must be taken not to confound it with the sun-
 fish of the Irish, which differs in all  respects from this. 2.
The mola, or short sun-fish, differs from  the former, in
being much  shorter and deeper.  The  back and the anal
fins are higher, and the  aperture to the gills not semilu-
nar, but oval. The situation of the fins is the same in both;
and both are taken  on the western coasts  of Britain,
but in much greater numbers in the  warmer parts of
Europe.   3. The hystrix, or globe, is common to Eu-
rope and South Carolina. As yet only a single specimen
has been discovered^ our seas, taken at Penzance in
 Cornwall. The length was one foot seven; the length of
the belly, when distended, one foot; the whole circumfer-
ence in that situation two feet six. The form  of the body
is usually oblong; but when alarmed, it has the power of
inflating  its belly to a globular shape of great size. This
seems  designed as a means of defence against fish of
prey; as they have less means of laying hold of it;  and
 are besides terrified by the number of spines with which
 that part is armed, and which are capable of being erect-
 ed on every part. The mouth is small: the irides white,
 tinged with red: the  back from  head  to  tail  almost
 straight, or at least very  slightly elevated; of a rich
 deep-blue colour. It has the  pectoral, but wants the ven-
 tral fins: the tail is almost even,  divided by  an  angular
projection in the middle; tail and fins brown. The belly
and sides are white, shagreened or wrinkled: and beset
with innumerable sharp spines, adhering to the skin 1>\
four processes.   See Plate XLII.  IN at. Hist.  figs, iqj
and 168.
  DIffiCIA, from tit twice, and atx<« a  house  or  habi-
tation, two houses.  The name of the 22d class in Liniife-
us's  sexual method;  consisting of plants which, liavin»
no  hermaphrodite  flowers produce  male  and fenude
flowers on separate roots. These latter only ripen seeds-
but require for that purpose, according to the sexualists,
the vicinity of a male plant; or the aspersion,  that is,
sprinkling ofthe male dust. From the seeds ofthe female
flowers are raised  both  male and female plants.  The
plants  then in the class dioecia arc  all male and female*
not hermaphrodite, as in the greater number of classes;
nor with male and  female flowers upon one  root, as iu
the class monoecia of the same author.  See Botaxy,
  DIOMEDIA,  in ornithology, the albatross, a genus
belonging to  the  order of anseres.  The bill is straight;
the superior mandible  is crooked at the point, and the
lower one is truncated; the  nostrils are oval, open, a lit-
tle prominent,  and placed on the sides. There  are two
species, viz.  1. Tbe  exulans,  has  pinnated wings,  and
three toes on each  foot.  It is the albatross of Edwards;
and is  about the size  of a pelican. These birds are found
in the ocean betwixt the tropics and at the Cape  of Good
Hope.  They  are also often seen in  vast flocks in Kamt-
schatka, and the adjacent islands, about the end  of June,
where  they are called geat gulls; but it is chiefly in the
bay of Penschinensi, the whole inner sea of Kamtschatka,
the Kurile isles,  and that of Bering; for on the eastern
coasts  of the first, they are scarce, a single straggler on-
ly appearing now and then. Their chief motive for fre-
quenting  these places seems to be plenty of food; and
their arrival  is a sure presage of shoals of fish following.
At their first coming they are very lean, but soon grow
immensely fat. They are voracious birds, and will often
swallow a salmon of four or five pounds weight; but as
they cannot take  the  whole of it into the stomach at once,
part of the tail-end will often  remain out of the mouth;
and the natives, finding the bird in this situation, make
no difficult matter of knocking it on the head on the spot.
Before the middle of August  they migrate elsewhere.
They are often taken by means of a hook baited with a
fish; but it is not  for the sake of their flesh that they are
valued, it being hard and  unsavoury; but on account of
their intestines, a particular part of which they  blow up
as a bladder, to serve as floats to buoy up their nets in
fishing. Of the bones they make tobacco-pipes, needle-
cases,  and other  useful things. When caught, they de-
fend themselves stoutly with  their bills. Their cry is
harsh  and disagreeable, not unlike the braying of an ass.
The breeding-places of the albatross, if at all in the
northern hemisphere, have not yet been pointed out; but
we are certain of their multiplying in the southern, viz.
at Patagonia and Falkland-islands;  to this last place they
come about the end of September  or beginning of Octo-
ber, among other birds, in great abundance. Their nests
are made on  the ground with  earth, are round  in sliapef
a foot  in height, and  indented at top.  The es;^  is larger
than that of  a goose, four inches and a half long,  white,
marked with dull spots at the large end; and is thought
to be good food, the white never growing hard with boil- 
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ing.  While the female is sitting, the male is constantly
on the wing and supplies her with food: duringthis time
they are so tame as to suffer themselves to be pushed off
the nest while their eggs are taken from thein;  but their
chief destruction arises from the hawk, which, the mo-
ment the female gets  off the nest, darts on it,  and flics
away with the egg.   The albatross itself likewise has
its enemy, being greatly persecuted, while on the wing,
by the  dark grey  gull called skua.   2.  The  demersa,
has  no  quill-feathers  on the wings;  and the feet have
four toes,  connected together by a membrane.  It is the
black penguin of Edwards, about the size of  a goose,
and  is found at the Cape of Good Hope.  It  is  an excel-
lent swimmer and diver; but  hops  and flutters in a
strange awkward  manner on the land, and, if hurried,
stumbles perpetually,  and frequently  runs for some dis-
tance like a quadruped, making use ofthe wings instead
of legs, till it  recovers its upright posture;  crying out
at the same time like a goose,  but in a much hoarser
voice.  It is said to climb some way up the rocks in or-
der to make its nest;  in  doing which, it has  been ob-
served to  assist with its bill.  The eggs are two in num-
ber, white, as large as those of a duck, and reckoned de-
licious eating;  at least they are thought so at the Cape,
where they are brought  in great numbers for  that pur-
pose.  At this place the  birds arc often kept tame; but
in general they do not  survive the confinement many
months.
   DIONvEA muscipula, or Venus's flytrap, in botany,
a newly discovered sensitive plant, in the construction
of which  nature seems to have  had some view towards
its nourishment,  in forming the upper joint of its leaf
like a machine to catch food; and placing upon the mid-
dle of it the bait for the  unhappy insect that  becomes its
prey. Many minute red glands that cover its inner sur-
face, and  which perhaps discharge some sweet liquor,
tempt the poor insect  to taste them; and  the instant
these tender parts are irritated by its feet, the two lobes
rise up, grasp it fast, lock  the two  rows of spines to-
gether, and squeeze it to death.  And further, lest the
strong  efforts  for life,  in the  creature thus taken,
should serve  to disengage  it,  three  small erect spines
are fixed  near the middle of each lobe among the glands,
that effectually put an end to all its struggles.   Nor do
the lobes  ever open again,  while the dead animal con-
tinues tliere.   But it is  nevertheless  certain,  that the
plant cannot distinguish  an animal from any other sub-
stance;  for if we put  a straw or pin between the lobes,
it will grasp it full as fast as if it was an insect.   The
plant is one of the monogynia order, in  the decandria
class.   It  grows in America, about 35 deg. N. lat. in
wet shady places, and flowers in July and August.  The
largest leaves are about three inches long, and an  inch
and a half across the lobes:  the glands of those exposed
to the sun  arc of a beauiiful red colour; but those in the
shade are  pale  and inclining to green.   The roots are
squamous, sending forth  but few fibres, and  are peren-
nial.  The leaves are numerous, ine lining to bend down-
wards,  and are  placed  in  a circular order; they are
jointed and succulent;  the lower joint, which is a kind
of stalk, is flat,  longish, two-edged, and inclining to
heart-shaped.  In  some  varieties tbey are  serrated on
the edges  near the top.   The upper joint  consists of
two lobes;  each lobe  is of a semi-oval  form,  with the
margins furnished with stiff hairs like eyebrows, which
embrace  or lock in each other when they close: this
they do when they are inwardly irritated.   The upper
surfaces of these lobes are covered with small red glands;
each of which appears,  when highly magnified, like a
compressed arbutusberry.   Among the glands, about
the middle of  cadi lobe,  are three  very  small  erect
spines.   When the lobes inclose  any substance,  they
never open again while it continues there.  If it can he
pushed out so  as not to  strain the lobes, they expand
again; but if force is used to open them, so strong has
nature formed the spring of their fibres  that one of the
lobes will generally snap off rather  than  yield.   The
stalk is about six inches high, round, smooth, and with-
out leaves; ending in  a spike of flowers.   The flowers
are milk-white, and stand on footstalks, at the bottom
of which is a little painted bractea or flower-leaf.  The
soil  in which it  grows,  as appears from  what comes
about the roots of the plants whenthev are brought over,
is a black light mould, intermixed with white sand,  such
as is usually  found in our moorish  heaths.   Being a
swamp plant, a north-east aspect will be properest for it
at first, to  keep it from the direct rays of the sun; and
in winter, till we are acquainted with what cold weather
it can endure,  it will  be  necessary to shelter  it with a
bell-glass,  such as is  used for melons.   This should be
covered with straw or a  mat in hard frosts.  By this
means several of these plants have been preserved through
the winter  in a very vigorous state.   Its sensitive qual-
ity will be  found in proportion to the heat of  the wea-
ther, as well as the vigour of the plant.  Our summers
are not warm enough to ripen the  seed;  or possibly we
are  not  sefficiently acquainted with  the culture  of it.
See Plate L. Nat. Hist. fig. 170.
   D10PHANTINE  problems,  in mathematics,  cer-
tain questions relating to  square and cube numbers, and
right-angled triangles, &c. the nature of which was de-
termined by Diophantus, a mathematician of Alexan-
dria, who is believed  to have lived about tbe third cen-
tury.  In these questions it is endeavoured to find com-
mensurable numbers to answer indeterminate problems;
which bring out an infinite number of incommensurable
quantities.  For example, it is proposed to find a right-
angled triangle, whose sides %, y, x, are expressed by
commensurable numbers; it is known that x2+y2   a2
being the supposed hypothenuse.   But it  is possible to
assume x and y so, that * will be incommensurable; for
if x — 1, and  y =2,  %, =v/5.  The art of resolving
such problems consists in managing the  unknown quan-
tity or quantities in such a manner, that the square or
higher power may vanish out of the equation,  and  then
by means of the unknown  quantity in its first dimen-
sion,  the equation may be  resolved without having re-
course to incommensurables.
  For example, in the equation above, x2 4- y2 = z2, sup-
pose x = x  -f u, then is x2 + y% = x2 -f-^.**i* -f u3, out of
wbich equation x2 vanishes, and  then it is ya = 2xu -f
                   V2 -— u2
w8, which gives x = ~----Hence,  assuming y and u

equal to any numbers at  pleasure, the three sides of the

triangle will be y, • ~ ■-, and ~^-, which are all ra- 
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D  I O
 ticnal whenever y and u are rational.  For example, if
                      V2 — U2                   V24-U2
 y = 3, and u = 1, then ~-— = 4, and x + u, or —-—

 = 5.   It  is evident that this problem admits of infinite
 numbers  of solutions (see Sanderson's Algebra), as y
 or u may be assumed infinitely various.
   DIOPSIS, a genus ofthe vermes class and ofthe dip-
 tera order.  Head with  two inarticulate filiform horns
 much longer than the bead,  at the tip of  which are pla-
 ced the eyes.   It inhabits South America and Guinea,
 and resembles the ichneumon.    There is  but a single
 species.
   DIOPTRICS,  the science  of refractive vision;  or
 that part  of optics  which considers the different refrac-
 tions of light in  its passing  through different  medi-
 ums, as air,  water, glass, kc. and  especially  lenses.
 See  Optics.
   DIOSCOREA, in botany, a genus of the hexandria
 order, in the  dioecia class of plants;  and in the natural
 method ranking under  the  lltli order, sarmentaceae.
 The male  calyx is  sexpartite,  there is no corolla: the
 female calyx is  sexpartite; no corolla; three styles; the
 capsule trilocular  and compressed; and  there are two
 membranaceous seeds.   There are 15  species, of which
 the only remarkable one  is the sativa or yam.  This has
 slender stalks, which trail upon the ground and  extend
 a great way:  these frequently  put out roots from their
joints as they lie upon the ground, by which ti;c plants
 are multiplied.  The roots are eaten by the inhabitants
 of both the Indies; and are  particularly  serviceable  in
 the West India islands,  where they make the greatest
 part ofthe negroes' food. The plant is supposed to have
 been brought  from  the East to the West Indies; for it
 has never  been  observed to  grow wild in any part of
 America; but in the island of Ceylon, and on the coast
 wf Malabar, it  grows in  the woods,  and there are in
 those places a great variety  of sorts.   It is propagated
 by cutting the root in pieces, observing to preserve an
 eye in each, as is practised in planting potatoes.  One
 plant will produce three or four large roots.  The skin
 of these roots is pretty  thick, rough, unequal, covered
 with many stringy  fibres or filaments, and of a violet
 colour approaching to black.  The inside is white, and
 of the consistence of red beet.   It resembles the pota-
 toe in its  mealiness, but is  of closer  texture.  When
 raw, the yams are vicous and clammy: when roasted or
 boiled,  they afford very  nourishing food; and are often
 preferred to bread  by the inhabitants of the West In-
 dies,  on account of their lightness and facility  of diges-
 tion.   When first dug out of the ground, the roots are
 placed  in the sun to dry: after which,  they are either
 put into sand,  dry garrets, or casks; where if  kept
 from moisture,  they may be preserved for years, with-
 out being spoiled or diminished in their goodness.  The
 root  commonly weighs  two or  three pounds, though
 some yams have weighed upwards of twenty  pounds.
 With us it must be kept in the stove.
   DIOSCUR1A,  in Grecian antiquity,  a festival kept
 in  honour  of the  Dioscuri,  or Castor and  Pollux,
 wherein the assistants shared plentifully  of  the gifts of
 Bacchus.
   DIOSMA* Afeicaw  svirma, a genus of the mono-
 gynia order, in  the pentandria class of plants; and in
 the natural method ranking with those id which the or-
 der is doubtful.  The corolla is pentapetalous, the no(*
 tarium crown-shaped above the. germen:  there are five
 capsules coalited; the seeds hooded.  There are 19 spe-
 cies; of which the most remarkable are the hirsute
 with narrow hairy leaves;  and the oppositifolia, with
 leaves placed in the form of across. The first is a very
 handsome  shrub, growing to the height of five or six
 feet: the stalks are of a fine coral colour: the leaves
 come out alternately on every side of the branches, and
 are narrow-pointed and hairy: the flowers are  produced
 in  small clusters at the end of  the shoots, and are ofa
 white colour.  They arc  succeeded by starry  seed-ves-
 sels having five corners;  in each of which corners is a
 cell, containing one smooth, shining, oblong, black seed:
 these seed-vessels  abound with a resin  which emits  a
 grateful scent, as does  also the whole plant.  The se-
 cond species  rises to the height of (hree or four feet:
 the branches are slender, and produced from  the stem
 very irregularly; the leaves arc placed crosswise; the
 flowers are produced at  the  ends of the branches, be-
 tween  the  leaves:  the  plants continue a long time in
 flower, and make a fine appearance when tbey arc inter-
 mixed with other exotics  in the open air.  Both species
 are propagated by cuttings; which may be planted dur-
 ing any of  the summer months in pots, and plunged inU
 a moderate hotbed, where they should  be shaded from
 the sun, and frequently watered.   In about two months
 they wiil have  taken  root; when each  should be trans-
 planted into a small pot where they are to remain; but
 during winter, like most other exotic plants, they must
 be preserved in a greenhouse.
  DIOSPYROS, the Indian date-plum;  a  genus of
 the dioecia  order, in the polygamia class of plants; and
 in the  natural method  ranking  under  the 18th order,
 bicornes.   The calyx is hermaphrodite and quadrifid;
 the corolla urceolated  and quadrifid; there are eight
 stamia; the style  quadrifid;  the  berry octospermous;
the male calyx, corolla, and  stamina, as in the former.
There are  9 species; the most remarkable are:  1. The
lotus,  which  is  supposed to  be a native  of Africa,
 whence it was transplanted  into several parts of Italy,
 and also into  the south of France.  The fruit of this
 tree is supposed to be the lotus with  which Ulysses and
 his  companions were enchanted, and which made those
 who ate of it forget their country and relations. In the
 warm parts of Europe, this tree grows to the height of
 30  feet.  In the botanic garden  at Padua, there is one
 very old tree which has been described by some of the
 former botanists under the  title of guaiacuin patavi-
 num.  This tree produces plenty of fruit every year;
 from the seeds of which many plants have been raised.
 2.  The Virginiana, pinshamin, persimon,  or pitchu-
 mon plum, is a native of America, but particularly of
 Virginia and Carolina.  The seeds of this sort have been
 frequently  imported into Britain, and the trees  are com-
 mon in many nurseries about London.   It rises to the
 height of 12 or  14  feet; but generally  divides into ma-
 nv  irregular trjnks near the ground, so that it is very
 l are to see a handsome tree of this sort. Though pi--ntf
 of fruit is produced on these trees, it never comes to per- 
D  I P
D  I P
feetion in England.  In America  the  inhabitants pre-
serve the fruit till it is rotten, as is practised with med-
lars in  England; when it is  esteemed very pleasant.
Both species  are  propagated by seeds:  and the  plants
require to  be treated tenderly while young; but when
they are grown  up, they resist a great degree of cold.
See Plate L. IS at. Hist. fig. 171.
  DIPHTHONG, in grammar, a double vowel,  or the
mixture of two vowels pronounced togetber,so as to make
one syllable.
  DIPHYSA, a  genus of the class and order  diadel-
phia decandria.   The cal. is half fiveclcft; legume with
a bladder on each side; seeds  hooked.  Tliere  is  one
species, a small tree of New Spain.
  DiPSACUS, teazel, a genus ofthe monogynia or-
der, in the tetrandria class of plants; and in the natural
method ranking under the 48th order, aggregate. The
common calyx is polyphyllous,  proper above; the re-
ceptacle paleaceous.   There are four  species; the most
remarkable of  which is the dipsacus fullonum, which
grows wild in many parts of England.  It is of singular
use in raising the nap upon wollen cloth. For this pur-
pose,  the heads arc fixed round the circumference of a
large  broad wheel, which  is made to turn round and
the cloth is held against them. In the west  of England,
great  quantities  of this plant are cultivated for the use
just-mentioned.   It is propagated by sowing the seeds
in March,  upon a soil that is well prepared. About one
peck of seed  is sufficient for an acre, as the plants must
have room to grow; otherwise the heads will not be large
enough, nor in great  quantity.  When the  plants come
up, they must be hoed in the same manner as is practised
for turnips, cutting down all the weeds, and  thinning the
plants to about eight inches distance:  and as  the plants
advance, and the weeds begin to grow again, they must
be hoed a second time,  cutting out the plants to a wider
distance, so that  they may finally stand a  foot distant
from each  other.   The second year thev will shoot up
heads, which may be cut about the beginning of August.
They  are then to be tied  up in bunches, and set in the
sun if the, weather is  fair;  if ji.it, in rooms to dry them.
The common produce is about  1G0 bundles or sheaves
upon an acre, which are sold for one shilling each.
  DIPTERYX,  a genus  of the diadelphia  decandria
class and order.   The cal. has the two upper segments
winged; legume ovate, compressed, one-seeded.  There
arc two species, tall trees of Guiana.
  DIPLOMA,  an instrument of licence given by col-
leges,  societies, &c.  to a  clergyman  to exercise the
ministerial function, or to a physician  to  practice the
profession,  kc after passing examination or admitting
him to a degree.
   DIPPING, among miners, signifies the interruption,
or breaking off.  of the veins of ore;  an accident  that
gives  them  a great deal of trouble before they can dis-
cover the ^*e again.
   DIPPING needle.   See Magnetism, and Navi-
gation.
   P'iPTERE. or Diptekon.  in the ancient architcc-
tuie,  signified a  temple surrounded  with  two  rows  of
Columns, which formed a sort cd* porticoes,  called wings
or isles. Pseudodiptere is the same, except that instead
  Vol. I.                9fl   -
of the double row of column-, this was only encompas-
sed with a row of  single ones.
  DIPTYCHS, in antiquity, a public register, in which
were written the names of the consuls and other ma-
gistrates  among the heathens:  and among the Chris
tians, they were a  sort of tablets, on one of which were
written the  names of the deceased,  and on the  other
those of  the living patriarchs, bishops, kc.  or  those
who had done any service to the church, for whom pray-
ers were  offered,  the  deacon  reading the names a'
mass.
  DIPUS, Jerboa, a genus of quadrupeds of the glires
order. The generic character is, front-teeth two above
and  below:  forelegs very short;  hind-legs very  long;
clavicles in  the skeleton.
   l.Dipus sagitta, or common jerboa.  This is the spe-
cies which seems to have been known to the ancients un-
der the name of (*,\>&*is%, or two-footed mouse, and which
is represented, though  with no great degree of exact-
ness, on some coins of  Cyrene, where it was anciently
found in great abundance, and where it still continues.
It is supposed to be the  saphau of the scriptures.   It is
about the size of  a rat, and  is of a very pale tawny-
brown above, and white beneath; and across the upper
part of the  rump runs an obscure dusky  band, which
is probably  not a permanent character, since it appears
to be more or less  distinct in different indiv iduals.  The
head is short; the ears thin, broad, upright, and round-
ed: the  eyes large, round,  and dark-coloured: the fore
legs about an inch long, with five toes to each  foot: the
hind legs  are extremely long,  thin, sparingly covered
with  short  hair,  and very much resemble those of a
bird: the hind feet have three toes each, the  middle  of
which is somewhat longer than the rest,  and all are fur-
nished with  sharp and strong claws: there is also a very
small spur  or back toe, with its  corresponding  claw.
  The usual length ofthe common jerboa, from nose to
tail, is about seven inches and a quarter:  the tail  is
about ten inches  long,  of a  form rather inclining  to
square than cylindric,  and of the same colour with the
body, but terminated hy an elegant, flatfish,  oval tuft
of black  hair, with a white tip.   On each side the nose
are situated several very long hairs or whiskers, as is
usual in most animals of this tribe: the cutting-teeth are
sharp and strong,  and resemble those of a rat.  In its
attitudes and manner of progressing this animal resem-
bles a bird;  generally standing, like the kangaroo, on
its  hind feet,  and  leaping with much celerity, and to «i
great distance: but sometimes it sets its fore feet to the
ground for a moment or two, and then  recovers its for-
mer attitude.   It principally  uses the fore legs in feed-
ing; pulling to its mouth the ears of corn, and various
other vegetable substances on which it feeds, it inhabits
subterraneous holes, which it either prepares  itself,  or
finds ready  excavated, in the dry, stony, and sandv de-
serts in which it resides.  Dining the day it commonly
remains in its hole; coining out al night for food and ex-
ercise.  On the approach of cold  it is said to grow tor-
pid for some time, reviving on the change of weather.
   This animal has frequently been brought into Europe,
and in a state of confinement has  beeu known to burrow
almost through a brick  wall.
   Sonnini, in his Egyptian Travels, assures us that he 
DIPUS.
never was able to find any difference either in the form
or colour of the Egyptian jerboa.  Sonnini considers the
jerboa as constituting a link  between quadrupeds and
birds.   In this idea he is  by no means singular;  the
same sentiment naturally suggesting itself to  the mind
of every philosophical observer.  Mons. Sonnini adds,
that though the transition from quadrupeds to birds has
not yet been investigated,  we have  nevertheless reason
to consider  the connection as existing.   We  have  the
beginning of it in the jerboa,  and the last link of it in
the bat.  We have every reason to believe, that the se-
ries of gradations will develope itself in proportion as
good observers shall carry their  researches  into coun-
tries the natural history of which  is still unexplored.
   " The jerboa appears, says Sonnini, to be a prolific
animal; for it is exceedingly numerous in Arabia, Nubia,
Egypt, and Barbary.  During my stay or rather during
my excursions in Egypt, I opened several jerboas. My
principal aim was to ascertain that they had only one
stomach, and consequently could  not possess the  power
of ruminating.  This was in answer to one of the ques-
tions that Michaelis, professor at Gottingen,  had  ad-
dressed to the travellers sent to the  East by the king of
Denmark, viz.  Whether  the jerboa was a ruminating
animal; a question arising from the same mistake which
had occasioned the confounding the jerboa with the da-
man Israel, or saphan of the Hebrews.
   '«The sand and  ruins that surround modern Alexan-
dria are much  frequented by the jerboas.  They live in
society, and in burrows, which they dig with their teeth
and nails. I have even  been  told,  that they sometimes
make their way through the  soft stone which is under
the stratum of sand.  Though not absolutely wild, they
are  very shy, and  upon the least noise,  or the sight of
any object, retire precipitately to  their holes.  They can
only be killed by surprise.  The Arabs contrive to take
them alive, by stopping up all the avenues to their bur-
rows except one, by which they force them to come out.
I never ate any: their flesh indeed is said to be not very
palatable, though it is not despised by the Egyptians.
Their skin, covered with soft and shining  hair, is used
as a common  fur.
   ««' In  Egypt, I kept six of these animals for some time
in a large cage:  the very first night they entirely gnawed
through the upright and cross pieces of wood, and I was
obliged to have the inside  of the cage  lined with tin.
They ate rice, walnuts, and all kind of fruit.  They de-
lighted in being in the sun; and when taken into the
shade,  huddled together,  and seemed to suffer from the
privation of heat. It has been said that the jerboas sleep
by day, and never in the night, but, for my part, I ob-
served  quite the  contrary.   In a state of liberty they are
found round their subterraneous habitations in open day,
and those which I kept were never more  lhcly  nor
awake  than in the heat ofthe  sun.  Although they have
a great deal of agility in their motions, they seem to be
of a mild and tranquil disposition.  Mine suffered them-
selves to be touched without  difficulty;  and there was
neither noise nor quarrel among them,  even when tak-
ing their food.   At  the same  time they testified neither
joy, fear, nor gratitude: their gentleness  was neither
amiable nor  interesting: it appeared to be the effect of
cold and complete indifference, bordering on stupidity.
Three of these animals died successively,  before my de-
parture from  Alexandria.  I lost two others during a
somewhat stormy passage to  the isle of Rhodes, when
the last, owing to the negligence ofthe person to  whose
care it was committed, got out of its cage and disappear-
ed.  I had a strict search made for it,  when the  vessel
was  unloaded, but without effect:  it  had no doubt been
killed by the cats."
   2.  Dipus  jaculus, or alagtaga, in its general appear-
ance perfectly resembles the common or Egyptian jer-
boa, but is considerably larger,  though there appear to
be permanent  varieties or races which  are, on the con-
trary, much smaller than the common species.  It is
principally distinguished  by the remarkable  character
of the hind feet, each of which has a pair of  very con-
spicuous spurs, or additional toes, situated at some dis-
tance above the  front toes,  and  furnished with  sharp
claws.
   Of this species  there  are two supposed  varieties,
agreeing in  form with the above-mentioned, but differ-
ing in size,  and  in some degree in colour; but the differ-
ences are not such as to justify our considering them as
specifically distinct.  The first of these varieties is the
Middle Siberian jerboa, which is ofthe size of a rat, and
has the thighs crossed by a white line;  and  a whitish
zone or  circle surrounds  the nose.  It is found in  the
eastern deserts of Siberia and Tartary, beyond the lake
Baikal.  It  also occurs in Barbary and Syria, and ex-
tends, according to Dr. Pallas,  even as far as India.
The other variety is called by Mr. Pennant, the pygmy
Siberian jerboa.  It agrees in form with the other,  but
has no white circle round the nose,  and has a smaller
tuft to the tail,  the end  of  which is just tipped with
white.  In size it is far  inferior  to  the middle variety.
It is said to inhabit the  same places with the large or
first-described kind.  All these agree in their manners,
burrowing in hard clayey ground, not only in high and
dry spots, but even in low and salt places; digging their
holes with great celerity  with their fore feet and  teeth;
thus  forming  oblique and winding  burrows, of  some
yards in length, and ending in a large  hole or recepta-
cle by way of nest,  in which are deposited the herbs,
kc. on which they feed.  They are said  to wander about
chiefly by night.  They  sleep rolled up,  with the head
between the thighs:  they are extremely nimble, and  on
the approach of danger spring forward so swiftly* that
a man well mounted can scarcely overtake them,  luey
are said to be particularly fond  of  the  roots of tulips,
and some other  bulbous-rooted plants.  They are sup-
posed to sleep during the winter in  the manner of dor-
mice.
   Mr. Bruce tells us, that there is little variety in the
animal, either in size or colour; but that towards Alep-
po they have broader noses than the African; that their
bodies are thicker, and their colour  lighter.
   "The Arabs  of the kingdom of Tripoli (says Mr.
Bruce),  make very good  diversion  with the^Jerboa, m
training their grey-hounds, which they employ to hunt
the gazel or antelope, after instructing him to turn him-
self by hunting this animal.  The prince of Tunis,  son
of Sidi Younis, and grandson  of Ali  Bey, who had been
strangled by the Algerines when that capital w as  taken,
being then an exile at Algiers, made me a present of a 
D I P
D I R
small greyhound,  which often gave us  excellent sport.
It may  perhaps  he imagined that a chace between these
two creatures could  not be  long: yet I  have often seen,
in a large inclosure, or court-yard, the greyhound em-
ploy a quarter" o* an hour  before he could master his
nimble  adversary: the small size ofthe creature assisted
him much;  and  had  not the greyhound  been a practised
one,  and made  use of  his feet as well  as his  teeth, he
mHit have killed two antelopes in the time he could have
killed one jerboa."
  3.  Dipus cafer,  or cape jerboa, is by far the largest of
all the jerboas, and is a native of the mountainous coun-
try to the north  of the  Cape of Good-Hope.  Its length
from nose to tail is one foot two inches: of the tail near
15 inches.  It is  an animal of great strength and activi-
ty,  and will spring  to  the distance of  20 or 30 feet at
once.   When  eating, it sits upright in  the manner of a
squirrel.  It burrows in the ground, like the smaller kind
of jerboas, with  great ease and expedition, having very
strong and long claws, five in number,  on the fore feet:
those on  the hind  feet arc rather short, and are four in
number.
  4. Dipus meridianus, or torrid jerboa,  according to
Dr. Pallas, was first figured  by Seba,  whose specimen
appears to have  been not fully grown.   Specimens were
brought to Dr. Pallas in the year 1770, which were tak-
en on the borders  of the sandy desert of Naryn, in 46\
north latitude.  The burrows or passages which they
had formed in the dry soil, had a triple entrance, and
were about an ell  deep  in the ground.   The size of this
species is between that of a rat  and a field-mouse; and
notwithstanding the great length of the hind legs,  it does
not leap,  like the rest  of the  jerboas,  but runs  in  the
manner ofthe rat  tribe; and it seems to be on this  ac-
count that Mr. Pennant  has  ranked it under his divi-
sion of jerboid rats, rather than among the true jerboas.
   5. Dipus canadensis, or Canadian jerboa.  This mi-
nute species is thus described  by general Davies, who
had an opportunity of examining it during his residence
 at Quebec.
   " As I conceive  there are very few persons, however
conversant with natural history, who may  have seen or
known that there  was an animal existing  in the coldest
parts of  Canada,  of  the same genus with the  jerboa,
hitherto confined to  the wanner climates  of  Africa, I
take the liberty of  stating the  following particulars.
With respect to  the*food,  or mode  of  feeding,  of this
animal, I have it not in my power to speak with any de-
gree of certainty, a#I could by no means procure any
kind of sustenance, that  could induce it to eat; therefore,
when caught, it lived only a day and a half.  The first
1 was so fortunate as  to catch, was taken in a large field
near the falls of Montmorenci, and by its having stray-
ed too far from the skirts of the wood, allowed  myself,
assisted by  three other gentlemen, to surround it, and
after an hour's  hard chase, to get it unhurt, though not
before it was thoroughly fatigued, which might in a great
measure accelerate its death.  During the  time the ani-
mal remained in its usual vigour,  its agility was incre-
dible fur so small  a  creature.   It always  took progres-
sive leaps of from three to four,  and sometimes of five
yards  although seldom above 12 or 14 inches from the
surface of the grass:  but I have  frequently observed
others in  shrubby  places,  and in the woods,  among
plants, where they chiefly reside, leap considerably high-
er.  When found in such places, it is impossible to take
them,  from their wonderful agility, and  their evading
all pursuit,  by bounding  into the thickest part of the
covert they can find.  With respect to the figure given
of it in its dormant state, I have to observe, that the
specimen was found by some workmen, in digg'iig the
foundation for a summer-house in a gentleman's garden,
about two miles from Quebec, in the latter end of Ma),
1787.  It was discovered enclosed in a hall of clay, about
the size of  a cricket-ball,  nearly an inch in thickness.*
perfectly  smooth within,  and  about  20  inches under
ground.  The man  who first discovered it, not knowing
what  it was, struck the ball with his  spade,  by which
means it was broken to pieces, or the ball would have
been presented to me.  How long it  had been under
ground it  is impossible to say;  but as I could never ob-
serve these animals  in any parts of the country after the
beginning of September,  I conceive they lay  themselves
up some time  in  that month, or  beginning of October,
when the frost becomes sharp.  Nor did I  ever see them
again before the last week in May or beginning of June.
From their being enveloped in balls  of  clay, without
any appearance of food, I conceive they sleep during the
winter, and remain for that term without sustenance.
As soon as I conveyed this specimen to my house, I de-
posited it, as it was, in a small chip box. in some cotton,
waiting with great anxiety for its waking, but that not
taking place at the season they  generally appear, I kept
it until I found it begin to  smell; I then stuffed  it, and
preserved it in its torpid position.  I am  led to  believe
its not recovering from that state arose from the heat of
my room during the time it was  in the box, a fire hav-
ing been constantly burning in the stove,  and which in
all probability was too great for its respiration."
  DIRCA,  a genus of the monogynia  order, in  the oc-
tandria class of plants, and in the natural  method rank-
ing under the  1st order, vepreculae.  There is no calyx;
the corolla is tubular, with the  limb  indistinct; the sta-
mina  are  longer than the tube; the berry is monosper-
mous.  There is one species, a  small  shrub of North
America.
  DIRECT,  in astronomy.  A planet is  said to be di-
rect when it appears to  an observer on the earth to  go
forward in the zodiac, or according to  the succession of
the signs.  See Astronomy.
  Direct, in matters of genealogy, is  understood ofthe
principal line, or the line of ascendants and descendants,
in contradistinction to  the collateral line.   The heirs in
the direct lines  always precede those  in  the  collateral
lines.
  Direct ray, in  optics, is a ray flowing from a point
of visible object directly to the eye, through one and the
same medium.
  Direct east and west dials, dials drawn upon planes
that directly face the east and west points of the horizon,
or parallel to the meridian.  See  Dial.
  Direct south and north dials, are those which face di-
rectly the north and south points ofthe horizon, or pa-
rallel to the prime vertical circle.  See Dial.
  DIRECTION, in mechanics, signifies the line or path
 of a body's motion, along which it endeavours to pro 
D  I A                                               D I A
ceed,  according to the force  impressed upon it.   See
Mechanics.
  DIRECTOR,  in surgery, a grooved probe to direct
the edge of the knife or scissars, in opening sinuses, or
fistulse,  that  by  this  means  the subadjacent  vessels,
nerves, and  tendons,  may  remain unhurt.  See  Sur-
gery.
  DIRIGENT,  or Directrix,  a term in geometry,
signifying the line of motion along which the described
line or surface is carried in the genesis of any plane or
solid  figure:  thus, if the line AB (plate XLIII.  Miscel.
fig. 43) move along the line AC, so that the point  A al-
ways keeps in the line AC, a parallelogram, as A B C D,
will be formed, of which the side A B is the describent,
and the line  A C  the dirigent;  so also,  if the surface
A B C D be supposed to be carried along CE, in a posi-
tion always parallel to itself in its first situation, the so-
lid  AD FIT will be formed, where the  surface AD is the
describent, and the line CE the dirigent.
  D1SA, a genus of the gynandria diandria  class and
order.  The spathe is one-valved; petals three, the third
less, two-parted,  gibbous at the base.  There  are four
species,  herbaceous plants of the Cape, with beautiful
blue flowers.
  DISABILITY, in law7, an incapacity in a man to in-
herit or take  a benefit which  otherwise  he  might  have
done,  which may happen four ways;  by the act of the
ancestor, by the  act of the party, by the act of law, and
by  the act of God.  1. Disability by  the act of the an-
cestor; as if a man be  attainted of treason or felony; by
this attainder his blood  is corrupt, and himself and his
children disabled to inherit.  2. Disability by the act of
the party himself; as if one make a feoffment to  another
who then is  sole, upon condition,  that he shall enfeoff a
third  before marriage,  and before the feoffment made,
the feoffee takes  a wife; he has by that disabled himself
from performing  the condition  according to the  trust re-
posed in him,  and therefore the feoffer may enter,  and
oust him. Lit. 357. 3. Disability by act  of law,  is when
a man by the sole act ofthe law is disabled, as an alien-
born, kc.  4.  Disability by the act  of God, is  where a
person is of non-sane memory, and in cases of idiocy,
 kc.  But it is a  maxim  in our law,  that a man of full
age shall never  be received to disable his own person.
 Co. lib. 4. 123,  124.  See  also Aliens, Dissenters,
Idiocy, and Infamy.
   DISAGREEMENT,  will make a nullity of a thing
that had effect before: and disagreement may be to cer-
tain acts to make them void, &c. Co.  Lit. 380.
   DISANDRA, a genus of the monogynia order, in the
heptandria class  of plants.  The calyx has seven leaves;
the corolla is parted into seven,  and flat;  the  capsule
two-celled. There are two species, pretty trailing plants,
natives of Madeira.
   DISARMING, in law, the prohibiting people to wear
 arms.  It is an offence hy the  common law of England
 for persons to go or ride armed with  dangerous  and un-
 common weapons: though gentlemen may wear  common
 armour according to their quality.   It is also ordained
 by statute, that no persons shall come before the king's
justices with force of arms,  on pain of imprisonment,
 kc.
  DISC, discus, in antiquity,  a quoit  made of  stone,
iron, or copper, five or six fingers broad, and more, than
a foot long, inclining to an oval figure, which was hurl-
ed in  the manner of a howl,  to  a vast distance,  by the
help of a leathern thong tied round the ^person's hand who
threw it, and put through a hole in the middle.
  Disc, in astronomy, the body  and  face of the sun and
moon, such as it appears to us on the earth; or the body
or face ofthe earth, such as it appears to a spectator hi
the moon.  The disc in eclipses is supposed to be divid-
ed into  12 equal parts, called digits;  in a total eclipse of
the luminaries, the whole disc is obscured; in a partial
eclipse,  only a part of it.  See Astronomy.
 ' Disc, in botany, is an aggregate of florets forming, as
it were, a plane  surface.
  Disc, in optics,  is the w idth of the  aperture of telesco-
pic glasses, whatever their form be, whether plane, con-
vex, concave, &c.
  DISCHARGE, is where a man confined hy some lc-
gal process, performs that which the law requires, and
is released from the matter for which he is confined.  If
an obligee discharge one obligor where several are joint-
ly bound, it discharges the others. See Arrest, Bono,
Payment.
  DISCLAIMER, is a plea containing  an express de-
nial,  renouncing or disclaiming; as  if the teuant  sues a
replevin upon a distress taken by the lord, and the lord
avows,  saying that he holds of him as his lord, and that
he distrained for rent not paid,  or service not perform-
ed; then the tenant denying to hold of such lord, is said
to disclaim: and the lord proving the tenant to hold of
him, the tenant loses his land. Co. on Lit. 102.
   DISCONTINUANCE  or possession. A man may
not enter upon  his own lands  or tenements alienated
(such alienation being a discontinuance of possession),
whatsoever his right be to them, of his  own self or by
his own authority, but must bring his writ, and seek to
recover possession by law. Co.  Rep. lib. 3. 85.
   Discontinuance  of process, is where the plaintiff
leaves a chasm in  the proceedings of his cause, whereby
the opportunity of prosecution  is lost for that time, in
which case he must  begin again, and usually pays costs
to the defendant, or the plaintiff is dismissed the  court,
&c. Every  suit,  whether civil or criminal,  and every
process therein, ought to be properly continued from day
to day,  &c.  from its  commencement to its conclusion;
and the suffering  any default or gapjherein,  is called a
discontinuance.  2 Haw. 298.
   Discontinuance  of plea:  ifjpdicre divers things
should  be pleaded to, then some are omitted, this is a
discontinuance,  l Nels. Abr. 660, 661.
   DISCORD, in music, is a dissonant or inharmonious
combination of sounds, so called in opposition to the con-
cord, the effects of which the discord is calculated to re-
lieve  and sweeten. Among various  other discords  are
those formed by the union of the fifth with the sixth, the
fourth with the fifth, the  seventh with the eighth, and
the third with the ninth and seventh, all which require
to be introduced by certain preparatives, and to be suc-
ceeded  by concords to which  they have some relation.
   DISCORDANT,  an epithet  applied to all dissonant
and inharmonious sounds,  whether  successive or simul-
taneous.
   DISCOVERY, the act of revealing or disclosing any 
DISCOUNT.
 matter  by a defendant,  in his  answer to  a bill filed
 against him in a court of equity.  A bill for a discovery
 must show an interest in the plaintiff in the subject, to
 which  the required discovery relates;  and such an inte-
 rest as entitles him to call on the  defendant for the dis-
 covery.  Finch, Rep. 36, 44.  1 Vern.  399.   It is a ge-
 neral rule, that no one is bound to answer so as to sub-
ject himself to punishment, in whatever manner that pun-
 ishment may arise. 2 Vcz. 245, 451. I Atk. 450. 2 Atk.
 39 3.
  DISCOUNT, in commerce, a term among  traders,
 merchants, and bankers.  It is used by tbe two former on
 occasion of their buying commodities on the usual time
 of credit, with a condition that tbe seller shall allow the
 buyer a certain discount at the rate of so much per cent.
 per annum, for the time  for which the credit is general-
 ly given, upon condition that the buyer pays ready mo-
 ney for such commodities, instead of taking the time of
 credit.  Traders and merchants  also frequently taking
 promissory notes for money due, payable to them or or-
 der at a certain time, and  sometimes having occasion
 for money before the time is elapsed, they procure these
 notes to be discounted by bankers or others before tbe
 time of payment; which discount is more or less, accord-
 ing to the credit and reputation of the person who drew
 the note, and the  indorser or  indorsers.   Bills of ex-
 change are also discounted by bankers, and in this con-
 sists one article of the profits of banking.  See Bank.
  The best tables of discount  are those of Mr. Smart,
 founded upon the true principles of decimal arithmetic.
 By these it appears, that he who allows 5l. for  the dis-
 count of 100J. for one year at 5 per cent, wrongs  himself,
 for he ought to receive so much money as at 5 per cent.
 interest will amount to 1001. in one year, and the sum is
 95l. 4s. 9^1.  The rule for finding the true discount is
 this:
    As the amount of 100L for the given rate and time:
     Is to the given sum : :
     So  is  the interest of 100/.  for the given rate and
      time:
    To the discount of the debt

  Thus, if p be the principal, r the rate of interest, and

t the time, then say, as 100 + rt : p : . rt: -rJ--—:>
                                           100 4-rt

which is the true  discount.   Hence p — ,„/r  ■ =
                                    r    100 -f rt
  100p                                        T
100  + rt *s tne Pre8ent worth, or sum to be  received.
  Ex'  Suppose it be required to find the
Z50f. f()r five mont|1Sj at the rate of g^ per
n urn interest.  Here p = 250, r = 5, and t =
-2rt __     250 x 5 \ ^     250 x 25
100 + rt =
-12.  _
**.,v*.
100 + 5 x7'¥  - 1200+25
 discount of
cent, per an-
-i^; therefore
     250
    IF  =
bv'w0 f(J!owin5table is an enlargement of one invented
hmJT*  •  Ba,rd and wU1 be fou,ltl "s^"1 for practical
Purposes m trade and commerce.
TABLE	FOR	CALCULATION OF DISCOUNT			
		From	\d. to 1000/.		
s. d.		s. d.		| s. a.	
0 0|	15	4 5	1612	9 9	3556
0 I	30	4 6	1642	9 10	3589
o i|	45	4 7	1673	9 11	3610
0 2	60	4 8	1703	10 0	3650
0 21	76	4 9	1734	' 10 3	3741
0 3	91	4 10	1764	10 6	3832
0 3|	106	4 11	1794	10 9	3923
0 4	122	5 0	1825	tl 0	4015
0 4|	137	5 1	1855	11 3	4106,
0 5	152	5 2	1885	11 6	4197
0 5§	167	5 3	1916	11 9	4286
0 6	182	5 4	1946	12 0	4380
0 6|	197 "	5 5	1977	12 3	4471
0 7	213	5 6	2007	12 6	4562
0 7|	228	5 7	2037	12 9	4653
O 8	243	5 8	2068	13 0	4745
0 8±	258	5 9	2098	13 3	4836
O 9	274	5 10	2129	13 6	4927
0 9|	289	5 11	2159	13 9	5018
0 10	304	6 0	2190	14 0	5110
o io|	319	6 1	2220	14 3	5201
0 11	334	6 2	2250	14 6	5292
0 ll£	350	6 3	2281	14 9	5383
1 0	365	6 4	2311	15 0	5475
1 1	395	6 5	2342	15 3	5566
1 2	426	6 6	2372	15 6	5657
I 3	456	6 7	2402	15 9	5748
1 4	487	6 8	2433	16 0	5840
1 5	517	6 9	2463	16 3	5931
1 6	547	6 10	2494	16 6	6022
1 7	578	6 11	2524	16 9	6113
1 8	608	7 0	2555	17 0	6205
1 9	638	7 1	2585	17 3	6296
1 10	669	7 2	2615	17 6	6387
1 11	699	7 3	2646	17 9	6478
2 0	730	7 4	2676	18 0	6570
2 1	760	7 5	2707	18 3	6661
2 2	791	7 6	2737	18 6	6752
2 3	821	7 7	2767	18 9	6843
2 4	852	7 8	2798	19 0	6935
2 5	882	7 9	2828	19 3	7026
2 6	912	7 10	2859	19 6	7117
2 7	943	7 11	2889	!9 9	7208
2 8	973	8 0	2920	20 0	7300
2 9	1004	8 1	2950	20 3	7391
2 10	1034	8 2	2980	20 6	7482
2 11	1064	8 3	3011	20 9	7573
3 0	1095	8 4	3041	21 0	7665
3 1	1125	8 5	3072	21 3	7756
3 2	1156	8 6	3102	21 6	7847
3 3	1186	8 7	3132	21 9	7938
3 4	1217	8 8	3163	22 0	8030
3 5	1247	8 9	3)93	22 3	8121
3 6	1277	8 10	3224	22 6	8212
3 7	1308	8 11	3254	22 9	8303
3 8	1338	9 0	3285	23 0	8395
3 9	1369	9 1	3315	2.3 3	8486
3 10	1399	9 2	3345	23 6	8677
3 11	1429	9 3	33^6	23 9	8668
4 0	1460	9 4	3406	24 0	8768
4 I	1490	9 5	3437	24 3	8851
4 2	1521	9 6	3467	24 6	8942
4 3	1551	9 7	3497	24 9	9033
4 4	1582	9 a	3528	25 0	9125
 
DISCOUNT.
TABLE  OF DISCOlJfllTS  (Continued.)
TABLE OF DISCOUNTS (Continued.)
s.	2.		S.	d.		. /.	5.	
25	j	9216	46	0	16.790	7	10	54,750
25	6	9307	47	0	17.155	7	15	56.575
25	9-	9398	48	0	17,520	8	0	58,400
26	0	9490	49	0	17,885	6	5	60,225
26	3	9581	50	0	18,250	8	10	62 050
26	6	9672	51	0	18615	8	15	63,875
26	9	9763	52	0	18,980	9	0	65.700
27	0	9855	53	0	19.345	9	5	67.525
27	3	9946	54	0	19.710	9	10	69,350
27	6	10,037	55	0	20,075	9	15	71,175
27	9	10,123	56	0	20.440	10	0	73,000
28	0	10,220	57	0	20 805	10	5	74,825
28	3	10,311	58	0	21,170	10	10	76,650
28	6	10,402	59	0	21,535	10	15	78,475
28	9	. 10 493	60	0	21,900	11	0	80,300
29	0	10,585	61	0	22;265	11	5	82,125
29	3	10,676	62	0	22.630	11	10	83,950
29	6	10 767	63	0	22.995	11	15	85,775
29	9	10 858	64	0	23 360	12	0	87,600
30	0	10.950	65	0	23725	12	5	89.425
30	rt O	1 1 041	66	0	24 090	12	10	91,250
30	6	11,132	67	0	24,445	12	15	93,075
30	9	11,223	68	0	24.820	13	0	94,900
31	0	11,315	69	0	25,185	13	5	96,725
31	3	11,406	70	0	25,550	13	10	98.550
31	6	11,497	71	0	25,915	13	IS	100 375
31	9	11,588	72	0	26,280	14	0	102,200
32	0	11,680	/.	8.		14	5	104,025
82	3	11 771	3	13	26.645	14	10	105.850
32	6	11,862	3	14	27,010	14	15	107,675
32	9	• 11,953	3	15	27,375	15	0	109,500
33	0	12,045	3	16	27,740	15	5	111,325
33	o	12,136	3	17	28,105	15	10	113,150
33	6	12 227	3	18	28,470	15	15	114,975
33	9	12,318	3	19	28.835	16	0	116,800
34	0	12,410	4	0	29200	16	5	118.625
34	3	12 501	4	1	29,565	16	10	120,450
34	6	12592	4	2	29,930	16	15	122,275
34	9	12 683	4	3	30,295	17	0	124,100
35	0	12,775	4	4	30,660	17	5	125,925
35	3	12 866	4	5	31,025	17	10	127,750
35	6	12,957	4	6	31,390	17	15	129,575
35	9	13,048	4	7	31,755	18	0	131,400
36	0	13,140	4	8	32,120	18	5	133,225
36	3	[3,231	4	9	32,485	18	10	135,050
36	6	13,322	4	10	32 850	18	15	136,875
36	9	13413	4	11	33 215	19	0	138,700
37	0	13,505	4	12	33.580	19	5	140,525
37	3	13,596	4	13	33,945	19	10	142,350
37	6	13,687	4	14	34310	19	15	144,175
37	9	13,778	4	15	34,675	20	0	1 46 000
38	0	13870	4	16	35040	20	5	147,825
38	3	13 961	4	17	35,405	20	10	149,650
38	6	14,052	4	18	35 770	20	15	151,475
38	9	14,143	4	19	36.135	21	0	153,300
39	0	14,235	5	0	36 500	21	5	155.125
39	3	14,326	5	5	38,325	21	10	156,950
39	6	14,417	5	10	40,150	21	IS	158,775
39	9	14,508	5	15	41,975	2J	0	160,600
40	0	14 600	6	0	43,800	22	5	162,425
41	0	14,965	6	5	45,625	22	10	164,250
42	0	15,330	6	10	47,450	22	15	166,075
43	0	15,695	6	15	49,275	23	0	167,900
44	0	16,060	7	0	51,100	23	i	169,725
43	0	16,425-	7	5	52,925	23	IS	171,550
23  15
24  0
24  10
25  0
25  10
26  0
26  10
27  0
27  10
28  0
28  10
29  0
29  10
30  0
30  10
SI
31
32
 0
10
 0
32 10
33  0
33 10
34  0
34 10
35  0
35 10
36  0
36 10
37  0
37 10
38  0
38 10
39  0
39 10
40  0
40 10
41  0
41 10
 173,375
 175,200
 178850
 182500
 136,150
 189,800
 193,450
 197,100
200.7 50
204,400
208,050
211 700
215,350
219,000
222,650
226.300
229.950
233.600
237,250
240,900
244.550
248,200
251,850
255,500
259,150
262,800
266,450
270,100
273,750
277,400
281,050
284,700
288.350
292,000
295,650
299,300
302,950
I.   S.
42  0
42  10
43  0
43  10
44  0
44  10
45  0
43  10
46  0
46  10
47  0
47  10
48  0
48  10
49  0
49  10
50  0
51  0
52  0
53  0
54
55
56  Q
57  0
58  0
59  0
60
61
62
63
64
65
66
67
68  0
69  0
70  0
306 600
jIO.250
313 900
317^550
321,200
324 850
328,500
332,150
335,800
339,450
343,100
346,750
350.400
354.050
357,700
361,350
365,000
372J300
379,600
386,900
394,200
401,500
408,800
416.000
423,400
430,700
438,000
445,300
452,600
459,900
467,200
474,500
481,800
489,100
496,400
503.700
511,000
  I. S.
  71  0
  11  0
  73  0
  74  0
  75  0
  76  0
  77  0
  78  0
  79  0
  80  0
  81  0
  82  0
  83  0
  84  0
  85  0
  86  0
  87  0
  88  0
  89  0
  90  0
  91  0
  92  0
  93  0
  94  0
  95  0
  96  0
  97  0
  96  0
  99  0
 100  0
 150  0
 200  0
 300  0
 400  0
 500  0
1000  e
  518 300
  525,600
  532,900
  540 200
  547,500
  554800
  562,100
  56J.400
  576.700
  584.000
  591.300
  598,600
  605900
  613.200
  620.500
  627,800
  635,100
  642,400
  649,700
  657,000
  664 300
  671,600
  678,900
  686,200
  693,500
  700,800
  708,100
  715,400
  722,700
  730,000
1,095,000
1,460,000
2,190,000
2,920,000
3,650.000
7,300,000
  Method of Calculation by the above Table.—To find the
interest of any sum of money for any given number of
days, multiply the sum by the number of days, and the
table will show the product.
  If the interest on any  number of sums be  required,
multiply the number of pounds by  the days, as abovej
on each sum,  and add the product  into one sum; the
value of wbich,  (if less  than  1000/.)  will be immedi-
ately shown by tbe table: and  thus by the*union of the
respective sums, the loss or gain of fractions falls only
on the gross sum, instead of each component part.
  Example.  On the 1st of May I want to discount a bill
for 1001., due the 25th of June following:
      lOOf. x 40 days =4000; by referring to the table,
I find the nearest number
  less than 4000 is          3923 =: 105. 9d.J
which, being deducted, leaves
77
76 = 2|o\
105. ll!<f.rr. Or (which is easier), finding that 4015 is*
by the table, equal to 11 shillings;  and that 15 is equal
to -d., I find the answer to be 105.  1 l\d.
  Ex. The interest  is required on  the  following sums; 
D I S
D I s
	100?. for 75 day9,
	645 42
	987 86
	92 140
lOOl.	X 75 days = 7,500
B45l.	X 42 days == 10,290
9%7l.	X 86 days = 84,882
9&L	X 140 days = 12,880
this in tbe table, is
115,552, the nearest No. less than
114,975  = 151. 15s., which being
 subtracted, leaves 577. I find, by tbe table, 578 amount
 to is. 7d.; and as the  unit w hich forms the difference is

 only ^r of a  farthing, I  call the answer 15f. 165. 7d.
     ' 2

 strictly 151. 16s. 6|d.  r?
                     ' 2
   The interest of any sum  may  be  found without the
 assistance  of the tabic, by multiplying the number of
 pounds by the days, as above, and dividing
     by 7,300 to give the product in Pounds
     by   365                     Shillings
     by     30T«f                   Pence."
   The units in this table being less than f of a farthing
 each, the fractions of these units are omitted.
   DISCRETE or disjunct proportion, is when the
 ratio of two or  more pairs of numbers or quantities is
 the same, but there is not the same proportion between
 all the four numbers.  Thus  if the numbers 3:6:  : 8 :
 16 be considered, the  ratio  between  3  : 6, is the same
 as that between 8 ; 16, and therefore the numbers  are
 proportional; but it is only discretely or disjunctly, for 3
 is not to 6 as 6 to 8; that is, the proportion is broken
 off between 8 and 3, and is not continued  as in the fol-
 lowing continued proportionals; 3: 6: : 12 : 24.
   Discrete quantity, such as is not continuous and
 joined together.  Such is a number  whose parts being
 distinct units, cannot he united into one continuum;  for
 in a continuum, there  are no  actual determinate parts
 before division, but they are potentially infinite.
   DISCRETION,  is to discern between  right  and
 wrong; and therefore whoever has power to act at dis-
 cretion, is bound by the rule of reason and law.  2 Inst.
 56. 298.  And  the court of king's-bench has a power
 to redress things that arc otherwise done,  notwithstand-
 ing they are left to the discretion of those  that do them.
 1 Lill. Abr. 477.

  DISDIAPASON, or Bisdiapason, in music, a com-
 pound concord, described by F. Parron, in J the quadru-
 ple ratio of 4 : 1, or 8 : 2.  The disdiapason is produced
 wnen the voice grows diatonicallv  from its first to its
 imeentli  sound,  and  may be  called  a fifteenth.  The
 voice ordinarily  does not go  farther than from its first
 sound to the disdiapason, that is, it does not go beyond
 i >e compound,  or double octave; for the disdiapason is
a«i octave doubled.  The voice  sometimes  rises several
^g»*ce.s above the disdiapason, but the  effort or strug-
gle disfigures it, and makes it false.  In reality, the an-
  ni?i?A6c°i diaSl'am extended only to a disdiapason.
  "iftbASE, in medicine, that state of a living bodf,
 wherein it is deprived ofthe exercise of anv of iis func-
 tions, whether  vital,  natural, or animal. " See  Medi-
 cine.
   DISEMBOGLE, in the sea-language, is said of a
 ship that passes out of a gulph or bay into the open sea.
 A river is also said to disembogue or discharge itself in-
 to the sea.
   DISFRANCHISING, among civilians, signifies the
 depriving a person of the rights and privileges of a free
 citizen or subject.
   DISFRANCHISEMENT, is  the  taking away  a
 man's  freedom or  privilege.  Corporations generallv
 have power by their charter or prescription, to disfran-
 chise a member for doing any thing against the duty of
 his office  as citizen or burgess, and to the prejudice of
 tbe public weal of the city or borough,  and against his
 oath, which he took when he was sworn a freeman. But
 the matter which shall be the cause of his disfranchise-
 ment, ought to be an act or deed, and not an endeavour
 or enterprize whereof he may repent before the  execu-
 tion thereof,  and of which no  prejudice  ensues.  11
 Co.  98.
   DISH, among  miners,  denotes  a wooden measure,
 wherein they are obliged to measure  their ore;  it  is
 kept by the  bar-master,  and contains about 672 solid
 inches.
   DISJUNCTIVE  proposition, in logic, is that where
 of several predicates we affirm one necessarily to belong
 to the subject to the  exclusion of  all the rest,  but leave
 that particular one undetermined.   Such is the major of
 the following disjunctive syllogism.
   The world is either self.cxistent, or the work of some
     finite, or of some infinite being:
  But it is not  self-existent, nor'the work of a  finite-
     being;
  Therefore it is the work of an infinite being.

  DISLOCATION, the putting  a bone out of joint hy
 violence.  See Surgery.
  DISMEMBERED,  in heraldrv, is  applied to birds
 that  have neither feet nor legs,  and also to lions and
 other animals whose members are separated.
  DISPARAGEMENT, in the  law of England, is
 properly used for the matching an heir in marriage un-
 der his degree, or against decency.
  DISPART,  in gunnery,  is the setting a mark upon
 the muzzle-ring, or thereabouts, of a piece of ordnance,
 so that a sight-line  taken  upon  the top  of the base-
 ring against the touch-hole, by the mark set on or near
 the muzzle, may be parallel to tbe axis of the concave
 cylinder.  The common way of doing this, is to take the
 two diameters of the base-ring, and ofthe place where
 the dispart  is to stand, and divide the difference be-
 tween  them into two equal parts,  one of which will be
 the length of the dispart; which is set on the gun with
 wax  or pitch, or fastened tliere with a piece of twine or
 marlin. By means of an instrument it may be done with
 all possible nicety.
  DISPAUPER:  when any person, on aceom.t of pov-
erty,  attested  by his own oath of not being worth 5i\
his debto being  paid, is admitted to sue in forma pau-
peris, if afterwards,  before the suit is ended, he has any 
D  I S                                                D I S
lands, or personal estate fallen  to him; or that the court
where the suit depends,  thinks fit for that or any other
reason, to take away that privilege from him; then he is
said to be dispaupered, and can no longer sue in forma
pauperis.
   DISPEXSARA.  or  Dispensatory, denotes a book
containing the method of preparing the various  kinds of
medicines  used in pharmacy. The apothecaries- in and
about  London are obliged to make up their compound
medicines  according to the  formulas prescribed in the
college dispensary,  and  are enjoined to keep  always
ready  in their shops all the medicines there enumerated.
   It is also a kind of charitable institution supported by
voluntary  subscriptions; have each one or  more physi-
cians and surgeons,  whose business itis to attend at sta-
ted times, in order to prescribe for the  poor; and, if ne-
cessary, to visit them  at their own  habitations.  It is
in this latter respect, that the patients of a dispensary
differ from those called out-patients at an hospital. The
poor are supplied gratis with their medicines; and many
of these institutions also afford gratuitous assistance to
lying-in women.
   DISPENSATION, in law, the granting a licence of
doing  some certain  action that otherwise is not permit-
ted. The greatest dealer in dispensations is the pope,
who claims the office jure divino, and extends it to every
thing. The more moderate of the Romanists themselves
deny that he can give a dispensation for any thing con-
trary to the divine law, or the law of nature; and con-
fine him to what is contrary to positive laws, or to things
relating to fasts, marriages, holding  several benefices,
&c. and they limit him even in these things.
   The Archbishop of Canterbury has a power,  by stat-
ute, of dispensing in  any cause wherein dispensations
were formerly granted  by the see of Rome, and as well
to the king as his subjects; and during the vacancy of the
archbishop's  see, the guardian of the spiritualities may
grant dispensations.  Every bishop  of common right
has the power of instituting to benefices, and of dispen-
sing in common  cases,  &c.  A dispensation of the king
makes a thing prohibited lawful to be done by  the per-
son that has it, though  a thing evil in  itself will not ad-
mit of a dispensation.  And where the subject  has  an
immediate interest in an  act of  parliament, the  king
cannot dispense with it; but may, if the suit be the king's
own, only for the breach of a penal law that is not to the
damage ofa third person.
   There is  a dispensation by non obstante, which  is
where a statute  tends to restrain some prerogative inci-
dent to the person of the  king, as the right of  pardon-
ing, or commanding the service of the subjects for the
benefit of the public, kc. each of which prerogatives  is
inseparable from the king,  and therefore, by  a clause
non obstante, such a statute may be dispensed with.
   DISPERSION. See Surgery.
   DISPLAYED, in heraldry, is understood of the po-
sition  of an eagle, or any other bird,  when it is erect,
with its wings expanded or spread forth.
   DISPONDEE,  in the Greek and  Latin poetry, a
double spondee  or  foot,  consisting  of four long syl-
lables.
   DISPOSITION,  in  rhetoric, the placing of words  in
such  an order as contributes most to the beauty, and
sometimes even to the strength of a discourse.
   DISSECTION.  See  Anatomy.  Le  Gendre ob-
serves, that the dissection of a human body,  even dead
was held a sacrilege till the time of  Francis  I. and the
same author assures us he has seen  a consultation held
by the divines of Salamanca,  at the  request  of Charles
V. to settle the question whether or not it was lawful in
point of conscience to dissect a human body,  in order to
learn the structure thereof.
   It is easily perceived that surgery and physic must im-
prove in a country, according  to the  opportunities of
inquiring into the structure of the animal economy; for
which reason   we could wish that students in anatomy
were furnished with subjects for dissection in this coun-
try, in as great abundance,  and with as little inconve-
nience, as  in France.
   DISSEISIN, in law, is a wrongful putting out of him
that is  seized  of the  freehold,  which may be effected
either in corporeal inheritances,  or incorporeal.  Disse-
isin of things corporeal, as of houses and lands, must
be  by  entry and actual dispossession  of the freehold.
Disseisin of incorporeal hereditaments, cannot be an ac-
tual dispossession, for the subject itself is neither capa-
ble of actual bodily possession nor dispossession, but is
only at the election and choice of the party injured, if,
for the sake of more easily trying the right, he is pleas-
ed to suppose  himself disseised.   And so also  even in
corporeal hereditaments, a man  may frequently suppose
himself to be disseised, when he  is not so in fact, for
the sake of entitling himself to the more easy and com-
modious remedy of an  assise of  novel disseisin, instead
of being driven to the more tedious process of a writ of
entry.  3 Black. 169.
   DISSENTERS.   Before the revolution  many sta-
tutes were  in force against dissenters, but by  1 W.  &1nt
1. c. 18. commonly called the toleration act, it is enacted,
that none of the acts  made against  persons  dissenting
from the church of England, (except the test acts 25
C. II. c. 2. and 30 C.  II. st. 2. c.  1.) shall extend to
any teacher or preacher dissenting from the church of
England, who shall at the general sessions of the peace,
to be held  for  the county  or place  where such person
shall live, take the oaths of allegiance and supremacy,
and subscribe the declaration against popery, of which
the court shall keep a register; and no officer shall  take
more than  6d.  for registering the same,  and 6d. for a
certificate thereof signed by such officer. Provided that
the place of meeting be certified  to the bishop of the di-
ocese, or to the archdeacon of the archdeaconry, or to
the justices ofthe peace at the general or quarter ses-
sions; and  the register or clerk of the peace shall regis-
ter on record the same, and give certificate thereof to
any one who shall demand the same,  for which no grea-
ter fee than 6d. shall be taken; and  provided  that dur-
ing the time of meeting, the doors shall  not  be  locked,
barred, or  bolted.  See Conventicle.  Dissenters cho-
sen to any  parochial or ward offices, and scrupling to
take the oaths, may execute the  office by deputy, who
shall comply with the law in  this behalf.  1  W. c. 18.
But it seems tbey are not subject to fine, on  refusing to
serve corporation offices; for they may object to the va- 
D  I S
D I S
lidity of their election, on the ground of their own non-
conformity.  3 Bro. P. C 463.
  DISSIDENTS, a denomination applied in Poland to
persons of the Lutheran, Calvinistic,  and Greek pro-
fession.
  DISSIPATION, circle of, in optics, is used for that
riri'ular space upon the  retina,  which is taken  up by
one of  the extreme pencils or rays issuing from an ob-
ject. To understand this, it is to he observed, that when
the distance of an object from the eye is too  small or
too great for perfect or distinct vision,  the rays of each
pencil,  issuing from the  object,  cannot be united at  a
point on the retina,  but beyond it, or before they arrive
at the retina; consequently, the rays of each pencil will
occupy a circular space upon the retina, and this circle
is called the circle of dissipation, because the rays of  a
pencil, instead of being  collected into  a central point,
are dissipated all over this circle.   See Optics.
   DISSOLVENT, in general,  whatever dissolves or
reduces a solid body into such minute parts as to be sus-
 tained in a fluid.
   DISSOLUTION, in music, is when a sound in the
 enharmonic genus is lowered  three dieses; for thereby
 that genus is dissolved, and the music, or that interval at
 least,  is chromatic.
   DISTAFF, an instrument about  which flax is tied in
 order  to be spun.
    DISTANCE,  in general, an interval  between two
 things, either with regard to time or place.   See Geo-
 metry and Mensuration.
    Distance, in navigation, the number of minutes or
 leagues a ship has sailed from any given place or point.
 Sec Navigation.
    Distance, in  astronomy.  The distance of  the sun,
 I.lanets, and comets,  is found from their parallax, as it
 cannot be found either by eclipses or their different pha-
   s- tin* from the theory of the motions of the earth and
 planets vvc know, at any time, the proportion of the dis-
 tances of the sun and planets from  us;  and the horizon-
 tal parallaxes arc in a reciprocal proportion to these dis-
 tances.  Sec Astronomy.
    Distance, curtate,  the distance of the planet's place,
 reduced to the ecliptic, from the sun.
    Distance ofthe eye, in perspective, is a line drawn
 from  the eye  to the principal point.  See Perspec-
 tive.
    Dist vnce of the bastions,'in fortification, is the side of
 flu exterior polygon.
   DISTEMPER, in painting, a term used for the work-
 ing up of colours with something besides  water or oil.
 If the  ndours are prepared with  water, that kind of
 painting is called limning; and if with oil, it  is called
 painting iu oil, and simply painting.  If the colours are
 mixed  with size, white of eggs, or any such proper glu-
 tinous  or unctuous matter,  and not with oil, then they
say it  is done in  distemper.  In this manner the admi-
rable cartoons at Hampton-court are painted.  The great-
est disadvantage  of distemper is, that it has no glitter-
ing, and all its colours look dead, by which means they
appear alike in all sorts of lights, which oil colours, or
c^en colours in distemper when varnished, do not.
   DISTICH,  a  couplet of verses making  a complete
   voi« I.               100
sense.  Thus hexameter and pentameter verses arc dis-
posed in distichs.
   DISTICHIASIS, in surgery, a disease of the eye-lids,
when under the ordinary eyelashes there grows another
extraordinary row of  hair, which frequently eradicates
the former, and pricking the membrane ofthe eye, ex-
cites pain, and brings on a defluxion.
   DISTILLATION.  The  objects of distillation, con-
sidered as  a trade distinct from the oilier branches of
chemistry, are chiefly spirituous liquors, and those  wa-
ters impregnated with the essential oils  of plants, com-
monly called simple  distilled waters.   The distilling of
compound  spirits and  waters is reckoned  a different
branch  of business, and those «vho deal  in that way are
commonly  called rectifiers.   This difference,  however,
though  it exists among commercial people, is  not at all
founded in  the nature of the thing; compound spirits be-
ing made,  and simple spirits  being rectified,  by the very
same operations by which  they are first distilled, or at
least with very trifling alterations.  See Chemistry.
  The great  object with every distiller  ought  to be, to
procure a spirit perfectly flavourless, or at least as well
freed from  any particular flavour as may be; and in thin
country the procuring of such a spirit is no easy mat-
ter.   The only materials for distillation that have been
used in  large quantity, are malt, and molasses or trea-
cle.   Both of these, especially the first, abound with an
oily matter, which,  rising along with the spirit, com-
municates a disagreeable flavour to it, and from which
it can scarcely be freed afterwards by any means what-
ever.
  Previous to the operation of distilling, those of brew-
ing  and fermentation are  necessary.   See  Brewing.
The fermentation ought always to he carried  on as slow-
ly as possible, and performed in vessels closely stopped,
only  having at the bung a valve pressed down  by a
spring,  which will yield with less force than is  sufficient
to burst the vessel. It should even be suffered to remain
till it has become  perfectly fine  and transparent; as by
this  means the spirit will not only be superior  in quan-
tity, but also in fragrance, pungency, and vinosity, to
that otherwise produced.
  "With regard to performing the operation of distilling,
there is only one general rule that can he given,  name-
ly, to let the heat in all  cases be as gentle as  possible.
A watcrbath,  if sufficiently large, is preferable to any
other mode, and will perform the operation with all the
dispatch requisite for the most extensive business.   As
the  end of rectification  is to make the spirit clean as
well as strong, or to deprive it of the  essential oil as
well as the aqueous part, it  will be proper to  have re-
gard to this even in the first  distillation.  For  this pur-
pose, the spirit,  as it first comes  over, should be  re-
ceived into a quantity of cold water; as by  this means
the connection  between it  and the oily  matter will be
considerably  lessened.   For the same reason, after it
has been once rectified in  the water-bath, it should be
again mixed  with an  equal quantity of  water,  and dis-
tilled a  second time.   Thus the spirit will be  freed from
most of the oily matter, even though  it has been very
much impregnated with it at  first.  After the spirit  has
been distilled once or twice in this manner from water, 
DISTILLATION.
it may be distilled in a water-bath without any addition;
and this  last rectification  w ill free it from most of the
water it contains.
  For the distillation of compound spirits, the follow ing
practical rules  will amply  suffice, and will at the same
time afford a competent view of the general process.
  In rectifying and distilling compound goods, a smal-
ler still is known to make a cleaner and better commo-
dity than one that is larger: and one that is half a hogs-
head  gage, over and above your hand  breadth depth
from the edge or top of your  still,  is accounted the fit-
test size  for a moderate trade; both as it may be man-
aged  without fatigue, and as it produces encouraging
profit much superior to the fund it requires.  When you
erect and place your still, and other utensils, let it be if
possible in a building, outhouse,  or shed, separate from,
but nearly adjoining to,  your dwelling-house or shop,
to prevent any hazard which may arise by fire, to which
all spiritous goods are liable; and no otherwise to be ex-
tinguished but with  a woollen blanket or rug, drenched
in water, and cast upon the flame,  which extinguishes
it by  excluding the  air.   Let the work-house be large
enough,  not only in regard to your still,  worm-tub, and
pump, which must  be all  placed in a row,  or ranged
together, to  contribute to your  working with ease and
pleasure, but because your spirits which,  are for distil-
ling must lie in some proper place or part of your work-
house, to he near at hand to charge your still with, and
at some reasonable distance from the fire: and also that
you may have room enough for  placing all your empty
vessels,  tubs, cans,  and other utensils properly belong-
ing to the distilling-trade, to have them near  at hand on
all occasions; and let your still-house floor be  paved with
broad stones or flags, having  a  descent to carry off all
the wash from your still, your hot liqour from the worm-
tub, and other occasional slops,  which will be made by
washing your casks, &c. by which your still-house floor
will always be kept clean.  They are usually kept in a
cistern underneath,  and pumped up  as wanted.  It  is
absolutely necessary, that there  be sufficiency of water
where your pump is to be sunk, both to keep your worm-
tub continually cool, to make up all your goods to their
proper strength, and to serve all other occasions what-
soever; it matters not whether your water be soft or hard,
if you have plenty of it.
  Your still must be placed upon brick-work, having an
ash-hole of 24  inches long,  nine inches broad; and to
the iron bars, where your fire is to be under your still,
21 or 22 inches high; made somewhat sloping, the bet-
ter to command the ashes.   "When the brick-work  is
made  about the height last-mentioned, you  must place
your grate-door (both of strong iron) before,  or in the
front of the stove, or place,  where your fire is to  be
made under your still.   The iron door and frame must
be about ten inches long, and eight ine lies broad;  close
behind the door and frame must be placed two cross iron
bars, about two inches  and a half broad, half an inch
thick, and 15 or 16 inches long; both ends of which
bars must  be  laid  about  three  inches into  the brick-
work, for fixing them the better; and the upper part of
it must he about half an inch lower than the  upper edge
of the door-frames.  Just behind the  said two iron bars
roust be placed another flat iron bar, about an inch and
a half broad,  half an inch thick, and  sixteen inches
long, fastened in the brick-work as the former, and near
an inch lower: upon which last-mentioned flat iron bar
your iron grate must rest at  the higher end; and tbe other
end of your iron grate must rest upon another flat iron
bar of the same dimension, fastened at the furthest end
or most distant part of your still-bottom. The iron "rate
must consist of about eight bars of inch-square iron, but
exactly of one length, made broad, or flatted diagonally
at each end, to rest on the two cross iron bars, so that
the upper part ofthe square bars must be even with tbe
higher part of the flat iron  bars on which they rest, that
the lire-shovel, or  coaLrake,  may  run smoothly aloii"-
them.   The square iron bars must be  about eighteen
inches long, and laid loose within an inch breadth o'
each other upon the two broad iron bars, as firm as vou
can, yet so that they may be put in, or taken out, as oc-
casion requires; then raise your brick-work, so  thai
your still-bottom,  when fixed or rested upon it, may be
about  10  or  12 inches above the iron grate,  that the
fire may have room to play; and the part of the brick-
work under the  still, where the fire is  placed, and a-
far as it extends within the stove, must be inlaid with
hearth inch-tiles, or fire-brick, well fastened with such
mortar as will abide the fire much longer than common
bricks.   Let not  the fireplace  be too broad, wherein
your workman's judgment  will have regard to the sides
not being of the same thickness  with the bottom of your
still.  There must be left a sloping place, or hole, pro-
per for conveying  the smoke into the flue and round the
still into the chimney; which flue must be carried up a
convenient height, to draw the smoke, and carry  it oil".
Let your still-cock come so far through the brick-work,
that your wash may run out either into cans, or other-
wise, as you have conveniency for  conveying it away.
The brick-work about your still  must be exactly round,
as high as the upper nails of your still, sloping from the
flame lest any liquor boil over, and very w ell mortared,
and covered all round with coarse canvas or hop-sack,
to keep the fire closer in,  the wall from cracking, and
your clothes from being injured, and the flue must be
plastered well within.
  Your worm-tub  must be placed very  near your still,
upon a strong wooden frame  according to the size of
the tub, which must be six  or eight times the capacity of
your still, so that every stave of the tab may  rest firmly
upon the frame, the better to support the great weight of
such a quantity of water as is necessary to keep the worm
constantly cold,  or cool enough. Your worm,tub frame
must be so high, that when  the tub is placed upon it, the
low end of your worm which comes through the worm-
tub, will admit of your cans being readily placed under,
and taken  away when they are full.   The upper end of
your worm must be placed  so,  that the arm of your still-
head may go into  it without any difficulty, and shut in
so close as to be easily luted; and your worm-tub must
stand so upright, that no liquor may hang in the worm,
which you may know, by putting a pint or  quart  of
water into the worm; which will run out at the lower end
of it. In the middle of your worm-tub you may place a
wooden gutter  three or  four  inches square within,  to
reach from the top of the worm-tub to the bottom of the
same, having about three or four inches on the opposite 
DISTILLATION.
sides at the bottom end of it left open, that the fluid that
is pumped into the gutter, which descends, may flow out
at the two breaches to the lower part of the worm-tub;
which 1 trees all the hot  water to  ascend upwards, and
runs cither over the worm-tub, or rather through a lead-
en pipe ofa moderate size, which is called a waste pipe,
being put through and soldered in your  worm tub, and
extended  down your tub-sides to what furthor length
you please, to convey the warm  water  from  your tub,
till the liquor in your worm-tub is perfectly  cold; which
by the continuance of your still working will grow hot
aeain and again, and must he still cooled after the same
manner.  The  water conveyed in by a lead pipe at the
bottom is still better. Your pump must be  placed next
your worm-tub, and of such a height that you  may have
a spout or cock put into that part of your pump which is
next your worm-tub, under which you may fix a good
gutter, to reach to, and be led into, the gutter  that is fixed
in tbe middle of your worm-tub, that the liquor may be
more easily, anil with less  waste, conveyed  into your
worm-tub, in order to cool it. You  must have also anoth-
er spout or cock in  the  fore-part of your pump,  much
lower than the other, for draw ing water for all common
uses; the higher spout being closed, and only appropriat-
ed for cooling the liquor  when hot in the worm-tub. For
the still, worm, &c. see Plate XLIII.
   It will  be necessary also to have a large back, set up-
on a strong  frame, to command the  worm-tub, and  to
 contain a large quantity  of water, having a large brass
 cock communicating with the still, &c. to draw off what
 water you may stand in need of suddenly; which may be
 of very great service to  you upon any emergency; and
may be drawn off in much less time, and with  less trou-
 ble, than by pumping; for the still may accidentally be
sometimes dry, and prove of dangerous consequences,
if you had not a quantity  of water ready on all  occasions
in your back to repair to. Your water-tub must be open
at the upper end, that you may dip or drench your cans
into it, or lay any small rundlcts  in it to steep and be-
 come tight; and that your tub may be  more  easily filled
with water.
   You will find your interest in keeping a good middle-
sized press, placed in a corner of your still-house, and
fixed so steadily as not  to be moved when  you use it;
having a very strong bed or  place, in which the goods
to be pressed are put, and five or six hair-cloths, some-
what broader than your press, to be  put betwixt  every
layer of elder-berries, cherries, raspberries,  or any oth-
er things which are to be pressed; all which  are  to be
laid  as thin as possible, and your press-screw  to be
drawn pretty much, till the  liquor run by a spout made
of sheet-load, nailed  to the  fore-part of  the bottom of
your press, into one of your cans, which must  he placed
under it, to receive the juice from the press, and  draw
out your  iron-pin, to give time to the press  to empty
itself of what juice lies in the bed; then draw the screw
a little doser, and allow time  for the juice  to run out,
and so more and more, till all the juice is wdiolly drawn
or pressed out ofthe goods.  See Plate.
  You must have also, at least, three or four iron-bound
open-headed tubs, wide at the top, and narrower taper-
wise down to the bottom, (one of  these tubs is to con-
tain two puncheons or pipes of goods, another to contain
one pipe, and another a hogshead) which must be placed
orderly in your still-house, and now and then filled wi?h
hot liquor out of your still: and  the  iron hoops  driver,
or fastened, to keep them firm, and in fit condition to
hold the goods that  are  to he put or made  up in them.
Likewise three or four iron-bound cans, either  with ion
round hands or bales; one to hold five, another to contain
four, another three, and if you please,  another two gal-
lons; not by bare measure to the top, but let your goods
reach no higher than a brass mark placed therein, de-
termining the measure to which  the liquor must rise.
Another necessary utensil is an iron-hound wood funnel,
which  by computation would hold three or four gall ins,
with a strong iron nosel or pipe to put into the bungs of
the casks which the goods are to be put in, which must
be ranged or placed upon  a shelf along with  the iron-
bound cans pretty near your still.
  In  some convenient part of your still-house, where
room maybe  most spared, must be placed a pretty large
vessel, either covered or  open, with acock in it, in which
you must put all your feints or after-runnings, until you
have a quantity worth your distilling over; into which
vessel or cask you  may put the washings out of your
casks, the drippings of your cocks, any goods  accident-
ly spoiled, either by wrong mixture,  spilling  on  th**
ground, or otherwise, or any thing else that has a spiri-
tuous matter  or substance in it. Another piece  of neces-
sary furniture for your still-house, and wiiich cannot be
dispensed with, is a good strong copper or tin pump, of
about five feet long, and six inches in circumference, its
nosel about six inches from the top of the pump, and the
nosel about fourteen inches long from the body of the pump;
besides a little angular nosel about four inches, to be put
on upon the other, or taken off as your occasions require.
The use of this pump, with its appurtenances, is to draw
off your spirits out of the pieces into your cans to charge
your still with; and for  many other similar purposes in
which it will be serviceable.
  A pewter-crane or siphon is also absolutely necessary,
made somewhat semilunar,  or like a half-moon or angle,
about six feet and a half from one end to the other, and
four inches round  about on the  outside, to  draw goods
out of any vessel where the pump cannot play.  A pewter
Valencia is likewrise useful, being about two feet long, ta-
pering at the end, which you put into  the piece, or any
other vessel, to draw out any small quantity, by  putting
or moving your finger on the upper side of the Valencia,
whereby the liquor enters, for your tasting or  trying its
proof; which, with the crane, may  be hung  against the
wall.
  Hipocrate's bag,  or  flannel-sleeve,  is another thing
very necessary for the distiller, whereby all bottoms of
casks, though ever so thick and feculent, by putting into
this hag or sleeve to filtre,  become presently  clear, the
porous parts ofthe bag being soon filled with tbe grosser
matter; and  the thin or liquid element  running clear
from the bag, and  as good as any of the rest: also  any
foul goods or liquor may presently be made clear  an*d
fine, by putting some powdered alabaster into  the goods
or liquor, or sprinkling  the  same on the bag to  stop up
its pores, by which  they presently become or run clear, 
DISTILLATION.
leaving nothing but the sediment or gross matter in the
bag; nor do the goods or liquor contract the least ill fla-
vour from the alabaster powder.  This bag or sleeve is
made of a yard  or  ell of flannel,  not over-fine or close-
wrought, laid sloping, so as to have the  bottom of it very
narrow, and the top  as  broad as the cloth  will allow,
well sewed up the side, and the upper part ofthe bag fold-
ed about a broad wooden hoop, and well fastened  to  it,
then boring the hoop in three or four places, it may  be
suspended by a cord.
  You  must have for your  still-fire a large poker, fire-
shovel, and coal-rake,  with  other  necessary  utensils for
your  still-house; a cooper's hand-saw, adze,  gimlet, a
striking gimlet, a  hammer, a pair of scratching-irons,
a pair of tamers, a bung-borer, a box-foreset, and a box
of bungs.
  When you are to distil, you are to make ready, against
your  still  is charged, a paste of the size of a turkey-
egg, made half of Spanish  wheat, and the other half of
rye-meal, bean-meal, or wheat-flour, well mixed together,
and made into a paste  with water, of the consistence of
an  ordinary paste  for baking; and having put on your
still-head,  with its nose in  the upper end ofthe worm,
then take your paste, working and making it pliable with
the heat and operation of your hands, and spread it upon
the junctures ofthe body and head of your still,  and that
part of the arm of your still-head which goes into the end
of the worm, to keep  in the goods from boiling over:
make the paste very smooth, by wetting your hand (with
which you lay on the paste) in water, to cause it to  lie the
closer, and secure the goods from all mischances; and  re-
serve  a piece of paste, about the size of  a small  apple,
lest the luting  should  crack or break out. which is very
dangerous, and must therefore be carefully  attended to
and examined, and in case of any defect, mended with the
paste reserved for that purpose.
   When you set up a new still, which has not been used,
let it be filled,  within your hand-breadth of the brim,
with water, and put to it  a peck of wheat-bran;  and
put the head upon the  still, and fix  it  firmly on with
a wooden  bar,  about  the thickness of  your  wrist, upon
the loop,  a little below the neck of your still, and  the
upper end  of the wooden  bar  must be fastened  under
some  beam or lentel perpendicularly,  to prevent  the
still-head  from  moving by the  force  of  distillation;
then  lute your  still as  directed  in the foregoing para-
graph; and having made a fire  under it proper for that
purpose, draw off two, three, or four gallon-cans by dis-
tillation, by which all  the joints and nails of your still
will be cemented, and made fit for distilling your strong-
est-proof goods; then damp or extinguish your fire with
some wet  ashes; wash your still-head and worm; after-
wards you  may charge and work your still with what
goods you please.
   All your spirits to be distilled should be proof  goods,
which you may try by having a small quantity put into  a
glass phial, and shaking it with your hand; if the blebs or
proof of it continues a pretty while upon the top or sur-
face of the goods, it is then what  is called proof  goods;
and when it is distilled, it will yield about, or v.ry near,
two-third parts, or every thirty gallons will distil to near-
ly, and sometimes full, twenty gallons, according as the
spirits are higher or lower proof; which you may  make
proof, or to what strength and weakness you please, by
adding  what proportion or quantity either of sprin- or
river water is necessary; as  for example, take and ob-
serve this general rule in distilling, that all double goods
coming from the still,  clear proof and  without  feints,
must be made up with liquor, to that quantity you charg-
ed your still with at first; as if with thirty gallons o
proof spirits, it  will yield about twenty gallons of hHi-
proof goods, the deficiency of ten gallons must be made
up with water, till  the whole amounts to thirty gallons,
your first charge; and in single goods you add one and a
half part more of water  (viz. fifteen gallons) to what is
ordered in double goods, whereby  you will have in all
forty-five gallons of single goods; but if your spirits are
below proof,  upon shaking the phial, or glass, the goods
will fall fiat, or  the blebs or  -proof will not  continue on
the surface of it; and according to the degree ofits bein"
reduced more or less below proof, the goods will flatten
accordingly; and when such good are  distilled, they will
fall short in quantity; and upon making them proof, and
no otherwise, will you know what body they were of, and
how far they were reduced, except by the hydrometer.
  When your  still  is charged with goods for distilling,
and luted, then make your fire under the still, which/if
possible, must be of coals, because their heat is most con-
stant and durable, and wood fires are very suhject to both
extremes, of too much or too  little heat, which are preju-
dicial, and sometimes hazardous. Let the fire at first be
moderate, and  then by degrees increased, and now and
then stirred up with your poker, as is usual in common
fires; and hy laying your hand upon the body of your
still, as the fire gains strength in  the stove or furnace
under the still, you will  by moderate  degrees ascend up
your still-head,  occasioned by the goods  in the still boil-
ing higher and  higher.  When  your  still head becomes
warm or hot, then prepare a  damp (which is to check or
lessen the violence ofthe fire); which  damp Is made ofa
about half a  bushel of ashes, taken from under the stove
or furnace, and  two or three gallons of water cast upon
and well mixed  with them, upon the  ground or hearth,
before or under your kiln-door, to be  ready to castup'jn
the fire when there is occasion; and move yoi.r hand up-
on the still,  higher and higher, as you find tbe heat grow
hotter,  and  ascend to the neck of your still-head, which,
when it comes with any  vehemence more than a common
warmth,  to turn downwards towards the worm-end,  in
which the arm ofthe still is luted, cast three cr fair fire-
shovels of wet  ashes upon the hottest  part of the fire,
which  must be done xevy smartly and critically, at the ve-
ry turning of the highest part of the  swan-like neck of
your still towards the still, by which the violence of the
fire is  abated,  which  would  otherwise bring down tbe
goods  through the worm very foul in a rushing stream,
which is  dangerous, and by all means to be prevented;
whereas your damping the fire seasonably,, brings down
the liquid like a small twine thread.
   You must take especial c are not  to touch or meddle
with vour fire  while your still is near coming to work,
because of  increasing or  heightening the  heat, which
would  unavoidably  make your still run foil; hut when
your fire is damped and  come to work, you may let your
kiln-door be shut close,  and  continue so, as long as the
worm runs as  small as  a moderate-large turkey quill. 
DISTILLATION,
But as the kiln-door being long shut will overcome  the
damp, and bring the fire to its former violence, so when
you arc apprehensive of it. you may throw open the kiln-
door, which abates the heat immediately, and lessens the
stream flowing from your worm; and you must cautiously
meddle with your  still-fire until more than one  or two
cans be come off from your still, which is about double the
strength ofthe first goods, and then there is less danger,
and you may  more safely stir up or mend your fire, or
shut your kiln-door, to make your goods conic down with
a little larger stream, until the goods be wholly conic off
from the still.
  When you perceive  near two-third parts of the first
quantity which you put into your still to be run from
thence, then be often tasting  the goods, which must run
as long as  any  strength remains; when all the goods are
come off, the former clear colour ol them will turn to a
blue,  and sometimes, according to the  nature  of the
goods, a whitish colour,  which are phlegmatic and foul,
and if they were suffered to run amongst the spirit, would
make it taste disagreeably, but by being kept by them-
selves, the goods  are clean  and well tasted; and  the
 Hints, or after runnings, being put and kept in a vessel
 until you have a quantity together, you may then distil
 them. When the strength of the spirit is gone, or run
 off, take away your can  of goods, and let  the  feints run
 into another cau, as long as the feints will burn on the
 still-head, being cast  thereon, and a candle  or lighted
 paper put to it to try the experiment.
   When your  feints are drawn  into spirits, which must
 be made proof, that you may  make a better  judgment
 how to convert them to  other goods, you must always
 make them into such goods as carry a very predominant
 or prevailing gust or taste, above other ingredients; and
 therefore the com mm and usual method taken  with them
 is, to convert them  into  aniseed or wormwood cordials,
 putting a little more  than  the receipt of  ingredients,
 which is made use of, the same goods being drawn from
 clean malt spirits,anil  also dulcifying a little higher than
 otherwise, purposely to cleanse or carry off any ill relish
 contracted from the  multiplicity of  mixtures in  the
 feints.
   You must always keep the water in the worm-tub, ve-
 ry cool, xhat the goods coming off the still may be per-
 fectly so,  which will contribute to  bettering the spirits,
 and making them settle sooner; whereas the goods com-
 ing off warm or hot from the still, they loose considera-
 ble of their strength, which is extracted by the hot liquor,
 become more palatable,  and  not without much time and
 difficulty are ma le fine.
   \\ ben you distil any goods which are not above one-third
 or<ine-li;i!'of the quantity your still will work, be sure you
 addone,t\vo, or three cans of water to the goods you charge
 vour still with, both for better preserving the still from
damage,  and  because  the goods will  cleanse and fine
themselves, by having a quantity of  water with them
wrought together, and will run  considerably more from
the still than when  it is  charged with  full-proof goods;
not that they  can possibly be more in strength or sub-
stance, but by  tiieir being weakened with  water  put to
them, are drawn lower,  and require less fluid to make
them proof.
  When you draw off your still more  than once a day,
if your second distillation is ofthe same goods with tiie
first, and the quantity of each the same, then when your
goods  and  feints are drawn off, damp  your fire v ry
well under  your still, draw tiie wash  quite out, an--!.
without cleaning out the ingredients, you m <y charge  it
a second time with the spirits and ingredien's, and draw
off your goods as at other times: but  if you charge your
still a second time with the same goods, and  no greater
quantity than what the goods run from what your still
was first charged with, then, when your goods arc come
off  and without suffering the feints to run, damp your
fire, strike off your still-head, and charge your still ac-
cordingly  with your ingredients, and draw them off as
you do at other times; but if you  charge your still a
second time, the same day with goods different from, and
of another sort than,  what your still was first charged
with, then clean  it of all the wash and ingredients, scrape
off  all the  luting on the still-head and upper part of the
body of your still, which remained  or was left on the
still-head; wash  down  the worm with about  a gallon  of
liquor, to  prevent all obstructions;  and draw  off your
goods of the second charging or distillation, as you do at
other times, the  process not differing either in  drawing
off  or  making  up Ihe goods  from what you do,  when
your still  is charged  with  no other  goods, or only one
distillation made at that time.
  Be sure that betwixt every new charging of your still
you scrape off all the paste or luting which cleaves or
is burned  to the still-head, or the  brim of  your still,
which  might endanger your new  luting  to crack or
break, was it put upon the old paste  or luting;  and also
let  your worm be constantly washed  down with a gallon
of water, lest any thing be accidentally got into the worm,
which might prove of the worst consequence, and must
therefore  he prevented or guarded against by the great-
est  caution you can possibly take.
  It conduces to meliorate compound spirits, when the
ingredients of which they are made are infused in  spirit
over-night,  before they are distilled; which spirit must
cover the ingredients, and  being  measured, you must
allow what  they measured out of the quantity you put
into your  still, so that both the spirits in which the in-
gredients  are infused, and the other  which  you measure
into your still, must together make up the intended quan-
tity; and  let  all your  ingredients,  according to their
several kinds, he bruised, sliced, or otherwise separated,
before their infusion, if you have time and opportunity.
  Take particular care that no manner of grease, tallow,
soap, or any other unctuous matter, get or fall into your
pieces, tubs, rundlets, or cans;  because they injure the
proof of the goods, and although their  strength should
he very high, yet they will apparently fall as  flat as wa-
ter, and then their strength can only be ascertained by
the hydrometer. Above all  thing-, beware  of lighted
candles, torches, papers, or other  combustible matter,
being  brought too near your still, or any vessel where
your goods are contained, which are subject to  take fire
upon very slight occasions. You must take care to have
your  stove-chimney  and flue often swept or  cleaned;
both to prevent the  danger of its  taking fire, and  to
make your flue, or kiln-chimney, draw the better, where-
by  your stove-fire will  be  first lighted*  and  afterward*
continued, with less trouble. 
DISTILLATION.
  It is best for preserving the strength and flavour of
your goods, that as they come off your still into your
cans exactly filled up to the mark of a four or five gal-
lon measure, they be emptied into the casks they are to
be kept in; always noting, or keeping an account of, the
several  cans or quantity of goods to be  put by; which
must be made up to their several proportions, according
to the quality or kin 1 of goods so to  he made up; which
is, or must be, by adding so much liquor or pump-water,
as completes the  same.  And in dulcifying your goods,
first weigh the sugar you intend to put in; then dissolve
it in one  or more cans of the water, with which you
make up your goods; bruising all the lumps of the sugar,
and stirring it very well with a run.mr.ger in your cans,
till all is dissolved: and then emptying it  into your other
goods;  and mixing all well  together, by drawing  off
several  cans of the goods at the cocks, and putting them
in again at the bungs; and then rummage all well togeth-
er, till  they are perfectly well mixed and compounded.
   When you have made up your  goods  to  the quantity
and quality you intend, that they may become tine and
clear, all your goods which are  made proof  will  without
any art or composition settle, and become fine and clear,
within  one or two days at most; but goods that are re-
duced below proof, the weaker they are made in strength,
the longer they arc in becoming fine or saleable.  To eve-
ry  hogshead of Geneva, or  strong  waters,  put five or
six ounces of alum powdered so as to go through a coarse
hair-sieve,  and mixed  in  three  or  four gallons of the
goods,  well stirred or dissolved in your cans; and then
put to   your whole  quantity, rummaged and very well
stirred  together, some cans of goods being drawn off,
aud put to the goods again, to mix them  the better; and
the Geneva will be clear in one day, and the other in two
or three days.
   When your distilled goods are  finished, beingsetupon
a stillyon or pair of guntress, in order to  their being
drawn off, you must let the bungs of the casks continue
open, till they become fine and  fit for use: then you may-
put the bungs in, but not too hard, and seta foreset or  a
plughole,  and a foreset or plug put slightly, in  a proper
place of your casks, to take out or loosen,  to give vent
when you  draw off any goods: itis a vulgar  error to sup-
pose that  goods are materially  injured or weakened by
the bungs being left open; for where there is any  quan-
tity of goods of any tolerable body or strength, they re-
ceive no manner of injury from it, but mellow and clear
more and more by  having good vent either by  bung or
foreset.
   You may make any  goods deeper or lighter coloured,
by dulcifying writh browner or finer sugar.  And  as all
common goods bear a low price, they are always sweet-
ened with the cheapest brown sugars, which commonly
make them of a deeper amber colour; which by long cus-
tom and usage has so  prevailed with the populace, that
goods of a lighter colour, occasioned by being dulcified
with better sugar, are  less accounted of; whereas fine
goods,  which are generally drunk by persons of  judg-
ment and distinguishing palates,  must be made  up with
fine sugars; and the clearer and lighter colour they are,
the more acceptable  and  valuable  to  those who know
what they buy; and some persons are so nice this way,
as  to dulcify with loaf-sugar, but the sugars in  your re-
 ceipts specified  are what will give a general satisfaction
~to ail your customers.
   When  you first draw off any goods lately distilled,
 that which lies next  the cork will  not he clear, or left
 fine, according as the goods have been a longer or short-
 or time  distilled; and must be set aside  till you  have
 drawn off what  fine goods you have present occasion foi"
 and then you may put what you first drew  in at the bnn°",
 and it will settle in a very little time; and when any of
 your standard or other casks are near out, or to be emp-
 tied or drawn off, let all the bottoms be drawn into one
 of your cans, and first put one, two, or three gallons of
 water according to the size of your cask, to wash out
 the cask; and let your first water with which the cask
 is washed be put among your feints; and what water you
 wash clean out with must be cast away; then take your
 can of bottoms, and  first hanging up your flannel sleeve
 in some convenient place, put your bottoms into it all at
 once, if your bag will hold it. The  first runnings of the
 bag will be foul, till all the porous parts of the bag are
 filled up with the sediment that is amongst the bottoms of
 the casks; and when they  run fine, you may take away
 the foul goods, and put a  clean vessel to receive the fine
 spirits; and wdien the bag is run nearly out, you may put
 in it  what goods first run foul when the  bottoms were
 put into the bag, and let the bag hang till all the goods
 be quite run off  from the  sediment, which must then be
 cast  away,  but the fine  goods, so filtred  through the
 flannel sleeve, will be as good and wholesome as any of
 the rest; and the bottoms of fine goods, which are much
 niore valuable,  must be filtred, or put through blotting-
 paper, folded in  four parts, one part or leaf to be opened
 funnelwise, and made capable to receive what it will hold
 of the bottoms being put into the upper part of a large
 tin funnel: which will filtre off all the goods from the se-
 diment.
   When you are to  buy any brandies or spirits, do not
 consent to take them by measure; but having tasted and
 tried them in a phial, insist upon having them by weight,
 at seven pounds three quarters to  each gallon,  and the
 stronger spirits will  be lighter than what is reduced.
   It  may not be here  improper to insert some certain
 rules observed by distilleries in drawing off and making
 up their distilled goods: viz. when you perceive about
 two-third parts  of the first quantity you  put into your
 still is come off, then be  often trying your goods in a
 glass  or phial; and when you see that the bell, or proof,
 immediately falls down and does not  continue a good
 while on the surface, then take away the can of goods,
 and substitute another vessel to receive the feints; which,
 if suffered to run among the goods, would cause a disa-
 greeable relish,  and be longer in fining down: whereas
 the feints being kept separate, the goods will  be clean
 and well-tasted, when made up with liquor to their due
 quantity.
   It will much improve your goods, to throw into your
 still  along with your goods, when first  charged,  about
 six ounces of bay salt to every ten gallons of spirit; and
 so proportionally, more or less, to a greater or less quan-
 tity of spirits; by this means the goods will better cleanse
 themselves  and separate  from their phlegmatic parts,
 and the spirits  so dephlegmated  will ascend and  come
 over much cleaner and finer in distillation. 
DISTILLATION.
   One very great desideratum among distillers of tliis
 country  is, a method of imirating  the foreign  spirits,
 brandy,  rum, gin, kc. to a tolerable degree of perfection;
 and notwithstanding the many attempts that are daily
 made  for this purpose, the  success  in general has been
 but very indifferent.  The  general  method of distilling
 brandies in France differ.s in nothing from that practis-
 ed here in working from malt-wash  or molass' s; nor are
 they in the least more cleanly or exact in the operation.
 They  only observe more particular!;, to throw a little of
 the natural ley into the still  along with the wine, as find-
 ing this  gives their spirit the flavour for which it  is
 generally admired  abroad.  But though  brandy  is ex-
 tracted from  wine,  experience  tells t.s, that there is a
 great  difference in the grapes from which the wine  is
 made. Every soil, every climate, every kind  of grapes,
 varies with regard  to  the  quantity and  quality of the
 spirit  extracted from them.  A large quantity of brandy
 is distilled in France during the time ofthe vintage; for
 all those poor grapes that prove unfit for  wine, are usu-
 ally first gathered,  pressed, their juice fermented, and
 directly  distilled. This rids  them of  their poor wines at
 once,  and  leaves their casks empty  for the reception of
 better. It is a general  rule  with them not to distil wine
 that will fetch any price as wine; for in this state the
 profits obtained arc vastly greater than when  reduced to
 brandies. The large stock of small wines, with  which
 they are  almost over-run in  France, sufficiently accounts
 for their making such vast quantities of brandy in that
 country  more than in others which lie in warm climates,
 and are much better adapted to the production of grapes.
 Nor is this the only  source  of their brandies;  for all the
 wine that turns  eager,  is also condemned to the  still:
 and, in short, all that they  can neither export nor con-
 sume at. home, which amounts to a large quantity; since
 much  ofthe wine laid in for their family provision is so
 poor as not to keep during the time of draw ing from the
 cask. Hence our English  spirits, with proper manage-
 ment,  arc convertible into brandies that shall  hardly be
 distinguished from the foreign in many respects, provid-
 ed the operation is neatly performed.
   The best, and indeed the only method of imitating
 French brandies to perfection,  is by an essential  oil of
 wine; this being the very thing that gives the French bran-
 dies their flavour. It must, however, be remembered, that
 in order to use even this ingredient to advantage, a pure
 tasteless  spirit must first be procured; for it is ridiculous
 to expect that this essential oil should be able to give the
 agreeable flavour of French  brandies to our malt spirit,
 already loaded with its own oil, or strongly impregnated
 with a  lixivious taste from the alkaline salts used in rec-
 tification.  •
   To prepare  the oil of wine, take  some cakes of dry
 wine-lees, such as are  used by our  hatters, dissolve
 them in 6 or 8 times their weight of water, distil the li-
 quor with a slow fire, and separate the oil with a separat-
 ing glass, reserving for only the nicest uses that which
 comes over first, the succeeding oil  being coarser and
 more resinous. Having procured this fine oil of wine, it
 may be dissolved  in alcohol: by which means it may be
preserved a long time fully possessed of all its flavour,
but otherwise it will soon grow rancid.
  With a  fine essential oil of wine thus procured, and a
  pure and insipid spirit, French brandies may be imitated
  to perfection. The essential oil, however, must be drawn
  from the same kind of lees as the brandy to be imitated
  was procured from; e.g. in order to imitate Coniae bran-
  dy,  it will  be necessary to distil the essential oil from
  Coniae lees; and the same for any other kind of brandy.
  For as different brandies have different flavours,  and as
  these  flavours are entirely owing to the essential oil of
  the grape, it would be preposterous to endeavour to imi-
  tate the flavour  of Coniae  brandy with an essential oil
  procured from the Iees of  Bourdeaux wine.  When the
  flavour of the brandy is well imitated  by a proper dose
  ofthe essential oil,  and the whole reduced  into one sim-
  ple and homogeneous fluid, other difficulties are still be-
  hind: the flavour, though the essential part, is not, how-
  ever, the only one; the colour, the proof, and the softness,
  must also he regarded, before a spirit that perfectly re-
  sembles brandy  can be procured.   With regard to the
  proof, it may be easily accomplished, by using a  spirit
  rectified  above proof; which, after being intimately mix-
  ed with the essential oil of wine, may  be let  down to a
  proper standard with fair water: and the softness  may,
  in a  great measure, be obtained by distilling and recti-
  fying the spirit with a gentle fire; and what  is wanting of
  this criterion in  the liquor when first made, will be sup-
  plied by time: for it must be remembered, that it is time
  alone that gives this property to French brandies, they
  being  at first acrid, foul, and  fiery.  13ut  with regard
  to the  colour, a  particular method is required to imitate
  it to perfection,  which may  be  effected by  means of
 treacle or burnt sugar. The treacle gives  the spirit  a
 fine colour, nearly resembling  that of  French  brandy;
 but as its colour is dilute,  a large quantity must he used.
 This is not, however, attended w ith  any bad consequen-
 ces; for notwithstanding the spirit is really weakened by
 this addition, yet the bubble-proof, the general criterion
 of spirits; is greatly mended by the tenacity imparted to
 the liquor by the treacle. The spirit also acquires  from
 the mixture a sweetish  or luscious taste, and a fulness in
 the mouth; both which properties render it very agreea-
 ble to some palates.  A  much smaller quantity of burnt
 sugar than of treacle will be sufficient for colouring the
 same quantity of spirits: the taste is  also very different;
 for, instead of the sweetness  imparted by  the  treacle,
 the spirit acquires from the burnt sugar an agreeable bit-
 terness, and by that means recommends itself to many
 who  are offended with  a luscious  spirit. The burnt su-
 gar is prepared by dissolving a proper quantity ofstigar
 in a little water, and scorching it over the fire till it ac-
 quires a black colour. Either treacle or burnt sugar will
 nearly  imitate  the genuine colour of old  French brandy;
 but neither of them will succeed when put to the test of
 the vitriolic solution.
   The spirit distilled from molasses or treacle is  very
 pure. It is made from common treacle dissolved in water,
 and fermented in the same manner as the wash for the
 common malt  spirit.  But if  some particular art is
 not used in distilling this spirit,  it will not  prove so vi-
 nous as malt spirit, hut more flat and less pungent and
 acid, though otherwise much cleaner-tasted, as  its essen-
tial oil is of a much  less  offensive flavour.  Therefore,
if good fresh wine-lees, abounding in tartar, are well fer-
mented with molasses, the spirit will  acquire a much 
D I S
D  I S
greater vinosity  and  briskness, and approach much
nearer to the  nature of  foreign  spirits. Where the mo-
lasses spirit is brought  to the common proof-strength,
if it is found not to have a sufficient vinosity, it  will  be
very proper to add sonic dulcified spirit of nitric; and if
the spirit is clean worked, it may, by  this addition only,
be made to pass  on ordinary judges for French brandy.
Great quantities of  this spirit arc used in adulterating
foreign  brandy, rum, and  arrack.  Much of it is also
used alone in making  cherry-brandy  and other cordials
by  infusion;  in all which,  many, and perhaps with jus-
tice, prefer it to foreign  brandies. Molasses, like all oth-
er spirits, is  entirely colourless wiien first extracted;
but distilleries  always  give it as early as possible the
colour of foreign spirits.
   If these principles hold good, the imitation of foreign
spirits of all  kinds must be practicable; if we only pro-
curc some of those substances from which the spirit is
drawn, and distil it with water, the essential  oil will al-
ways give the flavour  desired.  Thus  to imitate Jamaica
rum, it will only be necessary  to procure some  of the
tops,  or other  useless parts,  of the  sugar-canes,  from
which an  essential  oil  being drawn, and  mixed  with
clean molasses  spirit, will give it the true flavour. The
principal diflh ulty must lie in procuring a spirit totally,
or  nearly, free  from  all flavour of its own. The spirit
drawn from the  refuse of a sugar-house has been  com-
mended, as superior to that drawn from molasses; though
itis very probable, that to procure an absolutely flavour-
les spirit is impossible.  The only method, therefore, of
 imitating foreign spirits is, by  choosing such materials
 as will yield  a spirit flavoured as much like them as pos-
 sible; and the materials most  recommended, and proba-
 bly the  best that can be used, are raisins.
    We shall  subjoin the genuine process of  preparing
 Holland gin, agreeably  to the practice of the Dutch dis-
 tillers.  Their grist is composed often quarters of malt,
 ground  considerably  finer than our malt-distillers' bar-
 ley grist, and three quarters  of rye-meal: or more fre-
 quently, of ten quarters  of  rye and three quarters of
 malt-meal. The ten quarters  are  first mashed with  the
 least quantity of cold water it is possible to blend  it up
 with; when  uniformly  incorporated, as much  boiling
 water is added as forms it into  a thin hatter; it is then
 put into one, two or more casks, or gyle-tuns, with a
 much less quantity of yeast than isusuajjjy employed by
 our distillers.  Generally on the third day they add  the
 malt or rye-meal,  previously made  into a kind of lob,
 prepared in a similar manner, except in not being so di-
 luted; but not before  it comes to the  temperature ofthe
 fermenting wash; at the same time adding full as much
 yeast as when at first setting the backs.
    The principal secret  in the management of the mash-
 ing part of the business is, in first thoroughly mixing the
 malt with the cold water, and in subsequently adding the
 due proportion of boiling  water, that it may still remain
 sufficiently diluted after  the addition of the  fine  meal,
 under the form of lob, and in well rousing all  together
 in the back,  that the wash may yet be dilute enough for
 distilling, without endangering its burning to the bottom
 of the still.  Thus they cominodiously reduce the business
 of brewing and fermenting to one operation. By  ising
 cold water to uniformly wet the malt, all danger of clog-
ging the .pending of the tap would be necessarily avoid
ed; but here  is no occasion to do any thing more, than
sufficiently dilute the wash, consisting of the whole of the
grain, thin enough to he fermented and distilled togeth-
er, by  which means the spirit of the bran and husky part,
as well as of the flour of  the  grain, are completely ex-
tracted, yet their wash,  compared  with  ours, is about
three-eighths  thinner.  For  these reasons, they  obtain
more spirit from their grain  than we do, and of a better
quality, with not half the  trouble taken by  our distillers.
The gravity of  the distillers' wash at Wcesoppe.  in the
neighbourhood of Amsterdam, in 1774, was biitei«-|iteen
pounds per barrel, very little  more than half the gravilv
of ours. Their stills arc usually  from  three to five bun-
dred gallons each; they constantly draw off three cans of
phlegm, after the  runnings cease to burn on the head of
the still, when distilling wash; and five cans when distil-
ling low wines, a practice we are unacquainted with; as
we usually draw our fire as  soon as the runnings from
the still burn  languidly on the still-head.  This, and the
great  quantity of rye thcy"use,  cause their spirit to be
so much more acid; and the dilutcness of their wash is a
very good  reason for the greater purity of their spirit;
though most writers mistakingly say, our .spirit is much
cleaner.
   Rectification into Holland gin. To every twenty gal-
 lons of spirit of the second extraction, about the strength
of proof spirit, take three pounds of juniper-berries, and
two ounces of oil of juniper, and distil with a slow fire
until the feints  begin to rise, then change the receiving
can; this produces the best Rotterdam gin. An inferior
kind is made with a still less  proportion of berries, sweet
fennel-seeds, and  Strasburgh turpentine, without a drop
of juniper-oil.  It, and a better  sort, but inferior to the
Rotterdam gin, are made at  Weesoppe.  The distillers'
wash at Schcedam and Rotterdam is still lighter than at
 Weesoppe, where there  were about three hundred dis-
tillers formerly in 1774.  In  Plate XLIII. Miscel. fig.
49,  is the  representation of a common still. It is a large
copper vessel, A. into which the materials are put. The
still is built up  in brickwork: the fire is applied under-
neath, and runs round it in a spiral manner.  B is the
 head of the still, which is connected with the worm at x.
The worm C is a spiral tube, immersed  in a vessel of
 cold water, called the refrigeratory.  The  liquor being
 condensed in its passage through the worm, runs out at
 the  cock D into the vessel Z, placed there to receive it.
   DISTILLER, he who makes distillations, and com-
 monly a tradesman who makes spirits from  malt, kc.
 By  stat. 3 Geo. III. c. 5, s.  12,  persons who sell liquors
 chargeable with duty, and distil  spirits, are deemed com-
 mon distillers,  and are liable to surveys, penalties, kc.
 See Excise.
   DISTINCTION, in logic, is an assemblage of two or
 more  words,  whereby disparate  things, or their concep-
 tions, arc  denoted.
   There are three kinds of  distinctions, taken from the,
 three different modes of existence, real, modal, and ra-
 tional.  The  first is that between two substances, or the
 modes of  two substances.  The second,  or  modal dis-
 tinction, is that between several things, one whereof may
 exist without the other,  but not vice  versa,  the cither
 without that.  The third, or rational distinction, is that 
D I S
D I S
between several things which  are  really one  and the
same, and whereof one cannot exist without the other;
nor vice versa,  the other  without this:  such is that be-
tween a thing and its essence, between the essences and
properties,  &c.  Of this distinction  some authors admit
two kinds:  the one barbarously called  rationis ratioci-
nate, having some foundation in things,  as when we dis-
tinguish the justice of  God from his  mercy; the other
called rationis raticionantis, which has no foundation at
all, and therefore is by many  rejected.  Chauvin.
   DISTORTION, in  medicine,  a contraction of one
side ofthe mouth, occasioned by a convulsion of the mus-
cles of one  side of the face: and it is likewise used to de-
note any part of an animal body when it is ill placed.
   DISTRESS, in law, the taking of a personal chattel,
out of the possession of the wrong-doer, into the custody
ofthe person who is injured, to procure  a satisfaction
for the wrong committed.  It is of two kinds; cattle for
trespassing, for doing  damage; or for  nonpayment of
 rent or other duties.   But the most usual  injury for
 which a distress may be taken is that of nonpayment of
 rent.
   A distress may now be taken for any  kind of rent in
 arrear, the detaining of which beyond  the day of pay-
 ment, is an injury to him that is entitled to receive it.  4
 G. II. c. 28. This is the most common and best remedy
 forthe recovery of rent in  arrear; and the effect of it is
 to compel the party to replevy the distress, and contest
 the taking in an action against the distrainer; or, which
 is more usual,  to compound or pay the debt or duty for
 which he was distrained.  3 Black. 6.
    Distress  infinite, is a process commanding the sheriff
 to distrain  a person  from time to time,  and continually
 afterwards, by taking his goods, by way of pledge, to en-
 force the performance of something due from the party
 distrained upon.  Generally, it is provided that distress
 shall be reasonable and moderate; but in case of distress
 for suit of court, or for defect of appearance, in several
 cases where this is the only method of enforcing com-
 pliance, no distress can be  immoderate; because, be  it of
 what value it will, it cannot be sold, but shall be imme-
 diately restored on satisfaction made.  3 Black. 251.
   Who may distrain for rent.   By the common law, and
 the various statutes in favour of this species of remedy
 for recovery of rent, all persons having the reversion or
 remainder  of lands, &c. after the  determination of the
 particular estate, or existing term therein, may of com-
 num right distrain for rent in arrear, without any clause
 tor that purpose contained in the  lease.   Co. Lit. 142.
    "bat may or may not  be  distrained.  Every thing
 upon the premises is liable to the landlord's distress for
 rent, whether they are the  effects of a tenant or a stran-
 St'i'. because of the lien the landlord has on them in re-
 spect ofthe place where the goods are found, and not in
 respect of the person to whom they belong. Co.  Lit. 47.
 J mj'/  U(K' 3  DuI'nr-  an(1 East, 601.
   Things not distrainablc are, tools  of a man's trade,
 corn sent to a mill, a horse sent to a smith's shop or in  a
 common inn, cloth at a taylor's, goods in the hands of a
 JJ'ner.  i  Salk.  249.  1 Esp.  Rep. 206.  4 T. R. 569.
 "ogs. rabbits,  beasts  of  the  plough, milk, fruit,  and
jpgs fixed to  the freehold.   3 BJack. 8 and 9. 4 T.
"• 569. But beasts of the plough,  and working-tools,
   vo*» I.                101
not actually in use  at  the  time,  may be distrained, if
there is not sirfficient without  them. 4 T.  R. 569.  So
may wearing apparel not actually in use.  1 Esp. Rep.
206.  Money in a bag sealed may be distrained.
   Horses and carriages sent to stand at livery are dis-
trainable  by the landlord. 3 Bur. 1498.
   Of the  time,  kc. and  manner of taking the distress.
Distress for rent must be in the day-time, for if made at
night it will be bad.  Co. Lit. 142.
   Strictly, the rent  is demandable,  and payable, before
the time of sunset of the day  when it is reserved.  Yet
the rent is not due till the last minute of the natural day.
2 Black. 42.
   Distress cannot be made therefore till  the day after
that on which the rent is reserved in the lease; for though
payable, it is not strictly due till midnight of the day up-
on which it is reserved.
  Distress cannot be made  after the  rent has  been ten-
dered: if the landlord comes to distrain, the tenant may,
before the distress made, tender the arrears: and if the
distress is afterwards taken it is illegal; and so if  after
the distress, and before it is impounded, the tenant ten-
ders payment,  the landlord will deliver up  the distress;
and if he do not, the detainer is unlawful.  2 Inst. 107.
  Parole  authority to distrain is sufficient,  or any au-
thority that can be proved.
  By 2  G. II. c. 19, landlords may, by the assistance of
a peace-officer of the parish, break open in the day-time
any  place where goods are fraudulently removed and
locked up to prevent a distress, oath being  first made,
in case it  be a dwelling-house, of a reasonable ground to
suspect that such goods are concealed therein.
  By stat. 8 Anne, c. 14, rent accruing due under a lease
must be distrained for within six months after its deter-
mination.
  If a tenant fraudulently remove goods off the premises,
the landlord may seize  them  within thirty  days.  But
such seizure can only be made where the rent was ac-
tually due before the removal.
  If a landlord seize only a part of the goods, &c. of his
tenant for rent, in the name of th?m all, it will  be a good
seizure ofthe whole. 6 Mod. 215.
  Distresses ought not to be excessive, but in proportion
to the duty distrained for.  2  Inst. 106.
  The remedy for excessive distress is by a special ac-
tion on the stat. of Mulbridge; for an action is not main-
tainable upon this account, this being no injury at  com-
mon law.  1 Vent. 104.  Fitzgib. 85.  4 Bur.  590.
  Where any distress shall be made for rent justly due,
and any irregularity or unlawful act shall be afterwards
committed by the party distraining,  or  his  agents, the
distress itself shall  not on that account be deemed un-
lawful, nor the party a trespasser  from the first; but the
person aggrieved shall recover full satisfaction for the
special damage sustained by such irregularity, and no
more, with full costs of suit. 11 G. II. c. 19.
  How a distress is  to be disposed of.  Persons distrain-
ing for rent may impound the distress upon any conve-
nient part ofthe land, chargeable with the distress; other-
wise the goods must be removed to a pound covert, and
notice given where they are, unless the tenant consent
to a person remaining  in possession on the  premises.
Wood's Inst. 191. 
D 1 S
D  I V
  All living chattels distrained  are regularly not to be
put in the pound covert, because the owner at his peril
?s to sustain them; and therefore they ought to be put in
such  an open place as that he may have resort to them
for that purpose. Co. Lit. 47. h.
  Household goods, and such other things as would be
damaged  by the weather, must he impounded in the
pound covert; otherwise if they are damaged the distrain-
er will be answerable for the loss.  1 Inst. 47.
  If the distress for rent dies or is damaged in the pound,
without any default of  the distrainer,  he may make a
fresh distress.   1 Salk. 348.
  By 2 W. and M. it is provided, that where any goods
or chattels shall be distrained for rent due on any de-
mise, lease, or contract whatsoever, and the owner shall
not, within five days next after  such distress taken, and
notice thereof, and of the cause of the taking left at the
dwelling-house, or  other  most notorious place on the
premises charged with  the rent, replevy the same, that
then, at the expiration of the said fiv e days, the distrain-
er may, with the assistance of the sheriff, under-sheriff,
or constable, cause the  goods and chattels so distrained
to be appraised by two sworn appraisers, and  sold  for
the best price that can be got for the same, towards sa-
tisfaction of tbe rent for which the  said  goods and chat-
tels have been  distrained,  and the costs and charges of
such  distress, appraisement, and sale; leaving the over-
plus  (if any) in the hands of the said sheriff, or consta-
ble, for the use of the owner.
   By stat. 2 W. c. 5,  on any pound-breach or rescous
of goods' distrained for  rent, the persons grieved thereby
shall, in a special action on the case, recover treble da-
mages and costs against the offender, or against the own-
 er of the goods, if they are afterwards found to  have
come to his use or possession.
   Distress for penalties.  By 27 G. II. c. 20, s. 1,
in  all cases where  any justice of the peace shall be re-
quired  or empowered by any act of parliament to  issue
a warrant of distress for the levying any penalty inflict-
ed, or any sum of money directed to be paid by such act,
it shall be lawful for the justice granting such warrant,
therein to order and direct the goods and chattels so  to
he distrained, to be sold and disposed of within a certain
time to be limited in such warrant; so as such time be not
less than  four  days,  nor  more  than eight days; unless
the  penalty, or sum of money  for which the distress
shall be made, together with the reasonable charges of
taking and keeping such distress, shall he sooner paid.
   Distress of the king.  By the common law no sub-
ject can distrain out of his fee or seigniory, unless cattle
are driven to a place out of the fee, to hinder the lord's
distress, &c.  But the king may distrain for rentservice,
or fee-farm in all the lands of the tenant,  wheresoever
they  be; not only  on lands held of himself, but others,
where his tenant is in actual possession, and  the land
manured Avith  his own beasts.  2 Inst. 132.
   DISTRIBUTION of intestate's effects,  after
payment of the debts of the deceased, is to be made ac-
cording to the stat. 22 and 23 G.  II. c. 10,  in manner
following. One-third shall go  to the widow of the in-
testate, and the residue in equal proportions to his chil-
dren; or if dead to their representatives,  that  is,  their
lineal descendants;  if there are no  children or legal re-
presentatives,  then a moiety shall go to the widow, and
a moiety to the next kindred  in equal degree, or their
representatives; if no widow,  the whole shall go to the
children; if neither widow nor child, the whole shalf be
distributed amongst the next  kindred in equal degree
and their representatives: but no representatives are ad-
mitted among collaterals, farther than tbe children of
the intestate's brothers and sisters.  The father succeeds
to the whole personal effects of his children,  if they die
intestate, and without^ issue;  but if the father be dead
and the mother survive, she shall only come in for a share
equally with each ofthe remaining children.
   Distribution, in logic, is a  kind  of division which
distinguishes an universal whole  into  its  several  kinds
or species; as  division is to distinguish an integral whole
into its several parts.
   Distribution, in printing, the taking a form asun-
der, separating the letters, and  disposing them in the
cases again, each in its proper box.
   DISTRICT, in geography, a part of a province, dis-
tinguished by  peculiar magistrates, or certain privileges;
in which sense it is synonymous with hundred.
   DISTRINGAS, in law, a writ commanding the she-
riff, or other  officer, that he  distrain a person for debt
to the king, &c. or for his appearance at a certain day.
There is a great diversity of this writ.
   Distringas  juratores, a writ directed to the she-
riff, whereby he is commanded to  distrain upon a jury
to appear, and to return issues on their lands, kc. for
non-appearance.  This writ of distringas juratores is-
sues  for the sheriff to have their bodies in court, &c. at
the return of the writ.
   DITCH, in  fortification, the same with moat. See
Fortification.
   DITHYRAMBUS, in ancient  poetry, a hymn in hon-
our of Bacchus, full of transport and poetical rage. This
poetry owes its  birth to Greece, and to the transports of
wine; and yet art is not quite exploded,  but delicately
applied to guide and restrain  the dithyrambic impetuo-
sity,  which is indulged only in pleasing flights.  Horace
and Aristotle  tell us, that the ancients gave the name of
dithyrambus to  those verses in which none of the com-
mon rules or measures were observed.  As we have now
no remains of the dithyrambus of tbe  ancients, we can-
not say exactly what their measure was.
   DITONE, in music,  an interval comprehending two
tones. The proportion of the sounds  that form the di-
tonc is 4 : 5, and that of the scmiditone is 5 : 6.  F. Par-
ran makes the ditone the fourth kind of simple concord,
as comprehending two tones,  according to Aristotle, a
greater and a less.  Others make it the first discord, di-
viding the ditone into eighteen equal parts, or commas;
the nine on the acute side making the greater tone, as
asserted by Salmon de Caux.
   DIVAN,  a  council-chamber,  or  court of justice,
among the eastern nations, particularly the Turks. The
word is Arabic, and signifies the  same with sopha in the
Turkish dialect.  There are two sorts of divans; that of
the grand-signior, called the council of state, which con-
sists of seven ofthe principal officers ofthe empire; an"
that ofthe grand-vizir, composed of six other vizirs and
counsellors of state, the chancellors* -and secretaries of
state, for the distribution <rf justice.   The word is afcfl 
D I V
D I V
used a for hall in the private houses of the orientals.
The custom of China does not allow the  receiving of vi-
sits in  the inner parts of the house, but only at the en-
try, in a divan  contiived on purpose  for ceremonies.
Travellers relate wonder* of the silence and energy of
the divans of the East.
  Divan-beghi, the superintendant of justice in Persia,
whose place is the last of the six ministers ofthe second
rank, who are all under tbe athemadauler, or first min-
ister.  To this tribunal of the divan-beghi he appeals
from sentences passed by the governors: he has a fixed
stipend of 50,000 crowns for  administering justice: all
tbe serjeants, ushers, &c. of the court are in his ser-
vice: he takes cognizance of the criminal causes-of the
chams, governors, and other great lords  of Persia, when
accused of any fault. There are divan-beghis not  only
at court, and in  the capital, but also in the provinces,
and other cities ofthe empire.  The alcoran is  the sole
rule of his administration of justice, which also he in-
terprets at pleasure.  He takes  no  cognizance of  civil
causes; but all differences arising between the officers of
the king's household, and between foreign ministers, are
 determined by him.
  DIVER, in ornithology.  See Colymbus.
  DIVERGENT or diverging lines, in geometry,  are
 those which constantly recede from each other.
  Divergent rays, in optics, are those which going
from a point of  the visible object,  are  dispersed, and
 continually depart one from another, in proportion as
 tbey are removed from  the object: in which sense it is
 tpposed to convergent.   See Optics.
  DIVERSION, in military affairs, is when  an enemy
U attacked in  one place where they are weak and unpro-
 rided, in order to  draw off their forces from another place,
where tbey have made, or intend to make, an  irruption.
Thus the Romans had no other way in  their power  of
driving Hannibal out of  Italy, than  by making a diver-
lion in attacking  Carthage.
  DIVERSITY,  in logic, stands in opposition to iden-
 tity.  See Identity.
  Diversity, in painting, consists in giving every part
or  figure in a piece  its  proper  air  and attitude.   See
Painting.
  DIVESTING, or divestiture, in law,  is used for the
act  of surrendering one's  effects.   By a contract of dona-
tion, or sale, the donor, or seller, is said  to be disseised
and divested of his property in such a commodity.  In
this sense it stands contradistinguished from investiture,
where the donee or purchaser  becomes invested with the
property of the donor or  seller.
  DIVIDEND,  ir. arithmetic, the number proposed to
be divided into equ il parts.  It must always be greater
than the divisor.  See Arithmetic
  Dividend,  in  the Exchequer, is  one  part of an in-
denture.
  Dividend of stocks, is a share or proportion of the in-
terest of stocks erected on public funds, as the South Sea,
ac. divided  among,  and  paid to, the  proprietors  half-
yearly.  See Stocks.
  Dividend,  in  the university, signifies that  part or
share w hich the fellows equally divide among themselves
of their yearly rffipend.
  *)1V1NG# the art or act of descending under water to
 considerable depths, and abiding there a competent time.
 The uses of diving are very considerable, particularly in
 the fishing for pearls, corals, sponges,  &c.  See Pearl-
 fishing, kc.
   Various methods  have been  proposed,  and engines
 contrived, to  render the business of diving more safe
 and easy.   The great point in all these is to furnish the
 diver with fresh air,  without which he  must either make
 but a short stay, or perish.
   Those who dive for sponges in the Mediterranean,
 help themselves by carrying down sponges dipt in oil
 in their mouths.  But considering the small quantity  of
 air that can be contained in the pores of a  sponge,  and
 how much that little  will be contracted by the pressure
 of the incumbent  water, such a supply cannot long sub-
 sist the  diver.  For it is found by experiment that a gal-
 lon of air included in a bladder, and by a pipe recipro-
 cally  inspired  and expired  by the lungs, becomes unfit
 for respiration in little more than one minute of time.
 For  though its elasticity is but little altered in passing
 the lungs,  yet it looses its oxygen, and is rendered ef-
 fete.  In effect, a naked diver, Dr. Hallcy assures us,
 without  a sponge, cannot remain above two minutes in-
 closed in water; nor much longer with  one without suf-
 focating; nor without long practice near so long, ordi-
 nary persons beginning to be suffocated in about half  a
 minute.  Besides, if the depth is considerable, the pres-
 sure of tbe water on the vessels  makes the eyes blood-
 shotten, and frequently occasions a spittingof blood.
 Hence where there has been occasion to continue long at
 the bottom, some  have contrived double flexible pipes,
 to circulate air down into a cavity  inclosing the diver,
 as with armour, both  to furnish air, and to bear off the
 pressure of the water, and  give leave to his breast to
 dilate upon inspiration: the fresh air being forced down
 one of the pipes with bellows, and returning by the other,
 not unlike to an artery and vein.
   But this method is  impracticable when the depth sur-
 passes three fathoms; the  water  embracing  the bare
 limbs so closely as  to obstruct the circulation of the blood
 in them; and also  pressing so strongly on all the junc-
tures where the armour is made tight with leather, that,
if there is  the  least defect  in any  of  them,  the  water
 rushes in,  and  instantly fills the whole engine, to the
great danger of the diver's life.
  It is said to  be  a fact, that people,  by being accus-
tomed to the water from their infancy, will at length be
enabled,  not only to stay much longer under water than
could be supposed, but put on a kind of amphibious  na-
ture,  so  that  they seem to  have the use of  all their fa-
culties as well when their bodies are immersed  in water
as when  they are on dry land. Most savage nations arc
remarkable for this.   According to the accounts of  our
late voyagers,  the inhabitants of the South Sea islands
are such  expert divers, that when a nail or any piece of
iron was thrown overboard,  they would instantly jump
into the sea after  it,  and never fail to recover it, not-
withstanding the  quick descent of the metal.   Even
 among civilized nations many peasons  have been found
capable of continuing an incredible length of time under
 water.  The most  remarkble instance of this kind  is the
 famous Sicilian diver, Nicolo Pesce, who according to
 the marvellous, and indeed  incredible account given by 
DIVING.
Kircher, had from his infancy been so used to the sea,
that at last it became almost his natural element.   It is
said he was frequently known to spend five days in the
waves without any other provisions than the fish which
he  caught there,  and ate raw.   He  often swam  over
from  Sicily  into Calabria, a tempestuous and dangerous
passage, carrying letters, from the  king; and as fre-
quently swam among the gulphs of the Lipari islands,
no  way apprehensive of danger.   "In  order,"  says
Kircher,  " to aid these powers of enduring in the deep,
nature seemed to have assisted him in a very extraordi-
nary  manner: for the spaces  between  his fingers  and
toes were webbed, as in a goose; and  his chest became
so  very capacious, that he could take in, at one inspira-
tion,  as much  breath as would  serve him for a  whole
day."  At length, however, we arc told,  this extraor-
dinary person  met  his fate in exploring  the depths of
Charybdis, at the  instance of the king;  who, after he
had once succeeded in  bringing up a  golden cup that
had been thrown  in, ordered him to repeat the experi-
 ment.
   To obviate the inconveniences of diving to those who
 have not the extraordinary powers attributed  to Nicho-
las Pesce, different instruments have been contrived. The
 chief of these is the diving-bell;  which is most conve-
 niently made in form of a truncated  cone, the smaller
 base being closed, and the larger open.  It is to be pois-
 ed with lead;  and  so  suspended, that the vessel  may
 sink full of air, with its open basis downward, and as
 nearly as may be in a situation parallel to the horizon,
 so as to close with  the surface of the wrater all at once.
 The diver sitting under this, sinks  down  with the in-
 cluded air to the depth desired; and if the cavity of the
 vessel can contain a tun of water, a single man may re-
 main a full hour, without much inconvenience,  at five
 or six fathoms deep. But the lower he goes,  the inclu-
 ded  air contracts itself according to the weight of the
 water which compresses it;  so that at thirty-three feet
 deep the bell becomes half full of wrater,  the pressure of
 tbe  incumbent water being then equal to  that of the at-
 mosphere; and at all other depths the space occupied by
 the  compressed air in the upper part of the bell will be
 to the under  part  of its capacity  filled with  water, as
 thirty-three feet, to the surface of the water in the hell
 below the  common surface.   And this condensed air be-
 ing  taken  in with the breath soon accommodates itself
 to the existing circumstances so as to have no ill effect, pro-
 vided the bell is permitted to descend slowly.   But the
 greatest inconvenience of  this engine is,  that the water
 entering it contracts the bulk of air into so small a com-
 pass,  that it soon heats, and becomes unfit for respira-
 tion: so that there is a necessity for its being drawn up
 to recruit  it; besides the uncomfortable situation  of the
  diver, wdio must be almost covered with water.
    To obviate these difficulties of the diving-bell, Dr.
  Halley, to whom we owe the preceding account, con-
  trived a farther apparatus, whereby not only to recruit
  the  air from time  to time,  but  also  to keep the water
  wholly out of the machine at any depth.   This bell was
  made of wood,  containing about sixty cubic feet in its
  concavity; and was ofthe form of a truncated cone, whose
  diameter at the top was three feet, and at the bottom five.
  It was so  loaded with lead,  that it would go down in a
perpendicular direction, and no other.  In the top was
a window to let in light, and likewise a cock to let out
tbe hot air that had been breathed; and below,  about a
yard  under the bell,  was  a stage, suspended by three
ropes, each of which was charged with about one hun-
dred-weight to keep it steady.   To supply air  the bell
had a couple of barrels, so cased with lead as to sink
when empty: each having a bunghole in its lowest part
to let in the water, as the air in them  condensed on their
descent, and to let it out again when they were drawn up
full from below.   To a hole in the uppermost part of
these was fixed a  leathern  trunk  or  hose, Ion;* enough
to fall below the bunghole,  and kept down by a  weight
in such a way that the  air in the upper part of the bar-
rels could not escape, unless the lower ends of these hose
were first lifted up. These air-barrels were made to rise
and fall like two buckets in a wTell.  By means of these
barrels  fresh air was continually supplied from above;
and it was done with so much  ease, that two men, with
less than half their strength,  could  perform all the la-
bour  required.  By  an additional  contrivance  it was
found practicable  for a diver  to go  out of the engine to
 some distance  from it, the air being conveyed to him in
 a continued  stream by small  flexible pipes.  Some idea
 of Dr. Halley's machine may be formed from the inspec-
 tion  of Plate XLIV. Miscel. fig. 50. where the divers are
 seen at work.  B, L, K, R, I,  M, P, represent the body
 of the bell.  B, the glass which serves as a window.  H,
 the cock for letting out the air which has been breathed.
 L, M, the seats.  C, one of the air-barrels.  P, Q, two
 of the divers.  F, another diver  at a distance from the
 bell,  and breathing through  the  flexible tube K.  This
 diver is supposed to have a head-piece of  lead,  made to
 sit quite close about his shoulders: this head-piece is ca-
 pable of containing as much  air as  will supply  him  for
 a minute or two.   When he had occasion for more air he
 turned a cock at F, by  which means a communication
 was  opened with the air in the bell, and thus he could
 receive a new supply at pleasure.
    Since the invention of the  diving-bell there has been
 one contrived by Mr. Triewald, military architect to the
 king of Sweden,  which, for a single person,  is in some
 respects thought to be more eligible than  Dr. Halley s,
 and  is constructed as follows;  AB, Plate XLIV. Miscel.
 fig.  51, is the bell, which is sunk by leaden weights D D,
 hung to its  bottom.   This bell is of copper, and tinned
 all over on the inside, which is illuminated hy strong
 convex lenses, G, G, G, with  copper lids H, II, H, to de-
 fend them.  The iron ring or plate, E, serves the diver
 to stand on when he is at work; and  is suspended at such
 a distance from  the bottom  of the  bell  by the chains
 F, F, F, that when the diver  stands  upright his head.is
 just above the water in the bell, where the air is much
 better than higher up, because it is colder, and conse-
  quently more fit for respiration.  But as  the diver must
  always be within the bell, and his head of course in the
  upper part, the inventor has contrived that, even there,
  when he has breathed the hot air as well as he can, he
  may, by means of a spiral copper tube b C, placed close
  to the inside of the bell, draw the cooler and fresher air
  from the lowermost  parts: for wbich purpose  a flexible
  leather tube,  about two feet  long,  is fixed to the upper
  end of the copper tube at 6; and  to the other end of this 
DIVING.
tube is fixed an ivory mouth-piece, by which  the diver
dravvfc in the air.
  A great improvement in the diving-bell was made by
the late Mr. Spalding, of Edinburgh.  This  construc-
tion seems designed to remedy  some  inconveniences of
Dr. Ilalley's,  which  are  very  evident,  and of a very
dangerous tendency.  These are, l.  By Dr. Halley's
construction the sinking or raising of the bell depends
entirely on the people who are at the surface of the wa-
ter; and as the bell even when  in the water has a very
considerable weight, the raising it not only requires a
great deal of labour, but there is a possibility of the rope
breaking by wbich it is raised,  and thus every  person in
 the bell would inevitably perish.  2. As there are, in
 many parts of the sea,  rocks which  lie at considerable
 depth, the figure of which cannot possibly be  perceived
 from above, there is  danger that some of their ragged
 prominences may catch hold of one of the edges of the
 bell in its decent, and thus overset  it before any signal
 can be given to those above,  which would infallibly be at-
 tended with the destruction of the people  in the bell- and
 as it must always be unknown, before trial, what kind
 of a bottom the sea has  in any place, it is plain, that
 without some contrivance to obviate this last  danger,
 the descent in Dr.  Halley's diving-hell is not at all eli-
 gible.
    How these inconveniences are remedied hy Mr. Spald-
 ing's new contrivance,  will  be easily understood from
 the following description.   ABCD,  fig. 52, represents
 a section of the bell,  which is  made  of wood; e,  e, are
 iron hooks, by means of which it is suspended by ropes
 QBF e, and QAEe, and Q S, as expressed in the fig-
 ure: c, c, arc iron hooks,  to which are appended leaden
 weights, that keep the  mouth of the  bell always paral-
 lel to the surface of the  water, whether the machine
 taken  altogether is lighter or heavier  than  an  equal
 bulk of water.  By these weights alone, however, the
 bell would not sink: another is therefore addeci, repre-
  sented at L,  and which can  be raised  or lowered at
  pleasure, hy means of a rope passing over the pulley a,
  and fastened to one of  the sides  of the bell at M.  As
  the bell descends, this  weight, called by Mr. Spalding
  the balance-weight, hangs down a considerable way be-
  low the mouth of the bell.  In  case the edge of the bell
  is caught by any obstacle, the  balance-weight is imme-
 diately lowered down so that it may  rest upon the bot-
  tom.  By this means the bell  is lightened, so  that all
 danger of  oversetting  is removed;  for being  lighter,
  without the balance-weight, than an equal  bulk of wa-
  ter,  it is evident that  the  bell will  rise, as  far as the
  length of the rope affixed to the balance-weight will al-
 low it.  This weight, therefore, will serve as a kind of
  anchor to keep the bell at any particular depth which
  the  divers may think necessary; or  by pulling it quite
  up the descent may be continued to the  very  bottom.
    By another  very ingenious  contrivance Mr. Spald-
 ing rendered it possible for the divers to raise the bell,
 with all the weights appended  to it, even to the surface,
 or to stop at any particular depth,  as  they think pro-
 per; and thus they could still  be safe,  even though the
 rope designed for pulling up the bell was broken.   For
 this purpose the bell is divided into  two cavities, both
 of which  are made as tight  as possible.  Just above the
secon'l bottom E F, are small  slits in the  sides of the
bell, through which the w^ater,  entering as the bell de-
scends, displaces  the  air originally  contained  in its
cavity, which flies out at  the upper orifice  of the  cock
GH.  When this is done,  the divers turn the handle G,
which stops the cock; so that if any more air was to get
into the cavity AEFB, it could no longer be discharg-
ed through the orifice H as before.  When this cavity is
full of water the  hell sinks; but  when a considerable
quantity of air is admitted it rises.  If therefore the di-
vers have a mind to raise themselves, they turn the small
cock G, by which a communication is made between the
upper and under cavities ofthe  bell.   The consequence
of this is,  that a quantity of air immediately enters the
upper  cavity, forces out a quantity of the water  con-
tained in it, and thus renders the bell lighter by the whole
weight of the water which is displaced.  Thus if a cer-
tain quantity of air  is admitted into the upper cavity
the bell will descend very slowly; if a greater quantity,
it will neither ascend nor descend,  but remain stationa-
ry;  and if a larger quantity of air be still admitted it
will rise to the top.  It is to be observed, however, that
the air which is thus let out into the upper cavity must
be immediately replaced from the air-barrel; and the air
is to be let  out very slowly, or the bell will rise to the
top with so great velocity that the divers will be in dan-
ger of being shaken out of their seats.  But by follow-
ing these directions every possible accident maybe pre-
vented, and people may  descend  to very great depths
without the least appehension of danger.  The bell  also
becomes so easily  manageable in the water, that it may
be conducted from one place to another by a small boat
with the greatest ease,  and with perfect safety to those
who are in it.
  Instead of wooden seats used by Dr. Halley, Mr. Spald-
ing made use of ropes  suspended by hooks bbb;  and on
these ropes the divers may sit without any  inconveni-
ence.  There are  two windows made of thick  strong
glass, for admitting  light to the clivers.   N  represents
an  air-cask with its tackle, and 0 C P the flexible pipe
through which the air is admitted to the bell. In the as-
cent and descent of this "cask the pipe is kept down by
a small appended  weight, as in Dr. Halley's machine.
R is a small cock by which the hot air is discharged as
often as it becomes troublesome.   Annexed  is a repre-
sentation of the whole diving apparatus, which, no doubt,
will be readily understood without any further explana-
tion.  Two air-barrels are represented in this figure;
but Mr. Spalding  was of opinion  that one,  capable of
containing thirty  gallons, is sufficient for an ordinary
machine.   See  fig. 53.
   Mr. Adam Walker recommends, for the  purpose of
 diving,  a conical tub of wood three feet diameter at the
bottom,  two  and a half feet at the top, and three feet
high, so loaded with lead  at the bottom as just to sink
itself, with a small seat for the diver.  See Plate, fig.
54.  A bent metal tube is attached to the outside of the
bell, as abc, with a stop-cock a, and a flexible leathern
tube to the other end at c; this  tube terminates in a for-
cing air-pump fastened to  the side of a ship; d is a solid
piston acted  upon by a lever e;  upon the piston  being
 drawn up the air rushes  in at the valve g, and fills tho
 space n;  in its descent the valve g shuts, and the coni- 
DIVING.
cal valve o opens, and thus the air is*forced down the
hose into the hell.   The pump is kept working,  while
the diver, by opening and shutting the stop-cock, is abun-
dantly supplied with fresh air, and that which is vitia-
ted is forced out at the  bottom of the bell.   By  a ma-
chine of this kind the greatest part of the  wreck was
saved from the rich  ship Belgiosa.
  Mr. Smcaton's diving-bell was a square chest of cast-
iron,  four and a half feet in height, four and a  half feet
in  length, and three feet wide,  and afforded room for
two men to work  in it.  It was supplied with fresh air by
a forcing-pump.   This was  used with great cuccess at
Ramsgate. Other contrivances as intimated  before have
been used for diving to small depths; such as strong ca-
ses for the body,  to  keep off the pressure of the water,
which  were  supplied  with fresh air by pipes from the
surface.
  The  most effectual  of this kind is a method put in
practice by  a gentleman of  Devonshire.   He  has con-
trived a large case  of strong leather, perfectly water-
proof, which may hold  about half a hogshead of air.
This is so adapted,  that, when  be shuts himself up in
this case, he may walk at the bottom of the  sea, and go
into any part of  a  wrecked vessel, and deliver out the
goods.   This method,  we are told,  he has practised for
many years, and has thus acquired a large fortune.  It
would be a considerable improvement of this machine to
condense the air in it as  much as possible before the di-
ver descended, as he would thus  be furnished with an
atmosphere  endued with an elasticity  sufficient to resist
the weight  of water, which otherwise  would squeeze
his case into much less room than it  originally took
up. The condensed air would serve for respiration a
much  longer time than  that  which is in its ordinary
state.
   Diving-bladder, a machine invented by Borelli, and
by him  preferred, though without any good reason, to
the diving-bell.  It is a  globular vessel of brass or cop-
per about two feet in diameter, formed to  contain the
diver's head.  It is fixed to a goats'-skin habit, exact-
ly fitted to his person.   Within the vessel are pipes, by
means  of which a  circulation of air is contrived; and
the person carries an  air-pump by his side, by which he
can make himself heavier or lighter, as fishes do by con-
tracting or  dilating their air-bladders.  By this means
he thought  all the objections to which other diving-ma-
chines are liable were  entirely obviated, and particular-
ly that of want of air; the air which had been breathed
being,  as he imagined, deprived of its noxious qualities
by circulating through  the pipes.  These advantages,
however, it is evident, are only imaginary.  The diver's
limbs being defended from the pressure of the water only
by a goat's skin, would infallibly be crushed if he de-
scended to any considerable  depth; and from the disco-
veries made by Dr.  Priestly and others, itis  abundantly
evident that air which is once rendered foul by breath-
ing, cannot in any degree  be restored  by  circulation
through pipes.  Concerning the use of copper machines
in  general  Mr.  Spalding has remarked, that when  a
person has  breathed in them a few minutes, he feels in
his mouth a very disagreeable brassy  taste, which con-
tinues all the time he remains in the vessel;,  so that, on
 this account, copper seems by no means an eligible ma-
 terial.
   Diving, submarine vessel for. The following descrip.
 tion ofa diving-machine, invented  by  Mr. Bushnell, of
 Connecticut, is given in the Transactions of the Ameri-
 can Philosophical Society.
   The external shape of tbe submarine vessel bore soma
 resemblance to two upper tortoise-shells of  equal siae
 joined  together; the place of entrance into the vessel be-
 ing represented by the opening made by the swell of the
 shells, at the head of the animal.  The inside was capa-
 ble of containing the operator, and air sufficient to sup-
 port  him thirty minutes without  receiving fresh air.  At-
 the hotrom,  opposite to the entrance, was fixed a quan-
 tity of lead for ballast.   At one  edge, which was direct-
'ly before the operator, who sat  upright, was an oar for
 rowing forward or backward.  At tbe  other edge was a
 rudder for steering.  An aperture, at  the bottom, with
 its valve,  was  designed to admit water,  for the purpose
 of descending; and two brass forcing-pumps  served to
 eject the water within, when necessary for  ascending.
 At the top there was likewise an oar for ascending or
 descending, or continuing at  any  particular depth. A
 water-gauge, or barometer, determined the depth of de-
 scent,  a compass directed  tbe course, and a ventilator
 within supplied the vessel with  fresh air, when on the
 surface.
   The entrance into  the  vessel was elliptical, and so
 small as barely to admit a person. This entrance was
 surrounded with a broad elliptical  iron band, the lower
 edge of which was let into  the wood of which the body of
 tbe vessel was made, in such a manner as to give its ut-
 most support to the body of the  vessel against the pres-
 sure of the water.  Above the upper edge of this iron
 band there was a brass crown,  or cover,  resembling a
 hat with its crown and brim, which shut  water-tight up-
 on the iron band: the crown was hung to the iron band
 with hinges, so as to turn over sideways when opened.
 To make it perfectly secure wdien shut, it might be screw-
 ed down upon the band by the operator,  or by a person
 without.
   There were in the brass crown three round doors, one
 directly in front, and one  on each side, large enough ta
 put the hand through. When open they  admitted fresh
 air; their shutters were ground  perfectly tight into their
 places with emery, hung  with  binges,  and secured in
 their places when  shut.  There were likewise  several
 small glass windows in the crown  for  looking through,
 and for admitting light in the day-time, with covers to
 secure them. There were two air-pipes in the crown. A
 ventilator within drew fresh air through one of the air-
 pipes, and discharged it into the lower part of the vessel;
 the fresh air introduced by the ventilator expelled the
 impure light air through  the  other air-pipe.  Both air-
 pipes  were so constructed, that  they shut  themselvei
 whenever the water rose near their tops, so that no wa-
 ter could enter through them,  and opened themselves im-
 mediately after tbey rose above  the water.
   The vessel was chiefly filled with lead fixed to its bot-
 tom;  when  this was  sufficient,  a quantity was  placed
 within, more or less, according to the weight of the ope-
 rator; its ballast made it so stiff, that there was  no dan-
 ger of oversetting.  Tbe vessel  with all its appendages, 
DIVING.
 and the operator, was sufficient to settle it very low in
 the water.  About two hundred pounds of the lead, at the
 bottom for ballast, would be let down forty or fifty feet
 below the vessel; this enabled the operator to rise instant-
 ly to the surface ofthe water, in case of accident.
   When the operator would descend, he placed bis foot
 on the top of a ibrass valve,  depressing it, by  which he
 opened a large aperture in the bottom  of the  vessel,
 through which the water entered at his pleasure; when
 he had admitted a sufficient quantity,  he decended very
 gradually; if  be admitted too much, he ejected as much
 aa was necessary  to  obtain  an equilibrium by tbe two
 brass forcing-pumps placed at each hand.  Whenever the
 vessel leaked, or be would ascend to the surface, he also
 made use of these forcing-pumps. When the skilful ope-
 rator had obtained an equilibrium, he could row upward
 or downward, or continue at  any particular depth, with
 an oar placed near the top of the vessel, formed upon the
 principle of the screw,  the axis of the oar entering  the
 vessel; by turning the oar one way he raised the  vessel,
 by turning it the other way he depressed it.
    A  glass tube eighteen inches long, and one inch in
 diameter, standing upright, its upper end closed, and its
 lower end which was open,  screwed  into a brass pipe,
 through which the external water had a passage into the
 glass tube, served as a water-gauge or barometer.  There
 was a piece of cork, with phosphorus on it, put into the
 water-gauge.  When the vessel descended the water rose
 in the water-gauge, condensing the air within, and bear-
 ing the cork, with its phosphorus, on  its  surface.  By
 the light of the phosphorus the ascent of the water in the
 gauge was rendered visible, and the depth of the  vessel
 under water ascertained by a  graduated line.
   An oar, formed upon the principle of the screw, was
 fixed in the fore part of tbe vessel; its axis entered the
 vessel, and being turned one way, rowed the vessel for-
 ward, but being turned the other way rowed it  back-
 ward; it was made to be turned by the hand or foot.
   A rudder, hung to the hinder part of the vessel, com-
 manded it with the greatest ease. The rudder was made
 very elastic, and might be used for rowing forward. Its
 tiller was within the vessel, at the operator's right-hand,
 lixcd at a right-angle,  on an  iron  rod which passed
 through the side ofthe vessel; the rod had a crank  on its
 outside end, which commanded the rudder, by means  of
 a  rod extending from the end ofthe  crank  to a kind of
 tiller, fixed upon the left-hand of the  rudder.  Raising
 and depressing the first-mentioned tiller, turned the rud-
 der as the case required.
   A compass marked  with phosphorus directed the
 course, above and under the water; and a line and lead
 sounded the depth when necessary.
   The internal shape of the vessel, in every possible sec-
 tion of it, verged towards an ellipsis, as near as the de-
 %faJ!n^ *Now; but every horizontal section, although
 2d nnw   yCt WaS aS ncar to a circle as cou,d be admit-
 wrt. 1 he body of the vessel was made exceedingly strong;
 and to strengthen it as much as possible a firm piece of
 wood was framed, parallel to the conjugate diameter, to
prevent the sides from yielding to the great pressure of
">e mrumbent water in a deep immersion. This piece of
^wd was also a seat fbr the operator.
 &**9 opening was vmli secured. The pumps had two
  sets of valves.  The aperture at the bottom, for admit-
  ting water, was covered with a plate, perforated full of
  holes to receive the water, and pi-vent any thing from
  choking the passage, or stopping the valve from shutting.
  The brass valve  might likewise be forced into its place
  with a screw, if necessary.  The air-pipes had a kind of
  hollow sphere, fixed round the top of each, to secure the
  air-pipe valves from injury: these hollow spheres  were
  perforated full of holes, for the passage ofthe air through
  the pipes:  within the air-pipes were shutters to secure
  them,  should any accident happen  to  the  pipes or the
  valves on their tops.
    Wherever the  external  apparatus passed through the
  body of the vessel, the joints were round, and formed by
  brass pipes, which were driven into the wood of the ves-
  sel; the holes through the pipes were exactly made, and
  the iron  rods, which passed  through them, were turned
  in a lathe to fit them; the joints were also  kept full of
  oil, to prevent rust and leaking.   Particular attention
  was given to bring every part, necessary for performing
  the operations, both within and without the vessel,  be-
  fore the operator,  and as conveniently as could be devis-
  ed; so that every thing might be found in the dark,  ex-
  cept the water-gauge and the compass, which were  visi-
  ble by the light of the phosphorus; and nothing requir-
  ed the operator to turn to  the right hand, or to  tbe left,
  to perform any thing necessary.
   The inventor next pursues the subject under  the fol-
 lowing heads:
   1.  Description  of a magazine,  and  its appendages,
 designed to he conveyed by the submarine vessel to the
 bottom of a ship.  In the  fore part of the brim of the
 crown of the submarine vessel were a  socket,  and an
 iron tube passing through the socket: the iron tube stood
 upright,  and could slide up and down in the socket six
 inches: at the top of the tube was a wood screw, fixed
 by means of a rod, which passed through  tbe tube,  and
 screwed the wood  screw fast upon the top of the tube:
 by pushing the wood screw up against the bottom of a
 ship, and turning  it at tbe same time, it would enter the
 planks;  driving would also answer the same purpose-
 when the wood screw was  firmly fixed it could  be  cast
 off by unscrewing  the rod, which fastened  it upon the
 top of the tube.                                l
   Behind the submarine vessel  was a place,  above the
 rudder, for carrying a large powder-magazine; this  was
 made of two pieces of oak  timber,  large enough, when
 hollowed out,  to contain 150 pounds of powder, with the
 apparatus used in firing it,  and was secured in its place
 by a screw, turned by tbe  operator.  A strong piece of
 rope extended from  the magazine to the wood s.  rew
 above-mentioned, and was  fastened to both.   When the
 wood screw was fixed, and to be  cast off from its tube,
 the magazine was to be cast off likewise  by unscrew ine
 it, leaving it hanging to tbe wood screw; it was lighter
 than the water,  that  it might rise up against the cfbiect
 to which the wood  screw and itself were fastened.
  Within the  magazine was an  apparatus, constructed
 to run any proposed length of time: it unpinioned a strone
 lock resembling a gun-lock, wbich gave fire v, the povv!
der.  Ihis apparatus was so pinioned that it could  not
possibly move till,  by casting off the magazine from  the
vessel, it was set in motion. 
DIVING.
  The skilful operator could swim so low on the surface
of the water as to approach very near a ship in the night,
without fear of being discovered; and might, if he chose,
approach the stem or stern above water with very little
danger.  He could sink very quickly,  and keep at any
deptii he pleased, and row a great distance in any direc-
tion he desired, without coming to the surface; and when
he rose to the surface, he could soon  obtain a fresh sup-
ply of air,  when, if necessary,  he might descend again,
and pursue his course.
  2. Experiments made to prove the nature and use ofa
submarine  vessel. The first experiment made was with
about two ounces of gunpowder, which  were exploded
four feet under water, to prove to some of the first per-
sonages in  Connecticut, that powder would take fire un-
der water.
  The second experiment was  made with two  pounds
of powder, inclosed in a wooden bottle, and fixed under
a hogshead, with a two-inch oak  plank  between the
hogshead and the powder; the hogshead was loaded with
stones as deep as it could swim; a wooden pipe descend-
ing through the lower head of the hogshead, and through
the plank,  into the powder contained in the bottle, was
primed with powder.  A match  put to  the priming, ex-
ploded the  powder; which produced a very great effect,
rending the plank into pieces, demolishing the hogshead,
and casting the stones and the ruins of the hogshead,
with a body of  water, many feet  into the air, to the
astonishment of the spectators.  This experiment  was
likewise made for the satisfaction of the gentlemen above-
mentioned.
   There were afterwards made many  experiments of a
similar nature,  some  of them  with large  quantities  of
powder; they all produced very violent explosions, much
more than  sufficient for any purpose had in view.
   In the first essays with the submarine vessel, the in-
ventor took c are to prove its strength to sustain the great
pressure of the incumbent water,  when sunk  deep,  be-
fore be trusted any person to descend below the surface-
 and he never suffered any person to go under water with;
out having a strong piece of rigging made fast to it, un-
til he found him well acquainted with the operations ne-
cessary for his safety.  After this he made him descend,
 and continue at particular depths without rising or sink-
ing, row by the compass, approach a vessel, go under
her, and fix the wood  screw into her bottom, kc until
he thought him  sufficiently expert to put any design in-
 to  execution.
   It required many trials to make a person of common
ingenuity a skilful operator: the first employed was ve-
ry ingenious, and  made himself master of the business,
 but was taken sick in  the  campaign of 1776, at New-
 York,  before he had an opportunity to make  use of his
 skill, and never recovered his  health sufficiently after-
 wards.
    3. Experiments made with a submarine vessel.  After
 various attempts to find an operator  to his wish, Mr.
 Bushnell sent one,  wdio appeared more expert than the
 rest, from New York to a fifty-gun ship, lying not far
 from Governor's-island.  He went under  the ship, and
 attempted to fix the wood screw into her  bottom;  but
 struck, as he supposes, a bar of iron, which passes from
 the rudderhinge, and is spiked under the ship's quarter.
Had he moved a few inches, which he might have done
without rowing, he  would probably have  found wood
where he might have fixed the screw; or, if the ship were
sheathed with copper,  he might easily have pierced it:
but not being well skilled in the management of the ves-
sel, in  attempting  to move to another place, he lost the
ship; after seeking her in vain, for some time, he rowed
some distance, and rose to the surface of the water, but
found day-light  had advanced so  far,  that  he durst not
renew  the attempt.  The adventurer said that be could
easily  have fastened the  magazine under the stem of the
ship, above water, as he rowed up to the stern, and touch-
ed it before he descended.  Had he fastened it tliere, the
explosion of 150 pounds  of powder (the quantity con-
tained in the magazine), must have  been fatal to the
ship.  In his return  from the ship to New York he pas-
sed near Governor's-island, and thought he was discov-
ered by the enemy on the Island; being in haste to avoid
the  danger he  feared, he cast off the magazine,  as he
imagined it retarded him in the  swell, which was very
considerable.   After the magazine had been cast off one
hour, the time the internal apparatus was set to run, it
blew up with great violence.
   Afterwards there were two attempts made in Hudson's
river,  above the city, but they  effected nothing.  One of
them was by the afore-mentioned person.  In going to-
wards the ship, he lost  sight  of her,  and went a great
distance beyond her: when he at length found her, the
tide ran so strong, that as he descended under water for
the  ship's bottom, it swept him  away.  Soon after this
the  enemy went up the river, and pursued the boat which
had the submarine  vessel on board,  and sunk it with
their shot.  "Though," says  Mr. Bushnell, "I after-
wards recovered the vessel, I found it impossible, at that
time, to prosecute the design any further.  I had been in
 a bad state of health from the beginning of my under-
taking, and was now very unwell; the situation of pub-
lic affairs was such that I despaired of obtaining the
public attention,  and  the assistance  necessary.  I was
 unable to support myself, and tbe persons I must have f
employed, had  I proceeded.   Besides, I found it abso-
lutely  necessary that the operators should  acquire more
 skill in the  management of the vessel before I could ex-
 pect success, which  wrould have taken up some time, and
 made no small  additional expense. I therefore gave over
 the ptirsuit for that time, and waited  for a more favour-
 able opportunity, which never arrived."
   4. Other experiments made  with a design to fire ship-
 ping.   In the year 1777 Mr. Bushnell made an attempt
 from a whale-boat against the  Cerberus frigate, then ly-
 ing at anchor between Connecticut river and New Lon-
 don, by drawing a machine against her side, by mean9
 of a line.  The machine was loaded with powder, to be
 exploded by a gun-lock, which was to be unpinioned by
 an apparatus, to be turned  by being  brought alongside
 of the frigate*  This machine fell in with a schooner  at
 anchor,  astern of the frigate, and concealed from his
 sight. By some means or other  it was fired, and demo-
 lished the schooner and three men; and blew the only
 one left alive overboard, who was taken up very much
 hurt.
    After this he fixed several kegs under water, charged
 with powder,  to explode, upon touching any thing,  ae 
DIVISIBILITY.
they floated along with the tide; he set them afloat in the
Delaware, above the English shipping at Philadelphia,
in December 1777.  "I was unacquainted,"  says he,
« with  the river, and obliged to depend  upon a gentle-
man very imperfectly acquainted with that part of it, as
I afterwards found.  We went as near the shipping as we
durst venture; I believe the darkness  of the  night de-
ceived him, as it did me.  We set them adrift to fall with
the ebb upon the shipping.  Had we hern within 60 rods,
1 believe they must have fallen in with them immediate-
ly  as I designed; but as  I afterwards found, they were
set adrift'much too far distant, and did not arrive until
after being detained some time by frost:  they  advanced
in the day-time in a dispersed situation, and under great
disadvantages.  One of them blew up a boat with several
persons in it, who imprudently handled it too freely, and
thus gave the British that alarm  which brought on the
battle of the Kegs.
   DIVISIBILITY, that property by which the par-
 ticles of matter in all bodies are capable of a separation,
 or disunion from each other.
   Some philosophical writers have considered this as a
 distinct property of matter itself, but it may with more
 propriety be considered as a property of extension; for
 we can easily conceive that  a given extension may be di-
 vided into any number of parts, let it be ever so  great;
 but it is by no means known whether matter is or is not
 capable of being divided ad infinitum, that is, without
 any limit.
   That a certain extension,  as  an inch,  or any other
 length, be it ever so small, is capable of infinite division,
 may be rendered evident by  means of arithmetic or of
 geometry.  We may take, for instance, the halves ofthe
 proposed extension,  then the halves of those parts, and
 so on without end; for if you proceed in this manner ever
 s'> far, there will after all still remain the halves  ofthe
 last parts, which may be also divided into other halves,
 Ace Again, suppose the line A B, Plate XLIV. Miscel.
 fig. 55, to be tbe proposed extension.  Through the ex-
 treme points of this lin -  draw two indefinite,  lines EF
 and CO,  parallel to each other.   In one  of  those lines,
 as EF, take a point L, and from this point draw straight
 lines to any parts of the line DC, every  one of  which
 lines will evidently cut the  proposed  extension  AH in a
 different point.  Now as the line BD may he produced
 towards D without limitation, and straight lines may be
 drawn from L to an  infinite number of points in the ex-
 tended line BO; therefore the extension AB may be di-
 vided without end, or beyond any assignable number of
 parts.
   Or thus: suppose  a lin-. A D, Plate XLIV. Miscel.
 fig. 56, perpendicular to BF;  with the centres C, C, C,
 kc. and distances CA, CA, kc describe circles cutting
 tbe line Gil in the points e, e, kc.  Now the greater the
 radius AC is,  the less is the part e G; but the radius
 may be  augmented  in infinitum,  and  therefore the
part e G may be diminished in the same  manner; and
yet it can never be reduced  to nothing, because the cir-
cles can never coincide with the right line  B F.  Con-
*M'q.ientIy, the parts of  any magnitude may  be dimin-
Mied in infinitum.
  Thus far we  have shown that extension may be divi-
ded into an  unlimitted number of parts;  but with rc-
  Voju I.                  102
spect to the limits of the divisibility of matter itself we
are perfectly in tbe dark.  We can indeed  divide cer-
tain bodies  into surprisingly fine aud numerous parti-
cles, and the works of nature offer many fluids and so-
lids of wonderful tenuity;  but  both  our-efforts,  and
those naturally small objects, advance  a very short way
towards infinity.  Ignorant of the intimate nature of
matter, we cannot assert  whether it may be capable of
infinite division, or whether  it  ultimately  consists of
particles of a certain size, and of perfect hardness.  We
shall now add some instances of the wonderful tenuity
of certain  bodies, which have been produced either by
art, or discovered by  means of microscopical observa-
tions amongst the stupendous works of nature.
  The spinning  of wool,  silk,  cotton, and such-like
substances, affords no bad specimens of this sort; since
the thread  which  has been produced by this means has
often been  so very  fine as  almost to exceed the bounds
of  credibility,  had it not been sufficiently  well authenti-
cated.   Mr. Boyle mentions that two grains and a half
of silk was spun into a thread 300 yards  long.  A fSv
years ago a lady of Lincolnshire spun  a single pound of
woollen yarn into a thread of 168,000 yards long, wiiich
is equal to 95  English miles.   Also a single pound-
weight of fine cotton-yarn was lately spun, in the neigh-
bourhood  of Mancaster, into a thread 134,400 yards
long.
  The ductility of gold likewise furnishes a striking ex-
ample  of the great tenuity of matter amongst the pro-
ductions of human ingenuity.  A single grain-weight of
gold has been often extended into a surface  equal to 50
square inches.   If every square inch of it is divided into
square particles of the hundredth part of an  inch, which
will be plainly  visible to the naked eye, the number of
those particles  in one  inch square will be 10,000;  and
multiplying this number by the 50 inches,  the product
is 500,000; that is, the grain  of gold may be actually
divided into at least half a million of particles, each of
which  is  perfectly apparent to the naked eye.  Yet if
those particles arc viewed in a good  microscope, they
will appear like a large surface, the ten-thousandth part
of which might by this means be easily discerned.
  An ingenious artist  in London has been able to draw
parallel lines upon a glass plate,  as also up- n siher, so
near one another, that 10,000 of them  occupy the space
of one inch.  Those lines  can be seen only by the as-
sistance of a very good microscope.  Another workman
has drawn a silver  wire, the diameter of  wiiich does
not exceed the 750th part of an inch.   But those prodi-
gies of human ingenuity  will  appear  extremely gr ss
and rude, if they are compared with the immense sub-
tility of matter which  may every where be  observed
amongst the works of nature.   The aniin.d, the vegeta-
ble, and even the  mineral  kingdom, furnish numerous
examples of this sort.
  What must be the tenui'y of the odoriferous parts of
musk,  when we find that a piece of it will s  ent awh.de
room in a  short time,  and yet it will  bardlv lose any
sensible part ofits weight!  But supposing it to have 1 ».st
one-hundredth part of  a grain  weight,  when this small
quantity  is divided and dispersed throigh  the whole
room,  it must so expand itsWf as n:>t  to  haw an inch
square of space where  the sense of smell may not be af- 
D I N
D  I V
fected by some of its particles.  How small must then be
the weight and size of one of those particles!
  The human eye,unassisted by glasses, can frequently
perceive insects so small as to be barely discernible.  The
least reflection must show that the limbs, the vessels, and
other parts of such  animals, must infinitely exceed in
fineness every endeavour of human art.   But the mi-
croscope has discovered wonders that arc vastly superi-
rior, and such indeed  as were utterly unknown to our
forefathers, before tbe invention  of that noble instru-
ment.
  Insects have been discovered so  small as not to exceed
the 10,000th part  of an inch: so that 1,000,000,000,000
of them might be contained within the space of one cu-
bic inch; yet each animalcule must consist of parts con-
nected with  each  other;  with vessels, with fluids, and
with organs necessary for its motions,  for its increase,
for its propagation, &c.   How inconceivably small must
those organs be!  and yet they are unquestionably com-
posed of other parts still smaller, and  still farther re-
n|pvcd from the perception of our senses.
  Several  writers, when treating of the divisibility  of
matter, have mentioned  two curious theorems, which
are established on the  supposition that matter is divisi-
ble without end.
  Theorem 1.  A  quantity of matter, however small,
and any finite space, however large, being given, it is
possible  that matter may be diffused through all that
space,  and so fill it, as not to leave in it a pore, whose
diameter will exceed a given right line.
  Let the given space  be a cube, whose  side is A B, so
that the cube be equal  to ABA3 and let the quantity of
matter be represented by 63; also let a line D be the limit
of the diameter of the pores.
  The side A B being a finite quantity,  may be conceiv-
ed to be divisible into parts equal to the line D.  Let the
number of those  parts be,  represented by n, so that n
D = A B,  and n3  D3 = A r>V.  Conceive the given space
to be divided into cubes,  each of whose sides be equal to
the right line D, and the number  of those cubes  will be
n3, which  cubes  may be represented by E, F, G, H.
Again, let the particle b3 be supppsed to be divided into
parts whose  number is n3;  and in each cubic space let
there be placed one of those particles, by which means
the matter 6s will  be diffused through all the given space.
Besides, each particle being placed in its cell, may be
formed into a concave sphere, whose diameter may be
equal to  the given line D;  whence it will follow, that
each sphere will touch that which  is next to it; and thus
the quantity of matter ft3,  be it ever so small,  will fill
the given finite space, however large, in such a manner
as not  to leave in it a pore larger in diameter than the
given line D.
  Corollary.  There may be a given body,  whose  mat-
ter if it  be  reduced into a space absolutely  full, that
space may be any  given  part of the former magnitude.
  Theorem II.   There may be two bodies equal in bulk,
whose  quantities of matter  may  be very unequal, and
though they have any given ratio to each other,  yet the
sums of the pores  or empty  spaces in those bodies  may
almost approach the ratio of equality.
  The demonstration of this theorem is easily derived
from the foregoing:  for since the matter of a body may-
be conceived to be condensable into any part of the ori-
gnalbilk; therefore supposing two bodies, A and B, of
equal bulk, to be such that the matter of A be 100 times
the matter of B; the matter of B may be conceived to
be condensed into 1,000,000th part of its original bulk
and of course the matter of A  will be condensed into
one  hundred  1,000,000th parts  of  the same  bulk; in
which case the spaces left in the original bulk of B will
be to the spaces left in the original bulk of A, as 999,999
to 999,900, which numbers are nearly equal to each other.
  Instead of the above mentioned numbers, the propor-
tions of the  quantities of matter may  be increased at
pleasure,  and so may the  proportion  of the or.ginal
bulks of the bodies to the spaces into which tbey may be
conceived to  be  condensable.
   DIVISION,  in arithmetic,  one of the four  funda-
mental rules, by which we find how often a less number,
called the divisor, is contained in a greater, called the
dividend;  the number of times  which the divisor is con-
tained in the dividend being  termed the quotient.  See
Arithmetic, and  Algebra.
   Division, in  natural philosophy, is the taking a thing
to pieces, in order to have a more complete conception
of the whole:  this is frequently necessary in examining
very complex beings, the several parts of which cannot
be surveyed at one view.  Thus to learn  the nature of
a watch the  workman takes it to pieces,  and shows us
the spring, wheels,  axles,  pinions, balances, dial-plate,
pointer,  case, &c. and  after  describing  the uses and
figures  of each of them apart, explains how they con-
tribute to form the whole machine. See Clockwork,
   Division,  in music.  This word bears two construc-
tions. With theoretical  musicians it implies the divi-
sion of the intervals of the octave; but taken in a prac-
tical sense signifies a long scries of notes so running
into each  other as to form one connected chain of sounds;
and which, in vocal  music, is always applied to a single
syllable. The singing or playing a passage of this kind
is called running a division.
   Division, in the sea  language, the third part of a
fleet of men of war, and sometimes the  ninth part; which
last happens when the fleet is divided into three squad-
rons: for then  each  squadron is distributed into three
divisions.
   DIVORCE,  a  separation of two de facto  married
together,  of which there are two kinds;  one a vinculo
matrimonii,  from the very bond  of marriage;  the other
a mensa et thora, from bed and board.
   Causes for separation  a vinculo are consanguinity or
affinity within the degrees prohibited, also impuberty or
frigidity; where the marriage was actually void ab ini-
tio,  and the sentence of  divorce  only declaratory of its
being so.   This divorce enables  the parties to marry
again; but in the other case  a power for so  doing must
be obtained  by act of parliament.  The woman divorced
a  vinculo matrimonii receives  all  again she  brought
with her.
   Divorce a mensa  et thora is where the use of matri-
mony, as the use  of cohabitation of  the married per-
sons, or their mutual conversation, is  prohibited for  a
time, or without limitation of time.   And this is in cases
of adultery, cruelty, or the like; in which  case the mar-
riage having been originally good is not dissolved or af- 
DOC
DOC
fected as to the vinculum or bond.  The woman under
ieparation by this divorce may sue by her next friend;
and she may sue her husband in her own name for ali-
mony.  Wood's Inst. 62.   But the children  which she
has after her divorce shall be deemed bastards; for a
due obedience to the sentences will be intended, unless
the contrary be shown.   Walk. 123.
  DIURETICS, in pharmacy, such  medicines as in-
crease the discharge of urine; or which are supposed to
have a power of removing  obstructions in the urinafy
passages.  See Materia Medica.
  DIURNAL, in astronomy, something relating to the
day, in opposition  to  nocturnal, wdiich  regards the
night.
   Dicrnal  arch,  the arch or number of degrees that
the sun, moon,  or stars, describe  between their rising
and setting.
   Diurnal motion of a planet, is so many degrees and
minutes as  any planet moves in 24  hours.   Hence the
motion of the earth about its axis is called  its diurnal
motion. See Astronomy.
   DIURNARY, diurnarius, an  officer  in the Greek
empire, who wrote down  in a book, kept for that pur-
 pose, whatever the prince did, or ordered,  kc. every
 day.
   DIVOTO, in music, a term signifying that the piece
 before which it is written is  to be performed in a grave,
 solemn style, proper to inspire devotion.
   D1VUS and DIVA, in antiquity, appellations given
 to men and women as had been deified.  We find this title
 on medals struck for the consecration of an emperor or
 empress: thus, nivvs ivlivs, diva favstina avg. &c.
   BO, in music, a monosyllable  long since substituted
 hy the Italians for that of ut, whi? h  Guido  applied to
 the first note of the natural  major, diatonic scale.  Gui-
 do's monosyllable was rejected as  too  hard and rough.
   DOC1MASIA, in  Greek antiquity, a probation of
 the magistrates and persons employd in public business
 at Athens.  It was performed publicly in the forum,
 where they were obliged to give account of themselves
 and their past life before certain judges. Among several
 questions proposed to them we find the following: Whe-
 ther they had been  dutiful to their parents; had served
 in  the wars, and had a competent estate.
   DOCIMAST1C  ART, a name given to  the art of
 assaying by  operations on a small scale, the nature and
 quantity of metallic or other matters which are obtained
 from minerals,  kc.
   DOCK, or Docking, in law, an expedient  for cutting
 off an estate-tail in lands or tenements, that  the owner
 may be enabled to sell, give, or bequeath  the same.
   DOCK, in maritime affairs, is an artificial bason, by
 the side of an  harbour, made convenient either for the
 building or repairing of  ships.  It is of two sorts, 1.
 Dry-dock, where the water is kept out by great flood-
gHh-K, till the ship is built or repaired, when the gates
are opened, and the water let in to float and launch her.
2. Wet-dock, a place where the ship may be hauled into,
out of the tide's way, and so dock herself, or sink her-
self a place to  lie in.
  The West-India docks, in the isle of Dogs.  These
immense works are upended to receive the  whole ofthe
•hips in the W est India trade; and  may  be  accounted
among the prominent curiosities  of British commerce.
They were undertaken according to an act of parlia-
ment, passed in 1799, entitled "the West India Dick
Act."  The entrances into them  are at Blackwall and
Limehouse-hole; their site is wholly on  the isle of Dogs;
and  upon  the wharfs  and quays adjoining them,  all
West India ships are to unload and load their cargoes.
  The northern  dock  for unloading inwards covers a
space of thirty acres, and is capable of containing from
two  to three hundred sail of ships.  The smaller dock,
situated to the south of the other, covers an area of 24
acres,  and is devoted solely  to the business of loading
outwards.  Both docks are  surrounded by a  series  of
immense warehouses.
  The proprietors of this capital improvement are styl-
ed " the West India Dock company:"  they commenced
their undertaking  with a subscription  of 500,000/. and
are  empowered  to increase  it  to 600,000/.  if needful.
They are  reimbursed by a tonnage of 6s. upon the bur-
then of every ship which enters the docks; for wharfage,
landing, housing, weighing,  cooperage, and warehouse-
room,  they are entitled to certain rates upon all goods
that  are discharged, such as  Sd per cwt. upon sugar; ld
per gallon upon  rum; Is.  6d. per cwt. upon coffee; 2s,
6d. per cwt. upon cotton-wool,  &c. &c.
  Notwithstanding these docks occasion a very impor-
tant  trade to be removed to a considerable and even in-
convenient distance from the metropolis, yet the advan-
tages to the port of London  will, upon the whole, be
considerable.  The West  India trade generally arrives
in fleets,  and occasions so much  crowding, confusion,
and  damage, in  the river, that the ships being disposed
of in these docks,  the overgrown trade of the port may
be carried on with pleasure and convenience.
  Canal  at the isle of Dogs.  To enable  shipping in
their passages up and down the  Thames to avoid the
circuitous  and  inconvenient  course  round  the isle of
Dogs, a canal is now cut across this peninsula, through
which, upon paying certain moderate rates, all ships,
vessels, and craft, will be permitted to pass in their pas-
sage up and down the Thames.  For three years after its
completion ships above two hundred tons will be requir-
ed to pay  ld. per ton;drom two hundred to one hundred
tons l^d. per ton;  from one hundred to 50tons 10s. per
vessel; from fifty to twenty tons 5s. per vessel; and for
boats and  craft Is. each.
  The docks at  Wapping.   This important improve-
ment is made in  the angle formed by the Thames, be-
tween  Hermitage  dock and Shadwell  dock.  One im-
mense dock, called St.  George's dock,  covers the space
extending from  Virginia-street, almost to Old Gravel-
lane, in one direction, and in the other from Artichoke-
lane to the south side of Pcnnington-street.  This dock
alone is capable of holding two hundred  ships, with room
for shifting.  Another dock,  called Shadwell dock, ad-
joining to 'the■other, will hold about fifty ships.  The en-
trance to tbe docks is from the Thames by three basons,
capable of containing an immense quantity of small craft;
and  the inlets from the Thames ;nto the basons are at
the Old Hermitage dock, at Old  Wapping dock, and
Old  Shadwell dock.
  The capital of the company is 1,200,000/.  The shares
bear a premium. The ultimate profits upon the scheme
                       2 
DOC
D 0  D
are limited to 10 per cent.; an interest which it is sure
to realize.
   On the 26th of June,  1302. the foundation ofthe  en-
trance bason was laid by the then chancellor of the  ex-
chequer,  the right honourable  Henry Addington; and
the first stone of a  tobacco warehouse, which  is  flie
largest in the world, the  roof of which  covered six acres
of ground; and  also the  * rst stone of  a range  of ware-
houses for general merchandise,  were laid at the  same
time.
   The warehouses for the  reception of tobacco are  sit-
uated at the eastern extremity;  they are two in number.
The largest is 762 feet long, and 160 feet wi 1 >, equally
divided by a  strong  partition-wall,  with  double iron
doors; the smallestis 250 feet  by 200.  Both of them
consist of a ground-floor and vaults;  the first is to be
wholly applied to the reception of tobacco; the cellars
in the s in after warehouses are appropriated  to the  hoe-s-
ing of wine.   They are  s delv  under the  care and con-
troul of the officers  of the customs: the  proprietors of
the docks having riothing more to do with them than to
receive the rent.
   Docic-yrads, in ship-building, are magazines  of all
sorts cf naval stores.  The principal in England  are
those of Chatham,  Portsmouth,  Plymouth, Woolwich,
Deptford, and Shreeness.   In   time of peace  ships of
war are laid up in these docks; those of the first rate
mostly  at Chatham, where, and at other  yards, they
receive from time to time such repairs as are necessary.
These ya> us are generally supplied from the northern
powers with  hemp,  pitch, tar,  rosin, kc. but as  for
masts, particularly  those  of the  larger size, they  are
brought from  America.
   DOCKET, or Dogget, a brief in writing, on a small
piece of paper or parchment, containing  the effect of a
larger writing, and annexed to other papers for particu-
lar purposes.  In law a docket is necessary in  all judg-
ments; and no debts will be entitled to a preference, in
debts  due from  a party  deceased, as  judgment  debts,
unless such judgments be regularly docketed.
   DOCTOR, a teacher, or person who has passed all
the  degrees of a faculty, and is impowered  to  teach or
practise the same: thus we say, doctor in divinity, doc-
tor in physic, doctor of laws.
   The title of doctor seems to have been created  in  the
twelfth century, instead  of master, and established with
the other scholastic degrees of bachelors and licentiates,
by Peter  Lombard and Gilbert  Porreiis,  then  the chief
divines of the university  of Paris.  Gratian did the same
thing, at the same time, in the university  of Bologna.
Though the two names of  doctor and master were used
a long time together, yet many think that their functions
were different, the masters teaching the human  sciences,
and  the doctors  those sciences  depending on revelation
and  faith.  Spelman takes the title of doctor not to have
commenced till after the  publication of Lombard's Sen-
tences, about the year 1140, and affirms that such as  ex-
plained that work to their scholars were the first that
had  the appellation of doctors.
   To pass doctor in  divinity at Oxford, it  is necessary
that the candidate have  been four years bachelor of di-
vinity.  For doctor of laws he must have been  seven
years in the university  to commence bachelor of law,
five years after which he may be admitted doctor of laws.
Otherwise, in three years  after taking the  degree  of
master of arts,  he may take the degree of bachelor iu
laws, and in four yeai-s more that of doctor: which same
method and time are likewise required to pass thedcree
of doctor  in physic. At Cambridge, to take  the degree
of doctor  in divinity, it is required the candidate, have
been seven years bachelor of divinity: though in several
colleges the bachelor's degree in dispensed with, and they
may go out per saltum. To commence doctor in laws
tbe candidate must have been five years bachelor of laws
or seven years master of arts. To pas doctor  in physic,
he must have  been bachelor in physic five years, or se-
ven years master of arts.
   Doctors, and bachelors of divinity and law, may have
a dispensation for nonrcsidence. 21 Hen. VIII. cup. 13.
Doctors  of civil law may exercise ecclesiastical juris-
diction, although laymen.  37 II. VIII. c. 17.
  Doctor is also an appellation adjoined to several spe.
cific epithets, expressing the merit of some ofthe school-
men:  thus Alexander Hales is  called the irrefragable
doctor:  Thomas Aquinas the angelic doctor;  St.  Bona-
venturethe seraphic doctor; John Duns  Scotus tbe sub-
tile doctor; Raimond  Lully  the illuminated doctor; Ro-
ger Baco/n the admirable doctor, kc.
  Doctors'-commons. See College of Civilians.
  DODARTIA, a genus of the didynamia angiospermia
class and  order of plants, tbe flower of which consists of
one ringcnt petal, with the upper lip erect and  semibitid;
and the lower lip patent,  twice  broader than long, and
trifid; the fruit is a globose bilocular capsule, containing
a great number of very small seeds. There are two spe-
cies, herbaceous plants of tbe East.
   DODECAGON, in  geometry,  a regular  polygon,
consisting ol twelve equal sides and angles.
  DODECAHEDRON, in  geometry, one of Phitoiic
bodies, or regular  solids, contained under  twelve equal
and regular pentagons.
   Its solidity  is found by multiplying the area of one of
the pentagons  by 12,  and then this product by one-third
ofthe distance ofthe face from the centre ofthe dodeca-
hedron, which is the same with the centre ofthe circum-
scribing sphere.
  The side of a dodecahedron, inscribed in a  sphere, is
the greater part of the side, of a cube,  inscribed in the
same sphere, cut into extreme and mean proportion. If
the diameter of the  sphere be 1.0000,  the side  of the
dodecahedron,inscribed in it, will be .35682 marly.
   All dodecahedrons are similar, and are to one onother
as the cubes of their sides; their surfaces are also similar,
and  therefore  thoy are as the  squares  of their sides;
whence as .509282 is to 10.51462,jso is the square of the
side of any dodecahedron to the superficies thereof; and
as .3637 is to  2.78516, so is the cube ofthe side of any
dodecahedron  to the solidity of it.
   DODECANDRIA, the name of the 11th class  in Lin-
nseus's sexual system, consisting of plants with  herma-
phrodite flowers, that, according totbe title,have twelve
stamina. This class, however, is not limited with  respect
to the number of stamina. Many  genera  have sixteen,
eighteen,  and  even nintcen.stamina: the essential charac-
ter seems to be, Hat, in the class in question,  the stami-
na, however numerous, are inserted into the receptacles 
DOG
D  O  L
whereas in the next class,  icosandria, which is  as little
determined in point of number as the present, the}  are
attached to the inside of the calyx, or flower-cup.
  DODECAS, a genus ofthe trigynia order, in the do-
decandria class of  plants. The  calyx is half-quadrifid,
having the corolla above;  the corolla  quinquefid;  the
capsule  unilocular, conjoined with the calyx.  There is
but one  species, a shrub of Surinam.
  DODECATHEON, a genus ofthe monogynia order,
in the petandria class of plants,  and  in  the  natural
method ranking under the 21st order, precis. The co-
rolla is verticillatcd and reflexed; the stamina placed in
the tube; the capsule  unilocular  and oblong.  There is
one species, the 1).  media, a beautiful perennial plant, a
native of Virginia, but  sufficiently  hardy  to bear  our
climate.
   DODO.  See Didus.
   DODONiEA, a genus of plants ofthe octandria mono-
gynia class: it has no corolla; the  fruit is a roundish
trilocular capsule, with prominent inflated angles, con-
 taining solitary seeds. There are two species.
   DODRANS, in antiquity, three-fourths ofthe as.  See
 As. and Coins.
   DOG, in zoology. See Cams.
   DOGS. The owner of a dog is bound to  muzzle him
 if mischievous, but  not otherwise; and if a man keep a
 dog that is known to bite cattle, &c. if after notice given
 to him of it, his dog shall do any hurt, the master shall
 answer for it.
   The duty on dogs. The act 36 G. III. contains the
 following provisions:
   1.  That  the duty  shall not extend  to dogs not six
 months old, the proof of which is  to be on the owner, on
 an appeal to the commissioners.
   2. If  any person  shall be desirous of compounding for
 the number of hounds by him kept, and shall give notice
 thereof totbe collector, and shall pay  within thirty days
 after April  5, yearly the sum of 30/., such person shall
 not be liable to be assessed in respect of any hounds by
 him kept in the preceding year: and  if they are kept  in
 two or more parishes, he shall give notice in which pa-
 rish such composition  is intended to be made.
   By 42 Geo. III.  cap. 17, any person keeping two or
 more dogs shall pay annually for every greyhound, poin-
 ter, setting dogs of  whatsoever description or denomina-
 tion, spaniel, lurcher, and terrier, and for every dog above
 one. whatever the same be, the sum of 10s.
  And for any dog  (not being a greyhound, hound, set-
ting-dog, spaniel, lurchers, &c.) kept by or for use of any
 person inhabiting a dwelling-house assessed to any of
the duties on houses, windows,  or   lights, where one
such dog and no more shall be kept by or for the use of
such person, the annual sum of 6s.
  Dog's-bane. Sec Apocynum.
  DOGE, formerly the chief magistrate in the repub-
lics of Venire and Genoa; but now, like many other
venerable relics of ancient grandeur, absorbed  in the
modern Gotbicism and tyranny of the abominable French
revolution.
  DOGMATISTS, a sect of  ancient  physicians,  of
which Hippocrates was the first author.  They arc also
called  logicians, from their using the riles' of I- gic in
subjects of their profession. They laid down definitions
 and divisions, reducing diseases fo certain genera, and
 those  genera  to  spicics,  and furnishing remedies for
 them all; supposing principles, drawing ronclusic ns, and
 applying those principles and conclusions to  particular
 diseases under consideration:  in which sense the dogma-
 tisms stand contradistinguished from empires and metbo-
 dists.  They reject  all medicinal virtues that they think
 not reducible  to manifest qualities: but Galen  has  I >ng
 ago observed of such men, that they must either  deny
 plain matter of fact, or assign but very poor reasons and
 causes of many effects they pretend to explain.
   DOLE, in our  ancient  customs,  signified a part or
 portion, most commonly,  of a  meadow,  where several
 persons  have shares. It slso still signifies a distribution
 or dealing of alms, or a liberal gift made by a great man
 to the people.
   Dole, in the law of Scotland, is used for malevolent
 intention.  This, which implies deceit, as well  as dolum,
 in the civil law, whence it is taken, is an essential ingre-
 dient to  constitute an action criminal. In crimes w herein
 the will, not the event, must be regarded, no negligence
 can equal dole,  unless tbe  negligence be so extreme ly
 supine as not  to be conceivable without implying  dole.
 Under this term arc^comprchcndcd the vices and errors
 ofthe will, which  are  immediately productive of the
 criminal fact,  though not premeditated, but the effect of
 sudden passion. In this respect dole differs from  what
 the English law calls malice prepense.
   DOLICHOS, a genus of the decandria  order, in the
 diadelphia class of plants; and  in the natural method
 ranking under the 32d order, papilionaceae. The basis
 of the vexillum has two callous knobs, oblong, parallel,
 and compressing the  al?e below..There are 38  species,
 tbe most remarkable of which are:  1. The lablah, with a
 winding stalk, is a native of warm climates, where it is
 frequently  cultivated for the table.  Mr. Hasselquist in-
 forms  us, that it is cultivated in the Egyptian gardens,
 but  is not a  native of that country.  The Egyptians
 make pleasant arbours with it in their houses and  gar-
 dens, by supporting the stem and leading it where  they
 think proper.  Tbey not only  supported  it with sticks
 and wood,  but tie  it with cords,  by which means  the
 leaves form an excellent covering, and afford  an agree-
 able shade in  sultry weather.  2. The soja, a native of
 Japan, where  it is  termed daidsu; and, from  its excel-
 lence, maine; that is, " the legumen or pod," hy way of
 eminence.  It grows  with  an erect, slender, and hairy
 stalk, to the height of about four  feet. The leaves are
 like thoseof the garden kidney-bean. The flowers are of
 a blueish white, and produced from the bosom of the
 leaves, and succeeded by  bristly hanging pods resemb-
 ling those of the yellow lupin, which commonly contain
 two, sometimes three, large white seeds. There is a va-
 riety of  this kind,  with a small black fruit, which  was
 once employed in  medicine. Kempfer affirms, that the
 seeds of  this give relief in  the asthma. This legumen is
 doubly useful  in the Japanese kitchens.  It serves for the
 preparation of a .s'lb-tanre named  miso, that is  used as
 butter; and likewise a pickle  celebrated among them,
 and frequent also at our own  tables, under the name of
soojuor soy. To make the first, tbey take a measure of
the beans produced  by the  plant: after boiling them to a
proper degree of softness,  they  beat them into a paste; 
DOM
DOM
incorporating with  it a large quantity of common salt.
They then add  a certain preparation of rice named
koos; and having formed the whole into a mass, remove
it into a wooden vessel, and, in about two months, it is
fit for use. The koos gives it a grateful taste; and the
preparing of it, like the polenta ofthe Germans, requires
some experience. To make sooju or soy, they take equal
quantities of the same beans boiled, and of muggi, that
is,  barley or wheat roughly ground,  and of  common
salt. Having properly mixed the beans with the pounded
corn, they keep it covered in a warm place, in order to
ferment; then putting the mass into a pot, they cover it
with the salt, pouring over the whole  two measures and
a half of water.  This they  frequently stir for two  or
three months, at the end of which time, they filtrate and
express the mass, and preserve the liquor in wooden ves-
sels. The older it is, the  better and the clearer; and if
made of wheat,  it is  the blacker. 3. The pruriens,  or
cow-itch, is  also a native of warm climates. It has a
fibrous root, and an herbaceous climbing stalk, which is
naked, dividing  into a great number of branches; and
rises to  a great height when properly  supported. The
leaves are alternate and trilobate, rising from  the stem
and branches about 12 inches distant from each other.
The foot-stalk is cylindrical, from 6 to 14  inches long.
From the axilla of the leaf descends a pendulous solitary
 spike, from 6 to  14 inches long, covered with long blood-
 coloured papilionaceous flowers,  rising by threes in a
 double alternate manner from small fleshy protuberances,
 each of  which is a  short pedunculus of  three  flowers.
 These  are succeeded by  leguminous,  coriaceous pods,
 four or five  inches long, crooked like an italic/; densely
 covered with sharp hairs, which penetrate the skin,  and
 cause great itching. This will grow  in any soil in those
 countries where it is a native: but it is generally eradi-
 cated from all  cultivated  grounds; because  the hairs
 from  the pods fly with the winds, and  torment  every
 animal they happen to touch. If it was not for this mis-
 chievous quality, the beauty of its flowers would entitle
 it to a place in the best gardens.  It flowers in the [cool
 months, from September to  March,  according to  the
 situation. The spicula?, or sharp hairs, of this  plant,
 have been long used in South America in case of worms;
 and have of late been frequently, and, as some writers
 have said, succesfully  employed in Britain for the  like
 purpose. The spicule  of one pod mixed with syrup or
 molasses, and taken in the morning fasting, is a dose for
 an adult. 4. The dolichos lignosusis  a handsome flower-
 ing shrub, introduced into our greenhouses,  and  easily
 propagated from seed, which it perfects in this country.
    DOLIOCARPUS, a genus ofthe polyandria monogy-
 nia class and order.  The calyx is five-leaved; corolla
 thrce-petailed, plaited; stigma subtrifid; berry globular,
 crowned with the style, one-celled,  two-seeded. There
 are three species, shrubs of Guiana.
    DOLPHIN.  See Delphinfs.
    DOM BEY A, a genus  of the class and order dioecia
 monadelphia. The male, calyx of the anient, scales; co-
 roilanone; anthers 10 and 12, without filaments. Female,
 calyx anient, with many germs; corolla none;  stigma bi-
 valve, unequal; seeds many, in a rouudish strobile. There
 is one species, a tree of Chili.
    DOME.  See Abchitecture.
  DOMESDAY, is a very ancient record, made inWil-
Ham the Conqueror's time, and now remaining in the
exchequer, fair and legible, consisting of two volumes,
containing a survey of all  the  lands  in England. It
was  begun by five justices, assigned for that purpose
in each  county,  in  the  year 1081,  and finished in
1086.
  It is generally known, that the question whether lands
are ancient demense  or not,  is to be decided by the
Domesday-book  of  William  the Conqueror; whence
there is no appeal. And it is  a book of that authority
that even the Conqueror himself submitted  in sonic ca-
ses, wherein he was concerned, to be determined by it.
   DOMESTIC, in antiquity, was a particular officer in
the court of Constantinople.
   According to  some this office  was one entrusted to
manage affairs of importance: others say the Greek do-
mestici were the same with the Roman comitcs; and that
they began first to be used when count became a dignity:
domestics therefore were such  as served the prince in tbe
administration of affairs,  as well  those of the family as
the affairs of justice and the church.
   DOMINANT of  a mode, in music, is that  sound
which makes a fifth to the final, or tonic.
   DOMINICAL letter, in chronology, is that letter of
the alphabet which points out in the calendar the Sundays
throughout the year, thence  also called Sunday-letter.
The distribution  of days into weeks is made by the seven
first letters of the alphabet A, B, C, D, E, F, (i, begin-
ning, at the first of January, to place the  letter A; to the
second of January B is joined; to the third C; and so on
to the seventh, where G is figured: and then again begin-
ning with A, which  is placed at the eighth day, B will
be at  the ninth, C at the tenth,  and  so  continually re-
peating the series of these seven  letters,  each day ofthe
year has one of them in the calendar. By this means the
last of December has the letter A joined to it, for if the
 365 days, which are in the year, are  divided by seven,
 we shall have 52 weeks, and one day over. If there had
 been no day over, all the years would constantly begin
 on the same day of the week, and each day of a  month
 would  constantly have fallen on the same day  of ihe
 week;  but now, since, besides the 52 weeks in the year,
 there is one day  more,  it happens, that on whatever day
 of the  week the year begins, it ends upon the same day,
 and the next year begins with the following day.
   The letters being ranked  in this  order,  that letter
 which answers to the first Sunday of January, in a com-
 mon year, will show  all the Sundays  throughout the
 year,  and to whatever days  in the  rest of the montbs,
 that letter is put, these  days are all Sundays.  If the
 first day of January be on Sunday, the next year will
 begin  on Monday,  and the Sunday  will fall on the se-
 venth day, to which is annexed the letter G, which there-
 fore will be the Sunday letter for that year: the nextycar
 beginning on Tuesday, the first Sunday will fall on the
 sixth of January, to which is adjoined the letter F, which
 is the Sunday letter for that year; and in the same man-
 ner, for the next following, the dominical letter will be
 E; and so on.  By this means  the Sunday letters will
 go on  in a retrograde order,  viz. G, F, E, D, C, B, A.
 But because every fourth year consists of 3G6 days, the
 series  of letters will be interrupted, and the order will not 
DOM
DON
eturn till twenty-eight years, or four times seven; and
bence arises the cycle of 28 years.
  Thus,  if in a leap year the first  of January is Sun-
dav, and  consequently the dominical letter A, the twen-
ty-fourth day of February will fall on a Friday, and the
twenty-fifth on a Saturday; and since  both these days
are marked in the calendar with the letter F, the  follow-
ing day, which is Sunday, will be marked with G, which
letter will mark out all the Sundays, and consequently
be the dominical letter, the remaining part of the year;
and hence it is that every leap year has two  dominical
letters, the first of which serves from the beginning of
the year to the twenty-fourth or twenty-fifth day of Fe-
bruary, and then  the other takes place and  serves for
the rest of the year.
   The intercalary  day is placed between the twenty-
third and twenty-fourth days of February, and so makes
two twenty-fourths of February, which in the calendar
are esteemed one and the  same day, and have tbe same
letter affixed to them; but by our way of reckoning they
are called the  twenty-fourth  and twenty-fifth  days of
February.
   For finding the dominical letters, reject the  figures or
cyphers to the place of hundreds in the given year; di-
 vide the remaining figures or cyphers by  4;  from this
quotient subtract I, and this number subtract from  the
 hundred years; and then this last remainder taken from
 the least number  of sevens possible, leaves  a number
 which must be added to the year and its fourth, in  or-
 der to find the dominical letter.  Example: what will be
 the dominical letter for the year 1842? This question, by
 the above rule, will be solved  in the following manner:
 18-4-4=4; from which subtracting 1, and the remainder
 3 taken from 18, gives 15, which being subtracted from
 &K the nearest sevens, gives 6, the number to  be  added.
Then to the given year 1842, add its fourth  part 460,
 and the number  found 6,  the sum is 2308; which being
divided by  7, gives 329  for the quotient, and the  re-
 mainder  is 5; which taken from 7, leaves 2,  tbe index
 of the letter B,  the dominical letter required.  By the
 same mode we find that F is tbe dominical  letter for the
 present year, 1816.
   DOMINICANS,  an order of  religious,  called, in
 l'rance,  jacobins, and, in England, black friars,  or
 preaching friars.   This order, founded by  St.  Dominic,
a native  of Spain,  was approved by Innocent III. in
 1215, and confirmed by a bull of Honorius III. in 1216.
The design of their institution was, to preach the gospel,
convert heretics, defend the faith,  and propagate Chris-
tianity.  They embraced the rule of St. Augustine, to
which they added statutes and constitutions, which  bad
formerly been observed by the Carthusians. The princi-
pal articles  enjoined perpetual silence,  abstinence from
flesh at all times, wearing of woollen, rigorous poverty,
and several other austerities.   This order has spread in-
to all the parts of  the world.  It has produced a great
number of martyrs, confessors, bishops; and they reckon
three popes, sixty cardinals, one hundred and fifty arch-
bishops, and eight hundred bishops of their order, be-
sides tbe masters of the sacred palace, who have always
been doniinicans.  The  nuns,  or sisters of this  order,
owe their foundation to St. Dominic  himself,  who built
* monastery at Frouilles, where poor maids might be
brought up and supplied wifh  all necessaries for t?>eir
subsistence.  The habit of these religious was a white
robe, a tawny mantle, and a  bhu-k veil.   Their  !'•>..suler
obliged  tiiem to work at certain hours of the day, and
particularly to spin yarn and  flax to make their own
linen.
  DONATIA, v. genus ofthe trigynia order, in ihe tri-
andria class of plants.  The calyx is a triphyllous peri-
anihium, with short subulated leaves standing at a dis-
tance from one another.  The corolla has from eight  to
ten petals of an oblong linear shape, twice as long as the
calyx.  Tlie stamina  are three  subulated filaments the
length of the calyx; the antherae  roundish,  didymous,
ana two-lobed at the base.  There is one species."
  DONATION, an  act whereby a person  transfers  to
another either the property or the use of something,  as
a free gift.  In order to be valid, it supposes a capacity
both in the donor and donee, and  requires consent, ac-
ceptance, and delivery; and, by the French law,  also re-
giscry.  Civilians  distinguish  donation  into pure and
conditional.  Donatio pura is when  one gives  a  thing
with an intention that it become immediately the p»-o-
perty of the donee,  never to revert to the donor; and this
from no other motive than his generosity.  Donatio con-
ditionals  is when  one  gives a thing with an intention
that it become the property of the donee, upon perform-
ing some condition  stipulated.
   DONATISTS,  christians  in Africa, who  took their
name from their  leader Donatus.   A secret  hatred
against Csecilian, elected bishop of Carthage about the
year 311, excited Donatus to form this sect.  He accus-
ed Crccilian of haviug delivered up the sacred books  to
the pagans, and pretended that his flection was  void,
and all his adherents heretics.  He taught that baptism
administered by heretics was null, that every church but
the African was become prostituted, and that he was  to
be the restorer of religion.  Some accuse  the Donatists
of Arianism.  Constantius and Honorius made laws for
their banishment, and  Theodosius and  Honorius con-
demned them to griev ous mulcts.
  DONATIVE, a  gratuity or present made to any per-
son.  Donative, among the Romans, was proper) v a gift
made to the soldiers, as congiarium  was that made  to
the people.  Salmasius says, the common and legitimate
rate of a donative was three pieces of gold per head; and
Casaubon observes, that the legal donative was 20,000
denarii; and that it was not customary to give less, es-
pecially to the praetorian soldiers; that the centurions
had double, and the tribunes, kc. more in proportion.
  Donative, in the canon law, is a benefice given by
the patron to a priest, without presentation to  the or-
dinary, and without institution or induction. The king
may found a church or chapel, and exempt it from the
jurisdiction of the  ordinary.  He may also, by his let-
ters patent, grant licence to  a common person to found
such a church, and  ordain it to be made donative. The
resignation of a donative must be to the donor  or pa-
tron, nor may the ordinary visit the same, but  the pa-
tron by commissioners appointed by  him.  Tliere can
be no lapse of this  benefice, though the bishop may com-
pel such patron to  nominate  a clerk by ecclesiastical
censures; and the clerk must be qualified as other clerks
of churches are. 
DOR
DOS
  DONAX, a genus of insects belonging to the :,rdcr
of vermes testacea.  it is an animal of the oyster kind;
and the shell has two valves, with a very obtuse margin
in the forepart.  There are 10 species, principally dis-
tinguished by the figure of their shells.  See Plate Nat.^
Hist. fig. 172.
  DONJON, in fortification,  signifies a strong tower,
or redoubt of a fortress, whither the garrison  may  re-
treat,  in case of necessity, and  capitulate with greater
advantage.
  DONOR, in law, the person who gives lands or te-
nements to another in  tail, kc.  as he to  whom such
lands, kc. arc given is the donee.
  DORJENA, a genus of the  pentandria  monogynia
class and order.  The cor. is  five-cleft; stigma  emargi-
nate; caps, one-celled.  There  is one species, a dwarf
tree about six feet high, a native of Japan.
   DORIC order, in architecture, the second of the five
orders, being that between the Tuscan and Ionic.  See
Architecture.
   Doric dialect,  in  grammar, one of the  five dia-
lects, or manners of speaking, which were  principally
in use among the Greeks.   It was first used by the La-
cedemonians, particularly  those of Argos;  afterwards
it passed into Epirus, Lybia, Sicily, and the islands of
Rhodes, Crete, &c.  According to the Doric dialect, the
vowels », i, «, a, are changed into «; the  dipthong « into
 a or «<;  and the consonants  /3 into >; £ into vt; » and t
 into t; t and f into  *;  x with  a * or •&• following it, into
v. Thus for <f»fcn, ff*x>a> **u<l'*<> P**<v*t*} kc they say <?>»«*,
 Tp«£«, xAct/oc, yx«p«p«, kc They likewise  change * into a,
 as xoy»  for *oy«; also «©- for ««/s, as Pecnxtvs for &*<r,\t@*;
 ta. at,  and mi, into », as *p»c for *g«*c, f>tx»c for f>tx««, and
 •ytxtt for ytAauc; with  other transmutations  of  tiie like
 nature.
   Doric  mode,  in music,  the first of the  authentic
 modes of the. ancients; its character is to be severe, tem-
 pered with gravity and joy; and is proper upon religious
 occasions, as also to be used in  war.
   DORIS, a genus of insects, belonging to the order
 of vermes testacea.  The body  is oblong,  flat  beneath,
 creeping: mouth placed below:  vent behind surrounded
 with a fringe: two feelers, retractile.  There  are seve-
 ral species.   The argo,  or  lemon  doris,  has an oval
 body, convex, marked with  numerous punctures, of a
 lemon-colour, the vent beset with elegant  ramifications.
 It inhabits different parts of  our seas, and  is  properly
 called the sea-lemon.   There are four species.
   DORMANT, in heraldry, is used for the posture of
 a lion, or any other beast, lying along in  a sleeping at-
 titude, with the head on the fore pawb; by  which it  is
 distinguished from the coiichant, where though the beast
 is lying, yet he holds up his head.
   DORMOUSE, in zoology.  See Mus, and Sciirars.
   DORccNICUM,  leopard's bane; a genus of poly-
 gamia superflua order, in the syngenesia class of plants;
 and in the natural method ranking under the  49th  or-
 der, composite.  The receptacle is naked, the pappus
 simple; the scales of the calyx  in a double row, longer
 than the disc.  The seeds of the radius naked without
 any pappus.  Tliere are three species;  of which  the
 only one worthy  of notice is the pardalianches, with
 obtuse heart-shaped loaves.   It grows naturally in Hun-
gary, and on the Helvetian mountains; but is frequently
preserved in  the English gardens.  It has thick fleshy
roots, which divide into many knobs or  knees, sending
out strong fleshy fibres which penetrate deep  into the
ground; from these arise in the spring a cluster of heart-
shaped leaves, which are hairy, and  stand upon  foot.
stalks: between these arise tbe flowerstalks, which are
channelled and hairy, near three feet high,  putting out
one or two smaller stalks from the side.  Each  stalk is
terminated by one large yellow flower.  The plant multi-
plies very fast by its spreading roots; and the seeds, if per-
mitted to scatter,   will produce plants wherever  tbey
happen to fall; so that it very soon becomes a weed in
the places where it is once established.  It loves a moist
soil and shady situation. The roots were formerly used
in medicine,  but their  operation was found so  violent
that they are now  entirely  laid aside.
   DORSAL muscles are  the muscles of the. back and
loins, which are for the most part common.
   DORSIFEROUS plants, among botanists, such as
arc of the capillary kind, without stalks, and wiiich bear
their seeds on the  back side of their leaves.
   DORSTENIA, contrayerva; a genus ofthe mo-
nogynia order, in  the tetrandia class of plants;  and in
the natural method ranking under the 53d order, scabri-
da.  Th e  receptacle is common, monophyllous, and
carnous; the seeds  lying singly in the carnous substance.
There are eight species, all of them low herbaceous
plants,  growing in the warm countries of America and
China.  The root is  used in medicine, under the name
of contrayerva.   It is full of knots; an inch or two  in
length; about half  an inch thick;  externally of a red-
dish-brown colour, and pale within; long, tough, slender
fibres shoot out from all sides of it, which are generally
loaded w ith small round knots.  The root has a peculiar
kind of aromatic   smell, and  a somewhat  astringent,
warm,  bitterish taste, with a light and sweetish kind of
acrimony when chewed.  The fibres have little taste or
smell; the tuberous part, therefore, should only be clio-
sm.   Contrayerva is indisputably a good and uscfcl di-
aphoretic.  Its virtues are extracted both by water and
rectified spirit, and do  not  arise by evaporation with
either.  The plants cannot be propagated in this coun-
try without the greatest difficulty.   See Plate L. Nat.
 Hist. fig. 173.
   DORSUM, back.   Sec Anatomy.
   DORYPHOllI. in antiquity, an appellation given to
the life-guard men of the Roman emperors.
   DOSiTHEANS, in church-history,  a sett among the
Hebrews, being one of the brane lies ofthe Samaritans.
They abstained from eating any creature that had life,
 and were so superstitious in  keeping the sabbath, that
they remained in  the  same place and  posture wherein
that day surprised them, without stirring till tbe next
 day. They married but once, and  a great number never
 married.  Dositheus, their  founder, being dissatisfied
 among the Jews,  retired to the Samaritans, who were
 reputed heretics, and invented another sect; and, to make
 it more authentic, he  went into a cave, where, by too
 long abstinence, he killed himself. The name of Oosithe-
 ans was also given to some of the disciples of Simon Ma-
 gus.
   DOSSER, in military matters, a sort of basket, car- 
D  0  U
DOW
ried on the shoulders of men, used in carrying the over-
plus earth from one  part  of  a  fortification  to another,
where it is wanted.
  DOSSIL, in surgery, lint made into a cylindric form,
used in dressing a disordered part.
  DOTE assionanda, in law, a writ that formerly lay
for a widow, on its being found by office, that the  king's
tenant was seized with lands in fee or tail at the time of
his  death, and that he  held of the king in chief, kc. in
which case the widow was to come into the court of chan-
cery,  and  there  make oath  that she would not  marry
without the king's leave; upon which  she had this writ
to the escheator, to assign her dower.
  Dote unde nihil habet,  a  writ of dower  which
the widow may have against  a person that  bought land
of her husband in his life-time, whereof he  was  seized
in fee simple or fee tail, and of which she is endowable.
  DOLT5LE-cast,  in husbandry, a term   used  by the
farmers for that method  of sowing that does not  dis-
pense the necessary quantity  of seed for a piece of land
 at one sowing, but requires going over every place twice.
 Sec Husbandry.
  Double  horizontal dial, one with a double gnomon,
 one of which points  out the hour on the outward  circle,
 and the other shows  the hour upon the sterographic pro-
jection drawn upon it. This  dial not only  finds the me-
 ridian hour, &c. hut shows the sun's place, rising  and
 setting, declination, amplitude,  altitude,  and azimuth,
 with many other  useful propositions.
  Double letter, in grammar, a letter which has the
 force and  effect  of two.  The Greeks have three of
 these, viz. z  e, ¥; the Latins  have two X and Z;  and
 most of the modern  languages have the same.
  Double plea, in law, is where the defendant in a
 suit alleges two several matters in  bar of the plaintiff's
 action, when one of  them is sufficient.  This is not ad-
 mitted in common law.  Thus,  when a person  pleads
 several things, the one having no dependance upon the
 other, such plea is accounted double, and will not  be ad-
 mitted; but where the things  pleaded,  mutually  depend
 on each other, and the party cannot have  the last plea
 without the first, there the whole shall be received.
   Double ojtarrel, is a complaint made by any clerk,
 or  other, to the archbishop of the province against an
 ordinary, for  delaying justice in any  cause ecclesiasti-
 cal: as to give sentence, to institute a clerk presented,
 or  the like: the effect  whereof is,  that the archbishop
 taking notice  of such delay, directs his letters under his
 authentic seal, to all and singular clerks of his province,
 thereby commanding and authorising them,  and  every
 of  them, to admonish the said  ordinary, within  a  cer-
 tain time, nine days, to do the justice required, or other-
 wise to cite them to appear before him the said arch-
 bishop, or his official, at a day in the  said  letters pre-
 fixed, and there to allege the cause of his  delay. And
 lastly, to intimate to the said ordinary, that if he  nei-
 ther perform the thing enjoined, nor appear at the  day
 assigned, he himself will, without delay, proceed  to per-
form the justice required; and this  seems to be  termed
a double quarrel, because it is  most commonly made
both against the  judge and hiin at whose  petition  jus-
tice is delayed.  Clark's Prax. Tit. 84, 5,
  Vol. I.               103
  Doubles, nearly the same  as  letters patent.   Stat.
14 H.  VI.
  DOUBLETS, a game on dice within tables: the men,
which are only fifteen, being placed thus; upon the sice,
cinque, and quarter  points, there stand three men a-
piece; and upon the trey, duce, and ace, only two.  He
that throws highest  has the benefit of throwing  first,
and what he throws he lays down, and so does the other:
what the one throws, and has  not, the other lays down
for him, but to  his own account; and thus  they  do till
all the men are down, and then they bear.   He that is
down  first bears first, and will doubtless win the game,
if the other throws not doublets to overtake him; which
he is sure to do, since he advances or bears as many as
the  doublets make, viz. eight for two fours.
  DOUBLING, in the military art, is  the putting two
ranks or files  of soldiers into one.  Thus,  when the
word of command is, double your  ranks,  the second,
fourth, and sixth ranks march  into the first, third, and
fifth, so that the six ranks are  reduced to three, and the
intervals between the ranks become double wdiat  they
were before. To double by half-files, is when the fourth,
fifth, and sixth  ranks march up to double the  first, se-
cond,  and third, or the contrary.   To  double the files
to the right, is  when every other file faces to the right,
and marches into the next file  to it, so that the six ranks
are turned into twelve,  and every file  is twelve deep.
To  double the files to the left, is when every other file
faces to the left, and inarches  into the  next.  In  dou-
bling  the files, the  distance between the files becomes
double.
  DOVE-tailing, in carpentry, is the manner of fas-
tening boards together by letting one piece into another,
in the form of the tail of a dove.   The  dovetail is the
strongest of the assemblages or jointings,  because the
tenon, or piece  of wood  which is put into the other,
goes widening  to the extreme,  so that it cannot  be
drawn out again, because the extreme or tip is larger
than the hole.
  DOUGLASSIA, a genus ofthe class  and order poly-
adelphia  polyandria.   The cal. is half six-cleft; cor.
none;  nect. six; filam. none; germ, superior; stigma six-
cleft; berry ovate, one-celled, seed one.  There is one
species, a shrub of Guiana.
  DOULEIA,  in Grecian antiquity, a  kind of punish-
ment among the Athenians, by which the criminal was
reduced to the  condition of a slave.  It never was in-
flicted but upon the mnpoi, sojourners, and freed servants.
  DOWER,  the portion which a widow has of the lands
of her husband, after his decease, for the sustenance of
herself, and the education of her children.
  To the consummation of dower, three things are ne-
cessary, viz.  marriage, seisin, and the husband's death.
  There were formerly five kinds of dower in Eng-
land, viz. 1.  Dawer by the common law. 2. Dower  by
custom. 3. Dower ad ostium ecclesia?. 4. Dower ex as-
sensu patris, and 5. Dower de la  plus belle.   But of
all these kinds  of dower, only the first two are now in
use.                                         N
  Dower by the common law, is  a third part of such
lands or tenements whereof the husband was sole seized
in fee-simple, or fee-tail,  during the marriage,  which
the wife is to enjoy during her life; for  which there lies 
DOW
D R A
a writ of dower.  See Distribution of Intestate's
Effects.
  Dower by custom varies according to the custom and
usage of the place, and is to be governed accordingly;
and where such custom prevails, the wife cannot wave
the provision thereby made for her, and claim her thirds
at common law, because all customs are equally ancient
with the common law itself.  Co.  Lit. 39 b.
   Dower  ad ostium ccclesise, is where anum of full age,
seized of  lands in fee, after marriage, endows his  wife
at the church-door ofa moiety, a third, or other part of
his lands, declaring them in certainty; in which case, af-
ter her husband's death, she may  enter into  such lands
without any other assignment, because the  solemn as-
signment at the Church-door is equivalent to the assign-
 ment in pais by metes  and bounds; but this  assignment
cannot he made before marriage, because before, she is
 not entitled to dower.  Lit. sect.  39.
   Dower ex essensu  patris, is  where the father is seized
 of land in fee; and his son and heir apparent after mar-
riage endows his wife by his father's  assent, ad ostium
 ecc lesise, of a certain quantity of them; in which  case,
 after the  death ofthe son, his  wife may enter into such
 parcel  without any other assignment, though the father
 be living; but  this assent of the father's must be  by
 <]ccd,becausc his estate is to be charged  in futuro, and
 this  may likewise be of more than a third part.  Co.
 Lit. 55, 36.'
   The dowers ad ostium ecclesise, or ex assensu patris,
 if the wife enter  and assent to them, are a  good bar of
 her in common law;  but she may,  if she will,  wave
 them,  and claim her dower  at common law, because
 being made after marriage, she is not bound  by them.
 Br. 97.
   Dower de la plus belle, is where there is a guardian
 in chivalry, and  the wife occupies lands of the heir as
 guardian in soccage: if the wife  bring a wTrit of dower
 against such  guardian in chivalry, he may show this
 matter, and  pray that the wife may be endowed de la
plus belle ofthe tenements in soccage, and it will be ad-
judged accordingly;  and the reason of this endowment
 was to prevent the dismembering of the lands holden in
 chivalry, which are  pro bono  publico, and  for the de-
 fence of  the realm.  Lit. sect. 48.
   After judgment given, the  wife may take her neigh-
 bours,  and in their presence endow herself of the plus
belle, or  fairest part, of the tenements which she has in
soccage,  for her life.   Lit. sect. 48.
   DOWN, the fine feathers from the breasts of several
birds, particularly of the duck kind.  That of the ei-
der duck  (see Anas) is the most valuable.  These  birds
pluck it from their breasts,  and line their nests with  it.
We are told that the quantity of down found in one nest
more than filled the crown of a  hat, yet weighed no more
than  three quarters of an ounce.   Three pounds of this
down may be  compressed into a space scarcely larger
than  one's fist;  yet is afterwards so dilatable as to  fill a
quilt  five feet square.   That found  in the nests is  most
valued, and termed live down;  itis infinitely more  elas-
tic than that plucked  from the  dead  bird, wbich is  little
esteemed in Iceland.  The best sort is sold at 45 fish per
pound when cleansed, and at 16  when not cleansed. Thfcre
are generally exported every year, on the company's ac-
count, 1500 or 2000 lb. of both sorts, exclusive of what
is privately exported by foreigners.  In 1750, the Ice-
land company s Id as much in quantity of this article as
amounted to 3745  banco dollars, besides what was sent
directly to Gluckstadt.
  DOWNS, a bank or elevation of sand, which the sea
gathers and forms along its shores,  and which serves it
as a barrier.
  DOWRY, in ancient time, applied to that which the
wife brings her husband in marriage,  otherwise called
maritagium, or marriage-goods; but these are termed
more properly goods  given in marriage, and the mar-
riage-portion.   1 Inst. 31.
  Dowry, is used in a mmastic sense for a sum of mo-
ney given along with a maid, upon entering her in some
religious order.  In France, the dowry of persons en-
tcring a monastery, to make profession of a  religious
life, was limited by law.  That given upon entering a
monastery of  Carmelites, Ursulines, and others not re-
gularly founded, but established since the year 1600, by
letters patent, did  not exceed the sum of 8000 livres io
towns where parliaments were held, nor 6000 in other
places.
  DRABA, a genus of  the siliculosa order,  in the te-
tradynamia class of plants, and in  the natural method
ranking under the  39th  order, siliquosa. The silicula
is entire, and oval-oblong; with the valves a little plane,
parallel to the partition; there is  no style.  There are
nine species; of which the only one  worthy of notice is
the verna, or early whitlow-grass. It has naked stalks,
with leaves a little serrated.  The blossoms are white,
and at night the flowers hang down.   It grows on old
walls and dry  banks.  It  is one of  the earliest-flower-
ing plants we have, and is good to eat as asalad. Goats,
sheep, and horses eat it; cows are not  fond of it; swine
refuse it.
  DRABLER, in the sea language, a small sail in a
ship, which is  the same  to a bonnet  that a bonnet is to
a course,  and is only  used when the course and bonnet
are too shoal to clothe the mast.
  DRABLING, in  angling, is a method of catching
barbels.   Take a strong line of six yards,  which, be-
fore you fasten to your rod, must be  put through a piece
of lead, that if the fish bite it may slip to and fro, and
that tbe water  may something move it on the ground.
Bait with a lob-worm well secured, that by  its motion
the barbel may be enticed into the danger without sus-
picion. The best places are in running water near piles,
or under  wooden bridges, supported with oaks floated
and slimy.
  DRABS, in  the salt-works, a kind of wooden boxes
for holding the salt when taken out  of the boiling-pan.
The bottoms of them are made shelving or inclining for-
wards, that tu~ u -iny moisture of the salt may drain off*
  DRACJENA, a genus of the monogynia order, in the
hexandria class of plants. The corolla is sexpartite and
erect; the filaments a little thicker about the middle; the
berry trilocular and monospermous.  There are 14 spe-
cies, most of them having the habit of the palms, and
one of them at least (the D. draco, which is a magnifi-
cent plant, or rather tree) affording  a red powder, like
the eastern dragon's-blood.   See that article.
  DRACHM,  a Grecian coin, of (he  value of 14 <& 
D R A
D R A
Drachm is also a weight used by our physicians; con-
taining just sixty grains, three scruples, or the eighth
part of an ounce.
  DRACO,  the dragon, in zoology, a genus belonging
to the order of amphibia reptilia; the characters of which
are these: it  has four legs, a  cylindrical tail, and two
membranaceous  wings,  radiated like the fins of a fish,
by which he is enabled to fly,  but not to any great dis-
tance at a time.   There are two species.
   1.  The volans, or flying-dragon, with the wings  en-
tirely distinct from the fore-legs.   It is found in Africa
and the East Indies.
   2. The prapos, with the wings fixed to the fore-legs.
It is a native of America. They are both harmless little
creatures, and feed upon flics,  ants, and small insects.
 See  Plate L. Nat. Hist. fig. 174.
   Draco volans, in meteorology,  a fiery  exhalation,
 frequent in marshy and cold countries.   It is most com-
 mon in summer; and though principally seen playing near
 the banks of rivers, or in boggy places, yet sometimes
 mounts up to a considerable height in the air, to the no
 small terror of the amazed beholders; its appearance  be-
 ing that of an oblong, sometimes roundish,  fiery body,
 with a long tail. It is entirely harmless, frequently stick-
 ing  to the hands  and clothes of  people without injuring
 them in the least.
   Draco, in astronomy, a constellation of the northern
 hemisphere, whose stars, according to Ptolemy, are  81;
 according to Tycho, 32;  according to Hevelius, 40; ac-
 cording to Bayer, 33; and acoording to Mr.  Flamsteed,
  80.   See Astronomy.
   DRACOCEPOALUM, dragon's-head,  a genus of
  thegymnospermia order, in tbe didynamia class of plants.
  The throat of the corolla  is inflated, the upper lip con-
  cave.  There arc 15 species,  most of them herbaceous,
  annual, or perennial plants, from 18 inches to three  feet
  high, mostly with entire leaves and whorled spikes of
  small monopetalous and ringcnt flowers, of a blue, white,
  or purple colour.  They are all easily  propagated  by
  seeds, which may be sown cither  in the spring or  au-
 tumn; and after the plants are come up,  they will  re-
  quire no other culture but to be. kept clear from weeds.
  The D. canariense is well known by the name of balm
  of Gilcad.
   DRACONARIUS. in antiquity, dragon-bearer. Seve-
  ral  nations, as the Persians, Parthians, Scythians,  &c.
  bnrc dragons on their standards;  whence the standards
  themselves were called dracones, dragons.  The Romans
  borrowed the same  custom from the Parthians; or, as
  Casaubon has it, from  the Dac\r; or, as Codin, from
  the Assyrians.   The Roman  dracones were figures of
  dragons painted in  red  on their flags, as appears from
  Aiiimianus Marcellinus:  but  among the Persians  and
  Parthians they  were like the  Roman eagles, figures in
  full relievo;  so that the Romans were frequently deceiv-
  ed,  and took them  for real dragons.  The  soldier who
  bore the dragon or standard, was called by the Romans
  draconanus; and by the Greeks <fp«*o»ap*«c and J,f»K«*Tu»<p6f«^
 for the emperors carried the custom with them  to Con-
 stantinople.
   DRACONT1UM. dragons, a genus of the polyandria
 order, in the gynandria class of plants, and in the  na-
 tural method ranking under the first order, palma?. The
spatha is cymbiform, or shaped like a boat; the spadix
covered all over; there is no calyx; there are five petals;
the berries polyspermous.   There are  five  species, all
natives of the Indies.  The only one  which makes  any
appearance is the pentusum, with leaves having holes,
and a climbing  stalk.  This is a native of  most of the
West India islands.   It  has trailing stalks,  which put
out roots  at  every joigit, that fasten to the trunks of
trees, walls, or any support which is near them, and by
that means  rise to the height of 25  or 30 feet.  The
leaves are placed alternately upon long footstalks: they
are four or five inches long, two and a half  broad,  and
have several oblong  holes in each, which at first sight
appear as if eaten by insects, but they arc natural to
the leaves.  The flowers are produced at the top of the
stalk, which always swells to a much larger  size in that
part than  in any  other: these are  covered with an ob-
long spatha or hood  of a  whitish-green colour,  which
opens longitudinally on  one side, and shows the pistil,
which is closely  covered with flowers of a pale yell >\\,
inclining to white.  This plant is easily propagated hy
cuttings, which if planted in pots filled witty  poor sandy
earth, and plunged  into a  hot-bed,  will s'oon  put  out
roots; but the plants  are so  tender,  that they must be
preserved in  a stove.
  DRACUNCULI,  in medicine, small long  worms,
which breed in the muscular parts of the arms and legs,
called Guinea-worms.
  This distemper is very common in  Guinea, and prin-
cipally among the  natives: Kempfer found  it also at
Ormuz, upon  the Persian Gulph, and likewise in Tar-
tary.   Dr. Tawne,  in his Treatise on  the  Diseases of
the West Indies,  informs  us, that this distemper is not
so frequent any where as  on the gold-coast, at Anama-
boe, and Cormantyn.  The worm is white,  round, and
uniform, very much  resembling white  round tape, or
bobbin.   It is lodged  between the interstices and mem-
branes of the  muscles, where it insinuates itself,  some-
times exceeding five ells in length. It occasions no great
pain at the beginning; but at such times as it  is ready
to make its exit, the part adjoining to the extremity of
the worm, where it attempts its exclusion, begins to
swell, throb,  and  be inflamed:  this  generally  happens
about the ancle,  leg,  or thigh,  and rarely higher.
  The countries where this distemper is observed, are
very hot and sultry, liable to great droughts, and the in-
habitants make use of stagnating and corrupted  water,
in which it is  very probable that the ova of these ani-
mate ula  may  be contained; for the  white  people who
drink this water arc obnoxious to the disease as well as
the negroes.
  The surgeons  seldom attempt to extract this worm by
making an incision;  but as soon as they perceive the tu-
mour rise to  a competent bulk, they  endeavour to bring
it to a suppuration, with all convenient expedition;  and
then the head of the worm discovers itself,  which they
secure, by tying it to a bit of stick or cotton, that it may
not draw itself up again: thus they  continue to rool it
round the stick, sometimes one inch, sometimes  two or
more,  each day, taking  great care  not to break  the
worm, else it will be very difficult to recover the end of
it again; and an abc ess will be formed, not only at the
suppurated part,  but likewise through the whole wind- 
DRA
0  R A
ing of the muscles, where the dead putrifying worm re-
mains, wdiich generally occasions very obstinate ulcers.
During the extraction of the worm, the patient should
be plied with bitter aloetic and other anthelmintic medi-
cines, in order to dislodge the worm the sooner from his
tenement.  When the worm is totally extracted, the re-
maining ulcer may  be treated in the same manner as
other common ulcers;  nor does^any farther  inconveni-
ence remain in the parts of which it bad possession. This
disease, simply considered, very rarely, if ever, proves
mortal.
  DRAG, in sea language, is a machine consisting of a
sharp, square, iron ring, encircled with a net, and com-
monly used to take the wheel off from  the platform or
bottom of the decks.
  DRAGOMAN, or Drogman, a term of general use
through the East, for an interpreter whose office is to fa-
cili'jtte commerce between the orientals and occidentals.
These are kept by the ambassadors of Christian nations
residing at the  Porte for this purpose.  The  word  is
formed from the  Arabic targeman or targiman,  of the
verb taragem, he has interpreted.   From dragoman the
Italians formed dragomano, and, with a nearer relation
to its Arabic etymology, turcimanno; whence the French
and our trucheman,  as well  as dragoman  and drogman.
  DRAGON'shead and tail, are the nodes of the planets,
or the two points  wherein the ecliptic is  intersected by
the orbits of the planets, and particularly that  of the
moon; making with it angles of five degrees and eigh-
teen  minutes.  One of these points  looks northward,
tbe moon  beginning then to have northward latitude; and
the other southward, where she commences south.  Thus
her deviation from the ecliptic seems (according to the
fancy of some) to make a figure like that of a dragon,
whose belly is where she has the greatest latitude; the
intersection representing the head and tail, from  which
resemblance the  denomination arises.   But  it must be
observed that these points abide not always in one place,
but have a motion of their own in the zodiac and retro-
gradewise,  three minutes eleven seconds per day, com-
pleting their circle in 18 years 225 days: so  that the
moon can be but  twice in the ecliptic during her month-
ly period, but at all other times she will have a latitude
or declination from the ecliptic.  It is about these points
of  intersection that all eclipses happen.   They are usu-
ally denoted hy these characters, Q dragon's head, and
25  dragon's tail.
   Dragon,  in zoology.  See Draco.
   Dragon's blood, a gummy resinous substance  so cal-
led, which is brought from the East Indies, either in oval
drops wrapped up in flag leaves, or in large masses com-
posed of smaller tears.   It is said to be obtained from
the palmijuneus draco, the calamus rotang, the dracena
draco, the  pterocarpus  draco, and several other vege-
tables.  In the present practice of  medic ine, it is  very
little if at all used, either externally or internally.  A
solution of dragon's-blood in spirit of wine is  used for
staining marble,  to which  it gives a red tinge,  which
penetrates more or less deeply'according to the heat  of
the marble  during the time  of application.  But  as it
spreads at the same time that it sinks deep, for fine de-
signs the marble &heuld be cold.   M. du Fay says, that
by adding pitch to this solution the colour may be ren-
dried deeper.
  Dragon-fly.   See Libellula.
  Dragon-shell, in natural history, a name given by
people curious in shells to a species of concamerated pa-
tella or limpet.  This has a top very much bent, and is
of an ash-colour on the outside, but  of  an elegant and
bright flesh-colour  within.   It has been found sticking
on the back of a tortoise, as the common limpets do on
the sides of rocks,  and some have been found affixed to
large shells of  the pinna marina.
   DRAGONNE'E,  in  heraldry: a  lion dragonne'e is
where the  upper half resembles  a lion, the other half
going off like the hinder part of a dragon.  The same may
be said of any other beast as well  as  a lion.
   DRAGOON, in military affairs, a musquetcer mount-
ed on horseback, who sometimes  fights or marches on
foot,  as occasion requires.   Menage derives the word
dragoon from tlie latin draconarius,  which in  Vegctius
is used to signify soldier.   But it is  more probably de-
rived from the German targen or dragen, which signifies
to carry, as being infantry carried on horseback.  Dra-
goons are divided into brigades as the cavalry,  and each
regiment into troops, each troop having a captain, lieu-
tenant, cornet, quarter-master, two Serjeants, three cor-
porals,  and two  drummers:  some regiments have haut-
boys.   They are very useful on any  expedition that re-.
quires despatch; for  they can keep pace with the caval-
ry, and do  the duty of infantry.   They encamp gener-
ally on the wings of the  army, or at  the passes leading
to the camp; and sometimes they are brought to  cover
the general's quarters: they march in the front and rear
of the army.   The first  regiment of  dragoons raised in
England was in  1681, and  called  the regiment of dra-
goons of North Britain.   In battle or attacks they gen-
erally fight sword in band after the first fire.
   DRAGOONING,  one of the methods  used by papists
for converting refractory  heritics, and  bringing  them
within the pale of the Romish church.  The following
method of dragooning the French protestants after the
revocation of the edict of Nantes, underLouis-XIV. is
taken from  a French work, translated in  1686.  The
troopers, soldiers, and dragoons,  went into the protes-
tants'  houses, where they  marred  and defaced  their
household-stuff,  broke their looking-glasses and  other
utensils and ornaments,  let their  wine run about their
cellars, and threw about their corn and spoiled it. And
as  to those things which they could  not destroy in this
manner, such as furniture of beds, linen,  wearing-ap-
parel, plate, kc. they carried them to the market-place,
and sold them to the Jesuits and other Roman-catholics.
By these  means the protestants  in  Montaubon  alone
were stripped of above  a million of money.   But this
was not the worst.   They turned the dmning-rooms of
gentlemen into stables for their horses;  and treated the
owners of the houses where they quartered with the high-
est indignity and cruelty, lashing them about  from one
to another, day  and  night,  without intermission, net
suffering them to eat  or drink;  and when they began to
sink under  the fatigue and  pains they had undergone,
they laid them on a bed; and when they thought them
somewhat recovered,  made  them rise, and repeated the 
D R  A
D R A
game  tortures.  When they saw the blood and sweat run
down  their faces and other parts of their bodies,  they
sluiced them with water; and putting over their heads
kettle-drums turned upside down, they made a continual
din upon them, till these unhappy creatures lost their sen-
ses. To recount all the ingenious cruelties exercised in
the practice of dragooning by these religious savages,
would curdle the blood of even the most insensible.
   DRAGS,  in  the sea language,  are whatever hangs
over the ship in the sea, as shirts, coats, or the like; and
boats  when towed, or whatever el.-e after this manner
may hinder  the ship's way when she sails, are called
drags.
   DRAINING, the art of clearing wet and boggy lands
of tiieir superfluous moisture, an art of the highest im-
portance not only to the agriculture, but to the health of
a country. Itis only in modern times that the principles
of this art have been  well understood, and it seems yet
susceptible of great improvement.
   Land becomes charged with moisture from two causes:
1. From water collected in thejhigher grounds, and filtrat-
ing among the different beds of gravel and other porous
materials, forming springs below, and flowing over the
surface, or stagnating underneath  it. 2. From  rain or
water lodging  and becoming stagnant  on the surface,
from  the clayey or impervious nature ofthe soil or su-
perior statum.  The first of their causes bogs, swamps,
and morasses, and is the most difficult to be remedied.
   It may  be laid down  as a  maxim, that  springs are
formed in the bowels of tbe earth, by water percolating
through the strata where they are of a  porous texture,
and it continues to descend till it  meets with a stratum of
clay that intercepts it  in its course; where, being collect-
ed in large quantities,  it  is forced to  seek a passage
through the porous strata of sand, gravel, or rock, that
may be above the clay, following  the course of these stra-
ta till they approach the  surface  of the earth, or are in-
terrupted by any obstacle which occasions the water to
rise, thus forming springs, bogs,  and the other phenome-
 na of this nature; which being variously diversified in dif-
 ferent circumstances, produce that variety of appearan-
ces in this respect that we often  meet with.
   This being the case, we may naturally conclude, that
an abundant spring need never be expected in any coun-
try that is covered to a great depth with sand without any
stratum of clay to force it upwards, as is the case in the
sandy deserts of Arabia, and the  immeasurable plains of
L\ bia: neither are we to expect abundant springs in any
soil that consists of an uniform bed of clay from the sur-
face to a great depth; for it must always be in some porous
stratum that the water  flows  in abundance; and it can
he made to flow horizontally in that, only when it is sup-
ported by  a stratum of clay, or  other substance that is
equally impermeable by water.   Hence  the rationale of
that rule so universally established in digging for wells,
that if you begin with  sand or gravel, &c.  you need sel-
dom hope to find water till you come to clay; and if you
begin  with c lay, you can hope for none in abundance till
)on reach to sand, gravel, or rock.
  It is necessary that the farmer should attend to this pro-
cess of nature with care,  as his success in draining bogs
and every species of damp and spouting ground, will in a
great  measure depend upon his  thorough knowledge of
this, hid acuteness in perceiving in every case the valua-
tions that may be occasioned by particular circumstances,
and  his skill in varying the plan of his operations accor-
ding to these. As the variety of cases that may occur in
this respect is very great, it would be a tedious task t«
enumerate the whole, and describe the particular method
of treating each; we shall  therefore content ourselves
with enumerating a few particular cases to show in what
manner the principles above-established may be applied ta
practice.
  Let fig. 57, Plate XLIV. Miscel. represent a  perpen-
dicular section ofa part of the earth, in which AB is the
surface of the ground, beneath which are several strata
of porous substances that allow the water to sink through
them till it reaches the line  CD, that is supposed to repre-
sent the upper surface of a  solid bed of clay; above which
lies a stratum of rock, sand, or gravel. In this case it is
plain that when the water reaches the bed of clay, and can
sink no farther, it must be there accumulated into a body;
and seeking for itself a passage, it  flows  along the sur-
face of the clay,  among the sand or gravel,  from D to-
wards  C; till at last it issues forth, at the opening  A, a
spring of pure water.
  If the quantity of water that is accumulated between D
and C  is not very considerable, and the stratum of clay
approaches near the surface; in that case the  whole of it
will issue by the opening at A, and the ground will remain
dry both  above and below it. But if the quantity of water
is so great as  to  raise it to a considerable  height in the
bed of sand or gravel, and  if that stratum of sand is not
discontinued before it reaches the surface of the ground,
the water,  in  this case,  would not only issue at A, but
would  likewise ooze out in  small  streams through every
part of the ground  between A  and a, forming a barren
patch of wet sandy or gravelly ground upon the side of a
declivity, which every attentive observer must have fre-
quently met with.
  To drain a piece of ground in this situation is perhaps
the most unprofitable task  that a farmer can engage in,
not only because it is difficult to execute, but also because
the soil that is gained is but of very little value.  It is
lucky,  however,  that  patches of this kind are seldom of
great  breadth, although they sometimes  run along the
side of a  declivity in a horizontal direction for a great
length. The only effectual method of draining this kind
of ground, is to open a disch as high up as the highest of
the springs at a,  which should be of such a depth as not
only to penetrate through the whole bed of sand or grav-
el, but  also to sink so far into the bed of clay below, as to
make a canal in it sufficiently large to contain and carry
off the water. Such a ditch is represented by the dotted
lines aex>: but as  the expense of  making a ditch of  such
a depth  as this would suppose, and of keeping it after-
wards  in repair, is very great, it is  but in very few cases
that this  mode of draining would be  advisable; and never,
unless  where the declivity happens to be so  small as that
a great surface is lost for little depth, as would have been
the case  here if the surface  had extended in the direction
of the dotted line  ad.
  But supposing that the stratum of clay, after approach-
ing towards the surface at A. continued to keep at a lit-
tle depth below ground; and that the soil which lay above
it was of a sandy or spongy nature, so as to allow the 
DRAINING.
water to penetrate it easily; even supposing the quantity
of water that flowed from D to C was but very inconside-
rable, instead of rising out at the spring A, it would flow
forward along the surface of the clay among the porous
earth that  forms  the soil, so as  to  keep it constantly
drenched with water, and of consequence render it of ve-
ry little value.
  Wetness  arising from this cause is usually of  much
greater extent than the former; and as it admits of an
easy cure, it ought not to be delayed;  as a ditch of a ve-
ry moderate depth opened at A,  and carried through a
part of the stratum of clay (as represented by the dotted
lines A kf), would intercept and  carry off the whole  of
the water, and render the field as dry as could be  desir-
ed. It is, therefore, of very great consequence to the far-
mer  accurately to distinguish  between these two cases,
so nearly allied to each other in appearance; and as this
can be easiest done by boring, every one who has much
 ground of this kind ought to provide himself with a set
of boring-irons,   which he will likewise  find use for  on
other occasions.
   We might  here enumerate a great variety  of  cases
■which might be reduced to the same head w ith the forego-
ing; but  as any attentive reader may, after what has
been said, be able easily to distingush these, we shall on-
ly in general observe, that every  soil of a soft and porous
 texture that lies  upon a bed of hard  clay, whatever  its
 situation in other respects may be, will in some measure
 be subjected to this disease. And if it is upon a declivity
 of any  considerable length, the undermost parts of the
 field will be much damaged by it,  unless ditches are
 thrown up across the declivity at proper distances from
 one another, to intercept the water in its  descent.
   It may likewise be not improper here  to observe, that
 in cases of this nature, unless where the soil is of a very
 great depth, the malady w ill always be increased by rais-
 ing the ridges to a considerable  height;  as will appear
 evident by examining fig.  58. in which  the line AB  re-
 presents the surface of a field of this nature, and CD the
 surface of the bed of clay. Now  if this field was  raised
 into high ridges,  as at FFF, so  that the furrows  EEE
 descended below the  surface of the clay, it is plain that
 all the wrater that should sink through the middle of  the
 ridge, would run along the surface of the clay till it came
 totbe sides ofthe ridge LLLLLL, which would thus be
 kept continually  soaked with water.  Whereas,  if  the
 ground had been  kept level,  as  in the part of the field
 from G to H, with open furrows H,  at moderate distan-
 ces from each other, the water would immediately sink
 to the clay, and  be carried off by the furrows, so as to
 damage the soil  far less than when the  ridges are high.
 If the soil is so thin as that the plough can always touch
 the clay, the ridges ought to be  made narrow and quite
 flat, as from G to H: but if there is a little greater depth
 of soil, then it ought to be raised into ridges of a mode-
 rate height, as  from H to B, so as to allow the  bottom
 of the furrow to  reach the  clay: but neither is this  ne-
 cessary where the soil is of any considerable depth.
    Some industrious farmers having ground in this situa-
 tion, have been  at the very  great  expense of making a
 covered drain,in each furrow.  But, had  they rightlv  un-
 derstood  the nature  of  the disease, they never would
 have thought of applying such a  remedy, as must  appear
evident at first sight to those who examine the figure.
Tbe success was what might be expected from such a
foolish undertaking.
  These observations, it is hoped, will be sufficient as to
the manner of treating w et, sandy, or porous  soils. We
now proceed to take notice of such as are ofa stiff clayey
nature, which are often very different in appearance,
and require a different treatment, from these.
   Suppose that the stratum of sand or gravel DC, fj<».
59. should be discontinued, as at E, and that the stratum
above it should be of a coherent clayey  nature: in this
case, the water that flowed towards E, being there pent
in on  every  side, and being accumulated tliere in great
quantities, it must at length force a passage for itself hi
some way; and pressing strongly upon the upper surface,
if any one part is weaker than the  rest, it there would
burst forth and form a spring (as suppose at A). But if
the  texture of  every part of  this stratum  was equally
strong, the  water would squeeze  through  many small
crannies, and would ooze out in numberless places, as be-
tween A and F, so as to occasion that kind of wetness
that is known by the name of a spouting clayey soil.
   The cure, in this case, is much more  easily effected
than in any of tbe former; for if a ditch of  a considera-
ble  size is opened, as at A,  towards the lowermost side
ofthe spouting ground, so deep as to penetrate through
the upper stratum of clay, and reach to the gravel, the
water will rise up through it at first with very great vio-
lence, but will gradually decrease as  the pressure from
the water behind is diminished; and when the whole of
the water accumulated in this subterraneous reservoir is.?
 run off, there being no longer any pressure upon the clay
 above it, the whole soon becomes  as dry as could be At-
 sired, and  continues so  ever  afterwards, if the ditch is
 always kept open.
   It will hardly be necessary in this place to put the far-
 mer upon his guard to be particularly careful  in his ob-
 servations, that he may distinguish between the wetness
 which is produced from this cause, and that which pro-
 ceeds from the cause before-mentioned: because the treat-
 ment that would cure the one would be of no use at all to
 the other. The  attentive observer likewise will readily
 perceive, that if any  field that is wet from this cause ad-
 mits of being ploughed, it will be in equal danger of be-
 ing hurt by being raised into high ridges with the other
 kind of damp ground before-mentione^. For as the depth
 of  earth above the reservoir would be smaller  in the
 deep  furrows than any where else, there would be less
 resistance to the water  in that place, so that it would
 rise there in greater  abundance.  And if, in this case, a
 farmer should dig a drain in each furrow,  as a conside-
 rable quantity of water would rise into them, in some
 cases, the ground  might  be  improved or  even quite
 drained by it, especially if they should have  accidental-
 ly  reached the gravel in any one place, although at  aa
 expense much greater than was necessary. We take no-
 tice of this circumstance, in some measure to prevent the
 prejudice that  some inattentive observers  might enter-
 tain  against what was  said  before of this  method of
 draining, from their having accidentally seen  some fields
 that may have been bettered by it.
     B <gs are only a variety of this  last-mentioned  kind of
 wet ground, and therefore ought in general to  be drain- 
DRAINING.
ed after the. same manner with them. Clay is a substance
that  strongly resists the entrance of water into it; but
when itis long drenched with it, it is, in process of time,
in some measure dissolved by  it,  loses its firmness of
texture and consistence, and becomes a sort of semifluid
mass, wbich is called a bog; and as these arc sometimes
covered with a strong scurf of a particular kind of grass,
With very matted  roots, which is strong enough to bear
a small weight without breaking, although it yields very
much,  it is in  these circumstances called a shake-bog.
But whatever is the nature of the bog, it  is invariably
occasioned  by water being forced up through  a bed of
clay, as just now described, and dissolving or  softening
a part of it: we say only a part, because whatever may
be the  depth of the bog or  swaggle, it generally has a
 partition of solid clay between it and the reservoir of wa-
 ter under it, whence it originally  proceeds: for if this
 was not the case, and the quantity of water was conside-
 nable, it  would meet  with  no sufficient  resistance from
 the  bog,  and would  issue  through it with  violence, and
 carry the whole semifluid  mass along with it.  But  this
 would  more inevitably be the case if there was a crust at
 the  bottom of the bog, and if that crust should  ever be
 broken, especially if the quantity of water under it was
  very considerable: and as it is probable that, in may
  cases of  this   sort, the water  slowly   dissolves more
  and more  of  this  under-crust,   we  make  no doubt
 thiit, in the revolution  of  many ages, a  great many
  eruptions of this kind may have  happened,  although
  tbey may not have been deemed of importance enough to
  have the  history of them transmitted  to posterity.  Of
  this kind, although formed of a different substance, we
  consider the flow of the Solway-moss in Northumberland
  to have been; which, upon the 16th of  November 1771,
  burst its former boundaries, and  poured forth a prodi-
  gious stream of semifluid matter, which in a short time
  covered several hundred acres of very fine arable ground.
  Nor will any one who is  acquainted with the nature of
  moss,  who knows its resemblance to clay in its quality
  of absorbing and retaining water, and its very easy dif-
  fusibility in it, be surprised at this; as, from  all these
  properties, it is much better adapted for forming an ex-
  tensive bog, and therefore in greater danger of produc-
  ing an extensive devastation  by an eruption ofthe water
  into it, than those that are formed  of  any kind of clay
  whatever.
   If the bog or swampy ground is upon a  declivity, the
  ditch ought to be carried ac toss the field about the place
  *hcrc the lowest springs arise. But if the surface ofthe
  ground is level, or nearly so, as between A and B, fig.
  60.  and the springs break out in several places, qqqqqq,
  so as to  form  soft quagmires  interspersed through the
  whole ofthe field, it will be of little consequence in what
 p'U'tthc drain is opened; for if it is dug up so deep as
  t« allow the water to rise  in it with  freedom,  it will is-
 sue  through that opening,  and the field will be left per-
 fectly dry.
   But as it may frequently  happen that the stratum of
 gravel is at a considerable depth beneath the surface of
 the earth, ;md  as it may be sometimes even below the le-
 vel of the place into which the  drain must be emptied, it
 must sometimes be extremely difficult to make a ditch
 9o deep as to reach the bed of sand or gravel.  But it is
lucky for us that this is not absolutely necessary in frit
present case; as a drain of two or thr 'c feet deep, as at
D, will be equally effectual with one  that should go  to
the gravel. All that is necessary in this case is, to  sink
pits (P) in the course of the drain, at a modorate distance
from  one another, which go so deep as to reach the
gravel; for as the water there meets with no  resistance,
it readily flows out at these openings, and is carried off
by the drain without being forced  up through the earth,
so that the ground is left entirely dry  ever after.
  Let it be carefully noted, that if you attempt to make
your pit in one of these soft  quaggy places  where the
water is found in great abundance, you  will meet  with
very great difficulty in  forming it; for as the substance
of which it is  composed is soft, it  will always flow into
the hole as fast as you dig it; on which account we should
advise not to attempt  to make the  pit in the swaggle or
shake-bog, but as near it in the solid  earth as you  con-
veniently  can.  However, if it is pretty firm, and of no
great extent, it is sometimes practicable to make a pit ia
the soft bog at the  driest time of the year.  This  soft
quaggy ground  has seldom been  found  above three or
four feet deep, below which there is always found a stra-
tum of hard tough clay, usually mixed with stones,  and
so firm that nothing  but a mattock or pick-axe could
penetrate  it; and as this is comparatively so much drier
than the ground above it, an inexperienced  operator is
very apt to imagine that this is the bottom that he is in
search of. In digging through this stratum, you will fr6r
quently meet with small springs oozing out in all direc-
tions; some of them that  might fill the tube  of a small
quill, and others  so small as to be scarcely perceptible:
but without regarding these,  you must continue to dig
on without intermission till you come to the  main body
of the reservoir, if we may so call it, that is contained
in the rock, gravel, or  sand, which  you will generally
find from two to four feet  below the bottom of the swag-
gle,  and which  you will  be in no  danger of  mistaking
when you come to it; for if there has been no opening
made before that in the  field,  as soon as you break the
crust immediately above the gravel or rock, the water
bursts forth like a torrent, and on some occasions rises
like a jet-d'eau to a considerable height above the bottom
of the ditch, and continues to flow off with great impe-
tuosity for some time, till the pent-up water being drain-
ed off, the violent boiling up begins to subside,  and the
strength of the current to abate; and in a short time it
flows gently out like an ordinary spring:  allowing  it to
remain in this state, the quaggy earth begins  to subside,
and gradually becomes firmer and firmer every day;  so
that, in the space of a few  months, those bogs which were
formerly so soft as hardly to support the weight of a small
dog, become so firm, that oxen and horses may tread upon
them without any danger  of sinking, at the very wettest
season of the  year.  We have known a field  of this na-
ture that, by having only one such pit as has now  been
described opened in it,  was entirely  drained to the dis-
tance of above a hundred yards around it in every di-
rection. But as it is  possible  that the stratum in-which
the water runs may be in some places interrupted, it will
be in general expedient to make several of these pits, if
the field is of great extent, always carrying the drain
forward through the lowermost part of the  field,  or as 
DRAINING.
near the quag as y«u conveniently can, and sinking a pit
wherever you may judge it will be most necessary. But
if the stratum of gravel is not interrupted, there will be
no violent  burst of water at opening  any of these  after
the first. To keep these wells from closing up after they
are  made, it is always expedient to fill  thein  up with
small stones immediately  after they are  made, which
ought to rise to the height of the bottom of the drain.
  If the whole field that is to be drained consists of one
extensive bog, it will require a long time before the whole
work can be entirely finished, as it will be impossible to
open a drain through it till one part of it is first drain-
ed, and becomes solid ground.  In  a  situation  of this
kind, the undertaker, after having opened a drain to con-
vey the water from the lowest part of the bog, must ap-
proach  as  near to the swampy  ground as he can, and
there make his first pit, which  will drain off the water
from the nearest parts of the bog.  When this has con-
tinued open  for some time, and that part of  the bog is
become so solid as to admit of being  worked, let him
continue the ditch as far forward through it as the situ-
ation it is  in will admit of, and there sink another pit,
and proceed  gradually  forward in  the same manner,
making cross-cuts where necessary, till the whole is fin-
ished.
   In this  manner  may any bog or track of spouting
ground of this nature be rendered  dry at a very incon-
siderable expense; and as  there can be  no  other  method
of  draining ground of this sort effectually, we  recom-
mend the  study of it to the  attention of every diligent
farmer who may have occasion for it.  Let him first be
extremely cautious in examining all the circumstances
of his particular fields, that he may be certain which of
the classes above enumerated it may be  ranked with; and
when he is perfectly sure of that, he may proceed  with-
out fear, being morally certain of success.
   There is, however, one  kind of damp ground  not yet
particularly specified.  Tbe soil we  have now particu-
larly in view consists of a deep strong clay that does not
 vary its nature even  on the surface,  but in as far as
manures may have rendered it more  friable and  tender;
the colour usually  inclines to a reddish cast, and for the
most part it is situated upon the side of some declivity.
This bed of clay reaches to  a great depth, without any
variation, and is intermixed with  a considerable quan-
tity of  small round stones.  Many  soils of the sort now
described  are apt to be continually moist and full of wa-
ter during the winter season; but when the dry weather
of summer sets in, the moisture is diminished,  and the
surface becomes hard, and it  is rent  into many  large
gaps which allow free admission to the sun and air, so
as  to scorch up almost every plant that is sown upon it:
•a\u\ as  these soils  are usually  in  themselves naturally
fertile when drained, it is  to be wished  that some method
 could be discovered that would be  less expensive than
what is usually  practised with regard to  soils of this
 kind in Essex; where they make covered drains of two
 and  a half feet deep, running diagonally through  the
 whole field, at the  distance of 20 feet from each other.
   With regard to  the making of  these drains we have
the following directions by T. B. Bayley, esq. of Hope,
 near Manchester:  First make the'main drains down  the
slope or fall of the field.  When the land is very wet, or
has not much fall, there should,  in  general, be two of
these to a statute acre; for the shorter the narrow drains
are, the less liable they will  be to accidents.  The width
ofthe trench for the main drains should be 30 inches at
top; but the width at the bottom must be regulated by
the nature and size of the materials intended to be used.
If the  drain is to be made of  bricks ten inches long]
three inches thick, and four inches  in breadth,  then the
bottom of the drain  must be twelve inches; but if the
common sale bricks  are used, then the bottom  must be
proportionably contracted.  In both cases there must be
an interstice of one  inch  between the  bottom brick and
the sides of the trench, and  the vacuity must be  filled up
with straw, rushes, or loose mould.  For the purpose of
making these drains, the  bricks  should be moulded  ten
inches long, four  broad, and three thick, which dimen-
sions always make the best  drain.
  The  method to be pursued in constructing the main
drains is as follows:   When the ground is soft and spon-
gy, the bottom of  the drain is laid  with bricks placed
across.   On these, on each side, two bricks are laid Hat,
one upon the other,  forming a drain six inches high and
four broad,  which is  covered with bricks laid flat. When
the bottom of the  trench is  found to be a firm and solid
body, as clay or marie, the  bottom of the drain does not
then require being laid with bricks.  In that case  the
sides are formed by  placing one brick edgeways instead
of two laid flat.
  This latter method is much cheaper, and in such land
equally durable with the  other.  When stones are used
instead of bricks, the bottom of the drain^should  be about
eight inches in width. And here it will be proper to  re-
mark, that in all cases the bottom  of the main drains
must be sunk four inches  below  the level ofthe narrow
ones, even at the point where the latter fall into them.
  The main drains should  be kept open till the narrow
ones are begun from them,  after  which they may be fin-
ished; but before the earth is returned upon the stones or
bricks, it will be advisable to throw in straw, rushes,
or brushwood, to increase the freedom of the drain.
  The small narrow drains  should be cut at the  distance
of 16 or 18 feet from each other,  and should fall into  the
main drain at very  acute angles, to prevent any stop-
page. At the  point  where they fall in, and eight or ten
inches above it, they should be made firm with brick or
stone.  These drains should be 18 inches wide at top, and
16  at  bottom. Fig. 61.  represents  a  field with drains
laid out according to Mr. Bayley's method.  The black
lines represent the main drains, and the dotted  lines re-
present the narrow  drains  communicating with the for-
mer from all parts of the field.
   The celebrated Mr. Elkington's method  differs very
little from that which we have now laid down, except
that in draining lands of the first description pointed out
in this article, viz. those which arc rendered wet by  wa-
ters confined under-the surface,  and attempting to  rise
in the manner of springs,  he employs that very useful
instrument, a draining auger, which  he observes need
not be above two inches in diameter.  He was led to this
discovery by  attempting to drain a piece of ground of
this kind on his farm at Princcthorp, by making a trench
of  five feet deep,  hut without success:  he thought  it
might be of use to know what kind of strata lay under 
D R A
D It A
 the trench. Accordingly he forced an  iron  crow, of
 about one inch aud a half in diameter, three feet down;
 and up  n taking it out, was agreeably surprised to  find
 a great quantity of water burst forth, and run  down the
 trench.   This  led him to  think of applying  an auger, an
 instrument fitter for the  purpose of boring, which upon
 trial be found  equalled his expectations; and by continu-
 ing the  same plan with the auger at last drained all the
 Viet parts of his farm, which were numerous,  and  had
 proved  destructive to  his sheep, by  inducing the  rot.
 When a morass is to be drained, his first object is to as-
 certain  the direction  in  which the trench  is to be dug.
 The principal  of  bis rules  for this, as  laid before  the
 Board of Agriculture, are these:  1. To obtain as much
 knowledge  as possible respecting the strata  in the neigh-
 bourhood.  2.  To dir»rt  the trench so as to hit the bot-
 tom of  the  bed, which occasions the mischief,  and the
 particular spot where the main spring lies.  3. If there
 are various beds through which the water issues, to pre-
 fer the  stone one  for draining the whole; and to make
 the tren. h from six to eight yards from  the tail of  the
 bed, where the rock ends, because in limestone and other
 rocks, the tail, as it is technically termed, is harder than
 any other part of the rock; but a few yards above it, it
 is softer, and the  water is more  accessible.  The tail of
 these beds may often be found jutting out in a point.  4.
 To direct the trench in a line with the bottom of the hill;
 as it makes the best separation between  the upland and
 meadow inclosures, where the spring can be best inter-
 cepted.  The trench, however, must be carried in or near
 the line ofthe  spring;  for if it diverges to any distance,
 all chance of reaching the spring by tapping is over, and
 lhe labour of digging  it  probably  lost.   5. To make a
 new trench rather  than to tap  the spring in  any  old
 brook or run of water.  6.  and lastly, Having fixed on
 tlie line of direction, and  marked out the trench,  to  be-
 gin at the bottom  or lowest level,  carrying the trench
 gradually up.  The fall ofthe water need not be above a
 few inches in one hundred yards.
   With respect to the main drain or trench, if it can be
 made a fence, Mr. Elkington prefers leaving it open; if
 not, he  advises it to he covered.  He then makes it either
 of brick or flat stones, and adds, that a trench made of
 a particular kind of bricks, invented by him,  will last  for
 50 or 100 years.
   DRAMA, a  poem containing some certain action, and
 representing a true picture of human life, for the delight
 and improvement of mankind.
  The principal species of the drama are two,  comedy
 and tragedy.   Some others there are of less note,  as
 pastoral, satire, tragi-comedy,  opera,  kc.   See  Poe-
 try.
  DRANK, among farmers, a term used to  denote wild
 oats, which never fail to infest  worn-out lands; so that
 when plowed lands run to these weeds  and thistles, the
 fanner knows it is high time to  fallow them, or else to
 sow them with hay-seed, and  make pasture of them.
 Some indeed destroy the drank, by sowing the lands w ith
J^ans, and letting loose sheep upon them when young.
This must be done in dry weather, and the  sh  ep will
oat up  the drank and other weeds, without touching the
beans.
  DRAPERY,  in sculpture and  painting, signifies the
  vol. L                 i04
  representation ofthe clothing of human figures, and also
  hangings, tapestry, curtains, and most other things that
  are  not figures or  landscapes.   See Drawing,  and
  Painting.
    DRASTIC, in  physic, an epithet bestowed on such
  medicines as are of present efficacy, potent in their ope-
  ration,  and is commonly applied to cathartics.
    DRAUGHT, or Draft.  See Architecture.
    Draught-hooks, are large  hooks of iron, fixed on
  the cheeks  of a cannon-carriage,  two on each side,  one
  near the trunnion-hole, and the other at the train,  dis-
  tinguished  by the name of fore and bind draught-hooks.
  Large guns have draught-hooks near the middle transum,
  to which are  fixed the chains that serve to keep the
  shafts of tbe  limbers on a march.   The fore and hind.
  hooks are  used for  drawing a gun  backwards or  for-
  wards, by men with strong ropes, called draught-ropes.
  fixed  to these hooks.
   DRAW, in the sea-language.  A ship is said  to draw-
 so much water, according to the number of feet she sinks
 into it; so that if a ship sinks into the water 18 feet per-
 pendicularly, she is said to draw 18 feet water;  and ac-
 cording as she draws more or less, she is said  to be of
 more or less draught.
   Drawhack, in commerce, certain duties, either ofthe
 customs or  of tho excise, albwed upon the exportation
 of some of our own manufactures; or upon certain for-
 eign merchandize  that has paid duty on importation.
 The oaths of the merchants importing and exporting  are
 required to obtain the drawback of foreign goods, affirm-
 ing the truth  of the officer's certificate of the entry, and
 the due payment of the duties; and these may he made
 by the agent of any corporation or company,  or by  the
 knovyn servant of  any  merchant  usually  employed in
 making his entries  and paying his  customs.  In regard
 to foreign goods entered outwards, if less quantity or
 value  is fraudulently  shipped  out  than is  expressed in
 the exporter's certificate, the  goods mentioned in it, or
 their value,  are forfeited, and  no drawback allowed.
 Foreign goods exported by certificate, in order to obtain
 the drawback, if they are not shipped or exported, or if
 they are relanded,  unless  in case of distress, to save
 them  from  perishing,  are to lose the benefit  of the
 drawback, and are forfeited,  all their value, with the
 vessels, horses, carriages, &c. employed in the reland-
 ing them; and the persons employed  in the  rclandin0-,
 or by whose privity they are  relanded, or  into  whose
 hands  they shall knowingly come, are to forfeit double
 the amount of the  drawback.  Officers of the customs
 conniving at,  or assisting in, any fraud relating  to cer-
 Micate goods, besides other penalties,  are to forfeit their
 office,  and to  suffer six  months  imprisonment, without
 b «d or mainprize;  as are also masters, or persons be-
 longing to the ships employed therein.  Bonds given for
 the exportation of certificate goods from England to lr&>
 land, must not he delivered up, nor drawback allowed
 for any goods, till a certificate under the hands and seals
 of thecollector or comptroller, kc. ofthe customs  is pro-
 duced,  testifying the landing.                     l
  Drawbridge, a bridge  made after the manner of a
floor, to draw up, or let down, as occasion serves, before
the gate oi a town or castle. See Bridge
  A drawbridge maybe nade  after seviral different 
DRAWING.
modes, but the most common are made with plyers, twice
the length of the gate, and  a foot in diameter.  The in-
ner square is traversed with a cross, which serves for a
counterpoise; and the chains which hang from tbe ex-
tremities of the plyers, to lift up or let down the bridge,
are of iron or brass. In navigable rivers it is sometimes
necessary to make the middle arch of bridges with two
moveable platforms, to be raised occasionally,  in order
to let the masts and rigging of vessels pass through.
   DRAWING, in  painting, is the accurate representa-
tion and just symmetry of forms and proportions; whence
a painter or sculptor is said to  know much  or little of
drawing, according to his skill in these  respects; and in
like manner a figure of a man or other animal, a build-
ing, or any other  object represented, is said  to be in
drawing or out  of drawing.  Drawing  may justly  be
considered as the basis of painting;  for it is  but labour
lost, when the painter endeavours to  disguise by ingeni-
ous artifices of colour,  the defects of forms which are
fundamentally incorrect and incoherent.
   Amongst the artists of antiquity, Apelles is recorded
as the most eminent for the beauty of his drawing.  Since
the revival  ofthe arts in Italy, Michael Angelo appears
the most learned draughtsman,  Raffaelle the most cor-
rect and graceful.  The Roman  and Florentine schools
have excelled all others in this fundamental part of paint-
ing.  Of the former, Raffaelle,  Giulio Romano,  Poly-
dore, and their scholars; of the latter, M. Angelo, Leo-
nardo da Vinci,  and Andrea del Sarto,  have  been the
most excellent.   In the Bolognese  school Annibal Car-
acci is particularly distinguished.  In the French school
Poussin, Le Sueur, and Le Brun; in our own, Mortimer
and Barry  have been the most celebrated.
   Drawing, a  representation of objerts on paper, by
means of chalk, lead, charcoal, crayon, or common ink,
 or of Indian ink, or  water-colours.  When the latter
method is used, it  is  called  a washed or coloured draw-
ing.  This mode has of late years been  improved in a
singular degree, and it is at present practised with un-
precedented excellence in England and other countries.
   The drawing of great masters are frequently nothing
more  than  such studies  as they have  made  of various
parts of their works, diligently designed after nature;
as, in an historical subject, heads, hands, feet, or entire
figures, draperies, animals, trees, and, in short, every
object that can enter  into the composition ofthe work.
   Drawing, art of.  The  art of delineating objects  on
the1 surface of any  substance whatever.  The fundamen-
tal part of this art is a  knowledge of geometry and per-
spective: the study of both  is therefore the first step to-
wards the attainment of the art  of drawing.  See Geo-
metry and Perspective.
   The study of this art has at all times been held in high
 estimation  by all polished nations, not only on account
of the delightful amusement it is  capable of affording,
but from tlie superior consideration of its influence on
the intellect and judgment, by forming the eye, and with
it the mind, to  habitual discriminations of  dimension,
 regularity,  proportion, and order.  There is on record,
 a saying of Thomas earl  of Arundel, lordmarshal of
 England, "that one who could not draw a little  would
never make an honest man."
   The organ of sight is one of the quickest we possess,
and  takes  in  at a single  glance m infinite variety of
forms, but  it cannot p rfectly comprehend more than
one object at a time, nor even that one accurately, with-
out study  and  repeated observation.   In  order, there«
fore, to acquire a true notion cd' forms, the student in, st
begin  by studying successively each  component part,
and not pass to a second till he has well stored his me-
mory by a  sufficient practic e of the  first,  otherwise he
will lose bis time,  and infallibly protract his studies.
Let him be careful  also to  acquire accuracy before he
attempts quickness.
  The surest mode therefore for the attainment of ex-
cellence in drawing, is to begin with such  plain geome-
trical figures, as squares, arches, circles, ovals, cones
and  cylinders,  which will  be useful in numerous forms
of similar  proportions,  and  having acquired sufficient
facility and readiness in these figures, then to give to
every object its due light  and shade,  according  to  its
concavity or convexity, so  as to convey the perfect idea
of the elevation or depression, nearness or distance, of
every part.
  From this, the next step is the imitation of the forma
of fruits, with their leaves; of flowers, herbs, trees of
various kinds, &c. giving also to each  its  proper light
and shade.
  The third step is the  representation,  in the  same
manner, of beasts,  birds, fishes, kc. kc.
  From this the student may safely proceed to the imi-
tation of the human figure, beginning, as before re-
marked, with its various parts, as theeye,  mouth, hand,
foot, kc. kc; and thence the head, arm,  leg,  trunkj
and lastly, the whole figure, carefully observing all its
due proportions.  When he is sufficiently master ofthe
naked form, let him proceed  to the study  ot drapery,
learning how to clothe a figure, so as  to give it  every
advantage  of ornament, without interruption of its air
and motion, gra e or symmetry.
  To these ac quisitions are to be added a  study of ar-
chitecture, landscape, and  all inanimate objects, or still
life.   See  Architecture,  Landscape,  and  Stili
Life.
  The implements and materials most requisite for the
young draughtsman are:
  Drawing-boards  for fixing the paper uj>on, so that
it may not shift, and also for straining it, to prevent the
colours, when laid  wet upon the paper, from causing it
to swell up, so as to be uneven.  The  simplest sort ia
made of a  deal-board, framed square, with a strong
piece across each end, to prevent warping.  Upon this
the paper may  be fixed down with pins, wafers, or seal-
ing-w*ax, or it  may he strained with paste or glue as
follows: having wetted the paper well with  a vponge, lay
it upon the  board, and turning up the edges about half an
inch, run a little good paste or glue all round under the
under side, and press the paper down  upon the  beard
with a cloth, then set it by to dry; the paper, which Had
expanded and blistered up much when wet, will contract
in drying,  while the edges, being fixed inimoveably, will
strain quite  flat and tight, and will be much better for
drawing upon than when loose.
  The best kind of drawing-boards, however, are made
with a frame and a moveable panne!,  upon  which the
paper is simply put wet, and then forced into the frame, 
DRAWING.
where it is confined hy wedges atthehack. This strains
equally well, without the trouble, of pasting, so that yon
may dry it at the fire; and it  also lo >ks  much  neater.
These drawing-boards may be bought at most colour-
Hhops.  It is  necessary  to menti e.i, that all the angles
of drawing-boards should be exactly  square.
  Parallel r ders are for drawing parallel lines very rea-
dily; tiiey are made of two pieces of ebony fastened to-
gether by brass bars, so as always to move parallel to
each other.  They may be bought of different kinds and
prices, at the mathematical instrument makers'.   See
Instrument, mathematical
  T-squares are rulers made in the  form of the letter
T, which arc  used avith the drawing-boards;  the  short
end, called the stock, being applied to the edge of the
board, so as to slide forwards and backwards, while the
long part, called the blade, is used for drawing lines by.
These are more convenient than  parallel rulers, when a
drawing board is  used, as by them  you  draw lines at
right angles to each other at  once,  without using the
compasses.
  Dividing-compasses are  instruments  of  brass and
steel, for dividing lines, and laying down measures from
scales, &c.  They are generally sold  in cases,  contain-
ing also a steel pen, for drawing lines cleaner than can
be done by a common pen, which is very  useful where
neatness is required; and points with  a black-lead pen-
cil, tor putting into the compasses, when  circles are to
be described.   These cases also contain scales  of equal
parts, such as are described under Geometry, and pro-
tractors for laying down angles.  All these may be had
at the instrument-makers'.
  Black-lead  pencils are made of a mineral substance
Called plumbago, or black-lead, which is  a carburet of
iron, sawed into slips, and  fitted into sticks  of cedar.
They are of various qualities: the best are fine without
any grit, not too soft, and that cut easily without break-
ing.  An inferior kind is made, by mixing up the, dust
of black-lead  with gum or glue, and forming a compo-
sition, which is fitted into sticks in the same manner as
the best: these arc always gritty,  and do not answer so
well for most  drawings, yet,  being cheaper,  they  may
be used upon many occasions.   It is necessary to  exa-
mine pencils before any quantity is bought,  by cutting
one of them, because the composition-pencils, having the
same outward appearance,  are often sold  for the best.
  Indian rubber, or elastic gum, as it is also called, is a
substance very much like leather, which has the curious
and useful property of erasing or defacing lines drawn
with black-lead; it is therefore much used for this purpose.
It is brought chiefly from  South  America, in  the  form
of small bottles, which are cut up into slips.   It is ori-
ginally the juice of a tree that grows very  abundantly
in Surinam, and is like milk when exuded from the tree,
but sioii becomes solid when  exposed to  the air.  The
natives form balls of  clay, which they smear over with
this milk; when this coating is  almost dry, they  apply
another, and so on, till it  is of the required thickness;
they then moisten the clay with water, which does not
dissolve the Indian rubber, and wash  it out. These bot-
tles are used  by the natives for containing water, or
other liquors.   It is a production common to  the  East
Indies also, whence ii  is imported in various forms, more
 convenient  for  use than the bottles  above-menti »ned.
 See Caoutchouc.
   Indian ink.  This very useful sil stance comes from
 China, where it is used for ronim n  writing, wdiich is
 there performed with a brush instead of a pen.   It is  a
 soli i  Siihstance,  of a brownish-black colour; an;!  (he
 competition is not known,  but is conjectured to  be  the
 gall of 9 species of cuttle-fish.   When ground up with
 water up n a clean tile or earthenware plate, it may be
 either lighter or darker, as  required, by adding to it
 more or  1 ss  water.  The  best Indian ink  is  always
 stamped  with Chinese cbara ters,  breaks with a  gl»ssy
 fracture, and feels smooth,  and not gritty,  whin  rub-
 bed against  the teeth.  An inferior  kind  is made in
 England, but it  may  be  easily  known by  its  gritti-
 ness.   This is  made  of  lamp-black  or ivory-black,
 ground up with gum.
   Hair-pencils are made  of camel's  hair,  put  into a
 goose or swan's quill.   To choose these,  m listvn th"m
 a little, and if they come to a point without splitting,
 they are  good; if they do not, tbey are not fit for draw-
 ing with.   The brushes used by the  Chinese, made of a
 white hair fitted  up in reeds, arc very excellent for draw-
 ing, being much superior for landscapes, and many other
 purposes, to ours made of camel's hair, as they are more
 elastic.  They are not sold here in  common, but they
 may  sometimes be met  writb.
   Charcoal is used for slightly sketching the outlines of
 figures, in order to get the proportions, previous to mak-
 ing a drawing in chalk. The best charcoal for this pur-
 pose is that of the willow;  it is cut into slips, and  the
 strokes made with it may easily be  rubbed out with a,
 feather of goose's or duck's wing.
   Black-chalk is a fossil  substance,  resembling slaty-
 coal,  which is cut into slips for drawing.  It is generally
 used in an  instrument  called a port-crayon, which is
 made cither of steel or  brass.  It is  much employed for
 drawing figures, and is the best substance for this pur-
pose,  in making drawings  from plaister, or  after  the
life. It is more gritty than black lead, but is  of a deeper
black, and has not the glossiness of the former.   It is
of two kinds, French and  Italian: the former is soft,
the latter hard.
   For mellowing and softening the  shadows  into each
other, when black chalk is  used, stumps are  necessary.
 They are pieces of soft shamony leather,  or blue  paper,
 rolled up quite tight, and cut to a point.
   White chalk is used, together with black,  for laying
 on the lights.  This  is different from common  chalk,
 being much  harder.  Tobacco-pipe  clay  will do very
 well  instead of it.
   Red chalk is a fossil  substance  of a red ochrey  co-
 lour,  which  is sometimes used for drawing, but  not so
 much now as it formerly was, the black being preferred^
 however, the red being cheaper, will do  very well  for
 some  purposes.
   Drawing paper.   Any paper that will do for writing
 will do for drawing; but as the wire-marks  in common
 writing paper are injurious, paper made without any
 wire-marks,  called  wove-paper, is  generally used for
 this purpose.  It is made of various  sizes  and  thick-
 ness. 
DRAWING.
  Middle-tint paper, is paper of a brownish or of a
grey colour, which is used for drawing upou with black
and white chalk.  Being of a dark colour, the strokes of
the white chalk are distinctly seen;  and it saves a great
deal of time in making drawings, as the tint of the pa-
per answers for the half-shadow,  so that all that is ne-
cessary to be done is to lay  in the dark shadows and the
light.
  To proceed to  directions for  the  practice  of these
rules,  and the use of the  materials  which  have been
mentioned.
  Mechanical Drawing.—In giving instructions for the
study of drawing, attention must be paid to  the parti-
cular branch  of  this art,  to which the student wishes
most to apply himself.   If  circumstances lead him to
the study of architecture, machinery, or the delineation
of objects perfectly regular; and  if he wishes  to draw
plans, elevations, sections,  &c. then geometry will form
the entire foundation of all his future acquirements. The
study of perspective necessarily follows, and  with these
two sciences he must be intimately acquainted. To these
he must add a knowledge of the doctrines of the reflec-
tion  of rays of light; since not only the outlines of regu-
lar objects  may  be drawn  correctly and truly, by the
rules of geometry and perspective,  but even  the  forms
and intensity of the various parts  of the shadows of
such objects may  be found  by certain and  invariable
rules, founded upon the principles  of the  reflection-of
the rays of light; and geometrical drawings  should  al-
ways be  shadowed according to these rules.   The  ma-
terials and instruments necessary; in this sort of draw-
ing have been already described.
  Pencils of black-lead arc used for drawing  the out-
lines, previous to their being drawn with ink, as it has
the advantage of being easily rubbed out by  the Indian
rubber, when false lines are made.  The Indian ink is
rubbed down upon a plate or tile, and  may be  put into
the drawing-pen belonging to the case of instruments,
with a pen or hair-pencil.   This ink is better  to draw
the lines with than common ink, the latter  being liable
to run, or spread, when the drawing is shadowed.
   Having completed the outlines, Indian-ink is used for
shadowing, as it may be diluted with water, so as  to be
of any required darkness,  and  may  be  softened off,
where the objects require it, with water only  an 1 a hair-
pencil.  This branch of drawing we consider as a use-
ful rather than as  an  ornamental art.  It  should be
learned by every person, as answering the same  pur-
poses with writing, but in a much more perfect manner,
in those  cases to which it is applicable.  This is  parti-
cularly striking in descriptions of apparatus, and  ma-
chinery  of every kind.  Every  one must be sensible
how  imperfect are all written descriptions of those ob-
jects; whereas a drawing conveys,  at  a single glance,
more satisfactory information than  it is possible to con-
vey  by words.  In the  first rudiments oi' drawing, that
is, in drawing geometrical figures and others of similar
forms, genius and taste have  therefore nothing to  do:
this degree  of art is merely of  a  mechanical nature,
which, like writing, may be acquired  by  every person
possessed of moderate talents.
   Drawing of flowers, fruits, herbs, trees,  &c—This
first advance in art is so easy as to require  little else
than strict attention to imitate the objects placed before
the eye, observing well those particulars  which give
the peculiar character of each, and mark the distinct-
ness of the several species.   In trees especially, care is
to be taken that the oak, ash, elm, &c. kc. may each
have its proper and distinct trunk, boughs, and foliaec
in such a manner, that it shall be  no  more possible to'
mistake one kind of tree for another in the drawing than
it is in nature.   Nothing is more prejudicial to the stu-
dent's  progress  than  a habit of indiscriminate forms
which, though they  denote  a tree in general, do not  de-
cide its species.
  In all these the process is the same as in the first ru-
diments, making first a correct outWne, and afterwards
giving the lights and shades, agreeably to the rules al-
ready learned.
  Drawing of beasts, birds, fishes, kc.—Tn this step the
student must not only study the forms of each class of
the several animals, in the same manner as, in the pre-
ceding stage, be studied those of trees, but he must be-
gin to observe the varieties of form, induced by the mo-
tions ofthe muscles, in all  the actions of the head, body,
or limbs, as well as the expression of face, characteris-
tic action, and every  other circumstance  which distin-
guishes these from inanimate objects. In drawing beasts,
he. will begin to  find a necessity  of acquiring a general
knowledge of anatomy.
  The student  who is unacquainted with the form and
construction  of the  several bones which support and go.
vern the animal frame, or  does not know in what mode
the muscles, moving those  hones, are fixed to  them, can
make nothing of what appears of them through the in-
teguments with  which they are covered, which appear-
ance, however, is the object of his pencil.  It is impos-
sible even for an artist to copy faithfully what he sees,
unless  he thoroughly  understands it; let  him employ
ever so much time and study in  the attempt,  it cannot
but be  attended  with many and great  mistakes; just as
it must happen to a man who undertakes to copy some-
thing in a language which  he does not understand, or to
translate  into his own what has been written in another
on a subject  with which he is not acquainted. This sub-
ject will be more fully treated under the ensuing head,
where, as well as in the subsequent articles, will also be
found more particular instructions for the use of  tlie
proper materials for drawing.
  Drawing the human figure.—The study of the human
figure  has always been considered by  artists as the most
important part of the art.   It is the most difficult,  and
is by many considered as contributing the most of any
to general improvement; though there  are some who
carry this idea to too  great an  extent,  saying, that a
person who can draw the human figure wrell,  can draw
every thing besides.   But  this, it is well known, is not
the case, there being  many artists who  can  draw tho
figure  very  well, who cannot draw landscape  nor archi-
tecture.   To draw  any thing well, requires a  particular
study.   The study of the  figure, however, includes all
the finest principles of the art; and when the eye ofthe
student  has  been accustomed to  copy  faithfully all tbe
minute circumstances which constitute the character of
a figure, and to attend to the innumerable beauties and
graceful forms which it presents, he will be better  qua* 
DRAWING.
lified to pursue with advantage every  other  branch of
the fine arts.
   In learning to draw the human  figure, it is necessary
to begin with each of the parts separately, and after suf-
ficient practice in that way, to proceed  to put them to-
gether in the complete figure.  For instance, the  head
being the most important part  of the  human body, it
should be studied first.  For this purpose, the student
should copy the best drawings he can procure of the eye,
mouth, nose, and car, separately,  and on a large scale;
and of these a front view, profile or side view,  oblique
view, kc.
   The readiest materials for drawing these, as well  as
all other parts of the figure, are black  chalk, or black
lead; the former may be used either upon  wliite paper,
or upon middle-tint paper; and in that case, white chalk
may be  used for laying on the lights.  Black lead is
only used upon white paper,  A piece  of soft charcoal
may be  made use of, for first  slightly sketching in the
general form, which must afterwards be gone over and
corrected with the black chalk.  The false lines of the
black lead may be removed by the Indian  rubber; but
the student must remember to be as sparing as possible
of this,  as it is more improving to endeavour to draw
every thing correct and decided at once, and not to trust
to the being able to erase the lines which are wrong.
   The shadows  may  be laid on  by drawing parallel
rurvc-lines, according to the situation of the part, cross-
ing them occasionally, and softening them in with more
 delicate lines, where necessary.
   AH the parts of a human  figure  are composed of
 curved surfaces; no straight lines are ever  admissible,
 hut every line should have  a  graceful  turn;  and  it  is
 Ihis circumstance particularly, that occasions the study
of the figure to give so much freedom  in drawing. Care
should be taken that no lines ever cross each  other at
 right angles, which gives  a disagreeable  net-like  ap-
 pearance; neither should the crossings be too oblique,
 as then they are confused; a proper medium will be ac-
 quired by the study of good drawings or prints; in ge-
 neral, however,  crossing should  be  avoided  as much
as possible.  Sometimes the shadows  are rubbed in, or
their edges  are softened, with a stump, which  is a very
expeditious way, and produces a fine effect; but it should
be used with discretion, as it  is better  to execute the
shadows in  a clear and regular manner by soft lines.
Care should he taken not to make  the lines  harsh   and
hard, like those of an engraving; they should  be softer
and more mellow. On this account, drawings are much
bettee to learn from than prints, as, by copying the lat-
ter, the student is very apt to acquire a dry and  hard
manner.  But wTe particularly caution him to avoid co-
pying with a pen all the lines in engravings  used  for
tbe shadows, wdiich some, who have not been accustom-
ed to see good drawings, are apt to do.
  Many productions of this kind have been executed
with an  immensity of labour, and have been thought
very fine by those who had but little knowledge of the
art; yet artists, and those who are  good judges, always
consider them as very disgusting,  and lament to sec so
much patience and labour misapplied.
  In copper-plate engravings, there arc no other means
of producing shadows than by  lines,  at  least  with
 an equal effect; but this arises from  the nature of the
 process; and in drawing, which is of a very different
 nature, there  is not  the same necessity for them.   In
 general it should be observed, that the less labour there
 appeal's in any drawing, the better it  is; and that though
 every possible pains should be taken  to make drawings
 or paintings excellent, yet this labour should be always
 disguised as much  as possible, and the whole should ap-
 pear as if executed with the  greatest ease.
   In learning to draw, it is of more  importance than is
 generally supposed, to copy from the  finest  works only.
 The  most prejudicial quality of a model is  mediocrity.
 The  bad strike and disgust, but those that arc not good,
 nor absolutely bad, deceive us by offering a dangerous
 facility.  It is for this reason that engraving contributes
 to the progress of the arts, when  it is employed on sub-
 jects  that are judiciously chosen;  but is too often pre-
 judicial by  the indifferent works  it multiplies without
 number.  But let Raffaelle be copied  by skilful engra-
 vers, let a young artist profit hy his labours, and works
 without dignity and expression will soon become into-
 lerable to him; be Will perceive to what an elevation the
 excellence of the art can raise him.
  The way to avoid mediocrity is by the study and imi-
 tation of beautiful productions, or, in want of them, of
 the most finished translations that have been made from
 them: for so we may call beautiful prints. Let a young
 draftsman study the heads of Raffaelle, and he will not
 see without disgust  the  sordid figures of indifferent
 painters.  But if you feed him with insipid substances,
 he will soon lose the taste necessary to relish great ex«-
 cellcnces.   In the one case he will advance firmly  in
 his career; in the other he will continually  totter, and
 even not be sensible of his own weakness.
  Having copied frequently the parts of a face,  he is
 next to proceed to the entire head, drawing first a front
 view,  then  a profile, a three-quarter, and so on, vary-
 ing it in every possible direction, till  he is  thoroughly
 acquainted with  the appearance of all  the principal lines
 in every situation.
  The student should  now accompany  his lessons by
 making observations on good  casts and living models;
 but more particularly the former, as  individual  nature
 is seldom fine, and there is danger of copying  what is
 bad, and acquiring false ideas of beauty.  By these ex-
 ercises  he will have acquired some facility in handling
 his  pencil, and he will be thus  prepared for the study
 of the whole figure.   But before he can  proceed to this
 with advantage, we would recommend to him the study
 of anatomy, for the same reasons which have been given
 under the  preceding head.   But  it is to he remarked,
 that it is not necessary for the  designer  to  study ana-
tomy  as a surgeon,  nor to make himself acquainted with
 all the nerves, veins, &c.  It is sufficient to  study  the
 skeleton, and the muscles which cover them, and of these
 he should most particularly make himself familiar with
 those  muscles which most frequently appear and come
into action.   For this purpose he should procure plais-
ter casts of the anatomy of the human body, and  con-
sult treatises written upon  the subject:  and if he has
 opportunity, it will be proper afterwards to attend dis-
cussions and lectures on anatomy.  He should also use
every  possible  opportunity of making observations on 
DRAWING.
ti.-e a-tioi.c of the muscles in nature.  Being thus tho-
r Highly pr-'p:ircd, he will be cnabied to thaw the human
figure with great advantage, and he will make a more
rapid progress than he could  have  done without these
pit vious studies.  Until the student, however, has  im-
bibed a proper relish for beautiful proportion*, and been
weil-grounded in their principles, he should not proceed
to draw fivm living models.
   In drawing from  plaister casts, a good deal depends
up< n choosing a proper  view, and placing the model
properly with regard to the light,  which should always
come in  obliquely from above, as  it generally does in
the day-time.  If a candle is used, it should be s > high
as to cast the light downwards up<>n the model.  The
light should only come from  one part,  as cross-lights
wili distract  and spoil the shadows.
   Attitude and action of tlie Muscles.—The general know-
ledge of the  bones and muse les having been acquired by
the study of  anatomy,  it  remains  that the draughtsman
he can-fiil not to represent any appearance of them con-
tradictory to the attitude  of the figure, and the exertion
required by  it.   This demands,  in fact, nothing more
than a strict attention  to nature,  who  never directs a
muscle to act,  unless  it is necessary to  the purpose de-
signed.  In  this attention  the Greek  statuaries have,
particularly excelled.   Regard is  also to be had to the
difference of character in the person represented, as whe-
ther a man  be strong or  weak,  and likewise to sex,
age, kc.
   The muscles  in general do  not  appear in  the female
so strongly as in the male.  No action of a woman al-
though she  exert  her utmost strength,  will  occasion
Such swellings ofthe muscles as appear in men; the grea-
ter quantity of fat,  which lies under the skin of women,
clothing the muscles so generally,  as to prevent every
 such appearance.
   In order to represent  properly and  consistently the
 attitude or action of the  figure,  it is of the highest im-
portance to attend totbe parts  or limbs employed in per-
forming the action and producing the attitude.   For in-
stance, if the figure is standing, the foot must be placed
in a right line,  or perpendicular to the trunk or bulk of
tie body, where the centre of gravity may be supposed
to fall.  This  centre is determined by  the heel: or, if
tbe figure is upon tiptoe, then the ball  of the great toe
is in the centre. The muscles of the leg which supports
the ! ody ought to be swelled,  and their tendons  drawn
mor ■ to an extension than those of the other leg, wiiich
is only placed so as to receive the weight  of the body
towards that way to which the action inclines it.  For
example, suppose  a man striking with a club at any
thing before him towards the leftside; then let his right
leg he placed so as  to  receive the whole weight of the
 body, and the left loosely touching the  ground with its
 toes.  Here the external  muscles of tbe right leg ought
 to  be  expressed very strongly,  but  those of the left
 scarcely more than if it was in some sedentary posture,
 except that, in the present case,  the foot being extend-
 ed, the muscles which compose the calf of the leg are in
 action, and  appear very strong. It is not meant that all
 the muscles of  the right leg,  which supports the weight
 of the body, ought to be expressed very  strong or equal-
ly swelled,  but those  principally  which  are  most con-
cerned in the  action or posture that the leg is then irr
For example, if the  leg or tibia is extended, then the
extending muscles placed on tbe thigh are most swelled*
if it is bent, then the bending muscles and their tendons
appear  most.    The ukc may he observed of the whok*
body in general when it is put imo vigorous action. Tlie
Greek statue  of Laocoon  furnishes an example of tin's
muscular appearance through the whole; but in the An-
tinous Allelic),  and  other figures  disposed in postures
where no considerable actions are designed, the muscles
are expressed more faintly.
   It is of great importance to an artist to be acquainted
with the most obvious effects ofthe action of those mus-
cles which are placed externally on  the human body, for
these vary with every alteration of  posture, and are va-
riously  enlarged and changed  in their appearance bv
every effort that is dictated by the  will.
   Tlie following are frequently given as a few instances
of the natural actions of the musci  s,  and will serve to
direct the student to a fuller investigation of the  sub-
ject.
   Effects of the  exertions of the mucks.—If either of tho
mastoid  muscles act,  the head is turned to the contrary
side, and the muscle which performs that action appears
very plain under the skin.  If the arms are lifted up,
the deltoid muscles  placed on the shoulders, which per-
form that action, swell, and make the extremities of the
spines of the  shoulder-blades,  called the  tops  of  the
shoulders, appear indented  or  hollow.  The shoulder-
blades following the elevation  of the  arms, their bases
incline at that time  obliquely downward.   If the arms
are  drawn  down, put  forwards, or pulled backwards,
the shoulder-blades necessarily vary their positions ac-
cordingly.  All these particulars are to be learned by
consulting the life only: when being well acquainted with
wiiat then appears in every  action, the student will he
able to  form  an adequate  idea how it ought to be ex-
pressed.
   When the cubit or fore-arm is bent, the biceps has its
belly very much raised.  The same happens in the tri-
ceps, when the arm is extended.  The straight muscles
of the abdomen appear very strong when rising from
a decumbent posture.   Those parts of the great serra-
tus muscle which are received into the teeth or beginnings
of the obliques descendens  muscle immediately  below,
are very much swelled when the shoulder on the same
side is brought forwards;  that serratus muscle then be-
ing employed in drawing the scapula  forwards.
   The long extending muscles of the trunk act alter-
nately in walking, after  this  manner: if the right leg
bears the weightof the body,  and  the left is in transla-
tion as on tiptoe, the last-mentioned muscles ofthe back
on the left side may be observed to be tumefied on the
other side about the region of the  Wins,  and so on the
other side.  The trochanters,  or  outward and.upper-
most heads of the thigh-bones,  vary so greatly in their
positions, that no precise observations can explain their
several  appearances; but  the study after the life ought
to be chiefly relied on.  If the thigh is extended, aswh<*
the whole weight of  the body rests  on that side, the glu-
teus or  buttock-muscle alters its appearance; and if tbs
thigh  be drawn backwards, that  muscle  appears still
more and more tumefied.   When the whole leg  is drawn 
DRAWING.
upwards and forwards, and at the game time the foot is
inclined inwards, the upper part of the sartorius mus-
cle appears to rise  very strongly; in other positions of
the thigh, that muscle makes a furrowing appearenre in
its whole progress.  If a m:m is upon tiptoe, the extend-
ing  muscles of the leg placed on the  fore-part of  the
thigh, and those ofthe  foot that compose the calf of  the
leg- appear very strong, and the long perona?us makes a
considerable indentation  or furrowing at that time, in
its progress on the  outside of  the leg.   See Muscles.
  Symmetry, or proportion, will behest learned by  co-
pying after the antique statues, of which plaister casts
may be easily procured.  Nature, which in the  forma-
tion of every species,  seems  to have aimed at  the last
degree of perfection, docs not appear to have been equal-
ly solicitous in the  production of individuals.  Parts of
individuals arc frequently as beautiful  as possible,  but
a complete  whole is never to  be met with.
  The practice of the ancient Greek statuaries  was, to
select from  various  individuals the most beautiful parts,
 and by combining them,  to produce figures more per-
fectly beautiful than nature ever presented.   See Pro-
 portion, Statues Antiojjk.
  Measures of the several parts of the  human figure.—
 The moderns ordinarily divide the  human figure into
ten faces; that is,  from the crown of the head to  the
sole of the  foot, in the manner following.  From  the
 crown of the head  to the  forehead, is  the third part of
 tlie face.   The face begins at the lowest hairs which  are
 upon the forehead,  and ends at the bottom of the chin.
 The face is divided into  three proportional parts:  the
 first contains the forehead, the second the nose,  and  the
 third the mouth and chin.   From the chin to the pit  be-
 tween the collar-bones are two lengths of a nose. From
 the pit betwixt the collar-bones to  the bottom of  the
 breast one face.  From the bottom of the breast to  the
 naval one face. From the naval to the genitals one face.
 From the genitals to the upper part of the knee two faces.
 The knee contains half  a face.   From the lower part of
 the knee to the ancle two  faces.  From the ancle to  the
 sole of the  foot half a face.
   A man, when his arms  are stretched  out, is from  the
 longest finger of his right hand to lhe longest of his left,
 as broad as he  is long.  From one side of his breast to
 the other,  t>>o faces.   The hone of the  arm, called hu-
 merus, is the length of  two faces, from the shoulder to
 the elbow.  From the end  of the elbow to the root of the
 little finger, the bone called  cubitus, with part  of the
 hand, contain two  faces.   From the box of the shoul-
 der-blade to the pit betwixt the collar-bones, one face.  If
you will be satisfied in  the measures of breadth, from
the extremity  of one finger  to the other,  so that this
breadth should  be equal to the length of the body, you
must observe that the boxes of the elbows  with  the hu-
merus, and of the  humerus  with the  sh mlder-blade,
hear the proportions of  half a face, when the arms are
stretched out.  The side of the foot is the sixth  part of
the  figure.  Tbe thumb contains a nose.  The inside of
the  arm, from the place where the muscle  disappears,
which makes the breast, called the pectoral. muscle, to
the middle of the arm, four noses.  From the middle of
fie  arm to the beginning of tbe hand, five noses.  The
longest toe is a nose long.  The two utmost parts of the
teats,  and the pit betwixt the collar-bones of a woman'
make an equilateral triangle.
   For the breadth of the limbs in precise measures can
be given; because the m. a tires themselves are change-
able, according to the quality of tlie persons, and accor-
ding to the movement  f the mus i. s.  In general, howr-
evcr, the hands are twice as  long as tbey are broad, and
each of their parts has  its length, breadth, and thick-
ness.  The nail upon the finger is about half the joint it
is upon.  The  length of the foot is a  sixth  part of the
height of a person; and the  length is  five-eighths more
than the breadth. The length ofthe face and hands ought
to be exactly equal,  and makes but just the tenth pait of
a person's height.
   The rules in drawing children are  as follow:  Some
make a child to contain five  measures  of  the bead, viz.
from the top ofthe head to the privities three, and in the
thighs and legs two  more; the breadth between the two
shoulders the length of  a head and a  half;  the  breadth
of the body above the naval the length of one bead; and
the breadth of the upper part of the  thigh is the third
part of two lengths ofthe head; the breadth ofthe knee
is just the measure there is betwixt  the eyes  and the
chin; the small of the leg, and the brawn of the arm, are
of the thickness  of the neck.
   As to the order and manner of  proceeding in drawing
the human figure, it is first requisite to mark the exact
extent which you propose to give to the whole figure, both
in height and breadth; next divide,   agreeably to the
most general proportions; and having thus  ascertained
the place  where  each part is to  be drawn, sketch the
head, then the shoulders, in  their  exact breadth; then
draw the trunk ofthe body, beginning  with the arm-pits
(leaving the  arms till afterwards) and so  down to the
hips on both sides,  being sure  to observe the exact
breadth of the  waist.   When you have done this, then
draw that leg which the body stands  upon, and after-
wards the other, which stands loose, then draw the arms,
and  last of all the hands.
  Endeavour to form all the parts of  your figure with
truth, and in just proportion,  not one arm or one leg
bigger or less than the other;  not broad shoulders with a
thin slender waist,  not raw and  bony arms with thick
and gouty legs; hut let tliere  be a kind of harmony and
agreement amongst the members,  and an agreeable sym-
metry throughout the whole figure.
  But as the  essence of drawing  consists in making at
first a good sketch, you must in this particular be very
careful and accurate; draw no part perfect or exact, till
you see whether the whole draught be good; and when
you have altered that to  your mind, you may then fin-
ish one  part after another as curiously as you can.   In
drawing the  eyes,  ears, legs, arms,  hands, feet, kc.
great care, study, and practice arc requisite; th s must
be learned, as before remarked, hy caret illy imitating
the best drawings you can get of  eyes, ears, k<. for as
to the mechanical rules  of drawing them hy lin. s  and
measures, they  are not only perplexed and difficult, but
also contrary to the practice  of the best masters.  The
actions and postures of the hand are so many an'"- vari-
ous, that no certain rules < an  he given for drawing th m
that will universally  hold good;  and as the  ban s ani
feet are difficult members to  draw, it is necessary, and 
DRAWING.
well worth while, io bestow due rime- and pains about
them, carefully imitating their various pastures and ac-
tions, so as not only to avoid  fill lamenes- and imper-
fection,  but also to give them life ami spirit.
  In drawing a labouring man, you must represent him
with strong  limbs  and  raised  muscles, swelling  and
standing out, especially in  bearing  burdens,  drawing
weights, leaping, walking, combating, or such-like vio-
lent exercises. In representing persons asleep, you must
carefully avoid giving any such postures or actions in
their lying as would not in all probability afford rest;
for a great want of judgment would appear in repre-
senting their limbs or  bodies  supported by their own
force,  and not by the help of something  else.
  Let  it be remembered, as a general observation, al-
way s to begin with the  right side of the draught you
are mailing, that is, nnyourown left side, as is customa-
ry in writing, for by so doing,  you will always have
the part that is done before your eyes, and the rest will
follow  with  ease; whereas,  if you begin with  the  left
side, your hand and  arm will  cover  what you do first,
and deprive you  of the sight of it.
  Exvression of the passions.—With  regard to the re-
presentations of the passions,  Mr.  de Piles  observes,
that it is absurd, as well as impossible, to pretend giv-
ing such particular demonstration of them as to fix their
expression to certain strokes which  the painter should
ho obliged to  make use  of, as essential  and  invariable
rules.  See Expression.
  Drawing of drapery.—In the art of clothing the fig-
ures, or casting the drapery properly and elegantly upon
them, many things are to be observed. 1. The eye must
never be in doubt of its object; but the  shape and pro-
portion of the part or limb, which the drapery is sup-
posed to cover,  must appear, at least so  far as art and
probability will  permit.  2. The drapery must not sit
too close  to  the parts of the body, but  let it  seem to
flow round, as it were to embrace them, yet so as that
the figure may be easy, and have a free motion. 3. The
drapciles  which cover those parts that  are exposed to
great light, must not be so deeply shaded as to seem to
pic ree them;  nor should those members be crossed by
folds that are too strong, lest by the too  great darkness
of  their shades the limbs look as if they were broken.
4.  The great folds must be drawn first,  and then strok-
ed  into lesser ones; and great care must be taken that
fhey do not cross one another improperly.  5.  Folds in
general should be  large,  and as few as possible: how-
ever, they must be greater or less according to thequan-
tity and quality of the stuffs of which the  drapery is sup-
posed to be made.   The quality of the  persons is also
to be considered in the drapery.  If they are magis-
trates,  their draperies ought to be large and ample; if
country clowns or  slaves, they ought to be coarse  and
short;  if ladies or nymphs, light and soft.  6. Suit the
garments to the body, and make them bend with it, ac-
cording as it stands in  or out, straight or crooked, or
as  it bends one way or another; and the closer the gar-
ments fit to  the  body,  the narrower and smaller must
be  the  folds.  7.  Folds  well imagined give much spirit
to any  kind of action; because  their motion  implies a
motion in the acting member, which seems to draw them
forcibly,  and makes them more or less stirring «s the
action is more or less violent.   8. An artful compile*.
tion of folds in a circular manner greatly helps the fore-
shortenings.   9.  All folds consist'of two shades and no
more; which you may turn  with  ihe garment at plea-
sure,  shadowing the  inner side deeper, and the outer
more faintly.   10. The shades in silk and fine linen are
very thick and small, requiring little folds,  and a light
shadow.   11.  Observe the motion of the air or wind
in order  to draw the  loose apparel all flying ono wav'
and draw that part of the garment that adheres closets
to the body before you draw the looser part that flies oil
from it, lest, by drawing the loose part of the garment
first, you should  mistake the position of the figure, and
place it improperly.   12. Rich ornaments,  when judi-
ciously and sparingly used,  many  sometimes contribute
to the beauty of draperies; but such ornaments are far
below the dignity of  angels or heavenly figures; the
grandeur of whose draperies ought rather to consist in
the boldness and nobleness ofthe folds, than in the qua-
lity of the stuff, or the glitter of ornaments.   13. LHit
and flying draperies are proper only to figures in straw*
motion, or in  the wind: but when  in a calm  place, and
free from violent action, their draperies should be large
and flowing; that, by their contrast and the fall of the
folds, they may appear with grace and dignity.
   Drawing  of landscapes.—Every one who wishes to
learn  to draw landscapes will particularly find the ad-
vantages arising from the previous study of perspective,
This will enable him not only to understand and draw
all the parts of buildings  which so frequently form a
principal feature in views of places, but will also give
him true ideas  of the  method of expressing  distances,
the winding of roads,  and a variety of particulars that
are continually occurring.
   Having made himself master of the principal difficul-
ties in perspective, he should next copy some good draw-
ings;  and here it is of great importance that what he
copies first should he very excellent; for it is an absurd
notion, though entertained  by  many, that indifferent
drawings will do to begin with, or to bring the hand in,
as it is termed; but,  as a great master justly observes,
the most likely effect these can produce, will be to put
the hand out.
   In choosing drawings to copy for beginners, particu-
lar attention should be paid to select those where the out-
lines or forms of the objects are distinctly and correctly
drawn, and not those in which a good effect only has
been principally aimed at.  The first thing to be studied
is, to be able  to express with the black-lead pencil, de-
cidedly and truly, the forms of all sorts of objects; and
till this is attained, no attempt should be made at finish-
ed drawings or pictures.
   By  neglecting this  important  circumstance, many
who would have excelled, if  they had been put into the
right way,  have completely lost  themselves, and run
quite-wild, by aiming at producing merely dashing ef-
fects, which,  though  very captivating  at first, do not
continue to maintain that power over the mind, as when
they  are  accompanied  by true  drawing, and beautiful
and correct forms.
   Black lead  is tlie most useful material for  drawing the
outlines of landscapes, which are best executed with this
alone, and should not be gone over afterwards by -tlie 
DRAWING.
pen, which, except it be  very judiciously  managed,
generally gives an appearance of hardness.
  Indian ink alone should be  used  for the shadows till
the student has advanced very considerably; nor till then
should colours of any  kind be used. Beginners  are al-
ways desirous of producing pictures and making colour-
ed drawings; but nothing is more hurtful than the prac-
tising this too early. The first thing io be learned is, to
draw forms correctly;  next, the mode of shadowing ob-
jects truly; then the general light and shadow of a draw-
ing, and, with this, good composition.  All this is best
learned  by using black  lead, black chalk, wliite chalk,
Indian ink, and these separately or combined, according
to the taste ofthe student; but he  should never think of
colours till he has made very considerable progress.
   When colours are employed, they should be used with
great caution and judgment. Nothing is so disgusting as
to see coloured drawings where the reds, greens, and
blues, are laid on in tbe most violent manner, without any
regard to harmony. Those who execute  such  vile daub-
 ings, will say intheir defence, that nothing can be green-
 er than grass, nor bluer than the sky;  but they should
 consider, that nature employs such  a multitude of little
 shadows, and such a variety of different tints intermix-
 ed with her colours, that the harshness of the original
 colour is corrected, and the effect of the  whole is very
 different from a raw and distinct ccdour laid upon white
 paper. A single distinct colour is always bad in  a land-
 scape; and the tints should always be varied and  broken
 in every part. Though we should have  recourse to the
 study of nature, in preference to any master, for the stu-
 dy of colouring, yet it  requires some judgment to know
 what part of nature is to be studied, and what is to be
 avoided; for  in nature  herself, there  are many parts
 which are bad, and to  copy them  would do more harm
 than good. The student in colouring must examine,  with
 every possible attention, the colouring of old walls,  bro-
 ken and  stained by time an !  the  weather, old  thatch,
 old tiles, rotten  wood; in short, all objects which are
 covered  with  moss, stains, and tints of various  kinds;
 there he will find all that is most perfect an 1 harmonious
 in colouring. Let  him copy these with  every possible
 care, and avoid as bad all objects  which are of a uni-
 form decided colour. This has been th.'. practice of all
 the great masters who have excelled in this captivating
 part of the art. In short, after learning the first  princi-
 ples of drawing, he cannot too soon  have recourse to na-
 ture; he will obtain from her the  materials for acquir-
 ingevery species of excellence, in  a  greater degree than
 from the works ofthe first masters.  The study of these,
 however, will greatly abridge his labour,  and it should go
 hand in band with draw ing from nature.
   In landscapes,  the  scenes  most generally  to be met
 with, and which are most generally interesting, are  of
 the picturesque kind, such as cottages and rustic scene-
ry. In these, straight lines should be avoided, and every
thiugthatisold and broken is preferable to what  is new,
as affording more variety. Old thatch, old tiles, oldplais-
«'r, old fencing, are more picturesque, and fitter  for the
pencil, than  the same species of objects  when new  and
entire. An old house almost tumbling down, whose parts
are broken and ruinous, some bulging out, and the whole
stained and tinted with a variety of chaste and harmoni-
   vol. i.               i05
ous colours by the pencil of nature, is infinitely prefera-
ble, as a subject for a picture, to any new house or gen-
tleman's seat, though the latter maybe a more comforta-
ble habitation to live in.
   In the same way, an old  worn-out carthorse is a much
fitter animal to draw from, and a  finer subject for the
pencil, than a sleek and clean poney;  and an ass with a
rough coat is more picturesque than the same animal
kept in nice order.
   In subjects of the grand kind on the contrary, such as
magnificent  buildings,  cities, streets, &c. straight lines
are often necessary and proper, as these objects are ra-
ther of the  sublime than  the  picturesque  kind; and
straight lines, and a degree of regularity, form part of
the sublime. The employment of straight lines, however,
requires great skill and knowledge  ofthe art, to prevent
them  from appearing bad,  and they can only be employ-
ed with success by those who have attained to considera-
ble eminence.
   The fewer colours that are used in a drawing the bet-
ter, as  harmony is most easily preserved, and by  the
mixture of a few, every  possible tint may be  obtained.
   The sun's  rays were  considered by sir Isaac Newton
to be  composed of seven primitive colours; but later ob-
servations have made them to consist only of three; red,
blue,  and yellow;  so that  all the  vast  variety of tints
which we see in nature, is formed by the  mixture of
these  in various proportion. If we had pigments of these
colours perfectly pure,  we  should have  no occasion  for
more  than these three; but this is not the case, and there-
fore we are obliged to have recourse to materials of oth-
er broken tints.  The colours that are found  to be  the
most useful in drawing landscapes in water-colours are,
lake, indigo, Prussian blue, gamboge, light red, yellow-
ochre, burnt terra Sienna, burnt umber, and Cnlognc
earth. Some of the other colours may  be occasionally
useful, but these are all that are necessary for general
use.
   The best sort of water-colours are those  mixed with
gum and made  up into  cakes, as these may be used by
rubbing upon a tile, in the  same manner as Indian ink.
  For a more particular account of the colours  used in
washing of  drawings,   and best methods of  preparing
them, see Washing, and Water-colours.
                  GENERAL RULES.
   Correctness of outline.—This is the first point to be at-
tained,  and can only be the result of patient diligence
and long practice.  To gain the free use of the pencil  or
port-crayon, let the student accustom himself to hold it
farther from  the point than a pen is held in writing, by
which means he will have  the full command and direc-
tion of it. In drawing of figures in  Indian ink, the use of
the pencil is to draw the first  sketches or outlines;  as
any stroke or line that is amiss, may in this be more
easily rubbed out than in any other thing; and when you
have  made your sketch as correct  as you can with the
pencil, you may then draw carefully tbe best outline you
have got, with your crow-quill pen and  ink. The  ink
made use of for this purpose, must  not be the common,
but Indian mk; being much softer than the other, and not
running; and by mixing it with water, it may be made
to any degree of strength,  and may be used in a pen like 
DRAWING.
common ink.  After using the ink, you may wipe out the
pencil-lines by rubbing the  piece gently with the crumb
of stale bread. Having thus got your outline discharged,
your next work is to shade the figures, as directed; eith-
er by drawing fine  strokes with your pen, where it re-
quires to be shaded, or  by washing it with the hair-pen-
cil and the Indian ink. As to the rule and  compasses,
they are never or rarely to be used, except in measuring
the proportion of your figures,  after you have  drawn
them,  to prove whether they are right or not; or in hou-
ses,  fortifications, and other pieces of architecture.
  Red lead and red or black chalk are used in the same
manner as black lead. Wliite chalk and tobacco-pipe clay
arc used in heightening or giving strong lights,  and in
drawing on coloured  paper. Pastils or crayons are any
colours,  mixed with -tobacco-pipe clay, which, while soft
and  in  the consistency of a paste, is rolled  up in  pie-
ces, about the thickness  of a quill, and two or three inches
in length, and then dried: they are generally  used on co-
loured paper: and the colours are rubbed and  wrought
one into another in such a manner that no strokes  ap-
pear, but the whole looks as if it was done with a brush.
  Of the general distribution of lights and  shades.—As
soon as the learner has made himself acquainted with
the drawing of forms, his next  endeavour must be to
learn the art of disposing the light and shade  of every
object properly. The best rule for  doing this is, to consi-
der from what point, and in what direction, the light
falls upon the objects which he is  delineating, and to let
all his lights and shades be placed according to that di-
rection throughout the whole work. It is the artful man-
agement of light and  shade that gives the appearance of
substance, roundness, and distance, to whatever bodies
are represented by drawing. Draw a circle on a piece of
paper; fill it up with any even colour, and it will  appear
to be a body with a round circumference and flat sides:
but by colouring it stronger in the middle, and causing
it gradually to weaken towards the circumference, it will
receive a convex appearance like that of a ball or globe:
wherever the vivacity of colour is strongest, that part of
the object catches the sight first, and  appears nearest to
it: whereas its weakness  and goings off are more and
more broken and faint, and seem to fly farther off from
the sight. In rounding  the  parts of any object,  the  ex-
tremities in turning must lose themselves insensibly and
confusedly, without precipitating the I ight all of a sudden
into  the shadows, or shadows into the light,  but  the
passage  ofthe one into the other must be common and
imperceptible; that  is,  by degrees of light into shadow,
and shadow into light.  Objects that  are  painted  light,
must have a sufficient breadth of shadow to sustain them;
and dark bodies must have a sudden light behind, to
detach them from the ground, or from those objects that
are placed behind them; otherwise they will appear con-
fusedly as sticking upon each other; whereas the oppo-
sition of shade to a  light object,  and of light to a dark
one, gives a projection, and separates them from other
bodies.
  There should be a  balance  preserved between  the
lights  and shadows: a broad light ought not to  be intro-
duced  into a draught  without  a large  shadow.  The
nearer any object is  to the eye, it is seen so much  the
stronger and plainer; the sight is  weakened hy  distan-
                        ,  2
ces, and the more remote any object is, it is seen in a
more imperfect manner.  Therefore, those  objects which
are placed foremost to the view, ought to be more fin-
isbed than those that are cast behind; and thev should
have such a relative dominion over each other," that  as
one  object by its heightenings  causes others to retire
more backwards, so the same object must be chased, and
made to appear farther from the sight than others which
arc more strongly illuminated.
  It is not sufficient that remote objects be only coloured
in a more faint and languid manner; but, according to
their distance, the  parts must appear more or less con-
fused: the eye not being  able to  discover minutely what
is far separated from it.  Pure and unmixed wliite either
draws an object nearer, or carries it off to  a greater dis-
tance.  If it  be accompanied with black, the  opposition
of light and dark renders the object more sensible, and
brings it nearer to the advanced part, but pure white,
being the  lightest of colours, unless it he forced for-
wards, and supported by black, will fly off to the re-
motest view. As  for pure black,  it is  the heaviest,
most earthy, and most sensible of all colours, and  brings
the  objects  nearer to  the sight;  it must be placed in
masses, be insensibly confused, and  have its proper
reposes.
  In the representation of bodies give them always such
lights as are most proper and convenient to their sup-
posed situations. If the objects are in the fields or open
air, and the sun  not visible, or obscured by clouds, you
must  then introduce  almost an universal light, though
not warm and strong, and your shades must be faint;
but when  the sun is conspicuous, and shines  in its full
lustre, then the  light must be  very strong and bold,
and the shadows very dark. If the objects you  repre-
sent be supposed in a room, a little, but not very much
illuminated, and you survey it from without,  and stand
on a level  with the light that strikes upon it, the shadows
of that figure must be very soft,  whereby  the figure it-
self will appear beauteous to the eye; and will, notwith-
standing the softness of the shadow, seem as embossed,
and come boldly out. A  small light illuminating the bo-
dy occasions the shadows on the dark side to be large,
and their extremities to be very bold. On the other hand,
a broad light makes the shadows on the darker side to
be more distinct  and more soft in their limitations.
  Reflection is  to be used  in delineating glittering or
shining bodies,  as  glass, pearls,  silver, &c. Let the
cause of the reflection, be it more or less,  be seen in the
thing itself. Place all your lights one way through the
whole work; and  if the lightfalls sideways on the picture,
the other side, which is the farthest from the light, must
be made the darkest. That part of the body must be made
lightest which has the  light most opposite to it; if the
light be placed above the head, then  the top of the head
must be made  lightest; the shoulder must receive the
next greater degree of light; and thus  must you con-
tinue'to shade,"  losing the light by degrees.  By how
much one part of the body projects  more than another,
it may by so much be made the lighter: and, on the con-
trary, those parts that  bend inward must be made se
much the  darker. Two equal lights must never be made
in one aud the same picture; the  greater is to strike for-
cibly into the middle, and with greatest lustre on those 
DRAWING.
parts of the design where the "principal figures  and
strength ofthe action seem to lie, diminishing it gradu-
ally  as it  approaches  nearest  the  extremities of the
piece.
  In copying, before you begin your work, view the ori-
ginal with  close attention; divide it in  your mind  into
several parts; observe the length, the breadth, and the
similitude of each part; consider their proportion to each
other and the wiiole, the distances from one part to the
other, and what parts lie opposite to each other.
  After you  have  done your copy,  view it afresh, by
comparing it with the original,  for the discovering and
amending of faults, as  it will not only serve to  perfect
you  in that particular  draught,  but will  improve your
knowledge of lines and proportions in general, and in
 time enable you for the nearest imitations. Draw the
 outlines in  a  gliding manner, large and smooth, which
 will  give them the resemblance of life and motion. Pre-
 serve in your draught a strong resemblance between the
 parts and the whole; every member ought to be made to
 agree, and  the eyes, legs, hands, and feet, should be ex-
 actly paired.
   Having  good copies to  draw after,  learn  to reduce
 them to other proportions,  either larger or smaller, and
 this  by frequent practice.
             PARTICULAR DIRECTION'S.
   In drawing after a picture or print, take care to place
 it in such a light that the gloss  of the colours may not
 interrupt your  view, but so that the light and your eye
 may fall equally and obliquely  upon the piece. Let tlie
 piece  be placed at such a distance, that  upon opening
 your eyes, you may view it all at once: and the  larger
 the  picture is, it should be so  much placed  off at the
 greater distance;  but right before you, and a little re-
• dined.
   Draw all your outlines at first very faint with a coal,
 which may easily he rubbed out again with the  feather
 ofa duck's wing, or the crumb of bread; and these out-
 lines should  be true, and agreeable to the pattern.  The
 outlines next the light, should be drawn more faint; and
 when you  have drawn one feature it should he a direc-
 tion for you, in some measure, to draw another, by ob-
 serving with  your eye the distance from that to the  next
 feature, making a full mark at the plate with your coal,
 then draw  it, and so on t;> the next, till you have drawn
 the  whole.
   Then  observe the  middle of the  picture you would
 copy, and touch upon the paper with the point of your
 coal; afterwards observe the more conspicuous and up-
 permost figures, if there are more than one, which you
 are  to touch lightly in  their proper places. Thus  run-
 ning over the whole draught, you will see, as it were, the
 skeleton  ofthe piece you are to draw.
   Having made out these sketches, view them diligently,
 to sec if they answer your pattern or not; for the ges-
 tures of the life ought to show  themselves eminently in
 the  first and rudest draught of the piece; correct and
 amend whatever you perceive amiss; adding and dimin-
 ishing as it varies from the pattern, by which means it
 will  be brought nearer and nearer to the life.
   Observe the  distantc of one  limb, joint, or  muscle,
 from another, and  the same in all other  accidents of the
figure; their length, breadth, turnings, kc. Shadow next
to the light very faintly: and where you  see  bold  and
free touches, be not  timorous in  expressing the same.
In drawing a head after the life, or otherwise, take care
to place the features exactly  right upon the cross-lines,
whether  it  be a full face or  three-quarter  face.   In
fore-shortening, you  must  make the  cross-lines to  fly
upwards, but where the aspect is downwards, they must
be made downwards in a circular manner.
  In  copying the  exact appearance  of prints,  having
drawn the  outlines  true with a coal, you are to proceed
to trace the same lines again with a pen, Indian ink, kc.
drawing them with  more exactness; and by imitating all
the hatches, With their exact distances  one from another,
their crossings, turnings, and windings, with more bold-
ness and freedom, perfect your design.
  In  drawing after a naked body, bear constantly in
mind  what  has been remarked above,  that all the mus-
cles are not to be so plainly expressed as in anatomical
figures; but that side whose parts are most apparent, and
of signification in the performance of any action, must
be made to appear more or less, according  to the force
of that action.
  In drawing young  persons, the muscles must  not ap-
pear manifestly so hard as in elder and full-grown per-
sons;  the same thing is to be observed as to fat and fleshy
persons, and such as arc very delicate and beautiful; and
in women scarce any  muscles at all are to  be expressed,
or but very little, unless it be in some very  forcible ac-
tion, and then too they are to be represented very faint-
ly:  the like is also to be observed as to  children. The
motion of the whole body  must be considered in draw-
ing of the muscles; as in the rising and falling of the arms,
the muscles ofthe breast appear either more or less, and
it is the same chiefly  in the shoulders, sides, and neck,
according to the several actions of the body.
  The proportion of the figure ought to be multiplied by
degrees, in proportion of one to two, three, four, kc. for
herein the chief skill  consists;  and the diameter of the
biggest place between the knee and the foot is double the
least,  and the largest  part of the thigh triple.
  Of  drawing faces.—In drawing a head, it  is usually
divided into four equal parts: 1. From the crown of the
head to the top of the forehead. 2. From the top of the
forehead to the eyebrows. 3. From the eyebrows to the
bottom of the  nose. 4. From hence to the bottom of the
chin.  But this proportion is not constant; these features,
in different men, being very often  different  as to length
and shape. In a well-proportioned face,  however, they
are nearly  right.
  To  direct you, therefore,  in forming a perfect face,
your first business  is to draw a complete oval,  see the
Plate  XLV. fig. 1.  in the  middle of which from the top
to the bottom, draw a perpendicular  line;  and through
the centre, or middle  of this line, draw another, directly
across from one side to the other of your oval. On these
two lines all the features of the face are to be  drawn, as
follows.  Divide your perpendicular line into four equal
parts: the first must be allotted to the hair of the head;
the second  is  from the top of the forehead to  the top of
the nose, between the eyebrows; the third is from thence
to the bottom of the  nose;  and the fourth  includes  the
lips and chin.  The line across the perpendicular one, or 
DRAWING.
the breadth of the face, is always supposed to be the
length of five eyes; you must therefore divide it into five
equal parts, and  place  the eyes upon it so as to leave
exactly the length of one eye betwixt them.  This is to
be understood only of a full front face; for if it turns to
either side, then the distances are to be lessened on that
side which turns from you, less or more, in proportion to
its turning.   The top of the ear is to rise parallel to the
eyebrows, at the end of the diameter or cross line, and
the bottom of it must be equal to the bottom of the nose;
tlie nostrils ought not to come out fartherthan the corner
of the eye in any  face; and the middle of the mouth must
always be piaced  upon the  perpendicular line*  The
mouth, when shut, is as large as an eye.
   The following  is an ingenious device,  which perhaps
may somewhat assist the young practitioner, in forming
the face according  to its different turnings, and in pla-
cing the features properly thereon.  Procure a piece of
smooth wood, turned for the purpose, in the shape of an
egg, wiiich is nearly the shape of the human head; draw
a line lengthways quite round it, as in the last fig. and
divide this  line  into two  equal  parts by another  line
drawn directly across it at right angles.    The features
being drawn on these two  lines,  according to the rules
delivered  above,  will produce a fore-right face.  Turn
the oval a small matter from the left hand to the light,
and the perpendicular will appear  bent like a bow, as
you see in fig. 2;  upon which the particular features are
to be drawn, as in fig. 3. always observing in what man-
ner the nose projects beyond the round of the oval. The
same must be  observed, if you turn tbe oval from the
light hand to the left, as in fig.  4. and if you incline the
oval downwards  and to the right, the lines of the cross
will appear as in fig. 5. and the features drawn on them
as in  fig. 6.   If  you turn it upwards, reclining to the
left,  the lines of the cross will appear as in fig. 7. and
a  face drawn on  them as in fig. 8. A great  vaiiety of
fa  es may be shown by this oval,  according as you in-
cline, recline, or turn it,  more or less.
   But those figures which come sideways are to be drawn
by means of a perpendicular, as in fig. 9. upon which
the forehead,  nose, mouth, and chin, are to  be drawn
as you see in fig. 10.
   It is to be observed, that if the face be fat,  the cheeks
will seem to swell; if lean, the jaw-bones will  stick out,
and the cheeks fall in; but if it be neither too fat nor
too lean,, it will  be nearly round.
   Touch  the  features lightly, where the eyes, nose,
mouth, and chin, should stand: then begin to draw them
more exactly,  and so proceed till you have finished the
facej after which draw the hair, beard, and  shadows
about it.   You are to  consider  all those chief touches
wiiich give life to a face, and that discover the disposi-
tion of the mind:  thus  the mouth extended, and the
corners turning a little up,  shows a smiling countenance,
&c. You must take care that the shadows are not made
too dark where they should be light, because afterwards
they cannot be rendered more light: and remember, that
they are to be more faint and light in a fair, than in a
swarthy complexion.
   Of drawing mixed figures.—■An order to draw the form
of any beast, or bird, you must be weR  acquainted, as.,
has been remarked, with its shape and actions, without
which you will never perform any thing excellent in this
way; and  whatever beast you draw, you must be sure
to give a sketch of the landscape of the country natural
to that beast.
  In drawing birds, the feathers, beginning at the head
very small,  must fall  backwards one way in five ranks,
still increasing till finished.
  Insects, as flies, bees, wasps, grasshoppers, worms,
and such-like, are drawn with great ease, provided you,
for the first time, have the original before your eyes.
  In drawing a flower, begin from the rosetuft, or wart
in the middle, as in a rose or marigold with the yellow
tuft; which being made, draw lines equally divided from
thence to the greatest compass or extent of  the flower.
They may be  drawn either fully open, or  in the bud;
the leaves may be first drawn rudely, afterwards giving
them their veins,  or jaggedncss.
  Of drawing landscapes, buildings,  $r.—All true draw-
ing consists in  nicely measuring the distances  of each
part of your piece by  the eye.  In order to facilitate this,
you are to imagine in your mind that the peice you co-
py is divided into squares: as for example; suppose or
imagine a perpendicular  and an horizontal line crossing
each other in the  centre of the picture you are to copy:
then suppose also two such lines crossing your  own co-
py.  Observe in the original what  parts of  the design
those lines intersect, and let them fall on the same parts
of the  supposed lines  in your copy.  If you are to draw
a landscape from  nature, take your station on a rising
ground, where you  may have a large horizon, and mark
your tablet into  three divisions  downwards, from the
top to the bottom; and divide in your own mind the land-
scape you are  to take into three divisions also.  Then
turn your face directly opposite to the middle ofthe hor-
izontal line, keeping your body  fixed, and  draw what
is directly before your eyes  upon the middle division or
your tablet: then turn your head, but not your body, to
the left hand, and delineate  what you view there, join-
ing it properly  to what you had done before.  Lastly, do
the same by what is to be seen on your right hand, lay-
ing down every thing exactly, both with respect to dis-
tance and proportion.  Make the nearest objects in your
piece the highest, and those that are further off to shoot
away lower and lower, till they come almost level with
the line of the horizon; lessening every thing propor-
tionably to its distance,  and observing also,  to make
your objects fainter and less distinct the farther they are
removed from your eye. Make all your lights and shades
fall one way; and let every  thing have its proper mo-
tion, as  trees  shaken by the  wind,  the small boughs
bending more,  and  the large ones less; water agitated by
the wind, and dashing against ships or boats, or falling
from a precipice upon  rocks and stones, and spirting
up again  into the air, and sprinkling all about: clouds
also in the air, now gathered with  the winds, now vio-
lently  condensed into bail,  rain, and the like; always
remembering that  whatever motions are caused by the
wind must all  be made the same way.
  Let the work imitate the season it is intended to repre-
sent: as,  if you  intend it for a winter-piece,  represent
the felling ofwoods, sliding  upon the ice, fowling, hunt-
ing, &c. making the trees every where naked,  or laden
with snow or hoar-frost; the earth bare;  the air thick 
DRAWING.
cr heavy;  the  water frozen, with carts passing over
it, &c.
  Let every site have its proper adjuncts,  or additional
graces, as the farm-house, wind-mill, water-mill, woods,
flocks of sheep, herds of cattle, pilgrims, ruins of tem-
ples, castles and monuments, with a thousand such other
things proper to particular subjects.
   Of mechan'cid means  for  copying drawings.—There
arc various methods by which those who are ignorant of
the art of drawing may copy  very accurately the out-
lines of pictures, prints, and drawings; and these me-
thods are often useful to those who can draw, and to en-
gravers,  when either great expedition, or great accu-
racy, is required; though none of them should ever be
used by one who is learning to draw.
  ^Tracing against tlie light.—Hold the drawing you wish
to copy against one of the panes of the window; or have
a pane of glass put in a frame, and fitted up like a mu-
sic-stand, with a candle behind it. Lay your paper over
the  drawing, and you will see all the lines of the original
distinctly through  it, by which  means you can easily
trace them with a pen, or black-lead pencil.
   To make tracing-paper.—Mix together equal parts of
 oil of turpentine and drying oil, and with a rag rub it
 evenly over some fan or tissue-paper, or any other very
 thin paper.  Hang it by to dry for a day or two, and it
 will be fit for use.   Lay this over the print or drawing
 you want to copy, and you will see every line distinctly
 through,  so that you can go over it with the black-lead
 pencil. If you wish to do it in ink, you must mix a little
 ox's gall  with the  ink, to make the paper take  it, which
 k would not otherwise do on account of the oil.
   To make camp-paper.—Take some hard soap, mix it
 with lamp-black; make it into the consistence of a jelly
 with water; with this, brush over one side of your paper,
 and let it dry.  When you  use  it, put it between two
 sheets of clean  paper, with  its black side downwards;
 and with a pin, or  stick with a sharp point, draw or
 write what you please upon the clean paper; and where
 the tracer was touched, there will be an impression upon
 the lowermost  sheet of paper as if it had been written or
 drawn with a pen.  It  may be made of any colour, by
 mixing with the soap black-lead, vermillion, &c.
   Stenciling.—Lay  the print  or drawing you wish  to
 have copied' over  a sheet  of paper,  and with  a pin or
 needle prick all  the outline over with holes, through
 both the  papers.  Then take  the clean paper with the
 holes made in it, and lay it upon the paper you wish to
 have the design transferred  to, and  dust it over with
 the powder of charcoal in a small  muslin bag; the dust
 will penetrate through tbe holes, and leave a correct co-
 py of tbe original upon  the paper.
   This pricked paper  will do again for any number of
 copies.  This is very useful for ladies who work flowers
 upon muslin.
   Tlie method of enlarging and contracting by squares.—
 Divide the sides of your original with a pair of compas-
 ses into any number of  equal parts, and rule lines across
 with a black-lead pencil from  side to side, and from top
 to bottom.   Then having your paper of the size you in-
 tend, divide it into  the same number of squares, either
larger or less, as  you would enlarge or contract  it.
 flan placing ytur original before you, draw, square by
square, the several parts, observing to make the part of
the figure you arc drawing fall into the same part of the
squares in the copy as it does in your original.   To pre-
vent mistakes, number  the squares both of the original
and copy.   This  method is much used by engrave re.
  To prevent the necessity of ruling across the original,
which in some cases may injure it, take a square pane of
crown glass,  and  divide its  sides, and also its top and
bottom, into equal parts:  then from each division draw
lines across the glass with lamp-black ground with gum-
water, and you will divide the glass into squares.  Then
lay the glass upon the original which you wish to  copy,
and having drawn  the same number of squares upon your
paper, proceed to copy into each  square on your paper
what  appears behind  each corresponding square of the
glass.   Instead  of a glass, an open frame with threads
stretched across  will answer the same purpose.
  Tlie pentagraph.—Tbe pentagraph is an instrument,
by means of  which one  may copy, enlarge, or reduce,
the outlines of any picture, print, or drawing.  It may
be had at most mathematical instrument-makers', and is
extremely  useful  for copying plans,  maps, and  other
complicated figures.
  Transparencies.—The effect of  this kind of daawing,
which has lately become very fashionable,  though by no
means a modern invention, is very pleasing, if managed
with  judgment,  particularly in  fire and  moonlights,
where brilliancy of light and  strength of shade  are so
very  desirable.
  The  very great expense  attending the purchase  of
stained-glass, and the risk of keeping it secure from ac-
cident,  almost precludes  the use  of it in ornamenting
rooms; but transparencies form a substitute nearly equaL
and at a very small expense.
  The paper upon which you intend to draw must be fix-
ed in a straining-frame, in order  that you  may be able
to place it between you and the light, when you see oc-
casion in the progress  of your work.  After  tracing in
your design, the colours must be laid on in tbe usual me-
thod  of stained  drawings.   When the tints are got in,
you must  place your picture against  the window, on a
pane of  glass  framed  for the purpose, and  begin  to
strengthen the shadows with the Indian ink, or with co-
lours, according as tbe effect requires, laying the colours
sometimes on both sides of the paper, to give greater
force and depth of colour.   The last touches  for giving
final  strength to shadows and forms, are to be done with
ivory-black, or lamp-black, prepared with gum-water,
as there is no pigment so opaque and  capable of giving
strength and decision.
   When the draw ing is finishing,  and every part has got
its depth of colour and brilliancy, being perfectly dry,
you touch very carefully with spirits of turpentine on
both  sides those parts wbich are to be the brightest, such
as the moon and fire; and those parts requiring less bright-
ness, only on one side.   Then lay on immediately with
a pencil  a varnish,  made  by dissolving  one  ounce of
Canada balsam  in an equal quantity  of spirit  of turpen-
tine.   You must be cautious w ith the varnish,  as it is apt
to spread. When the varnish is  dry you tint the flame
with  red lead and gamboge, slightly tinging  the smoke
jiext  the flame: the moon  must not be tinted with colour.
   Much depends upon the choice oi the subjectj and none 
DRAWING.
is so admirably  adapted to this species of effect as the
gloomy Gothic ruin, whose antique towers and pointed
turrets finely  contrast their dark battlements with the
pale yet brilliant moon.   The  effect of rays passing
through the  ruined windows, half-choaked  with  ivy;
or of  a fire among the clustering  pillars  and broken
monuments ofthe choir, round which are figures of ban-
ditti, or others whose haggard faces catch the reflecting
light:  these afford a peculiarity of effect not to be equal-
led in  any  other species of painting.   Internal views of
cathedrals  also,  where windows of  stained glass are in-
troduced, have a  beautiful  effect.
  The great point to be attained is, a happy coincidence
between the subject and the effect produced.   The fine
light should not be too near tbe moon, as its glare would
tend to injure her pale silver light; those parts which are
not interesting  should be  kept in an undistinguishahle
gloom, and where the principal light is, they should  be
marked with precision. Groups of figures should be well
contrasted; those in shadow  crossing those that are  in
light,  by which means the opposition of light against
shade  is effected.
   Having  thus laid down such complete rules of instruc-
tion as may enable a young person of genius, in  a re-
mote part  of the country, to teach himself drawing, we
shall subjoin, for his amusement, some curious devices
for drawing any object, in its outlines,  as exact as na-
ture;  with instructions for shadowing, kc. without any
regard to  the fore-mentioned rules,  or  any knowledge
in  the art of drawing.
   Take a sheet  of the thinnest, or white-brown paper,
 and brush it over with the oil of turpentine,  which will
 immediately  render it transparent:  then, after drying
 the paper in the air, strain it upon a frame, and  fix
 it  against the  object you design  to draw:  this  done,
 place  right before it a piece of wood with a hole in it,
 fit for one's  eye to look through, and as you meet any
 outlines of  the object on  the transparent paper,  trace
 them  over with a pencil; by  which means you will ob-
 tain the just proportion, and true representation of any
 object in its outlines.
   To render this still more  pleasing, observe the tra-
 cings of your draught, wherever the  shades are, and
 mark them with your pencil; for all the art in the world
 can never dispose the shades so regularly, as one may
 touch by  this method; but the shades  must be drawn
 quickly after the outlines are  drawn,  not  at  different
 times, because the sun instantly changes them.
   Here observe, as in certain objects you will have fain-
 ter, stronger, and darker shades,  in your remarks  of
 them, to  take  such  memorandums  as  may  direct you
 how to finish them with  Indian ink, or other colour,
 when you sit down to complete your work.  To this end
 the best way, before you trace out your object, is to
 prepare three shells or gallipots of  Indian  ink,  mixed
 with common water, viz. one of a very faint black, one
 of a middling black, and one of an intense black, num-
 bering them  l, 2, 3; and  as you make your observation
 on the shades of your object, mark upon your draught
 the same  numbers as they  happen to appear, so that af-
  terwards  you may finish with certainty.
    In  this  regard tlie transparent paper  is of great use;
 for, being laid  upon any paper or print in a loose sheet,
all the lines will be seen so perfectly through it, that you
may copy them with the greatest ease;  and if the print
or picture be done by a good master, you can see whieh
lines are strong,  wiiich soft, and how to imitate them.
  There is yet another way to take views and landscapes
which some prefer to the transparent paper; and that is
either with white or black tiffany or lawn strained upon
a frame, and used in the same manner as tiie paper, ex-
cepting that, as the  black-lead pencil is used to the pa-
per, on the white tiffany and on the lawn  you must use
charcoal very soft and finely powdered;  but on the black
tiffany very tender white chalk is to be used.

Other curious and easy methods of taking views, copy-
  ing draughts, prints,  $r. to the  greatest degree of ac-
  curacy.

  1. A draught may be taken regularly, from a draw-
ing, on transparent paper,  as follows:  Take a piece of
paper of the same size  with  that of the draught: rub
one side of it with some powder of black lead, till it he
well and equally  blacked,  so that a finger, touching it,
will hardly be tinged with the blacking; then take the
print, and  laying  the paper  underneath  it with the
black side downwards, upon another piece of white pa-
per of the same  size, pin the three together in  two  or
three places: afterwards, take a pin or needle, somewhat
blunted at the point, and trace it over the outlines of
your picture, wiiich, with  a little pressing, will direct
the black paper to  impress the white,  so as to  recrive
every stroke you draw:  this done, you may carefully
correct what errors you see with your black-lead pen-
cil,  cleaning  the new-made draught slightly with the
crumb of stale bread.
   2. As for the draughts taken on tiffany or lawn, they
are only to be laid on paper; that is, such as is drawn
with charcoal upon  white,  and that drawn with chalk
upon black or blue paper; and then, giving each of them
 a knock or two  with the hammer, the  charcoal or the
chalk will fall through  them upon  the papers  directly
 in the lines they were drawrn, and give  you the true re-
presentation of the  object drawn from the  life, in white
lines upon the black paper, and in black lines upon the
 white.
   Then strengthen these shadows of drawings with your
 black-lead pencil, chalk, or red okcr, upon the pieces of
 paper where they  made the  marks; for otherwise the
 lines will easily  be  rubbed out.  But it must be observ-
 ed, that this amendment is to be made soon after the
 lines; because those tender draughts  will quickly va-
 nish, if care is not taken to strengthen them immedi-
 ately.  You are to  begin this  operation at the bottom
 of the drawing.
   3. Another way is, by taking a thin piece of paper,
 and holding it against a glass-window; particularly  a
 sashed one, because the interruption of the lead  in the
 smaller glazed windows will hinder part of the pros-
 pect; then draw what you see from the glass, and after-
 wards the4)lack-lead paper is to be  used as  directed
 before.
   4. There is another way still,  which may he more
 easy to the hand or arm of a person not accustomed to
 drawing upon a paper or lawn placed upright, whichjs
 by the use of a camera obscura; though to  help tlie 
DRAWING.
and one may hold a baguette,  or such a stick in the
eft hand as the oil-painters use to rest the right hand
ipon; or have some other rest made for the right hand,
is may be easily screwed up and down at pleasure.  But
here is this  difference still between drawing a piece of
perspective, or view, on a  transparent paper or lawn
placed upright against any object, and drawing by the
camera obscura; that such a piece will take in more of
the view or object, and from a greater distance; than
the camera obscura will: however, the portable camera
obscura will, at first, be very easy to the arm of a be-
ginner, by reason the objects appear on an horizontal
plane, such as a table; and the hand, having  a proper
rest, will more easily follow the line represented on the
plane with great exactness.
  The camera obscura is a machine or apparatus where-
in the images of external  objects are represented dis-
tinctly, and in their genuine colours, either in an inverted
or erect situation.   This machine may be made as  fol-
lows: Darken a chamber, one of whose  windows looks
into a place set with a variety of objects,  leaving only
one little aperture open  in the window.   In this aper-
ture fit a lens, either a plane convex one, or one convex
on both sides, so as to be the portion of a large sphere.
At a due distance,  to  be  determined by  experience,
spread a paper or white cloth on the wall, unless  the
wall itself be whitened so as to serve the purpose: and
on this the image of the desired objects will  be deline-
ated invertedly.
  In this case it is not more difficult to draw, or rather
copy the objects, though they are reversed, than to draw
or copy  several  things  which  we  see  upright on the
frames of transparent paper, lawn, or tiffany;  for to
trace lines will be as easy done one way as  the  other;
and though the  objects falling  on the paper or cloth
will, while you are drawing them, be reversed, it is but
turning the paper or cloth  upside  down,  when they are
done, and the drawing will he right to the eye.  But to
obviate this difficulty, let the paper, or what is to receive
the objects, be placed against the  back  of a chair,  and
lei a person look  on the   several objects  represented
thereon over the back  of  the chair, and this will set
them right to the eye.   Or, if  you  would  rather have
the images appear erect, it may be done either by means
of a concave lens, or by receiving tbe image  on a plain
speculum inclined to the horizon under an  angle of 45
degrees, or by means of two lenses included in a draw-
tube instead  of one.
  It is to be observed, that if the  aperture does not ex-
ceed the bigness of a pea, the objects will be represented
thereon, even though there  be no lense at all.  To ren-
der the images clear and distinct, it is  necessary that
the objects be illuminated by the sun; and they will be
still brighter if the spectator first stay a quarter  of an
hour in the dark.
  Care must be likewise  taken  that no  light escape
through any chinks, and that the  wall be not  too much
Uhiminated.  Farther,  the greater distance there is be-
tween the aperture and the wall,  the larger  and more
distinct will the images be; but the  rays becoming thus
too  much dilated,  the brightness of the image is weak-
ened, till at length  it becomes insensible.  But the port-
able camera obstura is  more proper for beginners, as
being more easy for their arm; besides, the objects  ap-
pearing on an horizontal  plane, may, of course, be
drawn with greater exactness.
  The construction of a portable camera obscura may
be as follows: Provide a wooden  chest, in the  middle of
which raise a little turret either round or square, open
toward the object,  iiehind this aperture incline a little
plain mirror  to an angle of 45  degrees,  which will  re-
flect the rays upon a lens convex on both sides, included
in a tube.  At the end of the focus of the lens, place a : ,
table covered with a white paper to receive the image;
and, lastly, make an oblong aperture to look  through.
By means of this machine the images will  be  exhibited
perfectly like their objects, each clothed in their differ-
ent colours;  whereby any person, unacquainted with
designing or  drawing, will be able to delineate any thing
to the greatest degree  of accuracy and justness; and
those even well versed in painting will find many hints
by it to perfect them in this art.
  5. Two other methods, both easy  and entertaining,
not hitherto mentioned, for taking of draughts or draw-
ings, are as follow: 1st. Prick with a  pin  the outlines
of the print or drawing you design to copy,  and then
laying the same on a sheet of paper,  take a  powder-
puff or tuft of cotton, dipping it now and then in char-
coal-dust, and beat it over tlie pricked lines through the
picture, by which means you will have full  directions
marked on your cloth or paper sufficient to finish a just
drawing.
  2d.  The other way is by making such an impression
from the print as shall give  a just copy of  it;  and it is
of great use  when we want to carry every  stroke of the
graver along with us; which method,  if you  are very
careful, will  indeed but very little sully the print.
  For this end, take some white or green  soap,  which
mix with such a quantity of water as will bring it to
the consistence of a jelly; with  this  mixture rub the
print, and with a wet sponge gently wet the  paper de-
signed for receiving the impression; then laying it on
the print, cover all with two or three other pieces of dry
paper, and rub it very hard  all over with any thing that
is smooth and polished; and thus  the wetted paper will
have upon it  the reverse of the print you rubbed it upon,
with every distinct line in the original, if you  have been
careful to rub it equally.
           Secrets of copying drawings, <yr.
  To take a drawing with fixed ink.—Take a thin sheet
of paper, and rub it all over with fresh butter, as equally
as possible, then dry it well  by  the fire,  and rub  the
buttered side either with  carmine, lamp-black,  black-
lead powder, or blue bice finely ground,  till  it is  all
equally coloured; taking care in rubbing on any of these,
that the colours  will not come off by a very slight touch
of the finger.  Then lay the coloured side of this  but-
tered paper upon a clean piece  of paper,  and  lay  the
print you design to copy upon the buttered  paper; af-
terwards with a fine pin or  needle, blunted a little  at
the point, trace the outlines  of the drawing  carefully,
by  which means you will have a  good  copy of it upon
your white paper; which may be touched afterwards with
crayons, or the  like colour.
   To take the impression with red ink.—Mix some ver-
milion finely ground with linseed oil, but  not so much 
D R  A
D R  I
but that it shall still be liquid enough to run or flow in
a pen.  With this trace the lines of your print; and then
with a sponge dipt in  water wet the back side  of the
print, and turn the printed side down upon a piece of
white paper, so as to lie  smooth: then lay  over  that a
piece of dry paper, and press it hard in every part; and
the lower white paper will receive the impression.  But
if you have a linen-press, it is  better to put your papers
between two of the leaves, and screw the press as tight
as you can, by which  means you will have a fine  im-
pression.
   To take  draughts, writings, 8fc. with red loose ink.—
Take some  vermilion finely ground, and mix  it with
fair water in a gallipot with some cotton in it, so that
it may run very  free in the pen: with this mixture draw
over all the  strokes of your print, imitating both the
finer and stronger lines; then with a sponge dipt in gum-
water wet a piece of clean white paper, and  while it is
wet turn  the print upon  it; and pressing  it  well, take
off the print, and you will find all  the strokes remain
on the clean paper; and  as soon as it is dry the  vermi-
lion will  be fixed to it.
   This sort of ink has been used frequently  in writing
any thing designed to be engraved; for by turning the
writing side of the paper down upon a copper-plate co-
vered with bees-wax,  and white ground, rubbing it very
equally, the impression will be upon the wax.
   Taking draughts with blue loose ink.—You may like-
 wise make such a sort of ink with blue bice  and com-
 mon wrater as will run very finely in a pen,  and serve
 for the same use as the former ink.
   To take off a drawing in a standing red colour by tra-
 cing.—Take vermilion   finely ground, and  mixing it
 with a little fresh butter, rub  a clean sheet of paper on
 one side with this mixture; so that it may bear a slight
 touch of  the finger without leaving the paper; then lay-
 ing the coloured side of this paper upon  a clean sheet,
 lay your print upon the other side  of the coloured pa-
 per, and  then trace every line you think proper,  as al-
 ready directed in tracing a draught with fixed ink: but
 be sure to pin the three papers together at the corners,
 to prevent their slipping, which would inevitably  spoil
 your work. This impression made by tracing will hold
 without  rubbing or pressing the papers.  The quills of
 a swallow, after they are thoroughly dry, are very good
 for tracing.
   By mixing carmine with some fresh butter,  and co-
 louring a paper with  it  in  the same manner, you  will
 obtain a  more beautiful  colour; and by colouring a pa-
 per in like manner with blue bice and butter, you may
 have the  drawing blue.
    To take the natural or lively sliape of any herb or tree.
 —First take the leaf  you would copy, and gently rub
 the veins on the back side of  it with  a  piece of ivory,
 or some  such like matter, so as to bruise them a little;
 afterwards wet the same side gently with linseed-oil,
 and then press it hard upon a  piece of white  paper, and
 you shall have the perfect figure of the leaf, with every
 vein in it justly  expressed; this impression being after-
 wards coloured will seem truly natural, and may be use-
 ful to such as would remember plants.
   Awther  way of painting the leaves of plants, so  that
 the impression shall appear as  black as if it had been done
in a printing-press, is as follows.—When the leaf is dry,
take such a ball as the pressmen use for blacking the
types, and rubbing it equally over  with printer's  ink
strike it gently four or five times on the back of the leaf,
till all the veins are blacked with the ink; then  laying
the leaf on a flat board or the like, with the  back  side
upwards, lay  a piece of white paper well moistened on
the leaf;  and  pressing it pretty hard,  but not so as to
bruise the fibres, you shall have  a fine impression.
   But this may be done to  still greater advantage bv
means of a piece  of wood in  the form of a cylinder,
about a foot long,  and an inch and a half diameter, the
middle part about six  or eight inches  long, being co-
vered with a woollen cloth  rolled three or four times
round it.   With this cylinder  roll  the  paper over the
leaf four or five  times  backwards and forwards,  and
you have a curious impression.
   But where printer's ink is not conveniently come at,
the following  method may be made use of: Rub the back
of the leaf, as before directed, with burnt linseed oil:
then, strewing some powder of black lead, or, for want
of that,  some  charcoal  or small-coal dust, or the pow-
der of burnt cork, upon a smooth board, so as equally
to cover it, stroke the powder gently over; and  oiling
the back side  of the leaf, clap it  upon the  board; then
laying the white paper upon the back of the leaf, press
or roll it as before.
   If none of  these  ingredients  are conveniently had,
take vermilion, and  mixing it with fresh butter  in the
consistence of printer's  ink,  cover your  printing ball
with it; daub  it over the back of the leaf, and take your
impression as before.
   Where vermilion  is used, bice  may also  be made
use of, either  with butter or oil, by  grinding blue  bice
with some burnt linseed  oil, and using it as before: thus
you may  have a fine red or blue ink, proper for impres-
sions of this  sort; but the blue is preferable in colour-
ing leaves, because  it is an  agreeable colour for the
green sort.
   It may be observed,  that the reason why the back of
the leaf is the proper side to make the impression from, *
is because the ribs or vessels rise on that side above the
fleshy part of it; and therefore being coloured with any
of those inks, they are the fittest to give an impression;
whereas, in the foreside  ofthe leaf, the fleshy parts rise,
and these fine fibres are sunk between them.
   DREIN, in the military art,  a trench made to draw
the water out of a moat, which is afterwards filled with
hurdles and earth, or with fascines, or bundles of rushes
and planks, to facilitate the passage over the mud.
   DRESSING of ores, the breaking and powdering them
in the stamping-mill,  and afterwards washing them in
a wooden trough.
   Dressing.  See Surgery.
   DRIFT of the forest, is an exact view and examina-
tion taken at certain times to know what beasts are
there;  in order that none may come on the forest but
such as have right, and that the forest be not overcharg-
ed with beasts.
   Drift, in mining, a passage cutout  under the eartn,
betwixt shaft  and shaft,  or turn and turn;  or a  passage
or way wrought under the earth, to the end of a meer ol
ground, or part of a meer. 
D R  O
D R  0
  Drift, in navigation, the angle which the line of a
ship's motion makes with the nearest meridian, when she
drives with her side to the wind and waves,  and is  not
governed by the power of the helm; it also implies the
distance wbich the ship drives  on that line.  A ship's
way is only called drift, in a storm;  and then it blows
so vehemently as to prevent her from carrying any sail,
or at least restrains her to such a portion  of sail as may
be necessary to keep her sufficiently inclined to one side,
that she may not be dismasted by  the violent labouring
produced by the turbulence of the sea.
   Drift-sail, a sail used under water, veered out right
ahead by sheets, as other sails are.  It serves to keep the
ship's head right upon the sea in a storm, and to hinder
her driving too fast in a current.
   DRILL, in mechanics, a  small instrument for making
such holes as punches will not conveniently  serve  for.
Drills are of various sizes, and are chiefly used by smiths,
turners, carpenters, and coopers.
   Drill, or drill-box, a name given to  an instrument
for sowing land in the new  method of horse-hoeing hus-
bandry.
   DRiLL-sowing,  a method of sowing grain or seed of
 any kind, so that it may all be at a proper depth in the
 earth, which is  necessary to its  producing healthful and
 vigorous plants.  For this  purpose a  variety of drill-
ploughs have been invented and recommended; but part-
ly from the expense attending the purchase, partly from
the complication of their structure, and partly from  the
 attachment of the illiterate farmer  to long habits, these
 excellent schemes for diminishing  labour have not re-
ceived that share of encouragement to which they seem
 entitled.
   DRIVING,  in the sea-language, is said  of a  ship
 when an anchor being let fall will not hold her fast, nor
prevent her sailing away with  the tide  or wind.  The
best help in this case is to  let fall  more anchors, or to
 veer out more cable; for the more cable she has out, the
 safer she rides.  When a ship is a-hull or a-try, they say
 she drives to leeward.
   DROIT, jus, signifies right  or  law, of which some
 distinguish six kinds:, 1. Jus recuperandi, right of re-
 covery.  2. Jus entrandi, right of entering.  3. Jus ha-
 bendi, right of having.  4. Jus retinendi, right of retain-
 ing. 5.  Jus percipiendi, right of receiving.  6. Jus pos-
 ridendi, right of possessing.
   Droit is also the highest of all real writs; and takes
 its name of a writ of right, from the greatest regard be-
 ing shown to it,  and as it has the most assured and final
judgment.  There  are  several sorts of these writs used
in our law, as droit de avowson, droit de dower,  droit
<h' garde, droit patent, droit rationabili parte, and droit
sur disclaimer.
   DROMEDARY,  dromedarius, a large animal of the
c»mcl kind.  See Camelus.
   DRONE, in the history  of insects, a kind of bee,
larger than the  common working or honey bees,   See
Apis.
   DROPS, in meteorology, small spherical bodies which
the particles of fluids spontaneously form themselves in-
fo, when let fall from any height. This spherical figure,
the Newtonian philosophers demonstrate to be the effect
*l corpuscular attraction; for considering that the at-
  *0L. I.                  |06
tractive force of one single particle ofa fluid is equally
exerted to an equal  distance, it musi  f .low  that other
fluid particles are on  every side  dr.wo to it, and will
therefore take their  places at an equal distance from  t,
and consequently  form  a round superfices.  See At-
traction, and Meteorology.
   DROPSY, in medicine,  an unnatural collection of
watery humours in  any part of the body.  See Medi-
cine.
   DROSERA,  or sun-dew,  a genus of the pentagynia
order, in the pentandria class of plants,  and in the na-
tural method ranking under the fourteenth order, grui-
nales.   The calyx is quinquefid, the petals five; the cap-
sule unilocular,  and  quinqucvalved at top; the seeds ve-
ry numerous.   Tliere are nine species,  two of which
grow  naturally in  boggy  places in many parts of the
kingdom.  They seem to receive the  name  of sun-dew
from a very  striking circumstance in  their appearance.
The leaves,  which are cireular, arc fringed  with hairs
supporting small drops or globules of a pellucid liquor
like dew, which  continue even in the hottest  part of the
day and in the fullest exposure to the sun.  The whole
plant is acrid, and sufficiently caustic to erode the skin:
but some ladies  mix  the juice with milk, and apply it to
remove freckles.  The juice that exudes from it  unmix-
ed, will destroy warts and corns.  The  plant  has the
same effect upon milk  as the common butterwort; and
like that too  is supposed  to occasion the rot in sheep.
   DROWNING,  signifies  the extinction of  life by im-
mersion in water.  In some respects tliere seems to be a
great similarity  between  the death occasioned by immer-
sion in water, and that by strangulation, suffocation by
fixed air, apoplexies, epilepsies, sudden faintings, vio-
lent shocks of electricity, or even violent falls and bruis-
es. Physicians, however, are not agreed with regard to
the nature of the injury done to the  animal  system  in
any or all of these accidents.  It is indeed certain, that
in all the cases above-mentioned, particularly in drown-
ing, there is very often such a suspension of the vital
powers as to us has the appearance of a total  extinc-
tion of them; while yet they may be again set in motion,
and the person restored to life, after a  much longer sub*
mersion than has been generally thought capable of pro-
ducing absolute  death.
   De Haen,  in  his treatise on this subject, ascribes the
diversity  of  opinion among physicians to their having
been so ready to draw  general conclusions  from a few
experiments.   Some, having  never found  water in the
lungs,  have thought  it never was there; and others, from
its presence,  have drawn a contrary conclusion.  Some
have ascribed the death wiiich happens in cases of drown-
ing, to that  species of  apoplexy  which  arises from a
great fulness  of the stomach.  But this opinion our author
rejects, because  in 13 dogs which he had drowned and
afterwards dissected, no  signs of such a fullness appear-
ed. Another reason  is drawn from the want of the com-
mon marks of apoplexy  on the dissection of  the brain,
and from  the actual presence of water in the  lungs. He
is  of opinion, that the  death  of drowned persona hap-
pens in consequence of water getting into the  lungs, and
stopping the  blood in the  arteries, and of course that
blowing into  the lungs  must be hurtful, as it wifl in-
crease  the pressure on the blood-vessels. 
DROWNING.
   Dr. Cullen, in his letter on this subject to lord Cath-
 cart, says,  that very often the water does not enter the
 lungs, nor  even the stomach, in any material quantity;
 anu, that in most cases, no injury is done to the orga-
 nization of the vita! parts.  Hence he argues, that the
 death which seems to ensue, is owing to the stoppage of
 respiration, and the consequent ceasing of  the  circula-
 tion of the  blood, whereby the body loses  its heat and
 vital principle.
   In the  Phil. Trans, vol.  lxvi. Mr. Hunter advances
 the  following theory.—The loss of motion  in drowning
 seems to arise from  the loss  of respiration; and the  im-
 mediate effect this has on the other vital motions of the
 animal, at  least this privation of breathing,  appears to
 be the first cause of the heart's motion ceasing.  It is
 most probable, therefore, Mr. Hunter observes, that the
 restoration  of breathing  is all that is necessary to re-
 store the  heart's motion;  for  if a sufficiency of life still
 remains  to  produce that effect, we may suppose every
 part equally ready to move the very instant in wiiich the
 action of  the heart takes place, their actions depending
 so much upon it.  What makes it very probable that the
 principal  effect depends upon throwing air into the lungs,
 is, that children  in the  birth, when too much time has
 been spent  after the loss  of that life which is peculiar to
 the fcetus, lose altogether the disposition for the new life:
 in such cases tliere is a total suspension of the  actions
 of life; the  child  remains to  all appearance dead; and
 would die if air was not thrown into  its  lungs, and  the
 first principle of action hy that means restored.  To put
 this in a  clearer light, Mr. Hunter gives the result of
 some cruel and by no means justifiable experiments made
 on a dog  in 1755.  A pair of  double  bellows were pro-
 vided, which were so constructed, that by one action air
 was thrown into the lungs, and by  the  other air was
 sucked out  which had been thrown  in by  the former,
 without mixing them together.   The muzzle of these
 bellows was fixed into the trachea of a dog, and by work-
 ing  them  he was kept  perfectly alive.  While this artifi-
 cial breathing was going on, the sternum was taken off,
 so that the heart and lungs were exposed to view.  The
 heart then continued to act as before,  only the frequency
 of its action was greatly increased.  Mr. Hunter then
 stopped the motion of the bellow s; and observed that the
 contraction  of the heart  became gradually weaker and
 less frequent, till it left off moving altogether; hut by re-
 newing the operation, the motion of the heart also re-
 vived, and  soon became as strong and frequent as be-
fore. This  process was repeated upon the same dog ten
 times, sometimes stopping for five or ten minutes.  Mr.
Hunter observed,  fhat every time he left off working the
bellows, the heart became extremely  turgid  with blood,
 and  the blood in the left  side became  as dark as  that in
 the right,  wiiich was not  the case when the bellows were
 working.  These situations of the animal, he observes,
 seem to be exactly similar to drowning.
   Dr. Goodwyn,  in a subsequent treatise on this sub-
ject, has endeavoured to  ascertain the effects of submer-
 sion upon living animals in a still more accurate man-
 ner; ;;nd this investigation is accompanied  with  a most
 careful and  ingenious inquiry  concerning the causes  of
 the  different  phenomena  which  he  remarked  in  the
 course of  a great number of  experiments.  From a re-
                           2
view of these Dr. Goodwyn draws the following conclu-
sions:  l. « A small quantity of fluid  usually passes in-
to the lungs  in drowning.  2.  This water enters the
lungs during the efforts to inspire; and mixing with the
pulmonary mucus, occasions the frothy appearance men-
tioned by authors.   3.  The whole of this  fluid in the
lungs is not sufficient to produce the  changes that take
place in drowning.  And hence it follows, that the water
produces all changes that take place  in drowning indi-
rectly, by excluding the atmospheric air from thc'lun-s.
This naturally leads to an investigation  of  the uses'"of
respiration, and the effects of the air upon tlie blood and
lungs in  that action.  The author begins  with attempt-
ing to determine the quantity  of air drawn in at each in-
spiration, with the proportional quantity left after expi-
ration.  The experiments by  which  he endeavoured to
ascertain  these quantities seem  to be more uncertain
than the others, as indeed there are not  data sufficient
for them.  Concerning the  chemical  changes produced
in the air by respiration,  and the effects ofthe air upon
the blood itself, we shall only observe in general,  that
his experiments evidently show that the disease produc-
ed by drowning arises entirely from the exclusion of tho
atmospheric air or its pure part;  for which reason he re-
commends inflating the lungs with that kind of  air in
preference to any  other.
  From these different views of the matter, physicians
have  differed  considerably in their account of the me-
thods to  he followed in  attempting the recovery of
drowned persons. De Haen recommends agitation of all
kinds; every kind of stimulus applied to the mouth, nose,
and rectum; bleeding; heat, both hy warm cloths and
warm water; blowing  air into the trachea; stimulants,
such as blisters, warm ashes, &c. applied to the head,
ankles, thighs, pit of the stomach, and other parts.  Dr.
Cullen's instructions  on  this subject, however,  arc of
much more importance; but they are detailed too much
at length  to admit of an adequate abridgement in this
article.  For every practical purpose, indeed, the plan of
recovery distributed  by the  Royal Humane Society of
London is sufficient. It is as follows:
  1. As soon as the patient is taken out of the water, the
wet clothes, if the person is not naked at the time of the
accident, should he  taken off with all possible expedi-
tion on the spot (unless  some convenient lnuse is very
near), and a great coat or two, or some blankets if con-
venient, should be wrapped round the body.
  2. The patient is to  he thus carefully conveyed in the
arms of three or four men, to the  nearest public or other
house, where a good fire, if in the winter season, and a
warm bed, can be made ready for his reception.  As the
body is conveying to this place, great attention is to be
paid to the position of the head; it must be kept support-
ed in a natural  and easy posture, and not  suffered to
hang down.
  3. In cold or moist weather, the patient is to  be laid
on a mattress  or bed before the fire, but not too near, or
in a moderately heated room: in warm and sultry weath-
er, on a bed only.  The body  is then to be wrapped as
expeditiously as possible with a blanket, and thorough-
ly dried with warm coarse cloths or flannels,
  4. In summer or sultry weather too much air cannot
be admitted. For this  reason  it will be necessary to set 
DROWNING,
open the windows and doors, as cool refreshing air is of
tlie greatest importance in the process of resuscitation.
  5.  Not more than six persons are to be present to ap-
ply the proper means; a greater number will be  useless,
and may retard, or totally prevent,  the restoration of
life,  by rendering the air of the  appartment unwhole-
some. It will be necessary, therefore, to request the ab-
sence of those  who attend merely from motives of cu-
riosity.
  6. It will be proper for one of the assistants, with a
pair of bellows ofthe common  size, applying the pipe a
little way up one nostril, to blow with some force,  in or-
der to introduce air into the lungs; at the same time the
other nostril and the mouth are to be closed by another
assistant, while a third person gently presses the chest
with his hands,  after the lungs are observed to he in-
flated.  By pursuing this process, the noxious and stag-
nant vapours will be expelled, and natural breathing imi-
tated. If the pipe ofthe bellows is too  large, the air may
be blown in at the mouth, the nostrils at the same time
being closed, so that it may not escape that way: but the
lungs are more easily filled, and natural breathing better
imitated, by blowing up tbe nostril.
  7.  Let the body be gently  rubbed with  flannels,
sprinkled with spirits. A  warming pan heated (the body
being surrounded with flannel) may be lightly moved up
 and down the back.  Fomentations of  hot brandy are
 to be applied to  the pit of the  stomach, loins, kc. and
often renewed. Bottles  filled  with  hot water,  heated
 tiles covered with flannel, or hot bricks, may be effica-
 ciously applied to the soles of the feet, palms  of the
 hands, and other parts of the body.  The temples  mtfy
 be  rubbed with  spirits of  hartshorn,  and the nostrils
 now and then  tickled  with  a feather;  and snuff, or cau
 de luce, should be occasionly applied.
  8. Tobacco-fumes should be thrown up the fundament;
 if a fumigator  is not at hand, a common pipe  may an-
 swer the purpose.
  The operation should be frequently  performed, as it is
 of importance; for the good effects of this process  have
 been experienced in a variety of instances of suspended
 animation. But should the application of tobacco-smoke
in this way not be  immediately convenient,  or other im-
 pediments arise, clysters of this  herb, or other acrid
infusions with salt, &c. may be thrown up  with advan-
 tage.
  9. When these means have been employed a conside-
rable time without success, and a brewhouse  or warm
bath can be readily obtained, the body should be careful-
ly conveyed to such a place, and remain in the bath, or
surrounded with warm grains,  for three or four hours.
If a child has been drowned, its body should  be wiped
perfectly  dry,  and immediately placed in  bed between
tvyo healthy persons. The salutary effects of the natural
vital warmth,  conveyed in this manner, have been prov-
ed in a variety of successful cases.
  10. While  the  various methods of treatment are em-
ployed, the body is to be  shaken every  ten minutes in
order to render the process of animation more success-
ful:  and children in particular,  are to be much  agitated,
by taking hold of their legs and  arms frequently and for
a continuanc-  <d" time. In various instances agitation
fra*  fur warded the recovery of boys who have  been
drowned, and continued for a considerable time apparent-
ly dead.
   11. If there  are any signs of returning life, such as
sighing, gasping,  or convulsive  motions, a spoonful of
any warm liquid  may be  given: and if the act of swal-
lowing can be performed, a cordial of warm brandy  or
wine  may be given  in small quantities and  frequently
repeated.
   12.  Electricity may be tried  by the judicious and
skilful, as its application  neither  prevents n->r  retards
the various modes of recovery already recommended;
but, on the other  hand, will most probably tend to ren-
der the other means employed  more certainly and more
expeditiously  efficacious.  This  stimulus promises  to
prove an important auxiliary in case of apparent death,
and therefore deserves the serious regard and attention
of the faculty.
   The methods which have been described, are to be em-
ployed with vigour for three hours or upwards, although
no favourable circumstances should arise; for it is a vul-
gar and dangerous error to suppose that persons are ir-
recoverable because life does not soon  make its appear-
ance; an opinion that has  consigned to the grave an im-
mense number of  the seemingly dead, who might have
been  restored to life by  resolution and perseverance.
Bleeding is never to be employed in such cases, unless by
direction of one of the medical assistants, or some other
gentleman of the faculty who  has paid attention to the
resuscitating art.
   We shall now describe  the apparatus  made use of in
recovering bodies from the water, and in restoring sus-
pended animation.
   PI. LUI. Mis. fig. 44, is a forked instrument with blunt
points  for  making superficial search after the drowned
body, sounding the particular situation in which it sunk.
   Fig. 45, a ladder with a long jointed handle.
   Fig. 46, an extractor, or a linked pair of tongs, which
in the plate appears  closed;  but  on immersing it  into
water, opens by its own weight, as well as by the sliding
down of the iron ring o from the part  marked x to that
of u. It may again be closed by pulling the double rope
fastened to the lingo, which is thus shifted upward from
u to x: by means of expanding the iron arms n n, which
are likewise connected with this ring, the mouth or flaps
of the instrument  rr  may he shut; and to prevent their
opening till required, the two ropes are firmly tied round
the iron bolt ss, in which  situation they  remain till the
body  is extracted. Great attention is required  in pre-
serving them from the effects of rust; and, independant-
ly ofthe weight of iron work, it is perhaps the most com-
plete piece of machinery that can be  contrived  for this
purpose.
   Fig. 47, a pair of bellows with two separate bags,  sft
contrived that by opening them when applied  to the nos-
trils or mouth of  a patient, one bag will be  filled with
common air,  and the other with the air  extracted from
the lungs; and by shutting them again,  pure atmospheric
air will he introduced into these organs,  and that drawn
out consequently discharged into the room. Thus the ar-
tificial breathing may be continued, while the other ope-
rations on the surface ofthe body are carried on: which
could not be conveniently  d ur' if  the muzzle of a com-
uion pair of bellows  were  introduced into the nostril. 
DRAWING.
   a, Is an  intermediate board, but which admits of no
 •ommunication between  the  two bags. In the external
 board of each side, there  is the usual hole, marked 6, pro-
 vided with a valve; and the  cylindrical part  through
 which the air is expelled in common bellows, is here sol-
 dered ton copper box, within which two other valves are
 applied to  the tubes conducting the air. The  cover  d of
 this box, may  be unscrewed by means of an interposed
 leather ring, almost of the shape of a funnel, to the neck
 of which is fastened a flexible tube, e, made of varnish-
 ed silk cloth, and a spiral wire that forms the cavity. To
 the extremity of this tube is  attached a small ivory pipe
/, the front of which may either be tubular and round,
 for introducing it into the nostril, or flat, like the  top-
 piece of a clarionet, if it is intended for the mouth.  The
 valves  (which cannot be represented  in a plate) consist
 of stiffened taffety, and  are  so arranged, that the cor-
 responding ones stand in an inverted  order. If therefore
 both  bags of the bellows  are expanded, two of the valves
 open themselves towards the internal part of the machine:
 one of  these is  fixed to one of the side boards, but the
 other is within the box, on the mouth ofthe conducting
 tube  belonging to the opposite bag of the bellows.  By
 this contrivance, the air enters both bags of the bellows
 at the same time, and is, on  compression, again expelled
 by means of two other  valves, which open from within
 towards the external parts. Both hags  ofthe bellows
 terminate below the valve in one principal tube of com-
 munication; because, though the action of both bellows
 is simultaneous, the stream of air conformably to the ar-
 rangement before pointed out, can only enter and escape
 alternately. In using this machine, the small ivory  pipe
 is applied either to one of the nostrils,  or put into the
 mouth: in the  former case, the other nostril  and  the
 mouth  must be closed; in the latter, both nostrils. When
 the bellows are set in action, one of the bags receives a
 column of atmospheric air  through its valve, while the
 other, by means of its flexible tube and its  valve, ex-
 tracts a portion of air from the lungs.  But if the bellows
 are again  shut, one of the  bags parts with the impure
 gas drawn out of the pulmonary vessels, and the second
 conveys pure atmospheric air to the organs of respira-
 tion. By properly repeating this alternate process, the
 patient may again be enabled to exercise the important
 function of breathing. As,  however,  a precipitate  and
 irregular method of proceeding might be productive of
 injury, this delicate operation ought to be performed by
 persons who are acquainted  with the mechanism of res-
 piration.  In some  cases, where the  patient has, for a
 considerable time, lain  under water,  or was afterwards
 neglected for want of due assistance, it would be desira-
 ble to  introduce into his lungs oxygen, or pure  vital
 dephlogisticated air, instead of that of the common at-
 mosphere; as the latter is  generally  more or less  cor-
 rupted  on such occasions by the breath of many persona
 in the same room. For this purpose may be used a blad-
 der, marked g, which is provided  with a cock and  pipe
 fitted or screwed to the board of the inspiring valve and
 bag ofthe bellows. If, therefore, after opening the cock, the
 machine is set in motion, it will extract the pure air con-
 tained  in the bladder, and,  on the subsequent compres-
 sion of the bellows, force it into the lungs of the patient.
   Fig. 48, is a macliine for injecting the smoke of tobacco
by way of clyster, in those desperate cases which require
the application of this remedy. It consists of a pair of
bellows, to the muzzle of  which is fitted a metal box a,
provided with a ring,  in the middle of which it may be
unscrewed, and again closed, after being filled with to-
bacco, and set on fire; the pipe c of the flexible tube b,
is  introduced into the fundament, and thus by means of
the bellows d, the smoke  is forced into the rectum.  To
these may be added,
  A bier of wicker-work, in the form of a slanting oblong
basket, for conveying the body of the drowned, in a pos-
ture somewhat raised. This simple contrivance has the
advantage, that the wrater may  easily  run  off,  while the
patient is carried: and as many unfortunate persons are
materially  injured by rough treatment, before they ar-
rive at a house of reception, so that their recovery  is
thus often frustrated,  we recommend the universal adop-
tion of this useful implement.
  The Royal Humane Society of London have, for a
series of years, offered premiums for machines and other
inventions  to save mariners and other  persons  from
drowning in case of shipwreck, ot other accidents at sea.
The life-boat of Mr.  Greathead has  been already des-
cribed under the article Boat; but at the last anniversary
(April 15th, 1806), a model of a life-boat was exhibited
which may be put together in the space of half an hour,
in any case  of shipwreck, and  which cannot sink or
overset, let the sea run ever so high. All that is necessa-
ry to be  provided  with is, a keel or plank of any con-
venient length, and a few pigs of iron (such as vessels
commonly carry out for ballast). The officers ofthe ship
are to take care to keep two or three empty water-ca$k»,
perfectly tight, the bungholes corked up, and a piece of
tin or leather nailed over them. These casks are  to be
lashed with ropes to the keel, along with the pigs of iron
for ballast; and any spare poles  or spars may be also
lashed to the sides, so as to  give the raft the form  of
a vessel, and at  each end to make a lodgment for the
men. Any of the  square sails  of the ship will form
a lug-sail, and may speedily be adapted to the new life-
boat; and a strong and broad spar may be lashed on as a
rudder. Several inventions have also been recommended
by the committee of the society to  enable persons to
swim from a wreck to the shore; particularly  the cork
or  marine spencer, already noticed under the article
Cork, and "the life-preserver" invented by Mr. Daniel,
of Wapping. This last is  a machine of water-proof lea-
ther, which  wraps round  the body just under the arm-
pits, and is inflated like a bladder in  the space of half a
minute,  by blowing  with the  breath through a silver
tube, furnished with a stop-cock, which is to be turned
when the machine is full of air.
   The immediate views of this committee of the  Royal
Humane Society for affording assistance and preventing
shipwreck, are clearly developed in their resolutions of
the 19th March 1798, which in the hope of exciting the
attention of scientific men to so interesting a subject we
insert.
   " Resolved, That it is the opinion of this committee,
   " I. That means may be contrived for preventing ves-
sels which are light and of particular importance, such as
packets, from foundering  at sea, by means of a thick lin-
ing of cork or very light timber, which may prevent the 
D R U
D E  T
  vessel from sinking in case of any of her planksstarting,
  or other accidents happening to the hull.
    " II. That, in case of shipwreck, the grand object is
  to form a communication with the sliore: and it appears
  to this committer, that the most probable means of effect-
  ing this object is, to convey a rope or line by some pro-
  jectile force to the nearest land; and that, the more sim-
  ple the machine for this purpose (having ample power),
  the more likely it is to have a proper practical effect.
    HI. " That the construction of life-boats to go from
  the shore to a vessel wrecked or in  distress (which life-
  boats ought to be lined with cork or light timber,  so as
  to keep buoyant in almost all cases), is  a most laudable
  and excellent invention; and this committee cannot but
  hope, that, if this plan was universally adopted on all our
  sea-coasts, at  least w herever it is practicable, it would
  save the lives of numbers of mariners, and other persons
  valuable to society.
    "IV. That the institution ofa body of watermen rea-
  dy to venture, on all occasions of shipwreck, in life-boats,
  or other vessels, to assist persons in distress,  would be
  extremely useful. That such persons should have parti-
  cular privileges, as protections  from  being impressed,
  and perhaps badges such as the firemen in London, and
  should be encouraged by the prospect  of rewards to ad-
  venture on all such occasions.
    DRUG, among fan-makers, is a composition of  gum
  arabic, and some other ingredients, used in laying  gold
  or silver leaf upon fans, or in covering them with either
  of these metals in powder. They use it also to paste to-
  gether the  papers, gauzes, taffetas, and other matters,
  used by them in their fans.
    Drug signifies also a salt, or cinder of glass, used by
  some in bleaching cloth.   The use of this drug is prohi-
  bited in France, as being found corrosive, destructive of
  the linen, and likely to injure the health  of those  wiio
  use it.
    DRUGGET, in commerce, a stuff sometimes all wool,
  and sometimes half wool half thread, sometimes corded,
  but usually plain.
    DRUIDS, the priests or ministers of religion of the
  ancient Briton9  and Gauls.  The Druids were chosen
  out of the best families; and were held, both by the  ho-
  nours of their birth, and their office, in the greatest ve-
  neration.  They are said  to have understood astrology,
 geometry, natural history, politics, and  geography: they
 had tlie administration of all sacred things, were the in-
 terpreters of religion, and the judges of all affairs in-
 differently.
   DRUM, is a martial musical instrument in form of a
 cylinder, hollow within, and covered at the two ends with
 velhim,  which is stretched or slackened at pleasure by
 the means of small cords and sliding knots. Some drums
 are made of  brass, but they are commonly of wood.
   There are several beats ofthe drum, as assembly,
 chamade, reveille, retreat, kc.
   Drums, kettle, are large basons of copper or brass,
 rounded in the bottom, and covered with vellum or goat-
 akin, which is kept f.st by a circle of  iron, and  several
 "oles fastened to the body  of the drum, and a like  num-
 ber of screws to screw up and down.   They are much
 uvd among the horse, as also in operas, oratorios, con-
certs, kc.
     DRUNGUS,  a name given in the latter times of the
   Roman empire to a body of troops, amounting to from
   one thousand to four thousand men. At first it was used
   to denote the troops of strangers  and enemies, but in
   the eastern empire to signify the troops of the empire it-
   self.
     DRUNKENNESS, excuses no crime;  but he who ie
   guilty of  any  crime whatever, through  his  voluntary
   drunkenness, shall he punished  for it as much as if he
   had been  sober; for the law,  seeing how easy  it is to
   counterfeit this excuse, and how  weak an excuse  it is
   (though real,) will not suffer anv man thus to  privilege
   one crime by another.  4 Black. 26.
    By several statutes temp. Jac. every person convicted
   of drunkenness shall forfeit 5s. or be committed to  the
   stocks for six hours, and offending a second time, shall
   be bound in a recognizance of 10/. for future good beha-
   viour.  And an alehouse-keeper convicted of drunken-
   ness,  shall besides the other penalties, be disabled  to
   keep any such alehouse for  three years.
    DRUPA, or druppa, in botany, a species  of pericar-
  pium, or seed-vessel, which is succulent or pulpy,  has
  no valve or external opening like the capsule and pod,
  and contains within its substance a stone or nut.  The
  cherry, plum, peach, apricot,  and  all  other stone-fruit,
  are of this kind.  The term, which  is of great antiquity,
  is synonimous to Tournefort's fructus  mollis  ossicufo,
  "soft  fruit with a stone;" and to the primus of other bo-
  tanists.  The stone or nut, which in this species of fruit
  is surrounded by the soft pulpy flesh, is a kind  of lig-
  neous  or woody cup, which  contains a single kernel  or
  seed.  This definition, however, will not apply to every
  seed-vessel denominated drupa in the Genera Plantarum.
  The almond is a drupa, so is the seed-vessel of the elm-
  tree and tbe genus rumphia, though far from being pulpy
  or succulent; the first and third are of a substance like
 leather, the second  like  parchment.  The same may be
 said of the walnut, pistachio-nut, guettarda, quisqualis,
 jack-in-a-box, and some others. Again, the seeds of the
 elm, schrebera, flagellaria, and the mango-tree, are not
 contained in  a  stone.   The seed-vessel of burr-reed is
 dry, shaped like a top, and contains two angular stones.
   DRYADS, in the heathen theology, deities, or nymphs,
 winch the ancients thought inhabited groves and woods.
 They differed from the hainadryades, these latter being
 attached to  some particular tree, with which they  were
 born,  and  with  which they died;  whereas the dryades
 were goddesses of trees and  woods in general.
   We likewise find mention made of a kind of prophet-
 esses, or witches, among the  Gauls,  called  the  dryades
 ordruides.
   DRYANDRIA, a genus of the class and order  dioe-
 cia monadelphia.   The calyx is two-leaved;  corolla five-
 petalled; stamina nine; fruit three or four grained. There
 is one species, a dwarf tree ofthe Mauritius.
   DRYAS. a genus of the icosandria-pentagynia class
 of plants, the flower of  which  consists of eight oblong,
 einarginated, patent petals, inserted into the cup. There
 is no  pericarpium,  but  the  seeds  are  numerous, of a
 roundish compressed figure,  and furnished with very
 long hairy sty les.   There are two species.
   DRYPIS, a genus of the  class and order pentandria
trigynia.  The calyx is five-toothed} petals five; capsule 
DUfr
D U  C
clipped  round, one-seeded.  There  is one species, a
shrubby plant of Barbary.
  DUCAT, a coin current in Germany, and other coun-
tries abroad, for the different values of  which see Coin.
  DUCATOON, a silver coin, likewise frequent in se-
vcual parts of Europe.
  DUCENAR1US, in Roman antiquity, a military offi-
cer who had  the command of two hundred men.   The
title, ducenarii is also given to certain procurators  ofthe
emperors, so called either from their  having a salary of
200 sesterces, or from their being appointed to raise tbe
tax of the two-hundredth penny.
  DUCES tecum, in law,  a writ  that  commands a
person to appear in the  court of chancery, and  bring
with them certain writings, evidence., or other things,
which the court is inclined to view.
  Duces tecum licet lan^uidus, in law, is a wTrit directed
to the sheriff, on a return that he is not able to  bring his
prisoner without danger of deaii, he brings adeo langui-
dus; upon which the court grants a  habeas corpus, in
nature of a duces tecum licet languidus.
  DUCK.  See Anas.
  DUCKING, plunging in water, a  diversion anciently
practised among  the  Goths,  by way  of exercise; but
among the Celtae, Franks, and ancient  Germans,  it was
a sort of punishment  for persons of scandalous lives.
They  were  shut  up,  naked to the s; ift, fastened to the
yard of  a shallop, and ducked  several times.
   Ducking at the main yard, among seamen, is a way
of  punishing offenders on board a ship; and is perform-
ed  by binding the malefactor, by a rope, to the end of
the yard, whence  he is violently  let down into the sea,
once, twice, or three times, according to his offence: and
if the offVnce is very great, he  is  drawn unci rneath the
keel ofthe ship, which they call  keel-haleing.
   DUCK-UP, at sea, is a term used hy the steersman,
 when the mainsail, foresail, or spritsail, hinders his
 seeing to steer by a land-mark: upon which he calls out,
" Duck  up the clew-lines of these sails,"  that is, hale
the sails out of the way.  Also,  when a shot is made
by a chace-piece,  if the clew of the spritsail hinders the
sight, they call out, "Duck-up," &c.
   DUCT, ductus, in general,  denotes any tube or canal.
 See Anatomy.
   DUCTILITY, in physics,  a property of certain bo-
dies, whereby they are capable  of being expanded, or
stretched forth, by means of a hammer, press, kc.  See
Mechanics.
   The great ductility of some bodies, especially gold, is
very surprising: the gold-beaters and wiredrawers  fur-
nish us with abundant proofs of this property; they every
day reduce  gold into lamellse  inconceivably thin, yet
without  the least aperture or pore discoverable, even by
the microscope: a single grain of gold  may be stretched
under the hammer, into a leaf that will cover a  house,
 and yet the leaf remain so compact as not to transmit
 the rays of light, nor even admit spirit of wine to trans-
 ude.  Dr. Halley took the following method to compute
 the ductility of gold: he learned from the wiredrawers,
 that an ounce of gold  is sufficient to  gild, that is. to co-
 ver or coat, a silver cylinder of forty-eight ounces weight,
 which cylinder may be drawn out into a wire so very
fine, that two  yards shall weigh only one grain; and
consequently ninety-eight yards of the same wire, only
forty-nine grains: so that a single  grain of gold here
gilds ninety-eight yards; and, of course, the''ten-thou-
sandth part of a grain is here above one-third of an inch
long.   And since the third part of an inch is yet  capa-
ble of being divided into ten lesser parts visible to  the
naked eye,  it is evident  that  the  hundred-thousandth
part of  a grain of gold may be  seen without the assist-
ance of a microscope.  Proceeding  in his calculation
he found, at length, that a cube of gold, whose side  is
the hundredth part of an inch,  contains 2,435,000 visi-
ble parts; and yet, though the gold with which such wire
is coated, is stretched to such a degree, so intimately do
its parts cohere, that there is not any appearance of the
colour of the silver underneath.
  Mr. Boyle, examining some  leaf-gold, found that a
grain and a quarter in weight took up an area of fifty
square inches; supposing therefore the leaf divided  by
parallel lines 100th part of an   inch apart, a  grain of
gold will be divided into five hundred thousand minute
squares, all  discernible by a  good eye; for the  same
author shows, that  an ounce of  gold drawn out in wire
would reach 155 miles and a half.
   But Mr.  Reaumur has carried the ductility of gold to
a still greater extent.   What is called  gold-wire,  every
body knows, is only a silver one gilt.  The cylinder of
silver, covered with leaf-gold,  they draw through the
hole of an  iron, and the gilding still  keeps pace with
the wire, stretch it  to what length they can.  Now Mr.
Reaumur shows, that  in  tbe common way of drawing
gold-wire, a cylinder of silver twenty-two inches long,
and fifteen lines in  diameter, is  stretched to  1,163,520
feet,  or is 634,692  lines  longer  than before,  which
amounts to about ninety-seven  leagues.  To wind this
thread on silk for use,  they first flatten it,  in  doing
which it stretches at least one-seventh farther, so that
the twenty-two inches, are now 111 leagues; but in  the
flattening, instead  of one-seventh, they could stretch it
one-fourth, which would bring it to  120 leagues.  This
appears a prodigious extension, and yet it is nothing to
what this gentleman has proved gold to be capable of.
   Ductility of glass.  We all know that, when weH
penetrated v\ith the heat of the fire, the workmen can
figure and manage glass like soft wax; but what is most
remarkable, it may be drawn, or spun out, into threads
exceedingly long and fine.
   Our ordinary spinners do not form their threads  of
silk, flax,  or the like, with half the ease and expedition
as the glass-spinners do threads of  this brittle matter.
We have some of  them used  in plumes for children's
heads, and divers other works, much  finer  than  any
hair, and  which bend and wave like  hair with every
wind.
   Nothing is more simple and  easy than the method of
making them.   There  arc two workmen employed; the
first holds one end of a piece of glass over the flame of
a lamp;  and, when the heat has  softened it, a second ope-
rator applies a glass hook to the metal  thus  in  fusion;
and, withdrawing  the hook again,  it  brings  with  it a
thread of glass, which still adheres to  the mass: then,
fitting his hook on the  circumference of a wheel about
two feet and a half in diameter, he  turns the wheel as
fast as he pleases:  which* drawing out the thread, winds 
     V               DUE  J
      v—■ -*• —--■___,—*y
it on its rim; till, after a certain number of revolutions,
it is covered with a skein of glass tlu-cnd.
  The mass in fusion over the lamp diminishes insensi-
bly: being wound out like a clue of silk upon the wheel;
and the parts, as they  recede fr>un the flame,  cooling,
become more coherent to those next to them, and  this
by degrees: the parts nearest the. fire are always the
least coherent, and, of consequence, must give way to
the effort the rest make to draw them towards the wheel.
  The circumference  of these threads is usually a flat
oval, being three or four times as broad as thick: some
of them seem scarcely  bigger than the tjiread of a silk-
worm, and are  surprisingly flexible.   If the two ends
of such threads are  knotted together,  they  may be
drawn and bent, till the  aperture, or space in the middle
of the knot, does not exceed one-fourth of aline, or one-
forty-eighth of an^hch,  in diameter.
   Hence M. Reaumur advances,  that the flexibility of
glass increases in  proportion to  the  fineness of the
threads; *nd that, probably, had we but the art of draw-
ing  threads as fine as a spider's web,  we might weave
stuffs and cloths of  them  for wear.   Accordingly, he
made some experiments this way; and  found that he
could make threads fine enough, viz. as fine, in his judg-
ment, as spider's thread, but he could  never  make them
long enough to do any thing with them.
   DUEL, a single combat, at a time and place appoint-
 ed,  in consequence of a challenge.  This custom came
 originally from the northern nations,  among whom it
 was usual to decide all their controversies  by arms.
 Both the accuser and accused gave pledges to the judges
 on their respective behalf; and the custom prevailed so
 far amongst the Germans, Danes, and Franks, that  none
 were excused from it but women,  sick people,  cripples,
 and such as were  under twenty-one years  of  age, or
 above sixty.  Even ecclesiastics,  priests, and monks,
 were obliged to  find champions to fight in their stead.
 The punishment of the  vanquished was either death by
 hanging or beheading,  or mutilation  of  members, ac-
 cording to the circumstances of  the case.  Duels were
 at first admitted not only on criminal occasions,  but on
 some civil ones for the maintenance of rights to estates:
 in latter times, however, before they were entirely abol-
 ished, they were restrained to these four cases:  1. That
 the crime should be capital.  2. That it should be cer-
 tain the crime was perpetrated.  3. The accused must,
 by common fame, be supposed guilty. And, 4. The mat-
 ter not capable of  proof by witnesses.   In England,
 though the trial by duel is disused, the law on which it
 is founded is still in force.
   DUELLING, or single combat, between any individu-
 als of then* own beads, and for private malice or displea-
 sure, is now prohibited by law; for in a settled state gov-
 erned bylaw, no man, for any injury whatever, ought to
 use private revenge. 3 Inst. 157.
   And where one party kills the other, it comes within
 the notion of murder, as being committed  by  malice
 aforethought;  where the parties meet with an intent to
 murder, thinking it their duty as gentlemen, and claim-
 ing it as their right to wanton with their own lives, and
 the lives of others, without any warrant for it either human
 or divine; and therefore the law has justly fixed on them
the crime and punishment of murder.  4 Black. 199.
                       DLL

  And the law so far abhors all duelling in cold  blood,
that not onlyilie principal, who actually kills the wther,
but also his seconds are guilty  of murder, whether they
fought or not; and  it is holden that  the seconds  of the
party  slain  are  likewise  guilty  as accessaries.   12
Haw. s.
  DUETT,  a composition expressly written for  two
voices or instruments, with or without a bass and ac-
companiments.  In good duetts, the execution is  pi-* tty
equally distributed  between the two parts; and the me-
lodies so connected, intermingled, an-1 so dependant on
each other, as to lose every effect when separated, but
to be perfectly related and continuous when hca;-d to-
gether. Yet,  however combined by the  disposition of
the harmony,  the parts are not  necessarily to be similar
in their motion; indeed it is when the composer is suffi-
ciently master of ids art to he able to vary them by con-
trary directions,  that the happiest effects of which this
species of composition  is capable are  most frequently
produced.
  DUKE, is  either the title of a sovereign prince, as
the duke of Savoy, Parma, kc the grand-duke of Tus-
cany, kc.  or it is the title of  honour and  nobility next
below princes.  The commanders of armies in time of
war, the governors of provinces, and wardens of inarches,
in time of peace, were called duces, under the latter em-
perors. The  Goths and Vandals divided all  Gaul into
duchies and counties, the governors of which they some-
times called duces, and sometimes comites.  In France,
under the second race of kings, though they retained the
name and form of ducal government, there were scarce-
ly any dukes  except those  of Burgundy, Aquitaiue, and
France.
   In  England, among the  Saxons, the commanders of
armies, <*m•. were called dukes, duces, without any addi-
tion,  till Edward III. made his son, the Black Prince,
duke of Cornwall; after whom tliere were more made in
the same manner, the title  descending to their posterity.
Duke, at present in England, is a mere title of dignity,
without giving any domain, territory, or jurisdiction over
the place whence the title is taken.  A duke is created
by patent, cincture of sword, mantle of state, imposition
of a cap and coronet of gold on his head, and a verge of
gold  put into  his  hand. His title is Grace; and in the
style of the heralds,  Most high, potent, high-born, and
noble prince.
   DULCIMER, a triangular instrument,  strung with
about fifty  wires cast over i bridge at each end; the
shortest, or most acute of which, is eighteen inches lung,
and the longest, or most grave, thirty-six.  It  is per-
formed upon by striking the wires with little inn rods.
This name is also given by the translators of holy writ
to an instrument used by tbe Hebr-vvs, concerning the
form, size, and tone of which, tliere have been various
conjectures, but of which nothing certain is known.
   DULCINO,  the name  formerly given to a  certain
small bassoon,  which was  used as a tenor to the haut-
boy.
   DULEDGE,  in gunnery,  a peg of wood which joins
the ends ofthe six felloes that  form the round of a wheel
of  a  gun-carriag".  The plate of iron on the outside of
the wheel, wiiich strengthens the joint, is called the du-
 Vedge-plate. 
DUMBNE9S.

  DUMBNESS, the privation of the faculty of speech.
The most general, and frequently the sole cause of dumb-
ness, is  the want of the sense of hearing (sec  Deaf-
ress); language being originally acquired by imitating
articulate sounds.  From this source of intelligence deaf
people are entirely excluded:  they cannot acquire ar-
ticulate suunds by the ear:  unless, therefore, articula-
tion can be  communicated to them by some other me-
dium, these unhappy people must for ever be deprived of
the use of language; and as language is the principal
s-   ice of  knowledge,  whoever  has the misfortune  to
want the sense of hearing, must remain in a state  little
si'i-erior to that of the brute creation.  Of late years,
however, it  has been shown,  that  although deaf people
cannot learn to speak or read by the direction ofthe. car,
there arc other sources of imitation, by which the same
effect may  be  produced. The organs of hea«.ng and
speech have  little or no connection.  Persons deprived
of  the former generally possess the latter in such  per-
fection, that nothing further is necessary,  in order to
make them articulate,  than to teach tie. in  how to  use
these organs.  This indeed  is no easy task; but the re-
gular seminaries kept  near the metr- polls, by the late
Mr. Braidwood and Mr. Telfair,  in which the instruc-
tion of deaf f.nd dumb persons has been successfully con-
ducted, show that it 's  certainly  practicable. The for-
mer began  with a single pupil in  1764: and since that
period has taught great numbers to speak so as to be un-
derstood, to read, to write,  to understand figures, the
principles of religion and morality, &c.
  The first thing attempted in the practice of his method
is,  to teach the pupil to pronounce the simple sounds of
the vowels and consonants.  The teacher pronounces the
sound of the letter a very slowly, pointing out the figure
of it upon paper at the same time;  and makes the pupil
observe the motion of his mouth and throat.  He  then
puts his finger into his  pupil's mouth, depresses or ele-
vates the tongue, and makes him keep the parts in  that
positi-;n; then  he lays hold  ofthe outside ofthe throat,
and applies such a kind of pressure as shall indicate  to
the pupil a certain necessary  action to be  performed by
tlie muscles. All the while he is pronouncing a, the pu-
pil  is anxiously imitating him, but at first seems not to
understand what he would have him to do.  In this man-
ner he proceeds, till the pupil has learned to pronounce
the sounds of the letters.  He goes  on in the same man-
ner to join a vowel and a consonant, till  at  length the
pupil is  enabled both to utter distinct words, and  to
read.
  The pupils instructed in these academies are not only
taught the mere pronunciation,  but also to understand
the meaning of what  they  read.   Of this Mr. Pennant
gives a remarkable instance in a young lady of about
13,  who had been  some time under the  care of Mr.
Braidwood.  " She readily  apprehended (says he) all I
said, and returned me answers with the utmost facility.
She read; she wrote well. Her reading was not by  rote.
She could  clothe the  same thoughts in a  new set of
words, and  never vary  from the original sense.  I  have
forgotten the book she  took up, or the sentences she
made a new version of, but the effect was as follows:
   »* Original passage.   Lord  Bacon  has  divided  the
whole of human knowledge junU history* poetry* and
philosophy; which  are referred to the three powers of
the mind, memory, imagination, and reason.
  " Version.  A nobleman has parted the total, or all of
man's study or understanding, into—An account of the
life, manners,  religion, or  customs of any people  or
country; verse or metre; moral or natural knowledge:
which are  pointed to the three  faculties of the  soul or
spirit; the faculty of remembering what is past, thought
or conception, and right judgment."
  A new and different method,  equally laborious and
successful, has been practised by the abbe' de J'Epe'e, of
Berlin,  who, it is said, begins his instructions not bv en-
deavouring to  form the organs of speech to articulate
sounds,  but  by  communicating  ideas  to tlie mind by
means of signs and characters:  to effect this, he writes
the names of things; and, by a regular  system of signs,
establishes a connection between these words and the
ideas  to be excited by them.  After he has thus furnish-
ed his pupils with ideas, and a medium of communica-
tion,  he teaches them to articulate  and pronounce, and
renders  them not only grammarians but logicians.  In
this manner  he has enabled  one of his pupils to  deliver
a Latin oration in public, and another to defend a thesis
against  the objections  of one of his fellow-pupils in  a
scholastic disputation,  in which the arguments of each
were  communicated to the other, but whether by signs
or in  writing is not said; for it does not appear that the
abbe'  teaches his  pupils to discern what is spoken, by ob-
serving the motion ofthe organs of speech, which those
instructed  by other teachers  do very readily.
  There is perhaps no  word, says the abbe', more diffi-
cult to explain by signs than the word croire, "to be-
lieve."   To do this, he writes the verb with its signifi-
cations in the following manner:
Je croi», Je dis oui par l'esprit, Je pense que oui.
      Je dis om par le cceur, J'aime a peu»er qne oui.
      Je di> oui par la bouche.
      Je ne vois paa des yeux.
  After teaching these four significations, which he doc9
by as many signs, he connects them with the verb, and
adds other signs  to express the number, person, tense,
and mood, in which it is used.  If to the four signs cor-
responding with the lines abovementioned, be added that
of a substantive, the pupil will write the word foi, "faith;"
but if a  sign, indicating a participle used substantively,
be  adjoined, he will express la croyance,  "belief;" to
make hiin write croyable, «  credible," the four signs of
the verb must be accompanied with one that indicates
an  adjective terminating in able;  all these signs are ra-
pidly  made, and may be immediately comprehended.
  M. Linguet, a member of the Royal Academy, hav-
ing asserted that persons thus instructed could be con-
sidered  as little more than automata, the  abbe*  invited
him to   be present at his  lessons, and expressed  his
astonishment  that M. Linguet should be so prejudi-
ced in favour of the medium by which  he had" received
the first rudiments of  knowledge,  as to conclude that
they  could not be imparted by any other: desiring him,
at the same time, to reflect, that the connection between
ideas and  the articulate sounds, by which  they  are ex-
cited  in the mind, is not less arbitrary than that between
these ideas and tlie written  characters  which are made
to represent them to the eye. M. Linguet complied with 
DUN
B  U  R
the invitation;  and the abbe' having  desired hint to fix
on some abstract term which he would by signs commu-
nicate to his pupils,  he chose the word " unintelligibil-
itv;" which, to his astonishment, was almost instantly
written by one of them.   The  abbe' informed him, that
to communici\ie this word he had used five signs, which,
though scarcely perceivable to him,  were  immediately
and distinctly apprehended by  his scholars:  the first of
these signs indicated an internal  action;  the  second re-
presented the act of a mind that reads internally, or, in
other words, comprehends what is proposed to it; a third
signified that  such a disposition is possible; these, ta-
ken together, form the  word  "intelligible:" a  fourth
sign transforms the adjective into the substantive; and a
fifth,  expressing negation, completes the word required.
M. Linguet afterwards proposed this question, " What
do you understand by metaphysical ideas?" which being
committed to writing, a young  lady immediately an-
swered on paper in the following terms:  «• I understand
the ideas  of things which are  independent of  our sen-
 ses, which are beyond the reach of our senses,  which
 make no  impression on our senses,  which  cannot  be
 perceived  by our senses."
   Dumbness,  periodical.  In the German Ephemerides
 is an  account of an  innkeeper's son  affected  with a pe-
 riodical dumbness, which had continued for fifteen years.
 The loss cd' speech was at first instantaneous, and con-
 tinued only a few minutes; but the duration of it began
 to lengthen every day: so that  it soon  amounted to half
 an hour, two hours, three hours, and at last to 23 hours,
 yet without any order. At last the return of speech kept
 so constant and regular an order, that, for 14 years to-
 gether, he could not speak except from noon,  during the
 space of one entire hour,  to the precise moment of one
 o'clock.  Every time he  lost his speech, he felt a sense
 of something rising from his stomach to his throat, but
 in other respects was in good health.   Both his internal
 and external senses also continued sound:  he heard al-
 ways perfectly  well, and answered the questions propos-
 ed to him by gestures or in writing.  The account states,
 that all suspicion of imposture was removed by his keep-
 ing exactly the same hour, though  he had no access to
 any instruments by which time can be measured.
   DUM fuit infra  jetatem,  a  writ that lies  for
 him,  who, before he came to his full  age, made a feoff-
 ment  of his land in fee, or for  a term of life, or in tail,
 to recover them  again from him to whom  he conveyed
 them.
   Bum non fuit compus  mentis, a writ that lies
 against the alienee,  or lessee, for him that not being of
 sound memory, aliened any  lands or tenements in fee-
 simple,  fee-tail,  or for term of life, or for years.
   DUNG-MEERS, in husbandry,  places where  soils
 and dungs are  mixed and digested together.   For this
 purpose it is usual to dig a pit sufficient to hold the stock
 of soil the  husbandman is capable of making; and to pre-
 pare it at the bottom with  stone and  clay, that it  may
 hold water, or the moisture of the  dung;  and besides,
 U should be so situated that the sinks and drips of the
houses and barns may run into  it.   Into  this pit they
cast rcf s  -fodder-,  litter, dung, weeds, &c. where they
he and rot together, till  the farmer has  occasion for it.
Where such a pit is wanting,  it is proper to cover the
  VOL. I.                   107
dung with turf, or other stuff*,  to prevent the su.; and
wind from drawing off its virtues.   See Husuaxdry.
  DUODENUM,  in  anatomy, the first  of the  small
guts, intestina tenuia, so called from its length, which
is about twelve fingers breadth.
  DUPLE, among mathematicians, denotes the ratio
of 2 to  1.  Thus the  ratio of 8 to  4  is duple, or as «'
to 1.
  £u&-Duple ratio  is  just the reverse of the former,
or as 1  to 2.   Such is  4 to  8, or 6 to 12.
  DUPLICATE,  among  lawyers,  denotes a copy of
any  deed, writing, or account.  It is also used for the
second letters  patent, granted by the lord  chancellor in
a case wherein he had before done the same.   Also, a
second  letter  written  and  sent to the same party and
purpose as a former, for fear ofthe first's miscarrying,
is called a duplicate.
  Duplicate proportion or  ratio, is  a ratio com-
pounded of two ratios: thus, the duplicate ratio of a to
b, is the ratio  of a a to b b, or of the square of a to the
square of b.   Hence the  duplicate ratio ought to be well
distinguished from double.
  In a series of geometrical proportionals, the first term
to the third is  said to be in  a duplicate ratio of the first
to the second:  thus in  2, 4. 8, 16, kc.  the ratio of 2 tu
8 is duplicate of that of 2 to 4, or as the square of 2 to
the square of  4.   Duplicate ratio  is therefore the pro-
portion  of squares, as  triplicate is of cubes, kc and the
ratio of 2 to 8 is said to be compounded of that of 2 to
4, and of 4 to 8.
  DUPLICATION, in general, signifies the doubling
of any thing,  or multiplying  of it by  2: also the fold-
ing of any thing back  again on itself.
  The duplication of a cube is a problem famous in an-
tiquity:  it was proposed by the oracle  at Delphos, as a
means to stop  the plague, to double Apollo's altar, which
was  cubical.   See Cube.
  DUPLICATURE,  among  anatomists,  a term used
to denote the  folds of  any  membrane, or vessel: thus
we say, the duplicatures of the intestines,  peritonajuin,
&c.   See Anatumy.
  DUl'ONDIUS,in antiquity, the weight of two pounds;
also  a piece of money  equal to two ases in value.
  DURA MATER, in anatomy, one of the membranes,
as they arc called, which surround the brane.
  DURATE', in music, a term properly applicable to
whatever offends the ear by its effect.  The B natural,
on account of its hardness, was formerly called B du-
rate'. There are rough or hard intervals in melody; su h
are those produced by  the regular series of three whole
tones, whether ascending or descending,  and  such are
all false relations.
  DURANTA, a genus of the angiospermia order, in
the didynamia class of plants, and  in the natural me-
thod  ranking under the 40th order, personatse.  The
calyx is quinquefid, superior;  the berry tctraspermous;
the seeds bilocular.  There are three species, shrubs of
South America.
  DURESS,  in law, is where a man is kept in prison,
or restrained of his liberty, contrary  to  the order of
law; or threatened to  be killed,  maimed, or beaten; and
if such  person so  in prison, or in fear of such threats,
make any specialty or  obligation by  reason thereof,
1VI 
D U T
D  W A
euch deed  is void in law;  and in  any action brought
upon  such  specialty, the party  may  plead that it was
made by duress, and so he may avoid the action. Covvel.
   Every act of contract must be  altogether the act of
the understanding, which those are incapable of using,
who are under restraint and terrors; and therefore the
law requires the free assent of the the parties as essen-
tial to every contract, and  that they be not under any
free or violence.  2 Bac. Abr.  155.
   DURIO, a genus  ofthe class ;;nd order  polyadelphia
polyandria. The calyx is five-cle t; corol a five-petalled;
style one;  stamina in  five bodies; pome five-celled.
There is one species, a tree of the East Indies.
   DUROIA, in botany, a genus of the monogynia or-
der, belonging to the hexandria  cUss of plants.  The
calyx  above is cylindrical  and  lobed; the border six-
parted; there are  no filaments;  the fruit a hispid a-.pie.
There is one species, a tree of Surinam.
   DUTCH-COURT.  See Chancellor.
   DUTY, in policy and commerce, signifies the impost
laid en  merchandises,  at  importation  or  exportation,
ccminonly  called the duties of customs; also the  tax s
of • xcise,  stamp-duties, kc.   See Customs,  Excise,
&..
   There is no task more delicate or difficult to a states-
man than the laying on of  duties or  imposts.  Experi-
ence teaches cs that a very small  duty laid on commo-
dities raises the price of them considerably to the con-
sumer, beyond  the  gross  duty.  By the  fees given to
officers; by tradesmen's loss of time in attending upon
excisemen, or at custom-houses; by taking away a  quar-
ter of our  traders'  stock for duties; and  forcing  them
to take as great pains on one quarter of their stock laid
 out in goods,  in  order to  live, as they  would on  the
 whole, if duty-free; by tradesmen's profits on the  duty,
 and advances in all the hands that  all taxed goods come
 tlirough to the consumer: as for example, suppose there
should be no other tax but that on leather, let us see how
many advances that would  make on the price of shoes.
   The grazier lays (l) on the beast he fats, his advan-
 ced price of shoes: he sells to the butcher, who takes  (2)
his profit on the grazier's advanced  price of the beast;
 and raises (3) on the hide his  advanced price of shoes:
 he sells to the tanner, whose journeymen raise (4) their
 wages, on account of the  advanced price  of shoes;  the
tanner pays (5) the tax of two-pence per pound on  the
leather; takes (6) his profit on the before-mentioned five
 advances,  and raises (7) his advanced price of shoes on
the tanned hide: he sells to the leather-cutter, who takes
 (8) his profit  on the before-mentioned seven advances,
 and raises (9) on the hide he cuts, his advanced price of
shoes: he  sells to the shoemaker, whese journeymen
raise (10) their wages, on account  of their  advanced
 price of shoes; the  shoemaker takes (11) his profit on
 the before-mentioned ten advances, and raises (12)  on the
 shoes he  makes  the advanced  price of  the  shoes he
 wears: he sells to the consuinnicr with all these twelve
 advances, highly  magnified beyond the bare duty.
    So much for the tax  on leather only; but the grazier,
 butcher,  tanner, leather-cutter, and  shoemaker,  use
 soap: that soap,  like leather, is taxed, and, like that
 leather-tax, must be raised: but that caused twelve ad-
 vances on  our shoes; place therefore twelve advances
more on shoes for the soap-tax.  These tradesmen tine
candles; twelve advances  more for the tax  on them:
and the same  for every other tax on necessaries.  All
which,  duly considered, might be  computed at above
cent, per cent, on the gross produce of the duties; but
though  the large duties cause some farther advance on
all the goods they are laid on, charged with profit upon
profit through every hand  they pass, yet as they keep
not pace with  the  small duties, and as all calculations
appear fair when moderate, let us abate in the advances
and set them  down only at 50 per cent.
  Duty,  in the military  art,  is the exercise of those
functions that  belong  to a soldier; with this distinction
that mounting guards and the like, where there is no
enemy directly to be  engaged, is called duty; but their
marching to meet and fight an enemy is called going on
service.
  DUUMVIRI, in Roman antiquity, a general appel-
lation given  to magistrates, commissioners,  and offi-
cers, where two were joined  together in the same func-
tions.
   Duumviri  capitales were the  judges in criminal
causes:  from  their sentence it  was lawful to appeal to
the people, who only had  the  power of  condemning a
citizen to death.  The judges were taken  from the body
of the decuriones; they had great power and authority,
were members of the  public council, and had two lictors
to walk before them.
   Duumviri  municipales, were  two magistrates in
some cities of the empire, answering to what the con-
suls were at Rome: they were chosen out  of the body of
the decuriones;  their office lasted commonly five years,
upon which account they were  frequently termed quin-
quinales magistratus.   Their jurisdiction was of great
extent:  they had officers walking before them, carrying
a small switch in their hands, and some of them assum-
ed the privilege of having lictors, carrying axes and
the faces, or bundles of rods, before them.
   Duumviri  navales, were the commissaries of the
fleet, first created at  the request of M. Decitis, tribune
of the people, in the time of the war with the Samnites.
The duty of  their office consisted in giving orders for
the fitting of ships, and giving their commissions to the
marine  officers,  kc.
   Duumviri  sacrorum were magistrates created by
Tarquinius Suptrbus, for  the performance of tbe sacri-
fice, and  keeping of the sybil's books.  They were cho-
sen from am, ng the patricians, and held  their office for
life: they were  exempted from serving in the wars, and
from the offices imposed  on the  other  citizens, and
without them  the oracles of the sybil could not be con-
sulted.
   DWARF,  in general, an appellation given to things
greatly inferior in size to that which is usual  in their
several kinds; thus there are dwarfs of the human spe-
cies, dwarf dogs, dwarf trees, &c.
   Dwarf fruit-trees may be propagated by grafting them
on a quinc e-stock,  about six  inches above the ground;
and when the hud is shot so far as to have four eyes, it
must be stopped, to  give rise to lateral  branches; for
which purpc se the uppermost eye should  always be left
outwards.  Apple, pear, plumb, aud cherry-trees are
% 
DYE
DYE
thus  formed into dwarfs; but the  summer and  autumn
pears are found to succeed best.
  As to the planting of dwarf trees, they should be set
at 25 feet square distance, and the ground between sown
or planted for kite hen use while the trees are young, on-
ly keeping at some distance  from their roots: stakes also
should he  fixed all round them, to which the  branches
maybe nailed with list, and trimmed in an horizontal di-
rection, and prevented from crossing one another.
  DYE, in architecture, any square body, as the trunk,
or notched part, of a pedestal. See Architecture.
  Die is also used for a cube of stone placed under the
feet of a statue, and over its pedestal, to raise it, and show
it the more.
  DYEING. Principles of dyeing.—The substances com-
monly employed  for  clothing may be reduced to four;
namely wool, silk, cotton, and linen.
  Permanent alterations  in the colour of cloth  can only
be induced two ways; either hy producing  a  chemical
change in the cloth, or by covering its fibres with some sub-
stances which possesses the wished-for colour. Recourse
can seldom or never be had to the first method, because
it is  hardly possible to produce a chemical change in the
fibres of cloth,  without spoiling its texture,  and render-
ing it useless.  The dyer, therefore, when he wishes to
give a new colour to cloth,  has  always recourse to the
second method.
  The substances employed  for this  purpose are called
colouring matters, or dye-stuffs. They are for  the most
part extracted  from animal  and vegetable  substances,
and have usually the  colour which  they are to give to
the cloth.
  Since the  particles of  colouring matter  with which
cloth, when dyed, is covered, are transparent, it follows,
that  all the light  reflected from  dyed cloth must be re-
flected, not by the dye-stuff itself, but by the fibres ofthe
cloth below the dye stuff.  The colour therefore does not
depend upon the  dye  alone,  but also upon the  previous
colour uf the cloth.* If the cloth  is black, it is clear that
we cannot dye it any other colour whatever;  because  as
mi light in that case is reflected, none can be transmit-
ted, whatever dye-stuff we employ. If the cloth  was red,
or blue, or yellow, we could not i\} e it any colour except
black;  because,  as only red, or blue, or yellow rays
were reflected,  no other could be transmitted. Hence the
importance of a fine white colour, when cloth  is to re-
ceive bright dyes.  It then reflects all the rays in abun-
dance, and therefore any  colour may be given, by cov-
ering it with  a dye-stuff which transmits only some par-
ticular rays.
  If the colouring matters were merely spread  over the
surface of the  fibres of cloth by the dyer,  the colours
produced  might be very  bright, but they could not be
permanent; because the colouring matter would  be very-
won  rubbed  off; and would totally disappear whenever
the cloth was washed, or even  barely  exposed to the
weather. The colouring matter then, however perfect a
colf>ui« it possesses, is of no value, unless it also adheres
so firmly to the cloth that none ofthe substances usually
Applied  to cloth,  in order to clean it, kc. can  displace
'« ^'°W ^''S rIUI on'-v naPren'  ^l,cn  there is  a strong
affinity between the colouring matter and the cloth, and
 when they arc actually combined together in consequence
 of that affinity.
   Dyeing then is merely a  chemical process, and  con-
 sists in combining a certain  colouring matter with fibres
 of cloth.  This process can in no  instance be performed,
 unless the dye-stuff is first  reduced to its integrant par-
 ticles; for the attraction of aggregation between the par-
 ticles  of  dye-stuffs, is  too great to be overcome by the
 affinity between them and the cloth, unless they  could he
 brought  within much smaller distances than is possible
 while they both remain in a  solid form. It is necessary,
 therefore, previously  to dissolve the colouring matter in
 some liquid or other, wiiich has  a weaker affinity for it
 than the  c loth has.  When the cloth is  dipped  into this
 solution,  the  colouring matter,  reduced by this contri-
 vance to  a liquid  state, is brought within the attracting
 distance;  tl^e  cloth therefore acts  upon it,  and from its
 stronger  affinity,  takes it from  the solvent, and fixes
 upon itself. By this contrivance too, the equality ofthe
 colour is  in some measure  secured, as every part of  the
 cloth has  an opportunity of attracting to itself the proper
 proportion of colouring particles.
   The facility  with which cloth  imbibes a dye, depends
 upon two circumstances; namely, the affinity  between
 the cloth  and  the  dye-stuff,  and  the affinity between the
 dye-stuff  and  its  solvent. It is directly  as  the former,
 and inversely  as the latter.  It is of importance to pre-
 serve a due proportion  between  these two  affinities, as
 upon that proportion much  of the accuracy  of  dyeing
 depends.  If the affinity between  the colouring matter
 and the doth is too great, compared with the affinity  be-
 tween the colouring  matter  and the  solvent, the cloth
 will take  the dye too rapidly, and it will be scarcely pos-
 sible to prevent its colour from being unequal. On the
 other hand, if  the. affinity between the colouring matter
 and the solvent is too  great, compared with that between
 the colouring matter  and the cloth, the cloth will cither
 not take the colour at all, or it will take it very slowly
 and very  faintly.
   Wool has the strongest affinity  for almost all colouring
 matters, silk the  next  strongest, cotton a considerably
 weaker affinity, and linen the weakest affinity of all. In
 order therefore, to dye cotton or linen, the dye stuff should
 in many  cases be dissolved  in a  substance  for which it
 has  a weaker  affinity than for the  solvent employed in
 the dyeing of  wool or silk.  Thus  we may  use oxide of
 iron dissolved  in  sulphuric acid, in order to dye  wool;
 but for cotton and  linen, it is better to dissolve it in ace-
 tous acid.
   Was it  possible to  procure a sufficient number of  co-
 louring matters, having a strong affinity for cloth, to an-
 swer all the purposes of dyeing, that art would be ex-
 ceedingly  simple and  easy. But this is by no means the
 case; if we except  indigo, the dyer is scarcely possessed
 of a dye-stuff which yields of itself  a good colour,  suffi-
 ciently permanent to deserve the name of a dye.
   This difficulty, which  at  first sight appears insur-
 mountable, has been obviated by a very ingenious con-
trivance.  Some substance  is employed, which  has a
strong affinity, both for the cloth and the colouring matter.
This substance is previously combined with the cl- th,
which  is  then  dipped into the solution containing  the
dye-stuff.  The  dye-stuff combines with the intermediate 
AYEUTO.
MtiWuu. ,\ v.v.|. b. Vir.fv fivv.dv famhinrd with the ; loth,
•ccuici tlie j.'C-rmancncc of the dye,  brbstiuices employed
lor this purpose ar. denominated more..uits,
   j he  most  important part of dyeing, is undoubtedly
the proper choice, and the  proper application, of mor-
dants; a.i upon them, the permanency of almost every dye
depends. Everything which has been said respecting the
application of colouring matters, applies equally  to the
application cf mordants.  They must he previously dissolv-
ed  in some liquid, which has a weaker affinity for them
than the cloth has, to which they are to be applied; and
the cloth must he dipped, or even steeped in this solution,
in order to saturate itself with the mordant.
   Almost  tho  only substances used as  mordants, are
earths, metallic oxides, tan, and oil.
   Of earthy mordants the mostimp; rtsr.t, and most gene-
rally us d, is alumina. It is used cither in the state of com-
mon alum, in wiiich it is combined with sulphuric acid, or
in that of acetite of alumina.
   Alum, when used as a mordant,  is dissolved in water,
and very frequently  a quantity of tartar is dissolved along
with it.  Into this solution the doth is put,  and kept in
it till it has absorbed as much alumina as is necessary. It
is then taken out, and for the most part washed and dried.
It is now a good deal heavier than it was before, owing to
the alumina which  has  combined  with it.   The  tartar
^serves two purposes; the potass which it contains, com-
bines with the sulphuric acid of the alum, and thus pre-
vents that very  corrosive substance from injuring the
texture of the cloth, which otherwise might  happen: the
tartareous acid, on  the other hand, combines with part
ofthe alumina, and forms a tartrite of alumina,  which is
more easily decomposed by the c loth than alum,
   Acetite of alumina has been but lately introduced into
dyeing. This mordant is now prepared by pouring ace-
tite of  lead into a solution of alum; a double decomposi-
tion takes place, the sulphureous acid combines with the
lead, and the compound precipitates, in the form of an in-
soluble powder, while the alumina combines with the ace-
tous  acid, and remains  dissolved in the liquid.   This
mordant is employed for cotton and linen, which have a
weaker affinity than wool for alumina. It answers much
better  than  alum;  the  cloth is much easier saturated
with  alumina, and takes in consequence, both a richer
and more permanent colour.
   Besides alumina, lime is sometimes used as a mordant.
Cloth  has a strung affinity enough for it; but, in gene-
ral, it  docs riot answer so  well, as it  does  not give so
good a colour. When used, it  is either  in the state of
lime-water, or of sulphate of lime dissolved in water.
   Almost  all the metallic  oxides have  an  affinity  for
cloth, but only  two  of them are extensively  used as
mordants, namely, the oxides of tin, and of  iron.
   The oxide of tin  was first introduced into dyeing by
Kuster, a German  chemist, who brought the secret to
 London in 1543.  This period forms an sera in the histo-
 ry of.dyeing, lie oxide of tin has enabled the moderns
 greatly to surpass  the ancients in the fineness of their
 colours; by  means of it alone, scarlet, the  brightest of
 all colours, is produced.
   Tin. as Proust has proved, is capable of  two degrees
 af oxydation.  The  first oxide is composed of 0.70 parts
 of tin, and 0.30 of oxygen; the second, or  white oxide,
of e.(5Q parts of Tin, and 0.40 of oxygen. The first ox-
ide absorbs oxygen with very great facility, even from
the air, and is rapidly converted into white oxide. This
fact makes it certain, that  it is the white oxide of tie.
alone,  which is the real mordant; even if the other ox-
ide was applied to cloth, as  it probably often is, it must
soon be converted  into white oxide, by absorbing ox v.
gen from the atmosphere.
   Tin is used as a mordant in three states:  dissolved io
nitro-muriatic acid, in acetous acid, and in a mixture of
sulphuric and muriatic acids, Mitro-muriate of tin is the
common mordant  employed by  dyers. They prepare it
by dissolving tin and  diluted nitric acid, to which a cer-
tain proportion of muriate of soda (common salt), or of
ammonia (sal ammoniac), is added. Part of the nitric
acid decomposes these  salts,  combines with their base
and sets the muriatic acid at liberty. It was prepared at
first with nitric  acid alone,  but that mode was very de-
fective, because  the nitric acid very readily converts tin
to white oxide, and then is incapable of dissolving it; the
consequence of which was, the precipitation of tlie whole,
of the tin. To remedy this  defect, common  salt, or sal
ammoniac, was  very soon added; muriatic acid having
the property of dissolving wiiite oxide of tin very rcadilv.
A considerable saving of  nitric  acid might be obtained,
by employing as much sulphuric acid as is just sufficient
to  saturate the base of the common salt, or sal ammoni*
ac, employed.
   W hen the  nitro-muriate of tin is to be used as a mor-
dant, it is dissolved in a large quantity of water, and the
cloth  is dipped in  the  solution,  and allowed to  remain
till sufficiently saturated.  Itis then taken out, and wash-
ed and dried. 1 artar is usually dissolved in the water
along with the  nitro-muriate. The consequence of fhisi
is a double decomposition: the nitro-muriatic acid com-
bines with  the potass of the tartar, while the tartareous
acid dissolves the oxide of tin. When tartar is used*
therefore, in  any considerable quantity,  the mordant is
not a nitro-muriate, but a tartrite of tin.   *■
   Iron, like tin, is capable of  two degrees of oxydation;
but the green oxide absorbs  oxygen so readily from tho
atmosphere, that it is very  soon converted into the red
oxide. It is only this last oxide which is really used as a
mordant in dyeing. The green oxide is,  indeed,sometimes
applied to ' lo!h; but it very soon absorbs oxygen, and is
converted into the red oxide.  This  oxide has a very
strong affinity for all  kinds  of cloth. The permanency of
the iron-spots on linen and cotton is a  sufficient proof of
this.  As a mordant, it is used  in two states; in that of
sulphate of iron (copperas),  and acetite of iron. The
first is commonly used for wool. The salt is dissolved in
water, and the  cloth dipped in  it.  It  may be used also
for cotton, but in most cases acetite of iron is preferred,
It is prepared by dissolving  iron, or its  oxicle, in vinegar,
sour  beer, &c. and the longer it is kept, the more it is
preferred. The reason  is, that this mordant succeeds best
when  the iron is in the state of red oxide. It would be
better then to oxidate the iron, or convert it  into rust,
before using it;  which might be easily  done, by keeping
it for some time in a moist place, and sprinkling it occa-
sionally with water.
   Tin has a  very strong affinity for cloth, and for seve-
ral colouring matters] it is therefore very frequently 
DYEING.
employed m a mordant. An Infasion of nut-galls, or of
sumach, or any other substance containing tan, is made
in water, and the clotli  is dipped in this infu.sion,  and
allowed to remain till it has absorbed a sufficient quan-
tity of tan. Silk  is  capable of absorbing a very great
proportion of tan, and by that means acquires a great
increase of weight. Manufactures sometimes employ this
method of increasing the weight of silk.
  Tan is often employed also, along with other mor-
dants, in order to produce a compound mordant.  Oil
is also used for the same purpose, in the dyeing of  cot-
ton and linen.  The mordants with which tan  most  fre-
quently is combined, are alumina, and oxide of iron.
  Besides these mordants, there are several other sub-
stances frequently used as auxiliaries, either to facilitate
the combination ofthe mordant  with the cloth, or to al-
ter the shade of  colour; the  chief of these  are,  tartar,
acetite of lead, common salt, sal ammoniac, sulphate or
acetite of copper, &c.
   Mordants not only render the  dye  permanent, but
 have  also considerable influence on the colour produced.
The  same  colouring  matter  produces very different
 dyes, according as the mordant is changed. Suppose, for
 instance, that  the colouring  matter is cochineal; if we
 use the aluminous mordant, the cloth will  acquire  a
 crimson colour; but the oxide of iron produces with it a
 black.
   In  dyeing then, it is not only necessary to procure a
 mordant which has  a sufficiently  strong affinity for the.
 colouring matter and the cloth, and a colouring  matter
 which possesses the wished-for colour in perfection, hut
 we must procure a mordant and a colouring matter of such
 a nature, that when combined together, they shall pos-
 bcss the  wished-for colour in perfection.  It is evident
 too, that a great variety' of  colours  may  be  produced
 with a single dye-stuff, provided we can change the mor-
 dant sufficiently.
   The colouring matter with which the cloth is dyed,
 does  not cover every portion of its surface; its particles
 attach themselves to the cloth at certain distances from
 each  other; for cloth may he died different shades ofthe
 same colour, lighter or darker, merely by varying the
 quantity of colouring matter. With a small quantity, the
 shade is light: and it becomes deeper as the quantity in-
 crease.  Now this would be impossible, if the dye-stuff
 covered the whole of the cloth.
   That the particles of colouring matter, even  when the
 shade isd.-cp,  are at some distance, is evident  from  this
 well-known fact,  that cloth may be dyed two colours at
 the same time. All thos^ colours to which the dyers give
 the name of compound, arc in fact two different colours
 applied to the clotli at  once.  Thus cloth gets a green
colour, by being  first dyod blue  and then yellow.
   The colours denominated  by dyers simple, because
they arc  the foundation  of all their other processes, are
four;  namely, first, blue: second, yellow;  third, red;
fourth, black.  To these they  usually add a fifth, under
the name of root  or brown colour.
  Of dying blue.—The only colouring matters employed
in dyeing blue, are woad and indigo.
  >V i id is a plant cultivated in England, and even grow-
ing w.ld in  s cue  parts of it.
  Indigo is a blue powder, extracted from  a species of
plant which  i's cultivated for that purpdsa in the East
and  West Indies.  These plants contain a peculiar green
pollen,  which in that state is  soluble in water.  This
pollen has a strong affinity for oxygen, which it attracts
greedily from the atmosphere;  inconsequence of which
it assumes a  blue colour, and becomes  insoluble in wa-
ter.
  Indigo has a very strong affinity for wool,  silk,  cot-
ton,  and linen.   Every kind of doth, therefore, may be
dyed with  it, without the assistance of any  mordant
whatever.  The colour thus induced is very permanent;
because the indigo is already saturated with oxygen, and
because it is not liable to be decomposed by those sub-
stances, to the action of wdiich the cloth is exposed.  But
it can only be applied to cloth in a state of solution; and
the only solvent known  being sulphuric acid, it would
seem at first sight,  that  the  sulphuric acid solution
is the only state in which indigo can be employed as a
dye.
  The sulphate of indigo is indeed often used to dye wool
and  silk blue;   but it can scarcely bo applied to cotton
and  linen, because the affinity of these substances for in-
digo is not great enough to enable them  readily to de-
compose the  sulphate. The colour given by sulphate of
indigo is exceedingly beautiful; itis known by the name
of Saxon blue.
 ' One part of indigo is to  be dissolved in four parts of
concentrated sulphuric acid; to the solution one part of
dry  carbonate of potass is to be added,  and then it is to
be diluted with  eight  times its weight  of water.  The
cloth must be boiled for an  hour in a solution, containing
five  parts of alum,  and  three  of tartar,  for  every 32
parts of cloth. It is then to be thrown into a water-hath,
containing a greater or smaller proportion ofthe diluted
sulphate of  indigo,  according to the shade which the
cloth is intended to receive.  In this bath it must be boil-
ed till it has acquired the wished-for colour.
  The alum and tartar are not intended to act as mor-
dants, but to facilitate the decomposition! of the sulphate
of indigo.  The alkali added to the  sulphate, answers
the same purpose. These substances also, by saturating
part  of the sulphuric acid, serve in some measure to pre-
vent  tlie texture of the cloth from being injured hyr the
action of the acid, which is  very apt to happen in this
process.
  But sulphate of indigo is by no means  the only solu-
tion  of  that pigment employed in dyeing.  By far the
most common method is, to deprive indigo of the oxygen*
to which it owes its blue  colour, and thus  to reduce it to
the state of green pollen; and then to dissolve it in wa-
ter hy means of alkalis, or  alkaline earths, which in that
state act upon it very readily.
  Two  different methods are employed for this purpose.
The  first of these methods  is, to mix with indigo a solu-
tion  of  some substance which has a stronger affinity  for
oxygen than  the green basis of indigo;  green oxide,  for
instance, and different metallic sulphurets.  If therefore
indigo,  lime, aud green  sulphate of iron, are  mixed to-
gether in water, the indigo gradually loses its blue col-
our,  becomes green, and is dissolved;  while  the grceu
oxide of iron is converted into the red oxide.   The man-
ner in which these changes take place is obvious; part of
the  lime decomposes -the sulphate of  iron;  the green 
DYEING.
oxide, the instant that itis set at liberty, attracts oxygen
from the indigo, decomposes it,  and reduces it to the
state of green pollen. This  green pollen is immediately
dissolved by the action of the rest ofthe lime.
  The second  method  is, to mix the indigo  in water
with certain  vegetable substances, which readily  under-
go fermentation. During this fermentation, the indigo
is deprived of its oxygen,  and  dissolved by  means of
quick-lime or alkali, wiiich is added to the solution. The
first of these  methods is usually followed in dyeing cotton
and linen;  the second, in  dyeing wool and silk.
  In the dyeing of wool, woad and bran arc commonly
employed as vegetable ferments, and lime as the  solvent
of the green base of the indigo.  Woad itself contains a
colouring matter precisely similar to indigo; and by fol-
lowing the common  process, indigo may be  extracted
from it.  In  the usual state  of woad,  when purchased by
the dyer, the indigo which it contains is probably not far
from the state of the green pollen.  Its quantity in woad
is but small, and it is mixed with a  great proportion of
other'vegetable matter.
   When the cloth is first taken out of the vat, it is of a
 green colour;  but it soon becomes  blue, by  attracting
 oxygen from the air. It ought to be carefully washed,
to carry off  the uncombined particles.  This solution of
indigo is  liable to two inconveniences: first,  it is apt
 sometimes to run too fast into the putrid  fermentation;
 this may be known  by the  putrid vapours  which it ex-
 hales, and by the disappearing of the green  colour.  In
 this state it would soon destroy the indigo altogether.
 The inconvenience is  remedied by  adding more  lime,
 which has the property of moderating the putrescent ten-
 dency.  Secondly,  sometimes the fermentation  goes on
 too languidly.  This defect is remedied by  adding more
 bran  or woad, in order to diminish the  proportion  of
 quick-lime.
    Silk is dyed light-blue  by a ferment of  six parts of
 bran, six of indigo, six of  potass,  and one of madder.
 To dye it of a dark blue, it must previously receive what
 is called a ground-colour;  a red dye-stuff, called archil,
 is used for this purpose.
    Cotton and  linen are dyed blue by a solution of one
 part of indigo, one part of green sulphate of iron, and
 two parts of quick-lime.
    Of dyeing yellow.—The principal colouring  matters
 for dyeing yellow are weld, fustic, and quercitron bark.
    Weld is a plant which grows commonly in England,
 reseda luteola.
    Fustic  is the wood of  a large tree which grows in the
 West Indies, morus tinctoria.
    Quercitron is a tree growing in  North America, the
 bark of which contains colouring matter.
    Yellow colouring matters have too weak  an affinity
 for cloth, to produce permanent colours without the use
  of mordants.  Cloth, therefore, before it is dyed yellow,
 is always prepared by combining some mordant or other
 with it.  The mordant most commonly employed for this
  purpose,  is  alumina.   Oxide of tin is sometimes  used
  when very fine yellows are wanting.  Tan is often em-
  ployed as a subsidiary  to alumina,  and in  order to fix
 it more copiously  on cotton and linen.  Tartar is also
 used as an auxiliary, to brighten the colour;  and muri-
ate of soda,  sulphate of lime, and even sulphate of iron
in order to render the shade deeper.
  The yellow dyed by means of fustic is more perma-
nent, but not so beautiful as that given by weld, en-quer-
citron.  As  it is permanent,  and not much  injured by
acids, it is often used in dyeing compound colours,  where
a yellow is required.  The mordant is alumina.   When
the mordant is oxide of iron,  fustic dyes a good perma-
nent drab colour.
   Weld and quercitron hark yield nearly the same kind
of colour;  but as the  bark y ields colouring matter in
much greater abundance,  it is much  more convenient,
and upon the whole, cheaper than weld.  It is probable
therefore, that it  will gradually supersede the use of that
plant.  The method of  using each of these dye-stuffs is
nearly the same.
   Wool  may  be  dyed yellow by the following process:
Let it be boiled for an hour or more with about-J-th ofits
weight of alum,  dissolved in a sufficient quantity of wa-
ter. It is then to be plunged, without being rinsed, into
a bath of warm water,  containing in it as much querci-
tron bark, as  equals the weight of the alum employed as
a mordant.  The cloth is to be turned through the boil-
ing liquid, till it has acquired the intended colour.  Then
a quantity of clean powdered  chalk, equal  to the hun-
dredth part of the weight of the cloth, is to be stirred in,
and the operation of dyeing continued for eight  or ten
minutes  longer.   By  this method a pretty deep and
lively yellow may be given, fully as permanent as weld
yellow.
   For very bright orange or golden yellow7, it is  neces-
sary to have recourse  to the oxide of tin as a mordant.
   For producing bright golden yellows, some alum must
be added along with the tin.
   In order to give the yellow that delicate green shade
so much admired for  certain  purposes,  tartar must be
added in different proportions, according to the shade.
   By adding a small proportion of cochineal, the  colour
may be raised to a fine orange, or even an aurora.
   Silk may be dyed different shades of yellow, either by
weld or quercitron bark, but the last is the cheapest of
the two.  The proportion  should be from one to two parts
of bark to twelve parts of silk, according to the shade.
The hark, tied up  in a bag, should be put into the dyeing
 vessel, while the water  which it contains is cold;  and
when it has acquired the heat of about 100°, the silk,
 having been previously alumed, should be dipped in,  and
 continued till it assumes  the  wished-for colour.  When
 the shade is required to be deep,  a little chalk or pearl-
 ash should be added towards the end ofthe operation.
    The best method of dyeing cotton and linen y ellow, is
 as follows:
    The mordant should be  acetite of alumina, prepared
 by dissolving one part of acetite of lead, and three parts
 of alum, in a sufficient quantity of water.  This solution
 should be heated to the temperature of 100°: the cloth
 should be soaked in it for two hours, then wrung  out and
 dried.   The  soaking may be repeated, and the cloth
 again dried as before. It  is then to be barely wetted with
 lime-water,  and afterwards  dried.  The  soaking in the
 acetite of  alumina may be again repeated; and if the
 shade of yellow is required to be very bright and dura-
 ble, the alteinate wetting with lime-water and  soaking 
DYEING,
in the mordant may be repeated three or four times.  By
this contrivance, a sufficient quantity of alumina is com-
bined with the cloth, and  the  combination is rendered
more permanent by the addition of some lime. The dye-
ing-bath is prepared  by putting 12 or 18 parts of quer-
citron bark (according to the depth of the shade requir-
ed), tied up in a bag,  into a sufficient quantity of cold
water. Into this bath the cloth is to be put,  and turned
round in it for an hour, while its temperature is gradu-
ally raised to about 120°.  It is then  to be brought to a
boiling heat,  and the clotli allowed to  remain in it after
that only a few minutes.  If it is  kept long  at a boiling
heat, the yellow acquires a shade of brown.
   Of dyeing red.—The  colouring matters employed for
 dyeing red, arc kermes, cochineal, archil, madder, carth-
 amus, and Brazil-wood.
   Kermes is  a species of insect, affording a red colour
 by solution in water; but it is not so beautiful as cochi-
 neal, which is likewise an  insect common in America
 (see both  under Coccus).   The decoction of cochineal
 is a very beautiful crimson-colour.  Alum brightens the
 colour of the decoction, and occasions  a crimson  pre-
 cipitate.   Muriate of tin gives a copious fine red  pre-
 cipitate.
   Archil is a paste formed of a species of lichen pound-
 ed, and kept moist for some time with stale urine.
   Madder is the root of a well-known plant, rubia tinc-
 torum.
    Carthamus is the flower ofa plant (carthamus tincto-
  rius), cultivated in Spain and the Levant.   It contains
  two colouring matters: a yellow, which is soluble in wa-
  ter; and a red, insoluble in water, but soluble in alka-
  line carbonates. The red colouring matter of carthamus,
  extracted hy carbonate of soda, and precipitated by lem-
  on-juice,  constitutes the rouge employed by ladies as a
  paint.  It is  afterwards ground with a certain quantity
  of talc.  The fineness of the talc,  and the proportion of
  it mixed with the carthamus, occasion the difference be-
  tween the cheaper and dearer kinds of rouge.
    Brazil-wood is the wood of a tree growing in Ameri-
  ca and the West Indies (See CiESALnxiA).   Its decoc-
  tion is a fine red colour.
    None of the red  colouring matters has so strong an
  affinity for cloth as to produce a permanent red, without
  the assistance of mordants. The mordants employed are
  alumina and oxide of tin;  oil,  and tan, in  certain pro-
  cesses, art1 also used;  and tartar, and muriate of soda,
  are frequently called in as auxiliaries.
    Coarse woollen stuffs are  dyed red with  madder or
  archil; but fine  cloth is almost exclusively dyed  with
  cochineal, though  the colour which it receives  from
  kermes is much more durable.  Brazil-wood is scarcely
  used, except as an auxiliary, because the colour which
  it imparts to wool is not  p< rmanent.
    Wool  is dyed  crimson, by first impregnating it with
  alumina, by means of an alum bath, and then boilingit in
  a decoction of cochineal, till it has acquired the  wished-
  for colour.  The crimson will be finer if the  tin mordant
  is subsiituted for alum; indeed, it is usual with dyers to
  add a little  nitro-muriate  of  tin, when they want fine
  crimsons.  The addition of archil and potass to the co-
 chineal, both  renders the  crimson darker,  and gives it
 roore bloom; but the bloom very soon vanishes.  For
paler crimsons,  one-half of the cochineal is withdrawn,
and madder substituted in its place.
  Wool may be  dyed scarlet, the most  splendid of all
colours, by first  boiling it in a solution of murio-sulphatc
of tin, then dyeing it pale  yellow with quercitron bark.
and afterwards crimson with cochineal;  for scarlet is a
compound colour consisting of crimson mixed with a lit-
tle yellow.
  Silk is usually dyed red  with cochineal or carthamus,
and sometimes with Brazil-wood.   Kermes does not an-
swer for silk; madder is scarcely ever used  for that pur-
pose, because it does  not yield a colour bright enough,
Archil is employed to give  silk a bloom; but it is scarce-
ly used by itself, unless  when the  colour wanted  is
lilac.
  Silk may be dyed crimson by steeping it in a solution
of alum, and then dyeing  it in the usual way in a co-
chineal hath.
  The colours  known by the names of poppy,  cherry,
rose,  and  flesh-colour, are given  to silk  by means  of
carthamus.  The process consists merely in keeping the
silk  as long as it extracts any colour, in an alkaline so-
lution of carthamus, into which  as  much lemon-juice  as
gives it a fine cherry colour has been poured.
  Silk cannot be dyed a  full scarlet; but a colour ap
proaehing to scarlet may be given  it, by first impreg-
nating the  stuff with  murio-sulphate of tin, and after-
wards dyeing it in a  bath, composed of four parts  of
cochineal,  and  four parts of quercitron bark.  To give
tbe colour  more  body, both the  mordant  and the dye
may  be  repeated. A colour approaching scarlet may
be also given to silk,  by first dyeing it in crimson,  then
dyeing it with carthamus, and lastly, yellow  without
heat. Cotton and linen are dyed red with madder.  The
process was borrowed from the East; hence the colour
is often called Adrianople  or  Turkey red.  The  cloth
is first impregnated with oil, then with  galls, and lastly
with alum.  It is then boiled for an hour in a decoction
of madder, which is commonly mixed with a quantity of
blood.  After the cloth is dyed, it is plunged into a soda
ley, in order to brighten the colour.  The red given  by
this process, is very permanent, and when properly con-
ducted, it is exceedingly beautiful.   The whole difficulty
consists in the application of the mordant, which is  by
far  the  most complicated employed in the whole art of
dyeing.
   Cotton may  be dyed scarlet, by  means of murio-sul-
phate of tin, cochineal,  and quercitron bark,  used  as
for silk, but the colour is too fading to be of any value.
   Of dyeing black.—The substances employed to give a
black colour to  cloth  are, red oxide of iron, and tan.
These two substances have a  strong affinity for  each
other; and when combined, assume a deep black colour,
not  liable to be destroyed  by the action of air or light.
   Logwood is  usually employed as an auxiliary, because
it communicates lustre,  and adds  considerably to  the
fullness ofthe black. It is  the wood of a tree (Sec Hae-
 matoxvlon) which  is a  native of several of the West
 India islands,  and  of that port of Mexico which sur-
rounds the Bay  of Honduras.   It  yields  its colouring
matter to  water.  The decoction is at first a fine red,
bordering on violet; but if left to itself, it  gradually  as-
sumes a black  colour.  Acids give it a deep red colour; 
DYEING.
alkalis a deep violet, inclining to  brown;  sulphate of
iron renders it as black as ink, and occasions  a preci-
pitate of the same colour.
  Cloth, before it receives  a black colour, is  usually
dyed blue: this renders the colour much fuller and finer
than it would  otherwise be.  If the cloth is  coarse, the
blue dye may  be too expensive; in  that case, a brown
colour is given, by means of walnut-peels.
  Wool  is dyed black hy the following process.  It is
boiled for two hours in a decoction  of nut-galls, and af-
terwards kept for two hours more  in a bath composed
of logwood and sulphate of iron, kept during the whole
time at a scalding heat, but not boiled.  During the ope-
ration, it  must be frequently exposed to the air; be-
cause the green oxide of  iron, of which the sulphate is
composed, must be converted into red oxide by absorb-
ing oxygen, before the clotli can acquire a  proper  co-
lour.   The common proportions are five parts of galls,
five of sulphate of iron, and thirty of logwood, for every
hundred of cloth.  A little  acetite of copper  is com-
monly added to the sulphate of iron, because it is thought
io improve the colour.
  Silk is dyed nearly in the same manner.   It  is capa-
ble of combining with a great deal of tan; the quantity
given is varied at the pleasure of the  artist, by allow-
ing the silk to remain a longer  or  shorter  time in  the
decoction.
   It is by no means so easy to give a full black to linen
and cotton.  The cloth, previously  dyed blue, is steeped
for 24 hours in a decoction of nut-galls.  A bath is pre-
pared, containing an acetite of iron, formed by saturat-
ing acetous acid with brown oxyd of iron: into this bath
the cloth is put in small  quantities  at a time,  wrought
with the hand for a quarter of an hour, then WTimg out,
 and aired again; wrought in a fresh quantity of the
 bath, and afterwards aired.  These alternate processes
 are repeated, till the colour wanted  is given: a decoction
 of alder bark is usually  mixed with the liquor contain-
 ing the nut-galls.
   Of dyeing brown.—Brown, or fawn colour, though in
 fact a compound, is  usually ranked  among the simple
 colours, because it is applied to  cloth by a  simple pro-
 cess.  Various substances are used for brown dyes.
   Walnut-peels, or the green covering of the  walnut,
 when first separated are white  internally, but soon as-
 sume a brown, or even a black colour, on  exposure to
 the air. They readily yield their colouring matter to wa-
 ter.  They are usually kept in large casks, covered with
 water, for above a year before they are used.   To  dye
 wool brown with them, nothing more is necessary, than
 to  steep the cloth in a decoction of them till it has ac-
 quired the wished-for colour.  The depth  of tho shade
 is proportional to the strength  of the decoction.  The
 root of the walnut-tree containsthe same colouring mat-
 ter, but in smaller quantity. The  bark  of the birch
 also, and many other trees, may be used for the same
 purpose.  It  is very probable that the brown colouring
 matter is in these vegetable substances  combined  with
 tan.   This is certainly the case in  sumach, which is of-
 ten employed to  produce a brown.  This  combination
explains the reason why  no mordant is necessary; the
<an has a strong affinity for cloth, and the colouring mat-
ter for the tan.  The dye-stuff, and the mordant, are
already, in fact, combined together.
  Of dyeing  compound colour*.—Compound colours arc
produced by mixing together two simple ones; or, which
is the same thing,  by dyeing cloth  first one simple co-
lour, and then another.  These colours vary to infinity
according to  the proportions of the  ingredients employ-
ed. They may be  arranged under the following classes.
  Mixtures of, l.  Blue and  yellow; 2.  Blue and red*
3.  Yellow and red; 4. Black and other colours.
  Mixture of blue and yellow.—This forms green; which
is distinguished by dyers into  a variety of»shades, ac-
cording to the depth of the shade, or the prevalence of
either ofthe component parts. Thus we have sea-green,
grass-green,  pea-green,  kc.
  Wool, silk, and  linen, are  usually dyed green by giv-
ing them first a blue colour, and afterwards dyeing them
yellow; because, when the yellow is first given,  several
inconveniences follow: the yellow partly separates again
in the blue vat, and communicates  a green colour to it,
and thus renders it useless for every other purpose, ex-
cept dyeing green.  Any of the usual  processes for dye-
ing blue and yellow may be followed, taking care to pro-
portion the depth  of the shades to that of the green re-
quired. When sulphate of indigo is employed, it is usu-
al to mix all the  ingredients together, and  to  dye the
cloth at once; this produces what is known by the name
of Saxon or  English green.
   Mixtures of blue aud red.—These form different shades
of violet, purple, and lilac. Wool is generally first dyed
blue, and afterwards scarlet, in the usual manner. By
means of cochineal mixed with sulphate of indigo, the
process may be performed  at once.   Silk is  first dyed
crimson,  by means of cochineal, and  then dipped into
the indigo vat.   Cotton and linen are first dyed blue,
then galled,  and soaked in a decoction of logwood; but
a more permanent colour is given by  means of oxide of
iron.
   Mixtures of yellow and red.—These produce orange.
When blue is combined with red and yellow on cloth,
the resulting colour is olive.  Wool may be dyed orange,
by first dyeing it  scarlet, and then  yellow.  When it is
dyed first with madder, the result  is  cinnamon-colour.
   Silk  is dyed orange by means of carthamus; a cinna-
mon colour by logwood, Brazil-wood, and fustic mixed
together.
   Cotton and linen receive a cinnamon-colour by means
of weld and madder; and an  qlivc-colour, by being pas-..
sed through a blue, yellow, and then  a madder-bath.
   Mixtures of black with other colours.—These constitute
greys,  drabs, and browns.   If cloth is previously com-
bined  with brown oxide of  iron, and afterwards dyed
yellow7 with quercitron bark, the result will be a drab of
different shades, according to the proportion of mordant
employed.  "When the proportion is small, the colour in-
clines to olive or yellow; on  the contrary, the drab may
be deepened or saddened, as  the dyers term it, by mix-
ing a little sumach with the bark.  See Calico-Pbint-
ING.
   DYERS.   By  stat. 3 & 4  Ed. VI. c.  2, no dyer may
dye any cloth with orchel,  or with brazil, to make a
false colour in cloth, wool, kc. on penalty of  20s. By
stat.  23 Eliz. c.  9, dyers are to fix  a seal of lead to 
E A  G                                              EAR
cloths, with the letter M, to show that they arc well mad-
dcrcd, kc. or forfeit 3s. 4d. per yard.  By stat. 23 Geo:
III. c.  15, several  penalties are inflicted on dyers who
dye any cloths deceitfully,  and not woaded throughout
with indigo and madder.   Dying blue with logwood, to
forfeit 201.   Dyers in London are subject to the inspec-
tion of the dyers' company, who appoint searches.   In
other places, these are appointed by  the  justices, and
opposing the searchers incurs a penalty of 101.
  DYNASTY,  among ancient historians,  signifies a
race or succession of kings of the same line or family:
such were the dynasties of Egypt.  The Egyptians rec-
kon thirty dynasties,  within the space of  36525 years;
but the generality of chronologers look upon them as fa-
bulous.   And it is  very certain,  that these dynasties are
 not continually successive,  but collateral.
   DYSENTERY.  See  Meoicixe.
   DYSORKXY, among  physicians, denotes a  want of
 appetite, proceeding from a weak stomach.
   DYSPEPSY, a difficulty of digestion, for which phy-
 sicians prescribe bitters.   See Medicine.
   DYSPNCEA. a  difficulty of breathing, usually called
 asthma.  See Medicine.
   DYSURY, in medicine,  a difficulty of making urine,
 attended with a sensation of heat and pain.  It is dis-
 tinguished from a strangury, as, in the last, the urine is
 voided hy only a drop, as  it were,  at a time, but how-
 vcr with pain; and from  an ischury, as in this disorder
 there is an almost  total suppression of urine.  See Me-
 uicixb.
   DYTISCUS, thr  water-beetle, in  zoology, a
 genus of insects of the order of coleoptera; the anten-
 nae  of which are slender and setaceous,  and the hind
 feet are  hairy, and formed for swimming.   There are
 23 species, distinguished by their antennaj,  the various
 colours of the elytra, kc.   The larvaj of the dytiscus
 are often met with in water.  They are oblong,  and
 have six scaly  feet.  The  body consists of eleven seg-
 ments.  The head  is large,  with four filiform antenna;,
 and a strong pair  of jav».-j.  The last segments of the
                                                 E

 I J"  the fifth letter of the alphabet as a numeral, stands
  i9 for 250.  In music, it denotes the tone e-la-mi. In
 the calandar,  it is the  fifth  of the  dominical  letters.
 And in sea-charts, it distinguishes all the easterly points:
 thus, E. alone denotes east, E. by S. and E. by N. east
 by south and east by north.
  KAGLE,  iu ornithology.   See Falco.
  Eagle, in heraldry,  is accounted  one of the  most
 irdile bearings.   The reas.ui why eagles are generally
 borne with their wings  am! tail expanded is, because
 this posture is best fitted to fill up the escutcheon. How-
 ever, there are ee: les borne in  other postures, though
 not so common; all wbich will be explained under their
 respective articles.   The anus of tiie emperor of Ger-
 many arc, or, a spread eagle with two heads, sable; dia-
 demed, langucd, 'waked, an 1 m unVred, g.iles.   Some
authors express the two heads by  tbe term displayed,
  vol*  i.                  108
body have rows of hairs on the sides; and the abdomen
is terminated by two spines charged with the like hairs,
forming a kind of phunes.  These larva? are frequei  ly
of a greenish variegated brown: they are lively, active,
and extremely  voracious: they devour  and feed  up. n
other water-insects, and often tear and destroy  each
other.   The  perfect insect is iittie  inferior  to its larvae
in voraciousness, but it can only exercise its rrudty on
the larva?; the perfect insects, like himself,  being shel-
tered by the kind of scaly cuirass with which they are
armed.   This creature must be touched cautiously; for,
besides its power of giving a severe gripe with its jaws,
it has moreover under  the thorax, another weapon, a
long sharp spine, which it will drive into one's fingers
by the effort  it makes to move backwards.  The eggs of
the dytisci are rather large, and are by them inclosed in
a kind of silky duskish  cod, of a strong and thick tex-
ture, in form round,  and terminated by a long appendix
or slender tail, of the same substance.  These cods are
often found in the water, and from them are brought
forth the eggs and larva? of the dytisci.  The strength
of these  cods probably  serves the  insect to  defend their
eggs from the voraciousness  of several other  aquatic
insects,  and even from that of their fellow-dytisci, who
would not spare them.
   Many species of the perfect insect are common in stag-
nated waters, which they quit in the evening to fly about.
They swim with incredible agility, making use of their
hinder legs after the fashion of oars.  The elytra of the
females are,  in general, furrowed, and those of the male
plain.  When they first arrive at their perfect state, their
elytra are almost transparent, and in many species of a
beautiful dun colour, mingled with shades of a greenish
brown.   Tiie best method of catching them is with a
hand-net or sieve; for they are so  nimble, and exercise
their defensive weapons so often,  and with such painful
success to those who endeavour to catch them, that they
are  very often obliged to let them escape; the easiest
way to kill them is,  to let them fall into boiling-hot wa-
ter, which instantly destroys  them.  See Plate  L, Nat,
Hist. fig. 175.
The kingdom of Poland bore, gules, an eagle, argent;
crowned and membered, or.
  Eagle-stoxe.   See tEtite.
  Eagle, Black, an order of knighthood, instituted hy
the. elector  of Brandenburgh, in  1701,  on his  being
crowned king of Prussia.   Tbe  knights  of this  order
wear an orange-coloured ribband, susp; niing a black
eagle.
  Eagle, White,  a like order in Poland, instituted in
1325, by Uladislaus V. on occasion of the marriage of
his son  Casiaiir to the daughter of the  great-duke of
Lithuania.  The knights of this  order wore a chain of
gedd. suspending a silver eagle, cownecl.
  EAR, auris, in anatomy,  the organ of hearing.  S' e
A.N A TOM V.
   EAltlXG, in the  sea-language, is that  part  of  the
bolt-rope which, at the four corners of the sail,  is left 
EAR
EAR
oj ev,, in the shape of a ring.   The two uppermost parts
are  put  over the ends of the yard-amis, and so  the
sail  is made fast to the yard; and  into the lowermost
curings,  the sheets and tacks are seized or bent at the
clew.
  EARL,  a British title of nobility, next  below a mar-
quis, and above a viscount.  Earls were anciently called
comitcs, because they were wont comitari re gem, to wait
upon the king, for comic il and advice.  The Germans
call  them  graves, as landgrave,  margrave, palsgrave,
rhcingravc;  the  Saxons  ealdormen, unless  that  title
might be uv;re properly applied to our dukes; the Danes,
corlas;  and the English, earls. The title originally died
with the man.  William the  Conqueror  first made it
hereditary, giving it in  fee to his inbles,  and allotting
them for "the support of their state the third penny out
of the sheriff's court,  issuing out  of  all  pleas of the
shire; wiience they had their title.   But now the matter
is quite  otherwise;  for formerly comes and  comitatus
were correlatives, and there was  no comes or  earl but
bad  a county or shire for his earldom; of later years,
the number of earls  increasing, and no more counties
being left, divers have made choice of some  eminent
part ofa county, as Lindsey, Holland,  -Cleveland, &c;
some of a lesser part, as Stafford, &c; others have cho-
sen  for their title some eminent town, as Marlborough,
Exeter, Bristol, &c; and some have taken for their title
the name of a small village, or their own seat or park, as
Godolphin, Clarendon,  kc; and others have the title
added to the family name, as earl Rivers, earl  Stanhope,
&c.  An earl is created by cincture of sword,  mantle of
state put upon him by the king himself,  a cap and  a
coronet put upon his head, and a charter in  his hand.
   Earl marshal of England, is a great officer, who had
anciently  several courts under his  jurisdiction, as the
court of chivalry, and the court of honour. L'nder him
is also the heralds' office, or college of arms.   He has
some pre-eminence in the court of marshalsea,  where he
may sit in judgment against those who offend  within the
verge of the king's court.   This office  is of great anti-
quity in England, and anciently of  greater power than
now; and has been for several ages hereditary in the
most noble family of Howard.
   EARNEST, is the money advanced to  bind the par-
ties to the performance of a verbal agreement.  The per-
son  who gives it, is in strictness obliged to abide by his
bargain; and in case he declines, is not discharged upon
forfeiting his earnest, but maybe sued for the whole mo-
ney stipulated, and damages; and by the statute of frauds
29 H. II. c.  3. no  contract  for  sale  of  goods to the
value of 10/. or more is to be valid, unless such earnest
Is given.
   EARTH, in astronomy and geography, one of the
primary planets, being this terraqueous globe which we
inhabit.
   Earth,  figure of, was accounted  by some of the
ancients to be like that of an oblong cylinder;  by others,
of the form of a drum; and by others to  be flat.  The
moderns demonstrate it to be nearly sperical, from the
follow ing among other considerations. 1. All the appear-
ances of the heavens, both at land  and at sea, are the
same as they would be if the earth  was a globe.  2. In
eclipses of the moon, which are caused by the shadow
                          2
of the earth falling imon the moon, this shadow is alwavs
Circular, and a body can be no other than a globe, which
in all situations,  casts a circular shadow.  3.  Several
navigators have sailed quite  round the globe, steering
their course  directly south and west till they came to the
Magellanic sea, and thence  to the north and west till
they returned to  their port  from the east; and all (he
phenomena, which should  naturully arise  from the
earth's  rotundity, happened to them.  Besides,  their
method  of sailing was also founded upon this hypothesis
which could never have succeeded, if the earth had been
of any other figure.  It is true, the surface ofthe earth
is not an exact geometrical globe, but then the inequal-
ities are so  inconsiderable,  that the highest  mountain
bears no greater  proportion to the bulk of the earth,
than a grain of dust docs to  a common globe.  The fig.
lire of the earth was formerly considered, by mathema-
ticians and geographers, as perfectly spherical, except-
ing the  small inequalities on its surface, of mountains
and valleys; till an accident  engaged the attention of sir
Isaac Newton and Mr. Huygens, who demonstrated front
the laws of hydrostatics, and the revolution of the earth
about its axis,  that its figure was not a true sphere, but
an oblate spheroid flatted towards the poles. Monsieur
Richer,  when at the island of Cayenne, about five de-
grees distant  from the equator, found that his clock
which, at Paris,  kept true time, here  lost two minutes
and twenty-eight  seconds every day.  Now, though heat
will lengthen pendulums, and consequently retard their
motion,  it is certain the heats of Cayenne were not suf-
ficient to solve  this phenomenon, which can flow only
from a,diminution in  the  pressure of gravity.  For, as
the earth revolves about its  axis,  all its parts will en-
deavour to  recede from the axis of motion,  and the
equatorial parts where the motion  is quickest will tend
less towards the  centre than the rest; their endeavour
to fly off from the axis about which they revolve, taking
off part of their tendency that  way; so that those parts
will become lighter than  such as are  nearer the poles.
The polar parts, therefore, w ill press in towards the
centre,  and raise the equatorial parts, till the quantity
of matter in the latter is so far increased as to compen-
sate for its lightness,  and an equilibrium is restored; on
which account, the form  which the earth assumes will
be that  of an oblate spheroid,  whose shorter axis pas-
ses through  the poles.   By virtue only of the rotation of
the earth  about its axis, the weight of bodies at tbe equa-
tor is less than at the pedes,  in the proportion of 288 to
289.  Hence arises, as before observed, a spheroidical
form ofthe  earth; and from that spheroidical form arises
another diminution of gravity at the equator, by which
if the earth was homogeneous throughout, bodies at the
equator would lose one pound in 1 !21; and so  on  both
accounts  taken together, the gravity of bodies at the
pedes would be to the same at the equator as 230 to 229»
Whence,  if we suppose the gravity of bodies within the
earth to be directly as their distance from the centre,
those numbers  will also express the relation between its
polar and equatorial diameter.
   The proportion of the two diameters was calculated
by Newton in the following manner.  Having  found
that the centrifugal force at the equator is -, jT4"  °f
gravity, he assumes as an hypothesis, that the axis  of 
EARTH.
 the earth is to the diameter of the equator as 100 to 101,
 and thence determines  what  must be the centrifugal
 force at the equator to give tlie earth such a form, and
 finds it to be T£Tflis of gravity: then, by the rule of pro-
 portion, if a centrifugal force, equal to T£Tths of grav-
 ity, would make the earth higher at the equator than at
 the poles by T£yth  of the whole  height at the poles, a
 centrifugal force that is the T j?th of gravity will make
 it higher by a  proportional excess,  which, by calcula-
 tion, is sjjth of the  height  at the  poles;  and thus he
 discovered that the diameter at the equator is to the di-
 ameter at the poles, or the axis, as 230 to 229. But this
 computation supposes the earth to be every where of an
 uniform density;  whereas if the earth is more dense near
 the centre, then hodies at the poles will be more at-
 tracted  by this  additional  matter  being  nearer:  and
 therefore the excess of the semi-diameter  of the equa-
 tor above the seiniaxis will be different.   According to
 this  proportion  between the two  diameters,  Newton
 farther  computes, from the different measures of a de-
 gree, that the equatorial diameter will exceed the  polar,
 by 34 miles and \.
   Nevertheless, Messrs. Cassini, both father and son,
 the one in 1701, and the other in 1713, attempted to
 prove, in the Memoirs of the  Royal  Academy of Sci-
 ences, that the earth was  an oblong  spheroid; and in
 1718, M. Cassini again undertook, from observations,
 to show that, on the contrary, the longest diameter passes
 through  the poles; which gave  occasion  for Mr. John
 Bernouilli, in his Essai  d'une Nouvellc  Physique Ce-
 leste, printed at Paris in 1735, to triumph over the Bri-
 tish philosopher, apprehending  that these observations
 would invalidate what Newton had demonstrated. And
 in 1720, M. De Mai ran advanced arguments, supposed
 to be strengthened by geometrical demonstrations, far-
 ther to confirm the assertions of Cassini.  But in  1735,
 two compani"s of mathematicians were employed, one
 for a northern, and  another for a southern expedition,
 the result of whose observations and measurement plain-
 ly proved that the earth was flatted at the poles.
   The proportion of the equatorial diameter to the po-
 lar, as stated by the gentlemen employed on the north-
 ern expedition for measuring a degree of the meridian,
 is as l to 0.9891; by the Spanish mathematicians as 266
 to 265, or as 1 to  0.99624; by M. Bouguer  as  179 to
 178, or as 1 to 0.99441.
   As to all conclusions deduced from the length of pen-
 dulums in different places, it is to be observed, that
 they proceed upon the supposition of  the  uniform  den-
 sity of the earth, whic h is a very improbable circum-
 stance; as justly observed by Dr. Horsley, in his letter
 to captain Phipps.  "You finish your article, he con-
 cludes, rclaiing  to the  pendulum,  with saying,  « that
 these  observations gave a figure of the earth nearer to
 *»' l^aac  Newton's computation, than  any others that
 nave hitherto  been made;' and then you slate the seve-
 ral figures given, as you imagine, by former observa-
 tions, and hy your own.   Now it i.-> very  true, that if
 the meridians be ellipses, or// the figure of the  earth
 he tiiat of a spheroid generated by tue revolution of an
ellij>sis, turning on its shorter axis, the particular figure,
0I'the ellipticity  of tiie generating cil'pMS, which your
observations give, is nearer to what sir Isaac Newton
  saith it should be, if the globe were homogeneous, than
  any that can be derived from former observations.  But
  yet it is not what you imagine.  Taking the gain of the
  pendulum in latitude 79° 50', exactly as you state it, the
  difference between the equatorial and the polar diameter,
  is  about as much less than the Newtonian computation
  makes it,  and the  hypothesis of homogeneity would
.  require,  as  you  reckon it to  be greater.  The  pro-
  portion of 212 to 211 should, indeed, according to your
  observations, be the  proportion  of the force that  acts
  upon the pendulum at the poles, to the force acting upon
  it at the equator.   But this is by no  means the same
  with  the proportion of the equatorial diameter to the
  polar.  If the globe were homogeneous, the equatorial
  diameter would exceed the polar by ^^ of the  length
  of the latter: and the polar force would also exceed  tho
  equatorial by the like part.  But if the  difference  be-
  tween the polar and equatorial  force  be  greater than
  5|7 (which may be the case in an heterogeneous globe,
  and seems to be the case in ours), than the difference of
  the diameters should, according to theory,  be  less than
  ^-y7, and  vice versa.
   •• I confess this is by no means obvious at first sight;
  so far otherwise, that the mistake, which you have fallen
  into, was  once very general.   Many of tiie best mathe-
  maticians were misled by too implicit a  reliance upon
  the authority  of Newton, who had  certainly confined
  his investigations to the homogeneous spheroid, and had
  thought about the heterogeneous only in a loose and ge-
  neral way.  The late Mr. Clairault  was the first who
  set  the  matter right, in his elegant and subtle treatise
 on the  figure  of tlie earth.  That Work hath now been
 many years in the  hands of mathematicians, among
 whom I imagine  there  are none, who have considered
 the subject attentively, that do not acquiesce in the au-
 thor's conclusions.
   " In the second  part  of that treatise,  it is  proved,
 that putting p for the  polar force, n for the equatorial,
 J for the true ellipticity of the earth's  figure, and  *
 for the ellipticity of the homogeneous spheroid.
 r—n                               p—n
 ----=  2« — }•.  therefore $=2,------and, there-
  n                                   n
 fore, according to your observation, ^=2^t This is the
just conclusion  from your  observations  on the pen-
 dulum, taking it for granted, that the meridians are
 ellipses: which is  an hypothesis, upon which all the
 reasonings of theory  have hitherto  proceeded.  But,
plausible as it may seem, 1 must say, that there is much
reason, from experiment, to call it in question.  If  it
 were true, the increment of the force which actuates the
pendulum,  as we approach the poles, should be as the
square of the sine of the latitude: or, which  is the same
thing,  the  decrement, as we approach  the equator,
should  be  as the square of the co-sine of the latitude.
Biit whoever takes  the pains to compare together such
of the  observations of the pendulum  in different  lati-
tudes, as seem to have been made with the greatest care,
will find that the increments aud  decrements do by no
means  follow these  proportions; and  in these which  I
have examined, I find a  regularity  in the deviation
which little resembles the  mere error of observation.
The  unavoidable conclusion is, that the true figure of 
EARTR.
ih-3 meridians is not elliptical.  If the  meridians arc
not ellipses, the difference of  the  diameters may,  in-
deed, or it may not, be proportional to the difference be-
tween the polar and the equatorial force; but it is quite
an uncertainty, what relation  subsists between the one
quantity  and the other; our whole theory, except so far
as it relates to the homogeneous spheroid, is built upon
false  assumptions, and there is no saying  what figure
of the earth any observations of the pendulum give."
  He then lays down the following table, which shows
the, different results  of observations made  in different
latitudes; in  this the first three  columns contain  the
nam's of the  several observers, the  places of obser-
vation,  and the  latitude of  each;  the  fourth column
shows the quantify  of p—n in such parts as n is
100000,  as  deduced  from comparing  the length of
thr pendulum at each place  of observation,  with  the
length of the  equatorial pendulum, as determined by
M. Bouguer, upon the supposition that the increments
and decrements of force, as the latitude is increased or
lowered, observe the proportion which theory  assigns;
only the  second and the last value of p — n  are  con-
cluded from comparisons with the pendulum  at Green-
wich  and at Louden, not at the equator.   The fifth co-
lumn shows r- e value of £ corresponding to every value
of p — n. according to Clairault's theorem:
   Observers.

Bouguer
Bouguer
Green
Bouguer
Abbe' de la
   Caille
}
The AcadeO
   micians  J
Capt. Phipps
  " By this table it  appears,
     Places.

Equator
Porto Bello
OUheitee
San Domingo
Cape of Good 1
   Hope
aris
P
Pello
J
Lati-tudes. 0° 0' 9 34 17 29 18 27	p— n 741.8 563.2 591.0
33 55	731.5
48 50	585.1
66 48	565.9
79 50	471.2
78-1
 1

_i
3 i¥
 1
"5 5 1
 1
Til
 l
7£ 5 1
that the observations in
the middle parts of the globe, setting  aside  the  single
one at the Cape, are as consistent as could reasonably
be expected; and they  represent the  ellipticity  of the
earth as about z*v.  But wiien we come within 10 de-
grees of the equator, it should seem that  the  force of
gravity suddenly becomes much less, and within the like
distance of the poles much greater, than it could be in
such a spheroid."
  The  following problem communicated by  Dr. Lca-
therland to Dr. Pcmberton, and published  by Mr. Ro-
bertson, serves for finding the proportion  between the
axis and the equatorial diameter, from measures  taken
of a degree of the meridian in two  different latitudes,
supposing the earth an oblate  spheroid.
  Let APap (Plate LIV. Miscel. fig. 83.) be an ellipse
representing a section of the earth through the axis P;;;
the equatorial diameter, or the great axis of the ellipse,
being Aa; let E and F be two  places where the measure
of a degree has been taken: these measures are propor-
tional to the radii of curvature in  the  ellipse at  those
places; and if CQ, CR, be conjugates  to the diameters
whose vertices are E and F, CQ will be  to CR in the
subtriplicate ratio of the  radius of curvature at E  to
that at F, by cor.  1, prep. 4, part 6, of Milncs's Conic
Sections, an 1 therefore in a given ratio to one another
also, the angles QCP, RCP, arc the latitudes of E and
F; so  that, drawing QV parallel to  Pp, and QXYW to
as
well
as
 QXYW to
the ratio of
Aa, these angles  being  given
CQ to CR, the rectilinear figure CVQXRY is given in
species;  and the ratio of VC2—ZC2 (=QX x XW) to
RZ2—QV* (=RX x XS) is given, wiiich is the ratio
of CA2 to CP2;  therefore the ratio of CA to CP is
given.
  Hence, ifthe sine and cosine of the greater latitude be
each augmented  in the  subtriplicate ratio of the mea-
sure of the degree in  the greater latitude to  that in the"
lesser, then the difference of the squares of the augment-
ed sine, and the sine of the lesser latitude,  will be to the
difference of the  squares of the cosine of the lesser lati-
tude and the augmented cosine, in  the duplicate  ratio of
the equatorial to  the polar diameter. For, Cq be in* ta-
ken in CQ equal  to CR, and qv drawn parallel  to aQV
Cr, and vq, CZ and ZR will be the signs and cosines of
the respective latitudes to the same radius:  and CV, Vh
will  be the augmentations of Cv  and Cc/ in the  ratio
named.
  Hence, to find the  ratio between the two axes of the
earth, let E denote the  greater, and F the lesser of tlie
two  latitudes, M and N the respective  measures taken
in each,  and letP denote . /__: then

   Vcos.2 F — P2 x cos.2 E .   lesser  axis
    1>2X sin.2 E —sin.2"F,S ""greater axis '
   It also appears by the above problem thatwhen one of
the degrees measured is  at the equator,  the cosine of
the latituie of the other being  augmented in the subtri-
plicate ratio of the degrees, the tangent of tlie  latitude
will be to the tangent answering  to the augmented co-
s ne, in the ratio  ofthe greater axis to the less. For sup
posing IS. ihe place out of the equator; then if the semi-
cir le rimnp be described, and le joined, and  nto drawn
pat-.llel to uC: Co is tie cosine ofthe latitude to the radius
CP, andCY thatconsine augmented in the ratio before-
named; YQ being to  Y/, that is Ca to Cn or CP, as the
tangent  ofthe angle YCQ, the latitude ofthe pointE,to
thetang ut ofthe angle  YCl, belonging to the augmented
cosine.  Ihus, if  M represent the  measure in a  latitude
denoted  by  E. and  N the  measure at the equator, let A
denote an angle  whose  measure is
cos.
Ex^
Then
tan A
is =
lesser axis
                    t n E     greater axis
  But M, or the length of a degree, obtained by actual
mensuration  in different latitudes, is known from the
following table:
 Names.

Maupertuis, kc.
Cassini and  1
La Caille    J
Boscovich
De a Caille
Juan and Ulloa
Bouguer
Condamine
Latit.	
o	i
66	20
49	22
45	00
43	00
33	18
00	00
00	00
00	00,
Value of M.
   toises.
M=57-;38
M=57074
M=57050
M=56972
M=57037
M=56768"
M=56753>   ^.
M.=56749 I e*US^
,je«
the 
EARTH.
  Now, by comparing tho first with each of the following
ones; the second with each ofthe following; and, in like
manner,the third, fourth, and fifth, with each of the fol-
lowing; there will be obtained 25 results, each showing
the relation of the axes or diameters; the arithmetical
means  of  all  of which  will  give that ratio  as  1  to
0.9951989.
  If the measures of the latitudes of 49° 22', and of 45°,
which  fall within the  meridian  line drawn through
France, and which have been re-examined and corrected
since the northern and southern expedition, be compared
with those of  Maupertuis  and  his  associates  in the
north,  and that of Bouguer at  the equator, there will re-
sult six different values ofthe  ratio of the two axes; the
arithmetical mean of all which is that of 1 to 0.9953467,
which  may be considered as the ratio of the greater ax-
is to the less; which is as 230 to 228.92974, or 215  to
 214, or very near the ratio assigned by Newton.
   Now, the magnitude as well as the figure ofthe earth,
 that is, the polar and equatorial diameters, may be de-
 duced  from the foregoing problem. For, as half the latus
 rectum of the greater axis Aa is the radius of curvature
 at A, it is given in magnitude from the degree measured
 there,  and thence the axes themselves  are given. Thus,
 the circular arc whose length is equal to the radius be-
 ing 57.29^78 degrees, if this number be multiplied by
 56750  toises, the measure of a degree at the equator, as
 Bouguer has stated it, the product will be the radius  of
 curvature  there, or half the latus rectum of the greater
 axis; and this is to half the lesser axis in  the ratio of the
 less axis to the greater, that  is,  as 0.9953467 to  1:
 whence the two axes are 6533820 and 6564366 toises, or
 7913 and  7950 English miles; and the difference be-
 tween  the  two axis about 37 miles.
   And very nearly the same ratio is deduced  from the
 lengths of pendulums vibrating in the same time, in dif-
 ferent  latitudes; provided it be again allowed that the
 meridians  are real ellipses, or the earth a true spheriod,
 which, however, can only take  place in the case of an
 uniform gravity in all parts ofthe earth.
   Thus, in the new Petersburgh acts, for the years 1788
 and 1789,  are accounts and calculations of experiments
relative to this subject, by M. Krafft. These experiments
were made at different times, and in various parts ofthe
 Russian empire. This gentleman has collected and com-
pared  them,  and drawn the proper conclusions from
them: thus he  infers that the length ;rof a pendulum that
swings seconds in any given latitude ,\, and in a tempera-
ture of 10  degrees of Reaumur's thermometer,  may be
determined by this equation:
  x =  439.178 -f-2.321 sine 2a,  lines of a French foot,.
era: =39.0045-f 0.206 sine 2a, in English inches,  in
the  temperature of 53 of Fahrenheit's thermometer.
  This expression nearly agrees,  not only with all the
experiments made on the pendulum in Russia, but also
with those of Mr. Graham in England, and those of Mr.
Lyons in 79° 50' north latitude, w here he found its length
to be 431.38 lines.  It also shows the augmentation of
gravity from the equator to the parallel of a given lati-
tude a:  for, putting g for the gravity  under the equator,
G for that  under the p de, and y for that under the  lati-
tude x,  M.  Krafft finds
If  =s (l+ 0.0052848sine *k) g; and theref. G= 1.0052848^.
   From this proportion of gravity under, different lati-
 tudes, the same author infers that, in case the earth is a
 homogeneous ellipsoid, its oblateness  must be TvT; in-
 stead of t,±^, which ought to be the result of this hypo-
 thesis: bul ui the supposit'on that the earth is a hetero-
 genious ellipsoid* he finds its  oblateness,  as  deduced
 from these experiments, to be  -^ir;  which agrees with
 that resulting from the measurement of some of tlie  de-
 grees of the meridian. This  confirms an observation of
 M.  De la Place,  that if the hypothesis of the earth's
 homogeneity is given up, then theory, the measurement
 of degrees of latitude, and experiments with the pendu-
 lum,  all agree in their result with respect to the oblate-
 ness of the earth.
   In  the Philos. Trans, for 1791, Mr.  Dalby has given
 some calculations on measured degrees of the meridian,
 whence he infers, that those degrees measured in middle
 latitudes, will answer nearly to an ellipsoid whose axes
 are in the ratio assigned by Newton, viz. that of 230 in
 229.  And as the deviations of some of the others, viz.
 towards the poles and equator, he thinks they are caus-
 ed by tbe errors in the observed celestial arcs.
   Earth, Magnetism of.  The notion of the magne-
 tism of the earth  was started  by Gilbert; and Boyle
 supposes magnetic effluvia moving from one pole to the
 other. See Magnetism.
   Earth, Magnituhejof. This has been variously de-
 termined by different authors, both ancient and modern.
 The usual way has been, to measure the length of one
 degree ofthe meridian, and multiply it by 360,  for the
 whole circumference.   Diogenes Laertius  informs us,
 that Anaximandcr, a scholar of Thales, who lived about
 550 years before the birth of Christ, was the first  who
 gave  an account of the  circumference  of the sea and
 land; and it seems his measure was used by the succeed-
 ing mathematicians, till the time of Eratosthenes. Aris-
 totle, at the end of lib. 2 De Ccelo, says, the mathemati-
 cians  who have attempted to measure the circuit of the
 earth, make it 40000 stadia: which, it is thought, is the
 number determined by Anaximander.
   Snellius relates, from the Arabian geographer Abul-
 fedca, who lived about the 1300th year of Christ, that
 about the 800th year of Christ,  Almaimon, an Arabian
 king, having collected together some skilful mathemati-
 cians, commanded  them to find out the circumference of
 the earth.  Accordingly these made choice of the fields
 of Mesopotamia, where they measured  under the same
 meridian from north to south, till the pole was depressed
 one degree lower: which measure they found equal to
 56 miles, or 56|: so that, according to them, the circuit
 ofthe earth is 20160 or20340 miles.
   It was a long time after this before any more attempts
 were  made in this  business.   At length, however.  Mr.
 Snell,  professor of mathematics at Leyden, about  the
 year 1620, with great skill and labour, by measuring
 large distances between two parallels, found one  degree
 equal to 28500 perches, each of which  is 12 Rhinland
 feet, amounting to  19  Dutch   miles, and so the whole
 periphery 6840 miles; a mile being, according to  him,
 1500 perches, or 18000 Rhinland feet.
   The next that undertook this measurement, was Rich-
 ard Norwood, who, in the year 16.15, by measuring the
distance from London to York with a chain, and taking 
EARTH.
the sun's meridian altitude, June 11th, old style, with a
sextant of about 5 feet radius, found a degree contained
367200 feet, or 69 miles  and a half and 14 poles; and
thence the circumference ofa great circle of the earth is
a little more than 25036 miles,  and the diameter a little
more than 7966 miles. See the  particulars of this  mea-
surement in his Seaman's Practice.
  The measurement of the earth by  Snell,  though very
ingenious and troublesome, and much more accurate than
any  of the ancients', being still thought, by some French
mathematicians, liable to  certain small errors, the in-
quiry was renewed, after Snell's manner, by Picard and
other mathematicians, by the king's command, using a
quadrant of 3| French feet radius; hy  which they found
a degree contained 542360 French feet.
  M.  Cassini the younger,  in  the  year 1700, by the
king's command also, renewed the experiment with a
quadrant of 10 feet radius, for taking  the latitude, and
another of 3£ feet for taking the angle of the triangles;
and  found a degree, from his calculation,  contained
27292 toises, or almost 69^ English miles.
   From the mean of a great many measurements, the fol-
lowing dimensions may be taken as near the truth:
the circumference             25000 miles,
the diameter                  7957| miles,
the superficies             198944206 square miles
the solidity            263930000000 cubic miles.
Also, the seas  and unknown parts  of the earth, by a
measurement ofthe best maps, contain 160522026 square
miles: the inhabited parts 38922180; of which Europe
contains 4456065; Asia,   10768823;  Africa, 9654807;
and  America, 14110874.
   Earth, Structure of. After the  preceding survey
of the form and magnitude of this globe of earth, the
next object of   attention is the general arrangement of
those substances of which  it  is  composed.  These  are
neither disposed in a regular series, according to their
specific gravities, nor yet thrown together in total disor-
der, as if by accident or chance.  Human  industry  has
hitherto been able to penetrate but a very little way into
the  bowels of the earth, and we can but know little ofits
interior parts.  The depth  of the earth, from the surface
to tbe centre, is nearly four thousand miles; and yet the
deepest mine in Europe, that at Cottenberg, in Hungary,
is not more than one thousand yards deep; « the greatest
depth, therefore," says an excellent writer, " to which
avarice has  ever  yet  penetrated,  may be  compared
to the piinsture made  in the body of an elephant by the
proboscis of a gnat."
   From what  has  been discovered, however,  of  those
parts which lie most contiguous to our observation, na-
turalists have compared the structure of the earth  to the
leaves of a book, or the coats of  an onion. Except, in-
deed, in some of those immense mountains, wiiich have ex-
isted from the creation, or at least from  the deluge, where
the matter, from whatever cause,  is more homogeneous,
the  earth is found to consist of various strata, or layers,
which differ according to the  circumstances of climate
and  situation.   The surface, in general, evidently con-
sists ofa confused mixture of decayed  animal and  vege-
table substances and earths  rudely united together; but
when we have penetrated below the surface, we find the
materials of the globe arranged in a more regular man-
ner. Sometimes, indeed, we find heaps of stone, which
do not consist of layers, but are  confused masses of un-
equal thickness, and are called  rocks. The strata are
in general, extended through a whole country, and per-
haps, with some interruptions and varieties, through the
globe itself.  These extensive bodies arc found most regu-
lar  when the country is fiat, being, in that case, nearly
parallel to the horizon, though frequently dipping down-
wards  in a certain angh ; in many places the beds have
a wave, as where the  country consists of gently wavinc
Rills and vales; here, too, they generally dip.  In travel-
ling a mile we,  perhaps, pass through ground composed
mostly of sand; in another mile  we find  it, perhaps,
composed of clay; and this is occasioned by  the edges of
the different strata lying with  an obliquity  to the hori-
zon.  By the same kind of projection, mountains,  or
ridges of mountains, are produced,  which,  in general
have   what  is  called  a back and a face,  the  former
smoother, and  the  latter more  rugged.  We generally
find, too, on one side of a mountain, a more gradual as-
cent than on  the other; which is occasioned by the strata,
which  have  risen above the general level of the country,
being abruptly  broken  off.
  Dr. Woodward has  considered  the circumstances of
these strata with great attention, viz. their order, num-
ber, situation with respect  to the horizon, depth, inter-
sections, fissures, colour, consistence, &c.  He ascribes
the origin and formation of them all, to  the great flood
or cataclysmus. At that terrible revolution he supposes
that all sorts  of terrestrial bodies had  been dissolved
and mixed with the waters, forming altogether a chaos
or confused mass. This mass of  terrestrial particles, in-
termixed with water, he supposes, was at length precipi-
tated to  the bottom; and that generally according to the
order  of gravity, the  heaviest  sinking first, and  the
lightest  afterwards.  By such  means were the  strata
formed of which the  earth consists; which, attaining
their solidity and hardness by degrees, have continued
distinct ever since.  These  sediments,  he  farther con-
cludes, were at first all parallel and concentrical; and
the surface  of the earth formed of them, perfectly smooth
and regular; but that,  in course of time, divers changes
happening,  from  earthquakes, volcanos, kc. the order
and regularity  of the strata were disturbed  and broken,
and the surface of the earth, by  such means, brought to
the irregular form in which it now appears.
  M.  De Buffon  surmises that the earth, and the other
planets, are also parts struck off from the body of the
sun by the  collision of comets; and that, when the earth
assumed its form,  it was in a  state of  liquefaction by
fire.  But that could not be the  method of preducingthc
planets; for if they  were struck  off from the body of the
sun, they would move in orbits  that  would pass through
the sun, instead of having the sun for their focus, or cen-
tre, as they are now found; so  that having been struck
off, they would fail down into the sun again, terminat-
ing their career, as it were, after one revolution only*
See Geology.
  Earth,  its  quantity of matter, density, and attractive
power.  Although the relative densities of the earth and
most of the  other planets have been known a considera-
ble time, it is  but very lately that we have come to the
knowledge  of  the absolute gravity  or  density of t&e 
EAR
EAR
whole mass ofthe earth.  This has been calculated and
deduced from the observations made by Dr. Maskelyne,
at the mountain Schehallien, in the years 1774,  5, and
6. The attraction of that mountain on a plummet, was
observed on both sides of it, and its mass computed from
a number of sections in all directions, and consisting of
stone; these  data  being then compared with the  known
attraction  and magnitude of the  earth, gave, by  pro-
portion, its mean density, which is to that of water as 9
to 2, and to  common  stone as 9 to 5: from  which very
considerable  mean density, it may be presumed that the
internal parts contain  some great quantities of metals.
  From the density now found, its quantity of  matter
becomes known, being equal to the product of its density
by its magnitude.   From various  experiments, too, we
know that its attractive  force, at the surface, is such,
that bodies fall tliere through a space of about 16-^ feet
in the first second of time: whence the force at any other
place, either within or without it, becomes known; for
the force at any part within it, is directly as  its distance
 from the centre; but  the force of any part  without it,
reciprocally as the  square of its distance from the cen-
 tre.
  Earth, Motion of the. It is now generally grant-
 rid that, besides the small  motion of the earth  which
 causes the precession  of the equinoxes, the earth has
 two  great and independant motions; viz. the  one by
 which it turns round  its own axis, in the space of 24
 hours nearly, and  causing  the continual succession of
 day  and night; and the other, an  absolute motion of its
 whole mass in a large  orbit about the sun, having that
 kiminary for its centre,  in such  manner that its  axis
 keeps always parallel to itself, inclined in the same an-
 gle to its path, and, by that means, causing the  vicissi-
 tudes of seasons; spring, summer,  autumn, winter.
   It is, indeed, true, that, as to sense, the earth appears
 to be fixed in the centre,  with the sun and stars moving
 round it every day; and such,  doubtless, would be con-
 sidered as the true nature of the motions in the rude
 ages of mankind,  as they are still by the rude and un-
 learned. But, to a thinking and learned mind, the con-
 trary will soon appear.
   By the diurnal rotation of the earth on its axis, the
 same phenomena will  take place  as if it had no such
 motion, and as .f the sun and stars moved round it. For,
 turning round from west to east, causes the sun and all
 the visible heavens to  seem to move  the contrary way,
 er from east to west, as we daily see them do. So, wiien
 in its rotat: i it has brought the sun or a star to appear
just in the horizon  in the east, they are then said to be
 rising; and as the  earth continues to remove more and
 more towards the east, other stars seem to rise and ad-
 vance westwards, passing the meridian ofthe observer,
when they are due  south  from him,  and at their great-
est altitude above his  horizon; after which, by  a con-
tinuance of the same motions, viz. of the earth's rota-
tion eastwards, and the  luminaries' apparent counter-
motion westwards,  these decline from the meridian, or
south point,  towards  the west, where  being arrived,
they  are said to set and descend below it; and so on con-
tinually  from day  to  day;  thus  making it day while
the sun is above the horizon,  and  night while he is be-
low it.
   While the earth is thus turning on its axis,  it is, at
the same time, carried by its proper motion in its orbit
round the sun, as one of  the planets;  namely,  between
the orbits of Venus and Mars: having the orbits of Ve-
nus and Mercury within  its own,  or between it and the
sun, in the, centre, and those of Mars, Jupiter, Saturn,
ccc. without or above it; which are, therefore, called su-
perior planets,  and the  others, inferior ones.  This is
called the annual motion  of the earth, because it is per
formed in a year, or 365  days 6 hours nearly; or rather
365 days, 5 hours, and 49 minutes, from any equinox or
solstice to the same again, making the  tropical year;
but from any fixed star to the same again, as seen from
the sun,  in 365  days, 6 hours, 9 minutes, which is cal-
led the sidereal year.  The figure of this orbit is ellip-
tical, having tlie sun in one focus,  the mean distance be-
ing about 95 millions of  miles; which is  upon the sup-
position that the  sun's parallax is about  8"-|  or the an-
gle under which the earth's semidiameter would appear
to an observer placed in the sun; and the  eccentricity of
the orbit, or distance of the sun, in the focus, from the
centre of this elliptic  orbit,  is about ^th of the mean
distance.
   EARTHS.  The word earth in common  language,
has two meanings: it  sometimes signifies,  as we have
seen,  the globe which  we inhabit, aud sometimes the
mould on which  vegetables grow. Chemists have ex-
amined this mould, and have found that it consists of a
variety of  substances mixed together, without order or
regularity.  The greatest  part of it, however,  as well as
of the stones which form  apparently so large a propor-
tion of the globe,  consist  of a small number of bodies,
which  have a  variety of common properties.  These bo-
dies chemists have agreed to class together, and to deno-
minate earths.
  Every body which  possesses the following properties
is an earth.
  1. Insoluble in water, or nearly so; or at least becom-
ing insoluble when combined with carbonic acid. 2. Lit-
tle or no taste or smell;  at least  when combined with
carbonic acid.  3. Fixed, incombustible,  and incapable
while pure of being altered  by the fire.  4. A specific
gravity not exceeding 4.9.  5. When pure, capable of as-
suming the form  of a white powder.   6. Not altered
when heated with  combustibles.
  The earths at present  known,  are  nine  in number,
namely,
       1. Barytes.        6. Yttria.
       2. Strontian.       7. Glucina.
       3. Lime.          8. Zirconia.
       4. Magnesia.       9. Silica.
       5. Alumina.
Which see  under their respective names.
  Every one ofthe above characteristics is not, perhaps,
rigorously  applicable to each of these bodies;  but all of
them possess a sufficient number of common properties
to  render it useful to arrange them under one  class.
  Earth Nuts, or Ground .Vuts.  See Arachis.
  EARTHQUAKES.  When we consider the very for-
midable nature of these phenomena, we cannot wonder
that human ingenuity  has been often  exercised in ac-
counting for their causes.  To explain  the  theory of
earthquakes, it will be necessary to recal to the reader's 
EARTHQUAKES.
attention what  was said in the preceding article on the
structure of the earth, which, being formed of different
strata, we compared to the leaves of a book or the coats
of an onion; and if with this consideration we combine
the operation of  subterraneous  fires,  we shall  have at
least a probable explanation of the cause of earthquakes.
  The sudden  explosions which take place from volca-
noes, probably depend on the access ofa quantity of wa-
ter,  which  enters through some fissure  communicating
with the sea, or which  is derived from other  sources in
the earth. If this mass of water is sufficiently great, it
will extinguish the volcano; if not, it will be converted
into steam, the expansive force of which far exceeds that
of gunpowder.  The elastic fluid thus formed either finds
vent at the  mouth of the volcano, or, if the superincum-
bent weight should be too great, it will force a passage
between the strata of  the earth, and occasion that un-
dulatory, but sometimes violent, motion, which  is called
an earthquake.  From various facts demonstrative ofthe
cohesion and elasticity of bodies,  we  are  warranted  in
concluding, that the different strata of  which the  earth
is composed will adhere together, and that a freer pas-
 sage will be afforded to any intervening body  between
 the strata than directly through them.  If  the  confined
 fire or steam acts directly  under a  province or town,
 it  will heave  tho  earth  perpendicularly upwards, and
 the shocks will be more sudden and violent.   If it acts
 at a distance,  it will raise that tract obliquely; and the
 motion will be more oblique,  undulatory, and tremu-
 lous:
   The great earthquake at Lisbon, in 1755,  was felt as
 far as Scotland; and from the phenomena which attend-
 ed it, it was evident, that the ground had  a waving mo-
 tion from south to north.  All the oblong lakes that lay
 from north to south were much  agitated, the  wave com-
 mencing at the south end;  whilst all other lakes which
 lay across, from east to west, were much less affected.
   The great distance to which earthquakes extend, de-
 pends on the compressibility and elasticity of the earth;
 which may  be understood from  the vibration ofthe walls
 of houses, occasioned by the passing of carriages  in the
 adjacent streets.  Another  instance is  the vibration of
 steeples by the ringing of bells or  gusts of wind.  The
 Eddistone  lighthouse often vibrates from the force of the
 waves which beat against its foundation.
    Previous to an eruption of Vesuvius,  the earth always
 trembles,  and subterraneous explosions are heard.  On
 the 1st of November 1755,  the era so  fatal  to  Lisbon,
 the island of Madeira  was v iolently shaken by an earth-
 quake, accompanied with subterraneous explosions.  So
 thoroughly convinced, indeed, arc  the  inhabitants of
 volcanic countries,  of the connection between   earth-
 quakes and voleanoes, that when a great eruption takes
 place from a volcano,  they congratulate  themselves on
 having escaped an earthquake.
    Earthquakes, as well as volcanic eruptions, arc  al-
 ways preceded by a violent agitation of the sea.  Previ-
 ous to the  breaking out of Vesuvius, the sea retires from
 the adjacent shores  till the mountain i3 hurst open, and
 then it returns with such  impetuosity as to overflow its
 usual  boundary.  About an hour after the first shocks,
 which alarmed the city of Lisbon  in 1755,  the sea was
* observed to come rushing towards the city like a torrent,
though  against  both  wind and tide: it rose forty feet
higher than was ever known, and as suddenly subsided.
A ship, fifty leagues  off at sea, received  so violent a
shock as greatly to injure the  deck,  etc.  The same ef-
fect was observed at  Cadiz, and at a number of ports
throughout the Mediterranean; and, indeed, more or less
all over Europe.
  That earthquakes  are the effect of steam generated
within the  bowels of the earth,  and that they are pro-
duced in the manner which has been described, appears
highly probable  from the quantities of hoilin."- water
which have occasionally been thrown up by volcanoes in
different parts of  the world.  In 1631  and 1698, vast
torrents of boiling water flowed from the crater of Ve-
suvius,  previous to the eruption of fire; and  what was
perhaps, still more remarkable, many species of sea-
shells, in a calcined state, were found on the brink of tin*
crater,  and also in the channel formed by the flood. The
same thing  happened at iEtna, in 1755, when a dread-
ful torrent of boiling water flowed from the crater at the
time of an eruption of fire.  Sir William  Hamilton ob-
serves, that the sea-shells emitted along with the water
clearly indicate a communication with the sea. All warm
springs probably  receive their  heat from  the action of
pyrites, near which the water passes.
  Authors of very high repute have,  however, attribut-
ed earthquakes entirely to the agency of the electric
fluid,  and regarded  them chiefly as violent shocks of
electricity.  We  must confess  there  is indeed  an inti-
mate,  though hitherto inexplicable,  connection between
earthquakes and even volcanoes, and the electric fluid;
and  the state of the atmosphere previous either to an
earthquake or a volcanic eruption is always highly elec-
trical.
  Though tliere is hardly any country  known in which
shocks ol an earthquake have not at some time or other
been felt, yet there are some much more subject to them
than others.  It  has been observed, that northern coun-
tries in general are less subject t > earthquakes than those
situated near the equator, or in th" southern  latitudes;
but this does not hold universally. I lands are also more
subject to  earthquakes than continents; but neither docs
this hold without exceptions.  Some particular parts of
continents, and some particular islands, are  more sub-
ject to  them than others lying in the neigh1! lUiluod, and
differing very little from them in external appearance.
Thus,  Portugal  is more subject to earthquakes than
 Spain, and the latter much more than France; Mexico
 and Peru more than the other countries of America; aud
Jamaica more than the other Caribbee islands.  Earth-
 quakes are frequent, though not often violent, in Italy;
 but in  Sicily they are often  terribly destructive.  Asia
 Minor has been remarkably suhject to them from the re-
 motest antiquity;  and the city of Antioch in particular
 has suffered more from earthquakes than any other in
 that country.  The same phenomena are said also to oc-
 cur very frequently in the north-eastern  extremities of
 Asia, even in very high latitudes.
   From the observations that  have been made, the fol-
 lowing'pheimmenon respecting earthquakes may be de-
 duced, and reckoned pretty certain:
   I. Where there are any volcanoes or burning moun-
 tains*  earthquakes may  reasonably be expected more 
EARTHQUAKES.
frequently than in other countries.   2. If tlie volcano
has been for a long time quiet, a violent earthquake  is
to be feared, and vice versa: but to this tliere are many
exceptions.  3. Earthquakes are generally preceded by
long droughts; but they do not always come on as soon as
the drought ceases.   4. They are also preceded by elec-
trical appearances in the air; such as the  aurora* bore-
alis, falling stars, kc but this does not hold universal-
ly.  5. A  short time before  the shock, the sea swells up
and makes a great noise; fountains are troubled,  and
send forth muddy water; and the beasts seem  frighten-
ed, as if sensible of an approaching calamity.  6. The
air at the time of the shock is generally calm  and se-
rene,  but  afterwards commonly becomes obscure and
cloudy.  7. The shock comes on with a rumbling noise,
sometimes like that of carriages; sometimes  a rushing
noise like  wind, and sometimes explosions like the fir-
ing of cannon, are heard: sometimes the ground heaves
perpendicularly upwards, and sometimes rolls from side
to side; sometimes the shock begins with a perpendicu-
lar heave,  after which the other kind of  motion com-
mences.  A single shock is  but of very  short duration,
the longest scarcely lasting a minute; but they frequent-
ly succeed each other at short intervals  for a consider-
 able length of time.  8. During the shock, chasms  are
made in the earth, from which sometimes  flames,  but
oftener great quantities of water, are discharged. Flame
and smoke are also emitted from parts of the earth where
no chasms can  be perceived.  Sometimes these chasms
are but small; but in violent earthquakes  they arc fre-
quently so large, that whole cities sink down into them
 at  once.   9. The water of the ocean is affected even
 more than the dry land.   The sea swells to a prodigious
 height, much more than we could suppose it raised
by the mere elevation of its bottom by the shock. Some-
times it is divided to  a considerable depth; and quanti-
ties of air, flames, and smoke, are discharged from it.
The like irregular agitations happen  to the watei*s of
ponds, lakes, and even rivers.   10. The shock is felt
 at sea as well as on land.  Ships are affected by a sud-
den stroke, as if they had run aground, or struck upon
a rock.  11. The effects of earthquakes are not confined
to one particular district or country* but often  extend,
as  was  already intimated,  to very distant regions;
though no  earthquakes has yet been  known  extensive
enough to affect the whole globe at one time.   In those
places also where the  shock  is not  felt on dry land, the
irregular  agitation of the waters is perceived very re-
markably.
  All  these positions  are verified  by the  accounts of
those  earthquakes  which have been particularly  de-
scribed by witnesses of  the best character.  But above
all, the great earthquake which happened  on the 1st of
November  1755, affords the  clearest example of all the
phenomena we have mentioned; having  been  felt  vio-
lently  in many  places both on land and  at sea, and ex-
tended its  effects  to  the waters in many other places
where the shocks were  not  perceived.  At Lisbon in
Portugal its effects were most severe.
  The following account of  that terrible pltenomenon,
by an eye-witness, is extracted from  a  volume of let-
ters, published a few years ago by  the Rev. Mr. Davy:
  "There  never was  a finer morning seen than the 1st
  voi. i.                  109
 of November 1755: the sun shone out in his full lustre;
 the whole face of the sky was perfectly serene and clear;
 and n.it the least signal or  warning  of that  approach-
 ing event, which has made  this once flourishing,  opu-
 lent, and populous city, (Lisbon) a scene of the utmost
 horror and  desolation, except only such as served  t"
 alarm, but scarcely left a moment's time to fly from the
 general destruction.
   «It was on  the  morning of this fatal day, between
 the hours of nine and ten, that I was sat  down in my
 ap'-irtincnt, just finishing a letter, when the papers  and
 table I was writing on  began to tremble with a gentle
 motion, wiiich rather surprised me, as  I could not per-
 ceive a breath of wind stirring: whilst I was reflecting
 with myself  what this could be owing to, but  without
 having the  least apprehension of  the real  cause, the
 whole house  began to shake from the very foundation,
 which at first 1 imputed to the rattling of several coaches
 in the  main street,  which usually passed that way at
 this time from Belem to the palace;  but on hearkening
 more attentively, I was soon undeceived, as  I found it
 was owing to a strange frightful kind of noise under
 ground, resembling the  hollow  distant rumbling of
 thunder.  All this passed in less than a minute; and  I
 must confess  I now began to be alarmed, as it naturally
 occurred to me, that this noise might possibly  be  the
 forerunner of an earthquake,  as one I remembered,
 which  had happened about six or seven  years ago, in
 the island of  Madeira, commenced in the same manner,
 though it did little or no damage.
  " Upon this I threw down my pen,  and started upon
 my feet, remaining for a moment  in  suspense, whether
 I should stay in the apartment, or run into the  street,
 as the danger in both places seemed equal; and still flat-
 tering myself that this tremor might  produce no other
 effects than such inconsiderable ones  as had been felt at
 Madeira; but in a moment I was roused from my  dream,
 being instantly stunned with a most horrid  crash, as if
 every edifice  in the city had  tumbled down at once.  Tlie
 house I was in shook with such violence, that the upper
 stories immediately fell; and though my apartment (which
 was the first floor) did  not then share  the same fate, yet
 every thing was thrown out of its place in such a manner,
 that it was with no small difficulty I kept my feet, and ex-
 pected nothing less  than to be soon crushed to death, as
 the walls continued rocking  to and fro in the most fright-
 ful manner, opening in several places, large stones fall-
 ing down on every side from the cracks, and the  ends of
 most of the rafters  starting out from the roof.  To add
 to this terrifying scene, the sky in a moment became so
 gloomy, that  I could now distinguish  no  particular  ob-
ject; it was an Egyptian darkness indeed, such as might
 be felt; owing, no doubt, to the  prodigious clouds of dust
 and lime, raised from so violent a concussion,  and  as
 some reported,  to  sulphureous exhalations; but this I
 cannot affirm: however, it is certain 1 found  myself al-
 most choaked for near ten minutes.
  " As soon  as the gloom began to  disperse, and  the
 violence of the shock  seemed pretty  much  abated,  the
 first object I  perceived in the room was a woman sitting
 on the floor, with an infant in her arms, all covered with
 dust, pale, and trembling; I asked her how she got hi-
 ther; but her consternation was so great, that she could. 
EARTHQUAKES.
give me no account of her escape. I supposed that when
the tremor first'began, she ran out of her own house,
and finding herself in such imminent  danger from the
falling of  stones, retired into the door  of mine,  which
was almost contiguous to  hers, for shelter; and when
the  shock increased, which  filled the door with dust
and rubbish,  ran   into  my  apartment,  which  was
then open: be it as it might, this was no time for  curi-
osity.  I remember the poor creature asked me, in the
utmost agony, if I did not think  the  world was  at  an
end; at the same time she complained of being choaked,
and begged for God's sake I would procure her a  little
drink; upon which I went to a closet where I  kept a
large jar  with water  (which you know  is sometimes a
pretty scarce commodity in Lisbon), and finding it bro-
ken to pieces, I told her she must not now think of
quenching her thirst, but saving her life,  as the house
was just  falling on  our  heads,  and if a second shock
came, would certainly bury us both.  I bade  her take
hold of my arm, and that I would endeavour to bring her
into some place of security.
  " I shall always look upon it as  a  particular  provi-
dence that I happened on this  occasion to he undressed;
for had I  dressed myself, as I proposed, when I got out
of bed, in order to breakfast with a friend, I should, in
all probability, have run into the street at the beginning
of the shock, as the rest of the people in the house did,
and consequently  have had my brains dashed out, as
every one of them had.  However, the imminent danger
I was in did not hinder me from considering  that  my
present dress, only a gown and  slippers,  would render
my getting over the ruins almost impracticable: I had,
therefore, still presence of mind enough left to put on a
pair of shoes and  a coat, the first that came in my way,
which was every thing I saved; and in this dress I hur-
ried out,  the  woman with me, holding by  my arm,
and  made directly  to that end  of the street  which
opens to the Tagus; but finding  the  passage  this way
entirely  blocked up with the fallen houses to the height
of their second stories, I turned back to the other end
which led into the main street (the common thorough-
fare to the palace); and having helped the  woman over
a vast heap of ruins, with no  small hazard to  my own
life, just as we  were going into the street, as there was
one part I could not well  climb over without the  assist-
ance of my hands as well as feet, I desired her to let go
her hold,  which she did, remaining two or three feet be-
hind me,  at which time there  fell a vast  stone from a
tottering  wall, and crushed both her and the child in
pieces.   So dismal a spectacle at any other time would
nave affected  me in the highest degree; but the dread  I
was in of sharing the same fate myself, and the many
instances  of the same kind which presented themselves
all around, were too  shocking to make  me dwell a mo-
ment on this single object.
   " I had now a  long  narrow street to pass, with the
houses on each side  four or  five stories  high, all very
old, the greater part already thrown down, or continu-
ally falling, and threatening the passengers with  inevi-
table death at  every  step, numbers of  whom  lay killed
before me, or, what I thought far more  deplorable, so
bruised and wounded,  that they could not stir to help
themselves.  For my own part,  as  destruction appeared
to me  unavoidable, I only wished I might be made an
end of at once, and not have my limbs broken; in which
case I could expect nothing else but to be left upon the
spot,  lingering  in  misery, like  these  poor unhappy
wretches, without receiving the least succour from any
person.
  " As self-preservation, however,  is the first law of
nature, these sad thoughts did not so far prevail as to
make me totally despair.  I proceeded on as fast as  I
conveniently could, though with the utmost caution; and
having at length got clear of this horrid passage, I found
myself safe and unhurt in the large open space before
St. Paul's church, wbich had been  thrown down a few
minutes before,  and buried a great part of the congre-
gation, which was generally pretty  numerous, this be-
ing reckoned one of most populous  parishes in Lisbon.
Here I stood some time, considering what I should do;
and not thinking myself safe  in this situation,  I came
to the  resolution of climbing over the ruins of the west
end of the church, in order to get to the river-side, that
I might be removed as far as possible from the totter-
ing houses, in case of a second shock.
  *< This with some difficulty  I accomplished; and here
I found a prodigious concourse of people, of both sexes,
and of all ranks and conditions, among whom 1 observed
some of the principal canons of  the patriarchal church,
in their purple robes  and rochets, as these all go in the
habit of bishops; several priests, who had run from the
altars  in their sacerdotal vestments, in the midst «f their
celebrating mass; ladies half-dressed, and some without
shoes; all these, whom their  mutual dangers had here
assembled as to a place of safety, were on their knees at
prayers, with the terrors of death in their countenances,
every one striking his breast, and crying out incessantly,
Miserecordia men Dios.
  "  In the midst of our devotions, the second great shoe k
came on, little less violent than the first, and completed
the ruin of those buildings which had been already much
shattered.  The consternation now became so universal,
that the shrieks and cries of Miserecordia could be dis-
tinctly heard from the top of St. Catherine's hill, at a
considerable distance off, whither a vast number of peo-
ple had likewise retreated: at the  same time we could
hear the fall of the parish-church there, whereby many
persons were killed on  the spot, and others mortally
wounded.  You may judge of the  force of this shock,
when  I inform  you it was so violent that I could scarce-
ly keep on  my knees; but  it was  attended with some
circumstances still more dreadful than the former.  On
a sudden I heard a general  outcry,  «The sea is coming
in; we shall he  all lost.'  Upon this, turning my eyes
towards the river, which in that place is near four miles
broad, I  could perceive it heaving and swelling in a
most unaccountable  manner,  as no  wind was stirring:
in an  instant there appeared, at some small distance,
a large body of water, rising like a mountain;  it came
on foaming and roaring, and rushed towards the shore
with such impetuosity, that we all immediately ran fur
our  lives as fast as possible: many were actually swept
away, and the  rest above their waist in waterat a good
distance from the banks.   For my  own part, I had the:
narrowest escape, and should certainly  have been lost,
had I not grasped a large beam that lay on the ground, 
EARTHQUAKES
till the water  returned to its channel, which it did al-
most at the same instant with equal rapidity.  As there
now appeared at least as much danger from the sea as
the land,  and I scarcely knew  whither to retire for
shelter,  I  took  a sudden resolution of returning back,
with my clothes all dropping, to the area of St. Paul's:
here I stood sometime,  and observed the ships tumbling
and tossing about, as in a violent storm: some  had bro-
ken their cables, and were carried to the other side of
the Tagus; others were whirled  round  with incredible
swiftness; several large boats were turned keel upwards;
and all this without any wind, which seemed the more
astonishing. It was at the time of  which I am now speak-
ing, that the  fine new quay, built of rough marble, at
an immense expense, was entirely swallowed up,  with
 all the people  on  it, who had fled  thither  for safety, and
 had reason to think themselves out of danger in such a
 place: at  the same time  a great number of boats and
 small vessels, anchored near it (all likewise full of peo-
 ple, who  had retired thither  for  the same purpose),
 were all swallowed  up, as in a whirlpool, and never
 more appeared.
   « This last dreadful  incident  I  did not see  with my
 own eyes, as it passed three or four stonc's-throws from
 the  spot where  I then  was;  but I had  the account as
 here given from several masters of ships, who were an-
 chored within two or three hundred yards of the quay,
 and saw the whole  catastrophe.  One of them informed
 mc, that when the second shock  came on, he could per-
 ceive the whole  city waving backwards and forwards,
 like the sea when the wind first begins to rise;  that the
 agitation of the earth was so great, even under the ri-
 ver, that it threw up his large anchor from the mooring,
 which swam,  as  he termed it, on the surface of the wa-
 ter; that immediately upon this  extraordinary concus-
 sion, the river rose at once near 20 feet, and in a  mo-
 ment subsided;  at which instant  he saw  the quay, with
 the whole concourse  of people upon it, sink down, and
 at the same time every one of the boats and vessels that
 were near it were drawn into the cavity, which he sup-
 poses instantly closed upon them, inasmuch  as not the
 least sign of a wreck was ever seen afterwards.   This
 account you may give full credit to; for as to the loss
 of the vessels, it is confirmed by every body;  and with
 regard to the quay, I went myself a few days after to
 convince myself of the truth,  and could not find even the
 ruins of a place, where I had taken so many agreeable
 walks, as this was the common  rendezvous of the fac-
 tory in the cool of the evening.   I  found it all deep wa-
 ter, and in some parts scarcely to  be fathomed.
   " This is the only place which  I could  learn was swal-
 lowed up in or about Lisbon, though I saw many large
 cracks and fissures in different parts;  and one  odd phe-
 nomenon I must not omit, which was communicated to
 •ne by a friend, who had a house  and wine-cellers on the
 other side of the river,  viz. that  the dwelling-house bc-
 >ng first terribly shaken,  which made all the family run
 out, there presently fell  down a vast high rock near it;
 that upon this the  river rose  and  subsided in  the man-
 net'  already mentioned, and immediately a great  num-
 ber  of small  fissures appeared  in several contiguous
pieces of ground, whence there  spouted out like a jct-
d'eau a  large quantity of fine whit j sand, to a prodi-
gious height.
  a I had not been long in the area of St. Paul's, when
I felt the third shock; which though somewhat less vio-
lent than the two former, the sea rushed in again, and
retired with the same rapidity, and I remained up to my
knees in water, though  I had gotten upon a small emi-
nence at some di'-'.uiice from the river, with the ruins of
several intervening houses to  break  its  force.   Ai this
time I took notice the waters retired so impetuously, thrJ
some vessels were left quite dry,  wiiich rode in seven-
fathom  water.   The river thus  continued  alternately
rushing on and retiring several times together, in such
sort, that it was justly dreaded Lisbon would now meet
the same fate which, in 1746, had befallen  the city of
Lima.
  *t Perhaps you may think  the present doleful subject
here concluded: but, alas! the horrors  of the first of
November are sufficient to fill a volume.  As soon as it
grew dark, another scene  presented  itself little less
shocking than those already described.   The whole city
appeared in a blaze, which was  so bright that I could
easily see to read by it.  It may be said, without exag-
geration,  it was on  fire at least in a hundred different
places at once,  and thus continued burning for six days
together, without intermission, or tlie least attempt be-
ing made to stop its progress.
  " I could never  learn that this terrible fire was ow-
ing to any subterraneous eruption, as some have report-
ed, but to three causes,  which all concuring at the same
time, will naturally account for the prodigious havoc it
made.  The first of November being All Saints day, a
high  festival among the Portuguese,   every altar  in
every church and chapel (some of which have more than
twenty) was illuminated with anumber of wax tapers and
lamps, as customary: these setting fire to the curtains
and timber-work that fell with the shock, the conflagra-
tion soon spread to the neighbouring  houses; and being
there joined with the fires in the  kitchen chimneys, in-
creased to such a degree, that it might  easily have de-
stroyed the whole city, though no other cause had con-
curred, especially as it met with no interruption.
  "  But  wiiat  would appear incredible to  you, were
the fact less public and notorious,  is,  that  a  gang of
hardened  villains, who had been confined,  and got out
of prison when the wall fell, at the first shock, were bu-
sily  employed  in setting fire to  those buildings which
stood some chance of escaping the general destruction!
  «« The fire, by some means or other, may be said to
have destroyed the whole city, at least every thing that
was grand or valuable in it; and the damage on tins oc-
casion is not to be estimated.
  tt The whole number of persons that perished, includ-
ing those who were burnt, or afterwards crushed to death
whilst digging  in the ruins, is supposed, on  the lowest
calculation, to amount to more than sixty thousand; and
though the damage in other respects cannot be comput-
ed, yet you may form some idea of it, when I assure you,
that this extensive and opulent city is now nothing but a
 vast heap of ruins; that the rich  and poor are at present
upon a level; some thousands  of families which  but  the
day before had been easy in  their circumstances, being 
EAR
E  A S
now scattered about  in the fields, wanting  every conve-
nience of life, and finding none able to relieve them.
  " A few days after the first consternation was over, I
ventured down into the city, by the safest ways I could
pick out, to see if there was a pos.sihility of getting any
thing out of my lodgings; but the ruins were now so aug-
mented by the late fire, that I was so far from being able
to distingnish the individual spot where the house stood,
that I could not even distinguish the street, amidst the
mountains of stone and rubbish which rose on every side.
Some days  after, 1 ventured down again with several
porters, who,  having long plied in these parts of the
town, were well acquainted with the situation of particu-
lar houses:  hy their  assistance, I at  last discovered the
spot;  but was soon convinced, that to dig for any thing
tliere, besides the danger of such an attempt, would ne-
ver answer the expense.
   a On both the times when I attempted  to make this
fruitless search, especially the first, there came such  an
intolerable stench from the dead bodies, that I was  ready
to faint away; and though it did not seem  so great this
last time, yet it had nearly been more  fatal to me, as I
contracted a fever by it, but of which,  God he praised, I
soon got the better.  However, this made me so cautious
torthe future, that I avoided passing near certain places,
where the stench was  so excessive that people began to
dread an infection. A gentleman told me, that  going  in-
to the town a few days after the earthquake, he saw seve-
ral bodies lying in the streets, some horribly  mangled,
as  he supposed, by the  dogs, others half-burnt, some
quite roasted; and that  in  certain  places, particularly
near  the doors of churches, they lay in  vast heaps, piled
one upon another."
   The year 1783 was fatally marked by tbe  desolation
of some  of the most fertile, most beautiful,  and most
celebrated provinces of Europe.   The two Calabrias,
with  a part of Sicily,  were doomed to be a scene of
the most  tremendous and the most  fatal earthquakes
that ever were known, even in those volcanic regions.
The  first  shock  happened about noon,  on the  5th of
February,  and  was so violent as to involve almost  the
whole  of  Calabria in  ruin.  This was  but  the com-
mencement of a succession of earthquakes, which,  be-
ginning from the city of Atnantea, on the coast  of  the
Tyrrhene sea, proceeded along the western coast to Cape
Spartivento, and up the  eastern as far as Cape d'Alice;
during the whole of which space  not a  town was  left
undistroyed.
   During  two years repeated shocks  continued to agi-
tate  the affrighted minds of the inhabitants of Calabria
and Sicily: but the principal mischief arose in the months
of February and March in the first year. For several
months the earth continued in an unceasing tremor,
which at certain  intervals increased  to  violent shocks,
 some of which were beyond description dreadful.  These
 shocks were sometimes  horizontal,  whirling like a vor-
 tex;  and sometimes hy pulsations or beating from  the
 bottom upwards: and  were at times so violent, that the
 heads of the largest trees almo.st touched the ground on
 either side. The rains during a great part of the time
 were continual and violent, often accompanied with light-
 ning and furious gusts of wind. All that part of Calabria,
 which lay between the S8th and 39th degrees, assumed
a new appearance. Houses, churches, towns, cities, and
villages, were buried in one promiscuous  ruin.  Mom,.
tains were detached from their  foundations,  and carried
to a considerable distance. Rivers disappeared from their
beds,  and again returned  and overflowed the adjacent
country. Streams of water suddenly gushed out  of the
ground,  and  sprang  to  a considerable height.  Laigc
pieces ofthe surface of the plain, several acres in extent,
were carried five hundred feet from their former situa-
tion down into the bed ofthe river, and left standing at
nearly the distance of a mile, surrounded by large plan-
tations of olives and mulberry-trees, and  corn gr.iwjnc
as well  upon them as upon the ground from which the!
were separated. Amidst these scenes of devastation, the
escape of some of the unhappy  sufferers is extrcmcly
wonderful.  Some of  the inhabitants of houses  which
were  thrown  to a considerable distance,  were dug out
from their ruins unhurt. But these  instances were few;
and those who were  so fortunate as to preserve their
lives in  such  situations, were content to purchase exis-
tence at the expense of broken limbs and the most dread-
ful contusions.
   During this calamitous scene, it is impossible to con-
ceive the horrors and  wretchedness of the unhappy in-
habitants. The jaws of  death were  opened  to swallow
them up; ruin had seized all their possessions; and those
dear connections to which  they might have locked for
consolation in their sorrows, were for ever buried in the
merciless abyss.  All  was  ruin and desolation.  Lviry
countenance   indicated the extremity of  affliction and
despair; and  the whole country formed a wide scene of
undescribable horror.
   One of the  most remarkable towns which was destroy-
ed was  Casal Nuova, where the princess Gerace Gri-
maldi, with more than 4000 of her subjects, perished in
the same instant. An  inhabitant happening  to be on the
summit ofa neighbouring hill, at the moment ofthe shock,
and looking earnestly back to the residence of his family,
could see no other remains of it than a white  cloud which
proceeded  from the ruins of the houses. At Bagnara,
about 3000 persons were killed; and  not fewer at Radici-
na and  Pahna. At Terra Nuova 4400 perished; and ra-
ther more at Semniari. The inhabitants of Scilla escaped
from their houses on the celebrated rock  of that  name,
and, with their prince,  descended to a little harbour at
the foot of the hill; but, in the course ofthe night, a stu-
pendous wave, which is said to have been driven three
miles over land, on its return swept away tiie unfortu-
nate prince, with 2473 of his  subjects. It is  computed
that not less than 40,000 persons perished by this earth-
quake.
   EASEL-riECEs, a denomination  given by painters to
such pieces as are contained in frames, in contradistinc-
tion from those painted on ceilings, &c.
   EASEMENT,  in law, a  privilege or  convenience
which one neighbour has of another, whether by charter
or prescription, without profit: such are a way through
his lands, a sink, or the like. These, in many cases, may
be claimed.
   EASING,  in the sea language, signifies  the slacken-
ing of a rope, or the like: thus, to ease the bow-line or
sheet, is to let them go slacker;  to ease the helm, is to 
E  A  S
E A  S
Jet the ship go more large, more before the wind, or more
 arboard.
  EAST INDIA COMPANY, a corporation or « unit-
ed company of merchants of England trading to the East
Indies;" which  name is given them in stat. 6 Anne, c.
17, s.  13. more explicitly, according  to  their charter
and adjustment  of their rights, by stat.  9 and 10 W.  III.
c.44^s. 6f. " trading into and from the East Indies, in
the countries and ports of Asia and Africa, and into  and
from the islands,  ports, havens, cities, creeks,  towns,
and places of Asia, Africa, and America, or any of them,
bevond the Cape of Good Hope, to the  straights of Ma-
gellan; where any  trade or traffic of merchandize is or
may be used and had, to and from every of them."
   The temporary rights of the company consist of,  1st,
 the sole and exclusive trade with India, and other parts
 within the limits already described; so that no other of the
 king's subjects can go  thither or  trade  there,  but by
 permission of  the  company, or  pursuant to the direc-
 tions of stat. S3  Geo. 111. c. 52. 2i\\y, They have the ad-
 ministration of  the government and revenues of the ter-
 ritories in India,  acquired hy their conquests  during
 their term in the exclusive trade, subject nevertheless to
 the various checks  and restrictions contained in the sevc-
 ralstatutes, which vest that administration in them.
   The rights in perpetuity are,  to be a body corporate
 and politic, with peiqietual succession;  to purchase,  ac-
 quire,  and dispose at  will of lands and tenements in
 Great  Britain,  so  that the value therein  do not exceed
  IQ,()0()1. per annum; to make settlements to any extent
 within the limits of their exclusive trade; build forts and
 fortifications; appoint governors; erect  courts of judica-
 ture; coin money; raise, train, and muster, forces at sea
 and land: repel  wrongs and injuries; make reprisals on
 the  invaders or disturbers of their  peace; anil continue
 to trade  within the said  limits,  with a joint stock, for
 ever, although  their exclusive right of trading shall be
 determined by parliament.
   The only privileges they can be  constitutionally de-
  prived ul', are those of trading to the exclusion of others,
  and of governing the countries, and of collecting and ap-
 propriating the revenues of India. For furl her particu-
 lars  concerning the East India company: see  stat. 9
 and 10 YV.c. 44'. s. 69.; 6 Anne, c. 3.; 7 Geo. I. c. 5.; 25
  (ho. II. c. 26.; 7  Geo.  III. c. 47.;  12 Geo. HI. c.  54.;
  13 Geo. III. c.  63.; 17 Geo.  III. c.  8.; 21 Geo. III! c.
 70.;24 Geo. III. c. 25.; and 33 Geo. 111. c. 52.
   For the  history and commercial  concerns of this es-
 tablishment, see Compavy.
   EASTER, a festival ofthe Christian church, observ-
 ed in memory of our Saviour's resurrection.
   The Asiatic churches kept their Easter upon the same
 day the Jews observed their passover; and others on the
 first Sunday after the  first full  moon  in the new year.
 This controversy was determined in the council of Nice,
 vvht-n it was ordained  that Easter should he kept upon
 one and the same day, which should  always be a Sunday
 iu all  Christian chure lies  throughout  the world.   But
 though the Christian churches differed as to the time of
 celebrating  Easter, yet thev all  agreed in showing  par-
 ticular respect and honour to this festival. On this  day,
 prisoners and slaves were se t free, and the poor liberal-
ly provided for. The eve or vigil  of  this festival  was
celebrated  with more than ordinary pomp, which  con-
tin  uedtill  midnight, it being a tradition of the church
that our Saviour rose a little after  midnight; but in the
East, the vigil lasted till cock-crowing.
  It was in conformity to the custom of the  Jews, in
celebrating their passover on the 14th day of the first
month,  that the primitive fathers ordered that the  14th
day ofthe moon, from the calender new moon which im-
mediately follows the 21st of March, at which time t!io
vernal equinox happened upon that day, should be deemed
the paschal full moon, and that the  Sunday after should
be Easter-day; and it is upon this account that our ru-
bric has appointed it upon the first Sunday after the first
full moon immediately following the 21st day of March.
Whence it  appears, that the true time  for celebrating
Easter, according to the intention of the council of Nice,
was to  be the first Sunday after  the first full  moon fol-
low ing the  vernal equinox, or when the sun entered into
the first point of Aries;  and this was pope Gregory's
principal view  in reforming the calendar, to have Eas-
ter celebrated according  to the intent of  the council of
Nice.
  Having first found  the epact and  dominical letter, ac-
cording  to the method delivered under  these  articles,
Easter-day may be found by the  two following rules;
  1. To find  Easter-limit, or the day ofthe paschal full
moon, counting from  March 1 inclusive,  the rule is this:
add 6 to the epact, and if this sum exceeds 30, take 30
from it; then  from 50 subtract this remainder, and what
is left will  be the limit; if the sum of the epact, added to
6, does not amount to 30, it must be subtracted from 50,
and the remainder is  the limit required;  which is never
to exceed 49, nor fall short of 21.
  2. From  the limit and dominical letter, to find Easter-
day:  add 4 to the dominical letter; subtract this  sum
from the limit,  and the remainder from the next higher
number which contains 7 without any remainder; lastly,
add this remainder to the limit, and their sum will  give
the number of  days from the first of  March to Easter-
day, both inclusive.
  Thus, to  find  Easter-day for  the year 1806, for in-
stance.  First find the epact 11,  wiiich added to 6 gives
17; and as this sum  does not amount to 30, it must be
subtracted  from  50,  and the remainder  33  is the  limit.
Then adding 4 t> 5, the number of the dominical h.-tter E,
subtract this  sum, viz. 9, from the limit  33, and the re-
mainder 24 from 28, the next superior number that con-
tains  7  a certain number of times  without any remain-
der, and there remains 4; which being added to the  limit
33, gives 37  for the number of days from the 1st of
March  to Easter-day, both  inclusive: hence, allowing
31  for  March, there remains the 6th April for Easteiv
day. Here  follows the operation  at length.
114-6= 17
50 — 17 = 33 paschal limit -
Dominical  tetter  E = 5
  4  + 5=9, and 33 — 9 = 24; and
28  — 24 = 4.  Again,
33  -f. 4   =. 37:  from this  subtract 31 for the number of
days  in March, and it is evident that Easter-day  must
fall on  the 6th of April.
   However,  to save  the trouble of calculation, we shall
here give a table, by which Easter-day may be found by 
E D E
E B  0
inspection (ill the year 1900, according to the  Gregori-
an or new style.
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3

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 H»00tOl-*CJiiin0OOiCJ»00l0 — 00 tO M Oi Ol CO 00 I

  111 this table Easter-day will be found in the commo n
angle of meeting of the given dominical letter and  the
golden number; the name of the month lying in a direct
line with it, towards the left hand.  Thus for the year
1806, the golden number is  II, and the dominical letter
is E, and in the line opposite to II and E will be found
April 6th for Easter-day.
  EDOMARIUS,  in ecclesiastical writers,  an officer
formerly appointed weekly to superintend the perform-
ance of divine service in  cathedrals,  and prescribe the
duties of each person attending in the choir,  as to read-
ing, singing, praying, &c.
  EBENUS, the ebony-tree, a genus of the decandria
order, in the diadelphia class of plants, and in the natural
method ranking under the 32d order, papilionacea?. The
segments of the calyx are the length of the  corolla,  and
ihe latter has scarcely any ala.  Tliere is one rough seed.
There are two species.
  The cretica is a  native of the  island of Crete,  and
some others in the Archipelago.  It rises with a shrub-
by stalk, three or four feet high, which puts out several
side-branches with hoary leaves at each joint, composed
of five narrow spear-shaped lobes, which  join  at their
tails to the footstalk, and spread out like the fingers of
a hand.  The  branches are terminated by thick spikes
pf large purple flowers.   The plants may  be propagated
from seeds  sown in the  autumn.  In this country  the
plants must be protected during the winter, as they are
unable  to bear the cold.
  The  pinnata is a biennial,  a native  of the Levant.
These plants constitute the genus ebenus  of botanists*
but tliere is reason to think that the wood of this  name
is produced from several different trees.   Sec  the next
article.
  EBONY-WOOD is  brought from the Indies, exceed-
ingly hard and heavy,  susceptible of a very fine polish,
and on that  account used in  mosaic and  inlaid works
toys, &c.  There are many kinds of Ebony:  the most
usual among us are black, red, and green, and all of
them the product of the  island  of Madagascar, where
the natives call them indifferently liaxon  mainlhi,  black
wood.  The  island of  St. Maurice, belonging to tho
Dutch, likewise  furnishes part of the ebonies used in
Europe.
   Authors and travellers give very different  accounts
of the tree that yields  the black ebony.   By some of
their descriptions, it shoukd be a sort  of palm-tree; by
others, a cytisus, &</.  The most authentic of them is
that of M. Flacourt, who resided many years in Mada-
gascar as governor.  He assures us that it grows very
high and large, its bark being black, and its leaves re-
sembling those of our myrtle, of a deep dusky-green co-
lour.   Tavernier assures us, that the  islanders always
take care to bury their trees, when  cut down, to  make
them  the blacker,  and  to prevent  their splitting when
wrought.   F. Plumier  mentions another black ebony-
tree, discovered by him at St. Domingo, which he calls
spartium portulacce foliis aculeatum ebeni material. Can-
dia also bears a little shrub,  known  to the botanists un-
der the name  of ebenus cretica, above described.
   Pliny and Dioscoridcs say, the best ebony comes from
Ethiopia, and the worst from  India;  but  Theophratus
prefers that of  India.   Black ebony is much preferred
to that of other colours.  The best  is  a jet black, free
of  veins and rind, very massive, astringent, and  of an
acrid pungent taste.  Its rind, infused in water, is said
to  be  antiscorbutic, and to  cure  venereal disorders;
whence Matthiolus took guiacuin for  a  sort  of ebony.
It yields an agreeable perfume when laid  on burning
coals:  when green, it readily takes  fire from the  abun-
dance of its fat.  If rubbed against a stone, it becomes
brown.  The Indians make statues  of their gods,  and
sceptres  for their princes,  of this wood.   It  was first
brought to  Rome by Pompey, after  he subdued Mithri-
dates.  It is now much less used among us than  formerly;
since the discovery of so many ways of giving other
hard woods a black colour.   As to the green ebony, be-
sides Madagascar and  St. Maurice, it likewise grows in
the Antilles, and especially in the isle of  Tobago.  The
tree that yields it is very bushy; its  leaves are smooth,
 and of a fine green colour.   Under its bark is a white
substance about two inches thick; all beneath which, to
the very heart, is a deep green, approaching  towards A 
ECU
ECU
black, though  sometimes streaked with  yellow  veins.
Its use is not confined to Mosaic  work:  it is  likewise
useful in dyeing, as yielding a fine green  tincture.   As
to red ebony, called also gienadilla, we know little of it
more than the  name.  The cabinet-makers, in-layers,
kc. make pear-tree and other woods pass for ebony, by
giving them the same black  colour.  This some do by a
few washes of  a strong  decoction of gauls, to  which is
added a small quantity of vitriolated iron.
  EBIONITES, in church history, a sect of  the first
century so called from their leader  Ebion.  Tbey held
the same doctrines with the  Nazarenes, united the cere-
monies of the Mosaic institution  with the precepts of
the gospel, observed both the Jewish sabbath and Chris-
tian Sunday, and in celebrating the Eucharist, made use
of unleavened  bread.  They abstained from  the flesh
of animals, and even from milk.  In relation  to Jesus
 Christ, some of them held that he was born, like other
 men, of Joseph and Mary,  and acquired sanctification
 only by his good works.  Others of them allowed, that
 he was born of a virgin, but  denied that he  was the
 word of God, or had any  existence  before his human
 generation.  They said  he was, indeed,  the only true
 prophet, but yet a mere man, who by his  virtue had ar-
 rived at being called Christ, and the Son of God. They
 also supposed  that Christ and the devil were two prin-
 ciples, which God had opposed  to each  other.  Of  the
 New Testament they only  received  the gospel of St.
 Matthew, which they called the gospel according to the
 Hebrews.
   EBONY. See Ebenus.
   EBRBUHARITES, an order of Mahometan monks,
 so called from  their founder  Ebrbuhar.  They made
 great professions of piety, and contempt  of the  world;
 hut are accounted heretics  by the rest of the Mahome-
 tans, because they believe themselves not obliged to go
  in pilgrimage to Mecca.
   ECATESIA, in antiquity, an anniversary solemnity
  observed by the Stratonicensians in  honour  of Hecate.
  The Athenians likewise had a  public  entertainment or
  supper every new moon  in honour of the  same  goddess.
  The supper was provided at the  charge of the  richer
  sort; and was no sooner brought to the accustomed place,
 than the  poor people carried all off, giving out that He-
  cate had devoured it.
   EC ATOM BM ON, in chronology, the first  month of
  the- Athenian year.   It consisted of 30 days, and began
  the first new moon after the .summer solstice,  and con-
  sequently answered to the  latter part of our June and
 beginning of July.  The Boeotians called it hippodro-
  imis, andi the Macedonians Ions.  The word 4s a deri-
 vative from the Greek iMfi^xt a hecatomb, because of
 the great number of  hecatombs sacrificed in it.
   ECHENEIS, the remora, in ichthyology, a genus be-
 longing to the  order of thoracici. The head is fat, naked,
 depressed,  and  marked with  a number  of transverse
 ridges; it has ten rays in the  branchiostege membrane;
 and the body is naked.  There are two species, viz.
   1. The remora or sucking-fish, with  a forked  tail,
 and 18 stiiaj  on the head.  It is  found in the Indian
 Ocean.
   2. The muriates, with an undivided tail, and 16 striae
 on the head. It is likewise a native of the Indian Ocean.
  These fishes are often found adhering so strongly to
the sides of sharks and other great fish,  by means of
the structure of the head, as to be got off with difficulty.
This fish was believed by all  the ancients to have most
wonderful powers, and to be  able,  by adhering to  the
bottom, to arrest the motion of a ship in its fullest course;
and in love affairs to deaden the warmest affections of
both sexes.
  ECHEVIN, scabinus,in the former French and Dutch
polity, a magistrate elected by the inhabitants of a city
or town, to take  care  of their common concerns,  and
the decoration and cleanliness of the city.
  ECHINOPHORA, in botany, a genus ofthe digynia
order, in the pentandria class of plants; and in the na-
tural method ranking under the 45th order,  uinbcllatse.
The male florets arc lateral, with the central  one  her-
maphrodite; tliere is one seed, sunk into an indurated
involucrum.  There are two species, herbaceous plants
of the south of Europe.
  ECHINOPS, a genus of  the polygamia segregatae
order, in the syngenesia class of plants, and in the  na-
tural  method ranking under the 49th order,  composite.
The calyx is uniflorous; the corolla tubulated  and  her-
maphrodite; the receptacle bristly; the pappus indistinct.
There arc five species, annual and perennial plants, one
of wiiich is well known under the name of globe  thistle.
  ECHINORYNCHUS, a genus of the vermes intes-
tina; body round, proboscis cylindrical,  retractile,  and
crowned with crooked prickles.  They are found fixed
firmly to the viscera of various animals, generally  the
intestines; und often remain  on  the same  spot during
the whole life of the animal; they are mostly gregarious,
and are easily distinguished from  the taenia  by their
round  inarticulate body.  There are 48  species, infest-
ing the mammalia, birds, reptiles, and fish.
  ECHINUS, in zoology, the sea hedgehog, a genus of
insects belonging to the order of vermes mollusca. The
body  is roundish, covered with a bony crust,  and often
beset with moveable prickles; and the mouth  is below,
and consists of five valves.   1. The csculentus, or  eat-
able echinus, is of an hemispherical form, covered with
sharp strong spines, above half an inch long; commonly
of  a violet colour; moveable; adherent to small tuber-
cles, elegantly disposed in rows.  These are their instru-
ments of motion by which they change their place. This
species is taken in dredging and often lodges in cavities
of  rocks just within low-water mark.  They are eaten
by  the poor in many parts of England, and by the  bet-
ter sort abroad.   In old times they were a favorite dish.
They  were dressed with vinegar, honied wine or mead,
parsley or mint, and thought  to agree with the stomach.
They  were the first dish in the famous supper of Lentu-
lus, when he was made flamen  martialis,  or priest of
Mars; by some of the concomitant  dishes they seem to
have  been designed as a whet for the second course, to
the holy personages, priests and vestals  invited on  that
occasion.  Many species of shell-fish made  part of  that
entertainment.  2.  The lacunosus, or oval echinus,  is
of  an  oval depressed foru.; on the top it  is  of a purple
colour, marked with a quadrifoil, and the spaces between
tuberculated in waved  rows;  the lower side studded, and 
ECH
ECH
divided hy two smooth spaces; length, four inches. When
clothed, it is covered with  short thickset bristles mixed
with very long ones.   There are 15 other  species, all
natives of the sea.
   ECHITES, in botany, a genus of the monogynia or-
der, in the pentandria class of plants, and in the natural
method ranking under the 30th order, contorts.  There
are two  long and  straight follicles; the seeds pappous;
the corolla funnel-shaped,  with the throat naked. There
are 22 species, shrubs, chiefly of South America.  The
corymbosa, a species of this genus, is supposed to yield
the elastic gum, according to  Jacquin.   See  Caout-
cuorc.
   ECHIUM, viper's bugloss, a genus  of the monogynia
order, in the pentandria class of plants, and in  the na-
tural  method ranking under the 41st order, aspcrifnlise.
The corolla is irregular, with the throat naked.  There
are 21 species, three of which are natives  of Britain.
None of them have any remarkable property, except that
the flowers of one  species (the vulgare) are very grate-
ful to  bees.  It is a native of many parts of Britain. The
stein is rough, with hairs and tubercles. The leaves are
spear-shaped, and  rough with hair. The  flowers  come
out in hjeral spikes.  They are first red, afterwards
blue,  sometimes  purple or white.   Cows and sheep are
 not fond  of  this  plant; horses and goats refuse it.
   ECHO, a sound reflected, or reverberated from some
 body, and thence returned or repeated to the ear.
   For an echo to be heard, the ear must  be in the  line
 of reflection; that  the person who made the sound may
 hear  the echo, it is necessary he should be in a  perpen-
 dicular line to the  place which reflects it; and for a mul-
 tiple  or  tautological echo, it  is  necessary that  there
 should be a number of walls and vaults, rocks and cavi-
 ties, either placed  behind  or fronting  each other. Those
 murmurs in fhe air,  that are occasioned  by the  dis-
 charge of great guns, kc. are a kind of indefinite echoes,
 and are produced from the vaporous particles suspended
 in the atmosphere, which resist the modulations of sound,
 and reverberate them to the ear.
    There can be no  echo,  unless  the direct and reflex
 sounds  follow one another at  a  sufficient distance  of
 time; for if the reflex sound arrives  at  the ear before
 the impression of the direct sound ceases, the sound will
 not be doubled, but only  rendered more  intense.  Now
 if we allow that nine or ten syllables  can be pronounced
 in a second, in order to preserve the sounds articulate
 and distinct, tliere should be about the ninth  part of a
 second between the times of their  appulse  to  the ear;
 or, as sound flies about 1142 feet in a second, the  said
 difference should  be £ of 1142, or 127 feet; and there-
 fore every syllable will be reflected to the ear at the dis-
 tance of about 70  feet from the reflecting body; but  as
 in the ordinary way of  speaking, three or four sylla-
 bles only are uttered in a second, the speaker,  that  he
 may have the echo returned as soon as they are express-
 ed, should stand about 500 feet from the reflecting body,
 and so in proportion for any other number of syllables.
 Mersenne allows for a monosyllable the distance of  69
 feet,  Morton 90  feet; for a dissyllable 105 feet, a trissyl-
 lable  160 feet, a tetrasyllable 182 feet, and a pentasyl-
 lable  204 feet.
   From what has been said, it follows, that echoes may
be applied for measuring inaccessible distances.  Thus,
Mr. Denham, standing upon the  banks of the Thames,
opposite to Woolwich, observed that the echo of a single
sound  was reflected  back from tbe houses in three se-
conds; consequently the sum of the direct  and  reflex
rays must have been 1142 x 3 = 3426 feet, and the half
of it 1713 feet, the breadth  of the river in that place.
  It also follows that the echoing body being removed
farther off, it reflects more of the sound than when near-
er,  which is the reason why some echoes repeat but one
syllable, or one word, and  some many.   Of these some
are tonical, which only  return a voice when modulated
into some particular musical tone, and others polysyl-
labical.  That fine echo  in Woodstock-park, Dr.  Plot
assures us,  in the day-time will  return very distinctly
17  syllables, and in the night 20.
  Echoing  bodies may  be so contrived  and placed, as
that reflecting the sound from one to the other, a multi-
ple echo, or many echoes, shall arise. At Rosneath,  near
Glasgow, in Scotland, there is an  echo  that repeats a
tune played with a trumpet three times completely and
distinctly.  At the sepulchre of Metella, wife of Crassus,
there was an echo, which repeated what a man said five
times.  Authors mention a tower at Cyzicus, where the
echo repeated  seven  times.  There  is an echo at Brus-
sels that answers  15 times.
   One of the finest echoes we read of is that mentioned
by Barthius, in his notes  on Statius's Thebais, lib. 6,
ver. 30, which repeated the words a man uttered 17
times.  This was on the banks  of the Naha, between
Coblentz and Bingen. And whereas, in common echoes,
the repetition is not heard  till some  time after hearing
the words  spoken, or the notes sung; in this, the per-
son who speaks or sings, is scarcely heard at all, but
the repetition very clearly,  and always in surprising
varieties; the echo seeming sometimes to approach near-
er,  and sometimes farther off;  sometimes the voice is
beard very distinctly, and sometimes scarcely at all: one
person hears only one voice,  and another several; one
hears the echo on the right, and the other on the left,
 kc
  Addison, and other travellers in Italy,  mention an
echo at Simonetti palace, near Milan, still more extra-
ordinary,  returning the sound 56 times.  The echo is
beard behind the  house, which has two wings; the pis-
tol is  discharged  from a window  in one of these wings,
the second is returned  from a dead wall in the other
wing, and heard from a window  in the back-front.
   Farther, a multiple echo may be made, by so placing
the echoing beidies,  at  unequl distances, as that they
may reflect  all one way, and not one on the other; by
which means, a manifold successive sound will be heard;
one clap of the hands like many;  one ha! like a laughter;
one single word like many ofthe same tone and accent;
 and so one musical instrument like  many  of the same,
kind,  imitating each other.
   Lastly,  echoing bodies may be so  ordered, that from
 any one sound given, they shall  produce many echoes,
 different both as to tone and intention:  by which means
 a musical room may be  so  contrived, that not only one
 instrument playing in it shall seem many of the same
sort aud size, but even  a concert of  different ones; this
may be contrived by placing certain echoing bodies so, 
ECL
E  C  L
 as that any note played, shall  be returned by them in
 3ds, fiths, and 8ths.  See Pneima/tics.
   Echo is also used for the place where the repetition
 ofthe sound is produced or heard. This is either natu-
 ral or artificial.
   In echoes,  the place  where the speaker stands is cal-
 led the centrum phonicum, and the object or place  that
 returns the voice, the centrum phonocampticum.
   Echo,  in  architecture, a term applied to certain
 kinds of vaults and arches, most commonly of elliptical
 and parabolical figures,  used to redouble sounds,  and
 produce artificial echoes.  We lean from  Vitruvius, that
 in several pacta of Greece and Italy, there were brazen
 vessels artfully ranged under the scats of the theatres,
 to render the  sound of the  actors' voices more clear, and
 make a kind  of echo.   A single arch or concavity  can
 scarcely ever stop and  reflect the sound;  but if there is
 a convenient  disposition  between it,  part of tho sound
 that is propagated thither, being  collected aqd reflected
 as before, will present another  echo; or  if there is an-
 other concavity opposed at a due distance to the former,
 the sound reflected from the one upon the other wiil be
 tossed back again upon this latter, kc.
    Echo,  in poetry, a  kind of composition wherein the
 last words or syllables  of each verse contain some mean-
 ing, which being repeated  apart, answers to some ques-
 tion or other  matter  contained  in the  verse, as in this
 beautiful  one  from Virgil:
        Crudelis mater magis, an puer improbus ille!
        1'iiprobus ille puer,  crudelis lu quoque maters
    The elegance  of an echo consists  in  giving a  new
 sense to the last words, which  reverberate, as  it were,
 the motions of the mind, and  by that means  affect it
 with surprise and admiration.
    ECHOMETER,  among musicians, a kind of scale
 or rule, with  several lines, serving to measure the dura-
1 tion and  length of sounds,  and  to find  their intervals
  and ratios.
    ECLECTICS, acient philosophers,  who, without at-
  taching themselves to any particular sect, selected what-
  ever appeared to them  the best and most rational from
  each.  Potamen of Alexandria was the first of the eclec-
 tics; he lived in the  reigns of Augustus and Tiberius;
 and bring tired with the scepticism of  the pyrrhonians,
 he resolved upon a scheme that would  allow him to be-
 lieve something, but without being so implicit as to swal-
 low any entire hypothesis.
    ECLIPSE, in astronomy, the deprivation of the light
 ofthe sun, or of some heavenly  body, by the interposi-
 tion of another heavenly body between  our sight and it.
 See Astronomy.
   Eclipse, partial, is  when only a part  ofthe lumina-
 ry is e lipsed. And
   Eclipse, total, is that in which the  whole luminary
 is darkened.
   Eclipse ofthe moon, is a privation of the light of the
 mn n, occasioned by an interposition ofthe body ofthe
 earth directly between  the sun and moon, and so inter-
 cepting the st.n's  rays  thai  they cannot arrive  at the
 moon, to  illuminate her.  Or,  the obscuration  of tiie
 moon may be consid  red as a section of  the earth's co-
 nical shadow, by the moon  passing through some part
 of it.
   vol. i.                   110
  The manner of this eclipse is  represented in ffiis fi-
gure, where S is the sun, E the earth, and M or M rue
moon.
   Lunar eclipses only happen at the  time of full moon,
because it is only  then the earth is between the sun  and
moon; nor do they happen every full moon, because of
the obliquity of the moon's path with respect to the sun's,
but only in such full moon*,as happen either at the in-
tersection of those two pathl,  called the moon's nodes,
or very near them, viz.  when the moon's  latitude, or
distance between the centres of the earth and  moon, is
less than the sum of the apparent semidiameters of the
moon and the earth's shadow.
   The chief circumstances in lunar eclipses are the  fol-
lowing:  I. All lunar eclipses are universal, or visible in
all parts of the earth  which have the  moon above their
horizon; and are  every  where of the same magnitude,
with the same beginning and end. 2.  In all lunar eclip-
ses, the eastern side is what first iinmerges and emerges
again, i. e. the lefthand side ofthe moon as we look to-
wards her, from the north; for  the proper motion ofthe
moon being swifter than that ofthe earth's shadow,  the
moon appproaches it from the west, overtakes and pas-
ses through it with the moon's east side foremost, leaving
the shadow behind, or to the westward. 3. Total eclipses,
and those of the longest duration,  happen in the very
nodes of the eclipse;  because the section of the earth's
phadow, then falling en the moon, is considerably larger
than  her  disc.  Tliere may however be total eclipses
within a small distance of tiie nodes;  but their  duration
is the less as they are farther from it, till  they become
only partial ones, and at last none at all. 4. The moon,
even in the  middle of an eclipse, has usually a faint  ap-
pearance of light,  resembling  tarnished copper, which
Gassendus,  Ricciolus,  Kepler, kc attribute to the light
ofthe sun, refracted by the earth's atmosphere, aud so
transmitted  thither.  Lastly. She grows sensibly paler
and dimmer, before entering into the real shadow,  ow-
ing to a penumbra which surrounds that shadow to some
distance.
   ECLIPTA,  a genus of the class and order syngene-
sia polygamia superflua.   The recept. is chaii'y; clown
none; corolets  of the disk four-deft.   There  are  five
species, herbaceous plants of the  East and West Indies.
   ECLIPTIC,  in astron-uny,  a great circle of  the
sphere, supposed to be drawn through the middle of  ihe
zodiac, making an angle with  the equinoctial  of aboui,
23° 30',  which is  the sun's greatest declination;  or,
more strictly speaking, it is that path among the  fixed
stars that the earth appears to describe to an eye placed
in the sun.   See Astroxomy,
   The ecliptic approaches nearer and nearer to a pa-
rallelism with the equator, at the rate of half a second in
a year nearly, or from 50" to  55'' in  100 years, as is
deduced from ancient and mode rn observations compar-
ed together} and as the ine,an obliquity of the  ecliptic
was 23° 28', about the end of the year 1788, or begin- 
ECLIPTIC,
•ling of 1789, by adding half a second for  each prece-
ding year, or subtracting  the same for each following
year, the mean  obliquity will be found  nearly  for any
year either before or since that period.  The quantity
however of this  change is variously stated  by different
authors, from 50" to 60" or 70" for'each century or 100
years.  Hipparchus, almost 2000 years since, observed
the obliquity of  the ecliptic, and found it about 23° 51';
and all succeding astronomers, to the present time, hav-
ing observed the same, have found it always less and
less, being now  rather under 23°  28';  a difference of
about  23' in 1950 years; which gives a medium of ro"
in 100 years. There is  great  reason however to think
that the diminution is variable.
   This diminution of the fbliquity of the ecliptic to the
equator,  according to Mr.  Long, and  some others, is
chiefly owing to the unequal attraction  of  the sun and
moon on the protuberant matter about the earth's equa-
tor.  For if  it is considered, say they, that tbe earth
is not a perfect sphere, but an  obliate spheroid,  having
its axis  shorter than its equatorial diameter; and that
the sun and moon are constantly acting obliquely upon
tlie  greater  quantity of  matter  about the equator,
drawing  it in a  manner towards  a nearer  and nearer
coincidence with the ecliptic; it will not appear  strange
that these actions should gradually diminish the angle
between the  planes of these two circles.  Nor is it less
probable that the mutual attractions of all  the pickets
should have  a tendency to bring their orbits to a coin-
dence; though this change is too small to become sensi-
ble in many ages.
   It is  now,  however, well known, that this change in
the obliquity  of the ecliptic  is  wholly owing to the ac-
tions of the  planets upon the earth,  and especially the
planets  Venus and Jupiter.  According to  La Grange,
who proceeds upon theory, the annual change  of obli-
quity is variable, and has its limits; about 2000  years
ago, he thinks it was after the rate of about 38" in 100
years;  that it is now, and will be for 400 years to come,
56" per century; but 2000 years hence 49"  per century.
According to Cassini, who computes from observations
of the obliquity between the years 1739 and 177 8, the
annual change at present is 60'' or l' in 100 years.  But
according to La Lande,  the diminution is at the rate of
88'' per century; while Dr. Maskelyne makes it only
50" in the same time.
   Beside the regular diminution ofthe  obliquity of the
ecliptic,  at the rate of near 50 seconds in a century, or
half a second a year, which arises from a change of the
ecliptic itself, it is subject to twTo pcriodial  inequalities,
the one  produced by the  unequal force of the sun in
causing the precession of the equinoxes, and the other
depending on the nutation of the earth's axis.   See the
Explanation and Use of Dr. Maskelyne's  Tables and
Observations, pa. vi, where we are  shown how to cal-
culate those inequalities, and where he shows that, from
his own observations, the  mean obliquity of the  eclip-
tic to the beginning of the year  1769, was 23° 28' 9".7.
   To find the obliquity  of the ecliptic,  or  the greatest
declination of the sun; about the time  of the  summer
solstice,  observe very carefully  the sun's zenith  distance
for several days together, Jhen the difference  between
this distance and the latitude of the  place, will be the
                        3
obliquity sought,  when tlie sun and equator are both on
one side of tlie place of observation; but their sum will
be the obliquity when they are on different sides of it.
Or it may be found by observing  the meridian altitude
or zenith distance, of the sun's centre, on the davs of
the summer and winter solstice; then  the difference of
the two will be the distance between the tropics, the half
of which will be the obliquity sought.

 Table of the obliquity of the ecliptic at different periods.
Author's Names.
Vears befori
  Christ
Pytheas
Eratosthenes and Hipchus

Ptolemy
Almahmon  .
Albategniys .
Thebat
Ahul Wasi and Hamed
Persian tables in Chrysococea
Albatrunius
Arzachel
Aliureon
Choja Nassir Oddin
Prophatius the Jew
Ebon  Shattir
Purbach and Regiomontanus
Ulugh Beigh
Walther
Ditto corrected by refraction, &c
Werner
Copernicus .
Egnatio  Danti
Prince of Hesse  .
Rothman and Byrge
Tycho Brahe
Djtto corrected
Wright     .
Kepler
Gassendus  .
Ricciolus
Ditto corrected
Hevelius
Ditto corrected
Cassini
Montons corrected,  &c
Richer corrected .
De la Hire .
Ditto corrected
Flamstead  .
Bianchini
Roemer
Louville
Godin
Bradley
Mayer
Maskelyne .
Hornsby
   As to  the obliquity of the ecli
its plane makes with that of the
 to vary.
   324
230k140
after Christ
   140
   832
   880
   911
   999
  1004
  1007
  1104
  1140
  1290
  1300
  1363
  1460
  1463
  1476
 Obliquity.


2S°49' s23'r
23 51 20

23 48 45
23
23
35
35
36
23 33
23 35
23 55
23 35
23 33 30
23 33 3a
23 30
23 32
23 31
23 30
23 30 If
23 30
23 29  8
23 28 30
23 28 24
23 29
23 31
23 30 20
23 31 30
23 29
23 30
23 30 30
23 31
23 30 20
23 29
23 30 20
23 28 52
23 29 15
23 29   3
23 28 52
23 29
23 29 28
23 29
23 28  25
23  28 41
23  28 24
 23 28 20
 23  28 18
 23 28  16
 23 28
 23 28
10
 8
ptic, or the angle whi h
 equinoctial, it is found 
E  »  I
EGG
  Ecliptic, in geography, a great circle on the ter-
restrial globe,  not only answering to, but falling within
the plane of the celestial ecliptic.   See Globe.
  ECLOGUE, in poetry, a kind of pastoral composi-
tion, or a small elegant poem, in a natural simple style.
See Poetry.
  EC1T10RA, in architecture, commonly the distance
between the extremity of a member or moulding, and
the naked part of the column, or any other part it pro-
jects from.
   ECSTATICI,  in  Grecian antiquity, a sort of divi-
ners, who were cast  into trances or ccstacies,  in which
they lay like dead men, or persons  asleep,  deprived  of
all sense or motion,  but after some time,  returning to
themselves, they  gave strange relations of what they
 had seen and heard.
   EGTHESIS, in church-history, a confession of faith,
 in the form of an edict, published in the year 639,  by
 the emperor Heraclius,  with  a view to pacify the trou-
 bles occasioned by the  Eutychian heresy in the eastern
 church. The same prince revoked it, on being informed
 that pope Severinus  had condemned it, as favouring the
 monothelites;  declaring at the same time that Sergius,
 patriarch of Constantinople,  was the author of it.
   ECTHLIPSIS, among Latin grammarians, a figure
 of prosody, whereby the m at the end of a word, when
 the following word begins with a vowel, is elided, or cut off,
 together with the vowel preceding it, for the sake of the
 measure ofthe verse; thus they read mult' ille, for mul-
 tum ille.
   The  reason of an ecthlipsis, wiiich  in  Latin verse
 ought always to  take place when the immediately fol-
 lowing word begins with a vowel, is  to prevent the harsh-
 ness of an hiatus, or concourse of vowels.
   ECTROP1UM, in surgery,  is when the eye-lids are
 inverted, or retracted so as to show their internal or red
 surface, and cannot  sufficiently cover the eye.
   ECTYPE,  among  antiquarians, an impression of a
  medal, seal, or ring, or a figured  copy of an inscrip-
  tion, or other ancient monument.
    EDDY-TIDE, or Eddy-water, among seamen, is
  where the  water  runs back contrary to the  tide; or that
 which  hinders the free passage  of  the  stream, and so
 causes it to return again.
   EDGINGS, among gardeners, a series of small but
 durable plants, set round the edges or borders of flower-
 beds, kc.
   The best and most durable plant for this use is box,
 which, if well planted, and rightly managed, will con-
 tinue in strength and beauty for many years. The seasons
 for planting these are  the autumn and very early in the
 spring;  and the best species fortius purpose is the dwarf
 Dutch box.  The edgings of box are now  only planted
 on the sides of borders next walls,  and not, as was some
 tipie since the fashion, all round borders, or  fruit-beds, in
 the middle of gardens, unless they have a gravel-walk
 between them, in which case it serves to keep the earth
 of the borders from  washing down on the walks in hard
 Tains, and fouling  the gravel.   Daisies, thrift, or sea-
 j'lly -flowers,  and chamomile, are also used by some for
 this purpose;  but they grow out of form, and require
 yearly  transplanting.
   EDICT, in matters of polity,  an order or instru-
ment, signed and sealed by a prince, to serve as a law
to his subjects.   We find frequent mention of the edicts
of the praetor,  the ordinances of that officer in the Ro-
man law.   In the French law, the edicts are of several
kinds; some importing a new law or regulation; others,
the erection of new officers, establishments  of duties,
rents,  &c. and sometimes  articles of pacification.   In
France edicts  arc much the same  as a proclamation is
with us, but with this difference, that the former have
the authority of a law in themselves, from the power
which issues them  forth, whereas the  latter are only
declarations of a lawT, to which they  refer, and have  no
power in themselves.
  Edicts cannot exist in Britain,  because the enacting
of laws is lodged in the parliament, and  not in the king.
  Edicts are all sealed with green-wax to show that they
are perpetual and irrevocable.
  EEL, in ichthyology.  See Mur.ena.
  Eels, microscopic, those discovered hy the  microscope*
in pepper-water and other infusions of plants, &c. See
Microscope.
  Eel,  sea, anguilla marina,  a fish otherwise  called
conger, being a species of mursena, with the  upper edge
of the back-fin black.   See Mur.ena.
  EEL-spear, a cruel instrument with three or four jag-
ged teeth,  used for catching of ells;  that with the four
teeth is  best, which they strike  into the  mud at the bot-
tom of the river, and if it strikes against any eels, it ne
ver fails to bring them up.
  EFFERVESCENCE.   See Chemistry.
  EFFLUVIUM,  in physiology, a term much used  by
philosophers and physicians, to express the minute par-
ticles which exhale from most, if not all, terrestrial bo-
dies in form of insensible vapours.
  EFT.  See Lacerta.
  EGG, ovum, in  physiology,  a  body formed  in cer-
tain females, in which is contained an embryo, or foetus
of the same species, under a cortical surface,  or shell,
 The exterior  part  of  an egg is the  shell,  which is in
a hen, for instance, a white, thin, and  friable  cortex,
including all the other parts.  The shell becomes more
brittle by being exposed to a dry heat. It is lined .every
where with a very  thin, but pretty  tough, membrane,
which,  dividing at, or very near,  the obtuse end of  the
egg,  forms a  small bag, where only air is contained.
In new-laid eggs, this Jblliculus appears very little, but
becomes larger when the egg is kept. Within this mem-
brane are  contained  the  albumen,  or  white, and  the
vitellus, or yolk, each  of which  have  their  different
virtues.   The albumen is a cold, viscuous,  white liquor
 in the egg, differing in consistence in its different parts.
 It is observed, that  there  are two  distinct albumens,
 each of which are  inclosed in its  proper membrane; of
 these, one is very thin and liquid, and the other more
 dense and viscuous, and of a somewhat whiter colour,
 but in old and stale  eggs,  after some days incubation,
 inclining to a  yellow.  As this second  albumen covers
 the yolk on all sides, so it is itself  surrounded  by  the
 other external liquid. The albumen of a fecundated egg
 is  as sweet and free from corruption, during  all  the
 time of incubation, as it is in  new-laid eggs; as is also
 the vitellus.  As the eggs of hens consist of two liquors
 separated one from another, and distinguished by  two 
£ II  R
E  J E
branches of umbilical veins, one of which goes  to  the
vitellus,  and  the  other  to  the  albumen,  so it  is very
probable that  they are of different  natures,  and conse-
quently appointed for different purposes.  When the vitel-
lus grows warm with  intubation, it  becomes more tumid,
and like  melting wax, or fat; whence it takes up more
space, for as the foetus increases,  the albumen insensi-
bly wastes away, and condenses;  the vitellus,  on  the
contrary, seems to lose little or  nothing of its bulk,
when the foetus is perfected, and only appears more li-
quid and humid when the abdomen of the foetus begins
to be formed.   The chick in the egg is first nourished
by the albumen* and, when this  is comsumed,  by  the
vii.c ilus.  as with milk.  Not long before the exclusion of
th- chick, the whole  yolk  is taken  into  its abdomen;
and the .shell, at the obtuse end of the  egg, frequently
appears cracked, some time before the exclusion ofthe
chick.  The. chick is sometimes observed to perforate
the shell with  its beak. After exclusion, the yolk is grad-
ually wasted,  being  conveyed into the  intestines by a
small duct.   See Comparative Anatomy.
   According to a chemical  analysis of eggs, they con-
sist of four parts; an oscous covering, called the shell,
a  membrane which covers  the  constituent parts of the
egg;  the white, or albumen, and the yolk.  In 100 parts
of the shell of hen's-eggs there are,
         89.6 of carbonat of lime
          5.7 of phosphat of lime
          4.7 of animal matter
         100.0
   Tlie white, or albumen, is nearly of the same nature
 as the serum of  b • >el.   See Alhumen.
   The yolk contains a lymphatic substance, mixed with
 a certain quantity of mild oil. There is a considerable
 analogy between the eggs of  animals and the seeds of
 vegetables.  The yolk of eggs renders oils and  resins
 soluble.
   EGYPTIANS, gipsies, are a kind of commonwealth
 among themselves of wandering impostors and jugglers,
 who made their first appearance in Germany,  about the
 beginning of the sixteenth century, and have since spread
 themselves  over  all Europe and Asia.  By the laws of
 England, gipsies were formerly subject to imprisonment
 and forfeiture  of goods,  but they  are now considered
 chiefly as rogues  and vagabonds, and are described  as
such in the vagrant act. 4 Blac. 166.
   EHRETIA, in botany, a genus  of  the monogynia
 order, in the pentandria  class of plants, and in the na-
 tural method  ranking under the 41st order, asperifo-
 lise.  The fruit is a bilocular berry; the seeds solitary
 and  bilocular;  the stigma emarginated.  There are five
 species,  trees  and shrubs of the West Indies.
   EHRHARTA, a genus of the monogynia  order,  in
 the hexandria class of plants.  The calyx is a two-valv-
 ed, ohe-fiowered glume;  the corola is a double glume,
 each two-valved; the exterior one compressed, and scy-
 mitar-shaped,  transversely wrinkled, and  gashed at the
 base. There are six stamina, three  on each side the pis-
 til, in a parallel line.  The stigma is simple,  compres-
 sed, fqur-tufted, and  torn at the top.   There are five
species j  grasses of tlie Cape.
  EJECTIONE  CrSTODIJE,  a writ which  lies
against him who casts out the guardian from any land
during the minority of the heir.
  EJECTMENT.  Any ejectment is  a mixed action
by which  a lessee for years, when ousted, may recover
his term and damages; it is real in respect ofthe lands
but personal in respect of the damages.   Sinre the dis-
use of real action, this mixed proceeding is become the
common method of trying the title to lands or tenements
Runn. on Ejectments.
  The  modern method of  proceeding in ejectment, en-
tirely depends on a string of legal'fictions; no actual
lease is made; no actual entry by the plaintiff; no actual
ouster by  the defendant; but all are merely ideal for tlie
sole purpose of trying the title.   To this" end, a lcaso
for a term of years is stated in the proceedings to have
been made by him who claims title to the plaintiff, wj,0
is generally an  ideal fictitious person,  who has no ex-
istence, though it ought to be a real person to answer
for the defendant's costs.   In this proceeding, which is
the declaration,  (for there  is no other process in this ac-
tion) it is also stated, that the lessee, in consequence of
the demise to him made, entered into the premises* and
that the defendant, who is also now another ideal fictitious
person, and who is called the casual ejector, afterwards
entered thereon, and ousted the plaintiff; for which ous-
ter the  plaintiff brings this action.  Under this declara-
tion is written a  notice, supposed to be written by this
casual ejector, directed to the tenant in possession ofthe
premises; in which notice the casual ejector informs the
tenant of the action brought by the lessee, and assures
him, that as he, the casual ejector, has no title at all to
the premises, he shall make no defence, and therefore he
advises the tenant to appear in court, at a certain time,
and defend his own title, otherwise he, the casual ejector,
will suffer judgment to be had against him, by which the
actual tenant will  inevitably be turned out of possession.
2 Cromp. Prac.  152.
  The ancient way of proceeding was by actual sealing
a lease  on the premises, by  the  party in interest who
was to try the titles;  and this method is still in use in
the following cases:
  First, Where the house or thing for which ejectment
is brought is empty.  Secondly,  When a corporation is
lessor of the plaintiff, they must give a letter of attorney
to some person to enter and seal a lease on the land; for
a corporation  cannot  make an attorney or a bailiff ex-
cept by deed, nor can tbey appear but by making a pro-
per person  their attorney  by deed, therefore they can-
not enter and  demise upon  the land as natural persons
can.  L. Raym.  135.  Thirdly,  When the several  in-
terests ofthe lessor ofthe plaintiff arc not known, for in
that case  it is proper to seal a lease on  the premises,
lest they should fail in  setting out in their declaration
the several interests wiiich each man possesses.  Fourth-
ly,  Where the proceedings are in an inferior court, they
must  proceed by actually sealing a lease, because they
cannot make rules confess lease, entry, and ouster, in-
asmuch as inferior courts have not authority to impri-
son for disobedience to their rules.
  It is a general r 'le, that no person can in any case
bring an ejectment, unless he  has in himself at the time
a right  of entry; for  although by the modern practice 
E  h M
E  L A
the  ehiendant  is obliged by  rule of court, to confers
lease, entry, and ouster, yet that  rule was only design-
ed to expedite  the trial ofthe plaintiff's right,  and not
t<> give him a right whieh he had not before; and there-
fore, when it happens  that the person claiming title to
tlij lands has no right  of entry, he cannot maintain his
action.  3  Black. 206.
  The damages recovered in these actions,  though for-
merly their only intent, are now usually (since the title
has been considered as the principal question) very  small
and inadequate, amounting commonly to one shilling, or
some other trivial sum.  In order therefore to complete
the remedy, when the possession has been long  detained
from him that  has right, an action of trespass also lies,
after a recover in ejectment, to recover the mesneipro-
fits which  the  tenant in possession had wrongfully re-
ceived; which action may be brought in the name  of ei-
ther the nominal plaintiff in the ejectment,  or his lessor,
against the tenant  in  possession, whether  he  is  made
party to the ejectment, or suffers judgment to go by de-
fault.
   FK.EBERGIA,  a  genus of the class and order de-
candria monogynia.   The calyx is four-parted; petals
four; berry contains  five oblong seeds.  There is one
6pecies, a tree  of the  Cape.
   ELyEAGNUS, oleaster, or wild olive, a genus of the
monogynia order, in the tetrandria class of plants, and
in the natural  method ranking  under the  16th order,
calyciflora.  There is no corola; the calyx is campanu-
lated, quadrifid, superior;  the fruit is a plum below the
 campanulated calyx. There are nine species. The most
 remarkable are, 1. orientalis,  or  eastern broad-leaved
olive, with  a large  fruit, is a native of the Levant and
some parts of Germany.  The  leaves are about two
inches long, and one  and a  half  broad in  the middle.
They are placed alternate, and of a silver colour; at the
foot-stalk of every  leaf there comes  out  a pretty long
sharp thorn, which are alternately longer;  the  flowers
 are small,  the  inside of the empalement is yellow, and
 they have a strong scent when fully open.   2.  The an-
 gustifolia,  without thorns, is that  kind  commonly pre-
served in the gardens of this country.  The leaves are
more than  three inches long, and half an inch broad,
 and have a shining  appearance like satin.  The flowers
come out at the footstalks of the leaves, sometimes  sing-
ly» at other times two,  and sometimes three, at the  same
place.  The outside of the empalement is silvery and
studded; the inside  of  a pale yellow, and having a very
strong scent. The flowers appear in July, and are some-
times succeeded by fruit.   3. The latifolia, with oval
leaves,  is ajfljtivc of Ceylon, and some other  parts of
India.
  Tbe two first may be propagated by laying down the
young shoots in autumn.  They  will take root in one
year; when they may be cut off from the old trees, and
either transplanted into a nursery for two or three years
to be trained up, or into places where they are to re-
main.  The proper time for this is in the beginning of
March, or  early in the autumn.  They should be placed
where they may be  screened from  high winds,  for they
grow very  freely, and arc apt to be split by the wind if
they are too much exposed.   The third sort is  too  ten-
der to endure  the open air of this country; and there-
 fore  must be kept in a warm stove,  except during a
 short time in the warmest part of the  summer.  Fr >m
 the flowers of these plants an aromatic and cordial water
 has been drawn, which is said to have been successfully
 used in putrid and pestilential fevers.  The genus ela?ag-
 nus is not to be confounded with the  oleaster, or wild
 olive of Gerard, Parkinson and Ray.   The last is only
 a particular species of olive,  called by Tournefort and
 Caspar Bauhine olea sylvestris.
   ELjEIS, a genus belonging to the natural order of
 palmae.   The male  calyx is  hcxaphyllous; the corola
 sexfid; the stamina  six: the female calyx is  hcxaphyl-
 lous;  the corola  hexapetalous;  the stigma  three: the
 fruit is a fibrous plum, with a three-valved nut or ker-
 nel.   There  is one  species,  from  tbe  fruit  of which,
 resembling an olive  in shape, the negroes extract the
 famous palm oil.
   EL^EOCARPUS, a genus of the monogynia order,
 in the polyandria class of plants, and in the natural me-
 thod ranking with those of which the order is doubtful.
 The  corola is pentapetalous and lacerated; the calyx is
 penfaphyllous; and the fruit is a plum,  with a wrinkled
 shell.  There are six species, trees of the East Indies.
 One of them, the copalliferus, yields the resin so useful
 as a varnish, called gum copal.
   ELj-EODENDRUM, olive  wood, agenus of the pen-
 tandria monogynia class .and order.  The corola is livc-
 petalled;  drupe ovate, with a two-celled  nut. There are
 two species, trees of Africa.
   ELAPHEBOLIUM, in  Grecian antiquity, the ninth-
 month of the Athenian year, answering to the latter part
 of February and beginning of  March.   It consisted  of
 30 days, and its  name  from  the festival elaphebolia,
 kept  in this month,  in honour of Diana the  huntress,
 on wiiich occasion, a cake made in  the form  of a deer
 was offered to her.
   FLASMIS, in natural history,  a genus of talcs, com-
 posed of small plates in form of spangles, and either sin-
 gle,  and not farther fissile, or if complex, only fissile to
 a certain degree, and that  in somewhat thick laminae.
   Of these talcs there are several varieties, some with
 large and others with small spangles,  wiiich differ  also
 in colour, and other peculiarities.  See Talc
   ELASTICITY, or elastic force, that property of bo-
 dies with which  they  restore themselves to their former
 figure, after any external pressure; being the same with
 what is  otherwise called  springiness, very observable
 in a bent bow, steel springs, anil the like.
   There are in nature a variety of  activities; in some
 of which  the causes are rendered manifest by  experi-
 mental  inquiries; in  others, and among thes*e we may
 reckon elasticity, where no cause  at all is discoverable
 by the senses.
   A variety of experiments prove the  existence of an
 elastic force.  The separation  of two  bodies  after im-
 pact, is a proof of elasticity. Metals, semi-metals, stones,
 gems, fossils, cartilages, most fluids,  as air,  and even
 water, exert an influence  opposite  to the direction  of
 the force compressing them, and discover a ten ency to
 return to their natural state:  which tendency is in all  of
 them imperfect, and less than  the force impressed; but
 most perfect in glass,  ivory, hardened 6tecl,  and cur-
tilages. 
ELASTICITY.
  "Elasticity is increased by augmenting the density of
a body: thus metals are rendered more elastic by being
beaten by a  hammer:  and their elasticty, which  was
scarcely sensible before, by this process becomes very
sensible.   Steel is more elastic when tempered,  and its
density is increased in the ratio of 7809 to 7738.
  Elasticity  is sometimes increased by cold; thus the
range  of  a cannon-ball is said to be greater when the
cannon is cold, than when heated; and the string of a vio-
lin, or a steel lamina, is inflected, and also recovers its
situation, with less force in hot than in cold weather.
  Metal fibres, and thin steel laminae, exhibit no elas-
ticity, unless stretched  to a certain degree, and inflected
by a  certain  force; as appears from lax cords,  which,
if a little stretched and removed from their natural state,
discover  no tendency to return to it;  and when  the in-
flection of a fibre is very  great, the influence of elas-
ticity seems to.be in some cases annihilated; as appears
by the fibres of wood,  which, inflected to a certain de-
gree, remain quiescent, and have no  tendency to recov-
er their former situation.  The limits where the elastic
power begins, or where it terminates, are unknown.
  Motion is supposed to be communicated or diffused,
in elastic  bodies, from  the point of impact to the remote
parts; and this supposition is grounded on the  follow-
ing experiments.
  If two ivory balls are suspended, so that their centres
are in  one line.   The surface of one of them, B, is fresh
painted.  By letting them touch each other gently, A
receives a small  point  of paint upon its surface.   Now
by raising the ball A, so that it may  impinge with some
violence on B, it will be evident that the surface of each
ball has been  flattened  by the blowr; for there is on each
a circular mark, shown by the paint struck off, and the
other by the paint received; and, as the balls retain their
spherical figure after the impact, itis clear that the parts
of the surface not  only lost,  but recovered their figure.
   Two glass  balls  may, with a proper degree of velo-
city, so impinge on each other, that the interior parts of
the ball will  be  broken, though the exterior contiguous
fr) the point of impact,  be unbroken.
   Suspend two  ivory  balls from the  same  point, by
strings of the same length, and let the smaller ball A,
impinge upon B, at rest, with a given velocity.   A will
be reflected always to  the same  height, and  B will be
impelled  to the same  height.  But if either A or  B is
hollowed, and lead inserted in the centre or near to the
posterior surface, neither ball, though the weight be the
same, will ascend as high as before the insertion of the
read.  The progressive motion of the parts from the
point  of  impact is stopped by the insertion of the lead;
and consequently, the force of restitution and the change
ef figure, is less than before it was inserted.
   The motion diffused from  the point of impact to the
remote parts of  an elastic body, is  continued for some
time,  and diminishes  gradually  till it vanishes: and
there seem to be two kinds of vibrations in the parts of
 an clastic body; one of which is quick, and called a tre-
mor of its minute parts; and the other slower and longer,
 by which its  figure is changed, and  an  impinging body
repelled.
   A stroke or friction  upon the edge of  a glass, commu-
nicates a tremulous motion  to the parts of the .glass,
which is visibly communicated to the water it may coir-
tain.  A reed  or stick placed across the bottom of a
large glass bell, will fall when the glass is struck, the
stroke producing a change  of  figure.  If you hoij  a
piece of metal  near the brim or lip of a bell, without
touching it, and the bell is stricken by a hard body, you
will see it touch the piece of  metal, and will hear a sue-
cession of sounds gradually decaying.  If the edge ofthe
bell is pinched, and the fingers suddenly withdrawn, the
same sound is heard, without  producing any sensible mo-
tion towards the piece of metal, or displacing the  reed
across it.
  Those laws according to wiiich alterations arc produ-
ced in the rest and motion of bodies upon their collision
are called the laws of communication of motion.
  When one body strikes against another, if  tlie line of
direction of  the impulse passes  through the centre of
gravity of both the bodies,  the impulse is called full or
direct, otherwise it is called an oblique impulse.
  The relative velocity of two bodies, is that velocity
with which they approach to, or recede from, each other;
and is equal  either to the difference of tbe velocities of
bodies moving  the same way, or to the sum of the ve-
locities of bodies moving contrary  ways; for, if  one of
the bodies was at rest, and the other moved towards it
or from it, with the fore-mentioned difference or sum of
velocities,  the body in motion would approach to, or re-
cede from, the body at rest,  just as fast as the two mov-
ing bodies approached to, or receded from, each other.
  If two bodies move in the same direction with equal
velocities,  they are relatively at rest.
  When the  impulse is direct, and the bodies arc-void of
elasticity, the laws of the communication of motion are
as follow:
  (1.) In all cases, the velocities  after  the stroke are
equal;  for the  impulse ceases when  the impinging bo-
dies are  relatively at rest, and  not before. (2.)  If two
bod ies move the same  way, and in the same right line,
that wiiich  moves fastest will overtake the other,, and
the sum  of their motions will be the same after the stroke
as before:  for, by the third law of motion, so much mo-
tion as the slowest body gains, the swiftest body lose •;.
(3.) If two bodies move contrary ways, the sum of their
motions after the stroke will be equal to the difference of
their motions before the stroke; for, whilst the strongest
motion destroys the weakest, it also loses an equal part
of itself, the third law of motion. (4.) If the sum of two
conspiring motions, or the  difference of two contrary
motions, be  divided by the sum of the quantities of mat-
ter in  both  the moving bodies,  the  quoyfcnt will give
their common  velocity after the stroke.  (yT) If the ve-
locity after the stroke be multiplied into the quantity of
matter in each body, the product will express the quan-
tities of motion in each body, after the stroke.  (6.) The
difference between the quantities of  motion in either of
the  moving  bodies before and after the stroke,  is  equal
to the quantity of the stroke.
   Example  1.  Let a ball of three ounces, moving with
nine degrees of velocity, overtake another hall, of two
ounces,  moving with four degrees of velocity: then will
the quantities of motion before  the stroke be 27 and 8,
the common velocity after the stroke will be 7, tlie quan- 
ELASTICITY*
titles of motion after the stroke wftl be 21 and 14,  and
the quantity of the stroke will be 6.
  Example 2.  Let the same balls move  with the same
velocities contrary  ways; then  with  the quantities of
motion before the stroke be as before: the common velo-
city after the stroke will  be 34, the  quantities of mo-
tion after the stroke will be  114, and 7|, and the quan-
tity of the stroke 153.
   Wherefore, if two equal bodies move  in contrary di-
rections, with equal velocities, as soon as they strike,
both motiono will be elestroyed.   And  if  a body in  mo-
tion strikes an equal body at. rest, it will communicate
half its velocity or half its motion.  And if one moving
body overtakes another moving  body equal to the first,
 the common velocity after the stroke  will  be  equal  to
 half the difference of their velocities before the stroke.
 But if they move in contrary directions,  the velocity
 after the stroke will be equal  to half the sum of the ve-
 locities before tbe stroke.  (7.) If a moving body strikes
 against an  immoveable  obstacle, after the  stroke the
 whole will  be destroyed, and the quantity of the stroke
 will be equal to the whole quantity of the motion.  (8.) If
 the moving body gravitates towards tbe immoveable ob-
 stacle, as when a stone falls upon the earth, the quantity
 of the stroke is equal to the sum of the quantity of mo-
 tion added  to  the weight of  the moving body; for the
 weight remains upon the  obstacle when the impulse is
 destroyed.
   The sum of the motions of  two bodies void of elasti-
 city, may be less after the stroke than it was before,
 but it cannot be more.   (9.) If  a body moves after the
 stroke, the  same way that it  moved before, the differ-
 ence of the  velocities before and  after the stroke will be
 equal to the velocity lost or gained.  Thus,  in the first
 example, the velocity lost is 2, and the  velocity gained
 3.  (10.) If the direction of the motion after the stroke
 is contrary to the  direction  of the motion  before the
 stroke, the sum of  the velocities  before and after the
 stroke will express  the quantity of the velocitv gained.
 Thus, in the second example,  the velocity is  5|, the ve-
 locity gained :£.
   When the impulse is direct, and the bodies perfectly
 elastic, the laws of the communication  of motion are dif-
 ferent from the foregoing.  For,
   (1.) Upon the collision of two elastic bodies, the force
 of elasticity is equal to  the force of compression; and the
 force of compression in each body is equal to the quan-
 tity of the  stroke.  (2.)  The whole  force of elasticity
 exerted at the restitution  of both the  springs,  is double
 the quantity ofthe stroke; for it is the result of two forces
 in contrary directions, each  of which  is equal to the
 quantity of the stroke.   Or  if it  may be  conceived thus:
 the sum ofthe elasticities is equal to the sum of tbe quan-
 tities of the stroke in both  bodies together; that is, to
 double the  quantity of the stroke in  each single body.
 (3.) The effect of the elasticity in each body, will be
 equal to the effect ofthe stroke, and in the same direc-
 tion; for the two equal and contrary  elasticities in tbe
 former case, are equivalent to  action and reaction in the
latter.  (4.) Wherefore,  to find  the  velocity of either
body after  the collision,  first  find the  common velocity
with which the bodies  would  move after the  stroke, if
they had been void  of elasticity,  and find also the velo-
city lost or gained; then subtract the velocity lost from
the common velocity, or to the common velocity add the
velocity gained; so shall the difference or sum be the ve-
locity sought.  But if the velocity lost be  greater thaw
the common velocity, then subtract the common velocity
from tbe velocity lost,  and the remainder  will give tlie
velocity sought in a contrary direction.
   Thus, in the first example before stated, if we .suppose
the bodies to be elastic, the velocities after collision will
be 5 and 10, and, consequently the quantities of motion
will be  15 and 2.
   In the second  example, the velocities after collision
will be  If and 11|, and the quantities of motion 4^ and
23$.
   For a third example, let us suppose two bodies in pro-
portion as three to two; the  first at rest, and the second
moving towards the first  with  40 degrees of velocity:
then will  the  quanties of  motion before the stroke be  fc)
and  80, the  common  velocity after the stroke 16, tlie
quantities of motion after the stroke 48 and  32,  the
the quantity of the stroke 48, the velocity gained  16,
the velocity lost 24, the velocities after the restitution erf
the springs 32, and 8 in a contrary direction; the quan-
tities of motion after collision 96 and 16.
   In the first example, the sum of the motion before col-
lision is equal to the sum of the motion after collision^
in the second, it is greater; in the third, less.
   Two elastic bodies always recede from  each other af-
ter collision, and that with the same relative velocity with
which  they  tended towards each other before collision.
Thus the relative velocity before and after collision, is 5
in the  first  example,  13 in the second, and 40 in the
third.
   And  in all cases, whether the  impinging bodies  are
elastic or not, the sum  of the motions in the same direc-
tion, and the  difference of the motions in  a contrary di-
rection, are the same both before and after collision.
   If two equal elastic bodies  move towards each  other
with equal velocities, they will recede from each  other
after collision each  with  the  saire  velocity. If one of
them in motion strikes against the other at rest, it will
communicate the whole velocity, and remain at rest itself.
If one overtakes the other, they will interchange veloci-
ties, and continue to go on the same way as before. If
they meet each other with different velocities,  they will
interchange  velocities, and fly off from  each other in
contrary directions.
   If an elastic body strikes upon an immoveable clastic-
obstacle, it will rebound with  the same velocity that  it
came.
   If one of lhe impinging bodies  is  hard, and the other
elastic, the laws ofthe communication of motion are the
same as if both the bodies were  elastic; for the spring
will give  way, till the force of elasticity becomes  equal
to tbe force of compression,  that  is, double to the quan-
tity of  the stroke in each body;  and the re-action of a
hard body against double the quantity of ela.stic ity,  will
produce the same effect as a single quantity of elasticity
in each body, acting in contrary directions.
   If the impulse be oblique,  it must be resolved into two
impulses, one direct, and  the other parallel to the tan-
gent at  the point of collision. The effect ofthe direct im-
pulse must  be computed  according to the laws before- 
E L  A
E  L E
mentioned: the parallel  impulse will continue after the
collision the same in all respects that it was before; nor
will it produce any  other effect, except by means of the
friction to make the bodies revolve each about its own
centre of gravity.
  It often happens that the  communication of motion is
the indispensable means  of obtaining some other effect;
thus it is used to nail and flatten bodies; in these cases it
is not sufficient, that the striking body has  a certain quan-
tity of motion, the mass or quantity of matter must be so
proportioned with the velocity, as to produce the requir-
ed effect, without splitting or destroying the body struck.
  In architecture there are  many occasions,  where it is
necessary to drive  piles; if the mass which  strikes the
pile is small, it will not have force sufficient to drive it,
and if it is moved with considerable velocity,  it will split
the head of the pile; a large  mass must therefore be used,
moving with less velocity. If small hammers and a great
velocity are used to drive pivots of iron into large pieces
of wood, the head of the  pivot will yield, and  yet not be
driven into the wood; whereas the effect will be answer-
ed by using hammers of considerable weight, moving with
less velocity. •
  Qold-beaters and  other workmen who  flatten metals,
make use of heavy hammers, and move  them slowly; if
they used small hammers,  and moved them swiftly, the
parts of the metal would be broken and divided  by the
strokes.
  To prevent the 'propagation of motion,  and to deaden
the blow, those that work in their chambers, and are ob-
liged to use anvils, place the blocks that hold the anvil
upon a roll of ma ting, or upon springs; without this pre-
caution, great part of the  force impressed by the ham-
mer would be transmitted to the floor, and would create
a shaking to the prejudice ofthe building.
   The  principles above laid down will assist in explain-
ing the  recoil of cannon,  fusees, and other arms; for you
may consider the gunpowder as a spring  which unbends
or expands itself in every  direction, but which can only
act efficaciously against tlie  breech of the cannon and the
ball.
   The  action of the powder is that  of two equal forces
against two unequal powers of resistance, the ball  and
the cannon;  it may therefore be supposed, cseteris pari-
bus, to impress them both with an  equal quantity of mo-
tion, but with  different  degrees of velocity;  that of the
ball being as  much greater as its  mass is less than that
of the cannon, kc.
  The cannon, the musket, kc. especially  if you take into
the account the obstacles which retain them, are much
more difficult to  move than the ball with which they are
charged;  which, of course, receives from the inflamed
powder a much greater degree of velocity.
  There  are other circumstances which contribute to
augment the velocity of the ball, as the length of the
piece, kc. which do not  come probably before us.  As to
the recoil in  general, supposing the quantity and quali-
ty of the powder the same, a gun recoils so much the
more as the bullet makes more resistance either by its
weight  or tbe wadding.
   A rocket flies upwards, because its lower part, which
is fired, performs she office of a spring, wiiich acts one
way against the body of the  rocket; and the other way
against a volume of air; and as-this spring is continual
ly renewed by the successive inflammation of all the parts
of the rocket, its motion  is accelerated,  first, because
it is contained in the body  itself, and is therefore contin-
"ally adding to its velocity;  and  secondly, because the*
weight or resistance ofthe rocket is diminishing even
instant  by  the  dissipation of the parts as they burn
away.
  ELATE, a genus belonging to the natural order of
palma;.  There is no male  calyx; the corolla is tiipeta-
lous, with three  stamina. There is no female < ;dyX-.  t|ir"
corolla is tripetalous, with one pistil; the fruit is an oval
acuminated plum.  There is one species, a native of the
East Indies, which grows to the height of 14  feet. The
natives chew the nut in the same manner as the areca or
the leaf ofthe betel.
  ELATER, in zoology, a genus of insects, belonging to
the order of coleoptera. The antenna? are setaceous; and
an elastic  spring or spine  projects  from the hinder ex-
tremity of the breast or under side of tho thorax. By
means of  this kind of spring, the animal, when turned
upon its back, contrives to leap  up into the air, and so
turn itself. It varies in size; and when the insect is youii"*
and ncwiy metamorphosed, its elytra are of a beautiful
deep red;  but in a few days they change to a much dark-
er hue, and arc nearly  ofa chesnut colour. In the state
of larvae it inhabits the trunks of decayed trees, and is
there transformed.  With the help of its wings  it issues
from its prison, flutters upon flowers, wanders over the
fields, and conceals  itself  in thickets or under the bark
of trees. Tliere are 38  species.
  ELATERIUM, a genus ofthe monandria order, in the
monoecia  class  of plants; and in the  natural method
ranking under the 34th order,  cucurbitacca}. There
is no calyx; the corolla is salver-shaped; the capsule in-
ferior, unilocular, and bivalved.  There are two species,
natives of America.
  ELATINE, a genus of the tetragynia order, in the
octandria class  of  plants; and  in the natural  method
ranking under the 15th order, inundate. The calyx is
tetraphyllous; tbe petals four; the capsule quadrilocular,
quadrivalved, and depressed.  There are two species,
annual aquatics of Europe.
  ELCESAITES, in church-history, a sect who made
their appearance in the reign  of  the emperor Trajan,
and took  their name  from  their leader Elccsai. 'fhe
Elcesaites kept a mean between  the  Jews, Christians,
and Pagans;  they worshipped but one God,  observed
the  Jewish sabbath, circumcision, and the other cere-
monies ofthe law. They rejected the Pentateuch and the
Prophets; nor had they more respect for the writings of
the apostles, particularly those of St.  Pawl.
  .ELECTION, is where a person has by iaw two reme-
dies, and  is compelled to declare which he will abide by:
thus a creditor, in case of bankruptcy, may cither prove
his debt under the commission, or proceed at law; butm
this case he is compelled to  make his election.  Where
also a person  having obtained a judgment, and is enti-
tled to  execution,  he  may either  take his remedy
against the goods or  the person, and  he may choose
either; but  if he proceed against the person in the first
instance,  he cannot  afterwards  have  recourse to the 
ELECTION.
goods; but if he takes  the  goods,  and'these should be
found inadequate  to his demand,  he may  afterwards
take the body.
  Election of bishops. See Bishops.
  Election of a  clerk of statutes-merchant, a
writ that lies for tbe choice of a clerk assigned to take
and make bonds, called statutes-merchant, and is grant-
ed out of the chancery  upon suggestion made,  that the
clerk formerly  assigned is gone  to dwell in another
place, or is  hindered from  following that business, or
has not land sufficient to  ans .er his  transgression if he
should deal amiss.  F. N. B. 164.
   Election  of ecclesiastical  persons.   If any
person that  has a voice in  elections, takes any reward
for an election  in any church, college, school,  kc. such
election shall  be void; and if any such societies resign
their places to others for reward, they incur a forfeiture
of double the sum; and the party giving, and the party
 taking it,  are thereby rendered incapable  of such place.
 13 Eliz. c. 6. See Bishops.
   Election of members of parliament. Qualifica-
 tion ofthe candidates.  No  member shall sit or vote in
 either house of parliament unless he be 21  years of age.
 4 Inst. 47.
   They must not be aliens-born; they  must not be any
 ofthe twelve judges, because they sit in the lord's house.
 But persons who have judicial places  in the other courts,
 ecclesiastical or civil, are eligible. 4  Inst. 47. Nor ofthe
 clergy; the reason assigned for which is, that they might
 sit in the convocation. Nor persons attainted of treason
 or felony, for they are unfit to sit any where. Id.
   By the 30 C.  II. st. 2. c. 1. and 1* Geo.  1. c. 13. in
 order to prevent papists from sitting in either house of
 parliament,  no person shall sit or vote in  either till he
 has, in the presence of the  house, taken the oaths of al-
 legiance, supremacy, and abjuration, kc.
   Sheriffs of counties,  and  mayors  and bailiffs of bo-
 roughs, are  not eligible in their respective jurisdictions,
 as being returning officers; but a sheriff of  one county
 may be chosen knight of another.  1 Black. 175.
 i  By several statutes, no persons concerned in  the ma-
 nagement of any duties  or taxes  created since  1692,
 except the commissioners of the treasury; nor any of
 the  officers  following,  viz. commissioners of prizes,
 transports, sick and wounded, wine  licences, navy and
 victualling; secretaries  or receivers of prizes; comptrol-
 lers of the army accounts;  agents for regiments; gover-
 nors of  plantations; officers of Minorca or  Gibraltar;
 offi ers of the excise and customs; clerks or deputies in
 the several offices ofthe treasury, exchequer,'navy, vic-
 tualling, admiralty, pay of  the army or navy,  secreta-
 ries of state, salt, stamps, appeals, wine licences, hack-
 ney-coaches, hawkers, and pedlars; nor any  persons
 that hold any new office under tbe  crown,  created since
 1705, are capable of being elected. 1 Black. 175.
   But this shall not extend to, or exclude the treasurer
 or comptroller of the navy, secretary of the treasury,
secretary to the chancellor  of the exchequer, secretaries
of tlk* admiralty, under secretary of  state, deputy pay-
master of the army, or any person  holding any office for
life, or so  1 mg as he shall  behave himself well in his
Office. 15 Geo. II. c. 22.
   By the 6 Anne, c. 7. s.  26. if any member shall ac-
   Y01, I.                        Ill
cept an office of profit under the crown, except an offi-
cer of the army or navy accepting a new commission,
his election shall be void, but he shall be capable of be-
ing re-elected.
   No  person  having a  pension from the crown during
pleasure, shall be capable of being elected. 6 Anne, c. 7.
s. 25.
   By the 22 Geo. III. c. 45. no contractor with the offi-
cers of government, or with any other  persons  for the
service of the  public, shall be capable of being elected,
or of sitting in the house,  as long as he holds any  such
contract, or derives any benefit from it.   But this docs
not extend to contracts with corporations, or with com-
panies, which then consisted of ten partners; or to any
person to whom the interest of such a contract shall ac-
crue by marriage or operation of law, for the first twelve
months.  And  if any person disqualified by such a con-
tract shall sit in the house, he shall forfeit 500/. for every
day;  and if any person who engages in a contract  with
government admits any member of parliament to a share
of it, he shall forfeit 500/.  to the prosecutor.
   No person shall be capable to sit or vote in the house
of commons for a county,  unless he has an estate, free-
hold or copyhold, for his life, or some greater estate, of
the clear yearly value of 600/. nor for a city or borough,
unless he has a like estate of 300/. and any other candidate,
or two electors, may require him to  make  oath  thereof
at the time of election, or before the  day of the meet-
ing of parliament; and before he shall vote in the house
of commons, he shall deliver in an account of his qua-
lification, and  the value thereof under his  hand,  and
make oath of the truth of the same.  But this shall not
extend to the eldest son or heir apparent of a peer, or
of any person  qualified to  serve as  knight of a shire,
nor to the members ofthe two universities. 9 Anne,  c. 5*
33 Geo. II. c. 20.
   Qualification of electors.  No person shall be admitted
to vote under the age of twenty-one years.   This ex-
tends to all sorts of  members, as well for  boroughs as
counties. 7 & 8 W. c. 25.
  P^very elector of a knight of  a shire, shall have free-
hold to the value of 40s. a year within the county, which
is to be clear of all charges and deductions, except  par-
liamentary and parochial taxes. 1  Black. 172.
  No person shall vote in right of any freehold, granted
to him fraudulently, to qualify him  to vote,  and every
person  who shall prepare or execute such conveyance,
or give his vote under it, shall forfeit 40/. 10 Anne, c. 23.
  No person shall vote for a knight of the shire without
having been in the actual possession of the  estate  for
which he votes, or in the receipt of the rents or profits
thereof to his own use, above twelve calendar months,
unless it come to him by descent,  marriage, marriage-
settlement, devise, or promotion to a benefice or office.
18 Geo. II. c.  1.
  No person convicted of perjury shall be  capable of
voting at an election.
  No person shall vote in respect of an  annuity or rent-
charge, unless registered with the  clerk of the peace
twelve calendar months  before.  Such annuity or rent-
charge issuing  out of a freeIrid estate.
  No person shall vote for a knight of a shire, in  re-
spect of messuages, lands, or tenements, which have not 
E L  E
E L  E
 been charged to the land-tax six  calendar months  be-
 fore. 20 Geo. III. c. 17.
   No person shall vote for any estate holden by copy of
 court-roll. 31 Geo. II. c. 14.
   In mortgaged, or trust-estates, the mortgager, cestuy
 que trust, shall vote, and not the trustee or mortgagee,
 unless they be in actual possession.
   AH conveyances to multiply voices, or to sport votes,
 shall be void; and no more than one voice shall be  ad-
 mitted for one and the same house or tenement.
   The right of elections in boroughs is various, depend-
 ing entirely on  the several charters, customs, and con-
 stitutions of the respective places: but by 2 Geo. II. c.
 24, this right of voting for the future shall be  allowed
 according to the last determination of the house of com-
 mons concerning it.   And no person, claiming  to vote
 in right of his being a freeman of a corporation (other
 than such as claim by  birth, marriage, or servitude),
 shall be allowed, unless he has  been admitted to  his
 freedom twelve calendar months before. 3 Geo. III. c. 15.
   Of election.  As it is essential  to the  very being of
 parliaments that election should be absolutely free, all
 undue influence whatever upon the electors,  is illegal,
 and strongly prohibited.  As  soon,  therefore, as  the
 time and place of election within counties  or  boroughs
 are fixed,  all soldiers quartered in the place are to  re*
 move, at least one day before  the  election, to the  dis-
 tance of two miles or more, and not to return  till one
 day after  the poll be ended,  except in  the liberty of
 Westminster, or other residence of the royal family, in
 respect to his majesty's guards, and in fortified places.
 8 Geo. II. c. 30.
   By the  7 and 8 W. c. 4. to prevent bribery and corrup-
 tion, no candidate, after teste  of the writ  of summons,
 or after a place  becomes vacant  in parliament time,
 6hall, by himself, or by any other  ways  or  means  on
 his behalf, or at bis charge, before his election, direct-
 ly, or indirectly, give, or promise to give, to  any elec-
 tor any money, meat, drink, provision, present, reward,
 or entertainment, to, or  for, any such elector  in parti-
 cular; or to any county,  city, town, borough, port, or
 place in general,  in order to his being elected, on pain
 of being incapacitated.
   To guard still more against gross and  flagrant acts
 of bribery, it is enacted  by 2 Geo,. II. c. 24, explained
 and enlarged by 9 Geo.  II. c. 38. and 16  Geo. III. c.
 11. that if any  money, gift, office, employment, or  re-
 ward, be given, or promised to be given, to any voter,
 at any time, in  order to  influence him to give or with-
 hold his vote, as well he  that  takes,  as  he that offers
 such a bribe, forfeits 500/. and is for ever disabled from
 voting and holding any office in any corporation, unless
 before conviction  he will  discover  some  other offender
 of the same kind, and then he is indemnified for his own
 offence.
   If the election shall not be determined upon view with
 the consent of the freeholders there present, but a poll
 shall be demanded, the same shall commence on  the day
 on which such demand is made, or on the  next  day  at
 farthest, (if it be not Sunday, and then on the day after)
 and shall be proceeded in from day to day  (Sundays
excepted)  untU  it be finished, and shall  not continue
more than  fifteen days (Sundays excepted) and the poll
 shall be kept open seven hours at least each  day  be
 tween eight in the  morning  and eight in the evenin-"
 25 Geo. III. c. 84.   The sheriff shall allow a chcqUf
 book for every poll-book for each candidate, to be Ikent
 by their inspectors at the place of taking the noil  ii
 Geo. II. c. 28.                               *   *  *
   By the 34 Geo. III. c. 73. in order to expedite  the
 business at elections, the returning officers are enabled
 on request of the candidates, to appoint persons to ad'
 minister to  voters the oaths of allegiance, supremacy
 the declaration of fidelity, the oath of abjuration,  arid
 the declaration or affirmation of the effect thereof] pre
 viously to  their coming to vote; and to grant the voters
 certificates of their having taken the said  oath, without
 which certificate they shall not be permitted to vote  if
 they  are required to  take the oaths.
   And  every freeholder, before he shall be admitted to
 poll for a knight of  the shire, shall, if required bv a
 candidate, or any elector, make oath of his qualification
 to vote, in which case the sheriff and clerks shall enter
 the place of his freehold, and the place of  bis abode, as
 he shall disclose the same at the time of giving his vote
 and shall enter jurat against  the  name of every such
 voter who  shall  have taken the oath.  10 Anne, c  23
 s. 5.
   Of the return.  After the election, the  names of the
 persons chosen shall  be written in  an  indenture, under
 the seals of the  electors, and tacked to the writ.
   The election being closed, the returning officer in bo-
 roughs returns his precept to the sheriff, with the  per-
 sons  elected by  the majority.  And the sheriff returns
 the whole, together with the writ  for the  county, and
 the names  of the knights elected thereupon, to the clerk
 of the crown in chancery, before  the day of meeting,
 if it is a new parliament; or within fourteen days after
 the election, if it is an occasional vacancy; and this un-
 der the penalty  of 500/.  If the sheriff does not return
 such  knights only as are duly elected, he forfeits by
 stat. H. VI. 100/. and the returning officer of a borough,
 for a  like false return 40/. and by the late statutes they
 are liable to an action at the suit of the party duly elect-
 ed, and  to pay  double damages,  and the like remedy
 shall  be  against  an officer making a double return. 1
 Black. 180.
   If twro  or more sets of electors make each a return of
 a different Member  (which is  called a double election),
 that return only which the returning officer to whom the
 sheriff's precept was  directed,  has signed and  sealed, is
good; and the members by him returned shall sit untd
 displaced on petition. Sim. 184.
   On petition to the  house of commons, complaining of
 an  undue election, forty-nine  members shall be chosen
 by  ballot,  out  of whom  each  party  shall alternately
 strike out  one,  till they are reduced to thirteen, who,
together  with two more, of whom each party shall nomi-
 nate one, shall  be  a select committee for determining
such controverted election. 10 and  11  Geo. III. c. 16.
  Election, in  numbers, is with regard  to  combina-
tions, the different ways of taking any number of quan-
tities  given: thus, the quantities abc may  be taken dif-
ferent ways, as a b c, or a b, a c, and a, b, c.
  ELECTIVE  attraction, in chemistry.  The  union of
heterogeneous substances is effected in many instances 
                       E  L E

ty elective attraction, i. e. a substance quits  another
with  which  it  was  before  combined, to  unite with a
third, to which it is then said to have a superior affinity.
Thus, when  potass is added to sulphat of magnesia, in
water, the sulphuric  acid seizes the potass by its supe-
rior  affinity, and the magnesia is  precipitated.  This is
simple affinity: but if the potass is  added in  union with
carbonic acid, the latter will seize  the  magnesia at the
moment of its disengagement, forming carbonat of mag-
nesia; and the sulphuric acid having combined with the
potass, forming sulphate of potass, we have a case of
double affinity.  When several bodies are mixed, decom-
positions and new combinations often take place, which
would not have been produced had the  bodies been pre-
sented in a separate state. If for instance, into a solu-
tion  of sulphat of ammonia  there is poured nitric acid,
no decomposition  is  produced,  because the sulph :ric
acid has a stronger  affinity for ammonia than  nitric
acid has. But if nitrat  of potass  is poured in, we obtain
by evaporation  two new bodies, sulphat of potass  and
 nitrat of ammonia.  Such cases of decomposition were
 called by Bergman cases of double  elective attraction; a
 name which is exceedingly proper when there are only-
 four bodies concerned. But  as there are often more than
 four, it is necessary, as Mr. Morveau observed, to em-
 ploy some  more comprehensive  term.   The   phrase
 compound affinity may  be employed  with  propriety,
 comprehending  under  the  term  all  cases where more
 than three bodies are  present, and produce combinations
 which would not have been  formed without their united
 action. In these cases the affinity of all the various bo-
 dies for each other acts; and the resulting combination
 has been supposed to be produced by the action of those
 affinities which are strongest.
  The manner in which these combinations  and decom-
  Eisitions take place, was thus explained by Dr. Black.
  et the affinity between potass and  sulphuric acid be =
 62; that between nitric acid and amonia = 38; that be-
 tween the same  acid and potass = 50; and that between
 thc8ulphuric acid and ammonia =  46. Now,  let us sup-
pose that all  these forces are placed  so as to draw the
ends of two cylinders crossing one another, and fixed in
the middle in this manner:
          Potass.              Nitric acid.
                        50
                        46
          Sulph. acid.   —     Ammonia.
                        96
U is evident that as 62 and 38 = 100 are greater than
50 + 46 = 96, they  would overcome the other forces
and shut the cylinders. Just  so the affinity between ara-
m mia and nitric acid, together with  that  between sul-
phuric acid  and' potass,  overcomes the affinity between
ammonia and sulphuric acid, and that between  nitric
acid and potass, anel produces new combinations.
  It  has been supposed that  in all cases of compound
                     E  L E
                                       i
affinity, there are two kinds of affinities to  be consider-
ed: 1st. Those affinities which tend to preserve tie- old
compound, these Mr. Kirwan has called quiescent affi-
nities; and those which tend to destroy  them, which he
has called dtvellent affinities.
  Thus, in the instance above  given, the affinity be-
tween ammonia and sulphuric acid, and  that  between
nitric  acid  and potass,  are quiescent  affinities,  which
endeavour to preserve the old compound; and if they
are strongest, it  is evident that no new compound can
take place. On the contrary, the affinity between potass
and sulphuric acid, and  that between  nitric  acid and
ammonia, are divellent affinities; and as they are in this
case strongest, they actually destroy the former combi-
nations and form  new ones.
  It has been  supposed  that when two of those salts
which mutually decompose each other are mixed togeth-
er,  the decomposition instantly takes  place in conse-
quence of the force of affinities alone, independant of the
proportions of the ingredients.
  Thus when sulphat of potass  and nitrat of lime are
mixed together, it was supposed that the sulphuric acid,
if present in sufficient quantity, combines with the whole
of the lime, and disengages the nitric acid and the po-
tass, which  also combine till the least  abundant of the
two  is saturated.  But if  this was the case, some of the
four ingredients must be  left disengaged, as the propor-
tions of the ingredients of the salts formed by the four
ingredients are not such as to saturate each other. Ac-
cording to Mr. Kirwan's experiments,  the proportions
of acid and alkali in the four following  salts are  as
under:
Sulphat of potass

Sulphat of lime

Nitrat of potass

Nitrat of lime
                             fAcid   100
                             (Potass 121.48
                             fAcid   100
                             \ Lime    70
                             fAcid   100
                             \ Potass 117.7
                             fAcid   100
                             1 Lime    55.7
  Now let sulphat of potass and  nitrat  of lime be mixed
together;  let the quantity of sulphat of potass  be such,
that the acid contained in it amounts  to 100; and let a
more than sufficient quantity of nitrat of lime be added,
to saturate the sulphuric  acid with lime.   It is evident
that for that purpose 70 of lime must be present; and the
quantity of nitric acid combined with  these 70 must be
123.8.   This quantity  would require for  saturation
145.7 of potass, but there are only  121.48 in the mix-
ture; consequently there ought to exist in the mixture, af-
ter the mutual decomposition of the salts, a quantity of ni-
tric acid in a state of  liberty. But the fact is, that  no
such excess of acid exists in the  mixture. This is a suf-
ficient proof that the decomposition does not take place
in the manner that has been supposed.  It may be  said,
indeed,  that the composition of  these salts  may not be
sufficiently known to warrant reasoning  from  it. But
be the proportion of the ingredients what it may, still if
the decomposition was absolute, as has been supposed,
when mixed in any proportion whatever, except in one,
some of the ingredients ought to  remain disengaged: but
as this  does not happen either in this case or in  any 
E L  E
ELE
other, we have a right to conclude that the decomposi-
tion is not what it has been considered.
  2. When twro saline  solutions are  mixed  together,
cither no apparent change takes  place, or a precipitate
is formed. Let us consider each of these cases.
  When  no  precipitation takes  place,  the two  salts
no doubt combine together, and form a compound con-
sisting of the two acids and their bases;  and the degree
of saturation must be  tlie same as  before  mixture,  be-
cause the proportions and the affinities must continue the
same.  Hence the reason that in these cases tliere  are
never any indications of any of  the ingredients being
disengaged  from the others. Hence also the reason tint
when two salts are dissolved  in water, they increase the
solubility of each other, their mutual affinity serving as
an  additional counterbalance to  the cohesion of each.
Thus  Vauquelin has shown that saturated solutions of
sulphat of lime,  alum, and sulphat of potass, are  capa-
ble, of dissolving a greater proportion of  common  salt
than pure water is.
  3. When two salts may be mixed together without  any
precipitation taking place, it  is a proof that all the salts
Capable  of being formed by the component  parts of each
arc soluble.  Hence  the alkaline salts very rarely  occa-
sion a precipitate when mixed together, nor tbe  earthy
salts when the acid  combined in each is  such as to form
soluble salts  with  all the earthy bases, as nitric acid,
muriatic acid. On  the other band,  when a precipitation
takes place, some two of the ingredients  form an insolu-
ble compound; consequently we can easily determine be-
forehand whether or not a precipitate w ill  take place. It
is from  this precipitation chiefly that  double decompo-
sitions have been determined. It is obvious that they are
occasioned not by the superiority of the affinity of the in-
gredients which precipitate, but by the strong  tendency
which these ingredients have to cohere together; the con-
sequence of which tendency is, the exclusion of the other
component parts, and the precipitation of the masses as
they  form.  It may be considered, then, as a general law,
that a whenever a salt is insoluble, the two ingredients
which compose it, whenever they meet in  a  solution, pre-
cipitate  in  combination." For this general law we are
 indebted to Mr. Berthollet.
   Thus barytes forms an insoluble  compound with  sul-
phuric acid, phosphoric acid, oxalic acid, tartarous acid,
kc. Consequently when a salt, whose base is that earth,
is mixed with a salt containing any cf these acids, a pre-
cipitation takes place consisting of the barytes combined
with the acid.  Salts of lime form a precipitate with ox-
alats, tartrites, citrats, phosphats, fluats, and sometimes
with sulphats.  The  alkaline carbonats occasion a pre-
cipitate  in  all the earthy salts,  because  all the earth?
carbonats are insoluble.  Asetite of lead occasions a pre-
cipitate  in sulphats, muriats,  phosphats, mucitates, kc.
Nitrat of silver in the muriats. But  it would be endless
to run over all the precipitates occasioned by the mix-
ture of salts; every person may  ascertain them merely
by observing what salts arc insoluble.
  It ought  to be observed, however, that the  precipita-
tion takes place, not because the  salts are insoluble in
water, but  because they are insoluble in the particular
solution in which the precipitate  appears. Now if this
solution happens to be capable of dissolving any particu-
lar salt, that salt will not precipitate, even though it is
insoluble in water. Hence the reason why precipitates so
often disappear when there is present in  the solution an
excess of acid, of alkali, &c.
   This law has been still further generalized by Berthol-
let.  When different salts are mixed together, they sepa-
rate either spontaneously, or on evaporation, according
to the order of their solubility. Those  which are inso-
luble precipitate immediately on the  mixture, and those
wiiich are least soluble crystallize first when the solution
is evaporated. Potass forms with sulphuric acid a salt
much less soluble than sulphat of soda. Hence  the rea-
son why it has been supposed to have a stronger affinity
for sulphuric acid, and by analogy for acids in general,
than soda:  for if sulphat of soda is mixed with the great-
er number  of the salts of potass, sulphat of potass is ob-
tained by evaporation.
   But in case where two  salts are  mixed together, the
resulting salts are much influenced by the proportions of
the ingredients. The same salts are not obtained if the
ingredients are mixed in one proportion, that would be
obtained if they  were mixed in another proportion. This
will appear evidently from the following experiments of
Berthollet.
Salts Mixed.	'ropor. •ions.	Precipitate.	First Evaporation.	Second Evaporation.	Mother Watef.
Nitrat of lime Sulpl at of potass	1 1	Sulphat of lime	Nitrat of potass Sulphat of lime	A little sulphat of potass	Little
r Ditto	1 2	Ditto	Sulphat of potass Sulphat of lime	Nitrat of potass Sulphat of potass Sulphat of lime	Very little
Ditto	2 1	Ditto	Sulphat of lime Nitrat of potass	Nitrat of potass A very little sulphat of lime	Abundant
Sulphat of soda Nitrat of lime	1 1	Sulphat of lime	Nitrat of soda	Nitrat of soda	Abundant
Ditto •	2 1 1	Ditto	Ditto 1	Ditto	Abundant
 
ELE
E  L E
Salts Mixed.	Propor-tions.	Fiibt Evaporation.	! Second Evaporation.	• „ 1 Third Evaporation.	Mother Water.
Sulphat of soda Nitrat of potass	1 1	Sulphat of potass A little nitrate of potass	Nitrat of potass Some sulphat of potass	Nitrat of soda Some nitrat of pot-ass	Considerable
Ditto	2 1	Sulphat of potass	Sulphat of potass Some nitrat of pot-ass	Sulphat of potass Nitrat e»f potass Nitrat of soda	Considerable
Nitrat of potass Muriat of lime	1 1	Nitrat of potass	Muriat of potass Some nitrat of do.		Abundant
Ditto	1 2	Muriat of potass			Abundant
Muriat of potass Nitrat of lime	1 1	Nitrat of potass Some muriat of do.	Muriat of potass Some nitrat of do.		Abundant
Sulphat of potass Muriat of magnes	1 1	Sulphat of potass	Sulphat of potass Muriat of do. Sulph. ol pot. k mag.	Muriat of potass Sulph. of magnesia	Considerable
Ditto	1 2	Ditto	Muriat ot potass Sulphat of potass k magnesia	Ditto	Ditto
  The mother-water, or the liquid which remains when
mixtures of salts are  separated by crystallization, al-
alvvays contains several salts, or rather their component
parts, which are prevented from crystallization by their
mutual action on each other.  Hence the quantity of this
mother-water is  always the  greater, the more soluble
the salts are, that is to say, the less disposition they have
to crystallize.
   ELECTOR,  a person who has a right to elect or
Choose another to an office, honour, &c. Elector is par-
ticularly, and by way of eminence, applied to those prin-
ces of Germany  in  whom  lies the  right of electing the
emperor; being all sovereign princes, and the principal
members of the empire. The electoral college, consist-
ing of all the  electors of the empire,  is the most illus-
trious and august body in Europe.  Bell arm ine and Ba-
ronius attribute the institution of it to pope Gregory V.
and the emperor Otho III. in  the tenth century; of which
opinion are the generality of  historians, and particular-
ly the canonists: however,  the number of electors  was
unsettled, at least till the thirteenth century.  In 1356
Charles  IV. by the golden bull, fixed the number  of
electors at seven: three ecclesiastics, viz. the archbishops
of Mentz, Treves, and Cologne; and four seculars, viz.
the king of Bohemia, count palatine of the Rhine, duke
of Saxony, and marquis of Brandenburg.  In  1648, this
order was changed, the duke of Bavaria being put  in
the place of the  count palatine, who, having accepted
the crown of Bohemia, was  out-lawed by the emperor;
hut being at length restored, an eighth  electorate  was
erected for the duke  of Bavaria. In  1692, a ninth electo-
rate was created  by the  emperor Leopold, in favour of
the duke of Hanover, of the house of Brunswic Lunen-
burg.
  There are now, or at least were  a short time since,
ten electors, viz. tbe king  or elector  of Bohemia;  the
elector of Bavaria, now a king also: the elector of Sax-
ony: the  elector of Brandenburg (king of Prussia);
the elector of  Hanover, at this moment, by an usurped
authority, king  of Prussia also; the elector arch-chan-
cellor of the empire,  whose residence is at Ratisbon^
the elector of Saltsburgh; the elector of Baden; the elec-
tor of Wurtemburgh, and the elector of Hesse.
  ELECTRICITY,  is a term used to denote the ope*
rations of a very subtile fluid, in most cases invisible,
but which sometimes becomes the object  of our  senses,
proving itself to  be one of the principal agents employ-
ed in producing the phenomena of nature.
      History of discoveries relative to electricity.
  The attractive power which amber and other  electric
bodies acquire by friction,  was long known  to philoso-
phers; and it is  almost unnecessary to remark, that this
branch of science derives its name from txntr^t (elec-
tron), the Greek word for  amber.  The other  electric
properties were  slowly discovered.   Mr. Boyle  was the
first who had a  glimpse of the electric light; as he re-
marked, after rubbing some diamonds in order  to give
them the power  of attraction, that they  afforded light
in the dark.
  Otto Cucricke, burgomaster of Magdeburg, made an
electric globe of sulphur; and by whirling it about in a
wooden frame, and rubbing it at the same time with his
hand, he performed various electrical experiments.  He
addeci  to the  stock of knowledge the discovery that a
body once attracted by an excited  electric was repelled
by  it, and not attracted again till  it had touched some
other body.   Thus he was able to keep a feather sus-
pended  in the air over his  globe of sulphur; but he ob-
served, that if he drove it near a  linen  thread,  or the
flame of a candle, it instantly recovered  its propensity
for approaching the globe  again.   The  hissing noise,
and the gleaming light, which his globe  afforded, both
attracted his neitice.
   These circumstances were, however, afterwards accu-
rately remarked by D:.  Wall: who, by  rubbing amber
upon a woollen  substance  in tlie dark, found also that
light was produced in considerable quantities, accompa-
nied with a crackling noise; and what is still more extra* 
ELECTRICITY.
ordinary, he adds, "this light and crackling seems in
some degree to represent thunder and lightning."
  Mr. Hawksbee first observed the great electric power
of glass.  He constructed a wooden machine, which ena-
bled him conveniently to put a  glass globe in  motion.
He confirmed all the experiments of  Dr. Wall. He ob-
served, that the light emitted by the  friction of electric
bodies, besides the crackling noise, was accompanied by
an  acute sense of feeling when applied to his hand.  He
says that all the powers of electricity  were improved
by warmth, and diminished by moisture.
  Hitherto the distinction between those bodies wiiich
are  capable  of being excited to  electricity and  those
which are only capable of receiving it from the others,
appears scarcely to have been suspected.   About  the
year 1729, this great discovery was made by Mr. Grey,
a pensioner of the Charter-house.  After some fruitless
attempts to make metals  attractive by beating, rubbing,
and hammering,  he conceived a suspicion, that as a glass
tube, when  rubbed in the dark, communicates its light
to various bodies, it might possibly  at  the same time
communicate its  power of attraction to them.  In order
to put this to the trial, he provided himself  with a tube
three feet five inches long, and near  an inch and  one-
fifth in diameter: the ends of the  tube were stopped by
cork; and he found that when the tube  was excited,  a
down feather was attracted  as powerfully by the cork
as  by the tube itself.  To convince himself more com-
pletely, he procured a small ivory ball, which he fixed
at first to a  stick of fir  four  inches long, which was
thrust into the cork, and found  that it attracted and re-
pelled the feather even with more vigour than the cork
itself.  He afterwards fixed the ball upon  long sticks,
and upon pieces  of brass and iron wire, with the same
success: and lastly, attached it to a piece of long pack-
thread, and bung it from a high balcony, in which state
he found that by rubbing the tube the ball was  constantly
 enabled to attract light bodies in the  court below.
   His next attempt was to ascertain whether this power
could be conveyed horizontally as well  as  perpendicu-
larly, with  this view he fixed a cord to a nail which was
in  one of the beams of the ceiling, and making a loop
 at that end which hung down, he inserted his packthread,
 with the ball which was  at the end  of  it,  through the
loop of the cord, and retired with the tube  to the other
end of the room; bid in this state he found that his ball
had totally  lost the power of attraction, Upon mention-
ing his experiments to  a friend, it w7as  suggesteif, that
the cord wbich he had used  to  support  his  packthread
might be so coarse as to intercept the electric power,
and they accordingly attempted  to remedy this evil by
employing  a silk string, which  was much  stronger in
proportion  to its size than a hempen cord.  With this
apparatus the experiment succeeded far beyond their
expectations.  Encouraged by  this success,  and attri-
buting it wholly  to the fineness of the  silk, they pro-
ceeded to support the packthread to  which the ball wras
attached by  very fine brass  and iron wire;  but, to their
ntter astonishment,  found the effect exactly the same as
when  they  used the hempen cord; the electrical virtue
utterly passed away; while, on the other hand, when the
fackthread was  supported by a silken cord,  they were
able to convey the electric virtue 765 feet.
  It was evident, therefore,  that these effects depended
upon some peculiar quality in the silk, which prevented
it from  conducting away the electrical  power, as  the
hempen cord and the wire  bad done.  This, probably,
immediately led to the discovery of other non-conduct-
ing bodies; and hair,  rosin,  glass, kc. were presently
made use of to insulate the bodies which were electri-
fied.  The next obvious improvement was to electrify
separate bodies, by placing them  upon non-conductors-
and in this manner Mr. Grey and his friend Mr. Whee-
ler electrified a large map, a table-cloth, &c. kc. In the
latter part of the same summer, Mr. Grey found that
he could electrify a rod as well as a  packthread, with-
out inserting any part into his excited tube, and that it
only required  to be  placed nearly  in contact with the
apparatus.
  Mr. Grey proceeded to try the effects of electricity
upon  animal bodies.   He suspended a boy on hair lines
in a horizontal position; and bringing the  excited tube
near his feet, he found that leaf-brass was attracted very
vigorously by the head of the boy.  He found also, that
he could communicate electricity"to fluid  bodies, by in-
sulating them upon a cake of rosin; and  observed, that
when an excited tube was held over a cup of water, the
Water was presently attracted, in a conical form, towards
the tube; that the electric matter passed from the tube to
the w7ater with a slight flash and a crackling noise; and
that the fluid subsided with a tremulous and waving mo-
tion.
  After this period the spirit of philosophy in this branch
was no longer  confined to  England.  M. Du Fay,  in-
tendant of the French king's gardens, added to the stock
of discoveries.  He found that all bodies, except metal-
lic, soft, and fluid ones, might be made electric by first
heating them, and  then  rubbing them on any sort of
cloth.   He also  excepts  those substances which grow
soft by heat, as gums, or  wiiich dissolve  in water, as
glue.   In pursuing Mr. Grey's experiments with a pack-
thread, &c. he perceived that they succeeded better  by
wetting the line.  To prove the effect of this wonderful
agent on the animal body, he suspended  himself by silk
cords, as Mr. Grey had suspended the boy, and in this
situation he observed, that as soon as he  was electrified,
if another person approached him, and brought his hand
cr a metal rod within an inch of his  body, there imme-
diately issued from it one or more prickling shoots,  at-
tended  with a snapping noise; and he adds, that this ex-
periment occasioned a similar sensation in the person -
who placed his hand near him.  In the dark he observed
that these snappings were occasioned by  so many sparks
of fire.
   Mr.  Grey, on resuming his experiments, immediately
concluded from that of M. Du Fay,  in which a piece of
metal  drew sparks from the person electrified, and sus-
pended on silk lines,  that if the person  and  the metal
changed places, the effect would  be the  same. He ac-
cordingly suspended  a piece of metal by silk threads
near his excited tube, and found that he drew sparks
from it at pleasure.  This  was the  origin of metallic
conductors.  Mr.  Grey suspected that the electric fire
might he of the same nature with  thunder and light-
ning.
   To the philosophers of Germany we are indebted for 
ELECTRICITY.
 most of the improvements in the electrical  apparatus.
 They revived the use of the globe, which had been in-
 vented by Mr. Hawksbee, which w as  afterwards super-
 seded, by a cylinder, and to which they imparted a cir-
 cular motion by means of wheels,  and used a woollen
 rubber instead of the hand.  By  the great force also of
 their machines they were able to set on fire some of the
 most inflammable substances, such as highly  rectified
 spirits, by the  electric spark.
   But the most surprising discovery was that which im-
 mediately followed these attempts,  in the years 1745-6,
 viz. the method of accumulating  the electric power by
 the Leyden phial.  M. Von Klcist, dean of the cathe-
 dral of Camnin,  was the first who found  that a nail or
 brass  wire, confined in an apothecary's phial, and  ex-
 posed to the electrifying glass, or to the prime conduc-
 tor, had a power of collecting the electric virtue so as
 to produce the most remarkable effects.  He soon found
 that a small quantity of fluid addeci to it increased the
 power; and successive electricians found that fluid mat-
 ter, or any conducting body  confined  in a glass vessel,
 had this power of accumulating and condensing the elec-
 tric virtue.  The shock which an electrician is enabled
 to give by means of the Leyden phial is well known;
 and this was soon  followed  by another  improvement,
 that of forming  what is called the electric battery, by
 increasing the  number of phials,  or jars, by  which
 means the force is proportionably increased.  By these
 means the electric shock was tried upon the brute crea-
 tion, and proved fatal to many of the smaller animals,
 which  appeared  as if killed  by lightning.  By these
 means also the electric  matter was conveyed to great
 distances: by the French  philosophers, for near three
 miles; and hy Dr. Watson, and some other members of
 tlie Royal Society, it was conveyed by a wire over the
 river Thames,  and back again through the river, and
 spirits were kindled by the electric fire which had pas-
 sed through the river.  In another experiment by the
 same gentleman, it was found that tbe electric  matter
 made a circuit of about four miles  instantaneously.
   The next discovery respects the nature, or rather the
 origin,  of the  electric  matter.  Dr. Watson was first
 induced to suspect that the glass tubes and  globes did
 not contain the electric power in themselves, by observ-
 ing, that upon rubbing the glass tube while he was stand-
 ing on cakes of wax, in order to prevent, as he expected,
 any of the electric matter from discharging itself through
 his body on the floor, the power was so much lessened,
 that no snapping could he  observed upon another per-
 son's touching  any part of his body; but that if a per-
 son not electrified held his hand near  the tube while it
 was rubbed, the snapping was very sensible. The event
 was the  same when  the globe was whirled  in similar
 circumstances; for if the man who turned the wheel, and
 who, together  with the  machine, was  suspended upon
 silk, touched the floor with one foot, the fire appeared
 upon the  conductor; but if he kept himself free from
Nany communication with the floor, no fire was produced.
 From these and other decisive experiments,  Dr. Watson
 com hides, that these globes and tubes are no more than
 the first movers  or determiners of the electric power.
   M. Du Fay had made a distinction of two different spe-
 cies of electricity, one of which he called the vitreous,
 and the other the resinous electricity; and soon after the
 discovery of the  Leyden phial, it was  found, that by
 coating the outside of the phial  with a couducting sub-
 stance,  which  communicated by a wire  with the person
 who discharged the phial, the shock was immensely in-
 creased; and indeed it appeared that the phial could not
 be charged unless some conductingsubstance was in con-
 tact with the outside.  Dr. Franklin, however, was the
 first who explained these phenomena.  He showed that
 the surplus of  electricity, which was received  by one of
 the coated surfaces of the phial, was actually taken from
 the other; and that one was  possessed of less than its
 natural  share of the electric matter, while the other  bad
 a superabundance. These two different states of bodies,
 with  respect to their portion  of electricity,  he distin-
 guished by the terms plus or positive, and minus or ne-
 gative;  and  it  was inferred  from the appearances that
 bodies  which exhibited what M. Du Fay called the re-
 sinous electricty, were in the state of minus, that is, in
 the state of attracting the electric matter from other bo-
 dies, while those  which  were  possessed of the vitreous
 electricity were bodies electrified plus, or in a state ca-
 pable of imparting electricity  to other bodies.   By this
 discovery Dr. Franklin was enabled to increase the elec-
 tic power almost at pleasure, namely, by connecting the
 inside of one phial with  the inside of another, in such  a
 manner that tlie fluid which  was driven  out of the first
 would be received by the second, and what was driven
 out of the second would be received  by  the third,  kc.
 and this constitutes what we now call an electrical bat-
 tery.
   But the most astonishing  discovery which Franklin,
 or perhaps any other person, ever made in this branch
 of science,  was  the  demonstration of what  had  been
 slightly  suspected by others, the perfect similarity, or
 rather indentity, of  lightning and electricity. The doc-
 tor was led to this discovery  by comparing the effects of
 lightning with those of electricity, and by reflecting that
 if two gun-barrels electrified will strike at two indies,
 and make  a loud report,  what must be the effect of  ten
 thousand acres of eletrified cloud.   Not satisfied, how-
 ever, with speculation,  he  constructed  a kite with a
 pointed  wire fixed upon  it,  which, during a  thunder-
 storm, he  contrived to send up into an electrical cloud.
 The wire in the  kite attracted the  lightning from the
 cloud,  and descended along the hempen string, and was
 received by a key tied to the extremity of it,  that part
 of the  string which he held in his hand  being of silk,
 that the  electric virtue might stop when it came to the
 key.  At this key he charged phials, and from the fire
thus obtained he kindled  spirits,  and performed all the
common electrical experiments.
   Dr. Franklin, after this discovery, constructed an  in-
sulated rod to draw the lightning from the atmosphere
into his  house,  in order  to enable him to make experi-
ments upon it: he also connected with it two bells, wiiich
gave him notice by their ringing when his rod was elec-
trified.   This was the origin of the metallic conductors
now in general use.
   It was afterwards discovered  by  Mr.  Canton, that
the positive' and negative dec tr'r ity.  which  were sup-
posed to depend  upon the nature of the  excited body,
and therefore had obtained  the named of resinous and 
ELECTRICITY
vitreous, depended chiefly upon the nature of the surface;
for that a glass tube,  when the polished surface wras de-
stroyed, exhibited proofs of negative electricity as much
as sulphur or sealing  wax,  and drew sparks  from the
knuckle when applied to it,  instead of giving fire from
its own body; when the tube was greased, and a rubber
with a rough surface was applied to it, its positive pow-
er was restored, and the contrary when the rubber be-
came smooth  by friction.
   General principles of electricity.—From  the brief ac-
count wiiich has been given of discoveries relative to this
branch of science, the reader will be prepared to admit
that electricity is the action of a body put in a state to
attract or repel light bodies placed at  a certain distance;
to give a  slight sensation to the  skin, resembling in
some measure that which we experience in meeting with
a cobweb in the r<ir;  to  spread an  odour  like the  phos-
phorus of Kunkeli; to dart pencils of light from the sur-
face, attended with a snapping  noise, on the approach
of certain  substances; lastly, that the  body put in this
state is  capable  of communicating to other bodies the
power of producing  the same  effects  during a certain
time*
   The electric  power is indubitably the  effect of some
matter in an active  state, either  within  or round the
electrified body; since, if  we place either our hands or
face before an excited tube of glass,  or before an insu-
lated conductor  which is  electrified,  we  shall perceive
 emanations sensible  to the touch; and if we approach
 nearer, we shall  feel  it  distinctly,  and hear  a weak
 noise:  in  the dark we  perceive sparks  of vivid light,
 especially from  angular points; we see  emitted pencils
 of rays, or small flashes  of divergent flame; it  is cer-
 tain therefore,  that some subtile matter put in motion is
 alone  capable  of  making these impressions upon our
 senses; and we may conclude that every electrified body
 is encompassed by  some  matter  in  motion, which is,
 without doubt,  the immediate cause of all the electrical
 phenomena, and which we term the  electric  matter  or
 fluid.
   Thus far, and no farther, are we warranted in affirm-
 ing, on the only evidence  to be admitted in philosophy,
 that of experiment,  fact,  and  observation.  There is,
 however, in man, a curiosity that prompts us too look
 beyond effects, and  a  disposition  that leads us to theo-
 rize,  even on the  most difficult  subjects.  Let us, how-
 ever, do it with diffidence and caution.   What, then, is
 this electric matter?  or whence  does it derive its origin?
 It apparently proceeds not from the electrified body, for
 that suffers no sensible diminution.  It depends not on
 any property inherent in  the air of the atmosphere, for
 three obvious reasons:  first, because  electrical pheno-
 mena may be produced in a space  from which the air has
 bee n most carefully exhausted.   Secondly,  because the
 electrical matter has qualities whieh are not inherent in
 air: it penetrates  certain bodies impervious to air, such
 as metals; it has a sensible odour; it appears itself in-
 flamed; it is capable of inflaming other  bodies,  and of
 meltingmetals; effects which air cannot produce. Third-
 ly,  its motion is considerably more  rapid than that of
 sound, which is a motion of the air the most rapid that
 We are acquainted with.
   It is, however, generally agreed, that the electric mat-
ter has a  strong analogy with the matter of heat and
light.  It appears,  indeed, that Nature, who is so very
economical in the production of principles, whilst she
multiplies their  properties so  liberally, has in no case
established two  causes for one effect.  We may apply
this  remark to the electric matter;  and the more wc in-
quire into the properties ofthe electric matter, and  those
of the matter of heat and  light,  the more  shall we
discover of this  analogy  between  them, and the  more
probable will it appear,  that fire, light, and electricity,
depend upon the same principle,  and that they are only
three different effects from the same matter or essence.
   1st. Of all the means necessary to excite the matter of
heat, there is none more efficacious than that which is most
necessary to produce electricity,  namely, friction. 2dly.
As caloric extends itself with more facility in metals and
humid bodies than  in any other substances,  so metals
and  water are conductors of electricity in the same  man-
ner  as they are of heat;  and, in  general, the same con-
ductors are found equally good for both. 3dly. Caloric
is the most  elastic  of all bodies,  and is considered by
most philosophers as the  principal cause of that repul-
sion which takes place between  the particles of bodies;
and to a similar cause the electric  repulsion may he re-
ferred.  4thly.  The pulse and  perspiration of animals
are  increased by electricity  as by the actual application
of heat.   5thly.  Actual ignition  is  produced by the elec-
tric fluid.  Thus it is a common experiment to inflame
spirit of wine by the electric spark;  inflammable  air is
set  on fire by the same means in the common electrical
pistol; and even gunpowder may be exploded by a.spark
from a powerful conductor.  6thly.  Metals are milted
by electricity;  and most inflammable substances are af-
fected by it as by common fire,  but in a weaker degree.
7tldy. The light emitted by the  electrical apparatus has
 all tbe properties of that which  is  emitted from the sun;
the  composition differing in  some respects, according to
circumstances,  as to the predominancy of certain  rays,
the  light in different instance s inclining to  blue, red,
 white, &c. according to its intensity.  8tldy.  The mo-
tion of light is  exceedingly rapid,  whether it is reflected
 or refracted; in the same  manner the electric fluid is
 found to  move  with almost infinite velocity, for it has
 been proved by experiments, that  a cord 1200 feet long
 has become instantly electric in its whole extent.   The
 abbe' Nollet has communicated  the electric shock to 200
 persons at the  same time, or at the least perceptible in-
 stant.
   Notwithstanding these considerations, it must be con-
 fessed, that there are some  facts which seem to indicate
 that the electric fluid is not  purely and simply the matter
 of heat or light unmixed with other substances: for 1st,
 it has been observed, that the  electric matter has the
 property of affecting the organs  of scent, which is a pro-
 perty that belongs  neither to light nor heat.
   2dly.  It is well  known also,  that an  accumulation  of
 caloric increases the fluidity of  all bodies, and prevents
 them from congealing, whereas congealed fluids may  be
 highly charged with electricity;  nor does it appear to
 have tlie smallest effect in increasing their fluidity.
   Sdly.  Heat  spreads in every direction, whereas the
 electrical fluid may be arrested in its progress by cer-
 tain bodies, which, on that account, have obtained  the 
ELECTRICITY.
name of con-conductors.  The Torricellian vacuum, on
the  contrary,, affords a ready  passage to  the  electric
fluid, but is a bad conductor of heat.
  4lhly. Whenever the matter of heat penetrates bodies,
it warms as well as expands them.  The electric fluid
docs not produce  these effects; bodies, however long
they may be electrified, become neither hotter to the
touch, nor more extended  in dimensions.
  5thly.  The singular property of adhering to  certain
conductors, without diffusing itself to other substances,
which may be even in contract with them,  so observa-
ble in the electrical fluid,  is a property not common to
caloric or  elementary fire.   Thus  we  have  seen  that
spirits were kindled by an  electrical spark  drawn by a
wire through the water of the Thames; and large pieces
of iron wire have been heated red-hot,  while immersed
in water, by an electrical explosion.
  6thly.  With respect to the identity of light and elec-
tricity, it should also be recollected, that light pervades
glass with the greatest facility,  whereas that substance
is penetrated by the electrical fluid  only in  certain cir-
cumstance^, and  with the utmost difficulty; if, therefore,
it should be admitted, that the basis ofthe electric mat-
ter is radically the same with the matter of heat or light,
it seems necessary to  admit also,  that  it retains some
other matter in combination with  it, ofthe nature of
which we arc as yet uninformed; and it  is probably this
combination of fofcign matter which disables it, in or-
dinary cases, from penetrating glass.  At present, how-
ever,  we know nothing  for a certainty  concerning the
electrical fluid, but some of its effect^
  Electrical  phenomena are produced by friction,  and
by communication.  In general, bodies  which electrify
the best by friction, electrify the worst by communica-
tion (except glass in certain circumstances); and on the
contrary,  substances  which electrify the best by ^com-
munication electrify the worst by friction.  We shall be-
gjp, with those experiments which gave rise to the prin-
cipal technical terms made  use of in this science.
  If a dry glass tube is rubbed with a piece  of dry silk,
and if light bodies, as feathers, pith balls, &c. are pre-
sented to it,  they will  be first attracted and  then repel-
led.  The best rubber  for a smooth glass tube is  a piece
of black or oiled  silk, .on  which a little amalgam  has
been spread:  sealing-wax, rubbed  with new and soft
flannel,  will  produce the same effect.  By  this friction
an agent or  power is  put  in action, and  this power is
called the electrical fluid: a certain quantity  of this fluid
i« supposed to exist latent in all bodies, in which  state it
makes no impression  on our senses; but when  by the
powers of nature or of art, this equilibrium is destroy-
ed,  and the agency of the fluid is rendered  perceptible
to the senses, then those effects are produced which are
termed electrical, and the body is said to be electrified.
  If a homogeneous  body  is presented to the  excited
tube, so as to receive electricity from it,  and the  electri-
city remains  at or near the end or part presented, with-
out  being  communicated to the rest of  the  body, it is
called a non-conductor or eledric; but if, on  the contra-
ry,  the electricity is communicated  to every part,  the
body is called a  conductor,  or non-electric.   A body is
said to be insulated when it communicates with nothing
but electrics, as when it is  placed upon glass pillars, or
  voi,. ]                  112
a  ball of wax or  rosin,  or any non-conducting  sub-
stance.
   A conductor cannot be electrified while it communi-
cates with the earth, either by direct contact  or*by the
interposition of other conductors, because the electricity
is  immediately conveyed away to the earth.
   A mutual  attraction is  exerted between a body  in a
state of electricity and all  non-electric bodies,  which, if
not large and heavy, will  pass rapidly through the ,.ir
to  the electrified body, where they remain till they have,
by communication, acquired the  same state, wiien they
will be repelled. If an uninsulated conductor is at hand,
it  will  attract the small body  when electrified, and de-
prive it of its electricity, so that  it will be again attract-
ed by the electrified  body, and repelled  as before,  and
will continue to pass  and repass  between  the two, till the
electric state is entirely  destroyed.
   The following is  a list of electrics, and also of conduc-
tors, disposed according to the order of their perfection,
beginning in  each column with the most perfect of  their
class:  thus glass is a more perfect electric than amber,
and gold is a better conductor than silver.
foi-
       CONDUCTORS.
All the metals in  the
  order:
Gold; silver; platina; brass;
  iron;  tin;  quicksilver;
  lead.
The semi-mctals.
Metallic ores.
Charcoal.
The fluids  of the animal
  body.
Water, especially salt wa-
  ter,  and other fluids, ex-
  cept oil.
Ice, snow.
Most saline substances.
Earthy substances.
Smoke, steam, and even a
  vacuum.
       ELECTRICS.
 Glass of all kinds.
 All  precious  stones,  the
    most  transparent  the
    best.
 Amber.
 Sulphur.
 All resinous substances.
 Wax of all kinds.
 Silk and cotton.
 Dry external  animal  sub-
    stances,   as   feathers,
    wool, and hair.
 Paper.
 Loaf sugar.
 Air when dry.
 Oils and metallic oxides.
 Ashes of animal and vege-
   table substances.
 Most bard stones.
  M. Achard, of Berlin, has proved by experiment, that
 under  certain circumstances a body  will become a  con-
 ductor of electricity, which before was a non-conductor.
 The principal of these circumstances are the degrees of
 heat to which the body is subjected.
  It must be observed, however, that electrics and non-
 electrics are not so strongly marked by nature as to be
 defined with precision; for the same substance has been
 differently classed by different writers: besides, the elec-
 tric properties of the same substance  vary according to
 changes of circumstances:  thus a piece of green wood  is
 a conductor;  and the same piece, after it has been baked,
 becomes a non-conductor;  when it is formed  into char-
coal, it again conducts the electric matter; but when re-
 duced to ashes, is1 impervious  to  it.   Indeed, it  mi.uiit
perhaps be generally* said, that every  substance is  in a
certain degree a conductor of this fluid, though sone
conduct it with much more facility than others.
  When electricity became a science, so far as to attract
the notice of philosophers, various modes were employ* 
ELECTRICITY.
ed for producing or accumidating the electrical.mat-
ters.
  The first electrical machine made use of was a tube of
glass, which,  being excited by friction, was then put in
a state to communicate electricity to other bodies.  The
be st glass for this purpose is the fine white English crys-
tal.  The most convenient dimensions for these tubes
are about three feet in length,  twelve or  fifteen lines in
diameter, and the glass quite a line in thickness.  It is
of little importance whether the tube is  open or closed at
the extremities; yet it is necessary that  the air within
should be in the same state as that without: for this rea-
son the tube should at least be open at one end; but care
must be taken that dust should  not be admitted into the
inside, for that would  considerably  impede its  effects.
If, notwithstanding these precautions,  the tube receives
either dust or  moisture,  some  dry and fine sand should.
be introduced into the inside, and it should be afterwards
Cleaned out with fine dry cotton.
  When it is intended to electrify a tube, it is only ne-
cessary to take the end in one hand, and to continue to
rub the tube with the other hand, from  one end to the
other,  until it affords  marks  of its  being sufficiently
charged  with the electric fluid.  This friction  may be
performed with the naked hand when it is dry <nd (lean,
otherwise with a piece of soft  brown paper, or waxed
taffeta.  When the tube has been rubbed in this manner,
tlie circumambient air being dry, if light substances are
presented to it, they will be first  attracted towards it,
and immediately  afterwards repelled.
  Tbe electric fluid may be excited in nearly a  similar
Manner, by rubbing a stick of sulphur or sealing-wax.
  These tubes being but small,  the quantity of  electri-
city produced is but feeble in its effects.  We have seen
that a method was contrived to turn a globe of glass up-
on its axis by means of a machine with a winch or mul-
tiplying wheel: this method admitted of a larger surface,
and  the friction was  performed  with  greater  ease,  by
means of a rubber being placed  close to the revolving
globe.  The electrifying machine has however since un-
dergone  various improvements,  and perhaps is capable
of still more.
  In the plate  XLVIII. fig. 1. is a representation of an
electrical  machine with a prime conductor.  ABC  re-
presents the bottom board of the machine, D and E the
two  perpendicular supports which sustain the glass cy-
linder FG.  The axis of the cap K passes through the
support D; on the extremity of this axis a simple winch
L is fixed.  The axis of the other cap runs in  a small
hole, which is made in the top of the supporter E.
  P is the glass pillar to which the cushion is fixed; T a
brass screw at the bottom of this pillar, which is to  re-
gulate the pressure of the cushion against the cylinder.
This adjusting screw is peculiarly advantageous:  by it
the operator is enabled to lessen or increase gradually
the pressure of the cushion, which it effects  in  a much
neater manner than it is possible to do when the insulat-
ing pillar is fixed on a sliding-board*
  Y represents lhe positive prime conductor, or that
which takes the electric  fluid immediately from  the cy-
linder; M the glass pillar by which it  is  supported and
insulated; and X a wooden foot or base for the glass
pillar.
  Fig. 2. is a plate-glass machine, of the most portable
construction,  with  a double  1 ey.len  phial made smmn
to suit the base, which answers aii the purposes of medi-
cal electricity. ABC is a wooden frame to which- the
four rubbers are affixed, and  by means of screws may be
made to  bear  with proper pressure on tlie circular glass
plate DF; this plate has a hole through Ms middle, i0
which an axis is firmly  fixed,  and it is turned bv'the
winch L; GG is a  Leyden phial (with the collectors  „0
fixed on  the top) fixed in a larger one  H. when astro.,*
shock is  wanted, the long pin 1 is let in to touch the ho J
torn, by which means the large jar acts; but when drawn
out, the  small one acts alone but much quicker, f'oni
being inclosed in  the  other.   K is the electrometer.
When this  machine is constructed on a large scale for
experiments,  a prime conductor M,  fig. 4, may |)e a{.
tached to the wooden  frame opposite  the axis of the
plate-glass instead of the jar.  Fig, 3  is a side view of
the machine,  with a clamp N to fix it to the table when
used.
  The advantages of this machine are, that it mav be
made portable, and is of so simple a construction, riiat
any gentleman in the country, after procuring a plate of
a reasonable thickness from a glass-house, may, by the
aid of a  common  cabinet-maker, construct one for his
own use; the conductor niiy  be equally insulated by ro-
sin, wax, silk, or any  other electric or non-conducting
substance.                         .
   When  of  a  large diameter, these plate machines arc
by far the most powerful of any; and this power is great-
ly increased by a second plate parallel to the other, and
turning on the same axis. The most powerful machine
of which we have ever  heard is  one  made in England
for the museum of Teylar, at Harlem.  It consists of two
circular  plates of  five feet  five inches diameter. Th*
plates are about 7\ inches asunder, and each is excited
by four rubbers.  The  prime conductor is divided into
two branches  which  enter between the plates, and by
means of points collect the electrical fluid.  These plate
machines,  however,  with two plates, are turned with
great labour,  and are liable to more accidents when large
than the  common cylinders.
  Previous  to the consideration of these circumstances,
by  which a large quantity of the electric fluid may be
excited,  it may be necessary to premise,  that tbe resist-
ance of the air seems to be lessened where the cushion
is in close contact with the cylinder; and that the  elec-
tric matter, agreeably to the law observed by all other
elastic fluids,  is pressed towards that part where it finds
least resistance; the same instant, therefore, that the cy-
linder is  separated from the cushion, the fire issues forth
in abundance, because  the resistance made to it by the
action of the atmosphere is lessened at that part. The
more perfect  the continuity is made, the greater is the
quantity   of electricity  which will proceed  from the
cushion.
  To excite,  therefore, an electrical machine effectual-
ly, it is  necessary  first to discover  those parts of the
cushion which are  pressed by the  glass cylinder, and
then the  amalgam must be applied to those parts only.
The line  of contact between the cylinder and cushion
must be made as perfect as possible, and the fire which
is collected  must  be prevented from escaping.   The 
ELECTRICITY.
breadth ofthe cushion should not be great, and it should
be placed in such a manner that it may be easily raised
or lowered.
  In order to find the line of contact between the cylin-
der and cushion, place a line of whiting which has been
dissolved in spirit of wine, on the cylinder: on  turning
this round, the whiting is deposited on the cushion, and
marks those parts of it which bear or rub against the
cylinder. The amalgam is to be put on those parts only
which are thus marked by the whiting.
   Whenever the  electricity of the cylinder grows  less
powerful, it is easily renewed by  turning back  the silk
which lies  over it, and then  rubbing the cylinder with
the amalgamated leather, or by altering the pressure of
the adjusting screw.
   A small quantity of  tallow placed over the amalgam
is observed  to give more force to  the electric powers of
the cylinder; or the same end may be effected  by rub-
bing the cylinder with a coarse cloth, which has been a
 littie greased, and afterwards wiping it with  a clean
 cloth.
   As air not only resists the emission  of  the  electric
 fluid, but also dissipates what is collected, on account of
 the conducting substances which arc floating in  it. over
 the cylinder a piece of black or exiled silk  should  be plac-
 ed, from the line of contact to the colleef.ing points of the
 prime conductor, and these points should  be placed with-
 in its atmosphere.
   Sometimes the silk will adhere  so strongly to the cy-
 linder, when zinc amalgam is used, as to render it very
 difficulty to turn;  but this may be obviated by rubbing a
 small quantity of aurum musivum, or a little  whiting,
 over the silk, when it is wiped clean.
   The following  directions of Mr. Adams,  relative to
 exciting the machine,  will be useful to the  experimen-
 talist:
   "To excite your  machine,  clean  the cylinder, and
 wipe the silk.
   " Grease the cylinder by turning it against a greasy
 leather, till it is  uniformly obscured. The tallow  of a
 candle may be used.
   " Turn the cylinder tilt  the silk flap has  wiped  off
 so much of the grease  as to render it semi-transparent.
   " Put some amalgam on apiece of leather, and spread
 it well, so  that it may be uniformly  bright: apply this
 against the turning cylinder,  the friction  will immedi-
 ately increase, and the leather must not be removed un-
 til it ceases to become greater.
   '• Remove the leather,  and the  action  of the machine
 will be very strong.
   "The pressure  of the  cushion cannot be too small,
 when the excitation is properly made."
   There are now in use two kinds of amalgam: one is
 made of quicksilver five parts, zinc one part,  which are
 melted together  with a small  quantity of bees-wax; the
 either is Jhe aurum musivum of the shops,  which is  tin
 and sulphur.  Before either of these will adhere closely
 t<» the silk it is necessary to  grease it, to  wipe off tlie su-
 perl'uous grease, and then spread the amalgam.
   One property  ofthe electric fluid it will be necessary
 to notice before the conclusion of this branch ofthe sub-
 ject, and  that is, that it is  more forcibly attracte ' by
 points than by balls or any  blunt  or rounded surfaces.
This may be demonstrated by a variety of easy experi-
ments, and may be seen by presenting a met.J  l>all at a
given distance to a conductor in the act of being charg-
ed, when it will be found that a metal point presented at
a much greater distance will draw off the whole  of the
electrical matter from the conductor.  In the  one case
also (the point) the electricity  goes off  invisibly, and
without noise;  in the other case there are both a flash
and a report.
  Of the theory of electricity.—In a very early stage of the
science we have seen, that a distinction was observed with
respect to the  attractive  and repulsive powers of cer-
tain electric bodies.  Thus, if w#e electrify with  the same
substance, for instance either with excited glass or with
sealing-wax, two cork balls in an insulated state, that is,
suspended by silk lines about six inches long,  the balls
will separate and repel each esther; but if we  electrify
one of the balls with glass, and the other with sealing-
wax,  they  will be  mutually attracted.   This  circum-
stance gave rise to the opinion,  that two different spe-
cies of electricity existed; and the one was termed  the
vitreous electricity., or that produced from  glass; and
the other, wiiich was produced from sealing-wax,  resin-
ous substances,  and sulphur,  was  termed the  resinous
electricity.
   Subsequent experiments served to show, that   in the
common electrical machine, the  rubber exhibited the a] -
pcarance of the resinous electricity, and the  cylinder
that of the  vitreous, while the fcrmer was connected
with the earth.  A divergent cone or brush of electri-
cal light was observed to be the obvious mark  of the
vitreous electricity; and a single globular mass of light
distinguished the resinous kind.  The band or body also
which approached the vitreous or glassy substance, when
excited, appeared to receive  the matter from  the elec-
tric;  but when one ofthe resinous kind was excited, the
electrical matter appeared to proceed from the hand or
other approaching  body.
   Notwithstanding, however, the names by which these
different forms  of  electricty were distinguished,  as the
vitreous and resinous, it was at length discovered, that
the different phenomena depended rather upon the sur-
face,  than  upon the nature and composition of the elec-
tric; for a glass tube, when the polished surface was de-
stroyed, by being ground with emery, and being rubbed
with a smooth  body, exhibited all the proofs of the re-
s'nous electricity, as much as sulphur or sealing-wax;
yet afterwards, when it was greased and rubbed  with a
rough surface, it resumed its former property.  It seems,
therefore, to be a rule, that the smoothest of two bodies,
upon  friction,  exhibits  the phenomena  of the vitreous
electricity;  for baked  wooden  cylinders with  a smooth
rubber are resinously  electrified, but with a rubber of
coarse  flannel  they exhibit  the  appearances  of  the
vitreous kind;  and even polished glass will produce the
phenomena ofthe resinous electricity, if rubbed with the
smooth hair of a cat's skin.
   Amidst  this embarrassing variety  of experiments,
th <se philosophers who applied to this branch of science,
were eagerly employed in inventing theories to account
for these phenomena,  and electricians are still divided
wit!-  respect totbe cause.
   The theory of Franklin, though not without its de- 
ELECTRICITY.
fccts, p messes simplicity, and accounts for facts in an
easy and natural manner.  It  may be resolved into the
following axioms:
  1st. The electric matter 19  one and the same in all
bodies, and is not of two distinct kinds.
  2d. All  terrestrial bodies contain a'quantity of this
matter.
  3d. The electric matter violently repels itself, but at-
trae-ts all other matter.
  4th. Glass and other substances,  denominated  elec-
trics, contain a  large  portion of this matter,  but are
not to be penetrated by it.
  5th. Conducting substances are permeable by it, and
do not conduct it merely»over their surface.
  6th. A  body may contain a superfluous quantity of
the electrical fluid,  when it is said, according to this
theory, to be in a positive state, or electrified plus} and
when it contains less than its proper share, it is said to
be negative,  or  electrified minus.
  7th. By exciting an electric, the  equilibrium of the
fluid is broken, and  the  one body becomes overloaded
with electricity,  while the other is deprived of its natu-
ral  share.
  Thus, according to the Franklinean theory, that elec-
tricity, which was before called vitreous, is nowr called
positive electricity; and that which  was termed the re-
sinous, is now denominated negative electricity.
  It is evident, that it  is only in passing from one body
to another, that the effects of the electrical fluid are ap-
parent.  .When all the adjacent  bodies, therefore, are
equally charged with electric ity, no effects whatever will
appear.   The equilibrium must, according to the prin-
ciples of Dr. Franklin, be destroyed,  that is, the  fluid
must be  made rarer in some  one part,  before  any of the
phenomena will be exhibited.   In that case,  the dense
fluid  rushing in to supply the deficiency in that part
where it is rarer, produces the flash  of light, the crack-
ling noise, and the other effects of electricity.
  The  different effects on  rough and  sme;oh bodies,
when excited,  have been previously  remarked.   The
Franklinean theory is,  if a rough and smooth body arc
rubbed together, the smooth  body will generally be  elec-
trified plus,  and that with a rough uneven surface,  mi-
nus.  Thus, in the ordinary  operation of the common
machine, the cylinder  is positively  electrified,  or plus,
and the rubber negative, or minus.   The redundance of
the positive  electricity is sent from  the cylinder to the
prime conductor, and may be communicated  from  it to
any conducting body.  If, however, the prime conduc-
tor is made to communicate  with the earth, which has a
great attraction for the electrical matter (and which,
being one great mass of conducting substances, will not
permit the  accumulation of the  fluid  in a  particular
part); and if, at the same time, the rubber is  in an insu-
lated state,  supported, for  instance,  by glass or any
electric; these effects will  be reversed, for   the prime
conductor will  then be  negatively electrified,  and the
rubber will be plus or positive.
   Dr. Fianklin  supposed that the electric fluid is col-
lected from the earth, and this hypothesis  he supported
by the following experiment.
   Let one person  stand  on wax  (or be insulated) and
rub a glass tube,  and  let another person on wax  take
the fire from the first, they will both of them (provided
they do not touch  each other) appear to be electrified to
a person standing on the floor; that is, he will perceive
a spark on approaching either of them with his knuckle
or finger; but if they touch each other during the ex<i-
tation of the tube,  neither of them will appear to be elec-
trified.   If they touch one another alter exciting the
tube, and draw the, fire as before, tliere will  be a stron-
ger spark between them than was between either of them
and the person on the floor. After such a strong spark
neither of them discovers  any electricity.
  He accounts  for these appearances by  supposing the
electric fluid to  be a common  element, of which each of
the three persons has his equal share before any opera-
tion is begun with the tube.
  A, who stands upon wax and rubs the tube, collects
the electrical  fire  from himself into the glass, and bis
communication  with the common stock being cut off by
the wax, his body is not again immediately supplied.
  B, w ho also  stands  upon  wax, passing his knuckle
along the tube, receives  the fire  which was collected
from A, and, being insulated, he retains this additional
quantity.
  To the third person C, who stands upon the  floor,
both appear electrified; for he,  having only  the middle
quantity of electrical tire,  receives a spark on approach-
ing B, who has an over quantity,  but gives one to A,
who has an under quantity.
  If A and B approach to  touch each other, the spark is
stronger, because the difference between them is greater.
After this touch there is no spark between either of them
and  C,  because the electrical fluid  in all is reduced to
the original equality.   If they touch while electrifying,
the equality is never destroyed, the fire is only circula-
ting; hence we say that B is electrified positively, A ne-
gatively.
  Such is the famous Franklinean hypothesis, which, it
must be confessed, is not entirely without its dilliculties,
and, it is much to be feared, that we  have as yet no com-
plete theory of electricity.  The fact most difficult to be
explained on the Franklinean system is, that of two bo-
dies negatively electrified repelling each other; for if the
repulsion in the case of positive electricity is caused en-
tirely, as there  is reason to believe it is, by the electric
matter, how should a deficiency of  that matter produce
the same effect? Attempts have been made to explain
the fact, by having recourse to tbe electricity of the  air,
which (when not charged with moisture) is certainly an
electric, or non-conducting substance, and in  all cases
is an imperfect electric. The cork balls,  or  other light
substances,  which are electrified negatively, are there-
fc re supposed to be acted upon by the positive electricity
of the  air, which produces  an effect adequate  to the
being positively electrified.   This solution, however, is
not quite satisfactory; though it is perhaps unphilos' -
phical to reject  an hypothesis, which explains some facts
greatly to our satisfaction, merely because it has not as
yet explained every thing.
  But leaving theories, especially  in the present very
imperfect state  of this science, let us endeavour to keep
our attention on those facts which are well known* and
generally admitted. The  following statement  seems to
comprise tlie general principles on which this wonderfui 
ELECTRICITY.
fluid is known to act. It is extracted from  M.  Brisson,
a French writer of deserved reputation, and it is such
as a few easy experiments will serve to confirm.
  The electric fluid is probably the same in essence with
that of light and heat,  but combined with a substance
which affects the organs of scent.
  When  bodies  are electrified by  glass, they furnish
tufts or pencils of light; but if electrified by sulphur, or
resinous substances, they only produce points, or sparks
of light; bodies  presented to  those electrified by  glass,
produce only  luminous  points:  while those which are
presented to  bodies  which are electrified  by  sulphur,
produce beautiful pencils, or tufts of light.
  Bodies are  electrified either  by friction or communi-
cation. To electrify bodies by communication,  it is ne-
cessary to insulate them; and the substances the most pro-
per for insulating  others are those which  electrify the
best by friction.
   Glass,  however, though  it  electrifies very  well  by
friction, electrifies also by communication, even without
any preliminary preparation; yet it is very proper for
insulating.
   The electrical  matter  is not produced entirely from
the bodies upon which the electrifying machine  acts; the
adjacent bodies, or substances, combine towards its pro-
duction.
   The energy of the electric virtue is augmented, in con-
ductors, more by an increase of surface, than by an aug-
mentation of the  mass.
   Electrified  bodies adhere one to another, so that, on
some occasions, they cannot be separated Without a con-
siderable effort.
   Electricity accelerates the evaporation of liquors, and
the perspiration- of animals.
   The pencils or tufts of light, which are seen at the ex-
tremities or angles of electrified bodies, are always com-
posed of divergent rays when they pass through the air;
but if a non-electric, or conducting body, is  presented to
them, they lose a great deal of their  divergency; their
rays sometimes become  even convergent, in order that
they may approach towards  that body which is more
permeable than the  air; and if  they are made to  pass
into a vacuum, they  will assume the  form of a large
branch of light nearly cylindrical, or in the form of  a
spindle.
  The spark which shines between two  bodies  is  capa-
ble of setting combustible matters on fire.
  Electrical  instruments, or  apparatus.—The  experi-
ments in electricity  are so various, that the apparatus
may be increased almost agreeably to every man's fan-
cy; and, in general, he  who wishes to make new expe-
riments, will find it necessary to make an addition suit-
ed to the object of his inquiry. It will be, therefore, pro-
per, on the present occasion, and  most consistent with
the design  of  this work, only to specify and  describe
those parts of the apparatus which are most in  use, and
essential  to the  performance of the experiments which
are) already before the public.
  The  instruments commonly employed in this branch
of science, may be classed under six heads:  1st.  The in-
struments used for exciting  electricity, viz. glass tubes,
plates, and cylinders. 2d. Those for conducting the elec-
tric matter, which" are chiefly of metal. 3d. Those in-
 tended for accumulating the fluid, or, in technical lan-
 guage, for receiving a charge, such as coated  bottles or
 jars, commonly called Leyden phials. 4th. Those which
 are intended to produce more formidable effects, such as
 electric batteries. 5th.  The instruments employed for
 ascertaining the quantity of electricity, called electrome-
 ters; and lastly, those employed for retaining the electric
 power. •

   L Ofthe first class of these instruments it was neces-
 sary to treat, in explaining the first principles of electri-
 city; and there is  nothing  that can be  added in  further
 illustration of the nature of electrical machines.
   II. The nature and uses of such conductors as are at-
 tached to the machine, have been also explained; but any
 instrument which serves to convey the electrical influ-
 ence from one body to  another,  may be regarded as a
 conductor. With this view, wires and chains  are employ-
 ed to  form a communication between different bodies;
 and under this head we may also class the common dis-
 charging rod, the principle of which consists in a rod of
 metal, sometimes  with knobs at the ends, which is fur*
 nished with a glass handle, to prevent the shock from pass-
 ing through the body of the operator. In  plate  XL VIII.
 fig. 5. is the jointed discharging rod, which is most com-
 monly used. D  is the glass handle  cemented into the
 brass socket C; and e/are the brass wires, which are
 curved, and may be opened by the joint to  any extent
 that may be required.  The  wires are  pointed, as it is
 sometimes necessary to draw off a charge in that way;
 and the knobs a b  are made to screw, or sometimes only
 to fit on to the ends of  tlie wires. It is frequently used
 without the knobs, particularly in discharging large jars
 and batteries.  See fig. 6.
   Henley's universal  discharger consists of two wires,
 supported by glass feet, with a small table between them
 to support anything that may be the  object of the expe-
 riment. It is found to be a very useful instrument for a
 variety of purposes, and is  composed  of the following
 parts:  A (fig, 7.)  is a flat board,  about fifteen inches
 long, four  broad,  and one thick. BB are, two glass pil-
 lars, cemented in two holes upon the board A, and fur-
 nished at top with brass caps, each of which  has a turn-
 ing joint, and supports a spring tube, through which the
 wires DD slide. Each of the caps  is composed of three
 pieces of brass, connected so that the wires DD, besides
 their sliding?.throiigh the sockets, have  a horizontal and
 vertical motion.  Each of the wires DD  is furnished with
 an open ring at  one end, and at the other it  has a brass
 ball, which, by a short spring socket,  is slipt  upon the
 pointed extremity, and may be removed. E is a circular
 piece of wood, having on its surface a slip of ivory inlaid,
 and furnished with a foot,  which is fastened in  the mid-
 dle ofthe bottom A.
   Tliere is another part of an electrical apparatus, ori-
 ginally of German invention, wiiich, before we  conclude
 this branch of the subject, it may not be improper to
 notice, as it is chiefly illustrative of the electrical attrac-
 tion. This apparatus consists of three small bells, (fig.
 8.) suspended from a narrow plate of metal; the two out-
 ermost by chains, and that  in the middle (from  which a
 chain  RS passes  to the floor)'by a silken sting.  Two
small knobs of brass are also hung, by silken  strings, on 
ELECTRICITY.
each side of the bell in the middle, which serve  for clap-
pers.
   If an apparatus of this kind is joined to  one of those
conducting rods, erected to protect buildings  from the
effects of lightning, it will serve to give notice of the ap-
proach and passage of an electrical  cloud.
   III. In the infancy  of every science, the Inventions are
simple. The first telescope was formed of two spectacle-
glasses fixed upon a board; the first electrical bottle was
a common apothecaries' phial, with an iron nail in the in-
side, which was  afterwards changed for a wire. The ar-
tist who framed the one, did not expect that his discove-
ry would enable future philosophers  to explore and mea-
sure the face of a planet, or to count the host of heaven;
nor did the inventor  ofthe other, probably, suppose that
his little phial, in the hands  of future operators, would
enable human power to vie with the most formidable of
nature's efforts,  to melt the hardest metals, and even to
deprive plants and animals of life.
   It would be an error, however, to suppose that on the
form ofthe glass depends the success ofthe experiment.
If any piece of glass, of whatever  form, cylindrical or
otherwise, is coated with a conducting substance, it may
be made to accumulate the electrical matter. In  this case,
one side ofthe glass, if it does not exceed a given thick-
ness, will be positively  electrified,  and  the other nega-
tively.
   As, however, flat plates are neither necessary nor con-
 venient for this purpose, jars, or bottles with wide necks,
 arc usually employed. These are made of various shapes
 and magnitudes, but the most useful are thin cylindrical
 glass vessels, about four inches in diameter, and fourteen
 in height, coated within and without (except about two
 or three inches from the top) with tin-foil, or any other
 conducting substance.
    If one  side of this jar is  electrified, while  the other
 side  communicates  with the  earth, it is said to be
 charged.
    When  a  communication  is formed from one side of
 the jar to the other  by a conducting  substance, after it
 has been  charged, an explosion will take place, and this
 is called discharging the jar. The jar, however, is inca-
 pable of being charged when itis insulated; that is, when
 neither side  communicates with  the earth.  When it is
 charged, the two sides are in contrary states; the one be-
 ing positively, the other negatively electrified.
    Ajar is said to be positively electrified, when the  in-
 side receives the fluid from  the conductor, and the out-
 side is connected with the earth. It is negatively electrifi-
 ed when the  outside receives the fluid from the conduc-
 tor, and the  inside communicates with the earth; but it
 is necessary that the jar charging  negatively should be
 insulated, because the fluid is, in the first instance, con-
  veyed to  the coating, and would be immediately carried
  to the earth if it was not prevented by the interposition of
  an electric s ibstance.
    The most usual forms ofthe Leyden phial, or electri-
  cal jar, are represented in figs. 6, 9, and 10, and its na-
  ture may be exemplified by the following easy experi-
  ments.
    Place the jar (fig. 6) on a table, or any other non-elec-
  tric body which communicates with the  earth, and let the
  hall on the top  be about one-eighth of an inch from the
ball  of  the conductor y.  If fhe* machine is  turned,
sparks may be  perceived  passing  from the ball of the
conductor to the ball ofthe jar.  When this effect ceases
and no more sparks are perceived to pass from  the con-
ductor, the jar may be considered as  charged, the inside
positively, and the  outside negatively.  To discharge the
jar, all that is necessary is to form  a  communication be
tween the outer and the inner coating ofthe jar or phial,
that the  surplus electricity  may be  conveyed from the
one to the other. To avoid tbe painful sensation which
is the conseejuence  of tbe shock, this'is usually perform-
ed with the discharging rod, see figs. 5 and 6. The  ope-
rator then holds the rod by the glass handle  D, and all
that is necessary is to place one knob close to the outer
coating,  and then bring the other  knob near the ball of
the jar, when it  will be  discharged  with an  explosion
proportioned to the quantity of electricity it has received.
If, when the jar is  charged, a person touches the outside
with one hand, and  brings the other near  the  knob of
the jar, he will then receive the shock. A chain  is some.
times concealed under the carpet,  connected with the
outside coating, and another is connected with  the top of
the jar;  if then a person standing on  the one, is  induced
to put his hand incautiously on the other chain, he  well
receive a shock, to his great surprise and the  entertain-
ment of the company: but care should be taken  that the
shock should not,  in this  case, be too strong.  Mr. Can-
ton  used to amuse himself in this way, by electrifying
the latch of his door, which  was insulated, and giving a
shock to the venders of old cloths, whom he allured  by a
well known signal, to the  magic ground. An optician in
London, some years  ago,  being teazed by an impertinent
neighbour, who amused  himself with  knocking at his
 door, contrived to  insulate the knocker, which was  con-
nected, by a wire, with a charged jar, and, on  the unfor-
tunate adventurer  attempting to repeat his accustomed
intrusion, he received  a  charge, which, it is reported,
felled him to  the ground.
   To illustrate further the nature of the Leyden phial,
place the same jar, fig. 6, on an insulated stand; bring the
coating  in contact  with the conductor; turn the machine,
and, after a  few turns, remove the phial frorti the  con-
 ductor; then  form  a communication  between the outside
and the inside ofthe phial, by means ofthe discharging
rod; in  this case,  there will be no  explosion, because,
both sides being insulated, the bottle was not charged;
but if a chain is suspended from  the brass ball of the
phial to  the  table, and the coating bronght in contact
with the conductor,  after a few turns of the  machine,
 remove the phial as before; then if the discharger is ap-
 plied, an explosion will be heard,  and tbe bottle will be
 discharged; because, in this  case, the insulation of tlie
 inside is destroyed by the chain, and the phial  becomes
 capable of receiving a charge.
   That tbe charge of a coated jar resides in the glass,
 and not in  the coating, is proved in the following  man-
 ner: Set a  plate  of  glass between two metallic plates,
 about two inches in diameter, smaller than the plate of
 glass; charge the glass, and then remove the upper me-
 tallic plate by  an  insulated  handle; take up  the  glass
 plate, and place it  between two other plates of metal un-
 electrified and insulated, and the plate of glass thus coat-
 ed afresh will still be  charged. The following experi1 
ELECTRICITY.
mentsare further illustrative ofthe nature ofthe Leyden
phial.
  A cork ball, or an artificial spider made of burntcork,
with legs of linen thread, suspended  by silk, will play
between the knobs of two bottles, one of which is charg-
ed positively, the other negatively, and will, in a little
time, discharge them.  See fig.  10.
  A ball suspended on silk,  and placed between two
brass balls, one proceeding from the outside, the other
from the inside ofa Leyden jar, when the bottle is charg-
ed, will  fly  from one knob to the other, and by thus con-
veying the  fluid from the inside to the outside of the bot-
Ue will soon discharge it.
  An insulated cork ball, after having received a spark,
will not play between, but be equally repelled by two
bottles, which are charged with the same power.
  A wire is  sometimes fixed to the under part of the insu-
lated coated phial (fig.  13) plate XLIX.; and 6 c is anoth-
er wire fitted to the former, and at right  angles with it; a
brass fly (fig. 14) is placed on the point of this wire; charge
tho bottle, and all the time the bottle  is charging the fly
will turn round; when it is charged the motion will cease.
If the top ofthe bottle is touched with the finger, or any
other conducting substance, the  fly will turn again till
the bottle is discharged. The fly will electrify a pair of
balls positively while the bottle is charging, and  nega-
tively when it is discharging.
  When a Leyden phial, positively charged, is insulated,
it will give a spark from its knob to  an  excited stick of
wax, but not a spark will  pass at  that time between it
and an excited glass tube.
  An additional quantity ofthe fluid  may be thrown on
one side  of the jar, if, by any contrivance, an equal quan-
tity be made to escape  from the other, and not other-
wise.
  IV. Electricians, in order to increase the  force of the
electric explosion, connect several jars, or Leyden phials,
together in  a box; and this is called an electrical battery.
  Fig. 12 is a battery composed of twelve jars, coated
in the inside and outside with tinfoil, w hich altogether
: ontain about twelve feet of coated glass. About the mid-
dle of  each of the jars is a cork that  sustains a wire,
wbich, at the top, is fastened round,  or soldered to the
wire, knobbed at each end; which connects the inside
coatings of three jars; and by four wires, such as C, D,
E.  F, the inside coatings of all the twelve jars may be
connected together.
  The square  box that contains these jars is of wood,
lined at the bottom with  tin-foil, and has two handles
on two opposite sides,  by which it may be easily remov-
ed. In one side of the box is a hole, through this an iron
hook passes, which communicates with the metallic lin-
ing of the box, and consequently with the outside coat-
ing of all the jars. To this hook is fastened  a wire, the
other end of which  is  connected  with  the discharging
rod.
  The battery represented in the plate,  is a small one,
in comparison to those now frequently used, and  much
too weak for the purpose of some experiments. But it
is sufficient  to give an idea ofits construction; and when
a large battery is to be constructed, it is b tt r to make
twn, three,  or more small ones, as represented in tne
plate, than a single large battery, which is heavy, anu#
 on several accounts, inconvenient. The f iree of several
 small batteries may be easily united by a wire or chain;
 and thus they may be ma !e to act in cvc.rv respect like
 a large one.  The  best consti'uction of a battery is to
 have a wire from every jar, connected with a ball at the
 top, in form of a wire-cage.
   The force of accumulated electricity, great as it ap-
 pears by the experiments performed with a single coated
 jar,  is very small when compared with that which
 produced by a number of jars connected together; and if
 the effects ofa single jar are surprizing, the prodigious
 force of a large battery is  certainly astonishing.  Expe-
 ments  of this kind should be conducted with great cau-
 tion; and the operator ought to be attentive not only to
 the business in hand, but also  to the persons who  may
 happen to be near  him,  prohibiting  their touching, or
 even coming too near any part of the  apparatus: for if a
 mistake in performing other experiments may be disa-
 greeable, those in the discharge of a  large battery may
 be attended with dangerous consequences.
   When  a battery is to be charged,  instead of  a large
 prime conductor, a small one is much more convenient:
 for, in this case, the dissipation of the electricity is not
 so considerable.   The quadrant electrometer, hereafter
 to be described, which shows the height of the charge in
 the battery, may be fixed either upon  the prime conduc-
 tor, or upon the battery; in which case, it should be fix-
 ed upon a rod proceeding from the wires of thenars; and
 if the  battery is very large, it should be elevated two or
 three feet above them.
   The index to  the electrometer, in charging a large
 battery, will seldom rise so high as 90, because the ma-
 chine cannot charge a battery so high  in proportion as a
 single jar. Its limits are often about 60° or 70°, more or
 less,  in proportion  to the size  of tbe battery and  the
 force of the machine.
   Every broken jar in a battery must be taken away, be-
 fore it is possible  to charge the rest.
   It has been  recommended, not to discharge a battery
 through a good conductor, if the circuit is not at least
 five feet long; but it must be observed, that in proportion
 to the lengthening of the  circuit the force of the  shock
 will be lessened.
   Jars made of the green glass manufactured at  New-
 castle, are said to endure an explosion without a proba-
 bility of breaking.
   If the spark from the explosion is  concentrated,  by
 causing it to pass through small circuits of non-conduct-
 ing substances, the force of the battery will  be conside-
 rably increased.   For  this  purpose,  cause the sparks
 to pass through a hole in a plate  of glass, one-twelfth
 or one-sixth of an inch in  diameter, by which means it
 will be more compact and powerful. By wetting the part
 round the hole, the spark, by converting this into vapour,
 may be conveyed to a greater distance, with an increase
 of rapidity, attended with a louder noise than common.
 Mr. Morgan, by  attending to these and some other cir-
cumstances, has melted wires, kc. by the means of small
bottles.
  If the charge of a strong battery  is passed through
two or three inches of  small wire, the latter will some-
tiuvs appear red-hot, first at the p ,sitivv side; and the
redness will proceed  towards the otuer end. 
ELECTRICITY.
  If a battery is discharged through a small steel needle,
it will, if the charge is strong, communicate magnetism
to the needle.
  If the discharge of a battery passes through a small
magnetic needle, it will  destroy the polarity of the nee-
dle, and sometimes invert the poles; but it is often neces-
sary to repeat this several times.
   Dr. Priestly could melt nine inches of small iron wire
at the distance of fifteen  feet, but at the distance of twen-
ty feet he could  only  make six inches of it red-hot, so
that we may infer  from this, that notwithstanding their
condue ting power, still metals  resist in some degree the
passage of the electric fluid, and therefore in estimating
the conducting  powers of different substances,  their
length must not be forgotten.
   If a slender wire is  inclosed in a glass tube, and a bat-
 tery discharged  through this wire, it will be thrown into
 globules of different sizes,  which may be collected from
 the inner surface  of  the tube; they are often  hollow,
 and little more than the scoria or dross of the metal.
   Dr. Watson  and some other gentlemen made several
 curious experiments  to ascertain  the distance to which
 the electric shock might be conveyed, and the  velocity
 of its motion, which may be  briefly mentioned. In the
 first experiment, the shock was given, and spirits inflam-
 ed  by the electric matter  which  had  been conveyed
 through the river Thames. In another experiment, the
 electric fluid wTas  made to pass through a circuit of two
 miles, crossing the New River twice, going over several
 gravel-pits  and a large field, and  afterwards conveyed
 through a circuit of four miles.  This motion was so in-
 stantaneously performed by  the electric fluid, that an
 observer, in the  middle of a circuit of two  miles, felt
 himself shocked at the same instant that he saw the phial
  discharged.
    V. The instruments  for ascertaining the presence and
  the quantity of electricity in different bodies, are various.
  The  simplest of all is  a pair of  little balls  of  cork, or
  rather of the pith of the elder, which is still lighter, and
  suspended by silk threads. When brought into contact
  with an electrified body, the balls will immediately  di-
  verge, and accordingto the degree of divergence, a judg-
  ment is formed of the degree in which the body in ques-
  tion is electrified. A  similar effect will be produced by a
  light and downy  feather.  The pith-balls have received
  the name of Canton's electrometer, from the ingenious
  electrician who first employed them for this purpose, and
  •they are found  useful in many experiments.
    For a more accurate admeasurement, that is, for as-
  certaining precisely the degree  in which any body is
  electrified, an instrument somewhat less simple is requir-
  ed, and Henley's quadrant electrometer is in most gene-
  ral use. It consists (fig. 15.) of a perpendicular stem
  formed at top like a ball, and furnished at its lower end
  with a brass ferule and pin, by which it may be fixed in
  a hole made in the conductor, as at fig. 1. or at the top
   of a Leyden bottle.  To  the upper part of  the stem, a
   graduated ivory semicircle is fixed, about the middle of
   which is a brass aim or cock, to support the axis ofthe
   index.  The index is  a  very slender stick, which reaches
   from the centre of the  graduated  arch to the brass ferule;
   and to its  lower extremity is fastened a small pith-ball
   nicsly turned in  a lathe. When this electrometer is in a
perpendicular position,  and not electrified, the index
hangs parallel to the pillar; but when it is electrified, tbe
index recedes more or less, according to the quantity of
electricity.
  Lane's discharging electrometer, as  it is commonly
called, is employed chiefly by the practitioners of medical
electricity.
  It is represented by F D E, in fig. 16, and is fixed to
the wire that proceeds from the inside of the jar Z.  The
ball B touches the prime conductor A, which is supposed
to stand before  an electrical machine, fig. l.  The elec-
trometer consists  in a glass rod F D,  furnished with
brass caps F, D: from the latter proceeds a strong brass
wire, to which is  attached an horizontal spring-socket:
through this, the wire C  E, having  the ball  C at one
end, and the open ring E at the other, may  be slided
backwards  and forwards, so  as  to  place the ball C
at  any  required  distance from the  ball B.  Suppose
the distance between B  and  C to be jth of  an  inch
or  less, and that by means of a chain X, a communica-
tion be formed from E to the outside coating of the jar.
When the jar is charged so high that the fluid  can  leap
from B to C, the discharge will  take place,  and  the
stroke pass through X from the inside to the outside of
the jar.  When the shocks are to be given through  any
part of the body, as the  arm, then, instead of the chain
X, wires E L and I L are to be fastened, one to the  ring
 E, and the other  to a hook at I ofthe stand H I which
 communicates with the outside of the jar.  The other ex-
 tremities of the  wire must  be  fastened to the  directors
 K, L, which consists of brass wires and balls as  L fasten-
 ed into glass handles K,  see also fig. 11.  The mode of
 operation is easily understood from a view of the figure
 (16), for when the chain X is away, the electric  thud
 must, in passing from the inside of the jars to the out-
 side, go through the wire E L; the brass ofthe director;
 the part of  the arm between the balls of the directors;
 and through the  wire L I.  By moving C nearer to, or
 farther from B, the strength of the shocks will be regu-
 lated to any degree.
    The  instrument represented in fig. 17, has  been  used
 successfully in the cure ofthe tooth-ache.  A is a strong
 piece of box-wood in which the  wires abc and ef are
 fixed and then bent, the tooth and gum are placed be-
 tween c and/, and  the  circuit between the outside and
 inside of the jar  is to be made by means of the chains g
 and h, which may be fastened in the same  manner as the
 wires E L and I L in fig. 16, and by  bringing C  very
 near to B so as not absolutely to touch, the shocks which
 pass through the tooth and gum will be very slight.
    Several instruments have also been  invented for as-
 certaining the state of  the atmosphere with  respect to
 the quantity of electricity it may contain, at  any given
 time. The best of them are improvements upon Canton's
 electrometer, which is made by inclosing the pith-balls, or
 rather two slips of gold  leaf, in a cylindrical glass vessel,
 to prevent their being affected by the wind.
    Bennet's electrometer,  fig. 18. is a very delicate instru-
 ment, and capable of distinguishing small quantities of
 electricity. It consists of two  slips of leaf gold A, sus-
 pended in a glass B. The foot C  may be of wood or me-
 tal; the cup D of metal.  The cup is made flat on the top,
 that plates, books, evaporating water, or other things 
ELECTRICITY.
to be electrified, may be conveniently placed upon it.
The cup is  about an inch  wider in diameter than the
glass, and its rim about three quarters of an inch broad;
which hangs parallel to the glass, to turn off the rain,
and keep it sufficiently insulated. Within this is another
circular rim, about half as broad  as the other, which
is lined with silk or velvet, and fits close upon the outside •
of the glass; thus the cap fits well, and may be easily
taken off to repair any accident happening to the leaf
gold.  Within this  rim is a tin  tube, hanging from the
centre of the cap,somewhat longer than the depth of the
inner rim.  In the tube a small peg is placed,  and may
be occasionally taken out.  To the peg, which is made
round at one end and flat at the other, the slips  of leaf
gold are fastened with paste, gum-water,  or varnish.
These slips suspended by the peg, and that in the tube
fast to the centre of the cap,  hang in the middle of the
glass, about three inches  long, and a quarter of an inch
broad.   On one side of the  cap there is a small  bole to
place wires in.   It  is evident,  that without  the glass,
the leaf gold would be so  agitated by the least motion of
the air,  that it would  be useless: and if the electricity
should  be communicated  to  the surface of  the glass, it
would interfere with the repulsion of the leaf gold, there-
fore two long pieces, HH, of tin-foil are fastened with
 varnish on  opposite sides of the  internal surface of the
glass, where the leaf gold may be expected  to  strike,
and in connection with the foot.  The upper end of the
 glass is covered  and lined with sealing-wax as  low as
 the outermost rim, to make its insulation more perfect.
   The  sensibility of this  instrument is so great as  even
 to astonish the most experienced electricians  who  have
 been witnesses of its effects.   The brush of a feather,
 the throwing of chalk,  hair-powder, or dust, against
 its cap, evince  strong signs  of electricity.  The elec-
 tricity of vapour is  elegantly shown by  pouring a tea-
 spoonful of water on an ignited coal placed in a metal-
 lic cup  upon the cap of this  electrometer; and  a very
 great and pleasing variety of  other experiments may be
 made with  this excellent  instrument.
   •• In performing several atmospherico-electrical expe-
 riments about the  year 1776, I found," says Mr.  Ca-
 vallo, " that the use of Canton's cork-ball electrometer
 was much obstructed  by the wind, in  consequence of
 which  I attempted  to inclose  it in  a bottle, and after a
 variety of trials  and alterations the instrument  was in
 the year 1777 brought to the state which is represented
 in fig. 19.  The three parts of  the  figure represent the
 instrument in its case, the  same out of the case, and a
 section of its brass  cap and neck.
   " CDMN is  an  open glass vessel narrower at top
 than at bottom, and  cemented  into the wooden piece
 A B, by which part the instrument is held  when it is to
 be presented to the atmosphere, or it may be rested upon
 a table for other experiments.  This wooden piece also
serves to screw the instrument  into its  wooden case O.
The upper part of CDMN is tapering like the neck of
a phial; and a short glass tube is cemented into it, so as
to project a little above and  a little within the neck of
the former: then the upper part of  the instrument from
C D to  L, is covered with  sealing-wax,  by means of
heat, whieh gives it the appearance of one continuate bo-
dy.  The inner part  G of the small glass tube is also
   »ol.  i.                  113
covered with sealing-wax.  Into this tube a brass wir*e
is  cemented, the lower  part  H  of which  is flattened,
and is perforated with two holes;  the  upper part L is
formed into a screw, upon which the brass cap  E F is
screwed.  The office of this cap is  to defend the upper
part of the instrument from the rain.   The conical, or
oval, or globular, corks P of  this electrometer,  are as
small  as can be made, and are  suspended by  exceedingly
fine silver wires, the upper parts of which are formed
in  rings, which pass through the holes at  II, and  are
thereby so loosely suspended, that they are  caused to
diverge when  the brass  cap  E  is exposed to a very
slightly electrified atmosphere.   I M and K N are two
narrow slips of tin-foil stuck  to the inside ofthe glass.
and communicating with the wooden bottom AB; they
serve to carry off that electricity, which, when the corks
touch the glass, is communicated to it, and if accumu-
lated would disturb the free motion of the corks."
  VI. It is remarkable, that in certain cases bodies elec-
trified will  retain their  electric  power for  almost any
length of time, and on this principle a very  ingenious
instrument  has been  constructed,  called  an electro-
pherus.
  This  simple species of electrical machine consists of
two plates (fig. 20.)  A and B, made of  a circular form,
from  eight to eighteen inches  in diameter, or upwards.
The upper plate is generally  made of  brass; but a tin
plate, with  a wire turned in upon its edge,  will answer
exceedingly well.  At the centre of  this plate there is a
socket O, in which a glass handle I, nine or ten inches
long,  is fixed.  A thin board,  covered with  tin-foil, and
suspended by silken  strings, will answer well, when the
electrophorus  is wanted  of a  large diameter.
   The under plate may be made of glass, sealing-wax,
or the following composition, viz: four parts rosin, three
parts  pitch, three parts shell-lac, two parts Venice tur-
pentine, melted together over a gentle  fire.   It may be
poured and  spread upon a thin linen clofofcto about one-
fourth of an inch thick. The linen cloti^mSanje stretch-
ed upon a hoop, and made as  tight  as f^fce.  If the
surface is a little rough, it will be no worseV
   The manner of using this machine is as follows:  Rub
the coated side of the  under plate A with fine new flan-
nel, or a hare's or cat's skin; and  when it is excited as
much as possible, set it on a table,  and place the upper
plate  upon it,  and put your finger on  the upper plate;
then remove your finger, and take hold of the top of the
glass handle I, and apply it to the knob of a coated jar.
Repeat this operation for 30 or 40 times, and the jar will
become charged.
   Cavallo mentions  one  of the above kind made by him,
with which he charged a coated phial several tiniesr by
once  exciting,  so strong as to pierce a bole  through  a
card at every discharge.
   When a glass is covered with sealing-wax, after it is
excited and laid with the waxed side downward,  and the
glass uppermost, then on  making the usual experiment
of putting tlie metal plate on it,' and taking the spark,
Ace. it will be attended with contrary electricity to what
it had before.
   To explain these  phenomena it will be  again necessa-
ry to recur to  what has been said  concerning negative
and positive electricity; it will be  necessary also to re- 
ELECTRICITY.
 collect,  that the  negative electricity  was originally
 termed the resinous, because it was first thought to be
 peculiar  to those substances.   In the  electrophorus,
 therefore, the lower part or resinous mass,  being nega-
 tively electrified, the  matter is taken from the metal plate,
 and this becoming also negatively electrified, the fluid is
 attracted from any body which is presented to it.
   Electrical phenomena.—The various  phenomena  of
 electricity may, for the sake of perspicuity, be divided
 into four classes;  in  the first of which may be included
 all those experiments which serve  to illustrate the elec-
 trical attraction and repulsion;  in the second, those pro-
 duced by the  stream of electricity; in the third class
 may be ranged all those phenomena which are accom-
 panied with the luminous  appearances;  and lastly,  we
 may enumerate  those more formidable  effects arising
 from  the  concentrated  electricity, in  the experiments
 with the Leyden phial  and the  electrical battery.  '
   1. That light bodies are  attracted and repelled by the
 electrical  influence, is evident  from many common ex-
 periments.  If a feather of a downy kind is affixed by
 linen threads to a  small wire, and the wire is inserted
 into  the  prime conductor, upon  turning tbe  cylinder,
 the plumage will be found to  expand every  way, and
 the threads will also recede as far  as possible from each
 ether.  If  a finger approaches  the feather, the plumage
 will bend towards it, and if the finger is moved, the fea-
 ther will seem to follow it.  If a spark is taken from
 the conductor, the plumage immediately collapses: and,
 if the cylinder i^a^jhii excited, the threads will diverge,
 and the plumage expand as before.
   There is another very entertaining experiment illus-
 trative of the electric attraction.   If a small plate of
 metal is suspended from the prime conductor, and ano-
 ther plate is placed at a small distance under it; if then
 on the lower plate a piece of leaf gold is laid,  when the
 cylinder is turned tlie gold  will  be lifted up, and expand
 itself with on&tfjJBj$ev  opposite the upper  and  the other
 opposite the im^lffPplate.   If the room is darkened, the
 leaf gold willra|ip¥pyr;*i^be supported by pillars of fire.
   If instead of theVlfaf gold  small figures or images
 {which may be easily %ade of thick paper or thin paste-
 board, see fig. 21.) are placed on the under plate, after
 turning the cylinder the images will successively rise up
 in an erect position, and will seem  to dance between the
 two plates, sometimes leaping upon each other, and ex-
 hibiting themselves in a variety  of entertaining posi-
 tions.  If the head of the image is held before the fire
 and dried, the image will ascend to the upper plate and
 remain there;  and if the experiment is  reversed, and
 the feet  of the image are  dried,  and the head  a little
 moistened at the  same time, the image will continue to
-stand immoveable on  the lower  plate.   The experiment
 will not succeed, if instead of metal, the images are pla-
 ced upon glass, because glass is an electric,  and does
 not transmit the electrical matter, and consequently the
 images will not move backwards and forwards; but if
 the finger or any conducting body is held under the glass
 plate,  they will then move as before.
  There is another very pretty experiment illustrative
 of the same principle, the apparatus of which is to be
 found  in the shops of most of  the instrument-makers,
and Wbich has been already described.  It consists of
 three small bells,  with clappers between them, (See fig.
 8.)  If the machine  is turned the. clappers fly from oiic
 bell to the  other, and ring a kind of peal by  the effect
 of electricity.  To explain this, it is only  necessary to
 notice that the two outer bells are suspended by metal
 chains, and the middle  bell  and clappers  by  silk, but
 from  the middle bell a chain is suspended, which  goes
 to the table.  The fluid is then conveyed from the con-
 ductor down the chains to the two exterior bells, and
 the clappers which are light  are attracted by them.  The'
 clappers then become charged  and arc repelled  by the
 outer bells, but attracted by that in the middle, to which
 they give the electricity they had received, and it is con-
 veyed to the earth by the chain wiiich communicates with
 the table.  Being thus disburdened, they are again at-
 tracted and strike the outer  bells as before, and  this is
 continued as long as the machine is in action.
   The electrical porcupine,  as it  has been called,  is
 formed nearly in the shape of the animal,  the name  of
 which it bears. Itis covered  with ermine, or some other
 fur, in wiiich  are inserted some pieces of cotton  pulled
 out to a considerable length,  to resemble the porcupine's
 quills.  On turning  the machine the hairs of the  fur or
 ermine diverge, and  the pieces of cotton arc discharged,
 and by a powerful conductor  are driven to some feet dis-
 tance. This effect, it is  obvious, depends upon the prin-
 ciple  which has been just explained, and is illustrative
 of the electric repulsion.
   A very common mode of demonstrating the  same ef-
 fect, is to put a pointed  wire  into one ofthe holes ofthe
 conductor, and while the machine is in action, to  hold a
 glass  tumbler over the point till its interior surface be-
 comes charged.  If then a few pith-balls are laid  on the
 table, and covered with the tumbler, the balls will pre-
 sently move about as if  by magical power.  See fig. 22.
   Electrified bodies  in certain circumstances adhere so
 closely together,  that the fact  has  given occasion to a
 new term in philosophy, and  it has  been called the dec-
 trieal cohesion. This was pleasantly illustrated by some
 experiments on silk stockings, communicated to the
 Royal Society by Mr. Robert Symner a  few years ago.
 Two silk stockings, the one black and the other white,
 had been for some time upon  one leg, and were then rub-
 bed with  the hand, and  both  pulled off together;  it  aj>
 pears that in this case the two stockings will adhere to-
 gether in such a manner as  to require a considerable
 force to separate them.   M. Brisson, who repeated the
 experiment, observes, that after he had separated the
 white  from the  black stocking another phenomenon oc-
 curred; for while he held them one in each hand, sus-
 pended in the air, they swelled and puffed up as wide as
 if the leg had remained in them! When they were brought
 within ten or twelve  inches of each other,  they rushed
 upon one another, and adhered forcibly together,' but this
 adhesion was not so great as that which took place while
 the stockings were one within the other.   Mr. Symner
 supposed, that the success of  this experiment depended
 upon the  contrast between the black and white colour;
 but M. Brisson  proves  this  hypothesis to be without
 foundation, having made  the experiment by substituting
 for the black stocking another of a different colour, and
 even a wliite one; but he confesses, that when the expe-
riment was made with two white silk stockings the effects 
ELKCTRIC1TT.
were weak irt comparison.  The same effects have been
produced, when the stockings were one  of black silk,
and tbe other of light-coloured Angola wool.
  Electrical attraction appears, however,  not to be  so
strong in vacuo as in the open air.  From  several ex-
periments of Beccaria's we learn, that if the air is tho-
roughly exhausted out of a glass receiver, the attraction
and repulsion of electrified light bodies  within the re-
ceiver become languid, and soon cease altogether.
  2. That the stream  of electricity is capable of produ-
cing motion in almost a similar manner to a stream of
common air, will be manifest from several pleasing expe-
riments.  If a brass cross or fly, such as that in fig. 14.
is placed on the conductor, when the machine is turned it
will go rapidly round.  If itis taken off, and held under the
conductor, it will move in the same manner.  If the cross,
or fly,  as it is called,  is insulated, it will not move, be-
cause no electricity can be drawn through it either way.
If a pin or any  other conductor approaches it, it will
however move as usual.
   By means of the stream of electricity issuing from a
point, many other amusing experiments have been con-
trived; such is the electrical orrery, showing the motion
of the sun, earth, and moon.
   The sun and  earth go  round the common centre  of
gravity between them in a solar year? and the earth and
moon go round the common centre of gravity between
them in a lunar month. These motions are represented
by an electrical experiment as follows:
   The ball S (fig. 23.) represents the sun, E the eart!,
 and M the moon, connected by wires a c and b d: b is
the centre of gravity between the earth and moon. These
three balls and their connecting wires are hung and sup-
ported on the sharp point of  a wire A,  which is stuck
upright in the prime conductor B of the electrical ma-
 chine;  the earth'and moon hanging upon the sharp point
of the wire c ae, in which wire is a pointed short pin,
sticking out horizontally at c;  and there  is just such
another pin atd, sticking out in the same  manner, in the
Wire that connects the  earth and the moon.
   When the cylinder of the electrical machine is turned,
these balls and wires are electrified; and the electrical
fire, flying off horizontally from the points  c and d, causes
 S and E to move round their common centre of gravity
a, and E and  M to move  round their common centre  of
gravity b. And as E and M are light when compared with
S and E, there is much less friction on the point b, than
S and E make about tbe point a. The weights of the balls
may be adjusted so, that E and M may go  twelve times
round b, in the  time  that S  and  E go once round  a.
This affords an amusing experiment  in electricity;  but
it is so far from proving that the motions  of the planets
in the heavens are owing  to a like cause,  that it plainly
proves they are not; for the real sun and planets are not
connected by wires or bars of metal,  and consequently
tliere can be no such metallic points as c and d between
them. And without such points, the electric fluid would
never cause them  to move; for, take away  these points
in the above-mentioned experiment,  and the balls will
Continue at rest, let  them  be ever so strongly electri-
fied.
  Fig.  24  represents  a water-mill for grinding corn,
tirtned by a stream of electricity.  A is the water-wheel,
B the cog-wheel on its axis,  C the trnudle  turned  by
that wheel, and D the running mill-stone on the top of
the axis of the trundle.   It may easily he contrived and
turned also by electricity, if instead of the round plate
D for the mill-stone, there is a horizontal wheel on fie
trundle C, with spur-cogs, which will turn two trundles
placed on its  opposite sides, and on the top  of each of
these  trundles' axis, may be a round plate representing
a  mill-stone; so that this  model has  all the  working
parts  of a double water-mill,  timing two mill-stont s.
   Set the mill near the prime conductor,  and place the
crooked  wire so that its point may  be directed towards
the uppermost side of the great wheel A.  Then t.irn tiie
glass  globe by the winch, and the stream of fire that is■• * .
sues from the point of the wire will turn the wheel, and ' *
consequently  all the other working parts of the mill.
   Small boats or swans are sometimes  made of light
wood  or cork,  and  they may be attracted and made to
swim  in any  direction, by  applying a finger towards
them; or they may have the addition of sails,  and will
then  be  made  to sail briskly before an electrical gale
from a wire hekl in the hand of the operator.
   3. Every person knows  that with his knuckle or fin-
ger, he can draw sparks from a conductor; the further
he removes his knuckle from the conductor, the longer
will be.the spark, and it will even resemble lightning in
the curves it  forms, and its  zig-zag appearance.
  There is even a mode of  imitating the course of light-
ning by  some conducting substance, such as pieces of
tin-foil stuck  at different distances  on a plate of glass,
and sending a strong  spark through them from a  pow*
erful conductor.  In fig. 25 is a glass tube with pieces
of tin-foil pasted on at different distances in a spiral di-
rection, and hence called the spiral tube.  It  is inclosed
in a larger tube, fitted with  brass caps  at  each ,'cnd,
wiiich connect with the tin-foil. When the electric spark
is made to pass through this tube, a beautifully illumi-
nated  spot will be seen at each separation  of the tin-foil;
and from the  course in which the electric light is attract-
ed, will serve to give some  idea, on a very  diminutive
scale, of the  manner in which the lightning is attracted
from one cloud to another.   A similar effect will be pro-
duced by the  jar, fig. 26.
  A very pleasing effect is also produced from the elec-
trical  light, which has been called the diadem of beati-
fication.   The person who wishes to exhibit this experi-
ment, binds his head with  a band  of  silvered leather;
and while he  stands upon an insulated stool is connected
with the conductorby a metal chain.  If then, while the
machine is turned, another person passes his knuckle or
finger near the hand of leather, it will appear beautifully
illuminated, and vivid  flashes of light will play about
the person's head who wears the magic diadem.
   It has  been mentioned before that spirit of wine may be
set on fire by the electric spark.  The experiment is ea-
sily made either by placing the ladle  or spoon  which
contains the  fluid  upon the conductor, and taking the
spark  through the spirit; or  by a person holding tlie
spoon or ladle in one  band, while  he stands on the in-
sulated sto 1.   having  the either hand on the  conductor.
If then another person approaches the  spoon,  cither
with his finger or  an iron  poker, or other metal  in-
strument, the spark will pass through the spirit of wwe,~ 
ELECTRICITY.
and set it immediately in a flame. Tlie experiment will
succeed better if the  spirit is a little warm, or even if
the spoon  in which it is contained has  been previously
a little heated.
  4. Whatever may be the effects, however, of a spark
drawn from the conductor, they are greatly augmented
by what, may  be termed concentrated electricity,  when
the fluid is accumulated by means of a Leyden phial, or
a glass plate properly prepared.  If a card  is held close
to the  coating of a charged jar near  the bottom, and
one knob ofthe discharging rod is applied to the card, and
the other to the ball of the jar, the electric  fluid in pas-
sing through  the card,  will perforate it.   The edges
of the hole on  each side will be  a little  raised, and
the discharge will be  attended with a sulphureous smell.
With a moderate battery a quire of the  thickest paper
may be perforated in .the same  manner.
   If a small chain is laid upon a piece of white paper,
and a shock from a Leyden phial is made to pass through
it,  the paper  will  be stained with  a blackish tinge at
every joint of the chain;  and if the  experiment is made
in the  dark, the chain  will appear  illuminated, with a
kind of radiation at  every  juncture.
   By a strong shock of electricity, metals are melted,
and gold itself may  be  incorporated  with  glass, so as
to give the latter the  colour and appearance of that me-
tal. The experiment is not difficult.  All that is required
is, to take two  narrow  slips of common  window-glass,
each about an inch broad, and three or four inches long.
Let a narrow slip of gold leaf then be placed between
the glasses, with about an inch at each end  hanging be-
yond the glasses, which by some means should be pres-
sed closely together.  One end of the  slip of gold leaf
should communicate with the outer coating of the phial;
and when it is charged, one knob of the discharging rod
must be applied to the other end of the  leaf, so  as to
send the charge through it.  When the glasses are ta-
ken asunder, it will be found  that the  gold  has been
melted, and the substance of it actually incorporated with
the glass,  Which consequently must have  undergone a
partial fusion itself.
   By  a smart shock  of electricity from a charged phial,
or a battery, a plant  may be killed,  and the experiment
will best succeed with the common balsam or impatiens.
The smaller animals may also be deprived of life; but
human art has not yet been able to construct a battery
large enough to kill an animal above the  size of a sheep
or a dog.  The  immediate or proximate cause ofthe
death of animals by  electricity, or by lightning, which
is natural electricity, has not yet been ascertained.  It
was once supposed that  the living principle was extin-
guished by the bursting of some blood vessel, from the
violence of the shock; but a dog which  was killed  by
lightning,  wras carefully dissected, and none of the ves-
sels found  in the least injured. Beccaria recovered some
persons apparently struck dead by lightning; and when
questioned with respect to the pain or suffering which
they endured, they only complained of an  unusual numb-
ness or weariness in  their limbs.  The flesh of animals
killed  by electricity is rendered extremely  tender, and
is recommended by Dr. Franklin as  an article of luxury.
It will also putrify in a much shorter time than the flesh
■»f those which are killed in any ordinary way.
  Electricity augments the natural  evaporation oMhi-
ids, and especially of those fluids which are most sub-
ject to evaporation of themselves; and it has a greater
effect on fluids, when the  vessels containing them are
non-electrics.  If a humid body, a sponge for instance
is placed upon a conductor positively electrified, the eva-
poration will  proceed much  more rapidly, and it will be
much sooner dry, than a similar body differently circum-
stanced.
   Dr. Priestley also supposes that plants, when electri-
fied,  vegetate  earlier  and more vigorously, than those
which have not been subjected to this influence.
   That electricity increases the insensible perspiration
of animals, may be inferred from the circumstance that
electrified animals  are always lighter than those which
are not.
   The stream of electrical fluid has no sensible heat,
but even  appears cold to the touch; yet we have seen that
the more inflammable bodies, and particularly spirit of
wine, may be ignited by it; in this respect it remarkably
differs from fire or caloric.
   The luminous effects  of electricity are not the same in
vacuo as in the air, and the  reason of this is, that dry
air is a non-conductor.  Thus if a wire with a round end
is included in an exhausted receiver, and presented to a
conductor of an electrical  machine, every  spark will
pass through the vacuum  in a  broad  stream of light,
visible the whole length of the  receiver, moving  with
regularity  (unless it is turned  back by some non-elec-
tric);  and then dividing itself into a number of beauti-
ful rivulets, which are continually separating and unit-
ing in a pleasing manner.   When the vessel  is grasped
by the hand, a pulsation is perceived like that of an ar-
tery, and  the fire inclines towards  the hand.  A small
quantity of air is, however,  necessary to occasion the
most brilliant luminous effect.
   Of thunder and lightning, meteors, water-spouts, kc.—
It no longer remains a doubt among philosophers, that
the cause of thunder is the same with that which  pro-
duces the ordinary  phenomena of electricity; the resem-
blance between them is indeed so great, that we cannot
believe thunder itself to be  any other than  a grander
species of electricity, naturally excited without the fee-
ble efforts of human art.  This  fluid, probably, is dif-
fused through the whole atmosphere at all times, either
in a smaller or greater degree;  and  is occasionally per-
ceptible to our senses,  according to the concurrence of
natural circumstances.
   The cloud which produces the thunder and lightning
may be considered as a great electrified body; but how
has the cloud  acquired its  electric  virtue?  is the rea-
sonable demand of  an  inquisitive mind:  and to satisfy
this inquiry it will be necessary to refer to what has been
before observed, that this power  is produced in two
modes, by friction, and by communication.  Bodies elec-
trified by friction communicate their virtue to other  bo-
dies which are susceptible of it, provided they are insu-
lated, and at a convenient distance.   As air, therefore,
is an idio-electric body, it is not unphilosophical to sup-
pose, that in stormy weather, especially when it is com-
mon to observe the <ieuds and the wind,to take contrary
courses, a part of the atmosphere, rushing by the other,
 may cause the air to be electrified by the friction of its 
ELECTRICITY.
own particles, or by rubbing against terrestrial  objects
which it  meets in its  passage, or perhaps against the
clouds themselves.  It is probable also, that the  inflam-
mable substances, which arise and  accumulate in the
cloudy regions, contribute  to  increase  the effects, not
only of themselves, but perhaps still more by the  electric
matter which they carry along with them.  Another cir-
cumstance, which  favours this inference, is, that thunder-
storms are more frequent and tremendous in those times
and places, when  and  where we have reason to conclude
that these exhalations  are in tbe greatest abundance in
the atmosphere, as in  warm seasons and  climates, as
well as in those places where the earth is filled with sub-
stances capable of furnishing  a large quantity Of these
exhalations, and  in particular in the neighbourhood of
volcanoes.
   A cloud  in  a thunder-storm may be considered as a
great conductor,  actually insulated and electrified; and
it may be supposed to  have  tire same effect upon those
 non-electrics which it meets with in its course, as our
 common  conductors have upon those wiiich are present-
 ed to them.  If a cloud of this kind meets with another
 which is  not electrified, or less so than itself, the  elec-
 tric matter flies off from all parts  towards this cloud;
 hence proceed flashes  of lightning, and the formidable
 report of thunder.
   "Thunder-storms," says  Beccaria, " generally hap-
 pen when tliere is little or no wind;  and their first ap-
 pearance, is  marked by one  dense cloud, or more,  in-
 creasing very fast in  size, and rising into  the higher
 regions of the air; the lower surface black,  and nearly
 level, but the upper  finely arched, and well  defined.
 Many of these clouds  seem frequently  piled one  upon
 another,  all arched in the same manner; but  they  keep
 continually uniting, swelling, and extending their arches.
   "At the time ofthe rising of this cloud, the  atmos-
 phere is  generally full of a great  number of separate
 clouds,  motionless, and of odd and whimsical  shapes.
 All these, upon the appearance of the thunder cloud,
 draw towards it, and become more uniform in their shapes
 as they  approach, till  coming very  near the thunder
 cloud, their limbs mutually stretch towards one another;
 they  immediately coalesce, and together make one uni-
 form mass.  But sometimes the thunder cloud will swell,
 and increase very fast, without the conjunction of  these
 adscititious clouds, the vapours^»f the atmosphere form-
 ing themselves into clouds  wherever it passes.   Some
 of the adscititious clouds appear like  white fringes at
 the skirts of the thunder cloud, but these keep continu-
 ally growing  darker  and darker  as they approach or
 unite with it.
   " When the thunder cloud is grow n to a great size,
 its lower surface is often ragged, particular parts  being
 detached towards tbe  earth, but still connected with the
 rest.  Sometimes the lower surface swells into various
 large protuberances,   bending uniformly  towards the
 earth. When the eye  is under thethund r cl. ud, after it
is grown larger, and well formed, it is seen to sink lower,
 and  to darken prodigiously;  at the same time that  a
 number of adscititious clouds  (the  origin of which can
 never be perceived) are seen in a rapid motion, driving
about in  very uncertain directions under it. W hile these
clouds are agitated with the most rapid motions,  the rain
generally falls in the greatest plenty; and if the r.gila
tion is exceedingly great, it commonly hails.
  "While the thunder clotid is swelling,  and extending
its branches over a large tract of country, the lightning
is seen to dart from one part of it to another, and often
to illuminate its whole mass.  When the  cloud  lias ac-
quired a sufficient extent, the lightning strikes,  between
the cloud and the earth, in two opposite places, the path
of the lightning lying through the whole body of the cloud
and its branches.  The longer this lightning continues,
the rarer the cloud  grows,  and the less  dark is its ap-
pearance, till at length it breaks in different places, and
displays a clear sky."
  It is the  opinion of  the same author, that the clouds
serve  as conductors to convey the electric fluid from those
parts  of the earth which are overloaded with  it,  to those
which are exhausted of it.
  To prove  that the earth is often positively  charged
with respect to the clouds in one part while itis negative
in another, he  adverts to the fall  of great quantities of
sand,  and other light substances, which are often carried
into the air, and scattered uniformly  over a large tract of
country, when there is no wind to.effect this phenomenon;
and even when there was, they have been carried against
the wind; be therefore supposes, that these light bodies
are raised by a large quantity of electrical matter issuing
from  the earth.
  This comparatively rare phenomenon, bethinks, exhi-
bits both a perfect image and demonstration ofthe man-
ner in which the vapours of the atmosphere are raised to
form thunder clouds.   The same electric  matter, wher-
ever  it issues, attracts to it, and  carries into the higher
regions of the air, the watery particles dispersed in the
atmosphere.  The electric matter ascends, being solicited
by the less  resistance it finds there than  in the  common
mass  of the earth, which at those times is generally  very
dry, and consequently highly  electric.  The uniformity
with which  thunder clouds spread  themselves, and swell
into arches, must be owing to their  being affected by some
cause which, like the electric matter, diffuses itsdf uni-
formly wherever it acts, and to the resistance they meet
with  in ascending through the air.
  The  same cause wiiich first  raised a cloud  from va-
pours dispersed in the atmosphere, draws it to those al-
ready formed,  and continues to form new ones, till the
whole collected mass extends so  far as to reach a part of
the earth where there is  a deficiency of electric fluid;
thither also  they will  be attracted,  and  thus the mass
serves as a conductor.  When the clouds  are attracted
in their passage by those parts of the earth, where there
is a deficiency  ofthe fluid, those detached fragments are
formed, and also those uniform depending protuberances,
which are probably the cause of water-spouts.
  A  wind  always blows from the place whence a thun-
der cloud proceeds; and the wind  is  more or less violent
in proportion to the sudden appearance of th;i  thunder
cloud,  tlie  rapidity  of its expansion, and  the  velocity
with  which the adscititious clouds join it. The  sudden
condensation of such  a  prodigious  quantity  of vapour
must  displace the air,  and agitate it on all sides.
  In  three states ofthe air, says the author above quot-
ed, I  could find no elee trie ity in it.  1st.  In w;n,ly wea-
ther.   2d.  When the sky was covered with distinct and 
ELECTRICITY.
black douds, wiiich had a slow motion.  3d.  In moist
weather, not actually raining.
   In rainy weather, without lightning, his apparatus was
always electrified a little time before the rain fell,  and
during the time of rain, but ceased a little before the rain
was over.
   The  higher his  rods  reached,  or his kites flewr, the
stringer signs they gave of being electrified.
   It has been intimated that tbe clouds are sometimes
positively, and sometimes negatively electrified.  In the
latter case,  the  lightning is supposed, upon the Frank-
lincaii theeiry,  to proceed from the earth to the cloud.
The general effects of lightning are precisely the same
with those of the electric shock, only greatly magnified.
It may not be improper  in this place to notice an old er-
ror, namely, the melting of metals by what has been cal-
led the cold fusion. The error is found to rest upon  cer-
tain ill-attested  relations of  swords being melted in the
scabbard, by lightning,  and money  in a bag, without in-
juring the scabbard or  the bag.  A vaiiety of experi-
ments have been accurately made'to determine the fact;
the  results of which have been,  that the thin edge of the
sw/ord", or of the money* might have been instantaneous-
ly melted, and yet so instantaneously cooled, as neither
tp affect the scabbard nor the  bag.  A very small wire
will instantly melt and  instantly cool in the flame  of a
common candle.
   Air. Kinnesley inclosed a small wire in a goose quill
filled  with loose grains of gunpowder,  which took fire
 as readily as if they had  been touched by a red-hot po-
 ker; tinder was kindled when tied to a piece of the same
 Wire; but no such effects could  be produced  with a wire
 twice as large.   Hence  it appears, as Mr. Kinnesley re-
 marks, that though the electrical matter has no sensible
 beat when in a stat? of rest,  it will, in.passing through
 bodies, produce heat in them, provided they are propor-
 tionably small.  Thus, in passing through the small wire,
 the particles are confined to a narrower  passage,  and,
 crowding close together, act with a more condensed force,
 and produce sensible heat.
   The discovery of Dr. Franklin, which established the
 identity of lightning with the electrical  fluid, suggested
 an  invention,  for which  we are indebted to the same
 philosopher, for securing buildings from this most for-
 midable enemy.  The  reader will  perceive that  we al-
 lude to that of metallic  conductors.
   The effects of the electric matter, when it strikes a
 building,  and the method of preventing it, are exempli-
 fied by an instrument called the thunder-house,  repre-
 senting the side of a house, either furnished with a me-
 tallic conductor, or not. A  (figure 27)  is a board about
 three quarters of an inch thick, and shaped like the ga-
 ble-end ofa house. This board is fixed perpendicularly
 upon the bottom board B, upon which the perpendicular
 glass pillar  C is also fixed,  in  a bole about eight inches
 distant from the basis of A.   A small  hole ILMK, about
 a quarter of an inch deep, and nearly one i-jdi wide, is
 made in  the board A,  and is filled with a square piece
 of  wood, nearly of the same dimensions.  It should be
 nerely of the same dimensions, because it must go so
 easily into the hole that it may  drop off by the least
 shaking  of the  instrument.  A wire I K, is fastened dia-
 gonally to this square piece of wood.  Another wire L H,
of the same thickness, having a brass ball H screwed on
its pointed extremity,  is fastened on the board A; so ah
so the wire M N, v hich is shaped in a ring at N. From
the upper extremity of the glass pillar C, a crooked wire
proceeds, having a spring  socket  F,  through which a
double knobbed  wire slips  perpendicularly, the  lower
knob G of which falls just above the knob H. The glass
pillar C  must not be made very fast in the bottom board-
but it mu, t be fixed so that it may be easily moved round
its own axis, by which means the brass ball G may be •
brought either nearer or farther from the ball H, with-
out touching the part E F G. Now, when a square piece
of wood LMIK (wiiich may represent the shutter of a
window  or the like) is fixed into  the  hole, so that the
wire I K stands in  the direction L M,  then the metallic
communication from H to N is complete, and the  instru-
ment represents a house furnished  with  a proper  metal-
lic conductor; but if the square piece of wood L M I K ia
fixed so that the wire 1K stands in the direction IK as
represented in the figure, then the metallic conductor IIN"
from the top of the house  to  its bottom, is interrupted
at  L  M: in  which  case the house is not  properly  se-
cured.
   Fix the piece of wood LMIK, so that its wire may
be as represented in the  figure, in  which case the metal-
lic  conductor H N is discontinued.  Let the ball G be
fixed  at  about half an inch perpendicular distance from
the ball H: then, by turning the glass  pillar C, remove
the former bail from the latter; by a wire*or chain, con-
nect the  wire E  F with the wire Q of the jar P, and let
another  wire or chain, fastened to the hook N,  touch
the outside coating of tbe jar.  Connect the wire Q with
the prime conductor, and charge the jar: then, by turn-
ing the glass pillar  C,  let the ball G come gradually
near the ball H, and when they are arrived sufficiently
near one another, you will observe that the jar explodes,
and the piece of wood LMIK is pushed out of the hole
to* a considerable distance from the thunder-house. Now
the ball  G in this experiment, represents an electrified
cloud, which, when it is arrived sufficiently near the top
ofthe house A,  the electricity strikes; and  as the house
is not secured  with a proper  conductor, the explosion
breaks part of  it,  i.  e. knocks off the piece of wood
IM.
   Repeat the experiment with only this variation, viz.
that this piece of wood! M is situated.so that the wire
I K may stand  in the situation L M,  in which case the
conductor H M is  not  discontinued;  and  you will  ob-
serve, that the  explosion  will have no effect upon the
piece of wood L M, this remaining in the hole unmoved;
which shows the usefulness of the  metallic  conductor.
   Further, unscrew the brass ball H from tbe wire IIL,
so  that this may remain pointed, and with only this dif-
ference in the apparatus, repeat both  the above experi-
ments; and you will find  the piece of wood L  M is in
neither case  moved from its place,  nor will any explo-
sion be heard.
   The conductor E F G in this experiment is supposed
to represent a thunder cloud discharging its contents on
 a weathercock, or any other metal, at the top of  a build-
 ing;  and it may be inferred from this experiment, that
 if "there  is a  connection of metal to conduct the electric
 fluid  down to the earth, the building will receive no da- 
ELhCTMCrn?.
mage;  but where the  conm-i don is  imperfect, it will
strike from one part to another, and thus endanger the
whede building.
  Elevated conductors,  applied  to buildings  to secure
them from lightning, will in this  manner discharge the
electricity from a cloud that passes  over them, and a
greater quantity  of the discharge will "pass through a
pointed conductor than through  one which terminates
with a ball; but whether  the discharge will be made by a
gradual c urrent, or by  explosion, will depend  upon the
suddenness of the discharge,  or the nearness and motion
of the cloud, and the quantity of the electricity contain-
ed in it. If a small cloud hangs suspended under a large
ijne loaded with electric matter,  pointed conductors on
 a building underneath will receive the discharge by ex-
plosion, in preference to those terminated by balls; the
small cloud forming an  interruption,  which allows  only
 an instant of time for the discharge.
   Earl jBtanhope has communicated to the public,  in a
 treatise on this subject, some essentials to  be  observed
 In the erection  of conductors to  buildings: he advises,
 that the upper fifteen or twenty inches of the rod should
 be composed of copper and not of iron,  as the latter be-
 ing exposed to the weather will rust, and rust does not
 conduct electricity;  that the iron part of the rod should
 be painted, but  not the upper part of it, because paint is
 no conductor.   He further advises, that the upper extre-
 mity of a conducting rod should not only be accurately
 pointed and finely tapered, but that it should be extreme-
 ly prominent, about ten  or fifteen feet above all  the parts
 of the building  which are the nearest it.   It may be ad-
 ded,  that a conductor should always be carried in the
 earth some feet beyond  the foundation of the  building,
 and should, if possible, terminate in water.
   The safest situation during a thunder storm is the cel-
  lar; for when a person is below the surface of the earth,
  the lightning must strike it before it  can reach hi in,
 and will, in all probability, be expended on it.   Dr.
 Franklin  advises  persons apprehensive  of lightning to
 sit in the middle of a room, not under a  metal  lustre or
  any other conductor, and to lay their feet up upon  ano-
 ther chair.  It will  be still safer, he adds, to lay two or
 three beds or matrasses in the  middle of the room,  and
  folding them double, to place the chairs upon them.  A
 hammock suspended by  silk cords would be an  improve-
 ment upon this  apparatus.  Persons in fields should pre-
  fer the open parts to the vicinity of trees, kc.  The dis-
  tance of a thunder storm, and consequently the danger,
 are not difficult to be estimated.  As light travels at the
 rate of 72,420 leagues in a second of time, its effects may
 be considered as instantaneous within any moderate dis-
 tance. • Sound, on the contrary,  is transmitted only at
 the: rate of 1,142 feet, or about 380 yards in a second.
 B* accurately observing therefore the time which inter-
 venes between the flash  and the noise of thunder which
 Allows it,  a very near  calculation may  be made of its
 distance, and we know no better  means of removing un-
 necessary apprehensions.
   The success  of  Dr.  Franklin,  in ascertaining  the
 Cause of thunder and lightning, induced succeeding phi-
 losophers to appjy the same theory to the explanation of
 the other atmospherical phenomena.  From a number of
 observations, tlie indefatigable Beccaria endeavours to
account for the rising of vapours  an?! the fall of rain,
upon electrical principles; ami it must be confessed, that
if it is not a primary agent in these effects,  it would be
rashness entirely to deny  its induence.  This philoso-
pher supposes, that previously to rain a quantity of elec-
tric matter escapes  from the earth, and in its ascent to
the higher regions of the air collects an 1 conducts into
its path a great quantity of vapours.  The same cause
that collects will condense them more  and more, till in
the places ofthe nearest intervals they come ulmost int.)
contact, so as to form small drops,  which, uniting with
others as they  fall, come  down in, rain. The  rain he
supposes to fall  heavier in proportion as the electricity
is more vigorous.
  Hail he supposes to be formed in the higher regions
of air, where the cold is intense, and where the  electric
matter is very copious.  In  these circumstances,  a great
number of particles  of water are brought near together,
where they are frozen, and in their descent collect other
particles; so that the  density  of the  substance of the
hailstone grows less and less from the centre, this being
formed first in the higher regions* and the surface being
collected in the lower.  Agreeably to this, it is observed,
that  on mountains, hailstones as well  as drops  of rain
are very small,  there  being but a small space through
which they can fall.
  Clouds of snow differ in  nothing  from clouds of rain,
but in the circumstance ofthe cold which freezes them.
Both the regular diffusion  of snow, and the regularity
of the parts ot which it consists, show the clouds of snow
to be actuated by some uniform cause like electricity.
  Consistent with this theory is the fact, that vapours
never rise to a great height without producing meteors.
Almost all  volcanic  eruptions  are accompanied with
lightning.  The column of vapour, which proceeds from
the bowels of a volcano, is continually transversed by
lightning,  which sometimes  seems  to proceed fiom the
higher regions,- sometimes from the  column itself. These
lightnings were  observed by the younger Pliny, in tiie
eruption which killed his uncle; and sir William Hamil-
ton has observed them  several times. The aurora borea-
lis is also generally supposed to be electrical;  its light
seems to he produced  by the electric  fluid, while it is
condensed in passing in the columns of elevated  vapour,
  Mr. Adams's description of this meteor,  in his Lec-
tures, is as follows:  The appearances of the aurora come
under four different descriptions. 1st, A horizontal light,
like the morning aurora, or break of day.  2dly, Fine,
slender,  luminous  beams,  well defined,  and of dense
light. These often continue a quarter, a half, or a whole
minute,  apparently at rest, but oftener with  a quick
lateral motion.   3elly,  Flashes pointing upward, or  in
the same direction  with  the  beams, which they  always
succeed.   These are only momentary, and have  no late-
ral motion; but they are generally repeated  many times
in a  minute. They appear much broader, more diffuse,
and of a weaker light, than the beams: they grow gra-
dually fainter till  they disappear; and sometimes con-
tinue for hours, flashing at  intervals.   4thly,  Arches,
nearly in the form of a rainbow: these, when complete,
go quite across tbe  heavens,  from one point of the hori-
zon to the opposite  point.
   When an aurora happens, these  appearances seem to 
ELECTRICITY.
succeed each other in the following order:  1, the faint
rainbow-like arches; 2, the beams;  and, 3, the flashes.
As for the northern horizontal light, it  appears to con-
sist of an abundance of flashes or beams blended toge-
ther by the situation of the observer.
  The beams of the aurora borealis appear at all places
to be  arches of great circles of the sphere, with the eye
in the centre; and  these arches,  if prolonged upwards,
would all meet at one point.
  The rainbow-like arches all cross the magnetic meri-
dian at right angles. When two or more appear at once,
they are concentric, and tend to the east and west;  also
the  broad arch of the horizontal light tends to the mag-
netic  east and west, and is bisected by the magnetic me-
ridian; and  when the aurora extends over any part of
the  hemisphere,  whether great or small, the  line sepa-
rating the illuminated part of the hemisphere from the
clear  part, is half the circumference of a great  circle
crossing the magnetic meridian at right  angles, and ter-
minating in the east and west: moreover, the beams per-
pendicular to the horizon, are only those on the mag-
netic  meridian.
  That point in the heavens to wiiich the beams of the
aurora appear  to converge, at any place, is the  same as
that to wiiich the south pole of the dipping-needle points
at that place.
  The beams appear to rise above each  other in succes-
sion;  so that of any two beams, that which has the high-
er base has also the higher summit.
  Every beam appears broadest at or near the base, and
to grow  narrower as it ascends; so that the continuation
of the bounding  lines  would meet in the common centre
to which the beam tends.
  The height of the rainbow-like arches of the aurora is
estimated by Mr. Dalton to be above the earth's surface
about 150 English miles.
  A  very beautiful experiment  will illustrate this ap-
pearance in the heavens: Fig. 28  is  called the lumi-
nous  conductor.  A is a glass tube  about two feet long,
capped at both ends with brass,  having one of the ends
furnished with a stop-cock, and  a screw to fit into the
plate of  the  air-pump.  This  tube is exhausted  of air,
and when it is placed in the  circuit of the electric fluid,
by fixing a chain to each end, which is connected  with
the positive and  negative parts of the machine, the elec-
tricity in passing through it, exhibits a bcatiful luminous
appearance, very much resembling the aurora borealis.
See Aurora Borealis.
  It  was intimated  that  water-spouts  are  among the
phenomena which some philosophers have attempted  to
explain  on  electrical ^principles.   A water-spout  is  a
most formidable phenomenon, and is indeed capable of
causing  great ravages. It commonly begins by a cloud,
which appears very small, and which  mariners call the
squall; which augments in a little time  into an enormous
cloud of a cylindrical form,  or that of  a reversed cone,
and produces a  noise like an agitated sea;  sometimes
emitting thunder and lightning,  and also pouring down
large quantities  of rain or  hail, sufficient to inundate
large vessels,  overset trees and houses, and every thing
which opposes its violent impetuosity.
  These water-spouts are more frequent at sea than by
land; and sailors are so convinced of  their dangerous
consequences, that when they perceive their approach
they frequently endeavour to break them by firing a can-
non before they  approach too near the ship. They have
also been known to have  committed great devastations
by land:  tlwugh, where tliere is no water near, they ge-
nerally assume the harmless form of a whirlwind.  See
Waterspout,' and Meteorology.
 . In  accounting for  these  phenomena upon electrical
principles, it is observed, that the effluent  matter pro-
ceeds from a body actually  electrified, towards  one
wiiich is not so; and affluent matter proceeds from a bo-
dy not  electrified, towards one which is actually so.
These two currents  occasion two motions analogous to
the electrical attraction  and repulsion.  If  the current
of the effluent matter is more powerful than of the afflu-
ent matter, which in this case is composed of particles
exhaled from the earth, the particles of vapours, which
compose the cloud, are attracted by this effluent matter,
and form the  cylindrical column called  the descending
water-spout; if, on  the contrary, the affluent matter is
the strongest, it attracts a sufficient quantity  of aqueous
particles to form gradually into a cloud, and this is com-
monly termed the ascending water-spout.
   Of the electricity which is produced by means of melting,
heating,  cooling, and evaporation.—If sulphur is melted
in an earthen vessel, and the whole is left to cool upon
conductors; and if afterwards the sulphur, when cold, is
taken out ofthe vessel, it will be found strongly electri-
cal; but not at all  so if it is left to cool upon electrics.
   If  sulphur is  melted in a glass vessel, and  is left to
cool,  both tbe glass and the sulphur will acquire a strong
electricity,  the former positive and the latter negative;
and that will be the case whether they are  left to cool
upon electrics or upon conductors.
   If  melted sulphur is  poured into  a vessel of baked
wood, it will acquire the negative, and the wood the po-
sitive, electricity^ but if it is poured into  sulphur, or
rough glass, it will acquire no  sensible degree of elec-
tricity.
   Melted  sulphur poured  into a metal cup, and there
left to cool, shows no signs of electricity whilst standing
in the cup; but  if they are separated, then they will both
appear strongly electrified, the sulphur positive, and the
cup negative. If the sulphur  is replaced in the cup, eve-
ry sign of electricity will vanish; but if, whilst separate,
the electricity either of the cup or sulphur is taken off,
then  on  being replaced they both will appear possessed
of that electricity which has not been taken off.
   Melted  wax, being poured into glass or wood, ac-
quires the negative electricity,  and the  glass or  wood
becomes positive.  But sealing-wax,  poured into a sul-
phur vessel, acquires the positive electricity, and leaves
the sulphur negative.
   Chocolate fresh from the  mill,  as it cools in the tin
pans in  which it  is received,  becomes strongly electri-
 cal.  When turned out of  the pans, it retains this  pro-
perty during a certain time,  but loses it presently by
 handling.  By melting it again in an iron ladle, and
 pouring it into the tin pans as at first, you  may renew
 its power once  or twice;  but when the  mass becomes
 very dry and powdery in the ladle, the electricity is no
longer received by simple  melting; but if  then  a  little
olive oil is added, and is mixed well with the chocolate 
ELECTRICITY.
in the ladle, and is afterwards poured into the tin pans
as at first,  it will be found to have completely recover-
ed its electrical power,  which continue* a considerable
time.
  The property of becoming electrified merely by heat-
ing or cooling, was first observed in, and is  eminently
possessed by, a hard pellucid stone called the tourmalin,
which is generally of a deep red, or purple, or brown
colour; which seldom, if ever, exceeds the size of a small
walnut;  and which is  found in several parts of the East
Indies, especially in the island of Ceylon; but  on farther
examination it has  been found that  several other pre-
cious stones, and especially the Brasilian emerald, possess
the like properties more or less; hence the following par-
ticulars, which have  been  principally  observed of the
tourmalin, must be understood to belong likewise to most
other precious stones.
  1.  The tourmalin, while kept  in the same tempera-
ture,  shows no signs  of  electricity;   but it will become
electrical by  increasing or  diminishing its  heat, and
stronger in the latter  circumstance than in the  former.
A very  trifling alteration of temperature  is often suffi-
cient to produce the effect.
  2.  Its electricity does not appear all over its  surface,
but only on two opposite sides of it, which may be called
its poles, and which always are  in one right line with
the centre of the stone, and in the direction of its strata;
in which direction the stone is absolutely opaque, though
in the other it is semitransparent.
  3. Whilst the tourmalin  is heating, one of its sides
(call it A) is electrified  plus, or positive,  and the other
B minus; but when cooling,  A is minus, and  B is plus.
Hence, if  one side of the stone  is heating,  whilst  the
other is cooling,  then  both sides  will acquire the same
electricity;  or if one side only changes  its  temperature,
then that side only will appear electrified.
  .4. If this stone is heated, and suffered to cool  without
 either of its  sides being touched, then A will appear po-
sitive, and B negative,  all the time  of its heating and
 cooling.
  5.  This stone may be excited by  means of friction
 like  any other electric;  and either of  its sides,  or both,
 may be rendered positive.
  6. If the tourmalin is heated or cooled upon some other
 insulated body,  that body  will  be found  electrified as
 well  as the stone; but it will  be found possessed of  the
 electricity  contrary to that of the contiguous side of the
 stone.
  7. The electricity of either side, or of both,  may  be
 reversed by heating or cooling the tourmalin in contact
 with various substances, such as the palm of the hand, a
 piece of metal, <Stc.
  8.  These properties of the  tourmalin are also observ-
able  in vacuo, but not  so strong as in  the open air.
  9.  If a tourmalin is  cut into several parts, each  piece
will have its positive and negative poles, corresponding
to the positive and negative sides of the original stone.
  10. If this stone is covered all over  with  sonic electric
mibstance,  such as sealing-wax. oil, &c. it will in gene-
ral show the same properties as without it.
  11. A vivid light appears upon the tourmalin, whilst
heating  in the dark,  and by a little   attention one may
he easily enabled by this light to  distinguish which side
  tol. i                  114
of the stone is positive, and which negative.  Sometimes
when the stone is strongly excited, pretty strong flashes
may be seen in the dark, to go from the positive to the
negative side of it.
   12. Lastly, it has been found that with respect  o the
electric properties,  tbe tourmalin is sometimes injured
by the action of a strong fire, at other times is mprov-
ed, and sometimes is not at all altered by it.
   The evaporation of water, as also of some other fluids,
produces electricity;  viz.  those  bodies  from which the
water has  departed,  will  remain in a negative state of
electricity,  indicating that the water by its  conversion
into vapour has its capacity for the electric fluid rncreas-
ed, as it has its capacity increased  for containing heat.
But though the effect is in general such as has been men-
tioned above, yet there are two exceptions which involve
the subject in some  difficulty, and  which will  require
farther experiments and consideration.
   The exceptions are, 1st, that if water is evaporated by
being put  in contact with a red hot piece or pieces of
very rusty iron, it will leave the iron electrified positive-
ly; wiiereas, if the iron is not rusty, the evaporation of
tbe water from its surface will leave it electrified nega-
tively.  2dly. If water is evaporated by throwing into it
impure red-hot glass (such as the green  glass of com-.
mon bottles), the vessel, or the remaining water,  will ba,
electrified positively.
   This curious production of electricity  by evaporatioiij
as also  the production of electricity  by the condensation
of vapour,  may be easily observed in the following man-
ner:                                 >'***'
   Place a metallic cup, or a pewter plate, upon an in-
sulating stand, and connect a sensible electrometer (fig.
18) with it.  Also place one or two  lighted  coals in the
cup or plate; then pour a little water at once upon the
coal or coals,  which  will produce  a quick evaporation
accompanied with a great hissing noise, and at the same
time the electrometer will diverge with  negative  elec-
tricity.
   If the steam which issues copiously from water quick-
ly boiling,  is received under a pretty large and insulat-
ed metallic plate,  that plate,  hy the condensation of the
steam upon it,  will be electrified positively,  as may be
ascertained merely by connecting a sensible electrometer
with it.
   On throwing a variety  of other substances upon actu-
ally burning, or only hot and insulated coals, the coals,
kc. either showed negative electricity, or no electricity
at all.   Either spirit of wine, or ether, when thus treat
ed, left the coals negative;  but if (the coals being sufti--
ciently hot) the spirit of wine or  the ether took fire, and
burned in their usual way, then no electricity was pro
duced.
   Of  animal  electricity.—Under this   title  we shall
take notice of that  electricity only  wiiich is produced
from the animal itself, in conseepiencc of its pi.i-ticuhtr
organization, and  not that which is  nrodue ed by  the ap-
plication of metallic substances to animals.
  Three fishes have hitherto bceimliscovcrcd to have,
whilst  living, the  singular property of  giving shock.:'
analogous to those  of artificial electricity; namely, t'e
torpedo, the gymnotus electricus, and the silurus clec-
tricus. Those animals  belonging to three different or- 
ELECTRICITY.
ders of fish;  and the  few particulars which  they seem
to have in common arc the  power of giving the  shock;
an organ in their hodies, called the electric organ, which
is in all probability employed by those animals for the
exertion of that power;  a smooth skin without scales;
and  some spots here  and there on the  surface of their
bodies.
 . The torpedo, which belongs to the genus of rays (raja
electrica),  is a flat fish, very seldom  20 inches long;
weighing not above a few pounds when full-grown, and
is pretty common  in  various  parts  of  the sea-coast of
Europe. The electric  organs of this  animal  are two in
number, and are placed on each side  of the cranium and
gills, reaching from that place as far as the semicircular
cartilages of each great fin, and extending longitudinal-
ly from the anterior extremity of the  animal to the trans-
verse cartilage which divides  the thorax from the abdo-
men. In those places they fill  up the whole thickness of
the animal from the lower to the upper surface, and are
covered by the common skin of the body, under which,
however, are two thin membranes or fascise.  The length
of each organ  is less than one-third part of  tbe  whole
length ofthe animal. Each organ consists of perpendicu-
lar columns, reaching from the  under to the  upper sur-
face ofthe body, and  varying in length according to the
various thickness ofthe fish in various parts. The num-
ber of these columns is  not  constant, differing in differ-
ent torpedos, and  likewise in different ages  of the ani-
mal. In a very  large torpedo,  one  electric  organ was
found  to consist of 1182 columns.  The greatest number
of those columns are  either irregular hexagons, or irre-
gular  pentagons, but their figure is by no means constant.
The  diameters  are generally equal to one-fifth part of
an inch.
   The above-mentioned electric  organs  seem to be the
only parts employed to produce the shock; the rest of the
animal appearing to be merely the conductor of that
shock, as parts  adjacent to the electric organs; and, in
fact, the animal has been found to be a conductor of ar-
tificial electricity. The two great lateral  fins, which
bound the  electric organs  laterally, are the best con-
ductors.
   If the torpedo, while  standing in  water, or out of the
Water, but  not  insulated, is  touched with one hand, it
generally  communicates a trembling  motion, or slight
shock, to the hand; but this sensation is  felt in the fin-
gers of that hand only. If the  torpedo is touched with
both hands at tlie same time, one hand being applied to
its under, and the other to its upper surface, a shock in
that  case will  be received, which  is  exactly like that
which  is occasioned  by the  Leyden  phial.   When the
hand touches the fish on its opposite surfaces, and just
over the electric organs, then the shock is the strongest;
but if the hands are  placed upon other parts of  the op-
posite surface, the shocks are somewhat weaker; and no
shock at all is felt when the hands arc both placed upon
tlie electric organs of the same  surface; which shows
that the upper and lower surface of  the electric  organs
are in opposite states of electricity,  answering to the
plus and minus sides of a Leyden phial.  When the fish
\s touched by both hands on  the same  surface, and the
hands are not  placed exactly on. the electric organs, a
Shock, timugh weak,  is still received; but in this  case
the opposite power of  the  other surface of  the animal
seems to be conducted over the skin.
  The shock which is given by the torpedo, when stand-
ing in air, is about four times as strong as when stand-
ing in water; and  when tbe animal is  touched  on both
surfaces by  the same hand, the thumb being applied to
one surface, and the middle finger to the  opposite sur-
face, the shock is felt much stronger than when the cir-
cuit is formed by the application of both  hands. Some-
times the torpedo gives the shocks so quickly one after
the other, that scarcely two seconds elapse between them*
and when, instead of a strong determinate shock, it com-
municates only a torpor, that sensation is naturally at-
tributed to the successive and quick discharge of a great
many consecutive shocks.
  This power of the torpedo is conducted by the sama
substances which  conduct artificial electricity, and is
intercepted by the same substances which are" non-con-
ductors of electricity; hence, if the animal, instead of be-
ing touched  immediately by the  hands, is  touched  by
non-electrics, as wires, wet cords,  &c. held in the hands
ofthe experimenter,  the shock will  be communicated
through them. The circuit may also he formed by seve-
ral persons joining hands,  and  the shock will bc'fclt by
them all at  the  same  time.  If,  when the animal is  in
water, the hands  are  put  in the same  water, a shock
will also be  felt,  which  will  be stronger if one  of
the  hands touches  the fish, whilst the other is*  kept
in  the water at  a  distance from it. In  short, the
shock of this animal is conducted by the same conduc-
tors as  that  of  the Leyden phial; thus  it may  pass
through more than one circuit at  the same time, or the
circuit may be much extended, &c. but in those cases the
shock is much weakened.
  The shock  of the torpedo cannot  pass through  the
least interruption of continuity; thus it will  not be con-
ducted by a chain,  nor will it pass through the air from
one conductor to the other, when the  distance  is even
less than the 200th  part of an  inch;  consequently no
spark was ever  observed to accompany it.
  No electric attraction or repulsion was ever observed
to be produced by the torpedo, nor indeed by airy of the
electric fishes, though several experiments have been in-
stituted expressly for that purpose.
  These shocks of the torpedo  seem to depend on the
will ofthe animal; for each effort is accompanied with a
depression ofits eyes,  by which even his attempts to give
it to non-conductors may  be observed.  It is not known
whether both dec trie organs must  always act together,
or one of them only may be occasionally  put in action
by  the will of the animal.
  Almost all these effects of the  torpedo may be imitat-
ed  by  means  of  a large electrical   battery  weakly
charged.
  The  gymnotus  electricus has been  frequently called
electrical-eel, on account  of  its bearing some resem-
blance to the common  eel. The gymnotus  electricus is
found  pretty  frequently in  the great rivers of  South
America. Its usual length  is about three feet, but some
of them have been said to be so large  as to be  able to
strike a man dead with their electric shock. A few <»
tliese animals, about  three  feet  long, were  brought 
„----.-. r,rrTirr*jrrfrr-
alive to England thirty or &>vty years ago, and a great
many experiments were made with them.
  A gymnotus of three feet in length generally is be-
tween 10 and 14 inches in circumference at the thickest
part of its body. The electric power of this  animal be-
ing much greater than that of the torpedo, its electric
organs  are accordingly a great deal larger; and indeed
that part of its body which contains most of the animal
parts that are common to the same order of fishes, is con-
siderably smaller than that which is subservient to the
electric power, though tbe latter  must naturally derive
nourishment and action  from  the former.  The head of
the animal is large, broad, flat, smooth, and impressed
with various small holes.  The.mouth  is rather large,
    .,  !-ws have no teeth, so that  the  animal lives by
^llt . *  J"„ i,v swallowing the food entire. The eyes are
tuition, m -       j a bluejgh COIOUJC. nlarpd o ISHIa -----
 small- flattisiuan                   ^   .......... ^

 behind the nostrils. The body is large,' thick, and round-
 ish, for a considerable distance from the head, and then
 diminishes gradually. The whole body, from a few inches
 below  the head, is distinguished  into four longitudinal
 parts, dearly divided from each other by lines. The ca-
 rina tagins a few inches  below the  head, and widening
 V., it proceeds,  reaches  as far as the tail,  where it is
 thinnest.  It has two  pectoral fins; and the anus  is situ-
 ated on  the under part,  more forward than those fins,
 and of course not far distant from  the rostrum.
   This animal has two pairs of electric organs, one pair
 being larger than the other, and occupying most of the
 longitudinal parts of the  body. They  are divided from
 each other by peculiar membranes.
   The nerves which go to the  electric organs of the gym-
 notus, as  well as of the torpedo,  are much  larger than
 those which supply any other part of  the  body.  The
 electric organs of the gymnotus are supplied with nerves
 from the spinal marrow, and they come out in pairs be-
 tween the vertebrae of the spine.
   The gymnotus possesses all thc'clectric properties ofthe
 torpedo,  but in a superior  degree. His shock is conducted
 by conductors of electricity; it is communicated through
 water, kc. The strongest shock  is received when, the
 animal standing out of the water, you  apply one hand
 'owards tlie tail, and the other towards the bead of the
 animal.  In this  manner  shocks may be received from
 one of those animals, which are felt not only in the arms,
 but  very forcibly even  in the chest.  If the  animal is
 touched with one  hand only, then a kind of tremor is felt
 in that single hand; which, though stronger, is however
 perfectly analogous to that which  is given by the torpe-
 do when touched in the like manner.
   This power of the gymnotus is likewise depending on
 tbe will ofthe animal, so that sometimes he gives strong
 shocks, and at other times very weak ones.  He gives
 the strongest shocks when provoked by being frequently
 and roughly touched.
   When  small fishes are put  into the water where the
 Rymnotus is,they arc commonly stunned, and are either
 effectually or apparently killed.
   The strongest shocks of the gymnoti which were ex-
 hibited in London, would pass through a very short inter-
 ruption of continuity in the circuit.  They could be con-
 ned  by a short chain when stretched, so as to bring
 toe links into a more perfect contact. When the interrup-
f ion was formed by an  uidsioi*  made wirh a pen-sniit
on a slip of tin-foil that was pasted upon glass, the s'iock
in passingthrough that interruption, showed asinc'.l bm
vivid spark, plainly visible in a dark room.
  This animal showed a peculiar property, namely, that
of knowing when he could, and when be could Hot, give
the sliock; for if non-condtrctors or interrupted circuit*;
were placed in the water; he would not approach them;
but as soon as i}*»  circuit «■■»-•, completed, he would ap-
proach  the extremities of that circuit, and immediately
give the shock.
   The  third fish which is known  to have the power of
giving the shock, is found in the rivers of Africa; but wo
have a very imperfect account of its properties.
   This  animal belongs to the genus which the natural-
ists call siluris; hence its name is siluris electricus. The
    ^v\ of aonr;of these fishes lias been found to  exceed 20
leng..
inches.
   The body of  the siluris eiecvricus is oolong, smooth.
and  without scales; being rather large, and flattened
towards its anterior part.  The eyes  are  of  a middle
size, and are covered by the skin, which envelopes the
whole head. Each jaw is armed with a great number of
small t: eth. About the mouth it has  six filamentous ap-^
pendices, viz.  four from the under lip, and two from the
upper; the two external ones, or farthermost from the
mouth on the upper lip,  are  the longest. The colour of
the body is grcyis?!-  and towards the tail it  has  some
blackish spots.                       ^              •
   The electric organ seems to be towardtuc ™"* Y„j
the skin is thicker than  on the  rest of the bouy; aHw *
whitish fibroussubstvnee, which is probably tllS electric
organ,  has been distinguished under it.
   It is said  that the siluris electricus has the property of
giving a shock or benumbing sensation, like the torpedo,
and that this shock is communicated through substances
that are conductors of electricity. No other particular
seems to be known concerning it.
   Nature seems to have given tliese fishes the singular
power of giving the shock for the purpose of securing
their prey, by  which they must  subsist; and perhaps
likewise  for the purpose of repelling larger animals,
which  might otherwise annoy  them. The power with
which they are endued seems more to  correspond with
Galvanism (which is doubtless a species of electricity)
than with common electricity. See Galvanism.
   The ancients considered the shocks of  the torpedo as
capable of curing various disorders; and a modern philo-
sopher  will  hardly hesitate to credit their  assertions,
since electricity has been found to be.an useful remedy
in several cases.
   A fourth fish,  said to give shock* like the above-men-
tioned,  was  found  on  the coast of Johanna, one of the
 Comoro islands, in lat. 12° 13' south, by lieutenant now
col. William Paterson, and an imperfect account of it is
given in the 76th volume of the Philosophical Trans-
actions.
   a The fish is described to be seven inches long, two and
a half broad;  has a long projecting mouth, and seems
of the genus tetrodon. Tho back of the  fish is a dark-
brown colour, the belly  part of a sea-green,  the sides
yellow,  and  the  fins and tail ofa sandy-green. The bo-
dy is interspersed with  red, green, and wliite spots, the 
£ L E
£ L E
white  ones  particularly  bright; the eyes large, the iris
rem, ite outer edges tinged with yellow."
  Whilst this fish is living, strong shocks, like electri-
cal shocks,  are felt  by a  person who attempts to  hold it
between his hands.   Three persons only are mentioned
•in the  account as  having experienced this property of
oneof those fishes;  but the want of opportunity prevent-
ed the trial of farther experiments.
  ELECTUARY, in pharmacy, a form in which  both
officinal and extemporaneous medicines  are frequently
made.  See Pharmacy.
  ELEGIAC, in ancient poetry, any thing belonging to
elegy.
  Elegiac verses are alternately hexameter and penta-
meter, as in the following verses of Ovid:
         Flebilis indignos, elegeia, solve oapillos:
         Ah! nimis ex vero nunc tibi nomen erit.
   Sometimes,  though very rarely, the pentameter pre-
ceded  the hexameter, as  in the following verse of Atffc-
nanis:
         t.ui'atfjLUH  Kafitui  xtti, M<Aav<ra-©k» ityu
         &iitt( ayiaift; itpi/uttfitif ^Aot«t©w.

  Who was the inventor of elegiac poetry, is not known.
Horace professes himself quite ignorant of it. The prin-
cipal writers of elegiac verse, among the Latins,  were
Propertius, Ovid,  and  Tibullus, the latter of whom
Q^uinctilian esteems the best elegiac poet, but Pliny the
younger gives the preference to the first: the chief wri-
ters of elegy among the  Greeks were Callimachus,  Par-
thenius, and Eupborion.
  .ELEGIA, a genus of the dioecia triandria  class and
order. There is one species, a native ofthe Cape, wiiich
Jias tlie habit of a rush.
  ELEGIT, in law, a writ of execution, which lies for
a person who has  recovered  debt or damages; or  upon
a recognizance in any court, against a defendant that is
not able to  satisfy the same in his goods. It is directed to
the sheriff, commanding him to make delivery of a moiety
of the party's  lands, and all his  goods, beasts of the
plough excepted; this is done by a jury, summoned to
inquire what land the defendant had at the time of judg-
ment obtained; and the creditor, by virtue thereof, shall
hold the said moiety of  land  delivered to him, until his
whole debt and damages are paid and satisfied: and dur-
ing that time he is  tenant by  elegit. This writ ought to
be  sued out within  a  year and a day after the judgment.
All other writs of  execution  may be  good, though not
returned, except au elegit; but that  must  be  returned
when executed, because an execution is taken upon it,
and that the court may judge  of the sufficiency of it.
   ELEGY, a  mournful  and plaintive kind of poem. See
Poetry.
   ELEMENT,  in physiology, a term used by philoso-
phers to denote the original component parts of  bodies,
or  those into which they are ultimately resolvable.
   It seems to  have been an  opinion established among
philosophers in the remotest  ages, that  there are only
f.ar simple bodies; namely, fire, air,  water, and earth.
To these they gave the name of elements, because they
believed that all  substances are composed of these four.
This opinion, variously modified indeed, was maintained
by all the ancient philosophers. WTe  now know that all
these supposed elements are compounds: fire is compos-
ed of caloric and light; air of caloric, oxygen, and azotic.
gases; water of oxygen and hydrogen; and the earth in-
cludes nine different substances.
  The doctrine of the four elements seems to have con-
tinued undisputed till tie time of the alchemists. These
men having made themselves  much better acquainted
with th* analysis of bodies than the ancient philosophers
had been, soon perceived that the common doctrine was
inadequate to explain all the appearances that were fami-
liar to them. They substituted a theory of their own in
its place.  According to them, there  are three elements
of which all bodies are composed; namely, salt, sulphur,'
and mercury, which they  distinguish by the  appellation
of the tria prima.  These principles were  adopted by
succeeding writers,   particularly  by  Paracelsus, who
added two more to  their  number; namely, phi gm and
caput mortuum.
  It is  not easy  to say what the  alchemiwts meant by
salt, sulphur, and mercury; probably they had  fixed no
precise  meaning to the words. P^very thing which is fix-
ed in the fire they seem to  have called salt, every inr
flammable  substance they  called sulphur,  and  everv
substance wbich flies  off without burning was mertain".
Accordingly they tell us, that all bodies may by fire \Tc
decomposed into these three principles; the salt remains
behind fixed,  the sulphur takes fire, and the  mercury
flies off in the form of smoke. The phlegm and caput
mortuum of Paracelsus were the water and earth ofthe
ancient philosophers.
  Mr.  Royle  attacked this  hypothesis in bis Sceptiral
Chemist, and  in several of his other publications; prov-
ing that the chemists comprehended under  each of the
terms salt, sulphur, mercury, phlegm, and earth, substan-
ces of very different  properties; that there is no proof
that all bodies are composed of these principle • and that
these principles themselves are not elements but coin-
pounds. The refutation of Mr. Boyle was so complete,
that the hypothesis  ofthe tria prima seems to have been
almost immediately abandoned by all parties.
  Meanwhile  a very  different  hypothesis was proposed
by Beccher in  his Physica Subterranea; an hypothesis to
which we are indebted for the present state ofthe science,
because he first pointed out chemical analysis as the true
method of ascertaining the elements of bodies. Accord-
ing to him, all terrestrial bodies are  composed of water,
air, and three earths; namely, the fusible, the inflamma-
ble or sulphureous,  and the mercurial. The three earths,
when they  are combined in nearly equal proportions,
compose tbe metals; when  tbe proportion ol mercurial
earth is very small, they  compose stones; when the fu-
sible predominates, the resulting compounds  are the pre-
cious stones;  when the sulphureous predominates, and
the fusible is deficient, the  compounds are the calorific
earths:  fusible earth and water compose a universal acid,
very  much resembling sulphuric  acid, from which all
other acids derive  their  acidity;  water, fusible earth,
and mercurial earth,  constitute common  salt; sulphure-'
ous earth, and  the universal acid, form sulphur.
  Stahl modified the theory of Beccher considerably.
He seems to have admitted  the universal acid as an el-
ement;  the mercurial earth  he at  last discarded altoge-
ther; and to tlie  sulphureous earth  he sometimes gave 
asMSMENT,
the  name  of phlogiston,  sometimes of ether.  Earths
he considered as of different kinds, but containing all
a certain element called earth.   So that, according to
him, there are  five elements;  air, water, phlogiston,
earth, and the universal  acid.   He speaks too of heat
and light,  but it is not clear what his opinion was re-
specting them.
  Stahl's theory was gradually  modified  by succeeding
chemists. The universal acid was tacitly discarded, and
the different known acids were considered as distinct un-
deceimposcd or simple substances:  the different earths
were distinguished from each other, and all the metallic
calces were considered as distinct substances. For these
changes chemistry  was chiefly   indebted to Bergman.
\VhUe the French and German  chemists were occupied
with theories about the universal acid, that illustrious
philosopher, and his immortal friend and fellow-labourer
Scheele, loudly proclaimed the necessity of considering
every ^decomposed body as simple till it has been de-i
composed,  and  of distinguishing all  those substances
from each other which possess distinct properties.  These
cautions, and the consequent arrangement of chemical
bodies into distinct classes by Bergman,  soon attracted
attention, and were at last tacitly acceded to.
  Thus the elements of Stahl were in fact banished from
the science of chemistry, and in  place of them were sub-
stituted a great number of bodies which were considered
as simple,  because they had not been analysed.   These
were phlogiston, acids, alkalies, earths, metallic calces,
water, and oxygen.  The  rules established by Bergman
and Scheele are still followed; but subsequent discoveries
have shown that most  of  the bodies  which  they consi-
dered as simple are compounds; while several of their
compounds are now placed among simple bodies, be-
cause the belief in  the existence of phlogiston, which
they considered as a component  part of these bodies* is*
now discarded.
  As  the  term  simple substance in  chemistry means
notliing more than a body wh»«c' component  parts are
unknown, it cannot be doubted that, as the science ad-
vances towards perfection, many of those bodies which
we consider at present as elementary will  be decompos-
ed, and most probably a new set of elementary bodies
will come into view, of which we are  at  present igno-
rant.  These may be decomposed in their turn, and new
simple bodies discovered;  till at  last, when the science
reaches the highest point  of perfection,  those  really
simple and elementary bodies will  come into view of
which all substances are  ultimately  composed.   When
this happens, (if it is not above the reach  of the human
intellect) the number of simple substances will probably
be much smaller than  at  present.  Indeed  it has been
the opinion of many distinguished philosophers in all ages,
that there is only one kind of matter;  and that the  dif-
ference which we perceive between bodies  depends upon
varieties in the figure, size, and density ofthe primary
atoms when grouped together. This opinion was adopt-
ed by Newton, and Boscovich has built upon it an  ex-
ceedingly ingenious and instructive theory..
  >V> must observe, however, that this 'pinion is mere
hypothesis, wholly unsu-.p >rted by fact  and experiment;
and indeed  all experime-nt m;.y   <»«• said  hitherto to be
directly against it.  In the present state of science, the
following may  be regarded as simple or elementary
substances, and we have little doubt that many  of them
will ultimately prove such.
   Dr. Thomson makes out the  number of simple sub-
stances at present known to be  about 33, and these he
divides into two classes.  The  bodies belonging to the
first class can be confined in proper vessels, anil exhib-
ited in a separate state; these he calls confutable bodies.
Those which belong to tbe second class are of too sub-
tile a nature to be confined by any vessels that we pos-
sess:  they  cannot therefore  be  exhibited in  a separate
state, and their existence is inferred  merely from certain
phenomena, which the first  class  of  bodies  and their
compounds exhibit in particular  circumstances; these he
denominates unconfinable bodies.   It  is evident that a
person  must be acquainted  with the properties  of the
first  set of bodies  before he can investigate  the se-
cond.  .

              Table of simple substances.
I.  Confutable bodies.
1.
2. Simple combustibles
3. Simple incombustibles

4. Metals
Alkalies
Earths
  The vegetable and min-
eral alkalies, and some of
the earths,  are supposed
to be  compounds,  though .
they have not yet been an-"^
alyzed: these of  course,
belong to the first class,
viz. confinable  bodies.
 Oxygen
 Sulphur
 Phosphorus
  Carbon or Diamond
  Hydrogen
  Azote or Nitrogen
  Muriatic acid
  G;>id
  Platinum
  Silver
  Mercury
  Copper
  Iron
  Tin
  Lead
 Nickel
  Zinc
  Bismuth
  Antimony
  Tellurium
  Arsenic
  Cobalt
  Manganese
  Tungsten
  Molybdenum
 Uranium
  Tilanium
  Chromium
 Columhium
 Tantalium
 Potas  f or vegetable and
 Soda  \ mineral alkalies-.
 "Barytes
 Strontian
 Lime
 Magnesia
 Alumina
 Yttria
 Glucina
 Zirconia
w Silica. 
                       E  L E            -    __

              If.  JJnconfinable bodies.
                          Light
                          Caloric
                          Electricity
                          Magnetism.

  ELENCIIUS, in logic,  a sophism, or fallacious  ar-
gument, which deceives the bearer  under the appear-
ances of truth.
  ELEPIIAS, the elephant, a genus of the mammalia
class, of the order bruta.  The generic character is,
cutting-teeth none in either jaw; tusks in the upper jaw;
proboscis very long, prehensile; body nearly naked.
  1. The elephas maximus, the great  elephant.  The
stupendous size- strength,  and segacity of the elephant,
have, in all ages, rendered  it the admiration of man-
kind.  Though possessed of power superior  to every
other quadruped, it is guiltle.?* of unprovoked  violence,
and wanders about the woods 01' Asia  and Africa in  a
state of majestic  mildness.   Elephants are  naturally
gregarious.  Large troops assemble together, Zul\ live
in a kind of society. They feed only on vegetables. The
elephant is  generally of a deep ash-coloured brown, or
^e.aiiy  blackish;  but in some parts of India it is said to
be found, though very rarely, of a white colour. In the
young animals the tusks are not visible: in the more ad-
vanced state of growth they are extremely conspicuous:
 and in the full-grown  animal they advance several feet
from the mouths  of their  sockets:  it is but rarely that
the tusks are seen in the females; and when they appear,
they are but small, and their direction  is rather down-
 wards than upwards:  this is also the case in some spe-
 cimens of the male elephant, so that there appears to be
 some  variation in  this respect in different individuals.
 Tusks have  sometimes been seen  upwards of ten  feet
 long; particularly from tlie  Mosambique and Cochin-
 china.
   The teeth which are imported into Europe are gener-
 ally from Africa,  where they are frequently found in the
 Woods.^ Instances have sometimes  occurred, in which,
 on sawing 2, tooth, a hrass bullet has been  found com-
 pletely imbedded in the  central, part of ihe tooth; the
 ivory having gradually grown over it,  and inclosed it.
   The elephant is undoubtedly the largest of all terres-
 trial animals, arriving at  the  height of twelve feet,
 though the more general height seems  to be from nine
 to ten feet.  Elephants are commonly found in the midst
 of shady woods, being equally averse to extreme heat
 as to cold: they delight in cool spots,  near rivers,  and
 frequently bathe themselves in the water, and even  roll
 in the mud.  They are also capable of swimming with
 great ease.  Their general food consists of the tender
 branches of various trees, as well as of grains and fruits.
 It is for this reason that their incursions are  so much
 dreaded in plantations of  various kinds, where they are
 said occasionally  to commit the most  violent depreda-
 tions;  at the same time, injuring the crops by trampling
 the ground with  their vast feet.   The trunk of the ele-
 phant  may justly be considered as one of themirades  of
 nature; being at once the  organ of  respiration, and the
 instrument  by which  the animal  supplies  itself with
 food; conveying whatever it eats into the mouth by its
  .   ----           ELE

assistance. By this instrument also it drinks; first suck-
ing up the water by the trunk, and then pouring it into
the mouth.  This wonderful organ is composed of a vast
number of flexible rings; and consists of a double tube,
with a somewhat flattened circular tip, fumished with a
projecting point, or fleshy  moveable  hook,  of extreme
sensibility, and with which it can pick  up the smallest
object at pleasure.  The trunk, being flexible in  all di-
rections, perforins the office of a hand and arm.  On its
umber surface itis somewhat flattened, and is circularly
formed on the upper.  At the end of  the trunk are situ-
ated the nostrils.   The  teats  of the female elephant are
two in number, and are situated at a small distance  be-
hind the fore-legs.  The eyes are extremely siiw'1,  *|--
ears  very large-  somewhat irregularly waved  on  tile
edges, and pendulous.  In each jaw are f<*»» '---   1
flat grinding  teeth, with the upper  surfaces "fU&, and
scored or  striated  with numerous transverse fjvrows#
In   the   upper  jaw  are  the two  tusks  before   de-
scribed.   The form of the  whole animal is extremely
awkward; the head very large, the body very thick, the
back greatly arched;.the legs extremely thick, very short;
and the feet slightly divided into, or  rather edged with'
five rounded hoofs; the tail is  of a moderate length, aud
is terminated  by a few scattered hairs, of great thick-
ness, and of a black colour: the skin has a  fcw thinly
scattered hairs or bristles dispersed over it, and which
are somewhat more numerous about the head.
   The tales related of the sagacity of the elephant are,
m all probability,  somewhat exaggerated, and must con-
sequently be received  with  a  degree  of limitation:  but
there is no reason to doubt that they are possessed  of a
greater degree of intelligence than most other quadru-
peds  (the dog excepted); and that, when in a state of do-
jyestication, they may be taught to perform many opera-
tions, inquiring not only strength, but skill in their exe-
cution. It appear*, from the most authentic information,
that they are highly atiarhed to those who have them un-
der their care: that they are grateful for attentions shown
them, and mindful  of  any  injury  received;  which they
generally find some means of  retaliating.  Some elegant
anecdotes of this kind are  related by Plfny;  and the la-
borious Aldrovandus has collected many  others.  The
celebrated story  of the  taylor of  Delhi is a remarkable
example of the elephant's sagacity.  In that  city an ele-
phant, passing along  the streets, put his trunk into a
taylor*s shop, where several people were  at work: one
of them pricked the end of the trunk with  his needle:
the elephant  passed  on; but  in  the  first dirty puddle,
filled his trunk with the water, and returning, squirted
every drop among the  people who had offended  him,
and spoiled the rich garments they were at work upon.
   It is said that elephants have been taught  to  lade
vessels with  goods, which  they  have stowed in proper
order, and with much address.
   The Indian elephants, but more especially those of
the island of  Ceylon, excel the African elephants in
size  and strength.  Those of India  are said to carry
with ease three* or four thousand  weight.   In  a state
of nature they use the  tusks for tearing up trees, and
the trunk for breaking  the brandies.  It has been af-
firmed that they run  as swift as a  horse  can  gallop;
but Mr. Pennant assures  us, that what has been said 
ELEPHANT.
on this subject is a  mistake; and that a nimble Indian
can easily outstrip them.
  The contrivances for taking elephants are various.
The Ceylonese sometimes surround the woods in bands,
and drive with lighted torches, and all manner of noises,
the elephants which inhabit them, till they are at length
entrapped into a particular spot surrounded with pali-
sades,  so as to prevent all escapes.   At  other times a
kind of decoy, or female elephant, is sent out in  order
to induce some of the males to pursue her, who  are by
this means secured.   When a wild elephant is taken, it
still remains to reduce it to a quiet state; and to tame it,
in order to  be made useful: this is effected by throwing
ropes round the legs  and body, which arc well secured;
and two tame elephants, properly instructed, are placed
on each side.  The captive animal finds himself gradually
so fatigued by bis ineffectual  struggles, and so  much
soothed by the caresses occasionally  given by the trunks
of the tame elephants, by the food from time to time pre-
sented to him, and the water with which he is refreshed
by pouring it over him, that in the space of some days
he becomes completely tame, and is placed with the rest
of the domesticated troop.  Sometimes, in order to sub-
due them the  more effectually, they are deprived of sleep
for a considerable time.
   Great  care is taken by  the grandees of India in the
 management  and decoration  of their elephants; which,
 after their daily feeding,  bathing, oiling, and rubbing,
 are often painted about the head and ears with  various
colours, and their tusks are surrounded with rings of
 gold or silver: and when employed in processions,  &e.
tbey are clothed in the  most sumptuous trappings.
   By the ancient  Indians they were much used  in war;
 and we are told that Poms, the Indian monarch, opposed
 the passage of Alexander over the Ilydaspes  with eigh-
 ty-five elephants.  Buffon also  imagines that some of
 the elephants which were taken  by Alexander, and sent
 into Greece, were employed  by Pyrrhus against the Ro-
 mans. The Romans  received their elephants  from Afri-
 ca, and that  in great  numbers; since  it appears that
 P.nnpcy  entertained  the people with a show of eighteen
 in the'space of five days,  which were  all destroyed in
 conflicts with armed men.  Fifty lions were also exhibited
 in the same space. The crying and distress of the wound-
 ed elephants are said to have excited much coinmissera-
 tion among the Roman people.   It is highly remarkable,
 if true, that the  young elephants do not attach  tliem-
 selves to their dams in particular, but  suck  indiscrimi-
 nately the females of the whole herd. Mr. Bruce, bow-
 ever, in  his  Travels,  gives  a particular description of
 the more than common attachment of a young elephant
 to its dam, which  it endeavoured to defend, when wound-
 ed,  and  with much  fierceness  assaulted the invaders.
 The young elephants do not suck by the trunk, but by
 the mouth.
   The elephant brings only one young at a time;  very
 rarely two: the young  are about three feet high when
 they are first born, and continue growing till they are
 sixteen or twenty years old; they are said to  live a hun-
 dred, or a hundred and twenty years.
   In the Philosophical Transactions for  the year 1799,
 we find some curious particulars relative to the natural
 history of the elephant, by Mr.  Corse, whose residence
in India afforded him opportunities  of investigating the
subject with exactness.
  From these observations it  appears that something
must be subtracted from that elevated  character with
which this animal has been so frequently honoured; and
that neither its docility nor its memory can he allowed a
very  high  rank, when compared with  those of  some
other  animals: and that the scrupulous delicacy,  which,
as it  was pretended, forbade all public demonstrations
of its passions, is a mere fable.   A  female elephant has
also been known to forget her young one, after  having
been separated from it for the short space  of  only two
days, and to repel its advances. An elephant, also, which
had escaped from its confinement, has again suffered itself
to be trepanned, and reconducted to its state of captivity.
  Both  male  and female elephants, Mr. Corse informs
us, are divided by the natives of Bengal into two casts,
viz. the koomareab, and  the mergbee.  The first con-
sists of the large or full-bodied kind; the second of the
more slender, with longer legs and thinner trunk  in pro-
portion; it  is  also a taller animal, but not so strong as
the former.  A large trunk  is  always considered as a
great beauty in an elephant, so  that the koomareah  is
preferred not only on this account, but for  his superior
strength in carrying burthens, &c.  Many indistinct va-
rieties are again produced from the intermixture of these
two breeds.  The torrid  zone seems to  be  the natural
clime of the elephant, and  the  most favourable  for the
production  of  the largest and hardiest  race; and when
this animal migrates beyond the tropics, the species de-
generates.   On the coast of Malabar elephants are taken
as far north as the territories  of Coorgah  Rajah; but
these, according to Mr. Corse,  are much inferior to the
Ceylonese elephant.
  The tusks in some female elephants are  so  small  as
not to appear beyond the lip; whilst in  others they are
large and long, as in one variety ofthe male, called mook-
nah.  The grinders are so much alike in both sexes, that
one description may serve for both.   The largest tusks,
and from which the best ivory is supplied, are taken from
that kind of male elephant, called dauntelah, from this
circumstance,  in opposition to the mooknah, whose tusks
are not larger than those of some females.  An elephant
is said to be perfect when his ears are large and rounded,
not ragged  or indented  at the  margin: his eyes of a
dark  hazel-colour,  free  from  specks:  the  roof of  his
mouth and  his tongue without dark  or blackish spots of
any considerable size: his truuk large: his tail  long,
with a tuft of  hair reaching nearly te*the ground. There
must  be five nails in each of his fore-feet, and four  on
each of the hind ones: his head well set on, and  carried
rather high: the arch or curve  of his back rising gra-
dually from the shoulder to the  middle, and thence de-
scending to the insertion of the tail; .md all his joints firm
and strong.   In one vaiiety of the elephant the  tusks
point downwards, projecting only a little way  beyond
the trunk.   The tusks in elephants are  fixed very deep
in the upper jaw; and the root, or upper part, which  is
hollow, and filled with a core, goes as high as the inser-
tion of  the trunk, round  the margin of the  nasal open-
ing of the throat;  which opening is just below the pro-
tuberance  of  the forehead.  Through tlie  opening the
elephant breathes, and by its means he sucks  up water 
E L E
ELI
into his trunk;  between it and the roofs of the tusks
there is only a thin bony plate. The first or milk-tusks
of an elephant never grow to any considerable size, but
are shed between the first and second  year,  when not
two inches in length. The time at which the tusks cut
the gum  varies considerably; sometimes a young  ele-
plmur has his tusks at five months old, and sometimes
not till seven. Even in a foetus which has arrived at its
full time, these deciduous tusks are formed.  A young
elephant shed one of his milk-tusks the 6th  of  Novem-
ber, 1790; when about thirteen weeks old; and the other
on  the 7th of December,  when above  four months old.
Two months  afterwards  the permanent ones cut the
gums, and on the 19th of April, 1791, they were an inch
lorg.  Another  young elephant did not shed his milk-
tusks till he was sixteen months old, which proves that
the time of this process varies considerably'. The perma-
nent tusks of the female are very  small, compared with
those of the male:  and do not take their rise so deep in
the jaw. The largest elephant-tusks Mr.  Corse  ever
saw in Bengal, did not exceed the weight of seventy-two
pounds  avoirdupois: at Tiperah  they seldom exceed
fifty-two pounds each. Both these weights are very infe-
rior to that of the tusks brought from other parts to the
India-house, where some have weighed  150 pounds each.
These, Mr. Corse suspects, were from  Pegu. The Afri-
can elephant is said to be  smaller than the  Asiatic: yet
the ivory-dealers  in London affirm that  the largest
tusks come from Africa, and  are of a better texture, and
less liable to  turn yellow,  than the Indian ones. The in-
crease of the tusks arise from circular layers of ivoryr,
applied internally, from the  core on  which they  are
formed; similar to what happens in the horns of some
animals. See plate L. Nat. Hist. fig. 17G.
  2. The sukotyro.  That we may not seem to neglect
so  remarkable an animal, though hitherto so very im-
perfectly known, we shall here introduce the sukotyro.
This, according to Niewhoff, its only describer, and who
has figured it in his travels to the East  Indies, is a quad-
ruped ofa very singular shape. Its size is that of a large
ox; the  snout like that of a bog; the  ears round  and
rough; and the tail thick and bushy.  The eyes are plac-
ed upright in the head, quite differently from  those of
other  quadrupeds.  On each  side the head, next to the
eyes, stand the horns, or rather teeth, not quite so thick
as those of an elephant. This  animal feeds upon herbage,
and is  but seldom taken.  It  is a native of  Java, and is
called by the Chinese sukotyro. This is all the descrip-
tion given  by Niewhoff. The figure is  repeated  in
Churchill's Collection of Voyages and Travels, vol. ii. p.
360. Niewhoff was  a Dutch  traveller, who  visited the
East  indies  about the  middle of  the 16th century, viz.
about the year 1563, and  continued his  peregrinations
for several years. It must be  confessed, that some of the
figures introduced into his works are not remarkable for
their accuracy.
  Elephant, knights of the, an order  of knighthood in
Denmark, conferred upon none but persons of  the first
quality and merit. It is also called the  order of St. Ma-
ry. Its institution is said to have been owing to a gentle-
man among the Danish croisees  having killed an  ele-
phant, in an expedition against the Saracens, in 1184; in
memory of which  king Cauutus instituted this order,
the badge of which i.3 a towered elephant, with an imaai
ofthe Holy Virgin  incircled with rays, and hung on a
watered ^ky-coloured ribbon, like the  George in En*.
land.                                             s"
  ELEPHANTIASIS, called also the  lepra of the Ara-
bians, in medicine, a chronical  disease, owe of the  two
species of leprosy, which affects the whole body, where
even the bones as well as  the  skin  are covered  with
spots and tumours,  which being red, at last turn black
See Medicine.
  ELEPHANTINE, in Roman antiquity, an  appclla-
tion given to the books in which were registered  the
transactions of the  senate and magistrates of Rome  of
the emperors or generals of armies, and even of the pro-
vincial magistrates; the births and classes of the people
and other things  relating to the census. They  are sup'
posed to  have been so called  as being made of ivory
though some will have them to have been written on the'
intestines of the elephants.
  ELEPHANTOPUS, hastard-scabius, in botany, a
genus  of the syngenesia polygamia segregata class of
plants, the compound flower  of which is tubulose, con-
sisting of four or five hermaphrodite and ligulated corol-
lulse, with a narrow limb, divided into five nearly equal
segments: the stamina are five very short filaments: the
seeds are solitary, and  contained in the cup, being ofa
compressed figure, and crowned  with bristly hairs. There
are four species,  herbaceous plants ofthe East and West
Indies.
  ELEVATION, angle of, in gunnery, that  compre-
hended between the horizon and the line of direction of
a cannon or mortar; or it is that wbich the chase of a
piece, or the axis of its  hollow cylinder, makes  with the
plane ofthe horizon.
  Elevation, in architecture, the same with an ortho-
graphic or upright draught ofa building.
  Elevation of the host, in the'church of Rome, that
part of the mass where the priest raises the host above
his head  for the people to adore.
  ELEVATOR, the name of several muscles. See Ana-
tomy.
  ELEVATORY,  elcvatorium, in surgery, an  instru-
ment  for raising depressed or fractured  p:>rts of the
scull, to be applied  after the integuments and perioste-
um are removed. See Surgery.
  ELEUSIMA, in Grecian antiquity, a festival kept
in honour of Ceres, every fourth by some states, but by
others  every fifth year. The Athenians celebrated it at
Eleusis,  a town of Attica, whence the naiae. It was ce-
lebrated with much ceremony, and persons of both sexes
were initiated  in it: it being deemed  impious to neglect
doing so. The mysteries were of two  sorts, the lesser
and the greater; of which  the  former  were sacred  to
Proserpine, Cercs's daughter,  and the latter  to Ceres
herself.
  ELEUTHERIA, another festival celebrated at Pla-
tsea, by  delegates from  almost  all the cities of  Greece,
in honour of Jupiter Eleutherius, or the assertor of liber-
ty. It was instituted in  memory of tbe  victory  obtained
by the Grecians, in the territories of Plat«a, over Mar-
donius, the Persian general left by Xerxes with a migh-
ty army  to subdue Greece.
  ELIGIBILITY, in  the Romish canon law, a bull
; 
ELL
E L  0
granted by the pope to certain persons, to qualify them
to  be  chosen to an  office, or dignity,  whereof they
were before incapable  by want of age, birth, or  the
like.
  ELISION, in grammar, the cutting off or suppressing
a vowel  at the end of a word for the sake of sound or
measure, the next word beginning with a vowel. Elisions
are pretty frequently met  with in  English poetry,  but
more frequently in Latin, French, <Stc. They chiefly con-
sistin suppressions ofthe a, e, and i,  though elision sup-
presses any of the other vowels: in the  following exam-
ple from Virgil there are three elisions:
          Phillida amo ante alias.
   ELIXIR, in medicine, a compound tincture extracted
from many efficacious ingredients.  Hence the difference
between a tincture and an elixir seems to be this, that a
tincture is drawn from  one ingredient, sometimes with
an addition of another  to  open it,  and to  dispose it to
yield to the menstruum; whereas an elixir is  a tincture
extracted from several ingredients at the same time. See
 Pharmacy.
   ELL, a measure of length,  different in different coun-
 tries; but the English ell is chiefly used in this country,
 which is equal to five quarters, or to a yard and  a quar-
 ter. In Scotland the ell  contains 37T%- English inches.
   ELLIPSIS, in geometry, a curve line returning into
 itself, and produced from the section of a cone by a plane
 cutting both its  sides, but  not  parallel to the base. Sec
 Conic Sections, and Mensuration.
   Ellipsis,  in grammar, a figure in syntax in which
 one or more words are  not expressed; and from  this  de-
 ficiency it has got the name ellipsis. To  this figure,  be-
 sides the ellipsis properly so  called,  belong apposition,
 synecdoche, asyndeton, zeugma, syllepsis, and prolepsis.
 The ellipsis is  when the  deficient word or words must
 be supplied from elsewhere; as Hectoris Andromache,
 where uxor is understood;  that is, Andromache Hector's
 wife.
   Ellipsis, in rhetoric, a figure nearly allied to prete-
 ntion,  when the orator, through transport of passion,
 passes  over many things, wiiich, had  he been  cool,
 ought to have been mentioned.
   ELLIPTIC, or Elliptical, something bdonging to
 an ellipsis.  Thus we meet  with elliptical compasses, el-
 liptic conoid, elliptic  space, elliptic stairs, kc. The el-
 liptic space is the area contained within the curve ofthe
 ellipsis, which is to that  of  a circle described  on  the
 transverse axis, as the conjugate diameter is to the trans-
 verse axis; or it is a mean proportional between two cir-
 cles, described on the conjugate and transverse axes.
   ELLIPTOIDES, in  geometry, a name used by some

 to denote infinite ellipses, defined by the equation ay  +

 ~bxm (a—x  M#  Of these  there arc several sorts: thus,
 dayi~bx-(a—x) it is acubical ciliptoid: and if ay*=bx2
 (a—*)*, it denote s a biquadratic  elliptoid, which is  an
 ellipsis of the third order in  respect of  the Apollonian
 dlijisis.
   ELLISIA, a  genus of the  monogynia order, in  the
 pentandria class of plants; and  in the natural  method
 ranking under the 28th order, lurid*. The corolla is
 monopetalous and funnel-shaped; the  berry carnous and
 bilocular;  there are two  seeds muricatcd or set with
   rat,  i.                    115
small raised points, the one higher than the other. There
is one species, an annual plant of Virginia.
   ELOGY, or Eulooy, elogium,  a praise or panegyric
bestowed on  any  person or  thing,  in  consideration of
its merit. The beauty of elogy consists in an expressive
brevity.  Elogiums should not have so much as ene epi-
thet properly so called, nor two words rynunymous.
They should  strictly adhere  to truth: for extravagant
and improbable elogies rather lessen the character of the
person or thing they would extol.  See Rhetoric.
   ELOINED, in  law, signifies restrained or hindered
from doing something; thus it is said, that if those within
age are  eloined, so that they cannot  sue  personally,
their next friend shall sue for tliein.
   ELONGATION, in astronomy,  the  digression or
recess of a planet  from the sun, with respect to an eye
placed on our earth. The term is chiefly used in speak-
ing of Venus  and Mercury, the arch of a great circle in-
tercepted between  either of tliese  planets and the sun,
being called the elongation of that planet from the sun.
But  here it is to  be  observed, that it  is only a circle
which has the sun for its centre; that the greatest elon-
gation is in a line touching the planet's orbit. For in an
elliptic orbit it may be, that the elongation from the sun
may grow  still greater, even after it  has left the place
where the line joining the earth and  planet touches its
orbit.  For  after  that,  the true distance of the planet
from the sun may increase, whilst the  distance of the
sun and  planet from the earth does not  increase,  but
rather decrease. But because the  orbits  of  the planets
are nearly circular, such small differences may be  neg-
lected in  astronomy. The greatest elongation of Venus
is found  by observation to be about forty-eight degrees,
and the greatest elongation of Mercury  about twenty-
eight  degrees, upon which account this planet is rarely
seen with the naked eye.  See Astronomy.
   Elongation  is  also used for the difference in  motion
between the swiftest and the slowest of two planets, or
the quantity of space the  one has  passed beyond the
other.
   Elongation, angle of,  is an angle contained under
lines drawn from the centres of the sun and planet to the
centre of the earth.
   Elongation, in surgery,  is an imperfect luxation,
occasioned hythe stretching or lengthening of the liga-
ments of any joint.  See Surgery.
   ELOPEMENT, is when a married woman of her
own accord departs from her husband, and dwells with
an adulterer; for which without voluntary reconciliation
to the husband she shall lose her dower by the statute of
Westminster  ii. c. 34. If a  wife  willingly  leaves  her
husband, and goes away and continues with  avouter-
er, she shall be barred for ever of action to demand  her
dower that she oughtto have of her husband's lands, if she
is convicted thereof; except that her  husband willingly
and without coercion of the church, reconciles her,  and
suffers her to dwell with hiin; in which case, she shall be
restored  to her action. 13 Ed.  1.  st. i. c,  34.  Soc
Adultery.
   ELOPS, a genus of fishes ofthe order of abdominales.
of which there is but a single species, viz. the saurus, or
scar-fish, which inhabits  the coast of Carolina.  The
generic  character  is,  tail armed above  and beneath; 
E M B
E  M B
 body long, and differing from the salmon in wanting the
 fleshy badv-fin.  Head large, smooth, shining, compress-
 ed, ;vul flattened; eyes half-covered with the skin ofthe
 head; body slender, covered with  large angular scales;
 tail deeply cleft, with a bony scale or spine above and
-bejjeath before it.
   ETiYML'S, a genus of the digynia order, in the  tri-
 andria  class ;;r plants; and in the  natural method rank-
 ing under the fourth order, gramina.  The calyx is late-
 ral, bivalved, aggregate, and multiflorous.  There  are
 eleven  species,  known in-general by  the name of lyme
 grass; one or other of which may be found in most parts
 ofthe world.
   ELYSIUM, or Elysian Fields, in heathen mytho-
 logy, certain plains abounding with  woods, fountains,
 verdure,  and every d-iightful object; supposed to be the
 habitation of heroes and good men after death.  Accord-
 ing to some, the fable of Elysium is  of Phoenician  ex-
 traction,  or rather founded upon the account of Paradise
 delivered in the scriptures.
   EMANCIPATION,  in the  Roman law, the setting
 free a son from the subjection of his father; so that what-
 ever moveables he acquires, belong in propriety to  him,
 and not to bis father, as before  emancipation.   Emanci-
 pation  puts the son in capacity of managing his own af-
 fairs,  and of  marrying  without his father's consent,
 though a minor.  Emancipation differs from  manumis-
 sion, as the latter was the act of a master in favour of a
 Slave, whereas the former was that of a father in favour
 of his son.  There were twro kinds of emancipation: the
 one tacit, which was by the sen's being promoted to some
 dignity,  by his coming of age, or by his marrying, in all
 which cases he became his  own master of course;  the
 ether express, where the father declared before a judge,
 that he  emancipated his son.  In performing this,  the
 father was first to sell his son  imaginarily to another,
 whom they called  pater fiduciarius,  father in trust, of
 whom  being bought back again by the natural  father, he
 manumitted him before the judge, by a verbal declaration.
    EMBALMING, is the opening of a dead body, taking
 out the intestines, and filling the place with odoriferous
 and desiccative drugs and spices, to prevent its putrify-
 ing.  The Egyptians excelled all other nations in the
 art of preserving bodies from corruption; for some that
 they have embalmed upwards of 2000 years ago, remain
 whole to this day, and are often brought into other coun-
 tries as great curiosities.   Their manner of embalming
 was thus:  They scooped the brains with  an iron scoop
 out at the nostrils, and threw in medicaments to fill up the
 vacuum: they also took out the entrails, and having filled
 the  body with myrrh,  cassia,  and other spices, except
 frankincense, proper to dry up the humours, they pickled
 it in nitre, where it lay soaking for 70 days.  The body
 was then wrapped up in bandages of fine linen and gums,
 to make  it stick like glue, and so was delivered to the
 kindred  of the deceased, entire  in all its features, the
 very hairs of the eye-lids being preserved.  They  used
 to keep the bodies of their ancestors, thus  embalmed, in
 small  houses, magnificently  adorned, and took great
 pleasure in beholding them, without  any change in their
 size, features, or complexion.  The  Egyptians also em-
 balmed birds, &c.  The prices for embalming were dif-
 ferent: the highest  was a talent, the  next 20 minse, and
so decreasing to a very small waiter; but those who had
ir-»t whriewithai to answer this expense, contented them-
selves with infusing, by means of a syringe, through the
fundament,  a certain liquor extracted from the cedar,
and leaving it there, wrapped  up the body in salt of ni-
tre; the oil thus preyed upon the  iniestints,  so that when
they took it out, the intestines came away with it. dried,
and not in the leastputrified; the body  being inclosed in
nitre, grew  dry,  and nothing remained besides the skin
glued upon  the bones.
   The method of embalming used by the modern Egyp-
tians, according to Mail let, is to wash the  body several
times with rose water,  which, he  elsewhere observer,is
more fragrant  in that country than  with us; they after-
wards perfume it with incense, aloes, and a quantity of
other odours, of which they are by no  means sparing; and
then they bury the body in a winding-sheet, made partly
of silk and partly of cotton, and soaked, as is supposed,
with some sweet-scented water or liquid perfume, though
Maillet uses only the teem moistened: this tbey cover
with another cloth of unmixed cotton, to which they add
one of the richest suits of clothes of  the deceased.  The
expense,  he says,  on these occasions, is  very great,
though nothing like what  the genuine embalming cost in
former times.
   The principle of  embalming depends either  on the ab-
sorption of the fluids of the body, or  the impregnation of
them with some substance which will preserve the solids
from putrefaction. Hence, absorbing-powders have been
used, and also  nitre, which powerfully acts on the  flesh,
though, like all other saline matter, it tends  to prevent
the body from drying. Dr. Hunter recommended the in-
jecting of oil of turpentine impregnated with camphor
and other aromatic gums  into the blood-vessels, which is
a very  rational method.
   EMBARGO, in commerce,  an arrest on ships, or
merchandise, by public authority;  or a prohibition of
the state, commonly on foreign ships, in time of war, to
prevent their going out of port,  sometimes to prevent
their coming in, and sometimes both, for a limited time.
The king may lay  embargoes on ships, or employ those
 of his subjects, in time of danger, for service and defence
 ofthe nation; but they must not be for the private advan-
 tage of a particular trader or company, and tin-more a
 warrant  to stay a single  ship is no legal embargo.  No
 inference can be made from embargoes which are only
 in war-time, and are a prohibition by  advice of council,
 and not at prosecution of parties.  If goods are  laden
 on board, and after an embargo,  or restraint from the
 prince or state, comes forth, and  then the master of the
 ship breaks ground, or endeavours  to sail, if any  da-
 mage accrues, he must be responsible  for the same; the
 reason is,  because his freight is due, and must be paid,
 nay though the goods be  seized as contraband. Embar-
 go differs from quarantine, as this last is always for the
 term of forty days, in which persons from foreign parts
 infected  with the plague, are not permitted to come on
 shore.
   EMBASSADOR, or Amdassador, a public minister
 sent from  one sovereign prince, as a representative  of
  hs person, to  another.   Embassadors are either ordi-
 nary or extraordinary.   Embassador  in ordinary, is he
 who constantly resides in the court of another prince, tp 
E M B
E M B
maintain a good  understanding,  and attend to  the  in-
terest of his master.  Till about 200 years ago,  embas-
sadors in ordinary were not heard of: all, till then, were
embassadors extraordinary, that is, such as are sent on
some particular occasion, and who retire as soon as the
affair is despatched. By the law of nations, none under
the quality of a sovereign prince can send  or receive an
embassador.  At  Athens,  embassadors mounted the pul-
pit of the public orators, and there opened their commis-
sion, acquainting the people with their errand. At Home
they were introduced to the senate, and delivered their
commissions to them.
  Embassadors should never attend any public solemni-
ties, as marriages, funerals, kc.  unless their  masters
have some interest in it;   nor  must they go into mourn-
ing on any  occasions of  their own, because they repre-
sent the person of  their prince.   By the civil law, the
 moveable goods of an embassador,  which are  accounted
 an accession to his  person, cannot be seized on, neither
 as a pledge, nor for payment of a debt, nor by order or
 execution of judgment, nor by the king's or state's leave
 where he resides, as some conceive; for all actions ought
 to be far from an embassador, as well that which  touch
 his necessaries as his  person; if, therefore, he has con-
 tracted any debt, he is to be  called upon kindly, and if
 he refuses,  then letters of request are to go to his master.
 Nor can any of the embassador's domestic servants, that
 are  registered in the secretaries of state's office, be ar-
 rested in person  or goods; if they are, the process shall
 be void, and the  parties suing out and executing it, shall
 suffer and be liable to such  penalties and corporal pun-
 ishment as  the lord chancellor, or either of the chief jus-
 tices  shall think fit to inflict.  Yet embassadors cannot
 be defended when they commit any crime against that
 Btate,  or the person of the  prince, with whom they re-
 side; and if they air guilty of treason, felony, &c. or
 any other crime  against the law of nations, they lose the
 privilege of an embassador, and  may be subject to pun-
 ishment as  private  aliens.
   EMBER-wkeks, are those  wherein the ember or
 embring  days fall.  In  the  laws of king Alfred,  and
 those of Canute, those days are  called ymbren, that is,
 circular days, whence the word was probably corrupted
 into ember-days; by the canonists  they are  called qua-
 tuor anni tcnipora,  the four cardinal seasons, on  which
 the  circle of the year turns:  and hence Henshaw takes
 the word to have been formed, viz. by  corruption from
 temper or tempore. The ember  days are, the Wednes-
 day, Friday,  and  Saturday, after Quadragesima  Sun-
 day, after Whitsunday, after Holy-rood day in  Septem-
 ber, and after St. Lucia's day in December; which four
 times  answer well  enough to the  four  quarters of the
 year, spring, summer,  autumn,  and winter.  Mr. Som-
 ner thinks  they  were originally  fasts, instituted to beg
 God's blessing on the fruits of "the earth.  Agreeably to
 which, Skinner supposes  the word ember taken from the
 ashes, embers, then strewed on the head. These ember-
 Weeks are now chiefly taken notice of, on account ofthe
 ord nation of priests and  deacons; becans  tlie canon ap-
 points the  Sundays next succeeding  the ember-weeks,
 f'»r the solemn times of ordination; though the bisaops,
 if they please, may ordain on any  S inday or holiday.
  E.UBEU1ZA, in ornithology,  a genus of birds be-
longing to the order of passeres. The bill is conical, and
the mandibles recede from each other towards the base;
the interior  mandible has the sides  narrowed inwards,
but the upper one is still narrower.  There are 24 species,
of which the most remarkable are,
   1. The nivalis, or great pyed mountain-finch of Ray,
and the snow-bird of Edwards, it has white wings, but
the outer edges of the prime feathers are black; the tail
is  black, with three white feathers  on each  side.  These
birds are called in  Scotland snow-flakes, from their ap-
pearance in  hard weather and in deep snows.  They ar-
rive in  that season  among the Cheviot-hills  and in the
Highlands in amazing flocks.  A few breed in the High-
lands,  on the summit of the  highest hills, in the same
places with  the  ptarmigans;  but the greatest numbers
migrate from the extreme north.   They appear in the
Shetland islands, then in the Orkneys;  and multitudes
of them often fall,  wearied with their flight, on vessels
in the Pentland-frith.  Their appearance is a certain
forerunner of hard  weather, and storms of snow, being
driven by the cold from their common retreats.  Their
progress southward is probably thus; Spitzbergen and
Greenland,  Hudson's-bay, the Lapland Alps, Scandina-
via, Iceland, the Ferroe Isles, Shetland, Orkneys, Scot-
land, and tlie Cheviot-bills.   They  visit at that season
all parts of  the northern hemisphere, Prussia, Austria,
and Siberia.  They arrive lean, and return fat. In Aus-
tria they are caught and fed  with  millet, and, like the
ortolan, grow excessively fat. In their flights they keep
very close to each other, mingle most confusedly toge-
ther, and fling themselves collectively into the form of a
ball; at wiiich instant the fowler  makes great  havock
among them.  Sec Plate  L. Nat. Hist. fig.  179.
   2. The miliaris, or grey  emberiza, is  of a greyish
colour,  spotted with black in the bvily, and  the orbits are
reddish. It is the bunting of English authors, and a bird
of Europe.
   3. The hortulana, or ortolan, has black  wings; the
first three feathers on the tail are white on the edges,
only the two lateral are black outwardly.  The orbits of
the eyes are naked  and yellow; the head is greenish, and
yellow  towards the inferior  mandible.  It feeds  prin-
cipally  upon the millet, grows very fat, and is reckoned
a  delicate morsel by  certain epicures,  especially  when
fattened artificially. These birds  are found in  several
parts of Europe, but are not met with in  Britain; are
common in  France and  Italy, and some parts of Ger-
many and Sweden, migrating from one to the other in
spring and  autumn; and in tiieir passage are caught  in
numbers, in order  to fatten for the  table.  This species
will sometimes sing very prettily, and has  been kept for
that purpose.  The  song is not unlike that ofthe yellow-
hammer, but finer and sweeter.  In some parts it makes
the nest in a low hedge,  in others on the ground,  it is
car lessly constructed, not unlike that of the lark.  The
female  lays  four or five greyish eggs, and in general has
two broods in a year.  These birds  receive  both their
(ii-eek and  Latin name from  their food, the millet.  Aris-
totle calls them cy nchromi, and the Latins'miliariie.  The
latter  kept and fattened them  in their ornithones,  or
fowl-yards  as the Italians do at present.
   4. The ritrinrlla,  or yellow-hammer, has a blackish
tail, only the two  outward  side-feathers are marked »» 
E M B
E  M B
the inner edge with  sharp white spots.  It is a bird of
Europe, and conies about houses in winter; it builds its
nest in banks or on low fences.
  5. The schueniclas, or reed-sparrow, has a black head,
a blackish-grey  body, and  a white spot on  the  quill-
feathers.  It inhabits  marshy places, most commonly
among reeds, from which it takes its name. Its nest is
worthy of  notice for the artful contrivance of it,  being
fastened to four reeds, and suspended  by them  like a
hammock,  about three feet  above the water; the cavity
of the nest is deep, but narrow; and  the materials are
bushes, fine bents, and hairs.  It lays four or five eggs
of a blueish white, marked with irregular purplish veins,
especially  on the larger end.  It is a bird much admir-
ed for  its  song,  and like the nightingale  sings  in the
night.
   6. The oryzivora, or rice-bunting, with the head and
whole  under-side of the  body black;  hind part of the
neck in some pale yellow, and in others white; coverts of
the  wings and  primaries,  black, the last edged with
white; part of the scapulars, lesser coverts of the wings,
and rump, white; back black, edged with  dull yellow;
tail  ofthe  same  colours, and each feather sharply  point-
ed; the legs are  red.
   7. The cirlus is brown; breast spotted; eye-brows pale
yellow; the two  outmost tail-feathers with a white  wedg-
ed spot.  It  inhabits France and Italy, and feeds  on
seeds, woim , and insects.  See Plate L. Nat. Hist. fig.
177.
   8. The ciris; the head blue; belly orange; back green;
the feathers green-brown.  Inhabits South America; va-
ries in colour by age, sex,  or climate; builds in orange
groves. See fig. 178.
   These  birds  inhabit, in  vast numbers,  the island of
Cuba, where they commit great ravages among the ear-
ly crops of rite, which precede those of  Carolina. They
arrive very lean; but soon  grow so fat, as to  fly with
difficulty,  and when shot, often burst with the fall. They
continue in Carolina not much  above  three weeks, and
retire  by the time the rice begins to harden; going on to
other parts, and staying in  each only so  long as the rice
continues  green.  They  come  into  Rhode-island and
New York at the end of  April,  or the  second  week in
May,  frequenting the borders of fields, and live on  in-
sects,  kc. till the maize is fit for their palates,  when
they begin  by pecking holes in the  sides of the husk,
and after satiating themselves go on to  another,  which
leaves room for the rain to  get in, and effectually spoils
the  plants.  They continue there  during  the summer,
and breed, returning as autumn approaches to the  south-
ward.   The males and females do not arrive together;
the  females come first.  They are esteemed to be the
most delicate birds of those parts; and  the male is said
to have a  fine note.
   EMBEZZLEMENT.   By stat.  39 G. III.  c. 85,
for  protecting masters against  embezzlements by their
clerks, and  servants; servents or clerks, or persons em-
ployed for the purpose or in the capacity of servants or
clerks, who shall, by virtue of such employment,  re-
ceive or take into their  possession any money, goods,
bond,  bill, n >te,  banker's draft,  or other valuable secu-
rity or effects, for, or in the name, or on the account of,
Iheir master or employer^  and  who  shali fraudulently;
embezzle, secrete, or make away with the same, or any
part thereof; every such offender shall be deemed to have
feloniously stolen the same from his master or employer,
for whose use, or on whose account, the same was de-
livered to, or taken into the possession of such servant
clerk, or other person  so  employed,  although such mo-
ney, goods, bond, bill, note,  banker's  draft,  or other
valuable  security, was or were no otherwise  received
into the possession of his or their  servant, clerk, or
other person so employed; and every such offender, hia
adviser, procurer, aider,  or abettor, being thereof law-
fully convicted or attainted, shall be liable to be  trans-
ported to such part beyond the seas as his majesty, by
and with the  advice of his privy council, shall  appoint,
for any term  not exceeding fourteen years,  in the  dis-
cretion of the court before whom such offender shall be
convicted or adjudged.
   EMBLEM,  a kind of painted enigma,  or certain
figures painted or cut  metaphorically,  expressing some
action with reflections  underneath, wiiich  in a  measure
explain the sense of the device, and at the same time in-
struct us in some moral truth, or other matter of know-
ledge.   The emblem is somewhat plainer than the enig-
ma, and the invention  is more modern, it being entirely
unknown  to the  ancients.
   EMBLEMENTS,  signify the profits of land  sown;
but the word is  sometimes used more largely, for any
profits that arise and grow naturally from the ground,
as grass,  fruit,  hemp, flax,  kc Cowel.
   EMBRACERY, is an attempt to corrupt or influ-
ence a jury, or any way incline them to be more favour-
able to the one side than the other, by money, promises,
letters,  threats,  or persuasions;  whether the juror on
whom such attempt is made, gives verdict or not, or
whether the verdict given he true or false. 1 Haw. 259.
The punishment of an embracer,  or embraccor, is by
fine and  imprisonment; and  for the juror so embraced,
if it is by taking money, the punishment is (by  divers
statutes)  perpetual infamy,  imprisonment for a year,
and forfeiture of tenfold the value.  4 Black. 140.
   EMBOLISM1C, or  Intercalary, a termed  us-
ed by chronologistsin speaking of tbe additional months
and years, which they insert to bring the lunar  to the
solar year.  Since the common lunar year  consists of
12 synodic months, or 354 days nearly, and the solar
consists  of 365  days (omitting* the odd hours and min-
utes), it is plain that the solar year will exceed the lunar
by about  11 days; and consequently in the space of about
33 years  the beginning of the lunar year will be carried
through  all the seasons, and hence it is called the movea-
ble lunar year. This form of the year is used at this time
by the Turks and Arabians;  and because in  three yeais
time, the solar year exceeds the lunar by 33 days, there-
fore, to keep the lunar months in  the same seasons and
times of the solar year,  or near it, chronologists added
a whole  month to the  lunar  year every third year, and
so made it consist of  13  months;  this year  they called
the embolismic  year, and the additional month the em-
bolismic, or embolimean, or intercalary  month.  This
form of the year is called the fixed lunar year, and it
was used by  tiie Greeks  and Romans till the time of Ju-
lius Caesar.
   EMBOSSING, or  Imjbossing, in  architecture and 
E M E
E M E
trulptufe, the  forming or fashioning works in relievo,
whether cut with a chissel or otherwise.  Embossing is
a kind of sculpture, in which the figures  stick out from
the plane; and according as the figures are more or less
prominent, they arc said to be in alto, mezzo, or basso
relievo; or high, mean, or low relief.
  EMBOTHRUM,  a genus of  the class and order te-
trandria  monogynia.  The corolla is four-petalled; an-
thers sessile, sitting on the  tips of the petals;  follicle
round.  There are four species,  handsome shrubs  of
New Holland and  South America.
  EMBRASURE.  See Architecture.
  Embrasure, in fortification, a hole or aperture in a
parapet, through which the cannon are pointed to fire in-
to the moat or field.   Sec Fortification.
  EMBROCATION, in surgery and pharmacy, an ex-
ternal kind of remedy,  which consists in an irrigation
of the part affected,  with some  proper liquor, as oils,
spirits, kc by means of a woollen or linen cloth, or a
 spunge, dipped in  the same.  See Surgery.
   EMBROIDERY, a work in  gold or  silver,  or silk
thread, wrought  by  the needle  upon cloth, stuffs, or
muslin, into various figures.  In embroidering stuffs, the
 work is performed in a kind  of loom, because the more
 the piece is stretched, the easier it is worked. As to mus-
 lin,  tht>y spread it upon a pattern  ready  designed; and
 sometimes, before it is stretched upon the pattern,  it
 is starched,  to make it more easy  to  handle.  Embroi-
 dery on the loom is less tedious than the other, in which,
 while they work flowers, all the threads of the muslin,
 both lengthwise and  breadthwise,  must be. continually
 counted;  but on the other hand this last is much richer
 in points, and  susceptible of greater variety.   Cloths
 too much milled are scarcely susceptible  of this orna-
 ment,  and in  effect we seldom see them embroidered.
 The thinnest muslins are the best for this purpose,  and
 they arc  embroidered to the greatest perfection  in Sax-
 ony.  In  other parts of Europe,  however, they embroi-
 der very prettily, and especially in  France.
   There are several  kinds of  embroidery, as,  1. Em-
 broidery on the stamp, where the figures are raised and
 rounded, having cotton or parchment put under them to
 support them.  2. Low embroidery,  where the  gold and
 silver lie low upon the sketch, and  are stitched with silk
 of the same colour.   3. Guiniped embroidery: this is per-
 formed either in gold or silver; they first  make a sketch
 upon the cloth, then put on cut vellum, and afterwards
 sow on the gold and silver with silk-thread. In this kind
 of embroidery they often put gold and silver cord, tinsel,
 and spangles.  4.  Embroidery on both sides; that which
 appears on both sides, of the stuff. 5. Plain embroidery;
 where the figures  are flat and even, without cords, span-
 gles, or other ornaments.
   No foreign embroidery, or gold  or silver brocade,  is
permitted to be imported into England on pain of be-
ing seized and burned, and a penalty  of  100/. for each
piece.  No person is allowed to sell any foreign  embroi-
dery, gold or silver thread, lace, fringe, or brocade, or
make up the same into  any garment, upon pain of hav-
ing it burned, and penalty of 100/.
  EMBRYLLCUS.  See Midwifery.
  EMERALD, in natural  history,  a precious stone,
•f a green colour, and next in hardness to the ruby.
  This  stone has hitherto been  found almost  always
crystallized.  The primitive form of the crystals is a re-
gular six-sided prism; and the form of  its  particles is a
triangular  prism, whose  sides are square, and bases
equilateral  triangles.  The most common variety of its
crystals is the regular six-sided prism, sometimes  with
the edges ofthe prism, or ofthe bases, or the solid an-
gles,  or both wanting, and small faces in  their place.
The sides of the prism are generally channelled.
  Its  texture is foliated. Its fracture concboidal.  Causes
a double refraction.  Hardness  12.   Specific gravity
2.65 to 2.775.  Colour green.  Becomes electric by fric-
tion, but not  by heat.  Its powder does  not phosphoresce
when  thrown on a hot iron.  At 150° Wedge wood it melts
into an opaque  coloured  mass. According to Dolomieu,
it is fusible per se by the blowpipe.
  This  mineral was formerly subdivided  into two dis-
tinct  species; the  emerald, and beryl  or aqua marina.
Hauy demonstrated, that the emerald and beryl corre-
spond exactly  in  their  structure, and properties;  and
Vauquelin found that they  were composed of the same
ingredients;  henceforth, therefore, they must be consi-
dered as varieties ofthe same species.
  The variety called emerald varies in colour from the
pale to the perfect green.   It comes chiefly  from Peru;
some specimens have  been brought from Egypt. Dolo-
mieu found it in the granite of Elba.   When heated to
120° Wedgewood, it becomes blue, but recover* its co-
lour when cold. A specimen, analysed by Vauquelin, was
composed of
    64.60 silica
    14.00 alumina
    13.00 glucina
      3.50 oxide of chromium
      2.56 lime
      2.00 moisture, or other volatile ingredient
    99.66   #      See Beryl.
  The beryl is of *a mountain-green colour,  and  some*
times blue, yellow, and even white; sometimes different
colours appear in the same stone.  It is found in  Cey-
lon, different parts of India,  Brazil, and especially in
Siberia and Tartary, where its crystals are sometimes a
foot long.   A specimen of beryl, analysed by Vauquelin,
contained           69   silica
                    13   alumina
                      1   oxide of iron
                     0.5 lime
                    83.5
  It was by analysing this stone that Vauquelin disco-
vered the earth which he called glucina.
  Our jewellers distinguish emeralds into  two kinds,
the oriental and occidental: the emeralds  of the  East
Indies are evidently finer than those of any other part
of the world; but our  jewellers,  seldom meeting with
these, call the American emeralds the oriental, and usu-
ally sell crystals accidentally tinged  with green, under
the name of occidental  emeralds: these being  also the
most common, there has  grown  an  opinion among the
lapidaries, that the emerald is no harder than the  crys-
tal; because what they take to be the emeralds, are in
general only crystals,  Tho genuine emerald, in its most 
E M 0
E  M P
perfect state, is  perhaps the most beautiful of all the
gems; it is found of various sizes, but usually small; a
great number of them are met  with of about the six-
teenth part of an inch in diameter, and they are found
from this size to that of a walnut.
  EMERSION, in astronomy, is when any planet that
is eclipsed begins to emerge or get out of the shadow of
the eclipsing body.   It is also used when a star,  before
hidden  by the sun as being too near him, begins  to re-
appear or emerge out of his rays.  See Astronomy.
  EMERY, in natural history, a rich iron-ore found in
large masses, of no determinate shape or size, extremely
hard and very heavy.   It is usually of a dusky brownish-
red on the surface,  but when broken, is of a  fine, bright,
iron-grey, but not without some tinge of redness, and
is spangled all over with shining specks, which are small
flakes of a foliaceous talc, highly impregnated with iron.
It is also sometimes very red, and then usually contains
veins of gold.   It is imported from the island of Naxos,
where it exists in great abundance.  It is  opaque and
brittle;  its specific gravity is about four.  From the ana-
lysis of Mr. Tennant, it appears that emery, when freed
as much as possible from iron, is composed of
                      80 alumina
                       3 silica
                       4 iron
                      87.
   This analysis corresponds very  nearly  with that of
the imperfect corundum.
   Emery is prepared for the manufacturers by grinding
in mills, and the powder is separated into parcels of dif-
ferent degrees of fineness by washing; these  are called
the first, second,  and third sort; the  first  being that
which remains longest suspended in water, the others,
such  as sink sooner from the same  liquor, and from
which it is poured, while yet turbid,  to settle  for  the
finer kind.   These several sorts are of g^at use to va-
rious artificers  in  polishing and  burnishing iron and
steel  works, marble, cutting and scalloping glass, &c.
The  lapidaries cut the ordinary gems on  tiieir wheels,
by sprinkling the wetted pow7der over them,  the wheels
they use being usually of lead, with  a small admixture
•f pewter, that their softness may admit the  emery  the
better.   It will not cut diamonds.
   EMETIC, a medicine wiiich induces vomiting.  See
Pharmacy.
   EMINENCE, in the military art, a high  or rising
ground, which overlooks and commands the  low places
about it; such places within cannon-shot of  a  fort are
a great disadvantage; for if the besiegers  become mas-
ters of them, they can thence fire into the fort.
  EMIR, a title of dignity among the  Turks, signify-
ing a prince, which was  first given  to the  caliphs, but
wiien they assumed the title of sultans, that of emir re-
mained to their children, as that of Caesar among the
Romans.  At length the title became attributed to all
who were judged to descend from Mahomet by bis daugh-
ter Fatimah, and who wear the green turban instead  of
the white.   The Turks also call the viziers, bashaws,
•r governors of provinces, by this name.
  EMOLIENTS, in medicine and pharmacy, are such
remedies as  sheath  and soften the asperity of the hu-
 mours, and relax and supple the solids at the  same time*-
 See Materia medica.
   EMPEROR, imperator, a title of honour  among the
 ancient Romans, conferred on a general who had been
 victorious, and now used to signify a sovereign prince
 or supreme ruler of an empire.
   The title of emperor adds nothing to the rights of so-
 vereignty; it only gives preeminence above  other sove-
 reigns.  The emperors, therefore, pretend, that the im-
 perial dignity is more  eminent than the regal.  It is
 disputed whether emperors  have the power of disposing
 of the  regal title; however this may be, they have some-
 times taken upon them to erect kingdoms: thus it is that
 Bohemia,  Prussia, and  Poland,  are said to  have  been
 raised  to that dignity.  In the East the title  of emperor
 is more frequent than with us; thus the sovereign princes
 of China, the Mogul  empire, kc are called emperors.
 In the  West, the title has been for a long time restrain-
 ed to the emperors of Germany.  The first who bore it
 was Charlemagne, who was crowned by pope Leo III.
 in 800; and itis  to be observed, that tliere was not afoot
 of land or territory annexed  to the emperor's title.  In
 the year 1723, the czar  of Muscovy assumed  the title of
 emperor of all the  Russias.  The kings of France  were
 also called emperors  when they reigned with  their sons,
 whom  they associated in the  crown:  thus Hugh Capet
 was called emperor, and his son Robert, king.  The kings
 of England were anciently stiled emperors,  as appears
 from a charter of king  Edgar.  The emperor of Ger-
 many is a limited monarch  in  regard  to the empire,
 though he is an absolute sovereign in most of his here-
 ditary  dominions.
   EMPETRUM, berry-baring  heath, a genus of the
 triandria order, in the monoecia class of plants.  In the
 natural method this genus is ranked by Linnaeus under
 the 54th order, miscellaneae;  and likewise among those
 of wiiich the order is doubtful.  The male calyx  is tri-
 partite; the corolla tripetalous; the stamina long: the fe-
 male calyx is tripartite;  the corolla tripetalous; the styles
 nine; the  berry  nine-seeded.   There  are two species;
 one of which, viz. the  nigrum, bears the  crow-crake
 berries, and  is a native of Britain.  It grows wild on
 boggy  heaths and mountains.   Children sometimes eat
 the berries; but when taken in too great a quantity, they
 are  apt to  occasion a head-ache.  Grouse  feed upon
• them.   When boiled  with alum,  they afford a dark pur-
 ple dye.   Goats  are not  fond of the plant; cows, sheep,
 and horses, refuse it.  The album  is a native of Portu-
 gal, and bears white  berries.
   EMPHYSEMA, in surgery, a windy tumour, gene-
 rally occasioned in a fracture of the ribs, and formed
 by the air insinuating itself, by a small wound, between
 the skin and muscles, into the substance of the  cellular
 or adipose membrane, spreading itself  afterwards up to
 the neck,  head,  belly, and  other parts, much after the
 manner in which butchers blow up their veal. See Sur-
 gery.
   EMPHYTEUSIS, in the  civil  and canon  law, the
 letting out of poor barren lands for ever, or  at least for
 a long term of years, on condition  ofthe tenant's  culti-
 vating, ameliorating, or mending  them, and paying a
 certain yearly consideration.   Emphy teuses are a kind
 of alienation, differing from sale, in that they only trans-' 
                      £ K A

ftr the dominion utile, the benefits of the ground, not the
properly . or simple fee.  Among the Romans they were
at first temporary, afterwards perpetual.
  EMPIHE, in political geography, a  large extent  of
land,  under the jurisdiction or government of an empe-
ror.   See Emperor.
  The most  ancient  empire we read of is  that  of the
Assyrian, which was subverted  through the effeminacy
of Sardanapalus; the  Persian  empire was destroyed
through the  bad conduct  of Darius  Codomaniuis; the
Grecian empire, by  its being dismembered among the
captains of Alexander the  Great; and  the Roman  em-
pire, through the ill management of the last emperors
of Rome.  Empire, or  the empire, used absolutely, and
without any  addition, signifies the empire of Germany,
called also in juridical acts and  laws, the holy  Roman
empire. Authors are at a loss  under what ferin  of go-
vernment to  range this  empire.   Some  consider it  as a
monarchical  state, as all the members are f.»rccd to ask
the investitute of their states of  the emperor, and to take
an oath of fidelity to him.   Others  will have it an aris-
tocratic state, because the emperor cannot determine any
thing without the concurrence of the princes: and, last-
ly,  others  regard the empire as a  monarcho-aristocra-
tic state.
  EMITS, in zoology,  a genus of insects belonging  to
the order  diptera,  of which the characters  are  tliese:
the proboscis is of an horny substance, bivalve, reflected
under the  head and breast, and longer  than the thorax.
There are  five species.  These  minute  insects live by
sucking out the blood and fluids  of  other animals.
  EMPLEURUM, a genus of  the montecia tetrandria
class and order.  The male  calyx  is four-cleft; corolla
none; fem.  calyx, four-deft inferior; corolla none; stigma
cylindric; caps, opening at the side; seed one, arilled.
There is one species, a shrub of  the Cape.
  EMPYEMA, in medicine, a disorder in which puru-
lent matter is contained  in the thorax or breast, after an
inflammation  and suppuration of the lungs and pleura,
which, if it is not timely disc barged, not only obstructs
respiration, but also returning into the  blood occasions
a continual hectic, with a consumption of the whole body,
and other bad symptoms.   See Medicine.
  EMPYREUMA,  among chemists and physicians, the
fiery  taste or offensive smdl which  brandies,  and some
ether bodies  prepared by fire, are Impregnated with.
  EMULGENT, or Renal Arteries,  those  which
supply tlie  kidneys with blood; being sometimes single,
sometimes  double on  each side.
  EM L LSION, in pharmacy, a soft liquid substance, of
a colour and  consistence resembling milk.   See Phar-
macy.
  EMUNCTORY,  in  anatomy, a general term for all
those  parts which serve to  carry  off the excrementi-
tious parts  of the blood  and other humours of the body.
Such more especially are the kidneys, bladder, &c.
  EN ALL AGE, in grammar, is when one word is sub-
stituted for another of the same  part of speech;  a sub-
stantive for an adjective, as exercitus victor for victori-
osus, scelus for scelcstus;  a primitive for  a  derivative,
as Dardana anna for Dardania, laticein lyamm for ly-
aeiuiu; an  active  for a passive, as nox  humida ccelo
praecipitat, for prsecipitatur, &s.
                      E N A

   Enauaob,  In rhetor,':, 11 fi5ure b-v w^h the fc
 course is changed and reversed contrary to an «,«,C i u e.
 of the language;  but this is not done altogether at plea-
 sure, or without reason.
   ENALLRON, according to Guillim, is  a bordure
 charged with birds; though others will have it to signify,
 in orle, or form of a bordure.
   ENAMEL,  a  kind of coloured glass, used  in enamel-
 ling and  painting in enamel.  Enamels have for their
 basis a pure crystal-glass or frit, ground up with a fine
 calx of lead and tin  prepared for the purpose, with the
 addition usually of white salt of tartar.  These ingredi-
 ents baked together are the matter of all enamels, which
 are made by adding colours  of different kinds in powder
 to this matter,  and melting  or incorporating them toge-
 ther in a furnace.
   For white enamel, Neri De Arte Vitriar. directs only
 manganese to be  added to the matter which  constitutes
 the basis; for azure, zaffer mixed with calx of brass; for
 green, calx of  brass with scales of  iron, or with crocus
 inartis; for black, zaffer  with manganese, or with cro-
 cus martis; or manganese with tartar; for red, manga-
 nese or calx of  copper and red tartar; for purple, man-
 ganese with calx of brass; for yellow, tartar and manga-
 nese; and for violet-coloured  enamel, manganese with
 thrice-calcined  brass.
   In making these enamels, the folbwing general cau-
 tions are necessary to be observed. 1. That the pots must
 be glazed with  white glass, and must be such as will bear
 the fire.  2.  That the matter of enamels  must be very
 nicely mixed with the colours.  3. When  the enamel  is
 good, and the colour well incorporated, it must be taken
 from the fire with a pair of tongs. 4. The general way
 of making the coloured enamels is this; powder, sift, and
 grind  all the colours very  nicely,  and first mix them
 with one another, and then  with  the common matter of
 enamels; then  set them  in pots in a furnace, and  when
 they are well  mixed and incorporated, cast them into
 water, and  when dry,  set them  in  a furnace  again  to
 melt,  and when melted take a proof  of it.  If too deep-
 coloured,  add more of the common  matter of enamels,
 and if too pale,  add  more of the colours.
   Enamels are  used either in counterfeiting or imitating
 precious stones, in painting in enamel, or by enamellers,
jewellers, and goldsmiths, in gold, silver, and other me-
 tals.  The first two kinds are  usually prepared by the
 workmen themselves,  who are  employed in these arts.
 That used by jewellers,  kc. is brought to us chiefly from
 Venice or Holland, in little cakes of different sizes, com-
 monly about four inches diameter,  having the mark  of
 the maker struck upon them with a  puncheon.
   ENAMELLING, the art of laying enamel upon me-
 tals, as gold, silver, copper, kc. and of melting it at the
 fire, or  of making divers  curious works in it at a lamp.
 It signifies also to paint in enamel.
   The method of painting in enamel.—-This is performed
 on plates of gold  or silver, or most commonly of copper,
 enamelled with  the white enamel, which they  paint with
 colours melted in the fire,  where they take a brightness
 and lustre like  that of glass.   This  painting is the most
 prized  of all for its peculiar brightness and vivacity,
 which is very permanent, the force ofits colours not be-
ing effaced ©r sullied with time, as in other painting, an* 
ENAMELLING.
continuing always as fresh as when  it came out of the
workman's hands.  It is usual in miniature, it being the
more difficult the larger it is, by reason of certain acci-
dents it is liable  to in the operation.  Fine enamelling
should only be practised on plates of gold, the other me-
tals being less pure: copper, for instance, scales with the
application, and yields fumes; and silver turns the yel-
lows white.  Nor must the plate be made flat; for in such
case, the  enamel cracks; to  avoid which, they usually
forge them a little round or oval, and not too thick.   The
plate being well and evenly forged, they usually begin the
operation by laying on a couch of white enamel, on both
sides; which prevents the metal from swelling and blister-
ing; and this first lay serves for the ground of all the
other colours.  The plate being thus prepared, they he-
gin at first by drawing out exactly the subject to he paint-
ed with red vitriol, mixed with oil of spike, marking all
parts of the design very lightly with a small pencil.  After
this, the colours (which are to he previously ground with
water in a mortar of agate extremely  fine and mixed with
oil of spike somewhat thick)  arc to belaid on. observing
the mixtures and colours  that agree to the different parts
of the subject; for which it  is necessary to understand
painting in miniature.  But  here  the workman must be
very cautious of  the good or bad  qualities of the  oil he
employs to mix his colours with, for  it is very subject to
adulterations.  Great e are must likewise  be taken that
the least dust imaginable  come not to your colours while
you are either painting or grinding  them;  for the least
speck, when  it is worked  up  with it, and when the work
comes to be put into the reverberatory to be red-hot, will
leave a hole, and so deface the work.  When the colours
are  all laid, the painting must be gently dried over a slow
fire to evaporate the oil, and the colours afterwards melt-
ed to incorporate them with the enamel, making the plate
red-hot in afire such as the enamellers use.   Afterwards
that part of the painting must be passed over again which
the  fire has any  way effaced, strengthening the shades
and colours, and committing it again to the fire, observ-
ing the same method as before, wiiich is to be repeated
till the work is finished.
   The white enamel of  which the glazing of fine ear-
thenware vessels consists, is made of 100  parts of lead
melted with from 15 to 40 parts of tin, and the mixture is
oxydized completely, by  exposing it  to heat in an open
vessel.  One hundred parts of this oxide are mixed with
an  equal  quantity of white  sand, three parts  of silica,
one of talc, and  25 of common  salt.  This mixture is
melted, then reduced to powder, and formed into a kind of
paste, which is spread over the porcelain vessel before it
is baked.  The excellence of good enamel is, that it ea-
sily fuses into a kind of paste at the heat which is  neces-
sary for baking porcelain, and  spreads equally on  the
vessel, forming a smooth glassy surface, without  losing
its  opacity, or  flowing  completely  into  a glass.   Its
whiteness depends on the proportion of tin, and its  fu-
sibility on the lead.
   Mr. Anness has just obtained a patent for enamels,
 of which the following are  among his principal  direc-
tions.
   To prepare the flux or principal matter for enamelling
 on glass vessels—Take one pound of saturnus glorifica-
tus  (to prepare glorificatus  thus: take litharge of white
lead, put it in a pan, pour on distilled vinegar, stirring
it well over a gentle fire till the vinegar becomes  im-
pregnated with the salt of the lead; evaporate half the
vinegar, put  it in a cool place to crystallize, and keep
the crystals dry for use);  half a pound of natural crys-
tal calcined to a whiteness; one pound ofsaltofpolverine,
or other fit alkali; mix them  together, and  bake in a
slow heat for about 12 hours, then malt  the  mass, and
pulverize the same in an agate mortar, or any other pro-
per vessel  which is not capable of communicating any
metallic or other impurity.
   To make green.—Take one ounce of copper-dust, two
ounces of sand, one ounce of litharge, half an ounce of
nitre; or two of copper, one of sand, two of litharge, one
and a half of nitre, mix them with equal parts of flux, or
vary the proportions of them, as may be found necessary,
according to the tint of colour required.
   To make  black.—Take calcined iron one  ounce, co-
balt, crude or prepared, one ounce, or zaflVr two ounces,
and manganese one ounce; mixed with  equal  parts of
flux, by melting or grinding together.
   To make yellow.—Take of lead and  tin  ashes one
ounce, litharge one ounce, antimony one ounce, sand one
ounce, nitre four ounces; calcine or melt them together;
pulverize and mix them with a due proportion of flux,
as the nature of the glass may require; or take more or
less of any or all the above, according to the depth of
colour desired.
   To make blue.—Take prepared cobalt one ounce, sand
one ounce,  red lead  one ounce, nitre one ounce, Hint-
glass two  ounces: melted together by fire,  pulverized
and fluxed according to the degree of softness or strength
of colour required.
   To make olive.—Take one ounce of the blue as pre-
pared above,  half an ounce of black, half an  ounce of
yellow; grind them for use; if necessary, add flux to
make it softer,
   To make white.—Take tin prepared  by  aqua-fortis
one ounce, red lead one ounce, of white  pebble-stone or
natural crystal two ounces, nitre one ounce, arsenic one
drachm,  with equal parts of flux, or more  or less, as
the softness or opacity may  require;  melted, calcined,
or useel raw.
   To make purple.—Take the finest gold; dissolve it in
aqua-regia,  regulated  with sal ammoniac; put it in a
sand-heat  for  about 48 hours to digest the gold, collect
the powder, grind it with six-times its weight of sulphur,
put it into a crucible on the fire, till the sulphur is eva-
porated, then amalgamate the  powder with twice its
weight, of  mercury, put it into a mortar or other vessel,
and rub it together  for about  six hours,  with a small
quantity of water in the mortar, which change frequently;
evaporate  the remaining mercury in a crucible, and add
to the powder ten times its weight of flux,  or more or
less,  as the  hardness or softness of the colour may re-
quire.
   To make rose-colour.—Take purple as prepared above,
mix it with thirty times its weight of flux, and one hun-
dredth part of its weight of silver leaf,  or any prepara-
tion  of silver, or vary the proportion of the flux and
silver as the quality  of tbe colour may require; or any
of the other preparations for purple will  do, varying the
proportion of the flux and  silver as above; or any mete- 
E  C  A
E  N  A
rials, from which purple can be produced, will, with the
addition of silver and flux, answer.
  To make brown.—Take red lead one  ounce, calcined
iron  one ounce,  antimony  two  ounces,  litharge two
ounces, zaffer one ounce,  sand two ounces, calcined, or
melted together, or used raw, as may be most expedient;
vary the proportions of any or all the above, as tint or
quality may  require.
  Method of application.—The aforesaid colours may be
applied to vessels of glass in the following manner, viz.
by painting, printing, or  transfering,  dipping, floating,
and grounding.
  To paint.—Mix the colours (wiien reduced by grind-
ing to a fine powder)  with spirits  of turpentine, temper
them with thick oil of turpentine, and apply  them with
camel-hair pencils,  or any other  proper instrument, or
mix them with nut or spike oil, or any other essential or
volatile oil, or with water, in which case use gum arabic,
or any other gum that will  dissolve in  water, or with
spirits, varnishes,  gums  of any kind, waxes, or resins;
but the first is conceived  to he the best.
  To print.—Take a glue bat, full size, for the subject,
charge the cupper-plate with the oil or colour, and take
the impression with  the bat from the plate, which impres-
sion transfer on  the glass:  if the impression  is  not
strong enough, shake some dry colour on it, which will
adhere to the moist colour; or take any engraving or
etching, or stamp,  or cast, and having  charged it with
the oil or colour,  transfer it on the glass by means of
prepared paper,  vellum, leather, or any  other substance
that will answer;  but the first is the best.  Any  of the
aforesaid engravings, etchings, stamps, casts, or devices,
may be charged  with waters, oils, varnishes, or glutin-
ous matters of any  kind, reduced to a proper state, as
is necessary in printing  in general; any or all of tliese
may be  used alone, or mixed with the  colours.  When
used alone, the colour is to  be applied in powder as be-
 fore mentioned.
  To  dip.—Mix the colour to about the consistency of
a cream with any of the  ingredients used for printing,
in which dip the glass vessel, and  keep  it in motion till
smooth.
  To ground.—First charge the glass vessel with oil of
turpentine,  with a  camel-hair pencil, and  witile moist
apply the colour in a dry powder,  which will adhere to
the oil, or, instead of oil of turnpentine, use any of the
materials used for printing: but the first is the best.
  To float.—Mix the colour with any ofthe ingredients
used for printing,  to a  consistency according  to  the
strength of  ground required,  float it through  a tube, or
any other vessel, moving or shaking the piece of glass
till the colour is spread over the part required.
  ENARGEA,  a  genus  of the hexandria monogynia
class and order.   There is no calyx: the petals are six;
berry three-celled; four or  five globular seeds.   There
is one species, a native of Terra del Fucgo.
  ENCvEMA,  the name of  three several feasts cele-
brated by the Jews in memory of  the dedication, or ra-
ther purification, of the temple, by Judas  Maccabeus,
Solomon, and Zorabahci.   This term is likewise used in
church-history for the dedication of christian churches.
  ENCAMPMENT, the pitching of a camp.  In the
  vol. i.                  116
regulations published by authority,  are particularly en-
joined the following.
  Attentions relative to encamjrments.—On the arrival of
a  brigade, or  a  battalion,  on  tho  ground   destined
for its camp, the quarter and rear guards of the respec-
tive regiments will immediately  mount;  and when cir-
cumstances require them,  the advanced picquets will be
posted. The grand guards of cavalry will  be formed, ar.<r
the horses picketed.  The men's tents will then be pitch-
ed, and till this duty is completed, the officers  are on n»
account to quit their troops or companies, or to employ
any soldier for their own accommodation.  Necessaries
are to be made in the most convenient situations, and
the utmost attention is required in this, and every-other
particular, to the cleanliness of the camp.
  If circumstances will allow the ground on which a re-
giment is to encamp to be previously ascertained, the
pioneers should make these, and other essential conve-
niences, before the corps arrives at its encampment.
  Whenever a regiment remains more than one night  in
a camp, regular  kitchens  are to be  constructed.  No
tents,  or huts, are to be allowed in front, or between the
intervals of the battalions.   A  spot of ground for this
purpose should  be marked  by the quarter master, with
the approbation of the commanding officer.
  On arriving in a camp which  is intersected by hedges,,
ditches, unequal or boggy ground, regiments will imme-
diately make openings of communication, of  60 feet in
width.  The ground in front of the encampment is to be
cleared,  and every obstacle to the movement  of the ar-
tillery and  troops is to be removed.   Commanding offi-
cers of regiments must take care that their communica-
tion with the nearest grand  route is open and  free from
impediments.
  ENCANTHIS,  in surgery,  a tubercle arising either
from the caruncula  lachrymalis.  or from the adjacent
red skin; sometimes so  large, as to  obstruct not only
the puncta lachrymalia, but also part  of the sight or pu-
pil itself.  See Surgery.
  ENCAUSTIC,  and Encaustum, the same with en-
amelling and enamal.  See Enamelling, and Ena-
mel.
  Encaustic painting, a method of painting made use
of by the ancients, in which wax was employed to give
a gloss to their colours, and to preserve them from the
injuries of the air.
  This ancient art, after having been  long lost, was re-
stored byr count Cayius, a member of the  Academy  of
Inscriptions  in France, and the method of painting in
wax was announced to the Academy  of Painting and
Belles Letters, in the year 1753; though M. Bachelier,
the author  of a treatise De ITIistoire et du Secret de la
Peinture en Cire,  had actually painted a picture in wax
in 1749; and he was the first who communicated to the
public the method  of performing  the operation of inus-
tion, which is the principal characteristic of the encaus-
tic paintings.  The count  kept  his  method a secret for
sometime, contenting himself with exhibiting a picture
at the  Louvre in 1754, representing the head of Miner-
va, painted in the manner of the ancients, which excited
the curiosity  ofthe public, and was very  much admired.
In the interval of suspense,  several attempts were made
to recover the  ancient method of painting.   Tbe first 
ENCAUSTIC.
scheme adopted was that of melting wax and oil of tur-
pentine together, and using this composition as a vehicle
for mixing aud laying  on the colours.   But this method
did not explain Pliny's meaning, as the wax is not burnt
in this way of managing it.   In another attempt, which
was much more agreeable to the historian's description of
encaustic painting, the wax was melted with strong lix-
ivium of  salt of tartar, and with this  the colours were
ground.   When the picture  was finished,  it was gradu-
ally presented to the fire, so as to melt the wax, which
was thus diffused through all the particles ofthe colours,
so that they were  fixed to the ground,  and secured from
the access of air or moisture.   But the method of count
Caylus is much more  simple: the cloth or wood, which
he designed for  the  basis of  his  picture, is  waxed
over, by rubbing it simply with a piece  of bee's-wax;
the wood or cloth, stretched on a frame, being held ho-
rizontally over, or perpendicularly before  a fire, at such
a distance, that the wax might gradually  melt whilst it
is rubbed on, diffuse itself, penetrate the body, and fill the
interstices of the texture ofthe clotli, which, when  cool,
is fit to paint upon; but as  water-colours, or those that
are mixed up with common  water,  will not adhere to the
wax,  the whole picture is to  be first  rubbed  over with
Spanish  chalk  or white, and then colours are applied to
it; when  the picture is  dry, it is put near the fire, where-
by the wax melts,  and absorbs all the colours.
   Mr. J. H. Muntz,  in a treatise on this subject, has
proposed several improvements in  the art of encaustic.
Wiien the painting is on clotli, he directs it to be pre-
pared by stretching it  on a frame,  and rubbing one side
several times over with a piece of bee's-wax, or virgin-
wax, till it is  covered with a coat of wax of considera-
ble thickness.   In fine linen, this  is the only operation
necessary previous to painting; but coarse cloth must be
rubbed gently on the unwaxed side  with a pumice stone,
to take off all  those knots which would prevent the free
and accurate working of the  pencil.  Then the subject
is to  be  painted on the unwaxed side with colours pre-
pared and tempered with  water;  and when the picture
is finished, it  must be brought near  the  fire, that the
wax may melt and mix and  fix the colours.  This me-
thod, however, can only be applied to cloth  or paper,
through  the substance of which the wax may pass; but
in wood, stone, metals, or  plaister, the former method
©f count Caylus must  be observed.
   Mr. Nuntz has  also discovered a method of forming
grounds for painting with crayons,  and fixing tliese, as
well as  water-colours, employed with the pencil.  On
the unwaxed side of a linen cloth,  stretched and waxed
as before, lay  an even and thick coat  ofthe colour pro-
per for the ground; having prepared this  colour by mix-
ing  some  proper  pigment with an equal quantity of
chalk, and tempering them with water. When the colour
is dry, bring the  picture to  the fire  that the wax may
melt,  pass through the cloth, and fix the ground.  An
additional quantity of wax may be applied to the back of
the picture, if that which was first rubbed on should not
be sufficient for the body of colour; but as this must be
laid on without heat, the wax should be dissolved in oil
of turpentine,  and applied  with a brush, and the canvas
be again exposed  to the fire, that the fresh supply of wax
may pass tlirough the cloth, and be absorbed by the co-
lour;  and thus a firm and good body will be formed fop
working on with the crayons.  If  doth and paper arc
joined together, the cloth must be first fixed to the strain-
ing frame, and then  the paper must be pasted to it with
acomposition of paste made with wheateri flour, or starch
an ! water, and about a twelfth part of its weight of com-
mon turpentine.  The turpentine must be added to the
paste when it is almost sufficiently  boiled, and the com-
position well stirred, and left to simmer over the fire for
five or six minutes;  let wax be  dissolved in oil of tur-
pentine to the consistence of a thin  paste; and when the
cloth and paper are  dry, let them  be  held near a fire,
and with a brush lay  a coat of the wax and  turpentine
on  both sides the joined cloth and  paper, to such a de-
gree of thickness,  that both surfaces may shine through-
out without any appearance of dull spots. Then expose
the cloth to the fire  or to the sun,  by which  means the
oil  will evaporate, and the wax become solid, and be fit
to receive any composition of colour proper for a ground,
which is to be laid  on as above directed in the case of
clotli without paper.
  Almost all the colours that  are  used  in oil-painting
may be also applied  in the encaustic method. Mr. Muntz
objects,  indeed, to brown, light pink, and unburnt terra
di Sienna; because these, on account of their gummy or
stony texture, will  not admit such a cohesion with the
wax as will properly fix them;  but other colours which
cannot  be admitted in oil-painting,  as red lead, red orpi-
ment, crystals of verdegris, and red precipitate of mer-
cury, may be used here. The crayons used in encaustic
painting are  the same with those used  in  the common
way of  crayon-painting, excepting those that in their
composition  are too  tenacious; and the method of using
them is the same in  both cases.
  The encaustic painting has many peculiar advantages;
though the colours have not the natural  varnish or shin-
ing which they acquire with oil, they have all the strength
of paintings in oil, and all the airiness of water-colours,
without partaking of the apparent character or defects of
either;  they may be  looked at in any light and in any
situation, without  any false glare:  the colours are firm,
and will bear washing; and a picture, after having been
smoked, and then  exposed to the dew, becomes as clean
as if it had been but just painted.   It may also be re-
touched at pleasure, without  any detriment  to the co-
lours; for the new colours will unite with the old ones,
without spots,  as is the case in common size-painting;
nor is it necessary to rub the places to he retouched with
oil as in oil pictures; it is not liable to crack,  and easily
repaired if it should chance  to suffer any injury.  The
duration of this painting is also a  very material advan-
tage; the colours are not liable to  fade  and change; no
damp can affect them, nor any corrosive substance in-
jure them; nor can the colour fall off in shivers from the
canvas. However,  notwithstanding all  these and other
advantages enumerated by the abbe Mazeas and Mr.
Muntz, this  art has  not yet been much practised.  Many
of  these properties  belong to a much  higher species  of
encaustic painting afterwards discovered in England, the
colours of which  are fixed by a very intense heat; nor
 are the colours or grounds on which they are laid liable
 to  be dissolved or corroded by any chemical menstruum;
 nor, like the glassy  colours of enamel, to run out of the 
ENC
END
drawing on the fire. This method is described in the
second part of the  xlixth volume of tho Philosophical
Transactions, No. 100. Yet, notwithstanding the ingenu-
ity of this  communication, we find the ancient or some
similar method of painting in wax remained a desidera-
tum upwards of 25 years; and till a method was commu-
nicated  to  the  Society of  Arts  by miss Greenland, in
1787.  The ground  of her information she received at
Florence, through the acquaintance of an amateur of
painting, who procured her the satisfaction of seeing
some paintings in the ancient Grecian style, executed by
gignora Parenti, a professor at that place, who had been
instructed by a Jesuit at Pavia, the person who made the
farthest discoveries in that art.  Miss Greenland's friends,
knowing she was fond of painting, informed her  what
were the materials used, but could not tell her the pro-
portions of the composition; however, from her anxiety
to succeed in such  an acquisition, she  made various ex-
periments, and at last  obtained  such a sufficient know-
ledge of the quantities of the different ingredients, as to
begin and finish a picture, wiiich she afterwards present-
ed to the society for their inspection.
   Her method  is as follows: « Take an ounce of white
wax, and the same weight of gum mastich powdered. Put
the wax in a glazed earthen vessel over a very slow fire;
and when it is quite dissolved, strew in the mastich, a lit-
tle at a time, stirring the wax continually until the whole
quantity  of gum is perfectly melted and incorporated;
then throw the paste into cold water, and when it is hard,
take it out of the water, wipe it dry, and beat it in oneof
Mr. Wedgewood's mortars, observing to pound it at first
in a linen cloth to absorb some drops of water that will
remain in the paste, and would prevent the possibility of
reducing it to a powder, which must be so fine as to pass
tlirough a thick gauze.  It should be pounded in a cold
place, and but a little while at a time, as after long beat-
ing tbe friction will in a degree soften the wax and gum,
and instead of their becoming a powder they will return
to a paste.
   " Make some strong gum arabic water, and when you
paint, take a little of the powder, some colour, and mix
them together with the gum water. Light colours require
but a small quantity of the powder, but more of it must
be put in proportion to the body and darkness of the co-
lours; and to black there should be almost as much pow-
der as colour.
   "Having mixed the colours, and no more than can be
used before they grow dry, paint with fair water, as is
practised in painting with  water-colours, a  ground on
tlie wood being first painted of some proper colour pre-
pared in the same manner as is described for the picture;
walnut-tree and oak  are the sorts of wood commonly
made use of in Italy for  this  purpose.   The  painting
should  be very  highly finished;  otherwise,  when  var-
nished, the  tints will  not appear  united.
  " When the painting is quite dry, with rather a hard
brush,  passing it one way, varnish it with white wax,
which is put into an earthen vessel, and kept melted over
a very slow fire till the picture is varnished, taking great
care that the wax does  not  boil.   Afterwards hold  the
picture before a fire,  near enough to melt the wax,  but
not to make it run;  and when  the  varnish  is entirely
iold aud hard,  rub  it gently with a linen cloth.  Should
  the varnish blister, warm the picture again very slowly,
  and the bubbles will subside. When the picture is dirty,
  it need only be washed with cold water."
    The opinion  given by the society upon the above is,
  "the method made use of by miss  Greenland  provides
  against all inconveniences; and  the brilliancy of the co-
  lours in the picture painted by  her, and exhibited to the
  society, fully justifies the opinion, that the art of paint-
  ing in wax, as above described, highly  merited the re-
  ward of  a gold pallet voted to her on this occasion."
   ENCEINTE, in fortification, is the wall or rampart
  wiiich surrounds a place,  sometimes composed of  bas-
  tions orcurtins, either faced or lined with brick or stone,
  or only made of earth.   The enceinte is sometimes only
  flanked by round or square towers, which  is called a
  Roman wall.
   ENCEPHALI, in medicine, worms generated in the
  head, where they cause so great a pain, as sometimes tcj
 occasion distraction.  See Medicine.
   ENCHASING, Ixciiasing,  or Chasing,  the art of
 enriching and beautifying gold, silver, and other metal
 work, hy some design or  figures represented thereon in
 low relievo.
   Enchasing is  practised  only on hollow thin  works, a?
 watch-cases, cane-heads,  tweezer-cases, kc   Itis  per-
 formed by punching or driving out the metal to form the
 figure from withinside, so as to stand out prominent from
 the plane or surface of the metal,  in order to this they
 provide a number of fine  steel blocks or puncheons, of
 different sizes;  and the design being  drawn on the sur-
 face of the metal, they apply the iuside upnn  the heads
 or tops of these blocks, directly  under the lines or parts
 of the figures; then,  with a fine  hammer, striking on
 the metal, sustained by the block, the metal yields, and
 the block makes an indenture or  cavity on the inside, cor-
 responding to which there is a prominence on the outside
 which is to stand for that part of  the figure.  Thus the
 workman proceeds to chase and finish all the parts by
 successive application of the block and hammer to  the
 several parts of the design.  And it  is wonderful to  ob-
 serve  with what beauty and justness,  by this  simple
 piece of mechanism, the artists in this line will represent
 foliages, grotesques, animals, histories, &c.
   ENCHEL1S, a genus of vermes infusoria.   It is
 invisible to the naked eye, very  simple, and cylindrical.
 There are eleven species,  most of which have been  de-
 scribed in Mr. Adam's Treatise on the Microscope.
   ENCLAVE,  in heraldry, denotes a thing's being let
 into another, especially when the piece so let in is  square,
   ENCLITICA, in  grammar,  particles which are so
 closely united with other words as to seem part of them,
 as virumque, kc  There  are three enclitic particles  in
 Latin, viz. que, ne, re: but there are a great many in  the
 Greek, as th, it, ft*, ft*i, «•», a-et, kc.
   ENCRATITES, in church history, a sect  of Chris-
tians who appeared towards the end of the second centu-
ry.  They were called encratitcs or continentes, because
they gloried in abstaining from marriage, and the use of
wine and animal food.
   END for end. in the sea language, is said of a rope
that has run quite out ofthe block wherein it was reeved.
   ENDEMIC or Exnemicaldiseases, those to which
the inhabitants of particular countries are subject  more 
E N G
E  N  G
 than others, on account of the air, wrater, situation, and
 manner of living. See Medicine.
   ENDORSE, in heraldry, an ordinary, containing the
 eighth  part  of  a pale, which Leigh says is only used
 when a pale is between two of them.
   Endorsed, in heraldry, is said of things borne back
 to back, more usually called adosse'.
   ENDOWMENT, in law, denotes the  settling a dow-
 er on a woman: though sometimes it is used figuratively
 for settling a provision upon a parson, on the building of
 a church; or the severing a sufficient portion of tithes for
 a vicar, when the benefice is appropriated.
   ENEMA, in medicine, the same  with clyster.  See
 Medicine. '
   ENEMY, is properly an  alien or foreigner who,  in
 a public capacity,  and in a hostile manner, invades any
 kingdom or country.  If a prisoner is  rescued by ene-
 mies, the gaoler is not guilty of an escape, as he  would
 have been if subjects had made the rescue, when he might
 have a  legal remedy against them.  2 Haw. 130.
   ENERGUMENS, in church history,  persons  suppo-
 sed to be possessed by the devil, concerning whom there
 were many regulations among the primitive Christians.
 They were denied baptism and the  eucharist; at least
 this was tlie practice of some churches: and though they
 were under the care of exorcists,  yet it  was thought a
 becoming act of charity  to let  them  have the  public
 prayers of the church, at which they were permitted  to
 be present.             /
   ENFILADE, in the art of war, is used in  speaking
 of trenches or other places which  may be scoured by the
 enemy's shot, along their whole length.  In conducting
 the approaches at a seige,  care must be  taken that the
 trenches be not enfiladed from any work of the place.
   ENFRANCHISEMENT, the  incorporating a  person
 into any society or body politic; such is the enfranchise-
 ment of one made a citizen of London, or other city, or
 burgess of any town corporate, because he is made par-
 taker of the liberties wiiich appertain to the corporation
 wherein he is enfranchised.
   ENGASTRIMYTIII, in Pagan theology, the Pythias
 or  priestesses of Apollo,  who delivered oracles from
 within, without any action  of the mouth or lips.
   ENGENDERING, a term sometimes used for the
 act of producing or forming any thing: thus worms in the
 abdomen are said to be engendered.
   ENGINE,  in mechanics, is  a compound  machine,
 consisting of one or more mechanical powers, as levers,
 pulleys, screws, kc in order to raise,  cast, or sustain
 any weight, or produce  any effect which could  not be
 easily' effected otherwise.  See Mechanics.
  Engines are extremely numerous; some used  in war,
 as the battering-ram, balista, waggons, charriots, k<\;
 others in trade and manufactures,  as cranes, mills, pres-
 ses,  &c; others  to  measure time, as clocks,  watches,
 kc; and others  for  the  illustration of some branch of
 science, as the orrery, cometarium, and the like.
  Engine, fire, the  name now commonly given to  a
 machine by which water is thrown upon fires in order to
 extinguish them.
  The fire-engine is properly a forcing-pump (see Hy-
draulics); and its usual construction, after the great
improvements were made in it by Mr. R.  Newsham, was
 nearly that which is exhibited in fig. 1. Plate LL   En-
 gines, where we have represented  a vertical sec tion  of
 the engine.  The motion ofthe water in this machine is
 effected by the pressure of the  atmosphere, the  force  of
 men acting upon the extremities H, H, of a lever, and
 thence giving motion to the pistons, and by the elasticity
 of condensed  air,  in the following manner: When tin-
 piston R  is raised, a vacuum would be made in  the bar-
 rel TU, if the water did not follow it from the  inferior
 canal  EM (through the  valve  0),  which  rises  through
 the tube EF, immersed in the  water of a  vessel by the
 pressure of the atmosphere on its  surface.   The water
 of the barrel TU, by the  succeeding  depression of the
 piston R, shuts the valve O, and is forced, tlirough the
 superior canal ON, to enter by the valve I  into tlie air-
 vessel abed; and the like being  done alternately with
 respect to the other barrel WX,  and its piston S, the nir-
 vessel is by these means  continually filling  with water.
 which greatly compresses the  air  above the surface ol
 the water in that vessel, and thereby proportionally aug-
 ments its  spring; which at length is so far increased as
 to react with great force on the surface YZ of the subja-
 cent water, and compel it to ascend through the small
 tube efto the  stop-cock eg, where upon turning the cock
 the water is suffered to pass through a pipe h fixed to a
 ball and socket; from the orifice of which it issues in a
 continued stream with a  great velocity, to a considera-
 ble height or distance;  and it is usually kept from diverg-
 ing too soon in its progress by  means of a long scries of
 flexible leather  pipes, properly  joined together, and
 known among the firemen by the name of the hose.
   The greatest  artifice in the engine, according to the
 construction just described, is the contrivance to produce
 a continual stream, which is done by the compression and
 proportional elasticity of air in the barrel abed, called the
 air-vessel.  For the air,  being  an elastic fluid,  will be
 susceptible  of compression in  any degree  by the water
 forced in  through the  valves at IK; and since the force
 of the air's spi'ing will always be inversely  as the space
 it possesses, it  follows, that when the air-vessel is half
 full of water, the  air will  be  compressed  into half the
 space it possessed at first, and therefore its spring will
 be twice as great as at first.
   But this spring at first was equal to the pressure of the
 atmosphere on the same surface: for if it was not,  it could
 not have sustained  or  resisted the pressure of the atmo-
 sphere which  stood over  it,  and consequently could not
 have filled the vessel  before tiie water was driven in;
 which yet we find it did,  and maintained an equilibrium
 with the common air.   The vessel then being half-filled
 with wrater, or the air compressed into half the first space,
 its spring will in this case be equal to twice  the pressure
 of the atmosphere; and therefore when the stop-cock at
 p  is turned, the air within, pressing on the subjacent
 water with twice the force it meets with from the exter-
 nal air in the  pipe ef, will cause the water to spout out of
 the engine to  the height of 32  or 33 feet, if the friction
 is not too  great.
   When tiie air vessel  is two-thirds full of water, the air
 takes up one-third  part; whence its spring  will be  three
 times as great as that of the common air, an I it will pro-
ject the water with  twice the common  atm'.spherir pres-
 sure;  consequently it will rise to the height of 62  or 64 
ENGINES.
feet.   When the air-vessel is three-fourths full of water,
the air will be compressed into its one-fourth part, and
so will protrude the water with three times the atmos-
pheric pressure, and carry it to  the height of 96  or 99
feet.   Hence it will be easy to state the lavv by which the
spring of the air will act  on the surface of the water be-
low it, as in the following table:

                           Proportion „. h  f
                            of airs   ,,  °__.
Height of	Of the air
water in	compress-
air-barrel.	ed.
i	i
2	2
2	1
■J	3
	I
4	%
4	1
y	"5
5	1
€	6
6	1
T	7
7	1
■g"	T
8	1
9	?
9	1
IS	1 0
n—1	1
elasticity.

    2
    3
    4
    5
    6
    7
    8
    9
   10

    n
the spout.

      S3
      66
      99
     132
     165
     198
     231
     264
     297

(n—1) 33
  Various alterations and improvements have been made
from time to time in the construction of fire-engines. The
contrivers of some of these improvements,  as Messrs.
Bramah, Dickenson, Simpkin, Rowntree, and Philips,
have secured their inventions from infringement by pa-
tents, the specifications of most of which may he seen in
the Repertory of Arts and Manufactures.   In the year
1785, the silver medal and 20 guineas were conferred by
the  Society for the Encouragement of Arts,  kc.  on Mr.
Furst, as a reward for his contrivance to increase the ef-
fect of engines in extinguishing  fires; of which the fol-
lowing is a short description: From  a platform rises an
upright pole or  mast, of such height as may he judged
necessary;  a gaft slides upon it in  an ascending direction,
and along both is conveyed the leather hose from the en-
gine.  The branch or nose-pipe ofthe engine projects at
the extremity of the gaft; towards wiiich an iron frame
is fixed, whence two  chains are suspended; and from
these hang ropes, which serve to give an horizontal di-
rection to the branch; while other ropes that run through
proper pulley-;,  aud  are thus conveyed down the  mast,
serve likewise to communicate a vertical motion to it.  By
these means the branch or nose-pipe of the engine is
conducted into the window or any room where the fire
more immediately rages; and the effect of the water dis-
charged is appiii'd in the most efficacious manner to the
extinguishing of the  flames.
  A very cheap and simple fire-engine  is that invented
in America by Mr. Benjamin Dearborn, who communi-
cated it to  the American academy of  arts and sciences,
from whose Memoirs for 1794 we extract the following
particulars:
  Fig.  2.  AF5 and CD are the edges of two  planks, con-
fined by four boi<\s;  ab and ca\ are two  cylindrical bar-
rels, in each of wiiich a piston, with a valve, is fastened
to the spear e, and is moved up and down alternately by
the  motion ofthe arms EE.  Beneath  each barrel  abide
is made through the  plank All, which is covered with a
valve.  The arms EE are suspended on lLo common
centre^!- tliere arc also .arms .parallel to tfic.ee on the op-
posite side: gg are the ends of handles  which are fast-
ened across the ends of the arms.   At h a  bolt goes
across from arm to arm, to which the piece ik  is affixed,
and on wiiich it plays; the lower end of this piece  is fas-
tened to the spear e.   G If is a standard for the purpose
of supporting the arms, to which there is  a correspondent
one on the opposite side:  both are notched into the edges
of the planks, where they  are  secured by a bolt, which
passes through them at I,  and has a nut or fore-lock on
the opposite side.  HI, HI, are  square  braces, answer-
ing the purpose of ducts, through which the water ascends
from the barrels, passing through the plank at m.   KL,
KL, are irons in the form of a staple, in order to confine
the braces: the lower ends of these irons meet, and are
secured hy a bolt passing  through them, and MN uv,
which is a piece that goes  up through a mortice  in the
centre of the planks. This piece is square from the lower
end till it reaches the top of the braces;  whence they be-
come cylindrical to the top, the upper end being perfo-
rated sufficiently lowdowrn in order to  communicate with
the braces.  OP is an iron ring that surrounds the tube,
and  has two shanks  which ascend  through  the head,
which screws on the top at pq.
  Fig. 3.  is the  same engine;  the arms and  standards
being taken off, in order to delineate  more  clearly the
mode of securing the braces; an  object  which is com-
pletely effected  by a wedge driven into the mortice  a:
beneath the upper plank  b  is a hole for admitting  a pas-
sage to the  bolt, which  secures the standards.  In this
figure a side view of the head is given, with the pipe  in
a perpendicular direction.
   The machine is confined within a box, set on wheels,
as  in  the common fire-engines.  The whole is made of
wood, excepting the  spears  of the pumps, and  a few
bolts, kc   The advantages of this machine are,  that it
can be made in any place where common pumps are ma-
nufactured; the interior work will not exceed one-fourth
of the price of those wbich are constructed on the usual
plan; and they are  incomparably more easy to work
than the  common ones:  circumstances which strongly
recommend the American fire-engine  to the attention of
the public.
   Since the construction of engines for the extinguish-
ing of fires has long been considered as of very great
importance, it is no wonder that many  persons have de-
voted much of their time and talents to  this subject.
   Engine, pile, a machine  by which  piles are  driven
into the earth  for the foundations of  piers  and cither
structures.
   In pile-engines the contrivance consists in drawing up
a great weight, called a  ram or hammer, to a moderate
height, and then letting it fall freely with a considerable
 momentum upon the head of"the pile.   In the most sim-
 ple  pile-engines the ram is drawn up by men pulling at
 a cord  running over a  fixed  pulley, and  suffering the
cord to slip from their hands  when the weight is suffi-
ciently elevated.  Among  the more complex engines,  the
best are those invented by Mr. Vauloue and  by Mr. S.
 Bunce.
   Description of Vauloue9s pile-engine.  (See Plate LI. En-
gines, fig. 4.)—A is a great upright  shaft  or axle,  on
 which are the great wheel B and the  drum  C,  turned
 by horses joined to the bars S,S, The wheel B turus 
ENGINE.
 construction, the tumbler performs the  office of the ex-
 pansive force of steam at the end of the stre ke.
   Mr\  Boswcll suggests, as a considerable improvement,
 that the action of this engine should be made elastic by
 the addition of an air-chamber, on the same principle as
 that used in fire-engines: this,  he thinks, might be best
 effected by making  the  piston hollow, with a small ori-
 fice in the bottom, and of a larger size,  to .serve for this
 purpose, as the spring of the air would  then act both on
 the upward and dow nward  pressure of the water.
   Eisgine,  steam.  The steam-engine is one  of the no-
 blest monuments of human ingenuity. It was  originally
 invented  by the inarcjuis of Worcester, in the reign of
 Charles •!.  This nobleman, who appears to  have been
 possessed  of much  knowledge,  with a  fertile imagina-
 tion, published in 1663, a  small book, called "A Cen-
 tury of Inventions," giving an account of a hundred dis-
 coveries or contrivances of his own: but the descriptions
 of many of them are altogether unintelligible.
   Among them is an  account of his invention of raising
 water by the force of steam, which, now that we are pos-
 sessed ofthe engine, appears to  agree very well with its
 construction.  But as  there is no plate to accompany his
 description, we are entirely unacquainted  with the par-
 ticular mode in which he applied the power of steam. It
 does not appear, however, that he met with sufficient en-
 couragement;  and this  useful discovery was long ne-
 glected.
   Towards the end ofthe century, captain Savary, a per-
 son of great ingenuity, having probably  seen the account
 of the marquis of Worcester's invention, was convinced
 of its  practicability,  and succeeded  in constructing  a
 machine of this kind.  He  obtained a patent for the in-
 vention, and erected several steam-engines, which he de-
 scribed in a book entitled « The Miner's Friend," pub-
 lished in 1696.
   The following is the description of his machine, as im-
 proved by himself:
   a (Plate LH. fig. 1) is a  strong boiler, built in a fur-
 nace for generating steam.   From the top of this boiler
 there proceeds a pipe, b, which conveys the steam into
 another strong vessel, r, called the receiver.  This pipe
 has a cock at c, called the steam-cock.  In the bottom of
 the receiver is a pipe s, which communicates with  the
 rising-pipe H n k, the> lower end of which is immersed in
 the well from which the water is to be raised.  Imme-
 diately below the place  where the pipe s enters  the ris-
 ing-pipe, there is a valve, n, opening upwards.  A simi-
 lar valve is also  placed  at i, above the pipe S.  Lastly,
 there is a pipe e, which branching off from the rising-
 pipe, enters the top of the receiver.  This  pipe has also
 a cock, d, called the injection-cock. The mouth of the„
 pipe e,  has on the end f a nozzle, pierced  full of holes,
 pointing from a centre in every  direction.  The keys of
 the two cocks c and  d, are united by the handle h, called
 the regulator.
   The  mode of operation is as follows: Let the regulator
 be so placed, that the steam-cock c be open, and the in-
jection-cock d shut:  put water into  the boiler a, and
 make it boil.  The steam from it will enter the pipe b,
 a*id fill the receiver, first driving out the  air which  it
hefore contained;  a  considerable  quantity of steam will
be at  first condensed by the cold sides  of  the receiver;
but it being at length warmed,  the  steam will proceed
into the rising-pipe, lifting up the valve i.  When this is
perceived to be the case, by the rMng-pipc feeling warm,
and hearing the valve i rattle, the communication is now
to he cut from  the  boiler, by shutting the steam-cm k c
the injection cock d being also shut.  The receiver now
gradually cools,  and the steam  included in it condenses
into water. When this is the case, as the air  was tit jirst
driven out by the steam,  and cannot return again, all
the cocks being shut, a vacuum is formed in the receiver
consequently, there is nothing to counterbalance the pres-
sure ofthe atmosphere, which acting upon the water in
the well, forces it up the rising-pipe, and fills the receiv-
er. The steam-cock is now opened; and the steam from
the boiler rushing in with great  violence, presM-s  upon
the surface of the water in the receiver, and forcing if
through the pipe s, into the rising-pipe, causes itto shut
the valve n, and open the other valve i; and, provided the
steam be sufficiently strong,  will force  it up  the rising-
pipe to the top k, where it is delivered.  The cock c is
kept open until all  the water be driven out of the receiv-
er, and it is again filled with steam.  The regulator is
now applied, which shuts the steam-cock,  whilst at the
same time it opens the injection-cock.  The rising-pipe
being still full  of water, a stream of cold water proceeds
through the pipe e, and enters the receiver in a shower.
This instantly  condenses the steam in the receiver, and
produces a vacuum as before; in consequence of which,
the water from the Well is again forced up by the external
pressure of the atmosphere,  and the receiver is  again
filled with water.  The regulator is then turned, which
shuts the injection-cock and opens the steam-cock, which
permits the steam from the boiler to press upon the wa-
ter, and again force it up the rising-pipe.  This opera-
tion filling the receiver with water by means of a vacuum
produced in it, and forcing it up the  rising-pipe by the
pressure of the steam from  the boiler, is constantly re-
peated, by merely  turning the  regulator,  which  shuts
and opens the steam-cocks  and  injection-cocks alter-
nately.
   This  construction of the  steam-engme  is  extremely
simple,  and might  perhaps be  successfully applied for
some purposes.  But it has several considerable defects.
It may  readily be apprehended, that the action of the
direct steam on any definite surface (such, for example,
as a square inch) will  be  exactly  equal to the re-ac-
tion of the water which is forced up;  and consequently,
that Savary's  engine  will require steam  more elastic
than the  air of the atmosphere, in  every case except
where the water is raised  no higher than it can  be by
the vacuum that is  produced, and the  pressure ofthe at-
mosphere.   When  the  water is forced up through the
rising-pipe, every square inch of the boiler must sustain
a pressure equal  to a column of  water  an  inch square,
and of  the height of the pipe above  the boiler.  This,
therefore, requires very strong  vessels, and several ac-
cidents happen by their bursting when  the safety valve
is loaded too much.
   But the greatest  defect  of this machine is the great
wTaste of steam, and consequently of fuel.  For when the
steam is admitted to the top ofthe cold  water in the re-
ceiver, it is condensed with great rapidity; and the wa-
ter does not begin to yield to its  pressure, until its sw- 
ENGINES.
 face is so hot, as not to condense any more steam: it now
 descends; but as by that, a new part of the side of the
 receiver is exposed to the steam, more is condensed, so
 that a consideration of the steam is going on all the while
 the water is descending. * This too  must necessarily be
 repeated  every  stroke,  as the receiver is  cooled every
 time it is filled with water.
   Mr. Savary succeeded in raising water to small heights,
 and erected several engines in different parts of Eng-
 land; but he could make nothing of deep mines.  Many
 attempts have been made to correct these defects, but
 hitherto without much success.
   In the beginning ofthe eighteenth century, Newcomen,
 an ironmonger or smith, and Crauly, a glazier at Dart-
 mouth, in Devonshire, first conceived  the project of ap-
 plying a piston with a lever, and other machinery. They
 were contented to share the profits of the invention  with
 Savary, who procured a patent for  it in 1705, in which
 they were all three joined.
   Fig. 2, exhibits a section of Newcomen's  engine: a
 is the boiler, built in brick-work. In the top ofthe  boil-
 er is a steam-pipe,  c, communicating with  the cylinder,
 b, wbich is of metal, and is bored very truly. The lower
 aperture of this pipe is  shut by  the plate n, which is
 ground  very flat, so  as to apply  very accurately  to
 the whole circumference of the orifice. This plate is cal-
 led the regulator, or steam-cock, and  it turns horizon-
 tally round an  axis o,  which passes through  the top of
 the boiler, and  is fitted by grinding to the  socket, so  as
 to be steam-tight. It is opened and shut by a handle fix-
 ed to its axis.
   In the cylinder 6  is a solid piston, p, well fitted  into
 it,  and made  air-tight by a packing of leather or soft
 rope, well filled with tallow; and for greater security, a
 small quantity of water is kept above the piston.
   The piston-rod d is suspended  by a chain, wiiich is
 fixed to the upper extremity of the arched head e of the
 great lever, or working-beam, efg, which turns on the
 gudgeon/.  There  is a  similar arched head  g, at the
 other end of the  beam;  to the upper extremity of which
 is fixed a chain,  carrying the  pump-rod h, which raises
 the water from the mine.
   The  load on this  end of the beam is  made to exceed
 considerably the  weight of  the piston at the other ex-
 tremity.
  At a small height above the top of the cylinder,  is a
 cistern called the injection-cistern, i.  From this descends
 the injection-pipe, k, which enters the bottom ofthe cy-
 linder,  and terminates in a nozzle  pierced with holes.
 This pipe has a cock, I, called the injection-cock.
  At the opposite side of the cylinder,  a little above its
 bottom, there is a lateral pipe m, turning upwards at the
 extremity; and  there covered by a clack-valve, called
 the snifting-valve, which has a little dish  round it, to
 hold water for keeping it air-tight.
  There proceeds also from the bottom of the  cylinder,
 a pipe g, of which the lower end is turned upwards,  and
 i8 covered  with a valve r.  This part is immersed  in a
 cistern of water, called the hot-well, and the pipe itself
is called the eduction-pipe.
  Lastly, the boiler  I, furnished with a safety valve,  cal-
led the puppet-clack, in the same manner as in Savary's
engine. This valve  is generally loaded with one or  two
  vol. i.                 117
 pounds in the square inch, so that it allows the steam t«
 escape when its elasticity is one-tenth  greater than that
 ofthe atmosphere.  Thus all  risk of bursting the boiler
 is avoided, the pressure outwards being very moderate.
   When  the cistern  for the injection-water i, cannot bo
 supplied  by pipes from some more elevated source, water
 is raised  by the  machine itself.  A small lifting-pump, s,
 is worked by a rod v,  suspended from a small arch up-
 on the great beam; this forces water tlirough the pipe t
 into the injection-cistern.
   The parts of the engine being now described, the ope-
 ration is as follows:
   Suppose the piston and  lever in the position repre-
 sented in the plate, and the water in the boiler in a state
 of ebullition, the steam and injection-cocks being  shut.
 Having opened the  steam-cock, n,  the steam  from the
 boiler will immediately rush in, and  flying all over the
 cylinder, will mix with the air.
   Much of it will be condensed by the cold surface of the
 cylinder and piston, and the wrater produced from it will
 trickle down the sides, and run off by the eductjon-pipe.
 This condensation and  waste of steam will go on  until
 the whole cylinder and  piston be made as hot as boiling-
 water.
   When  this happens, the steam will begin to   issue
 tlirough the snifting-valve, slowly at first, and cloudy,
 being mixed with much air; but, by degrees, it will be-
 come more transparent, hav ing carried off the greatest
 part ofthe air wiiich  filled the cylinder.
   When  the attendant perceives that  the  blast at then
 snifting-valve is strong and steady, and the boiler is sup-
 plied with a steam of proper strength, appearing by the
 renewal of its discharge at the  safety-valve, which had
 stopped while the cylinder was filling, he shuts the steam-
 cock, n, and opens the injection-cock, I. The pressure of
 water in the injection-pipe forces some out into the cylin-
 der, which condenses the  steam  and forms a partial va-
 cuum, as  explained above.
   The upper side of the piston is now exposed to the
 whole pressure of the atmosphere, which, not being coun-
 terbalanced on the under side,  will act with  its whole
 force on the piston, and, provided there be not too much
 weight  on the other end, will raise it, the piston going
 to the bottom of the cylinder.
 t When the piston has gone down as low as  necessary,
 the injection-cock is  shut, and  the steam-cock opened.
 The steam, which has been accumulating above the water
 in the boiler, during the time ofthe descent of the piston,
 and is now issuing through the puppet-clack, as soon as
 the steam-cock is opened,  rushes violently into the cy-
 linder, having  a  greater elasticity than that of tbe air.
 It therefore immediately blows  open the snifting-valve,
 through which it drives out the air that had been disen-
gaged from the injection-water.
   At the same  time, the water which had been injected
before, and the condensed steam,  run out through the
 eduction-pipe,g-, and lifting up the valve, r, flow into the
 hot-well.
   By the  admission of the steam under the piston, the
pressure of the atmosphere on the top is counterbalanced,
 and the piston is  free  to move upwards or downwards.
   But the other end of the beam being broader, so as to
 be heavier than the piston, now raises it to the top of the 
ENGINES.
 at first  a little confused, by  there  seeming to be only
 one steam-pipe for communicating between the cylinder
 and the  condenser;  but  the difficulty is cleared up, by
 representing both the pipes, as in fig. 4.
   Fig. 5, is a longitudinal  section of the boiler, repre-
 senting  the mode of supplying  it with water, and the
 safety-valve and  cocks,  f is a  small cistern, which  is
 supplied with water from the hot-well, as represented  in
 fig. 3; from the bottom of this cistern, a pipe goes down
 almost to the bottom of  the boiler, where  it  turns up a
 little, to prevent the entrance of the  steam which rises
 from the bottom. From the side  of this cistern, is sup-
 ported  a small lever, to  one  end of which is fastened a
 wire, that carries  a  stone which bangs in the water  of
 the boiler; the other end of the lever supporting also by
 a wire,  a valve that shuts the top of the pipe that goes
 down from the cistern. Now, supposing the stone just  at
 the surface of  the water, and balanced by a weight  at
 the opposite end of  the lever; it is  evident, that by the
 laws of  hydrostatics, already explained, a certain part
 of the weight  of the stone will be  supported hythe water,
 so long  as it  continues immersed in it; but if a part  of
 the water evaporate by boiling, a proportional part  of
 the stone will be above the water, consequently the stone
 will bear more upon the lever, and raise the weight  at
 the other end; but in raising that weight,  it  also opens
 the valve in the small cistern, and admits w ater until it
 stand at the same height in the boiler as before, and then
 the valve and the  stone being again in cquilibrio, the
 valve remains shut  until a new  quantity is evaporated.
 By this  means the supply of water is very gradual, how-
 ever, and not by fits  and starts, as here described for
 the sake of illustration.
   It is found by  experience, to be a much better method
 than a ball-cock,  and the regular supplying of the boil-
 er with  water is of the first importance. As a check up-
 on this,  and to know perfectly the height ofthe water  in
 the boiler, tliere are  two cocks, g and h,  one of which
 reaches  nearly to the surface of the water when at its
 proper height, and  the  other enters  a little below the
 surface.
   It is evident, that if the water be at the just height, and
 you open g, steam will issue;  and if h be opened, water
 will be driven out by  the pressure ef the steam. But if
 Water come out from g, then the  water must be too high
 in the boiler; and if steam issue from h,then the water  is
 too low.  By this means, it is easy to know at all times the
 exact height ofthe water in the boiler.
   i is a safety-valve, to prevent the bursting of the boiler
 by the steam growing too strong; k is the pipe which con-
 veys the  steam to the engine.
   Fig. 6 is Mr. Cartwright's steam-engine, the construc-
 tion of which evinces much  ingenuity, a is the cylinder,
 which is  supplied with steam from the boiler through the
 pipe 6; c is the piston in the act of going up; d is the pipe
 that conducts the steam into the  condenser  e, which
 consists of two cylinders, one  within the other, leaving a
 small space between  them, into which the steam is admit-
 ted; while the inner cylinder is filled with cold water, and
 also the external cylinder surrounded by the same; so that,
by this means, a very large  surface of steam is exposed,
though no water is suffered to come into actual contact
with it.
  To the bottom of the piston, c, is attached a rod, with
another piston, c, working in the pipe d.  When the
piston e arrives at the bottom  of the cylinder,  a  valve
which is in the piston, is opened by its pressing against
the bottom, and opens a communication with the conden-
ser, whilst the spring k, fixed to the rod ofthe piston, shuts
the valve, whic h admits the steam from the boiler. The
steam, therefore, being  thus  condensed, runs into the
lower pipe/.  The piston e, arriving at the  bottom of the
pipe in which it works at the same time with c,  presses
open the condensed water, shuts the valve/, and forces
the water up  the pipe g, into the b. x h.  The air which is
disengaged from the water, • ises to the top of the box,
and, by its elasticity, forces the water through the pipe
i, which carries it back again  into the boiler.  When the
air accumulates in the box  to such a degree as to  depress
the water, the ball-cock falls with it, and opens a valve
in  the  top of  the box, which suffers  some of the air  to
escape.
  When all the steam is condensed, the motion of the
fly attached to the machine brings the piston up again,
its valve now remaining shut by its weight.  On arriving
at  the  top, it  presses  up  the steam-valve, which  admits
the steam from tbe boiler to force it down as before.
  I and m are two cranks, upon whose axis are two equal
wheels working in each other, for the purpose of conver-
ting the perpendicular motion  of the piston-rod into a
rotatory motion, for working the machinery attached
to  it.
  But the most valuable part of this engine is in the
construction  of the piston,  which Mr. Cartwright made
wholly of metal, and so as, by means of springs, to fit
the cy Under very exactly.  This not only saves  the ex-
pense  and trouble  of packing, which they  are  obliged
frequently to renew in all other engines, but also  saves a
great deal of steam, on account of the more accurate fitting
of the piston.
  As it is evident, from its construction, that the whole
of the  steam is brought back again into the boiler, it af-
fords the means of employing ardent spirit instead of
water, and thus saving a great deal of fuel.
  This machine seems to be  peculiarly applicable to
purposes requiring only a small power, as it is not expen-
sive, and occupies little room.
  It would far exceed the limits of this work, to enter
into an examination of all the steam-engines invented by
different persons.   It is sufficient to mention, that no
engine of this kind has been found,"upon careful trial, to
be superior to those of Mr. Watt.
  From this  brief description  of the  steam-engine, the
reader will be enabled to perceive the nature, and appre-
ciate  the value, of Mr. Watt's improvements.  It had
hitherto been the practice to condense the  steam in the
cylinder itself, by the injection of cold water; hut the water
which  is injected acquires a considerable degree  of heat
from the cylinder, and being placed in nir highly rarefied,
part of it is converted into steam, which resists the piston,
and diminishes the power of the engine. When the steam
is next admitted, part of it is  converted into  water  by
coming in contact with the  cylinder,  whic h is of a lower
temperature than the steam, in consequence of the de-
struction of its heat by the  injection-water.  By conden-
sing  the steam, therefore, in the cylinder itself, ths 
ENGINES.
resistance to the piston is increased by a partial repro-
duction of this elastic vapour, and  the impelling power
is  diminished by  a partial destruction  of  the  steam
which is next admitted.  Both thes.e inconveniences Mr.
Watt has in a great measure avoided,  by  using a con-
denser separate  from the cylinder, and encircled  with
cold  water; and by surrounding  the cylinder with a
wooden case, and interposing light wood-ashes, in order
to prevent its heat from being abstracted by the ambient
air.
   The greatest of Mr.  Watt's improvements consists in
his employing the steam both to elevate and depress  the
piston.  In the engines of Newcomcn and Brighton,  the
steam was not the impelling power: it was used merely
for producing a vacuum below the  piston,  which was
forced down by the pressure of the atmosphere, and ele-
vated by the counterweight at the  farther extremity of
the great beam.  The cylinder, therefore, was exposed
to the external air at every descent of the piston, and a
considerable portion of its heat being thus abstracted,
 a corresponding  quantity of steam was of consequence
 destroyed.  In Mr. Watt's engines, however, the exter-
 nal air is excluded by a metal plate at the top of  the
 cylinder, which has a hole in it  for admitting the piston-
 rod; and the piston itself is raised and  depressed merely
 by tbe force of steam.
   When these improvements are adopted, and the engine
 is constructed in the most perfect manner, there is  not
 above | part of the steam consumed in heating the appa-
 ratus; and, therefore,  it is impossible that the engine
 can be rendered  | more powerful than it is  at present.
 It would be very desirable, however,  that the  force of
 the piston could  be properly communicated to  the ma-
 chinery without the intervention  of  the great  beam.
 This, indeed, has been  attempted by Mr. Watt, who has
 employed the piston-rod itself to drive the machinery;
 and Mr. Cartwright has,  in his engine,  converted  the
 perpendicular motion of the piston  into a rotatory mo-
 tion, by means of two  cranks fixed to the axis of two
 equal wheels which work in each other.  Notwithstanding
 the simplicity of these methods, none of them have come
 into general use; and Mr. Watt  still prefers the interven-
 tion ofthe great beam, which is generally made of hard
 oak, with its  heart taken out, in order to prevent it from
 warping.   A considerable quantity of  power,  however,
 is wasted by  dragging, at every stroke  of the piston,
 such a mass of matter from a state of rest to a state of
 motion, and then from a state of motion to a state of rest.
 To prevent this  loss of power, a light frame of carpentry
 has been employed by several engineers, instead of  the
 solid beam; but after being used for some time, the wood
 was generally cut by the iron bolts, and the frame itself
 was often  instantaneously  destroyed.   In some of  the
 engines lately constructed" by Mr. Watt, he  has formed
 the great beam of cast  iron, and while he has thus added
 to its durability, he has at the same time  diminished its
weight and increased the power of bis engine.
   Encouraged by Mr.  Watt's success, several improve-
ments  upon the  steam-engine have  been attempted  by
Hornblower,  Trevethick,  and  many  other   engineers
»" England.   But it  does  not appear that  they have
either increased  tbe power of the engine,  or diminished
^ expense.  It  appears, on the contrary, that many of
these pretended improvements, excepting those of Horn-
blower, consist  merely in having adopted  Mr. Watt's
discoveries, in such a manner as not to infringe  upon his
patent.
  Some time since, Mr. Arthur  Woolf announced to the
public a dis overy respecting the expansibility of steam,
which promises to be of very essential utility. Mr. >Yatt
bad formerly ascertained, that steam which acts with the
expansive force of four pounds per square inch,  against
a safety valve exposed to  the weight of the  atmosphere,
after expanding itself to four times the volume it thus oc-
cupies, is still equal to  tbe pressure of  the  atmosphere.
But Mr.  Woolf has gone much farther,  and has proved,
that quantities of steam, having the force of 5, 6, 7, 8, 9,
10, &c. pounds on every square  inch, may be allowed to
expand 5, 6,  7, 8, 9, 10, kc. times its volume,  and will
still be equal to the atmosphere's weight, provided that
the cylinder in which the expansion  take s place, has the
same temperature as the steam before it began to expand.
It is evident, however,  that an  increase of temperature
is necessary  both to produce and to maintain this aug-
mentation ofthe steam's expansive force above the pres-
sure of the atmosphere.  At the temperature of 212° of
Fahrenheit, the  force of steam is equal only  to the  pres-
sure of the atmosphere: and in order to give it an addi-
tional elastic force of five  pounds per square inch,  the
temperature must be increased to about 227|°; when it
will have acquired a power to expand itseif to five times
its volume, and still be equal in pressure to the atmosphere,
and capable of being applied as  such in the working of
steam-engines, according to his invention.  The ratio of
other pressures, temperatures, and expansive forces of
steam, is shown in the  following table;  which gives the
relative pressure per square inch, temperatures, and  ex-
pansibility of steam, at degrees of heat above the boiling
point of water; beginning with a temperature of steam of
an elastic force equal to five pounds per square inch, and
extending to  steam able to sustain  forty pounds on the
square inch.
Table of the pressures, temperatures, and expansibility of
      steam, equal to the force of the atmosphere.
Elastic force of steam predominating over the pressure of ihe atmosphere, and act-ing1 upon a safety valve.	Degrees of tempera-ture requisite for bringing the steam to the different ex-pansive forces in th--preceding column	No. of times its volume that steam ofthe pre-cedingforceand tem-perature will expand, and still continue e-qual to the pressure ofthe atmosphere.
Pounds per square inch	Degrees of lu-at.	Expansi ility.
5 6 7 8 9 10 15 20 25 30 35 40	227± 230| 232| 2551 237| 239£ 250{ 259£ 267 273 278 282	5 6 < 8 9 10 15 20 25 30 55 40
 
ENGINES.
  In this manner, by small additions of temperature, an
expansive pow er may be given to steam, which will enable
it to expand 50, 100, 200, 300, kc. times its volume, and
still have the same force as the atmosphere.
  Upon this principle Mr. Woolf has taken out a patent
for various improvements on the steam-engine, a  short
account of wh.ch we shall subjoin in the words of the spe-
cification.
  a If the engine be constructed originally with the inten-
tion of adopting the preceding  improvement, it ought to
have two steam-vessels of different dimensions, according
to the expansive force to be communicated to the beam, for
the smaller steam-cylinder must be a measure for the lar-
ger.  For example, if steam of 40 pounds the square inch
is fixed on, then the smaller steam-vessel should be at least
one-fortieth part  the contents of the larger  one.   Each
steam-vessel should he furnished with a piston, and the
smaller cylinder should have a communication both at its
top and bottom, with the boiler which  supplies the steam,
■which communications, by means of cocks or valves,  are to
be alternately opened and shut during the working  ofthe
engine.  The top of the small cylinder should have a
communication with the  bottom  of the larger cylinder,
-and the bottom ofthe smaller one with the top ofthe larger,
with proper means to open and shut these alternately by
cocks, valves, or any other contrivance.  And both the
top and bottom of the larger cylinder should, while tlie
engine is at  work, communicate  alternately with a con-
densing vessel, into which a jet of water is admitted to
hasten the condensation.  Things being thus arranged,
when the engine is at work, steam of a high temperature
is admitted from the boiler to act by  its clastic force on
one side of the smaller piston, while the steam which had
last moved it has a communication with the larger cylin-
der, where it follows the larger piston now moving to-
wards that end of its cylinder which  is open to the con-
densing vessel.  JLet both pistons end  their stroke at one
time, and let us now suppose them both at the top of their
respective cylinders ready  to descend; then the  steam
of 40 pounds the square inch, entering above the smaller
piston, will carry it downwards,  while the steam  below
it,  instead of being allowed to escape into the atmosphere,
or  applied to any other purpose, will pass into the larger
cylinder above its piston, which will  take its downward
stroke at the same time that the piston of the smaller cy-
linder is doing the same  thing; and, while this goes on,
the steam wiiich last filled the larger cylinder, in the up-
ward stroke of the engine, will be passing into the con-
denser, to be condensed in the downward stroke.  When
the pistons in the smaller and  larger  cylinder have thus
been made to descend to the bottom  of their cylinders,
-then the steam from the boiler  is  to be shut off from the
top, and admitted to the  bottom of the smaller cylinder,
and the communication between the bottom ofthe smaller,
and the top of the larger  cylinder, is also to be cut off,
and the communication to be opened  between the top of
the smaller  and the bottom of the larger cylinder; the
steam which, in the downward stroke of the engine, filled
The larger cylinder, being now opened to the condenser,
and the communication between the bottom of the larger
cylinder and the condenser cut off; an  1 so on  alternately,
admitting the steam to the different sides of the smaller
piston, while the steam last admitted into the smaller cy-
linder passes alternately to the different sides of the larger
piston in the larger cylinder, the top and bottom of which
are made to communicate alternately with the condenser.
  " In an engine where these improvements are adopted,
that waste of steam which  arises in other engines from
steam  passing the piston,  is totally prevented, for the
steam which passes the piston in  the smaller cylinder is
received into the larger."
  Mr. Woolf  has  also  shown how the  preceding ar-
rangement may be altered, aud has pointed out various
other modifications of his invention, and the method of
applying his improvements to  steam-engines which arc
already constructed.
  On the power of steam-engines, and the method of com-
puting it.—From the account which has been given of
the steam-engine, and the mode of its operation, it must
be evident that its power depends upon the breadth and
height of the cylinder, or, in other words,  on the area
of the piston and the length of  its stroke.  If we suppose
that no  force is lost in overcoming the inertia of the
great beam, and that the lever  by which the power acts
is equal to  the lever of resistance;  then, if steam of a
certain elastic force is  admitted  above the piston, so as
to press it  downwards with a force of  a little more than
100 pounds, it will be  able to raise  a weight of 100
pounds hanging at the end of the great beam. When the
piston has descended to the bottom ofthe cylinder, through
the space of four feet, the weight  will have risen  through
the  same space;  and  100  pounds raised  through  the
height of four feet, during one descent of the piston, will
express the mechanical power of the engine. But if the
area of the piston, and the length  of  the cylinder, are
doubled, while the expansive force of the steam, and  the
time of the piston's descent, remain the same, the mechan-
ical energy of the engine will be quadruple,  and will be
represented by 200 pounds  raised through  the space of
eight feet during the time of the piston's  descent. The
power of steam-engines therefore is, csetcris paribus, in
the compound ratio of the  area of the piston, and  tlie
length of the stroke.  These  observations being premis-
ed, it will be easy to compute the power of steam-engines
of any size.
  Thus, let it be required  to  determine the power of
steam-engines,  whose cylinder  is twenty -four inches di-
ameter, and which make twenty-two double strokes in a
minute, each stroke being five feet long, and the force of
the steam being equal to a pressure of twelve pounds
avoirdupois upon  every square inch.  The diameter of
the piston  being multiplied by  its circumference, and
divided  by  four,  will give its area in  square inches;
thug 24 x 3.1416 x 24 _ 4Sg, 4  the numucr 0f square
            4
inches exposed to the pressure of the steam.  Now if we
multiply this area by twelve pounds, the  pressure upon
every  square inch, we shall  have 452.4 x 12=5428.8
pounds, the whole pressure upon the piston, or the weight
which the engine is capable of raising.  But since the
engine performs 22 double strokes,  five feet long, in  a
minute, the piston  must move tlirough 22x5x2=220
feet in the same time; and therefore the power of the en-
gine will be represented by  5428.8  pounds avoirdupois,
raised through 220 feet in a minute^ orby 10.4 hogsheads 
E  N  G
E N  G
of water, ale measure, raised through the same height
in the same time.  Now this is equivalent to 5428.8x220
=1194336 pounds, or 10.4x220=2288 hogsheads raised
through the height of one foot in a minute.  This is the
most unequivocal expression of the mechanical power of
any machine whatever,  that can p >ssibly be obtained.
But as steam-engines were substituted in the room of
horses, it flas been customary to calculate their mechani-
cal energy in  borse-p owers, or to find the number of
horses which could per orm the same  work. This indeed
is a very vague expression of power, on account of the
different degrees of strength which different horses pos-
sess.   But still, when we are told that a steam-engine is
equal to 16 horses, we have a more distinct conception of
its p iwer, than wiien we are informed that it is capable of
raising a number  of pounds through  a certain space in a
certain time.
  Messrs. Watt and Boulton  suppose a horse  capable of
raising 32,000  pounds avoirdupois,  one foot high in a
minute, while Dr. Desaguliers makes it 27,500 pounds,
and  Mr.  Smeaton onlyr 22,916.  If we divide, therefore,
 the number ot  pounds which any steam-engine can raise
 one foot high in a minute,  by these three numbers, each
 quotient will represent the number  of horses to which
 tlie engine is equivalent.  Thus in the present example,

 119483 — 374 horses according to Watt  and Boulton;
  32000
        — 431 horses,  according to Desaguliers;  and
  27500

  —:—,__= 524 horses,  according to Smeaton. In  this
  22916      7                °
 calculation it is supposed that the  engine works  only
 eight hours a  day: so that  if it wrought during the
 whole 24 hours, it would  he equivalent to thrice the num-
 ber of horses found by the preceding rule. We cannot
 help observing, and it is with sincere pleasure that we
 pay that tribute of respect to  tbe honour and integrity of
 Messrs. Watt and Boulton which  has every where been
 paid to their talents and  genius,—that in estimating the
 power of a horse, they have assigned a value the most un-
 favourable to their own  interests.   While Mr. Smeaton
 and  Dr. Desaguliers would have made the engine in the
 preceding example equivalent to 52 or 43 horses, the pa-
 tentees themselves state that it will perform the work only
 of 37. How unlike is this conduct to some of our modern
 inventors, who  ascribe powers to their machines which
 cannot possibly belong to them, and employ the  meanest
 arts for ensnaring the public!
   Before we conclude this  article, we shall state the per-
 formance of some of  these engines,  as determined hy
 experiment.  An  engine whose cylinder is 31 inches in
 diameter, and which makes 17 double  strokes  per  mi-
 nute, is equivalent to 40  horses, working day  and night,
 and  burns 11,000 pounds of Staffordshire coal per  day.
 When the cylinder is nineteen inches, and the engine
 makes 25 strokes  of 4 feet each per minute, its power is-
 equal to that of 12 horses working  constantly, and it
 burns 3,700 pounds of coals per day.   And a ey linder of
 24 inches which makes 22  strokes of 5  feet each, per-
 forms the work of 20 horses, working constantly,  and
"wus  5,500 pounds  of coals.  Me. * Boulton has esti-
mated their performance in  a different  manner.  He
states, that one bushel of Newcastle coals, containing 84
pounds, will raise 30 million pounds one foot high; that
it will grind and dress eleven bushels of wheat;  that  ii
will slit and draw into nails 5 cwt. of  iron;  that it  will
drive 1000 cotton spindles, with all the preparation ma-
chinery, with the proper velocity; and that these effects
are equivalent to the work of 10 horses.
  Engine to lower heavy weights.  This  method was
described nearly a century ago, and is as follows:  Sup-
pose it was required to lower large stones from a build-
ing;  erect a frame A, set up a gin  close  by  the  side of
the wall, and let the pulley (Plate  LI. Engines,  fig. 9.)
be firmly attached to this frame.  Over this pulley must
pass a cord, one end of which C has a  hook  to which
the stone or other weight can be fastened: tlie other end
D carries a vessel, which may be filled with water from
the reservoir M on  the ground at the bottom of the wall.
Then, while one man is fixing the stone to the hook at
the top  of the wall, let another put water into the ves-
sel D at the bottom till it nearly  equals  the weight of
the stone; after which the stone will gradually descend
to the ground, while the  vessel D will be carried up to
the funnel S, into wiiich the water  may be pitired, and
thence  conveyed  by a wooden or  leathern  pipe to M.
Then the vessel D may he suffered to  descend,  and the
hook C will be raised to be fixed to another stone, and
thus the operation may be repeated.
  The same method may be adopted  in lowering sacks
from a  granary,  &c.   The  velocity of the descending
weight may be so regulated  as to  have  any proportion
to that which gravity imparts to  bodies  falling freely:
thus  if W = weight to be lowered, V that  of the vessel
              W—V
of water, then tt——expresses the ratio of  the velocity,
               "T'
to that freely imparted by gravity when denoted by unity:
            W
thus  if  V = ~T, the weight will fall through -I of 16^,

                                          2W
or about 54- feet in  the  first second: if V =——'  the

weight will fall tlirough A of 16^ or 3| feet, the friction
not being taken into consideration.
  Engines, in military mechanics, are  compound ma-
chines, made of one or more mechanical powers,  as levers,
pulleys, screws, kc. in order to raise, project, or sustain,
any weight, or produce any effect which could not he ea-
sily effected otherwise.
  Engine to drive fuses, consists  of a wheel with a han-
dle to it, to raise acertain weight,  and to let it fall uhon
the driver, by which the strokes become more equal.
  Engine to draw fuses, has a screw fixed upon a three-
legged stand, the bottom of wiiich has  a ring to place it
upon f e shell;  and at the end  of  the screw is  fixed  a
hand-screw by means of a collar, which being screwed
on the fuse, by turning the upper screw.  fTraws  out  or
raises the fuse.
  ENGINEER,  is commonly applied to an oflirerwho
is appointed to inspect  and contrive any  attacks, de-
fences, &c. of a fortified place, or to build or repair
them, kc.
  The art of fortification is an art which stands in need
of so many others,  and whoe object  is so cxU-u.-ive,
and  its operations  accem.iv.uirj with so y.x y  varie.is 
E  N  G
E  N  G
circumstances, that it is almost impossible for a man to
make biuise If master  of  it by experience alone,  even
supposing him born with  all the advantages of genius
and disposition possible for the knowledge and practice
of that important art.   We do not pretend to deny that
experience is of greater efficacy than all the precepts in
the world; but it has likewise its inconveniences as well
as  its advantages: its fruits  are of slow growth; and
whoever is content with pursuing only that method of
instruction, seldom knows how to act upon emergencies
of all kinds, before old age incapacitates  him from  ex-
ercising  his employment.  Experience teaches us through
the means of  tlie errors we commit ourselves, what the-
ory teaches us at  the  expense of others.  The  life of
man being short, and  opportunities of practice seldom
happening,  it  is certain nothing less than a happy ge-
nius,  a  great share of theory, and intense application
joined to experience,  can make an engineer expect to
shine in  his profession.  Whence  it fallows, that less
than the three first of those four qualities should not be
a recommendation for the rcceptie n of a  young gentle-
man into the corps of engineers.
  The fundamental sciences, or those  absolutely neces-
sary, are arithmetic, geometry, mechanics,  hydraulics,
and drawing.  Without  arithmetic, it is impossible to
make a calculation ofthe extent, and to keep an account
of the disbursements made or to be made; nor  without
it can an exact computation be made upon any occasion
whatsoever.  Without geometry, it is impossible to lay
down a  plan  or map with truth and exactness, or settle
a draught of  a fortification, or calculate the lines  and
angles, so as to make a just estimation, in order to trace
them on the ground, and  to measure the surface and so-
lidity of their parts.   Mechanics teach us ihe  propor-
tions of the machines in  use,  and how to  increase or di-
minish their powers as occasion may require; and  like-
wise  to judge whether those which our own imagination
Suggests to  us will answer in practice. Hydraulics teaches
us how to conduct waters from one place to another, to
keep  them  at  a certain height, or to raise them higher.
How fluently soever we may express ourselves in speak-
ing or writing, we can  never give so perfect an idea as
by  an exact drawing; and often in fortification both are
wanted, for which reason the art of drawing is indispen-
sably necessary for engineers.
  To the qualities above  mentioned must be added acti-
vity and vigilance; both  which are absolutely necessary
in all operations of war,  but especially in the attack of
s*uch places as are in expectation of succours.  The be-
sieged must have no  time allowed them for considera-
tion;  one hour lost at such a juncture often proves irre-
parable.  It is by their activity and vigilance, that en-
gineers  often  bring  the besieged to capitulate  much
sooner than they would have done if those engineers had
not pushed  on the attack  with  firmness and resolution.
W ant of vigilance and activity often proceed from irre-
solution, and  that from weakness of capacity.
  As the office of  an  engineer requires great natural
qualifications, much knowledge, study, and  application,
it is but reasonable that the pay should be proportioned
to that merit  which is to  be the qualification of  the per-
son employed: he must be at an extraordinary expense in
his education, and afterwards for books aud instruments
for his instruction and improvement, as well as for many
other tilings; and that  he may be at liberty to pursue
his studies with application, he must not be put to shifts
for necessaries.  It should likewise be considered, that
if an engineer does his duty, be his station what it will,
his fatigue must be very great; and to dedicate  himself
wholly to that duty,  he should be divested of all other
cares.
  The word  engineer is of  modern date,  and was first
used about the  year  1650, when captain Thomas Rudd
had the title of chief engineer to the king. In 1600, the
title  given to engineers was trench-mastei; and in 162:,
sir William  Pelham, and after him  sir Francis Vere,
acted as trench-masters in Flanders.  In the year 1634,
an engineer was called camp-master general, and some-
times engine-master; being  always subordinate  to the
master of the ordnance.
  At present the corps  of royal  engineers in England
consists of one colonel in chief, one colonel en second,
one chief engineer, five colonels,  six lieutenant-colonels,
18 captains,  15  captain-lieutenants  and captains,  31
lieutenants, and 16 second lieutenants.   The establish-
ment of the corps  of invalid engineers, comprises a co-
lonel, lieutenant-colonel, captain,  captain-lieutenant and
captain, first  lieutenant, and second lieutenant.
  The corps  of royal  engineers in Ireland consits of a
director, colonel, lieutenant-colonel, major, captain, cap-
tain-lieutenant  and captain,  and two first lieutenants.
  ENGRAILED, or Ingrailed, in heraldry,  a term
derived from the French grele, hail; and  signifying a
thing the hail  has fallen upon and broke off the edges,
leaving them ragged, or with half-rounds or semicircles
struck out of their edges.
  ENGRAVING, the art of cutting wood,  metals, and
precious stones, and representing thereon figures, letters,
or whatever device or design the  artist fancies.
  Engraving,  properly a branch of sculpture, is divid-
ed into several  other branches, according to the matter
whereon it is employed, and the manner of perform-
ing it.
  Engraving, or graving as it is generally called,  is
the cutting lines upon a copper-plate, by means of a steel
instrument,  called a graver, without the use  of aqua
fortis.
  This was  the  first  mode of producing  copper-plate
prints that was practised; and is still much used in his-
torical subjects, portraits, and in finishing landscapes.
   The tools  necessary for this art are, gravers, a scra-
per,  a  burnisher, an oil-stone, a sand-bag or  cushion,
an oil-rubber,  and some good charcoal.
   The  gravers are  instruments of tempered steel, fitted
into   a short  wooden handle.  They are of tvyo sorts,
square  and lozenge: the first is used in cutting very
broad strokes, the  other for fainter and more delicate
lines.                                      m
   The scraper is a three-edged tool, for scraping off the
burr raised by the graver.   Burnishers are for rubbing
down any lines that  are too deep, or burnishing out any
scratches or  holes in the copper:  they are of very hard
steel, well rounded  and polished.
   The oil-stone  is for whetting  the gravers, etching-
points, kc.
   The sand-bag, or  cushion, is for laying the plate upon, 
ENGRAVING.
for the convenience of turning it round in any direc-
tion.
  The oil-rubber  and charcoal, are for polishing the
plate when necessary.
  As great care is required to  whet the graver nicely,
particularly the belly of it, care must be taken to lay the
two angles of the graver, which are to be held next the
plate, flat upon the stone, and rub them steadily, till the
belly rises gradually above the plate; so that,  when you
lay the graver flat upon it,  you may just perceive the
light under the point; otherwise it will dig into the cop-
per, and then  it will  be impossible to keep a point, or
execute the work with freedom.   In order to this, keep
your right arm  close to your  side, and  place the fore-
finger of your  left hand upon  that part of the graver
which lies uppermost on; the stone.  When this is done,
in order to whet the face, place the flat part of the han-
dle in the hollow  of your hand, with the belly of the
 graver upwards, upon a  moderate slope; and rub the ex-
 tremity,  or  face,  upon  the  stone, till it has an exceed-
 ingly sharp point,  which you may try upon your thumb-
 nail.
   When the graver is too hard, as is  usually the case
 when first bought, and  may be known  by the frequent
 breaking of the point, the method of tempering it is  as
 follows:  Heat a poker red-hot, and hold the graver upon
 it, within half an inch of the point, till the steel changes
 to a light straw-colour;  then  put the point into oil,  to
 cool: or, hold the  graver close to the flame of  a candle,
 till it be of the same colour,  and cool  it in the tallow;
 but be careful either way, not to hold  it too long,  for
 then it will be to soft; and in this case the point, which
 will then turn blue, must be  tempered again. Be not too
 hasty in tempering; for sometimes a little whetting will
 bring it to a good condition,  when  it is but a little too
 hard.
   To hold  the graver, cut off that part of the handle
 which is upon the same line with the belly, or sharp edge
 of the graver; making  that side flat, that it may be no
 obstruction.
   Hold the handle in the hollow of your hand; and, ex-
 tending  your fore-finger towards the point, let it rest on
 the back of the graver, that you may  guide  it flat and
 parallel  with the plate.   Take care that your fingers do
 not interpose between the plate and the graver,  for they
 will hinder you from carrying the graver level with the
 plate, and from cutting  your strokes so clean as they
 ought to be.
   To lay the design upon the plate, after you  have pol-
 ished it  fine and smooth,  heat it so that it will melt vir-
 gin-wax, with which  rub  it thinly and equally over, and
 let it cool.  Then the design which you lay on, must be
 drawn on paper, with a black-lead pencil, and  laid upon
 the plate, with its pencilled  side  upon  the wax:  then
 press it  to,  and with a burnisher go over every part of
 the design;  and when you  take off the paper,  you will
 find every line which you drew with the black-lead pen-
 cil upon the waxed plate, as if it had been drawn: then,
 with a sharp-pointed tool, trace all your design through
 the wax upon the plate, and you may then take off the
 wax, and proceed to work.
   Let the table, or board you work at,  be firm and stea-
 dy; upon wiiich place your sand-bag with the plate upon
   vwl. i.                 118
it; and, holding the graver as above directed, proceed in
the following manner.
  For straight strokes, hold your plate firm upon the
sand-bag with your left band, moving your right hand
forwards; leaning lighter where the  stroke should be
fine, and harder where you  would have it broader.
  For circular or crooked strokes, hold the graver stcd-
fast; moving your hand, or the plate,  as you see con-
venient.
  Learn to  carry your hand with such dexterity, that
you may end your stroke as finely as you  began it; and
if you have occasion to make one part deeper or blacker
than another, do it by degrees;  and that you  may do it
with greater exactness, take care that your strokes be
not too close, nor too wide.
   In the course of your work, scrape off the roughness
which arises, with your scraper; but  be careful, in do-
ing this, not to scratch tbe plate; and that you may see
your work properly as you go on, rub it with the oil-rub-
ber, and wipe the plates clean;  which will take off the
glare of the copper,  and show what you have done to the
best advantage.
   Any mistakes or scratches in the plate may  be rubbed
out with the burnisher,  and the part  levelled with the
scraper, polishing it again afterwards lightly with  the
burnisher, or charcoal.
   Having thus attained the use of the graver, according
to tbe foregoing rules, you will be able to finish any piece
previously etched, by graving up the several parts totbe
colour required: beginning, as  in the etching,  with the
fainter parts,  and advancing gradually with the stron-
ger, till the whole is completed.   See  Etching.
   The dry point, or needle, (so called because not used
 till the ground is taken off the plate)  is principally em-
ployed in the extremely light parts of water,  sky, dra-
pery, architecture, kc.
   To prevent any obstruction from too great a degree of
light, the use of a sash, made of transparent or fan pa-
per, pasted on a frame, and placed sloping at a conve-
nient distance between your work and the  light, will pre-
serve the sight;  and when the sun shines, it cannot pos-
 sibly be dispensed with.
   Of mezzotinto engraving or scraping.—This art, which
 is of late date, is recommended hythe amazing ease with
 which it is executed, especially by those who understand
 drawing.
   Mezzotinto prints arc those which have no patching,
 or strokes  of  the graver, but  whose  lights and shades
 are blended together,  and appear like a drawing in In-
 dian ink.   They are different  from  aqua tinta: but as
 both resemble  Indian ink,  the difference is not easily de-
 scribed.   Mezzotinto is applied to portraits and histori-
 cal subjects,  and aqua tinta is used only for landscape
 and architecture.
   The tools necessary for mezzotinto scraping are the
 grounding-tool, burnishers, and  scrapers.
   To lay the  mezzotinto  ground, lay your plate, with
 a piece  of flannel  under it. upon your table;  hold the
 grounding-tool in your hand perpendicularly; lean upon
 it moderately bard, continually rocking your hand in a
 right line from end  to end,  till you have wholly covered
 the plate in one direction: next cross the strokes from
 side to side, afterwards from corner to corner, working 
ENGRAVING.
the tool each time all over the plate, ih every direction,
almost like the points of a compass; taking all possible
care not to let the tool cut (in one direction) twice in a
place.   This done, the plate will be  full, or, in other
words, all over rough alike; and would, if it was printed,
appear completely black.
   Having laid the ground, take the scrapings of black
chalk, and with a piece of rag rub it over the plate; or
you  may smoke it with candles, as before directed for
etching.
   Now take your drawing, and having rubbed the back
with red-chalk dust,  mixed with flake-white, proceed to
trace it on the plate.
   To form the lights and shadows, take a blunt needle,
and  mark  out the outlines only, then  with a scraper
scrape off the lights in every part of the plate, as clean
and  smooth as possible, in proportion  to the strength of
the lights in your drawing, taking care not to hurt your
 outlines.
   The use of  the  burnisher is to soften or rub down
the  extreme light parts, after the scraper is  done with;
such as the tip  ofthe nose, forehead, linen, &c. which
might otherwise, when proved, appear rather misty than
clear.
   Another method used by mezzotinto-scrapers is,  to
etch the outlines ofthe original, as also the folds in dra-
pery, making the breadth of the shadows by dots; which
having bit to a  proper depth with aqua fortis, they take
off the ground used in etching,  and having laid the mez-
 zotinto-ground, proceed to scrape as above.
   When your plate is ready for taking a proof,  or im-
 pression, send it to the copper-plate  printer, and  get it
 proved. When the proof is dry, touch it with white chalk
 where it should be lighter, and with black chalk where
 it should be darker: and  when  the print is retouched,
 proceed as before for the lights; and  for the shades use
 a small grounding-tool, as much as yrou judge necessary,
 to bring it to a proper colour;  and when you have done
 as much as you think expedient, prove  it again;  and so
 proceed to prove and touch till it is entirely to  your
 mind.
   Engraving in aqua tinta.—Aqua tinta is a method of
 producing prints very much resembling drawings  in In-
 dian ink.
   The principle of the process  consists in corroding the
 copper with aqua fortis,  in such a manner,  that an im-
 pression from it has the appearance of a tint laid on the
 paper.  This is effected  by covering the copper with a
 powder,  or some substance which takes a granulated
  orm, so  as to prevent the squa fortis from acting where
 the particles adhere; and by this means cause it to corrode
 the copper partially, and  in the interstices only.   When
 these particles  are  extremely minute and  near to each
 other, the impession from the plate appears to the nak-
 ed  eye exactly  like a wash of Indian Ink; but when they
 arc larger, the granulation is more distinct:  and as this
 may be varied  at pleasure,  it is capable of being  adapt-
 ed  with great success, to a variety of purposes and sub-
 jects.
   This powder, or granulation, is called the aqua-tinta
 grain, and there  are two general  modes  of  produc-
 ing it
  We shall first describe what is called the powder-grain
because it was the first that was used.
  Having etched the outline on a copper-plate, prepared
in the usual way by the coppersmith, (for which see the
article Etching) some substance must be finely  pow-
dered and sifted, which  will melt with heat, and  when
cold will adhere to the plate, and resist the action of
aqua-fortis.  The substances which  have been  used for
this purpose, either separately or mixed, arc asphaltum
Burgundy pitch, rosin, gum-copal, gum-mastich; and, in
a greater or less degree, all the resins and gum-resins will
answer the purpose. Common rosin has been most gene-
rally used, and answers tolerably well; though gum-copal
makes a grain that resists the aqua fortis better.
  The substance intended to be used for the grain, must
now be distributed  over the plate as equally as  possible*
and different methods of performing this essential part
of the operation have been used by different  engravers,
and at different times.
  The most usual way is, to tie up some of the powder
in a piece  of muslin,  and  strike it against a piece of
stick, held at a considerable height above the plate; by
this,  the powder that issues  falls  gently,  and settles
equally over the plate.  Every  one  must have observed
how  uniformly  hair-powder settles upon the furniture
after the operations of the hair-dresser. This may afford
a hint towards the best mode of performing this part of
the process. The powder must fall upon it from  a con-
siderable height, and there must be a sufficiently  large
cloud of the dust formed. The plate being covered equal-
ly over with the dust, or powder, the operator is next to
proceed to fix it upon the plate, by heating it gently, so
as  to melt the particles. This  may be effected by hold-
ing under the plate lighted pieces of brown paper rolled
up, and moving them about till every part of the powder
is melted; this  will be known  by its change of colour,
which will  turn brownish.  It  must  now be  suffered to
cool, when it may  be examined with a magnifier,  and  if
the grains or particles appear to be uniformly distribut-
 ed, it is ready for  the next part of the process.
   The design or drawing to be engraved must now be
 examined, and  such parts of it as are perfectly white are
 to  be remarked. Those corresponding parts of the plates
 must be covered, or stopped out as it is called,  with tur-
 pentine-varnish, diluted with turpentine to a proper con-
 sistence to work freely  with the pencil,  and  mixed with
 lamp-black  to  give  it colour;   for if transparent, the
 touches of  the  pencil would not he so  distinctly seen.
 The margin of the plate must also be covered with varn-
 ish.  When the stopping out is sufficiently dry, a border
 of  wTax must be raised round the plate, in the same man-
 ner as in etching,  and the aqua fortis properly  diluted
 with water poured on.   This is called biting in, and is
 the part of the process whieh  is most  uncertain, and
 which requires  the greatest degree of experience.  When
 the aqua fortis has lain  on so  long that the plate, when
 printed, would produce the lightest tint in tlie drawing,
 it  is poured off, and  the plate washed  with water and
 dried.   When it is quite dry,  the  lightest  tints in lhe
 drawing are stopped out, and the aqua fortis poured  on
 as before, and  the same process is repeated as often  aa
 there are tints to be produced in the plate.
    Although many plates are etched entirely by this meth- 
ENGRAVING.
od of stopping out and biting in alternately, yet it may
easily be conceived,  that  in  general,  it would  be very
difficult to stop  round, and leave out all the finishing
touches; as also the leaves of trees, and many other ob-
jects, which it would he  impossible, to execute with the
necessary degree of freedom in this manner.
  To overcome this difficulty, another very ingenious
process  has been invented,  by which these "touches are
laid on the plate with  the same ease and expedition as
they are in a  drawing in  Indian ink. Fine washed whit-
ing is mixed  with a little treacle  or sugar, and diluted
with water in the pencil,  so as to work freely; and this
is laid on the plate covered with the aquatint ground, in
the same manner and on   the same parts as ink on the
drawing.  When this is dry, the whole plate is varnished
over with a weak and thin varnish of turpentine, asphal-
tum,  or  mastich,  and then suffered  to  dry, when  the
aqua fortis is poured on.   The varnish will immediately
break up in the parts where the treacle mixture was laid,
 and expose all those places to the action  of the acid,
 while the rest of the plate remains secure.  The effect of
 Ihis will be,  that  all  the touches or places where the
 treacle was used, will be bit in deeper than the rest, and
 will have all the precision  and firmness of touches in
 Indian ink.
   After the plate is completely bit in, the bordering-wax
 is taken off,  by  heating the plate a little with a lighted
 piece of  paper;  and it is then cleared from the ground
 and varnish by oil of turpentine, and  wiped clean with
 a rag and a little fine  whiting, when it is ready for tbe
 printer.
   The principal disadvantages of this method of  aqua-
 tinting are, that it is extremely difficult to  produce the
 required degree of coarseness  or fineness in the grain,
 and that plates so engraved do not print many impres-
 sions before they are worn out.  It is therefore now ve-
 ry seldom used, though it is occasionally of service.
   We next proceed to describe the second method of pro-
 ducing the aquatint ground,  which is generally practis-
 ed.   Some resinous substance is dissolved in spirit of
 wine, as common  resin, Burgundy  pitch,  or mastich,
 and this solution is poured all over the plate,  which is
 then held in a slanting direction till the superfluous fluid
 drains off; and it is laid down to dry, which it does in a
 few minutes.  If the  plate is then  examined  with the
 magnifier, it will be found that the spirit,  in evaporat-
 ing,  has left the resin in a granulated state; or rather,
 that the latter has  cracked in  every  direction,  still ad-
 hering firmly to the copper.
   A grain is  thus produced with the greatest ease,  which
 is extremely  regular and beautiful, and much  superior
 for most purposes to that produced by tbe  former meth-
 od.  After the grain is formed, every  part of the process
 is conducted  in the same  manner as above described.
   Having thus given a general idea of the art,  we shaH
 mention  some particulars necessary to be attended to, in
 order to ensure success  in the operation.  The spirit of
 wine used for the solution, must be highly rectified, and
 ofthe best quality.  What is sold in the shops, generally
 contains camphor, which would entirely spoil the  grain.
 Resin, Burgundy pitch, and gum mastich, when dissolv-
 ed in spirit of wine, produce grains of a different appear-
 ance and figure; and arc sometimes usod separately, and
sometimes mixed in different proportions, according to the
taste of the artist, some using one substance  and some
another. In order to produce a coarser or finer grain, it is
necessary to use a greater or smaller quantity of resin; and
to ascertain the proper proportions, several spare pieces of
copper must be provided, on which the liquid may be pour-
ed, and the grain examined, before it is applied to the plate.
to be engraved. After the solution is made, it must stand
still and undisturbed for a day or two,  till all the impu-
rities ofthe resin have settled to the bottom, and the fluid
is quite pellucid.   No other  method of freeing it  from
those impurities has been found to answer; straining it
through linen or muslin, only fills it with hairs, which
are ruinous to the grain.  The room in which the liquid
is poured on the plate,  must  be perfectly still and free
from  dust; which, whenever it falls on the plate while
wet, causes a white spot,  wiiich it is  impossible to re-
move without laying the grain afresh. The plate  must
also be  previously  cleaned,  with  the greatest possible
care, with a rag and whiting, as  the  smallest stain  or
particle of grease produces a streak or blemish in the
grain.  All these attentions are absolutely necessary to
produce a tolerably regular grain;  and,  after every tiling
that can be done by the most experienced artists, still
there is much uncertainty  in the process.  They are
sometimes obliged to lay on the grains several  times, be-
fore they  procure one  sufficiently regular.  The same
proportions of materials do not always produce the same
effect, as it depends in  some degree on their qualities;
and it is even materially altered by the weather.  These
difficulties are not to be surmounted but by a great deal
of experience; and those who are daily  in the habit of
practising the art,  are  frequently  liable to  the most un-
accountable accidents.  Indeed it is much to be lament-
ed, that so elegant and  useful a process should be so ex-
tremely delicate and uncertain.
   It being necessary to hold the plate in a slanting  di-
rection, in order to drain off the superfluous fluid,  there
will naturally be a greater body of the liquid at the bot-
tom than at the top of the plate. On this account, a grain
laid in this way is always coarser at the side of the plate
that was held lowermost. The most usual way is, to
keep the coarsest  side  for the fore-ground, that being
generally the part which has the  deepest  shadows.  In
large landscapes,  sometimes various parts are laid with
different grains,  according  to the nature of the sub-
ject.
   The  finer the grain is, the more nearly  does the im-
pression resemble Indian ink, and the fitter it is for imi-
tating  drawings:  but very fine grains have several dis-
advantages; for they are apt to come off before the aqua
fortis has lain on long enough to produce the  desired
depth; and as the  plate is not corroded so deep, it soon-
er wears  out in printing; whereas coarser grains are
firmer,  the acid goes deeper,  and the plate  will throw
off a great many  more  impressions.  The  reason of all
this is  evident, when  it is considered, that in the fine
grains  the particles are small and near each other, and
consequently the aqua fortis.  which acts laterally as well
as downwards, soon undermines the particles,  and causes
them to come off.  If left too  long on the  plate, the acid
would eat away the grain entirely.
   On these  accounts, therefore, the moderately coarse 
ENGRAVING.
grains are more sought after, and answer better the pur-
pose of the publisher, than the fine grains which were for-
merly  in use.
  Although there are considerable difficulties in laying
 properly  the aquatint grain, yet the corroding  of the
copper, or bitting in,  so as  to produce exactly the tint
required,  is  still more precarious and uncertain.  All
engravers allow that no positive rules can be laid down,
by wiiich the success of this process can be secured; no-
thing but a great  deal  of experience and  attentive ob-
servation can enable the artist to do it with  any degree
of certainty.
  Tliere are some hints, however, which may be  of con-
siderable importance to the person who  wishes to attain
the practice of this art.  It is  evident, that the longer the
acid remains on the copper, the deeper it bites, and con-
sequently the darker will be  the shade in the  impression.
It may be of some use,  therefore, to have several bits of
copper laid with aquatint grounds, of the same  kind to
be used in the plate, and to let the aqua fortis remain for
different lengths of time on  each;  and then  to examine
 the tints produced in one, two, three,  four minutes, or
longer.  Observations of this kind, frequently repeated,
and  with different degrees of strength of the acid, will at
length assist the judgment, in guessing at the tint which
is produced in  the  plate.  A magnifier is also useful to
 examine the grain, and to observe the  depth to which it
is bitten.  It must be observed, that no proof of tbe plate
 can  be obtained till the whole process is finished. If any
 part appears to have been  bitten  too  dark,  it  must be
 burnished down with a steel  burnisher; but this requires
 great  delicacy  and good management not to make the
 shade streaky;  and as the beauty and durability of tbe
 grain  are always somewhat injured by it,  it should be
 avoided as much as possible.
   Those parts which are not dark enough, must have  a
 fresh grain laid over them,  and be stopped  round with
 varnish, and subjected again to the aqua fortis.  This is
 called rebiting,  and requires peculiar  care  and atten-
 tion.   The  plate must be very well  cleaned out with
 turpentine before the grain  is laid on,  wbich should be
 pretty coarse,  otherwise it  will not lie upon the heights
 only,  as is necessary in order to produce the same grain.
 If the new grain is different from the former, it  will not
 he sio  clear nor so firm, but  rotten.
   We have now given a general account of the process
 of engraving in  aqua  tinta,  and  we believe that no ma-
 terial circumstance has been omitted that can be  commu-
 nicated without seeing the  operation: but  after  all  it
 must be confessed, that no  printed directions whatever
 can enable  a person to practise it  perfectly.  Its success
 depends upon so many niceties, and attention to  circum-
 stances apparently trifling, that the person who attempts
 it must not he  surprised if he does not succeed  at first.
 It is a species  of engraving simple and expeditious,  if
 every thing goes on well; but it is very precarious, and
 the  errors wiiich are made are  rectified with great diffi-
 culty.
   It seems to be adapted chiefly for imitation of sketches,
 washed drawings, and slight subjects;  but does not ap-
 pear to be at all calculated  to produce  prints from fin-.
 ished  pictures,  as it is not susceptible of that accuracy
 in the balance of tints necessary  for this purpose.  Nor
does it appear to be  suitable for  book-plates,  as it does
not print a sufficient number of impressions. It is there-
fore not to be put in  competition with the other modes of
engraving.  If confined to  those subjects for which it is
calculated, it must be allowed  to be extremely  useful, as
it  is expeditious,  and may  be attained with  much less
trouble than any other mode of engraving. But even this
circumstance is  a source of  mischief, as it occasions the
production of a multitude of prints, that have ho other
effect than that of vitiating  the public taste. See Etch-
ing.
   Engraving  on wood.—Engraving on  wood is a pro-
cess exactly the reverse to engraving on copper.  In the
latter, the strokes to be printed  are sunk, or cut into
the copper, and a rolling-press is  used  for printing it;
but in engraving on wood, all the wood is cut  away, ex-
cept the lines to be printed, which  are left standing  up
like types, and the mode of printing is the same as that
used in letter-press.
   The wood used for this purpose is box-wood, which is
planed quite smooth. The design is then drawn upon the
wood itself with black lead; and all the wood is cut away
with gravers  and other proper  tools, except the lines
that are  drawn.  Or sometimes the  design is drawn up-
on paper, and pasted upon  the wood, which is  cut as be-
fore.   The art is of considerable difficulty, and tliere are
very  few  who practise it.   It is,  however,  useful for
books, as the printing of it is cheaper than that of cop-
per-plates. It cannot be applied equally well to all the
purposes  to which  copper-plate engraving is applica-
ble.
   In  engraving on precious stones,  they  use  either the
diamond, or ernery.  The diamond,  which is the hardest
of all stones, is only cut by itself, or with its  own mat-
ter. The first thing to be clone in this branch of engrav-
ing, is to cement two rough diamonds  to the ends of two
sticks large enough to hold them steady in the  hand, and
to rub or grind them against each other till they are
brought to the desired form.  The dust, or powder, that
is rubbed off, serves afterwards to polish  them, which is
performed with a kind of mill that turns a wheel of soft
iron. The diamond  is fixed in a brass  dish, and thus ap-
plied to the wheel, is covered with  diamond-dust, mixed
up with oil of olives; and when the diamond is to be cut
facet-wise, they apply  first  one face, then another, te
the wheel.  Rubies, sapphires, and topazes, are cut and
formed the same way on a copper  wheel, and polished
with tripoli diluted  in water.  As to agates,  amethysts,
emeralds, hyacinths, granites, rubies, and others of the
softer stones, they are cut on a leaden wheel,  moistened
 with emery and water, and  polished with tripoli, on  a
pewter wheel.  Lapis-lazuli, opal, kc are polished on  a
wooden wheel.  To fashion and engrave vases of agate,
 crystal, lapis-lazuli, or the like,  they make use of a kind
of lathe,  like that used by pewterers to hold the vessels,
 which are to be wrought with proper tools:  that of the
 engraver generally  holds the  tools,  wiiich are turned by
 a wheel;  and the vessel is held to Hiem to be cut and en-
 graved, either in relievo or  otherwise;  the tools being
 moistened, from time to time, with diamond-dust and oil,
 or at least emery and water.  To engrave figures or de-
 vices on any of these stones,  when polished, such as me-
 dals, seals, &c. they use a little iron wheel,  the ends  of 
ENS
E N T
whose axis are received within two pieces of iron, plac-
ed upright, as in the turner's  lathe; and to be brought
closer,  or set further apart, at pleasure:  at one end of
the axis are fitted the proper tools, being kept tight by a
Bcrew.   Lastly, the wheel is turned by the foot, and  the
stone applied by the hand to the tool,  and is shifted and
conducted as occasion requires.
   Tbe tools are generally of iron, and  sometimes of
brass: their form is various; but it generally bears some
resemblance to chisels, gouges, eke.   Some have small
round heads, like buttons;  others  like ferules,  to take
the pieces out; and others flat,  &c.  When the stone  has
been engraved, it is polished on wheels of hair-brushes
and tripoli.
   Engraving on steel is chiefly employed in cutting seals,
punches, matrices, and dyes proper for  striking coins,
medals, and counters.  The method of engraving with
the instruments, &c. is the same for coins as for medals
and counters.  All the difference consists in their greater
or less relievo, the relievo of coins  being much less con-
 siderable than that of  medals, and  that of counters still
 less than that  of coins.
   Engravers  in steel  commonly begin  with punches,
 which are  in relievo, and serve for making the  crcux,
 or cavities, of the, matrices and dyes; though sometimes
 they begin with the creux, or hollowness, but then it is
 only when the intended work is to be cut very shallow.
 The first thing done, is that of designing the figures;
 the next is the moulding them  in wax, of the size and
 depth they are to lie, and from this wax the punch is
 engraved.  When the punch is finished, they give it a
 very high temper, that it may  the better bear the blows
 of the hammer with which it is struck, to give the  im-
 pression to the matrix.
   The steel is made hot to soften it, that it may the more
 readily take the impression of the punch; and after strik-
 ing the punch on it, in this  state, they proceed to touch
 up or finish the strokes and lines, where, by reason of
 their fineness, or the  too great relievo, they are any
 thing defective, with  steel  gravers of different kinds,
 chisels, flatters, &c. being the principal instruments used
 in graving on steel.
   The figure being  thus finished, they proceed to en-
 grave the  rest of the  medal,   as the  mouldings of the
 border, the engrailed ring, letters,  &c. with little steel
 punches, well  tempered,  and very sharp.
   EN MAN CHE', in  heraldry, is when lines are drawn
 from the contre of the upper  edge of the chief to  the
 sides,  to about half the breadth ed'  the chief; signifying
 sleeved, or resembling a sleeve, from the French manche.
   ENNEANDRIA, in botany, the ninth class of plants
 with  hermaphrodite flowers, and nine stamina  or male
 parts  in each.  See Botany.  To this class belong the
 laurus, rheum, spondias,  bntomus,  &c.
   ENSIFORM,  in general,   something resembling a
 sword, ensis: thus we  find mention of ensiform  leaves,
 ensiform cartilage, kc.
   ENSIGN, in the  military art, a banner under  which
 the soldiers are ranged according to the different compa-
 nies or parties they belong to.
   Ensic;n is also ihe officer that carries the colours, be-
 ing the lowest commissioned officer in a company of foot,
 subordinate to the captain and  lieutenant.
  ENTABLATURE, or entablement, in  architecture,
is that part of an order of a column which is over  the
capital, and comprehends the architrave, frieze, and cor-
niche.
  Entablature, in masonry, is used sometimes to de-
note the last row of stones on the top of the wall of a
building, on which the timber and  covering rest.  This
is often made to project beyond the naked part of the
wall, to carry off the rain.
  ENTAIL, in law,  is a fee-estate entailed;  that is,
abridged and limited to certain conditions prescribed hy
the donor or grantor.   See Estate.
  ENTE',  in heraldry, a method of marshalling, more
frequent abroad than with us, and signifying grafted or
engrafted.
  ENTEROCELE.  See Surgery.
  ENTERPLEADER, in law, signifies the discussing
or trial of a point, incidentally falling out, before  the
principal cause can be determined.
  ENTHYMENE, among logicians, denotes  a syio-
gism, perfect in the mind, but imperfect in the  expres-
sion, because one of the propositions is suppressed, aa
being easily supplied by tbe understanding of those with
whom  we discourse: e.g. " In every right-lined triangle
the three angles are just equal  to two right ones; there-
fore, those of an isosceles are so:" where  the  proposi-
tion, "every isosceles is aright-lined triangle," is omit-
ted, as being sufficiently known.
  ENTOMOLOGY, that part of the science of zoology
which  treats exclusively of insects.
  Some natural historians consider this class of animals
the most imperfect of any, while others prefer them to the
larger animals.   One mark of their imperfections is said
to be, that many of them can live  a long  time, though
deprived of those organs which are necessary to life in
the higher ranks of nature.  Many of them are furnished
with lungs and a heart, like the nobler animals; yet the
caterpillar continues to live, though its heart and lungs,
which  is often tbe case, are entirely eaten  away.  It is
not however from their conformation alone that insects are
inferior to other animals, but from instincts also.  It is
true, that the  ant and bee present us with striking in-
stances of assiduity;  yet even  these are inferior  in  the
marks of sagacity displayed by the larger animals.   A
bee taken from the swarm is totally helpless aud inactive,
incapable of giving the smallest variations to its instincts.
It has but one single  method of operating: and if  put
from that, it can turn to no other.   In the pursuits of tho
hound, there is something like choice; but in the labours
of the bee, the »• hole appears like necessity and compul-
sion.  All other animals are capable of some degree of
education; their instincts may be suppressed or  altered;
the dog may be taught to fetch and carry, the  bird to
whistle a tune, and the serpent to  dance:  but the insect
has only one invariable method of operating; no arts can
turn it from its instincts: and indeed its life is too short
for instruction, as a single season often terminates its ex-
istence.  Their amazing number is also an imperfection.
Itis a rule that obtains through all nature, that  the no-
bler animals are slowly produced, and that nature  acts
with a kind of dignified economy;  but the meaner births
are lavished in profusion, and th e ands are-  brought
forth merely to supply the necessities of  the more fa>- 
ENTOMOLOGY.
rourite part of the creation.  Of all productions in na-
ture, insects are by far the most numerous. The vegeta-
bles which cover the surface of the earth hear no propor-
tion to the multitudes of insects; and  though,  at  first
sight, herbs of the field seem  to  be the parts of orga-
nized nature produced in  the  greatest  abundance,  yet,
upon more minute inspection, we find every plant  sup-
porting a mixture  of scarcely perceptible creatures, that
fill up  the onipass of youth,  vigour,  and age,  in the
space of  a few days  existence.  In  Lapland and some
parts of  America, the insects are so numerous, that if a
candle is lighted they swarm about it in such multitudes,
that it is instantly extinguished by them; and  in  those
parts of  the world, the miserable inhabitants are forced
to smear their bodies and  faces with tar, or some other
unctuous composition, to protect them from the stings of
their minute opponents.
   Swammerdam however argues  for  the perfection  of
insects in the  following manner.  " After an  attentive
examination (says lie) of  the nature and anatomy of the
smallest  as wrell as the largest animals,  I cannot help  al-
lowing the least an equal, or perhaps a superior, degree
of dignity.  If, while we dissect with care the larger
animals, we are filled with wonder at the elegant dispo-
sition of their parts, to what  a height  is our astonish-
ment raised, when we discover all these parts arranged,
in the  least, in the same regular manner!  Notwithstand-
ing the  smallness of ants, nothing hinders our  pre-
ferring them to the largest animals, if wre consider cither
their unwearied diligence,  their  wonderful powers,  or
their inimitable propensity to labour.  Their amazing
 love to their young is still more unparalleled among  the
 larger classes.  They not only daily carry them to such
places as may afford them food, but if by accident they  are
 killed, and even cut into pieces, they will with the utmost
 tenderness carry them away  piece-meal  in their arms.
 Who  can show such an  example among the larger ani-
 mals which are dignified  with the title  of pcrfee:t?  Who
 can find an instance in any  other creature that can come
 in competition with this?"
   On this dispute it is only necessary to observe, that  the
 wisdom  of the Creator is  so conspicuous in all his works,
 and such surprising art is discovered  in the mechanism
 of the body of every creature, that it is very difficult, if
 not impossible, to say where  it is most, and where it is
 least,  to be perceived.
   Those who are desirous  of attaining  a systematic
 knowledge of insects,  ought  primarily to  be  solicitous
 about  acquiring the terms  made use of in the science,
 that so they may  be able rightly  to denominate every
 part of  an insect.  The student is first to know what an
 insect is, lest he mistake  the hippocampi, and other am-
 phibious animals, for them,  as  was formerly  done: or
 confound them with the vermes,  which Linnseus first
 distinguished from insects,  and  which differ as  essen-
 tially  from them as the class mammalia do from birds.
 Every insect is furnished with  a head, antennse, and
 feet, of  all which the vermes  are  destitute.  All insects
 have six or more feet; they respire  through pores plac ed
 on the sides of their bodies, and which are termed spi-
 racula:  their  skin is extremely hard,  and serves  them
 instead  of bones, of which they  have internally  none.
 From this definition, the acus marina is evidently no
insect.  But the antennse placed on the fore-part of the
bead constitute the principal distinction.  Ihese are
jointed and  moveable in every part, in which they differ
from the horns of  other  animals: they are organs con-
veying some kind  of sense; but we have no more idea of
what this kind of  sense is, than a man has, who, without
eyes, attempts to determine the particular action of the
rays of light on the retina of the eye, or to explain the
changes which thence take place in  the human  mind.
That they are the organs of some kind of sense, is ap-
parent from their perpetually moving them forward; vet
the hard crust with which they  are invested, and  their
shortness in flies and other insects, would induce one to
believe them not to be the organs of touch:  Mr. Barbut
supposes  them to  constitute or to contain the organs of
hearing, because they are tubular, and filled with air and
some kind of humour, as appears from the antenna; of
butterflies immersed in water. To come now to the terms
of the art.   A knowledge of the external parts of the
body is first to be established; which, after the method
of anatomists, we may divide into head, trunk, abdo-
men, and extremities.
            Of the external parts of the body.
   I. Caput, the head.  It is asserted in  the Fundamen-
tal Entomologise,  that this part in  insects is without
brain. The difference between the brain and the spinal
marrow consists in the former  being a medullary part
organized.   We do not deny the existence of a medullary
thread in the heads of insects, but we never could discov-
er it to  be  organized; hence the hippobosca equina, or
horsefly, will live, run,  nay even copulate, after beiiijg
deprived ofits head: to say nothing of many others which
are  capable of living  a long while under the same cir-
cumstances.
   Insects  not being  apparently furnished  with  ears,
they have been apprehended incapable of hearing; as we
can no more conceive that sense to exist without ears,
than vision without eyes.  That they are nevertheless
susceptible  of any shrill or loud noise, as well as fishes,
is indisputable; but it has been supposed to be in a  man-
 ner different from that of bearing.  Mr.  Barbut, howev-
 er, supposes them to possess this sense in a very distinct
 manner.  Many insects, he observes,  are well known to
 be endowed with  the power of uttering sounds, such as
 large beetles, the  bee, wasp, common fly, gnat, kc. The
 sphinx atropos squeaks, when hurt, nearly as loud as a
 mouse.  Now, if insects are endowed  with the power of
 uttering sounds,  it certainly must be for some purpose.
 As they vary their cry occasionally, it must be certainly
 designed either to give notice  of pleasure or pain, or
 some  affection in the creature  who possesses it. " The
 knowledge of heir sounds (says our author) is undoubt-
 edly confined to their tribe, and is a language intelligi-
 ble to them only; saving when violence obliges the animal
 to exert the voice of  nature in distress craving compas-
 sion; then  all the an;mals understand the doleful cry.
 For instance: attack a bee or wasp  near the hive or a
 few of them: the consequence of that  assault will be, the
 animal or animals, by a different tone of voice, will ex-
 press his or their disapprobation or pain; that sound is
 known to the hive to be  plaintive, and that their brother
 or brethren require their assistance; and the offending 
ENTOMOLOGY.
party seldom escapes with impunity.  Now, if they had
not the sense of hearing, they could not have known the
danger their brother or brethren wrere in by the altera-
tion of their tone."
  A still more decisive proof occurred to his observa-
tion in a large spider in St. James's park. This creature
had made a very large web on a wooden railing; and was
at the time of observation, on one of the  rails at a con-
siderable distance from the place where a large fly had
entangled  itself. Nevertheless, the moment the  fly was
entangled, the spider became sensible  of it; though from
the situation of the rail, he could  not possibly  have
seen it. In this, however, Mr. Barbut might possibly be
deceived; because the spider was perhaps alarmed by the
tremulous motion ofthe threads, occasioned by the flut-
tering ofthe fly; which he might well know how to dis-
tinguish from their vibration by the wind. The organ of
hearing, in our author's opinion, is situated in the anten-
na;  both  from their  situation in  the part of the head
most favourable to such organs, and their inward struc-
ture being moveable; the ears of the  most  inferior ani-
 mals being so. He has never considered the antennse as
 either offensive or  defensive, but has observed them to
 have been  endowed with an exquisite sense  of  feeling;
 that the animal  appeared to be in agony when its an-
 tennse were  pinched;  and that it takes care to  avoid
 the touching any  hard  substance with  them roughly.
 « This tenderness in the organ of hearing (says he) is
 common to all animals; and insects seem to be particular-
 ly tender in  these parts, by quickly withdrawing them
 from the touch."
   This writer further  observes, that  the antennae  of all
 insects are composed of joints varying in size, form, and
 number. Those  who  are chiefly confined to live  under
 water,  have their antennse in general  shorter than those
 who live on  land. Some  who roam at large  in  the air,
 have them long  and slender. They are all hollow, and
 are  rendered flexible by the joints, which are  very visi-
 ble in the horns  of the crab and  lobster. This  hollow -
 ness, in our author's  opinion, is  to  receive  the sound
 communicated to the extremities of the antennse  by the
 repercussion of the air affected hy any noise; and con-
 veys it, hy means of the  joints, from one to another, till
 it arrives in that  lessened  degree of tone best suited to
 the  timid  nature  of  the animal.  In this circumstance
 there may be many variations in point of  perfection in
 those organs; the strength, utility, and degree of power
 in receiving sound, being proportioned to the necessities
 of the animals, different in their nature and requisites.
 In most animals, the entrance to the auricular organ is
 patulous:  but in this case the animal  would suffer  great
 inconvenience from such an  organization, as  the orifice
 would be subject to impediments frem dirt, &c.
   Most naturalists are  in doubt  whether insects have
 the  sense of smell, no organs being found in them adapt-
 ed to that purpose: and although it was evident they had
 a perception of  agreeable  and fetid  effluvia, it was
 thought to be in a manner altogether  unknown  to us.
 Mr. Barbut is of opinion that the organs of smell reside
 in the pdpi or feelers. Many insects have  four, and
 some six, two of which are in general ehiliform, in order
 to assist the insect in convey ing its food to its mouth. It
 may be likewise  observed, that the palpi are in a continu-
al motion: the  animal thrusting them into every kind oi*
putrid or  other matter, as a hog would his nose, smell-
ing and searching after food.  Insects which apparently
do not possess palpi or spiral tongues, have undoubtedly
some  organs concealed within the  mouth, analogous to
them in  function and utility ; the fleshy proboscis of the fly
is thurst into every substance in which  the animal ex-
pects  to find food; and when it is extended, nearly in the
middle are situated, in our author's opinion, two upright
palpi, which, no doubt, perform in their turn some office,
and perhaps that  of smell.
  Many insects  are without the tongue, nor  do they
make any sound with their mouth; but for this purpose
some  use their feet, others their wings, and others some
elastic  instrument with  which  they are naturally  fur-
nished.
  Eyes. Most insects have two eyes; but the  gyrinius
has four, the scorpion six, the spider eight, and the sco-
lopendra three. They have no  eyebrows, but the exter-
nal tunic of the eye is hard and transparent like a watch-
glass; their eyes have no external motion, unless it be in
the crab.  Tbey consist for the most part of one lens on-
ly; but in  those of the butterfly, diptera, and many ofthe
beetles, they  are more numerous. Pugett discovered
17,325 lenses  in the cornea of a butterfly, andLieuwen-
hoek  800  in that  of a fly.
  Antennae. The  number of these is generally two (un-
less four  are allowed to some crabs), and are placed on
the fore part of head: they are  peculiar  to insects; and
are plainly distinguishable from  the  tentacula  of  the
vermes, in being  crustaceous: and from the palpi of  in-
sects, which are more numerous, placed near the mouth,
and are sometimes wanting. As  the antennse are of great
moment in distinguishing the  various kinds of insects,
we shall  enumerate  and  explain the several  different
forms of them.
  Setacese, are those which grow gradually tapering to-
wards the extremity.
  Filiformes,  such as are of the  same thickness  through-
out.
  Moniliformcs,  are  filiformes, like  the preceding, but
consist  of a series of round knobs,  like a necklace of
beads.
   Clavatse, such as  gradually increase in size toward
the extremity.
   Capitatse are clavatse, but have the extremity some-
what round.
   Fissiles are capitatse;  but   have  the capitulum, or
knob, divided longitudinally into three or four parts, or
lamina?, as in  sc arabsei.
   Pertbliatse  are also capitatse; but have the capitulum
horizontally divided, as in the  dermestes.
   Pectinatse,  so  called from their similitude to a comb,
though they more properly resemble a feather, as in the
moths and elateres: this is most obvious in the male.
   Alistataj, such as have a lateral hair,  which is either
naked,  or furnished with lesser hairs, as in the fly.
   Bre viores,  those which are shorter than the body.
   Lemgiores,  those wbich are longer than tbe body".
   Mcdiocres, those which are of the same length with
the body; all  three of which varieties are distinguisha-
ble in the cerambyces.
   Palpi, or feelers, resemble filiform, articulated, movea- 
ENTOMOLOGY.
 ble antennae. They are most commonly four in number,
 sometimes six; they are sufficiently  distinguished from
 antennse, in being naked, short, and always  placed at
 the mouth.
   Os, the mouth, is generally placed in the anterior part
 of the head, extending somewhat downwards. In some
 insects, it is placed under the breast; as in the chermes,
 coccus, cancer (crab), and circulio.
   Rostrum or proboscis, is a mouth drawn out to a rigid
 point: in many of the hemiptera class  it is  bent down-
 ward towards the breast and  belly, as in  the cicada,
 ncpa, notonecta, cimex (bug), aphis, and remarkably so
 in some curculiones.
   Maxillse, the jaws, are two in number, sometimes four,
 and at other times more; they  are placed horizontally;
 the inner edge of some insects is serrated, or furnished
 with little teeth.
   Lingua, the tongue, in some insects is taper and spi-
 ral, as in the butterfly; in others it is fleshy, resembling
 a proboscis, and tubular, as in the fly.
   Labium superius, the upper lip, is situated  above the
 jaws; as in the scarabseus and gryllus.
   Stemmata, or crown, are three smooth hemispheric
 dots, placed generally  on the top of the head; as in most
 of the hemenoptera, and others.
   II. Truncus,  the trunk, is that part which compre-
 hends the breast or  thorax:  it is situated between the
 head and abdomen; and has the legs inserted into it, that
 its parts may be distinctly determined.  It is divided into
 thorax, scutellum, and sternum.
   Thorax, the chest, is the  back part of the breast; and
 is very various in its shape.   It is called dentatus, when
 its sides are armed with points.
   Spinosus, when  its back is furnished with them, as in
 the gcrambyx; and marginatus, when its margin is late-
 rally dilated, as  in the silpha and cassida.
   Scutellum, or  escutcheon, is the posterior  part of the
 thorax; it is frequently triangular, and appears to be di-
 vided from the thorax hy an intervening  suture, as  in
 most of the coleoptera.
   The sternum,  or breast-bone, is situated on the infe-
 rior part of the thorax; it is pointed behind in the elate-
 res. and bifid in  some of the dytisci.
   III.  The abdomen is in most insects distinct from the
 thorax; it is the posterior part of the body of the insect;
 and is composed  ofa number of annular segments which
 serve  occasionally  to  lengthen or  shorten it,  and  to
 contain the organs of chyiification, &c.
   Spiracula, are little holes or pores, placed singly on
 each  side of every  segment of the  abdomen:  through
 these the insect   breathes;  and if oil is applied so as to
 stop them up, it proves fatal to  most of them.
   Tergum, the back, is the superior part of the abdo-
 men.
   Venter, the belly, is the inferior part.
   Anus, is the posterior part of the abdomen, perforated
 for the evacuation of the excrement.  This part also fre-
 quently contains  the organs of generation.
   IV. Artus, the limbs, or extremities, are the various
 instruments of motion.
   Pedes, the legs, are generally six.  There is an excep-
 tion to this, however, in the class apiera, many of which
have eight; as acari (mites), phalangii, most of the ara-
nei (spiders), scorpiones (scorpions), and cancri (crabs')
The oniscus  has 14,  and the iuli and  scolopendri stUl
more.
  The first joint of the leg, which is generally thickest,
is  called femur:  the  second, which is generally  of the
same size throughout, tibia: the third, which is jointed
is  distinguished by the  name of tarsius; and the last!
which in most insects is double, by that of unguis. The
legs of  insects, in general, are named from  the various
motions they produce: as
  Cursorii, from that of running, which  are most nu-
merous.
  Saltaorii, from that of leaping.
  Natatorii,  from that of swimming, &c. In the saltato-
rii, the thighs are  remarkably large,  by which  means
they are able to leap to a considerable distance, as  in the
gryllus, grass-hopper, kc.  In those of the natatorii, the
feet are flat, and edged with hairs, which  answer the
same purpose as oars in assisting them to swim, as in the
dytiscus.
  Mutici, are such feet as have no claws.
   Chelse, or  claws, are the fore-feet  enlarged towards
their extremities, each of which is furnished with two
lesser claws, which act like a thumb and finger; as in the
crab.
  Alse, wings,  tbe  instruments which enable the  insect
to fly.  These are membranous and  undivided, except in
the instance  of  the phalsense alucitse, in which they arc
in  part divided. Most  insects  have four;  the diptera
class, and the coccus, however, have only two.
   The  wing is divided into its superior and  inferior
surfaces: its  anterior part in a butterfly, is that towards
the anterior  margin, or next to the head; its posterior
part, that  towards the anus;  its exterior part, that to-
wards  the outer edge; and the interior, that next the ab-
domen.
  They are called plicatiles, when they are folded at
the time the insect is at rest, as in the wasp:  opposite to
these are  the  plana?,, wiiich  arc  incapable  of  being
folded.
  Erectse, such as have their superior surfaces brought
in contact when the insect is at rest; as in the ephemera,
puclla  and virgo, and papiliones (butterflies).
  Patentes, which remain horizontally extended  when
the insect is at  rest; as in the phalsense  gcomctrse, and
most of the libellulse.
  Incuinbentes, such  as cover horizontally the superior
part of the abdomen when the insect is at rest.
  Deflexse, are incumbents, hut not horizontally, the
outer edges declining towards the sides.
  Reverse, are deflexse, with this addition, that the edge
of the  inferior wings projects from under the anterior
part of the superior ones.
  Dentate, in which the edge is serrated, or scalloped.
  Caudatse, in  which one or more projections in the hind-
er wings are  extended into processes.
  Reticulata?, when the vessel of the wings put  on the
appearance of net-work, as in the hemcrobius perla; the
two anterior  wings generally become superior, and the
posterior ones  inferior, in moths, when  their wings are
closed;  but the  anterior wings are called primary, and
the inferior ones secondary, in butterflies, as they can- 
ENTOMOLOGY
 not with propriety be called inferior when the wings are
 ©red.
   Colores, the colours; these are various''and apparent;
 but according to their several shapes, they take the dif-
 ferent names of puncta?, dots: and macula?, spots.
   Fascia?, bands, which frequently run across and some-
 times surround the edge of the wings.
   Stria?, streaks, whieh are very slender fascia?, and li-
 ■ea?, lines, which are longitudinally extended.
   Ocellus, is a round spot containing a lesser spot of a
 different colour in its centre.
   Stigma, another term lately introduced  by Linnseus,
 signifies the spot, or anastomis, in the middle of the wing
 near the anterior margin; it is conspicuous in most of the
 hyincnoptera and neuroptera, and even in the coleoptera.
 The single or double kidney-shaped spot, situated in the
 same part of the anterior wings, and frequently occurring
 in the phala?nsc pagans, is distinguished likewise by the
 tame of stigma.
   Elytra (in the singular number elytron).  The upper
 wings, or case, which are of a hard  substance, in some
 degree resembling leather, and which in most insects are
 ef a very hard texture, but in others flexible, are called
 elytra:  their superior surface  is generally convex, their
 inferior concave. When the insect flies, they are extend-
 ed; and  shut when it rests, closing together, and forming
 a longitudinal suture down the middle ofthe  back, as in
 ■the coleoptera.  They are of various  shapes:
   Abbreviata, when shorter than the  abdomen.
   Truncate, when shorter than the abdomen, and termi-
 nating in a transverse line.
   Fastigata, when of equal  or greater length than the
 abdomen, and terminating in a transverse line.
   Serrata, when the exterior margin towards the apex
 is notched or serrated, as  in some of the buprestes.
   Spinosa, when the surface is covered with sharp points
 tr prickles.
   Scabra,  when their surface is so uneven as to grate
 against  the fingers.
   Striata, when  marked with slender longitudinal fur-
 rows.
  Porcata, when with elevated longitudinal sulci or ridges.
  Sulcata, when the ridges are concave.
  Hemelytra,  when  the superior wings are of a middle
 substance between leather  and membrane; either totally
 >o> as in the grylli; or partially so, as in  the cimiees,
 nepa?, and nofrmrc ta?: these are commonly distinguished
 ty the name lieiniptera.
  Hal teres, poiseis (a term also introduced by Linnseus),
 are little heads placed on  a stalk or peduncle, most fre-
 quently  under alitle arched scale. They ere  found only
 in the class diptcra, and appear to be  nothing more than
 ttie rudiments ofthe hinder wings.
  Cauda, the tail, in most insects  is,
  Siioph-x, simple,  capable of being extended, and again
 drawn back at pleasure.  In the crab and scorpion, how-
 ever, it  is
  Elongata, elongated or lengthened.
  Seiueea, brittle shaped, or taper; as in the raphidea.
  Triseta, consisting of three bristles; as in the ephemera.
  Furcata, being forked, as in the podura.
  Forcipata, resembling a pair of  forceps; as in the for-
mula.
   Foliosa, resembling a leaf; as in the  blatta, grylli, and
 some species of cancri.
   Tclifera, such as are armed with a dart or sting; as in
 the scorpion or panorpa.
   Aculeus, the sting,  an  instrument with  which  they
 wound, and at the same time instil  a poison: with s\lcM
 the bee, wasp, scorpion, kc. are furnished.
  Explanation of the figures that accompan y this article.
                      Plate L1V.
 Fig. 62. Antennse pectinata?, or feathered; as in the pha-
            lsena?, moths.
     63.--------perfoliatse, or perfoliated; as in the
            dermestes and dytiscus.
     64.--------fissiles, orfissile, divided into lamina? at
            the extremity; as in the scarabsei, beetles.
     65.--------clavatse, or club-shaped; as in the pa-
            pilio, butterfly.
     66. Moniliformes, like a necklace of beads;  as ia
            the chrysomela.
     67.-------------setacese,  setaceous,   or  bristle-
            shaped; as in many of the pbalselia?.
     68.-------------aristata?, furnished with a lateral
            hair; as in the fly.
     69 and 70.  a, caput, the head,  b, palpi, or feelers.
            c, antenna?, or horns,  d, oculi, the eyes,  c,
            thorax. /, scutellum, or escutcheon,  g, pec-
            tus, or breast,  h, sternum, or  breast-bone.
            t, abdomen, and its segments, k, anus. I, ely-
            tra, or shells,  m, membranous wings, n, pe-
            des, or feet, which are natatorii.
     M. o, femur, or thigh, p, tibia, or leg. q, tarsus, or
           foot,  r, unguis, or claw.
     72. a, the anterior part  of the wing, b, the poste-
           rior part, c, the exterior part, ci, the interior
           part,  e, the margin. /, the disk, or middle.
           g, oculus, or eye.
     75, 74, 75, and 76. represent the insect in its egg,
           caterpillar,  pupa, and perfect state.
                 Of the  sexes of insects.
   In insects the same difference exists as in other animals,
 and  they even  appear more disposed to increase their
 species than other animals; many of them, when become
 perfect, seeming to be created for  no other purpose but
 to propagate their species.  Thus the silkworm, when it
 arrives at its perfect or moth state, is incapable  of  eat-
 ing,  and can hardly fly: it endeavours only to propagate
 its species;  after which the male immediately dies, and,
 as soon as  she deposits her eggs, the female also expires.
   Tbe males and  females of many insects are with dif-
 ficulty distinguished; whilst in some they differ so widely,
 that  an unskilful person might easily take the male and
 female of the same insect for different species: as for in-
 stance, in the phalsena huniuli, piniari, russula: each sex
 of which differs in  colour.  This  dissimilarity  is still
 more apparent in some  insects, in which the male has
 wings  and  the female none; as in the coccus, lampvris,
 phala?na antiqua, brumata, lichenella.  And  as most in-
sects remain a long while in  copulation, as we mav see
 in the  tipula  and silkworm, the winged males  fly With
the wingless females, and  carry them  about from  one
place to another; as in the phalsena antiqua.   It is, how-
ever, na cortaim rule, that  when  ©ne insect of the same 
ENTOMOLOGY,
species is Sound  to have wings, and the other to be with-
out, the former must necessarily be the male and the lat-
ter the female.  The aphides, for instance, are an excep-
tion; and besides these, individuals of both sexes, and of
the same species, are found without wings, as the carabi
majores, tenebriones, meloes, cimices.  The gryllus  pe-
destris is likewise destitute of wings;  and might  have
passed for a  gryllus in its pupa state, had  it not been
seen in copulation; for it is well known that no insect can
propagate its  species till it arrives at  its last or perfect
state.
   «« Plcraque insectorum  genitalia sua intra  anum  ha-
bent abscondita, et penes solitarios, sed nonnulla penem
habent bifidum: cancri autcm et  aranei geniinos, que-
madmodum nonnulla amphibia, et quod mi rand um in loco
alieno, ut cancer, sub basi cauda?.  Jlraneus^mas palpos
habet clavatos,  qui penes sunt, juxta os utrinque-unirura,
qua? clava? sexum ncc speciem distinguunt;  et fo&mina
vulvas suas habet in abdomine juxta pectus.  Huic vero
si unquam vere dixeris, Res plena timoris amor: si  eniin
procus in  auspicato  accesserit, foemina ipsum devorat;
quod etiam  sit, si non statim se retraxerit. Libellula  foe-
mina genitale suum sub apice  geret caudse, et mas  sub
pectore; adeo ut cum mas collum foeminse  forcipe caudse
arripit, ilia candam sub pectore ejus adplicet; sicque pe-
culiari ratione connexse volitent."
   Besides those of male  and female, a third sex exists
in some insects which we call  neuter:  as these have  not
the distinguishing parts of either sex,  they may be  con-
sidered  as eunuchs, or infertile. We know of no instance
of this kind in any other class of animals, nor in vegeta-
bles, except in the class syngenesia, and in the opulus.
This kind of sex is only found among those insects which
form themselves into societies, as bees, wasps, and ants:
 and here these  kind of eunuchs are real  slaves,  as on
 them lies the whole business of the economy; while those
 of the other sex are idle, only employing themselves in
 the increase of the family.  See Apis. Among ants, the
 neuters form a hill in the shape of a cone, that the water
 may run off it, and place  those which are in the pupa
 state on that  side of it which  is least exposed to the heat
 of the sun.  At  a considerable distance from these are
 found the habitations of the males and females, to whom
 the most ready obedience is yielded by the neuters, till a
 new offspring succeeds, and then they oblige them to  quit
 their habitations.  But those  ants which live entirely un-
 der ground provide better for themselves in this respect;
 for a little before their nuptials they quit their habitation
 of their own  accord, and, after swarming in the manner
 •f bees, copulate in the air;  and each retiring to some
 new habitation founds a new race.
    No hermaphrodites have as yet been discovered among
 insects. There is something very singular, however,* in
 the propagation of the aphides. A female aphis once im-
 pregnated  can produce  young, which will  continue to
 produce others without any fresh impregnation, even to
 the tenth progeny; afterwards a new  impregnation  must
 take place.
    The male  insects, like male hawks, are always smaller
 than the females.
    In  the  propagation of  their species they are remark-
 ably careful; so that it is with the greatest difficulty the
 flies are kept  from depositing their egss on fresh meat,
 fhe cabbage-butterfly from laying them on cabbage, and
other insects from depositing them on the several places
peculiar to each.  The scarabseus pilularis and carnifex
are deserving of our attention, as  they  afford a mutual
assistance  to  each  other: for when the female has laid
her eggs in a little ball of dung, the males with their feet,
which are axiform, assist the female to roll it to some
suitable place; as Aristotle and Piiny formerly, and Loe-
fling lias since remarked.
   A fact not a little wonderful is, that in the coccus and
oniscus the female has no sooner brought forth her young
than she is devoured by  it; and that the  sphex should be
able so  readily to kill the caterpillar of a moth, then bury
it in the earth, and there deposit her eggs in it. Nor cau
we without admiration behold the same species of aphis,
which was viviparous in the summer, become oviparous
in the autumn.
   Almost innumerable examples might be brought of the
singularities in  the eggs of insects: we shall, however,
only mention those of the hemerobius, which arc deposited
on a footstalk; those of the phalsena neustria, which are
placed  regularly in a ring round the  branch of some
tree; and the compound  eggs of the blatta, or cockroach.

             Of the  metamorphoses of insects.
   Except  those of the aptera class, there arc no insects
but what are continually undergoing  some transforma-
tion. They change  first from the (ovum) egg, into the
(larva) caterpillar, or maggot; then into the (pupa) chry-
salis; and, lastly, into the (imago) fly, or perfect state.
During each of those changes their appearance differs
most essentially.  The  insect, as soon as it came out of
the egg, was  by former  entomologists called eruca; b u
as this  is synonymous with the botanic name sisymbrium,
it was changed by  Linnseus for the term
   Larva; a name expressive of the  insect's being, in this
state, as it were masked, having its true appearance con-
cealed.  Under this mask or skin the entire insect, such
as it afterwards appears  when perfect, lies concealed, en-
veloped only in  its tender wings, and putting on a soft
and pulpy appearance; insomuch that Swaminerdam was
able to demonstrate the  butterfly with its wings to exist
in a catterpillar, though it bore but a faint resemblance
to its future  perfection. The insect, therefore, in this
state, undergoes no other alteration but the change ofits
skin.   The larva? are, for the most part, larger than the
 insect when perfect, and are  very voracious.  The ca-
terpillar  of the cabbage-butterfly eats  double  what it
 would seem to require from its size; its growth, however,
 is not adequate to  its voracity.
   Pupa.   The insect in this state  was formerly called
 chrysalis, or aurelia; but as the appearance of gilding is
 confined to a few  butterflies only, the term of pupa has
 been adopted in its stead; because  the lepidoptcra, espe-
 cially, resemble an infant in swaddling-cloths; and in this
 state none, except those of the hemiptera class, take any
 nourishment.
    Imago is the third state.  This name  is given by Lin-
 nseus to the third change, in which the insect appears in
 its proper shape and colours; and as it undergoes no more
 transformations, it is called perfect In  this state it flies,
 is capable of propagating  its species,  and  receives  its
 true antenna?; which before, in most insects, were scarce-
 ly apparent.
   As the shape of the pupa is different in different cla?« 
ENTOMOLOGY.
ses of insects, it assumes different names;  thus it is cal-
led
  Coarctata, when  it is round,  and as it were turned,
without the least resemblance to  the structure of the in-
sect; as in the diptera.
  Obtecta,  when it consists as it were of two parts, one
of which surrounds the  head and thorax,  and the other
the abdomen.
   Incompleta, when they have wings and feet, but are
not capable of moving them: as in most of the hymenop-
tera.
   Scmi-completa, in which they  walk or run, but have
only the rudiments of wings.
   Cemplcta, in  which they immediately obtain the per-
fect form of the insect,  without undergoing any more
change: as in those of the aptera class, except only the
flea.  The bed-bug also  belongs  to this class.
   The spider undergoes frequent transformations, though
only in the colour of its skin.  The crustaceous insects,
as crabs, lobsters,  &c. yearly cast their shells, or their
growth would otherwise be impeded.  The scolopendri,
when young, have  fewer feet than when they are full-
grown.  All insects, as soon  as  they  undergo the third
change, are arrived at their full growth; nor do we  find
any difference in the size of the same species of insect
in the same countries, unless, during its caterpillar state,
it has not had a sufficiency of proper food.

            Of the classification  of insects.
   The insect tribe being endowed with the various pow-
ers of creeping, flying, and swimming,  there is scarce-
ly any place, however remote and obscure, in which  they
arc not to be found.  The great confusion which appeared
to the  ancients to arise  from their number,  made them
n«*ver dream of reducing them to any system.  Swam-
merdain, that  indefatigable inquirer  into nature,  ob-
served, that their metamorphoses were divided by na-
ture into several states or orders.   Their external ap-
pearance also carried with it some  mark of distinction:
so that entomologists called all those of the coleoptera
class scarabsei (beetles);  those of the lepidoptera papi-
liones: and those of the  gymnoptera class that had  two
Wings only, muscse  (flics); those of the same class that
had four  wings, were called  apes (bees).  No farther
progress was made in the systematic part of this science
till the time of Linnseus.  He was the first that  under-
took to determine the genera, and assign them their pro-
per characters, in the Systema Natura?; and thus redu-
ced this science to a systematic form.   This system, in
subsequent  editions, was considerably  enriched  and
amended  by him, insomuch that the science of insects
now shines forth in its full lustre.  He it was who first
instituted natural orders, and reduced them into genera
by expressive names; determined an infinite number of
spec ies in the Funa Suecica  and Museum Reginse; col-
lected with incredible pains  the synonymous names of
the various  authors who  had written on them; and,  last-
ly, added their descriptions, and  the  places in which
they were to be found: so that the system of this illlus-
trious author  will lead  any  person, without  the assis-
tance of a master, for the most part, easily to ascertain
tlie name of any insect he may  meet with.  Before bis
time scarcely  any more  than 200 insects  were  known;
whereas, in the last edition of his system, he has deter-
mined the names of nearly 3000 distinct species;  though
this is not  the  sixth part of the number that is  now
known.
   Orders.—The class of insects is  divided  hy Linnseus
into seven orders.  1. The coleoptera (from kuxkh a  sheath,
and esrTtfc, a wing), are such insects as have crustaceous ely-
tra or shells, which shut together,  and form a longitu-
dinal suture  down the back of the insect;  as the beetle
(buprestisignita), fig. 77.  2. Hemiptera (from h/x/s-w half,
and -o-Tipor a wing), have their upper  wings usually half
crustaceous and  half membranaceous,  not divided  by a
longitudinal suture, but incumbent on each other; as the
cimex, fig. 78.  3. Lepidoptera (from m.tjc a scale, and
tr-ripo,  a  wing),  are insects having four wings, covered
with fine scales  in the form of powder or meal; as in the
butterfly (papilio antiopa), fig.  79.  4. Neuroptera (from
nvpon a nerve, and o-npo, a wing), have four membranous
transparent naked wings, generally like network; as in
the  panorpa  coa, fig. 80.  5. Hymenoptera (from v/w
a  membrane,  and «Tif« a wing), arc insects with  four
membranous  wings; tail furnished with a sting, as  in
the  tcnthredo, fig. 81.  6. Diptera (from <JW  two, and
«tt*p«» a wing), are such as have only two wings and poi-
sers; as  in the fly (musca), fig. 82.  7. Aptera (from «
without, and «rTipor a wing), insects having no wings.  The
last  division contains scorpions, spiders, crabs, lobsters*
&c.  See Aranea, Cancer, kc.
   Genera.—It is not necessary to insert here the charac-
ters of all the different genera which may  be  found  in
Linnseus's Syst. Nat.  It will be sufficient to enumerate
some new  genera mentioned  by subsequent systematic
writers;  so that by being acquainted with the subtile dis-
tinctions on which they are built, the  student may avoid
running  into confusion.  It is among  the moderns  only
that genera of  this kind are to  be met with, and new
names given them.  To remove this difficulty,  we shall
first enumerate those names adopted  by authors, w hicji
are synonymous with those of Linnseus.

New genera of authors synonymous with those of Linnceus.
   In this account we shall distinguish the names wiiich
other authors have given by Italics.   Thus, lucanus has
been named Platyceros.  Hister, attelabus.  Byrrhus, an-
threnus cistela. Mylabris, laria scop.  Attelabus, clerus.
Si\nh%,peltis. Bruchus, mylabris. Pitmus, byrrhus. Chry-
somela, galericula.  Hispa, crioseris.  Cantharis,  cincin-
dela.  Buprestis,  cucujus.  Carabus,  bup&stis.  My-
rineleon, formica-ko.  Sirex,  uroceros.

               New genera of authors.
   Copris, scarabseus absque  scutello.  Bostricius,  der-
mesutes  capecinus. Cistela, byrrhus pilula.  Rhinoman-
cer, attelabus rostro producto fere curculionis.   Jtnthri-
bus, silpha.  Bruchus, ptinus  fur  ob  spinas  thoracis.
Melolontha, chrysomela cylindrica.   Mtica, chrysomela
saltatoria.  Diaperis, chrysomela fungorum.  Pyrochora,
cantharis.  Telephorus, cantharis.   Cantharis, mrioe al-
ata.   Cerocoma,  incloe shafferi.  Notaxis,  meloe niono-
ceros.  Prionus, cerambyx thoracis marginc denticulato.
Stenocoris, leptura thorace spincsa.   HydrophUus, dvtis-
cus antennis clavatis. Mylabris. necydalis minor. Jjcru
dium,  gryllus muticus.   Locusta, 'gryllus tettigonia. 
ENT
NET
Trttigovii, cicada.  Corixa,  notonecta.  Naucoceris, ne-
pa.   Pevla.  hemerobius  cauda  bisccta.   Libclluloides,
myrnielcon antennis capitatis.  Crubro, tenthredo an ten-
nis ciitvatis.  Pterophorus, phalsena alucita.  Bibio, tip-
tila thora  e spinoso.  Stomoxoides, asilus bucca inflata.
Sti< tionymus,  musca.  JVemotelus,  musca.   Volucetta,
m;-sea.
   These genera appear to  be in a great measure  like
th se which were introduced into botany by the follow-
er- of Rivinus. Paying too little regard to nature, they
disunited natural genera,  on account ofthe most trifling
distinctions.   This made their continuance in the science
of very short duration.  Our business here is not to sup-
pi s-, but to examine, what nature will allow of,  and
w!s t siic will not.    Knowledge of this kind, built  on
op.nnn only, will not stand.   We are therefore to look
inv<  the science with great accuracy; and the larva of
the inse t, its manner of changing, and other things of
niomenf, are to be known, before we presume to form a
new genus.
   Coining of new names, and changing of one old one
for anoth  r, has been the source of the greatest confusion.
Thus, in order to reduce the cicindela and carabustothe
game genus,  buprestis has been adopted for  the generic
name; but as that  genus  had long ago received  a very
different application, it was changed for that of cucujus.
Again, that the officinal  cantharides  might be ranged
among the cerambyces,  the cantharides  have been re-
moved from the genus of meloe (to which they naturally
belong), and refered to the genus of cicindela, obtaining
thus a  new name:  and so of many others.  Thus also,
to mention no more, how needless and rash was it to
seperate the acridium and locusta from the genus of gryl-
lus, the crabro from  the tenthredines, and the mylabris
from the necydalis!
   Trivial names.—The trivial names placed under their
respective genera will occasion little or no controversy;
they  are current like money, and of the same utility as
the proper names of men,  Peter or Paul, kc.  Insects liv-
ing  on vegetables should  receive their names from the
particular plants on which they mostly feed,  as that me-
thod  is preferable to all others.  Thus the names ofthe
phala?namori, kc are excellent; and when we are able to
give such to insects, the  old ones  are to be discarded.
But we are to be cautious and not too hasty in our judg-
ment in this respect; as insects, when they  cannot get
their favourite food,  will  often eat other plants.   Thus
tlie silkwTorm, for want of mulberry-leaves, will eat those
•f lettuce, though  it will not  be so well  nourished by
them.
   Various other instances of the invention of trivial
names will be met with in the System a Natura?, particu-
larly among the butterflies and moths.   To prevent con-
fusion from the great number of species which consti-
tute the genus of phalsena, they are distributed into sec-
tions, and distinguished hy  the terms of bombyces, noc-
tuse, geometra?, tortrices, pyralides, tinea?, and alucita?.
The  bombyces and noctuse. which are so much  alike,
that  the females of the bombyces,  are with  great diffi-
culty distinguished from the noctuse, are named in a pro-
miscuous manner.
   All those of the geometra? have their names termina-
ting in aria and ata, according as their antenna? are se-
taceous sr pectinated.  The tortrices. in aria; the py.
ralides, in alis: the tinea?,  in ella; and the alucitte, in
dactyla: so that it is evident from the termination itself
to what set tion tie insert is to he referred.   It is to be
wished that similar institutions could be forme ((through-
out the whole science,  as here the name itself serves to
distinguish the insect.
   Butterflies are divided  into sections, by the names of
equites,  heli<cnii, danai,  nyniphales, and  plebeii.   |n
such a multitude of butterflies, the greatest part of whi h
are foreign and extra-European, and to whose food and
manner of lift we are utter strangers, it was impossible
to give significant  trivial  nanus.  Linna?us, ther: f:>re
by way of simile, has taken the  names of the equities
from the Trojan history.   Tie se consist  of two tmepg
or bodies; of whic h one  contains the sable, and is it
were mourning nobles, having red or bloody  spats at  the
basis of their wings. These receive names from the Tro-
jan nobles; and as  Priam was  king  of Troy, the most
splendid among these bear his  name. The other body,
ornamented with a variety of gay colours, are distin-
guished by the names of the Grecian heroes; and as in
both armies there were kings as  well as officers of an  in-
ferior rank, those elegant butterflies, whose hinder wings
resembled tails, were distinguished by some  royal name.
Thus  when Paris is mentioned  (knowing  from history
that he was a Trojan,  and of royal I lood),  we find him
among those of the first sec tion; that is, those of a sable
colour, spotted in the breast with red, and having their
hinder wings resembling tails.   When Agamemnon is
named, we remember him to be a noble Greek, and find
him among those nobles which have variegated and swal-
low-tailed wings.  But when Nereus is spoken of,  we
readily know him to belong to  the last section, having
wings  but no tails.
   The second class, which contains the  heliconii,  de-
rive their names from the muses, as Urania. The names
ofthe sons and daughters of Danaus are bestowed on  the
third section.  And as these species are subdivided into
two other sections, viz. the white and parti-coloured,  the
metaphor is so conducted, that  the white  ones preserve
the names of the daughters of Danaus, and the parti-co-
loured ones those  of the sons of Egyptus: so that it is
evident from the name itself to what section the butterfly
is to be referred.
   The names of the fourth section, nyniphales, are ta-
ken from various nymphs of antiquity; and those of the
fifth section, plebeii, are  selected from different men
among the ancients  whose names are  worthy of remem-
brance: so that by this means a knowledge of the  an-
cients  may be interspersed, and this  agreeable science
be made doubly pleasing.   Those, therefore, who may
find new lepidoptera, and give them new names, will do
well to follow this method, unless it should be apparent
what  food the  insect  chiefly  prefers  for its  subsis-
tence.
   ENTOYER, in heraldry, denotes a bordure charged
wholly with things without life:  it seems to be a corrup-
tion of the French entour round about.
   ENTR1NG-LADDERS, in  a ship, are of two sorts;
one used  by  the vessel's sides,  in a harbour, or in fair
weather,  for persons to go in and out of the ship: the
ether  is  made, of ropes,  with  small staves for steps) 
E N  T
EPA
and is hung out of the gallery to enter into the boat, or
to come aboard the ship, when the sea runs so high that
they dare not  bring the boat to  the ship's  side for fear
$f staving it.
  ENTRY, writ of, is a writ directed to the sheriff, re-
quiring him  to command the tenant of  the land, that he
render to the demandinent the premises in question,  or
appear in court on such a day, and show why he has not
done it.  Of this writ there are four kinds.  1.  A writ
of entry sur disseisin, that lies for the  disseisee against
the disseisor, upon a disseisin done by himself; ami tiiis
is called a writ of entry in the nature of an assise.  2. A
writ of entry sur disseisin in the  per,  for the heir by
descent, who is said to be in the per, as he comes in by
his ancestor.  3. 4 writ of entry sur  disseisin in the
per and cui, where the feoffee of a disseisor makes a
feoffment over to another; and then the form  of a writ
is, that the tenant had no title to enter but by a prior ali-
enee, to whom the intruder demised it.  A writ of en-
try sur disseisin in the post, which lies after a disseisin:
 the land is removed from hand to hand,  in case of a more
remote seisin, whereunto the other three degrees do not
 extend.  1 Inst. 238.
   But all these writs are now  disused, as the  title of
 lauds is now usually tried upon  actions of  ejectment or
 trespass.
   Entry ad communem  legem.  The writ of entry
 ad communem legem lies where tenant  in dower, or ten-
 ant by the courtesy, or for life, aliens  in fee, or f.r the
 life of another, or  in tail,  the lands which they  hold,
 &c. after their death,  he in  the reversion who has it in
 fee, orf r life, shall have this writ against whomsoever
 is in possession oi* the land.
   Entry ad terminum  qui pr^teriit:  a writ of
 entry ad teriuinum qui prseteriit, lies where a man leases
 lands or tenements  for term of life, or years, and after-
 wards the term expires, and he to whom  the lease was
 rnatle, or a stranger, enters upon the land,  and occupies
 the same, and deforces the lessor; the lessor or his heirs
 shall have the writ. And this writ lies in  the per, cui,
 and post; for if the lessee holds over his term, and after-
 Wards makes  a feoffment, the lessor or heirs may  have
 this writ against the feoffee in the per;  and if the feoffee
 makes a feoffment over, he may have  it against the se-
 cond feoffee in the per nud-cui, and against the third feof-
 fee in the post.
   Extjv in casu consimili.  A writ of entry in casu
 consimili lies wiere tenant  by the courtesy,  or for life,
 or for another's life, aliens in fee, or in tail, or for life;
 now he in the reversion, who has an estate there for life,
 or in fee simple, or in tail,  shall have that writ during
 the In  ofthe tenant for life who aliened.
   Entuv in casu proviso.  The writ of entry in casu
 proviso Iks  where tenant in dower aliens in fee, for life,
 or in tail, the land which he holds in dower; he who has
 the reversion in fee, or in tail, or for life, shall maintain
 that writ against the alienee, and against him who is the
 tenant of the freehold of land during the life of the ten-
 ant in dower, Ace. and the writ may be made  in the per,
 cui, and post.
   Entry caisa  matrimonii prjslocuti,  lies where
 lands or tenements are given to a man, em condition that
 ne shall take the donor to his w ite within a certain time:
and if he does not espouse her within the limited time, or
espons s anotuer, or otherwise  .is.mles himself,  that he
cannot take h, r according to the sail condition, then the
donor and  her heirs slut.l have tiie said writ against him,
or against whoever else is in the said land.
  Bill o/Entry, in coinmeree. See Bill.  In England, in
making entries inwards, it is usual  for merchants to in-
clude all theg.ious they have on board the same sii.p in one
bill, thougu s nnetimts they  may tiapjK-u to be upwards
of twenty several  kin.is; and in case the goods are siiort-
ente red, additional or  post-entries  are  now allowed,
l hough formerly the goods so entered were forfeited.  As
to bills of entry outwards,  or in. fueling goods to be  ex-
poried,  upon delivering them, and  paying the customs,
you shall  receive  a small piece of parchment called a
cocket,  which  testifies your payment thereof, and ail du-
ties for  such goods.
  If several sorts of goods are exported at once, of which
some  are  free, and  others  pay customs, the exporter
must have two cockets, and therefore must  make two
entries; one for the goods that pay, and the other for the
goods tnat  do  not pay custom.
  Entries  of goods  on which a  drawback is allowed,
must likewise  contain the name of the ship  in which  the
goods were imported, the importer's name, and  time of
entry inwards. The entry being thus made, and an oath
taken Lhat the customs for those goods were paid as  the
law directs, you must carry  it to the collector and comp-
troller,  or  their  deputies;  who,  after examining their
books, will grant a warrant, which must be given to  the
surveyor,  searcher,  or land-waiter,  for them to certify
the quantity of goods; after which the certificate must be
brought back  to the  collector and comptroller, or their
deputies, and  oath made that the said goods are really
shipped, and  not landed again  in  any  part of Great
Britain.
  ENVELOPE, in fortification, a work of earth, some-
times in form  of a simple parapet, and at others, like a
small rampart with a parapet: it  is raised sometimes on
the ditch,  and sometimes beyond it.  See Fortifica-
tion.
  ENVIRONNE',  in  heraldry,  signifies surrounded
with other  things: thus, they say, a lion environne' with
so many bezants.  See Bezant.
  ENUMERATION, in rhetoric, a part of the perora-
tion, in which the orator, collecting the scattered heads
of what has been  delivered throughout the whole, makes
a brief and artful relation,  or recapitulation thereof.
  ENVOY,  a person deputed  to negotiate some affair
with any foreign  prince or  state.  Those sent from the
courts of France, Britain, Spain,  kc. to any petty prince
or state, such as the princes of Germany,  the republics
of Venice,  Genoa, kc. go in quality of envoys, not  am-
bassadors; and such a character only do those  persons
bear who  go from any ofthe principal efforts of Em-ope
to another, when the  affair they go upon is not  very
solemn or  important.  There are envoys  ordinary  and
extraordinary, as well as ambassadors; they are equally
under the protection of the law of nations,  and enjov all
the privileges of ambassadors,  only  differing from them
in this, that the  same ceremonies are not  performed to
them.                                    r
   EPACRIS, in botany, a genus ofthe monogynia «r. 
EPA
EPA
der, in the pentandria class of plants.  The calyx Is a
five-parted perianthium; the corolla  monopetalous and
tubular; the stamina five very short filaments; tlie peri-
cardium  a roundish, depressed,  quinquelocular, quin-
quevalvular, gaping capsule; the seeds are numerous
and very small. There are four species, natives of New
Holland.
  EPACT, in chronology, a number a rising from the ex-
cess of the common solar year above the lunar, by which
the age of the moon  may be found every year.
  The excess of the solar year above the lunar is 11
days; or the. epact of any  year expresses the number of
days from the last new moon of the old year, which was
the beginning  of the present lunar  year, to the  1st  of
January.  On the first year ofthe cycle ofthe moon, the
epact  is 0, because the lunar year begins with the solar.
On the second, the lunar year has begun 11 days be-
fore the solar year, therefore the epact is 11. On the third,
it  has begun twice  11  before the solar year, therefore
the epact is 22. On  the fourth, it begins three  times  11
days sooner than the solar year, the epact  would there-
fore be 33: but  30  days being a synodical month, that
year must  be  intercalated;  or that year must be reck-
oned to consist of 13 synodical  months, and there re-
mains three, which is the true epact of the year; and so
on to the end of the cycle, adding 11 to the epact of the
last year, and always rejecting 30, gives the epact ofthe
present year. Thus to adjust the  lunar year to the solar,
 through the whole of 19 years, 12 of them must consist of
 12 synodical months each, and 7 of 13, by adding a month
 of 30 days to every year when tlie epact would exceed 30,
 and a month of 29  days  to the  last year of the  cycle,
 which makes  in  all 209 days, i. e. 19 X  11; so that the
 intercalary or emboliinsean years in this cycle are 4, 7,
 10, 12, 15, 18, 19.
    If the new moons returned exactly at the same time af-
 ter the expiration of 19 years, as the council of Nice sup-
 posed they would do (when they fixed the rule for the ob-
 servation of  Easter, and  marked the new moons in the
 calendar for each year of the lunar cycle), then the gol-
 den number multiplied by  11  would  always give the
 epact. But in a Julian century, the new moons anticipate,
 or happen earlier than that council imagined they would,
 by ^8T 0f a day. In  a Gregorian common century, which
 is one day shorter than a Julian century, they hap-
 pen £* of a day later (1 day — ¥87 = \\). Now \?g x 3
 = |i for the three common centuries but ¥'T being sub-
 tracted,  on account of the Gregorian  bissextile  centu-
 ry, there will remain ||.  Therefore in four Gregorian
 centuries, the  new moons will  happen  later by || of
 a day, and the epacts must be decreased accordingly.
    At present the Gregorian epact  is 11 days short of
 the Julian epact; but the quotient of the  number ofthe
 centuries divided by 4, which at this time is 4, multiplied
 by ||, with the addition ofthe remainder 1 multiplied by
 \\, makes in  all but yT9, or 7 days  -f \*, therefore •«,
 i. e.  5 days -f £A must be added  to complete the 11 days.
 "Whence we have the following:
    General rules for finding  the Gregorian epact for ever.
 —Divide  the centuries of  any  year  of the  Christian
 Era  by 4 (rejecting the subsequent  numbers); multiply
 the remainder by  17, and to  this product add the quo-
 tient multiplied by 43; divide the product  -|- 86 by 25;
multiplying the golden number by 11, from  which sub.
tract the last quotient; and rejecting the thirties, the re-
mainder will be the epact.
                 Example for 1816.
           18 -*- 4 =4 remains 2
           2 x 17 = 34
           43 x 4 + 86  -f 34 = 292
           292 -r- 25 =11
           11 X 12 = 132
           132 — 11 = 121 -f- 30 remains 1 = epact.
  A shorter rule  for finding the  epact  until the  year
1900.  Subtract 1  from the golden number; and nmlti-
plying the remainder by  11, reject the thirties, and you
have the epact.
A tabk of golden numbers, and their corresponding
            epacts, till the year 1900.
6	*3	6	^	6	^	d	+j
fc	t>	S5		fc	u	fe	I
	c.		D.		Q.		
0	tf	6	u	d	K	C	w
1	0	6	25	ll	20	16	15
2	11	7	6	12	1	17	26
3	22	8	17	13	12	18	7
4	3	9	28	14	23	19	18
5	14	10	9	15	4		
  EPANORTIIOSUS, in rhetoric, a figure by which a
person corrects, or ingeniously revokes, what  he just
before alleged, as being too weakly expressed, in order
to add something stronger, and more conformable to th«
passion with which he is agitated.
  EPAULE, in fortification, denotes the shoulder of a
bastion, or the place where its face and flank meet, and
form the  angle called the angle of the shoulder,
  EPAULEMEjST, in fortification, a work raised t*
cover sidewise, is  either of earth, gabions, or  facines,
loaded with earth.  The epaulement of the places of
arms  for the cavalry, at the entrance of the trenches, are
generally of facines mixed with earth.
  Epaulement also denotes  a  mass  of earth, called
likewise  a square orillon from its figure, raised to cover
the cannon of a casement, and faced with a wall. It is
likewise  used for  any  work, thrown up to  defend the
flank  of a post, or other place.
   EPAULETTES, shoulder-knots. Among the French,
all the degrees of rank,  from a cadet to a general officer,
were  so minutely marked out by  the epaulette, that a
common centinel might instantly know what officer ap-
proached his  station,  and could  pay  the  prescribed
honours  without hesitation or mistake.
   This is not the case among the English, Some altera-
tions have lately been made in those ornaments;  but they
are so partial, and confined to the upper ranks only, that
it is impossible to distinguish the youngest ensign from the
oldest captain  by his epaulette, or by any other part of
his uniform.  When Highland or fusileer regiments are
mixed with the line, very sentinel is still more  perplex-
ed, as all the officers belonging to those corps indiscrimi-
nately wear two epaulettes made of fringe and bullion of
the same quality.                                  .
   Epaulettes have lately been introduced into  the Bri-
tish  navy.  The  following are the gradations of  rank 
EPH
E P H
as distinguished by epaulettes.  Masters and comman-
ders have one  epaulette on  tbe  left shoulder.  Post-
captains under three years, one epaulette on the right
shoulder. And after having been  post three years, two
epaulettes.  Rear-admirals have one star on the strap of
the epaulette,  vice-admirals two stars, and  admirals
three stars.
  EPH A, or Ephah, in Jewish antiquity, a measure for
things dry, containing 1.0961 ofa bushel.
  EPHEDRA, in botany, a genus ofthe monodelphia
trder, in the dioecia class of plants, and in  the natural
method ranking under the  51st  order, conifcra?. The
male calyx is bifid; there is no corolla, but seven stamina;
four anthera? inferior, three superior. The female calyx
is bipartite,  and five-fold, upon one another; tliere is no
corolla; there are two pistils, and two seeds covered by
the calyx, resembling a berry. There are two  species,
ihrubs of Siberia.
  EPHEMERA, the day-fly, or May-fly, in zoology,  a
genus belonging to the  order of ncuroptera.  It  has no
teeth or palpa?; there are two large protuberances above
the eyes; the wings are erect, the  two  hind ones being
largest; and  the tail is bristly. There are  11  species.
These flies take their name of May-fly  from the short-
ness of their life, and are distinguished into several spe-
cies. Some live several days; others  do not take flight
till the setting of the sun, and live not to see the rising of
that luminary. Some exist but one hour, others but half
that time; in which short period they comply with the
call of nature.  With respect to those that live several
days, Mr. Barbut observes, there is a peculiarity inci-
dent to themselves alone.  They  have to cast  off one
slough more, an operation which  sometimes takes 24
hours to complete. To bring this about they cling fast to
a tree. The ephemera?,  before they flutter in air, have in
some manner been  fishes. They remain  in the states of
larva and chrysalis  for one, two, or three years.  The
chrysalis only differs from the larva by  there being ob-
servable on its back cases for wings.  Both have on their
sides small fringes ofhair, which, when put into motion,
serve them as fins. Nothing can be more  curious than
the plying of those little oars in the water.  Their ab-
domen  is  terminated, as well as in their state of flies, by
three threads. These larva? scoop themselves out dwel-
lings in the  banks of rivers;  and  they  are sin all tubes
made like siphons, the  one serving for an entrance, the
other affording them an outlet. The hanks of some rivers
are often  perforated  with  them. When  the waters de-
crease, they dig fresh holes lower down, in order to en-
joy their element the water. The season and hour when
the chrysalids of the different species of the ephemerae
turn into flics, maintain a kind of  regularity. The heat,
the rise or fall of  the  waters, accelerate, however, or
postpone their final display. The ephemera of the Rhine
appear in the air two hours before sunset. These fir s are
hatched almost all at the same instant in such numbers as
to darken the air. The most early of those on tbe  Marne
and Seine in  France do not begin to fly till two hours
after the setting of the  sun, towards  the middle  of Au-
gust. They are seen fluttering and sporting on the brink
of their tomb. The glare of light  attracts them, round
which they  perform  a  thousand  circles with amazing
ttgularity.  Their coming together lor the purpose of
generation can only be surmised, the shortness of their
life requiring that all its functions should be proportiona-
ble to their duration.  Some naturalists have been of
opinion, that the males impregnate the  eggs after the
manner of fishes. The females, by the help of the threads
of their tail and the flapping of their wings, support
themselves on the surface of the water, and  in that al-
most upright situation drop their eggs in clusters. One
single female will lay 700 or 800 eggs, which sink to
the bottom. The larva that  escape from the  voracious-
ness of  the fishes, set about the construction  of habita-
tions to shelter them from every kind of danger.  When
the flies have  propagated, they are  seen to die, and fall
by heaps. The land and water are strewed with them to
a considerable thickness.  The fishermen consider these
multitudes of destroyed  insects  as manna for  the fishes.
See Plate LIII.  Nat. Hist. fig. 180.
  Ephemera,  in medicine, the name of a  species of
fever continuing the space of  one  day, or  sometimes
more; for medical writers  express themselves by ephe-
mera simplex, vci plurium dierum.   See Medicine.
  Ephemera maligra,  is also a term by which some
authors have called the sudor Anglicanus, or  malignant
diary fever, which generally destroyed the  patient in 24
hours.
  EPHEMERIDES, in astronomy, tables calculated by
astronomers, showing the present state of the heavens
for every  day at noon; that is, the places wherein  all the
planets are found at  that time.   It is from these  tables
that the eclipses, conjunctions,  and aspects ofthe plan-
ets, are  determined; and horoscopes or celestial schemes
constructed.
  In  England, the Nautical  Almanac, or Astronomical
Ephemeris, published  annually  by anticipation,  under
the direction of  the commissioners  of  longitude,  is the
most considerable.   In France, celestial  ephemerides
were published by M. Desplaces every ten years, from
1715  to 1745: they were  afterwards continued  by the
abbe' Caille, with many additions;  of which an account
may be  seen in the History of the Academy of Sciences
for 1748.  The Academy of Sciences have  likewise pub-
lished annually, from the beginning ofthe last century,
a kind of ephemeris, under the title of Connoissance des
Terns.                                            •»'
  EPHIELIS, a genus of the class  and order octandria
monogynia.  The calyx is five-parted; petals five-daw-
ed; nect. ten-scales; capsule oblong. Tbew is one species,
a tree of Guiana.
  EPIIOD, in Jewish antiquity, one part ofthe prietly
habit; being a kind of girdle, whieh, brought from be-
hind the neck over the two shoulders, and hanging down
before, was put  across the stomach,  then carried  round
the waist, and made use of as a girdle to the tunic.
  There were two sorts of ephods, oneof plain linen for
the priests, and the other embroidered for the high-priest.
Of this  last Moses gives an ample  description.  It was
composed  of gold, blue, purple, crimson, md twisted cot*
ton.   Upon part of it, which passed  over the shoulders,
were two large precious stones, one on each shoulder: up-
on these were engraved the  name of the  twelve  tribes
six upon each stone.
  The ephod was peculiar to the priesthood, and thought
essential to their character;  it being the opinion of tli« 
E P I
E P I
Jews, that no worship, true or false, could subsist with-
out a priesthood and ephod.
  EPHORI,  in  Grecian  antiquity, magistrates estab-
lished in ancient Sparta to balance the regal power. The
authority ofthe ephori w<as very great. They sometimes
expelled and even put to death the kings, and abolished
or suspended the power of the other magistrates, calling
them to account at pleasure.  There were five of them,
others say nine.  They presided in the public shows and
festivals.  They were entrusted with the public treasure,
made war and peace,  and were so  absolute, that Aris-
totle makes their government equal to  the  prerogative
of a monarchy.   They were established  by Lycurgus.
  EPIBATERIUM,  a genus of the moneecia hexandria
class and order.  The calyx is double; petals six; drupes
three,  subglobular, muconate,  &c.   There is but one
species.
  EPIC, or heroic poem.   Sec Poetry.
  EPICEDIUM,  in  ancient poetry, a poem rehearsed
during the funeral  solemnity  of persons of  distinction.
We find two beautiful  epicediums in Virgil, one of Eury-
alus, and the other of Pallas.
  EPICHIREMA, in logic, a mode of reasoning, which
oomprehends the proof of  one or both the premises of  a
syllogism, before the  conclusion is drawn.
  EPICOSNE,  in grammar, a term applied to nouns,
which, under the same gender and termination, mark in-
differently the male and female species.
  EPICYCLE, in the ancient astronomy, a little circle
whose centre is in  the circumference of a greater circle;
or it is  a small orb, cr sphere, which being  fixed in  the
deferent ofa planet, is carried along with it; and yet, by
its own peculiar motion, carries the planet fastened to it
round its proper centre.   It  was by means of epicycles
that Ptolemy and  his followers solved the  various phe-
nomena of the planets, but more especially their stations
and rctrogradations.
   The great circle they called the exeentric or deferent,
and along its circumference  the  centre of the epicycle
was conceived to move; carrying  with it the  planet fixed
in  its circumference, which in its motion downwards pro-
ceeded  according to the order of the signs,  but, in mov-
ing upwards, contrary to that order.  The highest point
"of a planet's epicycle  they called apogee, and the lowest
perigee.
   The length of any  part of the curve of an epicycloid,
which any  given  point in the  revolving circle has de-
scribed, from the position where it touched the circle up-
on which it revolved,  is to double the versed sine of half
the arc which  all the time  of revolving  touched  tbe
quiescent circle, as the sum ofthe diameters of the circles,
is to the semidiameter of  the quiescent  circle in the ex-
terior cycloid; or as the difference of the diameters is to
that semidiameter, for the interior one.
   Dr. Halley has  given  a general  proposition  for  the
measuring of all cycloids and epicycloids: thus, the area
of a cycloid, or epicycloid, either primary,  or contract-
 ed, or prolate, is to the area of the generating circle;  and
 also the areas ofthe parts generated in these curves, to
 the areas of analogous segments ofthe circle; as the sum
of  double the velocity of  the centre and the velocity .of
the circular motion, is to  this velocity of the circular  mo-
lion. See Philos. Trans. No. 218.
  EPICYCLOIDS, spherical, are formed by a point of
the revolving circle, when its plane makes a constant an-
gle with the plane ofthe circle on which it revolves.
  If a parabola roll upon another equal to it, its focus
will describe a right line perpendicular to  the  axis of
the quiescent parabola; also the vertex of the rolling pa-
rabola will describe the cissoid of Diodes; and any other
point of it will describe sumc one of Newton's defective
hyperbolas, having a double  point in the point of the
quiescent parabola.
  In  like manner, if an ellipse revolve upon another
ellipse,  equal and similar to it, its focus will describe a
circle,  whose centre is in the other funis, and conse-
quently the radius is equal to the axis of the ellipsis; and
any other point in the plane of the ellipse will describe a
line of the 4th order.
  The same may be said also of an hyperbola,  revolv-
ing upon another, equal and similar to it; for one of the
foci will describe a circle, having its centre in the other
focus, and the radius will be  the principal  axis of the
hyperbola; and  any other point of the hyperbola will de-
scribe a line ofthe 4th order.
   Concerning these lines, see Newton's Principia, lib. 1;
see also Maciaurin's  Geometria Organica.
  Epicycloid, in geometry,  a curve generated hy the
revolution of the periphery of a circle, ACE (PI. LIV.
Miscel. fig. 84), along the convex or concave side ofthe
periphery of another circle,  DGB.
  The length of any  part of  the curve, that any givei
point in the revolving circle has described, from the time
it touched the circle it revolved upon, shall be to douole
the versed sine of half the arch, which all that time touch-
ed  the circle at rest,  as the sum of the diameters of the
circle, to the semidiameter of the renting circle, if the re-
volving circle moves  upon the convex side of the resting
circle;  but if upon the concave side, as the difference
of  the diameters, to the semidiameter of the resting cir-
cle.
  EPIDEMIC. See Medicine.
  EPIDENDRUM, a genus of the diandria order,  in
the gynandria class of plants, and in the natural method
ranking under the 7th order, orchidea?. The nectarium
is  turbinated,  oblique, and reflexed.  There are 124
species, one of which is the  plant  which produces the
fruit called vanilla,  and which is used  in the making of
chocolate.  It is a native of Mexico, and also of some
parts of the East Indies.  It is a parasitic plant; the
leaves of wiiich greatly resemble the vine, and are about
eighteen inches long and three inches broad. The flow-
ers are of a white colour intermixed with stripe* of red
and yellow.  When these fall off they are quickly suc-
ceeded  by the pods,  which at first are green, but after-
wards, as they ripen, become yellow, and are gathered
for use.  The* pods ofthe best vanilla are long,  slender,
and well filled with seeds. If opened when fresh, the ca-
vity of the pod "s  found to  contain a  humid substance
that is  black, oily, and balsamic, of such a strong smell,
that it  frequently causes headaches, and even a sort of
temporary  intoxication.  The season  for gathering the
 pods begins about the  end  of September, and  la-^ts till
 the end of December.  They are dried  in tbe shade; and
 when dry, and  fit for keeping, they  are rubbed external-
 ly  with a little oil ef cocoa or calba, to reader them sup- 
E P I
E  P I
pie, <>r preserve them  (lie  better, and to prevent them
from becoming too dry or brittle.  The use of this fruit
is only for perfuming  chocolate.  In New  Spain it is
reckoned  unwholesome, and  therefore never  used;  but
in  England, and other countries of Europe, it is a con-
stant ingredient; and perhaps its noxious  qualities may
be corrected hy  the sea air.  In  those countries where
they grow,  tlie plants are very easily  propagated by
cuttings.  In  this country they require to  be kept in a
stove, and also to be placed near some  American tree,
round which they may climb for their support,
  E1MDEKMIS.  See Cutis.
  EPIDIDYMIS, in  anatomy, the name hy which some
call the  two bodies more usually known by that of  pa-
ras fat re.
  EPIGASTRIC REGION,  a part or sub-division of
the abdomen.
  EPIGRAM, in poetry, a short poem in verse, treating
only of on<' thing, and ending with some lively,  ingenious,
and natiral thought, or point.   See Poetry.
   Id'IGRAPtiE, among antiquarians, denotes the  in-
BCiiption  of a building, pointing out the time wiien,  the
persons by whom, the  uses, kc. for which it was erected.
   EPILEPSY,  in  medicine,  the same with what is
otherwise called the falling-sickness, from the patient's
falling suddenly to the ground.   Sometimes this disease
comes upon the patient unawares: but it more frequently
gives notice ed'  its approach by a lassitude of the whole
body, a heavy pain in the head,  with some disturbance of
the senses,  unejuict sleep,  unusual  dread, dimness of
sight, and a noise in the ears:  in some there  are a vio-
lent palpitation  of the heart, a puffing or inflation of the
breast, difficult  inspiration, a  murmuring  noise in the
belly, fetid stools, a flux ofthe urine, and a refrigeration
of the joints:  in others, there is a sensation as it were
of cold air, ascending from the extreme  parts towards
the brain and heart.   At length falling senseless to the
ground, the thumbs arc shut up close in the palms of the
hands,  and  are with difficulty taken  out; the eyes  are
distorted  or inverted, so that nothing but the whites  ap-
pears; all sensation is suspended, insomuch that no smell,
no m rise,  nor even pinching of the body, is  able to bring
thein to themselves; they froth  at the mouth, with a hiss-
ing kind  of noise: the tongue is lacerated, or torn hy the
teeth, and there is a shaking or trembling of the joints.
However, in different  patients,  the symptoms vary;  for
sometimes, instead of convulsive motions, the  limbs  are
all stiff, and the patient is as immoveable as  a statue. At
last there is a remission of the symptoms, and  the  pa-
tients come to themselves after  a longer or shorter inter-
val:  then they complain of a pain and heaviness of  the
head, and a lassitude of all their joints.   These fits usu-
ally return on certain  days, or age of the moon, but es-
pecially about tbe new or full moon; in women chiefly
about the  time  of menstruation:  and  as to the  prognos-
tics, they generally leave the patient about the time of
puberty.  See Medicine.
  EIMLOBILM. the  willow-herb, in botany; a genus
ofthe monogy nia order, in the  octandria eia^s of plants;
and in the natural method ranking under the 17th order,
calycanthema*.  The calyx is quadrifid;  the petals four;
thccap*de oblong, in'erior; the seeds pappo..s  or downy.
There are fourteen species, several  of them  natives of
  vol. i.                  120
Britain.  They grow in marsh;1-,  or under hedges in
moist and shady places; having blossoms gene: ally  of a
red colour, and sometimes of considerable beauty.   The
most remarkable is the hirsutuni, commonly called  cod-
lins-and-cream.  The  top-shoots of  this plant  have a
very delicate fragrancy ;  but  so transitory, that before
they have been  gathered five minutes it is  no longer per-
ceptible.  Horses, sheep, and goats, eat this plant; cows
are not fond of it; swine refuse it.  An infusion  of the
leaves of another species, the angustilolium, or rose-hay
willow-herb, has an intoxicating quality, as the  inhabi-
tants of Kamtschatka have learned.  These people also
cat the white young shoots which creep under the ground,
and have a sort of ale brewed from the dried pith of  it.
The down of the  seeds has been  lately manufactured
by mixing it with cotton, or beaver's  hair.
  EPILOGUE, in oratory, the end  or conclusion  of a
discourse, ordinarily containing a recapitulation of the
principal matters delivered.
  Epilogue, in dramatic poetry, a speech addressed to
the audience after the play is over,  by one of the prin-
cipal actors, usually containing some  reflections  on  cer-
tain incidents in the play, especially those on the part of
the person that speaks it.   See Poetry.
  EPIMEDIL'M, barren wort,  in botanyr; a genus
of the monogynia order, in the tetandria class of plants;
and in the natural method ranking under the 24th order,
corydales.   There are  four nectaria,  cup-shaped,  and
lying  on the petals.  The  corolla is  tetrapetalous,  the
calyx dropping off.  The  seed-vessel  is a pod.  There
is only one species, viz. the alpinum.   It is a low herba-
ceous  plant,  with  a creeping root,  having many stalks
about nine inches high, each of which has three flowers,
composed of four leaves placed in the  form  of a cross.
They  are of  a  reddish colour, with yellow stripes on the
border.
  EPIPHANY, a Christian festival, otherwise called the
manifestation of Christ to the Gentiles, observed on the
sixth of January, in honour  of the appearance  of our
Saviour to the  three magi, or wise men, who came to
adore him, and bring him presents.   The feast  of  epi-
phany was not  originally a distinct festival,  but  made a
part of that of the nativity of Christ, which being cele-
brated twelve days, the  first and last of which wcrchigjp
or chief days of solemnity, either of  these  might  pro-
perly  be called  epiphany, as that word signifies Christ's
appearance in the  world.   The kings of England  and
Spain offer gold, frankincense, and myrrh, on epiphany,
or twelfth-day, in memory of  the offerings  of the wise
men to the  infant Jesus.   The festival of epiphany is
called by the Greeks the feast of lights, because  our Sa-
viour is said to have been baptised on that day, and bap-
tism is by them called illumination.
  EPIPHONEMA, in rhetoric, a sententious exclama-
tion containing a lively  remark placed at  the end  of a
discourse or narration; such is that of Virgil,
     Fas omne abrumpit, l\l\dorum obtmncat, et  aciro
     Vi potitur. Quid non mortalia peclora cogis,
     Auri sacra tames?
This figure  closes a narration  in a very advantageous
manner, deeply impresses the thing  related upon  the me-
mory  of the reader, and leaves  h'.m  well pleased  with
the sense and sagacity  of  the author. 
E P I
E  P 0
   EPIPHYSIS, in anatomy, a bony substance, or as it
 were a lesser hone, affixed to a larger or principal bone
 by the intervention of a cartilage.   See Anatomy.
   EPISODE, in  poetry, a separate incident, story, or
 action,  which a poet invents,  and connects with his
 principal action, that his work may abound with a greater
 diversity of events:  though, in a more limited sense, all
 the particular incidents of wbich the action or narra-
 tion  is compounded, are  called episodes.  The episode,
 in its original, was only something  rehearsed between
 the parts of the chorus, or ancient tragedy, for  the di-
 version of the audience.   Episodes serve to promote the
 action, to illustrate, embellish, and  adorn  it, and  carry
 it to its proper period.   Episodes are either absolutely
 necessary, or very requisite. All episodes are incidents,
 though all incidents  are not episodes; because some inci-
 dents are not  adventitious to the  action, but  make up
 the very form and scries of it.  Examples  will clear up
 this distinction: the storm in the first ^Eneid of Virgil,
 driving the fleet on the coast of Carthage, is an incident,
 not an episode, because the hero himself, and the whole
 body of his forces, are concerned in  it;  and so it is a di-
 rect  and not a collateral  part of the main action.   The
 adventures of Nisus  and  Euryalus, in the ninth yEneid,
 are episodes,  not incidents, i. e. not direct  parts of the
 main action.   See  Poetry.
   EPISTATES, in the  Athenian government, was  the
 president of the proedri.  To the custody of this officer
 was  committed the public seal, and the keys of the cita-
 del and the public  exchequer; this therefore was an office
 of so great trust and power, that no  man was permitted
 by the laws to continue in it above one  day, nor to be
 elected into it a second time. The epistates were elect-
 ed by lot out of theprytanes.
   EPISTEMONARCH, in the ancient Greek church,
 an officer of great dignity, who had  the care  of every
 thing relating to faith, in the quality of censor.   His
 office answered pretty nearly to that of master of the
 sacred palace at Rome.
   EPISTROPHEI, in rhetoric, a figure wherein that
 which is supposed of one thing, is  strongly affirmed of
 another: thus. Are they  Hebrews? So am I.  Arc they
 Israelites? So am I.  Are they of the seed of Abraham?
%£>o am  I, kc.
   EPISTYLE, in the  ancient architecture, a term used
 by the Greeks for what wTe call architrave.   See Archi-
 tecture.
   EPITHALAMIUM,  in  poetry, a nuptial  song, or
 composition, in praise of the bride and bridegroom, pray-
 ing for their prosperity, for a happy  offspring, kc.
   EPITHET, in poetry and rhetoric, an adjective ex-
 pressing some quality of a substantive to which it is
 joined; or such an adjective as is annexed to substantives
 by way of ornament and  illustration, not to make up an
 essential part of the description.
   EPITOME, in literary history,  an  abridgement or
 summary of any book, particularly of  a history.   See
 Abridgment.
   EPITRITUS, in prosody, a foot consisting of three
 long  syllables, and one short.   Of these grammarians
 reckon four kinds; the first consisting of an iambus and
 spondee, as salutantes; the second of atrocheus and spon-
dee, as conciuti: the third of a spondee and an iambus,
 as communTcans:  and the fourth of a spondee and a tro-
 cheus, as Incaiitare.
   EPITROPUS, among the  modern Greeks, a kind of
 arbitrator chosen  by the Greek Christians under the do.
 minion of the Turks,  to terminate their differences, and
 avoid carrying them before the Turkish magistrates.
   EPIZEUXIS,  in rhetoric,  a figure which repeats th,-
 same word, without any other intervening; such is that
 of Virgil, Nunc, nunc, insurgite rcmis.
   EPOCHA, in chronology,  a term or fixed point of
 time, whence the succeeding years are numbered or ac-
 counted.   The most remarkable epochas are  those that
 follow.
   Epocha ofthe creation ofthe  world. According to the
 Vulgate, archbishop Usher places this event 4004 years
 before the birth of Christ; Scaliger makes it 3950, Kta-
 vius 3984, and Ricciolus 4184 years before Christ. Ac-
 cording to the Septuagint, Eusebius places the creation
 5200 years before the nativity of our Lord; the Alphon-
 sine tables,  6934; and Ricciolus  5634.  The creation,
 therefore, as we follow the archbishop, happened in the
 year 710 of the Julian period.  Sir Isaac Newton, again,
 makes tlie creation of the world later by 500 years than
 all other chronologists; and the proofs by which this il-
 lustrious  philosopher  supports  his opinion are of two
 different kinds.   The Egyptians counted 341 genera-
 tions from Menes  to Setho, allowing a hundred years
 for three generations; and the  ancient Greeks computed
 one generation  at about forty  years.  Now, says  sir
 Isaac, itis true, three  ordinary generations may be com-
 puted  at  about  120 years; but generations arc longer
 than the reign of  kings, because it is evident that man-
 kind in general live longer than kings  reign.   The du-
 ration of  a reign,  therefore, taking one with another, is
 according to him about twenty  years: whence he con-
 cludes, that the ancients have  erred  in their calculation
 in allowing forty years for every generation.  The  se-
 cond kind of proof is  taken from  the precession of the
 equinoxes.  According to Clemens Alexandrinus, Chi-
 ron, who was in the expedition of  the Argonauts, fixed
 the vernal equinox at the fifteenth degree of Aries, and
 consequently the summer solstice at tlie fifteenth degree
 of Cancer. Meto fixed the summer solstice at the eighth
 degree of Cancer, a year before the  Peloponnesian war.
 Now since one degree  answers to the retrograde motion
 of the equinoctial points in 72  years, there  are seven
 times 72 years from the expedition of the Argonauts to
 the beginning of  the Peloponnesian war:  that is, 504
 years, and not 507 years, as the Greeks affirm. By com-
 bining these two  different proofs, sir Isaac concludes,
 that the expedition of  the Argonauts ought to be placed
 909 years before Jesus Christ, and not  1400, as is gene-
 rally believed;  and  therefore  that the creation of  the
 world ought to be placed  about 500 years  later than
 chronologists generally place it.
   Epocha ofthe deluge.  According to the Hebrew text,
there are 1656 years  from the creation to the deluge;
 1307 according to the Samaritan; 2242, according to Eu-
sebius and the Septuagint;  2256, according to Josephus
and the Septuagint;  and 2262  according to Julius Afri-
canus, Petavius, and the Septuagint. In  following  the
Hebrew text  this  epocha begins in  the year  2366  of
the Julian period. 
E P 0                                              B  Q TJ
  Epocha of th* olympiades, used principally by |the
Greeks, had its origin from  the Olympic games, which
were celebrated at the beginning of  every fifth  year.
This epocha begins 776 years before the incarnation, or
in the year 3938 of the Julian period.
  ErociiA,  Varronian, ofthe building of Rome, is fixed
753 years before our Saviour's birth,  and in the  year
3961 of the Julian period.
  Epocha, ofNabonassar king of Babylon, made use of
by Ptolemy, Censorinus, and several other authors, be-
gan 747 years before the incarnation,  and in the  year
3967 of the Julian period.
  Epocha, Julian.  The  first  year of Julius Cajsar's
correcting the calender stands 45 years before  our Sa-
viour's  birth, and coincides with  the  year 4669 of the
Julian period.
   Epocha  of Christ.   The  Christian  world generally
reckoned from the epocha of the? creation, tbe building of
Rome, the consuls' register, or the emperor's reign, till
about 500  years after  Christ, when the  epocha of the
nativity of our blessed Lord was introduced by Dionysi-
us Exiguus.  He began his account from the conception
or incarnation,  properly called Lady-day.  Most coun-
tries in  Europe, however,  at present reckon from the
first of January next following, except the court of Rome,
where the epocha of the incarnation still  obtains for the
date of their bulls and briefs.  But here we are to ob-
serve, that there are different  opinions  respecting the
year of our Saviour's birth.   Capellus and Kepler fix
it at about the 758th year from the building of Rome.
Deckar and Petavius place the incarnation in the 749th
of Rome. Scaliger and Vossius make it fall on the 751st
of Rome.  Dionysius Exiguus,  Bede,  kc. fix the birth
of our Saviour to the year 751  of Rome; the diversity
of these opinions proceeding from the difficulty of fixing
Herod the  Great's death, who, as is  evident from  the
evangelists,  was living at our Saviour's birth, the tax-
ation of Cyrcnius, and the time of our Saviour's begin-
ning his ministry.   But it  is generally agreed, that as
to computation and use, the common epocha is to be fol-
lowed which places the birth of Christ in the 4713th of
the Julian period, although the true birth rather corres-
ponds with the 4711th of the same period.
  Epocha, Dioclesian,  or Epocha  of Martyrs, called
also the wra of the Cophti or Egyptians,  because the
emperor Dioclesian made  a great  many martyrs in
Egypt, begins  in the year 283 of our Lord, and  the
4997 of  the Julian period.
  Epocha ofthe hegira or flight of Mahomet, used among
the Turks, is the  year  of the Julian period 5335, an-
swering to the year of Christ 622.
  Epocha,  Persian or Vezdejerd, is the year of the Juli-
an perieid 5345,  answering to the year 622. To reduce
the years of one epocha to those of another, observe the
following rule;  add the given  year of an  epocha to the
year of the  Julian  period  corresponding with its rise,
>>nd that will give the year of the  period. For example,
'•'to 1816, the present year of the Christian epocha, we
a,hl 4723, the year of the  Julian  period  corresponding
w'ith its rise, the sum, 6539, will be the present year of
the Julian  period;  now  if we substract  from the year
thus found, the year of the Julian period  corresponding
with the rise of any epocha, the remainder  shows the true
 method of making a just connection betwixt that epocha
 and the known year  of Christ.  Again, if we want to
 find the year of  the  Julian period corresponding  to a
 given year before Christ,  we  subtract the given  year
 from 4714, and the remainder is the year required.  See
 Chronology.
   EPODE,  in lyric poetry, the third or last part of the
 ode; the ancient  ode being divided into strophe, anti-
 strophe, and epode. The epode was sung by the priests,
 standing still before the altar, after all tbe turns and re-
 turns of the  strophe and antistrophe,  and was  not con-
 fined to any  precise number or kind of verses.  The epi-
 sode is now a general name for all kinds of little verses
 that follow one or more great ones, of what kind soever
 they be; and, in this sense, a pentameter is an epode af-
 ter an hexameter.  And as every little verse, which be-
 ing put after another, closes the period, is called epode,
 hence the sixth book of Horace's odes is entitled  Liber5
 Epodon, Book of Epodes; because the verses are all al-
 ternately long and short, and the short  ones generally,
 though not always, close the sense of  the long one.
   EPOPffilA, in  poetry, the story, fable, or suhject
 treated of, in an epic poem.
   EPULONES,  in Roman antiquity, ministers who as-
 sisted at the  sacrifice,  and bad the  care of the sacred
 banquet  committed to them.   At first they were only
 three in number, but afterwards increased to seven.
 Their office was,  to give notice when feasts were  to he
 held in honour of the gods, and to take care that noth-
 ing was wanting towards the celebration.
   EQUABLE, an appellation given to such motions as
 always continue the same in degree of velocity,  with-
 out being either accelerated or retarded.  When two or
 more bodies are uniformly accelerated or retarded, with
 the same increase or diminution of velocity  in each, the y
 are said to  be equally accelerated or retarded.
   EQUATION,  in algebra, the mutual comparing  two
 equal things  of different denominations, or the expres-
 sion  denoting this equality;  which is done by setting the
 one in opposition  to the other, with the sign of  equality
 (=)  between  them: thus 3s. = 36u\, or 3 feet = 1 yard.
 Hence,  if we put  a for a foot,  and b for a yard, we  will
 have the equation 5a = 6, in algrebraic characters.  See
 Algebra.
   Equation of a curve, an equation expressing the na-
 ture  of a curve, the relation between an abciss and a  cor-
 responding ordinate, or the relation of their fluxions.  See
 Curve.
   Equation of time, in astronomy and chronology, the
reduction of the  apparent time or motion of the sun, to
equable, mean, or true time.   See Astronomy.
   EQUATOR, in geography, a great  circle of the  ter-
restrial globe, equidistant from its poles, and dividing it
into  two equal hemispheres; one north, and the other
 south.   See Globes, use of.
   EQUATORIAL,  universal or  Portable Observa-
 tory, is an instrument intended  to answer a number of
 useful purposes in practical astronomy,  independant of
 any particular observatory. It may be employed in  any
 steady room  or place, and it performs most of the useful
problems in the science of astronomy. See Observatoiu .
   EQUERRY, in the British customs, an ollieer of stale
 under the master  of the horse.  There are five equerries 
E Q  U
E  Q U
who rtdc abroad with his majesty; for which purpose they
give their attendance  monthly, one at a time,  and are
allowed a table. As to  the equerries of the crown-stable,
they have this distinct  appellation, as being employed in
mounting, managing,  and breaking, the saddle-horses
for his majesty's use, and holding his stirrup.
   EQUES auihtus, is used for a  knight bachelor, cal-
led aurutus, q. d. gilt, because anciently none  but knights
were allowed to beautify their armour,  or other habili-
ments of war, with gold. This term is not used in law,
but instead of it miles  and chevalier are made use of.
   EQUESTRIAN  statue,  signifies the statue  of  a
person mounted on horseback.
   Equestrian order, among the Romans, signified
their knights or equiEs, as also their troopers or horse-
men in the field; the first of wiiich orders stood in contra-
distinction to the senators, as the last did to the foot, mi-
litary, or infantry: each of these distinctions was intro-
duced into the state by Romulus.
   EQUIANGULAR,  in geometry, an epithet given to
figures whose angles are all equal: such are square  equi-
lateral triangles, &c.
   EQUTDIFFERENT numbers, in  arithmetic, are of
two kinds.   1. Continually equidifferent is  when, in  a
series of three numbers, there is the same difference be-
tween the first and second, as there is between the second
and third; as 3, 6, 9.   And  2.  Discretely equidifferent
is when, in a scries of  four numbers or quantities,  there
is the same difference between the first and second as
there is between the third and fourth: such are 3,  6, 7, 10.
   EQUIDISTANT,  an appellation  given to things
placed at an  equal distance from  some  fixed point, or
place, to which they are referred.
   EQUILATERAL,  in general,  something that has
equal sides, as an equilateral triangle.
   Equilateral  hyperbola, one whose transverse di-
ameter is  eq»ual to  its parameter; and  so all the other
diameters, equal to their  parameters; in such an hy-
perbola, the asymptotes always cut one another at  right
angles in the centre.  Its most simple equation,  with re-
gard to the transverse axis, is y2 = x2 — a2; and, with re-
gard  to the conjugate, y2 =x2 x a2, when a  is the semi-
transverse, or semiconjugate.  The length of the curve
cannot be found by means of the quadrature of any space,
of which a conic section is in any part of the perimeter.
   EQUILIBRIUM,  in mechanics, is  when  the two
ends of a lever or balance hang so exactly even and le-
vel, as neither to ascend or descend, but keep in a posi-
tion parallel to the horison; which is occasioned by their
being both charged with an equal weight.
   EQUIMULTIPLES, in arithmetic and geometry, are
numbers  or  quantities multiplied  by one and the  same
number or quantity. Hence, equimultiples are always in
the same ratio to each other, as  the  simple quantities
before multiplication: thus if 6 and 8 are multiplied by 4,
tiie equimultiples  24 and 32  will  be to each other as 6
to 8.
   EQUINOCTIAL, a great circle in the heavens under
which  the eqimror moves  in  its diurnal motion.  The
pole-  of this circle are  the poles of the world. It divides
the sphere into two equal parts, the northern and south-
ern.  It cuts  the  horison  of any place, in the east and
west points;  and at the meridian its elevation above the
horizon is equal to the co-latitude of the place. Theequi.
noctial has also various other properties; as,
  1. Whenever the sun comes  to this circle, he makes
equal days and nights all round the globe; because he
then rises due east, and  sets due west.  Hence it has the
name equinoctial.  All stars wiiich  arc under this circle,
or have no declination, also rise d.;e east,  and set  due
west.
  2. All  people  living under this  cirri.-, or  upon  the
equator or line, have their days and night?, at all times
equal to each other.
  3. From this circle,  «n the globe, are counted, upon the
meridian, the declination in the heavens, and the latitude
on tlie earth.
  4. Upon the equinoctial, or equator, is counted the lon-
gitude, making in all 360° quite round, or else  180° east
and  180° west.
  5. And as the time of one whole revolution is divided
into 24 hours, therefore one hour answers to 15°, or the
24th part of 360°. Hence,
     1° of longitude answers to 4 minutes of time,
    15'                     to 1 minute of time,
     1'                     to 4 seconds of time, kc.
  6. The  shadows of  those people  who live under this
circle are cast to the southward of them for one half of
the year, and to the northward of them during the other
half; and twice a year, viz. at the time of the equinoxes,
the sun at noon casts no shadow, being exactly in their
zenith.
  EQUINOX, the time when  the sun enters  either of
the equinoctial points, where the ecliptic intersects  the
equinoctial.
  It is so called, because when the sun is in these points,
the days and nights are of an equal length all the world
over.  As the sun is  in one of them in the spring, viz,
about the 20th of March, it is called the vernal equinox;
and in the other in autumn, viz. about Sept. 25d, itis
called the autumnal equinox.
  As the sun's motion is unequal, being sometimes quicker
and sometimes slower, it happens that there are about 8
days more from the vernal to the autumnal equinox, or
while the sun is  on the northern side ofthe equator, than
while he is moving through the southern signs from  the
autumnal to the vernal  equinox.  According to  Cassini
the sun is
             186 d. 14h.  53m. in the N. signs
             178   14    56   in the S. signs.

So that       7    23    57   is the difference ofthem,
or nearly 8 days.
  Equinoxes, precession of.   Astronomers consider the
year under two distinctions; viz. the solar and the astral.
The tropical or solar year, upon which the seasons  de-
pend, is the exact time in which the sun moves all  round
from one  equinox to the same again,  and which period
has  been found to be equal to 365 days, 5 hours, 48', 49".
The astral year is the time that the sun employs in go-
ing from one fixed part ofthe heavens, viz. from a given
fixed star,  all round,  and again to  the same  precise
point ofthe heavens;  ami this period, or astral year, is
a little longer than that of the solar year, viz. it is equal
to 365 days, 6 hours,  9', 12", which is longer than the
solar year by 20', 23", of time, or to an  arch of 50''. 25 
                       E Q V

(for in 20' 23'' of time, the s:;n runs through an arch of
50". 25;) so that the sun, as seen from the earth, arrives
at the equinoctial point, viz.  at the equator,  a  little be-
fore it arrives at that same precise  p >int of the heavens
with which it coincided when  it crossed  the equator in
the preceding year.  This  difference  between the period
ofthe  sun's going from one equinox to the sam<s and the
period ofits going from a given star,  or part oi the hea-
vens,  to the same again, is called the  precession of the
equinoxes.   This precession  in one year is very trifling;
but the accumulation ef it,  alter a number of years, pro-
duces a considerable difference, which can by no means
be passed unnoticed; thus,  in a h.-n.'red years  (which  is
Galled the secular precession) itaniounis to  1°, 23', 45";
and the difference wbieii it has produced since  the stars
were first observed,  and their positions were delineated,
is very striking.
  How can the sun return to the  same equinox at the
end of every year, without returning to  tiie same spot
in the heavens, or to  the same fixed star?  is  the :;saal
difficulty.  In order to clear  this  difficulty, the reader
must  recollect that  the equator  is a  circle which,  be-
ing  equidistant  from the  piles,  divides the celestial
sphere into  two equal portions.   Now,  if the poles
were  stationary, viz.  coincided  constantly  with  the
same  spots in the heavens, then the equator would like-
wise pass constantly over the same fixed stars, and would
cut the ecliptic constantly at the  same points; for the
ecliptic is an invariable cirrie, viz.  it passes always over
the same stars. But it has  been observed, that the poles
are subject to a constant, though very small, movement:
so that if atone time any ofthe two  points in. the heav. ns,
which do not revolve with the  daily  revolution of the
rest ofthe sphere, and which we for that reason call the
poles, he near a certain star,  some  years after  it will be
found near some other star; or, in other words, the polar
star is not always the same.   It appears, from  the result
of calculations  established upon the observation made
during several centuries, that the path e>f either of the
poles  is a circle,  the poles of which  coincide  with  the
poles of the ecliptic, an si that the. ^polc will  move  along
that circle so very slowly,  as to accomplish the whole
revolution in 25791 years nearly.   The diameter of  this
circlr is equal to  twice the inclination of the ecliptic to
the equator,  viz.  to about 4 7°.
  Now, as the ecliptic is a fixed circle in the  heavens;
but the  equator, which  must be equidistant  from the
poles, moves  with the poles; therefore tlie equator must
be constantly ch-.oiging its  intersection with the ecliptic.
And from the best observations it appears that  the equa-
tor cuts the ecliptic- every year 50". 25 more to the west-
wards, than it did the year before:  hence the sun's arri-
val at the equinoctial  point  precedes its  arrival at the
same fixed spot of the heavens every  year by 20' 25" of
time, or by an arc of 50". 25. Thus,  by little and little,
these  equinoctial  points  will  cut the  ecliptic more  and
more  to the westward,  until,  after the long  period  of
25791 years, they will  cut it again  al the  same point
precisely.
  The 12 constellations, which, as  has been mentioned
in the preceding pages, occupy the  whole of the zodiac,
have g vcn their names to 12 equal portions of the ecliptic,
each portion consisting  oi* 30°;  and cadi  portion  was
                      E Q L

marked by tiie sign, mark, or character, pec; liar to tjic
constellation to wiiich it belonged, or with  which it' i:;-
cided, when the constellations were first noticed, at which
time the vernal equinox took  place  in the constellation
of Aries, the summer solstice in that of Cancer, kc but
on account ofthe preu■s.sion of the equinoxes, the e gji-
strilatious no longer coincide with the.se  points;  for in-
stance, the vernal eqninox is in the constellation of Pisces,
and the constellation of Aries is now considerably remo-
ved from it, and is gone  nearer to the summer  solstice;
and so are all the other constellations removed, yet tie. ir
characters have been left to denote the same  parts ofthe
ecliptic; thus the vernal equinox is called the first  poini
of Aries, and is marked T: and so ofthe res'.
   From what has been said above, it  appears that not
only the equinoctial  points, but also  the solstitial points,
must change accorii'igly.
   EQUISETUM,  horse-tail, a  genus of the order  of
filices, in the cryptogamia class of plants, and in  the na-
tural method ranking under the 51st order. conif-.Tie.
There is a spike of peltated  or shielded fructifications
opening at the base.  There are seven species, of which
the most remarkable are:
   1. The sylvaticiui,  or wood horse-tail.  It grows  in
woods and moist shady places in many parts  ef England
aid  Scotland.  The stalk  rises from  12 to 18 inches
high, angular, and rocgli to the touch: the angles being
edged with sharp spicule, scarcely visible without  a mi-
croscope.  The leaves grow  verticillate, 12 or more in a
whorl, and these whorls  are about an inch distant from
one another. The leaves are very slender, nearly quad-
rangular, about five  inches long, pendent, and beset with
several other secondary  whorls, so  that it resembles a
pine-tree  in miniature.  Horses are very fond  of this
plant, and  in some parts of Sweden it is collected to serve
them as winter food.
   2. The arvense, common or corn horse-tail, grows  in
wet  meadows aTlel  corn-fields.   The  most  remarkable
property of tins is, that its seeds, when viewed by a mi-
croscope, are seen to leap about as if  they were animated.
It is a troublesome plant  in pastures; and disagreeable to
cows, being never touched by them unless they arc com-
pelled by hunger,  and then it  brings on an  incurable
diarrhoea.  It does not seem  to effect  horses or sheep.
   3. The palustraj,  marsh horse-tail,  or paddock-pipe,
is frequent in marshes unci  ditches. It is  not  so rough  as
the former, but is likewise prejudicial to cattle.
   4. The fluviatile,  or great river horse-tail, is frequent
in shady mars'ies. iind on the brinks of stagnant waters.
It is the largest of all the soecics, growing sometimes  to
tlie  height of a  yard, anil near an inch in diameter.
Haller tells us, that  this  kind of cquisctum was eeirn by
the Romans; and Linnseus affirms that oxen and rein-deer
are fond of it, but that horses refuse it.
   5. The hoemale,  rough  horse-tail,  shave-grass,  or
Dutch rushes. This is much used hy  the whitesmith- and
cabinet-makers, under the name of Dutch rushes, f n- po-
lishing their metals and wood.  The  fact is, that  ilieiv is
a portion of fljnt, which exists in this plant mar the sur-
face, in the form of very fine grains, which enables it to
perform this office.  All the other species will answer this
purpose in some degree, but the last better than any  of
the rest. Tn Northumberland the dairy-maids scour and 
E Q  U
E Q  tr
dean their milk-pails with it. Some imagine that if cows
are fed with this species their teeth will fall out.
  EQUITY, is  a construction made by the judges, that
cases out of the letter of a statute, yet being within the
same mischief or cause of making the same, shall be with-
in the same remedy that the statute provides.  And the
reason is, that the lawmakercould not possibly set down
all  cases in express terms:  thus, though  it may  be un-
lawful to kill a man, yet it is not unlawful for one to kill
another assaulting him,  in order to preserve his own life.
4 Inst. 24.
  Equity of redemption- on  mortgages.  If where
money is due on a mortgage, the mortgagee is desirous to
bar the  equity of redemption, he may oblige the mortga-
gor either to pay the money, or be foreclosed of his equity,
which is done by proceedings in the court  of chancery.
  Equity also frequently signifies the court of chancery,
where controversies are determined w hich do not properly
come under any express law.  See Chancellor.
  EQUIVALENT, an  appellation given to things which
agree in nature, or other circumstances, as force,  virtue,
&c.
  EQUIVOCAL  TERMS or word*,  among logicians,
are those wiiich have a  doubtful or double meaning.
  According to  Mr. Locke, the doubtfulness and uncer-  ,
tainty of words has its cause more in the ideas themselves,
than in  any incapacity ofthe words to signify them; and
might be avoided, would people always use the same term
to denote the same idea, or collection of ideas:  but, adds
he, it is hard to find a discourse on any subject where this
is the case; a practice which can only be  imputed to folly,
or great dishonesty:  since a man,  in  making up  his ac-
compts, might   with as much fairness  use the numeral
characters sometimes for one, sometimes for another col-
lection of unities.
  Eqi:i vocal  generation, the production of animals
without the intercourse between the sexes, by  the influ-
ence of the sun  or stars, kc.  The equivocal generation
of plants,  is their production without seed, in the  ordi-
nary course of  nature.   This kind of generation is now
quite exploded by the learned.   Mr. Ray is clearly of
opinion that there is no such thing  as spontaneous or
equivocal generation,  but that all animals are the issue
of parents of the same  species with themselves; and with
him agree Redi, Willughby, and Lister.   This last au-
thor has fully refuted the vulgar notion, that horse-hairs
thrown into water will become animated bodies; by show-
ing that appearances of  this kind are  hair-worms bred
in the bodies of other  insects, and particularly of the
common black-beetle.
  EQUULEUS, or ecuukus, in antiquity, a kind of
rack used for extorting a confession, at  first chiefly prac-
tised on slaves,  but afterwards made use of  against the
christians.  The equulcus  was made  of wood,  having
holes at certain distances,  with a screw,  by  which the
criminal was stretched to  the third, sometimes to the
fourth or fifth holes, his arms and legs being fastened on
the equulcus with cords; and thus was hoisted  aloft, and
extended in such a manner  that all his bones were dislo-
cated.  In this  state  red-hot plates were  applied to his
body, and  he was goaded in the sides with an instrument
called ungula.
  EqcriKus, in astronomy, a constellation of the north-
ern hemisphere, whose stars, according to Ptolemy and
Tycho's  catalogues, are four,  but in Mr.  Flarasteed's
ten.
   EQUUS,  the horse, a genus of the mammalia class,
of the order of bellua?.  The generic character is, front
teeth  in the upper jaw six, parallel; in the lower jaw six
somewhat projecting; canine teeth,  one on each side, in
both jaws, remote  from the rest; feet with  undivided
hoofs.
   1.  Equus  caballus,  or  the common horse,  the most
noble and interresting  of quadrupeds,  is supposed to be
found in a state of nature in several parts of  Asia and
Africa.   In this state it is smaller than the domestic or
tame  animal, with  a larger head, a more  arched fore-
head, and  the body thickly covered with pale-brown, or
mouse-coloured  hair.  It  has been  affirmed by several
authors,  that wild horses were to be found in the deserts
of Arabia; but we  must Jagreel with Mons. Sonnini, in
thinking it not very probable that this animal should be
able to exist in such deserts.  We  must, therefore, ra-
ther suppose that it is  occasionally found wild in some
parts of  the country bordering perhaps  on the confines of
the desert.  It is certain that in Arabia the most beauti-
ful domestic  horses are bred; and even those which are
kept by the Arabs of the desert  are allowed to excel most
others in swiftness and elegance of form, and it is from
their breed that the European horses have been gradually
improved.  See plate Nat. LIII. Hist.  fig. 182.
   Large herds of wild horses are said to be found about
the lake  Aral,  near Rusneck,  in lat,  54°; on the river
Tom, in the  southern parts of Siberia;  and in  the great
Mongalian deserts, and among the Kalkas, north-west of
China;  and itis affirmed that they will occasionally sur-
round and trepan the horses of  the Mongalians ami Kal-
kas, wiiile grazing, and carry them off among their own
herd.  They arc extremely swift, active, and vigilant;
and, like some  of the  antelopes and other quadrupeds,
have  always  a sentinel, who gives notice to the herd on
the approach of danger by a loud neigh; upon which they
fly off with amazing rapidity.
   Wild horses arc found, according to Dr. Pallas, in the
deserts on each side of the river Don, towards  the Pains
Mseotis; but these are supposed to be the offspring of the
Russian  horses, which were employed in the siege of
Asoph, in the year 1697,  when for want of forage tbey
were turned loose, and their descendants have gradually
relapsed into the appearance of natural wildness. Those
which are found in some parts of  Smth America, are
well known to be the descendants of the horses  introduc-
ed by the Spaniards on the first discovery of  America,
and which have so far relapsed into a  state of nature as
to exhibit  the general characters ofthe wilel animal.
   The horse, in its domestic or improved state, is found
in almost every part ofthe world, except perlmps within
the Arctic circle; and its  reduction and conquest  may
well  be considered, as Buffon properly  observes, as tbe
greatest acquisition from the  animal world ever made
by the art and industry of man.
   Of the several breeds of horses in common or general
use in Europe, it is remarkable that  none can come in
competition with those of  our own island, either for the
strength required in laborious services, or for  the swift-
ness and elegance of such as are bred for the course. The 
EQUUS.
annals of  Newmarket record instances of horses that
have literally  outstripped the wind, as  is  proved  from
accurate calculations. The celebrated Chihlers is  com-
memorated, in particular, as the  swiftest  of his tribe;
and the instances of  his speed may be found in various
publications. He was know u to have run near a mile in a
minute; and to have cleared  the course at  Newmarket,
which  is  only 400 yards short of four miles, in six
minutes and forty seconds running at the rate of eighty-
two feet and a half in the space of a second. See  Plate
LIU. Nat Hist. fig.  183.
  Of nearly  equal fame  is  the  character of Eclipse,
whose strength was said to be greater, and  his swiftness
scarcely inferior. This latter animal forms the subject of
Mons. Sainbd's calculations, who, in bis  work on tbe
veterinary art, has given an  elaborate and  curious des-
cription of his  several proportions. It is remarkable that
this horse  was never  esteemed handsome, though the
me hanisin of his frame, so far as regarded his powers of
swiftness, was almost perfect.
   As it  may  be some satisfaction to the reader,  to be
made  acquainted  with the  general proportions of this
extraordinary  courser, we shall here extract a part of
 Mons. Sainbd's observations on the subject.
   » The horses of different  countries are, in general,
 distinguished from each other by a peculiar and appro-
 priate conformation.   The Spanish horse differs materi-
 ally in his out.vard  appearance from the English  race-
 horse. The d'ffference, in the length and direction of the
 parts of which each is composed, produces in each a sys-
 tem from  whose mechanical  arrangement result motions
 very unequal in their extent. The Spanish  horse caden-
 ces his steps  with dignity,  while the English  horse
 drives his mass forward with strength  and speed.  This
 difference, which proceeds from the peculiar conforma-
 tion of each, contradicts, in some  particulars, the table
 of geometrical proportions in the use of the  pupils  ofthe
 veterinary schools of France. It proves that no common
 measure can he made to apply equally to every species,
 since nature has  even diversified the forms of the in-
 dividuals which compose it.  If each species lias its own
 fctyieof beauty; if even each individual has its peculiar
 beauty; if it  is not possible  to find two horses that per-
 fectly resemble each other; we cannot pretend to assign
 any one form preferable to another as the rule of beauty
 for the horse.  Were persons ihe best qualified to endea-
 vour to collect tegether the different  beauties dispersed
 among the different individuals, they might indeed com-
 pose a moddof each species sufficiently perfect to  direct
 the painter or the statuary,  bat would  deceive any one
 who would venture to choose a horse by it for his own
 use.  The following observatiens do not take for their
 object those forms w hich pie ase the eye at the first glance;
 that  appearance whidi  vulgarly  passes for handsome;
 bul  that  mechanical construe tion of the  animal,  from
 which result  the possibility  and extent  of those motions
 hy the means of which he is enabled to transport him-
 self from one place to another with greater  or kss speed;
 and consequently a  horse may ; ppcar  ugly to a vulgar
 fu-,  and  be still*well proportioned. Eclipse was  n. ver
 esteemed handsome;  yet he was swift, and  the  mechan-
 ism of his frame almost perfect. Whoever  compares his
proportions with those in the table above-mentioned, will
discover the follow ing differences.
  «  1.  In that table the  horse  should  measure three
heads in height, counting from the foretop to thegroune'.
Eclipse measured upwards of three heads and a half.
  " 2. The neck should measure hut one head in length:
that of Eclipse measured a head and a half.
  "  3. The height of the body  should  be equal to its
length: the height of Eclipse exceeded his length by
about one-tenth.
  •« 4. A perpendicular line falling from the stifle should
touch the toe: this line in Eclipse touched the ground at
the distance of half ahead before the toe.
  a 5. The distance from the elbow to the bend of the
knee should be the same as from the bend of the knee to
the ground: these two distances were unequal in Eclipse,
the former being two parts of a head longer than the
latter.
  a This summary comparison shows that the beauty of
a horse cannot be absolutely determined by general rules,
but must  ever be in relation to a particular species."
  Mons. Sainbel farther informs us, that •< on the 25th
of February, 1789,  Eclipse was seized with a violent
cholic. The remedies acknowledged as most proper in
that case were administered, but without effect. He expir-
ed on the 27th, at seven o'clock in the evening, in the
26th year of his age."
  In Mons. Sonnini's edition of Buffon may be found an
exact enumeration of all the different colours of wiiich
horses are seen, with their several shades and names. On
this subject also Gesner and  Aldrovandcs have given
the usual enumerations; in general, however, it seems
agreed, that the colour  is one of the least important at-
tributes;  according to  the  well-known  doctrine,  now
passed  into a proverb,  that a good horse  is never of  a
bad colour.  The ancients appear to have had a predilec-
tion for white horses, which were used to draw the cars
of emperors and conquerors in public processions.  The
poets also represent the steeds of many of their heroes as
of a snow-white colour.  It is remarkable,  however, that
A'irgii, though in the ./Eneid he represents the horses of
Turnus as white, yet in his Gcorgics  condemns  that co-
lour. In  real.iv, however,  as the  learned Dr.  Martyn
has well  observed, this  implies  no contradiction; sin  e
\ irgil mig.it be supposed to admire the beauty of a white
steed, though  he could not commend  the colour  in  a
breed or stock.  But no  country has produced a breed of
horses equal in size and strength  to  the larger  kind of
our draught-horses. The cavalry of England is,  in gene-
ral, iormed of this class of h .rses. The fens of Line oln-
shite generally produce a larger breed than any  other
part of the kingdom.   See  Plate L11I. Nat.  Hist. fig.
lt;4.  in our  own country tliere  seem to be no breeds ' f
horses  naturally of  a perfect white; those which are so
termed having been first  grey, changed through age to
whueii'ss.
   The most beautiful general  colour  seems to be bright
bay,  which gives an air of peculiar  neatness and ele-
gance to the  animal.   Black  horses  are  comnrinlv  of
large size, and in this country  are chicHy  used  for tha
cart and the plough. In some countries  horses  are- n  t
 less  esteemed for  being variegated or piebald, as it  is
commonly termed. This is said  to be the case in ti;.na. 
EQUUS.
  Mr. Bruce informs us, that the herscs'of Nubia are of
nnp.iralid heauly: far superior, in his opinion, even to
those of Arabia.  lie observes, however,  tiiat  from the
manner in which they are fed they arc apt to become too
fat or corpulent.
  In  some parts of India is found a remarkable diminu-
tive ree e of horses, scarcely exceeding the size ofa large
dog.  Small breeos of  horses  also occur in  some of the
northern parts of the world.
  2.  Eeiuus  hcrmioncs, or jiefa. This is a species, the
knowledge of which seems to  have lain dormant almost
since the days of Aristotle, till it was revived hythe ob-
servations of Dr. Pallas, who describes it under the title
of cquus hcruiomis.  supposing it to be the  hemionos of
Aristotle.  Itis a native ofthe wild or desert regions be-
twci nthe rivers  Onon and Argun, in the most southern
parts of Siberia; and extends over the  vast plains and
deserts of Tartary, as well as fhat of Gobi, which reach-
es even to India.  In Tartary it is said to he most frequent
about the. salt lake called Tarlcnoor, which is at times
dried up. It shuns wooded and mountainous  regions, and
is said to live in  small herds of about twenty each.  Its
general manners are those of the common  wild horse;
but its swiftness is  still greater, surpassing even that
of the antelopes,  ami is proverbial in some ofthe regions
it frequents;  and the  Thihetians  represent Chammo,
their god of fire, mounted upon it.
  This animal has an appearance much  resembling that
of a common  mule;  having a  large head, flat  forehead,
middle-sized eyes with ash-coloured  irides: their  teeth
are thirty-eight in  all, being  two in number fewer than
in the common horse: the ears  are larger  than in that
species,  erect, and  lined with a thick, whitish, curling
hair: the neck is slender and  compressed: the  mane up-
right, short, soft, and of a greyish colour. In place ofthe
foretop there is a short tuft of downy hair, about two
inches in length. The body is rather long, and the back
but little elevated, the breast  sharp and protuberant;  the
limbs long and elegant;  the  thighs thin, as in a mule;
within the fore legs is an  oval  callus, but none in  the
hind legs: the hoofs are oblong, smooth, and black:  the
1 ail like  that of a cow, being slender, and naked for half
its length; the remainder covered with long ash-colour-
 ed hair.  The winter coat of this animal is «if a brownish
ash-colour, with the tips ofthe hair grey; it is about two
inches long, and soft like that of a camel; slightly waved
or undulated on the back. In summer it becomes  much
smoother, and in  all parts elegantly marked  by  small
featherings or turnings: the tip ofthe nose  is white; and
the remainder ofthe face of a light tawny cast, wiiich is
also  diffused over all  the  upper parts: the hind thighs,
insides of the limbs and belly, arc white; and  from the
 mane to the tail extends a chesnut or blackish-brown
 line, which is broadest on the lines, and gradually les-
 sens as  it approaches the tail: there is also a very slight
 appearance of a transverse band or cross over the shoul-
 ders. The length of  this species,  from  nose  to tail, is
 about six feet and a half; that  of the trunk of the  tail
 sixteen  inches, and  of the hairs beyond the  tip  about
 four inches: the height about three feet nine inches.
   This species is supposed to have been found in Syria,
 and  some other  regions, in the days of  Aristo'Ie; and is
 mentioned by Pliny, from the report of Theophrastus,
as being found in Cappadocia.   Its native name anion*
the Mongolians is dsiiikketai,  and among  the  Chinese
yo-to-tse.
   3. Equus asinus, the ass.  The ass, having been Ion<-
condetnncd to a state of the lowest servitude, and consi-
dered as a species of less  dignity  than  the  horse, has
acquired in  most parts of Europe, a character of con-
tempt.  Yet in  its  natural  or wild state it exhibits an
appearance  very far superior both in point of beauty and
vivacity.  It is a native of many parts of Asia, li'ving,
like the rest of this genus, in a gregarious manner.  It
chiefly occurs in  the dry  and  mountainous  deserts of
Tartary, and in the southern parts of India and  Per-
sia.   It is also said to be found in Africa, and to occur,
though but very rarely, in some parts of Syria and Ara-
bia; countries where it  was in  ancient times extremely
common.  In this its natural  state its colour is said to
be white, or of a very  pale silvery grey,  with a slight
tinge of straw-colour on the sides of tlie  neck and body:
along the back runs a deep-brown stripe of thickish wavy
hair, to the beginning of the tail: this stripe is crossed
over the shoulders, as in the tame animal, by another of
siniilar colour;  but it is said that this is peculiar to the
male.   The neck  is furnished  with a brown mane three
or four indies long, consisting of soft woolly hair: tbe
tail is tufted  at  the  end  hy dusky  hairs  of about six
indies  in length: the forehead is arched, and the cars
erect, pointed, and lined internally  with white curling
hairs.  It stands higher on its limbs  than  the domesti-
cated animal, and its legs  are  more slender  in propor-
tion.   The  hair on the whole body is very fine,  bright,
soft,  and silky; and on some parts marked  by a few ob-
scure waves or  undulations of a darker shade than the
rest.   Those which arc found  in Africa  are  said to be
of a pale ash-colour, rather than of the  cast above de-
scribed.
   The  food of the wild ass consists chiefly of saline, or
bitter and lactascent plants.   It is also fond of salt or
brackish  water.  The  manners  of  these animals very
much resemble those of the wild horse.  They assemble
in troops, under  the conduct of a leader  or sentinel; and
are extremely shy and  vigilant, and, like  the former
animals, dart on with the  utmost rapidity  on the  sight
of mankind.  They have  been at all times celebrated
for their swiftness.  Their voice resembles that of the
common or domesticated ass, hut is somewhat shriller.
   From this animal the domestic ass has been gradually
 derived, which admits of considerable varieties as to size,
 beauty, and strength, in different countries.  Those of
 the eastern parts of the world, as well as those of Africa,
 still partake, in a great degree, ofthe native elegance of
 their original or stock; and are very  different from those
 commonly seen in the northern parts of  Europe: for this
 animal seems to be much injured by the influence of a
 comparatively cold climate.  See Plate LIII. Nat. Ilist.
 fig. 185.
   The generality of European asses have large slouch-
 ing ears, a heavy appearance, and are of an ash-colour,
 more or less deep in different  individuals, with a black-
 ish dorsal stripe, crossed by another over the shoulders,
 and  thus exhibiting the original mark of  their specie*
 In their  manners they exhibit no superior marks of sa-
 gacity, but have the merit of being patient, quiet, and 
E Q  V
ERA
tractable, and are chiefly employ ed in the inferior offices
of servitude.   The ass is observed  to be very  tempe-
rate in his food, and  by no means delicate in the choice
of it;  eating thistles, and a variety  of coarse  herbage
which the horse refuses.   He is said to be particularly
fond of plantain, for which he will neglect every other
herb of the pasture.  In his choice  of water he  is re-
markably nice, and will drink only of that which is clear.
He has also  an  aversion to mud or water  in his road,
and will pass out of the way rather than wet his feet in
a puddle.  He is  by no means  void of docility, as vul-
garly  supposed; but may he made  to practise several
exercises not usual with his  race.   His voice, as is well
known, is a most  hideous bray; a discordant succession
of flats and sharps.  This is most strong in the male ani-
mal; the voice  of the female being weaker, though some-
what shriller.  It is singular,  however, that some au-
thors  have denied that  the female ass can  properly  be
said to bray; and Aldrovandus censures Ovid  for  this
 line:
            Et rudit e scabra turpis asella mola.
   It  may not be improper to observe, that the mule is
 nothing more than a hybrid  animal, between this species
 and the horse,  differing in strength,  size, and beauty,
 according to the predominancy of its parental species.
 Mules are very little used in this country, but in Spain
 and some other parts of Europe are in much esteem,
 and have deservedly the reputation of being remarkably
 sure-footed.
   4. Equus zebra, or the zebra, is  a native of the hot-
 ter parts of Africa, being found from ./Ethiopia to the
 Cape of Good Hope, living in large herds, and possess-
 ing much of the manners both of the wild horse and the
 ass, being excessively swift  and vigilant.  It is of a still
 wilder or more unmanageable disposition than cither of
 the former  animals, and  even such as have been taken
 very young are with much difficulty brought to any de-
 gree of familiarity, and have very rarely been rendered
 so far manageable as to submit to the bridle.
   The size of  the zebra  is equal, or  rather superior, to
 that of the ass, and its form  more elegant; since, exclu-
 sive of its beautiful colour, the head and ears are well
 shaped, and of moderate size.  The colour is either milk-
 white, or cream-colour, with a very  slight cast of  butt"
 or pale ferruginous; and  the whole animal is decorated
 on every part  with  very numerous black or blackish-
 brown stripes,  disposed with the utmost symmetry, and
 exhibiting an appearance not so easily described in words
 as by a well-conducted figure.  These stripes  run in a
 transverse direction both on the body and limbs, and in
 a longitudinal  direction down the face; and  their regu-
 lar and beautiful gradation, flexures, and  termination
 mi the different parts of the animal, cannot be  viewed
 without admiration.  The tail is of a moderate  length,
 round, rather  slender, marked with small  blackish bars,
 and terminated by a thickish tuft of brown or black hair.
 The z.ijra  seems to have been  unknown to the ancients;
 the onager  of  Pliny and other authors relating only  to
 the wiid as-.
   Attempts have bcrn made to domesticate  the zebra,
 and to r. .luce  it  to obedience, like the horse: but as yet
 the suet ess has not been wry considerable-.  Experiments
of this kind have been chicfh made in Holland; and wo
   VOL. i.                   121
arc told by the count de Buffon, that zebra's have been
yoked to the stadtholder's chariot: this, however, proved
to be a piece of misinformation, and is accordingly con-
tradicted in the sixth supplemental volume. Persevering
attention may perhaps at length reduce this beautiful ani-
mal to a state of domesticity.   If this was practicable,
anew and elegant addition would be made totbe luxu-
ries of civilized life; since the  zebra scarcely yields to
the horse in gracefulness of  figure, exclusive of its cap-
tivating colours.   See Plate LIII. Nat. Hist. fig.  186.
   5. Equus quagga, or the quagga, which till lately had
been confounded  with the zebra, is now acknowledged
as a distinct species, much allied to the former, but mark-
ed with fewer and larger bands, which are of a browner
colour than in the zebra,  and are chiefly disposed on the
fore parts of the animal, while the hind parts are rather
spotted than striped.  The ground-colour  also of tha
quagga is of a ferruginous tinge, especially on the thighs
and back.  It is of a milder or more docile nature than
the zebra,  and is said to have been successfully used by
some of the Dutch  colonists at the Cape, in the manner of
a horse, for draught, &c.  It inhabits the same parts of
Africa as the zebra, but is found in separate herds, ne-
ver associating with that species.  See Plate LIU. Nat.
Hist. fig. 187.
   G. Equus bisculus,  or cloven-footed horse.  The very
name of this species seems to imply a kind of equivocal
and anomalous being; one of the most prominent charac-
ters of the present genus being a simple or  undivided
hoof.   Indeed if only a single  specimen  of this animal
had been described, we might  have hesitated as to ad-
mitting it otherwise than as an accidental vaiiety.
   The cloven-footed horse is a native  of South x\merica,
and was first described by Molina, in his Natural His-
tory of Chili.  In  its general appearance, size, colour,
and many other particulars, both external and internal,
it resembles the ass; but has the voice and the ears of a
horse,  and  has no cross or transverse  band  over the
shoulders.  It is  very wild, strong, and swift,  and is
found in the rocky -regions of the  Andes or Cordilleras
of Peru and  Chili. The hoofs are divided like those  of
ruminant animals.
   It is singular that this curious species, which scorns to
form a kind of link between the cloven-hoofed and whole-
hoofed tribes, should have so long remained unknown  to
the naturalists of Europe.
   ERANARCHA, a public officer  among  the anc icnt
Greeks,  whose business was to preside over and direct
the alms and provisions  made for the poor.   Cornelius
Nepos, in  his life  of Epaminondas,  describes  his  olhVe
thus:  when any person was reduced lo povt My, taken
captive, or had a daughter to marry,  which he could not
effect for want of  money, «Scc.  the eranarclui  called an
assembly of friends and neighbours,  and taxed each ac-
cording to  his means  and estate, to contribute towards
his relief.
  EUANTHEMUM, a genus of the moncgyina order, m
the diandria  class  of plants, and in the natural method
ranking with those of wiiich the order is dou!:T-,'uI. Tlie
corolla is quinquefid, with the tube filiform; the anthera*.
without the tube; the stigma simple.
   There are five  species, herbs or undcrshrtus of  the
Cape of Good Hope.   Some ei them  ate \eiy orn.nuen- 
E R I
E R  I
 tal inhabitants of our stoves, and would probably thrive
 in a greenhouse.
  ERICA, heath,  a genus  of the monogynia order, in
 the octandria class of plants, and in the natural method
ranking under the 18th order,  bicornes.  The calyx is
tetraphyllous; the corolla quadrifid;  the filaments in-
serted into the receptacle;  the  antherae bifid; the cap-
sule quadrilocular.   There are upwards of 100 species,
four of them natives of Britain, which are so well known,
that no description need be  given of them.  In the High-
lands of Scotland this  plant  is made  subservient to a
great variety of purposes. The poorer inhabitants make
walls for their cottages with alternate layers of  heath
and a kind of mortar  made of  black earth and straw.
The woody roots of the heath are  placed in the centre;
the tops externally and internally.  They make their
beds of it,  by placing the roots downwards; and the tops
only being uppermost, they are  sufficiently  soft to sleep
upon.  Cabins are also  thatched with it.  In the island
of Hay, ale is frequently made by  brewing one part of
malt and two of the tops of young heath, sometimes ad-
ding hops.  Boethius relates, tliat this liquor  was much
used by the Picts.  Woollen cloth boiled in  alum-water,
and afterwards in a strong decoction of heath-tops, comes
out of a fine orange-colour.  The  stalks and tops will
tan leather.  Besoms, and faggots to  burn in ovens, are
also made of  this  plant. It is also used  for filling up
drains that are to be covered over.  Sheep and goats will
sometimes eat the tender shoots, but they are not fond
of them.  Cattle not accustomed to  feed on heath,  give
bloody milk, but they are soon relieved by drinking plen-
 tifully of water.  Horses will eat the tops.  Bees extract
 a great deal of honey from the flowers; and where  heath
 abounds,  the honey has a reddish cast. There are ma-
 ny exotic species with which our greenhouse collections
 are enriched and adorned, as the triflora, tubiflora, aus-
 tralis, &c.
  ERIDANUS, in astronomy, a  constellation of  the
 southern hemisphere, containing, according to different
 authors, 19, 30, or even 84 stars.
  EKIGERON, flea-bane, a genus  of the polygamia
superflua order, in  the syngenesia class of plants, and in
the natural method ranking under the 49th  order, com-
positae.  The receptacle is naked; the pappus hairy; the
florets of the radius are linear, and very narrow.  There
 are 30 species, of which  the most remarkable is the vis-
cosum,  or male flea-bane of Theophrastus,  and greater
flea-bane of  Dioscorides. It is a native of  the south of
France and Italy; and has a perennial root, whence arise
many upright stalks near  three feet high.  The leaves
in warm weather sweat out  a clammy juice; the flowers
are produced single upon pretty long footstalks, are ofa
yellow colour, and have an agreeable  odour. The plants
are easily propagated by seeds, and thrive  best in a dry
soil and sunny aspect.
  ERINUS,  a genus ofthe angiospermia order, in the
 didynamia class of plants,  and in  the natural method
ranking under the 40th order, personatse.  The calyx is
pentaphyilous; the limb of  the  corolla quinquefid and
equal, with its lobes emarginatcd, and the  upper lip ve-
ry short and reflexed; the capsule bilocular. There are
15 species.   They grow from two inches to four feet in
height,  and arc adorned with flowers of a white or pur-
ple colour.  They are propagated by seeds, but in this
country generally require to be kept in shelter.
  ERIOCAULON, a genus of the  trigynia order,  in
the triandria class of plants,  and in the natural method
ranking with the sixth order, ensatae. The common ca-
lyx is an imbricated capitulum or knob; there are three
equal petals, and the stamina are on the germen. Tliere
are six species, exotics of no note.
  ERIOCEPHALUS,  a genus of  the polygamia ne-
cessaria order, in the syngenesia class of plants, and in
the natural method ranking under the 49th order, com-
positse.  The receptacle is somewiiat villous; there is no
pappus; the calyx is decaphyllous and equal; the radius
has five florets.  Tliere are two species, herbaceous plants
of the Cape.
  ERIOPHORUM, a genus ofthe monogynia order, in
the triandria class of plants, and in the natural method
ranking under the third order, calamaria;.  The glumes
are paleaceous,  and imbricated all  round; there  is no
corolla; and only one seed furnished with a  very long
down.  There are six species, nearly allied to the gras-
ses, only two natives of Britain.
  ERITHALIS, a genus of the monogynia order, in the
pentandria class of plants, and in the  natural  method
ranking with those of which the order is doubtful.  The
corolla is quinquepartite;  the calyx  urceolatcd  or blad-
der-like; the berry  decemlocular, inferior.  Tliere are
two species, trees of Jamaica and the Society  Isles.
  ERINACEUS,  hedgehog, a genus of quadrupeds of
the order of ferae.  The generic  character  is; front teeth
two both above and below, those of  the upper jaw dis-
tant,  of the lower approximated; canine  teeth on each
side, in the upper jaw five, in the  lower three; grinders
on each side, both above and below, four;  body covered
on the upper parts  with spines.
   1. Erinaceus Europaeus. Common or European hedge
hog.  The  hedgehog is found in most of the  temperate
parts of Europe and Asia, and, according to Mr. Pen-
nant, is also, seen  in Madagascar.  It commonly mea-
sures about ll inches from the nose to the  tip  of the tail,
which  is about  an inch long.   Its  colour is generally
grey-brown, but it sometimes is found totally white, or
of a yellowish white. It feeds principally on the roots of
vegetables; but it also eats worms, as well  as beetles and
other insects.   It wanders about chiefly by night, and
during the day conceals itself in its hole, under the roots
of some tree, or mossy bank.  It  produces four or five
young at a birth,  which are soon covered with  prickles
like those ofthe parent animal, but shorter and  weaker.
The nest is large, and is composed of moss.
   The hedgehog, when disturbed, rolls itself up into a
globular form,  and thus presents to its adversary an in-
vulnerable hall of prickles.  From this state of security,
it is not easily forced; scarcely any thing but  cold  water
obliging it to unfold itself. It swims perfectly well when
thrown into water.
   The hedgehog is one of those animals which, during
the winter,  are supposed to continue  in a state  of torpi-
dity.  In that season it lies  concealed in its hole, sur-
rounded with a  bed  of moss, secure from the rigours of
the most piercing frost, and at the return of spring re-
commences its wanderings. 
E  R  I                                               E  R >
  The beigriiog may be rendered in a considerable de-
give dome stic; and lias freeiuently been  introduced into
houses for the purpose of expelling those  troublesome in-
sects the biattae, or cockroaches, which  it pursues with
avidity,  and is fond of feeding on.  It is itself an occa-
sional article of food in some places,  and is said to be
best in the month of August.
  The hedgehog is generally  considered as a  harmless
inoffensive  animal,  but has been frequently  supposed
(and to  this day  the absorb notion  prevails  in many
places) to suck the teats of cows by night, and thus cause
by its prickles those exulcerations which arc sometimes
seen on cattle. From this accusation, however,  itis com-
pletely absolved by Mr. Pennant, who observes, that its
mouth is by far too small to admit of this practice.
  2. Erinaceus iuauris.  Earless hedgehog. This, on a
general  view,  seems to be nothing more than  a variety
ofthe common hedgehog, differing chiefly,  according to
Seba, in having the spines on the upper  parts of the bo-
dy shorter, thicker, and stronger; the head, however, is
somewhat shorter, and the snout blunter  than in the com-
mon hedgehog, and there is no appearance of external
ears;  the whole animal is also of a white or  very pale
colour.  Its  length from nose to tail is about eight inches;
the tail  scarcely an inch long; the claws  long and crook-
 ed.
  3. Erinaceus auritus.   Long-eared hedgehog.  This
 species resembles  the  common  hedgehog in form, and is
 found about the river Volga,  and in the eastern parts
 beyond  lake Baikal.   In size it is said to vary, being in
 some plaees smaller, and in others larger, than the, com-
 mon species; but may be immediately distinguished by its
 ears, which are large, oval, open, and naked,  with soft
 whitish hair on the inside, and edged with brown; the
 legs and feet are longer and thinner  than those of the
 common hedgehog, and the tail shorter  and almost nak-
 ed: the  upper part ofthe animal  is covered with slender
 brown spines, with a whitish  ring near the base, and
 another towards the tip; the legs and belly are covered
 with soft white fur.  In  its general  manner of life this
 species  is said to  resemble the common  hedgehog.  The
 female produces six or seven  young  at a time, and  is
 said sometimes to breed twice a year.
   4.  Erinaceus Md^lagascariensis.  Striped hedgehog.
 This animal, which is a native of Madagascar, was first
 disc ribed by the coulht de Buffon, under the name of le
 tanrec; it should seem, however, that the specimen de-
 scribed had not attained its full growth,  and consequent-
 ly did not exhibit with sufficient  clearness all the charac-
 ters of  the  animal.   It is of a black colour,   with five
 longitudinal bands on the body;  all the black  parts are
 covered with hard  hair;  the white  bands with small
 prickles, analogous to those of a porcupine.  From the
 black bands on the  back, spring  long scattered hairs
 which reach to the ground; the head  is  covered with
 short black hairs or prickles; the snout is white; tbe eye
 surrounded by a white circle, and the  feet are reddish.
 The tandreks  move  slowly, and grunt like  pigs, for
 which reason they are called ground-hogs, or pig-por-
 cupines, by the Europeans. They burrow under ground,
 and remain torpid three  months in  the year;  they hide
 themselves in tlie day-time, and  only appear  after sun-
 set in order to seek their food: they live chiefly on fruits
and herbs;  their body is a mere lump of fat: the natives
of Madagascar eat them, but consider them as but an
indifferent  food.  Madagascar is the  only  e ountry in
which the tandreks are found.  See Plate LV. Nat. Hist.
fig. 188.
  5. Erinaceus Malacccnsis. Malacca hedgehog. This
species has so completely the appearance of a porcupine,
that nothing  but a severe adherence  to systematic ar-
rangement from the teeth  could justify its being placed
in the present genus; yet even this particular seems not
yet distinctly known,  the animal being rarely imported
into Europe.  Mr. Pennant supposes that Linnaeus might
have been induced to consider it as belonging to the pre-
sent genus, on account of the number of its toes;  which
are said  to be five on the fore feet, instead of four, as in
the porcupine.  The accurate Brisson,  however, con-
sidered it as a species of hedgehog; and Linnaeus, in com-
pliance with his opinion, transferred it from the genus
hystrix to that of erinaceus. The particular size is not
mentioned  by Seba, but it appears to  be a large species,
since the length of its quills  is said.to be from an inch te#
a foot and  a half, on different parts of the animal.  It is
therefore probably about the size ofthe common porcu-
pine, .and they are variegated in a similar manner; the
ears are  large and pendulous; and there is no crest or
ruff of longer bristles than the rest on the back of the
head, as  in the common porcupine.
   ERMIN.  See Mi  stela.
   Ermin, in heraldry, is always argent  and sable, that
is, a white field, or fur,  with black spots. Tliese spots,
arc not of any determinate number, but may be more or
less, at  the  pleasure of the painter, as  the skins are
thought  not to be  naturally  so  spotted; but serving for
liningthe garments of great persons, the furriers were
wont, in  order to add to their beauty, to Sow bits of the
black tails of the creatures that produced them, upon the
white of  their skin, to render them the more conspicuous,
which alteration was introduced into  armory.
   Ermin, or ears of cor v., an order-of knights in France,
instituted by  Francis, the  last  of that name, duke of
Britany.
   This order was  so called  on account that the collar of
it was made up of ears of corn, lying athwart one ano-
ther in saltier, bound  together,  both above and  below,
each ear being crossed twice, the whole of gold. To this
collar there hung  a little white beast, called an ermin,
running  over a bank of grass,  diversified with flowers.
   ERMINE', or Cross  Ermine',  is one composed of
four ermine spots.  It is to be observed, that the colours
in these  arms are not  to be expressed, because neither
this cross nor these arms can be of any other colour-than
white and black.
   Ermines  are,  by some  English   writers,  held to In
the reverse of ermine',  that is,  white spots on a black
fielel; and yet the French use no such word, but call this
black powdered with  white  contre-ermin, which  is very
proper,  as it denotes the reverse of ermin.
   ERMINITES  should signify little ermines, but it  is
otherwise, for it expresses  a white field powdered with
black, only  that  every such spot has a little red hail
 on it.
   ERNODIA, a genus of the class and order tetrandria
monogynia.  The calyx is four-parted; corolla one-petal- 
ERU
E R  U
 led,  salver-shaped; berry  two-celled;  seeds solitary.
 There is one species, a creeping plant of Jamaica.
   ERODIUM, crane's bill, a genus ofthe class and or-
 der monadelphia pentandria,  and in the natural method
 ofthe order gruinales.  The calyx is five-parted;  the
 corolla five-petalled; ncus five scales, alternate with the
 filaments,  and glands at the  base of the stamina; fruit
 five-grained, with a spiral  beak,  bearded in the inside.
 This genus is vulgarly confounded with the geranium:
 indeed there are three genera, which have the same  ha-
 bits,  but differing in the number of stamina.  This plant
 has five, the geranium seven, and  the pelasconium, or
 African geranium,  ten.   Of  the erodium  there  are 28
 species, including  at  least  three  which are  natives of
 Britain, and several naturalized here: some are animal,
 and some perennial.
   ERODIUS, a genus of insects of the order of coleop-
 tera. The antennas are moniliform; feelers filiform;  bo-
 dy roundish, gibbous, immarginate;  thorax transverse;
 shells closely united, longer than the abdomen; jaw hor-
 ny, bifid;  lip horny, emarginate.  There are four spe-
 cies.
   P^ROTEUM, a  genus of the class and  order pentan-
 dria monogynia.  The calyx is five-leaved;  the  corolla
 five-pctalled; the style trifid;  berry juiceless,  three-cel-
 led, many-seeded.  There are two species,  natives of Ja-
 maica.
   ERRHINES, in pharmacy, medicines  which, when
 snuffed up the nose, promote a discharge of mucus from
 that part.  See Materia Medica.
   ERROR, in law, signifies an error in pleading, or in
 the process; and the writ wiiich is brought for remedy
 thereof, is called a writ of  error.  A writ of error  is a
 commission to judges of a superior court, by which they
 are authorized to examine the record upon  which a judg-
 ment was given in  an inferior court, and on such  exami-
 nation,  to affirm or reverse the same  according to law.
Jenk. Rep. 25.  For particulars as to the practice of writs
 of error, sec Impey's K. B. <Sc C. P.
   ERUCA. in general, denotes caterpillars of all kinds.
 The caterpillar state is that tlirough which every  butter-
 fly must pass before it arrives at its perfection and beau-
 ty: and in the same manner,  all the known winged ani-
 mals, except only  the puceron, pass through a reptile
 state; none of them, except  this, being produced in their
 winged form.   The change  from caterpillar to butterfly
 "was long esteemed a sort of metamorphosis, a real  change
 of one  animal  into  another; but this is by no  means the
 case.  The egg of a butterfly  produces a butterfly, with
 all the lineaments of its parent; only tliese are not dis-
 closed at first,  but  for the  greater  part of the animal's
life they are covered with a sort of case or muscular coat,
in which are legs for walking: these  only  suit it in this
state: but its mouth takes in nourishment,  which  is con-
veyed to the included  animal; and  after a proper time
this covering is thrown off,  and the  butterfly, which all
the while might be  discovered in it by an accurate ob-
 server with the  help of a microscope, appears  in its pro-
per form. Before it  passes into this state, however, there
requires a state of rest for the wings to harden, and the
several other parts  to acquire  their proper  firmness:  this
is transacted in a time of perfect rest, when the  animal
lies hi what is  called  the nymph or chrysalis state, in
appearance only a lump of inanimate matter.  There is
a settled and  determined time for each of these change*
in every species; hut in the several different kinds,  tbi
peri, ds are very different.
  There is no sign of sex  in the animal  while in the ca-
terpillar  state:  the propagation of  the species is the  bu-
siness of the creature in its ultimate perfection; and till
that, tliese parts  are never excluded: one female butter-
fly, when she has been impregnated by the male,  will
produce 300  or 400 eggs,  or even more.  There'is no
way of knowing the sexes of these little creatures by view-
ing the parts; hut the  whole  figure and manner of  the
animal makes the difference.  The females  are always*
larger than the males;  they are also more slow in their
motions;  and some of them have  no wings, or  at the
most only very  small ones. The males  also  have a sort
of beards, more beautiful  than the antenna? or horns of
the females;  the female  is much stronger  as well a^
bigger than  the male, and not unfrcqueiitlv, in case of
danger or disturbance, she flies away with* him in time
of copulation.  On dissecting the female, her uf«.-us af-
fords an  stonishing sight.   The number of eggs in the
tubes is amazing; but these have not all  the same figure;
and in some species, as the silk-worm, kc. the eggs are
of a beautifal blue;  if any yellowish ones  are seen among
them, they are judged  to be defective.
  The care of  all the butterfly tribe to lodge their eggs
in safety  is surprising.   Those whose  eggs are to lie
hatched in a few weeks, and who are to live'in the cater-
pillar state during part of the remaining summer, always
lay them on the leaves of such plants  as will afford a
proper nourishment; but,  on the contrary, those whoso
eggs are to remain unhatched till the following: spring,
always lay them on the branches  of trees and shrubs,
and usually are careful to  select such places as are least
exposed to the  rigour  of  the  ensuing season, and fre-
quently cover them from it in an artful  manner.  Some
make a general coat, of a hairy matter over them, taking
the hairs from their own bodies for that  purpose; others
hide themselves in hollow places in trees, and  in other
sheltered cells, and there live in a kind of  torpid state dur-
ing the whole winter, that they may deposit their eggs in
the succeeding  spring,  at  a time when there  will be no
severities  of  wheather for them to  combat.  Tbe day
butterflies only  do this, and of these but  a very few spe-
cies; but  the night ones,  or  phaJajih-e,  all, without ex-
ception, lay their eggs as  soon as they have  been in  co-
pulation  with  the  male,  and die immediately  after-
wards.
  It is well  known, that the  common and natural food
of tliese creatures is the leaves and verdure of vegeta-
bles; yet, as weak and harmless as they seem, they will
many of them  destroy their  fellows whenever tbey  get
an opportunity.  Mr.  Reaumur gives us an  instance of
this in 20 caterpillars ofthe oak, which  he kept in a box
with a sufficient quantity of their natural food; yet their
numbers daily decreased, till at last there remained only
one.  This is,  however, only the case in some few spe-
cies, the generality of  these animals  being very peacea-
ble, many species living together in the same place with-
out molesting  one  another.  These species,  however,
though freed from such  dangers, are exposed  to others of
a much more terrible kind; the worms or maggots of se- 
ERUCA.
veral  sorts of flies are frequently found  about them,
some preying upon their  outside, others lodged within
them under the skin, but  both kinds eating the poor de-
fenceless  creature  up alive.  Those which feed on the
outsides are easily  discovered: the others are more hid-
den; and  frequently  the  caterpillar, which seems  very
hearty and vigorous, and very fleshy, will be found, upon
opening, to be a mere skin, the internal parts being found
to be all eaten  away, and all the food that he swallows
serving only to feed a vast number of worms, or mag-
gots, which crawl about at liberty within him.  These
devouring worms are of many  different species; some
being  of the gregarious, some of the solitary kinds, and
some spinning webs of their own silk to transform them-
selves in, others undergoing that change  without any
such covering. The beautiful cabbage-caterpillar is one
of those  unhappy  kinds  which  frequently are infested
with the gregarious kinds,  large numbers of which spin
themselves  webs one after another, and afterwards come
out in  the  shape of the parent-fly to whose eggs they ow-
ed their origin.
  These intestine enemies are a sure prevention of the
butterfly's appearing at its proper time;  and as many of
the former  naturalists, who  knew what  butterfly to ex-
pect from a peculiar species of caterpillar which  they
preserved,  often saw a parcel  of flies come out in the
place  of it, they having no idea that the fly had laid its
eggs in the flesh of the poor creature, supposed that this
was one of  its natural transformations, and that certain
species of caterpillars sometimes produced butterflies,
sometimes small flies.  These, and many other destroy-
ers, among which  the birds are to be reckoned in the
principal  place,  serve the purpose of preventing the too
great number of these mischievous animals.  Their usu-
al habitation being the leaves and flowers of plants, they
are, in their feeding, much exposed to all those destroy-
ers; yet nature has taken care to preserve a great num-
ber, by making many of them so exactly of the colour
of the leaves they feed on, that they are not easily dis-
tinguished from thein; and by giving others a caution of
keeping on the  under part of the leaves, and being by
that means out of sight.  But some species are much less
exposed,  and of  much more mischief to the plants they
feed on, by devouring more essential parts of them.  Of
these some  eat the  roots, and others the  interior part of
the trunk, destroying the vessels that imbibe, and those
that distribute the juices.    These are different from the
common caterpillars in this, that their skin is much less
rough and hard; and these are secure from  our observa-
tion, and  in general  from their great  destroyers, the
birds.  They are- not, however, absolutely safe from the
common dangers ofthe other species; for there is a kind
of worms that find  their food and habitation even in the
bodies of these. The root-caterpillars,  and those whieh
live within the branches of plants, are much more easily
found  out.  The roots of srrophularh, and the stalks of
letf'iccs, and some other plants, afford caterpillars which
seem all of the same  species.   Those  fo-md  in the l<t-
tuees are  extremely  plentiful  some v ears, and destroy
vast quantities of that ?>lant.  These usually  have their
first habitation in the stalk,  near thr root.
  Nothing  is more surprising in insects than their in-
dustry; and in this the caterpillars yield to no kind, not
to mention their silk, the spinning of which is one great
proof of it.  The sheaths and cases which some of these
insects build for passing their transformations under, are
by some made with their own  hair, mixed with  pieces
of bark,  leaves, and other parts  of trees, with  paper,
and other materials; and the structure of these  is well
worthy our attention. Yet there are others whose work-
manship, in this  article, far exceeds these.  There is
one which builds in wood,  and is able to give its case a
hardness greater than that  of the wood itself in  its na-
tural  state.   This  is the strange horned  caterpillar of
the willow, which is one of those that eat their exuviae.
This  creature has extremely sharp teeth, and with these
it cuts the wood into a number  of small fragments; these
fragments it  afterwards unites  together into a case, of
what  shape it pleases, by means of a peculiar silk, which
is no  other than a tough and viscous juice,  wiiich  har-
dens as it dries, and is a strong and firm cement.   The
solidity of the case;bcing thusprovided for, we are to con-
sider, that the caterpillar  inclosed in it  is to become a
butterfly; and the wonder is, in what manner a creature
of this helpless kind, which has neither legs to dig, nor
teeth  to gnaw with,  is to make its way out of so  firm
and  strong a lodgment as  this in which  it is hatched.
The butterfly,  as soon as  hatched, discharges a liquor
which softens the viscous matter that holds the case to-
gether; and so its  several fragments falling to pieces,
the way out lies open.   Reaumur  judged, from  the ef-
fects, that this liquor must be of a singular nature, and
very different from the generality of animal fluids;  and
in dissecting this creature in the caterpillar state, there
will always be found near the mouth, and  under the  oes-
ophagus, a bladder of the  size  of a small pea, full of a
limpid liquor, of a very quick and penetrating  smell,
and which, upon trial, proves to be a very  powerful acid;
and among  other properties, which it has  in common
with other a  ids, it sensibly softens the glue ofthe case,
on a  common application.  It is evident that this  liquor,
besides its use to the caterpillar, remains with it in the
chrysalis state, and is what gives it a power of dissolv-
ing the structure ofthe case, and making its way through
in a proper  manner at the  necessary time.  Boerhaave
adopted the opinion, that there are no true acids  in ani-
mals, except in the stomach or intestines;  bat this fa-
miliar instance proves the contrary.
  Another very curious and mysterious artifice  is  that
by which some species of e at rpillars,  when the  time of
their  changing into the chrysalis siate is coining  on,
make themselves lodgments in  the leaves  of th* trees,
by rolling them up in such  a manner as to make them-
selves a sort  of hollow cylindric case, proportioned to
the thickness of their body, well defended  against the
injuries of the  air.  and carefully s*vured for their  state
of tranquility.   Besi-.'.s tIo-sc caterpillars, which in this
manner roll up the  leaves of plants, there are either spe-
cies which only bend them once, ant! e tl,  -s. which  by
means of thin threads, connect many leaves toget'iee to
inrke them a case.   All this is a very  surprising work
hit much inferior to this method  of rolling. The  ('li-
ferent species of caterpillars have f,ifferent'~iprim; ij-•„.,
not only  in their spinning  aud tie :i choice of food, hut
even  in their manners  and  behaviour "n- to j.netl < r.
Some never part company  iroiu the time  of  thrii Lch-r 
ERUCA.
hatched to their last change, but live and feed together,
and  undergo together their change  into the chrysalis
slate.  Others separate one from  another as soon as able
to crawl about, and each  seeks  its fortune single; and
there are others which regularly live to a certain time of
their lives in community, and then separate,  each  to
shift  for itself,  and never  to meet  in that state.
   Caterpillars arc  very destructive to gardens,  particu-
larly those of two species.   The one, that which after-
wards becomes the common white butterfly. This is of a
yellowish-white colour,  spotted  with black, and infests
the  leaves of cabbages, cauliflowers, and the Indian
cress, of  wiiich it eats off all  the tender  parts, leaving
only the fibres entire; so that whole plantations are of-
ten seen destroyed by them in autumn, especially such
as are near large buildings,  or are crowded with  trees.
There is no remedy against this  evil but  the pulling the
creatures off before they are spread from their nests, and
watching the  butterflies, which are daily,  in the hot
weather,  depositing their eggs on these plants.  These,
however, feed principally  on the outside of  the leaves of
the  plants,  and  are therefore the  easier, taken off; but
the other kind lies near  the centre, and therefore is with
much more difficulty discovered.    This is much larger;
and the skin is  very tough, and of  a brown colour. It is
called by  the gardeners a grub, and is extremely perni-
cious.  The eggs which produce it are usually deposited
in the very heart or centre of the  plant, particularly in
cabbages; and the  creature, when formed, and grown to
 some size, cats its  way through all the blades, and leaves
its dung in great quantities  behind it, which spoils the
cabbage.   This insect also burrows under the surface of
the ground, and makes sad havoc  among young plants,
by  eating off their tender shanks,  and  drawing them
into its holes. This mischief is chiefly done in the night;
but whatever a plant is seen thus  destroyed, if the earth
is stirred with a finger  an inch  deep,  the creature will
be certainly found,  and  this is the  only way of  destroy-
ing them.
   When  these  animals  attack fruit-trees,  the best pre-
servative is to boil together a quantity of rue, wormwood,
and the common tobacco, of each  equal parts,  in com-
mon water, to make the liquor very strong,  and sprin-
kle it on the leaves and young branches every night and
morning, during the time when the fruit is  ripening.
   Eruce acquatkee, water  caterpillars.  It may seem
incredible, that there is any such  thing as  a caterpillar
whose habitation is under water;  but experience and.ob-
servation  prove, that there are such, and  that they feed
on the  water-plants as  regularly as  the common kinds
do on those at land.  These are not named at  random
like many of the aquatic animals of the larger kinds, as
the sea-wolf, the sea-horse, kc. which might as well  be
called any thing else as wolves and horses;  but they are
properly what they are called, and  do not respire in the
manner of the fish tribe, but by their stigmata as other
caterpillars.   M. Reaumur,  in  his  observations, met
with two species of these;  the one  upon the pond-weed,
the other upou  the lenticula or duck-meat.   These are
both very industrious animals; but the first being much
the largest, its operations are more easily distinguished.
This, though truly  an aquatic animal,  swims but badly,
and does not at  all love to wet itself.  The parent but-
terfly lays her egg on the leaf of a certain plant; and as
soon as the young caterpillar is hatched, it gnaws out a
piece of the leaf, of a roundish shape.   This it carries
to another part  ofthe same leaf,  and lays it in  such  a
manner, that there may be a hollow  between,  in which it
may lodge,   it then fastens down this piece  to the lar-
ger leaf with silk ofits own spinning, only leaving cer-
tain holes at which it can put out its head, and get to
gnaw any of the leaves that are near.   It easily  gets
out, though the  aperture is naturally small, since a  lit-
tle force from its body bends up the upper leaf and down
the lower, both being flexible; and when the creature ia
out, it has a sort of down that defends  it from beni"
wetted, and the  natural elasticity of the leaves  and of
the silk joins the aperture up again, so that no water can
get in.  Tbe leaves  of this kind of plant are also natu-
rally very slippery,  and not easily wetted by  water.  It
soon happens that this habitation  becomes too small  for
the animal, in which case it makes just such another;
and  after  that, at times, several others, each  being onlv
made fit for it at the size it is then of.  The changes of
this creature into the chrysalis and butterfly  states are in
the common method.  The butterfly gets out  of achrv-
salis which was placed on  the surface of the water; the
lightness of the animal easily  sustains it on  the water
till its wings are dried, and then it leaves that element,
never to return to it  again.
   Eruce sylvestres, wood caterpillars; the  name of a
sort of caterpillars which do not live, after the manner
of others, on leaves of  trees or plants, or  open  to our
observation; but under the bark, in the trunk and bran-
ches, and  in  the  roots  of trees, and sometimes in the
body of fruits. These are easily distinguished  from those
worms and maggots which are found in roots  and fruits,
and owe their origin to flies of  another kind;  but arc li-
able to be confounded with a sort of animals, called  by
M.Reaumur, false or bastard caterpillars, which bear a
great resemblance in their figure to real caterpillars, but
which  have  more legs than any of the true ones have,
and are finally transformed into four-winged flies, wdiich
are not true butterflies.
   The butterflies wiiich are the parents of  those cater-
pillars that lie immured in trees or fruits, lay their eggs
on the surface; and the young caterpillars, when hatched,
eat their way in.  What appears something surprising,
however, in this is, that there usually is only one cater-
pillar  in a fruit wiiich is large enough to afford food to
a great number; and if there are  sometimes  found two
creatures  within, one is usually a caterpillar, the other
a worm of some other kind.  The whole occasion of this
is, that the operation of penetrating into the fruit is so
difficult to the young animal, that it seldom succeeds in
it; and though the butterfly deposits many eggs on each
fruit, and these  all hatch, yet it is only here  and tliere
one on a fruit that can find its way into it.
   These  creatures when once lodged in  their prison,
have nothing to do but to eat up the substances which
inclose them, leaving the outer hard shell unhurt, which
still serves as a  case for them.  This is a very frequent
case in grains of corn, where the  farinaceous substance
serves as aliment, and the hard outer skin becomes a
firm hollow case afterwards for the animal.  The  fari-
naceous substance in this case usually proves enough for 
ERV                                              E R Y
tlie animal in its caterpillar state; but if it does not, the
creature has recourse to a very  singular expedient: it
eats again its own excrement, and finds its now stronger
stomach able to separate nourishment from that very
matter which had before passed off from its weaker sto-
mach undigested.
  Of these species of caterpillars, some go out of their
prison in order to   change into their chrysalis,  and
thence into their butterfly state;  but the greater number
remain there, and pass through all their changes within.
These caterpillars, like all the other kinds, have certain
flesh-eating worms,  whose parents  are of the fly-kind,
for their terrible enemies and destroyers; and it is  not
unfrequent, on opening one of these spoiled  fruits,  in-
stead of the expected caterpillar, to find a fly just ready
to come out: this has been produced from the chrysalis
of a worm, which had found its way into the fruit, and
eaten up  the caterpillar, which was the original possessor
of the place.
  ERUCTATIONS, in medicine, arc the effect of  fla-
tulent foods, and the crudities thence arising.
  ERUPTION, in medicine, a sudden and copious  ex-
cretion of humours, as pus or blood; it signifies  also  the
same with exanthema, any breaking out; as the pustules
of the plague, small-pox, measles, &c. See Medicine.
  ERVUM, the lentil, a genus ofthe decandria order,
in the diadelphia class of plants, and in the natural me-
thod ranking under tlie 32nd order, papilionacac. The ca-
lyx is quinquepartite, the length of the corolla.   There
are  six species; of  which  the most  remarkable is  the
lens, or common lentil.   It is cultivated in many parts
of England, either as fodder for cattle, or for the seeds,
which are  frequently used  in meagre soups.  It is  an
annual plant, and rises with weak stalks about 18 inches
high, with  winged leaves composed of several pairs of
narrow lobes, terminated by a clasper or  tendril, which
fastens to any neighbouring  plant, and is thereby  sup-
ported; the flowers come out three or four together, upon
short footstalks from the side of the branches. They
are small, of a  pale purple colour, and are succeeded by
short flat pods, containing two or three seeds which are
flat, round, and a little convex in the middle. The seeds
of this plant are most commonly sown in the month of
March, where the land is dry; but in  moist ground, the
best time is April.   The usual quantity of seed allowed
for an acre of land  is from one bushel and a half to two
bushels.  If tliese are sown  in drills in the same manner
as peas, they will succeed belter than  when sown broad-
cast: the drills should be a foot and a half asunder, to al-
low room for the Dutch hoe to clean the ground  between
tin in; for if the weeds are permitted to grow among
them, they  will  get above the lentils and starve them.
  There  is another sort of lentil also cultivated in this
country,  under  the name of  French lentil.   It  is twice
the size of the  former, both in plant  and seed; and is
much better worth cultivation than the other.  It should
be sown  in March,  alter  a single  ploughing, in  the
ground that bore corn the year before.  Manure is  not
absolutely necessary, though it will undoubtedly increase
the crop.    Its grass  is said to be very copious; it  may
he mowed many times in the year, i.nd affords a healthy
as well as an agreeable fi-od  to horses, cows, and sheep;
the  milk  of cows fed with it is said to be very topioiu
and good.  Long and  numerous  pods ripen about tie
beginning of winter, which afford a new kind of legu-
men, to be eaten as common lentils; when fresh, it makt s
admirable peas-soup: dry, it  is greedily eaten by th.*
poultry.   The dried  herb  is also a good resource for
cattle in winter.  It grows on any kind of ground.
  ERYNG1UM, sea-holly, or eryngo, a genus ofthe
digynia order, in the pentandria class of plants; and in the
natural method  ranking under the 45th order, umbellatae.
The flowers are collected  into a round head, and the re-
ceptacle is paleaceous. There are  11 species;  most of
which are hardy herbaceous perennials, producing erect
stalks from one to two or three feet high; with  simple, en-
tire, or divided prickly leaves; and the stalks terminated
by roundish aggregate heads ofquinquepetalous flowers, of
white,  blue, or purple colours. They all flower mostly in
July, and  the seeds ripen in September. They arc pro-
pagated by seeds sown in a bed or  border, either in
spring or  autumn. The plants are to be removed the au-
tumn after they come  up, into those places where they arc
designed to remain. The leaves of one ofthe species (viz.
the maritimum, which grows naturally on the sea-coasts
of England and Scotland) are sweetish, with a light ar-
omatic warmth and pungency.  The young flowering
shoots,  eaten  like  asparagus, are very  grateful  and
nourishing.
  ERYSIMUM, hedge-mustard; a genus ofthe siliquo-
sa order, in the tetradynaniia class of plants; and in the
natural method ranking under the 39th order, siliquosse.
The siliqua  is long,  linear, and exactly tetragonal; the
calyx close.  There are eight species;  of which the most
remarkable  is  the officinale,  hedge-mustard, or  bank-
cresses. It grows naturally in Britain under walls,  by
the sides of highways, and among rubbish.  It  is warm
and acrid  to the taste; and, when cultivated,  is used as a
vernal potherb. Birds are fond of the seeds; sheep and
goats eat the herb;  cows, horses, and swine, refuse it.
The seeds are said to promote expectoration, and excite
urine, but they  are scarcely ever employed in medicine
at present.
  ERYSIPELAS, in medicine, an eruption of a fiery or
acrid  humour, from which no part ofthe body is exempt-
ed, though it chiefly  attacks the  face.  See Medicine.
  ERYTHRINA, coral-tree; a genus of the decandria
order, in the diadelphia class of plants; and in the natu-
ral method  ranking under the 32d order,  papilionaceae.
The calyx is bilabiate, the one lip above, the other be-
low; the vexillum of  the corolla is very long, and lanceo-
latetl.  There are seven  species;  all of them  shrubby
flowering  exotics for  the stove, adorned chiefly  with
trifloliatc  or threc-lobed leaves, and scarlet spikes of pa-
pilionaceous flowers. They are all natives of the warm
parts of Africa and  America; and  most always be kept
in pests, wiiich are to remain constantly in stoves in this
country. They are propagated by  seeds, whieh are an-
nually imported hither from Africa and America. They
are to be  sown half an inch deep  in  pots of light  rich
earth, which are  then to be plunged in a moderate  hot-
bed; and when the plants  are two inches high,  they arc
to be separated into small  pots, plunged in the bark-bed,
giving them frequent waterings,  and as they increase in
growth shifting them into lerger pots. The inhabitants
of Malabar  make sheaths ..f the wood for swords and 
ESC
fc S C
 knives. They use the same, together  with the bark, in
 washing a sort of garments which they call sarassas; and
 make ofthe flowers the confection caryl. The leaves pul-
 verized,  and boiled with the mature cocoa-nut,  have
 been deemed useful in venereal complaints. The juice of
 the leaves, combined with any greasy matter, also cures
 the itch and some other eruptions.
   ERYTHRONTUM, dog's-tooth violet, a genus of the
 monogynia  order,  in the hexandria class of plants, and
 in the natural method ranking under the 11th order, sar-
 mentaceae. The corella is hexapetalous and campanulat-
 ed, with a nectarium of two turbercles adhering to the
 inner base of every other petal.  There is only one spe-
 cies:  which, however, admits of several varieties in its
 flowers, as white,  purple, pale red, dark red, crimson,
 and yellow.  The plants are low and herbaceous, with  a
 purple stalk and hexapetalous flowers.  All the varieties
 are hardy and  durable;  and may  be  planted in  small
 patches in borders, where they will make a good appear-
 ance. They  rarely  perfect their seeds in  this country,
 hut may be propagated by offsets. In Siberia, according
 to Gmelin, they dry and mix the root of this plant with
 their soups.  It grows there in  abundance, and is called
 by the people of the country bess.
   ERYTHROXYLON, a genus of the trigynia order,
 in the decandria class of plants;  and in the natural me-
 thod ranking with those  the order of which is doubtful.
 The calyx is turbinated;  the petals of the corolla  have
 each  a nectariferous cmarginated scale at the base; the
 stamina are connected at the base; the fruit is a bilocular
 plum. There are  five species, beautiful shrubs of the
 West Indies.
   ESCALADE, in war, a furious attack of a wall  or  a
 rampart; carried on with ladders, to pass the ditch or
 mount the rampart; without proceeding in form, break-
 ing ground, or carrying on regular works to secure the
 men.  "When the troops arc  prepared  to pass the ditch,
 cither with  the  assistance of boards, hurdles, and  fas-
 cines, when it  is muddy, or with small boats of tin, or
 baskets covered with skins or oilcloth, when it is  deep
 and filled with  water, a  party must be placed on the
 counterscarp, opposite to the landing-place, ready to fire
 on the garrison if they  are alarmed, and oppose the
 mounting on the rampart.  If the ditch is dry, the lad-
 ders arc fixed in some place farthest  distant from  the
 sentry;  and. as soon as they get  upon the rampart,  they
 put Ihejnsdvcs in order to receive the enemy: if the sen-
 try is surprised and silently overcome, the detachment
 hastens to break open the gate, and to let in the  rest of
 the party. If the ditch is wet, the rampart high, and pro-
 vided with  a revetement, it will  be difficult to surprise
 thp town  in this way; but if there is no revetement, the
 troops may  hide themselves along the outside of the ram-
 part till  all arc  over.  Since the  invention and  use of
 gunpowder,  and the walls of cities have  been flanked,
 they are seldom  taken by escalade.
   ESCALLONTA, a genus of  the monogynia order, in
 the pentandria class of plants. The fruit is bilocular and
polyspermous; the petals distant and tongue-shaped; the
stigma  headed.   There are two species, shrubs of the
West  Indies and South  America.
  ESCAPE, in law, is where one who is arrested gains
his liberty before he is delivered by course of law.
   Escapes are either in civil or  criminal cases; and in
both respects, escapes maybe distinguished into volunta-
ry and negligent: voluntary, where it is  with the con-
sent of the keeper; negligent where it is for want of duo
care in him.
   In civil cases, after the prisoner has been suffered vol-
untarily to escape, the sheriff can never after retake him
but must answer  for the debt; but the plaintiff may re-
take him at any time. In the case of a negligent escape,
the sheriff, upon fresh pursuit, may retake the prisoner
and the sheriff shall he excused if he has him again before
any action brought against himself for the escape.
   When a defendant is once in custody in execution, upon
a capias ad satisfaciendum, he is  to he kept in close and
safe custody; and  if he is afterwards seen at large, itis an
escape, and the  plaintiff may have an action thereupon
for his whole debt: for though upon arrests, and what is
called mesne process (being such as intervenes between
the commencement and  end of a suit), the sheriff, till the
statute  8 and 9 W. c. 27, might  have indulged the  de-
fendant as he pleased, so that he  produced him in  court
to answer the plaintiff at the return of the writ; yet, upon
a' taking in execution, he could never give any indulgence;
for in that case, confinement is the whole of the debtor's
punishment, and of the  satisfaction made to the creditor,
   A rescue of a prisoner in execution, either in going to
gaol,  or in gaol,  or a breach of prison, will not excuse
the sheriff from being guilty of and answering for the es-
cape; for he ought to  have sufficient force to keep him,
since he may command the power of the county. 3 Black.
415 and 6.
   In criminal cases, an  escape of a person arrested, by
eluding the  vigilance of his keeper  before he is put in
hold, is an offence against public justice,  and the  party
himself is  punishable by fine and imprisonment; but the
officer permitting such  escape,  either by  negligence or
connivance, is much more culpable than the prisoner, who
has the natural desire of liberty  to plead  in  his behalf.
Officers therefore, who after arrest negligently permit a
felon to escape, are also punishable by fine; but volunta-
ry escapes amount to the same kind of offence, and are
punishable in the same degree,  as the offence of which
the prisoner is guilty,  and for which he is in custody,
whether treason, felony, or trespass;  and this whether he
was actually committed to gaol,  or only under a bare
arrest.  But the officer  cannot be thus punished, till  the
original delinquent is actually found guilty or convicted
by verdict, confession,  or outlawry;  otherwise, it might
happen  that the officer should be punished  for  treason or
felony, and the party escaping turn out to be an innocent
man.   But before the conviction  of the principal party,
the officer thus neglecting his duty may be. fined and  im-
prisoned for a misdemeanor. 4  Black. 129.
   If any  person shall convey or  cause to be conveyed
into any gaol, any disguise, instrument, or arms, proper
to facilitate the escapeof prisoners, attainted or convict-
ed of treason, or felony,  although no escape or attempt to
escape he  made; such person so offending, and convicted,
shall be deemed guilty of felony,  and  be transported for
seven years.  16  Geo. 11. c. 31.
   Escape-warrant, a process which issues out against
a person, committed in the king's  bench or Fleet prisons, 
ESC
E S O
that, without being duly discharged, takes upon him to
go atlarg''.
  Upon this warrant, which is obtained on oath, a per-
son may b" apprehended on a Sundav.
  ESCHALOT.   See Allium.
  ESCHAR, in surgery, the crust or scab occasioned by
burns or caustic medicines.  See  Surgery.
  ESCHAROTICS, in pharmacy, medicines which pro-
duce eschars.   See Eschar.
  ESCHEAT, in our law, denotes an obstruction of the
course of descent, and a consequent determination ofthe
tenure by some  unforeseen contingency;  in which case,
the land naturally results back, by a kind of reversion,
to tbe original grantor, or  lord ofthe fee. 2 Black. 244.
  Escheat happens either  for want of heirs of the per-
son last seized, or by  his attainder for a crime hy  him
committed; in  which latter  ease, the  blood  is tainted,
staiin'd, or corrupted,  and the  inheritable quality of it
is thereby exiinguislnd.
  For want of heirs, is where the tenant dies without  any
relations on the part of any of  his ancestors, or where
he dies without any relations of those ancestors, paternal
or maternal, from whom his estate descended, or where
he dies without any relations of the whole blood.  Bas-
tards are also incapable of inheritance; and therefore if
there is no other claimant than such illegitimate children,
the land shall escheat to the  lord; and, as bastards can-
not be heirs themselves, so neither can they have  any
heirs but those  of their own  bodies: and therefore  if a
bastard purchases land, and dies seized thereof without
issue and intestate, the land shall escheat to the lord of
the fee.  Aliens also, that is,  persons born  out of the
king's allegiance, are  incapable of taking by  descent;
and unless  naturalized, are also incapable of taking hy
purchase; and  therefore, if there  are  no natural-born
subjects to claim, such lands shall in liko manner csdr at.
   By attainder for treason or cither felony, the  blood of
the person  attainted is corrupted  and  stained,  and the
original donation of the feud  is thereby  determined, it
being always granted to the  vassal on the implied con-
dition of his well demeaning himself.   In consequence of
wiiich corruption and extinction of hereditary blood, the
laud <if all (elms  would immediatdy revert to the lord,
but that the superior law of forfeiture intervenes, and in-
 tercepts it in his passage; in case of treason, for ever: in
 case of other felony,  for only a year and a  day: after
which time it goes to the lord, in a regular course of es-
cheat. 2 Black, c. 15.
   KSCIIEATOR, was an ancient officer, so called be-
cause liis otfiec was properly  to look to escheats,  ward-
ships, and other casualties  belonging to the crown. This
office had its chief dependance  on  the courts of wards,
but is now out of date.   Co.  Lit. 13 b.   4 Inst. 2-25.
   ESCHRAlvlii iS. a sect of Mahometans, who bclnwe
that man's sovereign  good consists in the contemplation
of God.  Ihey avid all manner of vice, and  app ar al-
*!i.vsin good humour, despising the sensual paradise of
Mahomet. The most able preachers in the royal mosques
*>■»' of this sect.
   KSCLATTE', in heraldry, signifies a thing forcibly
broken, or rather a shield that has been broken ami shat-
tered with the stroke ofa  battb  -ax.
  ESC HOW,  among  lawyers, a deed  delivered to a
  TOL. *.                  122
third person, to be the deed of the party making it upon
a future condition; that when a certain thing is perform-
ed, it shall be delivered  to the  party  to  whom it was
made,  to take effect as the deed of the person first  de-
livering it.
  ESCUAGE, in our old customs, a kind of knights-
service, called service ofthe shield, by which the tenant
was bound to follow his lord  to the wars  at his own
charge.  It is also used for a sum of money paid to  the
lord in lieu of such servi e; or even for a reasonable aid,
levied by the lord on his tenants who held by the knighl's-
service.
  ESCULUS,  the horse-chesnut. See iEscuLUs.
  ESC U RIAL, a palace ofthe king of Spain, twenty-
one miles north-west of Madrid; being oneof the largest
and most beautiful in the world.  It has eleven thouse.nd
windows, fourteen thousand doors,  one thousand  eight
hundred  pillars,,  seventeen cloisters or  piazzas, and
twenty-two courts; with every convenience and ornament
that can render a place agreeable in so hot a climate, as
an extensive park, groves, fountains, cascades, grottos,
kc  It is whimsically constructed in the form ofa grid-
iron, being dedicated to St. Laurence in commemoration
of a victory, gained  on  the anniversary of th&l laint
(who is said to  have been broiled to death on a griertron)
in 1557.  The apartment  which the royal family inhabits
is the handle ofthe  instrument. The rest ofthe building
contains offices, a church, a convent (in which are 200
monks), and a library containing 30,000 volumes.
  ESCUTCHEON, in heraldry, is derived  from  the
French eseusson, and that from the  Latin  scutum, and
signifies the  shield  whereon coats of arms are repre-
sented,                                            j
  Escutcheon of pretence, that on which a man carries
his  wife's  coat of arms;  being an heiress, and having
issue by her.  It  is placed over the coat of the husband,
who thereby shows  forth his pretensions to her lands.
  ESNECY, in law, a private prerogative allowed to
the eldest coparcener, where  an  estate  is descended to
daughters for want of an heir male, to choose first, after
the estate of inheritance is divided.  It has  been also"
extended to the eldest son and  his  issue, holding first,
this right being jus primogeniture.
  ESOX,  [like, a genus of fishes of the  order abdomi-
nales.  Tbe generic character is, head  somewhat flat-
tened above, mouth wide: teeth sharp, in the jaws, palate,
and  tongue;  body lengthened; dot sal and anal fin (in
most species) placed near the tail, and  opposite each
other.   There are nine species, of which the most re-
markable are:
   1. Esox  lucius,  or common  pike.  To the general
history of this fish perhaps 1 (tic  can  be  added to whet
Mr. Pennant has already  detailed in the third volume  f
the British Zoology.   It is, says that agreeable writer,
a native of most ofthe lakes and smaller rivers  in Eu-
rope, hut  the la-gest  are  fio-e  of Lapland,  which aee
sometimes  eight feet  in length:  tsey  are tat en liier  in
great abumh.me, dried,  and exported for sale.   The
largest specimen  of English growth  is slid hv  Mr. Pen-
nant to have weighed thirty-five  pounds.   The head of
tbe pike is very flat: the tipper jaw broad, and short-
than the lower, which  turns up a little at the end.
is  marked with minute  punctures:  the teeth a- 
ESOX.
sharp, disposed only in front of the upper jaw,  but in
both sides of the  lower,  as  well as in the roof of the
mouth, and often on the tongue: the number,  according
to Bloch, is not less than seven  hundred, without reck-
oning the farthest of all, or those nearest the throat: it is
also to be observed that those which are situated  on the
jaws are alternately fixed and moveable; the gape is very
wide, and the eyes small: the dorsal  fin is  placed  very
low on the back, and  consists  of twenty-one rays; the
pectoral  of fifteen; the ventral of eleven,  and the  anal of
eighteen; the tail is slightly forked, or rather lunated.
The usual colour of this fish is a pale olive-grey,  deepest
on the back, and marked on the sides by several yellow-
ish spots or patches: the abdomen is white, slightly spot-
ted with  black.  When in its highest perfection however
the colours arc frequently more brilliant; the sides being
of a bright olive with yellow spots, the back dark green,
and the  belly silvery.  Dr. Bloch assures us  that in
Holland  the pike is sometimes found of an orange-colour,
marked  with  black spots: the scales are  rather small,
hard, and of an oblong shape.
   The voracity of the pike is commemorated by  all ich-
thyologieal  authors.   Mr.  Pennant observes that he
himself iias known a pike that w-as choaked in attempting
to swar/low one of its own species which proved too large
a morsel.  It will also  devour  water-rats, and young
ducks which happen to be swimming near it.  In a man-
uscript note to a copy of Plott's History of Staffordshire,
the following highly singular anecdote is recorded. " At
lord Gower's canal at Trentham, a pike seized the head
of a swan as she was feeding under water, and  gorged
so much of it as killed them both: the servants, perceiv-
ing the swan  with its head  under water  for a longer
time than usual, took a boat and found  both swan and
pike  dead."
   But there are instances, says Mr. Pennant* still  more
surprising, and  which indeed border a little on the  mar-
vellous.   Gesner  relates that a famished  pike in the
Rhone, seized on the lips of  a mule that was brought to
water, and that the beast drew the fish out before it could
disengage itself: he adds that people have been bitten by
these voracious animals while they were washing  their
legs,  and that they will even contend with the otter for
its prey, and endeavour to force it out of its mouth.
   The smaller kind of fishes are said to show the same
uneasiness and detestation at the presence of a pike as
the smaller birds do at the sight of a hawTk or an  owl,
and when the pike, as is often the case, lies dormant near
the surface of the water, are observed to swim round in
vast  numbers, and in the greatest anxiety.   In the
ditches near the Thames pike  are often  haltered  in  a
noose, and taken while they lie thus asleep, as they are
frequently found in the month of May.
   The longevity of the pike is  very  remarkable; if, as
Mr.  Pennant observes, we may credit  the accounts
given by authors.   Rzaczynski in his Natural History
of Poland tells us of one that was ninety years old; but
Gesner relates that in the year 1497, a pike was taken
near Haliburn, in  Suabia, with a brazen rthg affixed to
it, on which were these words in  Greek characters "I
am the fish which was first of all put into this lake by
the hands of the governor of the  universe Frederic the
Second, the fifth of October 1230;"  so  that,  adds  Mr.
Pennant, the former must have  been an infant  to this
Methusalein of a fish.
  The pike spawns in March and April,  according  to
the warmth or coldness of the season; depositing its ova
among the weeds,  kc. near the water's edge:  tlie voung
are said to be of very quick growth: indeed Bloch con-
siders it as the quickest grower of all the European fishes
whose progress he has had an opportunity of observing.
The first year, according to this author, it arrives at the
length of from six to ten inches; the second to twelve or
fourteen; and the third to eighteen or twenty.  The sto-
mach of the pike is strong and  muscular, and of very
considerable length:  it is  also  furnished with several
large and red pleats: in the intestinal  canal  have been
observed several kinds of worms and particularly taenia,
of which no fewer than a hundred have been seen in a sin-
gle fish.
   2. Esox sphyrsena, or sea-pike.  This species in its
general habit or appearance is considerably allied to tbe
common pike, but is of a silvery blueish  colour,  dusky
on the back, and slightly tinged with yellow on the head
and about the gills: the first dorsal fin  is situated on the
middle of the hack, and ia furnished with only four rays,
which are all strong or spiny:  the second, which is placed
opposite  tho  anal fin, consists of about ten rays, of
which the first only  is spiny: both these dorsal fins, to-
gether with the tail, which is deeply forked, are  of  a
dusky tinge; the pectoral, ventral,  and anal, are  of  a
pale red: the eyes are moderately large:  the  lower jaw
longer than the upper; the scales middle-sized, and the
lateral line nearly straight.  This fish is an  inhabitant
of the  Mediterranean and Atlantic seas, growing to the
length  of  about two feet.  It is said to be in consider-
able esteem  for the  table,  the flesh resembling that of
the cod-fish.
   3. Esox barracuda, or barracuda pike, has the habit
of the common pike,  but is of a longer form, and more
slender or taper in proportion towards the tail: size v ery
great, some having been seen of ten feet in length; but
the more common  size is from six to eight feet.   This
is said to be an extremely strong, fierce, and dangerous
fish, swimming with great rapidity, and preying on most
others: it is even said sometimes to attack and destroy
bathers, in the same manner as the shark.  It is found
in great plenty in the tropical seas,  and is frequent
about the AVest Indian islands.  It is in  no  estimation
as a food, the flesh being rank; and even sometimes, ac-
cording to common report, highly noxious, occasioning
all the symptoms of the most fatal poisons; yet, in spite
of these bad qualities, we are assured  that the hungry
Bahamians frequently make their repast "on its un-
wholosome carcase."
  4. Esox vulpes, or the fox pike.   Its general  length
is about sixteen inches: habit somewhat similar to that
of a common pike, but remarkably slender or taper to-
wards the tail, which is very deeply and widely forked;
mouth of moderate width: jaws  equal, and with a single
row of sharp teeth  in each: dorsal fin situated in the mid-
dle of|the back: scales rather large, thin, and rounded: co-
lour of the whole fish brown, paler or lighter beneath:
native of Carolina  and the West  Indian islands.
   5. Esox malabaricus or Malabar pike, is in length
about twelve inches; habit distantly allied to that of the 
ESQ
EST
common pike, but with the tail rounded, and the dorsal
fin placed on  the middle  of the back: colour yellowish;
dusky on the back; lower jaw longer than the upper; eyes
rather large;  scales large, and very distinct;  the lateral
line bending a little downwards at its origin from the gill-
covers, and then running straight to the tail; all the fins,
together with the tail, of a very pale transparent brown,
barred by several rows of deep-brown spots.  Native of
Malabar, inhabiting rivers and rivulets, am!- in conside-
rable esteem for the table.
  6. Esox bellone, gar fish, or sea-needle, is well known
by its protracted snout, and the bones, which are green
when boded.
  ESPALIERS, in gardening, are rows of trees planted
about a whole garden or plantation,  or in hedges, so as
to inclose quarters or separate parts of a garden; and are
trained up regularly to a lattice of wood-work in a close
hedge, for the defence of tender plants against the injuries
of wind and weather.
  ESPLANADE, in fortification, the sloping of the pa-
rapet of the covered way towards the campaign. It is the
same with glacis, and is more properly the empty space
betwixt a citadel and the houses ofa town, commonly cal-
led a place of arms.  See Fortification.
  ESPLEES, in law, the general products which lands
yield, or the profit or commodity that is to be taken or
made of a thing; as of a common, the taking of grass by
the mouths of the  beasts that common  tliere; of an ad-
vowson, taking of tythes by the parson;  of wood, the sel-
ling of wood; of an orchard,  selling the fruit growing
there; of a mill, the taking of toll, kc.
  These and such-like issues  are termed esplces.  In a
writ of right of land, advowson, kc. the  demandant must
allege in his count,  that he or  his ancestors took the es-
plees of the thing demanded,  otherwise the pleading is
not good.
  ESPOUSALS, in law, signifies a contract or promise
made between a man and a woman, to marry each other;
and in cases where  marriage  may be consummated, es-
pousals go bfcfore.   Marriage  is  termed an espousal de
prwsenti.
  • ESQUIRE, armiger,  was  anciently the person  that
attended a  knight in time of war, and carried his shield.
  This title has not, for a long time, had any relation to
the office of the person, as to carry arms, &c.  In England
those to whom the title of  esquire is now  of right due, are
all noblemen's younger sons, and the eldest sons of such
younger sons; the eldest sons of knights, and their eldest
8ons; the officers of the king's courts, and of his house-
hold; counccllors at  law, justices of the peace, kc *when
in the commission;  but a sheriff of a county, wiio is a
superior officer, retains the title of esquire  during life,
in consequence of the  trust once reposed in him: the
heads of some ancient families are said to be esquires by
prescription;  and by custom, or by way  of compliment,
this title is given to every gentleman  who lives on his
private fortune, and to rich  merchants:  it is even as-
sumed by almost every tradesman who can drive his gig,
or who takes upon  him to live in  two  houses, though he
should be unable to  pay the expenses of one.
  EsquiRi:s ofthe king, are such as  have that title by
creation,  wherein there  is some  formality used, as the
putting about their necks a collar of  SS, and bestowing
on them a pair of silver spurs, kc.
  Tliere are four esquires ofthe body to attend the king's
person.
  If an esquire be arraigned for high treason, he  ought
to be tried by a jury each whereof have 40s. of freehold,
and 1001. in goods;  and a knight has no other privilege.
The heir apparent of an esquire  is privileged  to  keep
greyhounds, setting-dogs, or nets  to take partridges and
pheasants,  though  he  cannot  dispend. 101.  of estate of
inheritance, or the value of 501. of estate for life.
  ESSENCE, in philosophy, that which constitutes the
particular nature of each genus or kind, and distinguish-
es it from all others; being nothing but that abstract idea
to which the name  is affixed, so that every  thing con-
tained in it is essential to that particular kind.
  ESSEXDO  quiETUM de toloxio,  in  law, a writ
which lies for citizens, burgesses, &c. who by charter or
prescription ought to be free from toll, in case the same
is exacted of them.
  ESSENES, or essenians, in Jewish antiquity,  one of
the three sects  among that people,  who  exceeded the
Pharisees in their most rigorous observances.  They al-
lowed a future state, but denied a resurrection from the
dead.   Their way  of life was very singular:  they did
not marry, but adopted the children of others, whom they
bred up in  the  institutions  of their sect: they  despised
riches,  and had all things in common; and never chang-
ed their cloaths till  they were entirely worn out.  When
initiated, they were  strictly bound  not to communicate
the mysteries of their sect to others; and if any ot their
members  were found  guilty  of enormous  crimes, they
were expelled.
  ESSOIN, in law, an excuse for  a person summoned
to appear and answer  to an action, on account of sick-
ness or other just cause of bis  absence.
  It is  a kind  of imparlance  or craving of longer time,
and obtains in real, personal, and mixed actions.
  There are divers essoins:  as de ultra  mare, when the
defendant is beyond sea, whereby he is  allowed forty
days; in an expedition to the Holy Land, a year and  a
day; infirmity, called common essoin, when he is  sick in
bed; and lastly, in the  king's service.
  Essoin-day, is regularly the first day in every term,
though the fourth day after is also allowed by way of in-
dulgence.
  Essoix de malo vill^e, is where the defendant ap-
pears in court, but  before pleading, falls sick in a certain
village: this is also allowed, if found true.
  ESTATE,  in lawT, signifies such inheritance, freehold,
term  for years, tenantcy by statute-merchant, staple, ele-
git, or  the like, as any man has in lands and  tenements.
Estates are real, of lands, tenements, &c. or personal, of
goods or chattels; otherwise distinguished into freeholds
that descend to the heir, and chattels  which  go to the ex-
ecutors.  Co.  Lit. 315.
  Of estate in fee-simple. An estate in fee-simple, is an
estate, lands, tenements, lordships, advowsons, commons,
estovers, and  all hereditaments, to  a man and  his heirs
for ever: also, where a corporation sole or aggregate are
capable of holding in succession,  and lands are given to
them  and their successors,  they  are said to  have a fee-
simple. 2 Ba<:. Abr. 249.
  Of estate in tail.  An estate  is said to be intailed, when
it is ascertained what issue shall inherit it. 
E S T
ETC
  What things may be intailcd, by the statute of intaiK
The statute makes  use of the word tcneinentum, and
therefore the estate to be intailcd, may be as well incor-
porated as corporeal inheritances, because the word te-
nementum comprehends the one as well as the other, and
consequently, not only lands  may  be intailcd. but all
rents, commons,  estovers,  or other  profits arising from
lands.   Co. Lit. 19, b. 20, a.
  What words create an estate tail. When the notion
of succession prevailed, it was necessary in feudal dona-
tions to use the word heirs, to distinguish  such descen-
dible feud from that which was granted only for life; but
as to the  word  body, it was necessary to make  use of
that in  the donation,  but it might be expressed by any
equivalent words,  and therefore a gift to a man and
hseredibus de  se, or de came quo sibi contigerit habere,
or procreavit, is a good estate tail; for these sufficiently
circumscribe the word heirs,  to  the descendants of tlie
feudatory: and the  reason of the difference is,  because
inheritances are only derived from the law, and the law
requires the word heirs, that comprehends the whole no-
tion of such legal representation; but the limiting the in-
heritance  ofthe de eendants of this or the other body, is
only the particular intention of the person that forms the
gift, and the refore the law leaves every  man to express
himself in such manner as may manifest that intention.
2 Bac. Abr. 259.
   Of tenant in tail charging his estate.  The statute de
donis, affecting a perpetuity, restrained the donee in tail,
either from alienating or charging his estate tail; and by
that act the tenant in tail was likewise to leave the land
to his heirs as he received it from  the donor; and upon
that statute the heir in tail might have avoided any alie-
nation or incumbrance of his  ancestors;  and as the law
stood upon that act, so might be in  reversion, when the
heirs of the donee failed, which  were inheritable to the
gift.  The crown long struggled to break tlirough the
perpetuity which was established by this law-; and in the
reign of Ed. IV. we find the pretended recompence giv-
en against the vouchee in the common recovery to be al-
lowed as equivalent for the' estate tail;  and because the
recompence was to go in succession as the land in tail
should have done, therefore they allowed the recovery to
bar the reversion as well as the issue in tail, because he
in the reversion was to have  the recompence in failure
of issue of the donee, 2 Bac.  Abr.  265.  See Recove-
ry.
  ESTOILEE', or cross  estoilee',  in heraldry, a star
with only four long  rays in form of a cross; and, accord-
ingly, broad in the  centre,  and terminating  in  sharp
points.
  ESTOPPEL, in law,  an impediment or bar to an ac-
tion, which arises from a person's  own act;  or rather,
where he is forbidden by law to speak against his deed,
which he may not do, even to plead the truth.  Thus
where a person is bound  in a bond by such a name, and
is afterwards sued by the same name on the obligation,
he shall not be allowed to say  he is misnamed, but shall
answer  according  to the  bond, though it  be wrong.
Hence the parties in all deeds are estopped from saying
any thing against them.   However, a plaintiff is  not
estopped from saying any thing against what he had said
in his writ or declaration;  and though  parties  may  be
estopped, yd juries are not so, who may find things out
of the record.
   ESTOVERS, in law. is a liberty of taking necessarv
wood /or the use or furniture of a house or farm.  Anil
this  any tenant may take  from off the land let or demised
to him,  without waiting for any  leave, assignment, or
appointment of the  lessor,  unless he  is restrained by
special covenant to the  contrary.  2 Black. 33.
   ESTRAYS and waifs, in  law,  Estrays arc where
any  horses, sheep, hogs, beasts, or swans, or any beast
that  is not  wild, come into a lordship, and are not owned
by any  man.  Kitch. 23.  The reason  of estray  is, be-
cause when no person can  make title to the thing the lavv
gives it to  the king, if the owner does not claim it within
a year and a day.
   Waifs are goods which are  stolen, and waved  or left
hy the felon, on his being  pursued, for fear of being ap-
prehended, and forfeited to the  king or lord of the manor:
and  thoiign waifs are generally spoken of things stolen,
yet if a  man is pursued with hue and cry as a felon, and
be flies  and leaves his own goods, tliese will  be forfeited
as goods stolen;  but they are properly the fugitive's
goods, and not forfeited till it is found before the coroner,
or otherwise of record, that  he  fled for the felony. 2
Haw. 450.
   Waifs and strays  were  anciently the property of the
finders by  the law of nature, and afterwards the property
of the king by the law  of nations.   Dalt.  Slier. 79.
Waits en i  streys not claimed  within the year and day
are the  lord's.  For whero the lord has a beast a year
and  a dayr, and it  has been cried in the church and mar-
kets, the property is changed.  Kitch.  80.  But it must
be a year and a day from  the  time of proclamation, and
not from the time of seizure;  for it does not become an
estray till after the first proclamation.  11 Mod. 89.
   ESTREAT, is  a true copy  or note  of some original
writing  on  record, and  especially ef fines  and amerce-
ments imposed in the rolls of a court, and extracted or
drawn out  thence, and certified into the court of exche-
quer: whereupon process is awarded to the sheriff to le-
vy the same.
   ESTREPEMENT, or  EsTHEPAMENT,the spoil made
by a tencnt for life, upon any lands or woods, to the pre-
judice ofthe reversioner.
   Estrepement also signifies a writ which lies in two ca-
ses;  the one is when the person having an action depend-  0
ing (as  a fonnedon, or dum fuit infra setatem, or writ of
right, or any other), wherein  the demandant is not to
recover damages,  sues to  inhibit the tenant from making
waste during the  suit.  The other is for the demandant
that is adjudged to recover seisin of the land  in question,
and  before execution sued by the writ habere facias seis-
inam, for fear of waste to  be made before be  can get pos-
session:  he then sues out of this writ.
   ETCHING, is a manner of engraving on copper, in
wiiich the line or strokes,  instead of being cutwitha tool
or graver, are corroded in with aquafortis.
   Itis a much later invention  than the art of engraving
by cutting  the lines on the copper, and  has many advan-
tages overitf »r some purposes; though it cannot super-
cede the use of the graver entirely, as there are many
things that cannot he etched so  well as they can be graved.
   In almost all the engravings on copper that are execu- 
ETCHING.
ted in the stroke manner, etching and graving are com-
bined, the plate being generally begun by etching,  and
finished with the graver.  Landscapes, architecture, and
machinery, are the subjects that receive most assistance
from the art of etching; for it is not so  applicable to por-
traits and historical designs.
  We shall first  describe  the  various instruments  and
materials used in the art.
  Copper-plates may be had ready prepared at the cop-
persmiths by those who reside in large towns; but when
this cannot be had, procure a piece of pretty thick sheet-
copper from a  brazier, rather larger than your drawing,
and let him planish it well;  then take a piece of pumice-
stone, and with water rub it all one  way, till the surface
is as smooth and level as it can be made by that  means:
a piece of charcoal is next used with w iter for polishing
it still farther, and removing the  deep  scratches made by
 the pumice-stone; and it is  then finished with a piece of
charcoal of a finer grain, with a little  oil.
  Etching-points  or needles are  pointed instruments of
 steel, about an inch long, fixed in handles of hard wood,
 about six indies in length, and of the size of a goose-quill.
 They should be well tempered, and very accurately fixed
 in the centre ofthe handle. They must be brought to an
 accurately  conical point, by rubbing  upon an oil-stone,
 with which it is also very necessary to be provided. Se-
 veral of these points will be necessary.
  A paralhi-ruler  is  necessary for drawing parallel
 straight lines.  This is best when faced with brass,  as it
  is not then so liable to be bruised by accident.
  Compasses are  useful for striking circles and measur-
 ing  distances.
  Aquafortis, or,  what is better, spirit of nitre (nitrous
 acid), is used for  corroding the copper, or biting in, as
 it is called. This must  be kept in a bottle with  a glass
 stopple, for its fumes destroy corks.   A stopple made of
 wax will  serve as a  substitute, or a cork well covered
 with wax.
  Bordering-wax,  for surrounding the  margin   of the
 copper-plate when the  aquafortis is pouring on.   This
 may be bought ready prepared,  but it may be made as
 follows:
  Take one-third of  bee's-wax  to  two-thirds of pitch;
 melt them in an iron ladle, and pour them, when melted,
 into water luke-warm; then mould it with your hand till
 it is thoroughly incorporated, and all the water squeezed
 out. Form it  into rolls of convenient size.
  Turpentine-varnish  is  used for covering the copper-
 plate with, in any part where you do not wish the aqua-
 fortis to bite.  This may be diluted to a proper consistence
 with turpentine, and mixed with lamp-black that  it may
 be seen better when laid upon the plate.
  Etching-ground is used  for covering the plate all over,
 previous to drawing the lines on it  with  the needles. It
 is prepared in the following manner:
  Take of virgin-wax and  asphaltum, each twenty oun-
 ""S  of black-pitch and Burgundy-pitch, each  half an
 ounce;  melt the wax  and   pitch   in a new earthenware
glazed pipkin, and add to  tbein,  by degrees, the asphal-
tum, finely powdered.  Let  the whole  boil till such time
as by taking a drop upon a plate, it will break when it
»s cold, on bending it double two  or three times between
th©  fingers.  The varnish being then  enough  boiled,
must be taken off from the fire, and letting it cool a litfle,
must be poured  into warm water, that it may work the
more easily with the hands, so as to form into balls for
use.
  It must be observed, first, that the fire be not too violent,
for fear of burning the ingredients;  a slight simmering
will be sufficient.  Secondly, that while the asphaltum is
putting in,  and  even after it  is mixed with  them, the
ingredients should he stirred continually with a spatula;
and, thirdly, that the water into which this composition
is thrown, should be nearly of the same degree ol warmth
with it, to prevent a kind  of cracking, which  happens
when the water is too cold.
  The varnish ought always to be harder in summer than
winter, and it will become so if it is  suffered to boil lon-
ger, or if a greater proportion of the asphaltum is used.
The experiment above-mentioned, of the drop suffered
to cool, will determine the degree of hardness or soft-
ness that may be suitable to the season when it is used.
  To lay the ground for etching,  proceed in the follow-
ing manner. Having cleaned the copper-plate with some
fine whiting and a linen rag,  to free it from all grease,
fix a hand-vice to some part of it where  no work is in-
tended to be, to serve  as  a handle for managing it by
when  warm.  Roll up some coarse brown paper, and
light one end; then hold the back of the plate over the
burning paper, moving it  about until every part of it is
equally heated, so  as to melt the etching-ground, wiiich
should be wrapped up in a bit of taffety, to prevent any
dirt that may happen to be among it from mixing with
what is melted upon the plate.  If the plate is large', it
will be best to heat it over a chafing-dish with scone clear
coals.  It must be heated justsufficient to melt the ground,
but not so much  as to burn it.   When a sufficient ejuan-
tity of the  ctching-gound has  been rubbed upon the
plate,  it must he dabbed,  or beaten gently, while the
plate is hot,  with a small dabber made of cotton wrapped
up in  a piece of taffety, by which operation the ground
is distributed more equally over the plate than it could be
by any other means.
   When the plate is thus uniformly and thinly covered
with the varnish, it must  be  blackened hy smoking it
with a wax-taper.   For this purpose twist together three
or four pieces of wax-taper, to make a larger flame, and
while the plato is still warm, hold it with the varnished
side downwards, and move the smoky part of the lighted
taper over its surface, till it is made almost quite black;
taking  care not to let the  wick touch the varnish, and
that the latter get no smear or stain. In laying the etch-
ing-ground, great  care must be taken that no particles
of dust or dirt of any kind settle upon it, as that would
be found very troublesome in etching: the room there-
fore in which it is laid should be as still as possible, and
free from dust.
  The ground being now laid, and suffered to cool, the
next operation is to transfer the design to the plate.
  For this purpose a tracing on oiled paper in us I now he
made,  from the  design to  be etched, with pen and ink,
having a very small quantity of ox's gall mixed with it,
to make the oiled paper take it;  al-.o a piece of thin pa-
per, of the  same  size, must be rubbed over  with  red
chalk,  powdered,  by un-ans of some cotton.  Then lay-
ing tlie red-chalked paper, with its chalked side next 
ETCHING.
the ground, on  the  plate, put the tracing over it, and
fasten them both together, and to the plate, by a little bit
of the bordering-wax.
  When all this is prepared, take a blunt etching-needle,
and go gently all over the lines in the tracing; by which
means  the chalked  paper will be pressed against the
ground, and the lines of  the tracing will be transferred
to the ground: on taking off the papers they will be seen
distinctly.
  The plate is  now prepared  for drawing  through the
lines which have been marked upon the ground.  For
this the etching-points or needles are employed, leaning
hard or lightly, according to the degree of  strength re-
quired in the lines.   Points of different sizes and forms
are also used for making lines  of  different thickness,
though commonly this is effected by the biting in with
the aquafortis.
   A margin or border of wax must now be formed all
round  the plate, to  hold the aquafortis when it is pour-
ed on. To do this, the bordering-wax already described
must be put into lukewarm water to soften it,  and ren-
der it easily worked by the hand.  When sufficiently
pliable  it  must be  drawn  out into long rolls, and put
round the edges of the plate, pressing it down firm, and
forming it with the fingers into a neat wall or margin.
A spout must be  formed in one corner, to pour off the
aquafortis afterwards.
   The nitrous acid (spirit of nitre) is now  to be diluted
with four or five times as much water, or more (accor-
ding as you wish  the plate to  be bitten  quick  or slow),
and poured upon the plate.  In a few minutes you will
see minute bubbles  of air filling all the lines that have
been drawn on the copper, which are to be removed by a
feather; and the plate must be now and then swept, as it
is called,  or kept free from air-bubbles.  By the more
or less rapid production  of these bubbles,  you judge of
the rapidity with  which the  acids acts upon the copper.
The biting in of the plate is the most uncertain part of
the process, and nothing but very great experience can
enable any one to tell wiien the plate is bitten enough,
 as you cannot easily see the thickness  and depth of the
line till the ground  is taken  off.
   When you judge from the time the acid has been on,
 and the rapidity of the biting, that those lines Avhich you
wish to be the faintest  are as deep as you wish, you
pour off the acquafortis by the spout, wash  the plate
with water, and dry it,  by blowing with bellows,  or by
the fire, taking care not to melt the ground.
   Those lines  that  are  not intended to be bitten any
deeper, must now be stopped up with turpentine-varnish
mixed with a little lamp-black, and laid on with a cam-
el's hair pencil; and when  this is  thoroughly dry the
aquafortis may be  poured  on again, to bite  the  other
lines that are required to be deeper.
   This process of stopping out and biting in is to be re-
peated  as  often as there  are to be lines of  different  de-
grees of thickness,  taking care not to make any mistake
in stopping out wrong lines.
   It is  also necessary to be particularly careful to stop
out with the varnish those parts from which the ground
may happen to have come off  by the action of the acid,
otherwise yon will have parts bitten that were not intend-
ed, which is called  foul-biting.
  When the biting in is quite finished, the next opera-
tion is to remove the bordering-wax and the ground, in
order that you may see what success you have had- ful-
fill then this cannot be known exactly.
  To take off the bordering-wax the plate must be heat-
ed by  a piece of lighted  paper, whieh softens the wax
in contact with  the plate,  and occasions  it to come off
quite  clean.
  Oil  of  turpentine is now poured upon the ground,
and the plate is  rubbed  with a bit  of  linen rag,'"  which
removes all  the ground.   Lastly, it is cleaned' off with
whiting.
  The success of the etching may now be known, but it
is necessary to get an impression taken upon  paper
by a copper-plate printer. This impression is called a
proof.
  If any parts are not bitten so deep as were intended,
the process  may be repeated; provided the lines are not
too faintly bitten to admit of it.  This second biting-in
in the same lines is called re-biting, and is done as fol-
lows: Melt a little of the etching-ground on a spare piece
of copper, and dab it a  little, to get some on the dabbcr;
then having cleaned out with  whiting the lines that are
to be rebitten,. beat the plate gently,  and dab it very
lightly with.the dabber.  By this the parts between the
lines will be covered with the ground; but the lines them-
selves will not be filled  up,  and consequently will  be ex-
posed  to the action of  acquafortis.   This is a very deli-
cate process,  and must be performed  with great care.
The rest of the plate  must now be varnished  over, the
bordering-wax put on again, and thd biting repeated in
the same manner as at first.
  If any part should  be bitten to deep, it is more diffi-
cult to recover it, or make it fainter:  this is  generally
done by burnishing the part down, or rubbing if with a
piece of charcoal.  This will make the lines  shallower,
and cause them not to print so black.
   Should any small parts of the lines have missed alto-
gether in the biting, they may be cut.with the graver;
which is also sometimes employed  to  cross the lines of
the etching, and thus  to  work up a more finished ef-
fect.
   Dry-pointing, as it  is called, is another method em-
ployed for softening the harsh effects usually apparent in
an  etching.  This is done by  cutting  with the etching-
point upon  the copper without any ground or varnish.
This does not make  a very  deep  line, and  is used un-
covering  the  light, where very delicate tints and soft
shadows are wanting.   By varying these processes of
etching, graving, and  dry-pointing, as is thought ne-
cessary, the plate is worked up to the full effect intended;
 and it is then  sent to the writing-engraver, to grave
whatever letters may be required to be put upon it.
   Etching on glass.—Glass resists the action of all the
 acids,  except the fluoric acid.   By this, however,  it is
 corroded in the same manner as copper is by aquafortis;
 and plates  of glass may be engraven in the same man-
 ner as copper.                               #
   There are several methods  of performing this.  We
 shall first describe the  mode of etching by means of the
 fluoric acid in the  state of gas.   Having covered over
 the glass to be etched with a thin coat of virgin-wax
 (which is only common bee's-wax bleached white), draw 
ETHICb,
thii design upon it in the same manner as in etching on
copper.  Then take some fluor spar, commonly  called
Derbyshire spar, pound it fine, and put it into a leaden
vessel,  pouring some sulphuric acid over if.   Place the
glass with  the etched side  lowermost over this vessel,
two or three indies above it. Apply a gentle heat to the
leaden  vessel;  this will  cause  the acid  to act upon the
fluor spar,  and  disengage the gas, which will corrode
the glass.  When it is sufficiently corroded, remove the
wax by oil  of turpentine.
  This etching may be also performed by raising a mar-
gin of bordering-wax all round the glass,  in the  same
manner as  on copper, and pouring on the liquid fluoric
acid, which acts  upon the glass.   The method  of ma-
king this acid is described under Fluoric acid, and in
the article Chemistry.
  A third method of etching on glass is as follows:  Hav-
ing put the wax on the glass, draw your design, and
raise a margin all round it.  Then put pounded fluor
spar, with  some sulphuric acid diluted with water,  upon
the glass.   The sulphuric acid  will disengage the fluoric,
which will  be absorbed  by the water,  and corrode the
 glass.
  ETHICS, or Morality, the  science of manners or
 duty, which it traces from man's nature and  condition,
 and shows to terminate in  his happiness; or, in  other
 words, it is the knowledge of our duty and felicity, or
 the art of being virtuous and happy.
  Moral philosophy inquires,  not how man might have
 been, but how  he is constituted; not into what  princi-
 ples or dispositions his actions may be artfully resolved,
 but from what principles and dispositions they actually
 rose; not what he may, by education,  habit,  or foreign
 influence,  come to be or do, but what by his nature or
 original frame, he is framed to be and do. From a view,
 therefore, of man's faculties,  appetites, and passions, it
 appears, that the health and perfection of man must be
 in the supremacy of conscience and reason, and in the
 subordination of the passions and affections to their au-
 thority and direction; and his virtue  or goodness must
 consist in acting agreeably to this order and economy.
   It is true, some eminent philosophers have attempted
 to lay the foundation of  morals much deeper, viz. in the
 nature and reason^ the truth and fitness of things. Senses
 and affections, tbey tell us, are vague and precarious;
 and though they were not, yet are irrational principles
 of  action,  and consequently very improper foundations,
 on which to rest the eternal and immutable obligations
 of  morality. Hence they talk much of  the abstract na-
 ture and reason of things, of eternal differences, unal-
 terable relations, fitnesses and unfitnesses resulting from
 those relations; and  from these eternal reasons, differ-
 ences,  relations, and their consequent fitnesses, they
 suppose moral obligation to arise.   A conduct agreeable
 to them, or, in other words, to truth, they call virtue;
 and the reverse, vice.  But the truth is, that we. might
 perceive all the possible relations,  differences, and rea-
 sons of things, and yet be wholly indifferent to this or
 that conduct, unless we were endued with some sense or
 affection by which we approved and loved the one, and
 disapproved and disliked the other conduct. Reason may
 perceive  a fitness to  a certain  end; but without  some
 sense or affection we cannot propose or indeed have any
idea of an end or nioive; and without an end,   e can-
not conceive any inducement to action.   Therefore,  be-
fore we  can understand the  natures, reasons,  and  fit-
nesses of tilings, which are said to be the foundation of
morals, we must know what natures are meant, to what
ends they are fitted, and from what principles or affec-
tions  they arc prompted to act; otherwise we  cannot
judge of the duty required,  or of the conduct becoming
that being  whom we  suppose under moral obligation.
But let  the natures be  once given, and the relations
which  subsits among them  be ascertained, wc can then
determine  what conduct will  be obligatory to such  na-
tures,  and adapted to their condition and economy. And
to the  same natures, placed in the same relations,  the
same conduct will be eternally and invariably proper and
obligatory.
   Besides to call morality a conformity to truth, gives
no idea, no characteristic of it, but what seems equally
applicable to vice. For whatever propositions are pre-
dicate of virtue  (as, that it flows from good affections,
or is agreeable to the order of our nature, tends to pro-
duce happiness,  is beheld  with  approbation, &c);  the
contrary  propositions are  equally true, 'and may be
equally predicated, of vice.
   Another set of philosophers establish  morals  upon a
better  foundation, the will  or positive' appointment of
the Deity, and call virtue  a conformity, to  that  will or
appointment.  All obligation,  they  say, supposes  one
who obliges, or who has a  right to prescribe, and can
reward the obedient, and punish the disobedient. This
can be none but the Creator.  His will, therefore, is our
law, wiiich we are bound to obey. And this,  they  tell us,
is alone  sufficient to bind or  oblige such imperfect and
corrupt creatures as we are, who are hut feebly  moved
with a sense of the beauty  and excellence of virtue,  and
strongly swayed  by passion or views of interest.
   This scheme of morality  entirely coincides with that
deduced from our inward structure and condition, since
these are the effects of the divine will. Whatever, there-
fore, is agreeable or correspondent to our invyalttl struc-
ture,  must likewise be agreeable, or correspondent to
the will of God.  So that   all the indications or sanc-
tions of  our duty, wiiich are declared  or enforced  by
our structure are, and  may  be, considered as indications
or sanctions of the will of our Creator.  If these  indica-
tions,  through  inattention to, or abuse of, our structure,
prove insufficient to declare: or if these sanctions, through
the weakness  or wickedness of men, prove  insufficient
to enforce obedience to the divine will,  and the Deity is
pleased to add new indications or new  sanctions; these
additional indications and sanctions cannot,  and are  not
supposed by the assertors of  this scheme, to add  any
new duty or new moral obligation; but only a new and
purer  promulgation of our duty, or a new and stronger
sanction or motive from interest to perform that duty,
and to fulfil that obligation  to which we were bound  be-
fore. It makes no difference as to the matter of  obliga-
tion, after what manner the will of  our Creator is  en-
forced or declared to us, whether by word or writ, or by
certain inward notices and determinations of our own
minds, arising according to a necessary law of  our  na-
ture. Againfif the scheme of duty, as deduced from mo-
ral  perceptions, and  the  affections of our nature, is 
E T  II
E T  H
thought too slight a foundation on which to'rest morali-
ty, because these are found insufficient to bind or rather
to compel men to their duty, we fear the same objection
will militate against the scheme of conformity to the di-
vine will, since all the declarations and sanctions of it
have not hitherto  had their due  effect,  in producing a
thorough and  universal reformation.
   When some speak of the will of God as the rule of du-
ty, they do not certainly mean a blind, arbitrary princi-
ple of action, but such a principle as is  directed by rea-
son and governed by wisdom, or a regard to certain ends
in preference to others: for unless we suppose some prin-
ciple in the  Deity  analogous to our sense of obligation,
some antecedent affection or determination of his nature
to prefer some ends before others, we cannot assign any*
sufficient reason why he should will one thing more than
another. AVhatever, therefore,  is the ground of his choice
or will, must  be the ground of obligation, and not  the
choice or will  itself.  That this it  the  case, appears far-
ther from the common distinction  which  divines and phi-
losophers make between moral and  positive commands
and  duties.  The, former they  think  obligatory antece-
dent to will, efr  at  least to any declaration of it; the lat-
ter, obligatory only in consequence of a positive appoint-
ment of the  divine will. But what foundation can tliere
be for this distinction, if all duty  and obligation is equal-
ly the result of mere will?
   Whatever may  have been  the reasoning of heathen
philosophers on this suhject (and to  which,  indeed, this
article chiefly refers), the professors  of Christianity have
no difficulty in understanding  what is tin? will of God;
and consequently Vhat are the true principles of moral
duty. That these were not understood  byfc the wisest of
the  heathens,  is evident from their practice, and still
more so from even their speculative, their cool, deliberate,
and  well  digested reasonings. (See Gregory's  Essays
Historical and Moral; Essay  on the Pprinciples of Mo-
rals.)  But christians are furnished  not  only with  the
strongest motives but with the most clear and decisive
precepts^r the performance of their duty.  The  excel-
lence of the gospel in this respect supercedes the neces-
sity  of all human speculations; and hence nothing can be
more idle or fruitless than  to search for moral instruct-
ions in the writings of the heathens.  Nor canWiy thing
be more a work of supererogation to men who have the
Bible in their hands, than systems of ethics, or lectures
on moral philosophy! On this  account we have made this
article  very  short, and given rather the  opinions  of
others than our own, merely  to  show (as matter of in-
formation)  what has  been said  and thought upon the
subject.
   Before we conclude this article, it will be proper to
say something ofthe extraordinary  hypothesis of Hob-
bess, concerning the foundation of morality. This philo-
sopher, who saw his country involved in all  the distrac-
tion and misery of a civil war, seems to have taken too
narrow and partial a view of  our nature,  and  has there-
fore drawn it in a very odious and uncomfortable light.
Next to the desire of sdf-preservation, he makes the
love of glory and of power to be the governing passions
in man; and from these, byr an arbitrary, unnatural, and
unsupported hypothesis, contrary to common experience
and common  language,  he  attempts to deduce all the
other passions which inflame the minds and influence the
manners of men.  According to him all men are equal,
all desire anddiave a right to the same things, and  want
to excel each other in power and honour; but as it is im-
possible for all to possess the same things, or to obtain a
pre-eminence in power and honour, hence must arise  a
state of war and mutual carnage; which is what he  calls
a state of nature. But this shrewd philosopher subjoins,
that men being aware that such a state must terminate
in their own destruction, agreed to surrender their pri-
vate unlimited  right into the hands of  the majority, or
such  as  the majority  should  appoint, and to  subject
themselves for the future to common laws or to common
judges or magistrates.  In consequence of this surrender,
and of this mutual compact or agreement, tbey  are se-
cured against mutual hostilities, and bound or obliged to
a peaceable behaviour; so that  it is no longer lawful or
just (he certainly means  safe or prudent) to invade and      F
incroach on one another, since this would be a violation
of his promise. But one may ask him, what obligation is
a man under to keep his promise or stand to his compact,
if there is no obligation,  no moral  tie, distinct from that
promise? On the wiiole, bis state of nature is a mere chi-
mera, and the superstructure  he has  raised on it no
less so.
   ETHER. See tEther.
   ETHMOIDAL, in anatomy, one of the common su-
tures of the skull, which goes round the os  etlinioids,
from wiiich it derives its name, separating it from the
bone in contact with it.
   ETHNOPHRONES, in  church history,  a  sect of
Christians  of  the seventh century, who, professing
^Christianity, joined to it all the ceremonies and follies of
Paganism, such as judicial astrology,  divinations of all
kinds, &c.  and .who  observed  all the feasts, times, and
seasons, of the Gentiles.
   ETHOPOE1A, or Ethology,  in rhetoric, a draught
or description, expressing the manners, passions,  genius,
tempers,.aims, kc. of any person. Such is that noted
picture of Cataline, as drawn by Salli.shjfnif magna vi
et  amini, kc <• He was a man of great vigour both of
body and mind; but of a disposition extremely profligate
and depraved.  From his youth he took  pleasure  in civil
wars, massacres, depredations, and intestine broils; and
in these  he employed his younger days. His body was
formed for enduring cold, hungvr, and want of rest, to a
degree indeed incredible: his spirit was daring, subtle,
and changeable; he was expert in all the arts of simula-
tion and dissimulation,  covetous  of  what belonged to
others, lavish of his own, violent in his passions: he had
eloquence  enough, but a small  share  of  wisdom;  his
boundless  soul was constantly engaged in extravagant
and romantic projects, too high to be attempted/'
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