ARMY MEDICAL LIBRARY WASHINGTON Founded 1836 Section. -J Number ../..Q_&._Q.¥_.(bl. Form 113c, W. D.. S. G. O. 3—10543 (Revised June 13, 1936) tlHF •'•m** wr'-'P rpf)|^ |.A«*T <"Te *v I GEUMGE BELL & SONS. WEBSTER'S COMPLETE DICTIONARY OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE, AND GENERAL BOOK OF LITERARY REFERENCE. With 3000 Illustrations. Tho- roughly revised and improved by Ohauncey A. Goodrich, D.D., LL.D., and Noah Pobtbb, D.D., of Yale College. In One Volume, Quarto, 6trong!y bound in cloth, 1840 pages, price £1 11*. 6d.; half-calf, £2; call or half-russia, £2 2«.; russia, £2 10s. Besides the matter comprised in the Webster's Guinea Dictionary, this volume contains the following Appendices, which will show that no pains have- been spared to make it a complete Literary Reference-book:— A Brief History of the English Lan- guage. By Professor James Hadlet. This Work shows the Philological Rela- tions of the English Language, and traces the progress and influence of the causes ' which have brought it to its present con- dition. Principles of Pronunciation. By Professor Goodrich and W. A. Wheblek, M.A. Including a Synopsis of Words differently pronounced by different au- thorities. A Short Treatise on Orthography, By Abthur W. Weight. Including a Complete List of Words that are spelt it two or more ways. An Explanatory and Pronouncing Vocabulary of the Name* of Noted Fic- titious PersorAand Places, &-. By W. A. Whbeleb, M.JkrThii Work includes not only persons awrjolaces noted in Fiction, whether narrative, pbetical'rw'dramatioj but Mythological and Mythical names, names referring to the Angelology and De- monology of various races, and those found in the romance writers; Pseu- donyms, Nick-naines of eminent persons and parties, &c.. &c. In fact, it is best described as explaining every name which is not strictly historical. A reference is given to the originator of each name, and where the origin is unknown a quotation b given to some well-known writer in ivhlch the word occurs. This valuable Work may alto be had , teparateVy, post 8w>., 6s. A Pronouncing Vocabulary of Greek and Latin Proper Names. By Professor Thachjsr, of Yale College. » The cheapest Dictionary ever published, as it Is confessedly one of the best. The intro- ductlon of small woodcut illustrations of technical and scientific terms adds greatly to the Utility of the Dictionary."— Churchman. A Pronouncing Vocabulary of Scrip- ture Proper Names. By W. A. W heeler, M.A Including a List of the Variations that occur in the Douay version of the Bible. An Etymological Vocabulary of Mo- dern Geographical Names. By the Rev. C. H. Wheeler. ContaiDing:—I. A List of Prefixes, Terminations, and Formative Syllables in various Languages, with their meaning anrt derivation; n. A brief List of Geographical Names ("not explained by the foregoing List), with their derivation and signification, all doubtful and obscure derivations being excluded. Pronouncing Vocabularies of Modern Geographical and Biographical Names. By J. Thomas, M JD. A Pronouncing Vocabulary of Com- u|i English Christian Names, with their •derivations, signification, and diminutive* (or nick-names), and their equivalents iu several other languages. A Dictionary of Quotations. Selected and translated by William G. Wester. Containing all Words, Phrases, Proverbs, and Colloquial Expressions from the Greek, Latin, and Modern Foreign Lan- guages, which are frequently met with in literature and conversation. A List of Abbreviations, Contrac- tions, and Arbitrary Signs used in Wri ing and Printing. A Classified Selection of Pictorial Illustrations (70 pages). With references to the text. LONDON: GEORGE BELL & SONS, YORK STREET, C0VENT GARDEN. 3 STANDARD WORKS PUBLISHED BY WEBSTER'S DICTIONARY. From the Quarterly Eeview, Oct. 1873. " Seventy years passed before Johnson was followed by Webster, an American writer, who faced the task of the English Dictionary with a full appreciation of its requirements, leading to better practical Jesuits."' » • • ■ " His laborious comparison of twenty languages, though never pub- lished, bore fruit in his own mind, and his training placed him both in knowledge and judgment far in advance of Johnson as a philologist. Webster's ' American Dictionary of the English Language' was pub- lished in 1828, and of course appeared at once in England, where successive re-editing has as yet kept it in the highest place as a practical Dictionary" " The acceptance of an American Dictionary in England has itseli had immense effect in keeping up the community of speech, to break which would be a grievous harm, not to English-speaking nations alone, but to mankind. The result of this has been that the common Dictionary must suit both sides of the Atlantic." .... " The good average business-like character of Webster's Dictionary, both in style and matter, made it as distinctly suited as Johnson's was distinctly unsuited to be expanded and re-edited by other hands, Professor Goodrich's edition of 1847 is not much more than enlarged and amended, but other revisions since have so much novelty of plan as to be described as distinct works." .... " The American revised Webster's Dictionaiy of 1S64, published in America and England, is of an altogether higher order than these last [The London Imperial and Student's]. It bears on its title-page the names of Drs. Goodrich and Porter, but inasmuch as its especial im- provement is in the etymological department, the care of which was committed to Dr. Mahn, of Berlin, we prefer to describe it in short as the Webster-Mahn Dictionary. Many other literary men, among them Professors Whitney and Dana, aided in the task of compilation and revision. On consideration it seems that the editors and contributors have gone far toward improving Webster to the utmost that he wili bear improvement. The vocabulary has become almost complete, an regards usual words, while the definitions keep throughout to Webster's simple careful style, and the derivations are assigned with the aid of good modern authorities." " On the whole, the Webster-Mahn Dictionarv as it stands, is rr.ost respectable, and CERTAINLY THE BEST PRACTICAL ENGLISH DICTIONARY EXTANT." LONDON: GEORGE BELL & SONS, YORK STREET, COVENT GA?.I>ZN". UJlUiitrJi HELL & SONS. SPECIAL DICTIONARIES AND WORKS OF REFERENCE. Dr. Richardson's Philological Dictionary of the ENGLISH LANGUAGE. Combining Explanation with Etymology, and copiously illustrated by Quotations from the Best Authorities. New Edition, with a Supplement containing additional Words and furtber Illustrations. 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With 54 coloured Plates. 25s. WOOSTER'S ALPINE PLANTS. Second Series. With 54coloured Plates. 25s. ",____________________________ LONDON: GEORGE BELL & SONS, YORK STREET, COVENT GARDEN. 15 STANDARD WORK PUBLISHED BY GEORGE BELL & SONS %* For List of Bohk's Libraries see tta. md of the Volun.e THE NATURAL HISTORY OF PLINY. TRANSLATED, WITH COPIOUS NOTES AND ILLUSTRATIONS BY THE LATE JOHN BOSTOCK, M.D., F.R.S., AND H. T. RILEY, Esq., B.A., LONDON: HENRY G. BOHN, YORK STREET, COVENT GARDEN. MDCCCLVII. HZ a.10 T'7=27 /, l?S7 CONTENTS OF THE SIXTH VOLUME. BOOK XXXII. REMEDIES DERIVED FROM AQUATIC ANIMALS. CHAP. 1. The power of Nature as manifested in antipathies. The echeneis: two remedies .. .. .. • • • • 1 2. The torpedo: nine remedies .. .. .. ■ • • • 4 3. The sea-hare: five remedies .. • • • • • • *'&• 4. Marvels of the Red Sea .. . • ...... 5. The instincts of fishes .. • • •• •• •• . jj 6. Marvellous properties belonging to certain fishes .. .. 8 7. Places where fish eat from the hand . • • • • • *&• 8. Places where fish recognize the human voice. Oracular re- sponses given by fish .. • • • • • • • ■ *"• 9. Places where bitter fish are found, salt, or sweet .. .. 9 10. When sea-fish were first eaten by the people of Rome. The ordinance of King Numa as to fish .. ..... 1° 11. Coral: forty-three remedies and observations .. .. «• 1'2. The antipathies and sympathies which exist between certain objects. The hatreds manifested by certain aquatic am- raals. The pastinaca; eight remedies. The galeos: fifteen remedies. The sur-mullet: fifteen remedies .. .. 12 13. Amphibious animals. Castoreum: sixty-six remedies and observations 14. The tortoise: sixty-six remedies and observations _ .. .. lo 15. Remedies derived from the aquatic animals, classified accord- ing to the respective diseases .. ••„,,". A" 16. Remedies for poisons, and for noxious spells. The dorade: four remedies. The sea-star: seven remedies .. . • i» 17. Remedies for the stings of serpents, for the bites of dogs, and for injuries inflicted by venomous animals. The sea- dragon : three remedies. Twenty-five remedies derived from salted fish. The sarda: one remedy. Eleven reme- dies derived from cybium IV CONTENTS. CHAP. Page 18. The sea-frog : six remedies. The river-frog : fifty-two reme- dies. The bramble-frog: one remedy. Thirty-two obser- vations on these animals .. .. .. 21 19. The enhydris: six remedies. The river-crab : fourteen reme- dies. The sea-crab: seven remedies. The river-snail: seven remedies. The coracinus: four remedies. The sea- pig : two remedies .. .. .. .. . 23 20. The sea-calf: ten remedies. The muraena: one remedy. The hippocampus: nine remedies. The sea-urchin: eleven remedies .. .. .. .. .. .. • • 24 21. The various kinds of oysters : fifty-eight remedies and observa- tions. Purples: nine remedies .. .. .. .. '25 22. Sea-weed: two remedies .. .. .. .. .. 28 23. Remedies for alopecy, change of colour in the hair, and ulcer- ations of the head. The sea-mouse: two remedies. The sea-scorpion : twelve remedies. The leech : seven remedies. The murex: thirteen remedies. The conchylium: five remedies .. .. .. . .. .. .. 29 24. Remedies for diseases of the eyes and eyelids. Two remedies derived from the fat of fishes. The callionymus: three re- medies. The gall of the coracinus: one remedy. The soepia: twenty-four remedies. Ichthyocolla : five remedies ib. 25. Remedies for diseases of the ears. The batia : one remedy. The bacchus or myxon: two remedies. The sea-louse: two remedies .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 33 26. Remedies for tooth-ache. The dog-fish: four remedies. Whale's flesh .......... 34 27. Remedies for lichens, and for spots upon the face. The 'dol- phin : nine remedies. Coluthia or coryphia: three re- medies. Halcyoneum : seven remedies. The tunny : five remedies .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 35 28. Remedies for scrofula, imposthumes of the parotid glands, quinzy, and diseases of the fauces. The maena; thirteen remedies. The sea-scolopendra: two remedies. The saurus: one remedy. Shell-fish : one remedy. The silurus: fifteen remedies .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 37 29. Remedies for cough and diseases of the chest .. .. ;j8 30. Remedies for pains in the liver and side. The elongated conch : six remedies. The tethea: five remedies .. 39 31. Remedies for diseases of the bowels. Sea-wort: one remedy Th.e myax: twenty-five remedies. The mitulus: eight remedies. Pelorides: one remedy. Seriphum: two re- medies. The erythinus: two remedies .. .. ., tb. 32. Remedies for diseases of the spleen, for urinary calculi, and for affections of the bladder. The sole: one remedy. The turbot: one remedy. The blendius : one remedy. The sea-nettle; seven remedies. The pulmo marinus: six re- medies. Onyches: four remedies. .. _ mm 42 33. Remedies for intestinal hernia, and for diseases of the rectum. CONTENTS. chap. page The water-snake : one remedy. The hydrus: one remedy. The mullet: one remedy. The pelamis : three remedies .. 44 34. Remedies for inflamed tumours, and for diseases of the gene- rative organs. Thesciaena: one remedy. The perch : four remedies. The squatina: three remedies. The smaris: three remedies .. .. .. .. .. .. $, 35. Remedies for incontinence of urine. The ophidion: one remedy .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 46 36. Remedies for gout, and for pains in the feet. The beaver: four remedies. Bryon : one remedy .. .. .. ib. 37. Remedies for epilepsy .. .. ".. .. ,. .. 47 38. Remedies for fevers. The fish called asellus : one remedy. The phagrus : one remedy. The balaena : one remedy .. ib. 39. Remedies for lethargy, cachexy, and dropsy .. .. .. 49 40. Remedies for burns and for erysipelas .. .. .. ib. 41. Remedies for diseases of the sinews .. .. .. .. 50 42, Methods of arresting haemorrhage and of letting blood. The polyp: one remedy .. .. .. .. .. .. ib. 43. Methods of extracting foreign bodies from the flesh .. .. 51 44. Remedies for ulcers, careinomata, and carbuncles .. .. 52 45. Remedies for warts, and for malformed nails. The glanis: one remedy .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 53 46. Remedies for female diseases. The glauciscus : one remedy .. ib. 47. Methods of removing superfluous hair. Depilatories .. oh 48. Remedies for the diseases of infants .. .. .. .. 56 49. Methods of preventing intoxication. The fish called rubellio : one remedy. The eel: one remedy. The grape-fish: one remedy .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 57 50. Antaphrodisiacs and aphrodisiacs. The hippopotamus: one remedy. The crocodile: one remedy .. .. .. ib. 51. Remedies for the diseases of animals .. .. .. .. ib. 52. Other aquatic productions. Adarca or calamochnos: three remedies. Reeds : eight remedies. The ink of the saepia 58 53. The names of all the animals that exist in the sea, one hundred and seventy-six in number .. .. .. .. .. 59 54. Additional names of fishes found in the poem of Ovid .. 65 BOOK XXXIII. THE NATURAL HISTORY OF METALS. 1. Metals .. .. .. ...... 2. Gold ............ 3. What was the first recommendation of gold .. 4. The origin of gold rings 5. The quantity of gold possessed by the ancients 6. The right of wearing gold rings 7. The decuries of the judges .. .. 68 69 71 ib. 75 76 82 vi CONTENTS. CHAP. Pi'ge 8. Particulars connected with the equestrian order .. .. 83 9. How often the name of the equestrian order has been changed 85 10. Gifts for military services, in gold and silver .. .. .. 86 11. At what period the first crown of gold was presented .. ib. 12. Other uses made of gold, by females .. .. .. .. 87 13. Coins of gold. At what periods copper, gold, and silver, were first impressed. How copper was used before gold and silver were coined. What was the largest sum of money possessed by any one at the time of our first census. How often, and at what periods, the value of copper and of coined money has been changed .. .. .. .. 88 14. Considerations on man's cupidity for gold .. .. .. 91 15. The persons who have possessed the greatest quantity of gold and silver .. .. .. .. .. .. 93 16. At what period silver first made its appearance upon the arena and upon the stage .. .. .. .. .. .. 94 17. At what periods there was the greatest quantity of gold and silver in the treasury of the Roman people .. .. 95 18. At what period ceilings were first gilded .. .. .. ih. 19. For what reasons the highest value is set upon gold .. .. 96 20. The method of gilding .. .." ...... 98 21. How gold is found . .. .. ...... 99 22. Orpiment .. .. .. .. ...... 104 23. Electrum .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 10,5 24. The first statues of gold ...... .. .. ib. 25. Eight remedies derived from gold .. .. .. .. 1U6 26. Chrysocolla .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 107 27. The use made of chrysocolla in painting .. .. .. 108 28. Seven remedies derived from chrysocolla .. .. .. 1)0 29. The chrysocolla of the goldsmiths, known also as santerna .. ib. 30. The marvellous operations of nature in soldering metallic substances, and bringing them to a state of perfection .. Ill 31. Silver .......... .. .. _ tb 32. Quicksilver .. .. .. .. .. # H3 33. Stimmi, stibi, alabastrnm, larbasis, or platy-ophthalmon .. 115 34. Seven remedies derived from stimmi .. .. .. $ 35. The scoria of silver. Six remedies derived from it .. ."." 116 36. Minium: for what religious purposes it was used by the ancients .. .. ,. > # 2 ^ o 37. The discovery and origin of minium .. .. .. 120 38. Cinnabaris .. .. .. .. .. ^ 39. The employment of cinnabaris in painting .. .. 121 40. The various kinds of minium. The use made of it in painting ib 41. Hydrargyros. Remedies derived from minium .. .. 124 42. The method of gilding silver ...... ^ 43. Touchstones for testing gold .. .. 225 44. The different kinds of silver, and the modes of testing it ib 45. Mirrors .. .. .. .. ., " ,.,q 46. Egyptian silver .. .. ., #> \[ 12{j CONTENTS. Vll chap. Page 47. Instances of immense wealth. Persons who have possessed the greatest sums of money .. .. • • 129 48. At what period the Roman people first made voluntary contri- butions .. .. .. .. .. •• •• 131 49. Instances of luxury in silver plate .. .. .. .. ib. 50. Instances of the frugality of the ancients in reference to silver plate .. .. .. .. .. • • • • • • 132 51. At what period silver was first used as an ornament for couches .. .. .. • • • • • • • • 134 52. At what period silver chargers of enormous size were first made. When silver was first used as a material for side- boards. When the sideboards called tympana were first introduced .. .. .. • • • • • • • • *'*• 53. The enormous price of silver plate ........ 135 54. Statues of silver .. .. ...... •• 136 55. The most remarkable works in silver, and the names of the most famous artists in silver .. .. .. .• 138 56. Sil: The persons who first used it in painting and the method they adopted ............ I40 57. Cseruleum ..............141 58. Two remedies derived from caeruleum .. .. .. .. 143 BOOK XXXIV. THE NATURAL HISTORY OF METAIS. 1. The ores of brass .. .. •• •• •• •• I4' 2. The different kinds of copper........ •• 14*> 3. The Corinthian brass .. ..........I49 4. The Delian brass ........ •• •• 151 5. The iEginetan brass .. .. •• •• •• •• f°- 6. Stands tor lamps .......... ■ • 1°2 7. Ornaments of the temples made of brass .. .. . 153 S. Couches of brass ............ **• 9. Which was the first statue of a god made of brass at Rome. The origin of statues, and the respect paid to them .. 154 10. The different kinds and forms of statues. Statues at Rome with cuirasses .. .. •• •• •• •.• *^° 11. In honour of whom public statues were first erected: in honour of whom they were first placed on pillars: when the rostra were first erected .. •• •• •• 1°° 12 In honour of what foreigners public statues were erected at Rome ........ • •• .- 159 13. The first equestrian statues publicly erected at Rome, and in honour of what females statues were publicly erected there 160 14. At what period all the statues erected by private individuals were removed from the public places ...... ™- 15. The first statues publicly erected by foreigners .. •• 161 16. That there were statuaries in Italy also at an early period .. Ib2 17. The immoderate prices of statues .......• l°a V 111 CONTENTS. chap. Plige 18. The most celebrated colossal statues in the city .. •• 164 19. An account of the most celebrated works in brass, and of the artists, 366 in number ..........168 20. The different kinds of copper and its combinations. Pyropus. Campanian copper...... • • • • • • f °9 21. The method of preserving copper ........ I"1 22. Cadmia .. . • • • • • • • ■ • 23. Fifteen remedies derived from cadmia. Ten medicinal effects of calcined copper .. .. .. • • •• • • j j™ 24. The scoria of copper .. .. •• •• •• •• *94 25. Stomoma of copper: forty-seven remedies ...... »'*• 26. Verdigris: Eighteen remedies .. .. •• •• •• 195 27. Hieracium .. .. .. •• •• •• •• I9' 28. Scolex of copper : eighteen remedies .. .. .. •• ib 29. Chalcitis: seven remedies .. • • • • • • • • 198 30. Sory: three remedies .. .. .. •• •• •• 199 31. Misy: thirteen remedies .. •• .... .. ib. 32. Chalcanthum, or shoemakers' black : sixteen remedies .. 200 33. Pompholyx ..............202 34. Spodos: fi^e remedies .. .. .. • • • • ib. 35. Fifteen varieties of antispodos .. . • • • • • 203 36. Smegma................204 37. Diphryx .............. ib. 38. Particulars relative to the Servilian triens .. .. .. 205 39. Iron ores .. .. .. .. .. .. •. .. ib. 40. Statues of iron; chased works in iron .. .. .. 201 41. The different kinds of iron, and the mode of tempering it .. ib. 42. The metal palled live iron .. .. .. .. .. 209 43. Methods of preventing rust .. .. .. .. .. ib. 44. Seven remedies derived from iron .. .. .. .. 210 45. Fourteen remedies derived from rust .. .. .. 211 46. Seventeen remedies derived from the scales of iron. Ilygrem- plastrum .. .. .. .. .. .. .. ib 47. The ores of lead ............212 48. Stannum. Argentarium .. .. .. .. .. 214 49. Black lead ..............215 50. Fifteen remedies derived from lead .. .. .. .. 216 51. Fifteen remedies derived from the scoria of lead .. .. 218 52. Spodium of lead .. .. .. .. .. .. ib. 53. Molybdsena: fifteen remedies .. .. .. .. ib. 54. Psimithium, or ceruse; six remedies .. .. .. .. 219 55. Sandarach: eleven remedies .. .. .. .. .. 220 56. Arrhenicum .. .. .. .. .... .. ib. BOOK XXXV. AN ACCOUNT OF PAINTINGS AND COLOURS. 1. The honour attached to painting .. .. .. .. 223 2. The honour attached to portraits .. .. .. .. 224 CHAP. Page 3. When shields were first invented with portraits upon them; and when they were first erected in public .. .. .. 227 4. When these shields were first placed in private houses .. ib. 5. The commencement of the art of painting. Monochrome paint- ings. The earliest painters .. .. .. .. 228 6. The antiquity of painting in Italy .. .. .. .. 229 7. Roman painters .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 230 8. At what period foreign paintings were first introduced at Rome 232 9. At what period painting was first held in high esteem at Rome, and from what causes. .. .. .. .. .. ib. 10. What pictures the Emperors have exhibited in public.. .. 233 11. The art of painting ............234 12. Pigments other than those of a metallic origin. Artificial colours .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 235 13. Sinopis: eleven remedies .. .. .. .. .. ib. 14. Rubrica; Lemnian earth : four remedies .. .. .. 236 15. Egyptian earth .. .. .. .. .. • • .. 237 16. Ochra : remedies derived from rubrica .. .. •• .. ib. 17. Leucophoron .. .. .. .. •• .. ib. 18. Paraetonium ..........— _^- ~* .. 238 19. Melinum : six remedies. Ceruse „»■»■.".""" -■«•>» •• .. ib. 20. Usta ....../>;$$■'• N..$7>V •• 239 21. Eretria....../^..'^ .. . ."~ --\ .. ib. 22. Sandarach. .. .j £$',.. .. .. .. \ .. ib. 23, Sandyx......W|........r , J .. 240 24. Syricum .. .. .. .. .. .. y.. J .. ib. 25. Atramentum .. .. v , .. ^ -...____.. N>/ •• *'*■ 26. Purpurissum .. .... X.>f/p. ft £..^JsT/ •• 242 27. Indicum .. .. ..^ ..'**»—.. —r-T^*^ .-r- ib. 28. Armenium : one remedy.. .. .. .. .. .. 243 29. Appianum .. .. .. .. .. .. .. ib. 30. Anularian white .. .. .. .. .. .. •• 244 31. Which colours do not admit of being laid on a wet coating .. ib. 32. What colours were used by the ancients in painting .. .. 245 33. At what time combats of gladiators were first painted and pub- licly exhibited.. .. .. ...... . • 246 34. The age of painting; with the names of the more celebrated works and artists, four hundred and five in number .. ib. 35. The first contest for excellence in the pictorial art .. . .. 248 36. Artists who painted with the pencil .. .. .. .. 249 37. Various other kinds of painting .. .. .. .. 268 33. An effectual way of putting a stop to the singing of birds .. 272 39. Artists who have painted in encaustics or wax, with either the cestrum or the pencil.. .. .. .. .. .. ib. 40. The first inventors of various kinds of painting. The greatest difficulties in the art of painting. The several varieties of painting. The first artist that painted ceilings. When arched roofs were first painted. The marvellous price of some pictures .. . „ .. .. .. . ■ • • ib- X CONTENTS. CHAP. 41. Encaustic painting .. 42. The colouring of tissues.. 43. The inventors of the art of modelling 44. Who was the first to mould figures in imitation of the features of living persons, or of statues 45. The most famous modellers 46. Works in pottery.. 47. Various kinds of earth. The Puteolan dust, and other earths of which cements like stone are made 48. Formacean walls.. 49. Walls of brick. The method of making bricks 50. Sulphur, and the several varieties of it: fourteen remedies .. 51. Bitumen, and the several varieties of it: twenty-seven remedies 52. Alumen, and the several varieties of it: thirty-eight remedies 53. Samian earth: three remedies .. 54. The various kinds of eretria 55. The method of washing earths for medicinal purposes.. 56. Chian earth : three remedies. Selinusian earth : three reme- dies, i Pnigitis : nine remedies. Ampelitis : four remedies 57. Cretaceous earths used for scouring cloth. Cimolian earth: nine remedies. Sardinian earth. Umbrian earth. Saxum 58. Argentaria. Names of freedmen who have either risen to power themselves, or have belonged to men of influence .. 59. The earth of Galata; of Clypea; of the Baleares; and of Ebusus BOOK XXXVI. THE NATURAL HISTORY OF STONES. 1. Luxury displayed in the use of various kinds of marble 2. Who was the first to employ marble in public buildings 3. Who was the first to erect columns of foreign marble at Rome 4. The first artists who excelled in the sculpture of marble, and the various periods at which they flourished. The Mauso- leum in Caria. The most celebrated sculptors and works in marble, two hundred and twenty-five in number 5. At what period marble was first used in buildings 6. Who were the first to cut marble into slabs, and at what period 7. Who was the first to encrust the walls of houses at Rome with marble .. . • 8. At what period the various kinds of marble came into use at Rome 9. The method of cutting marble into slabs. The sand used in cutting marble 10. Stone of Naxos. Stone of Armenia 11. The marbles of Alexandria 12. Onyx and alabastrites : six remedies .. CONTENTS. Xi chap. Page 13. Lygdinus ; corallitic stone; stone of Alabanda; stone ofThe- bais; stone of Syene.. .. .. .. .. .. 330 14. Obelisks...... .. ........331 15. The obelisk which serves as a dial in the Campus Martius .. 384 16. Marvellous works in Egypt. The pyramids .. .. .. 335 17. The Egyptian Sphinx .. .. ........ 336 18. The Pharos ..............339 19. Labyrinths .. .. .. .. .. .. .. ib. 20. Hanging gardens. A hanging city .. ...... 343 21. The Temple of Diana at Ephesus ...... .. ib. 22. Marvels connected with other temples .. .. .. .. 344 23. The fugitive stone. The seven-fold echo. Buildings erected without the use of nails .. .. .. .. .. ib. 24. Marvellous buildings at Rome, eighteen in number .. .. 345 25. The magnet: three remedies .. .. .. .. .. 355 26. Stone of Scyros........ ...... 357 27. Sarcophagus, or stone of Assos : ten remedies.. .. .. ib. 28. Chernites .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. ib. 29. Osseous stones. Palm stones. Corani. Black stones .. 358 30. Molar stones, Pyrites: seven remedies .. .. .. 359 31. Ostracites: four remedies. Amianthus: two remedies .. 360 32. Geodes : three remedies .. .. .. .. .. .. ib. 33. Melitinus: six remedies .. .. .. .. .. .. ib. 34. Gagates: six remedies .. .. .. .. .. .. 361 35. Spongites : two remedies .. . . .. .. .. 362 36. Phrygian stone .. .. .. .. .. .. .. ib. 37. H&ematites: five remedies. Schistos: seven remedies .. ib. 38. JEthiopic haematites. Androdamas: two remedies. Arabian haematites. Miltites or hepatites. Anthracites .. .. 363 39. Aetites. Taphiusian stone. Callimus.. .. .. .. 364 40. Samian stone: eight remedies...... .. .. 365 41. Arabian stone: six remedies .. .. .. . .. ib. 42. Pumice : nine remedies .. .. .. .. .. .. 366 43. Stones for mortars used for medicinal and other purposes. Etesian stone. Thebaic stone. Chalazian stone .. .. 367 44. Stone of Siphnos. Soft stones .. .. .. .. .. 368 45. Specular stones .. .. .. .. .. .. .. ib. 46. Phengites.............. .. 369 47. Whetstones ..............370 48. Tophus .. .. ............371 49. The various kinds of silex .. .. .. .. .. ib. 50. Other stones used for building .. .. .. ,. .. 372 51. The various methods of building .. .. .. .. ib. 52. Cisterns 53. Quick-lime .. ...... .. .. .. ib. 54. The various kinds of sand. The combinations of sand with lime .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. ib. 65. Defects in building. Plasters for walls.. .. .. .. 374 56. Columns. The several kinds of columns .. .. .. ib. xu CONTENTS. CHAP. 57. Five remedies derived from lime 58. Maltha................ 59. Gypsum 60. Pavements. The Asarotos cecos .. .. .. 61. The first pavements in use at Rome 62. Terrace-roof pavements 63. Graecanic pavements 64. At what period mosaic pavements were first invented. At what period arched roofs were first decorated with glass .. 65. The origin of glass 66. The various kinds of glass, and the mode of making it 67. Obsian glass and Obsian stone 68. Marvellous facts connected with fire 69. Three remedies derived trom fire and from ashes 70. Prodigies connected with the hearth .. BOOK XXXVII. THE NATURAL HISTORY OF PRECIOUS STONES. 1. The first use of precious stones .. .. .. ,, 2. The jewel of Polycrates .. 3. The jewel of Pyrrhus 4 Who were the most skilful lapidaries. The finest specimens of engraving on precious stones 5. The first dactyliotheeae at Rome 6. Jewels displayed at Rome in the triumph of Pompeius Magnus 7. At what period murrhine vessels were first introduced at Rome. Instances of luxury in reference to them 8. The nature of murrhine vessels 9. The nature of crystal 10. Luxury displayed in the use of crystal. Remedies derived from crystal 11. Amber : the many falsehoods that have been told about it '.'. 12. The several kinds of amber: the remedies derived from it 13. Lyncurium : two asserted remedies 14. The various precious stones, classified according to their prinl cipal colours .. .. .. . _ r 15. Adam as : six varieties of it. Two remedies 16. Smaragdus 17. Twelve varieties of the smaragdus 18. Defects in the smaragdus .. ... 19. The precious stone called tanos. Chalcosmaragdos 20. Beryls: eight varieties of them. Defects in beryls 21. Opals: seven varieties of them .. 22. Defects in opals: the modes of testing them '.' 23. Sardonyx; the several varieties of it. Defects""in the'sardonyx CONTENTS. xili chap. Page 24. Onyx: the several varieties of it .. .. .. .. 419 25. Carbunculus : twelve varieties of it .. .. .. .. 420 26. Defects in carbunculus, and the mode of testing it .. .. 422 27. Anthracitis ..............423 28. Sandastros. Sandaresos . .. .. .. .. .. ib. 29. Lychnis: four varieties of it. .. .. .. .. .. 424 30. Carchedonia .. .. .. . .. .. .. 425 31. Sarda: five varieties of it .. .. .. .. .. ib. 32. Topazos : two varieties of it .. .. .. .. .. 426 33. Callaina................427 34. Prasius: three varieties of it .. .. .. .. .. 429 35. Nilion .............. ib. 36. Molochitis .............. ib. 37. Iaspis: fourteen varieties of it. Defects found in iaspis .. 430 38. Cyanos : the several varieties of it .. .. .. .. 432 39. Sapphiros.. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. ib. 40. Amethystos: four varieties of it. Socondion. Sapenos. Pha- ranitis. Aphrodites blepharon, anteros, or haederos .. ib. 41. Hyacinthos .. .. .. . .. .. .. 434 42. Chrysolithos: seven varieties of it .. .. .. .. ib. 43. Chryselectrum .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 435 44. Leucochrysos : four varieties of it .. .. .. .. ib. 45. Melichrysos. Xuthon .. .. .. .. .. .. 436 46. Paederos, sangenon, or tenites .. .. .. .. .. ib. 47. Asteria................437 48. Astrion .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. ib. 49. Astriotes .. .. ., .. .. .. .. .. ib. 50. Astrobolos ..............438 51. Ceraunia: four varieties of it .. .. .. .. .. ib. 52. Iris: two varieties of it .. .. .. .. .. .. ib. 53. Leros ................439 54. Achates: the several varieties of it. Acopos: the remedies de- rived from it. Alabastritis: the remedies derived from it. Alectoria. Androdamas. Argyrodnmas. Antipathes. Ara- bica. Aromatitis. Asbestos. Aspisatis. Atizoe. Augetis. Amphidanes or chrysocolla. Aphrodisiaca. Apsyctos. iEgyptilla .. ............ ib. 55. Balanites. Batrachitis. Baptes. Beli oculus. Belus. Ba- roptenus or barippe. Botryitis. Bostrychitis. Bucardia. Brontea. Bolos .. .. .. .. .. .. 443 66. Cadmitis. Callais. Capnitis. Cappadocia. Callaica. Cato- chitis. Catoptritis. Cepitis or Cepolatitis. Ceramitis. Cinaedia. Ceritis. Circos. Corsoides. Coralloachates. Corallis. Crateritis. Crocallis, Cyitis. Chalcophonos. Chelidonia. Chelonia. Chelonitis. Chloritis. Choaspitis. Chrysolampis. Chrysopis. Ceponides .. .. .. 444 57. Daphnea. Diadochos. Diphyes. Dionysias. Draconitis . 447 68. Encardia or ariste. Enorchis. Exebenus. Erythallis. Ero- tylos, amphicomos, or hieromnemon. Eumeces. Eunii- thrcs. Eiipetalos. Eureos. Eurotias. Eusebes. Epimelas 448 XIV CONTENTS. CHAP. 59. Galaxias. Galactitis, leucogaea, leucographitis, or synnenhitis. Gallaica. Gassinade. Glossopetra. Gorgonia. Goniaea.. 60. Heliotropium. Hepheestitis. Hermuaidoion. Hexecontali- thos. Hieracitis. Hammitis. Hammonis cornu. Hor- miscion. Hyaenia. Ha3matitis 61. Idaei dactyli. Icterias. Jovis gemma. Indica. Ion 62. Lepidotis. Lesbias. Leucophthalmos. Lencopcecilos. Li- banochrus. Limoniatis. Liparea. Lysimachos. Leu- cochrysos 63. Memnonia. Media. Meconitis. Mithrax. Morochthos. Morraorion or promnion. Murrhitis. Myrmecias. Myr- sinitis. Mesoleucos. Mesomelas 64. Nasamonitis. Nebritis. Nipparene 65. Oica. Ombria or notia. Onocardia. Oritis or sideritis. Ostracias. Ostritis. Ophicardelon. Obsian stone 66. Panchrus. Pangonus. Paneros or panerastos. Pontica: four varieties of it. Phloginos or chrysitis. Phcenicitis. Phy- citis. Perileucos. Paeanitis or gaeanis 67. Solis gemma. Sagda. Samothracia. Sauritis. Sarcitis. Selenitis. Sideritis. Sideropcecilos. Spongitis. Synodon- titis. Syrtitis. Syringitis 68. Trichrus. Thelyrrhizos. Thelycardios or mule. Thracia: three varieties of it. Tephritis. Tecolithos 69. Veneris crines. Veientana 70. Zathene. Zmilampis. Zoraniscaea 71. Precious stones which derive their names from various parts of the human body. Hepatitis. Steatitis. Adarlunephros. Adaduophthalmos. Adadudactylos. Triophthalmos 72. Precious stones which derive their names from animals. Car- cinias. Echitis. Scorpitis. Scaritis. Triglitis. JSgoph- thalmos. Hyophthalmos. Geranitis. Hieracitis. Ae'titis. Myrmecitis. Cantharias. Lycophthalmos. Taos. Timictonia 73. Precious stones which derive their names from other objects. Hammochrysos. Cenchritis. Dryitis. Cissitis. Narcis- sitis. Cyamias. Pyren. Phcenicitis. Chalazias. Pyritis. Polyzonos Astrapaea. Phlogitis. Anthracitis. Enhygros] Polythrix. Leontios. Pardalios. Drosolithos. Melichrns! Melichloros. Crocias. Polias. Spartopolias. Rhoditis. Chalcitis. Sycitis. Bostrychitis. Chernitis. Anancitis. Synochitis. Dendritis 74. Precious stones that suddenly make their appearance. Coc'h- lides 75. The various forms of precious stones 76. The methods of testing precious stones.. 77. A comparative view of Nature as she appears in"'different' countries. The comparative values of things. General Index NATURAL HISTORY OF PLINY. BOOK XXXII.1 REMEDIES DERIVED FROM AQUATIC ANIMALS. CHAP. 1. (1.)—THE POWER OP NATURE AS MANIFESTED IN ANTI- PATHIES. THE ECHENE1S : TWO REMEDIES. Following the proper order of things, we have now arrived at the culminating point of the wonders manifested to us by the operations of Nature. And even at the very outset, we find spontaneously presented to us an incomparable illustration of her mysterious powers: so much so, in fact, that beyond it we feel ourselves bound to forbear extending our enquiries, there being nothing to he found either equal or analogous to an element in which Nature quite triumphs over herself, and that, too, in such numberless ways. For what is there more unruly than the sea, with its winds, its tornadoes, and its tempests ? And yet in what department of her works has Nature been more seconded by the ingenuity of man, than in this, by his inventions of sails and of oars ? In addition to this, we are struck with the ineffable might displayed by the Ocean's tides, 1 It is in the last six Books of Pliny, and those only, we regret to say, that we are enabled to avail ourselves of the new readings of the Bamberg MS., which has been so admirably collated by M. Ian. In a vast number of passages previously looked upon as hopelessly corrupt, or else not at all suspected of being in a mutilated state, this MS. supplies words and clauses, the existence of which in the original was hitherto unknown ; indeed by its aid the indefatigable Sillig has been enabled, if we may be allowed the term, almost to rewrite the last six Books of Pliny. From a perusal of these new readings, as Dr. Smith has justly remarked, we have reason to infer " that the text of the earlier Books is still in a very defective state, and that much of the obscurity of Pliny may be traced to this cause." VOL. VI. B 2 PLINr's NATURAL HISTORY. [Book XXXII. as they constantly ebb and flow, and so regulate the currents of the sea as though they were the waters of one vast river. And yet all these forces, though acting in unison, and impel- ling in the same direction, a single fish, and that of a very diminutive size—the fish known as the "echene'is"2—pos- sesses the power of counteracting. Winds may blow and storms may rage, and yet the echene'is controls their fury, restrains their mighty force, and bids ships stand still in their career; a result which no cables, no anchors, from their pon- derousness quite incapable of being weighed, could ever have produced ! A fish bridles the impetuous violence of the deep, and subdues the frantic rage of the universe—and all this by no effort of its own, no act of resistance on its part, no act at all, in fact, but that of adhering to the bark ! Trifling as this object would appear, it suffices to counteract all these forces combined, and to forbid the Bhip to pass onward in its way! Fleets, armed for war, pile up towers and bulwarks on their decks, in order that, upon the deep even, men may fight from behind ramparts as it were. But alas for human vanity!— when their prows, beaked as they are with brass and with iron,3 and armed for the onset, can thus be arrested and rivetted to the spot by a little fish, no more than some half foot in length! At the battle of Actium, it is said, a fish of this kind stopped the praetorian ship4 of Antonius in its course, at the moment that he was hastening from ship to ship to encourage and exhort his men, and so compelled him to leave it and go on board another. Hence it was, that the fleet of Caesar gained the advantage6 in the onset, and. charged with a redoubled impetuosity. In our own time, too, one of these fish arrested the ship of the Em- peror6 Caius in its course, when he was returning from Astura to Antium :7 and thus, as the result proved, did an insignificant fish give presage of great events ; for no sooner had the em- peror returned to Eome than he was pierced by the weapons of his own soldiers. Nor did this sudden stoppage of the ship 2 The Echeneis remora of Linnaeus. See B. ix. c. 41. 1 He alludes to the " rostra," or metal beaks, with which the prows of the ships of war were furnished. 4 An absurd tradition, no doubt, invented, probably, to palliate the dis- grace of his defeat. 5 From the delay caused by the stoppage of the praetorian ship. 8 Caligula. ' For Astura and Antium, see B. iii. c. 9. Chap. 1.] THE ECHENEia. 3 long remain a mystery, the cause being perceived upon finding that, out of the whole fleet, the emperor's five-banked galley was the only one that was making no way. The moment this was discovered, some of the sailors plunged into the sea, and, on making search about the ship's sides, they found an echene'is adhering to the rudder. Upon its being shown to the emperor, he strongly expressed his indignation that such an obstacle as this should have impeded his progress, and have rendered powerless the hearty endeavours of some four hun- dred men. One thing, too, it is well known, more particularly surprised8 him, how it was possible that the fish, while ad- hering to the ship, should arrest its progress, and yet should have no such power when brought on board. According to the persons who examined it on that occasion, and who have seen it since, the echene'is bears a strong resem- blance to a large slug.9 The various opinions entertained respecting it we have already10 noticed, when speaking of it in the Natural History of Fishes. There is no doubt, too, that all fish of this kind are possessed of a similar power; witness, for example, the well-known instance of the shells11 which are still preserved and consecrated in the Temple of Venus at Cnidos, and which, we are bound to believe, once gave such striking evidence of the possession of similar properties. Some of our own authors have given this fish the Latin name of " mora."12 It is a singular thing, but among the Greeks we find writers who state that, worn as an amulet, the eche- ne'is has the property,13 as already mentioned, of preventing mis- carriage, and of reducing procidence of the uterus, and so per- mitting the foetus to reach maturity: while others, again, assert that, if it is preserved in salt and worn as an amulet, it will facilitate parturition ; a fact to which it is indebted for 8 And well it might surprise him. If there was any foundation at all for the story, there can be little doubt that a trick was played for the pur- pose of imposing upon Caligula's superstitious credulity, and that the rowers as well as the diving sailors were privy to it. 9 " Limax." A singular comparison, apparently. 10 In B. ix. c. 41. 11 See B. ix. c. 41, where he is speaking of a murex, a fish which bears no such affinity to the remora as to warrant our author's expression, " Idem valere omnia ea genera." 12 Properly meaning "delay." "Remora" is another reading, and perhaps a better one, as the word is found in Plautus. 13 In B. ix. c. 41. B 2 4 PLINY'S NATURAL HISTORY. [Book XXXII. another name which it bears, " odinolytes."14 Be all this as it may, considering this most remarkable fact of a ship being thus stopped in its course, who can entertain a doubt as to the possibility of any manifestation of her power by Nature, or as to the effectual operation of the remedies which she has centred in her spontaneous productions ? CHAP. 2.--THE TORPEDO : NINE REMEDIES. And then, besides, even if we had not this illustration by the agency of the echene'is, would it not have been quite suf- ficient only to cite the instance of the torpedo,15 another in- habitant also of the sea, as a manifestation of the mighty powers of Nature ? From a considerable distance even, and if only touched with the end of a spear or staff, this fish has the property of benumbing even the most vigorous arm, and of rivetting the feet of the runner, however swift he may be in the race. If, upon considering this fresh illustration, we find ourselves compelled to admit that there is in existence a certain power which, by the very exhalations16 and, as it were, emana- tions therefrom, is enabled to affect the members of the hu- man body,17 what are we not to hope for from the remedial influences which Nature has centred in all animated beings ? CHAP. 3.--THE SEA HARE : FIVE REMEDIES. No less wonderful, too, are the particulars which we find stated relative to the sea-hare.18 Taken with the food or drink, it is a poison to some persons ; while to others, again, the very sight of it is venomous.19 Indeed, if a woman in a 14 From \tittv rag uSivac, "to release from the pains of childbirth." " See B. ix. c. 67. 16 Ajasson remarks that it was owing probably to this opinion that it was formerly the belief, that by holding the breath a person could render himself proof against the shock of the torpedo; a precaution recommended by Kaampfer, in his " Amenitates Exoticae," p, 514. Ed. 1712. 17 " Quadam aura sui corporis adficiat membra" seems a preferable reading to " Quadam aura corporis sui adficiat membra," as given by the Bamberg MS., and adopted by Sillig. 18 See B. ix. c. 72, and the Note. 19 A fabulous story, Ajasson remarks, but one that was commonly be- lieved in the 16th and 17th centuries. Gessner, however, a conscientious enquirer into the mysteries of Nature, asserts [de Aquatilibus, p. 563) that, to his own knowledge, the sight of this fish was productive of the symp- toms here mentioned. Beckmann reckons the Aplysia depilans (with which Chap. 4.] MARVELS OF THE RED SEA. 5 Btate of pregnancy so much as looks upon one of these fishes, she is immediately seized with nausea and vomiting—a proof that the injury has reached the stomach—and abortion is the ultimate result. The proper preservative against these bane- ful effects is the male fish, which is kept dried for the purpose in salt, and worn in a bracelet upon the arm. And yet this same fish, while in the sea, is not injurious, by its contact even. The only animal that eats it without fatal consequences, is the mullet ;20 the sole perceptible result being that its flesh is rendered more tender thereby, but deteriorated in flavour, and consequently not so highly esteemed. Persons when poisoned21 by the sea-hare smell strongly of the fish—the first sign, indeed, by which the fact of their having been so poisoned is detected. Death also ensues at the end of as many days as the fish has lived : hence it is that, as Licinius Macer informs us, this is one of those poisons which have no definite time for their operation. In India,22 we are assured, the sea-hare is never taken alive; and, we are told that, in those parts of the world, man, in his turn, acts as a poison upon the fish, which dies instantly in the sea, if it is only touched with the human finger. There, like the rest of the animals, it attains a much larger size than it does with us. CHAP. 4.--MARVELS OF THE RED SEA. Juba, in those books descriptive of Arabia, which he has dedicated to Caius Caesar, the son of Augustus, informs us that there are mussels23 on those coasts, the shells of which are capable of holding three semisextarii; and that, on one occa- sion, a whale,24 six hundred feet in length and three hundred and sixty feet broad,25 made its way up a river of Arabia, the Sea-hare of the ancients is identified) in the number of the animal poisons, and remarks that (as we find stated by Ccelius Rhodiginus, B. xxvi. c. 30) the Emperor Titus was dispatched by the agencv of this poison, administered to him by the direction of his brother Domitian. Hist. Inv. vol. I. p. 51. Bohn's Ed. 20 Athenaeus says, B. viii., that the Scarus pursues it and devours it. E1 " Quibus impactus est." A curious expression ; if indeed it is the correct reading. 22 See B. ix. c. 72. 23 Mituli. See B. ix. c. 74. m "Cetos." 25 Ajasson remarks, in confutation of this story, that there are few rivers in Arabia of such a breadth. 6 pliny's natural history. [Book XXXII. the blubber of which was bought up by the merchants there. He tells us, too, that in those parts they anoint their camels with the grease of all kinds of fish, for the purpose of keeping off the gad-flies28 by the smell. CHAP. 5. (2.)—THE INSTINCTS OF FISHES. The statements which Ovid has made as to the instincts of fish, in the work27 of his known as the " Halieuticon,"28 appear to me truly marvellous. The scarus,29 for instance, when enclosed in the wicker kype, makes no effort to escape with its head, nor does it attempt to thrust its muzzle between the oziers; but turning its tail towards them, it enlarges the orifices with repeated blows therefrom, and so makes its escape backwards. Should,30 too, another scarus, from without, chance to see it thus struggling within the kype, it will take the tail , of the other in its mouth, and so aid it in its efforts to escape. The lupus,31 again, when surrounded with the net, furrows32 the sand with its tail, and so conceals itself, until the net has passed over it. The mursena,33 trusting in the slippery smooth- ness34 of its rounded back, boldly faces the meshes of the net, and by repeatedly wriggling its body, makes its escape. The polyp35 makes for the hooks, and, without swallowing the bait, clasps it with its feelers; nor does it quit its hold until it has eaten off the bait, or perceives itself being drawn out of the water by the rod. The mullet,36 too, is aware37 that within the bait there is a hook concealed, and is on its guard against the ambush; still however, so great is its voracity, that it beats the hook with its tail, and strikes away from it the bait. The lupus,38 again, 2« See B. xi. c. 34. 27 Of this work, begun by Ovid during his banishment in Pontus, and probably never completed, only a fragment of one hundred and thirty-two lines has come down to us. Pliny again makes reference to it, in the last Chapter of the present Book. » Or " Treatise on Fishes." 29 See B. ix. c. 69, and B. xi. c. 61. 30 Quoted from the Halieuticon. 31 The wolf fish. The Perca labrax of Linnaeus. See B ix cc 24 28, 74, 79, and B. x. c. 89. 32 From the Halieuticon of Ovid. 33 See B. ix. cc. 14, 35, 39, 48, 74, 79, 81. ^ From the Halieuticon. 35 From the Halieuticon. B6 See B. ix. cc. 21, 26, 67. 3* From the Halieuticon. 3« From the Halieuticon. See Note 31 above, if indeed the same fish is meant. See also B. xxxi. c. 44, and the Note. Chap. 5.] THE INSTINCTS OF FISHES. 7 shows less foresight and address, but repentance at its impru- dence arms it with mighty strength; for, when caught by the hook, it flounders from side to side, and so widens the wound, till at last the insidious hook falls from its mouth. The mu- raena39 not only swallows the hook, but patches at the line with its teeth, and so gnaws it asunder. The anthias,40 Ovid says, the moment it finds itself caught by the hook, turns its body with its back downwards, upon which there is a sharp knife-like fin, and so cuts the line asunder. According to Licinius Macer, the mursena is of the female sex only, and is impregnated by serpents, as already42 men- tioned ; and hence it is that the fishermen, to entice it from its retreat, and catch it, make a hissing noise in imitation of the hissing of a serpent. He states, also, that by frequently beat- ing the water it is made to grow fat, that a blow with a stout stick will not kill it, but that a touch with a stalk of fennel- giant43 is instantly fatal. That in the case of this animal, the life is centred in the tail, there can be no doubt, as also that it dies immediately on that part of the body being struck; while, on the other hand, there is considerable difficulty in killing it with a blow upon the head. Persons who have come in contact with the razor-fish44 smell of iron,46 The hardest of all fishes, beyond a doubt, is that known as the " orbis :',4S it is spherical, destitute46* of scales, and all head.47 39 From the Halieuticon. i0 See B. ix. c. 85. 42 In B. ix. c. 39. Aristotle, however, as there stated, was not of the same opinion. *3 See B. xx. c. 98. « "Novacula piscis." Pliny is the only ancient author that mentions this fish. There are numerous varieties of it, among which the best known are the Coryphaena novacula of Linnaeus, the Rason of the Mediterranean, highly esteemed as an article of food, and the Coryphaena pentedactyle of Bloch, identical with the Hemipteronote a cinq inches, of Lacepede. 16 An absurdity, owing, no doubt, to its name. 46 Qr "globe-fish." The Mola, orbis marinus, or sun-fish of modern Natural History, the Lune de mer, or poisson-lune of the French. Though the skin is harsh and tough, there is no firmness in its flesh, which is of a gluey consistency. 46* In reality it has scales, but they are almost imperceptible, from their minuteness. 47 Or rather, as Dalechamps observes, " all belly." 8 plint's NATURAL HISTORY. [Book XXXII, CHAP. 6. — MARVELLOUS PROPERTIES BELONGING TO CERTAIN FISHES. Trebius Niger informs us that whenever the loligo43 is seen darting above the surface of the water, it portends a change of weather : that the xiphias,49 or, in other words, the sword- fish, has a sharp-pointed muzzle, with which it is able to pierce the sides of a ship and send it to the bottom : instances of which have been known near a place in Mauritania, known as Cotte, not far from the river Lixus.60 He says, too, that the loligo sometimes darts above the surface, in such vast numbers, as to sink the ships upon which they fall. CHAP. 7.--PLACES WHERE FISH EAT FROM THE HAND. At many of the country-seats belonging to the Emperor the fish eat51 from the hand : but the stories of this nature, told with such admiration by the ancients, bear reference to lakes formed by Nature, and not to fish-preserves; that at Elorus, a fortified place in Sicily, for instance, not far from Syracuse. In the fountain, too, of Jupiter, at Labranda,52 there are eels which eat from the hand, and wear ear-rings,53 it is said. The same, too, at Chios, near the Old Men's Temple54 there; and at the Fountain of Chabura in Mesopotamia, already men- tioned.55 CHAP. 8.—-PLACES WHERE FISH RECOGNIZE THE HUMAN VOICE. ORACULAR RESPONSES GIVEN BY FISH. At Myra, too, in Lycia, the fish in the Fountain of Apollo, 48 See B. ix. cc. 44, 45, and B. xviii. c. 87. 49 See B. ix. cc. 1, 21 and c. 53 of the present Book. There are two.va- rieties of it, the Xiphias gladius of Bloch and Lac^pede, and the Xiphias machaera of Shaw. 50 See B. v. c. 1. 51 Martial, B. iv. Ep. 30, speaks of this being the case at the fish- ponds of Baiae, where the Emperor's fish were in the habit of making their appearance when called by name. 62 A vUlage of Caria, celebrated for its sanctuary of Zeus Stratios. .Elian, Hist. Anim. B. xii. c. 30, says that there was a spring of clear . water, within the sanctuary, which contained fish with golden necklaces and rings. « " Inaures." He probably means ornaments suspended from the gills, a thing which, in the case of eels, might be done. ** " Senum delubrnm." .Elian speaks of tame fish in the Old Men's Harbour Qupijv) at Chios. » In B. xxxi. c. 22. Chap. 9.] PLACES WHERE BITTER FISH ARE FOUND. 9 known as Surium, appear and give oracular presages, when thrice summoned by the sound of a flute. If they seize the flesh thrown to them with avidity, it is a good omen for the person who consults them; but if, on the other hand, they flap at it with their tails, it is considered an evil presage. At Hierapolis56 in Syria, the fish in the Lake of Venus there obey the voice of the officers of the temple: bedecked with orna- ments of gold, they come at their call, fawn upon them while they are scratched, and open their mouths so wide as to admit of the insertion of the hands. Off the Rock of Hercules, in the territory of Stabiae57 in Campania, the melanuri58 seize with avidity bread that is thrown to them in the sea, but they will never approach any bait in which there is a hook concealed. CHAP. 9. — PLACES WHERE BITTER FISH ARE FOUND, SALT, OR SWEET. Nor is it by any means the least surprising fact, that off the island of Pele,59 the town of Clazomense,60 the rock61 [of Scylla] in Sicily, and in the vicinity of Leptis in Africa,62 Euboea, and Dyrrhachium,63 the fish are bitter. In the neigh- bourhood of Cephallenia, Ampelos, Paros, and the rocks of Delos, the fish are so salt by nature that they might easily be taken to have been pickled in brine. In the harbour, again, of the last-mentioned island, the fish are sweet: differences, all of them, resulting, no doubt, from the diversity64 of their food. Apion says that the largest among the fishes is the sea- pig,65 known to the Lacedaemonians as the " orthagoriscos;" 56 The seat of the worship of the half-fish goddess Addirga, Atergatis, Astarte, or Derceto. See B. v. c. 19. The original names of Hierapolis (the Holy City) were Bambyce and Mabog. »7 See B. iii. c. 9. 68 A Greek name signifying "black-tails." See c. 53 of this Book. Holland translates it " the black-tailed ruffe " or " sea-bream." 49 See B. v. c. 38. 60 See B. v. c. 31, and B. xxxi. c. 43. si See B. iii. c. 14. BS See B. v. cc. 3, 4. 63 See B. iii. cc. 16, 26. 61 Ajasson thinks that this may possibly be true to some small extent. 65 Identical with the fish called " orbis," already mentioned in c. 5 of this Book. Ajasson remarks that though these fish have been known to weigh as much as three hundred pounds, there are many others which grow to a larger size, the sturgeon, and the silurus, for instance^ 10 PLINY'S NATURAL HISTORY. [Book XXXII. he states also that it grunts66 like a hog when taken. These accidental varieties in the natural flavour of fish—a thing that is still more surprising—may, in some cases, be owing to the nature of the locality; an apposite illustration of which is, the well-known fact that, at Beneventum67 in Italy, salted provi- sions of all kinds require68 to be salted over again. CHAP. 10.--WHEN SEA-FISH WERE FIRST EATEN BY THE PEOPLE OF ROME. THE ORDINANCE OF KING NUMA AS TO FISH. Cassius Hemina informs us that sea-fish have been in use at Rome from the time of its foundation. I will give his own words, however, upon the subject:—" Numa ordained that fish without69 scales should not be served up at the Festivals of the Gods; a piece of frugality, the intention of which was, that the banquets, both public and private, as well as the repasts laid before the couches70 of the gods, might be pro- vided at a smaller expense than formerly: it being also his wish to preclude the risk that the caterers for the sacred banquets would spare no expense in buying provisions, and so forestall the market." CHAP. 11.—CORAL : FORTY-THREE REMEDIES AND OBSERVATIONS. In the same degree that people in our part of the world set a value upon the pearls of India—a subject on which we have already spoken71 on the appropriate occasion at sufficient length — do the people of India prize coral: it being the prevailing taste in each nation respectively that constitutes the value of things. Coral is produced in the Red Sea also, 68 Ajasson thinks that this notion may possibly have been derived from the name, which not improbably was given to it from the spongy and oleaginous nature of the flesh. 61 See B. iii. c. 16. 68 Owing, perhaps, to the moisture of the atmosphere. 69 We learn from Festus, that he prohibited the use also of the scarus, a fish with scales. 70 " Ad pulvinaria." Literally, " At the cushions;" in reference to the practice of placing the statues of the gods upon pillows at the Lectis- ternia, which were sacrifices in the nature of feasts, at which images of the gods were placed reclining on couches, with tables and food before them, as if they were really partaking of the things offered in sacrifice. Livy, B. v. c. 13. gives an account of a Lectisternium celebrated with great pomp, which he asserts to have been the first instance of the practice 71 In B. ix. c. 54. v Chap. 11.] CORAL. 11 but of a more swarthy hue than ours. It is to be found also in the Persian Gulf, where it is known by the name of " iace." But the most highly-esteemed of all, is that produced in the vicinity of the islands called Stcechades,72 in the Gallic Gulf, and near the JEolian Islands and the town of Drepana in the Sea of Sicily. Coral is to be found growing, too, at Graviscae, and off the coast of Neapolis in Campania: as also at Erythrse, where it is intensely red, but soft, and consequently little valued. Its form is that of a shrub,73 and its colour green: its berries are white and soft while under water, but the moment they are removed from it, they become hard and red, resem- bling the berries of cultivated cornel in size and appearance. They say that, while alive, if it is only touched by a person, it will immediately become as hard as stone ; and hence it is that the greatest pains are taken to prevent this, by tearing it up from the bottom with nets, or else cutting it short with a sharp- edged instrument of iron: from which last circum- stance it is generally supposed to have received its name of "curalium."74 The reddest coral and the most branchy is held in the highest esteem; but, at the same time, it must not be rough or hard like stone; nor yet, on the other hand, should it be full of holes or hollow. The berries of coral are no less esteemed by the men in India than are the pearls of that country by the females among us : their soothsayers, too, and diviners look upon coral as an amu- let endowed with sacred properties,75 and a sure preservative against all dangers : hence it is that they equally value it as an ornament and as an object of devotion. Before it was known in what estimation coral was held by the people of India, the Gauls were in the habit of adorning their swords, 72 See B. iii. c. 11. 73 Theophrastus reckons coral among the precious stones, and the Pseudo-Orpheus among the minerals. Pliny would seem to be at a loss whether to consider it as an animal or a vegetable. In reality it is the production of marine organized bodies of an arborescent habit, known as Corallina, with jointed stems, supported on a kind of root divided into branches, which are likewise jointed. 74 Because Ktipeirai, it is " cut short" in the Bea, a far-fetched deriva- tion, apparently. 75 Solinus informs us that Zoroaster attributed certain mysterious pro- perties to coral. 12 PLINY'S NATURAL HISTORY. [Book XXXII. shields, and helmets with it; but at the present day, owing to the value set upon it as an article of exportation, it has become so extremely rare, that it is seldom to be seen even in the regions that produce it. Branches of coral, hung at the neck of infants,76 are thought to act as a preservative against danger. Calcined, pulverized, and taken in water, coral gives relief to patients suffering from griping pains in the bowels, affections of the bladder, and urinary calculi. Similarly taken in wine, or, if there are symptoms of fever, in water, it acts as a soporific. It resists the action of fire a considerable time be- fore it is calcined. There is also a statement made that if this medicament is frequently taken internally, the spleen will be gradually con- sumed. Powdered coral, too, is an excellent remedy for pa- tients who bring up or spit blood. Calcined coral is used as an ingredient in compositions for the eyes, being productive of certain astringent and cooling effects : it makes flesh, also, in the cavities left by ulcers, and effaces scars upon the skin. CHAP. 12.—THE ANTIPATHIES AND SYMPATHIES WHICH EXIST BETWEEN CERTAIN OBJECTS. THE HATREDS MANIFESTED BY CERTAIN AQUATIC ANIMALS. THE PASTINACA : EIGHT REME- DIES. THE GALEOS : FIFTEEN REMEDIES. THE SUR-MULLET : FIFTEEN REMEDIES. In reference to that repugnance which exists between cer- tain things, known to the Greeks as " antipathia," there is nothing more venomous77 than the pastinaca, a sea-fish which kills trees even with its sting, as already78 stated. And yet, poisonous as it is, the galeos79 pursues it; a fish which, 76 A practice still retained, though the original intention of it has been lost sight of. As to the form of the coral now used by infants, see Note 85 to B. xxviii. c. 7. 77 In reality, the Pastinaca or Sting-ray is not venomous; but the wounds inflicted by the sting in its tail are highly dangerous, from their tendency to gangrene 78 In B. ix. c. 72. As Ajasson remarks, it is quite possible that the sting of the Pastinaca might penetrate to the heart of a young tree, and bo kill it; but that is no proof of its being poisonous. See also B ix cc 40, 67. 79 Or Mustela, the sea-weasel, mentioned in B. ix. c. 29 and in c. 37 of the present Book. See also Note 12 to B. ix. c. 29. Ajasson is of opinion that under the names of " Galeos " and " Mustela," the ancients confounded the Squalus galeus and the Squalus mustelus of Linnaeus. Chap. 13.] AMPHIBIOUS ANIMALS. 13 though it attacks other marine animals as well, manifests an enmity to the pastinaca in particular, just as on dry land the weasel does to serpents; with such avidity does it go in pur- suit of what is poisonous even ! Persons stung by the pas- tinaca find a remedy in the flesh of the galeos, as also in that of the sur-mullet and the vegetable production known as laser.80 CHAP. 13. (3).—AMPHIBIOUS ANIMALS. CASTOREUM: SIXTY-SIX REMEDIES AND OBSERVATIONS. The might of Nature, too, is equally conspicuous in the animals which live upon dry land as well ;81 the beaver, for instance, more generally known as " castor," and the testes82 of which are called in medicine " castorea." Sextius, a most careful enquirer into the nature and history of medicinal sub- stances, assures us that it is not the truth that this animal, when on the point of being taken, bites off its testes: he in- forms us, also, that these substances are small, tightly knit, and attached to the back-bone, and that it is impossible to remove them without taking the animal's life. We learn from him that there is a mode of adulterating them by substituting the kidneys of the beaver, which are of considerable size, whereas the genuine testes are found to be extremely diminu- tive : in addition to which, he says that they must not be taken to be bladders, as they are two in number, a provision not to be found in any animal. Within these pouches,83 he says, there is a liquid found, which is preserved by being put in salt; the genuine castoreum being easily known from the false, by the fact of its being contained in two pouches, attached by a single ligament. The genuine article, he says, is sometimes fraudu- lently sophisticated by the admixture of gum and blood, or else hammoniacum :84 as the pouches, in fact, ought to be of 80 See B. xix. c. 15, and B. xxii. c. 49. 81 As water, and are consequently amphibious. 82 The Castoreum of the ancients, the " castor" of our Materia Medica, is not in reality produced from the testes of the beaver, as was supposed by the ancients, but from two oval pouches situate near the anus of the animal of either sex. There are four of these pouches in all, two con- taining a species of fat, and two larger ones including in their membranous cells a viscous fetid substance, which forms the castor of medicine. It is considered to be an antispasmodic. 8:i " Folliculos." A very appropriate term, as Ajasson remarks. " See B. xii. c. 49, and B. xxxiv. c. 14. 14 PLINY'S NATURAL HISTORY. [Book XXXII. the same colour as this last, covered with thin coats full of a liquid of the consistency of honey mixed with wax, possessed of a fetid smell, of a bitter, acrid taste, and friable to the touch. The most efficacious castoreum is that which comes from Pontus and Galatia, the next best being the produce of Africa. When inhaled, it acts as a sternutatory. Mixed with oil of roses and peucedanum,85 and applied to the head, it is produc- tive of narcotic effects—a result which is equally produced by taking it in water; for which reason it is employed in the treatment of phrenitis. Used as a fumigation, it acts as an excitant upon patients suffering from lethargy : and similarly employed, or used in the form of a suppository, it dispels hy- sterical"6 suffocations. It acts also as an emmenagogue and as an expellent of the afterbirth, being taken by the patient, in doses of two drachmas, with pennyroyal,87 in water. It is em- ployed also for the cure of vertigo, opisthotony, fits of trem- bling, spasms, affections of the sinews, sciatica, stomachic complaints, and paralysis, the patient either being rubbed with it all over, or else taking it as an electuary, bruised and incor- porated with seed of vitex,86 vinegar, and oil of roses, to the consistency of honey. In the last form, too, it is taken for the cure of epilepsy, and in a potion, for the purpose of dispelling flatulency and gripings in the bowels, and for counteracting the effects .of poison. When taken as a potion, the only difference is in the mode of mixing it, according to the poison that it is intended to neutralize; thus, for example, when it is taken for the sting of the scorpion, wine is used as the medium; and when for injuries inflicted by spiders or by the phalangium,89 honied wine where it is intended to be brought up again, and rue where it is desirable that it should remain upon the stomach. For injuries inflicted by the chalcis,90 it is taken with myrtle wine ; for the sting of the cerastes91 or prester92 with panax93 or 85 See B. xxv. c. 70. 66 Castor is still given to females to inhale, when suffering from hysteria 87 See B. xx. c. 54. ss See B xxiv c 3| ' 89 See B. vni. c. 41, B. x. c. 95, and B. xi. cc. 24 28 » See B. xxix. c 32 *>i See B. viii. c'. 35,' and B. xvi, c. 80. Il fee £' x?- c' ®i ; B* xxn- c" 13 > B- xxiii- c- 23, and B. xxiv. c. 73. 93 See B. xn. c. 57. Chap. 14. J THE TORTOISE. 15 rue in wine; and for those of other serpents, with wine only. In all these cases two drachmas of castoreum is the proper dose, to one of the other ingredients respectively. It is par- ticularly useful, also, in combination with vinegar, in cases where viscus94 has been taken internally, and, with milk or water, as a neutralizer of aconite: as an antidote to white hellebore it is taken with hydromel and nitre.95 It is cura- tive, also, of tooth-ache, for which purpose it is beaten up with oil and injected into the ear, on the side affected. For the cure of ear-ache, the best plan is to mix it with meco- nium.96 Applied with Attic honey in the form of an ointment, it improves the eyesight, and taken with vinegar it arrests hiccup. The urine, too, of the beaver, is a neutralizer of poisons, and for this reason is used as an ingredient in antidotes. The best way of keeping it, some think, is in the bladder of the animal. CHAP. 14 (4.)—THE TORTOISE : SIXTY/-SIX REMEDIES AND OBSER- VATIONS. The tortoise,97 too, is an animal that is equally amphibious with the beaver, and possessed of medicinal properties as strongly developed; in addition to which, it claims an equal degree of notice for the high price which luxury sets upon its Bhell,98 and the singularity of its conformation. Of tortoises, there are various kinds, land tortoises,99 sea tortoises,1 tortoises2 which live in muddy waters, and tortoises2 which live in fresh; these last being known to some Greek authors by the name of " emydes." The flesh of the land-tortoise is employed for fumigations more particularly, and we find it asserted that it is highly salutary for repelling the malpractices of magic, and for 94 Or Mistletoe ; see B. xvi. c. 92. 95 As to the identity of the "nitrum" of the ancients, see B. xxxi. c. 46 and the Notes. 96 See B. xx. c. 76. 97 Under the head of " testudines," he includes the tortoises, terra- penes, and turtles, which form an order of reptiles, known in Natural History as Chelonia, and characterised by the body being enclosed be- tween a double shield or shell, out of which protrude the .head, tail, and four extremities. 98 See B. ix. cc. 11, 12. 99 Our tortoises so called. 1 Our Chelonides, or turtles. 2 The Emydes and Trionyches of Modern Natural History. 16 pliny's NATURAL HISTORY. [Book XXXII. neutralizing poisons. These tortoises are found in the greatest numbers in Africa; where the head and feet being first cut off, it is said, they are given to persons by way of antidote. Eaten, too, in a broth made from them, they are thought to disperse scrofula, diminish the volume of the spleen, and effect the cure of epilepsy. The blood of the land-tortoise improves the eyesight, and removes cataract: it is kept also, made up with meal into pills, which are given with wine when neces- sary, to neutralize the poison of all kinds of serpents, frogs, spiders, and similar venomous Animals. It is found a useful plan, too, in cases of glaucoma, to anoint the eyes with gall of tortoises, mixed with Attic honey, and, for the cure of injuries inflicted by scorpions, to drop the gall into the wound. Ashes of tortoiseshell, kneaded up with wine and oil, are used for the cure of chaps upon the feet, and of ulcerations. The shavings of the surface of the shell, administered in drink, act as an antaphrodisiac: a thing that is the more surprising, from the fact that a powder prepared from the whole of the shell has the reputation of being a strong aphrodisiac. As to the urine of the land-tortoise, I do not think that it can be obtained otherwise than by opening it and taking out the bladder; this being one of those substances to which the adepts in magic attribute such marvellous properties. For the sting of the asp, they say, it is wonderfully effectual; and even more so, if bugs are mixed with it. The eggs of the tortoise, hardened by keeping, are applied to scrofulous sores and ulcers arising from burns or cold : they are taken also for pains in the stomach. The flesh of the sea-tortoise,3 mixed with that of frogs, is an excellent remedy for injuries caused by the salamander ;4 indeed there is nothing that is a better neutralizer of the secre- tions of the salamander than the sea-tortoise. The blood of this animal reproduces the hair when lost through alopecy, and is curative of porrigo and all kinds of ulcerations of the head; the proper method of using it being to let it dry, and then gently wash it off. For the cure of ear-ache, this blood is injected with woman's milk, and for epilepsy it is eaten with fine wheaten flour, three heminae of the blood being mixed with one hemina of vinegar. It is prescribed also for the cure of asthma; but in this cas-e in combination with one 3 Or turtle. * See B. x. c. 86. Chap. 14.] THE TORTOISE. 17 hemina of wine. Sometimes, too, it is taken by asthmatic patients, with barley-meal and vinegar, in pieces about the size of a bean ; one of these pieces being taken each morn- ing and evening at first, but after some days, two in the evening. In cases of epilepsy, the mouth of the patient is opened and this blood introduced. For spasmodic affections, when not of a violent nature, it is injected, in combination with castoreum, as a clyster. If a person rinses his teeth three times a year with blood of tortoises, he will be always ex- empt from tooth-ache. This blood is also a cure for asthmatic affections, and for the malady called " orthopncea," being admi- nistered for these purposes in polenta. The gall of the tortoise improves the eye-sight, effaces scars, and cures affections of the tonsillary glands, quinsy, and all kinds of diseases of the mouth, cancers of that part more par- ticularly, as well as cancer of the testes. Applied to the nos- trils it dispels epilepsy, and sets the patient on his feet: incorporated in vinegar with the slough of a snake, it is a sovereign remedy for purulent discharges from the ears. Some persons add ox-gall and the broth of boiled tortoise-flesh, with an equal proportion of snake's slough ; but in such case, care must be taken to boil the tortoise in wine. Applied with honey, this gall is curative of all diseases of the eyes; and for the cure of cataract, gall of the sea-tortoise is used, in combination with blood of the river-tortoise and milk. The hair, too, of females, is dyed5 with this gall. For the cure of injuries inflicted by the salamander, it will be quite sufficient to drink the broth of boiled tortoise-flesh. There is, again, a third6kind of tortoise, which inhabits mud and swampy localities : the shell on its back is flat and broad, like that upon the breast, and the callipash is not arched and rounded, the creature being altogether of a repulsive appear- ance. However, there are some remedial medicaments to be derived even from this animal. Thus, for instance, three of them are thrown into a fire made with wood cuttings, and the moment their shells begin to separate they are taken off": the flesh is then removed, and boiled with a little salt, in one con- gius of water. When the water has boiled down to one third, 5 To make it of a yellow or golden colour, Dalechamps says. B Identified by Ajasson with the Emys lutaria of Modern Natural History. VOL. VI. C 18 PLINY'3 NATURAL HISTORY. TBook XXXII. the broth is used, being taken by persons apprehensive of paralysis or of diseases of the joints. The gall, too, is found very useful for carrying off pituitous humours and corrupt blood: taken in cold water, it has an astringent effect upon the bowels. There is a fourth kind of tortoise, which frequents rivers. When used for its remedial properties, the shell of the animal is removed, and the fat separated from the flesh and beaten up with the plant aizoiim,7 in combination with unguent and lily seed : a preparation highly effectual, it is said, for the cure of quartan fevers, the patient being rubbed with it all over, the head excepted, just before the paroxysms come on, and then well wrapped up and made to drink hot water. It is stated also, that to obtain as much fat as possible, the tortoise should be taken on the fifteenth day of the moon, the patient .being anointed on the sixteenth. The blood of this tortoise, dropt, by way of embrocation, upon the region of the brain, allays head-ache ; it is curative also of scrofulous sores. Some per- sons recommend that the tortoise should be laid8 upon its back and its head cut off with a copper knife, the blood being re- ceived in a new earthen vessel; and they assure us that the blood of any kind of tortoise, when thus obtained, will be an excellent liniment for the cure of erysipelas, running ulcers upon the head, and warts. Upon the same authority, too, we are assured that the dung of any kind of tortoise is good for the removal of inflammatory tumours. Incredible also as the statement is, we find it asserted by some, that ships9 make way more slowly when they have the right foot of a tortoise on board. CHAP. 15.—REMEDIES DERIVED FROM THE AQUATIC ANIMALS, CLASSIFIED ACCORDING TO THE RESPECTIVE DISEASES. We will now proceed to classify the various remedies de- rived from the aquatic animals, according to the several dis- eases ; not that we are by any means unaware that an expo- sition of all the properties of each animal at once, would be more to the reader's taste, and more likely to excite his admi- T Our Houseleek. See B. xxv. c. 102. s Because it is then powerless, and can make no effort to rise. 9 An absurd story, founded, no doubt, on the extremely slow pace of the tortoise. Ajasson remarks that it is the fresh-water tortoise, more particularly, that is so slow in its movements. Chap. 16.] THE SEA-STAR. 19 ration; but because we consider it more conducive to the practical benefit of mankind to have the various recipes thus grouped and classified; seeing that this thing may be good for one patient, that for another, and that some of these remedies may be more easily met with in one place and some in ano- ther. CHAP. 16. (5.)—REMEDIES FOR POISONS, AND FOR HOXIOUS SPELLS. THE DORADE : FOUR REMEDIES. THE SEA-STAR : SEVEN REME- DIES. We have already10 stated in what country the honey is venomous : the fish known as the dorade11 is an antidote to its effects. Honey, even in a pure state, is sometimes productive of surfeit, and of fits of indigestion, remarkable for their severity ; the best remedy in such case, according to Pelops, is to cut off the feet, head, and tail, of a tortoise, and boil and eat the body; in place, however, of the tortoise, Apelles mentions the scincus, an animal which has been described elsewhere.12 We have already mentioned too, on several occasions,13 how highly venomous is the menstruous fluid: the surmullet, as already14 stated, entirely neutralizes its effects. This last fish, too, either applied topically or taken as food, acts as an anti- dote to the venom15 of the pastinaca, the land and sea scor- pion, the dragon,16 and the phalangium.17 The head of this fish, taken fresh and reduced to ashes, is an active neutralizer of all poisons, that of fungi more particularly. It is asserted also, that if the fish called the sea-star18 is smeared with a fox's blood, and then nailed to the upper lintel of the door, or to the door itself, with a copper nail, no noxious spells will be able to obtain admittance, or, at all events, to be productive of any ill effects. 10 In B. xxi. c. 44. 11 Or Gilt-head. " Aurata." See B. ix. c. 25. 12 In B. viii. c. 38. See also B. xxviii. c. 30. 13 Among others, in B. vii. c. 13, and B. xxviii. c. 23. u In B. xxviii. c. 23. 15 As to this point, see c. 12 of this Book, and the Notes. 16 He must mean the Sea-dragon, mentioned in B. ix. c. 43, and in c. 53 of the present Book; for he has already stated in B. xxix. c. 20, that the serpent called " draco " is destitute of venom. See also B. viii. cc. 13, 14, 22, 41, and B. x. cc. 5, 92, 95, 96. 17 See B. viii. c. 41, B. x. c. 95, and B. xi. cc. 24, 28, 29. 18 Sue B. ix. cc. 71, 86, and c. 53 of the present Book. c 2 20 PLINY'S NATURAL HISTORY. [Book XXXII. CHAP. 17.—REMEDIES FOR THE STINGS OF SERPENTS, FOR THE BITES OF DOGS, AND FOR INJURIES INFLICTED BY VENOMOU8 ANIMALS. THE SEA-DRAGON : THREE REMEDIES. TWENTY-FIVE REMEDIES DERIVED FROM SALTED FISH. THE SARDA : ONE REMEDY. ELEVEN REMEDIES DERIVED FROM CYBIUM. Stings inflicted by the sea-dragon19 or by the sea-scorpion, are cured by an application20 of the flesh of those animals to the wound ; the bites, too, of spiders are healed by the same means. In fine, as an antidote to every kind of poison, whether taken internally or acting through the agency of a sting or bite, there is considered to be nothing in existence more effec- tual than a decoction of the sea-dragon and sea-scorpion. There are also certain remedies of this nature derived from preserved fish. Persons, for instance, who have received in- juries from serpents, or have been bitten by other venomous animals, are recommended to eat salt fish, and to drink undi- luted wine every now and then, so as, through its agency, to bring up the whole of the food again by vomit: this method being particularly good in cases where injuries have been received from the lizard called "chalcis,"21 the cerastes,22 the reptile known as the " seps,"23 the elops,24 or the dipsas.25 For the sting of the scorpion, salted fish should be taken in larger quantities, but not brought up again, the patient sub- mitting to any amount of thirst it may create : salt fish, too, should be applied, by way of plaster, to the wound. For the bite of the crocodile there is no more efficient remedy known. For the sting of the serpent called " prester," the sarda26 is particularly good. Salt fish is employed also as a topical appli- cation for the bite of the mad dog; and even in cases where 19 See Note 16 above. 20 Bondelet asserts, B. vi. c. 19, that he himself had cured the sting of the sea-dragon by an application of the liver of that fish. « See B. xxix. c. 32. 22 See B. viii. c. 35, B. xi. c. 43, and B, xvi. c. 80. 23 See B. xxiii. c. 29. 24 Nicander, in his Theriaca, classes the Elops among the innocuous serpents. In B. ix. c. 27, we are informed that one name given to the Acipenser was " Elops." But see the remark made in c. 54 of this Book. 25 See B. xxiii. c. 80. 26 From c. 53 of the present Book, we learn that the Sarda was a kind of Pelamis, or young tunny, which was pickled, like our Anchovy. Chap. 18.] THE FROG. 21 the wound has not been cauterized with hot iron, this is found to be sufficiently effectual as a remedy. For injuries, also, inflicted by the sea-dragon,27 an application is made of salt fish steeped in vinegar. Cybium,28 too, is productive of similar effects. As a cure for the venomous sting inflicted with its stickle by the sea-dragon, the fish itself is applied topically to the wound, or else its brain, extracted whole. CHAP. 18.--THE SEA-FROG : SIX REMEDIES. THE RIVER-FROG : FIFTY-TWO REMEDIES. THE BRAMBLE-FROG : ONE REMEDY. THIRTY-TWO OBSERVATIONS ON THESE ANIMALS. The broth prepared from sea-frogs,29 boiled in wine and vine- gar, is taken internally as a neutralizer of poisons and of the venom of the bramble-frog,30 as also for injuries inflicted by the salamander.31 For the cure of injuries caused by the sea- hare and the various serpents above mentioned, it is a good plan to eat the flesh of river-frogs, or to drink the liquor in which they have been boiled: as a neutralizer, too, of the venom of the scorpion, river-frogs are taken in wine. Demo- critus assures us that if the tongue is extracted from a live frog, with no other part of the body adhering to it, and is then applied—the frog being first replaced in the water—to a woman while asleep, just at the spot where the heart is felt to palpitate, she will be sure to give a truthful answer to any question that may be put to her. To this the Magi32 add some other particulars, which, if there is any truth in them, would lead us to believe that frogs ought to be considered much more useful to society than laws.33 They say, for instance, that if a man takes a frog and trans- fixes it with a reed, entering the body at the sexual parts and coming out at the mouth, and then dips the reed in the men- strual discharge of his wife, she will be sure to conceive an aversion for all paramours. That the flesh of frogs, attached 27 See Note 16 above. 28 Tunny cut into slices, and pickled. See B. ix. c. 18. 39 See B. ix. cc. 40, 67, 74, 83. 30 See B. viii. c. 48, B. xi. cc. 19, 76, 116, B. xxv. c. 76. 81 See B. x. c. 86. 32 Under the name " magi," he is probably speaking here, not of the ordinary magicians, but the Magi of the East, from whom Democritus largely borrowed. 33 A piece of wit on the part of our author, in which he seldom indulges. 22 PLINY'S NATURAL HISTORY. [Book XXXII. to the kype or hook, as the case may be, makes a most excel- lent bait, for purples more particularly, is a well-known fact. Frogs, they say, have a double34 liver ; and of this liver, when exposed to the attacks of ants, the part that is most eaten away is thought to be an effectual antidote to every kind of poison. There are some frogs, again, which live only among brakes and thickets, for which reason they have received the name of "rubetEe,"35 or "bramble-frogs," as already36 stated. The Greeks call them "phryni:" they are the largest in size of all the frogs, have two protuberances37 like horns, and are full38 of poison. Authors quite vie with one another in relat- ing marvellous stories about them; such, for instance, as that if they are brought into the midst of a concourse of people, silence will instantly prevail; as also that by throwing into boil- ing water a small bone that is found in their right side, the vessel will immediately cool, and the water refuse to boil again until it has been removed. This bone, they say, may be found by exposing a dead bramble-frog to ants, and letting them eat away the flesh: after which the bones must be put into the vessel,39 one by one. On the other hand, again, in the left side of this reptile there is another bone, they say, which, thrown into water, has all the appearance of making it boil, and the name given to which is " apocynon."40 This bone, it is said, has the pro- perty of assuaging the fury of dogs, and, if put into the drink, of conciliating love and ending discord and strife. Worn, too, as an amulet, it acts as an aphrodisiac, we are told. The bone, on the contrary, which is taken from the right side, acts powerfully as a refrigerative upon boiling liquids, it is said : attached to the patient in a piece of fresh lamb's-skin, it has 34 See B. xi. c. 76. 35 From "rubus," a "bramble." 36 In B. viii. c. 48. It is not improbable that the " rubetse " of the ancients were toads. 37 Projections of the bones in which the eyes are set, as Dalechamps remarks. 38 " Plenee veneficiorum." It was long a matter of doubt whether the toad is really poisonous, but it has been recently ascertained that the pustules on the skin contain a most active poison. , 39 "Solium" and "oleum" are the readings here, but we adopt the conjecture of M. Ian, and substitute " ollam." 40 « Averting dogs." Chap. 19. | THE RIVER-CRAB. 23 the repute of assuaging quartan and other fevers, and of check- ing amorous propensities. The spleen of these frogs is used as an antidote to the various poisons that are prepared from them; and for all these purposes the liver is considered still more efficacious. CHAP. 19.--THE ENHYDRIS: SIX REMEDIES. THE RIVER-CRAB: FOURTEEN REMEDIES. THE SEA-CRAB : SEVEN REMEDIES. THE RIVER-SNAIL '. SEVEN REMEDIES. THE CORACINUS : FOUR REME- DIES. THE SEA-PIG : TWO REMEDIES. There is also a snake41 which lives in the water, the fat and gall of which, carried about them by persons when in pursuit of the crocodile, are said to be marvellously efficacious, the beast not venturing, in such case, to make an attack upon them. As such preservative, they are still more effectual if mixed with the herbaceous plant known as potamogiton.42 River-crabs,43 taken fresh and beaten up and drunk in water, or the ashes of them, kept for the purpose, are useful in all cases of poisoning, as a counter-poison: taken with asses' milk they are particularly serviceable as a neutralizer of the venom of the scorpion ; goats' milk or any other kind of milk being substituted where asses' milk cannot be procured. Wine, too, should also be used in all such cases. Iliver-crabs, beaten up with ocimum,44 and applied to scorpions, are fatal to them. They are possessed of similar virtues, also, for the bites of all other kinds of venomous animals, the scytale45 in particular, adders, the sea-hare, and the bramble-frog. The ashes of them, preserved, are good for persons who give symptoms of hydro- phobia after being bitten by a mad dog, some adding gentian as well, and administering the mixture in wine. In cases, too, where hydrophobia has already appeared, it is recom- mended that these ashes should be kneaded up into boluses with wine, and swallowed. If ten of these crabs are tied together with a handful of ocimum,46 all the scorpions in the neigh- bourhood, the magicians say, will be attracted to the spot. 41 The Enhydris, probably. See B. xxx. c. 8. 42 See B. xxvi. c. 33. 43 " Cancri fluviatiles." Our crawfish, the Potamobios of Leach. 44 See B. xix. cc. 31, 36, 44, and B. xx. c. 48. «» It is difficult to say whether he means the shrew-mouse here, the bite of which wa6 supposed to be poisonous, or the serpent called Scytale, mentioned by Lucan, B. ix. 1. 717. 46 See Note 44 above. 24 flint's natural history. [Book XXXII. They recorrimend, also, that to wounds inflicted by the scor- pion, these crabs, or the ashes of them, should be applied, with ocimum. For all these purposes, however, sea-crabs, it should be remembered, are not so useful. Thrasyllus informs us that there is nothing so antagonistic to serpents as crabs; that swine, when stung by a serpent, cure themselves by eating them; and that, while the sun is in the sign of Cancer,47 ser- pents suffer the greatest tortures. The flesh, too, of river-snails, eaten either raw or boiled, is an excellent antidote to the venom of the scorpion, some per- sons keeping them salted for the purpose. These snails are ap- plied, also, topically to the wound. The coracinus48 is a fish peculiar to the river Nilus, it is true, but the particulars we are here relating are for the benefit of all parts of the world : the flesh of it is most excellent as an application for the cure of wounds inflicted by scorpions. In the number of the poisonous fishes we ought to reckon the sea-pig,49 a fish which causes great suffering to those who have been pierced with the pointed fin upon its back: the proper remedy in such case is the slime taken from the other parts of the body of the fish. CHAP. 20.—THE SEA-CALF : TEN REMEDIES. THE MUR^NA : ONE REMEDY. THE HIPPOCAMPUS: NINE REMEDIES. THE SEA- URCHIN : ELEVEN REMEDIES. In cases of hydrophobia resulting from the bite of the mad dog, the practice is to rub the patient's face with the fat of the sea-calf; an application rendered still more efficacious by the admixture of hyaena's marrow, oil of mastich, and wax. Bites inflicted by the muraena are cured by an application of the head of that fish, reduced to ashes. The pastinaca,50 also, is remedial for its own bite, the ashes of the same fish, or of another of the same genus, being applied to the wound with vinegar. When this fish is intended for food, every portion of the back that is of a saffron colour should be removed, as well 47 The Crab. This is giving the serpent credit for too much wisdom; an acquaintance, in fact, with the fantastic names which mankind have bestowed upon the signs of the Zodiac. 4t> See B. ix. c. 32. 49 The same as the Orbis or Orthagoriscus of Chapters 5 and 9 of this Book, the Mola or sun-fish of the Mediterranean. See B. ix. c. 17. 50 Or sting-ray. See B. ix. c. 72. Chap. 21.] THE YARIOUS KINDS OF OYSTERS. 25 as the whole of the head: care, too, sh6uld be taken not to wash it over much; an observation equally applicable to all kinds of shell-fish, when intended for food, the flavour being deteriorated51 thereby. The hippocampus,52 taken in drink, neutralizes the poison of the sea-hare. As a counter-poison to dorycnium,53 sea- urchins are remarkably useful; as also in cases where persons have taken juice of carpathum54 internally; more particularly if the urchins are used with the liquor in which they are boiled. Boiled sea-crabs, too, are looked upon as highly effi- cacious in cases of poisoning by dorycnium ; and as a neutral- izer of the venom of the sea-hare they are particularly good. CHAP. 21. (6.)--THE VARIOUS KINDS OF OYSTERS: FIFTY-EIGHT REMEDIES AND OBSERVATIONS. PURPLES : NINE REMEDIES. Oysters, too, neutralize the venom of the sea-hare—and now that we are speaking of oysters, it may possibly be thought that I have not treated of this subject at sufficient length in the former part55 of my work, seeing that for this long time past the palm has been awarded to them at our tables as a most exquisite dish. Oysters love fresh water and spots56 where numerous rivers discharge themselves into the sea; hence it is that the pelagia57 are of such small size and so few in num- ber. Still, however, we do find them breeding among rocks and in places far remote from the contact of fresh water, as in the neighbourhood of Grynium68 and of Myrina,59 for example. Generally speaking, they increase in size with the increase of the moon, as already stated by us when60 treating of the aqua- tic animals: but it is at the beginning of summer, more par- 51 There is considerable truth in this observation. 52 The sea-horse, the Syngnathus hippocampus of Linnaeus. See B, ix. c. 1. M See B. xxi. c. 105. 54 The same, probably, as the " opocarpathon" of B. xxviii. c. 45, a Bubstance which does not appear to have been identified with any degree of certainty. See also c. 31 of the present Book. 55 B. ix. c. 79. 56 Ajasson remarks that these statements are consistent with fact. 57 " Deep-sea " oysters. 53 In Asia Minor. See B. v. c. 32, where it is called " Grynia." 59 In Lemnos. See B. iv. c. 23, and B. v. c. 32. 60 This is an error: the statement is made, not in B. ix., but in B. it c. 109. 26 PLINV'S NATURAL HISTORY. [Book XXXII. ticularly, and when the rays of the sun penetrate the sliallow waters, that they are swollen with an abundance of milk.61 This, too, would appear to be the reason why they are so small when found out at sea ; the opacity of the water tending to arrest their growth, and the moping consequent thereon producing a comparative indisposition for food. Oysters are of various colours; in Spain they are red, in Illyricum of a tawny hue, and at Circeii62 black, both in meat and shell. But in every country, those oysters are the most highly esteemed that are compact without being slimy from their secretions, and are remarkable more for their thickness than their breadth. They should never be taken in either muddy or sandy spots, but from a firm, hard bottom; the meat63 should be compressed, and not of a fleshy consistence; and the oyster should be free from fringed edges, and lying wholly in the cavity of the shell. Persons of experience in these matters add another characteristic; a fine purple thread, they say, should run round the margins of the beard, this being looked upon as a sign of superior quality, and obtaining for them their name of " calliblephara." w Oysters are all the better for travelling and being removed to new waters; thus, for example, the oysters of Brundisium, it is thought, when fed in the waters of Avernus, both retain their own native juices and acquire the flavour of those of 61 See B. ix. c. 74. It is at the spawning season that this milky liquid is found in the oyster ; a period at which the meat of the fish is considered unwholesome as food. "We have a saying that the oyster should never be eaten in the months without an r ; that the same, too, was the opinion in the middle ages is proved by the Leonine line: " Mensibus erratis vos ostrea manducatis." " In the r'd months you may your oysters eat." 62 See B. iii. c. 9. Horace speaks of the oysters of Circeii. B ii. Sat. 4. 1. 33. f3 There has been considerable discussion among the commentators as to the meaning of the word " spondylus" here. We are inclined to adopt the opinion of Venette, and to think that it means the so-called "meat" of the oyster. It must be short, and consequently plump and compara- tively destitute of beard, and it must not be fleshy, as that would imply a degree of toughness not desirable in an oyster. The words "nee fibris laciniata ac tota in alvo," only seem to be an amplification of the pre- ceding ones, "spondylo brevi et non carnoso." c* Literally, " Having beautiful eyebrows." Chap. 21 ] THE VARIOUS KINDS OF OYSTERS. 2/ Lake Lucrinus.65 Thus much with reference to the meat of the oyster; we will now turn to the various countries which produce it, so that no coast may be deprived of the honours which properly belong to it. But in giving this description we will speak in the language of another, using the words of a writer who has evinced more careful discernment in treating of this subject than any of the other authors of our day. These then are the words of Mucianus, in reference to the oyster:—" The oysters of Cyzicus66 are larger than those of Lake Lucrinus,66* fresher67 than those of the British coasts,6S sweeter69 than those of Medulae,70 more tasty71 than those of Ephesus, more plump than those of Lucus,12 less slimy than those of Coryphas,73 more delicate than those of Istria,74 and whiter than those of Circeii."75 For all this, however, it is a fact well ascertained that there are no oysters fresher or more delicate than those of Circeii, last mentioned. According to the historians of the expedition of Alexander, there were oysters found in the Indian Sea a foot76 in diameter: among ourselves, too, the nomenclature of some spendthrift and gourmand has found for certain oysters the name of "tri- dacna,"77 wishing it to be understood thereby, that they are so large as to require three bites in eating them. We will take the present opportunity of stating all the medicinal pro- perties that are attributed to oysters. They are singularly refreshing78 to the stomach, and tend to restore the appetite. Luxury, too, has imparted to them an additional coolness by burying them in snow, thus making a medley of the 66 See B. ix. c. 79. «6 See B. v. c. 40. M* See B. iii. c. 9. 67 « Dulciora." 68 Those of Rutupae, the present Richborough in Kent, were highly esteemed by the Romans. See Juvenal, Sat. 4.1. 141. 59 "Suaviora." 70 The district in the vicinity of Bordeaux, now called Medoc. The oysters of Medulae are mentioned in terms of praise by Ausonius, Epist. vii. and Epist. cxliii. 71 "Acriora." 72 See B. iii. c. 4. « gee g, v c 32i 74 See B. iii. c. 23. 7S See B. iii. c. 9. 715 They probably gave the name of " oyster " to some other shell-fish of large size. In Cook's Voyages we read of cockles in the Pacific, which two men were unable to carry. 77 From rplc, "thrice," and Ja/cvw, "to bite." 78 Ajasson remarks that many persons are unable to digest oysters, in an uncooked state. 28 pliny's natural history. [Book XXXII. produce of the tops of mountains and the bottom of the sea. Oysters are slightly laxative to the bowels; and boiled in honied wine, they relieve tenesmus, in cases where it is un- attended with ulceration. They act detergently also upon ulcerations of the bladder.79 Boiled in their shells, unopened just as they come to hand, oysters are marvellously efficacious for rheumatic defluxions. Calcined oyster-shells, mixed with honey, allay affections of the uvula and of the tonsillary glands: they are similarly used for imposthumes of the parotid glands, inflamed tumours, and indurations of the mamillae. Applied with water, these ashes are good for ulcerations of the head, and impart a plumpness to the skin in females. They are sprinkled, too, upon burns, and are highly esteemed as a den- tifrice. Applied with vinegar, they are good for the removal of prurigo and of pituitous eruptions. Beaten up in a raw state, they are curative of scrofula and of chilblains upon the feet. Purples, too, are useful80 as a counterpoison. CHAP. 22.—SEA-WEED : TWO REMEDIES. According to Nicander, sea-weed is also a theriac.81 There are numerous varieties of it, as already82 stated ; one, for in- stance, with an elongated leaf, another red, another again with a broader leaf, and another crisped. The most esteemed kind of all is that which grows off the shores of Crete, upon the rocks there, close to the ground: it being used also for dyeing wool, as it has the property83 of so fixing the colours as never to allow of their being washed out. Nicander recommends it to be taken with wine. 79 Ajasson remarks that calcined oyster-shells formed an ingredient in the famous lithontriptic of Mrs. Stephens, a so-called remedy which ob- tained for her a considerable reward, voted by the English Parliament in the middle of last century. 80 A statement purely imaginary, Ajasson thinks; the liquid of this class of shell-fish containing no element whatever to fit it for an antidote. 81 Or antidote. sa jn g j^ c gg 83 Many varieties of sea-weed are now known, Ajasson says, to possess this property, and are still used by savage nations for colouring the body. In Europe, the use of indigo, madder, and other tinctorial plants of a more decided character, has caused them to be entirely neglected for dye- ing purposes. Chap. 23.] REMEDIES FOR DISEASES OF THE EYES. 29 CHAP. 23. (7.)--REMEDIES FOR ALOPECY, CHANGE OF COLOUR IN THE HAIR, AND ULCERATIONS OF THE HEAD. THE SEA- MOUSE : TWO REMEDIES. THE SEA-SCORPION : TWELVE RE- MEDIES. THE LEECH : SEVEN REMEDIES. THE MUREX : THIR- TEEN REMEDIES. THE CONCHYLIUM : FIVE REMEDIES. Ashes of the hippocampus,84 mixed with nitre85 and hog's lard, or else used solely with vinegar, are curative of alopecy; the skin being first prepared for the reception of the necessary medicaments by an application of powdered bone of saepia.86 Alopecy is cured also with ashes of the sea-mouse,87 mixed with oil; ashes of the sea-urchin, burnt, flesh and all together; the gall of the sea-scorpion ;88 or else ashes of three frogs burnt alive in an earthen pot, applied with honey, or what is still better, in combination with tar. Leeches left to putrefy for forty days in red wine stain the hair black. Others, again, recommend one sextarius of leeches to be left to putrefy the Bame number of days in a leaden vessel, with two sextarii of vinegar, the hair to be well rubbed with the mixture in the sun. According to Sornatius, this preparation is naturally so penetrating, that if females, when they apply it, do not take the precaution of keeping some oil in the mouth, the teeth even will become blackened thereby. Ashes of burnt Bhells of the murex or purple are used as a liniment, with honey, for ulcerations of the head ; the shells, too, of other shell-fish,89 powdered merely, and not calcined, are very useful for the same purpose, applied with water. For the cure of head-ache, castoreum is employed, in combination with peucedanum90 and oil of roses. CHAP. 24.—REMEDIES FOR DISEASES OF THE EYES AND EYE- lids, two remedies derived from the fat of fishes. the callionymus : three remedies. the gall of the coracinus: one remedy, the s^pia: twenty-four re- medies. ICHTHYOCOLLA: FIVE REMEDIES. The fat of all kinds of fish, both fresh-water as well as sea 84 Probably the Syngnathus hippocampus of Linnaeus. See B. ix. c. i. 85 As to the Nitrum of the ancients, see B. xxxi. c. 46. 88 Or Cuttlefish. See B. ix. c. 44. 87 See B. ix. c. 35. 88 See c. 17 of the present Book. 89 This seems to b« the meaning of " conchyliorum" here, though in most instances Pliny uses it as synonymous with the purple. See B. ix. cc. 60, 61, 64. 90 See B. xxv. c. 70. 30 pliny's natural HISTORY. [Book XXXII. fish, melted in the sun and incorporated with honey, is an excellent improver of the eye-sight;91 the same, too, with castoreum,92 in combination with honey. The gall of the callionymus93 heals marks upon the eyes and cauterizes fleshy excrescences about those organs: indeed, there is no fish with a larger quantity of gall than this, an opinion expressed too by Menander in his Comedies.94 This fish is known also as the " uranoscopos,"95 from the eyes being situate in the upper part of the head.96 The gall, too, of the coracinus97 has the effect of sharpening the eyesight. The gall of the red sea-scorpion,98 used with stale oil or Attic honey, disperses incipient cataract; for which purpose, the application should be made three times, on alternate days. A similar method is also employed for removing indurations99 of the membrane of the eyes. The surmullet, used as a diet, weakens the eyesight, it is said. The sea-hare is poisonous itself, but the ashes of it are useful as an application for pre- venting superfluous hairs on the eyelids from growing again, when they have been once pulled out by the roots. For this purpose, however, the smaller the fish is, the better. Small scallops, too, are salted and beaten up with cedar resin for a similar purpose, or else the frogs known as " diopetes 'n and 91 This assertion reminds us of the healing effects of the fish with which Tobit cured his father's blindness. See Tobit, c. xi. v. 13. 92 See c. 13 of this Book. 93 Identified by Ajasson with the white Rascasse of the Mediterranean. Hardouin combats the notion that this was the fish, the gall of which was employed by Tobit for the cure of his father, and is inclined to think that the Silurus was in reality the fish; a notion no better founded than the other, Ajasson thinks. 94 In his '| Messenia," for instance. The fragment has been preserved by -Mian, Hist. Anim. B. xiii. c. 4. Ajasson remarks that the ancients clearly mistook the swimming bladder of the fish for the gall. 95 or "heaven-gazer." 96 The original has " ab oculo quern,"—but we have adopted the reading suggested by Dalechamps, " Ab oculis quos in superiore capite." Ajasson says that the white rascasse has the eyes so disposed on the upper part of the head as to have the appearance of gazing upwards at the heavens. Hence it is that at Genoa, the fish is commonly known as the prete or " priest." 97 See B. ix. c. 32. 98 See Chapter 17 of the present Book. 99 « Albugines " 5 Meaning Titerally, " Fallen from Jupiter," in reference to their sup- posed descent from heaven in showers of rain. Chap. 21.] ICHTHYOCOLLA. 31 "calamitae," are used; the blood of them being applied with vine gum to the eyelids, after the hairs have been removed. Powdered shell2 of saepia, applied with woman's milk, allays swellings and inflammations of the eyes; employed by itself it removes eruptions of the eyelids. When this remedy is used, it is the practice to turn up the eyelids, and to leave the medicament there a few moments only ; after which, the part is anointed with oil of roses, and the inflammation mo- dified by the application of a bread-poultice. Powdered bono of saepia is used also for the treatment of nyctalopy, being applied to the eyes with vinegar. Reduced to ashes, this substance removes scales upon the eyes: applied with honey, it effaces marks upon those organs: and used with salt and cadmia,3 one drachma of each, it disperses webs which im- pede the eyesight, as also albugo in the eyes of cattle. They say, too, that if the eyelids are rubbed with the small bone4 taken from this fish, a perfect cure will be experienced. Sea-urchins, applied with vinegar, cause epinyctis to dis- appear. According to what the magicians say, they should be burnt with vipers' skins and frogs, and the ashes sprinkled in the drink; a great improvement of the eyesight being gua- ranteed as the sure result. "Ichthyocolla"6 is the name given to a fish with a glutinous skin; the glue made from which is also known by the same name, and is highly useful for the removal of epinyctis. Some persons, however, assert that it is from the belly of the fish, and not the skin—as in the case of bull glue—that the ichthyocolla is prepared. That of Pontus6 is highly esteemed: it is white, free from veins or scales, and dissolves with the greatest rapidity. The proper way of using it, is to cut it into small pieces, and then to leave it to soak in water or vinegar a night and a day, after which it should be pounded 2 Cortex. 3 See B. xxxiv. cc. 22, 23. 4 " Ossiculo." 5 Literally, " fish-glue." We can hardly believe Pliny that any fish was known by this name. Hardouin takes the fish here spoken of to be identical with that mentioned in B. ix. c. 17, as being caught in the Borysthene, and destitute of bones. It is most probable, however, that the "ichthyocolla" of the ancients, or "fish-glue," was the same as our isinglass, and that it was prepared from the entrails of various fish, the Bturgcon more particularly, the Acipenser huso of Linnaeus. 6 The best isinglass still comes from Russia. 32 PLINY'S NATURAL HISTORY. [Book XXXII. with sea-shore pebbles, to make it melt the more easily. It is generally asserted that this substance is good for pains in the head and for tetanus. The right eye of a frog, suspended from the neck in a piece of cloth made from wool of the natural colour,7 is a cure for ophthalmia in the right eye ; and the left eye of a frog, simi- larly suspended, for ophthalmia in the left. If the eyes, too, of a frog are taken out at the time of the moon's conjunction, and similarly worn by the patient, enclosed in an eggshell, they will effectually remove indurations of the membrane of the eyes. The rest of the flesh applied topically, removes all marks resulting from blows. The eyes, too, of a crab, worn attached to the neck, by way of amulet, are a cure for ophthalmia, it is said. There is a small frog8 which lives in reed-beds and among grass more particularly, never croaks, being quite destitute of voice, is of a green colour, and is apt to cause tympanitis in cattle, if they should happen to swallow it. The slimy moisture on this reptile's body, scraped off with a spatula and applied to the eyes, greatly improves the sight, they say : the flesh, too, is employed as a topical application for the removal of pains in the eyes. Some persons take fifteen frogs, and after spitting them upon as many bulrushes, put them into a new earthen vessel: they then mix the juices which flow from them, with gum of the white vine,9 and use it as an application for the eye-lids; first pulling out such eye-lashes as are in the way, and then dropping the preparation with the point of a needle into the places from which the hairs have been removed. Meges10 used to prepare a depilatory for the eyelids, by killing frogs in vinegar, and leaving them to putrefy; fpr which purpose he employed the spotted frogs which make their appearance in vast numbers11 during the rains of autumn. Ashes of burnt 7 " Nativi coloris." See B. viii. c. 23. Beckmann says, in reference to the present passage : " We manufacture the wool of our brown sheep in its natural colour, and this was done also by the ancients."—Hist. Inv. vol. ii. p. 110, Bohn's Ed. 8 The "calamites" above mentioned, so called from "calamus," a reed. 9 The Bryonia Cretica of Linnaeus; see B. xxiii. c. 16. 10 An eminent surgeon, born at Sidon in Phoenicia, who practised at Rome, probably in the first century b.c. 11 "Mutis," "silent," or "voiceless" frogs, as suggested by Gessner, Hist. Anim. B. ii., would almost seem to be a preferable reading here to " multis," " many." Chap. 25.] REMEDIES FOR DISEASES OF THE EARS. 33 leeches, it is thought, applied in vinegar, are productive of a similar effect; care must be taken, however, to burn them in a new earthen vessel. Dried liver, too, of the tunny,12 made up into an ointment, in the proportion of four denarii, with oil of cedar, and applied as a depilatory for nine months to- gether, is considered to be highly effectual for this purpose. CHAP. 25.--REMEDIES FOR DISEASES OF THE EARS. THE BATIA : ONE REMEDY. THE BACCHUS OR MYXON: TWO REMEDIES. THE SEA-LOUSE : TWO REMEDIES. For diseases of the ears, fresh gall of the fish called "batia"13 is remarkably good; the same, too, when it has been kept in wine. The gall, also, of the bacchus,14 by some known as the " myxon," is equally good ; as also that of the callionymus,15 injected into the ears with oil of roses, or else castoreum,16 used with poppy-juice. There are certain animals too, known as "sea-lice,"17 which are recommended as an injection for the ears, beaten up with vinegar. Wool, too, that has been dyed with the juice of the murex, employed by itself, is highly useful for this purpose; some persons, however moisten it with vinegar and nitre.18 Others, again, more particularly recommend for all affections of the ears one cyathus of the best garum,19 with one cyathus and a half of honey, and one cyathus of vinegar, the whole gently boiled in a new pot over a slow fire, and skimmed with a feather every now and then : when it has become wholly free from scum, it is injected lukewarm into the ears. In cases where the ears are swollen, the same authorities recom- mend that the swellings should be first reduced with juice of coriander. The fat of frogs, injected into the ears, instantly removes all pains in these organs. The juice of river-crabs, kneaded up with barley-meal, is a most effectual remedy for wounds in the ears. Shells of the murex, reduced to ashes, 12 Another reading is " taenia," a fish mentioned by Epicharmus, Athenaeus informs us, and considered by Ajasson to be probably identical with the Cepola rubescens, or Cepola taenia of Linnaeus. 13 The same as the Batis of the Greeks, Hardouin thinks, the Raia batis, a kind of skate. 14 See B. ix. c. 28. w See the preceding Chapter. 16 See c. 13 of the present Book. 17 See B. ix. c. 71. 18 As to " nitrum," see B. xxxi. c. 46. 19 See B. xxxi. c. 43. VOL. VI. D 34 PLINY'S NATURAL HISTORY. [Book XXXII. and applied with honey, or the burnt shells of other shell- fish,20 used with honied wine, are curative of imposthumes of the parotid glands. CHAP. 26.--REMEDIES FOR TOOTH-ACnE. THE DOG-FISH : FOUR REMEDIES. WHALE'S FLESH. Tooth-ache is alleviated by scarifying the gums with bones of the sea-dragon, or by rubbing the teeth once a year with the brains of a dog-fish21 boiled in oil, and kept for the purpose. It is a very good plan too, for the cure of tooth-ache, to lance the gums with the sting of the pastinaca22 in some cases. This sting, too, is pounded, and applied to the teeth with white hellebore, having the effect of extracting them without the slightest difficulty. Another of these remedies _ is, ashes of salted fish calcined in an earthen vessel, mixed with powdered marble. Stale cybium,23 rinsed in a new earthen vessel, and then pounded, is very useful for the cure of tooth-ache. Equally good, it is said, are the back-bones of all kinds of salt fish, pounded and applied in a liniment. A decoction is made of a single frog boiled in one hemina of vinegar, and the teeth are rinsed with it, the decoction being retained in the mouth. In cases where a repugnance existed to making use of this remedy, Sallustius Dionysius24 used to suspend frogs over boiling vinegar by the hind legs, so as to make them discharge their humours into the vinegar by the mouth, using consider- able numbers of frogs for the purpose : to those, however, who had a stronger stomach, he prescribed the frogs themselves, eaten with their broth. It is generally thought, too, that this recipe applies more particularly to the double teeth, and that the vinegar prepared as above-mentioned, is remarkably useful for strengthening them when loose. For this last purpose, some persons cut off the legs of two frogs, and then macerate the bodies in two heminse of wine, recommending this preparation as a collutory for strengthening loose teeth. Others attach the frogs, whole, to the exterior of the jaws :M and with some it is the practice to boil ten frogs, 20 See Note 89 to Chapter 23 of this Book. 21 "Canicula." See B. ix. cc. 11, 70. 22 Or sting-ray. 23 Tunny cut in slices. See B, ix. c. 18. ^ See end of B. xxxi. 25 For the purpose, probably, of assuaging the pain of tooth-ache by their coolness. Chap. 27.] REMEDIES FOR LICHENS. 35 in three sextarii of vinegar, down to one-third, and to use the decoction as a strengthener of loose teeth. By certain autho- rities, too, it has been recommended to boil the hearts of six- and-thirty frogs beneath a copper vessel, in one sextarius of old oil, and then to inject the decoction into the ear on the same side of the jaw as the part affected: wliile others again have used, as an application for the teeth, a frog's liver, boiled, and beaten up with honey. All the preparations above described will be found still more efficacious if made from the sea- frog.26 In cases where the teeth are carious and emit an offensive smell, it is recommended to dry some whale's27 flesh in an oven for a night, and then to add an equal quantity of salt, and use the mixture as a dentifrice. " Enhydris" M is the name given by the Greeks to a snake that lives in the water. With the four upper teeth of this reptile, it is the practice, for the cure of aching in the upper teeth, to lance the upper gums, and with the four lower teeth, for aching in the lower. Some persons, however, content themselves with using an eyetooth only. Ashes, too, of burnt crabs are used for this purpose; and the murex, reduced to ashes, makes an excellent den- tifrice. CHAP. 27.—REMEDIES FOR LICHENS, AND FOR SPOTS UPON THE FACE. THE DOLPHIN : NINE REMEDIES. COLUTHIA OR CORY- PHIA : THREE REMEDIES. HALCYONEUM : SEVEN REMEDIES. THE TUNNY : FIVE REMEDIES. Lichens and leprous spots are removed by applying the fat of the sea-calf,29 ashes of the msena30 in combination with three oboli of honey, liver of the pastinaca31 boiled in oil, or ashes of the dolphin or hippocampus32 mixed with water. After the parts have been duly excoriated, a cicatrizing treatment ought to be pursued. Some persons bake dolphin's liver in an earthen vessel, till a grease flows therefrom like oil33 in ap- 26 See B. ix. cc. 40, 67. 27 « Cetum." See B. ix. cc. 40, 74. 28 Ajasson is of opinion that here and in c. 19 Pliny has mistaken the otter for a serpent, the mammiferae only having eye or canine teeth. Aristotle, Hist. Anim. B. i. c. i., calls the otter by the name of "Enhy- dris." See B. xxx. c. 8, where Pliny speaks of the "Enhydris" as a " male white serpent." 29 Or seal. See B. ix. c. 15. 30 See B. ix. c. 42. Holland calls the maena the " cackerel." 31 Or sting-ray. 32 gee g, jx> c# i# 33 Much like the cod-liver oil, held in such high repute at the present day. d2 156 PLINY'S NATURAL HISTORY. [Book XXXII. pearance: this they use by way of ointment for these dis- eases. Burnt shells of the murex or purple, applied with honey, have a detergent effect upon spots on the face in females: used as an application for seven consecutive days, a fomenta- tion made of white of eggs being substituted on the eighth, they efface wrinkles, and plump out the skin. To the genus " murex" belong the shell-fish known by the Greeks as " co- luthia" or " coryphia," equally turbinated, but considerably smaller : for all the above purposes they are still more effica- cious, and the use of them tends to preserve the sweetness of the breath. Fish-glue34 effaces wrinkles and plumps out the skin; being boiled for the purpose in water some four hours, and then pounded and kneaded up till it attains a thin consistency, like that of honey. After being thus prepared, it is put by in a new vessel for keeping; and, when wanted for use, is mixed, in the proportion of four drachmae, with two drachmae of sulphur, two of alkanet, and eight of litharge; the whole being sprinkled with water and beaten up together. The prepara- tion is then applied to the face, and is washed off at the end of four hours. For the cure of freckles and other affections of the face, calcined bones of cuttle-fish are also used; an application which is equally good for the removal of fleshy excrescences and the dispersion of running sores. (8.) For the cure of itch-scab, a frog is boiled in five semisex- tarii of sea-water, the decoction being reduced to the consistency of honey. There is a sea production called " halcyoneum," com- posed, as some think, of the nests35 of the birds known as the "halcyon"36 and "ceyx," or, according to others, of the con- cretion of sea-foam, or of some slime of the sea, or a certain lanuginous inflorescence thrown up by it. Of this halcyoneum there are four different kinds ; the first, of an ashy colour, of a compact substance, and possessed of a pungent odour; the second, soft, of a milder nature, and with a smell almost iden- 34 " Icthyocolla." See Chapter 24 of the present Book. 35 Of course this assertion as to the nest of the kingfisheT is altogether fabulous, and the sea-productions here described by Pliny were long con- sidered, though destitute of leaves, flowers, and fruit, to belong to the vegetable kingdom. Peyssonnel, however, made the discovery that they belong to the animal kingdom, and that they owe their origin to a species of polyp. 3(i Or kingfisher. See B. x. c. 47. Chap. 28.] REMEDIES FOR SCROFULA. 3/ tical with that of sea-weed ; the third, whiter, and with a variegated surface; the fourth, more like pumice in appear- ance, and closely resembling rotten sponge. The best of all is that which nearly borders upon a purple hue, and is known as the " Milesian" kind: the whiter it is, the less highly it is esteemed. The properties of halcyoneum are ulcerative and detergent: when required for use, it is parched and applied without oil, It is quite marvellous how efficiently it removes leprous sores, lichens, and freckles, used in combination with lupines and two oboli of sulphur. It is employed, also, for the removal of marks upon the eyes.37 Andreas38 has recommended for the cure of leprosy ashes of burnt crabs, with oil; and Attalus,89 fresh fat of tunny. CHAP. 28.--REMEDIES FOR SCROFULA, IMPOSTHUMES OF THE PA- ROTID GLANDS, auiNSY, AND DISEASES OF THE FAUCES. THE M^NA : THIRTEEN REMEDIES. THE SEA-SCOLOPENDRA : TWO REMEDIES. THE SAURUS : ONE REMEDY. SHELL-FISH : ONE REMEDY. THE SILURUS : FIFTEEN REMEDIES. Ulcerations of the mouth are cured by an application ^ of brine in which maense40 have been pickled, in combination with calcined heads of the fish, and honey. For the cure of scro- fula, it is a good plan to prick the sores with the small bone that is found in the tail of the fish known as the sea-frog ;41 care being taken to avoid making a wound, and to repeat the operation daily, until a perfect cure is effected. The same property, too, belongs to the sting of the pastinaca, and to the sea-hare, applied topically to the sores: but in both cases due care must be taken to remove them in an instant. Shells of sea-urchins are bruised, also, and applied with vinegar; shells also of sea-scolopendrae,42 applied with honey; and river-crabs pounded or calcined, and applied with honey. Bones, too, of the saepia, triturated and applied with stale axle-grease, are marvellously useful for this purpose. 37 " Oculorum cicatrices." 38 See end of B. xx. 39 See end of B. viii. 40 See B. ix. c. 42. 41 See B. ix. cc. 40, 67. The Bamberg MS. has here " rhine," (the fish again mentioned in Chapter 53 of this Book) instead of "rana;' a reading which Sillig rejects. Hardouin conjectures that "raia" is the correct reading, the sea-frog having no sting or stickle in the tail. 42 See B. ix. c. 67. 38 PLINY'S NATURAL HISTORY. [Book XXXII. This last preparation is used, also, for the cure of impost- humes of the parotid glands; a purpose for which the liver of the sea-fish known as the " saurus"43 is employed. Nay, even more than this, fragments of earthen vessels in which salt fish have been kept are pounded with stale axle-grease, and applied to scrofulous sores and imposthumes of the parotid glands ; as also calcined murex, incorporated with oil. Stiffness in the neck is allayed by taking what are known as sea-lice,4i' in doses of one drachma in drink, taking castoreum44 mixed with pepper in honied wine, or making a decoction of frogs in oil and salt, and taking the liquor. Opisthotony, too, and tetanus are treated in a similar manner; and spasms, with the addition of pepper. Ashes of burnt heads of salted msenae are applied externally, with honey, for the cure of quinsy; as also a decoction of frogs, boiled in vinegar, a preparation which is equally good for affections of the tonsil- lary glands. Biver-crabs, pounded, one to each hemina of water, are used as a gargle for the cure of quinsy; or else they are taken with wine and hot water. Garum,45 put beneath the uvula with a spoon, effectually cures diseases of that part. The silurus,46 used as food, either fresh or salted, improves the voice. CHAP. 29.--REMEDIES FOR COUGH AND DISEASES OF THE CHEST. Surmullets act as an emetic, dried and pounded, and taken in drink. Castoreum, taken fasting, with a small quantity of hammoniacum47 in oxymel, is extremely good for asthma: spasms, too, in the stomach are assuaged by taking a similar potion with warm oxymel. Frogs stewed in their own liquor in the saucepan, the same way in fact that fish are dressed, are good for a cough, it is said. In some cases, also, frogs are suspended by the legs, and after their juices48 have been received in a platter, it is recommended to gut them, and the entrails being first carefully removed, to preserve them for the above 43 Or sea-lizard, a fish again mentioned in Chapter 63 of this Book. JElian also speaks of it, Hist. Nat. B. xii. c. 25; but it has not been hitherto identified. 4*. See c. 25 of this Book 44 See c. 13 of this Book. « See B. xxxi. c 43 46 See B. ix. cc. 17, 25, 75. 47 It is not clear whether he means the gum ammoniac of B. xii. c. 49 and B. xxiv. c. 14, or the sal ammoniac of B. xxxi. c. 39. 48 " Saliva." See the recipe of Sallustius Dionysius'in Chapter 26 of this Book. Chap. 31.] REMEDIES FOR DISEASES OF THE BOWELS. 39 purpose. There is a small frog,49 also, which ascends trees, and croaks aloud there : if a person suffering from cough spits into its mouth and then lets it go, he will experience a cure, it is said. For cough attended with spitting of blood, it is recommended to beat up the raw flesh of a snail, and to drink it in hot water. CHAP. 30. (9.)--REMEDIES FOR PAINS IN THE LIVER AND SIDE. THE ELONGATED CONCH *. SIX REMEDIES. THE TETHEA : FIVE REMEDIES. , For pains in the liver, a sea-scorpion is killed in wine, and the liquid is taken. The meat, too, of the elongated conch50 is taken with honied wine and water, in equal quantities, or, if there are symptoms of fever, with hyd'romel. Pains in the side are assuaged by taking the flesh of the hippocampus,61 grilled, or else the tethea,51* very similar to the oyster, with the ordinary food. For sciatica, the pickle of the 6ilurus is injected, by way of clyster. The flesh of conchs, too, is pre- scribed, for fifteen days, in doses of three oboli soaked in two sextarii of wine. CHAP. 31.—REMEDIES FOR DISEASES OF THE BOWELS. SEA-WORT : ONE REMEDY. THE MYAX : TWENTY-FIVE REMEDIES. THE MITU- LUS : EIGHT REMEDIES. PELORIDES : ONE REMEDY. SERIPHUM: TWO REMEDIES. THE ERYTHINUS : TWO REMEDIES. The silurus,52 taken in its broth, or the torpedo,53 used as food, acts as a laxative upon the bowels. There is a sea-wort,51 also, similar in appearance to the cultivated cabbage: it is injurious to the', stomach, but acts most efficiently as a purga- tive, requiring to be cooked with fat meat for the purpose, in consequence of its extreme acridity. The broth, too, of all boiled fish is good for this purpose ; it acting, also, as a strong diuretic, taken with wine more particularly. The best kind of all is that prepared from the sea-scorpion, the iulis,55 and 49 The Dryophites of Bondelet, Dalechamps says. 60 Identical with the Strombus of cc. 39, 46, and 53 of this Book. »l See B. ix. c. 1. "' Littre remarks that Pliny here seems to speak of the " Tethea" as a mollusk; whereas in c. 31, from his expression " Fungorum verius generis quam piscium," he would appear to be describing a zoophyte. 52 See B. ix. cc. 17, 25, 75. 83 See B. ix. cc. 24, 48, 67, 74, 75. M See B. xx. c. 38. 55 A rock fish, according to Athenaeus, B. vii. Rondelet, B. vi. c. 7, identifies it with' the fish called girello by the people of Liguria, the don- zelia of other districts. 40 pliny's natural history. [Book XXXII. rock-fish in general, as they are destitute of all rankness and are free from fat. The proper way of cooking them is with dill, parsley, coriander, and leeks, with the addition of oil and salt. Stale cybium,56 too, acts as a purgative, and is particularly useful for carrying off crudities, pituitous humours, and bile. The myax57 is of a purgative nature, a shell-fish of which we shall take this opportunity of giving the natural his- tory at length. These fish collect together in masses, like the murex,58 and are found in spots covered with sea-weed. They are the finest eating in autumn, and are found in the greatest perfection in places where fresh-water streams discharge them- selves into the sea; for which reason it is that those of Egypt are held in such high esteem. As the winter advances, they contract a bitter flavour, and assume a reddish hue. The liquor of these fish, it is said, acts as a purgative upon the bowels and bladder, has a detergent effect upon the intestines, acts aperiently upon all the passages, purges the kidneys, and diminishes the blood and adipose secretions. Hence it is that these shell-fish are found of the greatest use for the treatment of dropsy, for the regulation of the catamenia, and for the re- moval of jaundice, all diseases of the joints, and flatulency. They are very good, also, for the reduction of obesity, for diseases of the bile and of the pituitous secretions, for affec- tions of the lungs, liver, and spleen, and for rheumatic de- fluxions. The only inconvenience resulting from them is, that they irritate the throat and impede the articulation. They have, also, a healing effect upon ulcers of a serpiginous nature, or which stand in need of detergents, as also upon carcinoma- tous sores. Calcined, the same way as the murex, and em- ployed with honey, they are curative of bites inflicted either by dogs or human beings, and of leprous spots or freckles. The ashes of them, rinsed, are good for the removal of films upon the eyes, granulations of those organs and indurations of the membrane, as also for diseases of the gums and teeth and for pituitous eruptions. They serve, also, as an antidote to doryc- nium59 and to opocarpathon.60 56 Sliced tunny. See B. ix. c. 18. 57 A genus which comprises the " myes," mentioned in B. ix. c 56 according to Dalechamps. ' M gee B. ix. c. 60. 59 See B xxU c 1Q5 80 See B. xxvm. c. 45, and Chapter 20 of the present Book. Chap. 31.] REMEDIES FOR DISEASES OF THE BOWELS. 41 There are two species of this shell-fish, of a degenerate kind: the mitulus,61 which has a strong flavour, and a saltish taste; and the myisca,62 which differs from the former in the roundness of its shell, is somewhat smaller, and is covered with filaments, the shell being thinner, and the meat of a sweeter flavour. The ashes, also, of the mitulus, like those of the murex, are pos- sessed of certain caustic properties, and are very useful for the removal of leprous spot6, freckles, and blemishes of the skin. They are rinsed, too, in the same manner as lead,63 for the removal of swellings of the eyelids, of indurations of the membranes, and of films upon the eyes, as also of sordid ulcers upon other parts of the body, and of pustules upon the head. The meat of them, also, is employed as an application for bites inflicted by dogs. As to pelorides,64 they act as a gentle laxative upon the bowels, an effect equally produced by castoreum, taken in doses of two drachmae, inhydromel: where, however, a more drastic purgative is required, one drachma of dried garden-cucumber root is added, and two drachmae of aphronitrum.65 The tethea66 is good for griping pains in the bowels and for attacks of flatulency : they are generally found adhering to the leaves of marine plants, sucking their nutriment therefrom, and may be rather looked upon as a sort of fungus than as a fish. They are useful, also, for the removal of tenesmus and of diseases of the kidneys. There grows also in the sea a kind of absinthium, known by some persons as " seriphum,"67 and found in the vicinity of Taposiris,68 in Egypt, more particularly. It is of a more Blender form than the land absinthium, acts as a purgative upon the bowels, and effectually removes intestinal worms. The saepia, too, is a laxative; for which purpose these fish are 61 Identical with our mussel, probably. 62 Holland identifies this with the cockle, but it is probably a smaller kind of mussel. 63 See B. xxxiv. c. 50. 64 We learn from Chapter 53 of this Book, that one class of the "Chamae," or gaping cockles, was known as "Pelorides." Horace also mentions them. 65 See B. xxxi. c. 46. 66 See Note 51 above. Silljg would here read" " tetheum," apparently, in the singular. ' 6? Described in B. xxvii. c. 29. 88 A city not far from the Canopic branch of the Nile. 42 PLINT*S NATURAL HISTORY. [Book XXXII administered69 with the food, boiled with a mixture of oil, salt, and meal. Salted maenae,70 applied with bull's gall to the navel, acts as a purgative upon the bowels. The liquor of fish, boiled in the saucepan with lettuces, dispels tenesmus. Biver-crabs,71 beaten up and taken with water, act astringently upon the bowels, and they have a diuretic effect, if taken with white wine. Deprived of the legs, and taken in doses of three oboli with myrrh and iris, one drachma of each, they disperse urinary calculi. For the cure of the iliac pas- sion and of attacks of flatulency, castoreum72 should be taken, with seed of daucus73 and of parsley, a pinch in three fingers of each, the whole being mixed with four cyathi of warm honied wine. Griping pains in the bowels should be treated with castoreum and a mixture of dill and wine. The fish called "erythinus," 74 used as food, acts astringently upon the bowels. Dysentery is cured by taking frogs boiled with squills, and prepared in the form of boluses, or else hearts of frogs beaten up with honey, as Niceratus75 recommends. For the cure of jaundice, salt fish should be taken with pepper, the patient abstaining from all other kinds of meat. CHAP. 32.--REMEDIES FOR DISEASES OF THE SPLEEN, FOR URI- NARY CALCULI, AND FOR AFFECTIONS OF THE BLADDER. THE SOLE : ONE REMEDY. THE TURBOT : ONE REMEDY. THE BLENDIUS : ONE REMEDY. THE SEA-NETTLE : SEVEN REMEDIES. THE PULMO MARINUS : SIX REMEDIES. ONYCHES: FOUR RE- MEDIES. For the cure of spleen diseases, the fish known as the sole76 is applied to that part; the torpedo,77 also, or else a live tur- bot;78 it being then set at liberty in the sea. The sea- scorpion,79 killed in wine, is a cure for diseases of the bladder 69 " Dantur " seems a preferable reading to " datur " 70 See B. ix c. 42. 71 Our crawfish, the Astacus potamobios of Leach. " See Chapter 13 of this Book. 73 See B. xix. c. 27, and B. xxv. c. 64. 74 See B. ix. cc. 23, 77. 7S See end of B. xxxi 76 See B. ix. cc. 20, 24, 36. 77 See B. ix. cc. 24, 48, 67, 74, 75. 18 " Bhombus." See B. ix. cc. 20, 36, 67, 79. 79 See Chapters 23, 34, 30 and 53 of this Book. Chap. 32.] REMEDIES FOR DISEASES OF THE SPLEEN. 43 and for urinary calculi; the stone, also, that is found in the tail80 of this last fish, taken in drink, in doses of one obolus; the liver of the enhydris ;61 and the ashes of the fish called " blendius ;82 taken with rue. In the head, too, of the fish called " bacchus,"83 there are found certain small stones, as it were: these, taken in water, six in number, are an excellent cure for urinary calculi. They say, too, that the sea-nettle,84 taken in wine, is very useful for this purpose, as also the pulmo marinus,85 boiled in water, The eggs of the saepia have a diuretic effect, and carry off pituitous humours from the kidneys. Buptures and convulsions are very effectually treated by taking river-crabs,86 bruised in asses' milk more particu- larly ; and urinary calculi by drinking sea-urchins pounded, spines and all, in wine; the due proportion being one semi- sextarius of wine for each urchin, and the treatment being continued till its good effects are visible. The flesh, too, of the sea-urchin, taken as food, is very useful as a remedy for the same malady. Scallops87 also, taken as food, act detergently upon the blad- der : the male fish is by some persons called " donax," and by others " aulos," the female being known as " onyx."88 The 60 Rondelet, B. vi. c. 19, suggests " capite "—" in the head "—but the present reading is supported by the text of Plinius Valerianus, B. ii. c. 39, and of Marcus Empiricus, c. 28. 81 As to the identity of the Enhydris, see Chapters 19 and 26 of the present Book : also B. xxx. c. 8. 82 Probably the BXtvvbg of Oppian, B. i. c. 108. Dalechamps identifies it with the mullet called " myxon," apparently the same fish as the "bacchus" mentioned in Chapter 25 of this Book. Rondelet appears to identify it with some other sea-fish, small, and extremely rare. On the other hand, the fish mentioned by Oppian is thought by Littre to be the "gobius" of the Latins, (" gobio" or "cobio," mentioned by Pliny in B. ix. c. 83, and in c. 53 of the present Book), which is generally considered the same as our gudgeon, and was a worthless fish, " vilis piscis," as Juvenal says. One of the Linnaean orders of fishes is called "Blennius," the blenny. 83 See B. ix. c. 28. 84 See B. ix. c. 68. 85 Or sea-lungs. See B. ix. c. 71, and B. xviii. c. 85. 86 Or crawfish. 87 "Pectines." See B. ix. cc. 51, 52, 68, 74, 112. 88 Athenaeus adds a fourth name, " solen ;" and a fifth was " dactylus," see B. ix. c. 87. According to Dalechamps, the name "donax" was given to one kind of scallop, from its fancied resemblance to a thick, hollow, river-reed, and that of " onyx" from the resemblance of its colour to that of the finger-nails. 44 pliny's natural history. [Rook XXXII. male scallop has a diuretic effect: the flesh of the female is sweeter than that of the male, and of an uniform colour. The eggs, too, of the saepia promote the urinary secretions, and act detergently upon the kidneys. CHAP. 33.—REMEDIES FOR INTESTINAL HERNIA, AND FOR DIS- EASES OF THE RECTUM. THE WATER-SNAKE : ONE REMEDY. THE HYDRUS: ONE REMEDY. THE MULLET: ONE REMbDT. THE PELAMIS : THREE REMEDIES. For the cure of intestinal hernia the sea-hare is applied, • bruised with honey. The liver of the water-snake,89 and that of the hydrus,90 bruised and taken in drink, are remedial for urinary calculi. Sciatica is cured by using the pickle of the silurus91 as a clyster, the bowels being first thoroughly purged. For chafing of the fundament, an application is made of heads of mullets and surmullets, reduced to ashes; for which pur- pose they are calcined in an earthen vessel, and must be ap- plied in combination with honey. Calcined heads, too, of the fish known as maenae92 are useful for the cure of chaps and condylomata ; as also heads of salted pelamides,93 reduced to ashes, or calcined cybium,94 applied with honey. The torpedo,95 applied topically, reduces procidence of the rectum. Biver-crabs,95 reduced to ashes, and applied with oil and wax, are curative of chaps of the fundament: sea-crabs, too, are equally useful for the purpose. CHAP. 34.--REMEDIES FOR INFLAMED TUMOURS, AND FOR DI8EASE8 OF THE GENERATIVE ORGANS. THE SCLSNA : ONE REMEDY. THE PERCH : FOUR REMEDIES. THE SQUATINA : THREE RE- MEDIES. THE SMARTS : THREE REMEDIES. The pickle of the coracinus97 disperses inflammatory tu- mours ; an effect which is equally produced by using the cal- 89 It is not improbable that he may mean the same animal that has been mentioned in cc. 19 and 26 of this Book, the Enhydris. See also B. xxx. c. 8. 9» See B. xxix. c. 22. « See B. ix. cc. 17 25 75 92 See B. ix. c. 42, and Chapter 27 of this Book. 93 See B. ix. cc. 18, 19, and Chapter 53 of this Book 94 Salted tunny. See B. ix. c. 18. ss See B. ix. cc. 24, 48, 74, 75. 9i Our crawfish. " See B. ix. cc. 24, 32. Chap. 34.] REMEDIES FOR INFLAMED TUMOURS. 45 cined intestines and scales of the sciaena.98 The sea-scorpion,99 too, is used for the same purpose, boiled in wine, and applied as a fomentation to the part affected. Shells of sea-urchins, bruised and applied with water, act as a check upon incipient inflammatory tumours. Ashes of the murex, or of the purple, are employed in either case, whether it is wanted to disperse inflammatory tumours in an incipient state, or to bring them to a head and break them. Some authorities prescribe the fol- lowing preparation: of wax and frankincense twenty drachmae, of litharge forty drachmae, of calcined murex ten drachmae, and of old oil, one semisextarius. Salt fish, boiled and ap- plied by itself, is highly useful for the above purposes. Biver crabs, bruised and applied, disperse pustules on the generative organs: the same, too, with calcined heads of maenae,1 or the flesh of that fish, boiled and applied. Heads of salted perch,2 reduced to ashes, and applied with honey, are equally useful for the purpose; or else calcined heads of pe- lamides,3 or skin of the squatina reduced to ashes.4 It is the skin of this fish that is used, as already5 stated, for giving a polish to wood ; for the sea even, we find, furnishes its aid to our artificers. For a similar purpose the fishes called " smarides"6 are applied topically; as also ashes of the shell of the murex or of the purple, applied with honey ; which last are still more efficacious when the flesh has been burnt with the shell. Salt fish, boiled with honey, is particularly good for the cure of carbuncles upon the generative organs. For relaxation of the testes, the slime7 of snails is recommended, applied in the form of a liniment. 98 See B. ix. c. 24. 99 See Chapters 23, 24, 30, 32, and 53 of the present Book. Also B. xx. c. 53. ! See B. ix. c. 42. 2 " Perca." See B. ix. c. 24. 3 See Note 93 above. 4 See B. ix. c. 14. 6 In B. ix. c. 14. 6 Ajasson remarks that many writers have identified the Smaris with the Sardine or the Anchovy. In his opinion, however, it is neither; but he thinks that under this head were included seven or eight varieties of the Pickerel, the principal of which are, the Sparus smaris of Linnaeus and Lacepede, the Sparus mana of Linnaeus, or Sparus mendola of Lacepede, and the Sparus haffara of Lacepede and Linnaeus. 7 See Chapter 22 of the present Book. 46 PLINY'S NATURAL HISTORY. [Book XXXII. CHAP. 35.--REMEDIES FOR INCONTINENCE OF URINE. THE OPHIDION : ONE REMEDY. The flesh of hippocampi,8 grilled and taken frequently as food, is a cure for incontinence of urine; the ophidion,9 too, a little fish similar to the conger in appearance, eaten with a lily root; or the small fry found in the bellies of larger fish that have swallowed them, reduced to ashes and taken in water. It is recommended, too,.to burn10 African snails, both shells and flesh, and to administer the ashes with wine" of Signia. CHAP. 36.--REMEDIES FOR GOUT, AND FOR PAINS IN THE FEET. THE BEAVER : FOUR REMEDIES. BRYON : ONE REMEDY. For the cure of gout and of diseases of the joints, oil is useful in which the intestines of frogs have been boiled. Ashes, too, of burnt bramble-frogs12 are similarly employed, with stale grease; in addition to which, some persons use cal- cined barley, the three ingredients being mixed in equal pro- portions. It is recommended too, in cases of gout, to rub the parts affected with a sea-hare,13 fresh caught, and to wear shoes made of beaver's skin, Pontic beaver more particularly, or else of sea-calf's14 skin, an animal the fat of which is very useful for the purpose : the same being the case also with bryon, a plant of which we have already spoken,15 similar to the lettuce in appearance, but with more wrinkled leaves, and destitute of stem. This plant is of a styptic nature, and, applied topi- cally, it tends to modify the paroxysms of gout. The same, too, with sea-weed, of which we have also spoken already ;16 due precaution being taken not to apply it dry. Chilblains are cured by applying the pulmo marinus ;17 ashes 8 See B. ix. c. 1. 9 Literally, the " little serpent." Some think that it is the Ophidiura barbatum of Linnaeus. Eondelet identifies it, B. xiv. c. 2, with the small fish called donzella by the people of Montpellier. See c. 31, Note 55. 10 See B. xxx. c. 22. " See B. xiv. c. 8. 12 " Rubetae." See c. 18 of this Book; also B. viii. c. 48; B. xi. cc. 19, 76, 116, and B. xxv. c. 76. 13 See B. ix. c. 72; B. xxv. c. 77, and Chapter 3 of this Book. 14 Or seal-skin. See B. viii. c. 49, and B. ix. c. 15, 15 In B. xxvii. c. 33. « rn B xxvi c 66> " Or "sea-lungs." See B. ix. c. 71, B. xviii. c. 5, and Chapters 32, 46, and 52 of the present Book. Ajasson remarks that this is still the common name of many kinds of Medusae. Chap. 38.] REMEDIES FOR FEVERS. 47 of sea-crabs with oil; river crabs,18 bruised and burnt to ashes and kneaded up with oil; or else fat of the silurus.19 In diseases of the joints, the paroxysms are modified by applying fresh frogs every now and then: some authorities recommend that they should be split asunder before being applied. The liquor from mussels20 and other shell-fish has a tendency to make flesh. CHAP. 37.--REMEDIES FOR EPILEPSY. Epileptic patients, as already21 stated, are recommended to drink the rennet of the sea-calf,22 mixed with mares' milk or asses' milk, or else with pomegranate juice, or, in some cases, with oxymel: some persons, too, swallow the rennet by itself, in the form of pills. Castoreum23 is sometimes administered, in three cyathi of oxymel, to the patient fasting ; but where the attacks are frequent, it is employed in the form of a clyster, with marvellous effect. The proper proportions, in this last case, are two drachmae of castoreum, one sextarius of oil and honey, and the same quantity of water. At the moment that the patient is seized with a fit, it is a good plan to give him cas- toreum, with vinegar, to smell. The liver, too, of the sea- weasel24 is given to epileptic patients, or else that of sea-mice,25 or the blood of tortoises. CHAP. 38. (10.)--REMEDIES FOR FEVERS. THE FISH CALLED A6ELLUS : ONE REMEDY. THE PHAGRUS : ONE REMEDY. THE BALiENA : ONE REMEDY. Becurrent fevers are effectually checked by making the pa- tient taste the liver of a dolphin, just before the paroxysm comes on. Hippocampi26 are stifled in oil of roses, and the pa- tients are rubbed therewith in cold agues, the fish, also, being worn as an amulet by the patient. In the same way, too, the small stones that are found at full moon in the head of the fish called "asellus "27 are worn, attached in a piece of linen cloth to the patient's body. A similar virtue is attributed to the 18 Our crawfish. 19 See B. ix. cc. 17, 25, 75. =o " Mituli." See Chapter 31 of the present Book. « In B. viii. c. 49. 22 See Note 14 above. 23 See Chapter 13 of the present Book. 24 See B. ix. c. 29. 2» See B. ix. cc. 35, 76. 26 See B. ix. c. 1. 27 See B. ix. c. 28. 48 pliny's NATURAL HISTORY. [Book XXXII. longest tooth of the river-fish called phagrus,28 attached to the patient with a hair, provided he does not see the person who attaches it to him for five days. Frogs are boiled in oil in a spot where three roads meet, and, the flesh being first thrown away, the patients are rubbed with the decoction, by way of cure for quartan fever. Some persons, again, suffocate frogs in oil, and, after attaching them to the patient without his knowing it, anoint him with the oil. The heart of a frog, worn as an amulet, modifies the cold chills in fevers; the same, too, with oil in which the intestines of frogs have been boiled. But the best remedy for quartan fevers, is to wear attached to the body either frogs from which the claws have been29 removed, or else the liver or heart of a bramble-frog,30 attached in a piece of russet-coloured cloth. River-crabs,31 bruised in oil and water, are highly beneficial in fevers, the patient being anointed with the preparation just before the paroxysms come on: some authorities recommend the addition of pepper to the mixture. Others prescribe for quartan fevers a decoction of river-crabs in wine, boiled down to one fourth, the patient taking it at the moment of leaving the bath: by some, too, it is recommended to swallow the left eye of a river-crab. The magicians engage to cure a tertian fever, by attaching as an amulet to the patient, before sunrise, the eyes of river-crabs, the crabs when thus blinded being set at liberty in the water. They say, too, that these eyes, attached to the body in a piece of deer's hide, with the flesh of a nightingale,32 will dispel sleep and promote watchfulness. In cases where there are symptoms of lethargy, the rennet of the balaena M or of the sea-calf34 is given to the patient to smell; some persons, too, use the blood of tortoises as a liniment for lethargic patients. Tertian fevers, it is said, may be cured by wearing one of the vertebrae35 of a perch attached to the body, and quartan fevers by using fresh river snails, as an aliment. Some per- sons preserve these snails in salt for this purpose, and give them, pounded, in drink. 28 See B. ix. c. 24. 29 "Ablatis unguibus." 30 " Rubeta." si Our crawfish. 32 Because the nightingale sings at night, instead of sleeping 33 See B. ix. cc. 2, 5, 6, 7, 15. 34 Or seal. « " Spondylus." Chap. 40.] REMEDIES FOR BURNS. 49 CHAP. 39.--REMEDIES FOR LETHARGY, CACHEXY, AND DROPSY. Strombi,36 left to putrefy in vinegar, act as an excitant upon lethargic patients by their smell; they are very useful, too, for the cure of cardiac diseases. For cachectic patients, where the body is wasting with consumption, tetheae37 are considered beneficial, mixed with rue and honey. For the cure of dropsy, dolphin's fat is melted and taken with wine, the re- pulsive taste of it being neutralized by first touching the nostrils with unguent or some other odoriferous substance, or else by plugging the nostrils in some way or other. The flesh of strombi, pounded and given in three heminae of honied wine and the same quantity of water, or, if there is fever, in hydromel, is very useful for dropsy: the same, too, with the juice of river-crabs, administered with honey. Water frogs, too, are boiled with old wine and spelt,31* and taken as food, the liquor in which they have been boiled being drunk from the same vessel : or else the feet, head, and tail of a tortoise are cut off, and the intestines removed, the rest of the flesh being seasoned in such a manner as to allow of its being taken without loathing. Biver-crabs, too, eaten with their broth, are said to be very good for the cure of phthisis. CHAP. 40.--REMEDIES FOR BURNS AND FOR ERYSIPELAS. Burns are cured by applying ashes of calcined sea-crabs or river-crabs with oil: fish-glue, too, and calcined frogs are used as an application for scalds produced by boiling water. The same treatment also restores the hair, provided the ashes are those of river-crabs : it is generally thought, too, that the preparation should be applied with wax and bears' grease. Ashes, too, of burnt beaver-skin are very useful for these purposes. Live frogs act as a check upon erysipelas, the belly side being applied to the part affected: it is recommended, too, to attach them lengthwise by the hinder legs, so as to render them more beneficial by reason of their increased re- spiration.38 Heads, too, of salted siluri39 are reduced to ashes and applied with vinegar. Prurigo and itch-scab, not only in man but in quadrupeds 38 See Chapter 29 of this Book. 37 See Chapters 30 and 31 of the present Book. 37* See B. xviii. c. 19. 38 " Crebriore anhelitu." 39 See B. ix. cc. 17, 25, 75. VOL. VI. E 50 PLINY'S NATURAL HISTORY. [Book XXXII. as well, are most efficaciously treated with the liver of the pastinaca40 boiled in oil. CHAP. 41.--REMEDIES FOR DISEASES OF THE SINEWS. The exterior callosity with which the flesh of purples is covered, beaten up, unites the sinews, even when they have been severed asunder. It is a good plan, for patients suffering from tetanus, to take sea-calf s rennet in wine, in doses of one obolus, as also fish-glue.41 Persons affected with fits of trem- bling find much relief from castoreum,42 provided they are well anointed with oil. I find it stated that the surmullet,4'' used as an article of diet, acts injuriously upon the sinews. CHAP. 42.—METHODS OF ARRESTING HEMORRHAGE AND OF LET- TING BLOOD. THE POLYP: ONE REMEDY. Fish, used as.an aliment, it is generally thought, make blood. The polyp,44 bruised and applied, arrests haemorrhage, it is thought: in addition to which we find stated the follow- ing particulars respecting it—that of itself it emits a sort of brine, in consequence of which, there is no necessity to use any in cooking it—that it should always be sliced with a reed —and that it is spoilt by using an iron knife, becoming tainted thereby, owing to the antipathy45 which naturally exists [between it and iron]. For the purpose also of arresting haemorrhage, ashes of burnt frogs are applied topically, or else the dried blood of those animals. Some authorities recom- mend the frog to be used, that is known by the Greeks as " calamites,"46 from the fact that it lives among reeds47 and shrubs; it is the smallest and greenest of all the frogs, and either the blood or the ashes of it are recommended to be em- ployed. Others, again, prescribe, in cases of bleeding at the nostrils, an injection of the ashes of young water-frogs, in the tadpole state, calcined in a new earthen vessel. 4« Or sting-ray. See B. ix. cc. 37, 40, 67, 72. 41 Ichthyocolla. See Chapter 24 of this Book. 42 See Chapter 13 of this Book. 43 See B. ix. c. 30. 44 See B. ix. c. 46. 45 This seems to be the meaning of " natura dissidente," if it is the correct reading. That, however, suggested by Dalechamps would seem to be preferable, " natura retinente,"—"it being the nature of its flesh to cling to the knife." 48 See Chapter 24 of this Book. 47 " Calami." Chap. 43.] EXTRACTION OF FOREIGN BODIES FROM FLESH. 51 On the other hand, again, in cases where it is required to let blood, the kind of leech is used which is known among us by the name of " sanguisuga.48" Indeed, the action of these leeches is looked upon as pretty much the same as that of the cupping-glasses49 used in medicine, their effect being to relieve the body of superfluous blood, and to open the pores of the skin. Still, however, there is this inconvenience attend- ing them—when they have been once applied, they create a necessity60 for having recourse to the same treatment at about the same period in every succeeding year. Many physicians have been of opinion also, that leeches may be successfully ap- plied in cases of gout. When gorged, they fall off in conse- quence of losing their hold through the weight of the blood, but if not, they must be sprinkled with salt51 for the purpose. Leeches are apt, however, to leave their heads buried in the flesh ; the consequence of which is an incurable wound, which has caused death in many cases, that of Messalinus,52 for ex- ample, a patrician of consular rank, after an application of leeches to his knee. When this is the case, that which was intended as a remedy is turned into an active poison ;53 a result which is to be apprehended in using the red leeches more particularly. Hence it is that when these last are employed, it is the practice to snip them with a pair of scissors while sucking; the consequence of which is, that the blood oozes forth, through a siphon, as it were, and the head, gradually contracting as the animal dies, is not left behind in the wound. There is a natural antipathy54 existing between leeches and bugs, and hence it is that the latter are killed by the aid of a fumigation made with leeches. Ashes of beaver-skin burnt with tar, kneaded up with leek-juice, arrest bleeding at the nostrils. CHAP. 43.—METHODS OF EXTRACTING FOREIGN BODIES FROM THE FLESH. To extract pointed weapons which have pierced the flesh, ashes of calcined shells of the saepia are used, as also of the 48 " Bloodsuckers." 49 " Cucurbitae medicinales." 50 This does not appear to be considered the case at the present day. 81 A method still employed. 52 See B. x. c. 27. 53 " lnvehunt virus remedio verso." The reading is probably corrupt, but the meaning is pretty evident. 54 See B. xxix. c. 17, and c. 47 of this Book. E 2 52 PLINY'S NATURAL HISTORY. [Book XXXII., purple, the meat of salted fish, bruised river-crabs, or flesh of the silurus55 (a river-fish that is found in other streams as well as the Nilus56), applied either fresh or salted. The ashes also of this fish, as well as the fat, have the property of extracting pointed bodies, and the back-bone, in a calcined state, is used as a substitute for spodium.57 CHAP. 44.—REMEDIES FOR ULCERS, CARCINOMATA, AND CAR- BUNCLES. Ulcers of a serpiginous nature, as also the fleshy excrescences which make their appearance in them, are kept in check by applying ashes of calcined heads of maenae,58 or else ashes of the silurus.59 Carcinomata, too, are treated with heads of salted perch, their efficacy being considerably increased by using some salt along with the ashes, and kneading them up with heads of cunila60 and olive-oil. Ashes of sea-crabs, cal- cined with lead, arrest the progress of carcinomatous sores ; a purpose for which ashes of river-crabs, in combination with honey and fine lint, are equally useful: though there are some authorities which prefer mixing alum and barley with the ashes. Phagedaenic ulcers are cured by an application of dried silurus pounded with sandarach ;61 malignant cancers, corrosive ulcers, and putrid 6ores, by the agency of stale cybium.62 Maggots that breed in sores are removed by applying frogs' gall; and fistulas are opened and dried by introducing a tent made of salt fish, with a dossil of lint. Salt fish, kneaded up and applied in the form of a plaster, will remove all proud flesh in the course of a day, and will arrest the further pro- gress of putrid and serpiginous ulcers. Alex,63 applied in lint, acts detergently, also, upon ulcers; the same, too, with the ashes of calcined shells of sea-urchins. Salted slices of the coracinus64 disperse carbuncles, an effect equally produced by the ashes of salted surmullets.65 Some persons, however, use 55 See B. ix. cc. 17, 25, 75. s* See B. ix. c. 17. Ajasson says that it is also found of enormous size, in the Danube and in the Theisse. 57 See B. xxxiv. c. 33. »8 See B. ix. c. 42. 59 See Note 55 above. «> " Cunila capitata." See B. xx. c. 65. 61 See B. xxxiv. c. 55. «2 Tunny sliced and salted; see B. ix c. 18. 63 See B. xxxi. c. 44. «4 See B. ix. cc. 24 32. 85 See B. ix. c. 30. Chap. 46.] REMEDIES FOR FEMALE DISEASES. 53 the head only of the surmullet, in combination with honey or with the flesh of the coracinus. Ashes of the murex, ap- plied with oil, disperse tumours, and the gall of the sea-scor- pion makes scars disappear. CHAP. 45.--REMEDIES FOR WARTS, AND FOR MALFORMED NAILS. THE GLANIS : ONE REMEDY. To remove warts, the liver of the glanis66 is applied to the part; ashes also of heads of maense67 bruised with garlic— substances which should be used raw where it is thyme- warts68 that require to be removed—the gall of the red sea- scorpion,68* smarides69 pounded and applied, or alex70 thoroughly boiled. Ashes of calcined heads of maenae71 are used to rectify malformed nails. CHAP. 46.--REMEDIES FOR FEMALE DISEASES. THE GLAUCISCUS : ONE REMEDY. The milk is increased in females by eating the glauciscus72 in its own liquor, or else smarides73 with a ptisan, or boiled with fennel. Ashes of calcined shells of the murex or purple, applied with honey, are an effectual cure for affections of the mamillae; river-crabs, too, and sea-crabs, applied topically, are equally good. The meat of the murex, applied to the mamillae, removes hairs74 growing upon those parts. The squatina,75 ap- plied topically, prevents the mamillae from becoming too dis- tended. Lint greased with dolphin's76 fat, and then ignited, produces a smoke which acts as an excitant upon females suffering from hysterical suffocations; the same, too, with Btrombi,77 left to putrefy in vinegar. Heads of perch or of 66 See B. ix. c. 67. 67 See Note 58 above. 68 "Thyniia." 6** Ajasson thinks that the ancients knew but one kind of sea-scorpion, but in different states, the Cottus scorpius, probably, of Linnaeus. 69 See Chapter 34 of this Book. 70 See Note 63 above. 71 See Note 58 above. 72 This fish has not been identified. It is possible, however, that it may be the same as the " glaucus" mentioned in B ix. c. 25. 73 See Note 69 above. 74 See B. xxvi. c. 92. " See B. ix. cc. 14, 40, 67. 78 An asserted remedy, founded, as Ajasson remarks, upon nothing but a pun, the resemblance between StXflg, a " dolphin," and dtXQvg, the "womb.1' 77 See Chapters 29 and 39 of this Book. 54 PLINY'S NATURAL HISTORY. [Book XXXII maenae,78 calcined and mixed with salt, oil, and cunila,79 are curative of diseases of the uterus : used as a fumigation, they bring away the afterbirth. Fat,80 too, of the sea-calf, melted by the agency of fire, is introduced into the nostrils of females when swooning from hysterical suffocations ; and for a similar purpose, the rennet of that animal is applied as a pessary, in wool. The pulmo marinus,81 attached to the body as an amulet, is an excellent promoter of menstruation; an effect which is equally produced by pounding live sea-urchins, and taking them in sweet wine. Biver-crabs,82 bruised in wine, and taken internally, arrest menstruation. The silurus,83 that of Africa81 more particularly, used as a fumigation, facilitates parturition, it is said. Crabs, taken in water, arrest menstruation; but used with hyssop, they act as an emmenagogue, we are told. In cases, too, where the infant is in danger of suffocation at the moment of delivery, a similar drink, administered to the mother, is highly efficacious. Crabs, too, either fresh or dried, are taken in drink, for the purpose of preventing abortion. Hippocrates85 prescribes them as a promoter of menstruation, and as an expellent of the dead foetus, beaten up with five86 roots of lapathum and rue and some soot, and administered in honied wine. Crabs, boiled and taken in their liquor, with lapathum87 and parsley, promote the menstrual dis- charge, and increase the milk. In cases of fever, attended with pains in the head and throbbing of the eyes, crabs are said to be highly beneficial to females, given in astringent wine. Castoreum,88 taken in honied wine, is useful as a promoter of menstruation : in cases of hysterical suffocation, it is given 78 See B. ix. c. 42. 79 See B. xx. c. 65. 80 In other words, seal-oil. 81 Or sea-lungs. See Chapter 36 of this Book. 82 qt crawfish. 83 See B. ix. c. 17 ; also Chapter 43 of this Book. 84 Meaning Egypt, probably; see the passages referred to in the pre- ceding note. « De Morb. Mulier. I. 128. <*6 We would adopt the suggestion of M. Ian, and read "quinis cum," in preference to "cum quinis;" "five crabs with roots of lapathum and rue." 87 SeeB. xx. c. 85. 88 See Chapter 13 of the present Book. Chap. 47 ] REMOVAL OF SUPERFLUOUS HAIR. 55 to the patient to smell at with pitch and vinegar, or else it is made up into tablets and used as a pessary. For the purpose also of bringing away the afterbirth it is found a useful plan to employ castoreum with pan ax,89 in four cyathi of wine; and in cases where the patient is suffering from cold, in doses of three oboli. If, however, a female in a state of pregnancy should happen to step over castoreum, or over the beaver itself, abortion, it is said, will be the sure result: so, too, if casto- reum is only held over a pregnant woman's head, there will be great danger of miscarriage. There is a very marvellous fact, too, that I find stated in reference to the torpedo :90 if it is caught at the time that the moon is in Libra, and kept in the open air for three days, it will always facilitate parturition, as often as it is introduced into the apartment of a woman in labour. The sting, too, of the pastinaca,91 attached to the navel, is generally thought to have the property of facilitating delivery: it must be taken, however, from the fish while alive; which done, the fish must be returned to the sea. I find it stated by some authorities that there is a substance called " ostraceum," which is also spoken of as " onyx "92 by others; that, used as a fumigation, it is wonderfully beneficial for suffocations of the uterus ; that in smell it resembles castoreum, and is still more efficacious, if burnt with this last substance ; and that in a calcined state it has the property of healing inveterate ulcers, and cancerous sores of a malignant nature. As to carbuncles and carcino- matous sores upon the secret parts of females, there is nothing more efficacious, it is said, than a female crab beaten up, just after full moon, with flower of salt93 and applied with water. CHAP. 47.--METHODS OF REMOVING SUPERFLUOUS HAIR. DEPILATORIES. ■ Depilatories are prepared from the blood, gall, and liver of the tunny, either fresh or preserved; as also from pounded liver of the same fish, preserved with cedar resin94 in a leaden box; a re- 89 See B. xii. c. 57. 90 See B. ix. cc. 24, 48, 74, 75. 91 Or sting-ray. See B. ix. c. 72. 92 The callosity is here meant, Hardouin supposes, which covers the purple in the shell. See Chapter 41 of this Book. 93 " Salis flore." See B. xxxi. c. 42. 94 " Cedrium." See B. xvi. c. 21, and B. xxiv. c. 11. 56 pliny's NATURAL HISTORY. [Book XXXII. cipe which we find given by the midwife Salpe95 for disguising the age of boys on sale for slaves. A similar property belongs to the pulmo marinus,96 to the blood and gall of the sea-hare, and to the sea-hare itself, stifled in oil. The same, too, with ashes of burnt crabs or sea scolopendrae,97 mixed with oil; sea-nettles,98 bruised in squill vinegar ; and brains of the tor- pedo99 applied with alum on the sixteenth day of the moon. The thick matter emitted by the small frogs, which we have described when treating1 of eye-diseases, is a most efficient depilatory, if applied fresh: the same, too, with the frog itself, dried and pounded, and then boiled*down to one-third in three heminae of water, or else boiled in a copper vessel with oil in a like proportion. Others, again, prepare a depilatory from fifteen frogs, in manner already2 stated under the head of remedies for the eyes. Leeches, also, grilled in an earthen vessel, and applied with vinegar, have the same property as a depilatory; the very odour, too, which attaches to the persons who thus burn them is singularly efficacious for killing bugs.3 Cases are to be found, too, where persons have used castoreum with honey, for many days together, as a depilatory. In the case, however, of every depilatory, the hairs should always be removed before it is applied. CHAP. 48.—REMEDIES FOR THE DISEASES OF INFANTS. Dentition in infants is promoted, and the gums greatly re- lieved, by rubbing them with ashes of a dolphin's teeth, mixed with honey, or else by touching the gums with the tooth itself of that fish. One of these teeth, worn as an amulet, is a preventive of sudden frights ;4 the tooth of the dog-fish5 being also possessed of a similar property. As to ulcers which make their appearance in the ears, or in any other parts of the b'ody, they may be cured by applying the liquor of river-crabs,6 with barley-meal. These crabs, too, bruised in oil and employed as a friction, are very useful for other kinds of maladies. A 95 See end of B. xxviii. 96 Or " sea-lungs." See Chapter 36 of this Book. 97 See B. ix. c. 67 98 See B. ix. c. 68. 99 See Note 90 above. i In Chapter 24 of this Book. 2 See the preceding Note. 3 See Chapter 42 of this Book. 4 In the case of infants, probably. 5 " Canicula." See B. ix. cc. 11,70. 6 Or " crawfish." Chap. 51.] REMEDIES FOR THE DISEASES OF ANIMALS. 57 Bponge moistened with cold water from time to time,7 or a frog applied, the back part to the head, is a most efficacious cure for siriasis8 in infants. When the frog is removed, it will be found quite dry, they say. CHAP. 49.—METHODS OF PREVENTING INTOXICATION. THE FISH CALLED RUBELLIO : ONE REMEDY. THE EEL : ONE REMEDY. THE GRAPE-FISH : ONE REMEDY. A surmullet9 stifled in wine ; the fish called "rubellio;"10or a couple of eels similarly treated ; or a grapefish,11 left to putrefy in wine, all of them, produce an aversion to wine in those who drink thereof. CHAP. 50.--ANTAPHRODISIAC3 AND APHRODISIACS. THE HIPPO- POTAMUS : ONE REMEDY. THE CROCODILE : ONE REMEDY. In the number of antaphrodisiacs, we have the echene'is ;12 the skin from the left side of the forehead of the hippopotamus,13 attached to the body in lamb-skin ; and the gall of a live tor- pedo,14 applied to the generative organs. The following substances act as aphrodisiacs—the flesh of river-snails, preserved in salt and given to drink in wine ; the erythinus16 taken as food; the liver of the frog called "diopetes" or " calamites"16 attached to the body in a small piece of crane's Bkin; the eye-tooth of a crocodile, attached to the arm; the hippocampus ;1T and the sinews of a bramble-frog,18 worn as an amulet upon the right arm. A bramble-frog, attached to the body in a piece of fresh sheep-skin, effectually puts an end to love. CHAP. 51.--REMEDIES FOR THE DISEASES OF ANIMALS. A decoction of frogs in water, reduced to the form of a lini- 7 "Crebro humefacto" seems a preferable reading to " cerebro hume- facto," though supported by the Bamberg MS. 8 See B. xxii. c. 29, and B. xxx. c. 47. 9 See B. ix. c. 30. ]0 Identified with the "erythinus" of B. ix. c. 23, and mentioned in the next Chapter. u See B. ix. c. 1. 12 Or Remora. See B. ix. c. 41. 13 See B. viii. c. 39. 11 See Note 90 above. 15 See B. ix. c. 23. is See Chapter 24 of this Book. 17 See B. ix. c. 1. » " Rubeta." See B. viii. c. 48, B. xi. cc. 19, 76, lT6, B. xxv. c. 76, and c. 18 of this Book. 58 pltny's natural history. [Book XXXII. ment, is curative of itch-scab in horses ; indeed, it is said, that a horse, when once treated in this manner, will never again be attacked with the disease. Salpe says that if a live frog is given to dogs in their mess, they will lose the power of barking. CHAP. 52.--OTHER AQUATIC PRODUCTIONS. ADARCA OR CALA- MOCHNOS : THREE REMEDIES. REEDS : EIGHT REMEDIES. THE INK OF THE S^PIA? Among the aquatic productions ought also to be mentioned calamochnos, in Latin known as " adarea,"19 a substance which collects about small reeds, from a mixture of the foam of fresh and of sea water. It possesses certain caustic properties, and hence it is that it is so useful as an ingredient in " acopa"20 and as a remedy for cold shiverings ; it is used too, for remov- ing freckles upon the face of females. And now we are speaking of adarea, the reed ought equally to be mentioned. The root of that known as the " phragmites,"21 pounded fresh, is curative of sprains, and, applied topically with vinegar, re- moves pains in the spine. The calcined bark, too, of the Cyprian22 reed, known as the " donax," is curative of alopecy and inveterate ulcers; and its leaves are good for the extrac- tion of foreign bodies adhering to the flesh, and for the cure of erysipelas: should, however, the flower of the panicle happen to enter the ears, deafness23 is the consequence. The ink of the saepia24 is possessed of such remarkable po- tency, that if it is put into a lamp, Anaxilaus tells us, the light will become entirely changed,25 and all present will look as black as ^Ethiopians. The bramble-frog, boiled in water, and given to swine with their drink, is curative of the maladies with which they are affected; an effect equally produced by the ashes of any other kind of frog. If wood is rubbed with the pulmo marinus,26 it will have all the appearance of being 19 See B. xv. c. 36, and B. xx. c. 22. 20 " Remedies for lassitude." See B. xxiii. cc. 45, 80 ; B. xxvii. c.13, and B. xxix. cc. 13, 37. 21 See B. xvi. c. 66, and B. xxiv. c. 50. 22 See B. xvi. c. 66, and B. xxiv. c. 50. 23 See B. xxiv. c. 50. a See B. ix. cc. 20, 44, 74, 78. 23 " Ablato pnore lumine." Hardouin justly ridicules this assertion. This ink, as Ajasson remarks, is intensely black. 26 See B. ix. c. 71, aud Chapter 36 of this Book.. Chap. 53.] NAMES OF ALL ANIMALS THAT EXIST IN THE SEA. 59 on fire ; so much so, indeed, that a walking-stick, thus treated, will light the way like a torch.27 CHAP. 53. (11.)--THE NAME8 OF ALL THE ANIMALS THAT EXIST IN THE SEA, ONE HUNDRED AND SEVENTY-SIX IN NUMBER. Having now completed our exposition of the properties which belong to the aquatic productions, it would appear by no means foreign to my purpose to give a list of the various animated beings which inhabit the seas ; so many as these are in num- ber, of such vast extent, and not only making their way into the interior of the land to a distance of so many miles, but also surrounding the exterior of it to an extent almost equal to that of the world itself. These animals, it is generally considered, embrace one hundred and seventy-six different28 species, and it will be my object to set them forth, each by its distinct name, a thing that cannot possibly be done in reference to the terres- trial animals and the birds. For, in fact, we are by no means acquainted with all the wild beasts or all the birds that are to be found in India, JEthi- opia, Scythia, or the desert regions of the earth ; and even of man himself there are numerous varieties, which as yet we have been unable29 to make ourselves acquainted with. In ad- dition, too, to the various countries above mentioned, we have Taprobane30 and other isles of the Ocean, about which so many fabulous stories are related. Surely then, everyone must allow that it is quite impossible to comprise every species of animal in one general view for the information of mankind. And yet, by Hercules ! in the sea and in the Ocean, vast as it is, there exists nothing that is unknown to us,31 and, a truly marvellous fact, it is with those things which Nature has concealed in the deep that we are the best acquainted ! To begin then with the monsters32 that are found in this ele- 27 This seems to be the meaning of "adeo ut baculum ita prseluceat." 28 Some MSS. have here " 164," the Bamberg MS. and others " 144." Owing to the corrupt state of the text in many parts of this Chapter, it is impossible to say which reading is correct. 29 " Invenire non potuimus " seems a preferable reading to " invenire potuimus." 30 Modern Ceylon. See B. vi. cc. 23, 24, B. vii. c. 2, and B. ix. c. 54. 31 " Quae nascuntur certa sunt." A bold assertion. The various fishes now known amount to many thousands ; and there are still vast numbers, no doubt, with which science has not hitherto become acquainted. 32 "Belluae." 60 pliny's natural history. [Book XXXII. ment. We here find sea-trees,33 physeters,34 balaenae,35 pistrices,36 tritons,37 nereids,38 elephants,39 the creatures known as sea- men,40 sea-wheels,41 orcae,42 sea-rams,43 musculi,44 other fish too with the form of rams,45 dolphins,46 sea-calves,47 so celebrated by Homer,48 tortoises49 to minister to our luxury, and beavers, so extensively employed in medicine,50 to which class belongs the otter,61 an animal which we nowhere find frequenting the sea, it being only of the marine animals that we are speak- ing. There are dog-fish,52 also, drinones,63 cornutae,64 sword- fish,65 saw-fish^66 hippopotami57 and crocodiles,58 common to the sea, the land, and the rivers; tunnies69 also, thynnides, siluri,69* coracini,60 and perch,61 common to the sea only and to rivers. To the sea only, belong also the acipenser,62 the dorade,63 the asellus,64 the acharne,65 the aphye,66 the alopex,67 the 33 He may possibly allude to the plants mentioned in B. xiii. cc. 48, 49, 50, 51, and 52; though Hardouin seems to think it impossible to dis- cover what he means, seeing that he is speaking of sea-monsters, beings with animal life. See also B. ix. c. 3. 34 See B. ix. c. 3. 35 See B. ix. cc. 2, 5. 36 See B. ix. c. 3; probably the same as the " pristis " of B. ix. c. 2. 37 See B. ix. c. 4. 38 See B. ix. c. 4. 39 See B. ix. c. 4. 40 " Homines marini." See B. ix. c. 4. 41 See B. ix. c. 3. 42 See B. ix. c. 5. 43 See B. ix. c. 4. 44 See B. ix. c. 88, and B. xi. c. 62. « See B ix. c. 67. 46 See B. ix. c. 7. 47 See B. ix. c. 15. 48 Odyssey, B. iv. 1. 436. 49 Turtles. See B. ix. c. 13. 60 See Chapter 13 of this Book. 51 See K. viii. c. 47; also Chapters 26 and 32 of this Book. 52 See B. ix. c. 70. 63 The name of a fish unknown. Sillig conjectures that Pliny may have had in view the fish called " dromades " by Aristotle. " Dromones" is another reading, a sort of small crab. 54 Littre translates this " horned ray." 65 " Gladii." See B. ix. cc. 1, 21; the same, probably, as the " xiphias" mentioned at the end of this Chapter. «8 See B. ix. c. 1. " See B. viii. c. 39. 58 See B. viii. c. 37. 59 See B. ix. cc. 18, 20. Holland says, " Some take ' thynni' for the milters, and ' thynnides' for the spawners." In his translation, however, he identifies the "thynnides" with the "pelamides," or young tunnies, mentioned in this Chapter, and in B. ix. c. 18. «• See B. ix. cc. 17, 25. eo See B ^ cc> u 32> 81 "Percae." See B. ix. c. 24. « See B. ix. c. 27. 83 " Aurata." See B. ix. c. 25. «4 See B. ix.' cc. 25, 28. 83 Considered by some to be the whiting. Littre identifies it with the Perca labrax of Linnaeus. 66 See B. ix. c. 74; where it is called " apua " 67 The "sea-fox." See B. ix. c. 67. Chap. 63.] ANIMAXS THAT EXIST IN THE SEA. 61 eel,68 the araneus,69 the boca,70 the batia,71 the bacchus,72 the ba- trachus,73 the belonae,74 known to us as "aculeati,"75 the bala- nus,76 the corvus,77 the citharus, the least esteemed of all the turbots, the chalcis,78 the cobio,79 the callarias,80 which would belong to the genus of the aselli81 were it not smaller; the colias,82 otherwise known as the fish of Parium83 or of Sexita,84 this last from a place of that name in Baetica its native re- gion, the smallest, too, of the lacerti ;85 the colias of the Maeotis, the next smallest of the lacerti; the cybium,86 (the name given, when cut into pieces, to the pelamis87 which re- turns at the end of forty days from the Euxine to the Palus Maeotis); the cordyla88—which is also a small pelamis, so called at the time when it enters the Euxine from the Palus Maeotis—the cantharus,89 the callionymus90 or uranoscopus, the cinaedus, the only91 fish that is of a yellow colour; the cnide, known to us as the sea-nettle ;92 the different kinds of 68 " Anguilla." See B. ix. cc. 2, 37, 38. 69 Or sea-spider. See B. ix. c.# 72. 70 The same as the bogue of the* coasts of Narbonne, according to Ron- delet, B. v. c. 11. 71 See Chapter 25 of the present Book. 72 See B. ix. c. 28. 73 Or frog-fish. See B. ix. c. 40. 74 " Sea-needles." Identified by some with the horn-fish, horn-back, or needle-fish. 75 " Needle-fish." 76 "Acorn-fish." A shell-fish, according to Rondelet, B. i. c. 30, which frequents the clefts of rocks. 77 " Sea-raven." According to some authorities, identical with the Trigla hirundo of Linnaeus. Hardouin says that it is the fish called capone by the people of Rome. 78 See B. ix. c. 71 79 The same, probably, as the " gobio," mentioned in B. ix. c. 83. 80 See B. ix. c. 28. 81 See B. ix. cc. 25, 28. 82 Thought by some to be a kind of mackerel, by others to be a tunny. Rondelet says, B. viii. c. 8, that it is a fish still called coguiol by the people of Marseilles. 83 In the Hellespont. 84 Or Sexis, according to Pintianus. 85 Or " sea-lizards." 86 See B. ix. c. 18. He surely does not intend to include this among his " one hundred and seventy-six different kinds of aquatic animals" ! 87 Or young tunny. See B. ix. c. 18. 88 See B. ix. c. 18. 89 Rondelet says, B. v. c. 4, that it is a fish still known (in his time) as cantheno, by the people of Narbonne. Ovid, in his Halieuticon, 1. 103, speaks of the unpleasant flavour of its juices. 90 See Chapter 24 of the present Book. 91 Of course, as Hardouin says, he does not include the shell-fishes in this assertion. The fish with this uncomplimentary name has not been identified. 92 " Urtica." See B. ix. c. 68. 62 pliny's natural history. [Book XXXII. crabs,93 the striated chemae,94 the smooth chemae, the ehenise belonging to the genus of pelorides,95 all differing in the va- riety of their colours and in the roundness of the shells; the chemae glycymarides,96 still larger than the pelorides ; the co- luthia or coryphia;97 the various kinds of shellfish, among which we find the pearl oysters,98 the cochleae,99 (belonging to which class are the pentadactyli,1) the helices,2 by some known as actinophori, the spokes3 on whose shells are used for musical purposes ;4 and, in addition to these, the round cochleae, the shells of which are used in measuring oil, as also the sea- cucumber,6 the cynopos,6 the cammarus,7 and the cynosdexia.8 Next to these we have the sea-dragon,9 a fish which, accord- ing to some, is altogether distinct from the dracunculus,10 and resembles the gerricula in appearance, it having on the gills u stickle which points towards the tail and inflicts a wound like that of the scorpion11 when the fish is handled—the erythi- nus,12 the echene'is,13 the sea-urchin,14 the sea-elephant, a black kind of crayfish, with four forked legs, in addition to two arms with double joints, and furnished, each of them, with a pair of claws, indented at the edge; the faber,15 also, or zaeus, the glauciscus,16 the glanis,17 the gonger,18 the genres,19 93 See B. ix. c. 51. 94 Or "chamae ;" different varieties of gaping cockles. 96 Or " monster "-cockles. 96 Or " sweet" cockles. 97 See Chapter 27 of this Book. 98 See B. ix. c. 54. 99 Or "cochli." As to the various kinds of cochleae, see B. ix. c. 51. 1 " Five-fingered." So called from some peculiarity in their shape. 2 Considered by some to be the striated mussel, the Pecten of Linnaeus 8 "Radii." 4 This is not improbably the meaning of the very elliptical sentence, " Quibus radii cantant." 5 gee g jx c j 6 The " dog's-face," literally. This fish has not been identified: in- deed the reading is doubtful. 7 A kind of crab or crayfish. See B. xxvii. c. 2. 8 Literally, the " dog's right hand." This fish has not been identified: Hardouin suggests that it may have been a zoophyte. 9 See B. ix. c. 43, and Chapters 17 and 26 of this Book. •o Or " little dragon." " The sea-scorpion, probably. 12 See B. ix. c. 23; also Chapters 31 and 50 of this Book. 13 Or Remora. See B. ix. c. 41 ; also Chapter 1 of this Book 14 See B. ix. cc. 14, 74. is gee B ix c 32_ lfi See Chapter 46 of the present Book. n gee 3 jx_ c gy 18 Possibly the same as the " Conger " of B. ix c. 24. 19 A fish similar, most probably, to the "gerricula" previously mentioned. Holland calls it a "pilchard " or " herring." Chap. 53.] ANIMALS THAT EXIST IN THE SEA. 63 the galeos,20 the garos, 21 the hippos,22 the hippuros,23 the hi- rundo,24 the halipleumon,25 the hippocampus,26 the hepar,27 the ictinus28 and the iulis.29 There are various kinds also of la- certi,30 the springing loligo,31 the crayfish,32 the lantern-fish,33 the lepas,34 the larinus, the sea-hare,35 and the sea-lion,36 with arms like those of the crab, and in the other parts of the body like the cray-fish. We have the surmullet37 also, the sea black-bird,38 highly esteemed among the rock-fish ; the mullet,39 the melanurus,40 the maena,41 the maeotis,42 the muraena,43 the mys,44 the mitu- lus,45 the myiscus,46 the murex,47 the oculata,48 the ophidion,49 the oyster,60 the otia,51 the orcynus—the largest of all the pe- lamides52 and one that never returns to the Palus Maeotis, like the tritomus53 in appearance, and best when old—the orbis,54 20 A kind of squalus. See B. ix. c. 70. 21 See B. xxxi. c. 43. 22 Or "horse." The crab, probably, mentioned in B. ix. c. 51. 23 See B. ix. c. 24. 24 Or sea-swallow. See B. ix. c. 43. 25 " Lungs of the sea." The same as the Pulmones, or sea-lungs.men- tioned in B. ix. c. 71, and in Chapter 36 of this Book. 26 See B. ix. c. 1. 27 Or " sea-liver." A sort of rock-fish, according to Athenaeus. 28 The same as the " milvus" or " sea-kite," mentioned in B. ix. c. 43. 29 See Chapter 31 of this Book. Instead of this fish and the preceding one, most of the editions mention the " elacatenes," a cetaceous fish, accord- ing to Athenaeus, much used for salting. 30 " Sea-lizards." 3l See B. ix. c. 45. 32 "Locusta." See B. ix. c. 50. 33 "Lucerna." See B. ix. c. 43. 34 Neither this fish nor the " larinus" has been identified. 35 See B. ix. c. 72, and Chapter 3 of this Book. 36 See B. ix. c. 51. 37 See B. ix. c. 30. 38 See B. ix. c. 20. 39 See B. ix. c. 26. .40 See Chapter 8 of this Book. Holland translates this—" The blacke taile perch, (which some take for a ruffe, others for .a sea-breame)." 41 See B. ix. c. 42. 43 A fish of the Nile, according to JElian. " Meryx " is another reading, a kind of Scarus, it is thought. 43 See B. ix. c. 23. 44 A shell-fish. See B. ix. c. 56. 45 See Chapter 31 of this Book. J6 See Chapter 31 of this Book. 47 See B. ix. c. 61. 4* The " eye-fish." A kind of lamprey has been suggested. 49 See Chapter 35 of this Book. 60 See B. ix. c. 21. 51 " Sea-ears." A kind of oyster, Holland says. 52 See B. ix. c. 20. 83 He speaks of it as a kind of Pelamis, a little further on. 54 The sun-fish. See Chapter 5 of this Book. 64 pliny's NATURAL HISTORY. [Book XXXII. the orthagoriscus,55 the phager,56 the phycis67 a rock-fish, the pelamis,58 (the largest kind of which is called " apolectum,"59 and is tougher than the tritomus) the sea-pig,60 the phthir,61 the sea-sparrow,62 the pastinaca,63 the several varieties of the polyp,64 the scallop,65 which is larger and more swarthy in summer than at other times, and the most esteemed of which are those of Mitylene,66 Tyndaris,67 Salonae,68 Altinum,69 the island of Chios, and Alexandria in Egypt; the small scallop,70 the purple, 71 the pegris,72 the pinna,73 the pinnotheres,74 the rhine75 or squalus of the Latins, the turbot,76 the scarus77 a fish which holds the first rank at the present day ; the sole,78 the sargus,79 the squilla,80 the sarda81—such being the name of an elongated pelamis82 which comes from the Oceanf the scomber,83 the salpa,84 the sorus,85 the scorpaena,86 the sea-stfbrpion,87 the so- las,88 the sciaena,89 the sciadeus,90 the scolopendra,91 the smyrus," the saepia,93 the strombus,94 the solen,95 otherwise known as the 55 The same, probably, as the "orbis." See Chapters 5 and 9 of the present Book. s6 Or phagrus. See B. ix. c. 24. 67 See B. ix. c. 42. 68 A young tunny. See B. ix. c. 20. 59 A " choice bit." See B. ix. c. 20. 60 See B. ix. c. 17. 61 This fish has not been identified. 62 See B. ix. c. 36. 63 Or sting-ray. See B. ix. c. 40. 64 See B. ix. c. 48. 65 See B. ix. c. 51. es gee £. v. C- 39f 67 Probably the place of that name in Sicily, mentioned in B. ii. c. 94, and B. iii. c. 14. <* See B. iii. c. 26. 69 See B. iii. c. 22. 70 " Pectunculus." See Note 65 above. 71 See B. ix. c. 60. 72 An unknown fish. The reading is doubtful. 73 See B. ix. c. 66. 74 See B. ix. c. 66. 75 gee £. jx# c> 4o. 76 " Rhombus." See B. ix. c. 36. 77 See B. ix. c. 29. ™ See B. ix. c. 36. 79 See B. ix. c. 30. 80 The same, perhaps, as the " pinnotheres" of B. ix. c. 66, a kind of shrimp. si See Chapter 17 of this Book. 82 See B. ix. c. 18.. 83 See B. ix. c. 19. 84 gee B. ix. c. 32. 85 Considered by Sillig to be the same as the "Saurus" of Chapter 28 of this Book; the " sea-lizard," apparently. 88 It does not seem to have been identified; though Rondelet savs that it is the same as the Rascasse of the Mediterranean. 87 See B. xx. c. 53, and Chapters 23, 30, 32, 34, and 35 of this Book. 88 This fish has not been identified ; indeed the reading is very doubtful. 89 See B. ix. c. 24. J » A fish similar to the preceding one, probably; some kind of ombre, Littre thinks. si gee B ix c 67> 92 Probably the same as the " Myrus " of B ix c 39 93 See B ix c. 45. ** See Chapter 30 of this Book. 80 See Chapter 32 of this Book. Chap. 54.] PISHES MENTIONED IN THE POEM OF OVID. 65 aulos, donax, onyx or dactylus; the spondylus,96 the smaris,97 the starfish,98 and the sponges.99 There is the sea-thrush1 also, famous among the rock-fish, the thynnis,2 the thranis, by some writers known as the xiphias ;3 the thrissa,4 the torpedo,6 the tethea,6 the tritomus, a large kind of pelamis,7 which admits of being cut into three cybia ;8 the shells of Venus,9 the grape- fish,10 and the xiphias.11 CHAP. 54.—ADDITIONAL NAMES OP PISHES POUND IN THE POEM OF OVID. To the above enumeration we will add some names given in the poem of Ovid,12 which are not to be found in any other writer: species, however, which are probably peculiar to the Euxine, on the shores13 of which he commenced that work towards the close of his life. The fishes thus mentioned by him are the sea-ox, the cercyrus, that dwells among the rocks, the orphus,14 the red erythinus,16 the iulus,16 the tinted mor- myr, the chrysophrys17 a fish of a golden colour, the parus,18 the tragus,19 the melanurus20 remarkable for the beauty of its tail, and the epodes,21 a flat fish. In addition to these remarkable kinds of fishes, the same poet tells us that the channes22 conceives of itself, that the 96 A sort of mollusk, Littre thinks. There is a shell-fish known as the Spondylus gaederopus of Linnaeus. 97 See Chapters 34, 45, and 46, of this Book. 98 See B. ix. c. 86. 99 See B. ix. c. 69. 1 See B. ix. c. 20. 2 A sort of tunny, probably. 3 See Chapter 6 of this Book. Probably the same as the " gladius " of this Chapter, and of B. ix. cc. 1,21. 4 Considered by Littre to be the Shad. 5 gee p# jXi Ci 67. 6 See Chapter 30 of this Book. 7 See B. ix. c. 18. 8 See B. ix. c. 18. 9 See B. ix. c. 52, and Chapter 1 of this Book. 10 See B. ix. c. 1, and c. 49 of this Book. u See Note 3 above. 12 The Halieuticon, already mentioned in Chapter 5 of this Book. 13 At the town of'Tomi, whither he was banished by Augustus Caesar. 14 See B. ix. c. 24. 15 See B. ix. cc. 23, 77, and Chapters 31, 50, of this Book. 16 The same, probably, as the " iulis" mentioned in the preceding Chapter. 17 The " golden brow." The same as the "Aurata" or " dorade" of B. ix. e. 25, and Chapters 16 and 53 of this Book. 18 An unknown fish ; the reading is doubtful. 19 The " goat-fish." It does not appear to have been identified. 20 Literally, the " black tail." See the preceding Chapter. 21 According to Rondelet, a fish resembling the Coracinus. 22 See B. ix. c. 23. VOL. VI. *' 66 PLINl's NATURAL HISTORY. [Book XXXII. glaucus23 never makes its appearance in summer, that the pom- pilus24 always accompanies vessels in their course, and that the chromis25 makes its nest in the water. The helops, he Bays, is unknown to our waters; from which it would appear that those are in error who look upon it as identical with our acipenser.26 Many persons have given the preference to the helops before all other.fish, in point of flavour. There are several fishes also, which have been mentioned by no author; such, for instance, as the one called "sudis" by the Latins, and "sphyrene" by the Greeks, names which in- dicate the peculiar form of its muzzle.27 It is one of the very largest kinds, but rarely found, and by no means of inferior flavour. " Perna," too, is the name given to a kind of shell- fish, found in vast numbers in the vicinity of the islands of the Euxine. These fish are found firmly planted in the sand, re- sembling in appearance the long shank28 of a hog. Opening wide their shells, where there is sufficient space, they lie in wait for their prey ; this opening being not less than a foot in breadth, and the edges of it garnished around with teeth closely set, much resembling the teeth of a comb in form. Within the shell, the meat consists of a vast lump of flesh. I once saw, too, a fish called the " hyaena,"29 which had been caught off the island of -Slnaria.30 In addition to these animals, there are certain excretions thrown up by the sea, which do not merit any further notice, and indeed ought to be reckoned among the sea-weeds, rather than looked upon as animated beings. Summary.—Remedies, narratives, and observations, nine hundred and ninety. Roman Authors quoted.—Licinius Macer,31 Trebius Niger,32 23 See B. ix. c. 25. 24 See B. ix. c. 47 25 See B. ix. c. 42. 26 See B. ix. c. 27. Ajasson is of opinion that the " helops " is the Russian sturgeon, the " acipenser," the common sturgeon. 27 Resembling a " stake " in appearance. It has been suggested that this is the Esox sphyraena. 28 " Perna." Hardouin says that from the diminutive of this, " per- nula," the modern word "pearl" is derived. 29 A sort of "tursio," Dalechamps says. See B. ix. c. 11. 30 See B. iii. c. 12. 31 See end of B. xix. 32 See end of B. viii. SUMMARY. 67 Sextius Niger33 who wrote in Greek, the Poet Ovid,34 Cassius Hemina,35 Maecenas,36 lacchus,37 Sornatius.38 Foreign Authors quoted.—Juba,39 Andreas,40 Salpe,41 Apion,42 Pelops,43 Apelles,44 Thrasyllus,45 Nicander.46 33 See end of B. xii. 34 See end of B. xviii. 35 See end of B. xii. 36 See end of B. ix. 37 According to Suetonius, Fescennius lacchus was a grammarian who taught in Cisalpine Gaul. See also B. xxxvii. c. 64. 38 See end of B. xxxi. 39 See end of B. v. 40 See end of B. xx. 41 See end of B. xxviii. 42 See end of B. xxx. 43 See end of B. xxxi. 44 See end of B. xxviii. 45 See end of B. ii. 46 See end of B. viii. 68 BOOK XXXIII. THE NATURAL HISTORY OF METALS.1 CHAP. 1. (1.)—METALS. We are now about to speak of metals, of actual wealth,1' the standard of comparative value, objects for which we dili- gently search, within the earth, in numerous ways. In one place, for instance, we undermine it for the purpose of obtaining riches, to supply the exigencies of life, searching for either gold or silver, electrum2 or copper.3 In another place, to satisfy the requirements of luxury, our researches extend to gems and pigments, with which to adorn our fingers4 and the walls of our houses: while in a third place, we gratify our rash propensities by a search for iron, which, amid wars and carnage, is deemed more acceptable even than gold. We trace out all the veins of the earth, and yet, living upon it, under- mined as it is beneath our feet, are astonished that it should oc- casionally cleave asunder or tremble: as though, forsooth, these 1 We now enter upon the Sixth division of Pliny's work, containing an account of mineral substances of all descriptions.—Dr. Bostock. l* " Ipsae opes." The metals were looked upon by the ancients as the only true riches. It is in this sense that Ovid says, Metam. B. i.: " Effo- diuntur opes, irritamenta malorum." Pliny applies the term " pretia re- rum" to metals, as forming the unit of value. 2 Electrum is described in c. 23, as gold mixed with a certain quan- tity of silver. The word " electrum " is also used to signify amber, as in B. iii. c. 30.—B. 3 "iEs;" by " aes" is here probably meant copper, as the author is speaking of what is dug out of the earth ; it is more fully described in the first two Chapters of the next Book. According to the analysis of Klaproth, the ces of the ancients, when employed in works of art, cutting instruments, statues, vases, &c, was the " bronze " of the moderns, a mixture of copper and tin, in which the proportion of tin varied, from a little more than 2 to 1.14 per cent, according as the object was to procure a flexible or a hard substance. Agricola speaks of " aes" as synonymous with "cuprum," and Pliny will be found several times in the present Book, speaking of " aes Cyprium," meaning probably the finest kind of copper, and that with- out alloy.—B. 4 Pliny has already referred to this topic in B. ii. c. 63.—B. Chap. 2.] GOLD. 69 signs could be any other than expressions of the indignation felt by our sacred parent! We penetrate into her entrails, and seek for treasures in the abodes even of the Manes,4* as though each spot we tread upon were not sufficiently bounteous and fertile for us! And yet, amid all this, we are far from making remedies the object of our researches: and how few in thus delving into the earth have in view the promotion of medicinal knowledge ! For it is upon her surface, in fact, that she has presented us with these substances, equally with the cereals, bounteous and ever ready, as she is, in supplying us with all things for our benefit! It is what is concealed from our view, what is sunk far be- neath her surface, objects, in fact, of no rapid formation,6 that urge us to our ruin, that send us to the very depths of hell. As the mind ranges in vague speculation, let us only consider, proceeding through all ages, as these operations are, when will be the end of thus exhausting the earth, and to what point will avarice finally penetrate ! How innocent, how happy, how truly delightful even would life be, if we were to desire no- thing but what is to be found upon the face of the earth ; in a word, nothing but what is provided ready to our hands ! chap. 2.—GOLD. Gold is dug out of the earth, and, in close proximity to it, chrysocolla,6 a substance which, that it may appear all the more precious, still retains the name7 which it has borrowed from gold.8 It was not enough for us to have discovered one bane for the human race, but we must set a value too upon the very humours of gold.9 While avarice, too, was on the search 4* Or shades below. & " Ilia quae non nascuntur repente." 8 " Chrysocolla" is fully described in Chapter 26 of this Book.—B. 1 Meaning "gold glue," or "gold solder." 8 There is considerable variation in the text of this passage, as found in the different editions. In that of Dalechamps, the Variorum, and those of De Lae't and Sillig, the sentence concludes with the words " nonien ex auro custodiens;" while in those of Yalpy, Lemaire, Poinsinet, Ajasson, and others, we find substituted for them the words, "Non natura," " Nomen natura," "Nomine natura," or "Nomen naturam."—B. The first reading is warranted by the Bamberg MS. 9 " Auri sanies." More properly speaking, " the corrupt matter dis- charged by gold." See Chapter 26. 70 pliny's natural history. [Book XXXIII. for silver, it congratulated itself upon the discovery of minium,10 and devised a use to be made of this red earth. Alas for the prodigal inventions of man ! in how many ways have we augmented the value of things!" In addition to the standard value of these metals, the art of painting lends its aid, and we have rendered gold and silver still more costly by the art of chasing them. Man has learned how to challenge both Nature and art to become the incitements to vice ! His very cups he has delighted to engrave with libidinous subjects, and he takes pleasure in drinking from vessels of obscene form !1J But in lapse of time, the metals passed out of fashion, and men began to make no account of them ; gold and silver, in fact, became too common. From this same earth we have ex- tracted vessels of murrhine 13 and vases of crystal,13* objects the very fragility of which is considered to enhance their value. In fact, it has come to be looked upon as a proof of opulence, and as quite the glory of luxury, to possess that which may be irremediably destroyed in an instant. Nor was even this enough ;—we now drink from out of a mass of gems,14 and we set our goblets with smaragdi ;15 we take delight in possessing the wealth of India, as the promoter of intoxication, and gold is now nothing more than a mere accessory.16 10 " Minium " is treated of in Chapter 36 of this Book.—B. 11 " Pretia rerum." The value of the raw material. 12 Pliny here refers both to the art of producing figures in relief on drink- ing vessels made of the precious metals, and also of giving them particular forms. A well-known line of Juvenal, Sat. ii. 1. 95, affords a striking illustratiou of the depraved taste which existed in his time.—B. Lampri. dius also speaks of vessels of silver " defiled with representations of a most libidinous character;" and Capitolinus speaks of " phallovitroboli," glass drinking vessels shaped like a phallus. 13 "Murrhina" or "myrrhina," are described in B. xxxvii. c. 8; they were, perhaps, onyxes or opals, though possibly the term was not strictly confined to these substances, but signified any transparent minerals, that exhibited a variety of colours. Salmasius, however, ridicules the idea of their being onyxes, and is of opinion that these vessels were made of porce- lain ; Exer. Plin..p. 144.—B. i3« See B. xxxvii. c. 9. 14 He alludes to the cups known as "chrysendeta," adorned with cir- clets of gold, exquisite chasings, and groups of precious stones. See Ju- venal, Sat. v. 1. 42. 15 The " Smaragdus" is described in B. xxxvii. c. 13. 16 " Et aurum jam accessio est." Chap. 4.] THE ORIGIN OF GOLD RINGS. 71 CHAP. 3.--WHAT WAS THB FIRST RECOMMENDATION OF GOLD. Would that gold could have been banished for ever from the earth, accursed by universal report,17 as some of the most celebrated writers have expressed themselves, reviled by the reproaches of the best of men, and looked upon as discovered only for the ruin of mankind. How much more happy the age when things themselves were bartered for one another ; as was the case in the times of the Trojan war, if we are to be- lieve what Homer says. For, in this way, in my opinion, was commerce then carried on for the supply of the necessaries of life. Some, he tells us, would make their purchases by bartering ox-hides, and others by bartering iron or the spoil which they had taken from the enemy :18 and yet he himself, already an admirer of gold, was so far aware of the relative value of things, that Glaucus, he informs us, exchanged his arms of gold, valued at one hundred oxen, for those of Diomedes, which were worth but nine.19 Proceeding upon the same system of barter, many of the fines imposed by ancient laws, at Rome even, were levied in cattle,20 [and not in money]. CHAP. 4.--THE ORIGIN OF GOLD RINGS. The worst crime against mankind was committed by him who was the first to put a ring upon his fingers: and yet we are not informed, by tradition, who it was that first did so. For as to all the stories told about Prometheus, I look upon them as utterly fabulous, although I am aware that the ancients used to represent him with a ring of iron : it was their intention, however, to signify a chain thereby, and not an ornament. As to the ring of Midas,21 which, upon the collet being turned 17 " Sacrum famae." This is the reading given by the Bamberg MS. in substitution for " aurum, sacra fames" and other readings of a similar nature, in which Pliny was thought by the commentators to allude to the famous lines of Virgil— " Quid non mortalia pectora cogis, Auri sacra fames!" Had he alluded to the passage of Virgil, it is not probable that he would have used the expression in the plural, "celeberrimi auctores." 18 II. B. vii. 11. 472-5.—B. 19 II. B. vi. 1. 236. 20 We may infer that this was the reason why the figure of an ox or other animal was impressed on the earliest Roman coins.—B. 21 As Hardouin remarks, "This story is told by others, of Gyges, and not of ilidas." He refers to Cicero, De Off. B. iii. c. 9, in confirmation of his assertion.—B. Both Gyges and Midas were noted for their wealth. 72 pliny's NATURAL HISTORY. [Book XXXIII. inwards, conferred invisibility upon the wearer, who is there that must, not admit, perforce, that this story is even still more fabulous ? It was the hand, and a sinister22 hand, too, in every sense, that first brought gold into such high repute : not a Roman hand, however, for upon that it was the practice to wear a ring of iron only, and solely as an indication of war- like prowess. As to the usage followed by the Roman kings, it is not easy to pronounce an opinion : the statue of Romulus in the Capitol wears no ring, nor does any other statue—not that of L. Brutua even—with the sole exception of those of Numa and Servius Tullius. I am surprised at this absence of the ring, in the case of the Tarquinii more particularly, seeing that they were originally from Greece,22* a country from which the use of gold rings was first introduced; though even at the present day the people of Lacedaemon are in the habit of wearing rings made of iron. Tarquinius Priscus, however, it is well known, was the first who presented his son with the golden bulla,23 on the occasion of his slaying an enemy before he had laid aside the praetexta ;24 from which period the custom of wearing the bulla has been continued, a distinction confined to the children of those who have served in the cavalry, those of other persons simply wearing a leather thong.25 Such being the case, I am the more surprised that the statue of this Tarquinius should be without a ring. And yet, with reference to the very name of the ring, I find that there has been considerable uncertainty. That given to 22 " Sinistra." The play here upon the word "sinister " cannot be so well transferred into the English language; but it bears reference to the double meaning of the word, " on the left hand," and " unlucky," " ill- omened," or, as we say " sinister." We may remark, that rings were very generally employed by the Romans, not merely as ornaments, but as indications of office and rank.—B. 22* From Corinth, it was said: Damaratus of Corinth being the father of the first Tarquin. See B. xxxv. c. 5. 23 On the subject of " Bullae," golden balls, worn hy the children of the nobles, see Dr. Smith's Diet. Antiq. p. 168.—B. 34 As to the " Toga praetexta," see B. viii. c. 74. 23 " Lorum." This word literally signifies a leather strap or thong, and Pliny is supposed by Hardouin to mean simply, that, in this latter case the strap was worn without the bulla, which was in other cases attached to it. Juvenal, Sat. v. 1. 164, speaks of the " lorum " of the children of the poor.—B. Chap. 4.] THE ORIGIN OF GOLD RINGS. 73 it originally by the Greeks is derived from the finger ;26 while our ancestors styled it "ungulus ;"27 and in later times both Greeks and Latins have given it the name of " symbolum."28 For a great length of time, it is quite clear, not even the Roman senators wore rings of gold : for rings were given, and at the public expense, to those only who were about to proceed on an embassy to foreign nations, the reason being, I suppose, because men of highest rank among foreign nations were per- ceived to be thus distinguished. Nor was it the practice for any person to wear these rings, except those who for this reason had received them at the public expense; and in most in- stances, it was without this distinction that the Roman generals celebrated their public triumphs.29 For whereas an Etruscan crown30 of gold was supported from behind over the head of the victor, he himself, equally with the slave probably, who was so supporting the crown, had nothing but a ring of iron upon his finger.31 It was in this manner that C. Marius celebrated his triumph over Jugurtha; and he never as- sumed32 the golden ring, it is said, until the period of his third consulship.33 Those, too, who had received golden rings on the occasion of an embassy, only wore them when in public, resuming the ring of iron when in their houses. It is in pur- suance of this custom that even at the present day, an iron ring34 is sent by way of present to a woman when betrothed, and that, too, without any stone in it. For my own part, I do not find that any rings were used in the days of the Trojan War; at all events, Homer nowhere 26 AaKrvXiov, from SuKrvXog, a "finger." 27 Festus says that this was the Oscan name for a ring. It would appear to be allied to the word " unguis," which means a nail of the finger or toe, and would perhaps signify a " nail ornament." 28 As meaning a seal or signet, for which purpose, as we shall find ex- plained in the sequel, the ring was used. ''■> This seems to be the meaning of " Vulgoque sic triumphabant." 30 As to these crowns, see B. xxi. c. 4. 31 As to some other particulars connected with this usage, see the end of B. xxviii. c. 7. 32 And yet, as Hardouin remarks, before his time, when Scipio was besieging Carthage, the bodies of the Roman tribunes, when selected for burial by Hasdrubal, were distinguished by their rings of gold. The object of Murius, no doubt, was to ingratiate himself with the upper classes. 33 a.u.c. 651. 34 Known as the "anulus pronubus," or "engaged ring," according to Dalechamps. 74 pliny's NATURAL HISTORY. [Book XXXIII. makes mention of them ; for although he speaks of the practice of sending tablets35 by way of letter,36 of clothes and gold and silver plate being kept laid up in chests,37 still he gives us to understand that they were kept secure by the aid of a knot tied fast, and not under a seal impressed by a ring. He does not iflform us too, that when the chiefs drew lots to ascertain which one of them should reply to the challenge38 of the enemy, they made any use of rings39 for the purpose ; and when he enumerates the articles that were manufactured at the forge40 of the gods, he speaks of this as being the origin41 of fibulae42 and other articles of female ornament, such as ear- rings for example, but does not make any mention of rings. 43 Whoever it was that first introduced the use of rings, he did so not without hesitation ; for he placed this ornament on the left hand, the hand which is generally concealed,44 whereas, if he had been sure of its being an honourable distinction, it would have been made more conspicuous upon the right. And if any one should raise the objection that this would have acted as an impediment to the right hand, I can only say that the usage in more recent times fortifies my opinion, and that the inconvenience of wearing rings on the left hand would have been still greater, seeing that it is with the left hand that the 35 " Codicillos." II. B. vi. 1. 168. 36 See B. xiii. c. 21. 37 Od. B. viii. 11. 424, 443, 447. 38 See the Iliad. B. iii. and B. vii. 1. 175, et seq. 39 His meaning is, that although icXnpbi were used, lots or balls made of earth, we do not read that the impressions on them were made by the aid of signet-rings. 40 " Fabricae deum." He alludes to the forge of Vulcan, described in the Eighteenth Book of the Iliad, 1. 400, et seq. 41 This seems to be the meaning of " In primordio factitasse." 42 The " fibulae " were the brooches of the ancients, consisting of a pin, and of a curved portion furnished with a hook. See Dr. Smith's Diet. Antiq. p. 417. 43 As the meaning of this passage has been the subject of much discus- sion with commentators, we give it in full, as found in the Edition of Sillig. " Et quisquis primus instituit, cunctanter id fecit, kevis manibus latentibusque induit, cum, si honos securus fuisset, dextra fuerit ostentan- dus. Quodsi impedimentum potuit in eo aliquod intelligi, etiam serior is usus argumentum est, et ma] us in laeva fuisset, qua scutum capitur." Sillig is of opinion that Pliny is here alluding to the reason given by Ateius Capito (quoted in Macrobius, Saturn. B. vii. c. 13), for wearing the ring on the left hand. It was so worn, he says, from an apprehension that the precious stone with which it was set, might receive injury from the continual use made of the right hand. 44 Under the folds of the toga. Chap. 5.] GOLD POSSESSED BY THE ANCIENTS. 75 Bhield is held. We find mention made too, in Homer,45 of men wearing gold plaited with the hair; and hence it is that I am at a loss to say whether the practice first originated with females. CHAP. 5.—THE QUANTITY OF GOLD POSSESSED BY THE ANCIENTS. At Rome, for a long period of time, the quantity of gold was but very small. At all events, after the capture of the City by the Gauls, when peace was about to be purchased, not more than one thousand pounds' weight of gold could be col- lected. I am by no means unaware of the fact that in the third46 consulship of PompeiuB there was lost from the throne of Jupiter Capitolinus two thousand pounds' weight of gold, originally placed there by Camillus ; a circumstance which has led most persons to suppose, that two thousand pounds' weight was the quantity then collected. But in reality, this excess of one thousand pounds was contributed from the spoil taken from the Gauls, amplified as it was by the gold of which they had stripped the temples, in that part of the City which they had captured. The story of Torquatus,47 too, is a proof that the Gauls were in the habit of wearing ornaments of gold when engaged in combat ;48 from which it would appear that the sum taken from the Gauls themselves, and the amount of which they had pillaged the temples, were only equal to the amount of gold collected for the ransom, and no more; and this is what was really meant by the response given by the augurs, that Jupiter Capitolinus had rendered again the ransom twofold.49 As we 45 II. B. xvii. 1. 52. 48 The reading inmost MSS. is the "fourth consulship." This, how- ever, is an error which has been rectified by the Bamberg and some other MSS. Pompey was but thrice consul. M. Crassus was the person generally accused of the act of robbery here alluded to. 41 Who took the golden tore (torques) from the Gaul whom he slew ; whence his name. 48 " Cum auro pugnare solitos." 49 " Quod equidem in augurio intellectum est, cum Capitolinus duplum reddidisset." The meaning of this passage is obscure, and cannot with certainty be ascertained. Holland renders it, " To the light and know- ledge whereof we come by means of revelation from Augurie, which gave us to understand, that Jupiter Capitolinus had rendered again the foresaid summe in duple proportion." Littre gives a similar translation. Ajasson translates it, " This, at least, is what we may presume, from the fact of there being discovered double the amount expected;" following the ex- planation given by Hardouin. 76 pliny's natural HISTORY. [Book XXXIII. were just now speaking on the subject of rings, it may be as well to add, by way of passing remark, that upon the officer M in charge of the Temple of Jupiter Capitolinus being arrested, he broke the stone of his ring between his teeth,51 and expired upon the spot, thus putting an end to all possibility of dis- covering the perpetrator of the theft. It appears, therefore, that in the year of the City 364, when Rome was captured by the Gauls, there was but two thousand pounds' weight of gold, at the very most; and this, too, at a period when, according to the returns of the census, there were already one hundred and fifty-two thousand five hundred and seventy-three free citizens in it. In this same city, too, three hundred and seven years later, the gold which C. Marius the younger52 conveyed to Praeneste from the Temple of the Capitol when in flames, and all the other shrines, amounted to thirteen thousand pounds' weight, such being the sum that figured in the inscriptions at the triumph of Sylla ; on which occasion it was displayed in the procession, as well as six thousand pounds' weight of silver. The same Sylla had, the day before, dis- played in his triumph fifteen thousand pounds' weight of gold, and one hundred and fifteen thousand pounds' weight of silver, the fruit of all his other victories. CHAP. 6.--THE RIGHT OF WEARING GOLD RINGS. It does not appear that rings were in common use before the time of Cneius Flavius, the son of Annius. This Flavius was the first to publish a table63 of the days for pleading,54 which till then the populace had to ascertain each day from a few 50 The " aedituus," or " temple keeper." See B. xxxvi. 4. 51 Beneath which there was poison concealed, Hardouin says. Han- nibal killed himself in a similar manner; also Demosthenes, as mentioned in the next Chapter. 82 The adopted son of the great Marius. This event happened in his consulship, b.c. 82. After his defeat by Sylla at Sacriportus, he re- tired into the fortified town of Praeneste, where he had deposited the treasures of the Capitoline temple. The temple, after this conflagration, was rebuilt by order of Sylla. 83 Called the " Fasti;" probably because this was the first word of the title. 54 " Dies fasti." These were the days on which the courts sat, and the Praetor, who was the chief judge, gave his decisions. The word " fasti" is derived from the ancient Latin '«for," or from the old Greek word 0aw, both signifying "to speak :" consequently the "dies fasti" were "the speaking days," and the " dies nefasti " the " non-speaking days " in allusion to the restrictions put upon the judgments of the Praetor ' Chap. 6.] TnE RIGHT OF WEARING GOLD RINGS. /7 great personages.66 The son of a freedman only, and secretary to Appius Caecus,57 (at whose request, by dint of natural shrewd- ness and continual observation, he had selected these days and made them public),58 he obtained such high favour with the people, that he was created curule aedile; in conjunction with Quintus Anicius Praenestinus, who a few years before had been an enemy to Rome,59 and to the exclusion of C. Pcetilius and Domitius, whose fathers respectively were of consular rank.60 The additional honour was also conferred on Flavius, of making him tribune of the people at the same time, a thing which oc- casioned such a degree of indignation, that, as we find stated in the more ancient Annals, " the rings61 were laid aside !" Most persons, however, are mistaken in the supposition that on this occasion the members of the equestrian order did the same : for it is in consequence of these additional words, " the phalerae,62 too, were laid aside as well," that the name of the equestrian order was added. These rings, too, as the Annals tell us, were laid aside by the nobility, and not63 by the whole body of the seriate. This event took place in the consulship of P. Sempronius and P. Sulpicius.64 Flavius made a vow that he would consecrate a temple to Concord, if he should succeed in reconciling the privileged orders with the plebeians : and as no part of the public funds could be voted for the pur- pose, he accordingly built a small shrine of brass65 in the Grae- 68 This complex state of the Roman Calendar long remained one of the sources from which the priesthood and the patrician order derived their power and influence over the plebeians. Having no other method of as- certaining what days were " fasti," and what were " nefasti," the lower classes were obliged either to apply to the priests and nobles for inform- ation, or to await the proclamation by the priests of the various festivals about to take place. 47 Appius Claudius Caecus, the Censor and jurisconsult, who constructed the Appian Way. 58 a.u.c 440, or B.C. 314. 69 In the war, probably, with the twelve nations of Etruria, who were conquered by the Consul Fabius a.u.c. 444. See Livy, B. ix. 60 The father of the former C. Pcetilius Libo, was Consul a.tj.c. 428 : the father of the latter, Cneius Domitius Calvinus, was Consul a.u.c 432. 61 " Anulos abjectos." 62 The " phalerae " were bosses of metal, often gold, attached to the harness of the horse. See B. vii. c. 29. 93 He would probably imply hereby that, as he states subsequently, at this period gold rings were not as yet worn by all the members of the senate. 64 a.u.c. 449. 66 "JSdiculam seream"—of brass or bronze. 78 pliny's NATURAL HISTORY. [Book XXXIII. costasis,66 then situate above the Comitium,67 with the fines which had been exacted for usury. Here, too, he had an in- scription engraved upon a tablet of brass, to the effect that the shrine was dedicated two hundred and three years after the consecration of the Capitol. Such were the events that hap- pened four hundred and forty-nine years after the foundation of the City, this being the earliest period at which we find any traces of the common use of rings. A second occasion, however, that of the Second Punic War, shows that rings must have been at that period in very general use; for if such had not been the case, it would have been impossible for Hannibal to send the three68 modii of rings, which we find so much spoken of, to Carthage. It was through a dispute, too, at an auction about the possession of a ring, that the feud first commenced between Caepio69 and Drusus,70 a dis- pute which gave rise to the Social War,71 and the public dis- asters which thence ensued. Not even in those days, however, did all the senators possess gold rings, seeing that, in the memory of our grandsires, many personages who had even filled the praetorship, wore rings of iron to the end of their lives; Calpurnius,72 for example, as Fenestella tells us, and Manilius, who had been legatus to Caius Marius in the Ju- gurthine War. Many historians also state the same of L. Fufidius, he to whom Scaurus dedicated the history of his life. In the family of the Quintii,73 it is the usage for no one, not the females even, ever to wear a ring; and even at the pre- sent day, the greater part of the nations known to us, peoples who are living under the Roman sway, are not in the habit of 66 For the explanation of this term, see B. vii. c. 60. 67 See B. x. c. 2. Livy tells us that this shrine or temple was built in the area or place of Vulcan. 68 Livy, B. xxiii. speaks of one modius as being the real quantity. Florus, B. ii. c. 16, says two modii: but Saint Augustin, De Civit. Dei. B. iii. c. 19, and most other writers, mention three modii. « Q. Servilius Caepio. He and M. Livius Drusus had been most inti- mate friends, and each had married the other's sister. The assassination of Drusus was supposed by some to have been committed at the instigation of Caepio. The latter lost his life in an ambush, b.c. 90. 70 See B. xxviii. c. 41. n See B. ii. c. 85. 72 M. Calpurnius Flamraa. See B. xxii. c. 6. " A patrician family; branches of which were the Cincinnati, the Capitolim, the Crispini, and the Flaminini. Chap. 6.] THE RIGHT OF WEARING GOLD RINGS. 79 wearing rings. Neither in the countries of the East,74 nor in Egypt, is any use made of seals, the people being content with simple writing only.75 In this, as in every other case, luxury has introduced various fashions, either by adding to rings gems of exquisite brilliancy, and so loading the fingers with whole revenues, as we shall have further occasion to mention in our Book on Gems;76 or else by engraving them with various devices : so that it is in one instance the workmanship, in another the material, that constitutes the real value of the ring. Then again, in the case of other gems, luxury has deemed it no less than sacrilege to make a mark77 even upon them, and has caused them to be set whole, that no one may suppose that the ring was ever intended to be employed as a signet. In other instances, luxury has willed that certain stones, on the side even that is concealed by the finger, should not78 be closed in with gold, thus making gold of less account than thousands of tiny pebbles. On the other hand again, many persons will admit of no gems being set in their rings, but impress their seal with the gold79 itself, an invention which dates from the reign of Claudius Caesar. At the present day, too, the very slaves even, incase their iron rings with gold (while other articles belonging to them, they decorate with pure gold),80 a licence which first originated in the Isle of Samothrace,81 as the name given to the invention clearly shows. 74 This is an erroneous assertion, both as to the East, and as to Egypt. See instances to the contrary in Genesis, c. xii. v. 42; and in Esther, c. iii. verses 10, 12, and c. viii. verses 2, 8, 10. 75 "Literis contenta solis." 76 The Thirty-seventh Book. See also his remarks in B. ii. c. 63: " We tear out earth's entrails in order to extract the gems with which we may load our fingers. How many hands are worn down that one little joint may be ornamented !" Martial, EpigV. B. v. Ep. 11, speaks of his friend Stella as wearing on the joint of one finger sardonyxes, emeralds, and jaspers. 77 " Violari." See B. xxxvii. c. 1. 18 A fashion much followed at the present day. 79 This also is a not uncommon fashion at the present day. 90 From the "Trinummus" of Plautus, A. iv. s. 4, we learn that the ring worn by slaves was called " condalium." From the " Truculentus" of Plau- tus we learn also that these rings were sometimes made of bronze. The "jus nnuli," or right of wearing a gold ring, was never conceded to slaves. 81 See B. iv. c. 23. In the Origines of Isidorus Hispalensis, B. xix. c. 32, we find mention made of " A Samothracian gold ring, with an iron bezil, so called from the place of its invention." Pliny has already made 80 pliny's NAIURAL HISTORY. [Boik XXXITT. It was the custom at first to wear rings on a single finger92 only, the one, namely, that is next to the little finger; and this we see the case in the statues of Numa and Servius Tullius In later times, it became the practice to put rings on the finger next to the thumb, even in the case of the statues of the gods; and more recently, again, it has been the fashion to wear them upon the little finger83 as well. Among the peoples of Gallia and Britannia, the middle finger, it is said, is used for this pur- pose. At the present day, however, among us, this is the only ringer that is excepted, all the others being loaded with rings, smaller rings even being separately adapted for the smaller joints of the fingers. Some there are who heap several rings upon the little finger alone ; while others, again, wear but one ring upon this finger, the ring that sets a seal upon the signet- ring itself, this last being kept carefully shut up as an object of rarity, too precious to be worn in common use, and only to be taken from the cabinet84 as from a sanctuary. And thus is the wearing of a single ring upon the little finger no more than an ostentatious advertisement that the owner has property of a more precious nature under seal at home ! Some, too, make a parade of the weight of their rings, while to others it is quite a labour85 to wear more than one at a time:. some, in their solicitude for the safety of their gems, make the hoop of gold tinsel, and fill it with a lighter material than gold, thinking thereby to diminish the risks of a fall.86 Others, again, . afre in the habit of inclosing poisons beneath the stones of Viheir rings, and so wear them as instruments of death; De- mosthenes, for instance, that greatest of the orators of Greece.8'" And then, besides, how many of the crimes that are stimulated by cupidity, are committed through the instrumentality of allusion to the luxurious habits of the slaves, in B. xiii. c. 4 • and B. xviii. c. 2; a subject upon which Juvenal enlarges in his Third Satire. 82 The reasons are mentioned by Ateius Capito, as quoted by Macrobius, Saturnal. B. vii. c. 13 : also by Apion the Grammarian, as quoted by Aulus Gellius, B. x. c. 10. » i ; 83 The ring of each finger had its own appropriate name. 84 The " dactyliotheca," or "ring-box." 85 Juvenal, Sat. i. 1. 26, et. seq., speaks of the summer rings of the Roman fops, and their fingers sweating beneath the weight. 86 Martial, Epigr. B. xiv., speaks of the numerous accidents to which a weighty ring was liable. « Hannibal, too, for instance, as mentioned in Note 51 to the preceding Ulidptcr, Chap. 6.J THE RIGHT OF WEARING GOLD RINGS. 81 rings \" How happy the times, how truly innocent, in which no seal was ever put to anything ! At the present day, on the contrary, our very food even and our drink have to be preserved from theft89 through the agency of the ring: a result owing to those legions of slaves, those throngs of foreigners which are introduced into our houses, multitudes so numerous that we require the services of a nomenclator90 even, to tell us the names of our own servants. Very different was it in the times of our forefathers, when each person possessed a single servant only, one of his master's own lineage, called Marcipor or Lucipor,91 from his master's name, as the case might be, and taking all his meals with him in common; when, too, there was no occasion for taking precautions at home by keeping a watch upon the domestics. But at the present day, we not only procure dainties which are sure to be pilfered, but hands to pilfer them as well; and so far is it from being sufficient to have the very keys sealed, that the signet-ring is often taken from off the owner's finger while he is overpowered with sleep or lying on his death-bed.93 Indeed the most important transactions of life are now made to depend upon this instrument, though at what period this first began to be the case, I am at a loss to say. It would appear, however, so far as foreign nations are concerned, that we may admit the importance attached to it, from the days of Poly- crates,93 the tyrant of Samos, whose favourite ring, after being 88 He alludes, probably, to forgeries perpetrated throug*h the agency of false signets. 89 Plautus, Cicero, Horace, and Martial, each in his own age, bears testimony to the truth of this statement. 90 Or remembrancer; a slave whose duty it was to remind his master of the name of each member of his household; see B. xxix. c. 8. Athenaeus, B. vi., speaks of as many as twenty thousand slaves belonging to one household. Demetrius, the freedman of Pompey, mentioned in B. xxxv. c. 58, had a retinue of slaves equal to an army in amount. 91 Meaning "Marci puer," or "Luci puer"—"Marcius' boy," or " Lucius' boy." 92 Suetonius says, c. 73, that Tiberius, in his last illness, awoke after a long lethargy, and demanded his signet-ring, which his son-in-law, Cali- gula, had removed from his finger, under the supposition that he was dead. Macro, to avoid any unpleasant results in the way of punishment, caused the emperor to be smothered with the pillows and bedclothes. 93 This famous and somewhat improbable story of the ring of Polycratea is told by Valerius Maximus, B. vi. c. 9; Herodotus, B. iii.; and Cicero, De Finibua, B. iv. Pliny again mentions it in B. xxxvii. cc. 2, 4. VOL. VI. G 82 pliny's natural history. [Book XXXIII. thrown in the sea, was recovered from a fish that was caught; and this Polycrates, we know, was put to death94 about the year of our City, 230. The use of the ring must, of necessity, have become greatly extended with the increase of usury; one proof of which is, the usage still prevalent among the lower classes, of whipping off the ring95 the moment a simple contract is made; a practice which takes its date, no doubt, from a period when there was no more expeditious method of giving an earnest on closing a bargain. We may therefore very safely conclude, that though money was first introduced among us, the use of rings was introduced very shortly after. Of money, I shall shortly have occasion to speak further.96 CHAP. 7.--THE DECURIES OF THE JUDGES. Rings, as soon as they began to be commonly worn, distin- guished the second order from the plebeians, in the same manner as the use of the tunic97 distinguished the senate from those who only wore the ring. Still, however, this last dis- tinction was introduced at a later period only, and we find it stated by writers that the public heralds98 even were formerly in the habit of wearing the tunic with the purple laticlave ; the father of Lucius ^Elius Stilo,99 for instance, from whom his son received the cognomen of "Praeconinus," in conse- quence of his father's occupation as a herald. But the use of rings, no doubt, was the distinguishing mark of a third and intermediate brder, between the plebeians and the senators; and the title of " eques," originally derived from the posses- sion of a war-horse,1 is given at the present day as an indica- tion of a certain amount of income. This, however, is of comparatively recent introduction; for when the late Emperor Augustus made his regulations for the decuries,2 the greater part of the members thereof were persons who wore iron rings, and these bore the name, not of "equites," but of "judices," 94 He was crucified by Oroetes, the Persian satrap of Sardis. 95 " Anulo exsiliente." so In Chapter 13 of this Book. 97 The laticlave tunic. See B. viii. c. 73, and B. ix. c. 63. 93 " Prsecones." 9» See the list of writers at the'end of B. ix. 1 " Equus militaris." 2 See B. xxix. c. 8. The " Decuriae" of "judices," or "judges," were bo called, probably, from ten (decern) having been originally chosen from each tribe. As to the Decuriae of the judices, see Smith's Diet. Antiq, pp. 631—2.< The account given by Pliny is confused in the extreme. Chap. 8.] THE EQUESTRIAN ORDER. 83 the former name being reserved solely for the members of the squadrons3 furnished with war-horses at the public charge. Of these judices, too, there were at first but four4 decuries only, and in each of these decuries there was hardly one thour sand men to be found, the provinces not having been hitherto admitted to the office ; an observance which is still in force at the present day, no one newly admitted to the rights of citizen- ship being allowed to perform the duties of judex as a mem- ber of the decuries. (2.) These decuries, too, were themselves distinguished by several denominations—" tribunes6 of the treasury," "selecti,"6 and "judices :" in addition to whom, there were the persons styled the " nine hundred,"7 chosen from all the decuries for the purpose of keeping the voting-boxes at the comitia. Erom the ambitious adoption, however, of some one of these names, great divisions ensued in this order, one person styling himself a member of the nine hundred, another one of the selecti, and a third a tribune of the treasury. CHAP. 8.--PARTICULARS CONNECTED WITH THE EQUESTRIAN ORDER. At length, however, in the ninth8 year of the reign of the Emperor Tiberius, the equestrian order was united in a single body; and a decree was passed, establishing to whom belonged the right of wearing the ring, in the consulship of C. Asinius Pollio andC. Antistius Vetus, the year from the foundation of the City, 775. It is a matter for surprise, how almost futile, we may say, was the cause which led to this change. C. Sulpicius Galba,9 desirous in his youth to establish his credit with the Emperor by hunting10 out grounds for prosecuting11 the keepers 3 "Turmae." Squadrons of thirty "equites" or horsemen; ten of which squadrons were attached to each legion. 4 Before the time of Augustus, there were but three decuries. 5 A law introduced by Aurelius Cotta, b.c 70, enacted that the Ju- dices should be chosen from the three classes—of Senators, Equites, and Tribuni aerarii, or Tribunes of the treasury, these last being taken from the body of the people, and being persons possessed of some property. 6 Members selected by lot. 7 " Nongenti." 8 Tacitus says that this took place the year before, in the consulship of C. Sulpicius, and D. Haterius. See the Annales, B. iii. c. 86. 9 Brother of the Emperor Galba. 10 " Aucupatus." 11 Suetonius says that Tiberius instructed the aediles to prohibit stews and eating-houses : from which we may conclude, Hardouin says, that C. Sulpicius Galba was an aedile. *• G 2 84 PLINY'S NATURAL HISTORY. [Book XXXIII. of victualling-houses, made complaint in the senate that the proprietors of those places were in the habit of protecting themselves from the consequences of their guilt by their plea of wearing the golden ring.12 For this reason, an ordinance was made that no person whatsoever should have this right of wearing the ring, unless, freeborn himself as regarded his father and paternal grandfather, he should be assessed by the censors at four hundred thousand sesterces, and entitled, under the Julian Law,13 to sit in the fourteen tiers of seats at the theatre. In later times, however, people began to apply in whole crowds for this mark of rank; aud in consequence of the diversities of opinion which were occasioned thereby, the Emperor Caius14 added a fifth decury to the number. Indeed to such a pitch has conceit now arisen, that whereas, under the late Emperor Augustus, the decuries could not be completed, at the present day they will not suffice to receive all the mem- bers of the equestrian order, and we see in every quarter per- sons even who have been but just liberated from slavery, making a leap all at once to the distinction of the golden ring : a thing that never used to happen in former days, as it was by the ring of iron that the equites and the judices were then to be recognized. Indeed, so promiscuously was this privilege at last conferred, that Flavius Proculus, one of the equites, informed against four hundred persons on this ground, before the Emperor Clau- dius, who was then censor :15 and thus we see, an order, which was established as a mark of distinction from other private in- dividuals of free birth, has been shared in common with slaves ! The Gracchi were the first to attach to this order the separate appellation of "judices," their object being at the same moment a seditious popularity and the humiliation of the senate. After the fall of these men, in consequence of the varying results of seditious movements, the name and influence of the equestrian order were lost, and became merged in those of the publicani,u 12 Or, in other words, belonging to the equestrian order. The Roman equites often followed the pursuits of bankers, and farmers of the public revenues. 13 A law passed in the time of Julius Caesar, b c. 69, which permitted Roman equites, in case they or their parents had ever had a Census equestris, to sit in the fourteen rows fixed by the Lex Roscia Theatralis. 14 Caligula. 15 Conjointly with L. Vitellius. i« Or farmers of the public revenues; the " publicans" of Scripture. Chap. 9.] THE EQUESTRIAN ORDER. 85 who, for some time, were the men that constituted the third class in the state. At last, however, Marcus Cicero, during his consulship, and at the period of the Catilinarian troubles, re-established the equestrian name, it being his vaunt that he himself had sprung from that order, and he, by certain acts of popularity peculiar to himself, having conciliated its support. Since that period, it is very clear that the equites have formed the third body in the state, and the name of the equestrian order has been added to the formula—" The Senate and People of Rome." Henc£17 it is, too, that at the present day even, the name of this order is written after that of the people, it being the one that was the last instituted. CHAP. 9.—HOW OFTEN THE NAME OF THE EQUESTRIAN ORDER HAS BEEN CHANGED. Indeed, the name itself of the equites even, has been fre- quently changed, and that too, in the case of those who only owed their name to the fact of their service on horseback. Under Romulus and the other kings, the equites were known as "Celeres,"18 then again as "Flexuntes,"19 and after that as " Trossuli,"20 from the fact of their having taken a certain town of Etruria, situate nine miles on this side of Volsinii, without any assistance from the infantry; a name too which survived till after the death of C. Gracchus. In reality, they were mostly members of the equestrian order, and the words " equites" and "publicani" are often used as synonymous. 17 " This passage seems to be the addition of some ignorant copyist. It is indeed a remarkable fact, that we have no inscription in which we see the Equites named after the people as well as the Senate."—Laboulaye, Essai sur les lois Criminelles des Romains: Paris, 1845, p. 224. 18 According to Livy, B. i. c. 15, the Celeres were three hundred Roman knights whom Romulus established as a body-guard. Their name, pro- bably, was derived from the Greek KfXng, a "war-horse," or "charger," and the body consisted, no doubt, of the patricians in general, or such of them as could keep horses. Another origin assigned to the appellation is " Celer," the name of a chieftain, who was a favourite of Romulus. The adjective-"celer," " swift," owes its origin, probably, to the title of these horsemen. 19 A title derived, possibly, as Delafosse suggests, " a flectendis habenis,' from " managing the reins." 20 Called " Trossum " or " Trossulum," it is supposed. The remains of a town are still to be seen at Trosso, two miles from Montefiascone in Tuscany. The Greek word rpwZaXXig, a " cricket," and the Latin " to- rosulus," " muscular," have been suggested as the origin of this name. Ajasson suggests the Latin verb " truso," to " push on," as its origin. 86 PLINY'S NATURAL HISTORY. [Book XXXIII. At all events, in the writings left by Junius, who, from his affection for C. Gracchus, took the name of Gracchanus,21 we find the following words—" As regards the equestrian order, its members were formerly called ' Trossuli,' but at the present day they have the name of ' Equites;' because it is not understood what the appellation ' Trossuli' really means, and many feel ashamed at being called by that name."22—He23 then goes on to explain the reason, as above mentioned, and adds that, though much against their will, those persons are still called " Trossuli." CHAP. 10.--GIFTS FOR MILITARY SERVICES, IN GOLD AND SILVER. There are also some other distinctions connected with gold, the mention of which ought not to be omitted. Our ancestors, for instance, presented tores24 of gold to the auxiliaries and foreign troops, while to Roman citizens they only granted silver25 ones : bracelets26 too, were given by them to citizens, but never to foreigners. CHAP. 11.—AT WHAT PERIOD THE FIRST CROWN OF GOLD WAS PRESENTED. But, a thing that is more surprising still, crowns27 of gold were given to the citizens as well. As to the person who was first presented with one, so far as I have enquired, I have not been able to ascertain his name : L. Piso says, however, that the Dictator28 A. Posthumius was the first who conferred one: on taking the camp of the Latins at Lake Regillus,29 he gave a crown of gold, made from the spoil, to the soldier whose valour had mainly contributed to this success. L. Lentulus, 21 See the end of this Book. 22 From the ambiguous nature of the name, it being in later times an expression of contempt, like our word "fop," or "beau." In this latter Bense, Salmasius derives it from the Greek rpvaaog, " effeminate." 23 This concluding passage is omitted in most editions. 24 See B. vii. c. 29. 25 Dionysius of Halicarnassus is therefore probably wrong in his as- sertion that tores of gold were given to Siccius Dentatus, a Roman citizen, as the reward of valour. 26 gee jj y^ c 29, 27 On this subject, see B. xvi. c. 3, and B. xxi. c. i. 28 a.u.c 323, or 431 b.c 29 Situate about fourteen miles from Rome, and on the road to tiie town called La Colonna. Chap. 12.] OTHER USES MADE OF GOLD BY FEMALES. 87 also, when consul,30 presented one to Servius Cornelius Merenda, on taking a town of the Samnites; but in his case it was five pounds in weight. Piso Frugi, too, presented his son with a golden crown, at his own private expense, making31 it a specific legacy in his will. CHAP. 12. (3.)—OTHER USES MADE OF GOLD, BY FEMALES. To honour the gods at their sacrifices, no greater mark of honour has been thought of than to gild the horns of the animals sacrificed—that is, of the larger victims 32 only. But in warfare, this species of luxury made such rapid advances, that in the Epistles of M. Brutus from the Plains of Philippi, we find ex- pressions of indignation at the fibulae33 of gold that were worn by the tribunes. Yes, so it is, by Hercules! and yet you, the same Brutus, have not said a word about women wearing gold upon their feet; while we, on the other hand, charge him with criminality34 who was the first to confer dignity upon gold by wearing the ring. Let men even, at the present day, wear gold upon the arms in form of bracelets—known as " dardania," because the practice first originated in Dardania, and called "viriolse" in the language of the Celts, " virise"35 in that of Celtiberia, let women wear gold upon their arms36 and all their fingers, their necks, their ears, the tresses of their hair; let chains of gold run meandering along their sides; and in the still hours of the night let sachets filled with pearls hang suspended from the necks of their mistresses, all bedizened with gold, so that in their very sleep even they may still retain the consciousness that they are the possessors of such 30 a.u.c. 479, and b.c 275. In the following year Merenda himself was consul, with Manius Curius Dentatus. 31 "Testamento praelegavit." Properly speaking, "praelegare" was "to bequeath a thing to be given before the inheritance was divided." The crown thus left by Piso was to be three pounds in weight. _ 32 Oxen, namely. The smaller victims had the head encircled with chaplets. 33 The clasps by which the " sagum" or military cloak was fastened on the shoulders. 34 See the beginning of Chapter 4 of the present Book. 35 Isidores Hispalensis, Orig. B. xix. c. 30, says that bracelets were for- merly so called from the circumstance of being conferred on warriors as the reward of bravery—" ob virtutem." Scaevola, Ulpian, and others speak of " viriolae" as ornaments worn by females. 36 See B. xxxvii. c. 6. 88 PLINY'S NATURAL HISTORY. [Book XXXIII. gems : but are they to cover'their feet37 as well with gold, and so, between the stola38 of the matrons and the garb of the plebeians, establish an intermediate39 or equestrian40 order of females ? Much more becomingly do we accord this distinc- tion to our pages,41 and the adorned beauty of these youths has quite changed the features of our public baths. At the present day, too, a fashion has been introduced among the men even, of wearing effigies upon their fingers representing Harpocrates42 and other divinities of Egypt. In the reign of Claudius, also, there was introduced another unusual distinction, in the case of those to whom was granted the right of free admission,43 that, namely, of wearing the likeness of the emperor engraved in gold upon a ring: a circumstance that gave rise to vast numbers of informations, until the timely elevation of the Emperor Vespasianus rendered them impossible, by proclaiming that the right of admission to the emperor belonged equally to all. Let these particulars suffice on the subject of golden rings and the use of them. CHAP. 13.--COINS OF GOLD. AT WHAT PERIODS COPPER, GOLD, AND SILVER WERE FIRST IMPRESSED. HOW COPPER WAS USED BEFORE GOLD AND SILVER WERE COINED. WHAT WAS THE LARGEST SUM OF MONEY POSSESSED BY ANY ONE AT THE TIME OF OUR FIRST CENSUS. HOW OFTEN, AND AT WHAT PERIOD8, 37 In allusion to the use of gold as an ornament for the shoes and sandal-ties. 38 A dress worn over the tunic, and which came as low as the ankles or feet. The stola was the characteristic dress of the Roman matrons of rank ; other females being restricted to the use of the toga, which did not reach so low. 39 Between the matrons of rank whose feet were not to be seen at all, and the plebeian females, whose feet were Been, but comparatively unadorned; 40 In the same way that the gold ring was the distinguishing mark of the Equites, so would the gold ankle-jewels be the characteristic of this new order of females. In the use of the word "Equestrem," Ajasson absolutely detects an indelicate allusion, and rallies our author on thus re- taining " the aroma of the camp!" 41 " Psedagogiis." The origin of our word "page." The pages of the Romans were decorated with gold ankle-jewels and other ornaments for the legs. 42 Or Horus, the god of silence. Ajasson is of opinion that this im- pression on the seal was symbolical of the secrecy which ought to be pre- served as to written communications. 43 To the Emperor's presence. Chap. 13.] COINS OF GOLD. 89 THE VALUE OF COPPER AND OF COINED MONEY HAS BEEN CHANGED. The next44 crime committed against the welfare of mankind was on the part of him who was the first to coin a denarius45 of gold, a crime the author of which is equally unknown. The Roman people made no use of impressed silver even before the period of the defeat46 of King Pyrrhus. The "as" of cop- per weighed exactly one libra; and hence it is that we still use the terms "libella"47 and " dupondius."48 Hence it is, too, that fines and penalties are inflicted under the name of "aes grave,"49 and that the words still used in keeping accounts are " ex- pensa,"50 " impendia,"51 and " dependere."62 Hence, too, the word " stipendium," meaning the pay of the soldiers, which is nothing more than " stipis pondera ;"53 and from the same source those other words, " dispensatores" M and " libripendes."55 It is also from this circumstance that in sales of slaves, at the present day even, the formality of using the balance is introduced. King Servius was the first to make an impress upon copper. Before his time, according to Timseus, at Rome the raw metal only was used. The form of a sheep was the first figure im- pressed upon money, and to this fact it owes its name, " pecunia."66 The highest figure at which one man's property was assessed in the reign of that king was one hundred and 44 The first crime having been committed by him who introduced the use of gold rings. See the beginning of c. 4 of this Book. 48 The golden denarius was known also as the " aureus" or " gold coin." It was worth 25 silver denarii. As to the modern value of the money used by the ancients, see the Introduction to Vol. III. The golden denarius is mentioned also in B. xxxiv. c. 17, and in B. xxxvii. c. 3. 46 a.u.c 479. 47 Meaning, literally, the "little pound," in reference to the diminished weight of the " as." 48 Meaning " two pounds," or in other words, " two asses." See B. xxxiv. c. 2. As to the weight of the " libra," or pound, see the Intro- duction to Vol. III. 49 " Brasse bullion, or in masse."—Holland. 60 " Money weighed out," i. e. " expenses." 61 " Money weighed out for the payment of interest." 52 («q'0 wejgn out money for payment," i.e. " to pay." 53 " A weight of money." 64 " Weighers-out;" meaning " keepers of accounts," or "paymasters." BS t< Weighers-out" of the soldiers' wages ; i.e. "paymasters." 68 From " pecus," a sheep. See B. xviii. c. 3. 90 pliny's natural history. [Book XXXIII. twenty thousand asses, and consequently that amount of pro- perty was considered the standard of the first class. Silver was not impressed with a mark until the year of the City 485, the year of the consulship of Q. Ogulnius and C. Fabius, five years before the First Punic War ; at which time it was ordained that the value of the denarius should be ten librae57 of copper, that of the quinarius five librae, and that of the sestertius two libra? and a half. The weight, how- ever, of the libra of copper was diminished during the First Punic War, the republic not having means to meet its ex- penditure : in consequence of which, an ordinance was made that the as should in future be struck of two ounces weight. By this contrivance a saving of five-sixths was effected, and the public debt was liquidated. The impression upon these copper coins was a two-faced Janus on one side, and the beak of a ship of war on the other: the triens,58 however, and the quadrans,69 bore the impression of a ship. The quadrans, too, bad, previously to this, been called " teruncius," as being three unciae60 in weight. At a later period again, when Hannibal was pressing hard upon Rome, in the dictatorship of Q. Fabius Maximus, asses of one ounce weight were struck, and it was ordained that the value of the denarius should be sixteen asses, that of the quinarius eight asses, and that of the sestertius four asses; by which last reduction of the weight of the as the republic made a clear gain of one half. Still, however, so far as the pay of the soldiers is concerned, one denarius has always been given for every ten asses. The impressions upon the coins of silver were two-horse and four-horse chariots, and hence it is that they received the names of " bigati" and " quadrigati." Shortly after, in accordance with the Law of Papirius, asses were coined weighing half an ounce only. Livius Drusus, when61 tribune of the people, alloyed the silver with one-eighth part of copper. The coin that is known at the present day as the "victoriatus,"62 was first struck in accordance with the « " Pounds " or " asses." 38 The third of an " as " 59 The fourth of an " as." 60 Or ounces ; being one-fourth of the " as," of one "libra" in weight. See Introduction to Vol. III. 6i A v c qq% 62 The same as the quinarius, one-half of the denarius. In B. xx. c. 100, it is mentioned as a weight. See also the Introduction to Vol. III. Chap. 14.] MAN'S CUPIDITY FOR GOLD. 91 Clodian Law : before which period, a coin of this name was imported from Illyricum, but was only looked upon as an article of merchandize. The impression upon it is a figure of Victory, and hence its name. The first golden coin was struck sixty-two years after that of silver, the scruple of gold being valued at twenty sesterces ; a computation which gave, according to the value of the sesterce then in use, nine hundred sesterces to each libra of gold.63 In later times, again, an ordinance was made, that denarii of gold should be struck, at the rate of forty denarii64 to each libra of gold; after which period, the emperors gradually curtailed the weight of the golden denarius, until at last, in the reign of Nero, it was coined at the rate of forty-five to the libra. CHAP. 14.--CONSIDERATIONS ON MAN'S CUPIDITY FOR GOLD. But the invention of money opened a new field to human avarice, by giving rise to usury and the practice of lending money at interest, while the owner passes a life of idleness : and it was with no slow advances that, not mere avarice only, but a perfect hunger65 for gold became inflamed with a sort of rage for acquiring : to such a degree, in fact, that Septimuleius, the familiar friend of Caius Gracchus, not only cut off his head, upon which a price had been set of its weight in gold, 63 As, originally, there were 288 "scripula," or scruples, to the "libra" or pound, this would appear to give 5760 sestertii to the pound of gold, and not 900 merely. Though this apparent discrepancy has generally puzzled the commentators, the solution, as suggested by M. Parisot, in the Notes to Ajasson's Translation, appears equally simple and satisfactory. He suggests that in the "as," or "libra," of two ounces, there were 288 scruples. Now, the scruple remaining the same, when the as or libra was reduced to one ounce, it would contain but 144 of these scruples. Then, on making the as the sixteenth part of a denarius instead of the tenth, it would lose three-eighths of its value in scruples, or in other words, 54 scruples, thus making it worth but 90 scruples. Then again, as above stated, by the Papirian Law, the weight or value of the libra or as was reduced one-half, making its value in scruples only 45 ; or, in other words, five thirty-seconds of its original value, when worth two unciae or ounces. This number of scruples to the libra would give, at the rate of twenty sesterces to the scruple of gold, exactly 900 sesterces to the libra of gold. 64 Or "aurei." 85 " Fames auri." Similar to the words of Virgil, " Auri sacra fames." " The curst greed for gold." See Note 17 to Chapter 3 of this Book. 92 pliny's NATURAL HISTORY. [Book XXXIII. but, before86 bringing it to Opimius,67 poured molten lead into the mouth, and so not only was guilty of the crime of parricide, but added to his criminality by cheating the state. Nor was it now any individual citizen, but the universal Roman name, that had been rendered infamous by avarice, when King Mithridates caused molten gold to be poured into the mouth of Aquilius65 the Roman general, whom he had taken prisoner: Buch were the results of cupidity. One cannot but feel ashamed, on looking at those new-fangled names which are invented every now and then, from the Greek language, by which to designate vessels of silver fila- greed ra or inlaid with gold, and the various other practices by which such articles of luxury, when only gilded,70 are made to sell at a higher price than they would have done if made of solid gold : and this, too, when we know that Spartacus71 forbade any one of his followers to introduce either gold or silver into the camp—so much more nobleness of mind was there in those days, even in our runaway slaves. The orator Messalahas informed us that Antonius the triumvir made use of golden vessels when satisfying the most humiliat- ing wants of nature, a piece of criminality that would have reflected disgrace upon Cleopatra even ! Till then, the most consummate instances of a similar licentiousness had been found among strangers only—that of King Philip, namely, who was in the habit of sleeping with a golden goblet placed beneath his pil- lows, and that of Hagnon of Teos, a commander under Alex- ander the Great, who used to fasten the soles of his sandals with nails of gold.73 It was reserved for Antonius to be the only one thus to impart a certain utility to gold, by putting an 66 Another version of this story was, that he extracted the brain, and inserted lead in its place. 8? See B. xiv. c. 16. 68 In b.c 88, M. Aquilius proceeded to Asia Minor as one of the consular legati to prosecute the war against Mithridates. On being de- feated near Protomachium, he was delivered up to Mithridates by the inhabitants of Mytilene, and after being treated in the most barbarous manner, was put to death by pouring molten gold down his throat. 69 "Insperso." Sillig is of opinion that Pliny is here speaking of the work now known by Italian artists as tausia or lavoro all' agemina. 80 Hardouin thinks that Pliny is here making allusion to the Greek word "chrysendeta," vessels "encircled with gold." It is frequently used in Martial's works. ii See B. xv. c. 38. 72 It is against such practices as these that Martial inveiehs. B. i Ed 28, and B. ix. Ep. 12. 5 ' v Chap. 15.] THOSE WHO HATE HAD MOST GOLD AND SILYER. 93 insult upon Nature. Oh how righteously would he himself have been proscribed ! but then the proscription should have been made by Spartacu3.73 CHAP. 15.--THE PERSONS WHO HAVE POSSESSED THE GREATEST QUANTITY OF GOLD AND SILVER. For my own part, I am much surprised that the Roman peo- ple has always imposed upon conquered nations a tribute in silver, and not in gold; Carthage, for instance, from which, upon its conquest under Hannibal, a ransom was exacted in the shape of a yearly74 payment, for fifty years, of eight hun- dred thousand pounds' weight of silver, but no gold. And yet it does not appear that this could have arisen from there being so little gold then in use throughout the world. Midas and Croesus, before this, had possessed gold to an endless amount: Cyrus, already, on his conquest of Asia,75 had found a booty consisting of twenty-four thousand pounds' weight of gold, in addition to vessels and other articles of wrought gold, as well as leaves76 of trees, a plane-tree, and a vine, all made of that metal. It was through this conquest too, that he carried off five hundred thousand77 talents of silver, as well as the vase of Semiramis,78 the weight of which alone amounted to fifteen talents, the Egyptian talent being equal, according to Varro, to eighty of our pounds. Before this time too, Saulaces, the descendant of -Sletes, had reigned in Colchis,79 who, on finding 73 A slave only ; and not by any of his brother patricians. Antony was rendered infamous by his proscriptions. *4 Appian and Livy mention the fine as consisting of ten thousand talents in all, or in other words, eight hundred thousand pounds of silver (at eighty pounds to the talent). Sillig is therefore of opinion that Pliny is in error here in inserting the word " annua." The payment of the ten thousand talents, we learn from the same authorities, was spread over fifty years. 15 Asia Minor, 76 " Folia." Hardouin prefers the reading " solia," meaning " thrones," or " chairs of state," probably. 77 Ajasson refuses to place credit in this statement. 78 This vase of Semiramis was her drinking bowl, in much the same sense that the great cannon at Dover was Queen Elizabeth's "pocket pistol." 79 The country to which, in previous times, the Argonauts had sailed in quest of the Golden Fleece, or in other words in search of gold, in whieh those regions were probably very prolific. 94 PLINY'S NATURAL HISTORY. [Book XXXIII a tract of virgin earth, in the country of the Suani,80 extracted from it a large amount of gold and silver, it is said, and whose kingdom besides, had been famed for the possession of the Golden Fleece. The golden arches, too, of his palace, we find spoken of, the silver supports and columns, and pilasters, all of which he had come into possession of on the conquest of Sesostris,81 king of Egypt; a monarch so haughty, that every year, it is said, it was his practice to select one of his vassal kings by lot, and yoking him to his car, celebrate his triumph afresh. CHAP. 16.--AT WHAT PERIOD SILVER FIRST MADE ITS APPEAR- ANCE UPON THE ARENA AND UPON THE STAGE. We, too, have done things that posterity may probably look upon as fabulous. Caesar, who was afterwards dictator, but at that time aedile, was the first person, on the occasion of the funeral games in honour of his father, to employ all the ap- paratus of the arena83 in silver; and it was on the same occa- sion that for the first time criminals encountered wild beasts with implements of silver, a practice imitated at the present day in our municipal towns even. At the games celebrated by C. Antonius the stage was made of83 silver; and the same was the case at those celebrated by L. Muraena. The Emperor Caius had a scaffold84 intro- duced into the Circus, upon which there were one hundred and twenty-four thousand pounds' weight of silver. His successor Claudius, on the occasion of his triumph over Britain, an- nounced by the inscriptions that among the coronets of gold, there was one weighing seven thousand85 pounds' weight, contri- buted by Nearer Spain, and another of nine thousand pounds, 80 See B. vi, c. 4. 81 This story of the defeat of the great Ramses-Sesostris by a petty king of Colchis, would almost appear apocryphal. It is not improbable, hov,' ever, that Sesostris, when on his Thracian expedition, may have received a repulse on penetrating further north, accustomed as his troops must have been, to a warmer climate. 82 Of the amphitheatre. 83 Covered, probably, with plates of silver. 84 " Pegma." A scaffold with storeys, which were raised or depressed, to all appearance, spontaneously. Caligula is the emperor meant. 85 Another reading is "seven" pounds in weight, and "nine" pounds; which would appear to be more probable than seven thousand, and nine thousand, as given by the Bamberg MS. It is just possible, however, that the latter may have been the united weights of all the coronets contributed by Spain and Gaul respectively, the word " inter " being an interpolation. Chap. 18.] AT WHAT PERIOD CEILINGS WERE FIRST GILDED. 95 presented by Gallia Comata.86 Nero, who succeeded him, covered the Theatre of Pompeius with gold for one day,87 the occasion on which he displayed it to Tiridates, king of Armenia. And yet how small was this theatre in comparison with that Golden Palace88 of his, with which he environed our city. CHAP. 17.--AT WHAT PERIODS THERE WAS THE GREATEST QUAN- TITY OF GOLD AND SILVER IN THE TREASURY OF THE ROMAN PEOPLE. In the consulship of Sextus Julius and Lucius Aurelius,89 Beven years before the commencement of the Third Punic War, there was in the treasury of the Roman people seventeen thou- sand four hundred and ten pounds' weight of uncoined gold, twenty-two thousand and seventy pounds' weight of silver, and in specie, six million one hundred and thirty-five thousand four hundred sesterces. In the consulship of Sextus Julius and Lucius Marcius, that is to say, at the commencement of the Social War,90 there was in the public treasury one million91 six hundred and twenty thousand eight hundred and thirty-one pounds' weight of gold. Caius Caesar, at his first entry into Rome, during the civil war which bears his name, withdrew from the treasury fifteen thousand pounds' weight in gold ingots, thirty thousand pounds' weight in uncoined silver, and in specie, three hundred thou- sand sesterces: indeed, at no92 period was the republic more wealthy. -^Emilius Paulus, too, after the defeat of King Per- seus, paid into the public treasury, from the spoil obtained in Macedonia, three hundred millions92* of sesterces, and from this period the Roman people ceased to pay tribute. CHAP. 18.--AT WHAT PERIOD CEILINGS WERE FIRST GILDED. The ceilings which, at the present day, in private houses even, we see covered with gold, were first gilded in the Capi- 96 See B. iv. c. 31, B. xi. c. 47, and B. xviii. c. 20. 87 Hence known as the "Golden Day," according to Dion Cassius, B. lxiii. 88 For further particulars as to the Golden Palace, see B. xxxvi. c. 24. 89 a.tj.c. 597. 90 Or Marsic War. See B. ii. c. 85. 91 There is an error in this statement, probably, unless we understand by it the small libra or pound of two ounces, mentioned in c. 13 of this Book. 92 This remark is confirmatory "of the incorrectness of the preceding statement. 92* The reading here is doubtful. 96 PLINY'S NATURAL HISTORY. [Book XXXIII. tol, after the destruction of Carthage, and during the censor- ship of Lucius Mummius.93 From the ceilings this luxurious- ness has been since transferred to the arched roofs of buildings, and the party-walls even, which at the present day are gilded like so many articles of plate: very different from the times when Catulus94 was far from being unanimously approved of for having gilded the brazen tiles of the Capitol! CHAP. 19.—FOR WHAT REASONS THE HIGHEST VALUE IS SET UPON GOLD. We have already stated, in the Seventh95 Book, who were the first discoverers of gold, as well as nearly all the other metals. The highest rank has been accorded to this substance, not, in my opinion, for its colour, (which in silver is clearer96 and more like the light of day, for which reason silver is preferred for our military ensigns, its brightness being seen at a greater dis- tance) ; and those persons are manifestly in error who think that it is the resemblance of its colour to the stars97 that is so prized in gold, seeing that the various gems 98 and other things of the same tint, are in no such particular request. Nor yet is it for its weight or malleability99 that gold has been preferred to other metals, it being inferior in both these res- pects to lead—but it is because gold is the only1 substance in nature that suffers2 no loss from the action of fire, and passes unscathed through conflagrations and the flames of the funeral pile. Nay, even more than this, the oftener gold is sub- jected to the action of fire, the more refined in quality it he- comes ; indeed, fire is one test of its goodness, as, when sub- 93 a.u.c 612. 94 See B. xix. c. 6. 95 Chapter 57. e6 In fact, no colour at all. 97 In this climate, the light of most of the stars has the complexion, not of gold, but of silver. 9s The topaz, for instance. 99 For ductility and malleability, both which terms may perhaps be in- cluded in the "facilitas" of Pliny, gold is unrivalled among the metals. As to weight, it is heavier than lead, the specific gravity of gold being 19.258, and that of lead 11352. Pliny is therefore wrong in both of these assertions. 1 He forgets asbestus here, a substance which he has mentioned in B. xix. c. 4. 2 Chlorine, however, and nitro-muriatic acid corrode and dissolve gold, forming a chloride of gold, which is soluble in water. Ajasson remarks, that gold becomes volatilized by the heat of a burning-glass of three or four feet in diameter; and that when it acts as the conductor of a strong current of electricity, it becomes reduced to dust instantaneously, presenting a bright greenish light. C&ap. 19.] REASONS WnY GOLD IS SO HIGHLY VALUED. 97 mitted to intense heat, gold ought to assume a similar colour, and turn red and igneous in appearance; a mode of testing which is known as " obrussa."3 The first great proof, however, of the goodness of gold, is its melting with the greatest difficulty : in addition to which, it is a fact truly marvellous, that though proof against the most intense fire, if made with wood charcoal, it will melt with the greatest readiness upon a fire made with chaff;4 and that, for the purpose of purifying it, it is fused with lead.5 There is another reason too, which still more tends to enhance its value, the fact that it wears the least of all metals by continual use : whereas with silver, copper, and lead, lines may be traced,6 and the hands become soiled with the substance that comes from off them. Nor is there any material more malleable than this, none that admits of a more extended division, seeing that a single ounce of it admits of being beaten out into seven hun- dred and fifty7 leaves, or more, four fingers in length by the same in breadth. The thickest kind of gold-leaf is known as " leaf of Prameste," it still retaining that name from the excellence of the gilding upon the statue of Fortune8 there. The next in thickness is known as the " quaestorian leaf." In Spain, small pieces of gold are known by the name of " striges."9 A thing that is not the case with any other metal, gold is found pure in masses10 or in the form of dust;11 and whereas 3 The gold thus tested was called " obrussum," " obryzum," or " obri- zum," from the Greek of3pv£ov, meaning "pure gold." 4 See B. xviii. c. 23, where he calls the chaff used for this purpose by the name of " acus." s The present mode of assaying the precious metals, is by fusing them upon a cupel with lead. 6 For which purpose, lead was used, no doubt, in drawing the lines in the MSS. of the ancients. See Beckmann's Hist. Inv. Vol. II. p. 389. Bohn'sEd. 7 This is far surpassed at the present day, its malleability being such that.it may be beaten into leaves not more than one two hundred and eighty thousandth of an inch in thickness, and its ductility admitting of one grain being drawn out into five hundred feet of wire. For further particulars as to the gold leaf of the ancients, and the art of gilding, as practised by them, see Beckmann's Hist. Inv. Vol. II. p. 391, et seq. Bohn's Edition. 8 See B. xxxvi. c. 64. 9 He alludes to what are now known as pepitas, oval grains of river- gold. "Striges" is the reading in the Bamberg MS., "strigiles " in the former editions. 10 " Massa." As we should say at the present day, " nuggets." 11 " Ramentum." VOL. VI. H 98 PLtNY's NATURAL HISTORY. [Book XXXIII. all other metals, when found in the ore, require to be brought to perfection by the aid of fire, this gold that I am speaking of is gold the moment it is found, and has all its component parts already in a state of perfection. This, however, is only such gold as is found in the native state, the other kinds that we shall have to speak of, being refined by art. And then, more than anything else, gold is subject to no rust, no verdigris,J no emanation whatever from it, either to alter its quality or to lessen its weight. In addition to this, gold steadily resists the corrosive action of salt and vinegar,13 things which obtain the mastery over all other substances : it admits, too, beyond all other metals, of being spun out and woven14 like wool.15 Ver- rius tells us that Tarquinius Priscus celebrated a triumph, clad in a tunic of gold; and I myself have seen Agrippina, the wife of the Emperor Claudius, on the occasion of a naval combat which he exhibited, seated by him, attired in a military scarf16 made entirely of woven gold without any other material. For this long time past, gold has been interwoven in the Attalic17 textures, an invention of the kings of Asia. CHAP. 20.—THE METHOD OF GILDING. On marble and other substances which do not admit of being brought to a white heat, gilt is laid with glair of egg, and on wood by the aid of a glutinous composition,18 known as " leuco- phoron :" what this last is, and how it is prepared, we shall 12 The contrary is now known to be the case; gold is sometimes, though rarely, found in an oxidized state. 13 As to the solvents of gold, see Note 2 above. Stahl says that three parts of sub-cai bonate of potash, dissolved in water, and heated with three parts of sulphur and one part of gold, will yield a complete solution of the metal. 14 Aldrovandus relates, in his "Museum Metallicum," that the grave of the Emperor Honorius was discovered at Rome about the year 1544, and that thirty-six pounds' weight of gold were procured from the mouldering dress that covered the body. See, on the subject of gold threads, Beck- mann's Hist. Inv. Vol. I. p. 415. Bohn's Edition.^ 15 The "cloth of gold" of the present day, is made of threads of silk or hair, wound round with silver wire flattened and gilded. 18 " Paludamento." " See B. viii. c. 74. Beckmann is of opinion, from a passage of Silius Italicus, B. xiv. 1. 661, that the cloth of Attalus was embroidered with the needle. See this subject fully discussed in his Hist. Inv. Vol. I. p. 415. See also Dr. Yates's "Textrinum Antiquorum," pp. 371, 464. 13 " Without entering into any research respecting the minerals em- Chap. 21.] HOW GOLD IS FOUND. 99 state on the appropriate occasion.19 The most convenient me- thod for gilding copper would be to employ quicksilver, or, at all events, hydrargyros ;20 but with reference to these substances, as we shall have occasion to say when describing the nature21 of them, methods of adulteration have been devised. To effect this mode of gilding, the copper is first well hammered, after which it is subjected to the action of fire, and then cooled with a mixture of salt, vinegar, and alum.22 It is then cleansed of all extraneous substances, it being known by its brightness when it has been sufficiently purified. This done, it is again heated by fire, in order to enable it, when thus prepared, with the aid of an amalgam of pumice, alum, and quicksilver, to receive the gold leaf when applied. Alum has the same pro- perty of purifying copper, that we have already23 mentioned as belonging to lead with reference to gold. CHAP. 21. (4.)—HOW GOLD IS FOUND. Gold is found in our own part of the world; not to mention the gold extracted from the earth in India by the ants,24 and in Scythia by the Griffins.26 Among us it is procured in three different ways; the first of which is, in the shape of dust, found in running streams, the Tagus26 in Spain, for instance, the Padus in Italy, the Hebrus in Thracia, the Pactolus in Asia, and the Ganges in India; indeed, there is no gold found in a more perfect state than this, thoroughly polished as it is by the continual attrition of the current. A second mode of obtaining gold is by sinking shafts or seek- ing it among the debris of mountains; both of which methods it will be as well to describe. The persons in search of gold in the first place remove the " segutiium,"27 such being the ployed for this cement, called * leucophoron,' one may readily conceive that, it must have been a ferruginous ochre, or kind of bole, which is still used as a ground. Gilding of this kind must have suffered from dampness, though many specimens of it are still preserved."—Beckmann's Hist. Inv. Vol. II. p. 294. Bohn's Edition. 19 B. xxxv. c. 17. 20 Literally, " fluid silver." " The first name here seems to signify native quicksilver, and the second that separated from the ore by an ar- tificial process." Beckmann's Hist. Inv. Vol. II. p. 72. 21 In Chapters 32 and 41 of this Book. 22 As to the identity of the "alumen " of Pliny, see B. xxxv. c. 52. 23 In the preceding Chapter. 24 See B. xi. c. 36. 25 See B. vii. c. 2. 28 See B. iv. c. 17. 27 Ajasson remarks, that the Castilians still call the surface earth of au- H 2 100 PLINY'S NATURAL HISTORY. [Book XXXIII. name of the earth which gives indication of the presence of gold. This done, a bed is made, the sand of which is washed, and, according to the residue found after washing, a conjecture is formed as to the richness of the vein. Sometimes, indeed, gold is found at once in the surface earth, a success, however, but rarely experienced. Recently, for instance, in the reign of Nero, a vein was discovered in Dalmatia, which yielded daily as much as fifty pounds' weight of gold. The gold that is thus found in the surface crust is known as "talutium,"28 in cases where there is auriferous earth beneath. The mountains of Spain,29 in other respects arid and sterile, and productive of nothing whatever, are thus constrained by man to be fertile, in supplying him with this precious commodity. The gold that is extracted from shafts is known by some persons as " canalicium," and by others as " canaliense;"30 it is found adhering to the gritty crust of marble,31 and, altogether different from the form in which it sparkles in the sapphirus32 of the East, and in the stone of Thebais33 and other gems, it is seen interlaced with the molecules of the marble. The channels of these veins are found running in various directions along the sides of the shafts, and hence the name of the gold they yield—"canalicium."34 In these shafts, too, the su- perincumbent earth is kept from falling in by means of wooden pillars. The substance that is extracted is first broken up, and then washed ; after which it is subjected to the action of fire, and ground to a fine powder. This powder is known as " apitascudes," while the silver which becomes disengaged in the35 furnace has the name of " sudor"36 given to it. The im- riferous deposits by the name of segullo. He also doubts the correctness of Pliny's assertion as to the produce of the mines of Dalmatia. 28 See B. xxxiv. c. 47. 29 We learfl from Ajasson that numerous pits or shafts are still to he seen in Spain, from which the Romans extracted gold. At Riotento, he says, there are several of them. 3<> Both meaning " channel gold." 31 " Marmoris glares." Under this name, he no doubt means quartz and schist 32 See B. xxxvii. a 39. 33 See B. xxxvi. c. 13. 34 " Channel-gold " or " trench-gold." 35 Becoming volatilized, and attaching itself in crystals to the side of the chimney. 38 Or " sweat." This " sweat" or «' silver " would in reality be a general name for all the minerals that were volatilized by the heat of the furnace ; while under the name of " scoria " would be comprised pyrites, quartz, petrosilex, and other similar substances. Chap. 21.] HOW GOLD IS FOUND. 101 purities that escape by the chimney, as in the case of all other metals, are known by the name of " scoria." In the case of gold, this scoria is broken up a second time, and melted over again. The crucibles used for this purpose are made of " tasconium,"37 a white earth similar to potter's clay in ap- pearance ; there being no other substance capable of with- standing the strong current of air, the action of the fire, and the intense heat of the melted metal. The third method of obtaining gold surpasses the labours of the Giants38 even : by the aid of galleries driven to a long distance, mountains are excavated by the light of torches, the duration of which forms the set times for work, the workmen never seeing the light of day for many months together. These mines are known as " arrugiae ;"39 and not unfrequently clefts are formed on a sudden, the earth sinks in, and the work- men are crushed beneath; so that it would really appear less rash to go in search of pearls and purples at the bottom of the sea, so much more dangerous to ourselves have we made the earth than the water! Hence it is, that in this kind of mining, arches are left at frequent intervals for the purpose of sup- porting the weight of the mountain above. In mining either by shaft or by gallery, barriers of silex are met with, which have to be driven asunder by the aid of fire and vinegar ;40 or more frequently, as this method fills the galleries with suffocating vapours and smoke, to be broken to pieces with bruising- machines shod with pieces of iron weighing one hundred and fifty pounds : which done, the fragments are carried out on the workmen's shoulders, night and day, each man passing them on to his neighbour in the dark, it being only those at the pit's mouth that ever see the light. In cases where the bed of silex appears too thick to admit of being penetrated, the miner traces along the sides of it, and so turns it. And yet, after all, the labour entailed by this silex is looked upon as comparatively easy, there being an earth—a kind of potter's clay mixed with gravel, " gangadia" by name, which it is almost impossible to overcome. This earth has to be attacked with iron wedges and hammers 37 The cupel or crucible is still known in Spain by the name of tasco. 38 Who were said to have heaped one mountain on another in their war with the gods. 39 Deep mines in Spain are still called arrugia, a term also used to signify gold beneath the surface. According to Grimm, arruzi was the ancient High German name for iron. 40 See B. xxiii. c. 27, 102 pliny's natural history. [Book XXXIII. like those previously mentioned,41 and it is generally considered that there is nothing more stubborn in existence—except in- deed the greed for gold, which is the most stubborn of all things. When these operations are all completed, beginning at the last, they cut away 42 the wooden pillars at the point where they support the roof: the coming downfall gives warning, which is instantly perceived by the sentinel, and by him only, who is set to watch upon a peak of the same mountain. By voice as well as by signals, he orders the workmen to be im- mediately summoned from their labours, and at the same moment takes to flight himself. The mountain, rent to pieces, is cleft asunder, hurling its debris to a distance with a crash which it is impossible for the human imagination to conceive; and from the midst of a cloud of dust, of a density quite in- credible, the victorious miners gaze upon this downfall of Nature. Nor yet even then are they sure of gold, nor indeed were they by any means certain that there was any to he found when they first began to excavate, it being quite suf- ficient, as an inducement to undergo such perils and to incur such vast expense, to entertain the hope that they shall obtain what they so eagerly desire. Another labour, too, quite equal to this, and one which en- tails even greater expense, is that of bringing rivers43 from the more elevated mountain heights, a distance in many in- stances of one hundred miles perhaps, for the purpose of washing these debris. The channels thus formed are called "corrugi," from our word " corrivatio,"441 suppose; and even when these are once made, they entail a thousand fresh labours. The fall, for instance, must be steep, that the water may he precipitated, so to say, rather than flow; and it is in this manner that it is brought from the most elevated points. Then, too, vallies and crevasses have to be united by the aid of aqueducts, and in another place impassable rocks have to he hewn away, and forced to make room for hollowed troughs of wood; the person hewing them hanging suspended all the time with ropes, so that to a spectator who views the operations 41 The breaking-machines, used for crushing the silex. 42 " Caedunt" is certainly a preferable reading to " cadunt," though the latter is given by the Bamberg MS. 43 A similar method of washing auriferous earth or sand in the mines, is still employed in some cases. 44 " The bringing of water into one channel." Chap. 21.] HOW GOLD IS FOUND. 103 from a distance, the workmen have all the appearance, not bo much of wild beasts, as of birds upon the wing.45 Hanging thus suspended in most instances, they take the levels, and trace with lines the course the water is to take; and thus, where there is no room even for man to plant a footstep, are rivers traced out by the hand of man. The water, too, is con- sidered in an unfit state for washing, if the current of the river carries any mud along with it. The kind of earth that yields this mud is known as "urium;"46 and hence it is that in tracing out these channels, they carry the water over beds of silex or pebbles, and carefully avoid this urium. When they have reached the head of the fall, at the very brow of the mountain, reservoirs are hollowed out, a couple of hundred feet in length and breadth, and some ten feet in depth. In these reservoirs there are generally five sluices left, about three feet square; so that, the moment the reservoir is filled, the floodgates are struck away, and the torrent bursts forth with such a degree of violence as to roll onwards any fragments of rock which may obstruct its passage. When they have reached the level ground, too, there is still another labour that awaits them. Trenches—known as " agogae"47—have to be dug for the passage of the water; and these, at regular intervals, have a layer of ulex placed at the bottom. This ulex48 is a plant like rosemary in appearance, rough and prickly, and well-adapted for arresting any pieces of gold that may be carried along. The sides, too, are closed in with planks, and are supported by arcjies when carried over steep and precipitous spots. The earth, carried onwards in the stream, arrives at the sea at last, and thus is the shattered mountain washed away; causes which have greatly tended to extend the shores of Spain by these encroachments upon the deep. It is also by the agency of canals of this description that the material, excavated at the cost of such immense la- bour by the process previously described,49 is washed and car- 45 Or as Holland quaintly renders it, " Some flying spirit or winged devill of the air." 46 Magnesian carbonate of lime, or dolomite, Ajasson thinks.- 47 From the Greek, dywyi). 48 It does not appear to have been identified; and it can hardly be the same as the Ulex Europaeus of modern Natural History, our Furze cr Gorse. 49 That of sinking shafts, described already in this Chapter. 104 flint's natural history. [Book XXXIII. ried away; for otherwise the shafts would soon be choked up by it. The gold found by excavating with galleries does not require to be melted, but is pure gold at once. In these excavations, too, it is found in lumps, as also in the shafts which are sunk, sometimes exceeding ten pounds even. The names given to these lumps are " palagse," and " palacurnae,"60 while the gold found in small grains is known as " baluce." The ulex that is used for the above purpose is dried and burnt, after which the ashes of it are washed upon a bed of grassy turf, in order that the gold may be deposited thereupon. Asturia, Gallsecia, and Lusitania furnish in this manner, yearly, according to some authorities, twenty thousand pounds' weight of gold, the produce of Asturia forming the major part. Indeed, there is no part of the world that for centuries has maintained such a continuous fertility in gold. I have already" mentioned that by an ancient decree of the senate, the soil of Italy has been protected from these researches; otherwise, there would be no land more fertile in metals. There is ex- > tant also a censorial law relative to the gold mines of Victumulse, in the territory of Yercellae,52 by which the farmers of the revenue were forbidden to employ more than five thousand men at the works. CHAP. 22.--ORPTMENT. There is also one other method of procuring gold; by making it from orpiment,53 a mineral dug from the surface of the earth in Syria, and much used by painters. It is just the colour of gold, but brittle, like mirror-stone,54 in fact. This substance greatly excited the hopes of the Emperor Caius,66 a prince who was most greedy for gold. He accordingly had a large quantity of it melted, and really did obtain some excellent gold ;56 but then the proportion was so extremely small, that he found him- self a loser thereby. Such was the result of an experiment prompted solely by avarice : and this too, although the price 50 All these names, no doubt, are of Spanish origin, although Salmasius would assign them a Greek one. si In B. iii. c. 24. »2 See B. iii. c. 21. 53 "Auripigmentum." Yellow sulphuret of arsenic. See B. xxxiv. c. 50. 54 "Lapis specularis." See B. xxxvi. c. 45. 55 Caligula.' 3« It was accidently mixed with the ore of arsenic, no doubt, unless in- deed, the emperor was imposed upon. Chap. 24.] THE FIRST STATUES OF GOLD. 105 of the orpiment itself was no more than four denarii per pound. Since his time, the experiment has never been repeated. CHAP. 23.—ELECTRUM. In all57 gold ore there is some silver, in varying proportions; a tenth part in some instances, an eighth in others. In one mine, and that only, the one known as the mine of Albucrara, in Gallaecia,58 the proportion of silver is but one thirty-sixth : hence it is that the ore of this mine is so much mere valuable than that of others. Whenever the proportion of silver is one- fifth, the ore is known also by the name of " electrum;"69 grains, too, of this metal are often found in the gold known as "canali- ense."60 An artificial61 electrum, too, is made, by mixing silver with gold. If the proportion of silver exceeds one-fifth, the metal offers no resistance on the anvil. Electrum, too, was highly esteemed in ancient times, as we learn from the testimony of Homer, who represents62 the palace of Menelaiis as refulgent with gold and electrum, silver and ivory. At Lindos, in the island of Rhodes, there is a temple dedicated to Minerva, in which there is a goblet of electrum, consecrated by Helena: history states also that it was moulded after the proportions of her bosom. One peculiar advantage of electrum is, its superior brilliancy to silver by lamp-light. Native electrum has also the property of detecting poisons; for in such case, semicircles, resembling the rainbow in appear- ance, will form upon the surface of the goblet, and emit a crackling noise, like that of flame, thus givng a twofold indica- tion of the presence of poison.63 CHAP. 24.--THE FIRST STATUES OF GOLD. The first statue of massive gold, without any hollowness within, and anterior to any of those statues of bronze even, which are known as " holosphyratae,"64 is said to have been 67 This is almost, but not quite, universally the case. 68 In Spain. See B. iii. c. 4, B. iv. c. 34, and B. ix. c. 2. The locality alluded to is now unknown. 59 A name also given by the ancients to amber. Artificial " electrum," or gold alloyed with silver, was known in the most ancient times. 60 The gold found by sinking shafts. See Chapter 21. « See B. ix. c. 65. 62 Od. B. iv. 1. 71. 63 Pliny no doubt has been imposed upon in this instance. 64 " Solid hammer-work,"in opposition to works in metal, cast and hollow within. 106 pliny's NATURAL niSTORY. [Book XXXIII. erected in the Temple of the goddess Anaitis. To what par- ticular region this name belongs, we have alreadyGS stated, it being that of a divinity66 held in the highest veneration by the nations in that part of the world. This statue was carried off during the wars of Antonius with the people of Parthia; and a witty saying is told, with reference to it, of one of the veterans of the Roman army, a native of Bononia. Enter- taining on one occasion the late Emperor Augustus at dinner, he was asked by that prince whether he was aware that the person who was the first to commit this violence upon the statue, had been struck with blindness and paralysis, and then expired. To this he made answer, that at that very moment Augustus was making his dinner off of one of her legs, for that he himself was the very man, and to that bit of plunder he had been indebted for all his fortune.67 As regards statues of human beings, Gorgias of Leontini68 was the first to erect a solid statue of gold, in the Temple at Delphi, in honour of himself, about the seventieth69 Olympiad : 60 great were the fortunes then made by teaching the art of oratory ! CHAP. 25.--EIGHT REMEDIES DERIVED FROM GOLD. Gold is efficacious as a remedy in many ways, being applied to wounded persons and to infants, to render any malpractices of sorcery comparatively innocuous that may be directed against them. Gold, however, itself is mischievous in its effects if 65 In B. v. c. 20, most probably. See also B. xvi. c. 64. 66 The worship of Anaitis was probably a branch of the Indian worship of Nature. The Greek writers sometimes identify this goddess with their Artemis and their Aphrodite. 67 Holland has strangely mistaken the meaning of the veteran's reply; " Yea, sir, that it is; and that methinks you should know best, for even now a leg of his you have at 6upper, and all your wealth besides is come unto you by that saccage." He then adds, by way of Note, " For Au- gustus Caesar defeited Antonie, and was mightily enriched by the spoile of him." 63 In Sicily. According to Valerius Maximus and other writers, a statue of solid gold was erected by the whole of Greece, in the temple at Delphi, in honour of Gorgias, who was distinguished for his eloquence and literary attainments. The leading opinion of Gorgias was, that nothing had any real existence. 89 The ninetieth Olympiad, about the year 420 b.c, is much more pro- bably the correct reading; as it was about the seventieth Olympiad, or some- what later, that Gorgias was born. Chap. 26.] CHRYSOCOLLA. 107 carried over the head, in the case of chickens and lambs more particularly. The proper remedy in such case is to wash the gold, and to sprinkle the water upon the objects which it is wished to preserve. Gold, too, is melted with twice its weight of salt, and three times its weight of misy ;70 after which it is again melted with two parts of salt and one of the stone called " schistos."71 Employed in this manner, it withdraws the natural acridity from the substances torrefied with it in the crucible, while at the same time it remains pure and incorrupt; the residue forming an ash which is preserved in an earthen vessel, and is applied with water for the cure of lichens on the face: the best method of washing it off is with bean-meal. These ashes have the property also of curing fistulas and the discharges known as "hsemorrhoides:" with the addition, too, ot powdered pumice, they are a cure for putrid ulcers and sores which emit an offensive smell. Gold, boiled in honey with melanthium72 and applied asi a liniment to the navel, acts as a gentle purgative upon the bowels. M. Varro assures us that gold is a cure for warts.' CHAP. 26. (5.)—CHRYSOCOLLA. Chrysocolla74 is a liquid which is found in the shafts already mentioned,75 flowing through the veins of gold; a kind ot slime which becomes indurated by the cold of winter till it has attained the hardness even of pumice. The most esteemed kind of it, it has been ascertained, is found in copper-mines, the next best being the produce of silver-mines: it is :found also in lead-mines, but that found in combination with gold ore is much inferior. . In all these mines, too, an artificial chrysocolla is manu- re See B. xxxiv. c. 29. _ ™ See B. xxix. c. 38. and B. xxxvi. cc. 37, 38. 73 Or cith. See B. xx. c. 71. ...» n 73 Similar to the notion still prevalent, that the application of pure gold will remove styes on the eyelids. ,,«„,. n ,» f *T,OOT,niorite w It has been supposed by some, that the " Chrysocolla" of the ancients, as well as the " Caeruleum," mentioned in c. 57 of this Book, were the pro- duce of cobalt; but the more generally received opinion is that.chryso- colla" (gold-solder) was green verditer, or mountain-green, carbonate and hydrocarbonate of copper, green and blue, substances which are someUme found in gold mines, but in copper mines more particularly. It must not be confounded with the modern chrysocolla or Borax. 75 In Chapter 21 of this Book. 108 pliny's NATURAL HISTORY. [Book XXXIII. factured; much inferior, however, to the native chrysocolla. The method of preparing it consists in introducing water gradually into a vein of metal, throughout the winter and until the month of June ; after which, it is left to dry up during the months of June and July : so that, in fact, it is quite evident that chrysocolla is nothing else but the putrefaction of a metal- lic vein. Native chrysocolla, known as "uva," differs from the other in its hardness more particularly ; and yet, hard as it is, it admits of being coloured with the plant known as " lutum."76 Like flax and wool, it is of a nature which imbibes liquids. For the purpose of dyeing it, it is first bruised in a mortar, after which, it is passed through a fine sieve. This done, it is ground, and then passed through a still finer sieve; all that refuses to pass being replaced in the mortar, and sub- jected once more to the mill. The finest part of the powder is from time to time measured out into a crucible, where it is macerated in vinegar, so that all the hard particles may be dissolved; after which, it is pounded again, and then rinsed in shell-shaped vessels, and left to dry. This done, the chry- socolla is dyed by the agency of schist alum77 and the plant above-mentioned; and thus is it painted itself before it serves to paint. It is of considerable importance, too, that it should be absorbent and readily take the dye : indeed, if it does not epeedily take the colour, scytanum and turbistum78 are added to the dye ; such being the name of two drugs which compel it to absorb the colouring matter. CHAP. 27.--THE USE MADE OF CHRYSOCOLLA IN PAINTING. When chrysocolla has been thus dyed, painters call it " oro- bitis," and distinguish two kinds of it, the cleansed79 orobitis,60 which is kept for making lomentum,81 and the liquid, the balls 76 The " Reseda luteola," Dyer's weed, or Wild woad. See Beckmann's Hist. Inv. Vol. I. p. 478—481, where the identity of the Chrysocolla of the ancients is discussed at considerable length. 77 As to the identity of this substance, see B. xxxv. c. 52. 73 These drugs have not been identified. 79 " Elutam." Though this is the reading given by the Bamberg MS., " luteam" seems preferable; a name owing, probably, to its being coloured with the plant " lutum," as mentioned at the end of this Chapter 80 So called, probably, from being made up into little balls resembling the " orobus " or vetch. si A powder, probably, prepared from " casruleum." See the end of the Chap. 27.] THE USE MADE OF CHRYSOCOLLA. 109 being dissolved for use by evaporation.82 Both these kinds are prepared in Cyprus,83 but the most esteemed is that made in Armenia, the next best being that of Macedonia : it is Spain, however, that produces the most. The great point of its ex- cellence consists in its producing exactly the tint of corn when in a state of the freshest verdure.84 Before now, we have seen, at the spectacles exhibited by the Emperor Nero, the arena of the Circus entirely sanded with chrysocolla, when the prince himself, clad in a dress of the same colour, was about to exhibit as a charioteer.85 The unlearned multitude of artisans distinguish three kinds of chrysocolla ; the rough chrysocolla, which is valued at seven denarii per pound ; the middling, worth five denarii; and the bruised, also known as the " herbaceous" chryso- colla, worth three denarii per pound. Before laying on the sanded66 chrysocolla, they underlay coats of atramentum87 and paraetonium,88 substances which make it hold, and im- part a softness to the colours. The paraetonium, as it is naturally very unctuous, and, from its smoothness, extremely tenacious, is laid on first, and is then covered with a coat of atramentum, lest the paraetonium, from its extreme whiteness, should impart a paleness to the chrysocolla. The kind known as "lutea," derives its name, it is thought, from the plant called " lutum;" which itself is often pounded with caeru- leum89 instead of real chrysocolla, and used for painting, present Chapter, and Chapter 57 of this Book. Littre renders the words "in lomentum," kept "in the form of powder," without reference to the peculiar pigment known as " lomentum." 82 " Sudore resolutis." 83 A strong proof that chrysocolla was a preparation from copper, and not cobalt. Copper owes its name to the Isle of Cyprus, in which it was found in great abundance. See Beckmann's Hist. Inv. Vol. II. p. 480. Bohn's Edition. M The colour now known by painters as Emerald green. 85 Aa a " trigarius." See B. xxviii. c. 72, and B. xxix. c. 5. From Suetonius, c. 18, we learn that the Emperor Caligula, also, had the Circus sanded with minium and chrysocolla. Ajasson is of opinion that the chrysocolla thus employed was a kind of yellow mica or talc. 66 " Arenosam." He alludes, probably, to the kind previously mentioned as " aspera " or " rough chrysocolla." 87 For its identification, see B. xxxiv. cc. 26, 32. 83 See B. xxxv. cc. 12, 18. 69 Making a spurious kind of "lomentum," possibly, a pigment men- tioned in c. 57 of this Book. This passage seems to throw some light. upon the words " in lomentum," commented upon in Note SI above. 110 pliny's natural history. [Book XXXIII. making a very inferior kind of green and extremely decep- tive.90 CHAP. 28.—SEVEN REMEDIES DERIVED FROM CHRYSOCOLLA. Chroysocolla, too, is made use of in medicine. In combina- tion with wax and oil, it is used as a detergent for wounds; and used by itself in the form of a powder, it acts as a desic- cative, and heals them. In cases, too, of quinsy and hardness of breathing, chrysocolla is prescribed, in the form of an elec- tuary, with honey. It acts as an emetic also, and is used as an ingredient in eye-salves, for the purpose of effacing cicatriza- tions upon the eyes. In green plasters too, it is used, for soothing pain and making scars disappear. This kind of chrysocolla91 is known by medical men as " acesis," and is alto- gether different from orobitis. CHAP. 29.--THE CHRYSOCOLLA OF THE GOLDSMITHS, KNOWN AL80 AS SANTERNA. The goldsmiths also employ a chrysocolla92 of their own, for the purpose of soldering gold; and it is from this chrysocolla, they say, that all the other substances, which present a similar green, have received their name. This preparation is made from verdigris of Cyprian copper, the urine of a youth who has not arrived at puberty, and a portion of nitre.93 It is then pounded with a pestle of Cyprian copper, in a copper mortar, and the name given to the mixture is " santerna." It is in this way that the gold known as " silvery "94 gold is soldered; one sign of its being so alloyed being its additional brilliancy on the application of santerna. If, on the other hand, the gold is impregnated with copper, it will contract, on coming in contact with the santerna, become dull, and only be soldered with the greatest difficulty: indeed, for this last kind of gold, there is a peculiar solder employed, made of gold and one- seventh part of silver, in addition to the materials above-men- tioned, the whole beaten up together. 90 As to durability, probably. 91 It was the mineral, probably, in an unprepared state. 92 Gold-glue or gold-solder. 93 See B. xxxi. c. 46, as to the "nitrum" of Pliny. Galen, in de- Bcnmng the manufacture of " santerna," omits the nitre as an ingredient. " " Argentosum." The "electrum," probably, mentioned inc 23. Chap. 31.] SILVER. Ill CHAP. 30.---THE MARVELLOUS OPERATIONS OF NATURE IN SOLDERING METALLIC SUBSTANCES, AND BRINGING THEM TO A STATE OF PERFECTION. While speaking on this subject, it will be as well to annex the remaining particulars, that our admiration may here be drawn to all the marvels presented by Nature in connection therewith. The proper solder for gold is that above described ; for iron, potter's clay ; for copper, when in masses, cadmia,95 and in sheets, alum ; for lead and marble, resin. Lead is also united by the aid of white lead ;K white lead with white lead, by the agency of oil; stannum, with copper file-dust; and silver, with stannum.97 Eor smelting copper and iron, pine-wood is the best, Egypt- ian papyrus being also very good for the purpose. Gold is melted most easily with a fire made of chaff.98 Limestone and Thracian stone99 are ignited by the agency of water, this last being extinguished by the application of oil. Fire, how- ever, is extinguished most readily by the application of vinegar, viscus,1 and unboiled eggs. Earth will under no circumstance ignite. When charcoal has been once quenched, and then again ignited, it gives out a greater heat than before. chap. 31. (6.)—SILVER. After stating these facts, we come to speak of silver ore, the next2 folly of mankind. Silver is never found but in shafts sunk deep in the ground, there being no indications to raise hopes of its existence, no shining sparkles, as in the case of gold. The earth in which it is found is sometimes red, some- times of an ashy hue. It is impossible, too, to melt3 it, except 95 As to the " cadmia " of Pliny, see B. xxxiv. c. 22. 96 " Plumbum album." Tin, most probably. See B. xxxiv. cc. 47, 48, 49. Also Beckmann's Hist. Inv., Vol. II. p. 219. Bohn's Edition. 97 Of doubtful identity. See B. xxxiv. c. 48. 08 See Chapter 19 of this Book. 99 "Thracius lapis." This stone, which is mentioned also by Nicander, Galen, Simplicius, and Dioscorides, has not been identified. Holland has the following Note on this passage: " Which some take for pit-cole, or sea- cole rather, such as commeth from Newcastle by sea ; or rather, a kind of jeat (jet)." In either oase, he is probably wide of the mark, neither coal nor jet igniting on the application of water. 1 Or mistletoe. 2 In due succession to gold. 3 See B. xxxiv. cc. 47, 53. 112 pliny's NATURAL HISTORY. [Book XXXIII. in combination with lead4 or with galena,6 this last being the name given to the vein of lead that is mostly found running near the veins of the silver ore. When submitted, too, to the action of fire, part of the ore precipitates itself in the form of lead,6 while the silver is left floating on the surface,7 like oil on water. Silver is found in nearly all our provinces, but the finest of all is that of Spain; where it is found, like gold, in unculti- vated soils, and in the mountains even. Wherever, too, one vein of silver has been met with, another is sure to be found not far off: a thing that has been remarked, in fact, in the case of nearly all the metals, which would appear from this cir- cumstance to have derived their Greek name of "metalla."8 It is a remarkable fact, that the shafts opened by Hannibal9 in the Spanish provinces are still worked, their names being de- rived from the persons who were the first to discover them. One of these mines, whichatthe present day is still called Baebelo, furnished Hannibal with three hundred pounds' weight of silver per day. The mountain is already excavated for a distance of fifteen hundred10 paces; and throughout the whole of this distance there are water-bearers11 standing night and day, baling out the water in turns, regulated by the light of torches, and so forming quite a river. The vein of silver that is found nearest the surface i3 known 4 "Plumbum nigrum"—"Black lead," literally: so called by the ancients, in contradistinction to "plumbum album," "white lead," our " tin," probably. 5 Lead ore ; identified with " molybdaena " in B. xxxiv. c. 53. Native sulphurate of lead is now known as " galena." See Beckmann's Hist. Inv. Vol. II. p. 211, where this passage is commented upon. 6 This Beckmann considers to be the same as the "galena" above men- tioned ; half-vitrified lead, the " glatte " of the Germans. 7 The specific gravity of lead is 11.352, and of silver only 10.474. 6 From the words fter' aXXa, " one after another." 9 It is supposed that these shafts were in the neighbourhood of Castulo, now Cazlona, near Linares in Spain. It was at Castulo that Hannibal married his rich wife Himilce ; and in the hills north of Linares there are ancient silver mines still known as Los Pozos de Anibal. 10 A mile and a half. » The proper reading here, as suggested by Sillig, is not improbably "aquatini, "water-carriers." That, however, found in the MSS is"Aqui- tani;" but those were a people, not of Spain, but of Gaul. Hardouin su?- gests that " Accitani may be the correct reading, a people of that name in Spain bemg mentioned in B. iii. c. 5. Chap. 32.] QUICKSILVER. 113 by the name of "crudaria."12 In ancient times, the excavations used to be abandoned the moment alum13 was met with, and no further14 search was made. Of late, however, the discovery of a vein of copper beneath alum, has withdrawn any such limits to man's hopes. The exhalations from silver-mines are dan- gerous to all animals, but to dogs more particularly. The softer they are, the more beautiful gold and silver are con- sidered. It is a matter of surprise with most persons, that lines traced16 with silver should be black. CHAP. 32.--QUICKSILVER. There is a mineral also found in these veins of silver, which yields a humour that is always16 liquid, and is known as "quicksilver."17 It acts as a poison18 upon everything, and pierces vessels even, making its way through them by the agency of its malignant properties.19 All substances float upon the surface of quicksilver, with the exception of gold,20 this being the only substance that it attracts to itself.21 Hence it is, that it is such an excellent refiner of gold; for, on being briskly shaken in an earthen vessel with gold, it rejects all the impurities that are mixed with it. When once it has thus expelled these superfluities, there is nothing to do but to sepa- rate it from the gold ; to effect which, it is poured out upon skins that have been well tawed, and so, exuding through them like a sort of perspiration, it leaves the gold in a state of purity behind.22 12 Meaning " raw" silver, apparently. 13 " Alumen." See B. xxxvl c. 52. 14 Kircher speaks of this being still the case in his time. 15 See Chapter 19 of this Book. is " Vomica liquoris aeterni." Mercury or quicksilver becomes solidified and assumes a crystalline texture at 40° below zero. It is found chiefly in the state of sulphuret, which is decomposed by distillation with iron or lime. It is also found in a native state. 17 " Argentum vivum," "living silver." 18 Ajasson thinks that this is not to be understood literally, but that Pliny's meaning is, that mercury is a universal dissolvent. •9 "Permanans tabe dira." 20 The specific gravity of mercury is 13.598, that of hammered gold 19.361. Platinum is only a recent discovery. 21 " Id unum ad se trahit." 22 " The first use of quicksilver is commonly reckoned a Spanish in- vention, discovered about the middle of the sixteenth century; but it VOL. VI. I 114 PLINY'S NATURAL HISTORY. [Book XXXIII. Hence it is, too, that when copper has to be gilded,28 a coat of quicksilver is laid beneath the gold leaf, which it retains in its place with the greatest tenacity: in cases, however, where the leaf is single, or very thin, the presence of the quicksilver is detected by the paleness of the colour.24 Eor this reason, per- sons, when meditating a piece of fraud, have been in the habit of substituting glair o£ egg for quicksilver, and then laying upon it a coat of hydrargyros, a substance of which we shall make further mention in the appropriate place.35 Generally speaking, quicksilver has not been found in any large quantities. appears from Pliny, that the ancients were acquainted with amalgam and its use, not only for separating gold and silver from earthy particles, but also for gilding."—Beckmann, Hist. Inv., Vol. I. p. 15. Bohn's Edition. 23 See the description of the mode of gilding, given in Chapter 20 of this Book. Beckmann has the following remarks on the present passage: " That gold-leaf was affixed to metals by means of quicksilver, with the as- sistance of heat, in the time of Pliny, we are told by himself in more passages than one. The metal to be gilded was prepared by salts of every kind, and rubbed with pumice-stone in order to clean it thoroughly (see Chapter 20), and to render the surface a little rough. This process is similar to that used at present for gilding with amalgam, by means of heat, especially as amalgamation was known to the ancients. But, to speak the truth, Pliny says nothing of heating the metal after the gold is applied, or of evaporating the quicksilver, but of drying the cleaned metal before the gold is laid on. Had he not mentioned quicksilver, his gilding might have been considered as that with gold leaf by means of heat, dorure en feuille a feu, in which the gold is laid upon the metal after it has been cleaned and heated, and strongly rubbed with blood-stone, or polished steel. Felibien (Principes de VArchitecture. Paris, 1676, p. 280) was undoubt- edly right when he regretted that the process of the ancients, the excellence of which is proved by remains of antiquity, has been lost."—Hist. Inv. Vol. II. pp. 294, 295. Bohn's Edition. u Beckmann finds considerable difficulties in this description—" I ac- knowledge that this passage I do not fully comprehend. It seems to say- that the quicksilver, when the gold was laid on too thin, appeared through it, but that this might be prevented by mixing with the quicksilver the white of an egg. The quicksilver then remained under the gold: a thing which is impossible. "When the smallest drop of quicksilver falls upon gilding, it corrodes the noble metal, and produces an empty spot. It is, therefore, incomprehensible to me how this could be prevented by using the white of an egg. Did Pliny himself completely understand gilding? Perhaps he only meant to say that many artists gave out the cold-gilding. where the gold-leaf was laid on with the white of an esr°- as oildino' by means of heat."—Hist. Inv. Vol. II. p. 295. ° 25 Chapter 42 of this Book. See also Chapter 20, in Note 20, to which it has been mentioned as artificial quicksilver. Chap. 34.] SEYEN REMEDIES DERIVED FROM STIMMI. 115 CHAP. 33. — STIMMI, STIBI, ALABASTRUM, LARBASIS, OR PLATY- OPHTHALMON. In the same mines in which silver is found, there is also found a substance which, properly speaking, may be called a stone made of concrete froth.21 It is white and shining, with- out being transparent, and has the several names of stimmi, stibi, alabastrum,22 and larbasis. There are two kinds of it, the male and the female.23 The latter kind is the more ap- proved of, the male24 stimmi being more uneven, rougher to the touch, less ponderous, not so radiant, and more gritty. The female kind, on the other hand, is bright and friable, and separates in laminae, and not in globules.25 CHAP. 34.--SEVEN REMEDIES DERIVED FROM STIMMI. Stimmi is possessed "of certain astringent and refrigerative properties, its principal use, in medicine, being for the eyes. Hence it is that most persons call it "platyophthalmon,"26 it be- ing extensively employed in the calliblepharic27 preparations of females, for the purpose of dilating the eyes. It acts also as a check upon fluxes of the eyes and ulcerations of those organs; being used, as a powder, with pounded frankincense and gum. It has the property, too, of arresting discharges of blood from 81 He is speaking of Antimony. 22 From its whiteness. 23 Under the name of " female stimmi," Ajasson thinks that pure, or native, antimony is meant, more particularly the lamelliform variety, re- markable for its smoothness. He thinks it possible, also, that it may have derived its Greek name " larbason," or " larbasis," from its brittleness. H Ajasson thinks that under this name, crude antimony or sulphuret of antimony may have been included; as also sulphuret of lead, sulphuret of antimony and copper, and sulphuret of antimony and silver; the last of which is often found covered with an opaque pellicle. 25 " Globis." The fracture of sulphuret of antimony is, in reality, small subconchoidal. 26 " Eye dilating." Belladonna, a preparation from the Atropa bella- donna, is now used in medicine for this purpose. A similar effect is attri- buted in B. xxv. c. 92, to the plant Anagallis. In reality, the application of prepared antimony would contract the eyelids, and so appear to enlarge the eyes. This property is peculiar, Ajasson remarks, to sulphuret of an- timony, and sulphuret of antimony and silver. . 27 Preparations " for beautifying the eyebrows." See B. xxi. c. 73, JS. xxiii. c. 51, and B. xxxv. c. 56. Omphale, the Lydian queen, who capti- vated Hercules, is represented by the tragic poet Ion, as using "stimmi' for the purposes of the toilet. It was probably with a preparation ot anti- mony that Jezebel " painted her face, and tired her head." 2 Kings, ix. 30. The "Kohl" used by the females in Egypt and Persia is prepared from an- timony. I 2 116 pliny's natural history. [Book XXXIII. the brain; and, sprinkled in the form of a powder, it is extremely efficacious for the cure of recent wounds and bites of dogs which have been some time inflicted. For the cure of burns it is re- markably good, mixed with grease, litharge,28 ceruse, and wax. The method of preparing it, is to burn it, enclosed in a coat of cow-dung, in a furnace; which done, it is quenched with woman's milk, and pounded with rain-water in a mortar.29 While this is doing, the thick and turbid part is poured off from time to time into a copper vessel, and purified with nitre.30 The lees of it, which are rejected, are recognized by their being full of lead and falling to the bottom. The vessel into which the turbid part has been poured off, is then covered with a linen cloth and left untouched for a night; the portion that lies upon the surface being poured off the following day, or else removed with a sponge. The part that has fallen to the bottom of the vessel is regarded as the choicest31 part, and is left, covered with a linen cloth, to dry in the sun, but not to become parched. This done, it is again pounded in a mortar, and then divided into tablets. But the main thing of all is, to observe such a degree of nicety in heating it, as not to let it become lead.32 Some persons, when' preparing it on the fire, use grease33 instead of dung. Others, again, bruise it in water and then pass it through a triple strainer of linen cloth; after which, they reject the lees, and pour off the remainder of the liquid, collecting all that is deposited at the bottom, and using it as an ingredient in plasters and eye-salves. CHAP. 35.—THE SCORIA OF SILVER. SIX REMEDIES DERIVED FROM IT. The scoria of silver is called by the Greeks " helcysma."31 28 " Spuma argenti." See the next Chapter. 29 According to Dioscorides, it was prepared as a cosmetic by enclosing it in a lump of dough, and then burning it in the coals till reduced to a cinder. It was then extinguished with milk and wine, and again placed upon coals, and blown till ignition. 30 As to the "nitrum" of the ancients, see B. xxxi. c. 46. 3i « Flos"—literally the " flower." 32 " From this passage we may infer that the metal antimony was occa- sionally seen by the ancients, though not recognized by them as distinct from lead."—Dana's System of Mineralogy, p. 418. New York, 1850. 33 Pliny has here mistaken the sense of the word ariap, which in the passage of Dioscorides, B. v. c. 99, borrowed probably from the same source, evidently means dough, and not grease. « From e'Xicw, "to drag"—in consequence of its viscous consistency, Hardouin says. Chap. 35.] THE SCORIA OF 8ILVER. 117 It has certain restringent and refrigerative effects upon bodies, and, like molybdaena, of which we shall make further mention when speaking36 of lead, is used as an ingredient in making plasters, those more particularly which are to promote the cicatrization of wounds. It is employed also for the cure of tenesmus and dysentery, being injected in the form of a clyster with myrtle-oil. It forms an ingredient, too, in the medica- ments known as "liparse,"36 for the removal of fleshy excres- cences in sores, ulcerations arising from chafing, or running ulcers on the head. The same mines also furnish us with the preparation known as " scum of silver."37 There are three38 varieties of it; the best, known as " chrysitis;" the second best, the name of which is " argyritis ;" and a third kind, which is called " molybditis." In most instances, too, all these tints are to be found in the same cake.39 The most approved kind is that of Attica; the next being that which comes from Spain. Chrysitis is the produce of the metallic vein,40 argyritis is obtained from the silver itself, and molybditis is the result of the smelting of lead,41 a work that is done at Puteoli ; to which last circumstance, in fact, mo- lybditis owes its name.42 All" these substances are prepared in the following manner : the metal is first melted, and then al- lowed to flow from a more elevated receiver into a lower. From this last it is lifted by the aid of iron spits, and is then twirled round at the end of the spit in the midst of the flames, in order to make it all the lighter. Thus, as may be easily per- 35 In B. xxxiv. c. 53. 36 Cerates, adipose or oleaginous plasters. See B. xxiii. c. 81. 37 " Spuma argenti." This he uses as a general name for fused oxide of lead, the Litharge of commerce. 38 Ajasson thinks it possible that the " chrysitis," or "golden" litharge, may have been the yellow deutoxide of lead; the argyritis, or " silver" litharge, the white variety of the same deutoxide; and the " molybditis," or " leaden" litharge, a general name for sulphuret of lead and silver; of lead and antimony; of lead, antimony, and bismuth ; and of lead, anti- mony, and copper. Or perhaps, he thinks, they may have been the respec- tive names of yellow or golden litharge, white or silver litharge, and terne. With the latter opinion Delafosse seems to coincide. 39 " Tubulis." These cakes were probably made in a tubular form. *° " Vena ;" meaning the ore probably in its raw state, and mixed with earth. All these distinctions are probably unfounded. « See B. xxxiv. c. 53. « Of " Puteolana." 118 PLINY'S NATURAL HISTORY. [Book XXXIII. ceived from the name, it is in reality the scum of a substance in a state of fusion—of the future metal, in fact. It differs from scoria in the same way that the scum of a liquid differs from the lees, the one43 being an excretion thrown out by the metal while purifying itself, the other44 an excretion of the metal when purified. Some persons distinguish two kinds of scum of silver, and give them the names of " scirerytis" and " peumene ;"45 a third variety being molybdaena, of which we shall have to make further mention when treating of lead.46 To make this scum fit for use, the cakes are again broken into pieces the size of a hazel-nut, and then melted, the fire being briskly blown with the bellows. For the purpose of separating the charcoal and ashes from it, it is then rinsed with vinegar or with wine, and is so quenched. In the case of argyritis, it is recom- mended, in order to blanch it, to break it into pieces the size of a bean, and then to boil it with water in an earthen vessel, first putting with it, wrapped in linen cloths, some new wheat and barley, which are left there till they have lost the outer coat. This done, they bruise the whole in mortars for six con- secutive days, taking care to rinse the mixture in cold water three times a day, and after that, in an infusion of hot water and fossil salt, one obolus of the latter to every pound of scum : at the end of the six days it is put away for keep- ing in a vessel of lead. Some persons boil it with white beans and a ptisan47 of barley, and then dry it in the sun ; others, again, with white wool and beans, till such time as it imparts no darkness to the wool; after which, first adding fossil48 salt, they change the water from time to time, and then dry it during the forty hot- test days of summer. In some instances the practice is, to boil it in water in a swine's paunch, and then to take it out and rub it with nitre ; after which, following the preceding method, they pound it in a mortar with salt. Some again « The litharge. « The scoria. « Nothing whatever is known as to the identity of these varieties of litharge. Indeed the words themselves are spelt in various ways in the respective MSS. *6 In B. xxxiv. c. 53, where he identifies it with " galena," mentioned in Chapter 31 of this Book. 17 See B. xviii. c. 13, B. xxi. c. 61, and B, xxii. c. 66. *8 Sal gem, or common salt. Chap. 36.] MINIUM. 119 never boil it, but pound it only with salt, and then rinse it with water. Scum of silver is used as an ingredient in eye-salves, and, in the form of a liniment, by females, for the purpose of re- moving spots and blemishes caused by scars, as also in washes for the hair. Its properties are desiccative, emollient, re- frigerative, temperative, and detergent. It fills up cavities in the flesh produced by ulceration, and reduces tumours. For all these purposes it is employed as an ingredient in plaster, and in the liparae previously mentioned.49 In combination with rue, myrtle, and vinegar, it removes erysipelas : and, with myrtle and wax, it is a cure for chilblains. CHAP. 36. (7.)—MINIUM : FOR WHAT RELIGIOUS PURPOSES IT WAS USED BY THE ANCIENTS. It is also in silver-mines that minium50 is found, a pigment held at the present day in very high estimation ; and by the Romans in former times not only held in the highest estima- tion, but used for sacred purposes as well. Verrius enume- rates certain authors, upon whose testimony we find it satis- factorily established that it was the custom upon festivals to colour the face of the statue of Jupiter even with minium, as well as the bodies51 of triumphant generals; and that it was in this guise that Camillus celebrated his triumph. We find, too, that it is through the same religious motives that it is employed at the present day for colouring the unguents used at triumphal banquets, and that it is the first duty of the censors to make a contract for painting the statue of Jupiter52 with this colour. For my own part, I am quite at a loss for the origin of this usage; but it is a well-known fact, that at the present day even, minium is in great esteem with the nations of ^Ethiopia, their nobles being in the habit of staining the body all over with it, and this being the colour appropriated to the statues 49 In this Chapter. See note 36 above. 50 The minium spoken of in this and the following Chapter is our Cin- nabar, a bisulphurate of mercury. This ore is the great source of the mer- cury of commerce, from which it is obtained by sublimation. When pure, it is the same as the manufactured vermilion of commerce. 51 Intended, no doubt, to be typical of blood and carnage; and indica- tive of a very low state of civilization. 52 See B. xxxv. c. 45. 120 PLINY'S NATURAL HISTORY. [Book XXXIII. of their gods. I shall therefore use all the more diligence in enquiring into all the known facts respecting it. CHAP. 37.—THE DISCOVERY AND ORIGIN OF MINIUM. Theophrastus states that, ninety years before the magis- tracy of Praxibulus at Athens—a date which answers to the year of our City, 439—minium was discovered by Callias the Athenian, who was in hopes to extract gold, by submitting to the action of fire the red sand that was found in the silver-mines. This, he says, was the first discovery of minium. He states, also, that in his own time, it was already found in Spain, but of a harsh and sandy nature ; as also in Colchis, upon a cer- tain inaccessible rock there, from which it was brought down by the agency of darts. This, however, he says, was only an adulterated kind of minium, the best of all being that pro- cured in the Cilbian Plains,53 above Ephesus, the sand of which has just the colour of the kermes berry.54 This sand, he in- forms us, is first ground to powder and then washed, the portion that settles at the bottom being subjected to a second washing. From this circumstance, he says, arises a difference in the article ; some persons being in the habit of preparing their minium with a single washing, while with others it is more diluted. The best kind, however, he says, is that which has undergone a second washing. CHAP. 38.--CINNABARIS. I am not surprised that this colour should have been held in such high esteem ; for already, in the days of the Trojan War, rubrica55 was highly valued, as appears from the testi- mony of Homer, who particularly notices the ships that were coloured with it, whereas, in reference to other colours and paintings, he but rarely notices them. The Greeks call this red earth " miltos," and give to minium the name of " cinna- baris," and hence the error56 caused by the two meanings of 5=> See B. v. c. 31. 5* See B. xvi. c. 12, and B. xxiv. c. 4. 55 The same as the miltos mentioned below, " miltos" being the word used by Homer, II. II. 637. This substance is totally different from the minium of the preceding Chapters, and from that mentioned in c. 40. It is our red ochre, peroxide of iron, mixed in a greater or less degree with argillaceous earth. »« See B. xxix. c. 8; where he speaks of the mistake made by the phy- sicians in giving mineral vermilion or minium to their patients instead of Chap. 40.] THE VARIOUS KINDS OF MINIUM. 121 the same word; this being properly the name given to the thick matter which issues from the dragon when crushed be- neath the weight of the dying elephant, mixed with the blood of either animal, as already described.57 Indeed this last is the only colour that in painting gives a proper representation of blood. This cinnabaris, too, is extremely useful as an ingre- dient in antidotes and various medicaments. But, by Her- cules ! our physicians, because minium also has the name of " cinnabaris," use it as a substitute for the other, and so em- ploy a poison, as we shall shortly68 show it to be. CHAP. 39.--THE EMPLOYMENT OF CINNABARIS IN PAINTING. The ancients used to paint with cinnabaris59 those pictures of one colour, which are still known among us as " monochro- mata."60 They painted also with the minium of Ephesus :61 but the use of this last has been abandoned, from the vast trouble which the proper keeping of the picture entailed. And then besides, both these colours were thought to be too harsh; the consequence of which is, that painters have now adopted the use of rubrica62 and of sinopis, substances of which I shall make further mention in the appropriate places.63 Cinnabaris64 is adulterated by the agency of goats' blood, or of bruised sorb-apples. The price of genuine cinnabaris is fifty sesterces per pound. CHAP. 40.--THE VARIOUS KINDS OF MINIUM. THE USE MADE OF IT IN PAINTING. According to Juba minium is also a production of Carmania,65 and Timagenes says that it is found in ^Ethiopia. But from neither of those regions is it imported to Borne, nor, indeed, Indian cinnabar. The latter substance is probably identical with that which is now used for varnishes, being imported from India, and still known as " dragons' blood," the resin of the Ptero-carpus draco, or Cala- mus palm. 57 In B. viii. c. 12. 68 In Chapter 41. 59 The dragon's blood, mentioned in the preceding Chapter. 60 " Single colour paintings." See B. xxxv. cc. 5, 11, 34, 36. 6l> Mentioned in Chapter 37. 02 The " miltos" of the preceding Chapter. See Note 55 above. 63 In B. xxxv. c. 13, et seq. 61 He is here speaking of our cinnabar, or vermilion, mentioned in Chapter 36. 65 See B. vi. cc 27, 28, 32. 122 pliny's NATURAL HISTORY. [Book XXXIII. from hardly any other quarter but Spain ; that of most note coming from Sisapo,66 a territory of Baetica, the mine of mi- nium there forming a part of the revenues of the Koman people. Indeed there is nothing guarded with a more constant circumspection; for it is not allowable to reduce and refine the ore upon the spot, it being brought to Borne in a crude 6tate and under seal, to the amount of about two thousand pounds per annum. At Rome, the process of washing is per- formed, and, in the sale of it, the price is regulated by statute; it not being allowed to exceed67 seventy sesterces per pound. There are numerous ways, however, of adulterating it, a source of considerable plunder to the company.68 For there is, in fact, another kind69 of minium, found in most silver-mines as well as lead-mines, and prepared by the calcina- tion of certain stones that are found mixed with the metallic vein—not the minerals, however, to the fluid humours of which we have given70 the name of quicksilver; for if those are subjected to the action of fire they will yield silver—but another kind of stone71 that is found with them. These barren72 stones, too, may be recognized by their uniform leaden colour, and it is only when in the furnace that they turn red. After being duly calcined they are pulverized, and thus form a minium of second-rate quality, known to but very few, and far inferior to the produce of the native sand that we have mentioned.73 It is with this substance, then, as also with syricum, that the genuine minium is adulterated in the manufactories of the company. How syricum is prepared we shall describe in the appropriate place.74 One motive, however, for giving an under- coat of syricum to minium, is the evident saving of expense that results therefrom. Minium, too, in another way affords a very convenient opportunity to painters for pilfering, by wash- 66 See B. iii. c. 3, Vol. I. p. 163. He alludes to the district of Almaden, in Andalusia, still famous for its quicksilver mines. 67 "When sold by the "publicani," or farmers of the revenue. 68 Of the publicani. 69 Bed oxide of lead, a much inferior pigment to cinnabar, or the minium of Chapter 36. " in Chapter 32 of this Book. 71 Dana informs us that minium is usually associated with galena and with calamine. Syst. Mineral, p. 495. 72 "Steriles." Barren of silver, probably; though Hardouin thinks that it means " barren of lead." Holland renders it " barraine and void of the right vermilion." ™ In Chapter 37. 74 B. xxxv. c. 24. Chap. 40.] THE VARIOUS KINDS OF MINIUM. 123 ing their brushes,75 filled with the colouring matter, every now and then. The minium of course falls to the bottom, and is thus so much gained by the thief. Genuine minium ought to have the brilliant colour of the kermes berry ;76 but when that of inferior quality is used for walls, the brightness of it is sure to be tarnished by the moisture, and this too, although the substance itself is a sort of metallic mildew. In the mines of Sisapo, the veins are composed exclusively of the sandy particles of minium, with- out the intermixture of any silver whatever; the practice being to melt it like gold. Minium is assayed by the agency of gold in a state of incandescence : if it has been adulterated, it will turn black, but if genuine, it retains its colour. I find it stated also that minium is adulterated with lime; the proper mode of detecting which, is similarly to employ a sheet of red hot iron, if there should happen to be no gold at hand. To objects painted with minium the action of the sun and moon is highly injurious. The proper method of avoiding this inconvenience, is to dry the wall, and then to apply, with a hair brush, hot Punic wax, melted with oil; after which, the varnish must be heated, with an application of gall-nuts, burnt to a red heat, till it quite perspires. This done, it must be smoothed down with rollers77 made of wax, and then polish- ed with clean linen cloths, like marble, when made to shine. Persons employed in the manufactories in preparing minium protect the face with masks of loose bladder-skin, in order to avoid inhaling the dust, which is highly pernicious; the cover- ing being at the same time sufficiently transparent to admit of being seen through. Minium is employed also for writing78 in books; and the letters made with it being more distinct, even on gold or mar- ble, it is used for the inscriptions upon tombs. 75 When hired by the job for colouring walls or objects of art. See B. xxxv. c. 12. 76 See B. xvi. c. 12, and B. xxiv. c. 4. 77 " Candelis." The Abate Requeno thinks that these " candelae" were used as a delicate cauterium, simply to keep the wax soft, that it might receive a polish from the friction of the linen. 7S Hence the use of it in the middle ages; a reminiscence of which still exists in our word "rubric." 124 PLINY'S NATURAL niSTORY. [Book XXXIII. CHAP. 41. (8.)—HYDRARGYROS. REMEDIES DERIVED FROM MINIUM. Human industry has also discovered a method of extracting hydrargyros79 from the inferior minium, a substitute for quick- silver, the further mention of which was deferred, a few pages before,80 to the present occasion. There are two methods of preparing this substance; either by pounding minium and vinegar with a brazen pestle and mortar, or else by putting minium into flat earthen pans, covered with a lid, and then enclosed in an iron seething-pot well luted with potter's clay. A fire is then lighted under the pans, and the flame kept con- tinually burning by the aid of the bellows; which done, the Steam is carefully removed, that is found adhering to the lid, being like silver in colour, and similar to water in its fluidity. This liquid, too, is easily made to separate in globules, which, from their fluid nature, readily unite.81 As it is a fact generally admitted, that minium is a poison,82 I look upon all the recipes given as highly dangerous which recommend its employment for medicinal purposes ; with the exception, perhaps, of those cases in which it is applied to the head or abdomen, for the purpose of arresting haemorrhage, due care being taken that it is not allowed to penetrate to the viscera, or to touch any sore. Beyond such cases as these, for my own part, I should never recommend it to be used in medicine. CHAP. 42.—THE METHOD OF GILDING 8ILVER. At the present day silver is gilded almost exclusively by the agency of hydrargyros j83 and a similar method should always be employed in laying gold leaf upon copper. But the same fraud which ever shows itself so extremely inge- nious in all departments of human industry, has devised a 79 Or artificial quicksilver. In reality, hydrargyrus is prepared from the genuine minium of Pliny, the cinnabar mentioned ill Chapter 36 : it being obtained by the sublimation of sulphuret of mercury 80 In Chapters 20 and 32. 81 This, probably, is the meaning of " lubrico humore compluere " 82 See the end of Chapter 38. r 83 Artificial quicksilver is still used for this purpose. See Note 24 to Chapter 32 of this Book; also Beckmann's Hist. Inv. Vol. II. p. 295. Bohn's Edition, Chap. 44.] THE DIFFERENT KINDS OF SILVER. 125 plan of substituting an inferior material, as already men- tioned.84 CHAP. 43.—TOUCHSTONES FOR TESTING GOLD. A description of gold and silver is necessarily accompanied by that of the stone known as " coticula."85 In former times, according to Theophrastus, this stone was nowhere to be found, except in the river Tmolus,86 but at the present day it is found in numerous places. By some persons it is known as the " Heracliari," and by others as the "Lydian" stone. It is found in pieces of moderate size, and never exceeding four inches in length by two in breadth. The side that has lain facing the sun is superior87 to that which has lain next to the ground. Persons of experience in these matters, when they have scraped a particle off the ore with this stone, as with a file, can tell in a moment the proportion of gold there is in it, how much silver, or how much copper; and this to a scruple, their accuracy being so marvellous that they are never mis- taken. CHAP. 44.--THE DIFFERENT KINDS OF SILVER, AND THE MODES OF TESTING IT. There are two kinds of silver. On placing a piece of it upon an iron fire-shovel at a white heat, if the metal remains perfectly white, it is of the best quality: if again it turns of a reddish colour, it is inferior; but if it becomes black, it is worthless. Fraud, however, has devised means of stultifying this test even; for by keeping the shovel immersed in men's urine, the piece of silver absorbs it as it burns, and so displays a fictitious whiteness. There is also a kind of test with reference to polished silver: when the human breath comes 84 In Chapter 32. He alludes to the use of glair of eggs. 85 Literally " whetstone." He is speaking of the stone known to us as Touchstone, Lydian stone, or Basanite—" a velvet-black siliceous stone or flinty jasper, used on account of its hardness and black colour for trying the purity of the precious metals. The colour left on the stone after rub- bing the metal across it, indicates to the experienced eye the amount of the alloy."—Dana, Syst. Mineral, p. 242. 86 In Lydia. See B. v. cc. 30, 31. 87 As a test. At the present day, concentrated nitric acid is dropped on the mark left by the metal; and the more readily the mark is effaced, the less pure is the metal. 126 PLINY'S NATURAL HISTORY. [Book XXXIII. in contact with it, it should immediately be covered with steam,88 the cloudiness disappearing at once. CHAP. 45. (9.)--MIRRORS. It is generally supposed among us that it is only the very finest silver that admits of being laminated, and so converted into mirrors. Pure silver was formerly used for the purpose, but, at the present day, this too has been corrupted by the devices of fraud. But, really, it is a very marvellous property that this metal has, of reflecting objects ; a property which, it is generally agreed, results from the repercussion of the air,89 thrown back as it is from the metal upon the eyes. The same too is the action that takes place when we use a mirror. If, again, a thick plate of this metal is highly polished, and is rendered slightly concave,90 the image or object reflected is enlarged to an immense extent; so vast is the difference be- tween a surface receiving,91 and throwing back the air. Even more than this—drinking-cups are now made in such a manner, as to be filled inside with numerous92 concave facets, like so many mirrors ; so that if but one person looks into the interior, he sees reflected a whole multitude of persons. Mirrors, too, have been invented to reflect monstrous93 forms ; those, for instance, which have been consecrated in the Temple at Smyrna. This, however, all results from the con- figuration given to the metal; and it makes all the difference whether the surface has a concave form like the section of a drinking cup, or whether it is [convex] like a Thracian94 buckler; whether it is depressed in the middle or elevated; whether the surface has a direction95 transversely or ob- liquely ; or whether it runs horizontally or vertically; the peculiar configuration of the surface which receives the shadows, 38 This seems to be the meaning of " si sudet protinus." 89 A very far-fetched explanation, and very wide of the mark. 90 « Paulum propulsa." 91 Which he supposes a concave surface to do. 92 This passage is noticed by Beckmann, in his account of Mirrors ; Vol. II. p. 58. Bohn's Edition. 93 Distorting the image reflected, by reason of the irregularities of the surface. See Seneca, Nat. Qnaest. B. i. c. 5. 94 " Parma Thraecidica." 95 He probably means, whether the surface is made convex or concave at these different angles. Chap. 45.] MIRRORS. 127 causing them to undergo corresponding distortions: for, in fact, the image is nothing else but the shadow of the object collected upon the bright surface of the metal. However, to finish our description of mirrors on the present96 occasion—the best, in the.times of our ancestors, were those of Brundisium,97 composed of a mixture of98 stannum and copper : at a later period, however, those made of silver were pre- ferred, Pasiteles99 being the first who made them, in the time1 of Pompeius Magnus. More recently,2 a notion has arisen that the object is reflected with greater distinctness, by the application to the back of the mirror of a layer of gold.3 93 A subject to which he returns iu various parts of B. xxxvi. 97 See B. xxxiv. c. 48. 5,8 As to the identification of "stannum," on which there have been great differences of opinion, see B. xxxiv. cc. 47, 48, and the Notes. 99 For some account of this artist, see Chapter 55 and the Notes at the end of this Book. 1 " Silver mirrors were known long before this period, as is proved by a passage in the Mostellaria of Plautus, A. 1, S. 3, 1. 101, where they are distinctly mentioned. To reconcile this contradiction, Meursius remarks that Pliny speaks only of his countrymen, and not of the Greeks, who had such articles much earlier, though the scene in Plautus is at Athens."— Beckmann, Hist. Inv. Vol. II. p. 62. Bohn's Edition. 2 " Nuper credi coeptum certiorem imaginem reddi auro opposito aversis."—" Of what Pliny says here I can give no explanation. Har- douin (qy. if not Dalechamps ?) is of opinion that mirrors, according to the newest invention, at that period were covered behind with a plate of gold, as our mirrors are with an amalgam. But as the ancient plates of silver were not transparent, how could the gold at the back of them produce any effect in regard to the image ? May not the meaning be that a thin plate of gold was placed at some distance before the mirror, in order to throw more light upon its surface ? "Whatever may have been the case, Pliny himsellfseems not to have had much confidence in the invention."—Beck- mann, Hist. Inv. Vol. II. p. 62. 3 Dr. Watson (Chemical Essays, Vol. IV. p. 246) seems to think that Pliny is here speaking of glass mirrors: "If we admit that Pliny was acquainted with glass mirrors, we may thus understand what he says respecting an invention which was then new, of applying gold behind a mirror. Instead of an amalgam of tin, some one had proposed to cover the back of the mirror with an amalgam of gold, with which the ancients were certainly acquainted, and which they employed in gilding." See Chapter 20 of the present Book. On the above passage by Dr. Watson, Beckmann has the following remarks: "This conjecture appears, at any rate, to be ingenious; but when I read the passage again, without pre- judice, I can hardly believe that Pliny alludes to a plate of glass in a place where he speaks only of metallic mirrors; and the overlaying with amal- gam requires too much art to allow me to ascribe it to such a period with- 128 pliny's natural history. [Book XXXIII. CHAP 46.—EGYPTIAN SILVER. The people of Egypt stain their silver vessels, that they may see represented in them their god Anubis ;4 and it is the custom with them to paint,6 and not to chase, their silver. This usage has now passed to our own triumphal statues even; and, a truly marvellous fact, the value of silver has been enhanced by deadening its brilliancy.6 The following is the method adopted: with the silver are mixed two-thirds of the very finest Cyprian copper, that known as " coronarium,"' and* a proportion of live sulphur equal to that of the silver. The whole of these are then melted in an earthen vessel well luted with potter's clay, the operation being completed when the cover becomes detached from the vessel. Silver admits also of being blackened with the yolk of a hard-boiled egg; a tint, however, which is removed by the application of vinegar and chalk. The Triumvir Antonius alloyed the silver denarius with iron: and in spurious coin there is an alloy of copper em- ployed. Some, again, curtail8 the proper weight of our de- narii, the legitimate proportion being eighty-four denarii to a pound of silver. It was in consequence of these frauds that a method was devised of assaying the denarius : the law ordain- ing which was so much to the taste of the plebeians, that in every quarter of the City there was a full - length statue erected9 in honour of Marius Gratidianus. It is truly mar- vellous, that in this art, and in this only, the various methods of falsification should be made a study :10 for the sample of out sufficient proof. I consider it more probable, that some person had tried, by means of a polished plate of gold, to collect the rays of light, and to throw them either on the mirror .or the object, in order to render the image brighter."—Hist. Inv. Vol. II. p. 72. * The dog-headed divinity. The seat of his worship was at Cynopolis, mentioned in B. v. c. 11. Under the Empire his worship became widely Bpread both in Greece and at Borne. 5 Under the word "pingit," he probably includes the art of ena- melling silver. 6 " Fulgoris excaBcati." 7 " Chaplet " copper. 8 He either alludes to the practice of clipping the coin, or else to the issue of forged silver denarii, short of weight. 9 During the prsetorship of Marius Gratidianus. He was on terms of great intimacy with Cicero, and was murdered by Catiline in a most bar- barous manner during the proscriptions of Sylla. 10 By pablic enactment probably; samples of the false denarius beiDg Chap 47.] INSTANCES OF IMMENSE WEALTH. 129 the false denarius is now an object of careful examination, and people absolutely buy the counterfeit coin at the price of many genuine ones ! CHAP. 47. (10.)—INSTANCES OF IMMENSE WEALTH. PERSONS WHO HAVE POSSESSED THE GREATEST SUMS OF MONEY. The ancients had no number whereby to express a larger sum than one hundred thousand; and hence it is that, at the present day, we reckon by multiples of that number, as, for instance, ten times one hundred thousand, and so on.11 For these multiplications we are indebted to usury and the use of coined money; and hence, too, the expression " aes alienum," or " another man's money," which we still use.12 In later times, again, the surname " Dives "13 was given to some: only be it known to all, that the man who first received this sur- name became a bankrupt and so bubbled his creditors.14 M. Crassus,15 a member of the same family, used to say that no man was rich, who could not maintain a legion upon his yearly income. He possessed in land two hundred millions16 of sesterces, being the richest Roman citizen next to Sylla. Nor was even this enough for him, but he must want to possess all the gold of the Parthians too !17 And yet, although he was the first to become memorable for his opulence—so pleasant is the task of stigmatizing this insatiate cupidity—we have knowu of many manumitted slaves, since his time, much more wealthy than he ever was; three for example, all at the same sold for the purpose of showing the difference between it and the genuine coin. 11 Twenty times one hundred thousand, &c. 12 As signifying a " debt owing to another." 13 "The Rich." 1,1 This seems the best translation for " decoxisse creditoribus suis," which literally means that he "boiled " or " melted away" his fortune from his creditors. In this remark Pliny is more witty than usual. 15 The Triumvir.- The first person mentioned in Roman history as having the cognomen " Dives," is P. Licinius Crassus, the personage mentioned in B. xxi. c. 4. As he attained the highest honours of the state, and died universally respected, he cannot be the person so oppro- briously spoken of by Pliny. 18 The meaning appears to be doubtful here, as it is not clear whether " sesterces," or " sestertia," " thousands of sesterces," is meant. 17 Who cut off his head after his death, and poured molten gold down his throat. VOL. VI. K 130 pliny's NATURAL HISTORY. [Book XXXIII. time, in the reign of the Emperor Claudius, Pallas,13 Cal- listus,19 and Narcissus.20 But to omit all further mention of these men, as though they were still21 the rulers of the empire, let us turn to C. Caecilius Claudius Isidorus, who, in the consulship of C. Asinius Gallus and C. Marcius Censorinus,22 upon the sixth day before the calends of February, declared by his will, that though he had suffered great losses through the civil wars, he was still able to leave behind him four thousand one hundred and sixteen slaves, three thousand six hundred pairs of oxen, and two hundred and fifty-seven thousand heads of other kind of cattle, besides, in ready money, sixty millions of sesterces. Upon his funeral, also, he ordered eleven hundred thousand sesterces to be expended. And yet, supposing all these enormous riches to be added together, how small a proportion will they bear to the wealth of Ptolemseus; the person who, according to Varro, when Pompeius was on his expedition in the countries adjoining Judaea, entertained eight thousand horsemen at his own ex- pense, and gave a repast to one thousand guests, setting before every one of them a drinking-cup of gold, and changing these vessels at every course ! And then, again, how insignificant would his wealth have been by the side of that of Pythiua the Bithynian23—for I here make no mention of kings, be it is Originally the slave of Antonia, the mother of Claudius. Agrippina, the wife of Claudius, admitted him to her embraces, and in conjunction with her he for some time ruled the destinies of the Roman Empire. He was poisoned by order of Nero, a.d. 63. 19 C. Julius Callistus, the freedman of Caligula, in whose assassination he was an accomplice. The physician Scribonius Largus dedicated his work to Callistus. 20 A freedman of the Emperor Claudius, whose epistolary correspond- ence he superintended. He was put to death on the accession of Nero, a.d. 54. 21 In which case it would be dangerous to speak of them. 22 a.u.c 746. 23 According to some authorities, he was a Lydian. He derived his wealth from his gold mines in the neighbourhood of Celeenaj in Phrygia, and would appear, in spite of Pliny's reservation, to have been little less than a king. His five sons accompanied Xerxes ; but Pythius, alarmed by an eclipse of the sun, begged that the eldest might be left behind. Upon this, Xerxes had the youth put to death, and his body cut in two, the army being ordered to march between the portions, which were placed on eitlie'r side of the road. His other sons were all slain in battle, and Pythius passed the rest of his life in solitude. Chap. 49.] INSTANCES OF LUXURY IN SILVER PLATE. 131 remarked. He it was who gave the celebrated plane-tree and vine of gold to King Darius, and who entertained at a banquet the troops of Xerxes, seven hundred and eighty- eight thousand men in all; with a promise of pay and corn for the whole of them during the next five months, on con- dition that one at least of his five children, who had been drawn for service, should be left to him as the solace of his old age. And yet, let any one compare the wealth of Pythius to that possessed by King Croesus ! In the name of all that is unfortunate, what madness it is for human nature to centre its desires upon a thing that has either fallen to the lot of slaves, or else has reached no known limit in the aspirations even of kings! CHAP. 48.—AT WHAT PERIOD THE ROMAN PEOPLE FIRST MADE VOLUNTARY CONTRIBUTIONS. The Boman people first began to make voluntary contribu- tions24 in the consulship of Spurius Posthumius and Quintus Marcius.25 So abundant was money at that period, that the people assessed themselves for a contribution to L. Scipio, to defray the expenses of the games which he celebrated.26 As to the contribution of the sixth part of an as, for the purpose of defraying the funeral expenses of Agrippa Menenius, I look upon that to have been a mark of respect paid to him, an honour, too, that was rendered necessary by his poverty, rather than in the light of a largess. CHAP. 49. (11.)—INSTANCES OF LUXURY IN SILVER PLATE. The caprice of the human mind is marvellously exemplified in the varying fashions of silver plate ; the work of no indi- vidual manufactory being for any long time in vogue. At one period, the Furnian plate, at another the Clodian, and at another the Gratian,27 is all the rage—for we borrow the shop even at our tables.28—Now again, it is embossed plate29 that 24 " Stipem spargere." 25 a.tj.c 568. 26 In performance of a vow made in the war with King Antiochus. See Livy, B. xxxix. 27 So called from the silversmiths who respectively introduced them. The Gratian plate is mentioned by Martial, B. iv. Epigr. 39. 28 " Etenim tabernas mensis adoptamus." _ . 29 " Anaglypta." Plate chased in relief. It is mentioned in the Epi- gram of Martial above referred to. D IT O 132 PLINY'S NATURAL HISTORY. [Book XXXIII. we are in search of, and silver deeply chiselled around the marginal lines of the figures painted*1 upon it; and now we are building up on our sideboards fresh tiers31 of tables for sup- porting the various dishes. Other articles of plate we nicely pare away,32 it being an object that the file may remove as much of the metal as possible. We find the orator Calvus complaining that the saucepans are made of silver; but it has been left for us to invent a plan of covering our very carriages33 with chased silver, and it was in our own age that Poppaea, the wife of the Emperor Nero, ordered her favourite mules to be shod even with gold ! CHAP. 50.—INSTANCES OF THE FRUGALITY OF THE ANCIENTS IN REFERENCE TO SILVER PLATE. The younger Scipio Africanus left to his heir thirty-two pounds' weight of silver; the same person who, on his triumph over the Carthaginians, displayed four thousand three hundred and seventy pounds' weight of that metal. Such was the sum total of the silver possessed by the whole of the inhabitants of Carthage, that rival of Borne for the empire of the world! How many a Boman since then has surpassed her in his dis- play of plate for a single table! After the destruction of Numantia, the same Africanus gave to his soldiers, on the day of his triumph, a largess of seven denarii each—and right worthy were they of such a general, when satisfied with such a sum ! His brother, Scipio Allobrogicus,34 was the very first who possessed one thousand pounds' weight of silver, 30 " Asperitatemque exciso circa liniarum picturas,"—a passage, the obscurity of which, as Littre remarks, seems to set translation at defiance. 31 He alludes, probably to tiers of shelves on the beaufets or sideboards —" repositoria "—similar to those used for the display of plate in the middle ages. Petronius Arbiter speaks of a round " repositorium," which seems to have borne a considerable resemblance to our "dumb waiters." The " repositoria" here alluded to by Pliny were probably made of silver. ^ " Interradimus." 33 "Carrucoe." The "carruca" was a carriage, the name of which only occurs under the emperors, the present being the first mention of it. It had four wheels and was used in travelling, like the " carpentnm.'' Martial, B. iii. Epig. 47, uses the word as synonymous with " rheda." Alexander Severus allowed the senators to have them plated with silver. The name is of Celtic origin, and is the basis of the mediaeval word " ca- rucate," and the French carrosse. 34 So called from his victory over the Allobroges. Chap. 60.] FRUGALITY OF THE ANCIENTS. 133 but Drusus Livius, when he was tribune of the people, possessed ten thousand. As to the fact that an ancient warrior,35 a man, too, who had enjoyed a triumph, should have incurred the notice of the censor for being in possession of five pounds' weight of silver, it is a thing that would appear quite fabulous at the present day.36 The same, too, with the instance of Catus iElius,37 who, when consul, after being found by the iEtolian ambassadors taking his morning meal38 off of common earthen- ware, refused to receive the silver vessels which they sent him ; and, indeed, was never in possession, to the last day of his life, of any silver at all, with the exception of two drinking- cups, which had been presented to him as the reward of his valour, by L. Paulus,39 his father-in-law, on the conquest of King Perseus. We read, too, that the Carthaginian ambassadors declared that no people lived on more amicable terms among them- selves than the Romans, for that wherever they had dined they had always met with the same40 silver plate. And yet, by Hercules ! to my own knowledge, Pompeius Paulinus, son of a Boman of equestrian rank at Arelate," a member, too, of a family, on the paternal side, that was graced with the fur,42 had with him, when serving with the army, and that, too, in a war against the most savage nations, a service of silver plate that weighed twelve thousand pounds ! 35 In allusion to the case of P. Cornelius Rufinus, the consul, who was denounced in the senate by the censors C. Fabricius Luscinus and Q. JEmi- lius Rufus, for being in possession of a certain quantity of silver plate. This story is also referred to in B. xviii. c. 8, where ten pounds is the quantity mentioned. 36 This is said ironically. 37 Sextus Mlius Pcetus Catus, Consul b.c 198. 38 "Prandentem." 39 L. Paulus iEmilius. 40 It being lent from house to house, This, no doubt, was said ironi- cally, and as a sneer at their poverty. 41 Now Aries. It was made a military colony in the time of Augustus. See B. iii. c. 5, and B. x. c. 57. 42 " Pellitum." There has been considerable doubt as to the meaning of this, but it is most probable that the " privilege of the fur," or in other words, a license to be clad in certain kinds of fur, was conferred on certain men of rank in the provinces. Holland considers it to be the old parti- ciple of "pello," and translates the passage "banished out of the country and nation where his father was born." 134 pliny's natural HISTORY. [Book XXXIII. CHAP. 51.—AT WHAT PERIOD SILVER WAS FIRST USED AS AN ORNAMENT FOR COUCHES. For this long time past, however, it has been the fashion to plate the couches of our women, as well as some of our ban- quetting-couches,43 entirely with silver. Carvilius Pollio,44 a Roman of equestrian rank, was the first, it is said, to adorn these last with silver; not, I mean, to plate them all over, nor yet to make them after the Delian pattern; the Punic45 fashion being the one he adopted. It was after this last pattern too, that he had them ornamented with gold as well: and it was not long after his time that silver couches came into fashion, in imitation of the couches of Delos. All this extravagance, however, was fully expiated by the civil wars of Sulla. CHAP. 52.--AT WHAT PERIOD SILVER CHARGERS OF ENORMOUS SIZE WERE FIRST MADE. WHEN SILVER WAS FIRST USED AS A MATERIAL FOR SIDEBOARDS. WHEN THE SIDEBOARDS CALLED TYMPANA WERE FIRST INTRODUCED. In fact, it was but very shortly before that period that these couches were invented, as well as chargers46 of silver, one hundred pounds in weight: of which last, it is a well-known fact, that there were then upwards of one hundred and fifty in Rome, and that many persons were proscribed through the devices of others who were desirous to gain possession thereof. Well may our Annals be put to the blush for having to impute those civil wars to the existence of such vices as these ! Our own age, however, has waxed even stronger in this respect. In the reign of Claudius, his slave Drusillanus, surnamed Rotundus, who acted as his steward47 in Nearer Spain, possessed a silver charger weighing five hundred pounds, for the manufacture of which a workshop had had to be expressly built. This charger was accompanied also by eight other dishes, each two hundred and fifty pounds in weight. How many of his fellow-slaves,48 pray, would it have taken to introduce these dishes, or who49 were to be the guests served therefrom ? 43 " Triclinia." The couches on which they reclined when at table. 44 See B. ix. c. 13. 43 This pattern, whatever it may have been, is also spoken of by Cicero, pro Murena, and by Valerius Maximus, B. vii. c. 1. « " Lances." 47 " Dispensator." « « Conservi "—said in keen irony. 49 Giants, at least, one would think. Chap. S3.] THE ENORMOUS PRICE OF SILYER PLATE. 135 Cornelius Nepos says that before the victory gained60 by Sylla, there, were but two banquetting couches adorned with silver at Rome, and that in his own recollection, silver was first used^for adorning sideboards. Fenestella, who died at the end of the reign of Tiberius Caesar, informs us that at that period sideboards, inlaid even with tortoiseshell,60* had come into fashion ; whereas, a little before his time, they had been made of solid wood, of a round shape, and not much larger than our tables. He says, however, that when he was quite a boy, they had begun to make the sideboards square, and of different51 pieces of wood, or else veneered with maple or citrus :52 and that at a later period the fashion was introduced of overlaying the corners and the seams at the joinings with silver. The name given to them in his youth, he says, was " tympana ;"63 and it was at this period, too, that the chargers which had been known as " magides" by the ancients, first received the name of " lances," from their resemblance64 to the scales of a balance. CHAP. 53.—THE ENORMOUS PRICE OF SILVER PLATE. It is not, however, only for vast quantities of plate that there is such a rage among mankind, but even more so, if possible, for the plate of peculiar artists: and this too, to the exculpa- tion of our owu age, has long been the case. C. Gracchus possessed some silver dolphins, for which he paid five thou- sand sesterces per pound. Lucius Crassus, the orator, paid for two goblets chased by the hand of the artist Mentor,65 one hundred thousand Besterces: but he confessed that for very shame he never dared use them, as also that he had other articles of plate in his possession, for which he had paid at the rate of six thousand sesterces per pound. It was the con- quest of Asia66 that first introduced luxury into Italy ; for we 60 Over the party of Marius. 60* See B. ix. c. 13. 81 " Compacta ;" probably meaning inlaid like Mosaic. 52 See B. xiii. c. 29, B. xv. c. 7, and B. xvi. cc. 26, 27, 84. 63 Meaning, " drum sideboards," or " tambour sideboards," their shape, probably, being like that of our dumb waiters. 54 The name given to which was "lanx," plural "lances." 55 His age and country are uncertain. We learn, however, from Chapter 55 of this Book, that he flourished before the burning of the Temple of Diana at Ephesus, B.C. 356. He is frequently mentioned in the classical writers. See also B. vii. c. 39. 56 He includes, probably, under this name both Asia Minor and Syria. See a similar passage in Livy, B. xxxix. 136 pliny's natural history. [Book XXXIII. find that Lucius Scipio, in his triumphal procession, exhibited one thousand four hundred pounds' weight of chased silver, with golden vessels, the weight of which amounted to one thousand five hundred pounds. This57 took place in the year from the foundation of the City, 565. But that which in- flicted a still more severe blow upon the Roman morals, was the legacy of Asia,58 which King Attalus59 left to the state at his decease, a legacy which was even more disadvantageous than the victory of Scipio,60 in its results. For, upon this occasion, all scruple was entirely removed, by the eagerness which existed at Rome, for making purchases at the auction of the king's effects. This took place in the year of the City, 622, the people having learned, during the fifty-seven years that had intervened, not only to admire, but to covet even, the opulence of foreign nations. The tastes of the Roman people had received, too, an immense impulse from the con- quest of Achaia,61 which, during this interval, in the year of the City, 608, that nothing might be wanting, had introduced both statues and pictures. The same epoch, too, that saw the birth of luxury, witnessed the downfall of Carthage; so that, by a fatal coincidence, the Roman people, at the same mo- ment, both acquired a taste for vice and obtained a license for gratifying it. Some, too, of the ancients sought to recommend themselves by this love of excess; for Cuius Marius, after his victory over the Cimbri, drank from a cantharus,62 it is said, in imitation of Father Liber j63 Marius, that ploughman64 of Arpinum, a general who had risen from the ranks !65 CHAP. 54. (12.)—STATUES OF SILVER. It is generally believed, but erroneously, that silver was 57 This passage is rejected by Sillig as a needless interpolation. 58 Asia Minor. 58 King of Pergamus. 60 Over King Antiochus. 61 He alludes to the destruction of Corinth, by L. Mummius Achaicus. 62 A drinking cup with handles, sacred to Bacchus. See B. xxxiv. c. '25. 63 Bacchus. 84 In allusion to the plebeian origin of C. Marius, who was born at the village of Cereate, near Arpinum. It is more than probable that the story that he had worked as a common peasant for wages, was an invention of the faction of Sylla. 65 " Hie arator Arpinas, et manipularis imperator." Chap. 51.] STATUES OF SILVER. 137 first employed for making statues of the deified Emperor A ugustus, at a period when adulation was all the fashion: for I find it stated, that in the triumph celebrated by Pompeius Magnus there was a silver statue exhibited of Pharnaces, the first65 king of Pontus, as also one of Mithridates Eupator,67 besides chariots of gold and silver. Silver, too, has in some instances even supplanted gold; for the luxurious tastes of the female plebeians having gone so far as to adopt the use of shoe-buckles of gold,68 it is considered old- fashioned to wear them made of that metal.69 I myself, too, have seen Arellius Fuscus70—the person whose name was erased from the equestrian order on a singularly calumnious charge,71 when his school was so thronged by our youth, attracted thither by his celebrity—wearing rings made of silver. But of what use is it to collect all these instances, when our very soldiers, holding ivory even in contempt, have the hilts of their swords made of chased silver ? when, too, their scabbards are heard to jingle with their silver chains, and their belts with the plates of silver with which they are inlaid ? At the present day, too, the continence of our very pages is secured by the aid of silver :72 our women, when bathing, quite despise any sitting-bath that is not made of silver: while for serving up food at table, as well as for the most unseemly purposes, the same metal must be equally employed! Would that Fabricius could behold these instances of lux- uriousness, the baths of our women—bathing as they do in 66 Meaning the first king of that name. He was son of Mithridates IV., king of Pontus. 67 Appian says that there " was a gold statue of this Mithridates, ex- hibited in the triumph of Pompey, eight cubits in height." Plutarch speaks of another statue of the same king, exhibited by Lucullus, six feet in height. 68 " Compedes." See Chapter 12 of this Book. 69 The translation of this passage is somewhat doubtful. We will, there- fore, subjoin that of Holland, who adopts the other version. " As we may see by our proud and sumptuous dames, that are but commoners and artizans' wives, who are forced to make themselves carquans and such or- naments for their shoes, of silver, because the rigour of the statute pro- vided in that case will not permit them to weare the same of gold." 70 A rhetorician who taught at Rome in the reign of Augustus. The poet Ovid was one of his pupils. His rival in teaching declamation was Porcius Latro. 71 Of an improper intimacy with his pupils. 72 Rings of silver being passed through the prepuce. This practice is described by Celsus, B. vii. c. 25. 138 PLINY'S NATURAL HISTORY. [Book XXXIII. company with the men—paved with Bilver to such an extent that there is not room left for the sole of the foot even! Fabricius, I say, who would allow of no general of an army having any other plate than a patera and a salt-cellar of silver. —Oh that he could see how that the rewards of valour in our day are either composed of these objects of luxury, or else are broken up to make them !73 Alas for the morals of our age! Fabricius puts us to the blush. CHAP. 55.—THE MOST REMARRA.BLE WORKS IN SILVER, AND THK NAMES OF THE MOST FAMOUS ARTISTS IN SILVER. It is a remarkable fact that the art of chasing gold should have conferred no celebrity upon any person, while that of embossing silver has rendered many illustrious. The greatest renown, however, has been acquired by Mentor, of whom mention has been made already.74 Four pairs [of vases] were all that were ever76 made by him; and at the present day, not one of these, it is said, is any longer in existence, owing to the conflagrations of the Temple of Diana at Ephesus and of that in the Capitol.76 Varro informs us in his writings that he also was in possession of a bronze statue, the work of this artist. Next to Mentor, the most admired artists were Acra- 73 " Videret hinc dona fortium fieri, aut in haec frangi." 74 In B. vii. c. 39, and in Chapter 53 of this Book. 75 " Quatuor paria ab eo omnino facta sunt." Sillig, in his Dictionary of Ancient Artists, finds a difficulty in this passage. " The term ' om- nino ' seems to imply that the productions in question, all of which perished, were the only works executed by this artist; but we find several passages of ancient writers, in which vases, &c. engraved by Mentor, are mentioned as extant. Thus, then, we must conclude, either that the term ' omnino' should be understood in the sense of < chiefly,' ' pre-eminently,' or that the individuals claiming to possess works of Mentor, were themselves raisin- formed, or endeavoured to deceive others." If, however, we look at the word "paria " in a strictly technical sense, the difficulty will probably he removed. Pliny's meaning seems to be that Mentor made four pairs and no more, of some peculiar kind of vessel probably, and that all these pairs were now lost He does not say that Mentor did not make other works of art, in single pieces. Thiersch, Act. Acad. Monac. v p 128 ex- presses an opinion that the word "omnino" is a corruption and that in it lies concealed the name of the kind of plate that is meant 76 See B. vii. c. 39. Chap. 55.] MOST FAMOUS ARTISTS IN SILVER. 139 gas,77 Boethus,78 and Mys.79 Works of all these artists are still extant in the Isle of Rhodes; of Boethus, in the Temple of Minerva, at Lindus; of Acragas, in the Temple of Father Liber, at Bhodes, consisting of cups engraved with figures in relief of Centaurs and Bacchantes; and of Mys, in the same temple, figures of Sileni and Cupids. Representations also of the chase by Acragas on drinking cups were held in high estimation. Next to these in repute comes Calamis.80 Antipater81 too, it has been said, laid, rather than engraved,82 a Sleeping Satyr upon a drinking-bowl.83 Next to these come Stratonicus84 of Cyzicus, and Tauriscus i85 Ariston86 also, and Eunicus,87 of Mytilene are highly praised; Hecataeus88 also, and, about the age of Pompeius Magnus, Pasiteles,89 Posidonius90 of Ephesus, Hedystratides91 who engraved battle-scenes and armed war- riors, and Zopyrus,92 who represented the Court of the Areopa- 77 His age and country are unknown. 78 From Pausanias we learn that he was a statuary and engraver on plate, born at Carthage ; but Raoul Rochette thinks that he was a native of Chalcedon. He is mentioned also by Cicero, In Verrem, 4. 14, and in the Culex, 1. 66, ascribed by some to Virgil. 79 His country is uncertain. According to the statements of Pausanias, B. i. c. 28, he must have been a contemporary of Phidias, about Olymp. 84, B.C. 444. He is mentioned also by Propertius, Martial, and Statius. 80 His birth-place is unknown, but he probably lived about the time of Phidias, and we learn from Pausanias that he was living when the plague ceased at Athens, in B.C. 429. He is mentioned also by Cicero, Ovid, Quintilian, Lucian, and Dionysius of Halicarnassus. 81 Nothing further is known of this artist. 82 " Collocavisse verius quam cselasse." 63 " Phiala." 84 He lived probably about Olymp. 126; but his country is unknown. He is mentioned by Atheneus. See also B. xxxiv. c. 19. 85 Nothing whatever is known of him, unless indeed he is identical with the Tauriscus mentioned in B. xxxvi. c. 5. 88 Nothing is known of his age or country. He is also mentioned in B. xxxiv. c. 19. 87 His age and country are unknown. See B. xxxiv. c. 19. 88 Nothing further is known of him. See B. xxxiv. c. 19. 89 See the end of this Book. 90 Beyond the mention made of him in B. xxxiv. c. 19, no particulars relative to him are known. 91 Other readings of this name are "Lsedus Stratiotes," "Ledis Thra- cides," " Hieris Thracides," and " Lidistratices." The Bamberg MS. lias " Hedys Trachides." Salmasius, Hardouin, and Sillig propose "Leostra- tides," and Thiersch " Lysistratides." 92 Nothing further is known of him. 140 PLINY'S NATURAL HISTORY. [Book XXXIII. gus and the trial of Orestes,93 upon two cups valued at. twelve thousand sesterces. There was Tytheas94 also, a work of whose sold at the rate of ten thousand denarii for two ounces: it was a drinking-bowl, the figures on which repre- sented Ulysses and Diomedes stealing the Palladium.95 The same artist engraved also, upon some small drinking-vessels, kitchen scenes,96 known as " magiriscia ;"97 of such remarkably fine workmanship and so liable to injury, that it was quite impossible to take copies98 .of them. Teucer too, the inlayer,99 enjoyed a great reputation. All at once, however, this art became so lost in point of excellence, that at the present day ancient specimens are the only ones at all valued; and only those pieces of plate are held in esteem the designs on which are so much worn that the figures cannot be distinguished. Silver becomes tainted by the contact of mineral waters, and of the salt exhalations from them, as in the interior of Spain, for instance. CHAP. 56.—SIL : THE PERSONS WHO FIRST USED IT IN PAINTING, AND THE METHOD THEY ADOPTED. In the mines of gold and silver there are some other pig- ments also found, sil1 and cseruleum. Sil is, properly speak- ing, a sort of slime.2 The best kind is that known as Attic sil; the price of which is two denarii per pound. The next best kind is the marbled3 sil, the price of which is half that of the Attic kind. A third sort is the compressed sil, known to some persons as Scyric sil, it coming from the Isle of Scyros. Then, too, there is the sil of Achaia, which painters make use of for shadow-painting, and the price of which is two sesterces per pound. At a price of two asses less per pound, is sold the 93 For the murder of his mother Clytaemnestra. 94 Nothing is known of this artist. »5 From Troy. 96 " Coquos," literally, " cooks." « « Cooks in miniature." 98 By the process of moulding, probably. 99 " Crustarius." Of this artist nothing further is known. 1 Yellow or brown Ochre, probably. Ajasson thinks that under this name may be included peroxide of iron, hydroxide of iron in a stalactitic and mamillary form, and compact peroxide of iron, imparting a colour to argillaceous earth. 2 " Scaly and ochrey brown iron ore are decomposed earthy varieties, often soft like chalk; yellow ochre is here included."—Dana, Syst. Mineral, p. 436. 3 " Marmorosum." Chap. 57.] CJERULEUM. 141 clear4 sil, which comes from Gaul. This last kind, as well as the Attic sil, is used for painting strong lights: but the mar- bled sil only is employed for colouring com partitions,5 the marble in it offering a resistance to the natural acridity of the lime. This last kind is extracted also from some mountains twenty miles distant from the City. When thus extracted, it is submitted to the action of fire ; in which form it is adul- terated by some, and sold for compressed sil. That it has been burnt, however, and adulterated, may be very easily detected by its acridity, and the fact that it very soon crumbles into dust. Polygnotus6 and Micon7 were the first to employ sil in painting, but that of Attica solely. The succeeding age used this last kind for strong lights only, and employed the Scyric and Lydian kinds for shadow painting. The Lydian sil used to be bought at Sardes; but at the present day we hear nothing of it. CHAP. 57. (13.)--CERULEUM. Cseruleum8 is a kind of sand. In former times there were three kinds of it; the Egyptian, which was the most esteemed of all; the Scythian, which is easily dissolved, and which produces four colours when pounded, one of a lighter blue and one of a darker blue, one of a thicker consistency and one comparatively thin ;9 and the Cyprian, which is now pre- ferred as a colour to the preceding. Since then, the kinds imported from Puteoli and Spain have been added to the list, this sand having of late been prepared there. Every kind,10 4<"Lucidum." 5 " Abacos." Small compartments or partitions in a square form on the walls of rooms. • See B. vii. c. 57, where he is called an Athenian, whereas he was a native of Thasos. He was one of the most eminent painters of antiquity, and flourished in the age of Pericles. See a further account of him in B. xxxv. c. 35. - 7 Son of Phanochus, and contemporary of Polygnotus. See B. xxxv. c. 25, where it is stated that in conjunction with Polygnotus, he either invented some new colours, or employed them in his paintings on a better plan than that previously adopted. 8 " It is possible that the ' casruleum ' of the ancients may in some cases have been real ultramarine, but properly and in general, it was only copper ochre."—Beckmann's Hist. Inv. Vol. I. p. 472. Bohn's Edition. Dela- fosse identifies it with blue carbonate and hydrocarbonate of copper, one of the two azurites. # ( 9 " Candidiorem nigrioremve, et crassiorem tenuioremve.' 10 Beckmann thinks that Pliny is here alluding to an artificial kind of 142 pliny's NATURAL HISTORY. [Book XXXIII. however, is submitted to a dyeing process, it being boiled with a plant11 used particularly for this purpose,12 and imbibing its juices. In other respects, the mode of preparing it is similar to that of chrysocolla. From cseruleura, too, is prepared the substance known as " lomentum,"13 it being washed and ground for the purpose. Lomentum is of a paler tint than caeruleum; the price of it is ten denarii per pound, and that of caeruleum but eight. Caaruleum is used upon a surface of clay, for upon lime it will not hold. A more recent invention is the Vestorian14 caeruleum, so called from the person who first manufactured it: it is prepared from the finer parts of Egyptian caeruleum, and the price of it is eleven denarii per pound. That of Puteoli is used in a similar manner,15 as also for windows :18 it is known as " cylon." " caeruleum." " Pliny clearly adds to it an artificial colour, which in my opinion was made in the same manner as our lake ; for he speaks of an earth, which when boiled with plants, acquired their blue colour."—Hist. Inv., Vol. II. p. 480. 11 Supposed by Hardouin to have been " glastum " or " woad," the Isatii tinctoria of Linnaeus, mentioned in B. xxii. c. 2. 12 " In sua coquitur herba." 13 A blue powder; see Chapter 27 of this Book. Beckmann has the following remarks on this and the preceding lines: " The well-known passage of Pliny in which Lehmann thinks he can with certainty discover cobalt, is so singular a medley that nothing to be depended on can be gathered from it. The author, it is true, where he treats of mineral pig- ments, seems to speak of a blue sand which produced different shades of blue paint, according as it was pounded coarser or finer. The palest powder was called lomentum, and this Lehmann considers as our powder-blue. I am, however, fully convinced that the cyanus of Theophrastus, the caruleum of Pliny, and the chrysocolla (see Chapter 26), were the blue copper earth already mentioned, which may have been mixed and blended together.''— Hist. Inv. Vol. I. pp. 480, 481. Bohn's Edition. 14 According to Vitruvius, B. vii. c. 11, the manufactory of Vestorius was at Puteoli, now Pozzuoli. This was probably the same C. Vestorius who was also a money-lender and a friend of Atticus, and with whom Cicero had monetary transactions. He is mentioned as " Vestorium meum," in the Epistles of Cicero to Atticus. 15 For colouring surfaces of clay or cretaceous earth. This kind was also manufactured by Vesturius, most probably. 16 " Idem et Puteolani usus, praeterque ad fenestras." " The expression here, usus ad fenestras, has been misapplied by Lehmann, as a strong proof of his assertion; for he explained it as if Pliny had said that a blue pig- ment was used for painting window-frames ; but glass windows were at that time unknown. I suspect that Pliny meant to say only that one kind of paint could not be employed near openings which afforded a Chap. 58.] REMEDIES DERIVED FROM C.EEULEUM. 143 It is not so long since that indicum17 was first imported to Rome, the price being seventeen18 denarii per pound. Painters make use of it for incisures, or in other words, the division of shadows from light. There is also a lomentum of very in- ferior quality, known to us as " ground" lomentum, and valued at only five asses per pound. The mode of testing the genuineness of caeruleum, is to see whether it emits a flame, on being laid upon burning coals. One method of adulterating it is to boil dried violets in water, and then to strain the liquor through linen into Eretrian20 clay. CHAP. 58.—TWO REMEDIES DERIVED FROM OERULEUM. Caeruleum has the medicinal property of acting as a deter- gent upon ulcers. Hence it is, that it is used as an ingredient in plasters, as also in cauteries. As to sil, it is pounded with the greatest difficulty : viewed aB a medicament, it is slightly mordent and astringent, and fills up the cavities left by ulcers. To make it the more serviceable, it is burnt in earthen vessels. The prices of things, which I have in different places annexed, vary, I am well aware, according to the locality, and experience a change almost every year: variations dependent upon the opportunities afforded for navigation, and the terms upon which the merchant may have purchased the article. It may so happen, too, that some wealthy dealer has engrossed the market, and so enhanced the price : for I am by no means forgetful of the case of Demetrius, who in the reign of the Emperor Nero was accused before the consuls by the whole community of the Seplasia.21 Still, however, I have thought passage to the light, as it soon decayed and lost its colour. This would have been the case in particular with lake, in which there was a mixture of vegetable particles."—Beckmann, Hist. Inv. Vol. I. p. 480. 17 "Indian" pigment. Probably our "indigo." It is again men- tioned, and at greater length, in B. xxxv. c. 27. See also Beckmann, Hist Inv. Vol. II. pp. 259, 267. Bohn's Edition. 18 This is probably a more correct reading than " seven." 20 See B. xxxv. c. 19. Vitruvius, B. vii. c. 14, describes an exactly similar method adopted by dyers for imitating the colour of Attic sil, or ochre, mentioned in Chapter 56. 21 A quarter in the city of Capua, inhabited by druggists and perfumers ; see B. xvi. c. IS, and B. xxxiv. c. 25. 144 pliny's natural history. [Book XXXIII. it necessary to annex the usual price of each commodity at Rome, in order to give some idea of their relative values. Summary.—Remedies, narratives, and observations, one thousand one hundred and twenty-five. Roman Authors quoted.—Domitianus Caesar,22 Junius Grac- chanus,23 L. Piso,24 Verrius,25 M. Varro,26 Corvinus,27 Atticus Pomponius,28 Calvus Licinius,29 Cornelius Nepos,30 Mucianus,31 Bocchus,32 Fetialis,33 Fenestella,34 Valerius Maximus,35 Julius Bassus36 who wrote on Medicine in Greek, Sextius Niger37 who did the same. Foreign Authors quoted.—Theophrastus,38 Democritus,39 22 In some MSS. the reading here is " Domitius," and in others the name is omitted altogether. We learn from the writings of Suetonius, that the Emperor Domitian devoted himself to literary pursuits in his younger days, and Quintilian and the younger Pliny speak of his poetical productions as equal to those of the greatest masters. Sillig expresses an opinion that Pliny may possibly have borrowed something from his works, and inserted his name, with a view of pleasing the young prince and his father, the Emperor Vespasian. 23 He is quoted in Chapter 9 of this Book, where it appears that he took his cognomen on account of his friendship for C. Gracchus. He wrote a work, " De Potestatibus," which gave an account of the Roman magistrates from the time of the kings. A few fragments of this work, which was highly esteemed by the ancients, are all that remain. 24 See end of B. ii. 25 See end of B. iii. 2e See end of B. ii. 27 Valerius Messala Corvinus. See end of B. ix. 28 See end of B. vii. 29 Calvus Licinius Macer was the son of C. Licinius Macer, a person of praetorian rank, who, on being impeached of extortion by Cicero, com- mitted suicide. "We learn from our author, B. xxxiv. c. 50, that in his youth he devoted himself to study with the greatest zeal, and appliedhim- self with singular energy to intellectual pursuits. His constitution, how- ever, was early exhausted, and he died in his 35th or 36th year, leaving behind him twenty-one orations. "We learn from Cicero and Quintilian that his compositions were earefully moulded after the models of the Attic Bchool, but were deficient in ease and freshness. As a poet he was the author of many short pieces, equally remarkable for their looseness and elegance. He wrote also some severe lampoons on Pompey and Caesar, and their respective partisans. Ovid and Horace, besides several of the prose writers, make mention of him. 3° gee en(j 0f g ^ 31 See end of B. ii. 32 Cornelius Bocchus. See end of B. xvi. 33 Annins or Annaeus Fetialis. See end of B. xvi. 34 See end of B. viii. 33 See end of B. vii. 3« See end of B. xx. 87 See end of B. xii. 33 See end of B. iii. 39 See end of B. ii. SUMMARY. 145 Juba,40 Timseus41 the historian, who wrote on Metallic Medi- cines, Heraclides,42 Andreas,43 Diagoras,44 Botrys,45 Archide- miis,46 Dionysius,45 Aristogenes,48 Democles,49 Mnesides,50 Atta- lus51 the physician, Xenocrates52 the son of Zeno, Theo- mnestus,63 Nymphodorus,51 Iollas,55 Apollodorus,56 Pasiteles57 who wrote on Wonderful Works, Antigonus68 who wrote on the Toreutic art, Menaechmus69 who did the same, Xenocrates60 40 See end of B. v. 41 The person mentioned in Chapter 13 of this Book, is probably different from those of the same name mentioned at the end of Books ii. and iv. If so, no further particulars are known of him. 42 It seems impossible to say which of the physicians of this name is here alluded to. See end of Books iv. and xii. 43 Seeend of B. xx. 44 See end of B. xii. 45 See end of B. xiii. 46 See end of B. xii. 47 See end of B. xii.; and for Sallustius Dionysius, see end of B. xxxi. 48 See end of B. xxix. 49 See end of B. xii. so See end of B. xii. 51 As King Attaius was very skilful in medicine, Hardouin is of opinion that he is the person here meant; see end of B. viii. 82 A different person, most probably, from the writer of Pliny's age, mentioned in B. xxxvii. c. 2. The Xenocrates here mentioned is probably the same person that is spoken of in B. xxxv. c. 36, a statuary of the school of Lysippus, and the pupil either of Tisicrates or of Euthycrates, who flourished about b. c. 260. 63 There were two artists of this name, prior to the time of Pliny; a sculptor, mentioned by him inB. xxxiv. c. 19, and a painter, contemporary with Apelles, mentioned in B. xxxv. c. 36. It is impossible to say which of them, if either, is here meant. 54 See end of B. iii. 55 See end of B. xii. 56 It is impossible to say which writer of this name is here meant. See end of Books iv., viii., xi., and xx. 57 A statuary, sculptor, and chaser in silver, who flourished at Rome about b.c 60. He was a native of Magna Graecia, in the south of Italy. He is not only mentioned in Chapter 55 of the present Book, but also in B. xxxv. c. 45, as an artist of the highest distinction. His narrow escape from a panther, while copying from nature, is mentioned in B. xxxvi. c. 4. His five Books on the most celebrated works of sculpture and chasing were looked upon as a high authority in art. He was also the head of a school of artists. 68 A writer on painting of this name is mentioned by Diogenes Laertius, B. vii. c. 12. He is probably the same as the person here mentioned, and identical with the Greek sculptor mentioned by Pliny in B. xxxiv. c. 19, who probably flourished about 240 B.C. The Toreutic Art, " Toreutice," was the art of making raised work in silver or bronze, either by graving or casting: but the exact meaning of the word is somewhat uncertain. 59 Menaechmus of Sicyon, probably; see end of B. iv., also B. xxxiv. c. 19. 60 If he is really a different person from the Xenocrates mentioned above, nothing is known of him. VOL. VT. 1 146 pliny's natural history. [Book XXXIII. who did the same, Duris61 who did the same, Menander62 who wrote on Toreutics, Heliodorus83 who wrote on the Votive Offer- ings of the Athenians, Metrodorus64 of Scepsis. 61 See end of B. vii. 62 Possibly one of the persons mentioned at the end of Books viii., xix., and ^xxi. If not, nothing whatever is known of him. 63 An Athenian writer, surnamed " Periegetes." The work here men- tioned, is alluded to by other writers under different names. From a passage in Athenaeus, he is supposed to have lived after the time of Antio- chus Epiphaues. 6i See end of B. iii. 117 BOOK XXXIV. THE NATUBAL HISTORY OF METALS. CHAP. 1. (1.)--THE ORES OF BRASS.1 We must, in the next place, give an account of the ores of brass,2 a metal which, in respect of utility, is next in value; indeed the Corinthian brass comes before silver, not to sav almost before gold itself. It is also, as I have stated above,3 the standard of monetary value ;4 hence the terms " sera mili- tum," "tribuni aBrarii," " serarium," " obserati," and " sere diruti."5 I have already mentioned for what length of time the Roman people employed no coin except brass ;6 and there is 1 The present Book is translated by the late Dr. Bostock, the translation being corrected by the readings of the Bamberg MS., which do not appear to have come under his notice. Some Notes by Dr. Bostock will be also found at the commencement of Books 33 and 35; they are distinguished by the initial B. 2 "iEris Metalla." The word "Ms" does not entirely correspond to our word " brass;" the brass of the moderns being a compound of copper and zinc, while the "iEs" of the ancients was mostly composed of copper and tin, and therefore, would be more correctly designated by the word " bronze." But this last term is now so generally appropriated to works of art, that it would seem preferable to employ in most cases the more general terms " copper" or " brass." For an excellent account of the " iEs" of the ancients, see Smith's Diet. Antiq. " Ms."—B. Mr. WTestmacott, in the above-mentioned article, says that the ancient "_ZEs" has been found, upon analysis, to contain no zinc, but in nearly every instance to be a mix- ture of copper and tin, like our bronze. Beckmann says, on the other hand, that the mixture of zinc and copper now called "brass," first dis- covered by ores, abundant in zinc, was certainly known to the ancients. "In the course of time, an ore, which must have been calamine, was added to copper while melting, to give it a yellow colour." Hist. Inv. Vol, II. pp. 32, 33. Bohn's Edition. There can be little doubt that the native Cadmia of Chapter 22 of this Book was our Calamine, hydrosilicate of zinc, or carbonate of zinc, or else copper ore impregnated with calamine. 3 In B. xxxiii. c. 13. 4 " Stipis auctoritas." The standard in money payments. 6 These terms must have come into use when brass, "aes," was the ordinary medium of circulation.—B. Their meaning is, " soldiers' pay," "tribunes of the treasury," the "public treasury,"" made bondmen for debt," and "mulcted of their pay." 6 In B. xxxiii. c. 13.—B. L 2 148 plixy's natural history. [Book XXXIV. another ancient fact which proves that the esteem in which it was held was of equal antiquity with that of the City itself, the circumstance that the third associated body7 which Numa established, was that of the braziers. CHAP. 2.—THE DIFFERENT KINDS OF COPPER. The ore is extracted in the mode that has been described above,8 and is then purified by fusion. The metal is also obtained from a coppery stone called " cadmia."9 The most highly esteemed copper is procured from beyond seas : it was formerly obtained in Campania also, and at present is found in the country of the Bergomates,10 at the extremity of Italy. It is said to have been lately discovered also in the province of Germany. (2.) In Cyprus, where copper was first discovered, it is also pro- cured from another stone, which is called " chalcitis."11 This, however, was afterwards considered of little value, a better kind having been found in other regions, especially that called "aurichalcum,"12 which was long in high request, on account of 7 " Collegium." The colleges of the priests and of the augur3 being the first two associated bodies.—B. 8 In B. xxxiii. c. 31, where we have an account of the ores of silver.—B. 9 Pliny again refers to this mineral in the 22d Chapter. We have no means of ascertaining, with certainty, what is the substance to which this name was applied by the ancients. The ores of copper are very nume- rous, and of various chemical constitutions: the most abundant, and those most commonly employed in the production of the pure metal, are the sulphurets. more especially what is termed copper pyrites, and the oxides. It has been supposed, by some commentators, that the Cadmia of the an- cients was Calamine, which is an ore of zinc ; but we may be confident that the yEs of the ancients could not be produced from this substance, because, as has been stated above, the 2Es contains no zinc. I must, how- ever, observe that the contrary opinion is maintained byM. Delafosse.—B. See Note 2 above. 10 The inhabitants of Bergamum, the modern Bergamo.—B. See B. iii. c. 21. 11 Aristotle gives the same account of the copper ore of Cyprus. Chal- citis is also spoken of by Dioscorides, as an ore of copper.—B. See further as to " Chalcitis," in Chapter 29 of this Book. 12 There has been much discussion respecting the nature of this sub- stance, and the derivation of the word. Hardouin conceives it probable that it was originally written "orichalcuni,'' i.e. "mountain brass" or " copper."—B. Ajasson considers it to be native brass, a mixture of copper and zinc. In the later writers it signifies artificial brass. The exact com- position of this metal is still unknown, but there is little doubt that Har- douin is right in his supposition as to the origin of the name. Chap. 3.] THE CORINTHIAN BRASS. 149 its excellent quality ; but none of it has been found for this long time, the earth having been quite exhausted. The kind which was next in value was the Sallustian,13 procured from the Alpine district of the Centrones ;14 but this did not last long, and was succeeded by the Livian, in Gaul. They both took their names from the owners of the mines; the former a friend of the Emperor Augustus, the latter that emperor's wife.15 They soon failed, however, and in the Livian even there is now found but a very small quantity of ore. That which is at present held in the highest estimation is the Marian, likewise known as the Corduban :16 next to the Livian, this kind most readily absorbs cadmia, and becomes almost as excellent as aurichalcum17 for making sesterces and double asses,18 the Cyprian copper being thought good enough for the as. Thus much concerning the natural qualities of this metal. CHAP 3.--THE CORINTHIAN RRASS. The other kinds are made artificially, all of which will be described in the appropriate places, the more celebrated kinds first coming under our notice. Formerly a mixture was made of copper fused with gold and silver, and the workmanship in this metal was considered even more valuable than the ma- terial itself; but, at the present day, it is difficult to say whether the workmanship in it, or the material, is the worst. Indeed, it is wonderful, that while the value of these works19 13 Possibly so called from Sallustius Crispus, the historian, who was one of the secretaries of Augustus. 14 There is some doubt respecting the locality of these people ; they are enumerated by Pliny among the inhabitants of the mountainous districts of Savoy, B. iii. c. 24, and are referred to by Ptolemy.—B. 13 Livia. :5 It was named " Marian," after the celebrated Marius, and "Cordu- ban," from the place whence it was procured ; probably the mountains near Corduba, in Spain, well known as the birth-place of the two Senecas and of Lucan.—B. See B. iii. c. 3, and B. xix. c. 43. 17 No light is thrown upon the nature either of Cadmia or Aurichalcum bv this statement; we only learn from it that different compounds, or sub- stances possessing different physical properties, went under the common appellation of JEs, and were, each of them, employed in the formation of coins.—B. , . . 18 "Dupondiariis." The "as," it must be remembered, originally weighed one pound. See B. xxxiii. c. 13, and the Introduction to Vol. III. 19 He alludes to the ancient works of art in this compound metal. 150 plint's natural history. [Book XXXIV. has so infinitely increased, the reputation of the art itself20 is nearly extinct. But it would appear, that in this, as in every- thing else, what was formerly done for the sake of reputation, is now undertaken for the mere purpose of gain. For whereas this art was ascribed to the gods21 themselves, and men of rank in all countries endeavoured to acquire fame by the practice of it, we have now so entirely lost the method of making this valuable compound by fusion, that, forthis long time past, not even chance itself has assumed, in this depart- ment, the privilege which formerly belonged to art.22 Next after the above compound, so celebrated in antiquity, the Corinthian metal has been the most highly esteemed. This was a compound produced by accident, when Corinth was burnt at the time of its capture.23 There has been a wonderful mania with many for gaining possession of this metal. It is even said, that Yerres, whom M. Cicero caused to be condemned, was proscribed by Antonius, along with Cicero, for no other reason than his refusal to give up some specimens of Corinthian metal, which were in his possession. But most of these people seem to me to make a pretence of their discernment in reference to this metal, rather for the purpose of distinguishing themselves from the multitude, than from any real knowledge which they possess; and this I will briefly show. Corinth was captured in the third year of the 158th Olympiad, being the year of the City, 608,24 some ages after the period when those artists flourished, who produced all the specimens of what these persons now call Corinthian metal. It is in order, therefore, to refute this opinion, that I shall state the age when these different artists lived; for, if we reckon according to the above-mentioned era of the Olympiads, it will be easy to compare their dates with the corresponding years of our City. The only genuine Corinthian vessels, then, 20 The art of making compound metals. 21 Vulcan, namely. K No one has accidentally stumbled upon the art of making this com- posite metal. 23 "We have an account of the destruction of Corinth, and the accidental formation of this compound, in Floras, B. ii. c. 16. Although this ac- count was generally received by the ancients, we may venture to assert, that it cannot be correct; we cannot conceive the possibility of such a fusion taking place during the destruction of the city, or of the complete union of the components, in the mode in which they have been found to ^bt._B. 2» b.c 146.—B. Cbap. 5.] THE iEGINETAN BRASS. 151 are those which these men of taste metamorphose, sometimes into dishes, sometimes into lamps, or even into washing- basins,25 without any regard to decency. They are of three kinds; the white variety, approaching very nearly to the splendour of silver, and in which that metal forms a large proportion of the compound; a second kind, in which the yellow colour of gold predominates; and a third, in which all the metals are mixed in equal proportions. Besides these, there is another mixture, the composition of which it is im- possible to describe, for although it has been formed into images and statues by the hand of man, it is chance that rules in the formation of the compound. This last is highly prized for its colour, which approaches to that of liver, and it is on this account that it is called " hepatizon :"26 it is far in- ferior to the Corinthian metal, but much superior to the iEginetan and Delian, which long held the first rank. CHAP 4.—THE DELIAN BRASS. The Delian brass was the first27 that became famous, all the world coming to Delos to purchase it; and hence the attention paid to the manufacture of it. It was in this island that brass first obtained celebrity for the manufacture of the feet and supports of dining-couches. After some time it came to be employed for the statues of the gods, and the effigies of men and other animated beings. CHAP. 5.—rTHE JEG1NETAN BRASS. The next most esteemed brass was the JEginetan; the island itself being rendered famous for its brass—not indeed that the metal was produced there, but because the annealing of the .^Eginetan manufactories was so excellent. A brazen Ox, which was taken from this island, now stands in the Forum Bcarium28 at Rome. This is a specimen of the uEginetan metal, as the Jupiter in the Temple of Jupiter 25 "Trulleos." In an epigram of Martial, B. ix. Ep. 97, the word " trulla" signifies a chamber-pot. 26 From the Greek i'lirap, " the liver." 21 The Delian brass is mentioned by Cicero, in his oration " Pro Roscio Amerino," s. 46, and in his Fourth oration " In Verrem," s. 1.—B. Pau- sanias, in his " Eliaca," says that the Spanish copper, or copper of Tartes- sus, was the first known. 23 Or Cattle Market: in the Eighth Region of the City. See B. xxxv. c. 7, and Chapter 16 of this Book. 152 PLINY'S NATURAL HISTORY. [Book XXXIV. Tonans, in the Capitol, is of the Delian. Myron29 used the former metal and Polycletus30 the latter; they were contem- poraries and fellow-pupils, but there was great rivalry between them as to their materials. CHAP. 6. (3.)—STANDS FOR LAMPS. iEgina was particularly famous for the manufacture of sockets only for lamp-stands, as Tarentum was for that of the branches ;31 the most complete articles were, therefore, pro- duced by the union of the two. There are persons, too, who are not ashamed to give for one a sum equal to the salary of a military tribune,32 although, as its name indicates, its only use is to hold a lighted candle. On the sale of one of these lamp-stands, Theon the public crier announced, that the pur- chaser must also take, as part of the lot, one Clesippus, a fuller, who was hump-backed, and in other respects, of a hideous aspect. The purchase was made by a female named33 Gegania, for fifty thousand sesterces. Upon her exhibiting these purchases at an entertainment which she gave, the slave, for the amusement of her guests, was brought in naked. Conceiving an infamous passion for him, she first admitted him to her bed, and finally left him all her estate. Having thus become excessively rich, he adored the lamp-stand as much as any divinity, and the story became a sort of pendant to the celebrity of the Corinthian lamp-stands. Still, how- ever, good morals were vindicated in the end, for he erected a splendid monument to her memory, and so kept alive the eternal remembrance of the misconduct of Gegania. But although it is well known that there are no lamp-stands in existence made of the Corinthian metal, yet this name is very generally attached to them, because, in consequence of the victory of 29 A distinguished statuary and engraver on silver. He lived in Olym- piad 87. Further mention is made of him by Cicero, Ovid, Strabo, and Pansanias. See also Chapter 19 of this Book. 30 There were several artists of this name. The elder Polycletus, a native either of Sicyon or of Argos, is probably the one here referred'to. For further particulars of him, see Chapter 19. 31 The words in the original are, respectively candelabra, superficies, and scapi.—B. 32 Probably a proverbial expression at Rome, as it is employed by Juve- nal, in an analogous manner, upon another occasion ; Sat. iii. I. 132.__B. 33 Plutarch speaks of the Geganii as an ancient noble family at Rome.' Chap. 8.] COUCHES OF BRASS. 153 Mummius,34 Corinth was destroyed: at the same time, however, it should be remembered that this victory dispersed a number of bronzes which originally came from many other cities of Achaia. CHAP 7.—ORNAMENTS OF THE TEMPLES MADE OF BRASS. The ancients were in the habit of making the door-sills and even the doors of the temples of brass. I find it stated, also, that Cneius Octavius, who obtained a naval triumph over King Perseus,35 erected the double portico to the Flaminian Circus, which was called the " Corinthian" from the brazen capitals of the pillars.36 It is stated also, that an ordinance was made that the Temple of Vesta37 should be covered with a coating of Syracusan metal. The capitals, too, of the pillars, which were placed by M. Agrippa in the Pantheon, are made of similar metal. Even the opulence, too, of private individuals has been wrested to similar purposes. Spurius Carvilius, the quaestor, among the other charges which he brought against Camillus,38 accused him of having brazen doors in his house. CHAP. 8.--COUCHES OF BRASS. We learn fromL. Piso,39 that Cneius Manlius was the first who introduced brazen banquetting-couches, buffets, and tables with single feet,40 when he entered the City in triumph, in the year of Rome 567, after his conquests in Asia. We also learn from Antias,41 that the heirs of L. Crassus, the orator, sold a number of banquetting-couches adorned with brass. The 34 See B. xxxiii. c. 53. * 35 a.u.c. 585 ; we have an account of it in Livy, B. xiv. c. 42.—B. 36 This building is referred to by Velleius Paterculus, in the beginning of the Second Book of his History.—b. According to Aurelius Victor, it was situated in the Ninth Region of the City. 37 The Temple of Vesta is described by Ovid, Fasti, B. vi. 1. 265, et seq.—B. 38 C. Camillus probably, the Roman jurist and friend of Cicero. 39 See end of B. ii. 40 « Triclinia," "abaci," and " monopodia;" these appear to have been couches for dining-tables, tables furnished with cupboards, and tables standing on a single foot. Livy, B. xxxix. c. 6, informs us, that Cneius Manlius, in his triumphal procession, introduced into Rome various articles of Asiatic luxury; " Lectos aerates, vestem stragulam preciosam, mono- podia, et abacos." "We are not to suppose that the whole of these articles were made of brass, but that certain parts of them were formed of this metal, or else were ornamented with brass.—B. 41 See end of B. ii. 154 pliny's natural history. [Book XXXIV. tripods,42 which were called Delphian, because they were devoted more particularly to receiving the offerings that were presented to the Delphian Apollo, were usually made of brass: also the pendant lamps,43 so much admired, which were placed in the temples, or gave their light in the form of trees loaded with fruit; such as the one, for instance, in the Temple of the Palatine Apollo,44 which Alexander the Great, at the sacking of Thebes, brought to Cyme,46 and dedicated to that god. CHAP. 9. (4.)--WHICH WAS THE FIRST STATUE OF A GOD MADE OF BRASS AT ROME. THE ORIGIN OF STATUES, AND THE RESPECT PAID TO THEM. But after some time the artists everywhere applied them- selves to representations of the gods. I find that the first brass image, which was made at Rome, was that of Ceres; and that the expenses were defrayed out of the property that belonged to Spurius Cassius, who was put to death by his own father, for aspiring to the regal office.46 The practice, how- ever, soon passed from the gods to the Btatues and representa- tions of men, and this in various forms. The ancients stained their statues with bitumen, which makes it the more remark- able that they were afterwards fond of covering them with gold. I do not know whether this was a Roman invention; but it certainly has the repute of being an ancient practice at Rome. It was not the custom in former times to give the likeness of individuals, except of such as deserved to be held in lasting remembrance on account of some illustrious deed; in the first instance, for a victory at the sacred games, and more particularly the Olympic Games, where it was the usage for the victors always to have their statues consecrated. And if any one was so fortunate as to obtain the prize there three times, his statue 42 "Cortinas tripodum." These articles of furniture consisted of a table or slab, supported by three feet, which was employed, like our side- boards, for the display of plate, at the Roman entertainments.—B. 43 " Lychnuchi pensiles;" this term is applied by Suetonius, Julius, s. 37; we may conceive that they were similar to the modern chande- liers.—B 44 This temple was dedicated by Augustus a.u.c. 726. The lamps in it, resembling trees laden with fruit, are mentioned by Victor in his descrip- tion of the Tenth Quarter of the City.—B. « gee B. v. c. 32. 46 We have an account of this event in Livy, B. ii. c. 41, in Valerius Maximus, and in Dionysius of Halicarnassus.—B. Chap. 10.] THE DIFFERENT KINDS AND FORMS OF STATUES. 155 was made with the exact resemblance of every individual limb ; from which circumstance they were called " iconicae."47 I do not know whether the first public statues were not erected by the Athenians, and in honour of Harmodius and Aris- togiton, who slew the tyrant ;48 an event which took place in the same year in which the kings were expelled from Rome. This custom, from a most praiseworthy emulation, was after- wards adopted by all other nations ; so that statues were erected as ornaments in the public places of municipal towns, and the memory of individuals was thus preserved, their various honours being inscribed on the pedestals, to be read there by posterity, and not on their tombs alone. After some time, a kind of forum or public place came to be made in pri- vate houses and in our halls, the clients adopting this method uf doing honour to their patrons. CDAP. 10. (5.)--THE DIFFERENT KINDS AND FORMS OF STATUES. STATUES AT ROME WITH CUIRASSES. In former times the statues that were thus dedicated were clad in the toga.49 Naked statues also, brandishing a spear, after the manner of the youths at their gymnastic exercises, were much admired; these were called " Achillean." The Greek practice is, not to cover any part of the body ; while, on the contrary, the Roman and the military statues have the addition of a cuirass. Caesar, the Dictator, permitted a statue with a cuirass to be erected in honour of him in his Forum.50 As to the statues which are made in the garb of the Luperei," they are of no older date than those which have been lately erected, covered with a cloak.52 Mancinus gave directions, that he should be represented in the dress which he wore when he was surrendered to the enemy.63 It has been remarked by 47 "Iconicee," " portrait statues," from ukwv, of the same meaning. This term is employed by Suetonius, in speaking of a statue of Caligula, c. 22.—B. 48 Pisistratus. These statues are mentioned in the 19th Chapter of this Book, as being the workmanship of Praxiteles.—B. 49 See B. vii. cc. 31, 34: B. viii. c. 74 : and B. ix. c. 63. 60 Near the Temple of Janus, in the Eighth Region of the City. 51 The Luperci were the priests of Pan, who, at the celebration of their grimes, called Lupercalia, were in the habit of running about the streets of Rome, with no other covering than a goat's skin tied about the loins.—B. 52 " Psenula." See B. viii. c. 73. ,,,-,• fc3 We are informed by Cicero, De Off. B. iii. c. 30, and by \alenus 156 PLINT's NATURAL HISTORY. [Book XXXIV. Some authors, that L. Attius,64 the poet, had a statue of him- self erected in the Temple of the Muses,55 which was extremely large, although he himself was very short. Equestrian statues are also held in esteem in Rome; but they are of Greek origin, no doubt. Among the Greeks, those persons only were honoured with equestrian statues who were victors on horseback56 in the sacred games; though afterwards the same distinction was bestowed on those who were success- ful in the races with chariots with two or four horses : hence the use of chariots with us in the statues of those who have triumphed. But this did not take place until a late period; and it was not until the time of the late Emperor Augustus, that we had chariots represented with six horses,57 as also with elephants. CHAP. 11.—IN HONOUR OF WHOM PUBLIC STATUES WERE FIR8T ERECTED : IN HONOUR OF WHOM THEY WERE FIRST PLACED ON PILLARS : WHEN THE ROSTRA WERE FIRST ERECTED. The custom of erecting chariots with two horses in honour of those who had discharged the office of praetor, and had passed round the Circus in a chariot, is not of ancient date. That of placing statues on pillars is older, as it was done in honour of C. Maenius,68 who conquered the ancient Latins, to whom the Romans by treaty gave one third of the spoil which they had obtained. It was in the same consulship also, that the "rostra" or beaks of the ships, which had been taken from the Antiates when vanquished, were fixed to the tribunal; it Maximus, B. ii. c. 7, that Marcinus made a treaty with the Numantines, which the senate refused to ratify, and that he was, in consequence, sur- rendered to the enemy. We may suppose that he regarded the transac- tion as redounding more to the discredit of the senate than of himself —B 84 See end of B.xviii. « In the First Region of the City, near the Capenian Gate. «, -ft» a ''' thls appellation is derived from the Greek word «XnC, tKwrioteew'-B Wh° r°de °n horseback> in ^Position to "Poinsinet remarks that Pliny has forgotten the gilded chariot, with six horses, which Cneius Cornelius dedicated in the Capitol, two hundred years before Augustus ; he also refers to an ancient inscript on in Gruter which mentions chariots of this description —B "V1""* in urutcr, « Maenius was consul with Furius Camillus, A.r.c. 416; we have an Sli^B. ^tT-T S ^^ aUd °lher -^--g -tions Chap. 11.] PUBLIC STATUES. 157 being the year of the City, 416.59 The same thing was done also by Cuius Duillius, who was the first to obtain a naval triumph over the Carthaginians: his column still remains in the Forum.60 I am not certain whether this honour was not first conferred by the people on L. Minutius, the praefect of the markets; whose statue was erected without the Trigeminian Gate,61 by means of a tax of the twelfth of an as62 per head: the same thing, however, had been previously done by the senate, and it would have been a more distinguished honour had it not had its origin on such frivolous occasions. The statue of Attus ISTavius,63 for example, was erected before the senate-house, the pedestal of which was consumed when the senate-house itself was burnt at the funeral of Publius Clo- dius.64 The statue of Hermodorus also, the Ephesian,65 the interpreter of the laws which were transcribed by the Decem- virs, was erected by the public in the Comitium.66 It was for a very different, and more important reason, that the statue of Horatius Codes was erected, he having singly prevented the enemy from passing the Sublician bridge ;67 a statue which remains to this day. I am not at all sur- prized, too, that statues of the Sibyl should have been erected near the Rostra, even though three in number; one of which was repaired by Sextus Pacuvius Taurus, aedile of the people, and the other two by M.Messala. I should have considered these and that of Attus Navius to have been the oldest, as having 59 We have an account of this transaction in Livy, B. viii. c. 14. This trophy is also mentioned by Floras, B. i. c. 11. The "Suggestus" was an elevated place, formed for various purposes, the stage from which the orators addressed the people, the place from which the general addressed his soldiers, and the seat occupied by the emperor at the public games.—B. 60 Florus, B. ii. c. 2, gives an account of the arrangements and equip- ment of the Carthaginian fleet, the victory of Duillius, and the rostral monument erected in its commemoration.—B, 61 See B. xviii. c. 4. 63 " Unciaria stipe;" the uncia was the twelfth part of the "as," and the word stips was regarded as equivalent to as, as being the usual pay of the soldiers.—B. See Introduction to Vol. III. 63 See B. xv. c. 20. 64 This circumstance is mentioned by Cicero in his Defence of Milo, $ 90-1.—B. 65 We have some account of Hermodorus in Cicero's Tusc. Quaes. B. v. c, 36.—B. 66 See B. x. c. 2, B. xviii. c. 3, and B. xxxiii. c. 7. 67 Livy, B. ii. c. 10, and Valerius Maximus, B. iii. c. 2, give an account of this event. A. Gellius incidentally mentions the statue, and its posi- tion in the Comitium, B. iv. c. 5.—B. 158 PLINY'S NATURAL HISTORY. [Book XXXIV. been placed there in the time of Tarquinius Priscus, had there not been in the Capitol the statues of the preceding kings.68 (6.) Among these we have the statues of Romulus and Tatius without the tunic ; as also that of Camillus, near the Rostra. The equestrian statue of Marcius Tremulus, clad in the toga, stood before the Temple of the Castors ;69 him who twice subdued the Samnites, and by the capture of Anagnia delivered the people from their tribute.70 Among the most ancient are those of Tullus Clcelius, Lucius Roscius, Spurius Nautius, and C. Fulcinus, near the Rostra, all of whom were assas- sinated by the Fidenates, when on their mission as ambassa- dors.71 It was the custom with the republic to confer this honour on those who had been udjustly put to death; such as P. Junius, also, and Titus Coruncanius, who were slain by Teuta, queen of the Illyrians.72 It would be wrong not to mention what is stated in the Annals, that their statues, erected in the Forum, were three feet in height; whence it would appear that such were the dimensions of these marks of honour in those times. Nor must I forget to mention Cneius Octavius, on account of the language used by the senate.73 "When King Antiochus said, that he would give him an answer at another time, Oc- tavius drew a line round him with a stick, which he happened to have in his hand, and compelled him to give an answer before he allowed him to step beyond the circle. Octavius being slain74 while on this embassy, the senate ordered his statue to be placed in the most conspicuous75 spot; and that 68 We are informed by Dion Cassius, that there were eight statues in the Capitol, seven of which were of the kings, and the eighth of Brutus, who overthrew the kingly government; at a later period the statue of Ctesar was placed by the side of that of Brutus.—B. 69 Suetonius, speaking of this temple, remarks, that though dedicated to the brothers Castor and Pollux, it was only known as the Temple of Castor.—B. 70 "We have an account of the victory of Tremulus over the Hernici, and of the statue erected in honour of him, in Livy, B. ix. c. 43.—B. 71 This event is referred to by Cicero, Philipp. ix., 5.—B. '- Florus, B. ii. c. 5, gives an account of the murder of P. Junius and T. Coruncanius.—B. '3 In the Bamberg MS. the reading is"unum se. verbum." Grono- vius is probably right in his conjecture that the word is " senatus consulti." 74 By one Leptines, at Laodicea. "5 "Oculatissimo." _ The place where there was "the most extended eyeshot." It is to this singular expression, probably, that Pliny alludes. Chap. 12.] PUBLIC STATUES ERECTED AT EOME. 159 spot was the Rostra. A statue appears also to have been decreed to Taracia Caia, or Furetia, a Vestal Virgin, the same, too, to be placed wherever she might think fit; an additional honour, no less remarkable, it is thought, than the grant itself of a statue to a female. I will state her merits in the words of the Annals : "Because she had gratuitously presented to the public the field bordering on the Tiber.76 CHAP. 12.--IN HONOUR OF WHAT FOREIGNERS PUBLIC STATUES WERE ERECTED AT ROME. I find also, that statues were erected in honour of Pytha- goras and of Alcibiades, in the corners of the Comitium ; in obe- dience to the command of the Pythian Apollo, who, in the Sanmite War,77 had directed that statues of the bravest and the wisest of the Greeks should be erected in some conspicu- ous spot: and here they remained until Sylla, the Dictator, built the senate-house on the site. It is wonderful that the senate should then have preferred Pythagoras to Socrates, who, in consequence of his wisdom, had been preferred to all other men78 by the god himself; as, also, that they should have pre- ferred Alcibiades for valour to so many other heroes; or, indeed, any one to Themistocles, who so greatly excelled in both quali- ties. The reason of the statues being raised on columns, was, that the persons represented might be elevated above other mortals ; the same thing being signified by the use of arches, a new invention which had its origin among the Greeks. I am of opinion that there is no one'to whom more statues were erected than to Demetrius Phalereus79 at Athens: for there were three hundred and sixty erected in his honour, there being reckoned at that period no more days in the year : these, however, were soon broken to pieces. The different tribes erected statues, in all the quarters of Rome, in honour of Marius Gratidianus, as already stated ;60 but they were all thrown down by Sylla, when he entered Rome. 76 " Quod campum Tiberinum gratificata esset ea populo." 77 a.u.c. 441. 78 See B. vii. c. 31. 79 His life has been written by Diogenes Laertius, and he is mentioned by Cicero, de Fin. B. v. c. 19, and by Strabo.—B. «° In B. xxxiii. c. 46. 160 tliny's naturax history. [Book XXXIV. CHAP. 13.—THE FIRST EQUESTRIAX STATUES PUBLICLY ERECTED AT ROME, AND IN HONOUR OF WHAT FEMALES STATUES WKHE PUBLICLY ERECTED THERE. Pedestrian statues have been, undoubtedly, for a long time in estimation at Rome: equestrian statues are, however, of considerable antiquity, and females even have participated in this honour; for the statue of Claelia is equestrian,81 as if it had not been thought sufficient to have her clad in the toga; and this, although statues were not decreed to Lucretia, or to Brutus, who had expelled the kings, and through both of whom Claslia had been given as a hostage.82 I should have thought that this statue, and that of Codes, were the first that were erected at the public expense—for it is most likely that the Btatues of Attus and the Sibyl were erected by Tarquinius, and those of each of the other kings by themselves respectively —had not Piso stated that the statue of Claelia was erected by those who had been hostages with her, when they were given up by Porsena, as a mark of honour. But Annius Fetialis83 states, on the other hand, that the equestrian statue, which stood opposite the Temple of Jupiter Stator, in the vestibule of the house of Tarquinius Superbus, was that of Valeria,84 the daughter of the consul Publicola ; and that 6he was the only person that escaped and swam across the Tiber; the rest of the hostages that had been sent to Porsena having been destroyed by a stratagem of Tarquinius. CHAP. 14.--AT WHAT PERIOD ALL THE STATUES ERECTED BT FRTVATE INDIVIDUALS WERE REMOVED FROM THE PUBLIC PLACES. We are informed by L. Piso, that when M. ^Emilius and C. Popilius were consuls, for the second time,86 the censors, P. Cornelius Scipio and M. Popilius, caused all the statues erected round the Forum in honour of those who had borne the office of magistrates, to be removed ; with the exception of those which had been placed there, either by order of the 81 We have an account of the exploit of Claelia in Livy, B. ii c 13 and in Valerius Maximus, B. iii. c. 2: there is a reference to this statue in Seneca, de Consol. c. 16.—B. 8* To King Porsena. 83 gee end of B xv; S4 Plutarch says that it was uncertain whether the statue was erected to Claelia or to \ aleria,—B. w a.l.c. 596.__B. Chap. 15.] STATUES ERECTED BY FOREIGNERS. 161 people or of the senate. The statue also which Spurius Cassius,86 who had aspired to the supreme authority, had erected in honour of himself, before the Temple of Tellus, was melted down by order of the censors; for even in this respect, the men of those days took precautions against ambition. There are still extant some declamations by Cato, during his censorship, against the practice of erecting statues of women in the Roman provinces. However, he could not prevent these statues being erected at Rome even; to Cornelia, for instance, the mother of the Gracchi, and daughter of the elder Scipio Africanus. She is represented in a sitting pos- ture, and the statue is remarkable for having no straps to the Bhoes. This statue, which was formerly in the public Portico of Metellus, is now in the Buildings of Octavia.67 CHAP. 15.--THE FIRST STATUES PUBLICLY ERECTED BY FOREIGNERS. The first statue that was erected at Rome at the expense of a foreigner was that of C. JElius, the tribune of the people, who had introduced a law against Sthennius Statilius Lu- canus,88 for having twice attacked Thurii: on which account the inhabitants of that place presented iElius with a statue and a golden crown. At a later period, the same people erected a statue to Fabricius,89 who had delivered their city from a state of siege. From time to time various nations thus placed themselves under the protection of the Romans; and all distinctions were thereby so effectually removed, that statues of Hannibal even are to be seen in three different places in that city, within the walls of which, he alone of all its enemies, had hurled his spear.90 86 See Chapter 9. 87 " In Octavia? operibus." These were certain public buildings, erected in Rome by Augustus, and named by him after his sister Octavia; they are mentioned by Suetonius.—B. 89 Valerius Maximus refers to this event, but he names the individual Statius Servilius, B. i. c. 8, § 6.—B. 89 See B. xxxiii. cc. 50, 54. 90 We have an account of the attack by Hannibal on Rome in the twenty-sixth Book of Livy, but we have no mention of the particular cir- cumstance here referred to.—B. VOL. VI. M 162 PLINY'S NATURAL HISTORY. [Book XXXIV. CHAP. 16. (7.)— THAT THERE WERE STATUARIES IN ITALY ALSO AT AN EARLY PERIOD. Various circumstances prove, that the art of making statues was commonly practised in Italy at an early period. The statue in the Cattle Market91 is said to have been consecrated to Hercules by Evander ; it is called the triumphal Hercules, and, on the occasion of triumphal processions, is arrayed in triumphal vestments. And then besides, King Numa dedi- cated the statue of the two-faced Janus;92 a deity who is worshipped as presiding over both peace and war. The fingers, too, are so formed as to indicate three hundred and sixty-five days,93 or in other words, the year; thus denoting that he is the god of time and duration. There are also Etruscan statues dispersed in various parts of the world, which beyond a doubt were originally made in Etruria. I should have supposed that these had been the statues only of divinities, had not Metrodorus94 of Scepsis, who had his surname from his hatred to the Roman name,95 re- proached us with having pillaged the city of Volsinii for the sake of the two thousand statues which it contained. It appears to me a singular fact, that although the origin of statues was of such great antiquity in Italy, the images of the gods, which were consecrated to them in their temples, should have been formed either of wood or of earthenware,98 until the conquest of Asia, which introduced luxury among us. It will be the best plan to enlarge upon the origin of the art of expressing likenesses, when we come to speak of what the 91 " Forum Boarium." See Chapter 5. 92 Livy, B. i. c. 19, informs us, that Numa made Janus of a form to denote both peace and war.—B. 93 The mode in which the fingers were placed, so as to serve the purpose here indicated, is supposed to have been by their forming the letters which were the Roman numerals for the figures in question. We are informed that some MSS. of Pliny give the number three hundred and fifty-five onlv, and there is reason to believe that, in the time of Numa, this was considered to be the actual number of days in the year. Some of the commentators, however, are disposed to read three hundred and sixty-five; and this opinion derives some support from Macrobius, who refers to this statue as indicating this latter number with its fingers.—B. The Bamber? MS. gives three hundred and sixty-five. n See end of B. iii. 95 " Misoromaeus"— "Roman-hater." See end of B. iii. * Pliny himself informs us, in B. xxxv. c. 45. that the statue of Jupiter in the Capitol, erected by Tarquinius Priscus, was formed of earth.—B. Chap. 17.] THE IMMODERATE PRICES OF STATUES. 1GH Greeks call " plastice j"96* for the art of modelling was prior to that of statuary. This last, however, has flourished to such an extraordinary degree, that an account of it would fill many volumes, if we were desirous of making an extensive acquaint- ance with the subject: but as to learning everything con- nected with it, who could do it ? CHAP. 17.--THE IMMODERATE PRICES OF STATUES. In the aedileship of M. Scaurus, there were three thousand statues erected on the stage of what was a temporary theatre97 only. Mummius, the conqueror of Achaia, filled the City with statues ; he who at his death was destined not to leave a dowry to his daughter,98 for why not mention this as an apology for him? The Luculli99 also introduced many ar- ticles from abroad. Yet we learn from Mucianus,1 who was thrice consul, that there are still three thousand statues in Rhodes, and it is supposed that there are no fewer in ex- istence at Athens, at Olympia, and at Delphi. What living mortal could enumerate them all ? or of what utility would be such information ? Still, however, I may, perhaps, afford amusement by giving some slight account of such of those works of art as are in any way remarkable, and stating the names of the more celebrated artists. Of each of these it would be impossible to enumerate all the productions, for Lysippus2 alone is said to have executed no less than fifteen hundred2' works of art, all of which were of such excellence that any one of them might have immortalized him. The number was ascertained by his heir, upon opening his coffers after his death, it having been his practice to lay up one golden 90* The art of moulding or modelling in argillaceous earth ; see B. xxxv. cc. 43, 45. 97 See B. xxxvi. c. 2, where he informs us that this theatre was hardly one month in use.—B. 98 Hardouin gives several quotations illustrative of his liberality in bestowing ornaments in the City, and his inattention to his domestic concerns.—B. 99 The brothers Lucius and Marcus, the former of whom triumphed in the Mithridatic, the latter in the Macedonian War.—B. 1 See end of B. ii. 2 See B. vii. c. 38. 2* The absolute number of statues assigned to Lysippus differs consider- ably in the different editions, as is the case in almost every instance where figures are concerned. Pliny gives a further account of his works in the next two Chapters and in the following Book.—B/ M 2 164 pliny's NATURAL HISTORY. [Book XXXIV. denarius3 out of the sum which he had received as the price of each statue. This art has arrived at incredible perfection, both in suc- cessfulness and in boldness of design. As a proof of successful. ness, I will adduce one example, and that of a figure which represented neither god nor man. We have seen in our own time, in the Capitol, before it was last burnt by the party4 of Vitellius, in the shrine of Juno there, a bronze figure of a dog licking its wounds. Its miraculous excellence and its perfect truthfulness were not only proved by the circumstance of its having been consecrated there, but also by the novel kind of security that was taken for its safety ; for, no sum appearing equal to its value, it was publicly enacted that the keepers of it should be answerable for its safety with their lives. CHAP. 18.—THE MOST CELEBRATED COLOSSAL STATUES IN THE CITY. As to boldness of design, the examples are innumerable; for we see designed, statues of enormous bulk, known as colossal statues and equal to towers in size. Such, for instance, is the Apollo in the Capitol, which was brought by M. Lucullus from Apollonia, a city of Pontus,5 thirty cubits in height, and which cost five hundred talents : such, too, is the statue of Jupiter, in the Campus Martius, dedicated by the late Emperor Claudius, but which appears small in com- parison from its vicinity to the Theatre of Pompeius : and such is that at Tarentum, forty cubits in height, and the work of Lysippus.6 It is a remarkable circumstance in this statue, that though, as it is stated, it is so nicely balanced as to be moveable by the hand, it has never been thrown down by a tempest. This indeed, the artist, it is said, has guarded against, by a column erected at a short distance from it, upon the side on which the violence of the wind required to be broken. On account, therefore, of its magnitude, and the great difficulty of moving it, Fabius Verrucosus7 did not 3 " Aureum." See B. xxxiii. c. 13, and B. xxxvii. c. 3. 4 In their attack upon Flavius Sabinus, the brother of Vespasian- A'Y" ™ 8.?2' i v Sle B- iv' C 27, 8 U was a 8tatue of Jupiter. 7 Better known by the name of Q. Fabius Maximus ; he acquired the soubriquet of Verrucosus from a large wart on the upper lip.__B. Chap. 18.] COLOSSAL STATUES IN THE CITY. 165 touch it, when he transferred the Hercules from that place to the Capitol, where it now stands. But that which is by far the most worthy of our admiration, is the colossal statue of the Sun, which stood formerly at Rhodes, and was the work of Chares the Lindian, a pupil of the above-named Lysippus ;8 no less than seventy cubits in height. This statue, fifty-six years after it was erected, was thrown down by an earthquake; but even as it lies, it excites our wonder and admiration.9 Few men can clasp the thumb in their arms, and its fingers are larger than most statues. Where the limbs are broken asunder, vast caverns are seen yawning in the interior. Within it, too, are to be seen large masses of rock, by the weight of which the artist steadied it while erecting it. It is said that it was twelve years before this statue was completed, and that three hundred talents were expended upon it; a sum raised from the engines of warfare which had been abandoned by King Demetrius,10 when tired of the long-protracted siege of Rhodes. In the same city there are other colossal statues, one hundred in number ; but though smaller than the one already mentioned, wherever erected, they would, any one of them, have ennobled the place. In addition to these, there are five colossal statues of the gods, which were made byBryaxis.11 Colossal statues used also to be made in Italy. At all events, we see the Tuscan Apollo, in the library of the Temple of Augustus,12 fifty feet in height from the toe; and it is a question whether it is more remarkable for the quality of the metal, or for the beauty of the workmanship. Spurius Carvilius also erected the statue of Jupiter which is seen in the Capitol, after he 8 The Colossus of Rhodes was begun by Chares, but he committed suicide, in consequence of having made some mistake in the estimate; the work was completed by Laches, also an inhabitant of Lindos.—B. 9 It remained on the spot where it was thrown down for nearly nine hundred years, until the year 653 a.d., when Moavia, khalif of the Saracens, after the capture of Rhodes, sold the materials; it is said that it required nine hundred camels to remove the remains.—B. 10 Demetrius Poliorcetes. See B. xxxv. c. 36. 11 He is mentioned by Columella, in his Introduction to his work De Re Rustica, in connexion with the most celebrated Grecian artists.—B. 12 Suetonius, in describing the temple which Augustus dedicated to Apollo, on the Palatine Hill, speaks of the Portico with the Latin and Greek library.—B. 166 pliny's NATURAL HISTORY. [Book XXXIV. had conquered the Samnites,13 who fought in obedience to a most solemn oath; it being formed out of their breast-plates, greaves, and helmets, and of such large dimensions that it may be seen from the statue of Jupiter Latiaris.14 He made his own statue, which is at the feet of the other one, out of the filings of the metal. There are also, in the Capitol, two heads which are very much admired, and which were dedicated by the Consul P. Lentulus, one of them executed by the above- mentioned Chares,16 the other by Decius;16 but this last is so greatly excelled by the former, as to have all the appearance of being the work of one of the poorest of artists. But all these gigantic statues of this kind have been sur- passed in our own age by that of Mercury, made by Zenodotus16' for the city of the Arverni in Gaul,17 which was ten years in being completed, and the making of which cost four hun- dred thousand sesterces. Having given sufficient proof there of his artistic skill, he was sent for by Nero to Rome, where he made a colossal statue intended to represent that prince, one hundred and ten feet in height. In consequence, however, of the public detestation of Nero's crimes, this statue was con- secrated to the Sun.18 We used to admire in his studio, not only the accurate likeness in the model of clay, but in the Bmall sketches19 also, which served as the first foundation of the work. This statue proves that the art of fusing [precious] brass was then lost, for Nero was prepared to furnish 13 This victory took place a.u.c 461; we have an account of it in Livy, the concluding Chapter of the Tenth Book.—B. 14 This was a statue of Jupiter, placed on the Alban Mount, twelve miles from Rome. At this place the various states of Latium exercised their religious rites in conjunction with the Romans; it was sometimes called Latialis.—B. See B. iii. c. 9, and Notes ; Vol. I. p. 205. 15 The designer of the Colossus at Rhodes. 16 Decius is said by Hardouin to have been a statuary, but nothing is known respecting him or his works.—B. He probably lived about the time of the Consul P. Cornelius Lentulus Spinther, a.u.c 697. 16* His country is unknown. " See B. iv. c. 33. 18 St. Jerome informs us, that Vespasian removed the head of Nero, and substituted that of the Sun with seven rays. Martial refers to it in the Second Epigram Be Spectaculis, and also B. i. Ep. 71.—B. is « Parvis admodum surculis." There is, it appears, some difficulty in determining the application of the word surculis to the subject in question, and we have no explanation of it by any of the commentators. Can it refer to the frame of wicker work which contained the model into which the melted metal was poured ?—B. Chap. 18.] COLOSSAL STATUES IN THE CITY. 167 the requisite gold and silver, and Zenodotus was inferior to none of the ancients, either as a designer or as an engraver.20 At the time that he was working at the statue for the Arverni, he copied for Dubius Avitus, the then governor of the province, two drinking-cups, chased by the hand of Calamis,21 which had been highly prized by Germanicus Caesar, and had been given by him to his preceptor Cassius Silanus, the uncle of Avitus ; and this with such exactness, that they could scarcely be distinguished from the originals. The greater, then, the supe- riority of Zenodotus, the more certainly it may be concluded that the secret of fusing [precious] brass is lost. (8.) Persons who possess what are called Corinthian bronzes,23 are generally bo much enamoured of them, as to carry them about with them from place to place ; Hortensius, the orator, for instance, who possessed a Sphinx, which he had made Verres give him, when accused. It was to this figure that Cicero alluded, in an altercation which took place at the trial: when, upon Hortensius saying that he could not understand enigmas, Cicero made answer that he ought to understand them, as he had got a Sphinx23 at home. The Emperor Nero, also, used to carry about with him the figure of an Amazon, of which I shall speak further hereafter ;24 and, shortly before this, C. Cestius, a person of consular25 rank, had possessed a figure, which he carried with him even in battle. The tent, too, of Alexander the Great was usually supported, it is said, by sta- tues, two of which are consecrated before the Temple of Mars Ultor,28 and a similar number before the Palace.27 20 This observation has been supposed to imply, that Zenodotus cast his statues in a number of separate pieces, which were afterwards connected together, and not, as was the case with the great Grecian artists, in one entire piece.—B. 21 See B. xxxiii. c. 55. 22 The term signum, which is applied to the Corinthian figures, may mean a medallion, or perhaps a seal-ring or brooch; we only know that it must have been something small, which might be carried about the person, or, at least, easily moved from place to place.—B. Statuette, probably. 23 Her riddle, and its solution by ffidipus, are too well known to need repetition here. 24 In the following Chapter. » Consul a.u.c 787. 26 The " Avenger." In the Forum of Augustus, in the Eighth Region of the City. '•" " Regia." The palace of Minerva, also in the Forum of Augus- tus.—B. 168 PLINY'S NATURAL HISTORY. [Book XXXIV. CHAP. 19.—AN ACCOUNT OF THE MOST CELEBRATED WORKS IN- BRASS, AND OF THE ARTISTS, 366 IN NCJIBER. An almost innumerable multitude of artists have been ren- dered famous by their statues and figures of smaller size. Before all others is Phidias,28 the Athenian, who executed the Jupiter at Olympia, in ivory and gold,29 but who also made figures in brass as well. He flourished in the eighty-third Olympiad, about the year of our City, 300. To the same age belong also his rivals Alcamenes,30 Critias,31 Nesiotes,32 and Hegias.33 Afterwards, in the eighty-seventh Olympiad, there were Agelades,34 Callon,55 and Gorgias the Baconian. In the ninetieth Olympiad there were Polycletus,36 Phradmon,37 Myron,38 Pythagoras,39 Scopas,40 and Perellus.41 Of these, Polycletus had for pupils, Argius,42 Asopodorus, Alexis, Aristides,43 Phrynon, Dinon, Athenodorus,44 and Demeas45 the i8 See B. vii. c. 39, B. xxxv. c. 34, and B. xxxvi. c. 4. 29 We have an account of this statue, and of the temple in which it was placed, by Pausanias, B. v. There is no work of Phidias now in existence; the sculptures in the Parthenon were, however, executed by his pupils and under his immediate directions, so that we may form some judgment of his genius and taste.—B. There is a foot in the British Museum3, said to be the work of Phidias. 30 An Athenian ; see B. xxxvi. c. 5. He is spoken of in high terms by Pausanias and Valerius Maximus. 31 Tutor of Ptolichus of Corcyra, and highly distinguished for his statues of the slayers of the tyrants at Athens. He is mentioned also by Lucian and Pausanias. 32 The reading is uncertain here, the old editions giving " Nestocles " We shall only devote a Note to such artists as are mentioned by other authors besides Pliny. 33 An Athenian; mentioned also by Pausanias. * ™.-..-ere weJreJ)robaoly two artists of this name ; one an Arrive tutor ot Fnidias, and the other a Sicyonian, the person here referred to 35 A native of ^Egina, mentioned by Pausanias. There is also a sta- tuary of Elis of the same name, mentioned by Pausanias, and to whom Ihiersch is of opinion reference is here made. 39 Again mentioned by Pliny, as a native of Rhegium in Italy i £ n£ I? ??«"?,'• ™**one* also by Pausanias and Strabo." «. J * i7» ?enllus> the artist who made the brazen bull for Phalaris the tyrant of Agngentum. The old reading is " Parelius " rna]aris' 60™^^°™°™* W°rdProbably — one person-" Asopo- « Perhaps the same person that is mentioned by Pausanias, B vi c 20 as having improved the form of the starting-place at the Olympic Games ' Mentioned by Pausanias as an Arcadian, and son of Clitof 46 A native of Chtonum in Arcadia, and mentioned also by Pausanias Chap. 19 ] CELEBRATED WORKS IN BRASS. 169 Clitorian: Lycius,46 too, was the pupil of Myron. In the ninety-fifth Olympiad flourished Naucsydes,47 Dinomenes,48 Canachus,49 and Patroclus.60 In the hundred and second Olympiad there were Polycles,61 Cephisodotus,52 Leochares,53 and Hypatodorus.54 In the hundred and fourth Olympiad, flourished Praxiteles55 and Euphranor ;x in the hundred and seventh, Aetion56* and Therimachus;57 in the hundred and thirteenth, Lysippus,*8 who was the contemporary of Alex- ander the Great, his brother Lysistratus,59 Sthennis,60 Euphron, Eucles, Sostratus,61 Ion, and Silanion,62 who was remarkable for 48 He is said by Pausanias and Athenaeus to have been the son, also, of Myron. 47 Son of Motho, and a native of Argos. He was brother and in- structor of the younger Polycletus, of Argos. He is mentioned also by Pau- sanias and Tatian. 4H He is once mentioned by Pausanias, and there is still extant the basis of one of his works, with his name inscribed. 49 It is supposed that there were two artists of this name, both natives of Sicyon, the one grandson of the other. They are both named by Pausanias. 50 Probably a Sicyonian; he is mentioned also by Pausanias. 61 As Pliny mentions two artists of this name, it is impossible to say to which of them Pausanias refers as being an Athenian, in B. vi. c. 4. 5- The elder artist of this name. He was an Athenian, and his sister was the wife of Phocion. He is also mentioned by Plutarch and Pausanias. 53 An Athenian; he is mentioned also by Vitruvius, Pausanias, and Tatian. Winckelmann mentions an inscription relative to him, which, how- ever, appears to be spurious. 64 He is mentioned also by Pausanias, and is supposed by Sillig to have been a Theban. 55 Praxiteles held a high rank among the ancient sculptors, and may be considered as second to Phidias alone; he is frequently mentioned by Pausa- nias and various other classical writers. Pliny gives a further account of the works of Praxiteles in the two following Books.—15. 56 He was also an eminent painter, and is also mentioned by Quintilian, Dio Chrysostom, and Plutarch. M* Another reading is " Echion." 67 See B. xxxv. cc. 32, 36. 58 This great artist, a native of Sicyon, has been already mentioned in B. vii. c. 39, and in the two preceding Chapters of the present Book; he is again mentioned in B. xxxv. c. 39.—B. See note 28 above. 59 Also a native of Sicyon. He is mentioned by Tatian. eo Mentioned also by Pausanias, Plutarch, Strabo, and Appian. The next two names in former editions stand as one, " Euphronides." 61 Supposed to have been an architect, and builder of the Pharos near Alexandria : see B. xxxvi. c. 18. The same person is mentioned also by Strabo, Lucian, and Suidas. M An Athenian. He is mentioned also by Pausanias, Plutarch, Diogenes Laertius, and Tatian. i;0 pliny's NATURAL HISTORY. [Book XXXIV. having acquired great celebrity without any instructor: Zeuxis63 was his pupil. In the hundred and twenty-first Olympiad were Eutychides,64 Euthycrutes,65 Luippus,66 Cephiso- dotus,67 Timarchus,68 and Pyromachus.69 The practice of this art then ceased for some time, hut revived in the hundred and fifty-sixth Olympiad, when there were some artists, who, though far inferior to those already men- tioned, were still highly esteemed; Antaeus, Callistratus.'0 Poly- cles,71Athen83us,72Callixenus,Pythocles, Pythias, and Timocles." The ages of the most celebrated artists being thus distin- guished, I shall cursorily review the more eminent of them, the greater part being mentioned in a desultory manner. The most celebrated of these artists, though born at different epochs, have joined in a trial of skill in the Amazons which they have respectively made. "When these statues were dedi- cated in the Temple of Diana at Ephesus, it was agreed, in order to ascertain which was the best, that it should be left to the judgment of the artists themselves who were then present: upon which, it was evident that that was the best, which all the artists agreed in considering as the next best to his own. Accordingly, the first rank was assigned to Polycletus, the second to Phidias, the third to Cresilas, the fourth to Cydon, and the fifth to Phradmon.74 63 See B. xxxv. c. 36. 64 A Sicyonian, pupil of Lysippus. He is also mentioned by Pausanias; see also B. xxxvi. c. 4. 65 Son and pupil of Lysippus. He is mentioned also by Tatian, and by some writers as the instructor of Xenocrates. 116 Sillig thinks that this is a mistake made by Pliny for " Daippus," a statuary mentioned by Pausanias. 61 Son of Praxiteles, and mentioned by Tatian in conjunction with Eu- thycrates. The elder Cephisodotus has been already mentioned. See Note 52. 68 Another son of Praxiteles. He is also alluded to by Pausanias, though not by name. 69 His country is uncertain, but he was preceptor of Mygdon of Soli. See B. xxxv. c. 40. 70 Mentioned also by Tatian; bis country is unknown. 71 It is doubtful whether Pausanias alludes, in B. vi. c. 4, to this artist, or to the one of the same name mentioned under Olymp. 102. See Note 51. 74 Sillig suggests that this word is an adjective, denoting the country of Polycles, in order to distinguish him from the elder Polycles. 73 We learn from Pausanias that he worked in conjunction with Ti- marchides. The other artists here mentioned are quite unknown. 7i Sillig, in his " Dictionary of Ancient Artists," observes that " this passage contains many foolish statements." Also that there is " an ob- vious intermixture in it of truth and falsehood." Chap. 19] CELEBRATED WORKS IN BRASS. 171 Phidias, besides the Olympian Jupiter, which no one has ever equalled, also executed in ivory the erect statue of Minerva, which is in the Parthenon at Athens.75 He also made in brass, beside the Amazon above mentioned,76 a Minerva, of such exquisite beauty, that it received its name from its fine proportions.77 He also made the Cliduchus,78 and another Minerva, which Paulus JEmilius dedicated at Bome in the Temple of Fortune79 of the passing day. Also the two 6tatues, draped with the pallium, which Catulus erected in the same temple; and a nude colossal statue. Phidias is deservedly considered to have discovered and developed the toreutic art.60 Polycletus of Sicyon,81 the pupil of Agelades, executed the Diadumenos,82 the statue of an effeminate youth, and remarkable for having cost one hundred talents; as also the statue of a youth full of manly vigour, and called the Doryphoros.83 He also made what the artists have called the Model statue,84 and from which, as from a sort of standard, 75 This is universally admitted to have been one of the most splendid works of art. It is celebrated by various writers; Pausanias speaks of it in B. i. See also B. xxxvi. c. 4.—B. 76 As being made for the Temple of Diana at Ephesus. 77 Probably " Callimorphos," or -'Calliste." We learn from Pausanias that it was placed in the Citadel of Athens. Lucian prefers it to every other work of Phidias. 78 A figure of a female " holding keys." The key was one of the attributes of Proserpina, as also of Janus; but the latter was an Italian divinity. 79 " JEdem Fortunae hujusce diei." This reading, about which there has been Bome doubt, is supported by an ancient inscription in Orellius. 80 " Artem toreuticen." See Note at the end ot B. xxxiii. 81 Pliny has here confounded two artists of the same name; the Polycletus who was the successor of Phidias, and was not much inferior to him in merit, and Polycletus of Argos, who lived 160 years later, and who also executed many capital works, some of which are here mentioned. It appears that Cicero, Vitruvius, Strabo, Quintilian, Plutarch, and Lucian have also confounded these two artists ; but Pausanias, who is very correct in the account which he gives us of all subjects connected with works of art, was aware of the distinction ; and it is from his observations that we have been enabled to correct the error into which so many eminent writers had fallen.—R. 83 Derived from the head-dress of the statue, which had the " head orna- mented with a fillet" Lucian mentions it. 83 The " Spear-bearer." "4 " Canon." This no doubt was the same statue as the Doryphoros, See Cicero, Brut. 86, 296. 172 flint's natural history. [Book XXXIV. they study the lineaments: so that he, of all men, is thought in one work of art to have exhausted all the resources of art. He also made statues of a man using the body-scraper,86 and of a naked man challenging to play at dice j86 as also of two naked boys playing at dice, and known as the Astragalizontes ;87 they are now in the atrium of the Emperor Titus, and it is gene- rally considered, that there can be no work more perfect than this. He also executed a Mercury, which was formerly at Lysi- machia; a Hercules Ageter,88 seizing his arms, which is now at Bome; and an Artemon, which has received the name of Periphoretos.89 Polycletus is generally considered as having attained the highest excellence in statuary, and as having per- fected the toreutic90 art, which Phidias invented. A discovery which was entirely his own, was the art of placing statues on one leg. It is remarked, however, by Varro, that his statues are all square-built,91 and made very much after the same model.92 85 Or " strigil." Visconti says that this was a statue of Tydeus puri- fying himself from the murder of his brother. It is represented on gems still in existence. 88 " Talo incessentem." " Gesner (Cbrestom. Plin.) has strangely ex- ?lained these words as intimating a person in the act of kicking another, le seems to confound the words talus and calx."—Sillig, Diet. Ancient Artists. 87 "The players at dice." This is the subject of a painting found at Herculaneum.—B. *8 The " Leader." A name given also to Mercury, in Pausanias, B. viii. c. 31. See Sillig, Diet. Ancient Artists. 89 " Carried about." It has been supposed by some commentators, that Artemon acquired this surname from his being carried about in a litter, in consequence of his lameness; a very different derivation has been assigned by others to the word, on the authority of Anacreon, as quoted by Heraclides Ponticus, that it was applied to Artemon in consequence of his excessively luxurious and effeminate habits of life.—B. It was evi- dently a recumbent figure. Ajasson compares this voluptuous person to " le gentleman Anglais aux Indes"—" The English Gentleman in India'" 90 See Note 80 above. 91 " Quadrata." Brotero quotes a passage from Celsus, B. ii. c. 1, which serves to explain the use of this term as applied to the form of a statue ; " Corpus autem habilissimum quadratum est, neque gracile, neque obesum."—B. "The body best adapted for activity is square-built, and neither slender nor obese." « " Ad ununr exemplum." Having a sort of family likeness, similarly to our pictures by Francia the Goldsmith, and Angelica Kaufmann. Chap. 19.] CELEBRATED WORKS IN BRA8S. 173 Myron of Eleutherse,93 who was also the pupil of Agelades, was rendered more particularly famous by his statue of a heifer,94 celebrated in many well-known lines : so true is it, that most men owe their renown more to the genius of others, than to their own. He also made the figure of a dog,95 a Discobolus,98 a Perseus,97 the Pristae,98 a Satyr99 admiring a flute, and a Minerva, the Delphic Pentathletes,1 the Pancratiastae,2 and a Hercules,3 which is at the Circus Maximus, in the house of Pompeius Magnus. Erinna,4 in her poems,5 makes allusion to a monument which he erected to a cricket and a locust. He also executed the Apollo, which, after being taken from the Ephesians by the Triumvir Antonius, was restored by the Emperor Augustus, he having been admonished to do so in a dream. Myron appears to have been the first to give a varied development to the art,6 having made a greater number of designs than Polycletus, and shewn more attention to sym- metry. And yet, though he was very accurate in the propor- tions of his figures, he has neglected to give expression; besides which, he has not treated the hair and the pubes with 93 Myron was born at Eleutherae, in Bceotia ; but having been presented by the Athenians with the freedom of their city, he afterwards resided there, and was always designated an Athenian.—B. 94 This figure is referred to by Ovid, De Ponto, B. iv. Ep. 1,1. 34, as also by a host of Epigrammatic writers in the Greek Anthology. 95 See the Greek Anthology, B. vi. Ep. 2. 96 •< piayer with the Discus." It is mentioned by Quintilian and Lucian. There is a copy of it in marble in the British Museum, and one in the Palazzo Massimi at Eome. The Heifer of Myron is mentioned by Pro- copius, as being at Rome in the sixth century. No copy of it is known to exist. 97 Seen by Pausanias in the Acropolis at Athens. 98 Or " Sawyers." 99 In reference to the story of the Satyr Marsyas and Minerva; told by Ovid, Fasti, B. vi. 1. 697, et seq. 1 Persons engaged in the five contests of quoiting, running, leaping, wrestling, and hurling the javelin. 2 Competitors in boxing and wrestling. 3 Mentioned by Cicero In Verrem, Or. 4. This Circus was in the Eleventh Region of the city. 4 See the Anthology, B. iii. Ep. 14, where an epigram on this subject is ascribed to Anytes or Leonides ; but the Myro mentioned is a female. See Sillig, Diet. Ancient Artists. 5 She was a poetess of Teios or Lesbos, and a contemporary of Sappho. 0 " Multiplicasse veritatem." Sillig has commented at some length on this passage, Diet. Ancient Artists. 174 pliny's natural history. [Book XXXIV. any greater attention than is observed in the rude figures of more ancient times. ,,-,,. • *i *> Pythagoras of Khegium, in Italy, excelled him in the figure of tne Pancratiast7 which is now at Delphi, and in which he also surpassed Leontiscus.8 Pythagoras also executed the statue of Astylos,9 the runner, which is exhibited at Olympia; that of a Libyan boy holding a tablet, also in the same place; and a nude male figure holding fruit. There is at Syracuse a figure of a lame man by him: persons, when looking at it, seem to feel the very pain of his wound. He also made an Apollo, with the serpent10 pierced by his arrows; and a 1 layer on the Lyre, known as the Dicaeus,11 from the fact that, when Thebes was taken by Alexander the Great, a fugitive successfully concealed in its bosom a sum of gold. He was the first artist who gave expression to the sinews and the veins, and paid more attention to the hair. There was also another Pythagoras, a Samian,12 who was originally a painter, seven of whose nude figures, in the Temple of Fortune of the passing day,13 and one of an aged man, are very much admired. He is said to have resembled the last-mentioned artist so much in his features, that they could not be distinguished. Sostratus, it is said, was the pupil of Pythagoras of Ehegium, and his sister's son. According to Duris,14 Lysippus the Sicyonian was not the pupil16 of any one, but was originally a worker in brass, and was first prompted to venture upon statuary by an answer that was given by Eupompus the painter ; who, upon being asked which of his predecessors he proposed to take for his model, pointed to a crowd of men, and replied that it was Nature herself, 7 See Note 2 above. 9 There is a painter of this name mentioned in B. xxxv. c. 43. The reading is extremely doubtful. 9 Mentioned by Plato, De Legibus, B. viii. and by Pausanias, B. vi. c. 13. He was thrice victorious at the Olympic Games. 10 Python. 11 From the Greek word Auaibg, "just," or "trustworthy."—B. 12 Diogenes Laertius mentions a Pythagoras, a statuary, in his life of his celebrated namesake, the founder of the great school of philosophy.—B. Pausanias, B. ix. c. 35, speaks of a Parian statuary of this name. 13 See Note 79 above. u See end of B. vii. 15 Cicero remarks, Brut. 86, 296, " that Lysippus used to say that the Doryphoros of Polycletus was his master," implying that he considered himself indebted for his skill to having studied the above-mentioned work of Polycletus.—B. Chap. 19.] CELEBRATED WORKS IN BRASS. 175 and no artist, that he proposed to imitate. As already mention- ed,16 Lysippus was most prolific in his works, and made more statues than any other artist. Among these, is the Man using the Body-scraper, which Marcus Agrippa had erected in front of his Warm Baths,18 and which wonderfully pleased the Emperor Tiberius. This prince, although in the beginning of his reign he imposed some restraint upon himself, could not resist the temptation, and had this statue removed to his bed-chamber, having substituted another for it at the baths: the people, however, were so resolutely opposed to this, that at the theatre they clamourously demanded the Apoxyomenos19 to be replaced; and the prince, notwithstanding his attachment to it, was obliged to restore it. Lysippus is also celebrated for his statue of the intoxicated Female Flute-player, his dogs and huntsmen, and, more parti- cularly, for his Chariot with the Sun, as represented by the Rhodians.20 He also executed a numerous series of statues of Alexander the Great, commencing from his childhood.21 The Emperor Nero was so delighted with his statue of the infant Alexander, that he had it gilt: this addition, however, to its value, so detracted from its artistic beauty that the gold was removed, and in this state it was looked upon as still more precious, though disfigured by the scratches and seams which remained upon it, and in which the gold was still to be seen." He also made the statue of Hephaestion, the friend of Alex ander the Great, which some persons attribute to Polycletus, whereas that artist lived nearly a century before his time.23 Also, the statue of Alexander at the chase, now consecrated at Delphi, the figure of a Satyr, now at Athens, and the Squadron 16 In Chapter 17 of this Book.—B. 17 The same subject, which, as mentioned, above, had been treated by Polycletus.—B. 18 In the Eighth Region of the City. 19 'k.irolv6fiivog, the Greek name of the statue, signifying one "scraping himself." 20 The head encircled with rays. -1 The lines of Horace are well known, in which he says, that Alex- ander would allow his portrait to be painted by no one except Apelles, nor his statue to be made by any one except Lysippus, Epist. B. ii. Ep. 1, 1. 237.—B. 2t This expression would seem to indicate that the gold was attached to the bronze by some mechanical process, and not that the statue was covered with thin leaves of the metal.—B. =3 This story is adopted by Apuleius, in the "Florida," B. i., who says that Polycletus was the only artist who made a statue of Alexander. 176 pliny's NATURAL HISTORY. [Book XXXIV. of Alexander,24 all of whom he represented with the greatest accuracy. This last work of art, after his conquest of Mace- donia,25 Metellus conveyed to Rome. Lysippus also executed chariots of various kinds. He is considered to have contri- buted very greatly to the art of statuary by expressing the details of the hair,26 and by making the head smaller than had been done by the ancients, and the body more graceful and less bulky, a method by which his statues were made to appear taller. The Latin language has no appropriate name for that " symmetry,"27 which he so attentively observed in his new and hitherto untried method of modifying the squareness obser- vable in the ancient statues. Indeed, it was a common saying of his, that other artists made men as they actually were, while he made them as they appeared to be. One peculiar character- istic of his work, is the finish and minuteness which are ob- served in even the smallest details. Lysippus left three sons, who were also his pupils, and became celebrated as artists, Laippus, Boedas, and, more particularly, Euthycrates; though this last-named artist rivalled his father in precision rather than in elegance, and preferred scrupulous correctness to grace- fulness. Nothing can be more expressive than his Hercules at Delphi, his Alexander, his Hunter at Thespiae, and his Equestrian Combat. Equally good, too, are his statue of Tro- phonius, erected in the oracular cave28 of that divinity, his numerous chariots, his Horse with the Panniers,29 and his hounds. Tisicrates, also a native of Sicyon, was a pupil of Euthy- crates, but more nearly approaching the style of Lysippus ; so much 60, that several of his statues can scarcely be distinguished from those of Lysippus ; his aged Theban, for example, his King Demetrius, and his Peucestes, who saved the life of Alexander the Great, and so rendered himself deserving of this honour.30 24 A large group of equestrian statues, representing those of Alexan- der's body-guard, who had fallen at the battle of the Granicus. 25 A.u.c. 606. 26 See the Greek Anthology, B. iv. Ep. 14, where this subject is treated of in the epigram upon his statue of Opportunity, represented with the forelock. 27 Which is a word of Greek origin, somewhat similar to our word " proportion." 28 At Lebadaea in Bceotia. 29 Hardouin seems to think that " fiscina" here means a " muzzle." The Epigram in the Greek Anthology, B. iv. c. 7, attributed to King Philip, is supposed by Hardouin to bear reference to this fio-ure. 30 The circumstance here referred to is related°by Q. Curtius, B. ix. c. 5, Chap. 19.] CELEBRATED WORKS IN BRASS. 177 Artists, who have transmitted these details in their works, bestow wonderful encomiums upon Telephanes, the Phocaean, a 6tatuary but little known, they say, because he lived in Thes- ealy, where his works remained concealed ; according to their account, however, he i3 quite equal to Polycletus, Myron, and Pythagoras. They more particularly commend his Larissa, his Spintharus, the pentathlete,31 and his Apollo. Others, however, assign another reason for his being so little known ; it being owing, they think, to his having devoted himself to the studios established by Kings Xerxes and Darius. Praxiteles, who excelled more particularly in marble, and thence acquired his chief celebrity, also executed some very beautiful works in brass, the Rape of Proserpine, the Catagusa,32 a Father Liber,33 a figure of Drunkenness, and the celebrated Satyr,34 to the Greeks known as"Periboetos."36 He also executed the statues, which were formerly before the Temple36 of Good Fortune, and the Venus, which was destroyed by fire, with the Temple of that goddess, in the reign of Claudius, and was considered equal to his marble statue of Venus,37 so celebrated throughout the world. He also executed a Stephanusa,38 a Spi- lumene,39 an ffinophorus,40 and two figures of Harmodius and Aristogiton, who slew the tyrants; which last, having been taken away from Greece by Xerxes, were restored to the Athenians on as having occurred at the siege of the city of the Oxydracae; according to other historians, however, it is 6aid to have taken place at a city of the Malli.—B. 31 See Note 1, above. '-'•'• Karuyovca; a figure of Ceres, probably, " leading back " Proserpine from the domains of Pluto. Sillig, however, dissents from this interpre- tation ; Diet. Ancient Artists. 33 Or Bacchus. 34 See Pausanias, B. i. c. 20. Sillig says, " Pliny seems to have con- founded two Satyrs made by Praxiteles, for that here named stood alone in the 'Via Tripodum' at Athens, and was quite different from the one which was associated with the figure of Intoxication, and that of Bacchus." —Diet. Ancient Artists. 35 " Much-famed." Visconti is of opinion that the Reposing Satyr, for- merly in the Napoleon Museum at Paris, was a copy of this statue. Winck- elmann is also of the same opinion. 36 In the Second Region of the city. According to Cicero, in Verrem. vi., they were brought from Achaia by L. Mummius, who took them from Thespite, A.u.c. 608. 37 See B. xxxvi. c. 4. 38 A woman plaiting garlands. 39 A soubriquet for an old hag, it is thought. 40 A female carrying wine. VOL. VI. N 173 PLINY'S NATURAL HISTORY. [Book XXXIV. the conquest of Persia by Alexander the Great.41 He also made the youthful Apollo, known as the "Sauroctonos,"42 because he is aiming an arrow at a lizard which is stealing towards him. There are greatly admired, also, two statues of his, expressive of contrary emotions—a Matron in tears, and a Courtesan full of gaiety : this last is supposed to be a likeness of Phryne, and it is said that we can detect in her figure the love of the artist, and in the countenance of the courtesan the promised reward.4' His kindness of heart, too, is witnessed by another figure ; for in a chariot and horses which had been executed by Cala- mis,44 he himself made the charioteer, in order that the artist, who excelled in the representation of horses, might not be considered deficient in the human figure. This last-men- tioned artist has executed other chariots also, some with four horses, and some with two ; and in his horses he is always unrivalled. But that it may not be supposed that he was so greatly inferior in his human figures, it is as well to remark that his Alcmena4* is equal to any that was ever produced. Alcameues,46 who was a pupil of Phidias, worked in marble and executed a Pentathlete in brass, known as the " Encrino- menos."47 Aristides, too, who was the scholar of Polycletus, executed chariots in metal with four and two horses. The 41 According to Valerius Maximus, B. ii. s. 10, these statues were re- stored, not by Alexander, but by his successor Seleucus.—B. Sillig mak«a the following remark upon this passage—" Pliny here strangely confounds the statues of Harmodius and Aristogiton, made by Praxiteles," with other figures of those heroes of a much more ancient date, made by Antenor." 42 From aavpbg, a " lizard," and Krkivw, " to kill." This statue is de- scribed by Martial, B. xiv. Ep. 172,entitled " Sauroctonos Corinthius."—B. Many fine copies of it are still in existence, and Winckelmann is of opinion that the bronze at the Villa Albani is the original. There are others at the Villa Borghese and in the Vatican. 43 In her worthless favours, probably. Praxiteles was a great admirer of Phryne, and inscribed on the base of this statue an Epigram of Simon- ides, preserved in the Greek Anthology, li. iv. Ep. 12. 'She was also said to have been the model of his Cnidian Venus. 44 This artist is mentioned also by Cicero, Pausanias, Propertius, and Ovid, the two latter especially remarking the excellence of his horses.—B. See B. xxxiii. c. 55. 45 The mother of Hercules.—B. 46 See B. xxxvi. c. 4. Having now given an account of the artists most distinguished for their genius, Pliny proceeds to make some remarks upon thos? who were less famous, in alphabetical order.—B. 47 The "highly approved." Chap. 19.] CELEBRATED WORKS IN BRASS. 179 Leaena48 of Amphicrates49 is highly commended. The cour- tesan50 Leaena, who was a skilful performer on the lyre, and had so become acquainted with Harmodius and Aristogiton, submitted to be tortured till she expired, rather than betray their plot for the extermination of the tyrants.61 The Athe- nians, being desirous of honouring her memory, without at the same time rendering homage to a courtesan, had her re- presented under the figure of the animal whose name she bore ;52 and, in order to indicate the cause of the honour thus paid her, ordered the artist to represent the animal without a tongue.53 Bryaxis executed in brass statues of iEsculapius and Seleu- cus;54 Bcedas65 a figure in adoration; Baton, an Apollo and a Juno, which are in the Temple of Concord57 at Rome. Ctesilaus68 executed a statue of a man fainting from his wounds, in the expression of which may be seen how little life remains ;59 as also the Olympian Pericles,60 well worthy of its title : indeed, it is one of the marvellous adjuncts of this art, that it renders men who are already celebrated even more so. Cephisodotus61 is the artist of an admirable Minerva, now erected in the port of Athens ; as also of the altar before the 48 Or " Lioness." See B. vii. c. 23. 49 The reading is doubtful here. " Iphicrates " and " Tisicrates " are other readings. 50 The same story is related by Athenaeus, B. xiii., and by Pausanias.—B. 61 Pisistratus and his sons, Hippias and Hipparchus. 11 A lioness. 63 She having bitten off her tongue, that she might j,ot confess. 64 Hardouin has offered a plausible conjecture, that for the word " Seleu- eum," we should read " Salutem," as implying that the two statues exe- cuted by Bryaxis were those of JEsculapius and the Goddess of Health.—B. M Already mentioned as a son of Lysippus. 67 In the Eighth Region of the City. 68 This reading appears preferable to " Cresilas," though the latter is supported by the Bamberg MS. 59 Ajasson quotes here the beautiful words of Virgil—" Et dulces mo- rions reminiscitur Argos "—" Remembers his lov'd Argos, as he dies." 60 Dalechamps supposes that Pericles was here represented in the act of addressing the people; Hardouin conceives that this statue received its title from the thunder of his eloquence in debate, or else from the mighty power which he wielded both in peace and war, or some of the other reasons which Plutarch mentions in the Life of Pericles.—B. 61 It is doubtful to which of the artists of this name he alludes, the elder or the younger Cephisodotus, the son of Praxiteles. Sillig inclines to think the former—Diet. Ancient Artists. N 2 180 PLINt's NATURAL HISTORY. [Book XXXIV. Temple of Jupiter Servator,62 at the same place, to which, indeed, few works are comparable. Canachus63 executed a nude Apollo, which is known as the " Philesian :"64 it is at Didymi,65 and is composed of bronze that was fused at iEgina. He also made a stag with it, so nicely poised on its hoofs, as to admit of a thread being passed beneath. One66 fore-foot, too, and the alternate hind-foot are bo made as firmly to grip the base, the socket being67 so in- dented on either side, as to admit of the figure being thrown at pleasure upon alternate feet. Another work of his was the boys known as the " Celetizontes."68 Chacreas made statues of Alexander the Great and of his father Philip. Dcsilaus69 made a Doryphoros70 and a wounded Amazon; and Demetrius71 a statue of Lysimache, who was priestess of Minerva sixty-four years. This statuary also made the Minerva, which has the name of Musica,72 and so called be- cause the dragons on its Gorgon's head vibrate at the sound of the lyre ; also an equestrian statue of Simon, the first writer 62 The " Deliverer." 83 The elder Canachus, probably. 64 The " Lovely." Brotero says that this is believed to be the Flo- rentine Apollo of the present day. It stood in the Temple at Didymi, near Miletus, until the return of Xerxes from his expedition against Greece, when it was removed to Ecbatana, but was afterwards restored by Seleucua Nicator. 65 See B. v. c. 31. 66 "Alterno morsu calce digitisque retinentibus solum, ita vertebrato dente utrisque in partibus ut a repulsu per vices resiliat." He seems to mean that the statue is so made as to be capable of standing either on the right fore foot and the left hind foot, or on the left fore foot and the right hind foot, the conformation of the under part of the foot being such as to fit into the base. 87 The following are the words of the original: " Ita vertebrato dente utrisque in partibus." I confess myself unable to comprehend them, nor do I think that they are satisfactorily explained by Hardouin's comment.—B. 68 The "Riders on horseback." 69 It is supposed by Sillig, Diet. Ancient Artists, that this is the same person as the Cresilas, Ctesilas, or Ctesilaiis, before mentioned in this Chap- ter, and that Pliny himself has committed a mistake in the name. 70 A figure of a man "brandishing a spear." See Note 83 above. 71 He is mentioned by Quintilian as being more attentive to exactness than to beauty; also by Diogenes Laertius, B. v. c. 85. Sillig supposes that he flourished in the time of Pericles. Pausanias, B. i., speaks of his Lysimache. 72 The Athenians in their flattery, as we learn from Seneca, expressed a wish to affiance their Minerva Musica to Marc Antony. His reply was, that he would be happy to take her, but with one thousand talents by way of portion. Chap. 19.] CELEBRATED WORES IN BRASS. 181 on the art of equitation.73 Daedalus,74 who is highly esteemed as a modeller in clay, made two brazen figures of youths using the body-scraper ;75 and Dinomenes executed figures of Pro- tesilaiis76 and Pythodemus the wrestler. The statue of Alexander Paris is the work of Euphranor :77 it is much admired, because we recognize in it, at the same mo- ment, all these characteristics; we see him as the umpire be- tween the goddesses, the paramour of Helen, and yet the slayer of Achilles. We have a Minerva, too, by Euphranor, at Rome, known as the "Catulina," and dedicated below the Capitol, byQ. Lutatius ;78 also a figure of Good Success,79 holding in the right hand a patera, and in the left an ear of corn and a poppy. There is also a Latona by him, in the Temple of Concord,80 with the new-born infants Apollo and Diana in her arms. He also executed some brazen chariots with four and two horses, and a Cliduchus81 of beautiful proportions; as also two colossal statues, one representing Virtue, the other Greece ;82 and a figure of a female lost in wonder and adoration: with statues of Alexander and Philip in chariots with four horses. Eutychides executed an emblematic figure of the Eurotas,83 of which ii has been frequently remarked, that the work of the artist appears more flowing than the waters even of the river.84 Hegias85 is celebrated for his Minerva and his King Pyrrhus, his youthful Celetizontes,86 and his statues of Castor and Pollux, 73 He is mentioned by Xenophon, according to whom, he dedicated the brazen statue of a horse in the Eleusinium at Athens. He was probably an Athenian by birth. 74 Son of Patroclus, who is previously mentioned as having lived in the 95th Olympiad. He was a native of Sicyon, and flourished about b.c 400. Several works of his are also mentioned by Pausanias. 75 Or " strigil.'' See Note 19 above. 76 The first Grecian slain at Troy. 77 Famous also as a painter. See B. xxxv. c. 40.—B. Paris, the son of Priam, was known by both of these names. 78 Q. Lutatius Catulus. 79 " Bonus Eventus;" Varro, de Re Rustica, B. i. c. 1, applies this term to one of the deities that preside over the labours of the agriculturist. His temple was situate near the Baths of Agrippa.—B. 80 In the Eighth Region of the City. 81 See Note 78, page 171. 82 Pausanias, B. vi., 6peaks of a statue of Ancient Greece, but the name of the artist is not mentioned.—B. 83 See B. iv. c, 8. 84 Brotero informs us, from Ficoroni, that there is a gem still in exist- ence on which this design of Eutychides is engraved.—B. 85 Thiersch considers him to be identical with the elder Hegesias. He is mentioned also by Pausanias, B. viii. c. 42. M See Note 68, above. 132 plisy's natural history. [Book XXXIV. before the Temple of Jupiter Tonans :87 Hegesias,88 for his Hercules, which is at our colony of Parium.89 Of Isidotus we have the Buthytes.90 Lycius was the pupil91 of Myron : he made a figure repre- senting a boy blowing a nearly extinguished fire, well worthy of his master, as also figures of the Argonauts. Leochares made a bronze representing the eagle carrying off Ganymede: the eagle has all the appearance of being sensible of the impor- tance of his burden, and for whom he is carrying it, being careful not to injure the youth with his talons, even through the garments.92 He executed a figure, also, of Autolycus,93 who had been victorious in the contests of the Pancratium, and for whom Xenophon wrote his Symposium ;94 the figure, also, of Jupiter Tonans in the Capitol, the most admired of all his works; and a statue of Apollo crowned with a diadem. He executed, also, a figure of Lyciscus, and one of the boy Lagon,85 full of the archness and low-bred cunning of the slave. Lycius also made a figure of a boy burning perfumes. We have a young bull by Menaechmus,96 pressed down be- neath a man's knee, with its neck bent back :97 this Mensech- 67 Dedicated by Augustus onthe Capitoline Hill, in the Eighth Region of the City. 88 Sillig distinguishes three artists of this name. 83 See B. v. c. 40, and B. vii. c. 2. 80 The " Sacrifices of the ox." 91 The son also. 92 Martial expresses the same idea in his Epigram, B. i. Ep. 7; but he does not refer to this statue.—B. Two copies of this Ganymede are still in existence at Rome. 93 Pausanias informs us, B. i. and B. ix., that he saw this statue in the Prytanaeum of Athens.—B. Autolycus obtained this victory about the 89th or 90th Olympiad. 94 It was in honour of a victory gained by him in the pentathlon at the Great Panathenaea, that Callias gave the Symposium described by Xenophon. 95 Martial, B. ix. Ep. 51, where he is pointing at the analogy between his poems and the works of the most eminent sculptors, probably refers to this statue :— "Nos facimus Bruti puerum, nos Lagona vivum."—B. The reading "Lagonem," or "Langonem," certainly seems superior to that of the Bamberg MS.—"Mangonem," a "huckster." 96 For some further mention of him, see end of B. iv. 87 Delafosse has pointed out the resemblance between this statue and one of the works of Michael Angelo, representing David kneeling on Goliath, and pressing back the giant's neck.—B. Chap. 19.] CELEBRATED WORKS IN BRASS. 183 inus has also written a treatise on his art. Naucydes98 is admired for a Mercury, a Discobolus,*9 and a Man sacrificing a Ram. Naucerus made a figure of a wrestler panting for breath; Niceratus, an ^sculapius and Hygeia,1 which are in the Temple of Concord at Rome. Pyromachus represented Alcibiades, managing a chariot with four horses : Polycles made a splendid statue of Hermaphroditus; Pyrrhus, statues of Hygeia and Minerva; and Phanis, who was a pupil of Ly- sippus, an Epithyusa.2 Stypax of Cyprus acquired his celebrity by a single work, the statue of the Splanchnoptes ;3 which represents a slave of the Olympian Pericles, roasting entrails and kindling the fire with his breath. Silanion made a statue in metal of Apollo- dorus, who was himself a modeller, and not only the most diligent of all in the study of this art, but a most severe criticizer of his own works, frequently breaking his statues to pieces when he had finished them, and never able to satisfy his intense passion for the art—a circumstance which procured him the surname of " the Madman." Indeed, it is this ex- pression which he has given to his works, which represent in metal embodied anger rather than the lineaments of a human being. The Achilles, also, of Silanion is very excellent, and his Epistates4 exercising the Athletes. Strongylion5 made a figure of an Amazon, which, from the beauty of the legs, was known as the "Eucnemos,"6 and which Nero used to have carried about with him in his travels. Strongylion was the artist, 98 A native of Argos, who flourished in the 95th Olympiad. He was the son of Motho, and brother and instructor of the younger Polycletus of Argos. Several of his statues are mentioned by Pausanias and Tatian. 99 Ajasson thinks that three statues in the Royal Museum at Paris may possibly be copies of this Discobolus of Naucydes. 1 The Goddess of Health, and daughter of ^Jsculapius. Niceratus was a native of Athens, and is also mentioned by Tatian. 2 A " Female sacrificing." The reading is very doubtful. 3 The "Man cooking entrails." For some further account of this statue, see B. xxii. c. 20. This artist is unknown, but Thiersch suggests that he may have been the father of Cleomenes, whose name appears on the base of the Venus de Medicis. 4 The master of the Gymnasium. 5 He is twice mentioned by Pausanias: more particularly for the excel- lence of his horses and oxen. His country is unknown. ... , 8 " The beautiful-legged." This statue has been mentioned at the end of Chapter 18, as having been greatly admired by Nero. 184 PLINY'S NATURAL HISTORY. [Book XXXIV also, of a youthful figure, which was so much admired by Brutus of Philippi, that it received from him its surname.7 Theodoras of Samos,8 who constructed the Labyrinth,9 cast his own statue in brass; which was greatly admired, not only for its resemblance, but for the extreme delicacy of the work. In the right hand he holds a file, and with three fingers of the left, a little model of a four-horse chariot, which has since been transferred to Praeneste :10 it is so extremely minute, that the whole piece, both chariot and charioteer, may be covered by the wings of a fly, which he also made with it. Xenocrates11 was the pupil of Ticrates, or, as some say, of Euthycrates : he surpassed them both, however, in the number of his statues, and was the author of some treatises on his art. Several artists have represented the battles fought by Attalus and Eunienes with the Galli ;12 Isigonus, for instance, Pyro- machus, Stratonicus, and Antigonus,13 who also wrote some works in reference to his art. Boethus,14 although more cele- brated for his works in silver, has executed a beautiful figure of a child strangling a goose. The most celebrated of all the works, of which I have here spoken, have been dedicated, for some time past, by the Emperor Vespasianus in the Temple of Peace,15 and other public buildings of his. They had before 7 This, it is supposed, is the statue to which Martial alludes in his Epigram, mentioned in Note 95 above.—B. 8 There were two artists of this name, both natives of Samos. The present is the elder Theodorus, and is mentioned by Pausanias as having been the first to fuse iron for statues. He is spoken of by numerous an- cient authors, and by Pliny in B. vii. c. 57, B. xxxv. c. 45, and B. xxxvi." c. 19, where he is erroneously mentioned as a Lemnian. 9 At Crete : Athenagoras mentions him in conjunction with Daedalus. 10 See B. vii. c. 21. Hardouin thinks that this bears reference to the conquest of the younger Marius by Sylla, mentioned in B. xxxiii. c. 5. Muller and Meyer treat this story of the brazen statue as a fiction. 11 Probably the same author that is mentioned at the end of B. xxxiii. See also B. xxxv. c. 36. » The Galli here spoken of were a tribe of the Celts, who invaded Asia Minor, and afterwards uniting with the Greeks, settled in a portion of Bithynia, which hence acquired the name of Gallo-Grscia or Galatia.—B. r i • eo,o^ XXXi"v Autelu.8 L' kinS of P«gamus, conquered the Gain, b.c. 239 Pyrotnachus has been mentioned a few lines before, and btratonicus, in B. xxxm. c. 55, also by Athenaus v" AD,atiiV!°f P-rt^gn ,Aw,ork of his i9 mentioned by Cicero, In ^ errem 4, 14, and in the Culex, 1. 66, attributed to Virgil See also B xxxm. c. fia. « In the Eighth Region of the City Chap. 19.] CELEBRATED WORKS IN BRASS. 185 been forcibly carried off by Xero,16 and brought to Rome, and arranged by him in the reception-rooms of his Golden Palace.17 In addition to these, there are several other artists, of about equal celebrity, but none of whom have produced any first-rate works; Ariston,18 who was principally employed in chasing Bilver, Callides, Ctesias, Cantharus of Sicyon,19 Diodorus, a pupil of Critias, Deliades, Euphorion, Eunicus,20 and Hecataeus,21 all of them chasers in silver; Lesbocles, also, Prodorus, Py- thodicus, and Polygnotus,12 one of the most celebrated painters; also two other chasers in silver, Stratonicus,23 and Scymnus, a pupil of Critias. I shall now enumerate those artists who have executed works of the same class :—Apollodorus,24 for example, Antro- bulus, Asclepiodorus, and Aleuas, who have executed statues of philosophers. Apellas25 has left us some figures of females in the act of adoration; Antignotus, a Perixyomenos,26 and figures of the Tyrannicides, already mentioned. Antimachus and Athenodorus made some statues of females of noble birth ; Aristodemus27 executed figures of wrestlers, two-horse chariots with the charioteers, philosophers, aged women, and a statue of King Seleucus :28 his Doryphoros,29 too, possesses his cha- racteristic gracefulness. There were two artists of the name of Cephisodotus :30 the 16 We are informed by Pausanias, B. x., that Nero carried off from Greece 500 bronze statues of gods and men.—B. 17 See B. xxxvi. c. 24. 18 See B. xxxv. c. 55. 19 Mentioned by Pausanias, B. vi. Many of these artists are altoge- ther unknown. 20 See B. xxxiii. c. 55. 2l See B. xxxiii. c. 55. 22 See B. xxxiii. c. 56, and B. xxxv. c. 35. » 23 Probably the same artist that has been mentioned in the preceding page. 24 The artist already mentioned as having been represented by Silanion. 25 Pausanias, B. iii., speaks of his statue of Cynisca, a female who was victor at the Olympic games. Indeed, the victors at these games were fre- quently represented in a posture resembling that of adoration. 26 A man "scraping himself," probably. See Note 19, page 175. The " Tyrannicides" were Harmodius and Aristogiton. 27 Tatian mentions an artist of this name. 28 Sillig thinks that this was Seleucus, king of Babylon, B.C. 312. 89 See Note 70 above 30 Pausanias, B. viii., gives an account of a statue of Diana, made of Pentelican marble, by this Cephisodotus, a native of Athens; he is sup- posed to have nourished in the l(J2nd Olympiad. In the commencement 186 pliny's natural history. [Book XXXIV. earlier of them made a figure of Mercury nursing Father Liber31 when an infant; also of a man haranguing, with the hand elevated, the original of which is now unknown. The younger Cephisodotus executed statues of philosophers. Colotes,32 who assisted Phidias in the Olympian Jupiter, also executed statues of philosophers; the same, too, with Cleon,33. Cenchramis, Callicles,34 and Cepis. Chalcosthenes made statues of come- dians and athletes. Daippus35 executed a Perixyomenos.36 Daiphron, Democritus,37 and Daemon made statues of philo- sophers. Epigonus, who has attempted nearly all the above-named classes of works, has distinguished himself more particularly by his Trumpeter, and his Child in Tears, caressing its mur- dered mother. The Woman in Admiration, of Eubulus, is highly praised; and so is the Man, by Eubulides/8 reckoning on his Fingers. Micon39 is admired for his athletes; Mono- genes, for his four-horse chariots. Niceratus,40 too, who attempted every kind of work that had been executed by any other artist, made statues of Alcibiades and of his mother Demarate,41 who is represented sacrificing by the light of torches. of this Chapter, Pliny has enumerated a Cephisodotus among the artists of the 120th Olympiad.—B. »' Bacchus. 32 The elder artist of this name. See B. xxxv. c. 34. 33 A native of Sicyon; Pausanias, B. v. cc. 17, 21, informs us that Cleon made a statue of Venus and two statues of Jupiter; he also mentions others of his works in B. vi.—B. 34 A native of Megara. He made a 'statue of Diagoras the pugilist, who was victor at the Olympic games, b.c. 464. He is mentioned also by Pausanias. 35 Probably the same with the " Laippus" mentioned in the early part oi this Chapter. Sillig, Diet. Ancient Artists, considers " Daippus " to be the right name. 36 See Note 26 above. 37 A native of Sicyon, and pupil of Pison, according to Pausanias B vi e. 3. He flourished about the 100th Olympiad. 38 Works of his at Athens are mentioned by Pausanias B. i. c. 2 who also states that he was father of Euohir, the Athenian. 39 A statuary of Syracuse, son of Niceratus. He made two statues of Hiero II, king of Syracuse who died b.c. 215. He must not be con- founded with the painter and statuary of the same name, mentioned in ^f^Afl •' X/?T# ?' 35' fe is menti0Iied also by Pausanias. « An Athenian son of Luctenion. He is mentioned also by Tatian, and is supposed by Sillig to have flourished about b.c. 420. 41 Called Dinomache by Plutarch. Chap. 19.] CELEBRATED WORKS IN BRASS. 187 Tisicrates42 executed a two-horse chariot in brass, in which Piston afterwards placed the figure of a female. Piston also made the statues of Mars and Mercury, which are in the Temple of Concord at Rome. No one can commend Perillus ;43 more cruel even than the tyrant Phalaris44 himself, he made for him a brazen bull, asserting that when a man was enclosed in it, and fire applied beneath, the cries of the man would resemble the roaring of a bull: however, with a cruelty in this instance marked by justice, the experiment of this torture was first tried upon himself. To such a degree did this man degrade the art of representing gods and men, an art more adapted than any other to refine the feelings! Surely so many persons had not toiled to perfect it in order to make it an instru- ment of torture ! Hence it is that the works of Perillus are only preserved, in order that whoever sees them, may detest the hands that made them. Sthennis45 made the statues of Ceres, Jupiter, and Minerva, which are now in the Temple of Concord ; also figures of ma- trons weeping, adoring, and offering sacrifice; Simon46 exe- cuted figures of a dog and an archer. Stratonicus,47 the chaser in silver, made some figures of philosophers; and bo did both of the artists named Scopas.48 The following artists have made statues of athletes, armed men, hunters, and sacrificers—Baton,49 Euchir,60 Glaucides,61 Heliodorus,52 Hicanus, Leophon, Lyson,53 Leon, Menodorus,51 42 Already mentioned as a successful pupil of Lysippus. 43 He was probably a native of Agrigentum, and flourished about b.c 560. The brazen bull of Perillus, and his unhappy fate, are recorded by many of the classical writers, among others by Valerius Maximus, B. ix. cc 2, 9, and by Ovid, Art. Am. B. i. 11. 653-4.—B. 44 See B. vii. c. 57. 45 Mentioned at the commencement of this Chapter. 46 A statuary of jEgina, mentioned also by Pausanias, B. v. c. 27, in connexion with Dionysius of Argos. He flourished about Olymp. 76. 47 Already mentioned in B. xxxiii. c. 55, and previously in this Chapter. 48 " Scopas uterque." Sillig, Diet. Ancient Artists, expresses an opi- nion that these words are an interpolation; but in his last edition of Pliny, he thinks with M. Ian, that some words are wanting, expressive of the branch in which these artists exceUed. See also B. xxxvi. cc. 5, 14. 49 He is previously mentioned in this Chapter. See p. 179. 50 An Athenian artist, son of Eubulides. He is also mentioned by Pausanias. 51 A Lacedasmonian artist, also mentioned by Pausanias. a See B. xxxvi. c. 4. s3 Mentioned also by Pausanias, B, i. c. 3. 54 Probably not the Athenian statuary mentioned by Pausanias, B. ix, c. 7. See Sillig, Diet. Ancient Artists. 183 FLINT'S NATURAL history. [Book XXXIV. Myagrus,65 Polycrates, Polyidus,56 Pythocritus, Protogenes, a famous painter, whom we shall have occasion to mention here- after ;67 Patrocles, Pollis, Posidonius69 the Ephesian, who was also a celebrated chaser in silver; l'ericlymenus,60 Philon,61 Symenus, Timotheus,6- Theomnestus,63 Timarchides,64 Timon, Tisias, and Thrason.65 But of all these, Callimachus is the most remarkable, on account of his surname. Being always dissatisfied with him- self, and continually correcting his works, he obtained the name of " Catatexitechnos ;"68 thus affording a memorable example of the necessity of observing moderation even in carefulness. His Laconian Female Dancers, for instance, is a most correct performance, but one in which, by extreme correctness, he has effaced all gracefulness. It has been said, too, that Calli- machus was a painter also. Cato, in his expedition against C3rprus,67 sold all the statues that he found there, with the ex- ception of one of Zeno; in which case he was influenced, neither by the value of the metal nor by its excellence as a work of art, but by the fact that it was the statue of a philosopher. I only mention this circumstance casually, that an example68 bo little followed, may be known. While speaking of statues, there is one other that should not be omitted, although its author is unknown, that of Her- 15 A native of Phocis, mentioned also by Vitruvius. 56 Also a Dithyrambic poet; mentioned by Diodorus Siculus. 57 In B. xxxv. c. 36. 59 See B. xxxiii. c. 55. 60 Mentioned by Tatian as having made the statue of Eutychis. See Pliny, B. vii. c. 3. 1,1 He executed a statue of Hephaestion ; and an inscription relative to him is preserved by Wheler, Spon, and Chishull. 63 See B. xxxvi. c. 4. 63 A native of Sardis; mentioned by Pausanias. 54 An Athenian, mentioned also by Pausanias. 65 Strabo mentions some of his productions in the Temple at Ephesus. «6 « Fritterer away of his works." He was also an engraver on gold, and a painter. He is spoken of in high terms by Vitruvius, Pausanias, and Dionysius of Halicarnassus. «7 We have an account of Cato's honourable conduct on this occasion in Plutarch.—B. See also B. xxix. c. 30. 6» " Inane exemplum.1' Hardouin thinks that this is said in reference to his neglect of the example set by his grandfather, Cato the Censor, who hated the Greeks. See B. vii. c. 31. Chap. 20.] DIFFERENT KINDS OF COPPER. 189 cules clothed in a tunic,69 the only one represented in that costume in Rome : it stands near the Rostra, and the counte- nance is stern and expressive of his last agonies, caused by that dress. There are three inscriptions on it; the first of which states that it had formed part of the spoil obtained by L. Lucullus70 the general; the second, that his son, while still a minor, dedicated in accordance with a decree of the Senate ; the third, that T. Septimius Sabinus, the curule aedile, had it restored to the public from the hands of a private individual. So vast has been the rivalry caused by this statue, and so high the value set upon it. CHAP. 20.—TnE DIFFERENT RTNDS OF COPPER AND ITS COM- BINATIONS. PYROPTJS. CAMPANIAN COPPER. We will now return to the different kinds of copper, and its several combinations. In Cyprian copper we have the kind known as " coronarium,"71 and that called "regulare,"71* both of them ductile. The former is made into thin leaves, and, after being coloured with ox-gall,72 is used for what has all the appearance of gilding on the coronets worn upon the stage. The same substance, if mixed with gold, in the proportion of six scruples of gold to the ounce, and reduced into thin plates, acquires a fiery red colour, and is termed " pyropus."73 In other mines again, they prepare the kind known as "regulare," as also that which is called " caldarium."74 These differ from each other in this respect, that, in the latter, the metal is only fused, and breaks when struck with the hammer, whereas the "regulare" is malleable, or ductile,73 as some call it, a property which belongs naturally to all the copper of Cyprus. In the case, however, of all the other mines, this difference between bar copper and cast brass is produced by artificial means. All 69 In the poisoned garment, which was the eventual cause of his death.—B. 70 The general who conducted the war against Mithridates.—B. 71 See B. xxxiii. c. 46. " Chaplet" copper. 71* " Bar" copper, or "malleable." 72 It is very improbable that this effect could be produced by the cause liere assigned; but without a more detailed account of the process em- ployed, we cannot explain the change of colour.—B. 73 Tlvpunbg, " sparkling like fire." Similar to, if not identical with, our tinsel. 71 " Cast brass." 75 See Beckmann, Hist. Inv. Vol. I. p. 415. Bohn's Edition. 190 pliny's natural history. [Book XXXIV. the ores, in fact, will produce bar or malleable copper when sufficiently melted and purified by heat. Among the other kinds of copper, the palm of excellence is awarded to that^ of Campania,76 which is the most esteemed for vessels and utensils. This last is prepared several ways. At Capua it is melted upon fires made with wood, and not coals, after which it is sprinkled with cold water and cleansed through a sieve made of oak. After being thus smelted a number of times, Spanish silver-lead is added to it, in the proportion of ten pounds of lead to one hundred pounds of copper; a method by which it is rendered pliable, and made to assume that agree- able colour which is imparted to other kinds of copper by the application of oil and the action of the sun. Many parts, however, of Italy, and the provinces, produce a similar kind of metal; but there they add only eight pounds of lead, and, in consequence of the scarcity of wood, melt it several times over upon coals. It is in Gaul more particularly, where the ore is melted between red-hot stones, that the difference is to be seen that is produced by these variations in the method of smelting. Indeed, this last method scorches the metal, and renders it black and friable. Besides, they only melt it twice; whereas, the oftener this operation is repeated, the better in quality it becomes. (9.) It is also as well to remark that all copper fuses best when the weather is intensely cold. The proper combination for making statues and tablets is as follows: the ore is first melted; after which there is added to the molten metal one third part of second-hand77 copper, or in other words, copper that has been in use and bought up for the purpose. For it is a peculiarity of this metal that when it has been some time in use, and has been subject to long-continued friction, it be- comes seasoned, and subdued, as it were, to a high polish. Twelve pounds and a half of silver-lead are then added to every hundred pounds of the fused metal. There is also a combination of copper, of a most delicate nature, " mould- copper,"77* as it is called; there being added to the metal one 76 In the former Editions the whole of the next ten lines, from this word down to " sun ' is omitted. It is evident that it has been left out by ac- cident, m consequence of the recurrence of the word " Campano " The hiatus has been supplied from the Bamberg MS., and the reading is sup- ported by the text of Isidorus, Orig. B. xvi. c. 20, s. 9. or 77 " Collectanei." ;t « pm-mali*»» Chap. 22.] CADMIA. 191 tenth part of lead7' and one twentieth of silver-lead, this combination being the best adapted for taking the colour known as " Grsecanicus."79 The last kind is that known as " ollaria,"80 from the vessels that are made of it: in this combination three or four pounds of silver-lead81 are added to every hundred pounds of copper. By the addition of lead to Cyprian copper, the purple tint is produced that we see upon the drapery of statues. CHAP. 21.—THE METHOD OF PRESERVING COPPER. Copper becomes covered with verdigris more quickly when cleaned than when neglected, unless it is well rubbed with oil. It is said that the best method of preserving it is with a coating of tar. The custom of making use of copper for monuments, which are intended to be perpetuated, is of . very ancient date : it is upon tablets of brass that our public enactments are engraved. CHAP 22. (10.)—CADMIA. The ores of copper furnish a number of resources82 that are employed in medicine ; indeed, all kinds of ulcers are healed thereby with great rapidity. Of these, however, the most useful is cadmia.83 This substance is formed artificially, 78 " Piumbi nigri"—" black lead," literally, but not what we mean by that name. 79 The " Grecian" colour. It does not appear to have been identified, nor does it appear what it has to do with moulds. 80 " Pot" copper, or brass. 81 Beckmann is of opinion that this " plumbum argentarium" was a mixture of equal parts of tin and lead. Hist. Inv. Vol. II. p. 220. Bolm's Edition. 62 Most of these preparations are in reality highly dangerous. Oxides, however, or salts of copper, have been employed internally with success, acting by alvine evacuation and by vomiting. The Crocus Veneris of the old chemists was an oxide of copper. It is still used by the peasants of Silesia, Ajasson says. 83 It is obvious that the "cadmia" here described must be an essen- tially different substance from the " cadmia" mentioned in the second Chapter of this Book, that being a natural production, possibly calamine or hydrosilicate or carbonate of zinc; while the "cadmia" of this Chapter is a furnace-calamine, a product of the fusion of the ore of copper, or zinc.—B. It is evident, too, that copper ores, impregnated with zinc or ca- lamine, also passed under this name. See Beckmann, Hist. Inv. Vol. II. pp. 33—35, Bohn's Edition, where this subject is discussed at considerable length ; also the treatise by Delafosse, in Lemaire's Edition of Pliny. 192 PLINY'S NATURAL HISTORY. [Book XXXIV. beyond a doubt, in the furnaces, also, where they smelt silver, but it is whiter and not so heavy, and by no means to be com- pared with that from copper. There are several kinds of it. For, as the mineral itself, from which it is prepared artificially, so necessary in fusing copper ore, and so useful in medicine, has the name of "cadmia,"84 so also is it found in the smelting- furnaces, where it receives other names, according to the way in which it is formed. By the action of the flame and the blast, the more attenuated parts of the metal are separated, and become attached, in proportion to their lightness, to the arched top and sides of the furnace. These flakes are the thinnest near the exterior opening of the furnace, where the flame finds a vent, the substance being called " capnitis ;"M from its burnt appearance and its extreme lightness it re- sembles white ashes. The best is that which is found in the interior, hanging from the arches of the chimney, and from ita form and position named " botryitis."86 It is heavier than the first-mentioned kind, but lighter than those which follow. It is of two different colours: the least valuable is ash-coloured, the better kind being red, friable, and extremely useful as a remedy for affections of the eyes. A third kind of cadmia is that found on the sides of the furnace, and which, in consequence of its weight, could not reach the arched vaults of the chimney. This species is called " placitis,"87 in reference to its solid appearance, it pre- senting a plane surface more like a solid crust than pumice, and mottled within. Its great use is, for the cure of itch- scab, and for making wounds cicatrize. Of this last there are two varieties, the "onychitis," which is almost en- tirely blue on the exterior, and spotted like an onyx within; and the " ostracitis,"88 which is quite black and more dirty than the others, but particularly useful for healing wounds. All the species of cadmia are of the best quality from the furnaces of Cyprus. When used in medicine it is heated a 84 The metal known to us as " cadmium" was discovered by Professor Stromeyer in 1818 : it is either associated in its ores with zinc, or forms a native sulphuret. 85 " Smoky residue." None of these substances formed in smelting are preserved for medicinal purposes at the present day. Tutty is an impure oxide of zinc. 86 " Cluster residue." From it3 resemblance to a bunch of grapes. 67 " Caked residue." ss « Shell-formed residue." Chap. 23.] MEDICINAL EFFECTS OF CALCINED COPPER. 193 second time upon a fire of pure charcoal, and when duly incinerated, is quenched in Aminean89 wine, if required for making plasters, but in vinegar, if wanted for the cure of itch- Bcab. Some persons first pound it, and then burn it in earthen pots; which done, they wash it in mortars and then dry it. Nymphodorus90 recommends that the most heavy and dense pieces of mineral cadmia that can be procured, should be burnt upon hot coals and quenched in Chian wine; after which, it must be pounded and then sifted through a linen cloth. It is then pulverized in a mortar and macerated in rain water, the sediment being again pounded until it is reduced to the consistency of ceruse, and presents no gritti- ness to the teeth. Iollas91 recommends the same process; except that he selects the purest specimens of native cadmia. CHAP. 23.—FIFTEEN REMEDIES DERIVED FROM CADMIA. TEN MEDICINAL EFFECTS OF CALCINED COPPER. Cadmia92 acts as a desiccative, heals wounds, arrests dis- charges, acts detergently upon webs and foul incrustations of the eyes, removes eruptions, and produces, in fact, all the good effects which we shall have occasion to mention when speaking of lead. Copper too, itself, when calcined, is employed for all these purposes; in addition to which it is used for white spots and cicatrizations upon the eyes. Mixed with milk, it is curative also of ulcers upon the eyes; for which purpose, the people in Egypt make a kind of eye-salve by grinding it upon whet stones. Taken with honey, it acts as an emetic. For these purposes, Cyprian copper is calcined in unbaked earthen pots, with an equal quantity of sulphur; the apertures of the vessel being well luted, and it being left in the furnace until the vessel itself has become completely hardened. Some persons add salt, and others substitute alum93 for sulphur; others, again, add nothing, but merely sprinkle the copper with vinegar. When calcined, it is pounded in a mortar of Thebaic stone,94 after which it is washed with rain water, and then 89 See B. xiv. c. 16. *° See end of B. iii. 91 See end of B. xii. 92 We have the same account of the medicinal effects of Cadmia, and the other preparations mentioned in this Chapter, given by Dioscorides.—B. 9:1 For an account of the " alumen" of the ancients, see B. xxxv. c. 52. 91 See B. xxxiii. c. 21, and B. xxxvi. c. 13. VOL. VI. ° 194 PLINY'S NATURAL niSTORY. [Book XXXIV. pounded with a large quantity of water, and left to settle. This process is repeated until the deposit has gained the appearance of minium ;oi after which it is dried in the sun, and put by for keeping in a box made of copper. CHAP 24. (11.)—THE SCORIA OF COPPER. The scoria, too, of copper is washed in the same manner; but the action of it is less efficacious than that of copper itself. The flower, too, of copper96 is also used in medicine; a substance which is procured by fusing copper, and then removing it into another furnace, where the repeated action of the bellows makes the metal separate into small scales, like the husks of millet, and known as "flower of copper." These scales are also separated, when the cakes of metal are plunged into water: they become red, too, like the scales of copper known as "lepis,"97 by means of which the genuine flower of copper is adulterated, it being also sold under that name. This last is made by hammering nails that are forged from the cakes of metal. All these processes are principally carried on in the furnaces of Cyprus ; the great difference between these sub- stances being, that this lepis is detached from the cakes by hammering, whereas the flower falls off spontaneously. C3AP. 25.--STOMOMA OF COPTER; FORTY-SEVEN REMEDIES. There is another finer kind of scale which is detached from the surface of the metal, like a very fine down, and known as " stomoma."98 But of all these substances, and even of their names, the physicians, if I may venture so to say, are quite ignorant, as appears by the names they give them; so 05 See B. xxxiii. c. 37. w " Mm flos." Ajasson makes some correct remarks upon the differ- ence between the " scoria" and the » flower" of the metal. The former may be considered as consisting of the metal, mixed with a certain pro- portion of heterogeneous matter, which has been separated during the fusion of the ore, while the latter consists of the pure metal in a state of mechanical division -B 97 From the Greek Xenig, " husk," or " scale." Ajasson describes this substance as consisting merely of the pure metal in a s ate of minute mechanical division; it would appear, therefore, to be scarcely lf at aU, different from the articles described in the last Chapter. The word Sro/iw/xa means a "hard substance," or "hard scales " there- fore the application of this term to a substance like down "lanugo " is perhaps not very appropriate.—B. ' 6' Chap. 26.] VERDIGRIS. 195 unacquainted are they with the preparation of medicaments, a thing that was formerly considered the most essential part of their profession.99 At the present day, whenever they happen to find a book of recipes, if they wish to make any composition from these substances, or, in other words, to make trial of the prescription at the expense of their unhappy patients, they trust entirely to the druggists,1 who spoil everything by their fraudulent adulterations. For this long time past, they have even purchased their plasters and eye- salves ready made, and the consequence is, that the spoiled or adulterated wares in the druggists' shops are thus got rid of. Both lepis and flower of copper are calcined in shallow earthen or brazen pans; after which they are washed, as described above,2 and employed for the same purposes; in addi- tion to which, they are used for excrescences in the nostrils and in the anus, as also for dullness of the hearing, being forcibly blown into the ears through a tube. Incorporated with meal, they are applied to swellings of the uvula, and, with honey, to swellings of the tonsils. The scales prepared from white copper are much less efficacious than those from Cyprian copper. Sometimes they first macerate the nails and cakes of copper in a boy's urine; and in some instances, they pound the scales, when detached, and wash them in rain water. They are then given to dropsical patients, in doses of two drachmas, with one semisextarius of honied wine : they are also made into a liniment with fine flour. CHAP. 26.—VERDIGRIS; EIGHTEEN REMEDIES. Verdigris3 is also applied to many purposes, and is prepared 99 Beckmann comments at some length on this passage; Vol. I. p. 328. Bohn's Edition. 1 " Seplasise." The druggists dwelling in the Seplasia. See B. xxxiii. c. 58. 2 In Chapters 22 and 23, as applied to Cadmia and Cyprian copper, re- spectively.—B. 3 " jEruo-o." The researches of modern chemists have ascertained the composition of verdigris to be a diacetete of copper; the sesquibasic acetate and the triacetate are also to be considered as varieties of this substance ; we have an exact analysis of these salts in the " Elements' of the late Dr. Turner, the Sixth Edition, edited by Professor Liebig and Mr. W. Turner, pp. 931, 2. Most of the processes described in this Chapter are mentioned by Dioscorides.—B. _See also Beckmann, Hist. Inv. Vol. I. p. 171, et seq., Bohn's Edition, 196 pliny's natural history. [Book XXXIV. in numerous ways. Sometimes it is detached already formed, from the mineral from which copper is smelted: and some- times it is made by piercing holes in white copper, and sus- pending it over strong vinegar in casks, which are closed with covers ; it being much superior if scales of copper are used for the purpose. Some persons plunge vessels themselves, made of white copper, into earthen pots filled with vinegar, and scrape them at the end of ten days. Others, again, cover the vessels with husks of grapes,4 and scrape them in the same way, at the end of ten days. Others sprinkle vinegar upon copper filings, and stir them frequently with a spatula in the course of the day, until they are completely dissolved. Others prefer triturating these filings with vinegar in a brazen mortar : but the most expeditious method of all is to add to the vinegar shavings of coronet copper.6 Rhodian verdigris, more particularly, is adulterated with pounded marble ; some persons use pumice-stone or gum. The adulteration, however, which is the most difficult to detect, is made with copperas;6 the other sophistications being detected by the crackling of the substance when bitten with the teeth. The best mode of testing it is by using an iron fire-shovel; for when thus subjected to the fire, if pure, the verdigris retains its colour, but if mixed with copperas, it becomes red. The fraud may also be detected by using a leaf of papyrus, which has been steeped in an infusion of nut-galls; for it becomes black immediately upon the genuine verdigris being applied. It may also be detected by the eye ; the green colour being unpleasant to the sight. But whether it is pure or adulterated, the best method is first to wash and dry it, and then to burn it in a new earthen vessel, turning it over until it is reduced to an ash ;7 after which it is pounded and put by for use. Some persons calcine it in raw earthen vessels, until the earthenware becomes thoroughly baked: others again add to it male frankincense.8 Verdigris is washed, too, in the same manner as cadmia. 4 According to Brotero, this is the process generally adopted in France, in preference to the employment of vinegar in a pure state.—B. 5 The form of copper which was termed "coronarium" has been already described in Chapter 22.—B. 6 "Atramento sutorio." "Shoemakers' black." See Chapters 27 and 32 of this Book. 7 Until it assumes an ashy colour, Dioscoridea say3.—B. 8 See B. xii. cc. 30, 32. Chap. 28.] SCOLEX OF COPPER. 19/ It affords a most useful ingredient for eye-salves, and from its mordent action is highly beneficial for watery humours of the eyes. It is necessary, however, to wash the part with warm water, applied with a fine sponge, until its mordency is no longer felt. CHAP. 27.--HIERACIXTM. '•' Hieracium"9 is the name given to an eye-salve, which is essentially composed of the following ingredients ; four ounces of sal ammoniac, two of Cyprian verdigris, the same quantity of the kind of copperas which is called "chalcanthum,"10 one ounce of misy11 and six of saffron; all these substances being pounded together with Thasian vinegar and made up into pills. It is an excellent remedy for incipient glaucoma and cataract, as also for films upon the eyes, eruptions, albugo, and diseases of the eye-lids. Verdigris, in a crude state, is also used as an ingredient in plasters for wounds. In com- bination with oil, it is wonderfully efficacious for ulcerations of the mouth and gums, and for sore lips. Used in the form of a cerate, it acts detergently upon ulcers, and promotes their cicatrization. Verdigris also consumes the callosities of fis- tulas and excrescences about the anus, either used by itself, applied with sal ammoniac, or inserted in the fistula in the form of a salve. The same substance, kneaded with one third part of resin of turpentine, removes leprosy. CHAP 28. (12.)—SCOLEX OF COPPER; EIGHTEEN REMEDIES. There is another kind of verdigris also, which is called "scolex."12 It is prepared by triturating in a mortar of 9 According to Celsus, this substance obtained its name from the person who invented or compounded it; he calls it " Collyrium of Hierax."—B. 10 " Atramentisutorii, quod chalcanthum vocant." We may presume that this substance was somewhat different from the "atramentum sutorium" mentioned in the last Chapter : the word " chalcanthum" means " flower of copper;" xaXicov dvSog.—B. Delafosse identifies it with blue vitriol, sulphate, or hydro-trisulphate of copper. See Chapter 32. 11 See Chapter 31. 12 From the Greek 3 of bull-glue40 and of linen cloth. All these substances are burnt in a pot of raw earth, which is heated in a furnace, until the earthenware is thoroughly baked. CHAP. 36.--SMEGMA. In the copper forges also smegma41 is prepared. When the metal is liquefied and thoroughly smelted, charcoal is added to it and gradually kindled; after which, upon it being sud- denly acted upon by a powerful pair of bellows, a substance is disengaged like a sort of copper chaff. The floor on which it is received ought to be prepared with a stratum of coal-dust. CHAP. 37.--DIPHRYX. There is another product of these furnaces, which is easily distinguished from smegma, and which the Greeks call " di- phryx,"'42 from its being twice calcined. This substance is pre- pared from three different sources. It is prepared, they say, from a mineral pyrites, which is heated in the furnace until it is converted by calcination into a red earth. It is also made in Cyprus, from a slimy substance extracted from a cer- tain cavern there, which is first dried and then gradually heated, by a fire made of twigs. A third way of making it, is from the residue in the copper-furnaces that falls to the bottom. The difference between the component parts of the ore is this; the copper itself runs into the receivers, the scoriae make their escape from the furnace, the flower becomes sublimated, and the diphryx remains behind. Some say that there are certain globules in the ore, while being smelted, which become soldered together; and that the rest of the metal is fused around it, the mass itself not becoming liquefied, unless it is transferred to another furnace, and forming a sort of knot, as it were, in the metal. That which remains after the fusion, they say, is called "diphryx. " Its use in medi- cine is similar to that of the substances mentioned above ;43 it " fee 5' x.xL c" 26> and B- XV1- c 20. 39 See B. xxi. c. 95. ! lee B' *}• Cl 94-_B- 4l " detersive composition." from Ais QpvyteOai.—" being twice calcined."—B 234and24 -El'*' Cadmia* and Flos' wLicu are described in Chapters 22, Chap. 39.] IRON ORES. 205 is desiccative, removes morbid excrescenses, and acts as a deter- gent. It is tested by placing it on the tongue, which ought to be instantly parched by it, a coppery flavour being perceptible. CHAP. 38.--PARTICULARS RELATIVE TO THE SERVILIAN TRIENS. We must not neglect to mention one other very remarkable fact relative to copper. The Servilian family, so illustrious in our annals, nourishes with gold and silver a copper triens,44 which devours them both. The origin and nature of this coin is to me incomprehensible ;45 but I will quote the very words of the story, as given by old Messala46 himself—" The family of the Servilii is in possession of a sacred triens, to which they offer every year a sacrifice, with the greatest care and magnifi- cence ; the triens itself, they say, appears sometimes to increase in size and sometimes to diminish; changes which indicate the coming advancement or decadence of the family." CHAP. 39 (14).—IRON ORES. Next to copper we must give an account of the metal known as iron, at the same time the most useful and the most fatal instrument in the hand of mankind. For by the aid of iron We lay open the ground, we plant trees, we prepare our vine- yard-trees,47 and we force our vines each year to resume their youthful state, by cutting away their decayed branches. It is by the aid of iron that we construct houses, cleave rocks, and perform so many other useful offices of life. But it is with iron also that wars, murders, and robberies are effected, and this, not only hand to hand, but from a distance even, by the aid of missiles and winged weapons, now launched from en- gines, now hurled by the human arm, and now furnished with feathery wings. This last I regard as the most criminal artifice that has been devised by the human mind; for, as if to bring death upon man with still greater rapidity, we have given wings to iron and taught it to fly.48 Let us there- 41 A Roman coin, equal to the third part of the " as."—B. *s We most fully coincide with Pliny in this sentiment, but we are constrained to differ from him in giving credit to the alleged fact, as he appears to have done.—B. -16 See the list of authors at the end of this Book. 4' " Arbusta:" trees on which vines were trained. See B. xvii. c. 35. « Holland has the following Note upon this passage.- " 0 Pliny, what wouldst thou say, if thou didst see and hear the pistols, muskets, culver- ines, and cannons in these days." Vol. II. p. 513.—B. 206 plint's natural history. [Book XXXIV. tore acquit Nature of a charge that hero belongs to man him- self.11' Indeed there have been some instances in which it has been proved that iron might be solely used for innocent purposes. In the treaty which Porsena granted to the Roman people, after the expulsion of the kings, we find it expressly stipulated, that iron shall be only employed for the cultivation of the fields; and our oldest authors inform us, that in those days it was considered unsafe to write with an iron pen.60 There is an edict extant, published in the third consulship of Pompeius Magnus, during the tumults that ensued upon the death of Clodius, prohibiting any weapon from being retained in the City. CHAP. 40.--STATUES OF IRON ; CHA8ED WORKS IN IRON. Still, however, human industry has not failed to employ iron for perpetuating the honours of more civilized life. The artist Aristonidas, wishing to express the fury of Athamas subsiding into repentance, after he had thrown his son Learchus from the rock,51 blended copper and iron, in order that the blush of shame might be more exactly expressed, by the rust of the iron making its appearance through the shining substance of the copper; a statue which still exists at Rhodes. There is also, in the same city, a Hercules of iron, executed by Alcon,52 the endurance displayed in his labours by the god having suggested the idea. We see too, at Rome, cups of iron consecrated in the Temple of Mars the Avenger.53 Nature, in conformity with her usual benevolence, has limited the power of iron, by inflicting upon it the punishment of rust; and has thus dis- played her usual foresight in rendering nothing in existence more perishable, than the substance which brings the greatest dangers upon perishable mortality. CHAP. 41.—TUE DIFFERENT KINDS OF IRON, AND THE MODE OF TEMPERING IT. Iron ores are to be found almost everywhere; for they exist Z ^e charge that death is always the work of Nature.—B FaTti B vf 1 4S89 et sea " b" °^ ^^ K iv' L 467' et "8- i and fnfpinii.-B.^Sd-oyVirgil ^ "*' ™«™d ^ ^ ^ the°Cit.yMarS Ult°r-" lH ^ F°rUm °f An«nstM»inthe Eighth Region of Chap. 41-1 THE DIFFERENT KINDS OF IRON. 207 even in the Italian island of llva,6* being easily distinguished by the ferruginous colour of the earth. The method of working the ore is the same as that employed in the case of copper. In Cappadocia, however, it is peculiarly questionable whether this metal is a present due to the water or to the earth ; because, when the latter has been saturated with the water of a certain river, it yields, and then only, an iron that may be obtained by Bmelting. There are numerous varieties of iron ore ; the chief causes of which arise from differences in the soil and in the climate. Some earths produce a metal that is soft, and nearly akin to lead; others an iron that is brittle and coppery, the use of which muBt be particularly avoided in making wheels or nails, the former kind being better for these purposes. There is another kind, again, which is only esteemed when cut into short lengths, and is used for making hobnails;65 and another which is more particularly liable to rust. All these varieties are known by the name of " strictura,"56 an appellation which is not used with reference to the other metals, and is derived from the steel that is used for giving an edge.67 There is a great difference, 54 The Isle of Elba, which has been celebrated for the extent and the richness of its iron mines both by the ancients and the moderns.—B. Ajasson remarks that it appears to be a solid rock composed of peroxide of iron. 95 " Claris caligariis." See B. viii. c. 44. B. ix. c. 33, and B. xxii. c. 46. 56 There have been numerous opinions on the meaning of this word, and its signification is very doubtful. Beckmann has the following re- marks in reference to this passage :—" In my opinion, this was the name given to pieces of steel completely manufactured and brought to that state which rendered them fit for commerce. At present steel comes from Biscay in cakes, from other places in bars, and both these were formerly called ' stricturae,' because they were employed chiefly for giving sharpness to instruments, or tools, that is, for steeling them. In speaking of other metals, Pliny says that the finished productions at the works were not called 'stricturae' (the case, for example, with copper), though sharpness could be given to instruments with other metals also. The words ot Pliny just quoted are read different ways, and still remain obscure. I conjecture that he meant to say, that some steel-works produced things which were entirely of steel, and that others were employed only in steeling—'ad densandas incudes malleorumve rostra.' I shall here remark that these 'strictura? ferri' remind us of the 'striges auri,' (see B. xxxiii. c. 19), Buch being the name given to native pieces of gold, which, without being smelted, were used in commerce."—Hist. Inv. Vol. II. p. 327. Bohn's Edition. 67 " A stringenda acie." The iron was probably formed into thin, 208 pltny's natural history. [Book XXXIV. too, in the smelting; some kinds producing knurrs of metal, which are especially adapted for hardening into steel, or else, prepared in another manner, for making thick anvils or heads of hammers. But the main difference results from the quality of the water into which the red-hot metal is plunged from time to time. The water, which is in some places better for this pur- pose than in others, has quite ennobled some localities for the excellence of their iron, Bilbilis,68 for example, and Turiaaso* in Spain, and Comuni60 in Italy; and this, although there are no iron mines in these spots. But of all the different kinds of iron, the palm of excellence is awarded to that which is made by the Seres,61 who send it to us with their tissues and skins ;02 next to which, in quality, is the Parthian63 iron. Indeed, none of the other kinds of iron are made of the pure hard metal, a softer alloy being welded with them all. In our part of the world, a vein of ore is occasionally found to yield a metal of this high quality, as in Noricum64 for instance; but, in other cases, it derives its value from the mode of working it, as at Sulmo,65 for example, a result owing to the nature of its water, as already stated. It is to be ob- served also, that in giving an edge to iron, there is a great differ- ence between oil-whetstones and water-whetstones,66 the use of oil producing a much finer edge. It is a remarkable fact, that when the ore is fused, the metal becomes liquefied like long bars, in thickness resembling a steel used for sharpening. The French word acier, meaning " steel," may possibly come from the Latin '• acies"—" edge," as Beckmann has suggested. 63 Situate at the spot now known as " Bambola," near Calatayud. The river Salo ran near it, the waters of which, as here mentioned, were cele- brated for their power of tempering steel. The poet Martial was a native of this place. 59 Supposed to be the modern Tarragona. » See B. iii. c. 21. 61 See B. vi. cc. 20-24, B. vii. c. 2, and B. xii. cc. 1, 41. This Seric iron has not been identified. Ctesias, as quoted by Photius, mentions Indian iron. See Beckmann, Vol. II. p. 228. Bohn's Edition. 62 Thought by Beckmann, quoting from Bottiger, possibly to bear refer- ence to a transfer trade of furs, through Serica, from the North of Asia. See Vol. II. p. 307. As to the Seric tisssues, see B. xxxvii. c. 77. «3 Or "Persian." The steel of Damascus had in the middle ages a high reputation. 64 See B. iii. cc. 24, 27. Horace speaks of the "Norican sword" on two occasions.—B. 65 See B. iii. cc. 9, 17. « See B. xviii. c. 67, and B. xxxvi. c. 38. Chap. 43.] METHODS OF PREVENTING RUST. 209 water, and afterwards acquires a spongy, brittle texture. It is the practice to quench smaller articles made of iron with oil lest by being hardened in water they should be rendered brittle! Human blood revenges itself upon iron ; for if the metal has been once touched by this blood it is much more apt to become rusty. CHAP. 42.--THE METAL CALLED LIVE IRON. We shall speak of the loadstone in its proper place,67 and of the sympathy which it has with iron. This is the only metal that acquires the properties of that stone, retaining them for a length of time, and attracting other iron, so that we may some- times 6ee a whole chain formed of these rings. The lower classes, in their ignorance, call this " live iron," and the wounds that are made by it are much more severe. This mineral is also found in Cantabria, not in continuous strata, like the genuine loadstone, but in scattered fragments, which they call " bullationes."68 I do not know whether this species of ore is proper also for the fusion of glass,69 as no one has hitherto tried it; but it certainly imparts the same property as the magnet to iron. The architect Timochares70 began to erect a vaulted roof of loadstone, in the Temple of Arsinoe,71 at Alexandria, in order that the iron statue of that princess might have the appear- ance of hanging suspended in the air :72 his death, however, and that of King Ptolemaeus, who had ordered this monument to be erected in honour of his sister, prevented the completion of the project. CHAP. 43. (15.)--METHODS OF PREVENTING RTJST. Of all metals, the ores of iron are found in the greatest abundance. In the maritime parts of Cantabria73 which are 67 B. xxxvi. c. 25. 68 Properly "bubbles," or "beads." 69 See B. xxxvi. c. 66. In the account of the loadstone referred to above, he informs us that this mineral was employed in the formation of glass.—B. Beckmann is of opinion that Manganese is here alluded to. See Vol. II. p. 237. 70 Another reading is " Dinochares," or "Dinocrates," for an account of whom, see B. v. c. 11, and B. vii. c. 38. 71 Wife and sister of Ptolemy Philadelphus. See B. vi. c. 33, and B. xxxvi. c. 14. 12 Some accounts state that the statue was to be of brass, and the head of iron. It is said that the same thing was attempted with respect to the statue of Mahomet, in his tomb at Medina.—B. 7S We learn from Bowles that the celebrated mine of Sommorostro is still worked for this metal. VOL. VI. * 210 PLINY'S NATURAL HISTORY. [Book XXXIV. washed by the Ocean, there is a steep and lofty mountain which, however incredible it may appear, is entirely composed of this metal, as already stated in our description ot the parta bordering upon the Ocean74 # .,,,-. Iron which has been acted upon by fire is spoiled, unless it is forged with the hammer. It is not in a fit state for being hammered when it is red-hot, nor, indeed, until it has begun to assume a white heat. By sprinkling vinegar or alum upon it, it acquires the appearance of copper. It is protected from rust by an application of ceruse, gypsum, and tar ; a property of iron known by the Greeks as " antipathia."75 Some pretend, too, that/this mav be ensured by the performance of certain religious ceremonies, and that there is in existence at the city of Zeugma,76 upon the Euphrates, an iron chain, by meanB of which Alexander the Great constructed a bridge across the river; the links of which that have been replaced are at- tacked with rust, while the original links are totally exempt from it.77 CnAP. 44.--SEVEN REMEDIES DERIVED FROM IRON. Iron is employed in medicine for other purposes besides that of making incisions. For if a circle is traced with iron, or a pointed weapon is carried three times round them, it will pre- serve both infant and adult from all noxious influences : if nails, too, that have been extracted from a tomb, are driven into the threshold of a door, they will prevent night-mare.7' A slight puncture with the point of a weapon, with which a man has been wounded, will relieve sudden pains, attended with stitches in the sides or chest. Some affections are cured by cauterization with red-hot iron, the bite of the mad dog more particularly; for even if the malady has been fully deve- loped, and hydrophobia has made its appearance, the patient is instantly relieved on the wound being cauterized.79 "Water 71 See B. iv. o. 34.—B. 75 Both the reading and the meaning of this passage are very doubtful. 76 See B. v. c. 21.—B. 77 We may presume that Pliny supposed that the ancient links had been protected by some of the substances mentioned above, although this is not distinctly stated.—B. Or rather by some religious ceremony as above alluded to. is « Nocturnas lymphationes."—B. 79 The actual cautery, as it is termed, is occasionally employed, in cer- tain diseases, by the moderns, but I am not aware that it has been tried in hydrophobia.—B. This precaution is sometimes used by country prac- titioners, at all events. Chap. 46.J REMEDIES DERIVED FROM SCALES OF IRON. 211 in which iron has been plunged at a white heat, is useful, as a potion, in many diseases, dysentery80 more particularly. CHAP. 45.--FOURTEEN REMEDIES DERIVED FROM RUST. Rust itself, too, is classed among the remedial substances; for it was by means of it that Achilles cured Telephus, it is said, whether it was an iron weapon or a brazen one that he used for the purpose. So it is, however, that he is represented in paintings detaching the rust with his sword.81 The rust of iron is usually obtained for these purposes by scraping old nails with a piece of moistened iron. It has the effect of uniting wounds, and is possessed of certain desiccative and astringent properties. Applied in the form of a liniment, it is curative of alopecy. Mixed with wax and myrtle-oil, it is applied to gra- nulations of the eyelids, and pustules in all parts of the body ■, with vinegar it is used for the cure of erysipelas ; and, applied with lint, it is curative of itch, whitlows on the fingers, and hang-nails. Used as a pessary with wool, it arrests female discharges. Diluted in wine, and kneaded with myrrh, it is applied to recent wounds, and, with vinegar, to condylomatous swellings. Employed in the form of a liniment, it alleviates gout.82 CHAP 46.--SEVENTEEN REMEDIES DERIVED FROM THE SCALES OF IRON. HYGREMPLASTRUM. The scales of iron,83 which are procured from a fine point or a sharp edge, are also made use of, being very similar in effect to rust, but more active; for which reason they are employed for defluxions of the eyes. They arrest bleeding, also, more 80 I cannot agree with Delafosse in his remark that " this remedy also is much in use for coeliac and other affections at the present day."—B. It is still recommended by old women in the country, for children more par- ticularly. 81 There are two versions of this story. In B. xxv. c. 19, Pliny says that Achilles cured Telephus by the application of a plant, which from him received its name. According to the other account, the oracle had declared, that the wound of Telephus, which had been inflicted by Achilles, could only be cured by means of the 6ame weapon which had caused it.—B. 82 All the statements in this Chapter are to be found in Dioscorides, B. v. c. 93.—B. 83 The scaly excrescences beaten from iron in the forges, Hardouin says. —B. P2 212 pliny's NATURAL HISTORY. [Book XXXIV particularly from wounds inflicted with iron ; and they act as a check upon female discharges. They are applied, too, for diseases of the spleen, and they arrest hsemorrhoidal swellings and serpiginous ulcers. They are useful also for affections of the eyelids, gradually applied in the form of a fine powder. But their chief recommendation is, their great utility in the form of a hygremplastrum84 or wet plaster, for cleansing wounds and fistulous sores, consuming all kinds of callosities, and making new flesh on bones that are denuded. The follow- ing are the ingredients : of pitch, six oboli, of Cimolian chalk,65 six drachmae, two drachmae of pounded copper, the same quantity of scales of iron, six drachmae of-wax, and one sextarius of oil. To these is added some cerate, when it is wanted to cleanse or fill up wounds. CHAP. 47. (16.)—THE ORES OF LEAD. The nature of lead next comes to be considered. There are two kinds of it, the black and the white.86 The white is the most valuable : it was called by the Greeks " cassiteros,"87 and there is a fabulous story told of their going in quest of it to the islands of the Atlantic, and of its being brought in barks made of osiers, covered with hides.88 It is now known that it is a production of Lusitania and Gallsecia.89 It is a sand found on the surface of the earth, and of a black colour, and is only to be detected by its weight. It is mingled with small pebbles, particularly in the dried beds of rivers. The miners wash this sand, and calcine the deposit in the furnaoe. It is also found in the gold mines that are known as "alutise,"69' 84 From the Greek vypov rrXaarpov.—B. 85 See B. xxxv. c. 57.—B. 86 It is most probable that the " black lead" of Pliny was our lead, and the "white lead" our tin. Beckmann has considered these Chapters at great length, Vol. II. p. 209, et seq. Bohn's Edition. 87 Supposed to have been derived from the Oriental word Kastira. 88 What is here adduced as a fabulous narrative is not very remote from the truth ; the Scilly Isles and Cornwall being the principal sources of the tin now employed in Europe. Small boats, corresponding to the description here given, were very lately still in use among the inhabitants of some parts of the south-west coast of England [and on the Severn]. Pliny has already spoken of these boats in B. vii. c. 57.—B. See also B. iv. c. 30, as to the coracles of the ancient Britons. 89 The ores of tin are known to exist in Gallicia; but the mines in that country are very scanty compared to those of Cornwall.__B. s9« n Talutium" is mentioned in B. xxxiii. c. 21. Chap. 47.] THE ORES OF LEAD. 213 the stream of water which is passed through them detaching certain black pebbles, mottled with small white spots and of the same weight90 as gold. Hence it is that they remain with the gold in the baskets in which it is collected; and being separated in the furnace, are then melted, and become con- verted into white lead.91 Black lead is not procured in Gallaecia, although it is so greatly abundant in the neighbouring province of Cantabria; nor is silver procured from white lead, although it is from black.92 Pieces of black lead cannot be soldered without the intervention of white lead, nor can this be done without em- ploying oil ;93 nor can white lead, on the other hand, be united without the aid of black lead. "White lead was held in esti- mation in the days even of the Trojan War, a fact that is at- tested by Homer, who calls it " cassiteros."94 There are two different sources of black lead : it being procured either from its own native ore, where it is produced without the intermix- ture of any other substance, or else from an ore which con- tains it in common with silver, the two metals being fused to- gether. The metal which first becomes liquid in the furnace, is called "stannum;"96 the next that melts is silver; and the metal that remains behind is galena,95 * the third constituent part of the mineral. On this last being again submitted to fusion black lead is produced, with a deduction of two-ninths. 90 Tin ore is among the heaviest of minerals, though the specific gravity of the metal is small. M. Haefer is of opinion that these pebbles con- tained platinum. 91 Or tin. The greater fusibility of the tin producing this separation. -B. 92 We may conclude that the "plumbum nigrum," or "black lead" of Pliny is the Galena or sulphuret of lead of the moderns; it is frequently whut is termed argentiferous, i. e. united with an ere of silver, and this in such quantity as to cause it to be worked for the purpose of procuring the silver.—B. See Beckmann, Vol. II. p. 210. 93 " Instead of oil, workmen use at present ' colophonium,' or some other resin."—Beckmann, Vol. II. p. 223. See also B. xxxiii. c. 20. 91 Iliad, xi. 25, and xxiii. 561.—B. 95 Ajasson considers this to be Bismuth; but it is more probable that Beckmann is right in his conclusion, supported by Agricola, Entzel, Fallopius, Savot, Bernia, and Jung, that it was a compound metal, the Werk of the German smelting-houses: a metal not much unlike our pewter, probably. See Beckmann, Hist. Inv. Vol. II. pp. 209, 212, 224. Bohn's Edition. 95* See B. xxxiii. c. 31, and c. 53 of this Book. 214 pliny's NATURAL HISTORY. [Book XXXIV. CHAP. 48. (17.)—STANNUM. ARGENTARIUM. "When copper vessels are coated with stannum,96 they pro- duce a less disagreeable flavour, and the formation of verdigris is prevented; it is also remarkable, that the weight of the vessel is not increased. As already mentioned,97 the finest mirrors were formerly prepared from it at Brundisium, until everybody, our maid-servants even, began to use silver ones. At the present day a counterfeit stannum is made, by adding one-third of white copper to two-thirds of white lead.98 It is also counterfeited in another way, by mixing together equal parts of white lead and black lead; this last being what is called " argentarium."99 There is also a composition called " tertiarium," a mixture of two parts of black lead and one of white: its price is twenty denarii per pound, and it is used for soldering pipes. Persons still more dishonest mix together1 equal parts of tertiarium and white lead, and, calling the com- pound " argentarium," coat articles with it melted. This last sells at sixty denarii per ten pounds, the price of the pure un- mixed white lead being eighty denarii, and of the black seven.2 White lead is naturally more dry; while the black, on the contrary, is always moist; consequently the white, without being mixed with another metal, is of no use3 for anything. Silver too, cannot be soldered with it, because the silver be- comes fused before the white lead. It is confidently stated, also, that if too 6mall a proportion of black lead is mixed with 96 A compound metal, probably, somewhat like pewter. See Note 95 above. He evidently alludes to the process of " tinning." 97 In B. xxxiii. c. 45 : where he says that the best mirrors were formerly made of a mixture of stannum and copper.—B. See Beckmann, Hist. Inv. Vol. II. pp. 60-62, 72. 98 Or tin. 99 " Silver mixture." 1 Such a mixture as this would in reality become more valuable than "argentarium," as the proportion would be two-thirds ot tin and one of lead. How then could the workmen merit the title of dishonest ? Beck- mann suggests that the tinning ought to have been done with pure tin, but that unprincipled artists employed tin mixed with lead. It is most probable, however, that Pliny himself has made a mistake, and that we should read " equal parts of black lead" (our lead); in which case the mixture passed off as " argentarium," instead of containing equal parts of tin and lead, would contain five-sixths of lead. See Beckmann, Hist. Inv. Vol. II. p. 221. Bohn's Edition. 2 All these readings are doubtful in the extreme. 3 As being too brittle, probably; the reason suggested by Beckmann, Vol. II. p. 221. 5& J Chap. 49.] BLACK LEAD. 215 the white, this last will coirrode the silver. It was in the Gallic provinces that the method was discovered of coating articles of copper with white lead, so as to be scarcely distin- guishable from silver: articles thus plated are known as " incoctilia."4 At a later period, the people of the town of Alesia6 began to use a similar process for plating articles with silver, more particularly ornaments for horses, beasts of burden, and yokes of oxen : the merit, however, of this invention belongs to the Bituriges.6 After this, they began to ornament their esseda, colisata, and petorita7 in a similar manner; and luxury has at last arrived at such a pitch, that not only are their decorations made of silver, but of gold even, and what was formerly a marvel to behold on a cup, is now subjected to the wear and tear of a carriage, and this in obedience to what they call fashion ! White lead is tested, by pouring it, melted,8 upon paper, which ought to have the appearance of being torn rather by the weight than by the heat of the metal. India has neither copper nor lead,9 but she procures them in exchange for her precious stones and pearls. CHAP. 49.--BLACK LEAD. Black lead10 is used in the form of pipes and sheets : it is ex- tracted with great labour in Spain, and throughout all the Gallic provinces ; but in Britannia10* it is found in the upper stratum of the earth, in such abundance, that a law has been spontaneously made, prohibiting any one from working more than a certain quantity of it. The various kinds of black lead are known by the following names—the Ovetanian,11 the Caprariensian,12 4 Literally," inboiled," being coated by immersion in the molten tin. 5 Supposed by Hardouin to have been the town of Alise, in Auxois. 6 See B. iv. c. 33. 7 The names of various kinds of carriages, the form of which is now unknown. 8 Both tin and lead can be fused in paper, when it is closely wrapped arouud them. . 9 In reality India did and does possess them both; but it is possible that in those days it was not considered worth while to search for them. io The "lead" of the moderns. 10* Mr. T. Wright, the eminent antiquarian, is of opinion that the ex- tensive Boman lead mines at Shelve, in Shropshire, are here alluded to. See the Illustrated London News, Oct. 4, 1856. 11 Probably from Ovetum, the modern Oviedo.—B. 12 So called from the island of Capraria. See B. iii. cc. 1.1, 12, and B. vi. c. 37. 216 pliny's natural history. [Book XXXIV. and the Oleastrensian.12* There is no difference whatever in them, when the scoria has been carefully removed by calcina- tion. It is a marvellous fact, that these mines, and these only, when they have been abandoned for some time, become re- plenished, and are more prolific than before. This would appear to be effected by the air, infusing itself at liberty through the open orifices, just as some women become more prolific after abortion. This was lately found to be the case with the Santarensian mine in Baetica;13 which, after being farmed at an annual rental of two hundred thousand denarii, and then abandoned, is now rented at two hundred and fifty- five thousand per annum. In the same manner, the Antonian mine in the same province has had the rent raised to four hundred thousand sesterces per annum. It is a remarkable fact, that if we pour water into a vessel of lead, it will not melt; but that if we throw into the water a pebble or a copper quadrans,14 the vessel will be penetrated by the fire. CHAP. 50. (18.)—FIFTEEN REMEDIES DERIVED FROM LEAD. Lead is used in medicine, without any addition, for the removal of scars ; if it is applied, too, in plates, to the region of the loins and kidneys, in consequence of its cold nature it will restrain the venereal passions, and put an end to libidinous dreams at night, attended with spontaneous emissions, and as- suming all the form of a disease. The orator Calvus, it is said, effected a cure for himself by means of these plates, and so pre- served his bodily energies for labour and study. The Emperor Nero—for so the gods willed it—could never sing to the full pitch of his voice, unless he had a plate of lead upon his chest; thus showing us one method of preserving the voice.15 For medicinal purposes the lead is melted in earthen vessels; a layer of finely powdered sulphur being placed beneath, very thin plates of lead are laid upon it, and are then covered with a mixture of sulphur and iron. While it is being melted, all the apertures in the vessel should be closed, otherwise a 12* See B. iii. c. 12. » Not in Bsetica, as Brotero remarks, but in Lusitania, or Portugal; the modern Santarem.—B. " See Introduction to Vol. III. u This circumstance is mentioned by Suetonius, c. 20.__B. Chap. 50.] REMEDIES DERIVED FROM LEAD. 217 noxious vapour is discharged from the furnace, of a deadly nature, to dogs in particular. Indeed, the vapours from all metals destroy flies and gnats ; and hence it is that in mines there are none of those annoyances.16 Some persons, during the process, mix lead-filings with the sulphur, while others substi- tute ceruse for sulphur. By washing, a preparation is made from lead, that is much employed in medicine: for this pur- pose, a leaden mortar, containing rain water, is beaten with a pestle of lead, until the water has assumed a thick consistency; which done, the water that floats on the surface is removed with a sponge, and the thicker part of the sediment is left to dry, and is then divided into tablets. Some persons triturate lead-filings in this way, and some mix with it lead ore, or else vinegar^ wine, grease, or rose-leaves. Others, again, prefer triturating the lead in a stone mortar, one of Thebaic stone more particularly, with a pestle of lead; by which process a whiter preparation is obtained. As to calcined lead, it is washed, like stibi17 and cadmia. Its action is astringent and repressive, and it is promotive of cicatrization. The same substance is also employed in prepa- rations for the eyes, cases of procidence18 of those organs more particularly ; also for filling up the cavities left by ulcers, and for removing excrescences and fissures of the anus, as well as hsemorrhoidal and condylomatous tumours. For all these pur- poses the lotion of lead is particularly useful; but for serpigi- nous or sordid ulcers it is the ashes of calcined lead that are used, these producing the same advantageous effects as ashes of burnt papyrus.19 The lead is calcined in thin plates, laid with sulphur in shallow vessels, the mixture being stirred with iron rods or stalks of fennel-giant, until the melted metal becomes calcined; when cold, it is pulverized. Some persons calcine lead- filings in a vessel of raw earth, which they leave in the furnace, until the earthenware is completely baked. Others, again, mix with it an equal quantity of ceruse or of barley, and triturate it in the way mentioned for raw lead; indeed, the 18 Hardouin observes, that these insects are never met with in mines; but probably this may depend more upon other causes, than upon the vapours which are supposed to proceed from the metals.—B. " See B. xxxiii. cc. 33, 34. 18 See B. xx. c. 81, and B. xxiv. c. 73. 19 "Charta." See B. xxiv. c. 51. 218 pliny's NATURAL nTSTORY. [Book XXXIV. lead which has been prepared this way is preferred to the spodium of Cyprus. CHAP. 51.--FIFTEEN REMEDIES DERIVED FROM THE SCORIA OF LEAD. The scoria20 of lead is also made use of; the best kind being that which approaches nearest to a yellow colour, without any vestiges of lead, or which has the appearance of sulphur without any terreous particles. It is broken into small pieces and washed in a mortar, until the mortar assumes a yellow colour; after which, it is poured off into a clean vessel, the process being repeated until it deposits a sediment, which is a sub- stance of the greatest utility. It possesses the same properties as lead, but of a more active nature. How truly'wonderful is the knowledge which we gain by experiment, when even the very dregs and foul residues of substances have in so many ways been tested by mankind ! CHAP. 52.—SPODIUM OF LEAD. A spodium21 of lead is also prepared in the same manner as that extracted from Cyprian copper.22 It is washed with rain water, in linen of a loose texture, and the earthy parts are separated by pouring it off; after which it is sifted, and then pounded. Some prefer removing the fine powder with a feather, and then triturating it with aromatic wine. CHAP. 53.--MOLYBD-SINA : FIFTEEN REMEDIES. Molybdaena,23 which in another place I have called " galena,"24 is a mineral compounded of silver and lead. It is considered better in quality the nearer it approaches to a golden colour and the less lead it contains; it is also friable, and of moderate weight. When it is melted with oil, it acquires the colour of liver. It is found adhering also to the 20 This, according to Ajasson, is the protoxide, or probably, in some cases, the arseniate of lead.—B. 21 From anoSog, " ashes."—B. _ " See Chapter 34 of this Book.—B. 23 This was probably lead ore in its primary state, when only separated from the stannum, and before it was subjected to fusion for the purpose of obtaining pure lead.—See Beckmann's Hist. Inv. Vol. II. p. 211. Bohn's Edition. Ajasson identifies it with litharge, or fused oxide of lead, known as gold and silver litharge, from its colour. « See B. xxxiii. c. 31, and Chapter 47 of this Book.—B. Chap. 54.] PSIMITHIUM OR CERUSE. 219 furnaces in which gold and silver have been smelted; and in this case it is called " metallic." The most esteemed kind is that prepared at Zephyrium.25 Those kinds, too, are considered the best that are the least earthy and the least stony. It is used in preparing liparae,26 as also for soothing or cooling ulcers, and as an ingredient in plasters, which are applied without ligatures, but are used only as a liniment for producing cicatrization on the bodies of delicate persons and the more tender parts. The composition is made of three pounds of molybdaena, one pound of wax, and three heminae of oil; to which are added lees of olives, in the case of aged persons. Combined with scum of silver27 and scoria of lead, it is employed warm in fomentations for dysentery and tenesmus. CHAP. 54.--PSIMITHIUM, OR CERUSE; SIX REMEDIES. Psimithium,28 which is also known as ceruse, is another production of the lead-works. The most esteemed comes from Rhodes. It is made from very fine shavings of lead, placed over a vessel filled with the strongest vinegar; by which means the shavings become dissolved. That which falls into the vinegar is first dried, and then pounded and sifted, after which it is again mixed with vinegar, and is then divided into tablets and dried in the sun, during summer. It is also made in another way ; the lead is thrown into jars filled with vinegar, which are kept closed for ten days ; the sort of mould that forms upon the surface is then scraped off, and the lead is again put into the vinegar, until the whole of the metal is consumed. The part that has been scraped off is triturated and sifted, and then melted in shallow vessels, being stirred with ladles, until the substance becomes red, and assumes the appearance of sandarach. It is then washed with fresh water, until all the cloudy impurities have disappeared, after which it is dried as before, and divided into tablets. Its properties are the same as those of the substances above m In Cilicia: see B. v. c. 22. He is speaking, no doubt, of the " metallic," or artificial kind. ... 26 A kind of ointment. See B. xxm. c. 81, and B. xxxm. c. 35. 2' Our Litharge. See B. xxxiii. c. 35. 28 According to Ajasson, this substance is properly a sub-carbonate ot lead, commonly called white lead.—B. 220 Pliny's natural history. [Book XXXIV. mentioned.29 It is, however, the mildest of all the prepara- tions of lead ; in addition to which, it is also used by females to whiten the complexion.30 It is, however, like scum of silver, a deadly poison. Melted a second time, ceruse be- comes red. chap. 55.—sandarach; eleven remedies. We have already mentioned nearly all the properties of sandarach.31 It is found both in gold-mines and in silver- mines. The redder it is, the more pure and friable, and the more powerful its odour, the better it is in quality. It is detergent, astringent, heating, and corrosive, but is most re- markable for its septic properties. Applied topically with vinegar, it is curative of alopecy. It is also employed as an ingredient in ophthalmic preparations. Used with honey, it cleanses the fauces and makes the voice more clear and har- monious. Taken with the food, in combination with turpen- tine, it is a pleasant cure for cough and asthma. In the form of a fumigation also, with cedar, it has a remedial effect upon those complaints.32 CHAP. 56.—ARRHENICUM, Arrhenicum,33 too, is procured from the same sources. The best in quality is of the colour of the finest gold ; that which is of a paler hue, or resembling sandarach, being less esteemed. There is a third kind also, the colour of which is a mixture of that of gold and of sandarach. The last two kinds are both of them scaly, but the other is dry and pure, and divides into 29 Scoria of lead and molybdaena.—B. 30 Preparations of lead are still used in cosmetics for whitening the complexion. 31 The Realgar of the moderns, red orpiment, or red sulphuret of arsenic. Pliny has in numerous places spoken of it as a remedy for certain morbid states both of animals and vegetables, B. xvii. c. 47, B. xxiii. c. 13, B. xxv. c. 22, and B. xxviii. c. 62, but he has not previously given any ac- count of its origin and composition.—B. 32 Dioscorides, B. v. c. 122, informs us, with respect to this effect of san- darach, that it was burned in combination with resin, and that the smoke was inhaled through a tube.—B. 33 The substance here mentioned, though its name is the foundation of our word "arsenic," is not the arsenic of modern commerce, but probably a sulphuret of arsenic containing a less proportion of sulphur than the Sandarach of the last Chapter.—B. Chap. 56.] SUMMARY. 221 delicate long veins.34 This substance has the same virtues as the one last mentioned, but is more active in its effects. Hence it is that it enters into the composition of cauteries and depilatory preparations. It is also used for the removal of hangnails, polypi of the nostrils, condylomatous tumours, and other kinds of excrescences. For the purpose of increas- ing its energies, it is heated in a new earthen vessel, until it changes its colour.35 Summary.—Remedies, one hundred and fifty-eight. Facts, narratives, and observations, nine hundred and fifteen. Roman Authors quoted.—L. Piso,36 Antias,37 Verrius,38 M. Varro,39 Cornelius Nepos,40 Messala,41 Rufus,42 the Poet Marsus,43 Bocchus,44 Julius Bassus45 who wrote in Greek on Medicine, Sextus Niger46 who did the same, Fabius Vestalis.47 Foreign Authors quoted.—Democritus,48 Metrodorus49 of Scepsis, Menaechmus50 who wrote on the Toreutic art, Xeno- crates81 who did the same, Antigonus52 who did the same, Duris53 who did the same, Heliodorus54 who wrote on the Votive Offerings of the Athenians, Pasiteles55 who wrote on Wonderful Works, Timaeus56 who wrote on the Medicines de- 34 The other two mentioned species naturally divide into laminae, while this kind is disposed to separate into fine fibres.—B. 35 By this process a considerable portion of the sulphur is expelled, so as to cause the orpiment to approximate to the state of arsenic.—B. 36 See end of B. ii. 37 See end of B. ii. 38 See end of B. iii. 39 See end of B. ii. 40 See end of B. ii. 41 A different person from the Messala mentioned at the end of B. ix. He is mentioned in B. xxxiii. c. 14, B. xxxv. c. 2, and in Chapter 38 of this Book ; but nothing further seems to be known of him. 42 See end of B. vii. and Note 94 to B. vii. c. 53. 43 Domitius Marsus, a poet of the Augustan age, of whom few particulars are known, except that he wrote an epitaph on the poet Tibullus, who died B.c. 18. He is mentioned by Ovid and Martial, from the latter of whom we learn that his epigrams were distinguished for their wit, licentiousness, and satire. 44 See end of B. xvi. 45 See end of B. xx. 46 See end of B. xii. 47 See end of B. vii. 48 See end of B. ii. 49 See end of B. iii. 50 See end of B. iv. 51 See c. 19 of this Book, Note 11, page 184. 52 See end of B. xxxiii. 53 See end of B. vii. 54 See end of B. xxxiii. M See end of B. xxxiii. M See end of B. xxxiii. 222 PLINY'S NATURAL HISTORY. [Book XXXIV. rived from Metals, Nymphodorus,57 Iollas,58 Apollodorus,63 Andreas,60 Heraclides,61 Diagoras,62 Botrys,63 Archidemus," Dionysius,65 Aristogenes,66 Democles,67 Mnesides,68 Xeno- crates69 the son of Zeno, Theomnestus.70 57 See end of B. iii. 58 See end of B. xii. 59 See end of Books iv., viii., xi., and xx. P0 See end of B. xx. 61 See end of Books iv., and xii. 62 See end of B. xii. M See end of B. xiii. 64 See end of B. xii. 85 See end of B. xii. 66 See end of B. xxix. 67 See end of B. xii. 68 See end of B. xii. 69 See end of B. xxxiii. 70 See end of B. xxxiii. 223 BOOK XXXV. AN ACCOUNT OF PAINTINGS AND COLOURS. CHAP. 1. (1.)—THE HONOUR ATTACHED TO PAINTING. I have now given at considerable length an account of the nature of metals, which constitute our wealth, and of the substances that are derived from them; so connecting my various subjects, as, at the same time, to describe an immense number of medicinal compositions which they furnish, the mysteries1 thrown upon them by the druggists, and the tedious minutiae of the arts of chasing,2 and statuary,3 and of dyeing.4 It remains for me to describe the various kinds of earths and stones; a still more extensive series of subjects, each of which has been treated of, by the Greeks more particularly, in a great number of volumes. For my own part, I propose to employ a due degree of brevity, at the same time omitting nothing that is necessary or that is a product of Nature. I shall begin then with what still remains to be said with reference to painting, an art which was formerly illustrious, when it was held in esteem both by kings and peoples, and ennobling those whom it deigned to transmit to posterity. But at the present day, it is completely banished in favour of marble, and even gold. For not only are whole walls now covered with marble, but the marble itself is carved out or else marqueted so as to represent objects and animals of various kinds. No longer now are we satisfied with formal compartitions of marble, or with slabs extended like so many mountains in our chambers, but we must begin to paint the very stone itself! This art was invented in the reign of Claudius, but it was in the time of Nero that we discovered the method of inserting in marble spots that do not belong to it, 1 *' Officinarum tenebrae ;" probably in reference to the ignorance dis- played by the compounders of medicines, as pointed out in B. xxxiii. c. 38, and in B. xxxiv. c. 25.—B. a See B. xxxiii. c. 55. 8 See B. xxxiv. c. 9. 4 See B. xxxiii. c. 36. 224 PLINY'S NATURAL HISTORY. [Book XXXV. and so varying its uniformity ; and this, for the purpose of representing the marble of Numidia5 variegated with ovals, and that of Synnada6 veined with purple; just, in fact, as luxury might have willed that Nature should produce them. Such are our resources when the quarries fail us, and luxury ceases not to busy itself, in order that as much as possible may be lost whenever a conflagration happens. CHAP. 2. (2.)—THE HONOUR ATTACHED TO PORTRAIT8. Correct portraits of individuals were formerly transmitted to future ages by painting; but this has now completely fallen into desuetude. Brazen shields are now set up, and silver faces, with only some obscure traces of the countenance :7 the very heads, too, of statues are changed,8 a thing that has given rise before now to many a current sarcastic line ; so true it is that people prefer showing off the valuable material, to having a faithful likeness. And yet, at the same time, we tapestry the walls of our galleries with old pictures, and we prize the portraits of strangers; while as to those made in honour of ourselves, we esteem them only for the value of the material, for some heir to break up and melt, and so forestall the noose and slip-knot of the thief.9 Thus it is that we possess the portraits of no living individuals, and leave behind us the pictures of our wealth, not of our persons. And yet the very same persons adorn the palaestra and the anointing-room10 with portraits of athletes, and both hang up in their chamber and carry about them a likeness of Epicurus.11 On the twentieth day of each moon they cele- brate his birthday11* by a sacrifice, and keep his festival, known as the "leas,"12 every month: and these too, people who 6 See B. xxxvi. c. 8. 6 See B. v. c. 29. 7 " Surdo figurarum discrimine." 8 We are informed by Suetonius, that this practice existed in the time of Tiberius.—B. See also Note 18, p. 196. 9 Which he is ready to employ in carrying away his plunder. 10 "Ceromata ;" this is properly a Greek term, signifying an ointment used by athletes, composed of oil and wax.—B. 11 This practice is referred to by Cicero, De Finib. B. v.—B. u* In reality, his birth-day was not on the twentieth day of any month ; but, for some reason which is not known, he fixed upon this day.—B. He was born on the seventh day of the month Gamelion. 12 From the GreekiiKag, the "twentieth" day of the month. Chap. 2.] THE HONOUR ATTACHED TO PORTRAITS. 225 wish to live without being known !13 So it is, most assuredly, our indolence has lost sight of the arts, and since our minds are destitute of any characteristic features, those of our bodies are neglected also. But on the contrary, in the days of our ancestors, it was these that were to be seen in their halls, and not statues made by foreign artists, or works in bronze or marble : portraits modelled in wax14 were arranged, each in its separate niche, to be always in readiness to accompany the funeral processions of the family ;ls occasions on which every member of the family that had ever existed was always present. The pedi- gree, too, of the individual was traced in lines upon each of these coloured portraits. Their muniment-rooms,16 too, were filled with archives and memoirs, stating what each had done when holding the magistracy. On the outside, again, of their houses, and around the thresholds of their doors, were placed other statues of those mighty spirits, in the spoils of the enemy there affixed, memorials which a purchaser even was not allowed to displace; so that the very house continued to triumph even after it had changed its master. A powerful stimulus to emulation this, when the walls each day re- proached an unwarlike owner for having thus intruded upon the triumphs of another ! There is still extant an address by the orator Messala, full of indignation, in which he forbids that there should be inserted among the images of his family any of those of the stranger race of the Laevini.17 It was the same feeling, too, that extorted from old Messala those com- pilations of his "On the Families of Rome;" when, upon passing through the hall of Scipio Pomponianus,18 he observed that, in consequence of a testamentary adoption, the Salvittos19 13 In obedience to the maxim of Epicurus, AdQe fiiwtrag—" Live in ob- scurity." 14 See B. xxi. c. 49, and Note 4, p. 346. 16 This appears to have been the usual practice at the funerals of dis- tinguished personages among the Bomans: it is referred to by Tacitus, Ann. B. ii. c. 73, in his account of the funeral of Germanicus.—B. 16 " Tabulina." Booms situate near the atrium. 17 A cognomen of the Gens Valeria at Bome, from which the family of the Messalae had also originally sprung. 19 So called from his father-in-law Pomponius, a man celebrated for his wealth, and by whom he was adopted. It would appear that Scipio Pom- ponianus adopted Scipio Salvitto, so called from his remarkable resem- blance to an actor of mimes. See B. vii. c. 10. 19 They were probably, like the Scipios, a branch of the Gens Cornelia. VOL. Vt. Q 226 PLTNV'S NATURAL HISTORY. [Book XXXV. —for that had been their surname—to the disgrace of the Africani, had surreptitiously contrived to assume the name of the Scipios. But the Messalas must pardon me if I remark, that to lay a claim, though an untruthful one, to the statues of illustrious men, shows some love for their virtues, and is much more honourable than to have such a character as to merit that no one should wish to claim them. There is a new invention too, which we must not omit to notice. Not only do we consecrate in our libraries, in gold or silver, or at all events, in bronze, those whose immortal spirits hold converse with us in those places, but we even go so far as to reproduce the ideal of features, all remembrance of which has ceased to exist; and our regrets give existence to likenesses that have not been transmitted to us, as in the case of Homer, for example.20 And indeed, it is my opinion, that nothing can be a greater proof of having achieved success in life, than a lasting desire on the part of one's fellow-men, to know what one's features were. This practice of grouping portraits was first introduced at Rome by Asinius Pollio, who was also the first to establish a public library, and so make the works of genius the property of the public. Whether the kings of Alexandria and of Pergamus, who had so energetically rivalled each other in forming libraries, had previously introduced this practice, I cannot so easily say. That a strong passion for portraits formerly existed, is attested both by Atticus, the friend of Cicero, who wrote a work on this subject,21 and by M. Varro, who conceived the very liberal idea of inserting, by some means22 or other, in his numerous volumes, the portraits of seven hundred individuals ; as he could not bear the idea that all traces of their features should be lost, or that the lapse of centuries should get the Suetonius speaks in very derogatory terms of a member of this family, who accompanied Julius Caesar m his Spanish campaign against the Pompeian *> Lvthe Greek Anthology B v„ we have the imaginary portrait of Homer described at considerable length.—B. j ±«««aii. m -1 Hardouin supposes that this work was written bv Cicero and that hp named it after his friend Atticus; but, as Delafosse^ema^ if is c ear from the context that it was the work of Atticus —B ' w Clear i T M;Devfil1le is °f °PVnion that *hese Plaits were made in relief upon £d byte PEomaPnlbr0nZe' and Col-ed ^h minium, a red tinfmLn Chap. 4.] SHIELDS WITH PORTRAITS IN PRIVATE HOUSES. 227 better of mankind. Thus was he the inventor of a benefit to his fellow-men, that might have been envied by the gods themselves; for not only did he confer upon them immortality, but he transmitted them, too, to all parts of the earth ; so that everywhere it might be possible for them to be present, and for each to occupy his niche. This service, too, Yarro con- ferred upon persons who were no members of his own family. CHAP. 3. (3.)—WHEN SHIELDS WERE FIRST INVENTED WITH PORTRAITS UPON THEM ; AND WHEN THEY WERE FIRST ERECTED IN PUBLIC. So far as I can learn, Appius Claudius, who was consul with P. Servilius, in the year of the City, 259, was the first to dedicate shields23 in honour of his own family in a sacred or public place.24 For he placed representations of his ancestors in the Temple of Bellona, and desired that they might be erected in an elevated spot, so as to be seen, and the inscrip- tions reciting their honours read. A truly graceful device; more particularly when a multitude of children, represented by so many tiny figures, displays those germs, as it were, which are destined to continue the line: shields such as these, no one can look at without a feeling of pleasure and lively interest. CHAP. 4.—WHEN THESE SHIELDS WERE FIRST PLACED IN PRIVATE HOUSES. More recently, M. jEmilius, who was consul52 with Qnintus Lutatius, not only erected these shields in the iEmilian Basilica,26 but in his own house as well; in doing which he followed a truly warlike example. For, in fact, these portraits were represented on bucklers, similar to those used in the Trojan War ;27 and hence it is that these shields re- ceived their present name of " clypei," and not, as the perverse 23 " Clypei." These were shields or escutcheons of metal, with the fea- tures of the deceased person represented either in painting or in relief. 24 Hardouin informs us that there are some Greek inscriptions given by Gruter, p. 441, and p. 476, from which it appears that public festivals were celebrated on occasions of this kind.—B. « a.u.c. 671.—B. See B. vii. c. 54. 26 See B. xxxvi. c. 24. 27 It is scarcely necessary to refer to the well-known description of the shield of Achilles, in the Iliad, B. xviii. 1. 478 et seq., and of that of -Eneas, Mu. B. viii. 1. 626, et seq.—B. Q 2 228 pliny's natural HISTORY. [Book XXXV. subtleties of the grammarians will have it, from the word " cluo."28 It was an abundant motive for valour, when upon each shield was represented the features of him who had borne it. The Carthaginians used to make both their bucklers and their portraits of gold, and to carry them with them in the camp : at all events, Marcius, the avenger of the Scipios29 in Spain, found one of this kind on capturing the camp of Hasdrubal, and it was this same buckler that remained suspended over the gate of the Capitoline Temple until the time when it was first burnt.30 Indeed, in the days of our ancestors, so assured was the safety of these shields, that it has been a subject of remark, that in the consulship of L. Manlius and Q. Fulvius, in the year of the City, 575, M. Aufidius, who had given security for the safety of the Capitol, informed the senate that the bucklers there which for some lustra31 had been assessed as copper, were in reality made of silver. CHAP 5.--THE COMMENCEMENT OF THE ART OF PAINTING. MO- NOCHROME PAINTINGS. THE EARLIEST PAINTERS. We have no certain knowledge as to the commencement of the art of painting, nor does this enquiry fall under our con- sideration. The Egyptians assert that it was invented among themselves, six thousand years before it passed into Greece ; a vain boast, it is very evident.32 As to the Greeks, some say that it was invented at Sicyon, others at Corinth; but they all agree that it originated in tracing lines round the human Bhadow.33 The first stage of the art, they say, was this, the 28 He implies that the word is derived from the Greek yXvipuv, «to carve" or " emboss," and not from the old Latin '« cluo," •« to be famous." Ajasson suggests the Greek icaXvirrw," to cover." 29 Cneius and Publius Scipio, who had been slain by Hasdrubal.—B. As to L. Marcius, see B. ii. c. 3. 30 See B. xxxiii. c. 5. 31 " Lustrations." Periods at the end of the census, made by the cen- sors every five years. The censors were the guardians of the temples, and consequently these bucklers would come under their supervision «'This period for the invention of painting by the Egyptians is evi- dently incorrect; but still there is sufficient reason for concluding that there now exist specimens of Egyptian art, which were in existence pre- vious to the time of the earliest Grecian painters of whom we have anv certain account.—B. } 33 All the ancients who have treated of the history of the art agree, that the first attempt at what may be considered the formation of a pie' Chap. 6.] THE ANTIQUITY OF PAINTING IN ITALY. 229 second stage being the employment of single colours; a process known as " monochromaton,"34 after it had become more complicated, and which is still in use at the present day. The invention of line-drawing has been assigned to Philo- cles, the Egyptian, or to Cleanthes35 of Corinth. The first who practised this line-drawing were Aridices, the Corinthian, and Telephanes, the Sicyonian, artists who, without making use of any colours, shaded the interior of the outline by drawing lines ;36 hence, it was the custom with them to add to the picture the name of the person represented. Ecphantus, the Corinthian, was the first to employ colours upon these pictures, made, it is said, of broken earthenware, reduced to powder. We shall show on a future37 occasion, that it was a different artist of the same name, who, according to Cornelius Nepos, came to Italy with Demaratus, the father of the Roman king, Tarquinius PriscuB, on his flight from Corinth to escape the violence of the tyrant Cypselus. CHAP. 6.—THE ANTIQUITY OF PAINTING IN ITALY. But already, in fact, had the art of painting been perfectly developed in Italy.38 At all events, there are extant in the temples at Ardea, at this day, paintings of greater antiquity than Rome itself; in which, in my opinion, nothing is more marvellous, than that they should have remained so long unprotected by a roof, and yet preserving their freshness.39 At Lanuvium, too, it is the same, where we see an Atalanta and a Helena, without drapery, close together, and painted by the ture, consisted in tracing the shadow of a human head or some other ob- ject on the wall, the interior being filled up with one uniform shade of colour.—B. 34 From the Greek fiovoxpuparov, " single colouring."—B. 35 He is mentioned also by Athenagoras, Strabo, and Athenaeus. 36 Called " graphis," by the Greeks, and somewhat similar, probably, to our pen and ink drawings. 37 In Chapter 43 of this Book.—B. 38 Ajasson remarks, that a great number of paintings have been lately discovered in the Etruscan tombs, in a very perfect state, and probably of very high antiquity.—B. 39 There would appear to be still considerable uncertainty respecting the nature of the materials employed by the ancients, and the manner of applying them, by which they produced these durable paintings; a branch of the art which has not been attained in equal perfection by the moderns.—B. 230 pliny's NATURAL HISTORY. [Book XXXV. same artist. They are both of the greatest beauty, the former being evidently the figure of a virgin, and they still remain uninjured, though the temple is in ruins. The Emperor Caius,40 inflamed with lustfulness, attempted to have them removed, but the nature of the plaster would not admit of it. There are in existence at Caere,41 some paintings of a still higher antiquity. Whoever carefully examines them, will be forced to admit that no art has arrived more speedily at perfec- tion, seeing that it evidently was not in existence at the time of the Trojan War.43 CHAT. 7. (4.)—ROMAN PAINTERS. Among the Romans, too, this art very soon rose into esteem, for it was from it that the Fabii, a most illustrious family, de- rived their surname of " Pictor;" indeed the first of the family who bore it, himself painted the Temple of Salus,43 in the year of the City, 450; a work which lasted to our own times, but was destroyed when the temple was burnt, in the reign of Claudius. Next in celebrity were the paintings of the poet Pacuvius, in the Temple of Hercules, situate in the Cattle Market :44 he was a son of the sister of Ennius, and the fame of the art was enhanced at Rome by the success of the artist on the stage. After this period, the art was no longer practised by men of rank; unless, indeed, we would make reference to Turpilius, in our own times, a native of Venetia, and of equestrian rank, several of whose beautiful works are still in existence at Verona. He painted, too, with his left hand, a thing never known to have been done by any one before.44* Titidius Labeo, a person of praetorian rank, who had been formerly proconsul of the province of Gallia Narbonensis, and who lately died at a very advanced age, used to pride himself upon the little pictures which he executed, but it only caused him to be ridiculed and sneered at. I must not omit, too, to mention a celebrated consultation upon the subject of paint- ing, which was held by some persons of the highest rank. « Caligula. 4l See B. iii. c. 8. 42 We have already remarked that painting was practised very exten- sively by the Egyptians, probably long before the period of the Trojan war.—B. 43 Or " Health." It was situate on the Quirinal Hill; in the Sixth Re- gion of the City. 44 "Forum Boarium." In the Eighth Region of the City. 41* Holbein and Mignard did the same. Chap. 7.] ROMAK PAINTERS. 231 Q,. Pedius,45 who had been honoured with the consulship and a triumph, and who had been named by the Dictator Caesar as co-heir with Augustus, had a grandson, who being dumb from his birth, the orator Messala, to whose family his grandmother belonged, recommended that he should be brought up as a painter, a proposal which was also approved of by the late Emperor Augustus. He died, however, in his youth, after having made great progress in the art. But the high estima- tion in which painting came to be held at Rome, was prin- cipally due, in my opinion, to M. Valerius Maximus Messala, who, in the year of the City, 490, was the first to exhibit a painting to the public; a picture, namely, of the battle in which he had defeated the Carthaginians and Hiero in Sicily, upon one side of the Curia Hostilia.46 The same thing was done, too, by L. Scipio,47 who placed in the Capitol a painting of the victory which he had gained in Asia ; but his brother Africanus, it is said, was offended at it, and not without reason, for his son had been taken prisoner in the battle.48 Lucius Hostilius Mancinus,49 too, who had been the first to enter Carthage at the final attack, gave a very similar offence to .ZEmilianus,49* by exposing in the Forum a painting of that city and the attack upon it, he himself standing near the picture, and describing to the spectators the various details of the siege; a piece of complaisance which secured him the consulship at the ensuing Comitia. The stage, too, which was erected for the games celebrated by Claudius Pulcher,90 brought the art of painting into great admiration, it being observed that the ravens were so de- ceived by the resemblance, as to light upon the decorations which were painted in imitation of tiles. 45 Q. Pedius was either nephew, or great nephew of Julius Caesar, and had the command under him in the Gallic "War; he is mentioned by Csesar in his Commentaries, and by other writers of this period.—B. 46 Originally the palace of Tullus Hostilius, in the Second Region of the City. 47 Asiaticus, the brother of the elder Africanus.—B. 48 It was before the decisive battle near Mount Sipylus, that the son of Africanus was made prisoner. Xing Antiochus received him with high respect, loaded him with presents, and sent him to Rome.—B. 49 He was legatus under the consul L. Calpurnius Piso, in the Third Punic War, and commanded the Roman fleet. He was elected Consul B.c. 145. 49* The younger Scipio Africanus. 80 We learn from Valerius Maximus, that C. Pulcher was the first to vary the scenes of the stage with a number of colours.—B. 232 PLINY'S NATURAL HISTORY. [Eook XXXV. CHAP. 8.—AT WHAT PERIOD FOREIGN PAINTINGS WERE FIRST INTRODUCED AT ROME. The high estimation in which the paintings of foreigners were held at Rome commenced with Lucius Mummius, who, from his victories, acquired the surname of " Achaicus." For upon the sale of the spoil on that occasion, King Attains having pur- chased, at the price of six thousand denarii, a painting of Fa- ther Liber by Aristides,61 Mummius, feeling surprised at the price, and suspecting that there might be some merit in it of which he himself was unaware,52 in spite of the complaints of Attalus, broke off the bargain, and had the picture placed in the Temple of Ceres ;63 the first instance, I conceive, of a foreign painting being publicly exhibited at Rome. After this, I find, it became a common practice to exhibit foreign pictures in the Forum ; for it was to this circumstance that we are indebted for a joke of the orator Crassus. While pleading below the Old Shops,54 he was interrupted by a witness who had been summoned, with the question, " Tell me then, Crassus, what do you take me to be ? " " Very much like him," answered he, pointing to the figure of a Gaul in a pic- ture, thrusting out his tongue in a very unbecoming manner.85 It was in the Forum, too, that was placed the picture of the Old Shepherd leaning on his staff; respecting which, when the envoy of the Teutones was asked what he thought was the value of it, he made answer that he would rather not have the original even, at a gift. CHAP. 9.—AT WHAT PERIOD PAINTING WAS FIRST HELD IN HIGH ESTEEM AT ROME, AND FROM WHAT CAUSES. But it was the Dictator Caesar that first brought the public 51 See Chapter 36 of this Book. 52 We have an amusing proof of this ignorance of Mummius given by Paterculus, B. i. c. 13, who says that when he had the choicest of the Corinthian statues and pictures sent to Italy, he gave notice to the con- tractors that if they lost any of them, they must be prepared to supply new ones. Ajasson offers a conjecture which is certainly plausible, that Mum- mius might possibly regard this painting as a species of talisman.—B. 53 In the Eleventh Region of the City. 5* " Sub Veteribus ;" meaning that part of the Forum where the " Old Shops" of the " argentarii" or money-brokers had stood. 55 We have an anecdote of a similar event, related by Cicero, as havin» occurred to Julius Caesar, De Oratore, B. ii. c. 66.—B. Chap. 10.] EXHIBITION OF PICTURES BY THE EMPERORS. 233 exhibition of pictures into such high estimation, by consecrating an Ajax and a Medea66 before the Temple of Venus Genetrix.67 After him there was M. Agrippa, a man who was naturally more attached to rustic simplicity than to refinement. Still, however, we have a magnificent oration of his, and one well worthy of the greatest of our citizens, on the advantage of exhibiting in public all pictures and statues ; a practice which would have been far preferable to sending them into banishment at our country-houses. Severe as he was in his tastes, he paid the people of Cyzicus twelve hundred thousand sesterces for two paintings, an Ajax and a Venus. He also ordered small paint- ings to be set in marble in the very hottest part of his Warm Baths ;58 where they remained until they were removed a short time since, when the building was repaired. CHAP. 10.--WHAT PICTURES THE EMPERORS HAVE EXHIBITED IN PUBLIC. The late Emperor Augustus did more than all the others; for he placed in the most conspicuous part of his Forum, two pictures, representing War and Triumph.59 He also placed in the Temple of his father,60 Caesar, a picture of the Castors,61 and one of Victory, in addition to those which we shall men- tion in our account of the works of the different artists.62 He also inserted two pictures in the wall of the Curia63 which he consecrated in the Comitium ;M one of which was a Nemea65 seated upon a lion, and bearing a palm in her hand. Close to »« See B. vii. c. 39. _ .. » We have had this Temple referred to in B. n. c. 23, B. vii. c. 39, B. viii. c. 64, and B. ix. c. 57 : it is again mentioned in the fortieth Chap- ter of this Book, and in B. xxxvii. c. 5.—B. »» In the " Vaporarium," namely.—B. The Thermae of Agrippa were in the Ninth Region of the City. 52 According to Hardouin, this was done after the battle ot Actium, in which Augustus subdued his rival Antony.—B. 60 By adoption. The Temple of Julius Caesar was in the Forum, in the Eighth Region of the City. 61 See B. vii. c. 22, B. x. c. 60, and B. xxxiv, c. 11. "2 In Chapter 36 of this Book.—B. 63 See B. vii. cc. 45, 54, 60, and B. xxxiv. c. 11. w S*e B. vii. c. 54, B. xv. c. 20, B. xxxiii. c. 6, and B. xxxiv. c. 11. w This was the personification of the Nemean forest in Peloponnesus, where Hercules killed the lion, the first of the labours imposed upon him by Eurystheus.—B. 234 PLINY'S NATURAL IIISTOBr. [Book XXXV her is an Old Man, standing with a staff, and abovehis head hangs the picture of a chariot with two horses. JSicias has written upon this picture that he " inburned"2 it, such being the word he has employed. . . In the second picture the thing to be chiefly admired, is the resemblance that the youth bears to the old man his father, allowing, of course, for the difference in age ; above them soars an eagle, which grasps a dragon in its talons. Philochares3 attests that he is the author of this work, an instance, if we only consider it, of the mighty power wielded by the pictorial art; for here, thanks to Philochares, the senate of the Roman people, age after age, has before its eyes Glaucion and his son Aristippus, persons who would otherwise have been altogether unknown. The Emperor Tiberius, too, a prince who was by no means very gracious, has exhibited in the temple dedi- cated by him, in his turn, to Augustus, several pictures which we shall describe hereafter.4 CHAP. 11. (5.)—THE ART OF PAINTING. Thus much then with reference to the dignity of this now expiring art. We have already5 stated with what single colours the earlier artists painted, when speaking of these pigments under the head of metals. The new modes of painting which were afterwards discovered, and are known as "neogrammatea,"6the names of the artists, their different inven- tions, and the periods at which these inventions were adopted, will all be described when we come to enumerate the painters: for the present, however, the proposed plan of this work requires, that I should enlarge upon the nature of the several colours that are employed. The art of painting at last became developed, in the inven- 1 See Chapter 40 of this Book, 2 " Inussisse;" meaning that he executed it in encaustic. The Greek term used was probably ENEK.AY2E. 3 Hemsterhuys is of opinion that he was the brother of JEschines, the orator, contemptuously alluded to by Demosthenes, Pals. Legat. Sec. 237, as a painter of perfume pots. If so, he was probably an Athenian, and must have flourished about the 109th Olympiad. 4 In Chapter 40 of this Book. 5 In B. xxxiii, c. 39. He alludes to cinnabaris, minium, rubrica, and sinopis. 6 Meaning " new painting," probably. The reading, however, is doubtful. Chap. 13.] SINOPIS. 235 tion of light and shade, the alternating contrast of the colours serving to heighten the effect of each. At a later period, again, lustre7 was added, a thing altogether different from light. The gradation between lustre and light on the one hand and shade on the other, was called " tonos ;" while the blending of the various tints, and their passing into one another, was known as " harmoge."8 CHAP. 12. (6.)---PIGMENTS OTHER THAN THOSE OF A METALLIC ORIGIN. ARTIFICIAL COLOURS. Colours are either9 sombre or florid, these qualities arising either from the nature of the substances or their mode of com- bination. The florid colours are those which the employer supplies10 to the painter at his own expense; minium,11 namely, armenium, cinnabaris,12 chrysocolla,13 indicum, and purpurissum. The others are the sombre colours. Taking both kinds together, some are native colours, and others are artificial. Sinopis, rubrica, paraetonium, melinum, eretria and orpiment, are native colours. The others are artificial, more particularly those described by us when speaking of metals; in addition to which there are, among the more common colours, ochra, usta or burnt ceruse, sandarach, sandyx, syricum, and atramentum. CHAP. 13.—SINOPIS : ELEVEN REMEDIES. Sinopis14 was discovered in Pontus; and hence its name, from the city of Sinope there. It is produced also in Egypt, 7 " Splendor." Supposed by Wornum to be equivalent to our word " tone," applied to a coloured picture, which comprehends both the " tonos" and the " harmoge" of the Greeks. Smith's Diet. Antiq. Art. Painting. 8 "Tone," says Fuseli, (in the English acceptation of the word) " is the element of the ancient ' harmoge,' that imperceptible transition, which, without opacity, confusion, or hardness, united local colour, demitint, shade, and reflexes."—Lect. I. 9 " Austeri aut floridi." 10 Because of their comparatively great expense. 11 See B. xxxiii. cc. 36, 37. Under this name are included Sulphuret of mercury, and Red oxide of lead. 12 See B. xxxiii. cc. 38, 39. 13 See B. xxxiii. c. 26. " Indicum" and " purpurissum" will be de- scribed in the present Book. 14 Or " rubrica Sinopica ;" " red earth of Sinope," a brown red ochre, or red oxide of iron. Dioscorides identifies it with the Greek fnXrbg, which indeed seems to have embraced the cinnabaris, minium, and rubnete of the Romans. 236 pliny's NATURAL HISTORY. [Book XXXV, the Balearic islands, and Africa; but the best is found in Lemnos and Cappadocia, being extracted from quarries there. That part is considered the best which has been found adhering to the rock. In the native mass, it has its own proper colour within, but is spotted on the exterior; the ancients made use of it for tone.1* , There are three kinds of sinopis, the red, the pale red, and the intermediate. The price of the best is twelve denarii per pound ; it is used both for painting with the brush, and for colouring wood. The kind which comes from Africa sells at eight asses per pound; the name given to it is " cicerculum."16 That17 which is of the deepest red is the most in use for colouring compartitions. The sinopis known as the dull18 kind, being of a very tawny complexion, sells also at the price of eight asses per pound; it is used principally for the lower" parts of compartitions. Used medicinally, sinopis is of a soothing nature, and is em- ployed as an ingredient in plasters and emollient poultices. It admits of being easily used, whether in the form of a dry or of a liquid composition, for the cure of ulcers situate in the humid parts of the body, the mouth and the rectum, for in- stance. Used as an injection, it arrests looseness of the bowels, and, taken in doses of one denarius, it acts as a check upon female discharges. Applied in a burnt state, with wine in particular, it has a desiccative effect upon granulations of the eyelids. CHAP. 14.--RUBRICA ; LEMNIAN EARTH : FOUR REMEDIES. Some persons have wished to make out that sinopis is nothing else but a kind of rubrica20 of second-rate quality, looking upon earth of Lemnos as a rubrica of the highest quality. This last approaches very nearly to minium,21 and 15 " Splendorem." See Note 7 above. 16 So called from its deep grey brown colour, like that of the " cicer" or chick-pea. 17 The sense of this passage seems to require the insertion of " qua?," although omitted by the Bamberg MS. 18 " Pressior." 19 Those parts of the walls, probably, which were nearer to the ground, and more lik°'y to become soiled. 20 Red OoLre, or red oxide of iron. See B. xxxiii. c. 38, and B. xxxiv. c. 37. 21 See B. xxxiii. cc. 36, 37. Chap. 17.] LEUCOPHORON. 23/ was as highly esteemed among the ancients as the island that produces it: it was never sold except in sealed packages, a cir- cumstance to which it was indebted for its additional name of " sphragis." It is with this material that they give the under- coating to minium, in the adulteration of which it is also ex- tensively employed. In medicine it is very highly esteemed. Applied to the eyes in the form of a liniment, it allays defluxions and pains in those organs, and arrests the discharges from lachrymal fistulas. To persons vomiting blood, it is administered with vinegar to drink. It is taken also internally for affections of the spleen and kidneys; and by females for the purpose of arresting flooding. It is employed too, to counteract the effects of poisons, and of stings inflicted by sea or land ser- pents ; hence it is that it is so commonly used as an ingredient in antidotes. CHAP. 15.--EGYPTIAN EARTH. Of the other kinds of rubrica, those of Egypt and Africa are of the greatest utility to workers in wood, from the fact of their being absorbed with the greatest rapidity. They are used also for painting, and are found in a native state in iron- mines.22 CHAP. 16.—OCHRA : REMEDIES DERIVED FROM RUBRICA. It is from rubrica also, that ochra23 is prepared, the rubrica being burnt24 in new earthen pots well luted with clay. The more highly it is calcined in the furnace, the better the colour is. All kinds of rubrica are of a desiccative nature, and hence it is that they are so useful for plasters, and as an ap- plication even for erysipelas. CHAP. 17.—LEUCOPHORON. Half a pound of Pontic sinopis, ten pounds of bright sil,25 22 Ajasson thinks that this was an hydroxide of iron, of a greenish yel- low or brown colour. . ... 23 Whence our word " ochre." See " Sil," in B. xxxm. cc. 56, 57. 24 Theophrastus, on the contrary, says that it is " ochra" that is burnt, in order to obtain " rubrica." 2d See B. xxxiii. cc. 56, o7. 238 pliny's natural history. [Book XXXV. and two pounds of Greek melinum,26 well mixed and triturated together for twelve successive days, produce "leucophoron,"27 a cement used for applying gold-leaf to wood. CHAW 18.--PARiETONIUM. Paraetonium28 is so called from the place29 of that name in Egypt. It is Bea-foam,30 they say, solidified with slime, and hence it is that minute shells are often found in it. It is pre- pared also in the Isle of Crete, and at Cyrenae. At Rome, it is adulterated with Cimolian31 earth, boiled and thickened. The price of that of the highest quality is fifty denarii per six pounds. This is the most unctuous of all the white colours, and the most tenacious as a coating for plaster, the result of its smoothness. CHAP. 19.—MELINUM : SIX REMEDIES. CERUSE. Melinum, too, is a white colour, the best being the produce of the Isle of Melos.32 It is found also in Samos; but this last kind is never used by painters, in consequence of its being too unctuous. The persons employed in extracting it, lie at full length upon the ground, and search for the veins among the rocks. In medicine it is employed for much the same purposes as eretria ;33 in addition to which, it dries the tongue, acts as a depilatory, and has a soothing effect. The price of it is one sestertius per pound. The third of the white pigments is ceruse, the nature of which we have already34 explained when speaking of the ores of lead ; there was also a native ceruse, formerly found on the 26 A white earth from the Isle of Melos. See Chapter 19. 27 See B. xxxiii. c. 20. " One may readily conceive that this must have been a ferruginous ochre, or kind of bole, which is still used as a ground, poliment, assietle."—Beckmann, Hist. Inv. Vol. II. p. 294. Bohn's Edition. 28 A white, much used for fresco painting. Ajasson is of opinion, that Pliny, in this Chapter, like the other ancient authors, confounds two earths that are, in reality, totally different.—Hydrosilicate of magnesia, or Steatite, and Rhomboidicai carbonate of lime. 29 See B. v. c. 6. 30 Ajasson thinks that possibly our compact magnesite, meerschaum, or sea-foam, may be the substance here alluded to. 31 See Chapter 57 of this Book. 32 See B. iv. c. 33. Tournefort says that this earth is exactly similar to the Cimolian earth, described in Chapter 57. 33 See B. xxxiii. c. 57, and Chapter 21 of this Book. 34 In B. xxxiv. c. 54. Chap. 22.] SANDARACH. 239 lands of Theodotus at Smyrna, which the ancients made use of for painting ships. At the present day, all ceruse is prepared artificially, from lead and vinegar,35 as already stated. chap. 20.—USTA. Usta36 was accidentally discovered at a fire in the Piraeus, Bome ceruse having been burnt in the jars there. Nicias, the artist above-mentioned,37 was the first to use it. At the present day, that of Asia, known also as " purpurea," is con- sidered the best. The price of it is six denarii per pound. It is prepared also at Rome by calcining marbled sil,38 and quenching it with vinegar. Without the use of usta shadows cannot be made.39 CHAP. 21.—ERETRIA. Eretria takes its name from the territory40 which produces it. Nicomachus41 and Parrhasius made use of it. In a medi- cinal point of view, it is cooling and emollient. In a calcined state, it promotes the cicatrization of wounds, is very useful as a desiccative, and is particularly good for pains in the head, and for the detection of internal suppurations. If the earth, when applied42 with water, does not dry with rapidity, the presence of purulent matter is apprehended. CHAP. 22.--SANDARACH. According to Juba, sandarach and ochra are both of them productions of the island of Topazus,43 in the Red Sea; but neither of them are imported to us from that place. The 35 Ceruse, white lead, or carbonate of lead, is prepared in much the same manner at the present day. Ajasson is of opinion that the native pigment discovered on the lands of Theodotus, was native carbonate of lead, the crystals of which are found accompanied by quartz. 36 " Burnt" ceruse. This was, in fact, one of the varieties of " minium," red oxide of lead, our red lead. Vitruvius and Dioscorides call it " san- daraca," differing somewhat from that of Pliny. 37 In Chapter 10. 3» See B. xxxiii. cc. 56, 57. 89 It was possibly owing to this that the colour known as " umber" re- ceived its name, and not from Ombria, in Italy. Ajasson says that sha- dows cannot be successfully made without the use of transparent colours, and that red and the several browns are remarkably transparent. 4u See B. iv. c. 21. 41 As to both of these artists, see Chapter 36. 42 To the chest. 43 See B. vi. c. 34, and B. xxxvii. c. 32. 240 pliny's natural history. [Book XXXV. mode of preparing sandarach we have described44 already: there is a spurious kind also, prepared by calcining ceruse in the furnace. This substance, to be good, ought to be of a flame colour; the price of it is five asses per pound. CHAP. 23.--SANDYX. Calcined with an equal proportion of rubrica, sandarach forms sandyx ;45 although I perceive that Virgil, in the fol- lowing line,46 has taken sandyx to be a plant— " Sandyx itself shall clothe the feeding lambs." The price of sandyx47 is one half that of sandarach; these two colours being the heaviest of all in weight. CHAP. 24.--SYRICUM. Among the artificial colours, too, is syricum, which is used as an under-coating for minium, as already48 stated. It is prepared from a combination of sinopis with sandyx. chap. 25.—atramentum. Atramentum,49 too, must be reckoned among the artificial co- lours, although it is also derived in two ways from the earth. 44 In B. xxxiv. c. 55. " Pliny speaks of different shades of sandaraca, the pale, or massicot, (yellow oxide of lead), and a mixture of the pale with minium. It also signified Realgar, or red sulphuret of arsenic." —Wornum, in Smith's Diet. Antiq. Art. Colores. 45 Sir H. Davy supposes this colour to have approached our crimson. In painting, it was frequently glazed with purple, to give it an additional lustre. 46 Eel. iv. 1.45. " Sponte sua sandyx pascentes vestiet agnos." Ajasson thinks that " Sandyx" may have been a name common to two colouring substances, a vegetable and a mineral, the former being our madder. Beck- mann is of the same opinion, and that Virgil has committed no mistake in the line above quoted. Hist. Inv. Vol. II. p. 110. Bohn's Edition. See also B. xxiv. c. 56. 41 The form " sand," in these words, Ajasson considers to be derived either from " Sandes," the name of Hercules in Asia Minor, or at least in Lydia: or else from Sandak, the name of an ancestor of Cinyras and Adonis. 48 In B. xxxiii. c. 40. According to Aetius, syricum was made by the calcination of pure ceruse, (similar to the " usta" above mentioned). He states also that there was no difference between sandyx and syricum, the former being the term generally used by medical men. 49 " Black colouring substance." Chap. 25.] ATRAMENTUM. 241 For sometimes it is found exuding from the earth like the brine of salt-pits, while at other times an earth itself of a sulphurous colour is sought for the purpose. Painters, too, have been known to go so far as to dig up half-charred bones50 from the sepulchres for this purpose. All these plans, however, are new-fangled and troublesome; for this substance may be prepared, in numerous ways, from the soot that is yielded by the combustion of resin or pitch ; bo much so, indeed, that manufactories have been built on the principle of not allowing an escape for the smoke evolved by the process. The most esteemed black,51 however, that is made in this way, is prepared from the wood of the torch-pine. It is adulterated by mixing it with the ordinary soot from furnaces and baths, a substance which is also employed for the purpose of writing. Others, again, calcine dried wine-lees, and assure us that if the wine was originally of good quality from which the colour is made, it will bear comparison with that of indicum.52 Polygnotus and Micon, the most celebrated painters of Athens, made their black from grape-husks, and called it " tryginon. "53 Apelles invented a method of preparing it from burnt ivory, the name given to it being " elephantinon." We have indicum also, a substance imported from India, the composition of which is at present unknown to me.54 Dyers, too, prepare an atramentum from the black inflorescence which adheres to the brazen dye-pans. It is made also from logs of torch-pine,"burnt to charcoaland pounded in amortar. Thesaepia, too, has a wonderful property of secreting a black liquid;55 but from this liquid no colour is prepared. The preparation of every kind of atramentum is completed by exposure to the sun; 50 "Carbones infectos." The reading is very doubtful. It may possi- bly mean "charred bones tainted with dirt." This would make an in- ferior ivory-black. The earth before-mentioned is considered by Ajasson to be a deuto-sulphate of copper, a solution of which, in gallic acid, is still used for dyeing black. The water near copper-mines would very pro- bably be also highly impregnated with it. ■ Beckmann considers these to have been vitriolic products. Vol. II. p. 265. 81 Our Lamp-black. Vitruvius describes the construction of the manu- factories above alluded to. 5S Probably, our Chinese, or Indian ink, a different substance from the indicum of Chapter 27. 63 From rpvZ, " grape-husks," or " wine-lees." 54 Indian ink is a composition of fine lamp-black and size. 5S See B. ii. c. 29. Sepia, for sepic' drawing, is now prepared from these juices. VOL. VI. R 242 PLINY'S NATURAL niSTORY. [Book XXXV. the black, for writing, having an admixture of gum, and that for coating walls, an admixture of glue. Black pigment that has been dissolved in vinegar is not easily effaced by washing. CHAP. 26.--PURPURISSUM. Among the remaining colours which, as already stated,5* owing to their dearness are furnished by the employer, pur- purissum holds the highest rank. For the purpose of prepar- ing it, argentaria or silver chalk57 is dyed along with purple58 cloth, it imbibing the colour more speedily than the wool. The best of all is that which, being thrown the very first into the boiling cauldron, becomes saturated with the dye in its primi- tive state. The next best in quality is that which has been put into the same liquor, after the first has been removed. Each time that this is done, the quality becomes proportionally deteriorated, owing, of course, to the comparative thinness of the liquid. The reason that the purpurissum of Puteoli is more highly esteemed than that of Tyre, Gaetulia, or Laconia, places which produce the most precious kinds of purple, is the fact that it combines more readily with hysginura,69 and that it is made to absorb the colouring liquid of madder. The worst purpurissum is that of Lanuvium.60 The price of purpurissum is from one to thirty denarii per pound. Persons who use it in painting, place a coat of sandyx beneath; a layer on which of purpurissum with glair of egg, produces all the brilliant tints of minium. If, on the other hand, it is their object to make a purple, they lay a coat of caeruleum61 beneath, and purpurissum, with egg,62 upon it. CHAT. 27.--INDICUM. Next in esteem to this is indicum,63 a production of India, being a slime64 which adheres to the scum upon the reeds there. 58 In Chapter 12 of this Book. 57 Plate powder. See B. xvii. c. 4, and Chapter 58 of this Book. 68 See B. ix. c. 60. 89 SeeB. ix. c. 65, and B. xxi. cc. 38, 97. According to Vitruvius, it is a colour between scarlet and purple. It may possibly have been made from woad. «o See B. iii. c. 16. «i gee g TTTjjjt Ci 57. 62 White of egg, probably. 63 Indigo, no doubt, is the colour meant. See B. xxxiii. c. 57. 64 It is the produce of the Indigofera tinctoria, and comes from Bengal more particularly. Beckmann and Dr. Bancroft have each investigated this subject at great length, and though Pliny is greatly mistaken as to the V Chap. 29.] APPIANUM. 243 When powdered, it is black in appearance, but when diluted in water it yields a marvellous combination of purple and caaru- leum. There is another65 kind, also, which floats upon the sur- face of the pans in the purple djre-houses, being the scum which rises upon the purple dye. Persons who adulterate it, Btain pigeons' dung with genuine indicum, or else colour Seli- nusian66 earth, or anularian67 chalk with woad. The proper way of testing indicum is by laying it on hot coals, that which is genuine producing a fine purple flame, and emitting a smell like that of sea-water while it smokes : hence it is that some are of opinion that it is gathered from the rocks on the sea-shore. The price of indicum is twenty denarii per pound. Used medicinally, it alleviates cold shiverings and defluxions, and acts as a desiccative upon sores. chap. 28.—armenium; one remedy. Armenia sends us the colouring substance which is known to us by its name.68 This also is a mineral, which admits of being dyed, like chrysocolla,*9 and is best when it most closely resembles that substance, the colour being pretty much that of caeruleum. In former times it was sold at thirty sesterces per pound; but there has been found of late in the Spanish provinces a sand which admits of a similar preparation, and consequently armenium has come to be sold so low as at six denarii per pound. It differs from caeruleum in a certain degree of whiteness, which causes the colour it yields to be thinner in comparison. The only use made of it in medicine is for the purpose of giving nourishment to the hair, that of the eyelids in particular. CHAP. 29.—APPIANUM. There are also two colours of very inferior quality, \vhich have been recently discovered. One of these is the green mode in which the drug was produced, they agree in the conclusion that his "indicum" was real indigo, and not, as some have supposed, a pigment prepared from isatis, or woad. 6i This passage, similar in many respects to the account given by Dios- corides, is commented on at great length by Beckmann, Hist. Inv. Vol. II. p. 263. Bohn's Edition. 66 See Chapter 56 of this Book. « See Chapter 30 of this Book. & " Armenium." Armenian bole is still used for colouring tooth-pow- der and essence of anchovies. °9 See B. xxxiii. c. 26. R 2 244 pliny's NATURAli HISTORY. [Book XXXV. known as " appianum,"70 a fair imitation of chrysocolla ; just as though we had not had to mention sufficient of these coun- terfeits already. This colour, too, is prepared from a green chalk, the usual price of it being one sesterce per pound. CHAP. 30.--ANULARIAN WHITE. The other colour is that known as "anularian71 white;" being used for giving a brilliant whiteness to the figures of females.72 This, too, is prepared from a kind of chalk, combined with the glassy paste which the lower classes wear in their rings :73 hence it is, that it has the name " anulare." CHAP. 31. (7.)--WHICn COLOURS DO NOT ADMIT OE BEING LAID ON A WET COATING. Those among the colours which require a dry, cretaceous, coating,74 and refuse to adhere to a wet surface, are purpurissum, indicum, caeruleum,75 melinum, orpiment, appianum, and ceruse. Wax, too, is stained with all these colouring substances for encaustic painting ;76 a process which does not admit of 70 So called, probably, either from the place where it was made, or from the person who first discovered it. Some commentators have sug- gested that it should be " apian" green, meaning "parsley" colour. 71 So called from "anulus," a " ring," as mentioned below. 72 " Quo muliebres picturae illuminantur." The meaning of this pas- sage is obscure. It would seem almost to apply to paintings, but Beck- mann is of opinion that the meaning is, " This is the beautiful white with which the ladies paint or ornament themselves."—Hist. Inv. Vol. II. p. 261. Bohn's Edition. 73 Beckmann suggests that it was so called from its being one of the sealing earths, " anulus" being the name of a signet ring. Vol. II. p. 260. 74 "Cretulam." 75 See B. xxxiii. c. 57. 76 See Chapter 39, where this process is more fully described. "' Cera' or'waxes,'was the ordinary term for painters' colours among the Ro- mans, but more especially encaustic colours, which were probably kept dry in boxes, and the wet brush or pencil was rubbed upon them when colour was required, or they were moistened by the artist previous to commencing work. From the term ' cerse' it would appear that wax constituted the principal ingredient in the colouring vehicle used; but this does not ne- cessarily follow, and it is very improbable that it did ; there must have been a great portion of gum or resin in the colours, or they could not have hardened. Wax was undoubtedly a most essential ingredient, since it apparently prevents the colours from cracking. ' Cerse' therefore might originally simply mean colours which contained wax, in contradistinction to those which did not; but was afterwards applied generally by the Eo- mans to the colours of painters."—Wornuni, Smith's Diet, Antiq. Art. Painting. Chap. 32.] COLOURS USED BY THE ANCIENTS IN PAINTING. 245 being applied to walls, but is in common use77 by way of orna- ment for 6hipsof war, and, indeed, merchant-ships at the present day. As we go so far as to paint these vehicles of danger, no one can be surprised if we paint our funeral piles as well, or if we have our gladiators conveyed in handsome carriages to the scene of death, or, at all events, of carnage. When we only contemplate this extensive variety of colours, we cannot but admire the ingenuity displayed by the men of former (lays. CHAP. 32.—WHAT COLOURS WERE USED DY THE ANCIENTS IN PAINTING. It was with four colours only,78 that Apelles,79 Echion, Melanthius, and Nicomachus, those most illustrous painters, executed their immortal works; melinum80 for the white, Attic sil81 for the yellow, Pontic sinopis for the red, and atramentum for the black ;82 and yet a single picture of theirs has sold before now for the treasures of whole cities. But at the present day, when purple is employed for colouring walls even, and when India sends to us the slime83 of her rivers, and the corrupt blood of her dragons64 and her elephants, there is no such thing as a picture of high quality produced. Everything, in fact, was su- perior at a time when the resources of art were so much fewer than they now are. Yes, so it is ; and the reason is, as we 77 Called " Inceramenta navium," in Livy, B. xxviii. c. 45. See also Chapters 39 and 41 of this Book. 78 Pliny here commits a mistake, which may have arisen from an imper- fect recollection, as Sir. H. Davy has supposed, of a passage in Cicero (Drutus, c. 18), which, however, quite contradicts the statement of Pliny. " In painting, we admire in the works of Zeuxis, Polygnotus, Timanthes, and those who used four colours only, the figure and the lineaments; but in the works of Echion, Nicomachus, Protogenes, and Apelles, everything is perfect." Indeed Pliny contradicts himself, for he speaks of two others colours used by the earliest painters, the testa trita, or ground earthenware, in Chapter 5 of this Book; and "cinnabaris," or vermilion, in B. xxxiii. c. 36. Also, in Chapter 21 of this Book he speaks of Eretrian eartli as having been used by Nicomachus, and in Chapter 25 of ivory black as having been invented by Apelles. 79 These painters will all be noticed in Chapter 36. e° See Chapter 19 of this Book, 81 See B. xxxiii. c. 56. 82 Blue is here excluded altogether, unless under the term " atramen- tum" we would include black and blue indicum, or in other words, Indian ink and indigo. 83 See Chapter 27 of this Book. 84 In allusion to "Dragon's blood." See B. xxxiii. c. 38. 246 pliny's NATURAL HISTORY. [Book XXXV. have already stated,85 that it is the material, and not the efforts of genius, that is now the object of research. CHAP. 33.—AT WHAT TIME COMEATS OF GLADIATORS WERE FIRST PAINTED AND PUBLICLY EXHIBITED. One folly, too, of this age of ours, in reference to painting, I must not omit. The Emperor Nero ordered a painting of him- self to be executed upon canvass, of colossal proportions, one hundred and twenty feet in height; a thing till then un- known.86 This picture was just completed when it was burnt by lightning, with the greater part of the gardens of Maius, in which it was exhibited. A freedman of the same prince, on the occasion of his ex- hibiting a show of gladiators at Antium, had the public por- ticos hung, as everybody knows, with paintings, in which were represented genuine portraits of the gladiators and all the other assistants. Indeed, at this place, there has been a very prevailing taste for paintings for many ages past. C. Terentius Lucanus was the first who had combats of gladiators painted for public exhibition: in honour of his grandfather, who had adopted him, he provided thirty pairs of gladiators in the Forum, for three consecutive days, and exhibited a painting of their combats in the Grove of Diana.87 CHAP. 34. (8.)—THE AGE OF PAINTING; WITH THE NAMES OF THE MORE CELEBRATED WORKS AND ARTISTS, FOUR HUNDRED AND FIVE IN NUMBER. I shall now proceed to enumerate, as briefly as possible, the more eminent among the painters ; it not being consistent with the plan of this work to go into any great lengths of detail. It must suffice therefore, in some cases, to name the artist in a cursory manner only, and with reference to the account given of others ; with the exception, of course, of the more famous pro- 85 In Chapter 2 of this Book. 86 From the construction of the passage, it is difficult to say whether he means to say that such colossal figures were till then unknown in paint- ing, or whether that the use of canvass in painting was till then unknown. If the latter is the meaning, it is not exactly correct, though it is probable that the introduction of canvass for this purpose was comparatively late ; there being no mention of its being employed by the Greek painters of the best periods. „ 87 See B. iii. c.9, B. xiv. c. 3, and B. xvi. c. 91. Chap. 34.] THE NAMES OF CELEBRATED PAINTERS. 247 ductions of the pictorial art, whether still in existence or now lost, all of which it will be only right to take some notice of. In this department, the ordinary exactness of the Greeks has been somewhat inconsistent, in placing the painters so many Olympiads after the statuaries and toreutic88 artists, and the very first of them so late as the ninetieth Olympiad ; seeing that Phidias himself is said to have been originally a painter, and that there was a shield at Athens which had been painted by him : in addition to which, it is universally agreed that in the eighty-third Olympiad, his brother Panaenus89 painted, at Elis,90 the interior of the shield of Minerva, which had been executed by Colotes,91 a disciple of Phidias and his assistant in the statue of the Olympian Jupiter.92 And then besides, is it not equally admitted that Candaules, the last Lydian king of the race of the Heraclidae, very generally known also by the name of Myrsilus, paid its weight in gold for a picture by the painter Bularchus,93 which represented the battle fought by him with the Magnetes ? so great was the estimation in which the art was already held. This circumstance must of necessity have happened about the period of our Romulus ; for it was in the eighteenth Olympiad that Candaules perished, or, as some writers say, in the same year as the death of Romulus: a thing which clearly demonstrates that even at that early period the art had already become famous, and had arrived at a state of great perfection. If, then, we are bound to admit this conclusion, it must be equally evident that the commencement of the art is of much earlier date, and that those artists who painted in mono- chrome,94 and whose dates have not been handed down to us, must have flourished at even an anterior period; Hygiaenon, namely, Dinias, Charmadas,95 Eumarus, of Athens, the first who 68 "Toreutae." For the explanation of this term, see end of B. xxxiii. 89 In reality he was cousin or nephew of Phidias, by the father's side, though Pausanias, B. v. c. 11, falls into the same error as that committed by Pliny. He is mentioned likewise by Strabo and iEschines. 90 See B. xxxvi. c. 55. 91 See B. xxxiv. c. 19. 92 See B. xxxiv. c. 19. 93 See B. vii. c. 39. 94 Paintings with but one colour. " Monochromata," as we shall see in Chapter 36, were painted at all times, and by the greatest masters. Those of Zeuxis corresponded with the Chiariscuri of the Italians, light and shade being introduced with the highest degree of artistic skill. 96 These several artists are quite unknown, being mentioned by no other author. 248 PLINY'S NATURAL HISTORY- [Book XXXV. distinguished the sexes96 in painting, and attempted to imitate every kind of figure; and Cimon97 of Cleonae, who improved upon the inventions of Eumarus. It was this Cimon, too, who first invented foreshortenings,98 or in other words, oblique views of the figure, and who first learned to vary the features by representing them in the various attitudes of looking backwards, upwards, or down- wards. It was he, too, who first marked the articulations of the limbs, indicated the veins, and gave the natural folds and sinuosities to drapery. Panaenus, too, the brother of Phidias, even executed a painting99 of the battle fought by the Athe- nians with the Persians at Marathon : so common, indeed, had the employment of colours become, and to such a state of per- fection had the art arrived, that he was able to represent, it is said, the portraits of the various generals who commanded at that battle, Miltiades, Callimachus, and Cynaegirus, on the side of the Athenians, and, on that of the barbarians, Datis and Artaphernes. OHAP. 35. (9.)—THE FIRST CONTEST FOR EXCELLENCE IN THK PICTORIAL ART. And not only this, but, during the time that Panaenus flourished, there were contests in the pictorial art instituted at Corinth and Delphi. On the first occasion, Panaenus him- self entered the lists, at the Pythian Games, with Timagoras of Chalcis, by whom he was defeated ; a circumstance which is recorded in some ancient lines by Timagoras himself, and an undoubted proof that the chroniclers are in error as to 96 It is pretty clear, from vases of a very ancient date, that it is not the sexual distinction that is here alluded to. Eumarus, perhaps, may have been the first to give to each sex its characteristic style of design, iu the com- positions, draperies, attitudes, and complexions of the respective sexes. Wornum thinks that, probably, Eumarus, and certainly, Cimon, belonged to the class of ancient tetrachromists, or polychromists, painting in a va- riety of colours, without a due, or at least a partial, observance of the laws of light and shade. Smith's Diet. Antiq. Art. Painting. 97 He is mentioned also by -FElian. Bottiger is of opinion that he flou- rished about the 80th Olympiad. It is probable, however, that he lived long before the age of Polygnotus; but some time after that of Eumarus. Wornum thinks that he was probably a contemporary of Solon, a century before Polygnotus. 9s " Catagrapha." 99 This picture was placed in the Pcecile at Athens, and is mentioned also by Pausanias, B. i. c. 15, and by ^Eschines, Ctesiph. s. 186. Chap. 36.] ARTISTS WHO PAINTED WITH THE PENCIL. 249 the date of the origin of painting. After these, and yet before the ninetieth Olympiad, there were other celebrated painters, Polygnotus of Thasos,1 for instance, who was the first to paint females in transparent drapery, and to represent the head covered with a parti-coloured head-dress. He, too, was the first to contribute many other improvements to the art of painting, opening the mouth, for example, showing the teeth, and throwing expression into the countenance, in place of the ancient rigidity of the features. There is a picture by this artist in the Portico2 of Pompeius, before the Curia that was built by him ; with reference to which, there is some doubt whether the man represented with a shield is in the act of ascending or descending. He also embellished the Temple3 at Delphi, and at Athens the Portico known as the Pcecile ;4 at which last he worked gratuitously, in conjunction with Micon,5 who received pay for his labours. Indeed Polygnotus was held in the higher esteem of the two; for the Amphictyons,6 who form the general Council of Greece, decreed that he should have his lodging furnished him at the public expense. There was also another Micon, distinguished from the first Micon by the surname of "the younger," and whose daughter Timarete7 also practised the art of painting. CHAP. 36.--ARTISTS WHO PAINTED WITH THE PENCIL. In the ninetieth Olympiad lived Aglaophon,8 Cephisodorus, EriUus, and Evenor, the father of Parrhasius, one of the 1 See B. vii. c. 57. (Vol. II. p. 233), where he is mentioned as an Athe- nian. It is not improbable that he became a titizen of Athens in the seventy- ninth Olympiad, B.C. 463, when Thasos was brought under the power of Athens, and, as Sillig suggests, at the solicitation of Cimon, the son of Miltiades. It is generally supposed that he flourished about the eightieth Olympiad. '* Belonging to the Theatre of Pompey, in the Ninth Begion of the City. 3 With scenes from the Trojan War, and the adventures of Ulysses. 4 Or " Variegated;" from its various pictures. 5 See B. xxxiii. c. 56. 6 See B. vii. c. 37. 7 She is again mentioned in Chapter 40. 8 He was a native of Thasos, and father and instructor of Polygnotus. As Pliny has already stated that Polygnotus flourished before the ninetieth Olympiad, there is an inconsistency in his making mention of the son as flourishing before the father. Hence Sillig, with Bottiger, is inclined to think that there were two artists of this name, one about the seventieth, and the other about the ninetieth Olympiad, the former being the father of Polygnotus. 250 pliny's NATURAL HISTORY. [Book XXXV. greatest of painters, and of whom we shall have to speak when we come to the period at which he flourished. All these were artists of note, but not sufficiently so to detain us by any further details, in our haste to arrive at the luminaries of the art; first among whom shono Apollodorus of Athens, in the ninety-third Olympiad. He was the first to paint objects as they really appeared ; the first too, we may justly say, to confer glory9 by the aid of the pencil.10 Of this artist there is a Priest in Adoration, and an Ajax struck by Light- ning, a work to be seen at Pergamus at the present day: before him, there is no painting of any artist now to be seen which has the power of rivetting the eye. The gates of art being now thrown open by Apollodorus, Zeuxis of Heraclea11 entered upon the scene, in the fourth year of the ninety-fifth Olympiad, destined to lead the pencil—for it is of the pencil that we are still speaking—a pencil for which there was nothing too arduous, to a very high pitch of glory. By some writers he is erroneously placed in the eighty-ninth Olympiad, a date that must of necessity be re- served for Demophilus of Himera and Neseus of Thasos, of one of whom, it is uncertain which, Zeuxis was the pupil. It was in reference to him that Apollodorus, above-mentioned, wrote a verse to the effect, that Zeuxis had stolen the art from others and had taken it all to himself.12 Zeuxis also acquired such a vast amount of wealth, that, in a spirit of ostentation, he went so far as to parade himself at Olyrapia with his name embroidered on the checked pattern of his garments in letters of gold. At a later period, he came to the 9 "Prirausque gloriam penicillo jure contulit." Wornum considers that " the rich effect of the combination of light and shade with colour is clearly expressed in these words."—Smith's Diet. Antiq. Art. Painting. This artist, who was noted for his arrogance, is mentioned by other ancient writers. 10 "Penicillus." This was the hair-pencil or brush, which was used by one class of painters, in contradistinction to the stylus or cestrum used for spreading the wax-colours. Painters with the brush used what we should term " water-colours;" oil-colours, in our sense of the word, being un- known to the ancients. n In " Magna Graecia," near Crotona, it is supposed. Tzetzes styles him as an Ephesian. 12 This is probably the meaning of the words—" Artem ipsis ablatam Zeuxim ferre secum.': It is doubtful whether "ipsis" or "ipsi" is the correct reading. Chap. 36.] ARTISTS WHO PAINTED WITH THE PENCIL. 251 determination to give away his works, there being no price high enough to pay for them, he said. Thus, for instance, he gave an Alcmena to the people of Agrigentum, and a Pan to Archelaus.13 He also painted a Penelope, in which the peculiar character of that matron appears to be delineated to the very life ; and a figure of an athlete, with which he was so highly pleased, that he wrote beneath it the line which has Bince become so famous, to the effect that it would be easier to find fault with him than to imitate him.14 His Jupiter seated on the throne, with the other Deities standing around him, is a magnificent production: the same, too, with his Infant Hercules strangling the Dragons, in presence of Am- phitryon and his mother Alcmena, who is struck with horror. Still, however, Zeuxis is generally censured for making the heads and articulations of his figures out of proportion. And yet, so scrupulously careful was he, that on one occasion, when he was about to execute a painting for the people of Agri- gentum,15 to be consecrated in the Temple of the Lacinian Juno there, he had the young maidens of the place stripped for examination, and selected five of them, in order to adopt in his picture the most commendable points in the form of each. He also painted some monochromes in white.16 The contemporaries and rivals of Zeuxis were Timanthes, Androcydes, Eupompus, and Parrhasius. (10.) This last, it is said, entered into a pictorial contest with Zeuxis, who represented some grapes, painted so naturally that the birds flew towards the spot where the picture was exhibited. Parrhasius, on the other hand, exhibited a curtain, drawn with such singular truthfulness, that Zeuxis, elated with the judgment which had been passed upon his work by the birds, haughtily demanded that the curtain should be drawn aside to let the picture be seen. Upon finding his mistake, with a great degree of ingenuous candour he admitted that he had been surpassed, for that whereas he himself had only deceived the birds, Parrhasius had deceived him, an artist. 13 King of Macedonia. 14 Mw/i»j(Ttrat rig fidXXov jj ninr\atrai. This line is attributed by Plutarch to Apollodorus. 14 Cicero and Dionysius of Halicarnassus say that this picture was executed at Crotona, and not at Agrigentum. It is generally supposed to have been the painting of Helena, afterwards mentioned by Pliny. 16 " Ex albo." "That is, in grey and grey, similar to the Lhiariscuri of the Italians."—Wornum, in Smith's Diet. Antiq. Art. Painting. 252 PLINY'S NATURAL niSTORY. [Book XXXV. There is a story, too, that at a later period, Zeuxis having painted a child carrying grapes, the birds came to peck at them ; upon which, with a similar degree of candour, he expressed himself vexed with his work, and exclaimed—"I have surely painted the grapes better than the child, for if I had fully succeeded in the last, the birds would have been in fear of it." Zeuxis executed some figures also in clay,17 the only works of art that were left behind at Ambracia, when Fulvius Nobilior18 transported the Muses from that city to Rome. There is at Rome a Helena by Zeuxis, in the Porticos of Philippus,19 and a Marsyas Bound, in the Temple of Concord20 there. Parrhasius of Ephesus also contributed greatly to the pro- gress of painting, being the first to give symmetry to his figures, the first to give play and expression to the features, elegance to the hair, and gracefulness to the mouth: indeed, for contour, it is universally admitted by artists that he bore away the palm. This, in painting, is the very highest point of skill. To paint substantial bodies and the interior of objects is a great thing, no doubt, but at the same time it is a point in which many have excelled : but to make the extreme outline of the figure, to give the finishing touches to the painting in rounding off the contour, this is a point of success in the art which is but rarely attained. For the extreme outline, to be properly executed, requires to he nicely rounded, and so to terminate as to prove the existence of something more behind it, and thereby disclose that which it also serves to hide. Such is the merit conceded to Parrhasius by Antigonus21 and Xenocrates,22 who have written on the art of painting; and in this as well as in other points, not only do they admit his excellence, but enlarge upon it in terms of the highest commendation. There are many pen sketches by him still in existence, both upon panel and on parchment, from the study of which, even artists, it is said, may greatly profit. Notwithstanding these points of excellence, however, Parr- hasius seems comparatively inferior to himself in giving the 17 " Figlina opera." It is not improbable that this may allude to the painting of fictile vases. 18 a.u.c 666. As to this expedition of Fulvius Nobilior, see Livy, B. xxxviii. 19 Of Philippus Marcius, in the Ninth Region of the City. 20 In the Eighth Region of the City. 21 See end of B. xxxiii. 22 See end of B. xxxiii. and B. xxxiv. Chap. 36.] ARTISTS WHO PAINTED WITH THE PENCIL. 253 proper expression to the middle of the body. In his alle- gorical picture of the People of Athens, he has displayed singular ingenuity in the treatment of his subject; for in representing it, he had to depict it as at once fickle, choleric, unjust, and versatile ; while, again, he Ifad equally to show its attributes of implacability23 and clemency, compassionateness and pride, loftiness and humility, fierceness and timidity— and all these at once. He painted a Theseus also, which was formerly in the Capitol at Rome, a Naval Commander24 wear- ing a cuirass, and, in one picture, now at Rhodes, figures of Meleager, Hercules, and Perseus. This last painting, though it has been thrice struek by lightning, has escaped being effaced, a circumstance which tends to augment the admira- tion which it naturally excites. He painted an Archi- gallus25 also, a picture which the Emperor Tiberius greatly admired. According to Deculo,26 that prince had it shut up in his chamber, the price at which it was valued being six hundred thousand sesterces. Parrhasius also painted a Thracian Nurse, with an Infant in her arms, a Philiscus,27 a Father Liber28 attended by Virtue, Two Children, in which we see pourtrayed the careless'sim- plicity of childhood, and a Priest attended by a Boy, with a censer and chaplet. There are also two most noble pictures by him; one of which represents a Runner29 contending for the prize, completely armed, so naturally depicted that he has all the appearance of sweating. In the other we see the Runner taking off his armour, and can fancy that we hear him panting aloud for breath. His iEneas, Castor, and Pollux, all represented in the same picture, are highly praised; his Telephus also, and his Achilles, Agamemnon, and Ulysses. Parrhasius was a most prolific artist, but at the same time there was no one who enjoyed the glory conferred upon him by his talent with greater insolence and arrogance. It was in this 23 The antithesis seems to require here the reading "inexorabilem," instead of " exorabilem." 24 "Navarchum." 23 The " Chief of the Galli," or high priest of Cybele. 26 See end of B, x. 27 Possibly the person mentioned in B. xi. c, 9, or perhaps the Tragic writer of this name, mentioned in the present Chapter. 2S Bacchus. 29 "Hoplitcs." A runner in panoply, or complete armour, at the Olympic Games. 254 PLINY'S NATURAL HISTORY. [Book XXXV. spirit, that he went so far as to assume certain surnames, and to call himself " Habrodiaetus ;" 30 while in some other verses he declared himself to be the " prince of painters," and asserted that in him the art had arrived at perfection. But above all things, it was a boast? with him that he had sprung from the lineage of Apollo, and that he had painted his Hercules, a picture now at Lindos, just as he had often seen him in his sleep. It was in this spirit, too, that upon being defeated by Timanthes, at Samos, by a great majority of votes, the subject of the picture being Ajax and the Award of the Arms,31 he declared, in the name of his hero, that he felt himself quite disgraced on thus seeing himself a second time defeated by an unworthy opponent. He painted also some smaller pictures of an immodest nature, indulging his leisure in such prurient fancies as these.32 As to Timanthes,33 he was an artist highly gifted with genius, and loud have some of the orators34 been in their com- mendations of his Iphigenia, represented as she stands at the altar awaiting her doom. Upon the countenance of all pre- sent, that of her uncle35 in particular, grief was depicted; but having already exhausted all the characteristic features of sorrow, the artist adopted the device of veiling the features of the victim's father,36 finding himself unable adequately to give expression to his feelings. There are also some other proofs of his genius, a Sleeping Cyclops, for instance, which he has painted upon a small panel; but, being desirous to convey an idea of his gigantic stature, he has painted some Satyrs near him measuring his thumb with a thyrsus. Indeed, Timanthes is the only one among the artists in whose works there is always something more implied by the pencil than is expressed, and whose execution, though of the very highest quality, is always surpassed by the inventiveness of his genius. He has also painted the figure of a Hero, a master-piece of skill, in which he has carried the art to the very highest pitch of per- 30 The " Liver in luxury." Athenaeus, B. xii., confirms this statement, and gives some lines which Parrhasius wrote under certain of his works. 31 Of Achilles, which were awarded to Ulysses in preference to Ajax. 36 We learn from Suetonius that Tiberius possessed a Meluager and Atalanta by Parrhasius, of this nature. 33 Said by Eustathius to have been a native of Sicyon, but by Quin- tilian, of Cythnos. 34 Cicero, for instance, De Oratore, c. 22, s. 74. 35 Menelaiis. 36 Agamemnon. Chap. 36.] ARTISTS WHO PAINTED WITH THE PENCIL. 255 fection, in the delineation of the warrior : this last-mentioned work is now at Rome, in the Temple of Peace.37 It was at this period, too, that Euxinidas had for his pupil Aristides,38 who became a most illustrious artist; and that Eupompus instructed Pamphilus, who afterwards became the instructor of Apelles. There is by Eupompus, a Victor in a gymnastic contest, holding a palm. So high was the reputa- tion of this artist, that he established a school of painting, and so divided the art into three styles; whereas till then there had been but two, known respectively as the Helladic39 and the Asiatic. In honour of him, a native of Sicyon by birth, the Helladic school was divided into two, and from this period there were three distinct styles recognized, the Ionic, the Sicyonian, and the Attic. We have, by Pamphilus,40 a picture representing the Alliance and the Battle that was fought at Phlius ;41 the Victory42 also that was gained by the Athenians, and a representation of Ulysses in his ship. He was a Macedonian by birth, but was the first painter who was also skilled in all the other sciences, arithmetic and geometry more particularly, without the aid of which he maintained that the pictorial art could not attain perfection. He gave instruction to no one for a smaller sum than one talent, at the rate of five hundred denarii per annum,43 and this fee both Apelles and Melanthius paid. It was through his influence that, first at Sicyon, and then throughout the whole of Greece, all children of free birth were taught the graphic44 art, or in other words, the art of depicting upon boxwood, before all others; in consequence of which this came to be looked upon as the first step in the liberal arts. It 37 Built near the Forum, by Vespasian, according to Suetonius. 38 A native of Thebes. A full account of him will be given in the course of this Chapter. 39 Or " Grecian." 40 He was a native of Amphipolis in Macedonia. 41 Phlius was the chief town of Phliasia, in the north-east of Pelopon- nesus. It seems to be quite unknown to what events Pliny here alludes. 42 Possibly the naval victory gained by the Athenians under Chabrias near Naxos, in the first year of the 101st Olympiad. 43 Which would make the course of study, as M. Ian says, extend over a period of twelve years. 44 " Graphice ;" equivalent, perhaps, to our word "drawing." "The elementary process consisted in drawing lines or outlines with the graphis, (or stylus) upon tablets of box; the first exercise was probably to draw a simple line."—Wornum, in Smith's Diet. Antiq. Art. Painting. 256 pliny's NATURAL HISTORY. [Book XXXV. is the fact, however, that this art has always been held in high estimation, and cultivated by persons of free birth, and that, at a more recent period, men of rank even began to pursue it; it having always been forbidden that slaves should receive in- struction in it. Hence it is, that neither in painting nor in the toreutic45 art has there been any celebrated work executed by a slave. In the hundred and seventh Olympiad, flourished Aetion and Therimachus.46 By the former we have some fine pictures; a Father Liber,47 Tragedy and Comedy, Semiramis from the rank of a slave elevated to the throne, an Old Woman bearing torches, and a New-made Bride, remarkable for the air of modesty with which she is pourtrayed. But it was Apelles49 of Cos, in the hundred and twelfth Olympiad, who surpassed all the other painters who either preceded or succeeded him. Single-handed, he contributed more to painting than all the others together, and even went bo far as to publish some treatises on the principles of the art. The great point of artistic merit with him was his singular charm of gracefulness,60 and this too, though the greatest of painters were his contemporaries. In admiring their works and be- stowing high eulogiums upon them, he used to say that there was still wanting in them that ideal of beauty51 so peculiar to himself, and known to the Greeks as "Charis;" 52 others, he said, had acquired all the other requisites of perfection, but in this one point he himself had no equal. He also asserted his claim to another great point of merit: admiring a picture by Protogenes, which bore evident marks of unbounded laboriousness and the most minute finish, he remarked that in every respect Proto- genes was fully his equal, or perhaps his superior, except in this, that he himself knew when to take his hand off a picture—a memorable lesson, which teaches us that over- carefulness may be productive of bad results. His candour 45 See end of B. xxxiii. 46 Both of whom are mentioned as statuaries, in the early part of B. xxxiv. c. 19. 47 Bacchus. ' F 49 The generality of Greek writers represent him as a native either of Ephesus, or of Colophon. » " Venustas" This word, it has been remarked, will hardly bear a definition. It has been rendered " grace," " elegance," " beauty." " " Venerem." The name of the Goddess of Beauty ' 5- " Gracefulness. '' Chap. 36.] ARTISTS WHO PAINTED WITH THE PENCIL. 25/ too, was equal to his talent; he acknowledged the superiority of Melanthius in his grouping, and of Asclepiodorus in the niceness of his measurements, or, in other words, the distances that ought to be left between the objects represented. A circumstance that happened to him in connection with Protogenes is worthy of notice. The latter was living at Rhodes, when Apelles disembarked there, desirous of seeing the works of a man whom he had hitherto only known by reputation. Accordingly, he repaired at once to the studio; Protogenes was not at home, but there happened to be a large panel upon the easel ready for painting, with an old woman who was left in charge. To his enquiries she made answer, that Protogenes was not at home, and then asked whom she should name as the visitor. "Here he is," was the reply of Apelles, and seizing a brush, he traced with colour upon the panel an outline of a singularly minute fineness. Upon his return, the old woman mentioned to Protogenes what had happened. The artist, it is said, upon remarking the delicacy of the touch, instantly exclaimed that Apelles must have been the visitor, for that no other person was capable of executing anything so exquisitely perfect. So saying, he traced within the same outline a still finer outline, but with another colour, and then took his departure, with instructions to the woman to show it to the stranger, if he returned, and to let him know that this was the person whom he had come to see. It hap- pened as he anticipated; Apelles returned, and vexed at find- ing himself thus surpassed, he took up another colour and split53 both of the outlines, leaving no possibility of anything finer being executed. Upon seeing this, Protogenes admitted that he was defeated, and at once flew to the harbour to look for his guest. s3 " Secuit." Possibly meaning that he drew another outline in each of these outlines. The meaning, however, is doubtful, and has occasioned much trouble to the commentators. Judging from the words used by Apelles and Protogenes, each in his message, it is not unlikely that the " linea" or outline drawn by each was a profile of himself, and that the profile of Protogenes was drawn within that of Apelles; who, on the second occasion, drew a third profile between the other two, but with a still finer line than either of them. In Dr. Smith's Dictionary of Biography, art Apelles, it is thus explained : "The most natural explanation of this difficult passage seems to be, that down the middle of the first hue of ADelles Protogenes drew another, so as to divide it into two parallel halves, 'and that Apelles again divided the line of Protogenes in the same manner." YOL. VI. s 258 plint's natural history. [Book XXXV. He thought proper, too, to transmit the panel to posterity, just as it was, and it always continued to be held in the highest admiration by all, artists in particular. I am told that it was burnt in the first fire which took place at Caesar's palace on the Palatine Hill; but in former times I have often stopped to admire it. Upon its vast surface it contained nothing whatever except the three outlines, so remarkably fine as to escape the sight: among the most elaborate works of numerous other artists it had all the appearance of a blank space ; and yet by that very fact it attracted the notice of every one, and was held in higher estimation than any other painting there. It was a custom with Apelles, to which he most tenaciously adhered, never to let any day pass, however busy he might be, without exercising himself by tracing some outline or other; a practice which has now passed into a proverb.54 It was also a practice with him, when he had completed a work, to exhibit it to the view of the passers-by in some exposed place ;55 while he himself, concealed behind the picture, would listen to the criticisms that were passed upon it; it being his opinion that the judgment of the public was preferable to his own, as being the more discerning of the two. It was under tjiese circum- stances, they say, that he was censured by a shoemaker for having represented the shoes with one shoe-string' too little. The next day, the shoemaker, quite proud at seeing tffe former error corrected, thanks to his advice, began to criticize the leg; upon which Apelles, full of indignation, popped his head out, and reminded him that a shoemaker should give no opinion beyond the shoes, a piece of advice which has equally passed into a proverbial saying.66 In fact, Apelles was a person of great amenity of manners, a circumstance which rendered him par- ticularly agreeable to Alexander the Great, who would often come to his studio. He had forbidden himself, by public edict, as already stated,67 to be represented by any other artist. On one occasion, however, when the prince was in his studio, talking a great deal about painting without knowing anything about it, Apelles quietly begged that he would quit the sub- 54 The Latin form of which, as given by Erasmus, is " Nulla dies abeat, qum linea ducta supersit." "Let no day pass by, without an outline being drawn, and left in remembrance." 55 « jn pergula " » "Ne sutor ultra crepidam." Equivalent to our saying. "Let not the shoemaker go beyond his last." 57 ju jj vjj c gg Chap. 36.] ARTISTS WHO PAINTED WITH THE PENCIL. 259 ject, telling him that he would get laughed at by the boys who were there grinding the colours: so great was the influence which he rightfully possessed over a monarch, who was other- wise of an irascible temperament. And yet, irascible as he was, Alexander conferred upon him a very signal mark of the high estimation in which he held him ; for having, in his admira- tion of her extraordinary beauty, engaged Apelles to paint Pancaste undraped,58 the most beloved of all his concubines, the artist while so engaged, fell in love with her; upon which, Alexander, perceiving this to be the case, made him a present of her, thus showing himself, though a great king in courage, a still greater one in self-command, this action redounding no les3 to his honour than any of his victories. For in thus con- quering himself, not only did he sacrifice his passions in favour of the artist, but even his affections as well; unin- fluenced, too, by the feelings which must have possessed his fa- vourite in thus passing at once from the arms of a monarch to those of a painter. Some persons are of opinion that Pancaste was the model of Apelles in his painting of Venus Anadyomene.59 It was Apelles too, who, courteous even to his rivals, first established the reputation of Protogenes at Rhodes. Held as he was in little estimation by his own fellow-countrymeD, a thing that generally60 is the case, Apelles enquired of him what price he set upon certain finished works of his, which he had on hand. Upon Protogenes mentioning some very trifling sum or other, Apelles made him an offer of fifty talents, and then circulated a report that he was buying these works in order to sell them as his own. By this contrivance, he aroused the Rhodians to a better appreciation of the merits of their artist, and only consented to leave the pictures with them upon their offering a still larger price. He painted portraits, too, so exactly to the life, that a fact with which we are made acquainted by the writings of Apion the grammarian seems altogether incredible. One of those persons, he says, who divine events by the traits of the fea- 68 Also known as " Campaspe," and «* Pacate." She was the favourite concubine of Alexander, and is said to have been his first love. _ f>9 " Venus rising out of the waters." Athenaeus says, B. xiii., that the courtesan Phryne was his model, whom, at the festival of Neptune, he had seen enter the sea naked at Elcusis. «o See Matthew xiii. 57; Mark vi. 4. "A prophet is not without ho- nour, save in his own country." 260 PLINY'S NATURAL niSTORY. [Book XXXV. tures, and are known as "metoposcopi, "61 was enabled, by an examination of his portraits, to tell the year of their death, whether past or future, of each person represented. Apelles had been on bad terms with Ptolemaeus in former times, when they formed part of the suite of Alexander. After Ptolemaeus had become king of Egypt, it so happened that Apelles was driven by the violence of a tempest to Alexandria. Upon this, some of his rivals fraudulently suborned a jester, who was at- tached to the court, to carry him an invitation to dine with the kiDg. Accordingly, Apelles attended; upon which Ptolemaeus was highly indignant, and, summoning before him his stewards62 of the household, requested that the artist would point out the one that had given him the invitation. Thus challenged, Apelles seized a piece of quenched charcoal that lay in the fire-place, and traced a likeness upon the wall, with such ex- actness, that the king, the moment he began it, recognized the features as those of the jester. He also painted a portrait of King Antigonus ;63 and as that monarch was blind of one eye, he invented a method of concealing the defect. With this object, he painted him in profile, in order that what in reality was wanting to the person might have the semblance of being wanting to the picture rather, he making it his care to show that side of the face only which he could show without any defect. Among his works, too, there are some figures repre- senting persons at the point of death; but it is not easy to say which of his productions are of the highest order of excellence. His Venus Rising from the Sea, known as the Venus Anady- omene,64 was consecrated by the late Emperor Augustus in the Temple65 of his father66 Caesar; a work which has been cele- 61 " Physiognomists." 62 " Vocatores"—more literally, his " inviting officers." 63 Strabo mentions a portrait of Antigonus in the possession of the inhabitants of Cos. 64 See Note 59 above. Propertius mentions this as his greatest work. B. III. El. 9, 1. 11. "In Veneris tabula summam sibi ponit Apelks." " In his picture of Venus, Apelles produces his masterpiece." It is men- tioned also by Ovid, Tristia, B. II. 1. 527, and Art. Amor. B. III. 1. 401. The line in B. III. 1. '224 is also well known— " Nuda Venus madidas exprirait imbre comas." " And naked Venus wrings her dripping locks." 65 In the Forum, in the Eighth Region of the City. 66 His father by adoption. Chap. 36.] ARTISTS WHO PAINTED WITH THE PENCIL. 261 brated in certain Greek lines,67 which, though they have out- lived it, have perpetuated its fame.68 The lower part of the picture having become damaged, no one could be found to repair it; and thus did the very injury which the picture had sustained, redound to the glory of the artist. Time, however, and damp at last effaced the painting, and Nero, in his reign, had it replaced by a copy, painted by the hand of Dorotheus.69 Apelles also commenced another Venus for the people of Cos,70 which would have outshone even the former one; but death invidiously prevented its completion, nor could any one be found to complete the work in conformity with the sketches of the outline. He painted also, in the Temple of Diana at Ephesus, Alexander the Great wielding the Thunderbolts, a picture for which he received twenty talents of gold. The fingers have all the appearance of projecting from the surface, and the lightning seems to be darting from the picture. And then, too, let the reader bear in mind that all these works were executed by the aid of four71 colours only. The price paid in golden coin for this picture was ascertained by weight,72 there being no specific sum agreed upon. He also painted a Procession of the Megabyzus,73 the priest of Diana at Ephesus; and a Clitus74 on Horseback, hasten- ing to the combat, his Armour-bearer handing him his helmet at his command. How many times he painted Alexander and Philip, it would be quite superfluous to attempt to enumerate. At Samos, there is a Habrou75 by him, that is greatly admired; at Rhodes a Menander,76 king of Caria, and an Ancaeus ;77 at 67 There are several Epigrams descriptive of it in the Greek Anthology. 68 This, probably, is the meaning of " Tali opere dum laudatur victo sed illustrato," words which have given much trouble to the commentators. 69 Nothing further seems to be known of him. 70 " Cois." The first one was also painted for the people of Cos, by whom it was ultimately sold to Augustus. 71 See Chapter 32 of this Book. That this is an erroneous assertion, has been shown in Note 78 above. 72 Probably the weight of the panel, frame, and ornamental appendages. 73 This word was probably a title, meaning " Keeper of the temple." Strabo tells us that the "megabyzi," or as he calls them, the " megalo- byzi," were eunuch priests in the Temple of Artemis, or Diana, at Ephesus. 14 The favourite of Alexander, by whom he was afterwards slain. ■ 75 Probably the name of a rich sensualist who lived at Argos. A son of the Attic orator Lycurgus, one of the sophists, also bore this name. 76 This name is supposed by Sillig to have been inserted erroneously, either by Pliny, or by his transcribers. 77 Either the Argonaut of that name, who was killed by the Caledonian 262 pliny's NATURAL HISTORY. [Book XXXV. Alexandria, aGorgosthenes,theTragedian; and at Rome, aCastor and Pollux, with figures of Victory and Alexander the Great, and an emblematical figure of War with her hands tied be- hind her, and Alexander seated in a triumphal car; both of which pictures the late Emperor Augustus, with a great degree of moderation78 and good taste, consecrated in the most fre- quented parts of his Forum : the Emperor Claudius, however, thought it advisable to efface the head of Alexander in both pictures, and substitute likenesses of his predecessor Augustus. It is by his hand too, it is generally supposed, that the Her- cules, with the face averted, now in the Temple of Anna,79 was painted ; a picture in which, one of the greatest difficulties in the art, the face, though hiddeD, may be said to be seen rather than left to the imagination. He also painted a figure of a naked80 Hero,81 a picture in which he has challenged Nature herself. There exists too, or did exist, a Horse that was painted by him for a pictorial contest; as to the merits of which, Apelles appealed from the judgment of his fellow-men to that of the dumb quadrupeds. For, finding that by their intrigues his rivals were likely to get the better of him, he had some horses brought, and the picture of each artist successively shown to them. Accordingly, it was only at the sight of the horse painted by Apelles that they began to neigh ; a thing that has always been the case since, whenever this test of his artistic skill has been employed. He also painted a Neoptolemus82 on horse-back, fighting with the Persians; an Archelaus,83 with his Wife and Daughter; and an Antigonus on foot, with a Boar, or else, which is the most probable, a King of the Lelegesin Samos, with whom, according to the Scholiast on ApoUonius Rhodius, originated the saying, " There is many a slip between the cup and the lip ;" in refer- ence to his death, by a wild boar, when he was about to put a cup of wine to his mouth. 78 Shown in his forbearing to appropriate them to his own use. 79 Anna Perenna, probably, a Roman divinity of obscure origin, the legends about whom are related in the Fasti of Ovid, B. iii. 1. 523, et seq. See also Macrobius, Sat. I. 12. Her sacred grove was near the Tiber, but of her temple nothing whatever is known. " Antoniae" is another reading, but no such divinity is mentioned by any other author. 80 Sillig (Diet. Anc. Art.) is of opinion that the reading is corrupt here, and that the meaning is, that Apelles " painted a Hero and Leander." 81 Or Demigod. 82 One of the followers of Alexander, ultimately slain by Eumenes m Armenia. 8 King of Macedonia. Chap. 36.] ARTISTS WHO PAINTED WITH THE PENCIL. 263 cuirass on, and his horse led by his side. Connoisseurs in the art give the preference, before all other works of his, to his paintings of King Archelaus on horseback, and of Diana in the midst of a throng of Virgins performing a sacri- fice ; a work in which he would appear to have surpassed the lines84 of Homer descriptive of the same subject. He also portrayed some things, which in reality do not admit of being portrayed—thunder, lightning, and thunderbolts, in pictures which are known by the respective names of Bronte, Astrape, and Ceraunobolia. His inventions, too, in the art of painting, have been highly serviceable to others; but one thing there was in which no one could, imitate him. When his works were finished, he used to cover them with a black varnish, of such remarkable thinness, that while by the reflection it gave more vivacity to the colours, and preserved them from the contact of dust and dirt, its existence could only be detected by a person when close enough to touch it.85 In addition to this, there was also this other great advantage attending it: the brightness of the colours was softened thereby, and harmonized to the sight, looking as though they had been viewed from a distance, and through a medium of specular-stone j86 the contrivance, by some indescri- bable means, giving a sombreness to colours which would other- wise have been too florid. _ One of the contemporaries of Apelles was Anstides ot Thebes; the first of all the painters to give full expression to the mind68 and passions of man, known to the Greeks as r\K as well as to the mental perturbations which we experience : he was somewhat harsh, however, in his colours. There is a picture by him of a Captured City, in which is represented an infant crawling toward the breast of its wounded mother, who, «4 Odyss. B. vi. 1. 102, et seq. . 8« Sir Joshua Reynolds discovers in the account here given an artist- like description of the effect of glazing, or scumbling, such as was practised by Titian and the rest of the Venetian painters."—Notes to Du Fresnoy. 8« " Lapis specularis." See B. xxxvi. c. 45. 87 He was son of Aristodemus, and brother aud pupil of Nicomachus, in addition to Euxenidas, already mentioned in this Chapter. We, pau- sanias, and Nicophanes, excelled, as we learn from Athenaeus, B. xm., m tne portraits of courtesans; hence their name, nopvoypatyoi. as it has been weU remarked by Wornum, in the article so often quoted, that " expression of the feelings' and passions cannot be denied to Polyg- notus, Apollodorus, Parrhasius, Timanthes, and many others. 264 PLINY'S NATURAL HISTORY. [Book XXXV. though at the point of death, has all the appearance of being aware of it, and of being in dread lest the child should suck blood in place of milk from her exhausted breast;: this picture Alexander the Great ordered to be transferred to Pella, his native place. Aristides also painted a Battle with the Per- sians, a picture which contained one hundred figures, for each of which he was paid at the rate of ten minae by Mnason, the tyrant of Elatea.89 He also painted Chariots with four horses in full career; a Suppliant, which almost speaks, Huntsmen with game ; Leontion, the mistress of Epicurus; the Anapau- omene,90 a damsel pining to death from love for her brother ; a Father Liber91 also, and an Artamene, two fine pictures now to be seen in the Temple of Ceres92 at Rome; a Tragedian and a Child, in the Temple of Apollo,93 a picture which has lost its beauty, owing to the unskilfulness of the painter to whom M. Junius, the praetor, entrusted the cleaning of it, about the period of the Apollinarian Games.94 There was also to be seen, in the Temple of Faith, in the Capitol, a picture of his, representing an Aged Man giving instructions to a Child on the lyre. He executed also a painting of an Invalid, upon which endless encomiums have been lavished. Indeed, so great was the excellence of this artist, that King Attalus, it is said, purchased one picture of his at the price of one hundred talents. At the same period95 flourished Protogenes, as already stated. He was a native of Caunus,96 a place held in subjection by the Rhodians. Great poverty in his early days, and extreme application to his art, were the causes of his comparative un- productiveness. It is not known with certainty from whom he received his instruction in the art: indeed some say that he was only a ship-decorator down to his fiftieth year; a proof of 63 See B. iv. c. 12. 90 Meaning, " Her who has ceased" to live. The reference is to Byblis, who died of love for her brother Caunus. See Ovid's Metam. B. ix. 1. 455, et seq. 91 Or Bacchus. Already mentioned in Chapter 8 of this Book, in refe- rence to the Roman general Mummius. 92 In the Eleventh Region of the City. 83 In the Tenth Region of the City. 94 Celebrated on the 3rd of July. 95 In reference to the age of Apelles, whom he is supposed to have sur- vived. 69 In Caria, near to Lycia. Suidas says that he was born at Xanthus in Lycia. Chap. 36.] ARTISTS WHO PAINTED WITH THE PENCIL. 265 which, it is asserted, is the fact, that in decorating the Propy- laeum97 of the Temple of Minerva, situate in one of the most celebrated spots in Athens, where he has painted the fine pic- ture98 of Paralus and Hammonias, known by some as the Nausicaa, he has added in the side pieces of the picture, by painters called "parerga," several small ships of war ;99 wish- ing thereby to show in what department that skill had first manifested itself which had thus reached the citadel of Athens, the scene of his glory. Of all his compositions, however, the palm has been awarded to his Ialyaus,1 now at Rome, con- secrated in the Temple of Peace there. So long as he was at work upon it, he lived, it is said, upon nothing but soaked lupineB; by which means he at once appeased both hunger and thirst, and avoided all risk of blunting his perception by too delicate a diet. In order to protect this picture against the effects of ill-usage and old agef he painted it over four times,2 so that when an upper coat might fail, there would be an under one to succeed it. There is in this picture the figure of a dog, which was completed in a very remarkable manner, inasmuch as accident had an equal share with design in the execution of it. The painter was of opinion that he had not given the proper expression to the foam at the mouth of the animal, panting for breath, as it was represented; while, with all other parts of the picture, a thing extremely difficult with him, he was perfectly satisfied. The thing that displeased him was, the evident traces of art in the execution of it, touches which did not admit of any diminution, and yet had all the appear- ance of being too laboured, the effect produced being far re- moved from his conception of the reality: the foam, in fact, 97 Or Vestibule. 98 Supposed by Sillig to have been an allegorical painting representing two of the sacred ships of the Athenians ; but to have been mistaken in later times for a picture of Ulysses and Nausicaa, a subject taken from the Odyssey, B. vi. 1. 16, et seq. As to Paralus, said to have been the first builder of long ships, or ships of war, see B. vii. c. 57. 99 Or " long ships." 1 Son of Cercaphus and Cydippe or Lysippe, and grandson of Apollo. He is said to have been the founder of the town of Ialysus, mentioned in B. v. c. 36. 2 " These four times most probably were, the dead colouring, a first and a second painting, and lastly, scumbling with glazing."—Wornum, Smith's Diet. Antiq. Art. Painting. 266 PLINY'S NATURAL HISTORY. [Book XXXV. bore the marks of being painted, and not of being the natural Becretion of the animal's mouth. Vexed and tormented by this dilemma, it being his wish to depict truth itself, and not something that only bore a semblance of truth, he effaced it again and again, changed his pencil for another, and yet by no possibility could satisfy himself. At last, quite out of tem- per with an art, which, in spite of him, would still obtrude itself, he dashed his sponge against the vexatious spot; when behold ! the sponge replaced the colours that it had just removed, exactly in accordance with his utmost wishes, and thus did chance represent Nature in a painting. Following his example, Nealces,3 it is said, succeeded in representing the foam at a horse's mouth ; for on one occasion^ when engaged in painting a man holding in a pair of horses and soothing them with his voice,4 he also dashed his sponge against the picture, with the view of producing a like effect. It was on account of this IaljTsus, which he was apprehen- sive of destroying, that King Demetrius5 forbore to set fire to the only side of the city of Rhodes by which it was capable of being taken ; and thus, in his anxiety to spare a picture, did he lose his only opportunity of gaining a victory. The dwelling of Protogenes at this period was situate in a little garden in the suburbs, or in other words, in the midst of the camp of Demetrius. The combats that were taking place made no difference whatever to the artist, and in no way in- terrupted his proceeding with the works which he had com- menced ; until at last he was summoned before the king, who enquired howhe could have the assurance thus to remain without the walls. " Because I know," was his answer, " that you are waging war with the Rhodians, and not with the arts." Upon this, the king, delighted at having the opportunity of protecting the hand which he had thus spared, ordered a guard to be placed at his disposal for the especial purpose of his protection. In order, too, that he might not distract the artist's attention by sending for him too often, he would often go, an enemy albeit, to pay him a visit, and, abandoning his aspirations for victory, in the midst of arms and the battering down of walls, would attentively examine the compositions of the 3 See Chapter 40 in this Book. * " Poppyzonta." " Smacking with his lips." Somewhat similar to the s—s—s—s of our grooms and ostlers. * Poliorcetes. Chap. 36.] ARTISTS WHO PAINTED WITH THE PENCIL. 267 painter. Even to this day, the story is still attached to the picture which he was then engaged upon, to the effect, that Protogenes painted it beneath the sword. It is his Satyr, known as the " Anapauomenos ;"6 in whose hand, to mark the sense of security that he felt, the painter has placed a pair of pipes. Protogenes executed also, a Cydippe; a Tlepolemus; a portrait of Philiscus, the tragic poet, in an attitude of medi- tation ; an Athlete; a portrait of King Antigonus, and one of the mother of Aristotle.7 It was this philosopher too, who advised him to paint the exploits of Alexander the Great, as being certain to be held in everlasting remembrance. The impulse, however, of his natural disposition, combined with a certain artistic caprice, led him in preference to adopt the various subjects which have just been mentioned. His last works were representations of Alexander and the god Pan. He also executed some figures in bronze, as already8 stated. At the same period also, lived Asclepiodorus,9 who was greatly admired by Apelles for his proportions. The tyrant Mnason10 paid him, for his picture of the Twelve Gods, at the rate of thirty minae for each divinity. This same Mnason also paid Theomnestus twenty minae for each of his Heroes. In addition to these, it is only proper to mentionNiconiachus,11 the son and disciple of Aristiaeus. He painted a Rape of Proserpina, a picture that was formerly in the Temple of Minerva in the Capitol, above the shrine of Juventas.12 Another picture of his was to be seen also in the Capitol, placed there by the Roman general Plancus,13 a Victory soaring aloft in a chariot: he was the first painter who represented Ulysses wearing the pileus.14 He painted also an Apollo and Diana; the Mother15 of the Gods seated on a Lion; the fine picture of the Bacchantes, with Satyrs moving stealthily towards 8 "In repose." 7 Phsestis, or Pheestias by name. 8 In B. xxxiv. c. 19. 9 A native of Athens, ranked by Plutarch with Euphranor and Nicias. 10 Tyrant of Elatca, mentioned already in this Chapter. See Note 89. 11 Supposed by Sillig to have been a native of Thebes. 12 Or " Youth;" in the Eighth Region of the City. 13 See B. xiii. c. 5. 14 A round, closely-fitting skull cap, made of felt. St. Jerome, Epist. 120, speaks of Ulyssts as being thus represented in paintings. Statues of him with the "pileus" are still to be seen. 15 See B. ii. c. 6. 268 PLINY'S NATURAL HISTORY. [Book XXXV. them; and a Scylla, now at Rome in the Temple of Peace. No painter ever worked with greater rapidity than Nicoma- chus; indeed it is said, that on one occasion having entered into an engagement with Aristratus,16 the tyrant of bicyon, to paint within a given time the monument which he was raising to the memory of the poet Telestis,17 the artist only arrived a few days before the expiration of the term ; upon which, the tyrant was so angry that he threatened to punish him : how- ever, in the few days that were left, Nicomachus, to the admi- ration of all, completed the work, with equal promptitude and success. Among his pupils, were his brother Ariston, his son Aristides, and Philoxenus of Eretria, who painted for King Cassander a picture representing one of the battles be- tween Alexander and Darius, a work which may bear com- parison with any. He also painted a picture in grotesque, representing Three Sileni at their revels. Imitating the celerity of execution displayed by his master, he introduced a more sketchy style of painting, executed in a comparatively off-hand manner.18 To these artists Nicophanes19 has also been added, an ele- gant and finished painter, to whom for gracefulness few can be compared, but for a severe and tragic style far inferior to Zeuxis or Apelles. Perseus also belongs to this period, a pupil of Apelles, who dedicated to him his work on painting. Aristides of Thebes had for pupils his sons Niceros and Ariston. _ By the latter of these artists, there is a Satyr crowned with a chaplet and holding a goblet: two of his pupils were Anto- rides and Euphranor, of the latter of whom we shall have to make mention again.20 CHAP. 37.—VARIOUS OTHER KINDS OF PAINTING. We must now, however, make some mention of those artists who acquired fame by the pencil in an inferior style of painting. Among these was Pirseicus, inferior to few of the painters in skill. I am not sure that he did not do injustice to 16 A contemporary of Philip of Macedon. 17 A dithyrambic poet, born at Selinus. He flourished B.C. 398. Only a few lines of his works remain. 18 " Breviores etiamnum quasdam picturse compendiarias invenit." De- lafosseds of opinion that paintings in grotesque are probably meant. 19 His country is uncertain, but he probably lived about the time of Apelles. 20 In Chapter 40 of this Book. Chap. 37.] OTHER KINDS OF PAINTING. 269 himself by the choice of his subjects,21 seeing that, although he adopted an humble walk, he still attained in that walk the highest reputation. His subjects were barbers' shops, cob- blers' stalls, jackasses, eatables, and the like, and to these he was indebted for his epithet of " Rhyparographos."22 His paintings, however, are exquisitely pleasing, and have sold at higher prices than the very largest works of many masters. On the other hand again, as Varro tells us, a single picture by Serapio covered the whole space of the balustrades,23 beneath the Old Shops,24 where it was exhibited. This artist was very successful in painting stage-scenery, but was unable to depict the human form. Dionysius,25 on the contrary, painted nothing but men, and hence it was that he had the surname of " Anthropographos."26 Callicles27 also painted some small pictures, and Calates executed some small works in the comic style. Both of these styles were adopted by Antiphilus ;28 who painted a very fine Hesione, and a Philip and Alexander with Minerva, now in the School of the Porticos29 of Octavia. In the Portico of Philippus,30 also, there is a Father Liber31 by him ; an Alexander when a child; and an Hippolytus alarmed at the Bull, which is rushing upon him :32 and in the Portico of Pompeius33 we have his Cadmus and Europa. On the other hand, again, he painted a 21 He belonged, as Wornum remarks, to the class of genre-painters. or peintres du genre bas, as the French term them. His age and country are unknown. 22 " Painter of low subjects." This term is equivalent in meaning, probably, to our expression—" The Dutch style." 23 " Maeniana." Balustrades or balconies, said to have been so called from one Maenius, who built them. 24 See Chapter 8 of this Book. They are mentioned also in the " Curcu- lio" of Plautus, A. iv. s. i. 1. 19. Nothing further is known of Serapio. 25 His country is unknown, but he is supposed to have lived in the first century b.c See also Chapter 40 of this Book. 29 "Painter of men." 27 Mentioned also by Varro. He probably lived in the time of Alexan- der the Great. 2S A native of Egypt, compared by many to the most eminent artists. He is spoken of in high terms by Quintilian, B. xii. c. 10. See also Chap- ter 40 of this Book. 29 Built by Augustus in the Ninth Region of the City, in honour of his sister Octavia. 30 See Chapter 36. 31 Bacchus. 32 And so caused his death by falling from his chariot. See the " Hippo- lytus". of Euripides. " 33 Near the Theatre of Pompey, in the Ninth Region of the City. 270 PLINY'S NATURAL HISTORY. [Book XXXV. figure in a ridiculous costume, known jocosely as the Gryllus; and hence it is that pictures of this class34 are generally known as " Grylli." Antiphilus was a native of Egypt, and received instruction in the art from Ctesidemus.35 It would not be right to pass in silence the painter of the Temple at Ardea,86 the more particularly as he was honoured with the citizenship at that place, and with the following in- scription in verse upon one of the paintings which he executed there: " These paintings, worthy of this worthy place, Temple of Juno, queen, and wife of Jove, Flautius Marcus,37 from Alalia, made. May Ardea now and ever praise him for his skill." These lines are written in ancient Latin characters. Ludius too, who lived in the time of the late Emperor Augustus, must not be allowed to pass without some notice; for he was the first to introduce the fashion of covering the walls of our houses with most pleasing landscapes, representing villas, porticos, ornamental gardening, woods, groves, hills, fishponds, canals,38 rivers, sea-shores, and anything else one could desire; varied with figures of persons walking, sailing, or proceeding to their villas, on asses or in carriages. Then, too, there are others to be seen fishing, fowling, or gathering in the vintage. In some of his decorations there are fine villas to be seen, and roads to them across the marshes, with women making39 bargains to be carried across on men's shoulders, who move along slipping at every step and tottering beneath their load; with numberless other subjects of a similar nature, redolent of mirth and of the most amusing inge- nuity. It was this artist, too, who first decorated our uncovered40 34 " Caricatures." Sillig thinks it not unlikely that Gryllus was painted with a pig's face, that animal being signified by the Greek word ypvXXog. 35 See Chapter 40 of this Book. 3« See Chapter 6 of this Book. 37 In the original, as given by Sillig, " Plautiu, Marcus Clecetas." That commentator supposes him to have been a Greek by birth, and adopt- ed into the Plautian family, on being made a citizen of Rome. 38 "Euripi." See B. ii. c. 100, B. viii. c. 40, and B. ix. cc. 22, 80. The landscape paintings on the interior walls of houses at Herculaneum and Pompeii may be taken as specimens of this artist's style. 39 " Succollatis sponsione mulieribus." This passage appears to be a mass of confusion, in spite of Sillig's attempts to amend and explain it. The meaning can only be guessed at, not given with any degree of cer- tainty : of Ludius himself, no further particulars are known. 40 The " hypaethra " or promenades. Chap. 37.] OTHER KINDS OF PAINTING. 2/1 edifices with representations of maritime cities, a subject which produces a most pleasing effect, and at a very trifling expense. But as for fame, that has been reserved solely for the artists who have painted pictures ; a thing that gives us all the more reason to venerate the prudence displayed by the men of ancient times. For with them, it was not the practice to decorate the walls of houses, for the gratification of the owners only; nor did they lavish all their resources upon a dwelling which must of necessity always remain a fixture in one spot, and admits of no removal in case of conflagration. Protogenes was content with a cottage in his little garden; Apelles had no paintings on the plaster of his walls; it not being the fashion in their day to colour the party-walls of houses from top to bottom. With all those artists, art was ever watchful for the benefit of whole cities only, and in those times a painter was regarded as the common property of all. Shortly before the time of the late Emperor Augustus, Arellius was in high esteem at Rome; and with fair reason, had he not profaned the art by a disgraceful piece of profanity; for, being always in love with some woman or other, it was his practice, in painting goddesses, to give them the features of his mistresses ; hence it is, that there were always some figures of prostitutes to be seen in his pictures. More recently, lived Amulius,41 a grave and serious personage, but a painter in the florid style. By this artist there was a Minerva, which had the appearance of always looking at the spectators, from whatever point it was viewed. He only painted a few hours each day, and then with the greatest gravity, for he always kept the toga on, even when in the midst of his implements. The Golden Palace42 of Nero was the prison-house of this artist's productions, and hence it is that there are so few of them to be be seen elsewhere. Next in repute to him were Cornelius Pinus and Attius Priscus, who painted the Temple of Honour and that of Virtue,43 on their restoration by the Emperor Vespasianus Augustus. Priscus approaches more closely to the ancient masters. 41 Most editions give "Famulus." Nothing further is known of him. 42 SeeB. xxxvi. c. 24. 43 Both in the First Region of the City, near the Capenian Gate. 272 pliny's natural htstory. [Book XXXV. CHAP. 38. (11.)—AN EFFECTUAL WAY OF PUTTING A STOP TO THE SINGING OF BIRDS. I must not omit here, in reference to painting, a celebrated Btory that is told about Lepidus. During the Triumvirate, when he was entertained by the magistrates of a certain place, he had lodgings given him in a house that was wholly sur- rounded with trees. The next day, he complained to them in a threatening tone, that he had been unable to sleep for the singing of the birds there. Accordingly, they had a dragon painted, on pieces of parchment of the greatest length that could possibly be obtained, and surrounded the grove with it; a thing that so terrified the birds, it is said, that they became silent at once; and hence it was that it first became known how this object could be attained. CHAP. 39.--ARTISTS WHO HAVE PAINTED IN ENCAUSTICS OR WAX, WITH EITHER THE CESTRTJM OR THE PENCIL. It is not agreed who was the inventor of the art of painting in wax and in encaustic.44 Some think that it was a discovery of the painter Aristides,45 and that it was afterwards brought to perfection by Praxiteles: but there are encaustic paintings in existence, of a somewhat prior date to them, those by Polyg- notus,46 for example, and by Nicanor and Arcesilaus,47 natives of'Paros. Elasippus too, has inscribed upon a picture of his at .SJlgina, the word svixatv ;48 a thing that he certainly could not have done, if the art of encaustic paintiDg had not been then invented. CHAP. 40.--THE FIRST INVENTORS OF VARIOUS KINDS OP PAINTING. THE GREATEST DIFFICULTIES IN THE ART OP PAINTING. THE SEVERAL VARIETIES OF PAINTING. THE FIRST 44 See Chapter 41 of this Book, where the difficulties attending this de- scription will be considered. « See Chapter 36 of this Book. 46 See Chapter 35 of this Book. 47 Possibly the artist of that name mentioned by Athenasns, B. x., as a tutor of Apelles. If so, he must have flourished about the ninety-seventh Olympiad. 4» Elasippus " inburned" this picture, t. e. executed it in encaustic. From the Attic form of this word, it has been conclnded that he was an Athenian. The spelling of his name is very doubtful. Chap. 40] INVENTORS OF ENCAUSTIC PAINTING. 2/3 ARTIST THAT PAINTED CEILINGS. WHEN ARCHED ROOFS WERE FIRST PAINTED. THE MARVELLOUS PRICE OF SOME PICTURES. It is said, too, that Pamphilus,49 the instructor of Apelles, not only painted in encaustic, but also instructed Pausias50 of Sicyon in the art, the first who rendered himself distinguished in this branch. Pausias was the son of Bryetes, by whom he was originally instructed in the art of painting. He retouched also with the pencil51 some walls at Thespiae,, then undergoing repair, which had formerly been painted by Polygnotus. Upon instituting a comparison, however, it was considered that he was greatly inferior, this kind of painting not being in his line. It was he, too, who first thought of painting ceilings: nor had it been the practice before his day to use this kind of decoration for arched roofs. He painted many small pictures also, miniatures of children more particularly; a thing which, according to the interpretation put upon it by his rivals, was owing to the peculiarly bIow process of encaustic painting. The consequence was, that being determined to give a memo- rable proof of his celerity of execution, he completed a picture in the space of a single day, which was thence called the " Hemeresios,"62 representing the portrait of a child. In his youth, he was enamoured of Glycera,53 his fellow- townswoman, the first inventor of chaplets ; and in his rivalry of the skill shown by her, he achieved so much success in the encaustic art, as to reproduce the almost numberless tints dis- played by flowers. At a later period, he painted her, seated, with a chaplet on, and thus produced one of the very finest of his pictures; known as the " Stephaneplocos"54 by some, and as the " Stephanopolis"55 by others ; from the circum- stance that Glycera had supported herself in her poverty by Belling these chaplets. A copy of this picture, usually known as an " apographon,"56 was purchased by L. Lucullus at Athens, during the festival of the Dionysia, at the price of two talents. Pausias also painted some large pictures, a Sacrifice of Oxen, for instance, which used to be seen in the Portico of Pom- 49 See Chapter 36 of this Book. 50 Two paintings of his at Epidaurus are mentioned by Pausanias, B. ii. c. 27. 61 And not in encaustic ; though, as we shall see in Chapter 41, the brush was sometimes used in this branch. S2 The " One day" picture. 63 See B. xxi. c. 3. « Xhe " Chaplet-wearer." See B, xxi. c. 3. " The" Chaplet-scller." *6 A "correct" copy. VOL. VI. T 274 pliny's NATURAL HISTORY. [Book XXXV. peius. In this painting he invented several improvements, which many artists have since imitated, but none with the same success. Although in the picture it was particularly hia desire to give an impression of the length of the ox, he painted it with a front view and not sideways, and still has caused the large dimensions of the animal to be fully under- stood. And then too, whereas all other painters colour in white such parts as they wish to have the appearance of being prominent, and in black such portions as are intended to remain in the back-ground, he has painted the whole of the ox of a black colour, and has shown the dimensions of .the body which throws the shadow by the medium of the shadow itself; thus evincing a wonderful degree of skill in showing relief upon a coat painted with a single colour, and conveying an impression of uniform solidity upon a broken ground.57 It was at Sicyon also that Pausias passed his life, a city which for a long time continued to be the native place of painting. Ultimately, all the paintings belonging to that place were sold by public auction for the discharge of the debts owing by the city, and were transferred to Rome in the eedileship of Scaurus.58 Next to him, in the hundred and fourth Olympiad, Eu- phranor,69 the Isthmian, distinguished himself far beyond all others, an artist who has been already mentioned in our account of the statuaries. He executed some colossal figures also, and some statues in marble, and he chased some drinking- vessels; being studious and laborious in the highest degree, excellent in every branch, and at all times equal to himself. This artist seems to have been the first to represent heroes with becoming dignity, and to have paid particular attention to sym- metry. Still, however, in the generality of instances, he has made the body slight in proportion to the head and limbs. He composed some treatises also upon symmetry and colours. His works are, an Equestrian Combat ;60 the Twelve Gods ; and a 67 " In confracto." Meaning probably the group of the surrounding spectators, on which the shadow of the animal's body was thrown. " It is evident that this artist excelled in his effect of light and shade, enhanced by contrasts, and strong foreshortenings."—Wornum, Smith's Diet. Antiq. Art. Painting. 59 a.u.c 678. See B. xxxvi. c. 24. «» Mentioned also in B. xxxiv. c. 19 60 Praised by Pausanias, B. i. It was in this combat, he says, that Gryl- lus, the son of Xenophon, and Epaminondas the Theban, first distinguished themselves. ° Chap. 40.] PAINTERS IN ENCAUSTIC. 2/5 Theseus; with reference to which he remarked that the Theseus of Parrhasius had been fed upon roses, but his own upon beef." There are also at Ephesus some famous pictures by him ; an Ulysses, in his feigned madness, yoking together an ox and a horse ; Men, in an attitude of meditation, wearing the pal- lium ;62 and a Warrior, sheathing his sword. At the same time, also, flourished Cydias;63 for whose picture of the Argonautae the orator Hortensius paid one hundred and forty-four thousand sesterces, and had a shrine constructed expressly for its reception on his estate at Tusculum.64 There was also Antidotus, a pupil of Euphranor, by whom there is, at Athens, a Combatant armed with a shield; a Wrestler, also ; and a Trumpeter, a work which has been considered a most exquisite production. Antidotus, as a painter, was more careful in his works than prolific, and his colouring was of a severe style. His prin- cipal glory was his having been the instructor of Nicias65 of Athens; who was a most careful painter of female portraits, and a strict observer of light and shade,65 making it his es- pecial care that the figures in his pictures should appear in the boldest relief. His works are, a Nemea, which was brought from Asia to Rome by Silanus, and was placed in the Curia, as already stated;67 a Father Liber,68 in the Temple69 of Concord; a Hyacinthus,70 which the Emperor Augustus was so delighted with, that he took it away with him after the capture of Alexandria; for which reason also it was consecrated in the Temple71 of Augustus by the Emperor Tiberius; and a Danae. At Ephesus, there is a tomb by him of a megabyzus,72 or priest of the Ephesian Diana; and at 61 " Came." Beef, according to Plutarch, was the flesh mentioned. 62 The dress of the Greek philosophy s, more particularly. 63 Born in the island of Cythnos, one of the Cyclades. He is supposed to be the artist mentioned by Theophrastus, Be Lapid. c. 95. 64 It is supposed by Sillig, from Dio Cassius, B. liii. c. 27, that this painting was transferred by M. Vipsanius Agrippa, to the Portico of Nep- tune. 65 See Chapter 20 of this Book, where he is mentioned as having been the first artist who used " usta" or burnt ceruse. From Pausanias we learn that his remains were interred at Athens, in the road leading to the Academia. 66 Chiaroscuro. 67 In Chapter 10 of'this Book. 68 Bacchus. 63 In the Eighth Region of the City. 70 Spoken of by Pausanias, B. iii. c. 19. n In the Forum at Rome. 72 See Chapter 36 of this Book, Xote 73, p. 261. T 2 276 pliny's natural history. [Book XXXV. Athens a representation of the Necyomantea73 of Homer; which last he declined to sell to King Attalus for sixty talents, and in preference, so rich was he, made a present of it to his own native place. He also executed some large pictures, among which there are a Calypso, an Io, an An- dromeda, a very fine Alexander, in the Porticos74 of Pompeius, and a Calypso, seated. To this painter also there are some pictures of cattle attributed, and in his dogs he has been re- markably successful. It was this Nicias, with reference to whom, Praxiteles, when asked with which of all his works in marble he was the best pleased, made answer, "Those to which Nicias has set his hand," so highly did he esteem the colouring of that artist. It has not been satisfactorily ascer- tained whether it is this artist or another of the same name that some writers have placed in the hundred and twelfth Olympiad. With Nicias has been compared, and indeed sometimes preferred to him, Athenion of Maronea,75 a pupil of Glaucion of Corinth. In his colouring he is more sombre than Nicias, and yet, with all his sombreness, more pleasing ; so much so indeed, that in his paintings shines forth the extensive know- ledge which he possessed of the art. He painted, in the Temple at Eleusis, a Phylarchus ;76 and at Athens, a family group, which has been known as the " Syngenicon ;"77 an Achilles also, concealed in a female dress, and Ulysses de- tecting him; a group of six whole-length figures, in one picture; and, a work which has contributed to his fame more than any other, a Groom leading a Horse. Indeed, if he had not died young, there would have been no one comparable to Athenion in painting. Heraclides, too, of Macedon, had some repute as an artist. At first he was a painter of ships, but afterwards, on the cap- ture of King Perseus, he removed to Athens; where at the same period was also Metrodorus,78 who was both a painter and a philosopher, and of considerable celebrity in both 73 " Place of the prophecies of the dead;" in reference to the descrip- tion of the Infernal Regions in the Fourth Book of the Odyssey. 74 See Chapter 37 of this Book. 7* See B. iv. c. 18. 76 Supposed by Hardouin to be the writer mentioned at the" end of B. vii. and B. x.: or perhaps, " a chief" of an Athenian tribe. " A "group of kindred." is A disciple of Carneades. See the list of writers at the end of this Book. Chap. 40.] PAINTERS IN ENCAUSTIC. 277 branches. Hence it was, that when L. Paulus .^Emilius, after the conquest of Perseus,79 requested the Athenians to send him the most esteemed philosopher for the education of his children, and a painter to represent his triumph, they made choice of Metrodorus, declaring that he was eminently suited for either purpose; a thing which Paulus admitted to he the case. Timomachus of Byzantium, in the time of the Dictator Caesar, painted an Ajax80 and a Medea, which were placed by Caesar in the Temple of Venus Genetrix, having been purchased at the price of eighty talents; the value of the Attic talent being, according to M. Yarro, equivalent to six thousand denarii. An Orestes, also by Timomachus, an Iphigenia in Tauris, and a Lecythion, a teacher of gymnastics, are equally praised ; a Noble Family also ; and Two Men clothed in the pallium,81 and about to enter into conversation, the one stand- ing, the other in a sitting posture. It is in his picture, how- ever of the Gorgon,82 that the art appears to have favoured him most highly. Aristolaiis, the son and pupil of Pausias, was one of the painters in a more severe style : there are by him an Epami- nondas, a Pericles, a Medea, a Theseus, an emblematical picture of the Athenian People, and a Sacrifice of Oxen. Some persons, too, are pleased with the careful style of Nicophanes,83 who was also a pupil of Pausias; a carefulness, however, which only artists can appreciate, as in other respects he was harsh in his colours, and too lavish of sil ;64 as in his picture, for example, of iEsculapius with his daughters, Hygia,81* - 8> U- 6l " Simpuvia." 6J See B. xxxi. c. 31. r « " Mammatis." _ The exact meaning of this word is unknown The passage is evidently in a corrupt state. 64 As to the Roman " Collegia," see B. viii. c. 42, and B xxxiv c 1 ,.**. " S°\ia'"TThe STe nl?e ™■giYen ako t0 a kind of'Bitting or re- clming-batb, often mentioned by Pliny. & Chap. 46.] WORKS IN POTTERY. 28/ was interred, in true Pythagorean style, in the midst of leaves of myrtle, olive, and black poplar; indeed, the greater part of mankind make use of earthen vases for this purpose. For the Bervice of the table, the Samian pottery is even yet held in high esteem; that, too, of Arretium in Italy, still maintains its high character; while for their cups, and for those only, the ma- nufactories of Surrentum, Asta, Pollentia, Saguntum in Spain, and Pergamus in Asia,*6 are greatly esteemed. The city of Tralles, too, in Asia, and that of Mutina in Italy, have their respective manufactures of earthenware, and even by this branch of art are localities rendered famous; their pro- ductions, by the aid of the potter's wheel, becoming known to all countries, and conveyed by sea and by land to every quarter of the earth. At Erythrae, there are still shown, in a temple there, two amphorae, that were consecrated in con- sequence of the singular thinness of the material: they origin- ated in a contest between a master and his pupil, which of the two could make earthenware of the greatest thinness. The vessels of Cos are the most highly celebrated for their beauty, but those of Adria67 are considered the most substantial. In relation to these productions of art, there are some in- stances of severity mentioned: Q. Coponius, we find, was condemned for bribery, because he made present of an am- phora of wine to a person who had the right of voting. To make luxury, too, conduce in some degree to enhance our esti- mation of earthenware, " tripatinium,''68 as we learn from Fenestella, was the name given to the most exquisite course of dishes that was served up at the Roman banquets. It con- sisted of one dish of muraenae,69 one of lupi,70 and a third of a mixture of fish. It is clear that the public manners were then already on the decline ; though we still have a right to hold them preferable to those of the philosophers, even of Greece, seeing that the representatives .of Aristotle, it is said, sold, at the auction of his goods, as many as seventy dishes of earthenware. It has been already71 stated by us, when on the Bubject of birds, that a single dish cost the tragic actor iEsopus one hundred thousand sesterces; much to the reader's indigna- tion, no doubt; but, by Hercules! Vitellius, when emperor, 66 Asia Minor. 67 See B. iii. c. 18. M A service of three dishes. 69 See B. ix. c. 39. 70 See B. ix. cc. 24, 28, 74, 79. -1 In B. x. c. 72. 288 pliny's NATURAL HISTORY. [Book XXXV. ordered a dish to be made, which was to cost a million of sesterces, and for the preparation of which a furnace had to be erected out in the fields! luxury having thus arrived at such a pitch of excess as to make earthenware even sell at higher prices than murrhine72 vessels. It was in reference to this circumstance, that Mucianus, in his second consulship, when pronouncing one of his perorations, reproached the memory of Vitellius with his dishes as broad as the Pomptine Marsh; not less deserving to be execrated than the poisoned dish of Asprenas, which, according to the accusation brought against him by Cassius Severus, caused the death of one hundred and thirty guests.73 These works of artistic merit have conferred celebrity on some cities even, Rhegium for example, and Cumae. The priests of the Mother of the gods, known as the Galli, deprive themselves of their virility with a piece of Samian74 pottery, the only means, if we believe M. Caelius,75 of avoiding dangerous results. He it was, too, who recommended, when inveighing against certain abominable practices, that the person guilty of them should have his tongue cut out, in a similar manner ; a reproach which would appear to have been levelled by anti- cipation against this same Vitellius. What is there that human industry will not devise ? Even broken pottery has been utilized; it being found that, beaten to powder, and tempered with lime, it becomes more solid and durable than other substances of a similar nature; forming the cement known as the " Signine "76 composition, so extensively employed for even making the pavements of houses.77 CHAP. 47. (13.)—VARIOUS KINDS OF EARTH. THE PUTEOLAN DUST, AND OTHER EARTHS OF WHICH CEMENTS LIKE STONE ARE MADE. ^ But there are other resources also, which are derived imme- diately from the earth. Who, indeed, cannot but be surprised « See Note 60 above. ™ gee B xx^m c 47) and tne end of tnjg Book 74 Martial speaks of this practice, B. iii. Epigr. 81. 75 Nothing further seems to be known of this personage, or of the grounds of his invective. Pliny may possibly allude to some abominable practices, with which Vitellius is charged by Suetonius also. 16 The " Opus Signinum " was a plaster or cement much used for making pavements. It took its name from Signia, in Italy, celebrated for its tiles. See B. iii. c. 9. 71 The floors of the Roman houses were seldom boarded. Chap. 43.] FOEMACEAN WALLS. 289 at finding the most inferior constituent parts of it, known as " dust"78 only, on the hills about Puteoli, forming a barrier against the waves of the sea, becoming changed into stone the moment of its immersion, and. increasing in hardness from day to day—more particularly when mixed with the cement of Cumae ? There is an earth too, of a similar nature found in the districts about Cyzicus ; but there, it is not a dust, but a solid earth, which is cut away in blocks of all sizes, and which, after being immersed in the sea, is taken out transformed into stone. The same thing may be seen also, it is said, in the vicinity of Cassandrea ;79 and at Cnidos, there is a spring of fresh water which has the property of causing earth to petrify within the space of eight months. Between Oropus and Aulis, every portion of the land upon which the sea encroaches be- comes transformed into solid rock. The finer portion of the sand of the river Nilus is not very different in its properties from the dust of Puteoli; not, indeed, that it is used for breaking the force of the sea and with- standing the waves, but only for the purpose, forsooth, of sub- duing80 the body for the exercises of the palestra! At all events, it was for this purpose that it used to be brought over for Patrobius,81 a freedman of the Emperor Nero. I find it stated also, that Craterus, Leonnatus, and Meleager, generals of Alex- ander the Great, had this sand transported along with their munitions of war. But I forbear to enlarge any further upon this subject; or indeed, by Hercules! upon those preparations of earth and wax of which the ceromata are made, so much employed by our youth in their exerciseB of the body, at the cost of all vigour of the mind. CHAP. 48. (14.)--FORMACEAN WALLS. And then, besides, have we not in Africa and in Spain walls82 of earth, known as " formaceoan" walls ? from the fact that they are moulded, rather than built, by enclosing earth '8 « Pulvis." See B. iii. c. 9, B. xvi. c. 76, and B. xxxvi. c. 14. He alludes to the cement made of volcanic ashes, now known as " Pozzuo- lane." 79 See B. iv. c. 17. . 80 It being the practice to rub the bodies of the athletes with sand- 84 This circumstance is mentioned also by Suetonius, in his life of Nero. Patrobius was slain by order of the Emperor Galba. . . *2 Ajasson says that they are called tapias at the present day in bpain. VOL. VI. U 290 PLINY'S natural HISTORY. [Book XXXV. within a frame of boards, constructed on either side. These walls will last for centuries, are proof against rain, wind, and fire, and are superior in solidity to any cement. Even at this day, Spain still beholds watch-towers that were erected by Hannibal, and turrets of earth83 placed on the very summits of her mountains. It is from the same source, too, that we derive the substantial materials so well adapted for forming the earth-works of our camps and embankments against the impe- tuous violence of rivers. What person, too, is unacquainted with the fact, that partitions are made of hurdles coated with clay, and that walls are constructed of unbaked bricks ? chap. 49.—walls of brick, the method of making bricks. Earth for making bricks should never be extracted from a sandy or gravelly soil, and still less from one that is stony; but from a stratum that is white and cretaceous, or else im- pregnated with red earth.84 If a sandy soil must be employed for the purpose, it should at least be male85 sand, and no other. The spring is the best season for making bricks, as at midsum- mer they are very apt to crack. For building, bricks two years old are the only ones that are approved of; and the wrought material of them should be well macerated before they are made. There are three different kinds of bricks ; the Lydian, which is in use with us, a foot-and-a-half in length by a foot in breadth; the tetradoron; and the pentadoron ; the word "doron" being used by the ancient Greeks to signify the palm68—hence, too, their word " doron" meaning a gift, because it is the hand that gives.—These last two kinds, therefore, are named respectively from their being four and five palms in length, the breadth being the same. The smaller kind is used in Greece for private buildings, the larger for the construction of public edifices. At Pitane,87 in Asia, and in the cities of Max- ilua and Calentum in Farther Spain, there are bricks98 made, which float in water, when dry ; the material being a sort of 83 See B. ii. c. 73. 81 "Rubrica." &> See B. xxxi. c. 28. 86 Which was, as a measure, nearly three inches in breadth. See Intro- duction to Vol. III. « See B. v. c. 32. 88 Ajasson says that these bricks have been imitated by Fabroni, with a light argillaceous earth, found in the territory of Sienna. Delafosse thinks that a place called " Caia," in the Sierra Morena, probably marks the site of the cities above mentioned. Chap. 50.] SULPHUR. 291 pumice-earth, extremely good for the purpose when it can be made to unite. The Greeks have always preferred walls of brick, except in those cases where they could find silicious stone for the purposes of building: for walls of this nature will last for ever, if they are only built on the perpendicular. Hence it is, that the Greeks have built their public edifices and the palaces of their kings of brick; the wall at Athens, for example, which faces Mount Hymettus; the Temples of Jupiter and Hercules at Patrae,89 although the columns and architraves in the interior are of stone; the palace of King Attalus atTralles; the palace of Croesus at Sardes, now con- verted into an asylum90 for aged persons; and that of King Mausolus at Halicarnassus ; edifices, all of them, still in ex- istence. Muraena and Varro, in their aedileship, had a fine fresco paint- ing, on the plaster of a wall at Lacedaemon, cut away from the bricks, and transported in wooden frames to Rome, for the purpose of adorning the Comitium. Admirable as the work was of itself, it was still more admired after being thus trans- ferred. In Italy also there are walls of brick, at Arretium and Mevania.91 At Rome, there are no buildings of this de- scription, because a wall only a foot-and-a-half in thickness would not support more than a single story; and by public ordinance it has been enacted that no partition should exceed that thickness ; nor, indeed, does the peculiar construction of our party-walls admit of it. CHAP. 50. (15.)—SULPHUR, AND THE SEVERAL VARIETIES OF IT : FOURTEEN REMEDIES. Let thus much be deemed sufficient on the subject of bricks. Among the other kinds of earth, the one of the most singular nature, perhaps, is sulphur, an agent of great power upon other substances. Sulphur is found in the j-Eolian Islands, between Sicily and Italy, which are volcanic, as already92 stated. But the finest sulphur of all, is that which comes from the Isle of Melos. It is obtained also in Italy, upon the range of hills in the territories of Neapolis and Campania, known as the Leuco- gcei :93 when extracted from the mines there, it is purified by the agency of fire. 89 See B. iv. c. 5, and B. xxxvi. c. 1. w " Gerusia." 91 See B. iii. c. 19. 92 In B. iii. c. 6. 93 See B. xviii. c. 29. V 2 292 pliny's natural history. [Book XXXV. There are four kinds of sulphur ; the first of which is " live" sulphur, known as " apyron"94 by the Greeks, and found in solid masses, or in other words, in blocks. This, too, is the only sulphur that is extracted in its native state, the others being found in a state of liquescence, and requiring to be purified by being boiled in oil. This kind is green and transparent, and is the only sulphur that is used for medicinal purposes. A second kind is known as the " glebaceous"95 sulphur, and is solely employed in the workshops of the fullers. The third kind, also, is only used for a single purpose, that of fumigating wool, a process which contributes very greatly to making the wool white and soft; " egula"95 is the name given to it. The fourth kind is used in the preparation of matches more particularly. In addition to these several uses, sulphur is of such remark- able virtue, that if it is thrown upon the fire it will at once detect, by the smell, whether or not a person is subject to epilepsy. Anaxilaus used to employ this substance by way of pastime: putting sulphur in a cup of wine, with some hot coals beneath, he would hand it round to the guests, the light given by it, while burning, throwing a ghastly paleness like that of death upon the face of each. Its properties are ca- lorific and maturative, in addition to which, it disperses abscesses on the body: hence it is that it is used as an ingredient in plasters and emollient poultiees. Applied to the loins and kidneys, with grease, when there are pains in those parts, it is marvellously effectual as a remedy. In combination with turpentine, it removes lichens on the face, and leprosy,98 the preparation being known as "harpax,"97 from the celerity with which it acts upon the skin; for which reason it ought to be removed every now and then. Employed as an electuary, it is good for asthma, purulent expectorations, and stings inflicted by scorpions. Live sulphur, mixed with nitre, and then bruised with vinegar and applied, causes morphew to disappear, and destroys nits in the hair; in combination, too, with sandarach and vinegar, it is good for diseases of the eyelids. Sulphur has its place among our religious ceremonies, being used as a fumigation for purifying houses.98 Its virtues are 94 " Untouched by fire." Native sulphur. 95 » Gleba." 96 Sulphur has been always eensidered highly useful for the cure of cutaneous affections. 97 From apna^io, " to carry away." 98 Ovid, in his "Art of Love," speaks of purifying houses with eggs and sulphur. Chap. 51.] BITUMEN. 293 also to be perceived in certain hot mineral waters ;" and there is no substance that ignites more readily, a proof that there is in it a great affinity to fire. Lightning and thunder are at- tended with a strong smell of sulphur, and the light produced by them is of a sulphureous complexion. CHAP. 51.--BITUMEN, AND THE SEVERAL VARIETIES OF IT; TWENTY-SEVEN REMEDIES. Nearly approaching to the nature of sulphur is that of bitu- men,1 which in some places assumes the form of a slime, and in others that of an earth; a slime, thrown up, as already2 Btated, by a certain lake in Judaea, and an earth, found in the vicinity of Sidon, a maritime town of Syria. In both these Btates, it admits of being thickened and condensed. There is also a liquid3 bitumen, that of Zacynthus, for example, and the bitumen that is imported from Babylon ; which last kind is also white: the bitumen, too, of Apollonia is liquid. All these kinds, in Greek, have the one general name of " pissas- phaltos,"4 from their strong resemblance to a compound of pitch and bitumen. There is also found an unctuous liquid bitumen, resembling oil, in a spring at Agrigentum, in Sicily, the waters of which are tainted by it. The inhabitants of the spot collect it on the panicles of reeds, to which it very readily adheres, and make use of it for burning in lamps, as a sub- stitute for oil, as also for the cure of itch-scab in beasts of burden. Some authorities include among the bitumens, naphtha, a sub- stance which we have already mentioned in the Second Book;5 but the burning properties which it possesses, and its sus- ceptibility of igniting, render it quite unfit for use. Bitumen, to be of good quality, should be extremely brilliant, heavy, and massive; it should also be moderately smooth, it being very much the practice to adulterate it with pitch. Its medi- 99 See B. xxxi. c. 32. 1 There are three distinct kinds of bitumen. 1. Naphtha, also known as petroleum, or rock-oil, inflammable, volatile, soluble in alcohol, and found in France and Italy. 2. Asphalt, or bitumen of Judaea, solid, in- soluble in alcohol, and found in Lake Asphaltites in Syria, more particu- larly. 3. Pissasphalt, of a medium consistency between the other sub- Btances, of which it appears to be composed. See B. xxiv. c. 25. 2 In B. v. c. 15 3 Naphtha, most probably. 4 See B. xxiv. c. 25. 5 Chapter 109. 294 pliny's NATURAL HISTORY. [Book XXXV cinal properties are similar to those of sulphur, it being naturally astringent, dispersive, contractive, and agglutinating: ignited, it drives away serpents by the smell. Babylonian bitumen is very efficacious, it is said, for the cure of cataract and albugo, as also of leprosy, lichens, and pruriginous affections. Bitu- men is employed, too, in the form of a liniment, for gout; and every variety of it is useful for making bandolines for eye- lashes that are refractory and impede the sight. Applied topi- cally with nitre,6 it is curative of tooth-ache, and, taken in- ternally, with wine, it alleviates chronic coughs and difficulty of respiration. It is administered in a similar manner for dysentery, and is very good for arresting looseness of the bowels. Taken internally with vinegar, it dissolves and brings away coagulated blood. It modifies pains also in the loins and joints, and, applied with barley-meal, it forms a peculiar kind of plaster, to which it has given its name.7 It stanches blood also, heals wounds, and unites the sinews when severed. Bitumen is administered for quartan fevers, in doses of one drachma to an equal quantity of hedyosmos,8 the whole kneaded up with one obolus of myrrh. The smell of burnt bitu- men detects a tendency to epilepsy, and, applied to the nostrils with wine and castoreum,9 it dispels suffocations of the uterus. Employed as a fumigation, it acts as a check upon procidence of the uterus, and, taken internally with wine, it has the effect of an emmenagogue. Another use that is made of it, is for coating the inside of copper vessels, it rendering them proof against the action of fire. It has been already10 stated that bitumen was formerly employed for staining copper and coating statues. It has been used, too, as a substitute for lime; the walls of Babylon, for instance, which are cemented with it. In the smithies they are in the habit of varnishing iron and heads of nails with it, and of using it for many other purposes as well. CHAP. 52.--ALUMEN, AND THE SEVERAL VARIETIES OF IT; THIRTY-EIGHT REMEDIES. Not less important, or indeed very dissimilar, are the uses 8 As to the " nitrum" of Pliny, see B. xxxi. c. 46. 7 " Asphalt plaster," probably. 8 Or mint. See B. xix. c. 47, and B. xx. c. 53. » See B. xxxii. c. 13. io In B. xxxiv. c. 9. Chap. 52.] ALUMEN. 295 that are made of alumen ;u by which name is understood a Bort of brine12 which exudes from the earth. Of this, too, there are several kinds. In Cyprus there is a white alumen, and another kind of a darker colour. The difference, however, in their colour is but trifling in reality, though the uses made of them are very dissimilar; the white liquid alumen being employed for dyeing13 wool of bright colours, and the black, on the other hand, for giving wool a tawny or a sombre tint. Gold, too, is purified14 by the agency of black alumen. Every kind of alumen is a compound of slime and water, or in other words, is a liquid product exuding from the earth; the concre- tion of it commencing in winter, and being completed by the action of the summer sun. That portion of it which is the first matured, is the whitest in appearance. The countries which produce this substance, are Spain, ./Egypt, Armenia, Macedonia, Pontus, Africa,15 and the islands of Sardinia, Melos, Lipara, and Strongyle :16 the most es- teemed, however, is that of Egypt,17 the next best being the produce of Melos. Of this last kind there are also two varieties, the liquid alumen, and the solid. Liquid alumen, to be good, should be of a limpid, milky, appearance: when rubbed between the fingers it should be free from grit, and productive of a slight sensation of heat. The name given to it is " phorimon."18 The mode of detecting whether or not it has been adulterated, is by the application of pomegranate-juice ; for if genuine, it will turn black on combining with the juice. The other, or solid alumen, is pale and rough in ap- 11 Beckmann is of opinion that our alum was not known to the Greeks or Romans, and that what the latter called " alumen" was green vitriol, or sulphate of the protoxide of iron, in an impure state. Hist. Inv. Vol. I. p. 180. Bohn's Edition. Dr. Pereira remarks, however, that " there can be little doubt that Pliny was acquainted with our alum, but did not distinguish it from sulphate of iron, for he informs us that one kind of alum was white, and was used for dyeing wool of bright colours." Materia Medica, Vol. I. Delafosse identifies the " alumen" of Pliny with double sulphate of alum and iron. I2 " Salsugo terrae." 13 See Note 11 above. 14 For gilding, Hardouin says. 1S The Roman provinces in Africa, other than Egypt. 18 Now Strombolo. See B. iii. c. 14. 17 Herodotus, B. ii., mentions the fact that King Amasis sent the people of Delphi a thousand talents of this substance, as his contribution towards rebuilding their temple. 18 " Fruitful," or " useful." 296 pliny's NATURAL HISTORY. [Book XXXV. pearance, and turns black on the application of nut-galls ; for which reason it is known by the name of " paraphoron."1' Liquid alumen is naturally astringent, indurative, and cor- rosive : used in combination with honey, it heals ulcerations of the mouth, pimples, and pruriginous eruptions. The remedy, when thus used, is employed in the bath, the proportions being two parts of honey to one of alumen. It has the effect, also, of checking and dispersing perspiration, and of neu- tralizing offensive odours of the arm-pits. It is taken too, in the form of pills, for affections of the spleen, and for the pur- pose of carrying off blood by the urine : incorporated with nitre and melanthium,20 it is curative of itch-scab. There is one kind of solid alumen, known to the Greeks as " schiston,"21 which splits into filaments of a whitish colour; for which reason some have preferred giving it the name of " trichitis."22 It is produced from the mineral ore known to us as "chalcitis,"23 from which copper is also produced, it being a sort of exudation from that mineral, coagulated into the form of scum. This kind of alumen is less desiccative than the others, and is not so useful as a check upon bad humours of the body. Used, however, either in the form of a liniment or of an injection, it is highly beneficial to the ears; as also for ulcerations of the mouth, and for tooth-ache, if retained with the saliva in the mouth. It is employed also as a serviceable ingredient in, compositions for the eyes, and for the generative organs in either sex. The mode of pre- paring it is to roast it in crucibles, until it has quite lost its liquid form. There is another variety of alumen also, of a less active na- ture, and known as " strongyle;"24 which is again subdivided into two kinds; the fungous, which easily dissolves in any liquid, and is looked upon as altogether worthless; and the porous, which is full of small holes like a sponge, and in pieces of a globular form, more nearly approaching white alumen in appearance. It has a certain degree, too, of unc- tuousness, is free from grit, friable, and not apt to blacken the 19 " Adulterated." «° See B. xx. c. 71. 21 " Split" alum. Probably iron alum, the French alum deplume; of a flaky, silky appearance. 23 " Hairy alum." 23 See B. xxxiv. cc. 2, 29. " So called, according to Dioscorides, from the "round"form of the pieces. Chap. 52.] ALUMEN. 297 fingers. This last kind is calcined by itself upon hot coals, unmixed with any other substance, until it is entirely reduced to ashes. The best kind of all, however, is that called " melinum,"25 as coming from the Isle of Melos, as already mentioned ; none being more effectual for acting as an astringent, staining black, and indurating, and none assuming a closer consistency. It removes granulations of the eye-lids, and, in a calcined state, is still more efficacious for checking defluxions of the eyes: in this last form, too, it is employed for the cure of prurigi- nous eruptions on the body. Whether taken internally, or employed externally, it arrests discharges of blood ; and if it is applied with vinegar to a part from which the hair has been first removed, it will change into a soft down the hair which replaces it. The leading property of every kind of alumen is its remarkable astringency, to which, in fact, it is indebted for its name26 with the Greeks. It is for this property that the various kinds are, all of them, so remarkably good for the eyes. In combination with grease, they arrest discharges of blood; and they are employed in a similar manner for check- ing the spread of putrid ulcers, and for removing sores upon the bodies of infants. Alumen has a desiccative effect upon dropsical eruptions; and, in combination with pomegranate juice, it removes dis- eases of the ears, malformed nails, indurations resulting from cicatrization, hangnails, and chilblains. Calcined, with vine- gar or nut-galls, in equal proportions, it is curative of phage- daenic ulcers; and, in combination with extracted juice of cabbage, of leprosy. Used in the proportion of one part of alumen to two of salt, it arrests the progress of serpiginous eruptions ; and an infusion of it in water destroys lice and other parasitical insects that infest the hair. Employed in a similar manner, it is good for burns ; and, in combination with the serous27 part of pitch, for furfuraceous eruptions on the body. It is used also as an injection for dysentery, and, em- ployed in the form of a gargle, it braces the uvula and tonsil- lary glands. For all those maladies which we have men- 25 He has previously said that the most esteemed kind was the Egyptian, that of Melos being the next best. 26 Zrvnrnpia, the " styptic." " " Sero picis." Hardouin is of opinion that under this name pisse- Ueon is intended. See B. xv. c. 7, B. xxiv. cc. 11, 24, and B. xxv. c. 22. 298 pliny's NATURAL HISTORY. [Book XXXV, tioned as being treated with the other kinds of alumen, that imported from Melos, be it understood, is still more efficacious. As to the other uses that are made of it for industrial pur- poses, such as preparing hides and wool, for example, they have been mentioned already.28 CHAP. 53. (16.)—SAMIAN EARTH : THREE REMEDIES. In succession to these, we shall now have to speak of various other kinds of earth29 which are made use of in medicine. Of Samian earth there are two varieties; one known as "collyrium,"30 the other by the name of " aster."31 To be in perfection, the first kind should be fresh, remarkably smooth, and glutinous to the tongue ; the second being of a more solid consistency, and white. They are both prepared for use by being calcined and then rinsed in water, some persons giving the preference to the first. They are both of them useful for discharges of blood from the mouth, and are em- ployed as an ingredient in plasters of a desiccative nature. They are used also in the preparation of ophthalmic compo- sitions. CHAP. 54.--THE VARIOUS KINDS OF ERETRIA. Of eretria, or Eretrian82 earth, there are also the same number of varieties ; one white, and the other of an ashy colour, this last being preferred in medicine. To be good, this earth should be of a soft consistency, and when rubbed upon copper it should leave a violet tint. The virtues of eretria in a medi- cinal point of view, and the methods of using it, have been already mentioned33 in our description of the pigments. CHAP. 55.—THE METHOD OF WASHING EARTHS FOR MEDICINAL PURPOSES. All these earths—for we will talfe the present opportunity of mentioning it—are well washed in water, and then dried 28 At the beginning of this Chapter in part. 29 Aluminous silicates, as Delafosse remarks, more or less combined with other minerals. Though employed for various purposes in the arts, they are now but little used in medicine. 30 Probably because it was the more extensively employed of the two, in " collyria," or compositions for the eyes. 3l " Star" earth, apparently 32 From Eretria, in Euboea. See B. iv. c. 21. 23 In Chapter 21 of this Book. Chap 57.] CKETAOEOUS EARTHS. 299 in the sun ; after which, they are again triturated in water, and left to settle: this done, they are divided into tablets. They are usually boiled in earthen vessels, which are well shaken every now and then. CHAP. 56.--CHIAN EARTH; THREE REMEDIES. SELINUSIAN EARTH; THREE REMEDIES. PNIGITIS; NINE REMEDIES. AMPELIT1S; FOUR REMEDIES. Among the medicinal substances, there is the white earth of Chios also, the properties of which are the same as those of Samian earth. It is used more particularly as a cosmetic for the skin of females; the Selinusian34 earth being also employed for a similar purpose. This last is of a milk-white colour, and melts very rapidly in water: dissolved in milk, it is em- ployed for whitening the plaster coats on walls. Pnigitis35 is very similar to Eretrian earth, only that it is found in larger masses, and is of a glutinous consistency. Its effects are Bimilar to those produced by Cimolian3* earth, but are not so energetic. Ampelitis37 is an earth which bears a strong resemblance to bitumen. The test of its goodness is its dissolving m oil, like wax, and preserving its black colour when submitted to the action of fire. Its properties are emollient and repercussive; for which reason, it is used in medicinal compositions, those known as " calliblephara,"38 more particularly, and in prepara- tions for dyeing the hair. CHAP. 57. (17.)--CRETACEOUS EARTHS USED FOR SCOURING CLOTH. CIMOLIAN EARTH; NINE REMEDIES. SARDINIAN EARTH. UM- BRIAN EARTH. SAXUM. Of cretaceous38 earths there are several varieties ; and among 34 It appears to be a matter of doubt whether it was found at Selinus, in Sicily, or the place of that name in Cilicia. See B. iii. c. 14, and B. v. c 22 ' 34 Agricola is of opinion that this earth had its name from the place called Pnieeum, in the Libyan Mareotis. Other commentators would have it to be derived from wviya., " to suffocate," such being its effect it taken internally 36 See tne next Chapter. « So called from a^nkXog, a "vine;" either because it was applied to vines to kill the insects, or because its admixture with the soil was favour- able to the cultivation of the vine. . 38 " Washes for beautifying the eye-brows.' See B. xxi. c. 73, B. xxm. c. 51, and B. xxxiii. c. 34. .. .... 39 Cimolian earth, known in modern chemistry as Cimolite, is not a 300 pliny's NATURAL HISTORY. [Book XXXV. them, two kinds of Cimolian earth, employed in medicine, the one white and the other inclining to the tint of purpurissum.40 Both kinds, moistened with vinegar, have the effect of dis- persing tumours and arresting defluxions. They are curative also of inflammatory swellings and imposthumes of the parotid glands; and, applied topically, they are good for affections of the spleen and pustules on the body. With the addition of aphronitrum,41 oil of cypros,42 and vinegar, they reduce swellings of the feet, care being taken to apply the lotion in the sun, and at the end of six hours to wash it off with salt and water. In combination with wax and oil of cypros, Cimolian earth is good for swellings of the testes. Cretaceous earths, too, are of a cooling tendency, and, applied to the body in the form of a liniment, they act as a check upon excessive perspiration: taken with wine, in the bath, they remove pimples on the body. The most esteemed of all these earths is that of Thessaly : it is found also in the vicinity of Bubon43 in Lycia. Cimolian earth is used also for another purpose, that of scouring cloth. As to the kind which is brought from Sar- dinia, and is known as " sarda," it is used for white tissues only, and is never employed for coloured cloths. Indeed, this last is held in the lowest estimation of all the Cimolian earths; whereas, that of Umbria is more highly esteemed, as also the kind generally known as " saxum."44 It is a property of this last to increase in weight45 by maceration, and it is by weight that it is usually sold, Sardinian earth being sold by measure. Umbrian earth is only used for giving lustre to cloths. It will not be deemed out of place to give some further account here of this process, there being still in existence the Metilian Law, relative to fullers; an enactment which C. Flaminius and L. JEmilius, in their censorship,46 had passed by cretaceous earth, but an aluminous silicate, still found in the island of Ximoli, or Argentiera, one of the Cyclades; See B. iv. c. 23. Tourne- fort describes it as a white chalk, very heavy, tasteless, and dissolving in water. It is found also at Alexandrowsk in Russia. 40 See Chapter 25 of this Book. a See B. xxxi. c. 46. 42 See B. xii. c. 51. 43 gee B. v. c. 28^ 44 Beckmann thinks that this may have been our common chalk. Vol. II. p. 105. 45 This seems to be the meaning of " crescit in macerando." 46 a.u.c 535, it is supposed. Chap. 68.] ARGENTARIA. 301 the people,47 so attentive to everything were our ancestors. The following then is the method employed in preparing cloth : it is first washed in an infusion of Sardinian earth, and is then exposed to a fumigation with sulphur. This done, it is scoured48 with Cimolian earth, when the cloth has been found to be of a genuine colour; it being very soon detected when it has been coloured with spurious materials, by its turning black and the colours becoming dispersed50 by the action of the sulphur. Where the colours are genuine and rich, they are softened by the application of Cimolian earth; which brightens and freshens them also when they have been rendered sombre by the action of the sulphur. Saxum is better for white tissues, after the application of sulphur, but to coloured cloths it is highly injurious.51 In Greece they use Tymphaean52 gypsum in place of Cimolian earth. CHAP. 58.-- ARGENTARIA. NAMES OF FREEDMEN WHO HAVE EITHER RISEN TO POWER THEMSELVES, OR HAVE BELONGED TO MEN OF INFLUENCE. There is another cretaceous earth, known as " argentaria,"63 from the brightness54 which it imparts to silver. There is also the most inferior kind of chalk; which was used by the ancients for tracing the line of victory55 in the Circus, and for marking the feet of slaves on sale, that were brought from beyond sea. Such, for instance, were Publilius56 Lochius, the 47 As a plebiscitum. 48 " Desquamatur." This is most probably the meaning of the word, though Beckmann observes " that it was undoubtedly a term of art, which cannot be further explained, because we are unacquainted with the opera- tion to which it alludes."—Vol II. p. 104. Bohn's Edition. so "Funditur sulphure." The meaning of these words is very doubt- ful. Beckmann proposes to read " offenditur," but he is not supported by any of the MSS. He has evidently mistaken the meaning of the whole passage. 81 Probably because it was too calcareous, Beckmann thinks. 52 See B. iv. c. 3, and B. xxxvi. c. 59. »3 Plate powder; from " argentum," " silver." See B. xvii. c. 4. 54 Whitening, or chalk washed and prepared, is still used for this pur- pose. 65 The goal for the chariots. 56 This reading is restored by Sillig from the Bamberg MS., but no particulars are known relative to the person alluded to; unless, indeed, as Sillig suspects to be the case, he is identical with Publius Syrus, the writer of mimes, mentioned in B. viii. c. 77. 302 pliny's natural history. [Book XXXV. founder of our mimic scenes; his cousin, Manilius Antiochus,57 the first cultivator of astronomy ; and Staberius Eros, our first grammarian; all three of whom our ancestors saw brought over in the same ship.58 (18.) But why mention these names, recommended as they are by the literary honours which they acquired ? Other instances too, Bome has beheld of persons rising to high positions from the slave-market ;59 Chrysogonus, for example, the freedman of Sylla; Amphion, the freedman of Q,. Catulus ; the man who was the keeper60 of Lucullus ; Demetrius, the freedman of Pom- peius, and Auge, the freedwoman of Demetrius,61 or else of Pompeius himself, as some have supposed; Hipparchus, the freedman of M. Antonius; as also, Menas62 and Menecrates,83 freedmen of Sextus Pompeius, and many others as well, whom it would be superfluous to enumerate, and who have enriched themselves at the cost of Bo man blood, and the licence that results from proscription. Such is the mark that is set upon those droves of slaves which we see on sale, such the opprobrium thrown upon them by a capricious fortune ! And yet, some of these very men have we beheld in the enjoyment of such power and influence, that the senate itself has decreed them—at the command of Agrip- pina,64 wife of the Emperor Claudius—the decorations even of the praetorship : all but honoured with the fasces and their laurels, in fact, and sent back in state to the very place from which they originally came, with their feet whitened with the Blave-dealer's chalk! 67 Supposed by some to have been the Manilius who was author of the poem called " Astronomica," still in existence. It is more probable, how- ever, that he was the father of the poet, or perhaps the grandfather; as it is clear from a passage in Suetonius, that Staberius Eros taught at Eome during the civil wars of Sylla, while the poem must have been written, in part at least, after the death of Augustus. 58 Being afterwards manumitted. Sillig thinks that they may have arrived in Bome about b.c. 90. 59 " Catasta." A raised platform of wood on which the slaves were exposed for sale. 60 " Eectorem." For an explanation of this allusion, see B. xxviii. c. 14. 64 A native of Gadara in Syria, according to Josephus. Seneca speaks of him as being more wealthy than his master. 62 Or Menodorus, who deserted Sextus Pompeius and went over to Octavianus. «3 Who remained faithful to Pompeius, and died in his cause « He is probably speak.ng in reference to her paramour, the freedman rallas. See B. xxxm. c. 4/. Chap. 59.J SUMMARY. 303 chap. 59. (19.)—the earth of galata; of clypea ; of the daleares; and of ebusus. In addition to these, there are various other kinds of earth, endowed with peculiar properties of their own, and which have been already mentioned on former occasions.65 We may, however, take the present opportunity of again remarking the following properties. The earth of the island of Galata and of the vicinity of Clypea, in Africa, is fatal to scorpions; and that of the Balearic Islands and of Ebusus kills serpents. Summary.—Bemedies, narratives, and observations, nine hundred and fifty-six. Boman Authors quoted.—Messala1 the Orator, the Elder Messala,2 Fenestella,3 Atticus,4 M. Varro,6 Verrius,6 Cornelius Nepos,7 Deculo,8 Mucianus,9 Melissus,10 Vitruvius,11 Cassius Severus Longulanus,12 Eabius Vestalis,13 who wrote on Painting. Foreign Authors quoted.—Pasiteles,14 Apelles,15 Melan- thius,16 Asclepiodorus,17 Euphranor,18 Heliodorus,19 who wrote on the Votive Offerings of the Athenians, Metrodorus,20 who wrote on Architecture, Democritus,21 Theophrastus,22 Apion23 65 As to the earths of Galata and Clypea, see B. v. c. 7. The others are mentioned in B. iii. c. 11. 1 See end of B. ix. 2 See end of B. xxxiv. 3 See end of B. viii. 4 See end of Books vii. and xiv. 5 See end of B. ii. 6 See end of B. iii. 7 See end of B. ii. 8 See end of B. x. 9 See end of B. ii. ,0 See end of B. vii. n See end of B. xvi. 12 A native of Longula in Latium. Though of dissolute character, he was famous as an orator and satirical writer. It was he who accused Nonius Asprenas of poisoning, as mentioned in Chapter 46 of this Book. Be died in exile at the island of Seriphos, about a.d. 33. His works were at first proscribed, but were afterwards permitted by Caligula to be read. 13 See end of B. vii. 14 See end of B. xxxiii. 16 The painter, mentioned at great length in Chapter 36 of this Book, and elsewhere. 16 A painter of Sicyon, mentioned in Chapters 32 and 36 of this Book. 17 Probably the painter of that name, mentioned in Chapter 36 of this Book. , u lB The artist mentioned in B. xxxiv. c. 19, and in Chapter 40 of the present Book. 19 See end of B. xxxiii. 20 Possibly the painter of that name, mentioned in Chapter 40 of this Book. 21 See end of B. ii. -2 See end of B. iii. '■" See end of B. xxx. 304 pliny's NATURAL HISTORY. [Book XXXV. the grammarian, who wrote on the Medicines derived from Metals, Nymphodorus,24 Iollas,25 Apollodorus,26 Andreas,211 Heraclides,28 Diagoras,29 Botrys,30 Archidemus,31 Dionysius,32 Aristogenes,33 Democles,34 Mnesides,35 Xenocrates36 the son of Zeno, Theomnestus.37 24 See end of B. iii, 25 See end of B. xii. 26 See end of Books iv., viii., xi., and xx. 27 See end of B. xx. 28 See end of Books iv. and xii. 29 See end of B. xii. M See end of B. xiii. 31 See end of B. xii. 32 See end of B. xii. 33 See end of B. xxix. 34 See end of B. xii, 35 See end of B. xii. 36 See end of B. xxxiii. 37 See end of B. xxxiii. 305 BOOK XXXVI. THE NATURAL HISTORY OF STONES. CHAT. 1. (1.)--LUXURY DISPLAYED IN THE USE OF VARIOUS KINDS OF MARBLE. It now remains for us to speak of stones, or, in other words, the leading folly of the day; to say nothing at all of our taste for gems and amber, crystal and murrhine vases.1 For every- thing of which we have previously treated, down to the present Book, may, by some possibility or other, have the ap- pearance of having been created for the sake of man : but_ as to the mountains, Nature has made those for herself, as a kind of bulwark for keeping together the bowels of the earth ; as also for the purpose of curbing the violence of the rivers, of breaking the waves of the sea, and so, by opposing to them the very hardest of her materials, putting a check upon those elements which are never at rest. And yet we must hew down these mountains, forsooth, and carry them off; and this, for no other reason than to gratify our luxurious inclinations : heights which in former days it was reckoned a miracle even to have crossed! Our forefathers regarded as a prodigy the passage of the Alps, first by Hannibal,2 and, more recentl)-, by the Cimbri: but at the present day, these very mountains are cut asunder to yield us a thousand different marbles, promontories are thrown open to the sea, and the face of Nature is being every- where reduced to a level. We now carry away the barriers that were destined for the separation of one nation from another; we construct ships for the transport of our marbles ; and, amid the waves, the most boisterous element of Nature, we convey the summits of the mountains to and fro: a thing, however, that is even less unpardonable than to go on the 1 See B. xxxvii. cc. 7, 8, 11. 2 See the lines of Juvenal, Sat. x. 1. 151, etseq. VOL. YI. X 306 pliny's natural HISTORY. [Book XXXVI. search amid the regions of the clouds for vessels3 with which to cool our draughts, and to excavate rocks, towering to the very heavens, in order that we may have the satisfaction of drinking from ice! Let each reflect, when he hears of the high prices set upon these things, when he sees these ponderous masses carted and carried away, how many there are whose life is passed far more happily without them. For what utility or for what so-called pleasure do mortals make them- selves the agents, or, more truly speaking, the victims of such undertakings, except in order that others may take their re- pose in the midst of variegated stones ? Just as though too, the shades of night, which occupy one half of each man's existence, would forbear to curtail these imaginary delights. CHAP. 2.—WHO WAS THE FIRST TO EMPLOY MARBLE IN PUBLIC BUILDINGS. Indeed, while making these reflections, one cannot but feel ashamed of the men of ancient times even. There are still in existence censorial4 laws, which forbid the kernels5 in the neck of swine to be served at table, dormice too, and other things too trifling to mention: and yet there has been no law passed, forbidding marble to be imported, or the seas to be traversed in search of it! (2.) It; may possibly be observed, that this was, because marble was not then introduced.. Such, however, is not the fact; for in the sedileship of M. Scaurus,6 three hundred and sixty columns were to be seen imported; for the decorations of a temporary theatre, too, one that was destined to be in use for barely a single month. And yet the laws were silent thereon; in a spirit of indulgence for the amusements of the public, no doubt. But then, why such indulgence ? or how do vices more insidiously steal upon us than under the plea of serving the public ? By what other way, in fact, did ivory, gold, and precious stones, first come into use with private individuals ? Can we say that there is now anything that we have re- served for the exclusive use of the gods ? However, be it so, let us admit of this indulgence for the amusements of the public; but still, why did the laws maintain their silence 3 He alludes to vessels made of crystal, which, as Dalechamps remarks, was long supposed to be nothing but ice in aconesete form. See B. xxxvii. c. 9. * See B. viii. c. 82. s "GOandia." 6 See. Chapter 24 of this Book. Chap. 3.1 MARBLE COLUMNS ERECTED AT ROME. 307 when the largest of these columns, pillars of Lucullan7 marble, as much as eight-and-thirty feet in height, were erected in the atrium of Scaurus ? a thing, too, that was not done privately or in secret; for the contractor for the public sewers compelled him to give security for the possible damage that might be done in the carriage of them to the Palatium.8 When so bad an example as this was set, would it not have been advisable to take some precautions for the preservation of the public morals ? And yet the laws still preserved their silence, when such enormous masses as these were being car- ried past the earthenware9 pediments of the temples of the gods, to the house of a private individual! CHAP. 3. (3.)—WHO WAS THE FIRST TO ERECT COLUMN8 OF FOREIGN MARBLE AT ROME. And yet it cannot be said that Scaurus, by way of a first essay in vice, took the City by surprise, in a state of ignorance and totally unguarded against such evils as these. Already had L. Crassus,10 the orator, he who was the first to possess pillars of foreign marble, and in this same Palatium too, re- ceived from M. Brutus, on the occasion of a dispute, the nick- name of the "Palatine Venus," for his indulgence in this kind of luxury. The material, I should remark, was Hyniet- tian marble, and the pillars were but six in number, and not exceeding some twelve feet in height. Our forefathers were guilty of this omission, no doubt, because morals were univer- sally contaminated ; and, seeing that things which had been in- terdicted had been forbidden in vain, they preferred the absence of laws to laws that were no better than a dead letter. These particulars and others in the Bequel will show that we are so far improved; for who is there at the present day that has, in his atrium, any such massive columns as these of Scaurus ? But before proceeding to treat of the several varieties of this material, it will be as well to mention the various artists, and the degrees of estimation in which they are held, who have worked in marble. We will, therefore, proceed to review the Bculptors who have flourished at different periods. 7 See Chapter 8 of this Book. 8 In the Eleventh Region of the City. 9 See B. xxxv. cc. 43, 45. 10 See B. xvii. c. 1. x2 308 pliny's NATURAL HISTORY. [Book XXXVI. CHAP. 4. (4.)—THE FIRST ARTISTS WHO EXCELLED IN THE SCULPTURE OF MARBLE, AND THE VARIOUS PERIODS AT WHICH THEY FLOURISHED. THE MAUSOLEUM IN CARIA. THE MOST CELE- BRATED SCULPTORS AND WORKS IN MARBLE, TWO HUNDRED AND TWENTY-FIVE IN NUMBER. The first artists who distinguished themselves in the sculp- ture of marble, were Dipcenus11 and Scyllis, natives of the Isle of Crete. At this period the Medians were still in power, and Cyrus had not begun to reign in Persia; their date being about the fiftieth Olympiad. They afterwards repaired to Sicyon, a state which for a length of time12 was the adopted country of all such pursuits as these. The people of Sicyon had made a contract with them for the execution of certain statues of the gods; but, before completing the work, the artists complained of some injustice being done them, and retired \p iEtolia. Im- mediately upon this, the state was afflicted with sterility and famine, and dreadful consternation was the result. Upon enquiry being made as to a remedy for these evils, the Pythian Apollo made answer, that Dipcenus and Scyllis must complete the statues of the gods; an object which was attained at the cost of great concessions and considerable sums of money. The statues were those of Apollo,13 Diana, Hercules, and Minerva; the last of which was afterwards struck by lightning. (5.) Before these artists were in existence, there had already appeared Melas, a sculptor of the Isle of Chios; and, in succes- sion to him, his son Micciades, and his grandson Archermus ;14 whose sons, Bupalus and Athenis, afterwards attained the highest eminence in the art. These last were contemporaries of the poet Hipponax, who, it is well known, lived in the sixtieth Olympiad. Now, if a person only reckons, going upwards from their time to that of their great-grandfather, he will find 11 These two artists are invariably mentioned together. Pausanias, B. ii. c. 14, and B. iii. c. 17, speaks of them as the pupils or sons of Bffda- lus; only intimating thereby, as Sillig thinks, that they were the first sculptors worthy of being associated with the father of artists. Pausanias, B. ii. c. 22, mentions ebony statues by them. 13 In the time of the Telchines, before the arrival of Inachus in Argolis. 13 Pausanias says that this statue was completed by their pupils. Cle- mens Alexandrinus mentions other works of theirs. 14 Another reading is " Anthermus." Of many of these sculptors, no further particulars are known. Chap. 4] ARTISTS WHO EXCELLED IN SCULPTURE. 309 that the art of sculpture must have necessarily originated about the commencement of the era of the Olympiads. Hipponax being a man notorious for his ugliness, the two artists, by way of joke,15 exhibited a statue of him for the ridicule of the pub- lic. Indignant at this, the poet emptied upon them all the bitterness of his verses; to such an extent indeed, that, as some believe, they were driven to hang themselves in despair. This, however, is not the fact; for, at a later period, these artists executed a number of statues in the neighbouring islands; atDelos for example, with an inscription subjoined to the effect, that Chios was rendered famous not only by its vines15* but by the works of the sons of Archermus as well. The people of Lasos16 still show a Diana that was made by them ; and we find mention also made of a Diana at Chios, the work of their hands : it is erected on an elevated spot, and the features ap- pear stern to a person as he enters, and joyous as he departs. At Bome, there are some statues by these artists on the summit of the Temple17 of the Palatine Apollo, and, indeed, in most of the buildings that were erected by the late Emperor Augustus. At Delos and in the Isle, of Lesbos there were formerly some sculptures by their father to be seen. Ambracia too, Argos, andCleona3, were filled with productions of the sculptor Dipcenus. All these artists, however, used nothing but the white marble of the Isle of Paros, a stone which was known as "lychnites" at first, because, according to Varro, it was cut in the quarries by lamplight.18 Since their time, many other whiter marbles have been discovered, and very recently that of the quarries of Luna 19 With reference to the marble of Paros, there is one very marvellous circumstance related ; in a single block that was split with wedges, a figure20 of Silenus made its appearance. » Another cause of the quarrel is said to have been the refusal of Bu- palus to give his daughter in marriage to Hipponax. This quarrel is re- ferred to in the Greek Anthology, B. in. Epigr. 26. »• See B. xiv. c. 9. 1P' See B. iv. c 20 » Dedicated by Augustus, in the Tenth Region of the City. i» A.-yvoc being the Greek for a " lamp." 19 See B iii c 8 ■ now known as the marble of Massa and Carrara, of 8 ^s^i ! jraeftSSfin the figure of St. Jerome, to be seen nn a rtcmein the Grotto of Our Saviour at Bethlehem, and in a represen- Ltion 0? he CuCifixion, in the Church of St. George, at Venice. A mi- xture resembling that of the poet Chaucer is to be seen on the surface of a small stone in the British Museum. 310 pliny's natural history. [Book XXXVI. We must not omit to remark, that the art of sculpture is of much more ancient21 date than those of painting and of statuary in bronze; both of which commenced with Phi- dias, in the eighty-third Olympiad, or in other words, about three hundred and thirty-two years later. Indeed, it is said, that Phidias himself worked in marble, and that there is a Venus of his at Bome, a work of extraordinary beauty, in the buildings of Octavia.22 A thing, however, that is universally admitted, is the fact that he was the instructor of Alcamenes," the Athenian, one of the most famous among the sculptors. By this last artist, there are numerous statues in the temples at Athens; as also, without the walls there, the celebrated Venus, known as the Aphrodite ev xfiirois,*1 a work to which Phidias himself, it is said, put the finishing hand. Another disciple also of Phidias was Agoracritus25 of Paros, a great favourite with his master, on account of his extremely youthful age; and for which reason, it is said, Phidias gave his own name to many of that artist's works. The two pupils entering into a contest as to the superior execution of a statue of Venus, Alcamenes was successful; not that his work was superior, but because his fellow-citizens chose to give their suffrages in his favour in preference to a stranger. It was for this reason, it is said, that Agoracritus sold his statue, on the express condi- tion that it should never be taken to Athens, and changed its name to that of Nemesis.26 It was accordingly erected at Bhamnus,27 a borough of Attica, and M. Varro has considered it superior to every other statue. There is also to be seen in 21 See B. xxxv. c. 44. 22 See B. xxxv. cc. 37, 40. ;3 See B. xxxiv. c. 19. 24 " In the Gardens." A suburb of Athens, in which there was a tem- ple of Venus, or Aphrodite Urania. 25 He is mentioned also by Pausanias and Strabo. 26 The Goddess of Retribution. Pausanias, B. i. c. 33, snys that it was the work of Phidias, and that it was made of Parian marble, which the Persians had brought into Attica for the purpose of erecting a trophy. Strabo, however, in B. ix., says that it was the work of Agoracritus and Diodotus (an artist otherwise unknown), and that it was not at all inferior to the production of Phidias. Tzetzes again, Suidas, and Photius, say that it was the work of Phidias, and that it was presented by him to his favourite pupil, Agoracritus. Sillig rejects the story of the contest, and the decision by the suffrages of the Athenian people. Some modern writers have doubted also, whether a statue of Venus could be modified so as to represent Nemesis; hut not with sufficient reason, Sillig thinks. *» See B. iv. o. 11. Chap. 4.] ARTISTS WHO EXCELLED IN SCULPTURE. 311 the Temple of the Great Mother, in the same city, another work28 by Agoracritus. Among all nations which the fame of the Olympian Jupiter has reached, Phidias is looked upon, beyond all doubt, as the most famous of artists: but to let those who have never even seen his works, know how deservedly he is esteemed, we will take this opportunity of adducing a few slight proofs of the genius which he displayed. In doing this, we shall not appeal to the beauty of his Olympian Jupiter, nor yet to the vast proportions of his Athenian Minerva, six and twenty cubits in height, and composed of ivory and gold ; but it is to the shield of this last statue that we shall draw attention; upon the convex face of which he has chased a combat of the Amazons, while, upon the concave side of it, he has repre- sented the battle between the Gods and the Giants. Upon the sandals again, we see the wars of the Lapithae and Centaurs, so careful has he been to fill every smallest portion of his work with some proof or other of his artistic skill. To the story chased upon the pedestal of the statue, the name of the "Birth of Pandora"2* has been given; and the figures of new-born30 gods to be seen upon it are no less than twenty in number. The figure of Victory, in particular, is most admirable, and connoisseurs are greatly struck with the ser- pent and the sphinx in bronze lying beneath the point of the spear. Let thus much be said incidentally in reference to an artist who can never be sufficiently praised ; if only to let it be understood that the richness of his genius was always equal to itself, even in the very smallest details. When speaking31 of the statuaries, we have already given the period at which Praxiteles flourished ; an artist, who, in the glory which he acquired by his works in marble, sur- passed even himself. There are some works of his in the Ceramicus32 at Athens; but, superior to all the statues, not only of Praxiteles, but of any other artist that ever existed, is his Cnidian Venus ; for the inspection of which, many per- sons before now have purposely undertaken a voyage to 29 A statue, Sillig supposes, of the goddess Cybele. 29 " Pandoras Genesis." . 30 Sillig is of opinion that this passage is corrupt, and is inclined^ to think, with Panofka, that the reading should be "nascenti adstantes,"— gods "standing by the new-born" Pandora. " In B. xxxiv. c. 19. 32 See B. xxxv. c. 45. 312 pliny's NATURAL HISTORY. [Book XXXVI. Cnidos. The artist made two statues of the goddess, and offered them both for sale: one of them was represented with drapery,33 and for this reason was preferred34 by the people of Cos, who had the choice ; the second was offered them at the same price, but, on the grounds of propriety and modesty, they thought fit to choose the other. Upon this, the Cnidians purchased the rejected statue,35 and immensely superior has it always been held in general estimation. At a later period, King Nicomedes wished to purchase this statue of the Cni- dians, and made them an offer to pay off the whole of their public debt, which was very large. They preferred, however, to submit to any extremity rather than part with it; and with good reason, for by this statue Praxiteles has perpetuated the glory of Cnidos. The little temple in which it, is placed is open on all sides, so that the beauties36 of the statue admit of 33 " Velata specie." There has been much discussion about the mean- ing of these words ; and Sillig is of opinion that the figure was repre- sented draped in a garment, which, while it seemed designed to hide the person, really exposed it to view. This dress would not improbably re- commend it additionally to the inhabitants of Cos, who were skilled in making the Coce vestes, garments which, while they covered the body, re- vealed its naked charms. See further mention of them in B. ix. c. 26. 34 Visconti thinks that a statue still preserved in the Royal Museum at Paris, is a copy of the»Coan Venus. It has, however, a figure of Cupid associated with it, which, as Sillig observes, militates against the suppo- sition. 35 The ancient writers abound in praises of this wonderful statue. Lucian, however, has given the most complete and artistic description of it. It was supposed by the ancients, to represent Venus as standing be- fore Paris, when he awarded to her the prize of beauty; but it has been well remarked, that the drapery in the right hand, and the vase by the 6ide of the figure, indicate that she has either just left or is about to enter the bath. The artist modelled it from Phryne, a courtesan or hetsera of Athens, of whom he was greatly enamoured. It was ultimately carried to Constantinople, where it perished by fire in the reign of Justinian. It is doubtful whether there are any copies of it in existence. There is, however, a so-called copy in the gardens of the Vatican, and another in the Glyptothek, at Munich. A Venus in the Museo Pio-Clementino, at Rome, is considered by Visconti and others to have been a copy of the Cnidian Venus, with the addition of drapery. It is supposed that Cleo- menes, in making the Venus de Medici, imitated the Cnidian Venus in some degree. 36 There are numerous Epigrams in reference to this statue in the Greek Anthology; the most striking line in any of which is the beautiful Pen- tameter : $fi)!