EPIDEMIOLOGY OF DISEASES 
OF -££i_K 
MILITARY IMPORTANCE 
IN THE 
NETHERLANDS INDIES 
INCLUDING THE IDENTIFICATION 
AND DISTRIBUTION OF ARTHRO- 
PODS OF MEDICAL IMPORTANCE 
NAVMED I33 
(This manual includes only the areas formerly under Dutch 
administration. It does not take into account Portuguese 
Timor, British New Guinea, and British Borneo) 
UNITED STATES 
GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE 
WASHINGTON : 1944 
For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, U. S. Government Printing Office, 
Washington 26, D. C. • Price 40 cents FOREWORD 
The purpose of this manual is to present a summary of 
medical information concerning the Netherlands Indies 
as it pertains to epidemiology and other phases of pre- 
ventive medicine. The bulk of the information has been 
obtained from the medical journals and other publications 
of the Netherlands Indies. The information recorded is 
the result of a perusal of about 5,000 pages of material 
and a more hasty study of several thousand additional 
pages. 
The principal general sources have been the two fine 
Netherlands Indies medical journals, Geneeskundig Tijd- 
schrift voor N e der lands ch-Indie and Mededeelingen van den 
Dienst der Folksgezondheid in Nederlandsch-lndie, the 
official organ of the Netherlands Indies Public Health 
Service. Much of the material on malaria and its trans- 
mission was derived from the monograph of Swellengrebel 
and Rodenwaldt, Die Anophelen von Niederlandisch- 
Ostindien supplemented by numerous more recent papers. 
Much of the entomological information comes from the 
pages of Tijdschrift voor Entomologie. Statistics In gen- 
eral come from the Indisch Ferslag, the official statistical 
organ of the Netherlands Indies Government. The num- 
erous other references to the literature which have been 
employed are given in the bibliography. 
It is necessary to bear in mind that this manual is of 
necessity essentially a non-critical compilation although 
every effort has been made to check the accuracy and 
authenticity of the source papers. Because most of the 
information comes from the work of individuals who have 
many years’ experience in the Netherlands Indies one 
feels definitely inclined to regard it as fundamentally 
sound and accurate. 
Several publications and reports are available which 
would be of value as a supplement to this compilation. Mosquito Atlas, Part II by Ross and Roberts contains 
many illustrations of medically important anophelines of 
this area. Keys to the Anopheline Mosquitoes of the World, 
by Russell, Rozeboom, and Stone contains keys for the 
identification of Anopheles. The excellent report com- 
piled by Dr. I. Snapper for the Surgeon General’s Office, 
United States Army, contains much valuable information. 
The text-book of de Langen and Lichtenstein contains 
useful information, primarily clinical. A translated edi- 
tion by Dr. A. H. Hamilton is available. 
The War Department’s Technical Manual, Emergency 
Food Plants and Poisonous Plants of the Islands of the 
Pacific, prepared by Dr. E. D. Merrill, is the best available 
source of information on this subject. 
Reference may be made also to Doris M. Cochran’s 
Poisonous Reptiles of the World (Smithsonian Institution 
War Background Studies, Number 10) and to Dr. Ray- 
mond Kennedy’s Islands and Peoples of the Indies (same 
series, Number 14). 
In allocating space to various subjects emphasis has 
been placed on diseases of importance in operations and 
primarily those which are not normally encountered in 
temperate climates. As a result the greater part of the 
manual is devoted to malaria and other insect-borne 
diseases. Many things, such as nutritional deficiencies 
and diseases, of importance to the Indies have been pur- 
posely omitted because they are relatively unimportant 
from the standpoint of naval personnel and operations. 
Certain diseases such as leprosy, yaws, and the venereal 
diseases are extremely prevalent. However the space 
devoted to these has been much reduced because, as 
problems to naval personnel, they are no different in the 
Netherlands Indies than elsewhere. 
Many individuals have rendered invaluable assistance 
in preparing this manual. Dr. Alan Stone, Division of 
Insect Identification, Bureau of Entomology and Plant 
IV V 
Quarantine, assisted in preparing the material on mosqui- 
toes. Dr. Maurice T. James also of the Division of 
Insect Identification supplied notes on the muscoid flies 
of medical importance. Dr. E. A. Chapin, Curator of 
Insects, National Museum, arranged for laboratory space 
and other facilities. Dr. Paul Bartsch, Curator of 
Mollusks and Cenozoic Invertebrates, National Museum, 
prepared the notes on the molluscan intermediate hosts 
of human trematodes. Miss Doris M. Cochran, Curator 
of Herpetology, supplied information on the poisonous 
snakes, and Dr. E. Schwartz supplied information on 
rats. Dr. I. Snapper, Consultant, Division of Preventive 
Medicine, United States Army, made available his notes 
on skin diseases, leprosy, leptospirosis, as well as other 
Information and bibliographic references. The biblio- 
graphic files of the Division of Zoology, Bureau of Animal 
Husbandry, were an invaluable source of references on 
parasites. Dr. H. Elishewitz, Naval Research Institute, 
has supplied information on ticks. Captain Paul W. 
Wilson (MC) USN; Captain T. J. Carter (MC) USN; 
Commander Omar J. Brown (MC) USN; Commander 
V. C. Tipton (MC) USNR, Lieut. Commander E. H. 
Hudson (MC) USNR; and Lieut, Commander E. M. 
Bingham (MC) USNR have read the manuscript in part 
or its entirety and have given valuable suggestions. 
Lieut, Commander D. F. Smiley (MC) USNR has assisted 
in the planning and compilation and has critically exam- 
ined the entire manuscript. Mrs. E. K. Noice has 
checked the bibliography and geographical locations and 
has edited the entire manual. The statistical compila- 
tions have been made by Miss A. M. Danhakl. 
D. S. Earner, 
Bureau of Medicine and Surgery, 
Division of Preventive Medicine, 
Section of Epidemiology. 
Ensign, H-V{S), USNR. CONTENTS 
Page 
Chapter I. Introduction 1 
II. Malaria 10 
III. Filariasls.. 52 
IV. Dengue 76 
V. Other Insect-Borne Diseases 80 
VI. Rickettsioses 82 
VII. Plague and Leptospirosis 90 
VIII. Enteric Diseases 100 
IX. Respiratory Diseases 109 
X. Miscellaneous Infectious Diseases, Skin Diseases, 
Leprosy, Yaws, Venereal Diseases 115 
XL Helminthiases (Other than Filariasis) 125 
XII. Animals and Plants of Medical Importance 130 
Bibliography 144 
APPENDICES 
Appendix A, Keys to the Identification of the Anopheline 
Mosquitoes of the Netherlands Indies 161 
B. Check List of the Anophelines of the Netherlands 
Indies 177 
C. Distribution of Malaria Vectors in the Netherlands 
Indies 181 
D. Check List and Keys for the Identification of 
Culicine Mosquitoes in the Netherlands Indies.. 204 
E. Check List and Keys for Identification of Ticks of 
the Netherlands Indies 213 
F. Tables for Identification of Trombiculid Larvae of 
the Netherlands Indies 223 
G. Notes on the Climatology of the Netherlands 
Indies 239 
H. Intermediate Hosts of Trematode Parasites of Man 
in the Southwest Pacific 246 Chapter I 
INTRODUCTION 
The Netherlands Indies are a sprawling chain of hun- 
dreds of volcanic islands extending for 3,000 miles from 
the Malay Peninsula eastward to include the western half 
of the island of New Guinea. The width of the archi- 
pelago is approximately 1,200 miles. The islands vary 
in size from small uninhabited volcanic rocks to the giant 
islands of Sumatra, Borneo, Java, and New Guinea. In 
the cases of Borneo, Timor, and New Guinea only the 
Dutch portions of these islands are to be considered in this 
report. 
The climate of the Netherlands Indies is tropical, warm 
and oppressively humid. Because of the insular nature 
of the area generalizations except in the broadest sense 
are apt to be erroneous. Braak (1931) describes the 
climate as the “rainiest in the world.” The entire archi- 
pelago is under the influence of the monsoon winds and 
much of the seasonal climatological changes are dependent 
on these winds. The transition between the monsoons 
occurs ordinarily in April and November with variation 
according to latitude. In the South the East Monsoon 
usually has begun by April whereas in the North the south 
and southeast winds are not prevalent until May. In the 
Lesser Soendas (Sundas), Java, Sumatra, and New Guinea 
the winds of the East Monsoon blow from the east and 
southeast whereas in Borneo, Celebes, and the Molukkas 
(Moluccas) the wind directions in the East Monsoon are 
south or southeast. During the West Monsoon wind 
directions are west-northwest and northwest on Java, 
East Sumatra, and the Lesser Soendas, and north, north- 
1 2 
FIG. I Principal Islands and Cities of the Netherlands Indies 3 
east and northwest on New Guinea, Molukkas, and 
Celebes. The transition to the West Monsoon occurs in 
November. However, there is considerable variation 
due to latitudinal differences. 
In Batavia the absolute maximum temperature is 
38.8° C.; the absolute minimum is 18.3° C. In East 
Java, Lesser Soenda, Celebes, southern Molukkas, Timor, 
and Aroe there is a dry season associated with the East 
Monsoon in July and August which is somewhat cooler. 
In general it can be said that mean maximum temperatures 
vary from 28.8° C. to 32.6° C., depending on the time of 
year and the station. The mean minimum temperatures 
vary from 20.5° C. to 23.6° C. Temperature decreases 
about 2° C. per 1,000 feet increase in altitude. 
Annual rainfall of 150 inches or more occurs in the 
mountains of Java, on the north coasts of Banka (Bangka) 
and Billiton, in the mountains of South and East Borneo, 
and at Ambon (Amboina) and Saparoea in the Molukkas. 
Jasaredja in Middle Java has the greatest annual rainfall, 
about 275 inches. Because of the importance of cli- 
matological factors, particularly rainfall, in malaria and 
filariasis control a more detailed discussion is given In 
Appendix G. 
Geologic origin and history of the islands of the Nether- 
lands Indies have resulted in a peculiarity in faunal 
geography. The eastern portion of the archipelago, 
including New Guinea, the Molukkas, Soela Islands, Aroe 
Islands, Tanimbar Islands, and Babar Islands, because of 
its recent continuity with Australia and its long isolation 
from Asia and the Asiatic islands possesses a characteristi- 
cally Australian fauna (fig. 2). On the other hand the 
Greater Soenda Islands (Sumatra, Borneo, Celebes, and 
Java) and adjacent islands, as well as the Lesser Soenda 
Islands, because of their relatively recent continuity with 
the Asiatic mainland and their long isolation from the 4 
FIG.2 Faunal Regions of the Netherlands Indies • • • • 
Approximate area of overlap of 
Australian and Asiatic Faunae. 5 
Australian Islands, are inhabited by typically Asiatic 
species. The boundary of these two faunal groups is 
usually regarded as coincident with a line passing from 
north to south between Halmahera Island and Celebes, 
between Soela and Banggai, and between Leti and Babar. 
This is known to zoogeographers as Wallace’s line.1 In 
the case of many species it is more accurate to speak of a 
transition zone extending from 120° to 130° east longitude 
in which there is an intermingling and gradual transition 
between the two faunae. Also there are certain hardy 
ubiquitous species whose distributions show no relation- 
ship to this concept and which cannot be assigned to any 
particular faunal group. An excellent example of such a 
species is A'edes aegypti whose distribution is world-wide in 
the tropics and semitropics. Nevertheless the concept of 
Wallace’s line is useful. It has ready application in the 
distribution of malaria vectors. For instance, the most 
important vector in New Guinea is Anopheles punctulatus 
moluccensis, an Australian species whose westward range 
extends only to Wallace’s line, whereas in the western part 
of the archipelago the most important vector is the brackish- 
water breeder, Anopheles sundaicus, whose range extends 
eastward to Wallace’s line. This characteristic distribu- 
tion holds true for all of the important malaria vectors in 
the Netherlands Indies, Hence the type of control and 
precautionary measures to be employed must depend to a 
considerable degree on whether one is in the Australian or 
Asiatic Zone. Further applications of this are found in the 
distribution of Wuchereria malayi and its vectors as well as 
in the distribution of poisonous snakes and plants. 
The population of the Netherlands Indies according to 
the 1930 census was 60,727,000. The population of Java 
and Madoera alone was about 42,000,000, The estimated 
1 The line of division proposed by Wallace, and hence in reality the true Wallace’s Line, 
passed between Celebes and Borneo. In recent years it has become obvious that the 
more easterly line, as used here, is perhaps a more accurate division. 6 
population in 1937 for the entire archipelago was about 
65,000,000. It is therefore obvious that the population 
density varies tremendously from crowded agricultural 
Java to Borneo and New Guinea with their vast expanses 
of uninhabited jungles. These differences are amply 
illustrated in a tabulation of population by political 
subdivisions. 
Table 1.—Population and population density in the Netherlands Indies 
Area in 
square 
miles 
Population 
1930 
Population 
density 
inhabitants 
(square 
miles) 
Java and Madoera 
51,000 
41,718,000 
817.5 
West Coast (Sumatra) 
19,219 
1,910,000 
99.4 
Tapanoeli (Sumatra) 
15,000 
1,042,000 
69.1 
East Coast (Sumatra) 
36,500 
1,693,000 
46.4 
Benkoelan (Sumatra) 
10,100 
323,000 
31.9 
Lampongs (Sumatra) 
11,100 
361,000 
32.5 
Palembang (Sumatra) 
33,300 
1,098,000 
33.0 
Djambi (Sumatra) 
17,400 
245,000 
14.1 
Atjeh (Sumatra) 
21,300 
1,003,000 
46.9 
Riouw-Lingga Archipelago 
12,200 
298,000 
24.4 
Bangka 
4,610 
205,000 
44.5 
Billiton 
1,900 
73,000 
39.3 
Borneo, West District 
56,600 
803,000 
14.2 
Borneo, East and South Districts 
151,600 
1,020,000 
9.0 
Menado (Celebes) 
34,200 
1,139,000 
33.3 
Dist. Celebes (Celebes) 
38,800 
3,093,000 
79.7 
Amboina (Molukkas and New Guinea) 
75,800 
401,000 
5.3 
Ternate (Molukkas and New Guinea).. 
115,800 
493,000 
4.3 
Timor Archipelago 
24,449 
1,657,000 
67.8 
Bali and Lombok 
4,510 
2,052,000 
453.7 
The populations are predominately native Malayans 
(Javanese, etc.) with Europeans, Chinese, Hindus, Arabs, 
and others as small minorities. This is illustrated by 
the following table prepared from the 1930 census. 7 
Table 2.—Population groups in the Netherlands Indies in 1930 
Eu ropeans 
Natives 
Chinese 
Others 
192,000 
48,000 
40,891,000 
582.000 
651.000 
53.000 
63.000 
18,247,000 
240,000 
59,138,000 
1,233,000 
116,000 
The bulk of the population throughout the archipelago 
is concentrated in small native villages, kompongs. In 
Java, in spite of the tremendous population density, only 
4.5 percent of the inhabitants live in cities of more than 
50,000. In the other islands this percentage is still lower. 
The largest cities, Batavia (438,000), Semarang (218,000), 
Soerabaja (337,000), Bandoeng (163,000), and Djokjakarta 
(137,000) are in Java. The largest cities in Sumatra are 
Medan (75,000) and Padang (52,000). Makassar on 
Celebes has a population of 87,000. Borneo’s largest 
cities are Pontianak (46,000) and Samarinda (11,000). 
Up to the time of the invasion, the Netherlands Indies 
maintained a large and efficient Public Health Service, 
Dienst der Folksgezondheid (DVG), which functioned in 
cooperation with the Military Medical Service, Militair- 
Geneeskundig Dienst (MGD) as well as with missions and 
local administrative bodies. According to Indisch Ver- 
slag (1939), statistical organ of the Netherlands Indies 
Government, there were, in 1938, 472 physicians in the 
Public Health Service (including part-time and semi- 
official appointments and military physicians) and 765 
cooperating with the Public Health Service in private 
practice. These were distributed according to table 3. 
These data include native as well as European physicians 8 
Table 3.—Physicians in the Netherlands Indies in 1938 
Government 
physicians 
Physicians 
in private 
practice 
240 
63 S 
102 
101 
34 
11 
20 
s 
21 
7 
31 
13 
5 
1 
11 
0 
472 
765 
In addition there were about 1,500 trained nurses, and 
1,500 trained assistants of various types (malaria assist- 
ants, vaccinators, plague assistants, technicians, mid- 
wives, pharmacists, etc.), with a proportionate geographic 
distribution. There were 142 dentists. 
There were at the time of the invasion two medical 
schools with eight-year courses and a dental school. 
According to Indisch Verslag (1939) there were 625 hos- 
pitals, government, private with government subsidy, and 
private, in operation in 1938. The geographical distribu- 
tion of these is shown in table 4. 
Number 
Number 
of beds 
228 
29,271 
22,143 
183 
57 
2,648 
1,304 
2,007 
1,738 
757 
921 
32 
40 
43 
24 
18 
625 
60,789 
Table 4.—Hospitals in the Netherlands Indies in 1938 9 
Throughout 1937 and 1938 these hospitals were filled 
within 98 percent of capacity. 
In spite of the efforts of the Public Health Service, 
health and sanitation among the natives is grossly unsatis- 
factory. De Langen and Lichtenstein (1936) refer to “the 
terrible hygienic condition in the native villages” and 
further “* * * that the truly terrible hygienic condi- 
tions in the native quarters of the towns and native 
villages are a danger not only to the natives themselves 
but to the Europeans. * * * The natives are averse 
to cleanliness and fresh air.” 
Because of the concentration of the general population 
as well as of medical personnel and facilities on Java and 
Madoera, an overwhelming majority of the available 
medical information concerns these islands. Information 
from the outer “provinces” (entire Netherlands Indies 
except Java and Madoera) consists largely of fragmentary 
from physicians, surveys, and special research 
projects. Information from the interior of Borneo and 
New Guinea and from the Molukkas and some of the 
Lesser Soenda Islands is particularly meager. It is 
necessary to bear this in mind in considering medical and 
health problems in the Netherlands Indies. In many 
instances misleading or even incorrect conclusions could 
be reached by assuming conditions elsewhere in the archi- 
pelago to be the same as those in Java. Chapter II 
MALARIA 
Malaria is unquestionably the most Important disease 
in the Netherlands Indies. Although it is the cause of 
more deaths than any other single disease it has its great- 
est reflection in the general health of the population rather 
than as a primary cause of death. Its incidence Is great- 
est among the natives but it is, nevertheless, a constant 
hazard to Europeans. Because of its prevalence and be- 
cause most cases do not come to medical attention, reli- 
able statistics on morbidity are not available. The data 
in table 5 are from the compilations of Indisch Verslag II 
(1935-1940). 
Year 
Number 
of 
hospitals 
Total 
number 
of admis- 
sions 
Malaria 
admis- 
sions 
Percent 
malaria 
admis- 
sions 
Case 
fatality, 
percent 
Percent 
deaths 
due to 
malaria 
1934 
221 
207,325 
15,510 
7.5 
3.1 
1935 
185 
201,597 
15,898 
7.8 
' 3.6 
4.4 
1936 - 
190 
223,469 
16,942 
7.6 
3.7 
4.6 
1937 
176 
239,163 
22,771 
9.5 
3.6 
5.7 
1938 
167 
238,960 
23,177 
9.7 
4.4 
6.7 
1939 
176 
255,552 
23,933 
9.3 
4.3 
6.2 
Table 5.—Hospitalized cases of malaria 
Most of the hospitals from which data in table 5 were 
obtained are in Java. It must be re-emphasized that 
only a minute portion of the malaria cases are hospitalized. 
Perhaps the importance of malaria is indicated more 
clearly by the calculations of Overbeek and Stoker (1938). 
These authors state that the crude mortality rate In rural 
Java is about 20:1000. In areas of chronic endemic ma- 
10 11 
larla the rate is 25-50:1000 per year and in regions with 
epidemic malaria the crude mortality may become as 
high as 400:1000 per year. Spleen indices in areas of 
chronic endemic malaria usually vary from 80 to 90 per- 
cent. According to the statistics of the annual report 
of the Medical Laboratory {J aarverslag van het Genees- 
kundig Laboratorium over 1935) the malaria mortality 
rate in the Tjilatjap (Java) area, where an epidemic pre- 
vailed in 1935, was about 50:1000 per year. This repre- 
sents a typical epidemic mortality rate. 
The Importance of malaria is further emphasized by the 
fact that the Netherlands Indies Public Health Service 
has maintained a separate malaria bureau with labora- 
tories at Soerabaja and Batavia, The function of this 
organization is confined exclusively to the indentification 
of mosquito larvae and imagoes, examination of blood 
smears, determination of natural infection of vectors, etc. 
In 1937 more than 365,000 analyses and determinations 
were performed in these laboratories. This bureau has 
also conducted schools for malaria assistants (malaria 
mantris). These assistants are carefully trained in the 
collection and identification of anopheline mosquitoes, 
adults and larvae, as well as in the preparation and ex- 
amination of blood smears and other useful technics. In 
1939 there were nearly 200 of these assistants engaged in 
malaria control work in various parts of the archipelago. 
Although infections by Plasmodium vivax, P. falci- 
parum, and P. malariae occur, the majority of the 
cases are either tertian or subtertian. As in many other 
areas the distribution of P. malariae is very sporadic. It 
is said to be common in Bali, at Poerwaradi (East Java), 
Belawang, the port city of Medan (Sumatra), and in 
some of the villages around Toba Lake in Sumatra. In 
the Netherlands Indies Army, 0.4 gm. quinine per day is 
the standard suppressive measure. Quinine tablets have 
562282—44 2 12 
been issued to the natives by the Public Health Service 
and by plantations for many years. In recent years the 
therapeutic use of atabrin has become more and more 
popular among Dutch and native physicians. 
Malaria Vectors 
More than 60 species and subspecies of the genus 
Anopheles are known to occur in the Netherlands Indies. Of 
these about a dozen are recognized as vectors of varying 
degrees of importance. The vectors are sharply divided 
geographically between the Asiatic and Australian faunae. 
Vectors belonging to the Asiatic fauna (Indo-Malaysian) 
are Anopheles sundaicus, A. aconitus, A. minimus, A. 
maculatus, A. kochi, A. hyrcanus “group”, A. leucosphyrus, 
and A. umbrosus. Australian vectors are Anopheles 
bancroftii, A. punctulatus punctulatus, and A. punctulaius 
moluccensis. The degree to which the Australian and 
Asiatic species overlap on the Molukkas, eastern Lesser 
Soendas, and other islands in this region is not well known 
at the present time. It is important to bear in mind the 
possibility of the spread of some species beyond their 
present ranges due to war conditions and rapid wartime 
transportation. 
The principal sources of information on anophelines for 
this area are the monographs of Swellengrebel and Roden- 
waldt (1932), Christophers (1933), and Weyer (1939). 
Important information also comes from the papers of 
Overbeek, Stoker, Rodenwaldt, Brug, de Rook, Walch, 
Soesilo, Schiiffner, Mangkoewenoto, and others. In 
general the Dutch adhere to the nomenclature of Swellen- 
grebel and Rodenwaldt (1932) which differs considerably 
from that in general use in English-speaking countries. 
The names used here are those of the accepted American 
nomenclature which adheres closely to Christophers’ 
(1933). However, the Dutch synonyms are included 13 
parenthetically to avoid confusion in consulting Dutch 
literature and in any collaboration with Dutch ento- 
mologists and malariologists. 
In general it can be said that there is good information 
on the distribution of mosquitoes in Sumatra and adjacent 
islands, Java and adjacent islands, and the western Lesser 
Soenda Islands. Hundreds of collections have been made 
on these islands. Information from Celebes and the 
eastern Lesser Soendas is somewhat fragmentary as is 
that of the Molukkas. Reliable information from Borneo, 
particularly the interior, and New Guinea is extremely 
meager. In reference to New Guinea and the Molukkas, 
however, it can be assumed that the distribution of A. 
punctulatus punctulatus and A. punctulatus moluccensis as 
given in this compilation is essentially correct. Neverthe- 
less it is necessary to bear in mind the variability in the 
knowledge of mosquito distribution in the various parts 
of the archipelago as outlined in this paragraph. 
1. Anopheles sundaicus (=ludlowi var. sundaicus). 
This Is the most important vector in the western part of 
the archipelago. There are two morphologically indis- 
tinguishable forms with different breeding habits. The 
fresh-water form has a limited distribution in the moun- 
tains of Sumatra whereas the brackish-water form occurs 
quite generally in coastal regions throughout the western 
part of the archipelago. 
The brackish-water form breeds primarily in barrier 
lagoons near the mouths of streams, salt-water fish ponds, 
and other bodies of stagnating brackish water. The 
optimum salt concentration according to Weyer (1939) 
and Overbeek and Stoker (1938) is 12 to 18 gm. NaCl 
per liter. The upward limit appears to be about 40 gm. 
NaCl per liter. The breeding optimum according to 
Weyer (1939) is a mixture of about 1 part of sea water to 
20 parts of fresh water. The larvae thrive only in water 
exposed to sunlight. According to some authors this 14 
accounts for the fact that this species is not found on 
coasts with virgin mangrove forests. According to others 
its absence in these areas is due simply to the absence of 
accumulations of salt water among the mangroves. The 
larvae are further dependent upon the presence of fila- 
mentous green algae such as Enteromorpha, Chaetomorpha, 
Spirogyra, Oscillatoria, Oedogonium, Lyngbya, etc., as 
well as bottom aquatic plants. In general, ponds, lagoons, 
etc., which do not have filamentous algae do not have 
sundaicus larvae. However the water can be stagnant or 
turbid without affecting the occurrence of the larvae. 
The larvae of A. subpictus are frequently found with 
sundaicus larvae although the subpictus larvae can 
tolerate a higher salt concentration and the absence of the 
vegetation which is necessary for sundaicus. The sundaicus 
larvae, according to Overbeek and Stoker (1938), are 
never found in flowing water or in tidal water. Swellen- 
grebel and Rodenwaldt (1932) are in agreement with this 
and suggest that it is the tidal influence which accounts for 
the absence of sundaicus in mangrove forests. In regions 
where the lagoons are periodically connected with the 
ocean the occurrence of larvae is in harmony with this 
periodicity, i. e., lacking during periods of connection. 
Swellengrebel and Rodenwaldt (1932) cite unpublished 
data of de Nooy and Soesilo in speaking of the occurrence 
of the brackish-water sundaicus in fresh water in the hill 
country around Semarang, Java, in stagnating back- 
waters of rivers in East Java, and in fresh-water fish ponds 
in Bali. This agrees with some observations made in 
British India and is not to be confused with the fresh- 
water sundaicus of Sumatra. 
The fresh-water sundaicus breeds almost exclusively in 
the fresh-water fish ponds in the long valleys of the 
Barisan Mountains in Sumatra. It has been reported from 
Greater and Lesser Mandailing (Rau, Panti, Padang IS 
Sidempoean) at altitudes of 1,500 to 3,200 feet. The 
larvae also occur occasionally in the rice fields which are 
allowed to lie flooded after the harvest. 
In these regions about 50 percent of the fresh-water 
fish ponds do not have sundaicus larvae. An explanation 
of this anomalous distribution does not exist. The 
presence of aquatic vegetation and particularly rooted 
aquatic plants seems to be an essential requirement for the 
fresh-water sundaicus larvae. 
The adult sundaicus is a persistent house mosquito. 
On the south coast of Java about 60 percent of all mos- 
quitoes found in houses are A. sundaicus and A. aconitus. 
Walch (1932) found that 86 percent to 96 percent of all 
sundaicus adults captured in houses contained human 
blood. In general the coastal sundaicus is numerous in 
June, July, and August with the numbers decreasing 
between September and November depending upon the 
season. This is correlated with the beginning of the dry 
season and the consequent increase in salinity in the ponds 
and lagoons. The adults are capable of flights of 1 to 3 
kilometers (0.6 to 2.0 miles). 
The rate of natural infection in adult mosquitoes varies 
considerably depending among other factors on the amount 
of human malaria present in the particular area. During 
severe epidemics natural Infection of the mosquitoes may 
be as high as 20 percent or even 30 percent whereas 
normally it fluctuates from 1.0 to 10 percent in endemic 
areas and during light and moderate epidemics. Kuipers 
and Stoker (1934) found 46 percent in an epidemic on the 
north coast of Java, The potential (experimental) index 
of infection, i. e., percent infected under optimum ex- 
perimental conditions, is high. Swellengrebel and Roden- 
waldt (1932) state that it is 100 percent with Plasmodium 
falciparum, 80 percent for P. vivax, and 20 to 25 percent 
for P. malarias. It is a rule of thumb that wherever 
sundaicus occurs so also does malaria. 16 
Because of differences in nomenclature there is some 
difficulty in ascertaining the exact status of the northern 
limits of the range of Anopheles sundaicus. According to 
Swellengrebel and Rodenwaldt (1932) it occurs on the 
coasts of Java, Sumatra, and adjacent islands (except in 
mangrove areas) as well as on the coasts of all of the Lesser 
Soenda Islands. In recent years it has extended its range 
northward to southern Celebes and adjacent islands where 
in replacing suhpictus it has caused severe epidemics. 
Overbeek (1940) reports a severe epidemic in Celebes with 
sundaicus 54 perent infected. The distribution in Borneo 
Is not well known. It is said not to occur wherever there 
are mangrove forests. Nevertheless, because of the present 
lack of adequate information, its possible occurrence on 
this island must be constantly borne in mind. Walch 
and Soesilo (1929) described a form from the east coast of 
Borneo around Balikpapan which they state is inter- 
mediate between A. sundaicus and A. ludlowi of the 
Philippine Islands. A. ludlowi is known to occur on 
Ceram In the Molukkas. 
It is necessary to emphasize again that, although there 
are numerous vectors in the western part of the archi- 
pelago, Anopheles sundaicus is without a doubt the most 
dangerous (fig. 1, Appendix C). 
2. Anopheles suhpictus.—The breeding habits of 
this vector are somewhat similar to those of A. sundaicus 
although it is much more ubiquitous. Larvae can be found 
in habitats varying from rice fields to brackish-water 
bodies with salt concentrations as high as 85 gm. NaCl 
per liter. Because of this toleration for a wide variety of 
habitats the larvae of this species are numerous. 
The adults are also extremely numerous. Next to 
sundaicus it is the most abundant species captured in 
houses. However, it seems to prefer to bite livestock. 
The status of suhpictus as a vector is a matter of contro- 17 
versy. According to Soesilo (1928) the index of experi- 
mental infection is 40 percent. Natural infection appears 
to vary from 0.2 to 1.2 percent (mean, about 0.3 percent). 
Walch (1932) found only 15 percent of the females with 
human blood. Christophers (1933) is inclined to believe 
that it is not a vector. However, his conclusions are based 
largely on experience in British India. In the Netherlands 
Indies it is difficult to obtain good evidence because 
subpictus usually occurs simultaneously with other vectors. 
Dutch malariologists are in agreement that because of its 
large numbers it can at times be a dangerous vector in spite 
of its low natural infection. In southern Celebes in areas 
where it has not been replaced by A. sundaicus it is re- 
garded as an important vector. 
Anopheles subpictus is known to occur generally on 
Java, Sumatra, Riouw, etc., the Lesser Soendas, Moluk- 
kas, Celebes, New Guinea, and adjacent islands. Al- 
though there are only two records from the east coast of 
Borneo it may be well to assume that its distribution on 
this island is much more extensive (fig. 2, Appendix C). 
3. Anopheles aconitus.—This species occurs in the 
plains as well as in the mountains. Larvae are found in 
such places as fallow flooded rice fields (after the harvest), 
fresh-water fish ponds, poorly maintained irrigation 
ditches, and to a lesser extent in flowing water such as in 
small brooks. Rice fields and fresh-water fish ponds are 
the most common breeding habitats. The larvae are 
seldom or never found in brackish, turbid, or dirty water. 
Although this species is a house mosquito and the 
females bite humans there seems to be a preference for 
livestock. In regions with few livestock, 60 percent of 
the mosquitoes were found by Walch (1932) to contain 
human blood. The flight of adults seems to be limited to 
less than 600 yards from the breeding places; aconitus is 
a nocturnal flier. There is a definite periodicity in the 18 
aconitus population. The aconitus season frequently co- 
incides with the rice harvest if water is allowed to stand in 
the fields where the rice straw is not removed. After the 
harvest the “aconitus season” seems to decline. 
There is some disagreement concerning the role of 
this species as a vector. Nevertheless there can be no 
doubt that at times in the Netherlands Indies it is a 
vector of importance and the cause of severe epidemics. 
Experimental infections of 46 percent with P. falciparum 
are reported by Swellengrebel and Rodenwaldt (1932) 
who give its natural infection as 0 to 7.3 percent (mean, 
1.7 percent). Overbeek and Stoker (1938) reported an 
epidemic natural infection of 17.8 percent. Although 
aconitus is abundant in many areas in Sumatra it has 
usually been found uninfected except on the east coast 
of Tapanoeli and in Djihara in South Sumatra. The 
Dutch are inclined to regard this species as a potentially 
dangerous vector capable of producing severe epidemics. 
Because of the difficulty in distinguishing this species 
from A. minimus the exact distribution is not known. 
Perhaps it is best to accept the statement of Weyer (1939) 
who says it occurs everywhere in the Netherlands Indies 
between the altitudes of 1,200 and 2,500 feet, and some 
places up to 3,000 feet. It may be best to assume that 
this is also true for Borneo although there are no records 
to support this assumption at present (fig. 3, Appendix C). 
4. Anopheles minimus.—This species is very similar 
to Anopheles aconitus. Actually certain differentiation 
can be made only by examination of the larvae. (The 
aconitus larvae have branched or frayed clypeal hairs; the 
clypeal hairs of minimus are not branched or frayed. 
The aconitus imagoes usually have a fringe-spot at vein 6 
whereas the minimus imagoes usually do not.) The exact 
status of the Netherlands Indies minimus is uncertain. 
Swellengrebel and Rodenwaldt (1932) merely refer to it 19 
as A. minimus. Overbeek and Stoker (1938) regard it as 
A. minimus flavirostris (=minimus var. flavirostris), the 
Philippine form. Swellengrebel and Rodenwaldt (1932) 
state that Anopheles varuna ( = minimus var. varuna) 
occurs in Sumatra although Overbeek and Stoker (1938), 
Weyer (1939), and Christophers (1933) do not agree. 
For practical purposes it appears most advisable to speak 
merely of Anopheles minimus until the taxonomic rela- 
tionships are more apparent. According to Christophers 
(1933) flavirostris is indistinguishable from minimus. 
Actually, if necessary in malaria control, aconitus and the 
minimus forms can be dealt with as a single problem. 
Anopheles minimus breeds primarily in flowing water 
although there is a certain degree of adaptability in its 
breeding habits. Larvae are found in brooks, creeks, bays 
in rivers, and springs—particularly where there is abun- 
dant aquatic vegetation. They also occur in irrigation 
canals, ponds, and even in rice fields. The water In which 
they occur is usually clear, clean, cool, standing or flow- 
ing, and slightly shaded or exposed to sunlight. Larvae 
are never found in turbid or cloudy water, nor in water 
with surface algae, with iron oxide, or abundant bacteria, 
nor in brackish water. This species is restricted, to a 
certain extent, to the mountainous country. In irrigated 
country minimus may persist in great numbers after the 
rice fields have been drained and aconitus has all but dis- 
appeared. This is due to the fact that the water does not 
disappear as quickly from the irrigation ditches. 
A. minimus is a house mosquito with a distinct prefer- 
ence for human blood. Because of the confusion of this 
species with A. aconitus there is not much reliable infor- 
mation on its role as a malaria vector in the Netherlands 
Indies. It has been found at Minahassa (Celebes) with 3 
percent natural infection. In India, however, it is re- 
garded as an extremely dangerous vector. Overbeek and 20 
Stoker (1938) state that it was found infected in Celebes, 
Tjipandani, and on Poeloe Laoet near Borneo. Because 
of this confusion between A. minimus and A. aconitus both 
should be considered provisionally as vectors of impor- 
tance. 
The distribution of minimus is not clear because of con- 
fusion in differentiation from aconitus. However it can 
be said with a considerable degree of assurance that 
minimus occurs on all the islands west of Wallace’s line 
although virtually nothing is known of its distribution on 
Borneo (fig. 3, Appendix C). 
5. Anopheles varuna (=minimus var, varuna).— 
This species is reported by Swellengrebel and Roden- 
waldt (1932) from Sumatra although Weyer (1939), Over- 
beek and Stoker (1938), and Christophers (1933) do not 
agree. Weyer (1939) and Christophers (1933) are in 
agreement that its status as a vector is doubtful although 
obscured because of its similarity to A. minimus. If it 
does occur in the Netherlands Indies it certainly is not 
numerous and therefore not to be recognized as a vector 
of any consequence (fig. 3, Appendix C). 
6. Anopheles maculatus.—This is a species of the 
hill and mountain country where it is found up to altitudes 
of 3,200 feet. Normally it breeds in rapidly flowing 
mountain brooks and streams in blind pockets, behind 
stones, or wherever whirlpools occur. However larvae 
are found sometimes in ponds, springs, open wells, marshes 
where there is fresh water, and even in rice fields and water 
tanks. The presence of macroscopic aquatic vegetation 
is apparently unnecessary in the breeding habitats. Sun- 
light and clear water, rich in oxygen, appear to he the prin- 
cipal requirements of the larvae. In Java this species 
breeds rather frequently in rice fields along with A. aconi- 
tus. This species rarely occurs in virgin forests unless 
the natural cover on the banks of the streams is removed. 21 
Removal of this cover exposes the water to sunlight mak- 
ing it ideal for maculatus larvae. 
The maculatus imagoes are nocturnal fliers and usually 
bite between 9:00 p. m. and 2:00 a. m. During this time 
they will enter dwellings to bite humans. However they 
do not remain in the dwellings and are rarely captured 
there. Infected females can be taken along stream banks 
during the day. There is considerable disagreement 
among the various investigators as to whether this species 
is primarily zoophilic or anthropophilic. In the Nether- 
lands Indies however it appears to be zoophilic although 
it will attack man vigorously in regions where there is 
little livestock. 
Swellengrebel and Rodenwaldt (1933) report an artifi- 
cial infection of 47 percent although Weyer (1939) cites 
much lower indices. Natural Infection is about 2 per- 
cent in the Netherlands Indies although in Malaya para- 
site indices as high as 11 percent have been recorded. 
Most maculatus malaria is “man-made” by the removal 
of the jungle shade from the banks of small streams. 
This situation is particularly true in the tea plantations in 
Java. It is also regarded as a vector in the Riouw Archi- 
pelago, Banka (Bangka) Islands, Nias Island, and Suma- 
tra. It is troublesome on many of the rubber plantations. 
This species has been reported from Sumatra and many 
of its adjacent islands, Java, many of the Lesser Soendas, 
Celebes, Buton (Boetoeng), and East Borneo. Because 
of its distribution in mountainous areas its exact range is 
certainly not well known at the present time (fig. 4, Ap- 
pendix C). 
7. Anopheles hyrcanus.—Swellengrebel and Roden- 
waldt (1932) include six forms in this species. They are A. 
separatus {=hyrcanus separatus), A. hunteri {=hyrcanus 
hunteri), A. hyrcanus nigerrimus { — hyrcanus typicus 
var. niggerima), A. hyrcanus pseudopictus {—hyrcanus 22 
typicus var. pseudopicta), A. hyrcanus sinensis (=hyrcanus 
typicus var. sinensis), and a form which these authors call 
A. hyrcanus peditaeniatus. Its exact status is difficult to 
ascertain from the literature. Gater (1934) regards 
Walch’s identification as incorrect and believes the form 
to be A. montanus (= albotaeniatus var. montanus of Swel- 
lengrebel and Rodenwaldt). The pseudopictus of Swel- 
lengrebel and Rodenwaldt is regarded by Weyer (1939) and 
Gater (1934) as synonymous with hyrcanus nigerrimus. 
The picture, however, is further confused by the reference 
of Dutch authors to hyrcanus X from Celebes, Java, and 
Borneo supposedly a distinct form. 
Venhuis (1939) has studied the hyrcanus group exten- 
sively. He believes that most of the hyrcanus of Java 
and Celebes, at least, belong to a hitherto undescribed 
form which he refers to as hyrcanus X. It is described as 
similar to A. hyrcanus williamsi of Malaya. Venhuis 
(1939) gives the following key to the separation of hyr- 
canus X from sinensis and nigerrimus: 
key to separation of hyrcanus x from sinensis and nigerrimus 
Larva. 
1. Sutural hairs with 2-12 branches, antenna slender, and evenly yellow 
(like in A. barbirOsiris') A. hyrcanus sinensis or nigerrimus 
2. Sutural hairs 13-23 branches; antenna swollen, clear and transparent 
or In basal half dark brown A. hyrcanus X 
Pupa. 
1. a. Outermost plumose hair on posterior margin of segment III 8-38 
branches 2 
b. Outermost plumose hair on posterior margin of segment III 48-80 
branches A. hyrcanus X 
2. a. Spine on segment VIII 8-30 long branches. A. hyrcanus sinensis 
b. Spine on segment VIII 1-7 short sidehairs. A. hyrcanus nigerrimus 
Adult. 
1. a. Dark spot on stem of vein 5 short, while tarsal bands on hind leg 
narrow, tarsal segment 4 basally dark A. hyrcanus sinensis 
b. Dark spot on stem of vein S long 2 23 
key to separation of hyrcanus x from sinensis and nigerrimus— 
Continued 
Adult—Continued. 
2. a. Dark spot on middle of vein 6 longer than apical one 
A. hyrcanus nigerrimus 
b. Dark spot on middle of vein 6 shorter than apical one 
A. hyrcanus X 
The importance of the differentiation of these groups 
lies in the fact that Venhuis is quite certain that hyrcanus 
X is the important vector and that nigerrimus and sinensis 
are uncommon. According to him previous identifica- 
tions (such as those recorded on the maps in Appendix C) 
are in error and that these are probably hyrcanus X. 
All forms in the preceding paragraphs are dealt with 
collectively in this paper as the Uhyrcanus group.” This 
usage is employed not alone because of the confusion in 
the taxonomic literature but also because of their similar 
breeding habits and further because most of the Dutch 
records do not distinguish the various members of this 
group. In malaria control it has been common practice 
in the Netherlands Indies to deal with this group as an 
entity. 
Mosquitoes of the hyrcanus group are typically swamp 
and rice field breeders of open country. The larvae are 
rarely found in stagnating water and there is but a single 
record of brackish-water breeding. Larvae are found in 
large numbers only in the presence of an abundance of 
aquatic vegetation. Breeding habitats are frequently 
created in clearing operations in low land. 
According to Swellengrebel and Rodenwaldt (1932) the 
adults have a strong preference for the blood of livestock 
and hence there is less danger from this group in areas 
where livestock is abundant. However Overbeek and 
Stoker (1938) describe it as a house mosquito with a pref- 
erence for human blood; Walch (1930) speaks of areas in 24 
which 80 to 90 percent of the females contained human 
blood. There is considerable disagreement as to the im- 
portance this group has in the transmission of malaria. 
Swellengrebel and Rodenwaldt (1932) cite natural infec- 
tions of 0 to 11 percent (mean, 1.7 percent). The group 
is regarded by some as an important vector in Java and 
Sumatra although Soesilo (1935) regards it as unimportant 
in Java. The heterogeneity of the hyrcanus group may 
well account for the disagreement concerning its role in 
malaria transmission. There are records of hyrcanus 
mosquitoes from most of the islands west of Wallace’s line. 
However, it is probably not numerous on the Lesser 
Soendas (fig. 5, Appendix C). 
8. Anopheles kochi.—In the Netherlands Indies the 
larvae of this species are found breeding in places with 
turbid water, In puddles on roads, buffalo hoof-prints, 
puddles with decaying leaves, etc. Larvae have also been 
reported from mountain brooks, springs, rice fields, and 
fresh-water ponds. The females prefer the blood of live- 
stock to that of man. Experimentally, according to 
Swellengrebel and Rodenwaldt (1932) it can be infected 
to 50 percent with P. falciparum and 7 percent with P. 
vivax. In the Netherlands Indies natural infection varies 
from 0 to 5 percent (mean 0.85 percent). In general kochi 
is an unimportant vector. During the rainy season when 
its numbers increase tremendously it may be the cause of 
small epidemics. It is distributed quite generally over the 
entire archipelago west of Wallace’s line (fig. 6, Appendix 
C). 
9. Anopheles leucosphyrus.—A. leucosphyrus leuco- 
sphyrus (=leucosphyrus) and A. leucosphyrus hackeri 
(=leucosphyrus var. hackeri) are recognized. However, be- 
cause these forms can be distinguished only by examina- 
tion of the adult females the species will be treated as a 
whole. Larvae are found in shaded water. The amount 25 
of vegetation and the temperature of the water does not 
seem to be of consequence. Springs, puddles, and buffalo 
hoof-prints are typical habitats of leucosphyrus larvae. 
Natural infection is about 1 percent. In general it is not 
to be regarded as an important vector in the Netherlands 
Indies. However Goelarso (1934) has shown it to be an 
important vector in East Borneo. It may be of impor- 
tance elsewhere in Borneo. Recent Investigations by 
Venhuis (1942) indicate that its importance as a vector in 
Java may be greater than previously assumed. There are 
records of this species from Riouw Archipelago, Sumatra, 
Java, Borneo, Celebes, and Buton (Boetoeng) Island (fig. 
7, Appendix C). 
10. Anopheles umbrosus.—In the Netherlands In- 
dies the larvae of this species are found in clear water with 
or without aquatic vegetation in such places as springs, 
old water tanks, puddles, ponds, and brooks. In brackish 
water they are found in grassy puddles among nepah 
palms, coconut palms, or mangrove trees. The brackish- 
water form may be a separate subspecies. Usually um- 
hrosus breeds in shaded habitats although the larvae are 
frequently found in water exposed to sunlight. Adults 
often occur in dwellings. Natural infection in the Nether- 
lands Indies appears to be about 2 percent. Walch (1932) 
demonstrated that this species is strongly anthropophilic. 
Goelarso (1934) reported umbrosus to be a dangerous 
vector on Banka (Bangka) Island. It may also be a 
vector of importance on Borneo. Elsewhere in the 
Netherlands Indies it does not appear to be as important. 
There are records of umbrosus from Borneo, Celebes, 
Java, Sumatra and adjacent islands, and Boeroe Island 
(fig. 8, Appendix C). 
11. Anopheles punctulatus moluccensis ( = 
Punctulatus typicus var. moluccensis).—The two 
subspecies of Anopheles punctulatus, punctulatus and 26 
moluccensis, are the important malaria vectors in the 
Australian part of the Netherlands Indies, i. e., New 
Guinea, Molukkas, and adjacent islands. The important 
characteristic of all breeding places of moluccensis is expo- 
sure to open sunlight. Actually this seems to be the only 
common factor in the habitats of the larvae for they are to 
be found almost without exception in water exposed to 
sunlight. Consequently much of the moluccensis malaria 
is “man-made” due to clearing operations and the result- 
ing exposure of pools, puddles, etc., to sunlight. Repeat- 
edly preliminary surveys of jungle areas have shown them 
to be of low endemicity before the beginning of mining or 
plantation developments only to have severe epidemics, 
break out following the clearing operations. De Rook 
(1938) describes epidemics at Tanah Merah caused by this 
sudden appearance of moluccensis following the establish- 
ment of a gold-mining camp. The moluccensis larvae are 
found in all bodies of water exposed to sunlight including 
brooks, drainage ditches, mud puddles, ponds, in brackish- 
water puddles in coastal regions, along the grassy banks of 
the Digoel River (perhaps in other rivers), buffalo hoof- 
prints, bilge water in boats, springs, etc. The presence 
and type of vegetation appear to be of little Importance. 
When larvae occur in the larger streams such as the 
Digoel River they are to be found, according to de Rook 
(1938), near the banks among aquatic plants as well as in 
seepage pools and cut-off pools with no direct connection 
with the stream. 
According to Swcllengrebel and Rodenwaldt (1932) 
moluccensis is second in importance as a house mosquito 
in New Guinea only to A. bancroftii. However Overbeek 
and Stoker (1938) regard moluccensis as the most numerous 
house mosquito. Walch (1930) has shown that it feeds 
exclusively on human blood. Swcllengrebel and Roden- 
waldt (1932) describe moluccensis as “decidedly” a noc- 27 
turnal flier. Natural infection in moluccensis has been 
reported as high as 13 percent although the mean is 
perhaps about 7 percent. 
All Dutch malariologists agree that A. punctulatus 
moluccensis is a vector of prime importance in New 
Guinea, the Molukkas, and adjacent islands. However, 
Swellengrebel and Rodenwaldt describe an anomalous 
situation in the Molukkas where both punctulatus punctu- 
latus and punctulatus moluccensis occur. Here in spite 
of the presence of these vectors malaria is not corre- 
spondingly prevalent. Nevertheless, the importance of 
moluccensis as a vector cannot be overemphasized nor 
can the ease of creating “man-made” malaria by providing 
breeding habitats for this subspecies be considered too 
seriously. 
A. punctulatus moluccensis occurs throughout Dutch 
New Guinea both on the coast and in the interior up to 
altitudes of 3,500 feet wherever there are suitable breeding 
habitats. Because of its occurrence on the Molukkas, 
Ceram, Soela Islands, Aroe, Japen Island, Batjan Island, 
Misool, Saparoea (South of Ceram), Boeroe, etc., it is to 
be assumed that this form occurs on all of the islands east 
of Wallace’s line. There is a single record west of Wal- 
lace’s line from the Banggai Islands off the east coast of 
Celebes (fig. 9, Appendix C). 
12. Anopheles punctulatus punctulatus. — In 
many ways this subspecies is similar to moluccensis so that 
their control is reduced to a single problem. The larvae of 
punctulatus like those of moluccensis are to be found in all 
types of accumulations of water exposed to sunlight. 
Water-filled hoof-prints, gutters, ditches, water tanks, 
water barrels, bilge water in boats, tin cans, coconut shells, 
etc., are mentioned specifically. The type of water, 
whether clear or turbid, and the presence or absence of 
aquatic vegetation appear not to be factors. According to 
562282—44 3 28 
de Rook (1938) it differs from moluccensis in that it does 
not breed in flowing water; it is possible that statements 
concerning the occurrence of punctulatus larvae breeding 
in brooks in the Molukkas are the result of confusion with 
moluccensis larvae. The larvae are also found in water 
accumulations in stands of Sago palm. Because this 
subspecies requires sunlight in its breeding habitat it is 
often, along with moluccensis, the vector in “man-made” 
malaria. 
The imago is nocturnal. Very few appear before nine 
o’clock in the evening. The female hums very little and its 
bite is quite unnoticeable. Consequently personnel can 
be attacked when unprotected by netting. This danger 
is increased by the fact that punctulatus adults frequently 
occur where there are very few mosquitoes of other species 
present and therefore when adequate protection is not 
being practiced. This is sufficiently obvious to have given 
rise in New Guinea to a proverb which in translation is: 
“Where there are few mosquitoes there is much malaria.” 
In Tanah Merah on the upper Digoel River in New 
Guinea this subspecies occurs with moluccensis but it is not 
as numerous. Here it is definitely seasonal, appearing in 
small numbers in March and becoming numerous in June. 
It is not known whether or not this periodicity exists 
elsewhere. 
There can be no question of the importance of punctula- 
tus punctulatus as a vector even though the observed 
natural infection 1.5 to 5 percent is lower than that of 
moluccensis. According to Walch (1930) it is exclusively 
anthropophilic. However, there are places, according to 
Swellengrebel and Rodenwaldt (1932) where this sub- 
species is very numerous without a proportionate amount 
of malaria in the population. 
The geographical distribution of punctulatus punctulatus 
is practically coincident with that of moluccensis (fig. 9, 
Appendix C). 29 
13. Anopheles bancroftii (=barbirostris ban- 
crofti).—Elsbach (1938) first discovered the breeding 
habitat of this species in New Guinea. The larvae were 
found in partially shaded lakes with macroscopic aquatic 
plants and clear water. Occasionally the larvae are found 
in back waters of rivers but this is not a typical habitat. 
The exact status of bancroftii as a malaria vector is a 
matter of controversy. This is due to the fact that 
bancroftii rarely occurs apart from punctulatus punctulatus 
or punctulatus moluccensis, making its role difficult to 
ascertain. Also there has been taxonomic confusion with 
A. barbirostris {—barbirostris typuns') and A. pseudobarbi- 
rostris {—barbirostris bancrofti var. pseudobarbirostris). 
Brug (1925) regarded bancroftii as an important vector 
in New Guinea. However, de Rook (1938) regards it as 
secondary in importance. He reports a natural infection 
of 4.3 percent at Tanah Merah. According to Walch 
(1930) bancroftii is anthropophilic. It is a nocturnal flier. 
The exact distribution of this species is unknown. 
Larvae have been found in the interior and on the south 
coast of New Guinea, De Rook (1938) reports that it has 
been found at Kloofbivak on the Lorentz River, in the 
Merauke region, Etna Bay region, and at Prauwenbivak. 
He states that it does not occur on the north coast of New 
Guinea. Nevertheless it appears safest to expect to en- 
counter this species throughout New Guinea, the Molukkas, 
and adjacent islands (fig. 10, Appendix C). 
Brug (193 7) has reported bancroftii from Celebes, where, 
according to him, it is not anthropophilic. Later (1938) 
he described the Celebes form as a separate subspecies, 
A. bancroftii barbiventris. Since he records it only at 
Karwari and the adjacent area and since it is apparently 
not a vector it has not been included on the maps in this 
manual. 30 
Doubtful vectors.—Swellengrebel and Rodenwaldt 
(1932) cite natural infections of 0 to 0.5 percent for A. 
barbirostris which occurs commonly throughout the 
archipelago (fig. 11, Appendix C). Because the indices 
are very low it is doubtful that this species is of more 
than occasional importance as a vector. Machsoes 
(1939) describes an epidemic at Tempe Lake in Celebes 
in which barbirostris was the vector. In Malaya barbi- 
rostris is a vector of some importance with natural infec- 
tions of 1.0 to 7.5 percent. For this reason it must be 
considered as a potential vector in the Netherlands Indies. 
A. pseudobarbirostris is regarded by some entomologists, 
such as Weyer (1939), as possibly synonymous with A. 
bancroftii. Swellengrebel and Rodenwaldt (1932) regard 
it as a subspecies of bancroftii whereas Christophers 
(1933) regards it as a good species in the Netherlands 
Indies on Celebes. Its status as a vector is uncertain. 
A. punctulatus novaguinensis and A. amictus are possible 
vectors although evidence is completely lacking at the 
present time. 
Weyer (1939) mentions A. aitkenii as a possible vector, 
especially on the Molukkas. A. karwari can be infected 
experimentally with considerable ease. However, there 
is no evidence that it has a role as a vector. A. tessellatus, 
A. annularis, and A. vagus have been found infected. A. 
pallidus is a vector in India but has been reported only 
from a single locality in Sumatra and is therefore not 
considered a vector in the Netherlands Indies. 32 
SYNOPSIS OF MALARIA VECTORS 
Vector 
Geographic distribution in 
Netherlands Indies 
Breeding habitat 
A. sundaicus 
Java and adjacent islands, 
Sumatra and adjacent islands, 
Lesser Soenda Islands, south- 
ern Celebes. 
Salt-water lagoons, salt water 
fish ponds (in fresh-water fish 
ponds in mountains of Suma- 
tra). 
A. subpictus 
Most islands west of Wallace’s 
line. 
Similar to sundaicus but more 
ubiquitous. 
A. aconitus 
Everywhere west of Wallace’s 
line between altitudes of 1,200 
and 2,500 feet. 
Flooded fallowed rice fields, 
fresh-water fish ponds, 
ditches, etc. 
A. minimus 
All islands west of Wallace’s 
line. 
Primarily in flowing water with 
abundant aquatic vegetation. 
A. maculatus 
Mountain and hill country of 
islands west of Wallace’s line. 
Primarily in mountain streams; 
sometimes in rice fields. 
Sunlight is necessary. 
A. hyrcanus group. 
Most of the islands west of 
Wallace’s line. 
Primarily in swamps and rice 
fields. 
A. kochi 
Generally distributed on islands 
west of Wallace’s line. 
Small collections of water such 
as hoof-prints, puddles, etc., 
also brooks and rice fields. 
A. Uucosphyrus... 
Known to occur in Riouw, 
Sumatra, Java, Borneo, Cele- 
bes, Boetoeng; doubtlessly on 
other islands. 
Small bodies of water. Shade is 
required. 
A. umbrosus 
Known to occur on Borneo, 
Celebes, Java, Borneo, Suma- 
tra and adjacent islands. 
Usually in shade although some- 
times in water exposed to 
sunlight. Ponds, puddles, 
tanks, : tc Brackish and 
fresh water. 
A. punctulatus 
New Guinea and other islands 
In all types of collections of 
moluccensis. 
east of Wallace’s line. 
water, fresh or brackish, 
standing or flowing. Sun- 
light is required. 33 
IN THE NETHERLANDS INDIES 
Habits of adults 
Natural infection 
Importance as a 
vector 
Remarks 
Anthropophilic. Per- 
High (1-10%) 
Most important 
May be periodic 
sistent house mos- 
vector in western 
where there are 
quito. 
Netherlands In- 
dies. 
dry and wet sea- 
sons. 
More zoophilic than 
Low (usually less 
Occasionally of im- 
Adults are very 
anthropophilic. 
than 1%). 
porta nee. 
abundant. 
Probably more zoo- 
Moderate (mean, 
A dangerous epi- 
philic than an- 
thropophilic. 
1.7%). 
demic vector in 
the interior. 
An anthropophilic 
house mosquito. 
Generally low 
Uncertain 
Known to be a 
vector in epidem- 
ics in Borneo and 
Celebes. 
Enters houses tem- 
Generally about 
An important vector 
Vector In “ man- 
porarily and bites 
2%. 
on rubber and tea 
made” malaria 
humans. 
plantations. 
caused by remov- 
ing cover from 
mountain streams. 
Anthropophilic to a 
Moderate (mean, 
Important in Java 
considerable de- 
1.7%). 
and Sumatra. 
gree at least. 
Primarily zoophilic.. 
Low (mean, 0.85%) 
Unimportant 
Low (mean, 1%) 
Unimportant except 
possibly in Bor- 
neo. 
Adults occur in 
dwellings—an- 
About 2% 
Important in Bor- 
neo and Banka. 
thropophilic. 
Exclusively anthro- 
pophilic. 
High (mean, 7%).. 
Very important in 
eastern part of 
archipelago. 34 
SYNOPSIS OF MALARIA VECTORS IN 
Vector 
Geographic distribution in 
Netherlands Indies 
Breeding habitat 
A. punctulatus 
Same as moluccensis 
Same as moluccensis except that 
punctulatus. 
it is said not to breed in 
flowing water. 
A. bancroftii 
Probably the same as moluc- 
In small shady dear-water lakes 
censis although less common 
throughout its range. 
with aquatic vegetation. 35 
THE NETHERLANDS INDIES—Continued 
Habits of adults 
Natural infection 
Importance as a 
vector 
Remarks 
Exclusively anthro- 
Not as high (mean, 
Very important in 
Adults frequently 
pophilic. Has no 
3.5%). 
eastern part of 
occur where there 
“hum”; bite is 
painless. 
archipelago. 
are no other adult 
mosquitoes. 
Anthropophilic 
Probably lower 
than A. p. punc- 
tulatus. 
Exact status not 
known. Must be 
regarded as a 
vector. 36 
Geomalariology of the Netherlands Indies 
Malaria occurs on all of the inhabited islands from sea. 
level to altitudes of 4,000 to 5,000 feet. The occasional 
vague references to “malaria-free” islands seem to be 
without exception unfounded. The notes on the geo- 
graphical distribution of malaria are derived largely from 
Overbeek and Stoker (1938), Rodenwaldt (1939), Swellen- 
grebel and Rodenwaldt (1932), Walch and Soesilo (1929, 
1938), reports of the Malaria Bureau in Mededeelingen van 
den Dienst der Volksgezondheid in Nederlandsch-Indie, 
and miscellaneous papers in recent volumes of Mede- 
deelingen van den Dienst der Folksgezondheid in Neder- 
landsch-Indie and Geneeskundig Tijdschrift voor Neder- 
landsch-Indie. 
Endemic malaria is common in the Netherlands Indies. 
Where endemic malaria does not occur there are epidemics 
at varying intervals. The Dutch have employed modern 
and ingenious methods of control at tremendous financial 
expenditure for many years. In spite of this endemic 
malaria still exists in uncontrolled areas and epidemics 
appear sporadically even in those areas with rigid control. 
It is to be assumed that the control programs, many of 
them expensive and intricate in manipulation, have 
broken down following the Japanese invasion and occu- 
pation. 
In spite of the universal occurrence of malaria in the 
entire archipelago information on its geographical aspects 
is of value, frequently a necessity, because of the rela- 
tively large number of vectors, with vastly different habits, 
requiring different types of control. 
Information on the geographical distribution is con- 
tained in the discussions of the vectors and in more detail 
in Appendix C which contains maps and collecting 
records. 37 
Two approaches to geomalariology appear to be useful; 
(1) The geographical situations which are conducive to 
malaria i. e., rice fields, fish ponds, etc., and the conditions 
and vectors involved; (2) the general island-by-island 
picture in so far as information is available. It is im* 
portant to emphasize that the following notes on the 
geography of malaria (from both approaches) are frag- 
mentary and incomplete. It should be re-emphasized 
that malaria is widespread on all of the islands of the archi- 
pelago. By use of the maps in Appendix C, the description 
of the vectors, as well as consultation of geologic and geo- 
graphical information, malaria problems can be antici- 
pated to a certain extent. 
Malaria in Relation to Certain Geographical 
Features. 
Brackish-water lagoons.—Lagoons are found on 
the southern coasts of Java and the Lesser Soenda Islands 
as far east as Roma due to the action of the surf caused 
by the prevailing southerly winds. Dilution of sea water 
in these lagoons by rains results in saline concentrations 
optimum for subpictus and sundaicus larvae. The former 
are adaptable to a much higher concentration of salt 
than the latter and also are able to live in water which is 
virtually free of aquatic vegetation. Fortunately sub- 
pictus because of its lower index of natural infection, is 
much less important as a vector than sundaicus. Par- 
ticularly dangerous are those lagoons which are fed by 
streams because the salt concentration is almost certain 
to be within optimum range for sundaicus larvae. Similar 
lagoons with sundaicus larvae are found on the west coast 
of Sumatra as well as certain sectors on the coast of 
Celebes. There are brackish-water lagoons on the 
Molukkas which are breeding places of punctulatus moluc- 
censis whose larvae can tolerate a considerable degree of 
salinity. 38 
All areas with brackish-water lagoons must be regarded 
as areas of endemic malaria. 
Mangrove forests and malaria.—Dutch malariolo- 
gists, as well as Strickland (1936), seem to be in agreement 
that the low muddy coastal areas which are covered with 
primitive mangrove forests are generally free or partially 
free of malaria. This is associated with the lack of breed- 
ing places suitable for sundaicus larvae. Because of the 
nature of the tidal wash in the mangrove there are very 
few accumulations of water and those which do exist have 
salt concentrations too high for sundaicus larvae. How- 
ever, umbrosus larvae may occur. The east coast of 
Sumatra and most of the Borneo coast are muddy and 
covered with mangrove and are therefore relatively free 
of malaria. There are a few such areas on the north coast 
of Java. Palembang, a city of more than 80,000 inhabi- 
tants in South Sumatra, Pontianak, and Bandjermasin in 
Borneo although located in swamps and near rivers are 
practically free of malaria because of the proximity of 
mangrove and favorable tidal fluctuations which keep the 
saline concentration of accumulations of water too high for 
anopheline larvae. On the other hand Batavia and Soera- 
baja which do not enjoy favorable tidal action and the 
proximity of mangrove forests are notorious centers of 
endemic malaria. 
In general mangrove forests are disagreeable because of 
hordes of pestiferous culicines and other diptera, as well as 
dense underbrush, high humidity and temperatures. Any 
obstruction to the natural drainage of the mangrove forest 
such as caused by the construction of roads, footpaths, 
drainage ditches, or felling of trees allows the accumula- 
tion of brackish water and breeding by sundaicus or 
subpictus or both. The eastern part of Semarang in 
central Java and Tegal on the north coast of Java are 
examples of endemic malaria areas caused in this manner. 39 
Any type of operation in mangrove areas can therefore 
result in “man-made” malaria unless proper precautions 
are taken. 
Salt-water fish ponds.—Pisciculture is extensive in 
Java and Madoera. Many of the ponds have been con- 
structed near the coast and contain brackish water. They 
provide excellent breeding places for sundaicus not only 
by obstructing the natural drainage but also because it is 
believed by the natives that the surface of the ponds must 
have floating filamentous green algae (Enteromorpha, 
Chaetomorpha, Spirogyra, etc.) in order to secure the best 
growth among the fish. It is among these algae that the 
sundaicus larvae are found. The principal fish cultured 
in the salt-water fish ponds is the bandeng (Chanos chanos). 
Probolinggo and Banjoewangi on the east coast of Java 
were centers of “fish-pond” malaria until the ponds were 
connected with the ocean. Occasionally rice fields near 
the coast become brackish, creating a problem similar to 
the salt-water fish pond with sundaicus as the vector. 
Fresh-water fish ponds.—Special mention should be 
made of the chronic endemic malaria of the long valleys of 
the Barisan Mountains (Mandating) In Sumatra. The 
vector is the fresh-water form of sundaicus whose larvae 
are found in fresh-water fish ponds and lakes. A. aconitus 
is also a vector of some importance in these regions. 
Rao (Rau), Panti, and Padoeng Sidempoeam are located in 
the region of “fresh-water sundaicus” malaria. 
Fresh-water fish ponds are used for culturing carp 
(Cyprinus) and more frequently gorami (Osphromenus 
olfax). Here also the natives believe that a growth of 
green algae on the surface is essential for the growth of 
the fish. Many of the fish ponds are temporary i. e,, 
ponds made by flooding rice fields after the harvest and 
without removing the straw. This results in an abundant 
growth of green algae and an excellent habitat for an- 40 
opheline larvae. In addition to the fresh-water sundaicus 
which occurs only in the Barisan Mountains in Java other 
anophelines breed in fresh-water fish ponds. 
A. aconitus sometimes occurs in fish ponds in Java and 
Sumatra, especially in those in rice fields. A. hyrcanus 
breeds in fresh-water fish ponds especially on the plateau 
in southern Sumatra. 
Rice-field malaria.—Fortunately there are no vec- 
tors in the Netherlands Indies which breed extensively in 
the rice fields during the time at which the rice is growing. 
In general anopheline larvae do not appear in appreciable 
numbers until after the rice harvest and then only in 
flooded fields in which the straw has not been removed. 
It is common practice among the natives to leave the straw 
in the fields and to allow them to remain flooded after the 
harvest. The Dutch have eliminated much malaria by 
preventing this. The principal rice-field breeding vectors 
are aconitus and hyrcanus, the former being the most 
dangerous. Occasionally maculatus, kochi, and minimus 
larvae are also found in rice fields. A. aconitus and 
maculatus may be found breeding in rice fields at altitudes 
as high as 3,000 to 4,000 feet. 
Malaria due to clearing operations.—The removal 
of the virgin forest and underbrush frequently re- 
sults in the exposure of water to sunlight thereby creating 
breeding habitats for the anophelines whose larvae are 
“sun-loving.” In the western part of the archipelago the 
“sun-loving” species is maculatus which breeds in moun- 
tain streams and occasionally in springs and marshes. 
Removal of the primitive cover from stream banks in- 
variably leads to malaria transmitted by this species. 
This has been a special problem on the plantations. 
Clearing operations in mangrove forests obstruct the 
natural drainage and create sundaicus habitats. This is 
an important control problem in the regions where virgin 
mangrove still exists. 41 
In New Guinea, the Molukkas, and adjacent islands the 
“sun-loving” vectors are punctulatus punctulatus and 
punctulatus moluccensis. Endemic malaria centers become 
established in a very short period if proper control measures 
are not taken. The punctulatus hazard in operations 
requiring clearing cannot be overestimated. 
Irrigation ditch malaria.—Poorly maintained Irri- 
gation ditches may harbor maculatus, hyrcanus, aconitus, 
minimus or fresh-water sundaicus (Sumatra only) larvae 
creating local malaria problems. 
Occurrence of adult vectors along streams.— 
Recently Venhuis (1942) has studied the natural daytime 
resting places of some anophelines. His results show that 
adult maculatus, aconitus, and minimus flavirostris are 
more apt to be found in greater numbers during the day 
hiding along stream banks than in dwellings and stables. 
Furthermore it was found that the index of infection of the 
mosquitoes captured from stream banks is invariably 
greater than the indices of those taken in dwellings and 
stables. In this way it was possible to account for epi- 
demics in East Java in which the anophelines captured in 
dwellings had unusually low indices of infection. This 
investigator regards stream banks as the natural daytime 
shelter for maculatus, aconitus, minimus flavirostris, kochi, 
leucosphyrus, tesscllatus, and' vagus adults. On the other 
hand barbirostris, hyrcanus, annularis, and subpictus are 
seldom collected from stream banks and are assumed to 
have other natural daytime resting habits. Although these 
experiments were made in Java it appears that the con- 
clusions are applicable to other islands. Venhuis (1942) 
emphasizes the importance in surveys of collecting from 
stream banks as well as In dwellings and stables in order 
to secure reliable information on maculatus, aconitus, and 
minimus flavirostris. 
Swamp malaria.—A. hyrcanus and aconitus are the 
species most likely to be found breeding in swamps in the 42 
western part of the archipelago. The punctulatus sub- 
species, in the eastern part, breed in swamps when exposed 
to sunlight. 
“Salt-making” malaria.—Salt-making activities 
east of Makassar (Celebes) and on Madoera obstruct the 
natural drainage and result in the breeding of subpictus 
and sundaicus and consequently severe epidemics. 
Rodenwaldt (1939) lists some of the more fortunate 
aspects of malaria In the Netherlands Indies. There is 
no true “rice-field” vector i. e., one that breeds during 
the rice growing season; none breeds in water collected in 
palm leaves, plant axils, etc., or in coconut shells, small 
vessels, crocks, or chinks in masonry. It is possible that 
the punctulatus subspecies may occasionally constitute 
exceptions but as yet there is no incriminating evidence. 
Notes on Malaria in the Various Islands. 
The notes in the ensuing paragraphs have been gleaned 
from the above mentioned authors and reports and are 
recorded according to islands. Although they do not 
present a complete picture of any of the islands they do 
indicate the type of problems to be encountered. 
Java and Madoera.—Because the population of Java 
and Madoera Is greater than the combined populations of 
the other islands much more is known and much more has 
been written about their malaria. The principal hazards 
in Java are the brackish-water lagoons of the south coast 
and the salt-water fish ponds both of which are breeding 
places for sundaicus as well as subpictus. The latter 
species is not very important as a vector in Java. 
Because the optimum salt concentration for sundaicus 
larvae is 5 to 15 parts per thousand there is a periodicity in 
sundaicus populations dependent upon the periodicity in 
rainfall. From January to March when there is much 
rain in Java the salt concentration in the fish ponds de- 43 
creases due to dilution by rainwater and becomes optimum 
for sundacius larvae. There is then a corresponding in- 
crease in the adult sundaicus population. In August, 
because of the drier season, the salt concentration increases 
because of evaporation, sundaicus larvae decrease in num- 
bers and eventually disappear between August and Sep- 
tember, whereas suhpictus may become sufficiently numer- 
ous to be a vector of importance. Particularly severe 
epidemics, with sundaicus as the vector, occur at Tandjong 
Priok in West Java. The severity of these is reflected by 
the fact that scarcely a year passes without at least one 
paper in the Dutch medical journals concerning the 
Priok epidemics. 
Most of the northern coast is endemic because the 
removal of mangrove has resulted in the formation of 
sundaicus breeding habitats. Kuipers and Stoker (1934) 
described an epidemic on the north coast with sundaicus 
with a natural infection of 46 percent. Tjihea Plain, an 
area of 140,000 acres in West Java, constituted a serious 
malaria problem until the regulation of the flooding of rice 
fields and other control measures were begun in 1919. 
The rigid control program resulted in a reduction in spleen 
index from 88 percent in 1919 to 12 percent in 1935, The 
vector involved is aconitus whose larvae are found in 
flooded rice fields after the harvest. Because the control 
program is difficult and expensive to administer it is best 
to assume that the control system has broken down under 
Japanese occupation. Tjiandjoer Plain, 30,000 acres, 
presents a similar problem although complicated by fresh- 
water fish ponds, both temporary and permanent, which 
harbor aconitus larvae unless properly controlled. Here 
also regulation of planting and flooding have been enforced 
thereby reducing malaria appreciably. A. aconitus, 
because of the large numbers of rice fields in Java and 
Madoera, is second in importance only to sundaicus. 
562282—44- 4 44 
very part of Java has recorded aconitus malaria epi- 
demics. 
A. maculatus is an important local vector in the moun- 
tains of Java especially on the plantations where the 
cover has been removed along the mountain streams. 
The role of hyrcanus in Java is difficult to ascertain. 
Soesilo (1935) believes that hyrcanus sinensis is not im- 
portant as a vector although Overbeek (1940) reports 
epidemics at Lamongan, Soerabaja, and Bodojonero in 
which aconitus and hyrcanus were the vectors. Venhuis 
(1942) believes hyrcanus X to be the hyrcanus vector in 
Java. 
A. minimus and kochi are at the most of local importance 
in Java and Madoera. The recent work of Venhuis (1942) 
indicates that leucosphyrus may be of some importance. 
Sumatra and adjacent islands.—The most impor- 
tant vector here also is sundaicus. As previously men- 
tioned, there is in Sumatra a fresh-water form of sundaicus 
in addition to the brackish-water form. However its 
distribution is limited to the long parallel valleys of the 
Barisan Mountains particularly around Rau, Panti, and 
Padoeng Sidempoean where it breeds in lakes, ponds, and 
fresh-water fish ponds. Malaria is endemic along the 
southwestern coast of Sumatra where sundaicus breeds 
in the brackish-water lagoons. Salt-water fish ponds are 
not as numerous as in Java. Because of the muddy man- 
grove coasts on the northeast of Sumatra sundaicus is not 
numerous and the coastal mangrove strip is relatively free 
of malaria. The principal rice field vectors are aconitus 
and hyrcanus. The latter occurs commonly on the al- 
luvial plain on the southern part of the island where it is 
an important vector. A. umbrosus is well distributed in 
northern Sumatra. In spite of the fact that it is an 
important vector in Malaya and Bangka no mention is 
made of it as a vector in Sumatra. In the mountains 45 
maculatus is a vector wherever suitable streams have 
become exposed to sunlight. The Dutch literature con- 
tains little information on the relation of kochi, minimus, 
and subpictus to malaria in Sumatra and it is therefore 
assumed that they are of no more than local importance. 
At Soendetar in West Sumatra leucosphyrus is periodic 
with large numbers appearing in December and January 
as the breeding places become dry. Here it is definitely 
a vector. It has also been found infected at Kisaran on 
the east coast of Sumatra (1.7 percent) and at Loeboek- 
Linggan, South Sumatra (15 percent). 
Riouw Archipelago, Lingga Archipelago, and 
adjacent islands.—There is little information on malaria 
in these islands in the Dutch literature. According to 
Boumiester (1934) sundaicus is the vector in the severe 
endemic malaria of the coastal areas. This has been 
controlled on some of the islands at least. The extent of 
these endemic coastal areas is not discussed. A. hyrcanus 
sinensis is fairly abundant and difficult to control; how- 
ever, its status as a vector is uncertain. A. maculatus 
may be a vector in the mountains. At Tanjong Pinang, 
principal town in Riouw, it breeds in brooks, irrigation 
ditches, and marshy fields and is a vector of some im- 
portance. There are also records of the occurrence of 
kochi, subpictus, umbrosus, and leucosphyrus, although 
there is no information concerning their relation to ma- 
laria. It is well to bear in mind that umbrosus is an im- 
portant vector in Bangka and in Malaya. Although there 
are no records for aconitus and minimus this does not 
necessarily preclude their occurrence. 
Bangka, Billiton, and adjacent islands.—Infor- 
mation is very meager. Again sundaicus is the important 
coastal vector. Most malariologists mention umbrosus as 
an important vector on Bangka where there is a natural 
infection of 5 percent. There are records of subpictus, 46 
kochi, maculatus, and hyrcanus but no information is 
available on their relation to malaria on these islands. 
Borneo.—The sparse population, the mangrove-cov- 
ered coast, and the extensive jungles make the malaria 
situation in Borneo considerably different from that of 
the other islands. There is also less information available 
than for any other island with a possible exception of New 
Guinea. Malaria is not prevalent because there are so 
few people. Pontionak and Bandjermasin are virtually 
free of malaria because of their location in mangrove 
areas. Tarakan Island (coast of West Borneo) has a very 
low incidence of malaria. A. sundaicus is uncommon 
because the coast is covered with mangrove forests. It 
must be assumed that this species may become numerous 
and important as a vector when mangrove is removed or 
when the natural drainage is obstructed. A. leucosphyrus 
has a rather general distribution in Borneo and is regarded 
by Stoker (1934) as a vector of some importance. He 
found natural Infections as high as 6 percent at Boelongan 
and Poeloe Laoet. A. umbrosus which will breed in the 
drier parts of the mangrove forest in brackish water as 
well as in shady fresh-water bodies Is regarded as a vector 
of possible and potential importance. It is widely dis- 
tributed in the island. A. kochi has an extensive distribu- 
tion in Borneo but there is no information on its relation 
to malaria. There are a few records of aconitus, maculatus, 
and subpictus but no further information. 
Lesser Soenda Islands (as far east as Roma).—The 
coastal areas of these islands frequently have endemic 
malaria due to sundaicus similar to that of Java, The 
salt-water lagoons which are said to occur on most of these 
islands particularly on the southern shores are the breed- 
ing habitats. These lagoons are said to be best developed 
in those islands with an open exposure to the southerly 
winds. Rodenwaldt (1939) states that there is endemic 47 
malaria in the coastal areas of “many of the Lesser Soenda 
Islands.” Further information does not appear in the 
literature. Collecting records show that subpictus, kochi, 
minimus, aconitus, and maculatus occur on many or most 
of these islands. There is no information as to their 
abundance or relation to malaria. 
Celebes and adjacent islands.—Makassar in Celebes 
is occasionally reported as relatively free of malaria. 
Whether this is a natural condition or due to control 
measures cannot be ascertained. Certainly at times 
malaria is prevalent there. Until recent years the princi- 
pal coastal anopheline has been subpictus. However, 
sundaicus has now become established in southern Celebes 
and adjacent islands where it is the cause of severe epi- 
demics. How rapidly this species is extending its range 
northward is not known, A. minimus flavirostris has been 
found infected at Minahassa although there is no further 
information concerning its role as a vector. Brug (1937) 
has reported bancroftii from Celebes although he states 
that here, in contrast to its habits In New Guinea, it is 
not anthropophilic. In 1938 he described the Celebes 
bancroftii as a taxonomic entity, Anopheles bancroftii 
barbiventris. A. subpictus because of its large numbers is 
frequently involved in epidemics. Its low potential in- 
fection prevents it from becoming as serious a vector as 
sundaicus. The roles of leucosphyrus, umbrosus, kochi, 
and aconitus in malaria transmission in Celebes are not 
discussed in the literature. 
The Molukkas and adjacent islands (including 
Soela and Ceram).—On all of these islands the important 
vector is punctulatus (punctulatus and moluccensis) which 
as described elsewhere in this report is an ubiquitous sun- 
light breeder. However these islands are in the transition 
zone between Australia and Asiatic fauna hence some of 
the Asiatic vectors also occur. A. umbrosus has been 48 
reported from Boeroe; kochi from Boeroe, Halmahera, 
Ambon, and Soela; and suhpictus from Boeroe, Halma- 
hera, Ambon, Soela, and other islands. The typical 
ludlowi of the Philippines has been reported from Ceram. 
All of these species may be of some importance as vectors 
although the principal problem is punctulatus. 
New Guinea and adjacent islands.—Although infor- 
mation is somewhat meager it can be emphasized with 
certainty that the important vectors, both on the coast and 
in the interior, are punctulatus punctulatus and punctulatus 
moluccensis. The role of bancroftii is uncertain. De 
Rook (1938) has discussed extensively the prevalence of 
malaria in New Guinea on the basis of available informa- 
tion. According to him the entire north coast of New 
Guinea is an area of high endemicity; spleen indices vary 
from 30 to 100 percent, with 60 to 80 percent in most 
localities. The same is true for the entire coast, north and 
south, of Vogelkop (“the Birdhead”). In general along 
MacCluer Gulf and Argoeni Bay on the south shore of 
New Guinea malaria is prevalent although not to the same 
extent as on the north shore; spleen indices of 30 to 70 
percent are recorded. At some places between Kaimana 
and Atoeka on the southern coast the incidence is very low 
The spleen indices at the mouth of the Atoeka River were 
3 to 4 percent in 1932. According to de Rook, “The small 
amount or complete lack of malaria in some villages on the 
southwest coast is probably associated with local conditions 
such as the ebb and flow of the tide which do not allow 
suitable breeding places.” Nevertheless the danger of 
“man-made” punctulatus-borne malaria is always im- 
minent in any kind of operations. Spleen indices for 
Frederik-Henrick Island vary from 9 to 14 percent. 
Benign tertian malaria is prevalent in the Mamberamo 
River Valley and in the Upper Digoel region. The im- 
mediate region 'of the Mamberamo River is highly en- 49 
demlc. Little is known of malaria conditions in the moun- 
tains although malaria is known to be endemic as high as 
3,500 to 4,000 feet. Tenah Merah, formerly highly endemic, 
has been improved by elimination of punctulatus breeding 
places. 
Malaria Control in the Netherlands Indies, 
The Dutch have employed extensive and ingenious 
methods of control in their antimalaria program. Whether 
or not these controls are still in operation during the 
Japanese occupation is a matter of speculation. Although 
most of the methods employed are not applicable to mili- 
tary operations nevertheless the possibility of their use 
prompts the inclusion of a brief discussion of them. They 
are the products of many years’ experience in malaria 
control in these areas. The principal problem has always 
been the control of the breeding places of sundaicus i. e., 
salt-water fish ponds and brackish-water lagoons (also 
fresh-water ponds in Sumatra). 
Brackish-water lagoons.—Apparently the most suc- 
cessful control has been obtained by connecting these 
lagoons with the ocean thereby raising the salt concentra- 
tion and bringing the water under tidal influence both of 
which are detrimental to sundaicus larvae. Oiling has 
been unsuccessful because of wind action. Filling has 
been practical only to a limited degree because of the 
expense involved. 
Salt-water fish ponds.—These ponds normally have 
a surface flora of filamentous green algae which harbors 
sundaicus larvae. Here again connecting to the ocean has 
been practiced successfully on the same basis as in control 
of brackish-water lagoons. A further measure when 
practicable is the monthly drainage system (“hygienic 
control”). During the period of drainage the fish remain 
in a specially constructed circular moat around the edge 50 
of the pond. During this time the algae die in the sun; 
complete drainage is not necessary since sunlight is lethal 
to the algae in shallow water. When the pond is refilled 
there are no surface green algae and the sundaicus larvae 
population is reduced. In the meantime a bottom flora 
of blue-green algae has developed which provides food for 
the fish without harboring sundaicus larvae. Zon (1939) 
states that 70 to 99 percent of the sundaicus larvae can be 
eliminated by this method. Flooding and drainage is 
accomplished by the use of tidal flood gates. 
Rice fields.—The Dutch have enforced simultaneous 
planting and harvesting and have required immediate 
drainage of the fields after the harvest. In addition 
there has been strict supervision of the irrigation and 
drainage systems. This program has given good results 
since it prevents the breeding of aconitus and hyrcanus. 
Its application is difficult in localities where the fields 
are used as temporary fish ponds after the harvest. 
Periodic drying (nine days watering and two days drain- 
ing) is also employed during the growing season in some 
localities. 
Fresh-water fish ponds.—If rice fields are used as 
temporary fish ponds the best control has been found to 
be the removal of all straw or at least the stacking of it 
in large piles before flooding and the keeping of the banks 
free of vegetation. Walch and Soesilo (1935) describe 
the introduction of herbivorous fish which feed on the 
filamentous green algae and the introduction of the 
larvivorus species, Panchax panchax, which feeds on the 
larvae when they are unable to take refuge among the 
algae. 
The punctulatus problem.—Control of the two 
subspecies of punctulatus has been based on the habits 
of the species and consists of the elimination or control 
of all bodies of water exposed to sunlight. 51 
Malaria control among the natives is difficult to prac- 
tice because of their objection to the use of screens and 
netting. Also the walls of the native dwellings frequently 
are not mosquito-proof. 
Blackwater Fever 
Blackwater fever occurs sporadically throughout the 
archipelago. It has been noticed particularly among 
Japanese fishermen who have been in the area for a rela- 
tively short period of time. There are reports of cases 
from Celebes, Flores, Lombok, New Guinea, Sumatra, 
and Java. Chapter III 
FILARIASIS 
Two species of human filarial worms, Wuchereria ban- 
crofti and Wuchereria malayi, are known to occur in the 
Netherlands Indies. The best sources of information on 
filariasis in this area are the papers of Brug who originally- 
described the microfilariae of malayi and who has written 
extensively on the geographical distribution of both 
species. He has also discussed the clinical aspects of 
filariasis in the Netherlands Indies. 
According to Brug (1931) there is an interesting differ- 
ence in the nocturnal periodicity of the two species. The 
ratio of microfilaria in the peripheral blood during the day 
as compared to night is about 1:15 for malayi as compared 
to 1:100 in bancrofti. The relation of malayi and bancrofti 
to the clinical aspects of filariasis is not well understood. 
Brug (1933, 1937) states that in general malayi infections 
result in elephantiasis of the limbs whereas bancrofti infec- 
tions are more apt to cause hydrocele and genital elephan- 
tiasis. There is also no consistent correlation between 
microfilariae indices and the clinical manifestations of 
filariasis. Some areas with high malayi indices have a 
high incidence of elephantiasis, whereas other areas with 
similar indices may have a low incidence of elephantiasis. 
Some surveys show that the actual cases of elephantiasis 
may have a higher microfilaria index than the general 
population although more frequently the opposite appears 
to be true. In general filariasis appears to be primarily a 
disease of the plains although there are numerous 
exceptions to this. 
52 53 
FIG.3 Filariasis Surveys in the Netherlands Indies 
Microfilaria Index greater than 10% 
Microfilaria Index less than 10% 
Microfilaria Index negative 
Isolated records 54 
Table 6.—Summary of filariasis surveys compiled from Brug {1931), 
Brug and de Rook {1933) and other sources 
Locality 
Number 
examined 
malayi 
Index of 
bancrofti 
nfection 
Not 
deter- 
mined 
Total 
83 
4% 
5% 
8% 
Leumpotong Rajoet (Atjeh, Sumatra)— 
81 
12% 
3% 
16% 
26 
8% 
4% 
12% 
87 
6% 
13% 
18% 
1,300 
1% 
1% 
23 
43% 
43% 
Tapa Toean (Atjeh, Sumatra) 
42 
0 
0 
0 
0 
21 
29% 
29% 
101 
18% 
18% 
62 
32% 
1% 
32% 
Simaloer (Atjeh, Sumatra) 
34 
0 
0 
0 
0 
60 
3% 
3% 
Roedeng (Atjeh, Sumatra) 
56 
>12% 
<27% 
27% 
39% 
Lipat-Kandjang (Atjeh, Sumatra) 
40 
>10% 
<7% 
7% 
17% 
32 
1% 
1% 
50 
14% 
14% 
88 
40% 
40% 
11 
36% 
36% 
271 
18% 
18% 
64 
6% 
6% 
146 
8% 
8% 
13% 
Mentawei E. (West Coast Sumatra) 
151 
0 
0 
0 
0 
Padang (West Coast Sumatra) 
100 
0 
0 
0 
0 
Aer Proekan and Dermajoe (Benkolan, 
131 
54% 
54% 
84 
37% 
37% 
780 
8% 
8% 
37 
8% 
8% 
me 
stly bancr 
ofti 
44.1% 
519 
18% 
18% 
70% 
70% 
Goenoeng Pajoeng (Benkoelen, Su- 
12 
58% 
58% 
so 
6% 
6% 
so 
18% 
18% 
47 
17% 
17% 
Ketaun Plain (Benkoelen, Sumatra) 
1,789 
2% 
2% 
226 
1% 
1% 
1,482 
5% 
5% 
701 
3% 
3% 
Java (no locality given).. 
100 
0 
0 
0 
0 
291 
1% 
1% 
Weltevreden (Java) 
? 
+ 
f 55 
Table 6.—Summary of filariasis surveys compiled from Brug {1931), 
Brug and de Rook {1933) and other sources—Continued 
Locality 
Number 
examined 
malayi 
Index of 
bancrofti 
nfection 
Not 
deter- 
mined 
Total 
145 
3% 
3% 
Soemenep (Madoera) 
56 
0 
0 
0 
0 
Sampang (Madoera) 
30 
0 
0 
0 
0 
21 
33% 
43% 
52% 
121 
23% 
23% 
140 
33% 
33% 
24 
2% 
2% 
188 
48% 
48% 
104 
23% 
23% 
200 
35% 
• 
35% 
104 
29% 
29% 
54 
35% 
35% 
104 
10% 
10% 
Makassar (Celebes) 
263 
o'" 
0 
0 
0 
Makassar (Celebes) .. 
300 
0 
0 
0 
0 
69 
12% 
12% 
Coast of Madjene (Celebes) 
240 
0 
0 
0 
0 
222 
18% 
5% 
20% 
808 
27% 
27% 
35 
17% 
17% 
42 
42% 
42% 
IS 
40% 
40% 
68 
15% 
1% 
16% 
Kawata Tampango (Malili, Celebes) 
118 
28% 
28% 
Posso & Parigi (Celebes) 
130 
0 
0 
0 
6 
Minahassa (Celebes) 
117 
0 
0 
0 
0 
21 
57% 
57% 
123 
60% 
60% 
10 
20% 
20% 
668 
62.1% 
62.1% 
North Paloe Plain (Celebes) 
266 
12.7% 
12.7% 
97 
14.4% 
14.4% 
160 
11.8% 
11.8% 
62 
58.0% 
58.0% 
545 
*1.8% 
1 8% 
305 
24.2% 
24.2% 
457 
20.9% 
20.9% 
Kamaroe (Boetoeng Island) 
7 
4 cases barter 
ofti 
Ereke (Boetoeng Island) 
8 
6 cases bancrofti 
Bave Bave (Boetoeng Island) 
39 
0 
0 
0 
0 
28 
7% 
7% 
Kesar, Leti, Sermata 
223 
0 
0 
0 
0 
♦This survey includes several villages with indices varying from 0 to 32 percent. 56 
Table 6.—Summary of filartasis surveys compiled from Brug (1931), 
Brug and de Rook (1933) and other sources—Continued 
Locality 
Number 
examined 
malayi 
Index of 
bancrofti 
nfection 
Not 
deter- 
mined 
Total 
96 
29% 
29% 
ns 
38% 
38% 
54 
6% 
6% 
70 
10% 
10% 
17% 
582 
20% 
1% 
20% 
213 
10% 
3% 
13% 
359 
7% 
6% 
13% 
S3 
11% 
2% 
11% 
107 
20% 
9% 
22% 
60 
2% 
35% 
35% 
55 
7% 
55% 
55% 
90 
17% 
21% 
27% 
28 
11% 
11% 
72 
25% 
8% 
28% 
36 
3% 
31% 
36% 
32 
3% 
6% 
9% 
Biting Ketjil (Coast, Flores) 
32 
6% 
34% 
37% 
L. Badjo Ketjil (Coast, Flores) 
46 
0 
0 
0 
0 
26 villages (1,000-3,000 ft., Flores) 
860 
0 
0 
0 
1% 
Limboer (Alor) 
IS 
4 cases, undifferentiated 
25 
20% 
20% 
832 
51.8% 
51.8% 
95 
8% 
8% 
56 
2% 
20% 
22 
73% 
73% 
Warasiva (Ceram, Molukkas) 
so 
0 
0 
0 
6 
44 
14% 
14% 
Ceram—North Coast from opposite 
1394 
fO-62% 
|0-62% 
\(12%) 
1 (12%) 
91 
16% 
4% 
20% 
63 
35% 
35% 
79 
1% 
1% 
37 
16% 
16% 
216 
11% 
11% 
145 
4% 
4<7„ 
32 
25% 
25% 
36 
42% 
42% 
23 
61% 
61% 
23 
61% 
61% 
95 
45% 
45% 
75 
33% 
33% 
Saosar - 
63 
35% 
35% 57 
Table 6.—Summary of filariasis surveys compiled from Brug (1931), 
Brug and de Rook (1933) and other sources—Continued 
Locality 
Number 
examined 
Index of infection 
malayi 
bancrofti 
Not 
deter- 
mined 
Total 
Seged . 
140 
73 
93 
64 
251 
33 
83% 
4% 
13% 
6% 
50% 
58% 
20% 
48% 
4% 
13% 
6% 
50% 
58% 
20% 
It is apparently safe, and certainly most advisable, to 
assume that all of the islands harbor vectors for malayi or 
bancrofti or both. However, the incidence of filariasis and 
its geographical occurrence can by no means be explained 
entirely by the geographical distribution of the vectors. 
Compilation of survey data from Brug (1931, 1933, 1937) 
and others (table 6, p. 54, and fig. 3) gives a general 
concept of the geography of filariasis although the picture 
is incomplete because of unsurveyed areas. The known 
geographical occurrences of malayi and bancrofti are 
approximated in figure 4. According to Brug (1931) 
'malayi probably occurs throughout the archipelago except 
on New Guinea and adjacent islands; bancrofti is prevalent 
in the eastern part of the archipelago and sporadic else- 
where. 
Although the data arc fragmentary it is possible to 
designate certain areas as endemic. Atjeh in north- 
western Sumatra is a notoriously endemic area. Wucher- 
eria malayi is the more abundant species although some 
bancrofti cases are reported. Benkoelan, Djambi, and 
Indragiri in Sumatra are endemic areas from which malayi 
only has been reported. Nias, off the west coast of Su- 58 
FIG. 4 Distribution of Wuchererio boncrofti and Wuchererio moloyi • • • • 
moloyi known to occur 
boncrofti known to occur 
bo+h species known to occur 
neither species or informotion locking 59 
matra, is highly endemic. Surveys on Simeuloee and 
Siberoet have given negative results. 
Filariasis is only sporadic in Java except on the Serajoe 
Delta where it is endemic. Surveys on Madoera have been 
negative. The literature contains no references to filari- 
asis in Lombok, Bali, and Soembawa. Since these islands 
are heavily populated and have been carefully studied it 
seems logical to assume that if filariasis were present to any 
degree it would be recorded in the literature. 
In the eastern Lesser Soenda Islands filariasis is prev- 
alent. There is a transition from the mixed.bancrofti and 
malayi indices of Flores and Soemba to the exclusively 
bancrofti indices of Wetar and Roma. The Lesser Soenda 
Islands from Flores eastward should be considered endemic 
or potentially endemic areas. Filariasis is apparently 
highly endemic in the eastern Lesser Soenda Islands. 
Extensive surveys in South-East Borneo have revealed 
filariasis to be very prevalent; malayi is widespread whereas 
bancrofti is sporadic. There is no other information from 
Borneo except records of elephantiasis (jnalayiT) from West 
Borneo. 
Filariasis is very prevalent on most of Celebes; the vast 
majority of the cases are malayi with very little bancrofti. 
Makassar and Menado (City) have been reported free of 
filariasis. The prevalence in the Residency of Menado 
(northern peninsula) is probably low. The island of 
Kabaena south of Celebes is highly endemic (bancrofti) and 
filariasis is also prevalent on nearby Boetoeng where only 
bancrofti has been reported. 
In the Molukkas, Ceram, especially the northern coast, 
is reported to be highly endemic; only malayi has been 
found. The Wai-Apo Plain on Boeroe is also a region of 
high endemicity although only bancrofti has been reported 
here. Elephantiasis has been reported as prevalent in 
Ambon. There is no information from Halmahera and 
562282—44 5 60 
adjacent islands. Reports in the Mededeelingen van den 
Dienst der Volksgezondheid in Nederlandsch Indie (1927) 
indicate that filariasis occurs in the Soela Islands as well as 
in the Tanimbar Islands. 
All surveys on New Guinea and adjacent islands have 
reported high indices of bancrofti; malayi has never been 
reported. Although reports are fragmentary it appears 
that all of New Guinea and its adjacent islands should be 
regarded as highly endemic areas. 
Filariae Vectors 
The subject of filariae vectors in the Netherlands Indies 
as in other areas is difficult. The literature is confused 
because of the failure of some authors to detect whether or 
not larval development was complete in designating a 
mosquito as a vector. Furthermore, much of the infor- 
mation in the literature is based on experimental infec- 
tions and it does not necessarily follow that species which 
can be infected experimentally are actually natural vectors. 
However careful correlation of microfilaria indices in the 
population and larval indices in the mosquitoes have given 
good results In some instances. The role of culicines in 
filariasis is best summarized by Bonne-Wepster and Drug 
(1937) and the anopheline vectors of filariae by Brug (1937, 
1938). Nevertheless the filariae vector situation is suffi- 
ciently unclarified to prompt Brug (1937) to state that 
until the vector is definitely incriminated in an area that 
it may be best to control all species of mosquitoes which 
are known to attack man. Furthermore, the information 
on the geographic distribution of the filariae vectors is not 
as extensive as that for the malaria vectors. In general 
only references to islands are available with no data as to 
the distribution or abundance on the island. 
Above all it is necessary to remember that there is still 
much to be learned about the transmission of filariae in 61 
this area and that the information compiled here will with- 
out a doubt ultimately prove to be fragmentary. 
Wuchereria malayi Vectors. 
Mansonia (Mansonioides).—Several species of this 
subgenus are known to be vectors. The imagoes of this group 
are easily recognized by the broad asymmetrical erect wing 
scales. The wings, except in papuensis, are distinctly light 
and dark mottled. All species are of medium size except 
papuensis which is rather small. The abdomen of the 
female is turned up at its distal end with only 6% segments 
visible in the dorsal view. The apical segment of the male 
proboscis is turned downward; the penultimate is turned 
upward. The male has the 8th abdominal segment 
entirely retracted and the hind margin of this segment 
bears closely set strong teeth differing in the various 
species. The male hypopygia all have a peculiarly modi- 
fied basal lobe, a simple mesosome and tenth sternites with 
strong teeth at the apex. 
The larvae and pupae live with their peculiarly modi- 
fied breathing tubes attached to roots or sometimes to the 
leaves of water plants. Formerly (Bonne-Wepster, 1930) 
the Dutch believed the only host plant to be Pistia, princi- 
pally striatioles. However English investigators also 
indicate Lemna as a host plant and more recently Bonne- 
Wepster (1937) has added Eichhornia erassipes. The 
breathing tubes penetrate into the tissue of the roots and 
during larval and pupal life oxygen is obtained from the 
tissues of the host plant. To find the larvae it is necessary 
to collect a large number of Pistia plants and shake each 
one vigorously in clean water. In this way the larvae and 
pupae can be detached and caught. Normally the pupae 
become detached only just preceding the emergence of the 
imago. 
The female deposits the eggs on the leaves of the host 
plant in a rosette-shaped figure. 62 
From the standpoint of control it is important to bear 
in mind that Mansonioides species are restricted in their 
distribution to the distribution of the host plants, Pistia, 
Eichhornia and possibly others, and that ordinary survey 
methods will not detect the presence of the larvae and 
pupae. 
Pistia and Eichhornia are floating aquatic plants. They 
are found in ponds, lakes, and slowly flowing streams. 
They are abundant throughout the tropics. 
1. M. (M.) annulata.—According to Bonne-Wepster 
(1937) the females of this species have been found in 
great numbers where there are no Pistia plants. There- 
fore it is possible that another host plant is involved. 
The larvae have not been found. The adults enter 
dwellings in tremendous numbers and attack man. On 
rainy evenings particularly they are attracted to lights 
where they are frequently killed in large numbers. Ac- 
cording to Bonne-Wepster and Brug (1937) malayi larvae 
develop completely and become infective in this species 
and therefore it is to be regarded as an important vector. 
In the Netherlands Indies it has been reported only from 
restricted areas on Sumatra and Celebes (fig. 5). Bonne- 
Wepster and Brug (1937) state that it is the most 
numerous mosquito at Dermajoe (Benkoelen, Sumatra). 
2. M. (M.) Indiana.—This species is known to breed 
on Pistia only. It is strongly anthropophilic. Bonne- 
Wepster and Brug (1937) describe it as a good vector of 
malayi. Rodenwaldt (1934) mentions indiana and annu- 
lifera as the filariae vectors on the Serajoe Delta in Java. 
This species has been recorded from Sumatra, Bangka, 
Java, Flores, and New Guinea (fig. 5). Specimens from 
Upper DIgoel have less white on fore and middle femora. 
3. M. (M.) uniformis.—Pistia and Eichhornia have 
been reported as host plants for this species. Bonne- 
Wepster and Brug (1937) describe the complete develop- 
ment of malayi larvae in this species and state that it is 63 
FIG. 5 Distribution of Mansonioides mosquitoes in the Netherlands East Indies’ * • 
Islands where uniformis is known to occur 
Islands where indiono is known to occur 
Islands where lonoiDalois is known to occur 
Islands where annulifera is known to occur 
M.(M.)onnulqto Is known only from limited 
oreos m Sumotro and Celebes. | 
M.(M.)oopuen«is.New Guinea, 
ond 
bonneoe.Borneo.ore rare tpeciee 
and not known to be vectors of 
Wuchererio moloyl 64 
a good vector. M. (M.) uniformis is the most common 
of the Mansonioides species. 
Kariadi (1938) reported uniformis numerous at Marta- 
poera (Borneo) where malayi indices are high. It is 
reported by Scheepe (1935) as one of the vectors in 
Indragiri (Sumatra). 
In the Netherlands Indies it has been found in Sumatra, 
Simaloer, Nias, Riouw, Java, Borneo, Ceram, Boeroe, and 
New Guinea (fig. 5). 
4. M. (M.) longipalpis.—The breeding biology of 
this species, so far as known, is the same as that of annu- 
lata. Bonne-Wepster and Brug (1937) describe longi- 
palpis as an important vector of malayi. It has been 
reported in Sumatra, Nias, Bangka, Verlaten Island, 
Java, Borneo, Tarakan Island, Celebes, Boeroe, and 
Halmahera (fig. 5). 
5. M. (M.) annulifera.—This mosquito also has been 
reported only from Pistia. It is strongly anthropophilic 
and according to Bonne-Wepster and Brug (1937) a good 
vector of malayi. This species as well as uniformis 
was reported by Kariadi (1938) as abundant at Marta- 
poera where filariasis is prevalent. It is also one of the 
vectors in Indragiri (Sumatra) according to Scheepe 
(1935). 
M. (M.) papuensis and M. (M.) bonneae are rare 
species and nothing is known of their relation to filariasis; 
papuensis has been reported only from New Guinea and 
bonneae only from Borneo and Malaya. The same is 
true for M. (M.) negrochracea and M. (M.) memorans 
also known only from New Guinea. 
Myzorhynchus series.—At least three members of this 
group of the subgenus Anopheles are vectors of malayi. 
These are A. barbirostris, A. hyrcanus sinensis, and A. 
hyrcanus X of Venhuis. 
6. Anopheles barbirostris.—This is the most im- 65 
portant anopheline vector of malayi. The larvae are 
ubiquitous in fresh water but are seldom found in brackish 
water. They are most commonly encountered in rice 
fields but also are found in slowly flowing rivers and creeks 
(near the banks), fish ponds, marshes, ditches, springs, and 
buffalo wallows. They are found in clear as well as 
stagnant and turbid water. Sunlight and shade do not 
seem to be factors. The species occurs both in the moun- 
tains and near the coast. 
In general the adults are not numerous around dwellings 
and are said to be primarily zoophilic. However Brug 
(1937) reports the harbirostris at Kalawara (Celebes) to 
be very anthropophilic. Rodenwaldt and Swellengrebel 
(1932) report it as a house mosquito in a village near a 
marsh on Soemba. It is also reported to be a persistent 
house mosquito on Wetar and at Tegal (Java). Walch 
(1930) reported 12 percent to have human blood where 
livestock is abundant and 31 percent elsewhere. 
Brug (1937), Bonne-Wepster and Brug (1937), Machsoes 
(1939), Jurgens (1932), and Kariadi (1941) all describe 
harbirostris as a good malayi vector. It is especially 
important on Celebes where it is so persistently anthro- 
pophilic. 
Anopheles harbirostris is known to occur on Java, 
Sumatra, Borneo, Celebes, Mentawei, Siberoet, Bangka, 
Riouw, Bali, Moena (Raha) Sangihe, Salajar, Wetar, 
Kisar, Flores, Alor, Soembawa, and Soemba (fig. 6). 
7. Anopheles hyrcanus sinensis.—The taxonomic 
status of hyrcanus and closely related species is discussed 
in the section dealing with malaria vectors (page 21). 
The information on the larval habitats as well as the habits 
of the imagoes as given in the discussion of the hyrcanus 
group are in general applicable to hyrcanus sinensis. This 
subspecies is essentially a rice field and swamp breeder 
although larvae have been recorded from a variety of 66 
other fresh-water habitats. This subspecies has been 
reported as a vector In China (Brug, 1937) and has been 
reported once as naturally infected in the Netherlands 
Indies. It can be experimentally infected with the filaria 
larvae, with complete development of the larvae to the 
infective stage. Because of the confusion in taxonomy of 
the hyrcanus group in the Netherlands Indies the exact 
distribution of sinensis is not known. The only accurate 
records are from Java and Sumatra although it may be of 
wdder distribution (fig. 6). 
8. Anopheles hyrcanus X.—This form is mentioned 
in the recent Dutch literature as occurring in Borneo in the 
region around Martapoera. It has been described by 
Venhuis (1939) who states that it occurs in Java and 
Celebes as well as in Borneo. As yet it has not been 
described as a separate taxonomic entity. Kariadi (1941) 
reported it to be a malayi vector at Martapoera where 
filariasis (malayi) is highly endemic. Whether or not this 
form has a wider distribution than the region around 
Martapoera and in Java and Celebes is not recorded in 
the literature (fig 6). 
Other members of the series Myzorhynchus, subgenus 
Anopheles, known to occur in the Netherlands Indies, are 
A. hyrcanus nigerrimus, albotoeniatus, barhumbrosus, ba7i- 
croftii, hunteri, montanus, novumbrosus separatus, and 
umbrosus. None of these have been reported as vectors. 
Wuchereria bancrofti Vectors. 
1. Culex fatigans (=quinquefasciatus).—This 
species is universal in its distribution In the tropics and 
subtropics and ubiquitous in its breeding habits. Larvae 
are found in all sorts of artificial accumulations of water 
such as tanks, wells, pits, water barrels, toilets, fountains, 
cisterns, ponds, springs, canals, and ditches. Generally 
they breed near dwellings. The larvae can withstand a salt 67 
FIG. 6 Distribution of Mvzorhvnchus (subgenus Anopheles) onophelines Known to be 
vectors of Wuchererio molovi in the Netherlands Indies 
Islands where A barbirostris is known 
to occur. 
Islands where A hvrcanus sinensis 
is known to occur. 
Region where A hvrcanusX has been 
reported. 68 
concentration of one part per thousand. Stagnant water 
is preferred. This species does not occur in the jungles 
and uninhabited areas. 
Although standard textbooks such as Stitt, Brumpt 
and Manson regard Culex fatigans {—quinquefasciatus) as 
a foremost vector of filariae Bonne-Wepster and Brug 
(1937) do not feel that that is true in the Netherlands 
Indies. They support their conclusion with the well 
established observation that filariasis is primarily a dis- 
ease of the plains and rural areas whereas fatigans occurs 
most abundantly in villages and cities. Furthermore de 
Rook (1930) has shown that Culex fatigans (=quinquefas- 
ciatus) does not occur in areas in New Guinea where 
filariasis (bancrojti) is very prevalent. He believes that 
A. punctulatus is the most important vector in New Guinea 
and that the role of fatigans is relatively minor. Bonne- 
Wepster and Brug (1937) strengthen their argument by 
showing that there is no relation between the geographical 
distribution of filariasis and the distribution of fatigans. 
Brug (1938) has also shown that frequently the index of 
infection of fatigans in endemic areas is not sufficiently 
high to warrant designating it as the most important 
vector. However in some endemic areas in the Netherlands 
Indies it is the only vector known to Occur. It seems best 
therefore to regard it as an important vector but not with 
the degree of importance attributed to it elsewhere. 
Culex fatigans (=quinquefas ciatus) has been found on 
Sumatra, Simaloer, Nias, RIouw, Bangka, Java, Edam, 
Madoera, Karimar, Djawa Island, Borneo, Tarakan, 
Poeloeh Laoet, Celebes, Taland Island, Banggai Archi- 
pelago, Boetoeng, Bali, Soemba, Flores, Adonare, Alor, 
Timor, Ceram, Ambon, Saparoea, Vanda, Aroe, and New 
Guinea (fig. 7). 
2. Culex vishnui.—This species has been reported 
once by Brug (1938) to be infected with bancrofti larvae. 69 
F1G.7 Distribution of Culex fotiaons and Culex vishnui in the Netherlands Indies 
Islands where fotiaons is known to occur. 
Islands where vishnui is known to occur. 70 
This index of infection of 1.5 percent was found in Kabaena 
Island near Celebes. Brug (1938) also was able to infect 
the adults experimentally. It has been reported as a 
vector in India. Culex vishnui breeds in various types of 
habitats but only those which are surrounded by earth 
such as lakes, river backwater, small streams, drainage 
ditches, flooded grass land, irrigation water on rice fields, 
lagoons, etc. It breeds infrequently in brackish water. 
The adults are anthropophilic and begin biting as soon as 
it is dark. Apparently this species is not to be regarded 
as an important vector in the Netherlands Indies until 
there is further evidence. There are reports of its occur- 
rence on Sumatra, Riouw, Nias, Bawean, Borneo, Celebes, 
Flores, Soemba, Alor, Timor, Ambon, Sangihe Islands, 
and New Guinea (fig. 7). 
Brug (1938) has been able to obtain experimental 
infections and complete development of bancrofti larvae 
in C. fuscocephalus, C. whitmorei, and C. annulirostris. 
His papers indicate that C. tritaeniorhynchus, bitaenior- 
hynchus, and sitiens may possibly be experimental vectors. 
None of these species has been found naturally infected. 
3. Anopheles punctulatus moluccensis.—This sub- 
species is regarded by de Rook (1930, 1938) and Taylor 
(1939) as a good bancrofti vector. De Rook regards it as 
the most important vector in New Guinea. Backhouse 
(1934) reported good experimental infections with it. 
Elsbach (1939) states that moluccensis is the important 
vector in southern New Guinea. 
The breeding habits and distribution of moluccensis are 
described in the section concerning malaria vectors 
(p. 25 and fig. 9, Appendix C). 
4. Anopheles punctulatus punctulatus.—This sub- 
species is also reported as a bancrofti vector by Taylor 
(1938). Backhouse (1934) reported successful experimen- 
tal infection with it. Elsbach (1939) regards punctulatus 71 
punctulatus as “probably” a vector in southern New 
Guinea. 
The breeding habits and distribution of punctulatus 
punctulatus have been described in the discussion of its 
role as a malaria vector (p. 27 and fig. 9, Appendix C.) 
5. Anopheles Bancroft!!.—De Rook (1938) reported 
this species as a vector in New Guinea. Information on 
its breeding habits and distribution are given elsewhere, 
(p. 29 and fig. 10, Appendix C). 
6. Anopheles leucosphyrus hackeri.—Brug (1938) 
found 3 out of 37 specimens of this subspecies infected 
in Kabaena Island. This is the only information on its 
relation to filariasis. Its breeding habits and distribu- 
tion are discussed in relation to its role as a malaria 
vector (p. 24 and fig. 7, Appendix C). 
7. Anopheles aconitus.—Brug (1938) also found this 
species naturally infected on Kabaena and obtained suc- 
cessful experimental infections. He does not express an 
opinion on its role as a vector. For information on its 
habits and distribution the section on malaria vectors 
should be consulted (p. 17 and fig, 3, Appendix C). 
Soewadji Prawirohardjo (1939) has reported experi- 
mental infection in A. sundaicus, subpictus, annularis, 
barbirostris, vagus, and tessellatus. There are no records 
of natural infection in these species. Taylor (1938) 
reports A. amictus which occurs in New Guinea as a 
possible vector. Heyden (1931) had previously reported 
it as a vector in Queensland. A. hyrcanus nigerrimus has 
been reported as a vector in Malaya, and hyrcanus sinensis 
in India. A. philippinensis, pallidus, and varuna have 
also been reported as vectors in India. Brug (1938) 
obtained experimental infections in A. barbirostris and 
“probably” maculatus. 
A'edes scutellaris was regarded as a vector in the Nether- 
lands Indies by Flu (1921, cited by Brug, 1938). How- 72 
ever Bonne-Wepster and Brug (1937) do not regard it as 
such. It is a bancrofti vector in the Fiji Islands where the 
microfilariae appear in the peripheral blood during the day. 
In the Netherlands Indies it has a wide distribution and 
breeds in all sorts of habitats including brackish water, 
crab holes, puddles in coral reefs, depressions in old lava 
flows, etc. It has been reported from New Guinea, Ceram, 
Ambon, Boeroe, Saparoea, Sanana, Aroe Islands, Tanimbar 
Islands, Alor, Adonare, Soemba, Celebes, Sangihi Islands, 
Boetoeng, Kleiner Paternoster Islands, and Sumatra. 
Aedes vigilax has been reported as a possible vector In 
Australia. This species has a general distribution in the 
Netherlands Indies. It breeds in fresh water, brackish 
water, and even undiluted sea water. The adults can 
fly 10 to 20 miles and even 40 to 50 miles. Although it is 
very anthropophillic in Australia Bonne-Wepster and 
Brug (1937) state that this is not true in the Netherlands 
Indies. In the Netherlands Indies it has been recorded 
from Krakatau, Verlaten Island, Java, Edam, Madoera, 
Celebes, Flores, Aroe Islands, Tanimbar Island, and New 
Guinea. 
None of the Mansonioides mosquitoes Is a bancrofti 
vector in the Netherlands Indies. 73 
SYNOPSIS OF THE KNOWN NATURAL 
FILARIASIS VECTORS OF THE NETHERLANDS INDIES 
Vector 
Geographic distribution 
in Netherlands Indies 
Breeding habitat 
Mansonia annulata 
Limited areas on Sumatra 
and Celebes. 
Probably associated with Pistia 
as well as other aquatic plants. 
Associated with Pistia. 
Java, and New Guinea. 
Widespread from Sumatra 
to New Guinea. 
Throughout the archipel- 
ago. 
Associated with Pistia and Rich- 
hornia. 
Associated with Pistia. 
Widespread from Sumatra 
to the Molukkas. 
All islands west of Wallace’s 
line. 
Similar to annulata. 
Anopheles barbirostris . 
Ubiquitous fresh-water breeder. 
A. hyrcanus sinensis 
Sumatra and Java; perhaps 
elsewhere. 
Known from S. E. Borneo, 
Swamps, rice fields, and other 
fresh-water habitats. 
Primarily in swamps and rice 
Java, and Celebes. 
fields. 
Culex fatigans (= 
quinquefasciatus). 
Throughout the archipel- 
ago. 
All kinds of artificial water near 
dwellings. 
Widespread from Sumatra 
to New Guinea. 
New Guinea, Molukkas, 
and adjacent islands. 
New Guinea, Molukkas, and 
adjacent islands. 
New Guinea; probably Mo- 
Lakes, rivers, small streams. 
A. punctulatus moluc- 
censis. 
Anopheles punctulatus 
punctulatus. 
drainage ditches, flooded 
grassland, irrigation water, 
lagoons, etc. 
All types of habitats, fresh or 
brackish, standing or flowing. 
Sunlight is necessary. 
Same as moluccensis except that 
it is said not to breed in flow- 
ing water. 
Small dear-water shady lakes 
A, Uucosphyrus hack- 
eri. 
lukkas and adjacent is- 
lands. 
Reported from Celebes, 
Borneo, Sangihe Is. and 
Kabaena Is. 
Everywhere west of Wal- 
lace’s line from 1,200- 
2,500 feet. 
with aquatic vegetation. 
Small bodies of water. Shade 
is required. 
Flooded rice fields, fresh-water 
fish ponds, ditches, etc. 74 
SYNOPSIS OF THE KNOWN NATURAL 
FILARIASIS VECTORS OF THE NETHERLANDS INDIES 
Habits of adults 
Species of 
filaria 
Importance as vector 
Remarks 
Strongly anthropophil- 
ic. Phototropic at 
night. 
Very numerous at 
Dermajoe (Ben- 
koelen, Sumatra). 
Strongly anthropophil- 
ic. 
Strongly anthropophil- 
ic. 
Strongly anthropo- 
philic in Celebes; at- 
tacks man less fre- 
quently elsewhere. 
An important vector 
An important vector 
A very important vec- 
tor. 
? (Reported only once 
as a natural vector.) 
Most numerous of 
the Mansoni- 
oides mosquitoes 
A vector in China. 
malayi 
bancrofti 
Strictly a house mos- 
quito. Never found 
far from dwellings. 
Anthropophilic. 
Anthropophilic, be- 
gins biting as soon 
as dark. 
only at Martepoera 
(Borneo). 
An important vector. 
Probably not as im- 
portant in Neth. 
Indies as other areas. 
Probably unimportant. 
Only one record of 
natural infection. 
A vector in India. 
Exclusively anthropo- 
philic. 
Important vector in 
New Guinea. 
Exclusively anthropo- 
philic. No “hum” 
as it attacks. 
Probably a vector in 
nea. 
Anthropophilic and 
zoophilic. 
? (Reported only once 
as natural vector.) 
Probably more zoo- 
philic than anthro- 
pophilic. 
f (Reported only once 
as natural vector.) 
See following page for list of probable and doubtful vectors of filariae in the Nether- 
lands Indies. 75 
List of Probable and Doubtful Vectors of Filariae 
in the Netherlands Indies 
The following have been infected experimentally with 
bancrofti (with development of infective larvae) in the 
Netherlands Indies; 
Anopheles sundaicus 
A. subpictus 
A. annularis 
A. barbirostris 
A. vagus 
A. tessellatus 
A. maculatus (?) 
Culex fuscocephalus 
C. whitmorei 
C. annulirostris 
C. bitaeniorhynchus (?) 
C. tritaeniorhynchus (?) 
C. sitiens (?) 
The following which occur in the Netherlands Indies 
have been reported as bancrofti vectors elsewhere: 
Anopheles amicius (Australia) 
A. hyrcanus nigerrimus (Malaya) 
A. philippinensis (India) 
A. pallidus (India) 
A'edes scutellaris (Fiji Islands) 
A. vigilax (Australia) Chapter IV 
DENGUE 
Dengue is endemic throughout the Netherlands Indies 
although it has not occurred in epidemic proportions since 
1901. The dengue-like fever described by van der Scheer 
from Batavia and now known as the five-day fever of van 
der Scheer has the same symptomology as dengue and 
differs from it only in the duration of the fever. It is also 
known as endemic dengue. According to de Langen 
(1936) it is widespread over the East Indies and should 
not be differentiated from other dengue-like fevers of 
different duration. In Batavia there are cases of dengue- 
like fever varying in duration from 2 to 10 days. Further- 
more Snijders and Binger fed A'edes aegypti and A'edes albo- 
pictus on endemic cases of dengue in Medan (Sumatra) 
and sent them to the Colonial Institute in Amsterdam 
where they were refed on volunteers. All of the volunteers 
developed dengue but it was shown that the same virus 
produced different types of fevers in different individuals. 
The typical endemic dengue of the Netherlands Indies 
is characterized by de Langen (1936) as a disease with a 
sudden onset of fever with chills and shivers. The face 
is red and swollen and the conjunctivae infected. The 
fever shows definitely a remittent character. Often three 
stages are recognized: (1) Original rise in temperature to 
102° to 104° F. (2) Remission followed by intermittent 
attacks of 99.3° to 101.3° F. (3) A rise in fever on the 
next to the last day in which the temperature may become 
as high as in the original attack. Following this the tern- 
76 77 
perature returns to normal on the next day. Newcomers 
to the region are particularly susceptible. 
According to Bonne-Wepster and Brug (1937) the vec- 
tors of dengue in the Netherlands Indies are Aedes aegypti 
and albopictus. Mertens has shown that aegypti is a 
better vector than albopictus. 
Aedes aegypti is world-wide in its distribution between 
40° N. and 40° S. latitude. More is known of the habits 
of this species than of any other mosquito. Its habits 
are no different in the Netherlands Indies than elsewhere. 
Larvae can be found in all types of artificial accumulations 
even in minute volumes. Typical breeding places are 
rain barrels, tanks, cisterns, tin cans, urns, as well as water 
accumulated on leaves and in plant axils. It is almost 
exclusively a house mosquito and is rarely found more 
than 1,500 feet from dwellings. It is strongly anthro- 
pophilic. The younger adults are daytime fliers until a 
meal of blood is secured and thereafter nocturnal. It is 
said to prefer the blood of white races to that of the dark 
races. 
In the Netherlands Indies there are definite records of 
its occurrence on Sumatra, Poeloeh Weh, Billiton, Bangka, 
Anambas Islands, Java, Edam, Karimendjowo (Kariman 
Djawa), Borneo, Tarakan Island, Kleine Paternoster Is- 
lands, Poeloeh Laoet, Celebes, Buton (Boetoeng), Soem- 
bawa, Flores, Alor, Timor, Tanimbar Islands, Halmahera, 
Ternate, Ceram, Ambon, Saparoea, Banda, and New 
Guinea (fig. 8, p. 78). It doubtlessly occurs on other 
islands also. 
Aedes albopictus is a common mosquito. It was 
shown to be a vector in the Netherlands Indies by Schiiff- 
ner and Snijder (1931). It breeds near dwellings in 
habitats similar to those of aegypti. Larvae are found in 
water tanks, tin cans, cisterns, plant axils, rain barrels, 
etc,, but rarely in ponds, ditches, and mud puddles. It 78 
FIG.8 Distribution of Dengue Vectors in the Netherlonds Indies* 
Islands where Aedes ge.gyp.ti is known 
to occur. 
Islands where Aedes olbopictus is 
known to occur. 
These species are also potential yellow fever 
vectors. 79 
is strongly anthropophilic and its bite is more irritating 
than that of aegypti. It Is widely distributed throughout 
the Netherlands Indies with definite records from Sumatra, 
Poeloeh Weh, Simaloer, Siboroet, Nias, Mentawei Islands, 
Doerian, Billiton, Java, Karimendjowo (Kariman Djawa), 
Borneo, Tarakan Island, Kleine Paternoster Islands, 
Celebes, Buton, Kabaena, Bali, Lombok, Soemba, Flores, 
Alor, Timor, Ceram, Ambon, Saparoea, and New Guinea 
(fig. 8). Chapter V 
OTHER INSECT-BORNE DISEASES 
Yellow Fever 
Yellow fever has never been reported from the Nether- 
lands Indies and is assumed to be nonexistent there. 
However Aedes alhopictus and aegypti which are good 
vectors of yellow fever in other parts of the world are 
common mosquitoes throughout the archipelago. Brug 
(1938) points out that the introduction of yellow fever into 
the Netherlands Indies with these vectors so widespread 
and numerous and with the nonimmune native population 
might be extremely tragic. The Netherlands Indies 
Public Health Service has been extremely vigilant in 
preventing the importation of any yellow fever cases or 
cases of suspected yellow fever. Furthermore a statute, 
with severe penalty, forbids the importation of yellow fever 
virus even for scientific research. 
De Langen and Lichtenstein (1936) point out the 
interesting fact that the monkeys of the Netherlands 
Indies possess a fair degree of immunity to yellow fever 
when compared with the immunity in the same species 
elsewhere. Whether this is the immunity acquired from 
infection by a closely related virus is a matter of sheer 
speculation. There is no information on the resistence or 
immunity of the Netherlands Indies population to yellow 
fever. It is therefore only safe to assume that introduc- 
tion of yellow fever would result in its becoming wide- 
spread. This should be considered as a distinct possibility 
in view of rapid wartime transportation which could result 
80 81 
in the introduction of either human cases or infected 
mosquitoes. Furthermore, it must be assumed that the 
rigid quarantine procedures of the Dutch have probably 
broken down thereby increasing the hazard of importation. 
There is also even the remote possibility of its use by the 
enemy as a combat weapon. 
Arthropod-borne Diseases (Other Than Yellow 
Fever) Which Do Not Occur in the Netherlands 
Indies 
Sleeping sickness has never been reported. This is 
because the genus Glossina does not occur. Although 
Triatoma rubrofasciata is common in the Netherlands 
Indies it apparently is not a host to any pathogenic 
trypanosomes which probably accounts for the absence of 
Chagas’ disease. Also there have been no autoch- 
thonous cases of kala-azar. Whether or not kala-azar 
can become established in the archipelago is difficult to say 
Until there is more definite information on its transmission. 
All cases of dracontiasis prove to be imported in spite of 
the fact that the Cyclops of the Netherlands Indies can be 
easily infected with the larvae of Dracunculus. Brug (1938) 
suggests that the absence of Loa loa and Onchocerca in- 
fections can be attributed to the relatively small numbers 
°f Chrysops and Simulium. There are no authentic 
records of any cases of tick-borne fevers. Relapsing 
fever has been confined to a few imported Chinese cases. 
Brug (1938) believes that this is because of the absence of 
the body louse due to the scanty clothing worn by the 
natives. There are no authentic records of louse-borne 
typhus. Chapter VI 
RICKETTSIOSES 
There has been much confusion in the literature concern- 
ing the rickettsial infections of the Netherlands Indies. 
Recently Kouwenaar (1941), who has done much work on 
rickettsioses in the Netherlands Indies, has presented 
ample evidence to prove that in reality only two diseases 
due to Rickettsia exist here. These are: 
1. Sumatran mite fever and Malayan scrub 
typhus, the same disease with different clinical manifes- 
tations; probably the same as Malayan tsutsugamushi 
and kedani. 
2. Shop typhus, doubtlessly identical with endemic 
murine typhus. 
These two rickettsioses can be differentiated with the 
Weil-Felix agglutination reaction using B. proteus strains, 
OX-19 and OX-K. Although these strains probably 
have no relation to the diseases or to the Rickettsia which 
cause them they are agglutinated characteristically by the 
serum of infected individuals. 
Shop typhus 
Sumatran mite 
fever, Malayan 
scrub typhus 
OX-19 
+ + + 
OX-K 
+ + + 
Table 7 contains a tabulation of some of the names used 
in describing these diseases in the Netherlands Indies. 
82 83 
Table 7.—Rickettsioses of the Netherlands Indies: Tabulation of some 
synonymous terms 
Mite fever-scrub typhus {OX-K) 
Murine Typhus {OX-19) 
(a) With primary lesion 
mijte koorts 
mite fever 
Sumatran mite fever 
pseudotyphus of Sumatra 
pseudotyphus of Deli 
♦tsutsugamushi (of Malaya) 
♦kedani (of Malaya) 
shop typhus 
urban typhus 
♦♦tropical typhus 
(b) Without primary lesion 
scrub typhus 
rural typhus 
♦♦tropical typhus 
* It is suggested that the mite fever-scrub typhus of Sumatra and Java because of its 
lower case mortality is somewhat different than the Japanese tsutsugamushi. 
** Because of the absence of the primary lesion scrub typhus and shop typhus were 
formerly grouped together (as tropical typhus). 
“Pseudotyphus” as used by Schiiffner (1908) included cases with and without the 
Primary lesion and is therefore analogous with the modern concept of the identity of 
scrub typhus and mite fever< 
Sumatran Mite Fever—Malayan Scrub Typhus 
Mite fever and scrub typhus were formerly distinguished 
from each other because of the development of a primary 
lesion and swelling of lymph glands in the former and the 
absence of these symptoms in the latter. However it is 
interesting that Schiiffner (1908) who first described the 
disease in Sumatra as “pseudotyphus” did not make this 
distinction but regarded all cases as “pseudotyphus” 
regardless of presence or absence of a primary lesion. The 
identical Weil-Felix reaction to OX-K and the identical 
epidemiology of the two have led Kouwenaar (1941) to 
conclude that they represent merely different clinical mani- 
festations of the same disease. The exact relation with 
tsutsugamushi and kedani is not certain although they are 
obviously similar if not identical. Kouwenaar (1941) feels 
that mite fever-scrub typhus is the same as tsutsugamushi 
of Malaya but that it is a milder disease than that of Japan 
and Formosa. In support of this he cites the 20 percent 84 
case mortality of Japanese tsutsugamushi as compared to 
5 percent or less in Sumatra, Also he states that there is 
less leukopenia in Sumatran cases than in Japanese 
tsutsugamushi. 
Kouwenaar (1940) described the pathology of scrub 
typhus and mite fever. In an extensive review of the 
rickettsioses of the Netherlands Indies (1941) he describes 
his clinical observations on mite fever and scrub typhus as 
follows (in translation): 
In mite fever a primary ulcer develops in the area of the mite bite. 
The primary ulcer is most likely to appear where the skin is thin, such as 
in the skin folds on the neck, in the axillary or genital regions. The ulcer 
consists of a skin necrosis, 5 to 10 mm. in diameter around the bite; 
occasionally there may be two or more of these ulcers. The ulcer is red 
at first but is seldom observed in this state. Its appearance is very 
characteristic and once observed will always be remembered. The skin 
then reddens and large red or red-brown macules or exanthematous 
maculopapules develop which seldom unite before the end of the first 
week. These macules or exanthematous maculopapules are most nu- 
merous and obvious on the extremities and on the trunk. The lymph 
nodes in the region of the primary ulcer become swollen and sometimes 
painful. Those further away are not affected. The pulse early In the 
course of the disease is somewhat retarded and full. In severe cases the 
rate increases slightly and the beat becomes progressively weaker and 
sometimes irregular. If the pulse rate becomes higher than 120 beats a 
minute, prognosis Is bad. Enlargement of the heart Is infrequent. Some 
cases become cyanotic; sometimes there Is myocarditis; pericarditis is 
rare. Infrequently gangrene develops in the extremities. Vomiting, 
diarrhea, obstipation, meteorism, or occasional intestinal hemorrhages 
may occur. Frequently there Is bronchitis and in all fatal cases, pneu- 
monia. The spleen enlarges and the liver is usually swollen, smooth and 
soft and not painful. There are headaches, insomnia and infrequently 
coma and delirium. There may be infections of the conjunctiva. The 
patient may become hard of hearing which accompanies encephalitis. A 
slight leukocytosis develops and infrequently (10 to 20 percent of the 
cases) leukopenia. In the second or third week a lymphocytosis develops. 
Eosinophils decrease In number but usually do not disappear. The 
urine gives a strong positive diazo as well as a urobilin reaction. Usually 
there is febrile albuminuria with leukocytes and epithelial elements in the 
sediment. Bacteriological investigations give positive results. Weil- 
Felix is positive to OX-K. A weak agglutination occurs in many cases. 85 
It is only when the titer reaches a strength of 1/250 or higher that a posi- 
tive diagnosis can be made on this basis. In addition to the strength of 
the titer there should be a gradual increase during the course of the 
disease. 
Case mortality in scrub typhus and mite fever is about 5 percent 
among Europeans and higher among the natives. Death is usually due 
to circulatory inadequacy along with the development of pneumonia. 
Death may come after the fever has subsided. Tachycardia, spasms, 
and palpitations may persist for months after recovery. Recovery is 
usually slow. The Immunity acquired from infection Is of short duration. 
Differential Diagnosis.—Mite fever and scrub typhus as they are now 
recognized differ from each other only In the fact that mite fever develops 
a primary ulcer. These can be differentiated from classical typhus by 
the Weil-Felix reaction. As yet the therapy of scrub typhus and mite 
fever is purely symptomatic. No specific drug is known. Prophylaxis 
consists of avoiding mites and possibly ticks. Immunity Is brief. As 
yet there is no good prophylactic vaccine. 
The epidemiology of mite fever and scrub typhus 
presents a very interesting picture. Their identical epi- 
demiology has been described by Kouwenaar and Wolff 
(1936). Cases are confined exclusively to plantation 
workers, soldiers, hunters and others who work in the 
jungle grass or bush especially where the jungle reed, 
Imperata cylindrical is abundant. Walch (1923) and 
Walch and Keukenschrijver (1923) have concluded, 
largely on epidemiological observations, that the vectors 
are the hexapod larvae of trombiculid mites. Their in- 
fection experiments are not entirely conclusive. Pre- 
viously Japanese workers had incriminated, also largely 
on epidemiological data, the larva of Tromhicula akamushi 
as the vector of tsutsugamushi. Heaslip (1941) believes 
the T. deliensis larva to be the vector of tsutsugamushi in 
Queensland. However he rightly points out the fact 
that the evidence concerning the trombiculid larvae as 
vectors is still largely circumstantial and that ticks have 
not definitely been eliminated as possible vectors. Some 
Dutch physicians have thought that perhaps the vector 
in scrub typhus was a tick whereas the vector in mite 86 
fever was a mite thereby accounting for the presence and 
absence of the primary lesion. However there Is no 
evidence In the literature to support this. 
Walch and Keukenschrijver (1923) concluded that the 
deliensis larva was the important vector and that the 
schiijfneri larva was of secondary importance. The tend- 
ency now appears not to regard schuffneri as a vector 
(de Langen and Lichtenstein, 1936). 
Epidemics are usually characterized by a rather high 
percentage of cases in exposed groups. Schiiffner and 
Wachsmuth (1909) described epidemics In which there 
were 158 cases in a group of 7,700 and 53 in a group of 900. 
Walch and Keukenschrijver (1923) described 111 cases in 
a group of 250 coolies engaged in clearing operations in 
East Sumatra. A typical epidemic is that described by 
van der Schweff (1941) in Atjeh (Sumatra) where clearing 
was undertaken for a new agricultural development. 
Twenty-nine cases of mite fever (with primary lesion) 
and 48 cases of scrub typhus (no primary lesion) were 
recorded among those working in the jungle grass. 
Plantation physicians in Sumatra recommend the use 
of a mixture of 0.8 parts of cajeput oil and 18 parts of 
coconut oil as a repellent against mites. It is stated that 
it keeps down the Incidence of mite fever and scrub typhus. 
Scrub typhus and mite fever have been most prevalent 
in Sumatra, especially on the plantations in Atjeh and 
East Sumatra in the region of Deli. A very small number 
of cases have been reported from Java by Wolff and de 
Graaf (1939) and in the reports in the Mededeeling van den 
Dienst der Volksgezondheid. Bessem (1935) reported a 
case from Borneo. Kouwenaar (1941) speaks of a disease 
in Celebes, without reference to its prevalence, which he 
describes as intermediate between Japanese tsutsuga- 
mushi and the Sumatran disease. Mite fever has not 
been reported from Dutch New Guinea. However 87 
Heaslip (1941) describes a tsutsugamushi from Queensland 
and it has also been reported from Australian New Guinea. 
Hence the occurrence of a mite fever in Dutch New Guinea 
is a probability. 
Vectors of Mite Fever and Scrub Typhus 
It is reasonably certain that vectors of mite fever and 
scrub typhus are the hexapod larvae of certain jtrombi- 
culid mites. As mentioned previously, Walch and 
Keukenschrijver (1923) believed that the Tromhicula 
deliensis larva was the important vector with T. schuffneri 
having a secondary role. It now appears doubtful that 
schuffneri has any role whatsoever in transmission. 
Adult trombiculids are believed to feed on decaying 
vegetable material in loose, moist surface soil, preferably 
humus, where there is undisturbed wild vegetation. Eggs 
are deposited on the ground during the summer and 
autumn. The hexapod larvae soon emerge and attach 
themselves to various mammalian and avian hosts. When 
they become engorged with blood they drop off the host 
and make their way into the soil where, following a quies- 
cent stage, they metamorphose into nymphs or adults. 
It is believed that the larvae do not change hosts. If this 
is true it means that the Rickettsia are probably carried 
from generation to generation through the ova of the 
mites. 
The larvae of the trombiculid mites are very minute, 
barely perceptible to the human eye. They are usually 
bright yellow, orange, or red. Like all other acarid 
larvae they have six legs and no antennae. 
The taxonomy of the genus Tromhicula is muddled be- 
cause many of the species are known only as larvae. 
Several species are described from the Netherlands Indies. 
The T. deliensis larva, which has been reported from Java, 
Sumatra, and Malaya is orange-red to yellow. It is 88 
common on rats of various species in Sumatra. Walch 
and Keukenschrijver (1923) found it on two species of 
cuckoo-like birds, Centropus javonicus and Rhinorthra 
chlorophaea. It is possible that they are Important in its 
dispersal. T. deliensis is probably the only vector of mite 
fever and scrub typhus although this has not been defi- 
nitely established. 
The larva of T. schuffneri is red. It is common in 
Sumatra. Regarded by Walch and Keukenschrijver 
(1923) as a vector this now seems to be doubtful (de 
Langen and Lichtenstein, 1936), The T. pseudo-akamushi 
larva is bright red. These larvae are ubiquitous in 
Sumatra on many birds and mammals. The larva of T. 
oudemansi is yellowish-white and is common on the rats 
and mice of Java and Sumatra. The larvae of T. acuscutel- 
laris and densipiliata have both been reported from Su- 
matra. Both are red. The former is said to occur com- 
monly on rats. T. rara larvae have also been reported 
from Sumatra. T. zvichmanni larvae are the “gonones” of 
Celebes. They are primarily parasites of the Crown 
Pigeon (Goura sp.) but also attack man. On New Guinea 
the larvae of T. vandersandei also parasitize man and are 
known as “gonones.” A complete tabulation of the 
trombiculid larvae reported from the Netherlands Indies 
is recorded in the section on Animals of Medical Impor- 
tance. It is important to note that the deliensis larva, 
the vector of mite fever, is the only orange-red to yellow 
larva found thus far on man. A table of morphological 
details to aid in identification is given in Appendix F. 
Shop Typhus 
According to Kouwenaar (1941) it has never been con- 
clusively proved that shop typhus is the same disease as 
endemic murine typhus. Nevertheless he points out that 
there can be little doubt of it because the Weil-Felix 89 
reaction as well as the epidemiology of shop typhus and 
endemic murine typhus are identical. As yet no arthropod 
vector has been definitely incriminated. However it is 
assumed that the vector is the rat flea, Xenopsylla cheopis, 
although there is the possibility of other fleas being in- 
volved also. 
Shop typhus is primarily a disease of the larger cities 
although there are, according to Kouwenaar (1941), a few 
cases recorded from plantations. It is not an important 
disease in the Netherlands Indies. 
Louse-borne typhus is not known to occur. Chapter VII 
PLAGUE AND LEPTOSPIROSIS 
Plague 
In recent years plague has occurred only in Java where 
it was first recorded in 1911. The last record of an 
epidemic in the Netherlands Indies outside of Java was 
in Makassar in 1922. The last epidemic in Sumatra 
was in 1920 at Palembang. The epidemics at Makassar 
and Palembang were both of short duration. However 
in Java the disease is enzootic in the rat population in 
which it occasionally reaches epizootic proportions. In 
the regions of Java where housing is of such nature that 
the natives come into intimate contact with the rats, 
the rat plague epizootics are reflected as epidemics of 
human plague. 
The papers of Otten who has developed a live bacillus 
plague vaccine, and of Rosier, who has been charged with 
the plague control program, are the best sources of infor- 
mation on plague in the Netherlands Indies. 
An idea of the importance of plague in Java may be 
obtained from a tabulation (table 8) of the recorded 
cases as given by Rosier (1941). 
Plague was originally most prevalent in East Java. 
However in recent years the great majority of the cases 
have been reported from West Java. Rosier (1938) listed 
the following as plague regions: Malang (East Java), Djok- 
jakarta (Central Java), Prahoe (Central Java), Slamet 
(Central Java), Pekalongan (northern Central Java), a 
90 91 
large area in West Java including Priangan, Cheribon 
Tjiremai, Tjikoerao, and Tangkoebanprahoe. 
Year 
East Java 
Central 
Java 
West Java 
Total 
1911 
2,155 
1 
1 
2,157 
1912 . 
2,276 
1 
1 
2,278 
1913 
11,384 
2 
1 
11,387 
1914 
15,751 
5 
1 
15,757 
1915 . 
4,831 
1,406 
1 
6,238 
1916 
596 
592 
1 
1,189 
1917 
202 
219 
1 
422 
1918 . . 
221 
513 
1 
735 
1919, . .... . 
196 
2,785 
1 
2,982 
1920 . . 
248 
8,891 
13 
9,152 
1921 
257 
9,501 
5 
9,763 
1922 
137 
10,819 
1 
10,957 
1923 
73 
8,323 
271 
8,667 
1924 
157 
12,547 
349 
13,053 
1925. . 
260 
12,969 
1,275 
14,504 
1926. 
71 
6,829 
871 
7,771 
1927 
219 
6,364 
1,172 
7,755 
1928 
35 
3,741 
824 
4,600 
1929 . 
73 
2,210 
1,812 
4,095 
1930 
3 
3,282 
1,695 
4,512 
1931.. .. .... .. . 
30 
3,031 
1,478 
4,539 
1932. .. 
5 
2,071 
4,366 
6,442 
1933. 
8 
1,685 
15,188 
16,881 
1934.. . 
2 
2,668 
20,569 
23,239 
1935 
1 
2,687 
10,307 
12,995 
1936. 
4 
1,693 
4,490 
6,187 
1937 
44 
1,156 
2,614 
3,814 
1938. 
20 
616 
1,447 
2,083 
1939 
IS 
403 
1,123 
1,541 
Table 8.—Reported cases of plague in the Netherlands Indies 
Plague ip Java is now primarily a disease of the high- 
lands above 1,500 feet where the climate is humid and 
subtropical. This Is probably due in part to the “better 
housing” program which has eliminated rats from dwell- 
ings in many parts of the island and in part to the fact 
that Xenopsylla cheopis tends to be more prevalent at 
higher altitudes. 
562282—44 7 92 
All age groups and races are affected uniformly. There 
are no sex differences. Generally the maximum number of 
cases occurs at the beginning of the rainy season (Decem- 
ber-January), whereas there is a remission during the 
dry monsoon (July-August). About 8 to 10 percent of 
the cases are pneumonic; these frequently occur in family 
groups. The case fatality in the bubonic type is 60 to 70 
percent; in septicaemic about 90 percent; and in pneu- 
monic, about 100 percent. 
The biology, distribution, and ecology of the rats of 
Java as well as their role in plague has been thoroughly 
studied and discussed by Kopstein (1931). The principal 
rodent reservoir Is the Malayan gray-bellied house rat, 
Rattus rattus diardii. In the mountains when this species 
dies in sufficient numbers, it may be replaced in dwellings 
by the lesser Malayan bush rat, R. r. ephippium, normally 
an outdoor species. The Norway rat, R. r. norvegicus, 
and the lesser Malay house rat R. r. concolor, may also 
enter dwellings in the absence of diardii particularly in 
the lower country. The rice-field rat, R. r. argentiventer, 
may also enter houses when there is no diardii and then 
can be important in transmitting plague. Infected 
rats are transported from place to place in rice shipments. 
Xenopsylla cheopis is the important flea vector. In general 
it is thought that X. astia and Pygiopsylla ahalae (=Sti- 
vialis cognatus) are of minor importance as vectors. The 
Dutch do not regard Pulex irritans as a vector. 
The control measures employed by the Dutch have been 
(1) isolation of pneumonic cases, (2) ship quarantine, (3) 
vaccination, and (4) housing improvement. 
Housing improvement has been subsidized by the 
government. Since 1911 more than a million and a half 
dwellings have been improved or rebuilt. As a result 
the house rat population in many areas has been sub- 
stantially reduced or eliminated. 93 
Vaccination has been almost exclusively with the live 
bacillus vaccine developed by Otten (1930-1940). He 
has summarized his work in an extensive paper (1941) 
which describes both the production and use of the live 
vaccine. 
The Jive plague vaccine was first shown by Otten to be 
effective in controlled vaccination in which families were 
partially vaccinated i. e., within each family some were 
vaccinated and some were left as unvaccinated controls. 
When this showed favorable results the vaccine was used 
on a large scale. Mass vaccinations were begun in 1935 
in the midst of a severe epidemic. In order to have 
reliable information on its effectiveness tabulations were 
made of the numbers of cases among vaccinated and non- 
vaccinated groups. From the number of cases in the 
nonvaccinated group Otten calculated the number of 
cases that would have occurred had no vaccinations been 
made. In this way it was possible to show the effective- 
ness of the vaccination program. His calculations are as 
follows: 
Year 
Percent 
popula- 
tion vacci- 
nated 
Plague deaths 
Reduction 
due to 
vaccina- 
tion 
Actual 
Calculated 
1935 
90 
1,310 
5,200 
75% 
1936 
85 
1,729 
5,800 
70% 
1937 
85 
985 
5,700 
83% 
1938. 
80 
454 
4,000 
89% 
1939 .. .... 
80 
489 
5,000 
90% 
1940 
80 
115 
3,000 
96% 
Otten (1941) concludes on the basis of these data that 
the live vaccine is effective in controlling plague. He 
states that in 5 years’ control more than 2,500,000 people 
received a total of more than 10,000,000 vaccinations 
and revaccinations without any harmful effects. 94 
It is difficult to speculate on the effect that the invasion 
may have on the plague situation in Java. Previously 
epidemics have occurred at approximately 10-year inter- 
vals (1913-14, 1922-26, and 1933-35). Whether or not 
this is ample basis to assume the occurrence of another 
in 1943-1945, cannot, of course, be ascertained. Further- 
more there is no way of knowing whether or not the vac- 
cination program of 1935-40 could prevent a reoccur- 
rence of a human plague epidemic in 1943-45 assuming 
that vaccination has been discontinued. It is possible 
that it may break out in the nonvaccinated areas. Finally 
there Is the possibility of the reappearance of plague on 
Sumatra and Celebes where it has been recorded in the 
past; the likelihood of this is increased if the rigid Dutch 
quarantine regulation has broken down. 
Rats in Relation to Plague. 
Probably all rats are susceptible to plague. However 
it is those species which enter dwellings that are important 
from the standpoint of epidemiology. The important 
species to consider in Java, the only island where plague 
has occurred in recent years, are Raitus rattus diardii, 
norvegicus (local in distribution), concolor, argentiventer, 
and ephippium. R. r. roquei is a wild rat and may be 
of importance as a reservoir from which other rats become 
infected. (See Synopsis, p. 96.) 
There has been much confusion concerning the taxo- 
nomic relationships and nomenclature of the rats of Java. 
In order to avoid as much of this confusion as possible a 
compilation of synonyms has been made. The nomen- 
clature is that employed in the Notes on Tropical and 
Exotic Diseases of Naval Importance, Naval Medical 
School, 1943 (table 9). 95 
Table 9.—Synonyms. Rats of Java. 
Accepted nomenclature* 
Nomenclature of Otten 
Other names 
Rattus rattus diardii 
Mus rattus grisiventer 
Rattus rattus argentiventer 
Mus rattus diardii 
Rattus rattus brevicaudatus 
(of Kopstein). 
Rattus rattus norvegicus 
Mus norvegicus 
fRattus rattus decumanus. 
[Rattus norvegicus. 
Rattus rattus roquet 
Mus rattus rufescens 
Rattus rattus concolor 
Mus concolor (“harbor 
R. concolor otteni (of Kop- 
concolor”) 
stein). 
Rattus rattus ephippium 
Mus concolor (“moun- 
tain concolor") 
*Notes on Tropical and Exotic Diseases of Naval Importance. U. S. Nava! Medical 
School, National Naval Medical Center, 1943. 
R. r. diardii occurs on Java, Sumatra, and all of the 
Lesser Soenda Islands. The house rat of Celebes is 
mindanensis. R. r. frugivorus is established on Ceram, 
Soemba, Babar, and Moa. R. r. argentiventer occurs 
on Java, Sumatra, Borneo, Molukkas, and the Lesser 
Soenda Islands; raveni is found in Celebes, wichmanni 
on Flores, and vitiensis on New Guinea. Chinese junks 
and other native vessels of this area have a characteristic 
rat fauna which may be oriental in origin. It is suggested 
that the keys in Ernest Schwartz, Identification of Domestic 
Rats of Medical Importance (Notes on Tropical and Exotic 
Diseases of Naval Importance), Naval Medical School, 
1943, be used for identification and general information 
on rats of this area. 96 
Species 
Body length 
Tail 
Color 
Foot 
Mam- 
mae 
Habits 
Rattus rattus diardii 
(Malayan gray- 
bellied house rat). 
140-190 mm.. 
Longer than body 
and head. 
Cinnamon above, slaty 
or tawny beneath. 
Mean 34 mm 
2/3 
The important reservoir of 
plague because of intimate 
contact with man. 
Rattus rattus norve- 
gicus (sewer rat or 
Norway rat). 
16O-2S0 mm.. 
Shorter than body 
and head. 
Brownish gray (rarely 
black) above, whit- 
ish gray benleath al- 
ways with white un- 
derfur. 
Mean 40-62 mm. 
Max. 46 mm 
3/3 
A port rat. Local in dis- 
tribution. Records from 
Batavia, Ladjamajoe, Cheri- 
bon, Pekalongan, Semarang, 
Soerabaja, Parsavean, Vedin, 
Tulangagoeng, Probollingo, 
Banjoewangi. 
Rattus rattus argen- 
tiventer (rice-field 
rat). 
140-190 mm.. 
Slightly shorter 
than body and 
head. 
Brownish grey white 
beneath. 
Mean 34 mm 
Max. 36 mm 
3/3 
A rice-field rat. Will enter 
homes when diardii dies off. 
Rattus rattus concolor 
(Lesser Malay 
house rat). 
110-140 mm.. 
Longer than body 
and head. 
Dark brown above blu- 
ish gray beneath. 
Mean 21 mm 
Max. 25 mm 
2/2 
It may invade houses when 
the other species die off. 
Occurs only in North Java. 
Rattus rattus ephip- 
pium (Lesser Ma- 
lay bush rat). 
110-125 mm.. 
Slightly longer than 
body and head. 
Brown above buffy be- 
low. 
24—26 mm 
2/2 
A small rat. Primarily a 
bush frat in the higher 
country. May enter dwell- 
ings. 
Rattus rattus roquet 
(common tree rat). 
140-150 mm.. 
Longer than body 
and head. 
Cinnamon above white 
or buff on belly. No 
dark underfur. 
About 34 mm 
2/3 
The wild (rat. Very occa- 
sionally enters dwellings. 
May serve as reservoir for 
plague. 
SYNOPSIS OF THE RATS OF JAVA IN RELATION TO PLAGUE 97 
Leptospirosis 
Leptospirosis is more prevalent in the Netherlands 
Indies than in other parts of the world. The best sources 
of information are the papers of Esseveld, Collier, Moch- 
tar and their co-workers (1937-41). In general, lepto- 
spiral infections in the Netherlands Indies are mild; fatal 
cases are rare and jaundice is observed in only about 10 
percent of the cases. The actual number of cases reported 
is small. For instance Sardjito (1938) points out that only 
3 cases were reported in Batavia in 8 years and that only 
9 cases were reported in Semarang in a single year. How- 
ever, because of the mild nature of the disease it can well 
be assumed that the majority of the cases never come to 
medical attention. Recent reports from hospitals in 
Sumatra indicate that many cases formerly diagnosed as 
influenza (colds with fever) are in reality leptospiroses. 
The bulk of the cases of leptospirosis have been observed 
in the Asahan area of the east coast of Sumatra where the 
mortality is higher than elsewhere. Mochtar and Esse- 
veld (1939) compiled information on the known Incidence 
of leptospirosis for the entire archipelago. They record 
epidemics and cases from the Deli Valley (1922); Bang- 
kinang Central Sumatra (1928-30); Makassar; Tarakan 
Island near Borneo; Singkawan, West Borneo; Banka; 
Billiton; and Java. They state that leptospirosis occurs 
throughout Sumatra and that “some cases,” including 
Weil’s disease, have been observed on Java, A special 
focus of leptospirosis occurs on the Island of Noesakam- 
bangan opposite the city of Tjilatjap on the south coast of 
Central Java. 
A great deal of attention has been given to the isolation 
of leptospirae. From 1932-38 Walch-Sorgdrager, Bol- 
amder, Schiiffner, and Wolff (1940) state that 426 strains 
of leptospirae were isolated. According to Mochtar and 98 
Esseveld (1939) only four different strains have been 
isolated from human cases. The Rachmat type which is 
probably the same as the Japanese L. autumnalis (=aki- 
yani) has been reported from human cases in Java and 
Sumatra. The Salinem type is similar to L. icterohae- 
morrhagiae but serologically distinguishable from it. It 
also has been found in human cases in Sumatra and Java. 
L. hataviae has the widest geographical distribution having 
been reported from human cases in Java, Sumatra, Borneo, 
Bangka, Billiton, Tarakan, and Celebes. L. icterohae- 
morrhagiae has been reported in humans from Java only. 
In addition to these four types recorded by Mochtar and 
Esseveld (1939), Sardjito (1910) has reported 2 cases of 
human leptospirosis in Central Java from which he iso- 
lated type 2 R 173, A very few human cases due to L. 
hehdomadis and several unknown strains (L. djasiman, L. 
nadm, L. sarmin) have been found. 
On Noesakambangan in 1940 there were 12 Rachmat 
cases, 17 bataviae cases, and 5 icterohaemorrhagiae cases. 
This variety may be due to the fact that the island has 
4,000 to 7,000 chain gang prisoners from all parts of the 
archipelago. 
Considerable attention has also been given to the reser- 
voir hosts of leptospirosis. Sardjito, Mochtar, and 
Wirasmo (1937) showed that R. r. argentiventer, the rice- 
field rat, can harbor several strains pathogenic to guinea 
pigs and possibly pathogenic to man. They regard R. r. 
norvegicus as a normal reservoir of icterohaemorrhagiae. 
In Makassar R. r. norvegicus was found with javanica. 
R. r. argentiventer has also been found to harbor javanica, 
which is practically nonpathogenic. Most investigators 
regard the Norway rat as the most dangerous reservoir in 
Java. In Batavia about 50 percent are infected with 
leptospirae, mostly with the hataviae type. L. hehdomadis 
has been found in dogs in Sumatra. Cats have been found 99 
infected with bataviae, javanica, and icterohaemorrhagiae. 
Dogs in Batavia have been found with bataviae whereas 
hogs were found to harbor pomona which is only slightly 
virulent to guinea pigs and mice. 
Synopsis of leptospirosis of the Netherlands Indies 
Human cases 
Norway rats 
Field rats 
Dogs 
Sumatra; Deli 
L, salinem 
No L. salinem—. 
L. javanica 
L. hebdoma- 
dis. 
Central and 
South Java. 
L. hebdomad is (wry 
rare).J 
L. bataviae. * 
L. javanica 
L. bataviae 
(very rare). 
L. javanica. 
L. salinem 
(very rare) 
“L. R 173” 
(very rare). 
L. javanica. 
Middle Java: 
(a) Semarang.. 
{b) Mageland 
(f) Noesakam- 
bangan. 
L. rachmat (rare).. 
L. hebdomadis (very 
rare). 
L. pomona (?). 
L. icterohaemor- 
rhagiae. 
L. salinem 1 
L. bataviae /rare 
“L. R 173”J 
L. bataviae. 
L. icterohaemor- 
rhagiae. 
L. rachmat. 
L. bataviae, 
L. icterohaemor- 
rhagiae. 
L. hebdomadis. 
L. javanica 
L. iclerohemor- 
rhagiae. 
L. pomona.• 
L. bataviae. 
1 L. rachmat identical with L. autumnalis or L. akiyani. 
1 L. hebdomadis, L. pomona never causes jaundice. 
L. hebdomadis and L. pomona are non virulent for guinea pigs. 
• L. pomona has been found in hogs in West Java. 
< L. bataviae has been found in adult cats. 
(Prepared by Dr. I. Snapper, Surgeon General’s Office, U. S. Army) Chapter VIII 
ENTERIC DISEASES 
Because of improper disposal of sewage, unsanitary 
water supplies, unhygienic handling of food, lack of control 
of flies, and the generally poor hygienic conditions in the 
native villages, all communicable enteric diseases are 
prevalent. 
Bacillary Dysentery 
Bacillary dystentery occurs on all of the inhabited 
islands. There are no reliable morbidity figures because 
most cases do not come to medical attention. The 
disease is both endemic and epidemic. Table 10 sum- 
marizes the hospitalized cases of dysentery for 1935-39 
(from Indisch Verslag, 1936-40). These figures Include 
all cases diagnosed as dysentery. 
Table 10.—Dysentery, hospital admissions 
Year 
Number of 
hospitals 
reporting 
Total 
admissions 
Number 
dysentery 
admissions 
Percent 
dysentery 
admissions 
Dysentery 
case fatality 
(percent) 
1934 
221 
207,325 
4,488 
2.2 
8.4 
1935 
185 
201,597 
4,355 
2.2 
10.4 
1936 
190 
223,469 
(*) 
1937 
176 
239,163 
(♦) 
1938 
167 
238,960 
5,826 
2.6 
10.3 
1939 
176 
255,552 
6,391 
2.5 
11.5 
♦Dysentery cases not recorded separately. 
100 101 
The following reports of cases of bacillary dysentery 
were made to the League of Nations by the Netherlands 
Indies Public Health Service: 
1936 
1937 
1938 
Java and Madoera .. 
623 
190 
354 
Other Islands 
2, 280 
7,449 
5,813 
1 
Since 1931 the Eijkman Institute Laboratory has 
recorded data on types of dysentery bacillae from the 
dysentery cases for which it has made laboratory diagnoses. 
These records are summarized in table 11. About 70 per- 
cent of the cases were Flexner group (mostly Y); 13 
percent were Sonne and 13 percent Shiga. 
Table 11.—Summary of dysentery analyses at the Eijkman Institute, 
Batavia* 
Year 
Total 
exami- 
nations 
No 
aggluti- 
nation 
Flexner 
group 
Sonne 
Schmitz 
Shiga 
Total 
posi- 
tive 
Per- 
cent 
posi- 
tive 
1931 
813 
40 
160 
16 
2 
114 
292 
36.5 
1932 .. 
1,547 
1,215 
1,308 
2,459 
3,579 
4,576 
4,616 
3,563 
120 
260 
36 
9 
79 
384 
25.6 
1933 
57 
188 
40 
6 
49 
283 
23.6 
1934... 
57 
270 
60 
6 
42 
378 
29.0 
1935 
141 
422 
100 
4 
30 
556 
22.2 
1936 
S3 
501 
90 
3 
49 
643 
17.9 
1937 
29 
436 
124 
8 
39 
607 
13.2 
1938 
45 
537 
88 
6 
45 
676 
14.7 
1939.. 
78 
412 
79 
10 
78 
579 
16.0 
Total 
23,676 
620 
3,186 
573 
54 
525 
4,398 
73% 
13% 
1.2% 
13% 
♦Practically all of the cases were from Java. 
All racial groups appear to be approximately equally 
susceptible to the Flexner group. There is a tendency 102 
towards a greater incidence of Sonne among Europeans 
and a greater incidence of Shiga among the natives 
(table 12). 
Table 12.—Bacillary dysentery morbidity, 1931-39 
Euro- 
peans 
Percent 
Chi- 
nese 
Percent 
Natives 
Percent 
Total 
Per- 
cent 
418 
69.8 
577 
73.9 
1,323 
239 
69.5 
2,318 
467 
70.3 
136 
22.7 
92 
11.6 
12.5 
14.2 
6 
1.0 
17 
2.3 
26 
1.2 
49 
1.5 
39 
6.5 
96 
12.4 
322 
16.8 
457 
13.9 
599 
100.0 
782 
100.2 
1,910 
100.0 
3,291 
99.9 
Dinger et al. (1940) studied bacterial dysentery in a 
“city study unit” in Batavia. They concluded in this 
city, which has a sanitary water supply, that the majority 
of the cases were due to direct contacts. Of 149 bac- 
teriologically analyzed cases, 112 were Flexner, 30 were 
Sonne, and 4 were Schmitz. Wolff (1940) studied the 
occurrence of Sonne dysentery on the East Coast of 
Sumatra from 1925 to 1936, during which time 676 cases 
were diagnosed bacteriologically. Only 7 percent were 
Sonne. The ratio of Sonne to Flexner varied from 
5:100 to 13:100. Sonne infections were much more 
prevalent In Europeans than among the natives. 
The reports of the Public Health Service in the Mede- 
deelingen van den Dienst der Volksgewndheid contain 
some records of epidemics in recent years. There was 
an epidemic in Makassar in 1936 in which 68 cases were 
bacteriologically analyzed; 50 were Flexner, 13 were 
Shiga, and 2 ■were Sonne. There was also an epidemic 
with 448 cases at Tandjong Priok in Java and another 
in East Coast, Sumatra with 460 cases. Also in 1936, 
473 cases were reported from the Molukkas, 346 from 
KIsar Island, and 115 from Danar Island. In 1938, 103 
366 cases were reported from Tanjong Priok in Java and 
235 cases, with 78 deaths, from Madang, also in Java; 
1,900 cases were reported from the Molukkas, 472 from 
Menado (Celebes) and 325 from East Coast, Sumatra. 
There was an epidemic in Makassar in January and Feb- 
ruary 1938; of 862 cases, 600 were Shiga, 231 were 
Flexner, 25 were Sonne, and 6 were Schmitz. 
In 1938 there was also an epidemic in Bantam (West 
Java) with 1,287 cases and 133 deaths. There were also, 
in 1938, 285 cases in Menado (Celebes) and 361 cases in 
Timor, 
Amoebic Dysentery 
According to de Langen and Lichtenstein (1936) 
amoebic dysentery is endemic throughout the archipelago 
and is transmitted by flies, direct contact, and water. 
They cite survey figures which indicate that 10 to 17 
percent of the natives have amoebiasis. The data com- 
piled from stool examinations by the Eijkman Institute 
show much lower percentages. However this may be due 
in part to the selectivity in sampling since examinations 
by the Eijkman Institute would be of Europeans in a 
considerable degree (table 13). 
Table 13.—Intestinal protozoa, examinations at the Eijkman Institute 
Percent 
1936 
1937 
1938 
1939 
2.1 
2.3 
3.5 
3.i 
4.7 
7.9 
9.1 
10.2 
.4 
.2 
3.5 
.6 
.1 
.2 
3.9 
1.4 
1.6 
3.0 
1.2 
1.1 
.5 
2.1 
4.7 
.1 
.1 
.1 
_ 
853 
751 
430 
250 104 
Other Intestinal Protozoa 
Table 13 shows in general the intestinal protozoa known 
to occur in man in the Netherlands Indies. In addition 
to those tabulated there have also been records of 
Balantidium coli, although it is uncommon in man. It 
must again be pointed out that the data in table 13 are 
from a selected group in Java and are not typical for the 
native population. 
Typhoid Fever 
Because of the unhygienic condition of the native vil- 
lages and the unsanitary methods of fecal disposition 
typhoid fever is prevalent. No reliable general mor- 
bidity figures are available. The number of hospital 
admissions (1934-1939) for typhoid fever (and para- 
typhoid) are tabulated In table 14. These data are largely 
from Java. 
Table 14.—Typhoid fever, hospital admissions 
Year 
Number 
of hospi- 
tals re- 
porting 
Total ad- 
missions 
Number 
of admis- 
sions 
Percent of 
total ad- 
missions 
Case fa- 
tality, per- 
cent 
1934 «„ - 
221 
207,325 
2,284 
1.1 
17.5 
1935 1 - 
185 
201,597 
2,959 
1.5 
18.4 
1936 * 
190 
223,469 
3,713 
1.7 
16.9 
1937 2 
176 
239,163 
3,904 
1.6 
18.0 
1938 2 
167 
238,960 
4,158 
1.7 
12.7 
1939 2 
176 
255,552 
3,727 
1.5 
18.1 
1 Typhoid fever'only. 
2 Typhoid and paratyphoid. 
The following reports of typhoid cases were made by the 
Public Health Service to the League of Nations: 
1934 
1935 
1936 
1937 
1938 
Java and Madoera 
2,688 
107 
3,390 
491 
4,235 
488 
4,468 
549 
4,625 
672 105 
Naturally these statistics are entirely fragmentary. 
Surface waters in the more densely populated islands 
invariably are severely contaminated with intestinal 
organisms. This is verified by the investigations of 
Schaeffer (1940), Mom (1940), Dinger (1937), and Dinger 
et al. (1939). In general the sewage of the Netherlands 
Indies cities, according to Mom (1940) and Schaeffer 
(1941), has a much higher concentration of bacteria than 
the sewage of European cities. Dinger et al. (1939) found 
0.2 percent of the population of Batavia to be typhoid 
carriers. These authors feel that the natives of Java 
possess a certain degree of immunity to typhoid perhaps 
because of constant exposure through their water supplies. 
This is not true of children. Dinger et al. (1939) regard 
typhoid fever as a “sporadic endemic disease with a 
considerably higher incidence in the younger age groups.” 
These authors also feel that the heavy pollution of the 
surface waters with intestinal organisms explains the 
high degree of typhoid immunity which the natives appear 
to possess. They consider food contamination, flies, and 
direct contact as more important in the spread of the 
disease among the natives. However, for nonimmune 
white populations water supply in the Netherlands Indies 
is always a potential source of typhoid infection. In 
general typhoid fever in Java is nonseasonal although 
Dinger (1938) has shown that there is a slight correlation 
between rainfall and typhoid incidence which he states is 
perhaps due to the abundance of flies. 
Excerpts from the Reports of the Public Health Service 
(Jaarsverslag Dienst der Volksgezondheid in Nederlandsch- 
Indie) and of the Eijkman Institute give some idea of the 
occurrence of typhoid fever in recent years. In 1936 
Batavia reported 572 cases, Semarang (Java) 258, and 
Soerabaja (Java) 379. Menado (Celebes) reported 148 
cases and East Coast (Sumatra) 83. These were the 106 
principal foci in 1936. In 1937 Batavia reported 653 
cases, Semarang 450, and Soerabaja 622. Medan (Sumatra) 
reported 73, Makassar (Celebes) 71, and Menado 79 cases. 
The 1938 reports recorded 503 cases from Batavia, 329 
from Semarang (Java), 646 from Soerabaja, 87 cases from 
Medan (Sumatra), 15 from Makassar, and 71 from Menado. 
Paratyphoid Fever 
Paratyphoid A is much more common than para- 
typhoid B. Indeed records of paratyphoid. B are almost 
nonexistent, consisting of only five cases in Java in 1938. 
Recent reports by the Public Health Service give some 
idea as to prevalence of paratyphoid A compared with 
records of typhoid cases. The following data are from 
Java and Madoera only. Deaths are given in paren- 
thesis. 
Typhoid 
Paratyphoid A 
1935 
3,390 (575) 
4,325 (729) 
4,468 (752) 
4,625 (747) 
323 (3) 
582 (29) 
922 (29) 
708 (37) 
1936 
1937 
1938 
One third of the 1937 paratyphoid cases were in Batavia 
(314 cases with 10 deaths). In the same year Semarang 
had 150 cases with seven deaths, and Soerabaja 56 with 
two deaths. Batavia had 149 cases and 14 deaths in 1938; 
Semarang reported 75 cases with two deaths while Soer- 
abaja reported 56 cases with two deaths. Reports on 
paratyphoid cases from the other islands are meager. 
There were 24 in 1937, and 44 in 1938. 
Other Salmonelloses 
The status of the knowledge regarding other members 
of the Salmonella group in the Netherlands Indies does not 107 
allow any accurate estimate of their prevalence. Consid- 
erable research has been done in the Netherlands Indies. 
This has been summarized by Erber (1940) who states 
that, up to 1940, 18 species of Salmonella (including para- 
typhosus A and paratyphosus B) have been isolated. These 
(excluding paratyphoid A) have been isolated from 81 
studied cases. Erber’s list is as follows: 
Salmonella parat. A 
S'. parat. B (Schottmiiller) 
S. parat. B var. Java. 
S. typhi murium 
S. Stanley 
S. heidelberg 
S. hrandenburg 
S. derby 
S. parat. C. sub-type “East Africa” 
S. cholerae suis 
S. thompson 
S. bareilly 
S. newport 
S. enteriditis 
S. dublin 
S. panama var. 
S. anatum 
S. senjtenberg 
There were more than 64,000 deaths from cholera in 
Java and Madoera in 1910. Since then the disease has 
decreased steadily. Prophylactic inoculation was started 
in 1926. No autochthonous cases have been reported in 
recent years. However there is always the hazard of 
importation from Malaya and China. 
In September and October 1937 an epidemic of a disease 
closely resembling cholera broke out in Southwest Celebes 
in some of the native villages on the coast and on nearby 
Cholera 
562282—44 8 108 
islands about 36 miles north of Makassar. This epidemic 
has been described in detail by de Moor (1939) as well as 
by others. In January, February, and March 1938 it was 
found also in some inland villages about 6 miles south of 
Makassar as well as in villages north and south of the 
original area of infection. Two cases also occurred in the 
city of Makassar. 
The organism involved was probably the El Tor vibrio. 
The epidemic was very similar to cholera and might easily 
have passed as such. De Moor (1939) describes the 
situation as follows (in translation): 
Whereas clinically and epidemiologically the diagnosis of cholera 
asiatica was unquestionable, some difficulties were met with in the 
identification of the vibrios isolated. These vibrios appeared not to 
differ from the real vibrio cholerae in the common diagnostical-bacterio- 
logical examination. Even when they were inoculated on agar with 
sheep’s blood the culture produced only digestion of the blood and 
showed no trace of haemolysis, the same as the cholera vibrio. If 
these vibrios however were inoculated in broth with sheep’s blood the 
culture showed haemolysis as early as within 24 hours’ incubation, 
the same as the vibrio El Tor. So this closer investigation after Kraus’ 
method showed immediate haemolysis, which would be absent in the 
real cholera vibrio. Some investigators consider it a matter of absolute 
fact that the cholera vibrio is not haemolytic or will at most after 48 
hours’ incubation show late haemylosis in bloodbroth. Other investi- 
gators doubt the absolute certainty of this fact. At first the diagnosis 
of the vibrios isolated was therefore taken pending. Where however 
in cases such as this an immediate and categorical statement is desired 
(or Is at least hard to avoid) the scholastic conception of the incapa- 
bility of vibrio cholerae to give prompt haemolytic reaction was accepted 
and, though reluctantly, the diagnosis of vibrio El Tor was reported. 
Further investigation proved this diagnosis to be the correct one. 
There were about 50 reported cases with a case fatality 
of 65 percent. 
The Dutch have studied the El Tor vibrio extensively 
since that time. Otten (1939) refers to the vibrio of the 
Celebes epidemic as to V. Celebes and thinks that it may 
be slightly different from the El Tor vibrio. Chapter IX 
RESPIRATORY DISEASES 
As In the information on other diseases reliable morbid- 
ity data do not exist for respiratory diseases. The best 
information comes from hospital reports, laboratory 
reports, and special investigations. 
Table 15 shows the proportion of hospital admissions 
for respiratory infections (tuberculosis not included) 
from a selected group of hospitals as compared to total 
admission in the same hospitals. 
Table 15.—Respiratory diseases*, hospital admissions 
Year 
Number of 
hospitals 
reporting 
Total ad- 
missions 
Number of 
respiratory 
admis- 
sions 
Percent 
of total 
admis- 
sions 
Case fa- 
tality, 
percent 
1934 
221 
207,325 
201,597 
223,469 
239,163 
238,960 
255,552 
9,691 
11,056 
7,021 
7,743 
7,822 
4.7 
18.5 
1935 
185 
5.5 
18.6 
1936 
190 
3.1 
25.2 
1937 
176 
3.2 
24.7 
1938 
167 
3.3 
24.6 
1939 
176 
9,471 
3.7 
22.9 
•Tuberculosis not included. 
Pneumonia 
According to de Langen and Lichtenstein (1934) 
pneumonia, especially lobar pneumonia, is prevalent 
throughout the archipelago. In table 16 statistics on 
hospitalized cases of pneumonia have been compiled. 
These, of course, are a select group, largely from Java. 
109 110 
Year 
Number of 
hospitals 
reporting 
Total ad- 
missions 
Number of 
pneumonia 
admis- 
sions 
Percent 
of total 
admis- 
sions 
Case fa- 
tality, 
percent 
1934. .. 
221 
207,325 
4,776 
2.3 
32.2 
1935 - 
185 
201,597 
5,458 
2.7 
32.8 
1936 
190 
223,469 
4,739 
2.1 
33 .2 
1937 
176 
239,163 
5,300 
2.2 
32.9 
1938 
167 
238,960 
5,384 
6,523 
2.3 
32.2 
1939 
176 
255,552 
2.6 
30.2 
Table 16, 
.—Pneumonia, hospital admissions 
Information on the types of pneumococci isolated from 
cases of pneumonia has been assembled by the Netherlands 
Indies Public Health Service in a report to a League of 
Nations conference in 1937 (National Rapport van Neder- 
landsch-Indie voor de Intergouvernementeele Conference van 
landen in het verre oosten voor landelijke hygiene, 3-13 
Augustus 1937). The data from this report are tabulated 
in table 17. 
Table 17.—Pneumococcus types in pneumonia cases 
Place 
Number 
of cases 
Year 
Percent of Group or 
Type 
Number 
of times 
examined 
I 
II 
III 
IV 
Java and Sumatra 
100 
1929-31 
42.0 
26.0 
0 
32.0 
1 
Java 
83 
1930-31 
44.4 
13.9 
12.5 
29.2 
1 
Java 
341 
1932-35 
28.0 
7.0 
0 
57.0 
1 
Java 
113 
1932-34 
42.5 
9.0 
0 
48.5 
. 1 
Java 
64 
1935 
38.0 
8.0 
0 
54.0 
3 
Java 
62 
1936 
58.0 
8.0 
1.5 
32.0 
3 
Netherlands Indies 
807 
1929-37 
36.4 
10.9 
1.6 
47.8 
1,570 
36.6 
10.8 
1.5 
47.5 
United States 1 
5,779 
? 
28.4 
12.2 
11.9 
52.5 
United States 2 
3,066 
1928-35 
23.6 
8.3 
9.7 
58.4 
i Cecil. 1937. 
2 Bullowa, 1928-3S. Ill 
Kirschner and Schijveschuurmder (1939) have compiled 
the statistics on lobar pneumonia from the records of the 
Netherlands Indies Army. These are given in table 18. 
Tablk 18.—Pneumonia in the Netherlands Indies Army 
Year 
Morbidity per 1,000 
soldiers 
Mortality per 1,000 
soldiers 
Fatality per 100 cases 
European 
Non-Euro- 
pean 
European 
Non-Euro- 
pean 
European 
Non-Euro- 
pean 
1903-29 
2.3 
6.2 
0.24 
0.59 
9.1 
10.6 
1930 
2.0 
9.5 
- 
.96 
— 
10 
1931 
1.7 
4.6 
- 
.40 
— 
9 
1932 
1.7 
4.3 
- 
.70 
— 
16 
1933 
1.5 
4.7 
.13 
.92 
8 
19 
1934 
1.2 
5.9 
- 
1.30 
- 
22 
1935 
.8 
6.3 
.13 
1.13 
17 
18 
1936 
1.5 
5.4 
.13 
1.40 
8 
26 
1937 
1.1 
3.3 
.20 
.60 
22 
19 
Mean 
2.1 
6.0 
.20 
.66 
8.6 
12.1 
These are the most reliable and usable data available. 
Influenza 
Influenza is said to be quite prevalent. The number 
of hospital admissions per year for influenza is about 
the same as that for pneumonia. Because of differences 
in diagnostic nomenclature it is doubtful that any very 
reliable comparisons can be made with statistics of other 
countries. The data from Netherlands Indies hospitals 
for a period of 6 years are recorded in table 19. 
Year 
Number 
of 
hospitals 
reporting 
Total ad- 
missions 
Number 
of influ- 
enza ad- 
missions 
Percent 
of total 
admis- 
. sions 
Case 
fatality, 
percent 
1934 
221 
207,325 
4,665 
2.3 
1.2 
1935 
185 
201,597 
6,502 
3.2 
0.8 
1936 
190 
223,469 
7,603 
3.4 
0.9 
1937 
176 
239,163 
8,608 
3.6 
1.0 
1938 
167 
238,960 
6,878 
2.9 
0.8 
1939 
176 
255,552 
7,344 
2.9 
0.9 
Table 19.—Influenza, hospital admissions 112 
De Rook (1938) states that influenza is fairly common 
in New Guinea especially on the north coast. 
Spirochaetosis Bronchialis 
According to de Langen and Lichtenstein (1936) this 
disease is fairly common. No morbidity statistics are 
available. It is caused by Treponema bronchialis. These 
authors state that two forms, acute and chronic, occur: 
‘.‘In the acute form there is a high fever, coughing of an 
abundance of sputum which is often sanguinopurulent.” 
The chronic form may start independently or arise from 
the acute form. The chronic form is frequently con- 
fused with tuberculosis. Fever is exceptional although 
frequently there is weakness and anemia. Prognosis in 
both forms is favorable. 
Tuberculosis 
Again reliable statistics are not available. The largest 
numbers of deaths due to tuberculosis are said to occur 
among the Menadonese in northeastern Celebes, among 
the Bataks around Toba Lake (Sumatra), and among 
the Javanese of Central Java. For the period, 1932- 
1936, the mortality rate due to tuberculosis in the army 
was 0.6 per thousand as compared with 0.7 per thousand 
for lobar pneumonia and 0.5 per thousand for all other 
infectious diseases. The Netherlands Public Health 
Service estimates that 10 percent of all deaths in the 
archipelago are due to tuberculosis. Table 20 contains 
statistics on hospital admissions with tuberculosis. 
Recent Public Health Service Reports {Mededeelingen 
van den Dienst der Volksgezondheid in Nederlandsch- 
Indi'e) mention specifically as areas where tuberculosis is 
prevalent, South Borneo, East Borneo, Ceiitral Java, 
East Coast (Sumatra), Atjeh (Sumatra), Lombok, Bali, 
Nias, Riouw, Bangka, and Celebes. In the Molukkas 113 
tuberculosis is described as sporadic except on Saparoea 
where it is prevalent. According to de Rook (1938) the 
extent and incidence of the disease in New Guinea is 
unknown. 
Year 
Number 
of 
hospitals 
reporting 
Total ad- 
missions 
Number 
of tuber- 
culosis ad- 
missions 
Percent 
of total 
admis- 
sions 
Case 
fatality, 
percent 
1934 
221 
207,325 
7,547 
3.6 
20.4 
1935 
185 
201,597 
8,271 
4.1 
20.1 
1936 
190 
223,469 
8,669 
3.9 
19.1 
1937 
176 
239,163 
8,495 
3.6 
20.6 
1938 
167 
238,960 
9,409 
3.9 
18.8 
1939 
176 
255,552 
9,950 
3.9 
19.1 
Table 20.-—Tuberculosis, hospital admissions 
In recent years the Public Health Service has taken 
steps to combat tuberculosis. However there has not 
been enough time to evaluate the results. Because it 
has been only recently that a real consciousness of the 
tuberculosis problem has developed data from chest 
examinations and Mantoux tests are too scanty to give a 
reliable picture. 
Diphtheria 
Diphtheria is a fairly common disease throughout the 
archipelago. Hospital admissions for diphtheria in recent 
years have been recorded in table 21. 
Table 21.—Diphtheria, hospital admissions 
Year 
Number of 
hospitals 
reporting 
Total 
admis- 
sions 
Number of 
diphtheria 
admis- 
sions 
Percent of 
total ad- 
mis- 
sions 
Case 
fatality, 
percent 
1936 
190 
223,469 
272 
0.1 
26.5 
1937 
176 
239,163 
316 
.1 
22.2 
1938. 
167 
238,960 
349 
.1 
23.8 
1939 
176 
255,552 
411 
.2 
21.4 114 
Cases reported to the Public Health Service are recorded 
in table 22. It is difficult to estimate the percentage of 
cases which are actually reported. Probably it is smallest 
in sparsely populated areas. 
Table 22.—Cases of diphtheria reported to the Public Health Service 
Year 
Java and Ma- 
doera 
Other islands 
Total 
Case 
fatality, 
percent 
Cases 
Deaths 
Cases 
Deaths 
Cases 
Deaths 
1935 - 
SSI 
62 
S9 
610 
1936... - 
477 
59 
129 
IS 
606 
74 
12.2 
1937.... 
676 
81 
315 
38 
991 
119 
12.0 
1938 
882 
81 
170 
29 
1,052 
110 
10.4 
Batavia reported 66 cases in 1935, 67 in 1936, 103 in 
1937, and 140 in 1938. Semarang reported 82 in 1935, 
67 in 1936, 155 in 1939, and 148 in 1938. Soerabaja 
reported 96 in 1935, 75 in 1936, 83 in 1937, and 120 in 
1938. Chapter X 
MISCELLANEOUS INFECTIOUS 
DISEASES 
Smallpox.—Although complete morbidity statistics 
are unavailable it appears that the disease Is well controlled 
and that cases are rare. No epidemics have been reported 
in recent years. The following are the cases reported to 
the League of Nations, 1934-1938: 
1934 
193S 
1936 
1937 
1938 
Java and Madoera, 
4 
10 
1 
1 
9 
Other islands . __ 
5 
33 
79 
0 
3 
De Rook (1938) states that there have been no epidemics 
in New Guinea since 1917 although the status of the 
disease in the interior is unknown. 
An extensive vaccination program has been maintained 
since 1920. The statistics on the program are tabulated 
(from Indisch Verslag) in table 23, 
The population of Java is about 42,000,000 and that 
of the other islands about 23,000,000. Hence it appears 
that no serious epidemics of smallpox should occur for 
the next few years assuming, of course, that the vacci- 
nation program continued up to the time of the invasion 
and occupation by Japanese forces. However it must 
be borne in mind that probably a very small portion of 
the natives of the interior of Borneo and New Guinea have 
been vaccinated. 
115 116 
Java and Madoera 
Other islands 
Year 
Number of 
vaccinations 
Controlled 
(observed) 
Successful 
Percent 
successful 
Revac- 
cinations 
Number of 
vaccina- 
tions 
Controlled 
(observed) 
Successful 
Percent 
successful 
Revac- 
cinations 
1920 
782,741 
1,108,250 
1,279,401 
1,284,482 
1,430,254 
1,416,244 
1,411,597 
1,375,366 
1,376,109 
1,157,342 
1,384,072 
649,807 
884,968 
1,035,052 
1,051,528 
1,173,692 
1,166,903 
1,168,615 
1,139,417 
1,133,388 
935,078 
1,113,871 
637,288 
828,641 
1,019,947 
1,038,786 
1,161,435 
1,154,420 
1,146,102 
1,125,763 
1,112,140 
920,341 
1,100,387 
98.0 
2,655,189 
329,559 
153,569 
141,830 
92.3 
611,608 
1925 
93.6 
1,843,712 
378,634 
134,601 
122,110 
90.7 
775,317 
1930 
98.5 
2,528,154 
396,683 
239,592 
225,508 
94.1 
737,764 
1931 
98.7 
2,490,779 
428,484 
262,685 
247,409 
94.2 
817,563 
1932 
98.9 
3,872,679 
428,784 
257,107 
242,063 
94.1 
998,966 
1933 
98.9 
4,675,937 
420,195 
254,781 
241,267 
94.6 
1,077,703 
1934 
98.1 
4,841,982 
4,042,015 
472,273 
304,079 
287,287 
94.5 
1,174,617 
1935 
98.8 
474,173 
314,117 
298,489 
95.0 
1,118,649 
1936 
98.0 
4,706,489 
502,537 
330,152 
311,915 
94.4 
1,146,973 
1937 
98.4 
4,103,502 
513,188 
335,286 
318,079 
94.8 
1,297,067 
1938 
98.7 
5,060,559 
558,649 
371,793 
350,807 
94.3 
1,349,116 
From Indisch Versing. 
Table 23.—Summary of vaccination program 117 
Measles, mumps, scarlet fever, and chickenpox.— 
These diseases are not reported to the League of Nations 
by the Netherlands Indies Public Health Service. Ac- 
tually the Public Health Service compiles no records of 
them except for hospitalized cases. There are about 
200 to 500 recorded hospitalized cases of measles per 
year with a case fatality of about 5 percent. Recorded 
hospitalized whooping cough cases vary from 200 to 400 
per year with 4 to 8 percent case fatality. There are 
practically no hospitalized cases of scarlet fever and 
chickenpox. 
Poliomyelitis.—A few cases are reported each year. 
In 1936 nine were reported from Java of which four 
cases were at Soerakarta. Soerakarta reported one in 
1937. Tarakan Island (near Borneo) reported five cases 
in 1936 and two in 1937. Medan (Sumatra) had two in 
1937 and two in 1938. Poerworedjo (Java) reported 
one in 1937 and one in 1938. Bandoeng (Java) reported 
one case in 1938. Later statistics are not available. 
Cerebrospinal meningitis.—Nine cases were re- 
ported for 1936, four for 1937, and nine for 1938. These 
were widely scattered throughout the archipelago. 
Rabies.—Rabies Is fairly common although the Public 
Health Service has not compiled statistics of its actual 
prevalence. Pasteur treatment has been used since 1895. 
Table 24 summarizes the number of treatments given at 
the Rabies Division of the Pasteur Institute at Bandoeng. 
It is probable that most, if not all, of these cases are from 
Java. 
The rabies research program was for many years guided 
by Mrs. Otten-van Stockum whose work has been sum- 
marized In a posthumous publication (1941). The data 
in table 24 which show a higher mortality than the French 
figures are, of course, actually not a reflection on the 118 
efficiency of the serum but rather of the difficulty of 
bringing the cases to treatment in sufficient time. 
Year 
Total ad- 
missions 
Complete 
treatments 
Deaths 
1930 
1931 _ 
874 
813 
790 
741 
6 
9 
1932 
522 
377 
5 
1933 
607 
516 
6 
1934 
527 
458 
3 
1935 
778 
726 
3 
1936... 
768 
706 
3 
1937 
753 
696 
6 
1938 
90S 
811 
10 
Table 24.—Rabies treatment at Pasteur Institute in Bandoeng 
Cases of rat-bite fever have been reported but the 
disease is certainly uncommon. 
There are occasional cases of undulant fever as 
would be expected because contagious abortion is prev- 
alent in cattle. Tetanus has a prevalence similar to 
other tropical areas. Anthrax probably occurs on all 
of the islands. There are occasional epidemics preceded 
by epizootics in the water buffalo. Melioidosis pseudo- 
malleus (Whitmore’s disease) a glanders-like dis- 
ease, occurs as a chronic pulmonary form or as a skin 
affection although recorded cases are rare. There are 
no records of tularaemia. 
Trachoma.—Trachoma is prevalent especially in 
Java where examinations of school children in some 
areas show as many as 70 percent infected. The poly- 
clinic in Tegal treats 50,000 cases of trachoma each year 
and the polyclinics in Brebes treat about 100,000 per 
year. Much of the treatment is performed by specially 
trained native nurses. Although the disease occurs 
throughout the archipelago little statistical information 
is available. 119 
Skin Diseases 
Skin diseases are very prevalent. Admissions for skin 
diseases (in percentages of total hospital admissions) for 
1936 through 1939 were 12.37 percent, 12.38 percent, 12.22 
percent, and 11.66 percent. The percentage admissions 
for malaria for the same years were 7.58 percent, 9.52 per- 
cent, 9.70 percent, and 11.66 percent. Ambulatory cases 
at dispensaries and polyclinics are extremely numerous 
and account for the majority of the cases which come to 
medical attention. 
The following notes are from de Langen and Lichten- 
stein (1936) and from the notes of Dr. I. Snapper, Surgeon 
General’s Office, United States Army. 
Secondary infections of all skin ailments and abrasions 
are extremely numerous. Scabies is prevalent especially 
where water is less available; secondary infections are 
common. Furunculosis is common especially among 
Europeans. 
Tropical ulcer (Ulcus phagedenicum tropicum) 
is a common ailment. It occurs most frequently on the an- 
terior surfaces of the legs. It is most prevalent in New 
Guinea where it affects practically all Europeans. 
Throughout the archipelago it is one of the most frequent 
ailments treated at hospitals and polyclinics. 
Fungus diseases of the skin are also prevalent. Tinea 
imbricata also known as Dyak itch, Dajaksche schurft, 
and Dyak schurjt is found throughout the archipelago 
although it is most prevalent in Borneo and on the 
Molukkas. This infection is also known as Tokelau ring- 
worm. Tinea albiginea is common among the natives 
on all of the islands. It tends to be localized to the palms 
and soles. Eczema marginatum, also known as epider- 
mophytosis, Hongkong foot, and dhobi itch, is another 
common skin disease. It occurs chiefly in the groins and 120 
between the toes and occasionally in the axillae. A few 
cases of mycetoma (Madura foot) have been recorded. 
Prickly heat (miliaria papulosa) occurs frequently 
among Europeans in the coastal areas when the humidity 
is high. Pemphigus contagiosus, also known as 
monkey pox and impetigo bullosa tropica, is also common 
especially where it is warm and humid. 
Piedra with black nodules surrounding the hair is 
frequent among the Indonesians in Batavia where it is 
much more common among men than among women, and 
among the Dyaks of North Borneo where it is also common 
among women. Europeans are said to become infected 
very easily. Piedra with white nodules is rare in Batavia. 
Red-bug dermatitis caused by hexapod trombiculid 
larvae is common, especially in New Guinea and Celebes. 
De Rook (1936) discusses an acute dermatitis caused by 
“some plant substance” which occurs in the Upper Digoel 
country. He suggests that the plant involved is Glutea 
hengha (L.) or Mangifera caesia (Jack). The swelling of 
the face may be sufficient to prevent opening of the eyes. 
Infections of foot wounds are frequent and must receive 
special attention. 
Leprosy 
Leprosy occurs throughout the archipelago. In 1936 
there were 42 leper asylums. Since that time however there 
has been a change in policy on the part of the Public Health 
Service as described by Theunissen (1936). The use of 
leper asylums is relegated to secondary importance, with 
emphasis on effective local isolation, reporting and regis- 
trations by physicians, and strict supervision of treatment. 
On the basis of reported cases a compilation of the Inci- 
dence of the disease has been made in table 25. This is in 
part from the report of the Public Health Service (1937) 
to the League of Nations Conference on Rural Hygiene 
and in part from more recent data. 121 
Island 
Lepers 
Lepers per 
1,000 
population 
5,708 
1,748 
350 
3,268 
2,601 
4,232 
373 
2,601 
0.14 
1.61 
.50 
.38 
.70 
1'.07 
.20 
1.10 
.30 
Table 25—Prevalence of leprosy in the Netherlands Indies 
In Java leprosy is particularly prevalent at Lamongan 
and Blora. Kapitan (1936) reports an incidence of 3 per 
thousand to 9.3 per thousand on the Kei Islands. De 
Langen and Lichtenstein (1936) speak of North Sumatra 
and the Molukkas as regions of high incidence. 
Yaws 
Yaws, known as patek in Java and poeroe among the 
Malayans, is a common disease in the Netherlands Indies. 
It occurs to a greater or less degree on all of the islands of 
the archipelago. 
Recent reports by the Public Health Service state that 
it is very prevalent in Denak, Kediri, Tegal (19 percent of 
natives infected) and other areas in Java; Bali, Lombok 
and the other Lesser Soenda Islands, West Borneo, South 
and East Borneo, Madoera (about 10 per cent of the 
population infected) South Celebes, and the Molukkas. 
De Rook (1938) describes it as a prevalent contagious 
disease in the lower parts of New Guinea except in those 
areas occupied by the Marindanese. 
Mass treatment with neosalvarsan was started in 1919. 
In recent years about 1,250,000 Injections per year have 
been administered. The Dutch have employed an interest- 122 
ing propaganda system in order to induce the natives to 
submit to treatment. Infected individuals were selected 
from families containing several cases and taken away for 
treatment. Treatment would be staggered so that on 
return to the village all stages from the first effects of 
neosalvarsanto complete treatment could be demonstrated. 
In this way it was possible to induce a large portion of the 
cases in a village to submit to treatment which was then 
conducted within the village. Mass therapeutic use of 
neosalvarsan has had two difficulties. In the first place 
there is a tendency for natives to stop coming for treat- 
ment as soon as there is some improvement but before 
complete cure has been effected. Also the Dutch physi- 
cians have found that some cases became refractory to 
neosalvarsan after several injections. Nevertheless the 
Public Health Service feels that mass treatment with 
neosalvarsan has effectively reduced the Incidence of yaws. 
Venereal Diseases 
Venereal disease is prevalent especially in the cities. 
Simons (1941) has summarized the situation on the basis 
of the results of surveys. He concludes that 10 to 50 
percent of the population between the ages of 18 and 50 
in Java and Madoera are infected with venereal disease. 
The frequency is higher in the cities. About 50 percent 
of the cases never undergo treatment; 75 percent of the 
cases submitting to the first treatment do not continue 
it. Brothels flourish in the large cities. There are many 
quacks and quack medicines are used extensively. There 
is an old adage about curing native diseases with native 
drugs which is exploited by quack practitioners. 
The Netherlands Indies Public Health Service Reports 
in Indisch Verslag for 1934-1940 show that about 7 per- 
cent of all hospital admissions are for venereal diseases. 
The case fatality averages about 1.5 percent. Naturally, 123 
hospitalized cases represent a minute portion of the total 
numbers of cases. Annually about 18,000 cases, about 
8,000 of which are syphilis, are treated by government 
dispensaries and polyclinics. 
The prevalence of venereal diseases apparently is not 
as great in less densely populated areas. De Rook (1938) 
states that syphilis and gonorrhea are very uncommon in 
New Guinea except in the port cities. 
Special mention should be made of venereum 
granuloma which has been reported only in New 
Guinea. The disease was described by de Rook (1938) 
as uncommon in Netherlands New Guinea except in 
the region of Merauke. It is more common in British 
New Guinea. The occurrence of this disease in New 
Guinea has been watched carefully by the Public Health 
Service. The results of its surveys are given in its 
Annual Report for 1937 (Mededeelingen*van den Dienst der 
Volksgezondheid in Nederlandsch-Indie, 1939) and are 
tabulated in table 26. 
Table 26.—Venereum granuloma in New Guinea 
Region 
Percent 
1929 
1930 
1931 
1932 
1933 
1934 
1935 
1936 
1937 
Koembe River 
O.S 
2.5 
6.0 
4.0 
2.0 
4.5 
2.0 
2.0 
1.7 
Boelaka River 
- 
- 
7.5 
— 
2.0 
1.0 
2.0 
2.5 
1.5 
Merauke River 
- 
3.5 
1.5 
3.5 
1.0 
- 
.8 
1.0 
.8 
Bian River 
Coast, Merauke to 
3.0 
4.5 
1.7 
1.7 
1.0 
1.5 
1.3 
1.4 
Bian 
Coast, Merauke to 
— 
— 
— 
““ 
.1 
.1 
.3 
Kondomiraf 
2.0 
— 
5.0 
.5 
.5 
1.0 
.5 
.6 
.5 
Janggandoer area 
Eastern Frederick 
— 
— 
— 
3.5 
2.5 
2.0 
Hendrick Island.. 
Western Frederick 
— 
— 
— 
4.5 
3.5 
2.0 
Hendrick Island.. 
~~ 
““ 
8.0 
14.0 
“ 
2.5 
3.0 
[Cases per 100 persons] 
562282—44 9 124 
Only on the South Coast is venereum granuloma prev- 
alent In Dutch New Guinea. No cases have been 
found in the Diogel region. Most of the cases are re- 
ported from Frederick Hendrick Island and along the 
Kali Bian, Kali Edi, and Boelaka rivers. Chapter XI 
HELMINTHIASES (OTHER THAN 
FILARIASIS) 
Hookworm 
Because of soil pollution by human feces and the bare- 
foot habits of the natives, ankylostomiasis is extremely 
prevalent in the Netherlands Indies. Actually there are 
more people with ankylostomiasis than with any other 
single disease. About 90 percent of the worms are 
Necator americamis and 10 percent are Ancylostoma 
duodenale. In recent years the Public Health Service 
has conducted a campaign for the construction and use of 
latrines among the natives. This has resulted in the 
reduction of ankylostomiasis in many areas. According 
to de Langen and Lichtenstein (1936) it has been com- 
pletely eliminated from the army and from many of the 
plantations. However among the native villagers ankyl- 
ostomiasis continues undiminished. In its report to the 
League of Nations Conference on Rural Hygiene, the 
Public Health Service states that the incidence of hook- 
worm among the natives in villages is 80 to 90 percent. 
One must bear in mind also that 90 percent of the popula- 
tion resides in villages. This report states that in 1924 
it was found that the average number of worms per man 
Was 81 and the average number per woman 62 and further 
that an investigation some years later revealed counts 
averaging 50 percent lower. Because of the small number 
of worms harbored per person most of the natives do not 
appear to be seriously affected. 
The best summary of the geographical distribution of 
125 126 
hookworm is that of Amm (1933). He states that in- 
fections are particularly prevalent in Java and Sumatra 
(80 to 90 percent). However the greatest incidence is in 
Flores where the natives live under extremely unsanitary 
conditions in large family groups of 20 to 100 all in a large 
single-room house. Infection here is 100 percent and the 
number of worms per person is higher than elsewhere. 
Amm (1933) states that at altitudes of 3,500 feet, where 
there is no malaria, anemia is severe; hemoglobin readings 
indicate an average about 60 percent of normal. Two- 
fifths of the children die of ankylostomiasis on Flores. 
Since the time of Amm’s investigation attempts have been 
made to remedy the situation. De Rook states that there 
are endemic centers of ankylostomiasis at Manokwari, 
Miei, Amberbaken, Sorong, FakFak, Merauke, and Tanah 
Merah in New Guinea. Elsewhere in the archipelago 
hookworm is prevalent although in general it is subclinical. 
Ancylostoma brazilense, an intestinal parasite of 
cats and dogs, is prevalent. Occasionally it causes cases 
of creeping eruption in man. 
Ascaris lumbricoides.—A scans infections are very 
numerous, according to some sources almost as numerous 
as hookworm infections. This is again correlated with 
improper disposal of feces and generally unsanitary condi- 
tions. Records of fecal examinations show 3 to 20 
percent infected. It is stated that a careful survey would 
reveal a higher incidence at least in some areas. Ascari- 
asis in the Netherlands Indies is usually subclinical. 
Trichuris trichiura.—Apparently this worm is a 
common parasite in the Netherlands Indies. About 16 
percent of the stool samples examined at the Eijkman 
Institute have trichurid eggs. Doubtlessly the incidence 
is greater than this in many areas. 
Other Roundworms 127 
Enterobius vermicularis and Strongyloides ster- 
coralis also occur although there is no information on 
their prevalence. 
Trichinella spiralis is known to occur although in- 
formation is meager. Trichinosis has been reported 
among the Bataks in Sumatra and elsewhere in rats. 
Cestodes 
Bonne (1940) has summarized the information on the 
cestodes of the Netherlands Indies. Taenia saginata is 
the most common tapeworm. It Is most prevalent among 
Europeans and less common among the Chinese; it is not 
found among the natives. Taenia solium is very un- 
common. Most of the Infections have been among the 
Chinese. Dipylidium caninum is uncommon in hu- 
mans. Hymenolepis nana is also described by Bonne 
(1940) as uncommon in man. Bonne (1940) in another 
paper has described a single case of infection with Bertiella 
studeri; Bonne and Mreyen (1940) also described an in- 
fection with Raillietina madagascariensis. 
Sparganosis has also been discussed by Bonne 
(1937). He states that a considerable number of rice- 
field workers around Batavia have been found infected. 
It is believed that the definitive host is the cat and per- 
haps some other mammals. Cyclops is the first inter- 
mediate host. The second intermediate host is a frog or, 
accidentally, man (producing sparganosis). Man is in- 
fected by drinking water containing Cyclops with procer- 
coid larvae. 
Trematodes 
According to Bonne (1941) four Echinostomidae known 
to parasitize man occur in the Netherlands Indies: 
1. Echinostoma ilocanum is quite common es- 
pecially in asylums in Java. Sandground (1939) has 
studied this species in Java and reports that the first 128 
intermediate host is a planorbid snail, Anisus convexi- 
usculus. The cerceriae are reported to leave this snail 
and encyst as metacercariae on other species of snails, 
chiefly Lymnea rubiginosa brevis, Vivipara javanica, and 
Pila conica. He was able to obtain laboratory infections 
in white rats with the snails of these species bearing the 
metacercariae. The rice-field rat, Rattus rattus argentiventer, 
is a common host of Echinostoma ilocanum. Sandground 
treated 11 cases with tetrachlorethylene; 13 to 270 worms 
per person were passed. 
2. Echinostoma lindoensis, formerly thought to be 
E. ilocanum, is abundant in the region around Lindoe Lake 
in the Celebes. Bonne and Sandground (1939) report one 
village in this region with 96 percent of the inhabitants 
infected with Echinostoma lindoensis; two other villages 
had infections of 44 and 24 percent respectively. It is 
stated that the intermediate host is a viviparous planorbid 
snail whose identity is not known (probably Gyraulus and 
Viviparus). Attempts to find reservoir hosts among wild 
birds and mammals have been unsuccessful. Laboratory 
rats and mice have been experimentally infected. This 
fluke has been reported only from the Lindoe Lake region 
of Celebes. 
3. There has been a single record of infection by 
Echinostoma malayanum. 
4. There is one record of Echinostoma recurvatum. 
It is rather common in the field rats. 
There are no autochthonous records of Clonorchis 
sinensis although there are some cases among imported 
Chinese coolies. According to Brug (1936) several genera 
of snails known to be intermediate hosts elsewhere occur 
in the Netherlands Indies. He feels that the fact that the 
natives seldom or never eat raw fish accounts for the 
absence of autochthonous cases. 
There also are no records of autochthonous cases of 129 
Paragonimus westermani In the Netherlands Indies 
except possibly in New Guinea (Brug, 1936), There is no 
reliable information on the presence or absence of Inter- 
mediate hosts. Since the natives do not eat raw crayfish 
it Is improbable that Paragonimus will become estab- 
lished. 
Fasciolopsis buski occurs in hogs but no human cases 
have been reported. 
Schistosomiasis 
Prior to 1937 no autochthonous cases of schistosomiasis 
had been reported. In that year Muller and Tesch (1937) 
reported an autochthonous Infection of Schistosoma 
japonicum from Celebes. Subsequent investigations by 
Bonne et al. (1942) revealed the disease to be endemic in 
a considerable area around Lindoe Lake. S. japonicum 
adults occur not only in man but also in hogs and in deer. 
The worms in the deer attain a length of 3 mm. Natives 
infected in this area have enormously enlarged livers and 
spleens. Chronic peritonitis resulting In many adhesions 
is common. These authors were unable to reach any 
conclusions concerning the Intermediate hosts. (See 
Appendix H.) Chapter XII 
ANIMALS AND PLANTS OF MEDICAL 
IMPORTANCE 
Diptera 
The role of mosquitoes (Family Culicidae) in the trans- 
mission of malaria, dengue, and filariasis has been dis- 
cussed previously. Many mosquitoes, mostly culicines 
are of importance primarily as pests. (See List in 
Appendix D.) 
Several genera of biting midges or punkies (Family 
Heleidae) are known to occur in the Netherlands Indies. 
Culicoides, Lashiohelea, Leptoconops, and Stylconops attack 
man. Culicoides species are frequently particularly an- 
noying in mangrove swamps. Several species of black 
flies, Simulium spp., which attack man also occur. 
Several species of sand flies, Flebotomus, are present and 
may be potential vectors of kala-azar although Brug 
(1938) states that they are not sufflciently numerous to 
become vectors. The most important genera of Taba- 
nidae from a medical standpoint are Chrysops, Tabanus, 
and Chrysozone. Thus far their medical importance has 
been only that of biting species although the Chrysops spp. 
must be regarded as potential vectors of onchocerciasis. 
At least five species of houseflies (Mused) are known to 
occur in the Netherlands Indies. The domestic fly, Musca 
domestica, probably occurs only in the sea port cities where 
it has been introduced. It is unnecessary to discuss its 
role as a mechanical transmitter of disease. M. sorbens is 
probably the common housefly. Its habits are similar to 
domestica and it presents the same health hazards. M. 
vicina and nebulo also occur in the Netherlands Indies; 
130 131 
their habits are similar to those of sorbens and domestica. 
M. vetutissima is found throughout the archipelago and is 
the only species of Musca of medical importance known 
definitely to occur on New Guinea. 
Stomoxys calcitrans, the stable fly or biting housefly, 
occurs throughout the archipelago. It can also be a 
mechanical transmitter of bacteria and protozoa. 
Several species of the Family Caliphoridae of medical 
Importance are recorded from the Netherlands Indies. 
Chrysomyia megacephala breeds in carrion and feeds on 
human feces. It is attracted to meats and sweets and can 
be an important mechanical transmitter of disease. It is 
also important in intestinal and wound myiasis. Chrys- 
omyia bezziana attacks living tissue and is important in all 
types of myiasis. Three species of Calliphora, C.fulviceps, 
C. malayana, and C. paradoxa, have been reported from 
the western part of the archipelago; C. augur and tesselata 
are known from New Guinea. All five of these species 
breed in carrion and feed on feces and are potential 
mechanical transmitters of infection. They are rarely the 
cause of myiasis. The bottle flies Lucilia papuensis and 
porphyruni, have the habits of houseflies and may be of 
medical importance. 
In the family Sarcophagidae, Sarcophaga perigrina 
(= fuscicaudd) has habits similar to the houseflies. S', dux 
is a cause of tissue myiasis and S. hisiipes may contami- 
nate milk and food. S. ruficornis is very important in 
wound myiasis. 
Siphuncula funicula is a small nonbiting species. It is 
frequently referred to as an important cause of conjuncti- 
vitis. It may also be a transmitter of skin infections. 
Siphonaptera {Fleas) 
Information on fleas in the Netherlands Indies is some- 
what scanty. The relation of fleas to typhus and the 
plague has been discussed previously. Xenopsylla 132 
cheopis, the oriental rat flea, is common in the Nether- 
lands Indies. It tends to be more numerous at altitudes 
higher than 1,000 feet. It is the important plague vector 
and doubtlessly the important typhus vector. X. astia 
rarely bites man. Its distribution has a tendency to be 
the greatest in the low country. Information of its geo- 
graphical distribution and relation to disease in the Nether- 
lands Indies is meager. Pygiopsylla ahalae {=Sti- 
valius cognatus, mistaken identification) probably plays 
a minor role as a vector from rat to man but may be of 
importance as a rat-to-rat vector. It can be safely as- 
sumed that wherever there are rats (on practically all 
islands) rat fleas, cheopis at least, occur. 
Ctenocephalides felis, the cat flea, which occasionally 
bites man probably has a general distribution wherever 
cats are found. On the other hand, the dog flea, Cieno- 
cephalides cants, is thought not to be found in the Nether- 
lands Indies. There are records of Pulex irritans although 
no indication as to its distribution and abundance. It is 
probably uncommon. 
Anoplura (Lice) 
Information on lice is likewise not abundant. Accord- 
ing to Brug (1938) the body louse, Pediculus humanus 
corporis, is rare. This is said to account for the fact that 
there are no records of louse-borne typhus and relapsing 
fever. Brug (1938) explains the absence of body lice as 
due to the small amount of clothing worn by the natives. 
On the other hand head lice, Pediculus humanus capitis, 
is apparently common. The pubic louse, Phthirus 
pubis, is said to be uncommon among the natives because 
of the sparsity of pubic hair. 
Bedbugs 
No precise information has been found on the distribu- 
tion and prevalence of bedbugs. However in the Nether- 133 
lands Indies as in other tropical areas, the native bed- 
bug is Cimex hemipterus (—rotundus) although Cimex 
lectularis has been introduced with the white population 
and occurs principally in the ports. 
Mites 
Information on the trombiculid mites (harvest mites) is 
very fragmentary. The taxonomy is confusing because 
most species are known only as larvae. The complete 
life history is not known for any of the Netherlands Indies 
species. The papers of Walch (1922, 1923, 1927) as well 
as the excellent account of Oudemans (1903) are the 
principal sources of information. 
Adult trombiculids are believed to feed on decaying 
vegetable material in loose, moist surface soil, preferably 
humus where there is undisturbed wild vegetation. Eggs 
are deposited on the ground during the summer and 
autumn. The hexapod larvae soon emerge and attach 
themselves to various mammalian and avian hosts. It 
is believed that the larvae do not change hosts. A 
complete meal of blood is obtained from the first and only 
host after which the larva drops to the ground and meta- 
morphoses into the octopod adult. The species which 
have thus far been described are tabulated in table 27. 
These data are from Walch’s observation in Deli, Suma- 
tra, (1922, 1923), in the Lampong Districts, in Sumatra 
(1927), and in Celebes (1927). No trombiculids were 
described by Walch as parasitizing humans in Celebes 
although others have shown that T. wichmanni, primarily 
a parasite of the Crown Pigeon, will attack man. Only 
T. deliensis is believed with certainty to be a vector of 
mite fever although schiijfneri may possibly be a vector 
also. Several of the species are important in red-hug itch. 134 
Species 
Known hosts 
Color 
Islands where known 
to occur 
Remarks 
Referen 
' i 
Man, rats, some birds.. 
Walch (1922, 1921 
1927). 
T. pseudo-akamushi ... 
Man, rats, many other 
Bright red 
Sumatra, Celebes.... 
Very common in Suma- 
Walch (1922, 1923, 
mammals, birds. 
tra. 
1927). 
Red 
Very common on rats.. 
Walch (1922, 1923, 
1927). 
Red 
Only a single record 
Walch (1927). 
Sumatra. 
Sumatra, Celebes 
Walch (1922, 1927). 
muris). 
Walch (1927). 
Walch (1922, 1923, 
white. 
1927). 
Walch (1927). 
? 
Walch (1922, 1923), 
T. densipiliata 
Rats 
Red 
Table 27.—Trombiculid larvae known to occur in Netherlands Indies 135 
? 
One record only 
Walch (1927) 
Red 
“Gonone” 
Walch (1927). 
Man, Crown Pigeon 
Red 
Celebes, New Guinea 
“Gonone”. . - . 
Walch (1922. 1923). 
T.schufneri (=Neoschongasa 
ti schufneri). 
Red 
Very common at Deli 
Walch'(1922,l923). 
(See Appendix F for table of morphological details useful in identification.) 136 
The itch mite, Sarcoptes scabiei, is common. Its 
presence and the occurrence of scabies can be correlated 
directly with the scarcity of water and bathing facilities. 
No information could be found concerning the occur- 
rence of the follicle mite, Demodex folliculorum, although 
it appears safe to assume that it does occur. 
Ticks 
Krijgsman and Ponto (1932) conducted an extensive 
survey of the Netherlands Indies tick fauna. These 
authors recorded several species known to attack men. 
These are listed in table 28. It is very likely that many 
of these species have a wider distribution than that indi- 
cated in the table. At the present time no tick-borne 
diseases of man are known to occur. 
Table 28.—Ticks reported to attack man in the Netherlands Indies 
Species 
Hosts 
Known geographical distribution 
Avgas persicus 
Birds, some mammals in- 
cluding dogs and man. 
Java, Soemba. 
Boophilus annulatus 
australis 
Man and various other 
large mammals. 
Western New Guinea, Tanimbar 
Island, Halmahera, Kariman 
Djawa. 
Rhipicephalus sanguin- 
eus 
Many species of mammals 
including man. 
Soemba, Java, Madoera, Timor, 
Alor Island, Saparoea, Ambon, 
Sumatra. 
Rhipicephalus haema- 
physiloides 
Many species of mammals 
including man. 
Sumatra, Java, Madoera, Soem- 
bawa, Soemba, Timor, Aroe 
Island, Celebes. 
Amblyomma Ustudina- 
rium 
Cattle, buffalo, man, wild 
hog. 
Sumatra, Bali, Lombok, Borneo. 
In addition Krijgsman and Ponto (1932) list 9 species 
of the genus Haemaphysalis which are parasites on mam- 
mals although none have been known to bite man. At 137 
least seven species of Amhlyomma, other than testudina- 
rium which is known to attack man, occur on various 
mammalian and reptilian hosts. Hyalomma aegyptus 
has been reported only from cattle in Java, The two 
species of Aponomma occur only on reptiles. Dermacentor 
auratus has been recorded only from wild hogs and bears. 
D. atrosignatus which is known elsewhere to attack man 
has been found in British New Guinea. In general 
Ixodes is uncommon. I. eichhorni has been reported 
from British New Guinea as a parasite of man. There 
is also a single record of I. holocyclus from the Kei Islands 
near New Guinea. Nothing is known of its habits there. 
However in Australia it attacks man as well as many other 
mammals and birds and is known to be a vector of tick 
paralysis and Q fever. 
Minning (1934) has rearranged the ticks of Boophilus 
annulatus australis into three species: B. (Uroboophilis) 
rotundiscutatus, longiscutatus, and krijgsmani. For prac- 
tical purposes, however, the classification according to 
Krijgsman can still be used. Schultze (1937) recorded 
an undescribed Boophilus sp. from Soemba. Appendix 
E contains the keys of Krijgsman and Ponto (1932, 
translation) as well as a list of ticks known to occur in 
the Netherlands Indies. 
Other Arthropods 
Several species of blister beetles of the genera Epicauta 
and Mylabris are poisonous when eaten. These beetles 
are well known to the natives who refer to them variously 
as “wengwong,” “areng-areng,” “ireng-ireng,” “endol- 
endol,” “sopi,” “wereng,” and “sepihi,” 
According to Kopstein (1932) at least 10 species of 
scorpions are known to occur in Java; none are poisonous. 
Brug (1938) states that there are no truly poisonous 138 
scorpions in the entire archipelago. The same is true for 
spiders, millepedes, and centipedes. Bites of these 
animals usually cause nothing more than local inflamma- 
tion and swelling. 
Leeches 
Terrestrial bloodsucking leeches are found in the humid 
jungles and are not only pests but on occasion definite 
hazards. They are able to work their way through 
clothing in order to attach themselves and suck blood. 
Enormous numbers of them may become attached to 
the legs and feet. Because of the anticoagulent in the 
saliva of these leeches the wounds heal slowly and are 
easily Infected. According to Engelen (1935) the common 
leech in such attacks is Haemadepsa javonica although 
doubtlessly other species are involved. Abu Hanifah 
(1935) reports that not only is cutaneous hirudiniasis 
common but that cases of rectal, nasal, and vaginal 
hirudiniases are by no means uncommon. 
Other Invertebrates of Medical Importance 
According to Kopstein (1932) some species of the 
molluscan genus Conus occur in the Netherlands Indies 
and are poisonous. Clench and Yoshio Kondo (1943) 
describe the bite of Conus as painful and occasionally 
fatal. It is caused by teeth on the radula which detach 
on penetration or withdrawal. Poison is produced by a 
gland in the mouth. 
Kopstein (1932) states that the medusae (jelly fish) of 
Physalia utriculus and Dactylomeira quinquecirrha are 
dangerous to swimmers and fishermen. Contact with the 
tentacles of these species results in the discharge of their 
poisonous nematocysts. Chiropsalmus quadrigatus has 
not yet been reported from the Netherlands Indies al- 
though it is common in the Philippines. 139 
Poisonous Snakes 
Numerous species of poisonous snakes are known to 
occur in the Netherlands East Indies. However none of 
these species is abundant. Scientists who have traveled 
through these islands on expeditions are almost unanimous 
in reporting that poisonous snakes are difficult to find even 
when one is looking for them. Kopstein (1932) points 
out that in 1924, 171 hospitals reported only 132 snake 
bite cases and only 2 of these were fatal. He cites the 
statement of Mohnike who spent 25 years in travel and 
research which kept him in the jungles most of the time. 
During this period he observed only 3 fatal cases of snake 
bite. Nevertheless the danger does exist and it therefore 
seems advisable to mention the poisonous species most 
likely to be involved. 
The taxonomy of snakes is complex and difficult. There 
is no simple key to the identification of the species. Fre- 
quently there are no common names. Whenever possible 
in this report both the common English and native names 
are included. There is no rule of thumb (size, color, 
markings, etc.) for distinguishing harmless from poisonous 
species. For practical first aid purposes, unless there is 
definite evidence to the contrary, all snake bites should 
be considered as poisonous. The rule that all poisonous 
bites have two fang penetration marks does not always 
hold in these regions. 
In general the snakes of New Guinea and the adjacent 
islands are Australian species whereas those of the other 
islands (west of Wallace’s Line) are Asiatic species. 
Several species of pit vipers (Family Crotalidae) are 
found on the islands west of New Guinea (Java, Sumatra, 
Celebes, Borneo, etc.). All are poisonous. The bamboo 
viper (Trimeresurus gramineus) is arboreal with green 
coloration and a prehensile tail. It is mildly poisonous. 
Several species of this genus are found in the Netherlands 
562282—44 10 140 
Indies. Another pit viper, known among the natives as 
“ular biludak,” “ular tanah,” “ular gebuk,” “ular bando- 
tan bedor,” and “oraj lemah” {Agkistrodon rhodostoma), 
occurs in Sumatra and Java. This species is gray or 
reddish brown dorsally with large dark brown pairs of 
dorso-lateral spots; it is very poisonous. 
The most dangerous snakes are the cobras and kraits 
(Family Elapidae). The Indian or spectacled cobra 
{Naja naja) and its closely allied species also known as 
“ular sendoq,” “ular bedul,” “oraj sinduk,” “oraj bobi,” 
“ular biludah,” “hantipeh pura,” and “tedong naga” is 
the most deadly of the snakes of the archipelago. It is a 
nervous and irritable snake and strikes with a forward 
sweep of its body with an accompanying hiss. The king 
cobra (Naja hannah) is the largest of the poisonous snakes; 
it has an average length of 10 to 12 feet and a maximum 
length of about 18 feet. The native names are “ular 
tendong selar,” “ular anang,” and “oraj totok.” It is 
found in the deep jungles of Borneo, Java, Sumatra, and 
Celebes. It is an aggressive species and will attack man. 
It is yellowish or olive-green apparently with black rings 
on the body. Three species of kraits also occur in Borneo, 
Celebes, Java, Sumatra, the Lesser Soenda Islands, and 
other islands west of Wallace’s Hue. All are distinguished 
by transversely enlarged scales along the vertebral column. 
The poison is very virulent. Kraits are not aggressive 
although they have a habit of lying In the dust near paths 
where they may be stepped on. The common krait 
{Bungarus candidus) known by the natives as “ular weling” 
and “oraj weling,” is lustrous black above with narrow 
white bands across the back. It is pearly white ventrally. 
This species is commonly found near human habitations 
because of its fondness for rats as food. The banded 
krait (Bungarus fasciatus) prefers jungle environments 
and is more sluggish. It is yellow above with broad 141 
black rings. The yellow-headed krait (Bungarus flaviceps) 
is black with a red or yellow head. Pseudelaps mulleri and 
Micropechis ikaheka are members of the Australian fauna 
and are found in New Guinea. These species are po- 
tentially harmful. The death adder (Acanthophis an- 
tarcticus), a short clumsy snake, occurs in New Guinea and 
on the Molukkas. It varies in color always resembling 
the ground on which it lives. 
Several pythons (Family Boidae) are found in the 
Netherlands Indies. Although these snakes are some- 
times harmful as constrictors and biters they are never- 
theless nonpoisonous. 
Several species of sea snakes (Family Hydridae) live in 
the tropical waters of the Pacific and Indian Oceans. 
Usually they are found near the coast although sometimes 
they are observed far from land. They do not bite unless 
forcibly restrained. 
An interesting fact to be noted is that the flesh of all 
snakes is edible regardless of whether they are poisonous 
or harmless. 
The following is a list of Crotalidae and Elapidae known 
to occur in the Netherlands Indies: 
Crotalidae. Occur only in Greater and Lesser Soenda Islands 
(Asiatic Region). 
Trimeresurus gramineus 
Trimeresurus puniceus 
Trimeresurus monticola 
Trimeresurus purpureomaculatus 
Trimeresurus wagleri 
Agkistrodon rhodostoma 
Elapidae. 
(a) Greater and Lesser Soenda Islands (Asiatic Region). 
Bungarus fasciatus 
Bungarus candidus 
Bungarus flaviceps 
Bungarus javanicus 142 
Naja naja 
Naja hannah 
Malic or a hivirgata 
Maticora intestinalis 
Callophis gracilis 
(b) New Guinea and adjacent islands (Australian Region). 
Acanthophis antarctic us 
Micropechis ikaheka 
Pseudechis scutellatus 
Pseudechis papuanus 
Pseudechis australis 
Aspidomorphus (Pseudelaps) mulleri 
Pseudapistocalamus nymani 
Apistocalamus loriae 
Apistocalamus pratti 
Apistocalamus grandis 
Apistocalamus lonnbergi 
Ultrocalamus preussi 
Toxicocalamus Stanley anus 
Glyphodon tristis 
Demansia (=Diemania) psammophis 
Demansia (= Diemania) olivacea 
Poisonous Fish 
Fish may be poisonous in two ways: By having toxic 
substances in their flesh thereby causing poisoning when 
eaten, or by producing poisonous substances which can 
be introduced by means of barbs or spines. 
Various species of puff toads or swell fishes (Tetraodon- 
tidae), known to the natives as “ikan boental”, are 
poisonous when eaten. There have been many cases of 
fish poisoning on Nias Island (near Sumatra) due to 
Clupea {=Harangula) perferata or Clupea fimbricata, 
species closely related to the herring, Clupea venosa, a 
common salt water species in the waters of the Nether- 
lands Indies, is also poisonous when eaten. 
Synaeia verrucosa, known among the natives as “ikan 
neve” or “ikan laper” has special poison glands in con- 143 
nection with its dorsal fin rays. It lies concealed in the 
sands where it may easily be stepped on thereby adminis- 
tering a foot wound. Local pain, swelling, lymphangitis, 
gangrene, fainting, and vomiting usually result. The 
The spines may also be contaminated with tetanus bacillus. 
Inland in lakes and streams the best known poisonous 
fishes are the “catfish”, Clarius and Plotosus, which may 
cause with their barbules, wounds which develop gangrene 
and necrosis. These species are known to the native as 
“ikan leleh” and “ikan semailang,” They are common 
in rice fields. 
Poisonous Plants 
For information on poisonous plants in the Netherlands 
Indies reference should be made to the manual prepared 
by Dr. E. D. Merrill, “Emergency Food Plants and Pois- 
onous Plants of the Islands of the South Pacific”, War 
Department Technical Manual TM 10-420. Special 
attention is called to the physic nut (Jatropha curcas), 
castor oil plant (Ricinus communis), tree nettles (La- 
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1931. Die Okologie der javanschen Ratten. (Ecology of the rats 
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1940. Onderzoekingen over het Sumatraansche Rickettsiosen, XI. 
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1939. Het Cholera—El Tor—problem. G. T. N. I., 79 (11): 
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1939. The Cholera—El Tor Problem. M. D. V. N. I., 27 (1): 
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1939. Creeping eruption in Netherlands Indies caused by the inva- 
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1941. Apenpokken en roode bond. (Monkey pox and red dog.) 
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1936. Kort verslag omtrent de Leprabestrij ding op Bali en Lombok. 
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1938. Jaarverslag Dienst der Volksgezondheid in Nedcrlandsch- 
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1938. Het onderscheid tusschen de larven van anopheles ludlowi 
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REPORTS 159 
Indisch Verslag 1936. II. Statistisch Jaarverzicht van Nederlandsch- 
Indie over het Jaar 1935. 66-80. 
Indisch Verslag 1937. II. Statistisch Jaarverzicht van Nederlandsch- 
Indie over het Jaar 1936. 68-83. 
Indisch Verslag 1938. II. Statistisch Jaarverzicht van Nederlandsch- 
Indie over het Jaar 1937. 70-85. 
Indisch Verslag 1939. II. Statistisch Jaarverzicht van Nederlandsch- 
Indie over het Jaar 1938. 70-87. 
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T, v. E., Tijdschrift voor Entomologie. 
ABREVIATIONS USED Appendix A 
KEYS TO THE IDENTIFICATION OF THE 
ANOPHELINE MOSQUITOES OF THE 
NETHERLANDS INDIES 
These keys are translations, with some revision, of those 
of Swellengrebel and Rodenwaldt (1932), “Die Anophelen 
von Niederlandisch-Ostindien.” They were chosen be- 
cause they are the only keys available which have been 
prepared from Netherlands Indies material by entomolo- 
gists with extensive experience in this area. In translation 
every effort has been made to use precise English equiva- 
lents. Terminology and nomenclature have been made to 
conform with Russell, Rozeboom, and Stone (1943). 
Whenever necessary diagrams, photographs, specimens, 
descriptions and other keys were consulted. However 
some disadvantages due to translation probably still exist. 
Of possibly further disadvantage is the fact that the Dutch 
use somewhat different characters in their keys than are 
used by entomologists in this country. Practice should 
eliminate this difficulty. 
It is recommended that Russell, Rozeboom, and Stone 
(1943), “Keys to the Anopheline Mosquitoes of the World” 
be used as a complement to the keys of Swellengrebel and 
Rodenwaldt. In using the former, the keys for the 
Australian region should be used for material from New 
Guinea, the Molukkas, and adjacent islands whereas the 
Malayan key should be used for the western part of the 
archipelago, i. e., the Greater and Lesser Soenda Islands. 
The disadvantages of the keys of Russell, Rozeboom, and 
Stone are that they have been prepared primarily from 
Australian, Malayan, and Indian sources, keys and de- 
scriptions and are not as readily adaptable to the Nether- 
lands Indies, 
161 162 
Key to the Identification of Male Anophelines of 
the Netherlands Indies 
1. Wings not spotted 2 
Wings spotted 7 
2. Light yellow wings A. immaculatus 
(This form is regarded by Christophers (1933) as synonymous 
with A. vagus. Swellengrebel and Rodenwaldt (1932) regard it 
as a variety of A. sundaicus.) 
Brownish wings ‘ 3 
3. 2nd marginal cell very short (about }i of petiole) or lacking 4 
2nd marginal cell of normal length 5 
4. 2nd marginal cell very short Bironella gracilis 
2nd marginal cell lacking; the 2nd branch of the 1st vein present 
only at apical end papuae group. See Key A. 
5. Palpus very short, about % the length of the proboscis. Antennae 
as in females (not plumose) B. travestitus 
Palpus slightly shorter or the same length as the proboscis 6 
6. Large mosquito (about 5 mm.) with bright forked scales on the 
head and tufts of scales on the prothoracic lobes 
, Anopheles brevipalpis 
Small mosquito (about 3.5 mm.) with narrow forked scales on the 
head. Prothoracic scales lacking A. aitkenii. See Key B. 
7. Six ventral tufts of black scales projecting from the abdomen. 
Proboscis usually pale in its distal portion. (Some of the tufts 
of scales may be lacking.) One distinct tuft of scales Is actually 
sufficient A. kochi 
Ventral abdominal tuft of scales lacking or if such are present, the 
proboscis, with the exception of the labella, is dark 8 
8. Apical portion of the femur of the hind leg with a broad tuft of very 
long white scales which is fused with a somewhat smaller black 
subapical tuft A. annandelei 
No tuft of scales on the posterior femur 9 
9. The distal end of the tibia which is often somewhat swollen and the 
adjacent basal part of tarsal segment of the hind leg are pale and 
appear as a wide pale area on the otherwise dark colored leg 
A. leucosphyrus and A. I. hackeri. See Key C, 
The tibio-tarsal joint of the posterior leg either not apparent or 
marked only by a small pale ring. 10 
10. Tarsal segment 5 of the hind leg entirely white 11 
Tarsal segment 5 of hind leg in every case partly dark 17 
11. Tarsal segments 3-5 of hind leg entirely white 12 
Tarsal segment 3 of hind leg partly dark 13 163 
Key to the Identification of Male Anophelines of 
the Netherlands Indies—Continued 
12. Femora and tibiae of all legs and hind tarsal segment 1 spotted 
A. ramsayi 
Legs not spotted, at the most with scattered pale scales 
fuliginosus group. See Key I. 
13. Tarsal segments 4 and 5 of hind leg entirely white 14 
Only tarsal segment S of hind leg entirely white 15 
14. Wing predominately pale. The costa shows from the base to the 
apex of the 1st branch of vein 2 at least 4 distinct pale areas. 
(Include the apical pale area at the 2nd vein.).. A. schufneri 
Wings, especially the costa, dark. The latter shows no more than 
3 pale areas A. hyrcanus pseudopictus 
(The apical tarsal segment at its joint is somewhat brownish; the 
4th tarsal segment may have a brownish band.) 
15. Legs spotted A. maculatus 
Legs not spotted 16 
16. Palpus black with no more than indistinct small brown rings. 
Costa to apex of the 1st branch of vein 2 with only small pale 
spots A. albotaeniatus and montanus 
Palpus with distinct wide yellowish white areas; costa with at least 
4 pale areas A. karwari 
17. The costa from its base to the apex of the 1st branch of vein 2 with 
at least 3 pale areas 18 
Costa with more than 4 pale areas 21 
18. The light areas at the tip of the wing only at the apex of vein 3 or 
lacking T 19 
In the same place a pale area which extends at least across the 
apices of the 2nd branch of vein 2 and vein 3 1 
hyrcanus group. See Key D. 
19. Two wide pale areas near the base and at the middle of the costa 
A. gigas sumatrana 
Basal and median pale areas either lacking or small 20 
20. A pair of non-projecting groups of white scales on the II-VII 
abdominal segments ventral median or lateral. Whenever these 
are lacking there should be found on the posterior thoracic 
pleural sclerites at least 3-4 white hairs, usually there occur also 
from 3-20 white scales barbirostris group. See Key H. 
White scales on the ventral side of the abdomen and white scales as 
well as hair on the posterior thoracic pleural sclerites completely 
lacking A. umbrosus 164 
Key to the Identification of Male Anophelines of 
the Netherlands Indies—Continued 
21. Veins 3 and 6 with no more than 3 spots 22 
Vein 3 and usually 6 with at least 4 small spots. Usually the num- 
ber of spots on veins 2-6 larger and therefore each spot is smaller 
than in other mosquitoes giving the wings a speckled appearance 
which is more apparent in female. The legs are distinctly spotted. 
There is a possibility of confusion in the differentiation between 
A. sundaicus and A. parangensis on one hand with A. tessellalus 
and A. longirostris on the other. For the other members of this 
group (A. leucosphyrus with white tibio-tarsal bands and A. punc- 
tulatus with white scales on the mesonotum) the danger of con- 
fusion does not exist punctulatus group. See Keys C 
and E. 
22. Legs with small bands often imperceptible or almost lacking and 
also on the fore tarsus Myzomyia group. See Key F. 
Fore legs with obvious broad tarsal bands r 23 
23. Wing with 9-10 fringe spots not only at or near the apices of the 
veins but also between the branches of vein 5 and between veins 
5 and 6 A. parangensis 
Wing with 7-8 fringe spots at or near the apices of the veins 
Pseudomyzomyia group. See Key G 
Key to the Identification of Female Anophelines of 
the Netherlands Indies 
1. Wings not spotted 2 
Wings spotted 7 
2. Pale yellow wings ' A. immaculatus 
(This form is regarded by Christophers (1933) as synonymous 
with A. vagus. Swellengrebel and Rodenwaldt (1932) regard it 
as a variety of A. sundaicus.) 
Brownish wings . 3 
3. 2nd marginal cell very short (about }i the length of petiole) or 
lacking 4 
2nd marginal cell of normal length S 
4. 2nd marginal cell very short Bironella gracilis 
2nd marginal cell not developed; posterior branch of second vein 
present only at apical end papuae group. See Key A. 
5. Palpus very short, about % the length of the proboscis. 
B. travestilus 
Palpus at least % the length of the proboscis 6 165 
Key to the Identification of Female Anophelines 
of the Netherlands Indies—Continued 
6. Palpus about % the length of the proboscis. Large mosquitoes 
(about 5 mm.) with broad forked scales on the head. Tufts of 
scales on the prothoracic lobe Anopheles brevipalpis 
Palpus almost as long as proboscis. Small mosquitoes (about 3.5 
mm.) with narrow forked scales on the head. Prot’horacic scales 
lacking A. aitkenii. See Key B. 
7. Abdomen when viewed dorsally with 6 tufts of lateral scales pro- 
jecting from each side A. errabundus 
These tufts of scales not present 8 
8. From a lateral view 6 tufts of black scales extend ventrally from the 
abdomen. When the basal half of the palpus is mostly yellow or 
brown and only a small black ring is apparent, and also the distal 
end of the proboscis is pale, there may be fewer than 6 tufts of 
scales (possibly only 1) A. kochi 
Black tufts of scales are lacking on the abdomen or only a single 
tuft is present near the posterior end. Then, however, the palpus 
Is entirely black or with a small pale ring and proboscis is dark 
with the exceptilon of the labella (specifically in A. barbirostris and 
A. hyrcanus). 9 
9. The apical portion of the femur of the hind leg has a broad tuft of 
very long white scales which fuse with a subapical tuft of black 
scales which are somewhat less broad A. annandelei 
No tufts of scales on the posterior femur 10 
10. The distal end of the tibia which is frequently somewhat swollen 
and the adjacent basal part of hind tarsal segment 1 are pale 
and stand out as a broad light spot in contrast to the rest of 
the dark colored leg. The wings are of the punctulatus type. 
(See couplet 22).A. I. leucosphyrus and A. I. hackeri. See Key C. 
The tibio-tarsal joint of the hind leg is entirely dark or with only a 
small pale ring 11 
11. Hind tarsal segment 5 is entirely white. (N. B. Particular 
attention should be given as to whether or not the base of hind 
tarsal segment 5 is black for that occurs only in A. kochi 
which is characterized by the ventral tuft of scales) 12 
The hind tarsal segment 5 Is partly dark in every case 18 
12. Tarsal segments 3-5 of hind leg entirely white 13 
Tarsal segments 5 or 4 and 5 of the hind leg entirely white 14 
13. Femora and tibiae on all legs and hind tarsal segment 1 with pale 
spots on dark background. The pale area on the margin of the 166 
Key to the Identification of Female Anophelines 
of the Netherlands Indies—Continued 
wing at the apex of the second branch of vein 2 reaching to 
vein 3 A. ramsayi 
Legs not spotted. At the most light scales are scattered among 
the dark. No light area at apex of posterior branch of vein 
2 fuliginosus group. See Key I. 
14. Tarsal segments 4 and 5 of hind legs entirely white., 15 
Only tarsal segment 5 of hind leg entirely white 16 
15. Wings predominately light colored. At least 4 pale spots on costa 
before apex of posterior branch of vein 2 A. schiiffneri 
Wings, especially costa, dark; at most with 3 distinct pale areas 
A. hyrcanus pseudopictus (probably A. montanus) 
(N. B. The tarsal segment 5 may have at its joint some brown 
pigment and segment 4 may have a brownish band.) 
16. Legs spotted (femora, tibiae and tarsal segments 1). Apical 
quarter of the palpus light, with a black band in the middle of 
the light portion A. maculatus 
Legs not spotted, palpus not as described 17 
17. Palpus black without apparent pale rings; costa up to the end of 
vein 2 with only 2 small pale spots.. A. alhotaeniatus & montanus 
Apical % of the palpus pale with two black rings within the 
pale area. Costa with at least 4 pale areas A. karwari 
18. Palpus entirely black 19 
Palpus with pale rings on a dark background (the light tip of the 
palpus is regarded as a ring) 20 
19. Palpus because of thickly set scales appear very thick and shaggy. 
The ventral tufts of scales apparent on abdominal segment VII 
from lateral view. Scales are apparent on the posterior thoracic 
pleural sclerites barbirostris group. See KeyH. 
Ventral abdominal tuft of scales and scales on the posterior sclerites 
of the thoracic pleura lacking: palpus thinner and less shaggy. _ 
A. umbrosus 
20. Palpi with 3 pale rings and with black tips. The costa with 3 pale 
areas of which the basal is the broadest extending from 1st to 
4th vein forming a wide basal pale area.. A. gigas sumatrana 
Tip of palpus light 21 
21. The costa to the apex of the 1st branch of vein 2 with at the most 3 
pale areas. Palpus with 3 or 4 pale rings. (The pale tips are 
counted as rings.) However, only the apical and subapical are 
readily noticeable hyrcanus group. See Key D. 167 
Key to the Identification of Female Anophelines 
of the Netherlands Indies—Continued 
Costa to the apex of the 1st branch of vein 2 with at least 4 dis- 
tinct pale spots 22 
22. Veins 3 and 6 with not more than 3 spots. Palpus with 3 pale 
rings 23 
Veins 3 and 6 with at least 4, usually 5 or 6 small spots. Palpus 
with more than 3 pale rings. Usually the number of spots 
on veins 2-6 is greater and therefore the individual spots are 
smaller than in other anophelines giving the wing a speckled 
appearance. The palpus with narrow black bands at bases of 
segments 4 and 5. Legs speckled punctulatus group. 
See Keys C and E. 
23. The pale tip of the palpus is divided into two approximately equal 
parts by a dark band. The dark dividing band is either some- 
what wider or usually narrower to much narrower than one of 
the 2 light parts; it may be reduced to a few dark scales. The 
proboscis frequently shows a more or less apparent light apical 
portion (labella, however, is always light). Legs entirely dark or 
with very small light bands at the joints 
Myzomyia group. See Key F. 
Light tip of palpus divided with a black band so that the light part 
beyond the black band is 2-6 times as wide as the black band 
while the light part before the black band is significantly smaller 
than the apical light part 24 
24. Wing with 9-10 fringe spots not only at or near the apices of veins 
but also between branches of vein 5 and between veins 5 and 6 
A. parangensis 
Wing with 7 or 8 fringe spots at or near the apices of the veins 
Pseudomyzomyia group. See Key G. 
Key to the Anopheline Larvae of the Netherlands 
Indies 
1. On all of the abdominal segments there are large anterior tergal 
plates (i. e., the tergal plate encloses the disc-shaped sclerotized 
plates which are found on the midline in the middle of each 
segment and usually entirely separated from the anterior tergal 
plates) . 2 
No anterior tergal plate of this size on the abdominal segments, at 
the most one on segment VIII (papuae group and B. gracilis) or the 168 
Key to the Anopheline Larvae of the Netherlands 
Indies—Continued 
tergal plates appear on all segments only somewhat (slightly) 
larger than normal (Birondla travestitus) 4 
2. Small branched hair on the inner side of the antenna. The inner 
clypeal hairs are close together. Prothoracic hair no. 1 is pal- 
mate A. aitkenii palmatus 
No branched hair on the inner side of the antenna. The inner 
clypeal hairs are separated from each other. Prothoracic hair 
no. 1 is branched and with a thick stem 3 
3. Inner clypeal hair with side hairs, posterior clypeal hairs branched. 
A. aconitus 
Inner and posterior clypeal hairs bare and unbranched 
A. minimus and varuna 
4. Small or large branched hair on inner side of the antenna 5 
This hair is lacking 15 
5. The hair on the inner side of the antenna is small, bearing a few 
branches i 6 
This hair is large, bearing many side branches and arises from the 
antenna half way or more from the base 7 
6. One pair of thoracic palmate hairs A. aitkenii. See Key B. 
Two pairs of thoracic palmate hairs papuae group. See Key A. 
No palmate hairs on the thorax 6a 
6a. No palmate hairs on the abdomen A. brevipalpis 
Well developed palmate hairs on abdominal segments III-VII 
A. gigas sumatrana 
7. Two pairs of palmate hairs on the thorax 8 
One pair or no palmate hairs on the thorax 9 
8. Outer clypeal hairs with 4-6 branches. Prothoracic hairs nos. 1 
and 2 slightly branched B. gracilis 
Outer clypeal hairs branched at the most near the tip, prothoracic 
hairs 1 and 2 considerably branched B. travestitus 
9. Bases of inner clypeal hairs apparently far apart. _ A. albotaeniatus 
Inner clypeal hairs very close together 10 
10. No palmate hairs on thorax and abdomen 10a 
Well-developed palmate hairs at least on abdominal segments IV 
and V 11 
10a Outer clypeal hairs with many, branches 50-60 
A. umbrosus similissima 
Outer clypeal hairs with few, 5-16 branches 10b 
10b. Outer clypeal hairs with 11-16 branches A. separatus 
Outer clypeal hairs with 5-8 branches.. A. umbrosus and A. hunteri 169 
Key to the Anopheline Larvae of the Netherlands 
Indies—Continued 
11. Well developed palmate hairs only on abdominal segments IV and 
V. They are lacking on abdominal segments VI and VII and on 
thorax A. novumbrosus 
Well developed palmate hairs on abdominal segments III-VII__ 12 
12. Prothoracic hair no. 1 unbranched or at the most branched once or 
twice near the tip 12a 
Prothoracic hair no. 1 branched,. 13 
12a. Outer clypeal hairs with 5-6 branches 
A. peditaeniatus and A. alhotaeniatus 
Outer clypeal hairs with 50-60 branches. . A. hyrcanus. See Key D 
13. Inner clypeal hair without side hairs 14 
Inner clypeal hair with side hairs, often thick and long 
A. bancroftii and pseudobarbirostris 
14. Outer clypeal hairs strongly branched A. ba.'birostris 
Outer clypeal hairs weakly branched A. barbumbrosus 
15. Short but stout spines on the inner side of the antenna. Protho- 
racic hair no. 1 bulbous in the stem with radiating palmate hairs 
A. longirostris 
No such stout spines on the inner side of the antenna. Prothoracic 
hair no. 1, if well developed never palmate 16 
16. Posterior clypeal hairs are unusually long and extensively branched 
A. longirostris annulata 
Posterior clypeal hairs are not as long and therefore not as strongly 
branched 17 
17. The frontal hairs are unbranched; at the most the outer frontal hairs 
are forked. The inner frontal hairs are very short 
r-A. annandalei 
All frontal hairs of about equal length, plumose ... 18 
18. Outer clypeal hairs definitely plumose or branched . . . (Not to be 
confused with A. hyrcanus or A. barbirostris which have an an- 
tennal hair and whose inner clypeal hairs are close together).. 19 
Outer clypeal hairs not as extensively branched 21 
19. Inner clypeal hair with strong lateral branches _•A. schuflneri 
Inner clypeal hair without lateral branches 20 
20. Posterior clypeal hair almost as long as the inner clypeal hair 
A. incognitas 
Posterior clypeal hair }i as long as Inner 20a 
20a Posterior clypeal hair with three branches. Inner occipital hair 
unbranched. Bases of the prothoracic hairs fused. The filament 170 
Key to the Anopheline Larvae of the Netherlands 
Indies—Continued 
of the well-developed palmate leaflet almost as long as the body 
of the leaflet A. fuliginosus. See Key I 
Posterior clypeal hair with 5-8 branches; inner occipital hairs with 
2-4 branches; bases of prothoracic hairs not fused; the filaments 
of the well-developed palmate leaflets as long as the body of 
the leaflet A. philippinensis 
21. Prothoracic hairs nos. 1 and 2 with well-developed bases 22 
Base of prothoracic hair no. 1 small 25 
22. Bases of the prothoracic hairs fused 23 
Bases of the prothoracic hairs not fused 24 
23. Inner and outer clypeal hairs with side haifs, the latter are at least 
half the length of the former A. punctulatus moluccensis 
Inner clypeal at the most with fine side branches, outer clypeal hair 
short and entirely bare.. A. leucosphyrus and hackeri. See Key C 
24. The palmate leaflets pointed A. maculatus 
The points appear as though cut off; the end of the leaflet is con- 
sequently blunt A. karwari 
25. Palmate leaflets with pointed ends but not drawn into filaments. 26 
Palmate leaflets with obvious filaments 28 
26. Middle and inner frontal hairs strongly branched 
A. punctulatus punctulatus 
Middle and inner frontal hairs weakly branched 27 
27. Slightly pigmented yellow larva, occipital hairs long, unbranched or 
unforked. Prothoracic hair no. 1 light, about half the length of 
no. 2, with about nine branches. Antennae not pigmented 
A. kochi 
Dark larvae, occipital hair short, usually with three 6r four branches. 
Prothoracic hair no. 1 dark, about % the length of no. 2, with 
2-6 branches. Antenna mostly dark A. tessellatus 
28. Outer clypeal hair with four long branches A. amictus 
Outer clypeal hair unbranched; at the most, forked 29 
29. Posterior clypeal hairs short, nearer each other than the distance 
between the inner clypeal hairs; situated near the inner clypeal 
hairs (sometimes almost between them) A. vagus 
Posterior clypeal hairs long, situated more posteriorly; distance be- 
tween them about equal or greater than distance between inner 
clypeal hairs 30 
Prothoracic hair no. 1, with obviously pigmented base and numer- 
30. ous (15) lateral branches. One of the long mesopleural hairs is 171 
Key to the Anopheline Larvae of the Netherlands 
Indies—Continued 
branched A. parangensis 
Prothoracic hair no. 1 with unpigmented small base and few 
(about 11) branches. Both long mesopleural hairs unbranched 
A. sundaicus and subpictus 
KEY A 
1. Basal arm of the male hypopygium long 2 
Basal arm very short and compact with 4-5 toothlike setae on the 
end B. soesiloi 
2. Lower half of the basal arm broad, apical half attenuated ending in 
a head not covered with hair B. derooki 
Basal arm extended, cone shaped, covered with hair 3 
3. Basal arm with four long lancet-like processes at the apex_ B.papuae 
Basal arm without these processes B. papuae brugi 
papuae group 
KEY B 
A. aitkenii etc. 
1. On the abdominal segments of the larvae there are tergal 
plates as in aconitus and minimus which cover about % of the 
segment A. aitkenii palmatus 
No such dorsal abdominal plates on the larvae 2 
2. Palmate leaflets notched so that the filament is separated sharply 
from the body of the leaf. Inner clypeal hairs branched or with 
side hairs or both 3 
Palmate leaflets only superficially notched so that there is no sharp 
division between filament and body. Inner clypeal hairs close 
together, unbranched and without side hairs A. insulaeflorum 
3. Inner clypeal hairs unbranched and with side hairs 
A. aitkenii Type I 
Inner clypeal hairs forked and with side hairs A. aitkenii Type II 
Inner clypeal hairs bifurcated or trifurcated, without side hairs 
A. aitkenii Type III 
Inner and outer clypeal hairs forked five or six times 
A. aitkenii Type IV (Jbengalensis) 
562282—44 12 172 
Key to the Anopheline Larvae of the Netherlands 
Indies—Continued 
key c 
A, leucosphyrus etc. 
1. Tibio-tarsal joint of the posterior leg of the female and male 
marked with white. Female palpus with small light rings 2 
No “white heel” in the male and female. Female palpus with 2 
or 3 small black rings on Its distal half 3 
2. Rings on the palpus of the female very distinct, apical segment light 
for % of Its length. In the female the proboscis is only slightly 
longer than the palpus A. leucosphyrus leucosphyrus 
Palpal rings not distinct in the female; apical segment light for less 
than half of its length. The proboscis of the female is much longer 
than the palpus A. leucosphyrus hackeri 
3. Abdominal segments II-VIII apparently covered thickly with 
scales dorsally and ventrally A. amictus 
Abdominal scales at the most only on segments VI-VIII 
A. punctulatus and other species of punctulatus group 
KEY D 
hyrcanus group 
1. Light apical fringe spot on the wing extending from a point slightly 
basal the apex of the 1st branch of vein 2 to apex of vein 3. Two 
small light rings nearly at the tip of the palpus of the female and 
very close to each other. Ventral tufts of scales on the VII ab- 
dominal segment of the female. Larvae with palmate hairs. .3 
The above mentioned fringe spot extends only from the apex of the 
second branch of vein 2 to apex of vein 3. The above mentioned 
apical and subapical palpal rings are fused together into one. 
No ventral tufts of scales on VII abdominal segment of female. 
Larva without palmate hairs 2 
2. Wings with broad pale costal are as at the apex of the subcosta. 
Phallosome with leaflets. Outer clypeal hairs of the larva with 
11-16 branches; outer occipital hairs with 5-6 branches 
A. separatus 
Wings with small pale costal areas at the apex of the subcosta. 
Phallosome without leaflets. Outer clypeal hairs of the larva 
with 1-2 branches A. hunteri 173 
Key to the Anopheline Larvae of the Netherlands 
Indies—Continued 
KEY D—Continued 
hyrcanus group—Continued 
3. Outer clypeal hairs of the larva with few (about 6) branches 
A. peditaeniatus 
Outer clypeal hairs of the larva with 50-60 side branches 4 
4. Hind tarsal segments 4 and 5 entirely or almost entirely white. 
A. hyrcanus pseudopictus 
(See note in female keys concerning this subspecies.) 
None of the hind tarsal segments white or whitish 5 
5. Wide white apical bands on the hind tarsal segments 2, 3, 4, and 
basal white bands on hind tarsal segments 4 and 5. Pale costal 
area at apex of subcosta small and not reaching vein 1. Long spot 
at base of stem of vein 5 A. hyrcanus nlgerrimus 
Hind tarsal segments 2-5 with small white bands, only apical. 
Above mentioned pale costal area broader and reaching to vein 1. 
Spot at the base of vein 5 short A. hyrcanus sinensis 
KEY E 
punctulatus group 
1. Thoracic scales only on the anterior margin and lateral. Prothoracic 
lobe at the most with a few scattered scales. Abdominal scales 
only on the VIII segment. The second palpal segment of the 
female pale apically without black or yellow apical ring 2 
Thoracic scales on the entire mesonotum and scutellum. Prothoracic 
lobes with tufts of scales. Abdominal scales on segment VI- 
VIII. The second palpal segment of the female apically pale but 
in this apical pale part there is a subapical or apical black or 
yellow band 5 
2. Proboscis of the female very long; about one-half again as long as 
the palpus. In the male the posterior legs including tarsal seg- 
ments spotted 3 
Proboscis of the female of normal length. In the female the poster- 
ior legs only including tarsal segments spotted 4 
3. Tarsal segments 1-4 of middle leg are brownish yellow. Hence the 
apical yellow bands of these segments are not apparent. Poste- 
rior clypeal hairs of the larvae short and nonbranched 
A. longirostris 174 
Key to the Anopheline Larvae of the Netherlands 
Indies—Continued 
KEY E—Continued 
punctulatus group—Continued 
Above mentioned tarsal segments black, the apical yellow bands 
showing conspicuously. Posterior clypeal hair of the larvae long, 
thick, and with 7-9 branches A. I. annulata 
4. Palmate leaflets of the larvae serrate A. Ussellatus 
Palmate leaflets of the larvae small with smooth edges 
A. t. orientalis 
5. Proboscis of female often (with exception of the labella) entirely 
dark. Base of the no. 1 and 2 prothoracic hairs of the larva well 
developed and fused A. p. moluccensis 
In the female the distal two-fifths of the proboscis is often pale col- 
ored. The prothoracic hair no. 1 of the larva has slightly devel- 
oped base which is not fused with no. 2 A. p. punctulatus 
KEY F 
1. All clypeal hairs of the larva unbranched and without side hairs. 
Proboscis either entirely dark with exception of the labella or only 
the apical third is pale on the ventral side. Vein 6 with two 
elongated spots. Vein 3 with a basal spot. Margin of wing 
without pale area at the apex of vein 6 2 
Inner and outer clypeal hairs of the larva with side hairs, posterior 
clypeal hairs branched 3-S times. Apical half of the proboscis is 
pale. Vein 6 with three short spots. Vein 3 without a basal spot. 
Fringe of the wing with a pale area at apex of vein 6_ A. aconitus 
2. Female palpus with two (apical and subapical) pale rings separated 
by a single smaller dark ring. Basal third of the costa black, 
broken by pale areas. Three small spots on the stem and second 
branch of vein S (basal, tip, and bifurcation; the latter may be 
lacking). On the 1st branch of this vein there are 3 small spots. 
A. minimus minimus 
Above mentioned white rings of the female palpus not broader than 
the intervening ring. Basal third of the costa black without 
intervening light areas. Spots on vein 5 especially the one at the 
apex of the 2nd branch are longer A. minimus varuna 
Myzomyia group 175 
Key to the Anopheline Larvae of the Netherlands 
Indies—Continued 
KEY G 
Pseudomyzomyia group 
1. Wings unspotted, pale yellow A. immaculatus 
(See note, couplet 1, female key.) 
Wings spotted 2 
2. Legs spotted ; 3 
Legs unspotted 4 
3. Spot on the 1st branch of vein 5 covers at least half of the branch. 
Beneath the second large costal spot (counting from the base of 
the wing) lie two spots on vein 1, Tip of the palpus of the female 
consists of a pale yellow apical and a black subapical part, both 
of about the same width A. sundaicus 
Biological Form I. Fresh Water. Inland In Sumatra. 
Biological Form II. Brackish Water. Throughout the range 
of the species. 
Spot on the 1st branch of vein S covers about a third of this branch. 
Beneath the second large costal spot (counting from the base of 
the wing) there are 3 spots on vein 1.. The apical pale part of the 
female palpus is many times wider than the subapical black spot. 
(Breeds widely in fresh water) A. ludlozvi 
4. In the male the white ring at the joint between fore tarsal segments 
3 and 4 is very small. In the female there is a very small pale 
spot or ring on the proboscis basad the labella. The tip of the 
palpus consists of a wide pale apex and a small subapical black 
part the width of the pale part). Larvae with short outer 
clypeal hairs (% the length of the inner clypeal hairs). The 
posterior clypeal hairs are short, close together and placed quite 
far anteriorly, almost between the inner clypeal hairs__ A. vagus 
In the males there is a broad pale band on the joint between 
tarsal segments 3 and 4 of the anterior leg. In the female the 
proboscis with the exception of the labella is entirely dark. The 
outer clypeal hairs of the larvae are about the length of 
the inner clypeal hairs. The posterior clypeal hairs are far apart 
and situated well to the posterior S 
5. Tip of the palpus of the female with white and black parts of the 
same width A. subpictus 
The width of the white part is at least twice that of the dark sub- 
apical part A. subpictus malayensis 176 
Key to the Anopheline Larvae of the Netherlands 
Indies—Continued 
KEY H 
barbirostris group 
1. Outer clypeal hairs of the larva with few, 17 or less, branches. 
Adult cannot be separated from Anopheles barbirostris 
A. barbumbrosus 
Outer clypeal hairs of the larvae with at least 40 branches usually 
many more (about 60) 2 
2. The usual pale area of A. barbirostris at the apex of vein 3 is lacking. 
On the other hand such areas occur at the apices of one or both 
branches of vein 4. The femora and tibiae as well as all tarsal 
segments of all the legs show spotting due to scattered white 
scales. The inner clypeal hair of the larva with side hairs 3 
Light area at the apex of vein 3 but not at the apex of vein 4. Legs 
not spotted. Inner clypeal hair bare A. barbirostris 
3. Fringe spots at apices of veins 1, 1st branch of 2, both branches of 4, 
and vein 5 A. bancroftii 
Fringe spots only at apices of vein 1, 1st branch of 2, and 1st branch 
of 4 1 A. pseudobarbirostris 
KEY I 
fuliginosus group 
1. In the male and female the bifurcation of vein S black. Hind 
tarsal segment 2 with white apex, % of the length of the segment. 
The inner occipital hair of the larva usually unbranched 
A. fuliginosus 
In the male and female the bifurcation of vein S is not black. Hind 
tarsal segment 2 with white apex almost half as long as the seg- 
ment. Inner occipital hair of the larva with 3-7 branches 2 
2. White scales scattered on the ventral side of the abdomen. Palmate 
leaflets of the larvae with long filaments A. pallidus 
No white scales on abdomen. Palmate leaflets of the larvae with 
short filaments A. philippinensis Appendix B 
CHECK LIST OF THE ANOPHELINES OF 
THE NETHERLANDS INDIES 
The following list of anopheline mosquitoes has been 
compiled from Overbeek and Stoker (1938), Brug (1938), 
and Swellengrebel and Rodenwaldt (1932). It represents 
a consensus of opinion of Dutch investigators and is prob- 
ably as accurate a check list as can be prepared from the 
literature at the present time. The nomenclature is that 
used by Russell, Rozeboom, and Stone (1943) which ad- 
heres closely to that of Christophers (1933). The 
accepted Dutch names as given by Swellengrebel and 
Rodenwaldt (1932) are included parenthetically when they 
differ with those of Russell, Rozeboom, and Stone (1943). 
Australian Species 
Anopheles (Myzomyia) meraukensis Venhuis, 1932. 
A. {M.) amictus Edwards, 1921. 
A. (M.) longirostris Brug, 1928 (— punctulatus longirostris). 
A. (M.) punctulatus punctulatus Doenitz, 1901 (—punctulatus 
typicus). 
A. (M.) p. moluccensis Swellengrebel and Swellengrebel de Graaf, 
1920 (= punctulatus var. moluccensis). 
A. (M.) p. novaguinensis Venhuis, 1933 (= punctulatus typicus var. 
novaguinensis). 
A. (M.) incognitus Brug, 1931. 
A. {Anopheles) bancroftii hancroftii Giles, 1902 {—barbirostris ban- 
crofti). 
A. {A.) stigmaticus stigmaticus Skuse, 1888. 
Bironella travestilus Brug, 1928 {—Anopheles travestilus). 
B. papuae (Swellengrebel and Swellengrebel de Graaf), 1920 {—A. 
papuae typicus). 
177 178 
B. soesiloi Strickland and Chowdhury, 1931 (=A. papuae soesiloi). 
B. derooki Soesilo and van Slooten, 1931 (=A. papuae de Rooki). 
B. gracilis Theobald, 1905 (=A. bironelli). 
B. walchi (Soesilo) 1932 (= Brugella zvalchi). 
B. papuae brugi (Soesilo and van Slooten) 1931 (=A. papuae 
typicus var. brugi) and A. (M.) longirostris annulata Brug, 1930 (= punc- 
tulatus longirostris var. annulata) are of uncertain taxonomic status. 
Asiatic Species 
Anopheles (Anopheles) hrevipalpis Roper, 1914. 
A. (A.) gigas formosus Ludlow, 1909 (= gigas var. formosus). 
A. (A.) gigas sumatrana Swellengrebel and Rodenwaldt, 1932. 
{A.) aitkenii aitkenii James, 1903. 
A. (A.) aitkenii palmatus Rodenwaldt, 1927. 
A. (A.) insulaeflorum (Swellengrebel and Swellengrebel de Graaf), 
1920 (= aitkenii var. insulaeflorum). 
A. (A.) separatus (Leicester), 1908 {= hyrcanus separatus). 
A. (A.) baezai Gater, 1933. 
A. (A.) umbrosus Theobald, 1903. 
A. (A.) novumbrosus Strickland, 1916 (= umbrosus var. novumbrosa). 
A. (A.) hunteri Strickland, 1916 (=hyrcanus hunteri). 
A. (A.) montanus Stanton & Hacker, 1913 (= albotaeniatus var. 
montana). 
A. (A.) albotaeniatus Theobald, 1903. 
A. {A.) barbumbrosus Strikland and Chowdhury, 1927 (== barbirostris 
var. barbumbrosus) 
A. {A.) bancroftii barbiventris Brug, 1938. 
A. (A.) barbirostris van der Wulp, 1884 (= barbirostris typicus). 
A. (A.) pseudobarbirostris Ludlow, 1902 (= bancrofti var. pseudo- 
barbirostris). 
A. (A.) hyrcanus sinensis Wiedemann, 1828. 
A. {A.) h. nigerrimus Giles, 1900 (= hyrcanus typicus var. nigerrima). 
*A. (A.) h. pseudopictus Grassi, 1899 (= hyracanus typicus var 
pseudopicta). 
A. {A.) annandalei Baini Prashad, 1918 (=annadalei var. djajasa- 
nensis). 
A. (Myzomyia) karwari James, 1903. (Occurs in New Guinea also.) 
A. (M.) kochi Doenitz, 1901. 
A. {M.) tessellatus Theobald, 1901 {—punctulatus tesselatus). 
A. (A.) leucosphyrus leucosphyrus Doenitz, 1901. 
'Probably A. montanus, mistaken determination. 179 
A. (Af.) I. hackeri Edwards, 1921 (= leucosphyrus var. hackeri). 
A. (Af.) minimus minimus Theobald, 1901. 
A. (Af.) m. flavirostris Ludlow, 1914. 
A. (Af.) aconitus Doenitz, 1902. 
A. (Af.) schufneri Stanton, 1915. 
A. (A/.) annularis van der Wulp, 1884 {—fuliginosus typicus). 
A. (Af.) pallidus Theobald, 1901 (—fuliginosus pallidus). 
A. (A/.) philippinensis Ludlow, 1902 ([=fuliginosus philippinensis). 
A. (A/.) vagus Doenitz, 1902. 
A. (A/.) subpictus Grassi, 1899. 
A. (Af.) sundaicus Rodenwaldt, 1926 (\=ludlowi var. sundaicd). 
A. (Af.) ludlozvi Theobald, 1901. (Ceram only.) 
A. (Af.) parangensis Ludlow, 1914. 
A. (A/.) maculatus maculatus Theobald, 1901. 
A. (A/.) errabunidus Swellengrebel, 1925. 
A. (Af.) ramsayi Coveil, 1927. 
A. (Af.) flavescens Swellengrebd and Rodenwaldt, 1921 is a form of 
uncertain taxonomic status described by Swellengrebel and Rodenwaldt 
(1932) as similar to sundaicus and by Christophers (1933) as a possible 
synonym of sundaicus. 
A. (Af.) immaculatus James, 1902 is also of undetermined taxonomic 
status. Swellengrebel and Rodenwaldt (1932) consider it as close to 
sundaicus whereas Christophers (1933) considers it synonymous with 
vagus. 
Swellengrebel and Rodenwaldt (1932) record A. {M.) tessellatus 
orientalis Swellengrebel and Swellengrebel de Graaf, 1920 (= punctulatus 
tesselatus var. orientalis) from Celebes, Ceram, and Boeroe. This 
was originally described as a variety of punctulatus. Appendix C 
DISTRIBUTION OF MALARIA VECTORS 
IN THE NETHERLANDS INDIES 
The maps and data in this appendix have been compiled 
largely from the monograph of Swellengrebel and Roden- 
waldt (1932). A note of caution must be injected concern- 
ng possible extension of some species since the writing of 
this monograph, such as the expansion of sundaicus into 
Celebes. Further it must be emphasized that the maps 
and lists include only the positive collecting records of the 
species i. e. collecting localities where a given species was 
not found have not been recorded on the maps as such. 
Nevertheless, with the exception of Borneo, these maps 
do give a fairly reliable picture of the distribution of the 
important vectors. 
Localities listed and given on the maps are those stations 
where the given species has been collected and is known to 
occur. Naturally they do not represent the only places 
where the species will be found. Areas where the various 
species have been recorded as definitely infected are shown 
with hatching. These data are compiled from various 
sources and are incomplete. It is only safe to assume that 
any one of these species is at least potentially a vector 
throughout its range in the Netherlands Indies. 
181 182 
1. (Appendix C.)—Anopheles sundaicus. 
Localities where specimens 
hare been collected. 
Areas where Infected specimens 
have been collected. 183 
ISLAND OF JAVA: West Java: West Bantam, South Bantam, 
North Bantam, Batavia, Tandjong Priok, Serang, Wijnkoops Bay, 
Sindangbarang, Genteng, Kepetakan, Cheribon. Middle Java: 
Tjilatjap, Babakan, Noesa kambangan, Gombong, Tegal, Semarang, 
Demak, Solo, Margaredjo. East Java: Toeban, Coast of Madioen 
Residence, Kediri Coast, Soerabaja, Pasoreosan,Probolinggo, Kraksaan, 
Besoeki, Panaroekan, Banjoewangi, Coast along Madoera Strait, South 
coast of Loemadjang, South coast of Djember, Coast of Madoera Island. 
ISLAND OF SUMATRA: Atjeh: Kotaradja, Meulaboh, Smgkel, 
Tapatoean, Lho Soekon, Olehleh, Sigli, Lho Seumawe, Tjalang, Bireuen, 
Kroengradja. East Sumatra: Coast of Deli, North coast of Lake 
Toba, Lao Balang, Belawan (Deli) Samosir. West Sumatra: Sibolga, 
Padang Sidempoean, Greater Mandailing, Lesser Mandailing, Pan- 
goeroeran, Pahahi Plain, Rao, Angkola djoeloe, Fort v. d. Capellen, 
Lake Manindjau, Naras, Emmahaven. South Sumatra: Benkoelen, 
Lampongs. 
ISLAND OF BORNEO: Local variety In Koeala Sambodja near 
Balikpapan. 
ISLAND OF CELEBES: Bonthain. (Appareatly the range in 
Celebes is expanding.) 
OTHER ISLANDS; Poelau We, Simaloer, Nias, Siberoet, Enggano, 
Banjak Island, Anambas Island, Riouw Archipelago, Banka, Billiton, 
Edam, Bali, Lombok, Soembawa, Salajar, Flores, Alor, Pantar, Timor: 
(towns of Koepang, Wini, Atapoepoe) Wetar, Roma, Leti, Laboehan 
marege (Djampea group), Boetoeng. 
Anopheles sundaicus 
*Anopheles ludlowi immaculata 
ISLAND OF JAVA: Soerabaja. 
ISLAND OF SUMATRA: Greater Mandailing, Deli. 
OTHER ISLAND: Soembawa. 
ISLAND OF CERAM: Piroe (Molukkas). 
Anopheles ludlowi 
♦(Reported by Swellengrebel & Rodenwaldt (1932). Taxonomic status uncertain.) 184 
2. (Appendix C.) Anopheles subpictus. 
Localities where specimens 
have been collected. 
Areas where infected specimens 
have been collected. 185 
Anopheles subpictus 
ISLAND OF JAVA: West Java: West Bantam, East Bantam, 
North Bantam, South Bantam, Tegal wangi, Tjikadoe, Serang, Batavia, 
Tandjong Priok, Soekaboemi, Tjiheha Plain, Djampang Region, Ban- 
doeng Plain, Soemedang, Cheribon, Kepetakan, Bandjar. Middle Java: 
Tjilatjap, Noesa kambangan, Babakan, Gombong, Tegal, Semarang, 
Margaredjo, Coast of Rembang Residence, Solo, Magelang. East Java: 
Coast of Madioen Residence, Coast of Kediri Residence. Modjowarno, 
Soerabaja, Coast along Madoera Strait, Pasoeroean, Probolinggo, 
Kraksaan, Besoeki, Panaroekan, South Loemadjang, South Djember, 
Banjoewangi, Madoera Island. 
ISLAND OF SUMATRA: Atjeh: Kotaradja, Lho Seumawe, Lo- 
kop, Bireuen, Olehleh, Kroengradja. East Sumatra: North coast of 
Toba Lake. West Sumatra: Sidikalang. South Sumatra: Lam- 
pongs: (Uncertain) Kroe, Singkarak, Solok, Pahahi Plain, Mentawei 
Island. 
ISLAND OF BORNEO: Balikpapan. 
ISLAND OF CELEBES: Boekoekoemba, Balang Nipa, Kolaka, 
Bonthain, Makassar, Barroe, Parepare, 'Polewali, Madjene, Mamoedjoe, 
Boeol, Tolitoli, Leok, Kotamobagoe, Kendari. 
OTHER ISLANDS: Nias, Siberoet, Poelau We, Banka, Billiton, 
Bali, Lombok, Soembawa, Timor (Koepang), Alor, Panta, Wetar, Roma, 
Poelau Laoet, Djampea, Boeton, Moena, Bonerate, Salajar, Boeroe, 
Ambon, Haroekoe, Ceram, Gesar, Soela Islands, Halmahera, Ternate, 
Batjan, Misool, Goram Island. 186 
3. (Appendix C.) Anopheles aconitus and A. minimus. 
T.—A. aconitus M.—A. minimus Vr.—A. varuna 
Localities where specimens 
have been collected. 
Areas where Infected specimens 
have been collected. 187 
Anopheles aconitus and A. minimus 
T.—A. aconitus 
M.—A. minimus 
Vr.—A. varuna* 
ISLAND OF JAVA: West Java: West Bantam, South Bantam, 
East Bantam, Tegal wangi, Tjikadoe, Serang, Batavia, Tandjong Priok, 
Buitenzorg, Soekaboemi, Wijnkoops Bay (T. M.), Djampang (T. M.), 
Tjiheha Plain (T. M.), Bandoeng, Soemedang, North Soemedang (T. M.), 
Bandjar. Middle Java; Tjilatjap, Noesa kambangan, Gombong, 
Tegal, Batoer, Semarang (T. M.), Oengaran, Kedong Kebo, Willem I, 
Magelang, Solo, Babakan. East Java: Inland and Coast of Madioen 
Residence, Modjowarno, Modjokerto, Kediri, Djatirogo, Soerabaja, 
Malang, Tambaksari, North Coast of Java along the Madoera Straits, 
entire South coast of East Java, South Loemadjang, Sitoebondo, Ban- 
joewangi, Island of Madoera. 
ISLAND OF SUMATRA: Atjeh: Kotaradja (T. M.), Lokop, 
Belang kedjeren, Bireuen, Seulimeum, Tapatoean, Kroengradja (M.), 
Takengon, Kotatjane, Seroewai. East Sumatra: Coast of Deli, Deli 
Plain, Kisaran (M. T.), Lao Balang (M. T.). West Sumatra; Ang- 
kola djoeloe (T. M.), Padang Sidempoean (M. T.), Greater Mandailing 
(M. T.), Moeara laboeh (T. M.), Batang toroe (Vr.), Loeboek Sikaping 
(T. M. Vr.), Angoli (T. M.), Rao, Soendatar (T. M. Vr.), Pahahi Plain, 
Kajoetanam, Sidikalang, Fort de Kock, Padang Pandjang, Fort v. d. 
Capellen (T, M.). South Sumatra: Benkoelen, Ketahoen-Plain, 
Moeara aman, Tjoeroep, Lampongs. 
ISLAND OF BORNEO: Balikpapan. 
ISLAND OF CELEBES: Makassar, Rapang, Madjene, Toradja 
Region, Mandar, Paloe (M.), Boeol (M.), Paleleh (M.), Menado, Posso 
(M.), Palopo and Toma Plain, Kotamobagoe, Kolaka, Moeara Bay, 
Kendari. 
OTHER ISLANDS: Sabang (M.), Simaloer, Nias (M.), Bali, 
Lombok, Soembawa, Flores (M.), Soemba (M. T.), Alor (M.), Wetar 
(M.), Pantar, Timor (Koepang) (M.), Roma, Babar, Kisar, Sangihe 
(M.), Talisai (M.), Boeton, Moena. 
♦Reported only by Swellengrebel and Rodenwaldt (1932), Weyer (1939), Christophers 
(1933), and Overbeek and Stoker (1938) do not agree. Probably erroneous identification. 
562282—44 13 188 
4. (Appendix C.) Anopheles maculatus. 
Localities vhsre specimens 
have been collected. 
Areas where Infected specimens 
have been collected. 189 
ISLAND OF JAVA: West Java: East Bantam, Tjikadoe, Soeka- 
boemi, Djampang Region, Buitenzorg, Poentjak, Tasikmalaja, North 
Soemedang, South Soemedang, Bandjar. Middle Java: Batoer, 
Wonosobo, Bandjarnegara, Noesa kambangan, Semarang, Banjoe biroe. 
East Java: Madioen Residence, Soerabaja, Malang, South Malang, 
Kali Rawaan, South Banjoewangi, Madoera Island. 
ISLAND OF SUMATRA: Atjeh: Takengon, Belang kedjeren. 
East Sumatra: Kisaran, Karoo Plain. West Sumatra: Sidikalang, 
Sibolga, Pandang Sidempoean, Greater Mandailing, Soendatar, Angkola 
djoeloe, Limau manis, Loeboek soelasih, Fort de Kock, Padangpandjang, 
Kajoetanam, Naras, Emmahaven, Angoli, Sawah Loento, Sandaran 
agoeng, Moeara laboeh. South Sumatra: Moera aman, Ketahoen 
Plain, Pager alam, Doerian. 
ISLAND OF BORNEO: Upper Mahakam. 
ISLAND OF CELEBES: Toradja-Lander, Watampone, Balang- 
nipa. 
OTHER ISLANDS: Nias, Enggano, Riouw, Banka, Natoena, 
Anambas, Boeton, Flores, Timor: (Koepang, Atamboea), Alor, (Aroe). 
Anopheles maculatus 190 
Pd.—A. peditaeniatus 
H.—A. hunteri 
5. (Appendix C.) Anopheles hyrcanus group. 
P.—A. hyrcanus pseudopictus 
Sp.—A. separatus 
Localities where specimens 
have teen collected. 
Areas where infected specimens 
have been collected. 
S.—A. hyrcanus sinensis 
V.—A. hyrcanus nigerrimus 191 
Anopheles hyrcanus group 
S.—A. hyrcanus sinensis 
V.—A. hyrcanus nigerrimus 
P.—*A. hyrcanus pseudopictus 
Sp.~~.iL separatus 
Pd.—A. peditaeniatus** 
H.—A. hunteri 
♦Probably hyrcanus nigerrimus. 
♦♦Probably A. montanus. 
ISLAND OF JAVA: West Java: West Bantam, East Bantam, 
South Bantam, Batavia (S. V. P.), Tandjong Priok (P.), Buitenzorg, 
Tjitjoeroeg, Soekaboemi, Tjiheha Plain, Bandoeng Plain, North Soeme- 
dang, Tjikadoe, Tegal wangi, Bandjar, Kepetakan (V. P.), Cheribon 
(V. P.). Middle Java: Tjilatjap (V.), Babakan, Gombong, Poer- 
woredjo, Tegal (V.), Pekalongan, Semarang, Magelang, Ambarawa (P.), 
Banjoe biroe, Solo. East Java: Madioen Residence, Lamongan, Mod- 
jowarno, Soerabaja, Probolinggo, South Loemadjang, Madoera Island. 
ISLAND OF SUMATRA; Atjeh: Kotaradja (S. V.), Lho Soekon 
(P.), Lho Seumawe, Belang PIdie, Belang kedjeren, Talang akar, 
Takengon, Langsa, Meulaboh, Tapatoean, Kota Tjane, Lokop, Bireuen, 
Singkel (Sp.). East Sumatra: Deli Plain, Deli Coast, Kisaran, 
Karoo Plain, Tandjong Morawa, Bagan Siapiapi (Sp.), Rengat, Moeara 
Tebo, Laobalang. West Sumatra: Sidikalang, Toba Plain, Sibolga, 
Padang Sidempoean, Angkola djoeloe, Silindoeng Plain, Pahahi Plain, 
Greater and Lesser Mandailing (S. V.), Soendatar, Rao (P.), Fort de 
Kock (Sp. Pd.), Fort v. d. Capellen, Singkarak, Solok, Sawah Loento, 
Naras, Angoli, Moeara laboeh, Padang (Pd.), Pangoeroeran. South 
Sumatra: Ketahoen Plain, Kepahiang, Tjoeroep, Moeara amanj 
Aerprioekan (Sp.), Lampongs (P.), Kota agoeng. 
ISLAND OF BORNEO: Amoentai (Sp.), Sanggau, Singkawang, 
Barabay, Kendangan, Bandjermasin, Tajan, Tenggarong, Tandjong 
Redeb, Sankoelirang, Balikpapan, Tarakan, Boven Mahakam, Nan- 
gatajap. 
ISLAND OF CELEBES: Makassar (V.), Mamoedjoe, Palopo, 
Pampanoea, Parepare, Barroe, Paloe, Kotamobagoe, Sender. 
OTHER ISLANDS: Nias, Enggano, Riouw (H.), Natoena (Sp.), 
Banka (Pd.), Billiton, Krakatau, Karimoendjawa, Salajar, Timor (P.), 
Alor (P.), Ternate (P.). 
Unless indicated by the above key specimens were identified only as 
“hyrcanus group.” 192 
6. (Appendix C.) Anopheles kochi. 
Localities where specimens 
have been collected. 
Areas where Infected specimens 
have been collected. 193 
Anopheles kochi 
ISLAND OF JAVA: West Java: West Bantam, South Bantam, 
Serang, Batavia, Tandjong Prlok, Buitenzorg, Soekaboemi, Poentjak, 
Tjimahi, Bandoeng, Bandjar, Tjiheha Plain, Tjikadoe, Tegal wangi, 
Kepetakan, Cheribon, North Soemedang. Middle Java: Tegal, 
Semarang, Magelang, Ambarawa, Tjilatjap, Noesa kambangan, Gom- 
bong, Solo. East Java: Madioen Residence, Modojowarjo, South 
Loemadjang, Bondowoso, Madoera Island. 
ISLAND OF SUMATRA: Atjeh: Lho Seumawe, Lho Soekon, 
Meulaboh, Tapatoean, Lokop, Takengon, Kotatjane, Langsa. East 
Sumatra: Deli-Plain, Deli Coast, Kisaran, Laobalang, Moeara Tebo. 
West Sumatra: Sidikalang, Sibolga, Silindoeng Plain, Pahahi Plain, 
Padang Sidempoean, Greater Mandailing, Lesser Mandailing, Rao, 
Soendatar, Fort de Kock, Pajakombo, Padangpandjang, Fon v.d. Capel- 
len, Angoli, Kajoetanam, Naras, Emmahaven, Angkola djoeloe, Moeara 
laboeh. South Sumatra: Doerian, Martapoera, Moeara aman, Ket- 
ahoen Plain, Tjoeroep, Aerprioekan, Kepahiang, Lampongs. 
ISLAND OF BORNEO: Singkawang, Sanggau, Sintang, Ken- 
dangen, Balikpapan, Moeara Tewe, Samarinda, Tenggarong, Tarakan, 
Tandjong Redeb. 
ISLAND OF CELEBES: Paloe, Toli-Toli, Boeol, Menado, Posso, 
Kotamobagoe, Palopo, Watampone. 
OTHER ISLANDS: Nias, Poelau telo, Enggano, Simaloer, Riouw, 
Billiton, Banka, Batoe Island, Bali, Lombok, Soembawa, Soemba, Flores, 
Poelau Laoet, Soela Islands, Boeroe, Ambon, Ceram, Halmahera, Ter- 
nate, Aroe Islands. 194 
— ' ' 1 ■ — I 
7. (Appendix C.) Anopheles leucosphyrus leucosphyrus and Anopheles leucosphyrus hackeri. 
H.—Anopheles leucophyrus hackeri 
Localities where specimens 
have teen collected. 
Areas where infected specimens 
have heai collected. 195 
Anopheles leucosphyrus leucosphyrus and Anopheles leuco- 
sphyrus hackeri 
H.-Anopheles leucosphyrus hackeri 
ISLAND OF JAVA: West Java: West Bantam. South Java: 
Tambaksari. East Java: South Malang. 
ISLAND OF SUMATRA; Atjeh: Langsa, Takengon. East 
Sumatra: Deli Plain, Deli Coast, Tandjong Balai, Kisaran, Moeara 
Tebo (H.). West Sumatra: Greater Mandailing, Soendatar, Kajoe- 
tanam, Sawah loento, Moeara laboeh, Angoli, Limau manis. South 
Sumatra:Benkoelen, Moeara aman, Aerprioekan, Doerian, Lampongs. 
ISLAND OF BORNEO: Sanggau, Balikpapan, Samarinda (H.), 
Tenggarong (H.), Tandjong Redeb, Tandjong Selor, Tandjong Palas, 
Tandjong Djoetar, Moeara Tewe, Upper Mahakam, Sekajam, Tajans 
Meliau, Tarakan, Sekadau, Nangatajap. 
ISLAND OF CELEBES: Madjene (H.), Mamoedjoe (H.), To- 
radjagebiet (H.), Tolitoli (H.), Paleleh, Posso (H.). 
OTHER ISLANDS: Nias, Poelau Laoet, Boeton, Sangihe (H.), 
Talaud. 196 
8. (Appendix C.) Anopheles umlrosus. 
Localities v&ere specimens 
have teen collected. 
Areas where infected specimens 
have been collected. 197 
Anopheles umbrosus 
ISLAND OF JAVA: West Java: West Bantam, Batavia, Tand- 
jong Priok, Sindangbarang, Bandjar. Middle Java: Noesa kamban- 
gan, Tegal, Semarang. East Java: Soerabaja, Pasoeroean, Tam- 
baksari. 
ISLAND OF SUMATRA: Atjeh: Takengon, Singkel, Meulaboh, 
Lho Seumawe, Lho Soekon, Kroengradja, Olehleh. East Sumatra: 
Kisaran, Deli Coast, Deli Plain, Kateman, Rengat, Tandjong balai, 
Moeara Tebo. West Sumatra: Sibolga, Padang Sidempoean, Moe- 
ara laboeh, Greater Mandailing, Aerprioekan. 
ISLAND OF BORNEO: Sanggau, Simpang, Nangatajap, Balik- 
papan, Koeala Sambodja, Sekadau, Tandjong Redeb, Tenggarong, 
Tarakan, Upper Mahakam, Tini, Tandjong Selor, Sekajam. 
ISLAND OF CELEBES: Madjene, Posso. 
OTHER ISLANDS: Nias, Riouw, Banka, Billiton, Natoena, 
Boeroe. 198 
9. (Appendix C.) Anopheles punctulatus punctulatus and Anopheles punctulatus moluccensis. 
P.—A. punctulatus punctulatus M.—A. punctulatus moluccensis n. d.-subspecies not determined 
Localities where specimens 
have been collected. 
Areas where Infected specimens 
have been collected. 199 
Anopheles punctulatus punctulatus and Anopheles punctu- 
latus moluccensis 
P.—A. punctulatus punctulatus M.—A. punctulatus moluccensis 
n. d.—subspecies not determined. 
NEW GUINEA: Kokas (M.), Kaimana (M.), Fakfak (P. M.), 
Albatrosbiwak (P. M.), Meer Plain (P. M.), Batavia Biwak (P. M.), 
Pionier BIwak (P.), Prauw Biwak (M.)> Manokwari (n. d.), Merauke 
(n. d.), Tanah Merah (Digoel) (P. M.), Idora (P.), Schouten Island 
(P. M.), Sorong (M.), Hollandia (P. M.), Inland from Geelvink Bay 
(n. d.), Motor Biwak (P. M.). 
OTHER ISLANDS: Halmahera: towns of Sidangoli (P.), Tobelo 
(P. M.), Weda (P. M.), Maidi (P.), Gita (P.); Batjan Archipelago 
(P. M.), Poelau Salawati (M.), Misool (M.), Poelau Larat (P. M.), 
Japen Group (P. M.), Ceram (Piroe) (P. M.), Ambon (P. M.), Boeroe 
(P. M.), Ternate (P. M.), Aroe (P. M.), Soela Island (P. M.), Banggai 
Island (M.), Banda (P. M.), Saparoea (P.), Damar (P.). 200 
10. (Appendix C.) Anopheles bancroftii and Anopheles pseudobarbirostris. 
B,—A. bancroftii Ps.—A. pseudobarbirostris 
Localities where specimens 
have been collected. 201 
Anopheles bancroftii and Anopheles pseudobarhirostris 
B.—A. bancroftii 
Ps.—A. pseudobarhirostris 
NEW GUINEA: Pionierbiwouak (B.), Tanah Merah (B.). 
ISLAND OF CELEBES: Makassar (Ps.), Mamoedjoe (Ps.), Mad- 
jene (Ps.), Mandar (Ps.), Boeol (Ps.), Kotamobagoe (Ps.), Motoling 
(Minahassa) (Ps.), Menado (Ps.), Paloe (Ps.). 202 
11. (Appendix C.) Anopheles barbirostris and Anopheles barbumbrosus. 
Bu.—A. barbumbrosus 
Localities where specimens 
have teen collected. 
Areas where infected specimens 
have heen collected. 203 
Anopheles barbirostris and Anopheles barbumbrosus 
Bu—A. barbumbrosus 
ISLAND OF JAVA: West Java: West Bantam, South Bantam, 
North Bantam, Hinterland Bantam, Batavia, Buitenzorg, Tandjong 
Priok, Tjibodas, Poentjak, Tjiteureup, Djampang, Sindangbarang, 
Soekaboemi, Bandoeng, Tjiheha Plain, North Soemedang, Kepetaken, 
Cheribon, Tegal wangi, Tjikadoe, Bandjar. Middle Java: Tjilatjap, 
Noesa kambangan, Gombong (Bu.), Babakan, Maos, Banjoemas, 
Poerworedjo, Margaredjo, Tegal, Semarang, Rembang, Magelang, 
Djogja, Solo, Ambarawa. East Java: Toeban, Soerabaja, Lamongan, 
Djatirogo, Modjowarno, Wonosari, Madioen, Pasoeroean, Problinggo, 
South-Loemadjang, Malang, Banjoewangi, Madoera Island. 
ISLAND OF SUMATRA: Atjeh: Kotaradja, Takengon, Belang 
kedjeren, kotatjane, Sigli, Tapatoean, Lho Soekon, Bireuen, Lokop, 
Langsa, Meulaboh, Lho Seumawe, Singkel, Talang akar. East 
Sumatra: Deli-Plain, Deli-Coast, Kisaran, Moeara Tebo. West 
Sumatra: Sidikalang (Bu.), Sibolga, Silindoeng-Plain, Pahahi Plain, 
Padang Sidempoean, Greater Mandailing (Bu.), Lesser Mandailing 
(Bu.), Rao, Soendatar, Fort de Kock, Fort v.d. Capellen, Singkarak, 
Solok, Sawah loento, Padangpandjang, Naras, Kajoetanam, Moeara 
laboeh, Angoli, Angkola djoeloe. South Sumatra: Benkoelen, 
Kepahiang, Tjoeroep, Ketahoen Plain, Moeara aman, Kroe (Bu.), 
Lampongs. 
ISLAND OF BORNEO: Tandjong Redeb, Sanggau, Meliau, 
Samarinda, Tenggarong, Boeloengan, Bandjermasin, Rantau pandjang. 
ISLAND OF CELEBES: Makassar, Mamoedjoe, Toradja-Lander, 
Pampanoea, Parepare, Paloe, Pinrang, Madjene (Bu.), Rapang, Leok, 
Paleleh (Bu.), Tolitoli, Boeol, Kotamobagoe, Menado (Bu.), Sender, 
Motoling, Werot, Likoepang, Palopo, Posso (Bu.). 
NEW GUINEA: Kloof Biwouak, Fakfak, Sorong (Bu.), Noeseroe. 
OTHER ISLANDS: Nias, Mentawei, Siberoet, Banka, Riouw, Bali, 
Lombok (Bu.), Moena (Raha), Sanana (Bu.), Boeroe (Bu.), Sangihe, 
Talaud (Bu.), Salajar, Halmahera (Bu.), Ambon (Bu.), Soela Island 
(Bu.), Ceram (Bu.), Saparoea (Bu.), Haroekoe (Bu.), Timor (Bu.), 
Wetar, Kisar, Flores, Pantar (Bu.), Alor, Soembawa. Soemba. 
562282—44 14 Appendix D 
CHECK LIST AND KEYS FOR THE IDEN- 
TIFICATION OF CULICINE MOSQUI- 
TOES OF MEDICAL IMPORTANCE. 
List of Culicines of Medical Importance in the 
Netherlands Indies 
[Compiled with some revision from J. Bonne-Wepster and S. L. Brug, 
Nederlandsch-Indische Culicinen, Geneeskundig Tijdschrift voor Neder- 
landsch-Indii, 77 {9/10), 1937.] 
In 1937, 238 species of culicine mosquitoes were known to occur in 
the Netherlands Indies. Since that time at least twelve additional 
species, none of which are of medical importance, have been recorded. 
The following list contains all species known in 1937 which commonly 
attack man in addition to some more common species which do not 
attack man. 
Armigeres {Armigeres) ohturbans (Walker), 1860 
Armigeres {Armigeres) confusus Edwards, 1915 
Armigeres (Armigeres) denbesteni Brug, 1925 
Armigeres {Armigeres) lacuum Edwards, 1922 
Armigeres (Armigeres) malayi (Theobald), 1910 
Armigeres {Armigeres) moultoni Edwards, 1914 
Aides (Stegomyia) albolineatus (Theobald), 1904 
Aides (Stegomyia) albopictus (Skuse), 1894 
Aides (Stegomyia) annandalei Theobald, 1910 
Aides (Stegomyia) aegypti (Linnaeus), 1762 
Aides (Stegomyia) scutellaris (Walker), 1859 (=variegatus) 
Aides {Ochlerotatus) vigilax (Skuse), 1901 
Aides (Aidimorphus) vexans (Meigen), 1830 
Aides (Aidimorphus) alboscutellatus (Theobald), 1905 
Aides (Aidimorphus) caecus (Theobald), 1901 
Aides {Aidimorphus) imprimens (Walker), 1901 
Aides (Banksinella) lineatopennis (Ludlow), 1905 
Aides {Aides) funereus ornatus (Theobald), 1905 
Aides {Finlaya) niveus (Ludlow), 1903 
Aides {Finlaya) albolateralis (Theobald), 1908 
204 205 
Aides {Finlaya) poicilius (Theobald), 1903 
Aedeomyia venustipes (Skuse), 1889 
Mansonia {Mansonioides) annulata (Leicester), 1908 
Mansonia {Mansonioides) annulifera (Theobald), 1901 
Mansonia (Mansonioides) longipalpis (van der Wulp), 1892 
Mansonia {Mansonioides) indiana Edwards, 1930 
Mansonia {Mansonioides) papuensis (Taylor), 1914 
Mansonia {Mansonioides) uniformis (Theobald), 1921 
Culex {Lutzia) fuscana Wiedemann, 1820 
Culex (Lutzia) halifaxii Theobald, 1903 
Culex {Culex) fatigans ( = quinquefasciatus) Wiedemann, 1828 
Culex {Culex) mimulus Edwards, 1915 
Culex {Culex) sitiens Wiedemann, 1828 
Culex {Culex) annulirostris (Theobald), 1905 
Culex {Culex) vishnui (Theobald), 1901 
Culex {Culex) tritaeniorhynchus siamensis Barraud and Christophers, 
1931 
Culex {Culex) hitaeniorhynchus Giles, 1901 
Culex {Culex) gelidus Theobald, 1901 ■ 
Culex {Culex) whitmorei (Giles), 1904 
Culex {Culex) sinensis Theobald, 1903 
Culex {Culex) fuscocephalus Theobald, 1907 
Key to the Determination of the Genera of Nether- 
lands Indies Culicine Mosquitoes 
1. (a) Proboscis strongly decurved; V-shaped thickening at the fork of 
vein 5 Megarhinus 
(b) Proboscis straight or slightly curved; no thickening as described 
in 1 (a) 2 
2. (a) Tip of proboscis enlarged with very long hairs Harpagomyia 
(b) Proboscis normal 3 
3. (a) Erect wing scales long and narrow, enlarged at the tip and end- 
ing in two points; small mosquities Hodgesia 
(b) Wing scales other than in 3 (a) 4 
4. (a) Erect scales at various places giving the mosquito a moldy ap- 
appearance._ Aides (Mucidus) (Part of the Pardomyia group) 
(b) No erect scales or only a few limited to the abdomen and 
legs 5 
5. (a) Dark clouds on wing membrane over cross veins; large orange 
colored mosquitoes Aides {Mucidus) (Pardomyia group) 
(b) No dark clouds as described in 5 (a) 6 206 
Key to the Determination of the Genera of Nether- 
lands Indies Culicine Mosquitoes—Continued 
6. (a) Occiput with shining, metallic, sky-blue scales; moderately large 
mosquitoes Tripteroides (In part) 
(b) Such scales not present on the occiput or when they are present, 
very small mosquitoes 7 
7. (a) Occiput with a metallic area of silver scales; median broad 
silver stripe of broad scales on the mesonotum Topomyia 
(b) Mesonotum without median stripe, or if present formed of 
narrow scales 8 
8. (a) Abdomen of the female upturned; wing scales very broad 
Mansonia {Mansonioides) 
(b) Abdomen or wing scales not as described in 8 (a) 9 
9. (a) Microtrichia on the wings visible as dark points with magnifica- 
tion of 80 diameters 10 
(b) No microtrichia visible with magnification of 100 diameters; 
„ small mosquitoes Uranotaenia 
10. (a) Metallic scales on the mesonotum and abdomen; postnotum with 
hair Heizmannia 
(b) Not as described in 10 (a), (Armigeres flavus frequently has 
some hair on the postnotum but lacks the metallic colored 
scales) 11 
11. (a) Postspiracular hairs present. _ Aides or Armigeres {Armigeres). 
{Armigeres {Armigeres): Large mosquitoes without markings 
on the feet, proboscis or dorsal side of the abdomen; the 
mesonotum has at the most a pale border. Aides: Members 
of this genus are usually smaller. Their markings vary con- 
siderably.) 
(b) No postpiracular hairs 12 
12. (a) Antennae short, the apical segment obviously not elongate 
Aedeomyia 
(b) Antennae normal, the apical segment much longer than the basal 
segment 13 
13. (a) Very large mosquitoes with speckled femora and tibiae and un- 
banded tarsi; a series of at least five hairs on the anterior 
margin of the mesepimeron Culex {Lutzia) 
(b) Obviously not large mosquitoes; not more than two hairs on the 
anterior margin of the mesepimeron 14 
14. (a) Few pleural hairs; the uppermost sterno-pleural hairs absent; 
not more than two pro-epimeral hairs; but with spiracular 
hairs present Tripteroides (In part) 207 
Key to the Determination of the Genera of Nether- 
lands Indies Culicine Mosquitoes—Continued 
(b) Uppermost sterno-pleural hairs present or more than two pro- 
epimeral hairs present; spiracular hairs lacking IS 
15. (a) Pulvilli present in the female, most distinct on the fore and 
middle legs; small In the male Culex 
(b) Pulvilli absent or rudimentary 16 
16. (a) Fore tarsal segment 1 longer than 2, 3, 4, and S together; 4 very 
short; wings spotted as in the anophelines; female palpus 
Yr-Vi as long as the proboscis Orthopodomyia 
(b) Fore tarsal segments not as described in 16 (a). Wings not 
spotted 17 
17. (a) Postspiracular area mostly with black scales 
Armigeres (Leicesteria) 
(b) Postspiracular area without scales 18 
18. (a) First forked cell about as long as the petiole 
Ficalbia (Mimomyia) 
(b) First forked cell about as long as the petiole 19 
19. (a) Large or moderately large mosquitoes; yellowish brown in color; 
proboscis normal Mansonia (Coquillettidia) 
(b) Small mosquitoes; principal color neither yellow nor brown; 
proboscis of male with thickening at apex; proboscis of female 
with very slight thickening or none at all 
Other subgenera of Ficalbia. 
A Key to the Determination of Culicine Mosquitoes 
Primarily of Medical Importance 
1. (a) Very large mosquitoes with metallic colors, a strongly decurved 
proboscis, almost angulate, which becomes thinner near the 
tip; a V-shaped thickening at the margin of the wing between 
the apices of the branches of vein 5 Genus Megarhinus 
(b) No metallic colors; proboscis straight or slightly curved; no “V” 
between the forks of vein 5 2 
2. (a) Wings with light and dark scales 3 
(b) Wing scales entirely dark, at the most with a few light scales at 
the base of the costa 14 
3. (a) A large part of vein 1, i. e. at least the basal half, with light 
scales (in females a large part of vein 5 also). Mesonotum 
with broad yellow marginal stripes 
Aides (Banksinella) lineatopennis 208 
A Key to the Determination of Culicine Mosquitoes 
Primarily of Medical Importance—Continued 
(b) Light areas or specks on the wing veins alternating with dark. 
Mesonotum not as in 3 (a) 4 
4. (a) Two large pale areas on the costa and vein 1 and a smaller pale 
area at the apex of the wing Culex {Culex) mimulus 
(b) Wings with pale specks sometimes also with small pale areas. 5 
5. (a) Wings with pale areas and specks; the pale wing scales are entirely 
or partly white 6 
(b) Wings with only pale specks consisting of, at the most, a few 
scales; the pale wing scales are all yellow or yellowish 7 
6. (a) Pale areas and specks on the wing entirely white. Abdomen 
dorsally with numerous small well-defined white spots on a dark 
background. Scales on the mesonotum small, and mostly 
dark Aedes {Finlaya) poicilius 
(b) Pale areas and yellow specks on the wings. Abdomen indis- 
tinctly marked with white, yellow, or light brown scales. 
Scales on the mesonotum broad, more light than dark 
Aedeomyia venustipes 
7. (a) Erect wing scales long and narrow. (The erect scales near the 
apex of the wing may be broader than those near the base.) . 8 
(b) All or nearly all of these erect scales are broad. Abdomen of the 
female short and turned upwards at the caudal end (Genus 
Mansonia, subgenus Mansonioides) 10 
8. (a) A well-defined broad pale band at about the middle of the pro- 
boscis. Anterior %—% of the mesonotum with paler scales 
than the rest Culex {Culex) bitaeniorhynchus 
(b) Proboscis and mesonotum otherwise 9 
9. (a) Proboscis when viewed from beneath is dark at the base and from 
there cream-colored for about half Its length with the rest dark. 
Anterior margin of the cream-colored portion Is well-defined. _ 
Aedes (Ochlerotatus) vigilax 
(b) Proboscis when viewed from beneath otherwise. Whenever it is 
partly cream-colored, this part Is not sharply defined anteriorly 
and often extends almost to the tip 
Aedes {Aedimorphus) vexans 
10. (a) Mesonotum with two longitudinal stripes of greenish, pale scales. 
Mansonia {M ansonioides) uniformis 
(b) Mesonotum otherwise 11 209 
A Key to the Determination of Culicine Mosquitoes 
Primarily of Medical Importance—Continued 
11. (a) Strikingly pale-colored mosquitoes, yellow to light brown. Four 
silver-white areas on the mesonotum; scutellum with broad, 
silver-white scales Mansonia (Mansonioides) annulifera 
(b) Dark mosquitoes, brown to brownish black. Mesonotum other 
than in 11 (a) Scutellum with small scales 12 
12. (a) Mesonotum with an approximate figure-8 of yellow scales. 
Bands and areas on the legs 
Mansonia (Mansonioides) annulata 
(b) Mesonotum without pattern or with areas of pale blue scales. 
Bands and areas on the legs white 13 
13. (a) Very dark mosquitoes. Tibia of foreleg with six well-defined 
bands Mansonia (Mansonioides) longipalpis 
(b) Lighter mosquito; more brownish. Tibia of the foreleg with 
10-15 scattered white specks 
Mansonia (Mansonioides) indiana 
14. (a) Erect wing scales broad. Femora with dirty yellow areas 
Mansonia (Mansonioides) papuensis 
(b) Erect wing scales narrow. Femora other than in 14 (a) 15 
15. (a) Proboscis with well-defined light band at about half its length, 
covering at least one-third of the proboscis 37 
(b) Proboscis without such a band. (Proboscis sometimes pale for 
more than half its length.) 16 
16. (a) Hind tarsus with pale bands 17 
(b) Hind tarsus without pale bands 24 
17. (a) Scales of the mesonotum form no well-defined pattern 18 
(b) Mesonotum with well-defined markings of white scales on a 
dark background. (Genus Aedes, subgenus Stegomyia) 20 
18. (a) Femora not speckled 19 
(b) Femora speckled 9 
19. (a) Integument of the pleura dark brown to almost black. Light 
bands on the hind tarsus conspicuous; the width of these 
bands on the first three tarsal segments Is greater than the 
diameter of the segment at the location of the band 
Aedes (Aedimorphus) imprimens 
(b) Integument of the pleura light brown. The pale bands on the 
hind tarsus not visible to the naked eye; they are not as 
wide as the diameter of the segment 
Aedes {Aedimorphus) caecus 210 
A Key to the Determination of Culicine Mosquitoes 
Primarily of Medical Importance—Continued 
20. (a) Mesonotum with so-called lyre shaped figure 
Aides (Stegomyia) aegypti 
(b) Mesonotum marked differently than in 20 (a) 21 
21. (a) Mesonotum with broad silver-white area anteriorly 
Aides (Stegomyia) annandalei 
(b) Mesonotum with median silver-white stripe for its entire length 
or the greater part of its length 22 
22. (a) Hind tarsus with three white bands 
Aides (Stegomyia) albolineatus 
(b) Hind tarsus with five white bands. (The fifth tarsal segment 
which is entirely white is counted as a white band.) 23 
23. (a) Pleura with white spots Aides (Stegomyia) albopictus 
(b) Pleura with longitudinal stripes. _ Aides (Stegomyia) scutellaris 
24. (a) Somewhat more than the anterior half of the mesonotum thickly 
covered with silver-white scales Aides (Finlaya) niveus 
(b) Similar to 24(a) but with a median broad black stripe on the 
mesonotum Aides (Finlaya) albolateralis 
(c) Mesonotum without the obvious silver-white markings 25 
25. (a) Femora with pale specks. Large mosquitoes (Genus Culex, 
subgenus Lutzia) 26 
(b) Femora without spots. Large or smal mosquitoes 27 
26. (a) Abdominal tergites entirely dark ol at the most a few apical 
pale scales on the posteriorabdr ominal segments 
Culex (Lutzia) halifaxii 
(b) Posterior abdominal tergites with broad yellow apical bands; 
in the female posterior abdominal tergites frequently entirely 
yellow Culex (Lutzia) fuse ana 
27. (a) Abdominal tergites with pale basal bands --Culex (Culex) fatigans 
(=quinquefasciatus.) 
(b) Abdominal tergites with pale bands transversely across the 
middle of the segments so that these have a dark apex and 
base. (Mesonotum with pale margin anteriorly and laterally; 
with dark spot surrounded by light in front of scutellum and 
a pair of submedian dark areas surrounded by light; a narrow 
median pale stripe faintly indicated.) 
Aides (Aides) funereus ornatus 
(c) Abdominal tergites without light bands 28 211 
A Key to the Determination of Culicine Mosquitoes 
Primarily of Medical Importance—Continued 
28. (a) Occiput with many forked scales and many small curved scales; 
broad flat scales only on the sides 29 
(b) Occiput mainly with broad flat scales at the most a few forked 
scales near the neck and a few, usually Indistinct, narrow 
curved scales 30 
29. (a) Scutellum, sparsely covered with narrow, curved, cream-colored 
scales. Pleura with two parallel, horizontal, unsealed dark 
stripes, anteriorly the light Integument shows between the 
parallel dark stripes; posteriorly the parallel dark stripes 
are separated by a stripe of flat white scales 
Culex [Culex) fuscocephalus 
(b) The entire scutellum covered thickly with broad, flat, silver- 
white scales (a very striking character). Integument of the 
entire pleura darker with a few areas of silver-white scales. _ 
Aides (Aedimorphus) alboscutellatus 
30. (a) Scutellum with flat broad scales 31 
(b) Scutellum with narrow curved scales (Genus Aides, subgenus 
Aides) 40 
31. (a) Small mosquitoes. The ventral and lateral edges of the ab- 
domen dark or faintly marked by the presence of dirty yellow 
scales (Genus Aides, subgenus Cancaides) 
(b) Large mosquitoes. The ventral and lateral edges of the ab- 
domen with conspicuous markings of white or cream-colored 
scales (Genus Armigeres, subgenus Armigeres)_ 32 
32. (a) Abdominal sternites II-VI entirely covered with white scales. 33 
(b) Abdominal sternites II-VI with black and white bands 34 
33. (a) Clypeus with white scales. Abdominal sternite VII entirely 
white Armigeres (Armigeres) malayi 
(b) Clypeus without scales. Abdominal sternite VII black 
Armigeres (Armigeres) confusus 
34. (a) The white stripe on the outer margin of the hind femur is con- 
tinuous to the knee joint; abdominal sternites II-VII with a 
black band 35 
(b) The white stripe on the outer margin of the hind femur does not 
extend to the knee joint 36 
35. (a) Abdominal sternite VII almost entirely black 
Armigeres (Armigeres) denbesteni 
(b) Abdominal sternite VII almost entirely white 
Armigeres (Armigeres) obturbans 212 
A Key to the Determination of Culicine Mosquitoes 
Primarily of Medical Importance—Continued 
36. (a) Abdominal sternite VII entirely black 
Armigeres {Armigeres) moultoni 
(b) Abdominal sternite VII with a few subapical or apical white 
scales Armigeres (Armigeres) lacuum 
37. (a) Abdominal tergites with apical bands. Anterior % of the 
mesonotum with cream-colored scales conspicuously con- 
trasting with the darker posterior / femora speckled 
Culex (Culex) sinensis 
(b) Abdominal tergites with basal bands or areas (at the most small 
apical band on tergite VII) 38 
38. (a) Anterior % of the mesonotum covered with snow-white scales. 39 
(b) Mesonotum without conspicuous marking although the scales 
are frequently not all of the same color 40 
39. (a) The snow-white anterior portion of the mesonotum does not 
have extensions reaching almost to the posterior margin and 
is therefore separated entirely from the scutellum by a dark 
area. Basal T-shaped band on the abdominal tergites. 
. Femora not spotted Culex {Culex) gelidus 
(b) The snow-white anterior part of the mesonotum sends white 
extensions almost to the posterior margin of the mesonotum. 
Three-pronged pale basal bands or median basal areas on the 
abdominal tergites. Femora speckled 
Culex {Culex) whitmorei 
40. (a) Middle femur speckled 41 
(b) Middle femur not speckled 42 
41. (a) Bases of forked cells approximately equidistant from the base of 
the wing Culex {Culex) annulirostris 
(b) Base of the anterior forked cells at greater distance from the 
wing Culex {Culex) sitiens 
42. (a) Mesonotum with many cream-colored scales. Base of forked 
cells approximately equidistant from the base of the wing 
Culex {Culex) vishnui 
(b) Mesonotum, except the scutellum, with small, dark, narrow 
scales, no cream-colored scales among them. In the female the 
base of the anterior forked cell is farther from the wing base 
than the posterior forked cell. This is sometimes true also 
in the male although usually the base of the forked cells are 
equidistant from the base of the wing 
Culex {Culex) tritaeniorhynchus siamensis 213 
Appendix E 
CHECK LIST AND KEYS FOR THE IDEN- 
TIFICATION OF TICKS OF THE NETH- 
ERLANDS INDIES 
Check List of Ticks Known to Occur in the Nether- 
lands Indies 
This list is based largely on that of Krijgsman and Ponto 
(1932) with some new records. In general doubtful 
records and synonyms due to mistaken identification have 
been omitted. It must be remembered that the tick 
fauna of the Netherlands Indies is still not well known and 
that many more species may subsequently be found. 
Genus Amhlyomma 
1. A. babirussae Schulze, 1933 
Distribution: Borneo, north Celebes, Minahassa 
Hosts: wild hogs, Sus babirussa 
2. A. caelaturum perfectum Schulze, 1932 
Distribution; Sumatra 
Hosts: reptiles 
3. A. cordiferum Neumann, 1899 
Distribution: Banda Is. (Molukkas), Krakatau 
Hosts: pythons and other reptiles 
4. A. cyprium Neumann, 1899 
Distribution: New Guinea 
Hosts: reptiles, wild hogs, cattle, buffalo 
5. A. dammermanni Warburton, 1927 
Distribution: Java, Kei Islands 
Hosts: unknown 214 
6. A. follax Schulze, 1932 
Distribution: Sumatra 
Hosts: (?) 
7. A. feuerborni Schulze, 1932 
Distribution: East Java 
Hosts: reptiles 
8. A. geomydae (Cantor), 1847 
Distribution: Pinang Hills, Sumatra; British North Borneo 
Hosts: tortoise {Geomyda spinosa) 
9. A. helvolum Koch, 1844 
Distribution: Java, Borneo (Sarawak), Sumatra, Nordwachter 
(Java Sea) 
Hosts: Far anus salvator, Mobuia multifasciaia, and other reptiles 
10. A. infestum borneense Schulze, 1936 
Distribution: Borneo 
Hosts: wild hogs 
11. A. papuana Hirst, 1914 
Distribution: Southern Dutch New Guinea 
Hosts: unknown 
12. A, robinsoni Warburton, 1927 
Distribution: Komodo Island 
Hosts: giant lizard, Varanus komodoensis 
13. A. sublaeve Neumann, 1899 
Distribution: Sumatra, Java 
Hosts: Manis javanica 
14. A. testudinarium Koch, 1844 
Distribution: Sarawak, Borneo, Sumatra, Bali, Lombok, 
Soemba 
Hosts: man, cattle, water buffalo, pigs, wild boar, tiger 
Genus Ixodes 
1. I. acanthoglossi Lucas, 1878 
Distribution: New Guinea 
Hosts: anteater 
2. I. cordifer Neumann, 1908 
Distribution: New Guinea, Celebes, Ambon (7. cordifer bibex 
Schulze, 1935), Waigeu Island 
Hosts: probably various mammals 
3. I. granulatus Supino, 1897 
Distribution: Java, Sumatra 
Hosts: various rodents 215 
4. I. holocyclus Neumann, 1899 
Distribution: Kei Islands 
Hosts: man (in Australia), dog, sheep, cattle, other mammals, 
domestic fowl 
5. I. (Endopapiger) luxuriosus Schulze, 1935 
Distribution: North New Guinea 
Hosts: rodents 
6. 1. praematurus Schulze, 1935 
Distribution: Timor 
Hosts: small birds 
7. I. priscicollaris Schulze, 1932 
Distribution: New Guinea 
Hosts: flying phalangers 
8. I. spinicoxalis Neumann, 1899 
Distribution; Sumatra, West Java 
Hosts: small carnivores, rodents, shrews 
9. I. steini Schulze, 1933 
Distribution: New Guinea 
Hosts: small marsupial mammals 
10. I. trimaculatus Lucas, 1879 
Distribution: New Guinea 
Hosts: lizard, Varanus chlorostigma 
11. I. kopsteini Oudemans, 1925 
Distribution: Ambon 
Hosts: ? 
Genus Dermacentor 
1. D. atrosignatus Neumann, 1901 
Distribution; New Guinea, Australia 
Hosts: man, monkeys 
2. D. auratus Supino, 1897 
Distribution: Java, RIouw Archipelago, Soela Islands, Sumatra 
Hosts: deer, wild boar, bears 
Genus Aponomma 
1, A. draconis Warburton, 1933 
Distribution: Komodo Island 
Hosts: Uranus komodoensis 
2. A. gervaisi (Lucas), 1847 
Distribution: Java, Sumatra, New Guinea 
Hosts: reptiles 216 
3. A. lucasi. Warburton, 1910 
Distribution: Java 
Hosts: snakes (Coluheride) 
4. A. oudemansi Neuman, 1910 
Distribution: New Guinea 
Hosts: anteaters 
5. A. traheatum Schulze, 1933 
Distribution: North New Guinea 
Hosts: lizards 
6. A. trimaculatum Lucas, 1878 
Distribution: Sumatra, New Guinea 
Hosts: snakes, horses, cattle 
Genus Haemaphysalis 
1. H. bispinosa Neumann, 1897 
Distribution: Borneo (Sarawak), North Sumatra, West Java, 
East Soembawa, South and East Celebes, Kariman-Djawa 
Hosts: many large mammals, moles, domestic fowl 
2. H. calvus Nuttall and Warburton, 1915 
Distribution: British North Borneo 
Hosts: water buffalo (Bos huh alii) 
3. H. cornigera Neumann, 1897 
Distribution: British Borneo, Sumatra, Java, Borneo, East 
Soembawa, Kariman-Djawa 
Hosts: large mammals. 
4. H. leachi (Audouin), 1827 
Distribution: Sumatra, West Java, Borneo (Sarawak) 
Hosts: large mammals. 
5. H. hystricis Supino, 1897 
Distribution: Sumatra, Borneo (Sarawak), Celebes, Riouw 
Archipelago 
Hosts: large mammals. 
6. H. monospinosa Krijgsman and Ponto, 1932 
Distribution: Riouw Archipelago—east of Sumatra 
Hosts: dwarf deer, Tragulus kanchil. 
7. H. novae-guineae Krijgsman and Ponto, 1932 
Distribution: Merauke (Southern New Guinea) 
Hosts: wild hog. 
8. H. papuana Thorell, 1882 
Distribution: Java, Borneo, Sumatra, New Guinea, Sanghii, 
Ambon, Soembawa, Soela, Halmahera, Alor, Saparoea 
Hosts; large mammals. 217 
9. H. toxopei Warburton, 1927 
Distribution: Boeroe (Molukkas) 
Hosts: bats. 
10. H. Wellington. Nuttall and Warburton, 1908 
Distribution: Borneo (Sarawak), South Sumatra, Java, New 
Guinea 
Hosts; water buffalo, dog. 
1. R. haemaphysaloides Supino, 1897 
Distribution: Sumatra, Java, Roti, Madoera, Soembawa, 
Celebes, Soemba, Sawoe, Timor, Alor, Southeast Borneo 
Hosts; man, many other large mammals, rodents. 
2. R. intermedius Neumann 
Distribution: Sumatra 
Hosts; Tarsius spectrum. 
3. R. sanguineus (Latreille), 1804 
Distribution: world-wide distribution, everywhere where dogs 
have penetrated. Java, Soemba, Sumatra, Madoera, Timor, 
Alor, Ambon, Saparoea 
Hosts: man, dog, cattle, buffalo, goats, and many other mam- 
mals. 
Genus Rhipicelphalus 
Genus Boophilus 
1. B. annulatus australis. 
Distribution: widely distributed throughout the Netherlands 
Indies: Sumatra, Java, Borneo, Celebes, Boetoeng, Soela, 
Lombok, Timor, Tanimbar Islands, New Guinea, west Ceram, 
Ambon, Madoera and all of the innumerable little islands of 
the archipelago where cattle are found. 
Hosts: cattle, buffalo, horse, goat, deer, Bos sundaicus. 
Note: The Netherlands Indies specimens have been arranged 
into the three species listed below. 
2. B. (Uroboophilus) rotundiscutatus Minning, 1934 
Distribution: Celebes, Borneo, Sumatra, Java, Soemba, Timor, 
Ambon, Bali. 
Hosts: cattle, buffalo. 
3. B. {Uroboophilus) longiscutatus Minning, 1934 
Distribution: New Guinea, Soela Island 
Hosts: cattle. 
4. B. (Uroboophilus) krijgsmani Minning, 1934 
Distribution: Sumatra, Soela, Bali, New Guinea, Soemba, 
Celebes, Borneo 
Hosts: cattle. 218 
Genus Hyalomma 
1. H. aegyptium (Linnaeus), 1758 
Distribution; West Java 
Hosts: cattle. 
Note: Introduced into Java from British India with imported 
cattle. Has not spread and may have died out. 
Genus Argus 
1. A. persicus Oken, 1812. 
Distribution: West Java, Soemba—also world-wide, wherever 
chickens are raised. 
Hosts: birds (domestic fowl), mammals, occasionally man. 
Keys to the Identification of the Ticks of the 
Netherlands Indies 
These keys are translations, with some revision, of the 
keys of Krijgsman and Ponto (1932) which are the only 
ones available for this area. Since the time when these 
keys were compiled several additional species have been 
found (see check list), a fact to be borne in mind when the 
keys are used. However in view of the amount of time 
devoted by Krijgsman and Ponto to the study of the 
Netherlands Indies ticks it can be assumed that their keys 
deal with all of the more common species. 
a. Capitulum ventral, not visible dorsally. Peritremes at the level of 
the third intercoxal space Argasidae (A. persicus) 
b. Capitulum on the anterior margin of the body. Peritremes posterior 
to the 4th pair of legs Ixodidae 
Ixodoidea 219 
Keys to the Identification of the Ticks of the 
Netherlands Indies—Continued 
Ixodidae 
Anal groove lies anterior to the anus, its arms bend posteriorly. 
Ixodes 
Anal groove absent or lying posterior to the anus with arms bending 
anteriorly 1 
1. Anal groove and festoons present 2 
Anal groove and festoons absent Boophilus (B. annulatus) 
2. Basis capituli (from dorsal view) hexagonal Rhipicephalus 
Basis capituli with 3, 4, or S sides 3 
3. Palpi long. (Second segment much longer than wide.) 4 
Palpi short. (Second segment not as long or only slightly longer than 
wide.) 6 
4. Eyes present S 
Eyes absent Aponomma 
5. 2nd palpal segment much longer than 3rd Amhlyomma 
2nd palpal segment about as long as 3rd Hyalomma 
6. Scutum ornate, eyes present Dermacentor (D. auratus) 
Scutum not ornate, eyes absent Haemaphysalis 
Males 
Rhipicephalus 
a. Innermost pair of anal plates elongated, pear-shaped with only slightly 
concave inner margins R. sanguineus 
b. Innermost pair of anal plates sickle-shaped with strongly concave inner 
margins R. haemaphysaloides 
Females 
a. Scutum clearly longer than broad with fine punctuations, body mod- 
erately covered with hair R. sanguineus 
b. Scutum about as long as broad and covered with coarser punctuations, 
body densely covered with hair R. haemaphysaloides 
Haemaphysalis 
Males 
Coxa IV with two long spurs H. cornigera 
Coxa IV with one short spur 1 
1. Scutum almost twice as long as wide 2 
Scutum shorter 3 
562282—44 15 220 
Keys to the Indentification of the Ticks of the 
Netherlands Indies—Continued 
Haemaphysalis—Continued 
2. The dorsal posterior margin of the third palpal segment with a spine 
H. novae-guinea* 
The dorsal posterior margin of the 3rd palpal segment without a spine 
H. leachi 
3. Marginal grooves well developed, long ! 5 
Marginal grooves poorly developed, visible only near the peritremes. 4 
Marginal grooves absent ; 6 
4. Cornua weakly developed. Small spur on ventral side of 3rd palpal 
segment H. papuana 
Cornua well developed, very large spur on ventral side of 3rd palpal 
segment . H. monospinosa 
5. Cornua well developed, cervical groove poorly developed (short and 
shallow) H. bispinosa 
Cornua poorly developed, cervical groove well developed (long and 
deep) H. Wellington 
6. Festoons on dorsal side longer than wide. Scutum with dots mixed 
with larger spots H. hystricis 
Festoons on dorsal side wider than long. Scutum with many fine dots 
only H. toxopei 
Females 
The cervical groove reaches the posterior margin of the scutum 
H. toxopei 
The cervical groove does not reach the posterior margin of the 
scutum 1 
1. The third palpal segment with spine on dorsal side 2 
Third palpal segment without spine on dorsal side 3 
2. Cornua absent H. Wellington 
Cornua present 4 
3. Second palpal segment bears dorsally on the lateral surface a broad 
3-sided protrusion which points posteriorly H. leachi 
No such protrusion 5 
4. Peritremes approximately round, cornua short and blunt, scutum oval 
in shape. Cervical grooves converge first, then usually bend 
abruptly outwardly H. bispinosa 
* H. novae-guinea of Krijgsrnan and Ponto, 1932 is preoccupied by H. novaeguinae 
of Hirst. 1914. 221 
Keys to the Identification of the Ticks of the 
Netherlands Indies—Continued 
Haemaphysalis—Continued 
Peritremes pear-shaped, cornua well-developed, scutum round. 
Cervical grooves form deep grooves at distance from anterior margin 
of the scutum and then become shallow and bend toward the 
margin H. hysiricis 
5. The second palpal segment with a well-developed lateral protuber- 
ance; the scutum has a feather-like margin H. cornigera 
The second palpal segment without a well developed lateral protu- 
berance; margin of scutum not feather-like. H. papuana 
Amhlyomma 
Males 
Festoons on dorsal side not visible _* H. papuana 
Festoons on dorsal side easily visible 1 
1. Basis capituli from dorsal view triangular. Legs with shiny green 
flecks dorsally at the joints A. robinsoni 
Basis capituli from dorsal view quadrangular 2 
2. Scutum ornamented. 3 
Scutum not ornamented..., A. sublaeve 
3. Second palpal segment twice as long as third 4 
Second palpal segment less than twice as long as third A. cyprium 
4. Scutum no longer than 3 mm,, ornate with seven clearly marked pale 
flecks one of which lies in the middle A. helvolum 
Scutum S mm. long or longer, ornated differently 5 
5. Scutum gold-yellow with dark brown ornaments. Legs light brown 
with pale rings at the joints. Coxa I with two spurs of unequal 
length A. testudinarium 
Scutum dark brown with pale ornaments. Legs dark brown and 
dorsally with a few pale flecks A. caelaturum 
Females 
Scutum with pale flecks 1 
Scutum without pale flecks 7 
1. Scutum with only three distinct pale flecks on each side 2 
Scutum otherwise 4 
2. Second palpal segment three times as long as third, basis capituli 
forms an approximate trapezoid (with its base anterior). A. caelaturum 
Second palpal segment is less than three times as long as the third, 
basis capituli different than in caelaturum 3 222 
Keys to the Identification of the Ticks of the 
Netherlands Indies—Continued 
A mblyomma—Continued 
3. Coxa II with two spurs, peritremes in shape of equilateral triangles 
A. robinsoni 
Coxa II with a spur, peritremes comma-shaped A. helvolum 
4. Basis capituli clearly triangular A. geomydae 
Basis capituli otherwise S 
5. Marginal grooves developed A. testudinarium 
Marginal grooves undeveloped or absent 6 
6. Scutum triangular, posterior angle acute, hair long A. cyprium 
Scutum more heart-shaped, posterior angle blunt, hair short 
A. dammermani 
7. All coxae have two spurs each A. papuana 
Not all coxae have two spurs each 8 
8. Coxa I and II each with two well developed spurs, innermost spur on 
Coxa III reduced to a small knoblet, marginal grooves absent 
A. cordifer urn 
Coxa I with two broad flat blunt spurs, the other coxae each with one 
broad flat blunt spur; marginal grooves present A. sublaeve 
Males 
Ixodes 
Basis capituli quadrangular I. holocyclus 
Basis capituli five sided ' 1 
1. Posterior margin of Coxa II with two spurs /. cordifer 
Posterior margin of Coxa III with one spur I. granulatus 
Females 
Coxa I with a very long spine on the inside of the posterior margin 
I. spinicoxalis 
Coxa I with a weak spine on the inside of the posterior margin 1 
1. Arms of anal groove converge considerably, legs yellow-red 
I. holocyclus 
Arms of anal groove diverge, legs dark brown I. granulatus Appendix F 
TABLES FOR THE IDENTIFICATION OF 
TROMBIGULID LARVAE OF THE 
NETHERLANDS INDIES 
Larvae of Trombiculid Mites 
The tables in this appendix have been adapted without 
modification from Walch (1922, 1927) and are the most 
complete descriptions available in the literature. Actu- 
ally because of lack of specimens in this country there is 
no way of ascertaining their accuracy and usefulness. It 
should be remembered that in so far as can be ascertained 
in none of the species known to occur in the Netherlands 
Indies have the adult mites been found. Furthermore it 
is quite likely that hitherto undescribed species may be 
encountered which will complicate the use of the tables. 
Nevertheless it appears that the material compiled in 
these tables should at least serve as a starting point in 
the identification of these larvae. 
223 224 
Points for differentiation 
T. muris 
T. oudemansi n. sp. 
T. acuscutellaris 
Color: 
Deep red. 
Red. 
Macroscopical aspect 
Y ellowish-white 
Yellowish-white, sometimes 
orange. 
Scutum: 
T .1 /• • -i 
36 
SO 
68. 
54 . 
72 - 
77. 
Relative position of sensory hairs 
Posterior lateral hairs 10 micra 
Posterior lateral hairs 12 micra 
Posterior lateral hairs 9 micra 
and posterior lateral hairs. 
behind the sensory hairs. 
behind the sensory hairs. 
behind the sensory hairs. 
Length of anterior lateral hair 
17 
27 
42. 
(in micra). 
39 
77. 
Length of sensory hairs (in micra). 
24.. 
Morphology of sensory hairs 
Clubshaped; with distinct hairs. 
Clubshaped. Oblong. Hairs 
Long and slender; distal part 
(measurements in micra). 
Length of stem 7; length of 
very distinct; length of stem 
with 2-3 spines and 8-9 hairs 
body 17; width of body 6. 
8; length of body 31; width 
nearly all on external side; 
- 
of body 9. 
ratio about 2:3. 
Eyes: 
Anterior eye much bigger than 
Size: Refractiveness 
Probably anterior eye>posterior 
Anterior eye> posterior eye. An- 
eye. 
terior eye more refractive 
the posterior one. 
than posterior one. 
Hairs of trunk: 
Number of hairs (average): 
24 
38 + 8 on posterior border of 
19. 
Dorsal surface 
32 or 34 
body. 
30 
24. 
SPECIFIC DETERMINATION OF TROMBICULAE OF THE NETHERLANDS INDIES 225 
Situation of dorsal hairs in trans- 
verse rows. 
Length of dorsal hair (average) 
(in micra). 
Number of lateral branches of 
dorsal hairs (first and second 
row): 
Convex side (in each of both 
rows). 
Concave side (in each of both 
rows). 
Number of hairs on coxae: 
First pair 
10,6,6,4,4,2(10,6,6.6,4,2)... 
20 
8,8, 8,4,2 (2,6.6,2,6,6,2) 
22 
8,6,6,4.2. 
60. 
10-13. 
6-7. 
3-6 
2-S 
2-3 
2-3 
Second pair 
Third pair 
Palp: 
Number and kind of hairs; 
Genu 
1 feathered hair, 2 plain hairs. 
plumose). 
Tarsus (appendiculum) 
4 feathered hairs (3 with only 1 
6 feathered (1 very conspicuous). 
8 feathered hairs (one very con- 
branch), 3 plain hairs, 1 seta. 
1 plain hair, 1 seta. 
spicuous), 1 seta. 
2 
2 
3. 
20 
32 
43. 
micra). 
Rat (Deli). 226 
SPECIFIC DETERMINATION OF TROMBICULAE OF THE NETHERLANDS INDIES—Continued 
s 
Points for differentiation 
T. schuffneri 
T. deliensis 
T. pseudo-akamushi 
Color: 
Red 
Orange-red, sometimes yellow- 
Deep red. 
Red. 
ish-white. 
Scutum: 
55 - 
37 
anterior lateral hairs, 
60. 
84 - 
74 
99. 
Relative position of sensory hairs 
and posterior lateral hairs. 
Length of anterior lateral hair 
(in micra). 
Length of sensory hairs (in 
micra). 
Morphology of sensory hairs 
(measurements in micra). 
Eyes: 
61 
behind the sensory hairs. 
39 
behind the sensory hairs. 
46. 
29 
61 
60. 
Clubshaped with very minute 
hairs; length of stem 7; length 
of body 27; width of body IS. 
Anterior eye> posterior eye 
Long and slender; distal part 
within total 9 hairs; ratio of 
proximal (naked) and distal 
part about 1:1. 
Anterior eye>posterior eye. 
Long and slender; distal part 
with 6-9 hairs on the external 
side; ratio about 1:1. 
Anterior eye>posterior eye. 
Hairs of trunk: 
Number of hairs (average): 
Sometimes the anterior eye is 
more refractive than the pos- 
terior one. 227 
Dorsal surface 
42 
28 . 
20. 
12 (13). 
8, 6, 4, 2 (8, 6, 2. 4). 
Ventral surface 
30 
21 
Situation of dorsal hairs in trans- 
10, 10, 8, 8, 6 (with slight varia- 
10, 6, 6, 4, 2 
verse rows. 
tion). 
Length of dorsal hair (average) 
(in micra). 
30 
42 (large individual variation)... 
44. 
Number of lateral branches of 
dorsal hairs (first and second 
row): 
Convex side (in each of both 
6-8 
9-12 
7-8. 
rows). 
Concave side (in each of both 
2-4 
3-6 
3-S. 
rows). 
Number of hairs on coxae: 
First pair 
Second pair 
Third pair 
Palp: 
Number and kind of hairs: 
Trochanlero-femur 
1 feathered hair. 
1 plain hair. 
1 feathered, 2 plain hairs. 
Genu.... 
1 feathered hair, 2 plain hairs 
1 feathered, 2 plain hairs (1 of 
the latter on ventral surface). 
7 feathered hairs, 1 rod shaped 
seta. 
7 feathered (one of them very 
conspicuous), 1 plain hair, 1 
Number of prongs of claw 
2 
2 (3) 
seta, 
2. 
Chelicerae: Length of hook (in micra). 
S3 
23 
42. 
Galea: Hair 
Unfeathered. 
Swine; man; fowl (Deli). 
Host: Kind of host 228 
SPECIFIC DETERMINATION OF TROMBICULAE OF THE NETHERLANDS INDIES—Continued 
Points for differentiation 
T. pseudo-schuffneri 
T. glabrum 
T. globulare 
Color: 
34. 
61. 
Posterior lateral hairs 3 micra in 
front of sensory hairs. 
43. 
25. 
Clubshaped with very minute 
hairs. Length of stem 6, 
length of body 19, width of 
body IS. Pseudostigmata very 
close to each other. 
Anterior eye>posterior one An- 
terior eye more refractive than 
posterior one. 
41-38+7 on posterior. 
Scutum: 
Pentagonal with anterior mar- 
gin; longer than lateral margin. 
49 . 
The 2 halves of the posterior 
margin meet one another at 
a sharp angle. 
49 
76 
SO 
Relative position of sensory hairs 
and posterior lateral hairs. 
Length of anterior lateral hairs 
(in micra). 
Length of sensory hairs (in micra). 
Morphology of sensory hairs 
(measurements in micra). 
Eyes; 
Posterior lateral hairs 6 micra in 
front of sensory hairs. 
67 
Posterior lateral hairs 17 micra 
behind the sensory hairs. 
28 - 
36 
29 
Clubshaped with very minute 
hairs; length of stem 10; 
length of body 26, width of 
body 13. 
Anterior eye>posterior one. An- 
terior eye more refractive 
than posterior one. 
Clubshaped, with distinct hairs. 
Length of stem 4; length of 
body 25, width of body 13. 
Probably only 1 eye present, 
perhaps none. 
Hairs of trunk: 
Number of hairs (average): Dor- 
sal surface. 229 
Situation of dorsal hairs in trans- 
verse rows. 
Length of dorsal hair (on an 
average) (in micra). 
12, 6, 6, 4, 4 (with slight indi- 
vidual variation). 
4.D ... 
8 6, 6, 2 
With individual variation, eg. 
10, 6, 6, 8, 6, 2. 
33. 
Distinct 
Very distinct. 
Number of lateral branches of 
dorsal hairs (first and second 
row: 
Convex side (in each of both 
rows). 
Concave side (in each of both 
rows). 
Number of hairs on coxae: 
7 9 
6-8 
9-12. 
3-4 
7-8. 
1. 
1 
1. 
2. 
Palp: 
Number and kind of hairs: 
1 feathered hair. 
1 (long) plain hair 
1 feathered hair. 
_L. 
3 plain hairs 
3 feathered hair. 
6 feathered (one of them very 
conspicuous), 2 plain hairs. 
5-6 feathered hairs (1 of them 
very consplscuous), 1 plain 
hair? 
_ T ! f _ f 1 
2. 
.Number ot prongs ol cisw....... 
Chelicerae: Length of hook (in micra). 
32 
23- - 
30. 
Unfeathered... 
Slightly feathered. 
Man, rat (Lampong districts, 
South Sumatra). 
Rat (Lampong districts).. 
Rat (South Celebes). 230 
Points for differentiation 
T. densipiliata 
T. vandersandei 
T. wichmanni 
Color: 
Red 
Red. 
Red. 
Scutum: 
Nearly hexagonal. The an- 
terior margin is the longest 
one; posterior border slightly 
curved inward. 
Resembles that of T. pseudo- 
akam., only the posterior 
margin is curved inward in 
middle. 
51 
81 
Relative position of sensory 
hairs and posterior lateral hairs. 
Length of anterior lateral hair 
(in micra). 
Length of sensory hairs (in micra). 
Morphology of sensory hairs 
(measurements in micra). 
Eyes: 
behind the sensory hairs. 
SI 
sensory hairs. 
45 
Long and slender; distal part 
with 1 spine and three rows 
of hairs (4, 5, 5), ratio about 
4:3. 
Anterior eye much bigger than 
the posterior one and much 
more refractive. 
58 
Clubshaped; with very minute 
hairs. 
Long and slender; distal pan 
with about 5 hairs. 
Hairs of trunk: 
Number of hairs (average): 
Dorsal surface 
SO 
24. 
SPECIFIC DETERMINATION OF TROMBICULAE OF THE NETHERLANDS INDIES—Continued 231 
35 
42 
14. 
6, 6, 6, 6 (newly hatched larvae). 
Situation of dorsal hairs in trans- 
verse rows. 
Length of dorsal hair (on an aver- 
age) (in micra). 
Number of lateral branches of 
dorsal hairs (first and second 
row) 
Convex side (in each of both 
rows). 
Concave side (in each of both 
rows). 
Number of hairs on coxae; 
10,9, 12, 11,6,4, 4,2 
12, 10, 10, 10, 8 
SO 
7-9 
3-S... 
Palp: 
Number and kind of hairs; 
Tibia 
1 hair with 1 branch, 2 plain 
1 feathered hair, 1 plain hair 
1 feathered, 2 plain hairs. 
hairs. 
spicuous), 1 seta. 
2 plain hairs (1 of them is 
short). 
3 
2 
2. 
44 
micra). 
forest. 
New Guinea. 232 
SPECIFIC DETERMINATION OF TROMBICULAE OF THE NETHERLANDS INDIES—Continued 
Points for differentiation 
Leeuwenhoekia australiensis 
SchGngastia salmi 
Color: 
Macrbscopical aspect 
Scutum: 
Form 
In the middle of the anterior margin there is 
Posterior part slightly corrugated. 
Length (in micra) 
a forwardedly directed, elongated process 
(length 27 micra). 
86 
60. 
10S. 
Relative position of sensory hairs and 
Posterior lateral hairs 4 micra in front of 
Sensory hairs half way the line connecting the 
posterior lateral hairs. 
sensory hairs. 
anterior and the one uniting the posterior 
Length of anterior lateral hairs (in micra). 
lateral hairs. 
Equal to the distance between the two anterior 
Length of sensory hairs (in micra) 
Morphology of sensory hairs (measure- 
61 
Long and slender distal part with 4 or 5 side- 
lateral hairs. 
Clubshaped (resembling those of T. vander- 
ments in micra). 
hairs, ratio of proximal (naked) and distal 
sandei, T. schuffneri, etc.) with very minute 
part about 2:3. 
hairs. Pseuodostigmata widely apart, hidden 
in a body falx. 
Eyes: 
Anterior eye much larger than posterior one, 
Anterior eye>posterior one... 
also much more refractive. 
Hairs of trunk: 
Number of hairs (average): Dorsal sur- 
64+6 on border 
116+12 on border. 
face. 233 
Situation of dorsal hairs in transverse 
rows. 
Length of dorsal hair (on an average) (in 
micra). 
8, 14. 8, 10,8, 6,4 
48 
14, 12, 10, 10. 10. 10, 10, 10. 10. 10. 10. 
Number of laterial branches of dorsal 
hairs (first and second row): 
Convex side (in each of both rows).. 
Concave side (in each of both rows).. 
Number of hairs on coxae: 
10-12 
2-8 
2 . 
1. 
1 
1. 
3. 
1 
Palp: 
Number and kind of hairs: 
Tibia 
2 feathered hairs and 1 plain hair or 3 feath- 
ered hairs. 
3 1 
3. 
Chelicerae: Length of hook (in micra) 
S3 
Galea: Hair 
Unknown (Java)i  
Name of species 
Kinds of hairs 
T. schufneri 
T. deliensis 
T. pseudoakamushi 
T. muris 
Feathered 
hairs 
Bristles 
Rod-shaped 
setae 
Spines 
Feathered 
hairs 
Bristles 
Rod-shaped 
setae 
Spines 
Feathered 
hairs 
Bristles 
Rod-shaped 
setae 
Spines 
Feathered 
hairs 
Bristles 
Rod-shaped 
setae 
Spines 
First leg: 
1 
1 
1 
1 
1 
1 
1 
1 
s 
s 
s 
|S or 
1 » 
4 
3 
1 
4 
2 
1 
4 
3 
1 
1 4+ 
4 
1 
3 
1 
8 
2 
1 
8 
2 
1 
8 
2 
1 
8 
2 
1 
20 
3 
1 
1 
21 
3 
1 
1 
21 
3 
1 
1 
21 
2 
1 
1 
Second leg; 
1 
1 
1 
1 
2 
2 
2 
2 
4 
4 
4 
4 
3 
1 
3 
1 
3 
1 
3 
1 
6 
2 
6 
2 
6 
2 
J6+ or 
I 7+ 
14 
3? 
I 
6 segment 
17 
1 
1 
1 
1S-17 
1 
1 
1 
15 
1 
1 
1 
2 
1 
1 
1 
1 
234 
NUMBER AND KINDS OF HAIRS ON THE LEGS OF TROxMBICULIDS OF THE 
NETHERLANDS INDIES 235 
Third leg: 
1 segment 
1 
1 
1 
1 
2 segment 
2 
2 
2 
2 
3 segment 
3 
3 
3 
3 
4 segment 
3 
1 
3 
1 
3 
3 
1 
S segment 
6 
1 
6 
1 
6 
1 
6 
1 
6 segment 
14 
(*) 
IS 
13 
(•) 
112£ 
1 
(, or 14 
1 
6 One very long. 
562282—44 16 236 
NUMBER AND KINDS OF HAIRS ON THE LEGS OF TROM- 
BICULIDS OF THE NETHERLANDS INDIES—Continued 
Kinds of hairs 
Name of species 
T. oudemansi 
T. acuscutellaris 
7\ densipiliata 
*c3 
xs 
T3 
o 
c 
V 
X3 
£ 
J5 
CO 
*c 
PQ 
V 
OS 
*-> 
1) 
T3 
V 
a 
rt 
-C 
p2 
5 
e 
'a 
CO 
*«s 
Xi 
1) 
fi 
B 
*-> 
V 
U* 
CO 
JJ 
*s 
PQ 
V 
a 
T3 
O 
a 
TJ 
& 
CO 
V 
.2 
‘a 
CO 
JS 
T3 
1) 
fa 
B 
U3 
ci 
ao 
B 
Tj 
*C 
PQ 
V 
rt 
13 
a 
& 
8 
.2 
*a 
CO 
First leg: 
i 
Is 
4 
8 
22 
1 
I6 
3 
6 
16 
1 
3 
6 
14 
i 
{1 
4 
8 
21 
{i 
3 
6 
16 
{i 
3 
6 
14 
1 
1 
s 
4 
8 
22 
1 
2 
4 
3 
6 
15 
1 
2 
3 
3 
6 
14 
2 
2 
3 
1 
i 
i 
0(1?) 
4 segment 
5 segment 
6 segment--- 
Second leg: 
3 
2 
3 
1 
1 
1 
1 
2 
2 
2 
1 
i 
i 
i 
1 
2 
1 
1 
2 
1 
1 
2 
1 
6 segment 
Third leg: 
i 
1 
1 
1 
1 
i 
1 
1 
1 
1 
1 
(*) 
1 
1 
{ One very long. * 237 
NUMBER AND KINDS OF HAIRS ON THE LEGS OF TROM- 
BICULIDS OF THE NETHERLANDS INDIES—Continued 
Kinds of hairs 
Name of species 
T. vandersandei4 
T. tvichmanni* 
T. pseudo-s chuffnerx 
J-s 
-o 
V 
V 
JS 
ft 
V 
U-i 
jj 
V 
ft 
*d 
V 
a 
ft 
-G 
*d 
& 
V 
C 
‘a 
CO 
CO 
c 
-a 
*d 
g 
♦-» 
V 
*c 
CQ 
ft 
*•» 
V 
*d 
a 
e« 
-d 
8 
a 
*a 
co 
c3 
'O 
g 
ja 
ft 
V 
fC0 
*c 
M 
05 
d 
V 
*d 
a 
c* 
-g 
*d 
0 
09 
V 
G 
*a 
CO 
First leg: 
1 
1 
5 
4 
8 
18-21 
1 
2 
4 
3 
6 
16 
1 
2 
3 
3 
6 
14 
i 
3 
1 
i 
i 
i 
3 
2 
3 
i 
i 
i 
i 
i 
1 
— 
i 
Second leg: 
1 
1 
i 
i 
i 
1 
2 
1 
1 
.... 
i 
i 
i 
Third leg: 
1 
I 
i 
i 
(•) 
1 
1 
« 
* After A. C. Oudemans. I suppose that Dr. Oudemans had not the intention to give a 
list of all the plain hairs, but only of those he considered to be a kind of sensory hairs; 
so we cannot compare his account with ours without further explanation. I have added 
his figures though, in order to give as much information as possible about the Trombidia, 
that Dr. Oudemans has described already nearly 20 years ago. 
5 One very long. 238 
NUMBER AND KINDS OF HAIRS ON THE LEGS OF TROM- 
BICULIDS OF THE NETHERLANDS INDIES—Continued 
Name of species 
/ 
T. glabrum 
T. globulare 
Leeuwenhoekia 
traliensis 
aus- 
Kind of hairs 
Feathered hairs 
Bristles 
Rod-shaped setae 
Spines 
Feathered hairs 
Bristles 
Rod-shaped setae 
Spines 
Feathered hairs 
Bristles 
Rod-shaped setae 
Spines 
First leg: 
1 
1 
1 
1 a 
1 
1 
5 
J 
4 
2 
1 
4 
1 
i 
4 
2 
1 
8 
2 
1 
8 
2 
i 
8 
2 
1 
19 
3 
1 
1 
20 
3 
1 
i 
23 
2 
1 
1 
Second leg: 
1 
1 
1 
1 
2 
I5 
5 
4 
3 
2 
1 
3 
1 
4 
1 
6 
2 
1 
6 
2 
6 
2 
16 
1 
1 
1 
17 
1 
1 
i 
16 
1 
1 
Third leg: 
1 
1 
1 
2 segment 
!is 
| 2 
|4 
1 3 
i 
3 
1 
3 
1 
4 
1 
6 
6 
1 
>6 
1 
16 
IS 
» 13 
* One of which is short, thin and possesses only one side hair. 
• Two of them very long, with only a few side hairs at the base, ending 
> One of them as described for the long hairs of the fifth article. 
as a whip. Appendix G 
NOTES ON THE CLIMATOLOGY OF THE 
NETHERLANDS INDIES 
The following notes have been extracted from the rather 
extensive treatment by Braak (1931) on the climatology 
of the Netherlands Indies. 
Sumatra.—Sumatra has a typical wet, humid, tropical 
climate. On the west coast the annual rainfall is 110 to 
155 inches, although this figure is exceeded in some local- 
ities. In general all of coastal Sumatra and its adjacent 
islands have a very similar climate characterized as very 
rainy with but traces of the monsoon winds <md with a 
prevalence of local land and sea breezes. In spite of the 
low wind velocities there is a strong surf on the Indian 
Ocean, especially outside the small fringing islands. 
Further inland on the slopes of the Barisan Mountains, 
which run the length of the island, the rainfall may be more 
than 150 inches per year. 
The east coast has much less rainfall than the west. 
The annual figures here are about 75 inches, varying 
with the locality. In the broad plains of middle and 
south Sumatra rainfall is very evenly distributed and 
ranges from 75 to 110 inches per year. In the interior 
at Palembang the monsoons are well developed. Their 
directions are southeast or northwest depending on the 
season. The driest month has a rainfall of less than 4 
inches only in the extreme southwestern part of the plain. 
Elsewhere a rainfall of less than 4 inches per month occurs 
only at Atjeh on the north coast. In the region of Medan 
239 240 
the average of the longest rainless period per month is 18 
days. The longest absolute dry period varies from 25 to 
35 days depending on the station. 
On the east slope of the Barisan Mountains the annual 
rainfall may be more than 150 inches but is usually much 
less in the valleys. 
The driest region in Sumatra is that around Toba Lake. 
The high places in North Sumatra are fairly cool with a 
mean temperature of 17.4° C. at Seribadolok. Here 
there are strong west winds from May to October. 
Borneo.—Borneo has a very uniform tropical climate. 
In the southeast (Bandjermasin) and in one part of North 
Borneo (Jesselton) there is a sharp division between the 
wet and dry seasons, although there is a certain amount 
of rain throughout the year. There is no marked differ- 
ence between the lee and windward sides of this island 
comparable to the conditions in Java and Sumatra, be- 
cause in Borneo the mountainous country is proportion- 
ately much smaller and located in the center of the island. 
Local land and sea breezes are not well developed along 
the wooded shores. Yearly variations in temperature 
are negligible. The humidity is constantly high and 
cloudy weather is the rule. The location of the moun- 
tains allows the shore breezes to pass inland. Rainfall 
increases in the mountains. Monsoons are most powerful 
in extreme West Borneo, in the region around the city 
of Sambas. In the costal region (Panangkat, Montrado, 
Singkawang) the wind direction is from northwest to 
southwest in the afternoon, and northeast to southeast 
in the evening. In the interior valleys local mountain 
winds are most important. 
Java and Madoera.—West Java is a transition be- 
tween the tropical areas with a homogeneous year around 
rainfall, and East Java a region with a dry monsoon 
season. In East Java the east monsoon brings weather 241 
in which the sun shines throughout the day, humidity 
decreases, and vegetation and rivers dry up. 
West Java can be divided into three parts: (1) The hot 
and relatively dry inland plain around Batavia, (2) the 
high cool inland plain with moderate rainfall (Bandang, 
Garut, and Malabar), and (3) the rainy slopes and moun- 
tain tops to the north of the coastal plain (table A). 
Station 
Annual 
(inches) 
Minimum 
month (inches) 
Maximum 
month (inches) 
Muaramuntai 
61.8 
2.2 
Sepi. 
8.0 
Mar. 
Kuching 
1S9.0 
4.1 
July 
26.6 
Jan. 
Tawao 
74.9 
3.2 
Apr. 
8.6 
July 
8.7 
Nov. 
Malabar 
102.2 
2.4 
Aug. 
14.0 
Feb. 
Leinbang 
57.5 
2.7 
July 
13.0 
Nov. 
Sumadra 
177.5 
4.6 
Aug. 
23.2 
Feb. 
Pekalongan 
87.0 
2.7 
Sept. 
18.2 
Jan. 
Gombong 
131.0 
2.9 
Aug. 
18.6 
Dec. 
Cheribon 
87.8 
0.9 
Aug. 
17.6 
Jan. 
Kediri 
69.5 
0.6 
Aug. 
12.6 
Feb. 
Taruna 
156.0 
8.1 
Aug. 
18.6 
Dec. 
Rantepao 
154.1 
5.2 
Aug. 
20.4 
Apr. 
Gorontalo. 
47.5 
1.8 
Sept. 
5.3 
Dec. 
Singkang 
64.0 
2.2 
Sept. 
6.1 
Mar. 
9.4 
May 
Bonthain 
53.9 
1.0 
Sept. 
8.2 
June 
Paloe 
21.4 
1.3 
Dec. 
2.7 
June 
Watapone 
98.6 
3.1 
Sept. 
15.0 
June 
Table A.—Rainfall in Java and Madoera 
In general, June, July, August, and September are the 
driest months especially in East Java. November, 
December, January, and February are in general the 
wettest months. The difference between the dry and wet 
seasons are not as distinct in West Java. The dry season 
on the north coast of Java extends into November. 
Celebes.—Rainfall of 150 inches or more per year 
occurs only in the mountains on the northern peninsula. 
The Sangihe Islands as well as Una Una, areas in the 242 
mountains of central Celebes, and on the west side of the 
southwest peninsula have 100 to 150 inches rainfall per 
year. Most of the island has an annual rainfall of 75 to 
120 inches although there are areas with 35 to 75 inches. 
On Celebes there is considerable variation in the annual 
distribution of rainfall. In the greater part of Central 
Celebes where the monsoons exert little influence the 
heaviest rain occurs from January to March (April 
in Rantepao). On the north coast of Menado the heaviest 
rainfall occurs in January (15 to 25 inches). On the west 
coast at Makassar the month of the heaviest rainfall is 
also January (20 to 25 inches). The northern part of the 
west coast has a rainfall maximum in November and 
December. There are frequently maxima in May in 
southwest Celebes (Sindjai) and, excepting the west coast, 
in all South Celebes. In the northwest (Paloe) the maxi- 
mum occurs in June. On the northern peninsula and also 
in central Celebes the driest months are August and 
September. 
In northern and eastern parts of Central Celebes and 
in the eastern part of southeast Celebes (Kendari), the 
minimum is in October. It is very dry during the east 
monsoon on the west coastal plain of South Celebes. Palutal 
is the driest place in the entire archipelago. The west 
monsoon in January brings rain to the western part of 
South Celebes. In general, temperatures are uniform 
throughout the year. 
Lesser Soenda and Timor.—The annual rainfall in 
these islands is much less than in the remainder of the 
archipelago because of the dry season which occurs during 
the east monsoon. Annual rainfall in excess of 75 inches 
occurs only in the heights of Southern Bali and In the 
mountains of Flores. Most stations have 35 to 75 
inches. The east coast of Lombok, the north coast of 
Soemba, and the north coast of Flores have less than 243 
35 inches per year. In general the driest areas in the Lesser 
Soenda are the north coasts of the southern row of islands. 
Some have as little at 0.2 inch rainfall during the driest 
month. The south coast of Timor has 0.5 inch in August 
and 0.5 inch in September. Soemba, Saroe, Roti, and 
Timor have in their nonvolcanic areas a typical savannah 
flora, quite uncommon in the tropics. The highest 
temperatures and the lowest amount of cloudiness occur in 
the months of October and November in the Lesser Soenda 
Islands. The small plateau of Badjawa in Flores (3,750 
feet) has a mean annual temperature of 19° C. 
Molukkas.—These islands lie east of the region of the 
east monsoon dry seasons and are wetter than Celebes at 
this time of the year. The average rainfall is 75 to 100 
inches although south Saparoea and Ambon (140 inches) 
are exceptions. The mountains as well as the monsoon 
winds exert considerable influence on the rainfall. For 
instance, in Ceram, Wahai on the north coast has three 
times as much rain in January and February as does 
Amahai on the south coast during the same period; in 
September the relation is reversed. 
There is no dry season. Temperatures are uniform 
throughout the year (table B). 
Station 
Annual 
(inches) 
Minimum month 
(inches) 
Maximum month (inches) 
Aloe 
79.5 
0.5 Sept. 
17.1 Jan. 
Tondano 
74.8 
2.9 Aug. 
| 8.3 Apr. 
1 8.1 Nov. 
Tabanan 
105.1 
4.0 Sept. 
15.1 Jan. 
Ende.. 
45.7 
0.8 Aug. 
6.7 Dec., Jan., Feb. 
Wahai 
85.6 
3.2 Aug. 
16.6 Feb. 
Amahai 
106.3 
3.9 Nov.-Dee. 
16.9 July 
Banda - 
104.7 
4.3 Aug. 
15.4 May 
Ternate.-. 
86.2 
4.0 Aug. 
9.3 May 
Serwaroe.. 
48.4 
0.4 Aug.-Sept. 
8.7 Apr. 
Saumlakki 
66.5 
0.3 Sept. 
10.3 Jan. 
Table B.—Rainfall in Molukkas 244 
Kei and Aroe Islands.—The general rule in this 
group of islands is an increase in rainfall from west to 
east. Serwaroe on Leti has 45 inches per year. Saum- 
lakki on Jamdena has 65 inches per year while Tual and 
Dobo have more than 80 inches. The dryness of the east 
monsoon is much less at Tual and Dobo than at Saum- 
lakki. The rainfall of the driest months is slightly greater 
than during the driest months on Timor. 
New Guinea.—Although the monsoon winds are well 
developed over the water surrounding New Guinea, in 
general they exert little effect on the climate of New 
Guinea. An exception is the broad lowland between the 
Digoel River and the south coast in southeast Dutch 
New Guinea over which both the southeast and northwest 
monsoons are well marked. Rainfall increases eastward 
from a line between Celebes and the Molukkas and east 
of Timor. The west monsoon (northwest) brings rain 
and high temperatures to southeast Dutch New Guinea, 
whereas the east monsoon is drier and cooler. The rest 
of southern Dutch New Guinea, excepting a small coastal 
area, has its maximum rainfall from May to September. 
From June to August temperatures are relatively low 
(23° to 24° C.). The mountains in the interior may have 
an annual rainfall of 250 to 325 inches annually. 
Table C.—Rainfall in New Guinea 
Station 
Annual 
(inches) 
Minimum 
month 
(inches) 
Maximum 
month 
(inches) 
60.6 
0.9 Aug. 
|8.3 Aug. 
112.1 
jl3.1 May 
16.8 Feb. 
164.0 
1.8.0 Dec. 
9.5 July 
7.1 July 
4.0 July 
2.7 Aug. 
2.7 June 
7.5 Feb. 
117.0 
14.2 Feb. 
108.2 
13.4 Apr. 
16.3 Jan. 
18.2 Aug. 
27.5 June 
12.2 Mar. 
118.0 
130.0 
204.0 
106.1 
128.6 
3.9 Aug. 
19.1 Mar. 245 
In western Dutch New Guinea the south coast is cooled 
during the east monsoon; the wind is stronger than during 
the west monsoons. The climate in general is warm and 
rainy. Highest temperatures are recorded In October and 
November with the lowest occurring in January and 
February although there is only 0.8° C. difference between 
the means of the warmest and coolest months. The dif- 
ference between the mean relative humidity of the most 
humid month (December, 90 percent) and the least 
humid month (May, 85 percent) is 5 percent. The mini- 
mum rainfall is in August. 
The southeast monsoon is not completely stopped by 
the mountains since its effects are observed in the Geelvink 
Bay Region. With the beginning of the southeast mon- 
soon, known as wam-braw there is an increase in tempera- 
ture and the air becomes drier. Wam-braw usually blows 
in periods of 4 to 8 days with slight decreases at night. 
The strength of the wind is sufficient to prevent the use of 
native boats. On Japen (off the northwest coast) the 
greatest rainfall occurs in February; the least in July. 
Along the northern cost of Dutch New Guinea the west 
monsoon is strongest. There are no reliable rainfall data 
for this area although the annual figure is probably 80 to 
125 inches. The warmest months are October and No- 
vember. In the level country of the upper Mamberamo 
and Idenburg Rivers the annual rainfall is 125 to 175 
inches. 
The snow line in the mountains of New Guinea is 
about 14,000 feet. Appendix H 
INTERMEDIATE HOSTS OF TREMA- 
TODE PARASITES OF MAN IN THE 
SOUTHWEST PACIFIC 
Dr. Paul Bartsch 
Curator of Mollusks and Cenozoic Invertebrates 
U. S. National Museum 
Trematode worms, parasitic in man, constitute an 
abundant menace to human health in the South Pacific 
area. No less than 21 species are known from the region. 
The Importance and abundance of some of these parasites 
becomes at once apparent by Faust’s estimate that China 
alone has 100,000,000 inhabitants suffering from schisto- 
somiasis. 
The adult worms of the different species seek different 
parts of the human body for their activities, some choosing 
blood vessels, others the lungs and still others the digestive 
tract or liver. 
The group as a whole, as far as known, has one char- 
acteristic in common in its life history, namely, that the 
early part of the life history of these parasites requires a 
molluscan (snail) intermediate host in which the young 
after hatching may find a suitable habitat and nourish- 
ment for their further, rather complicated development 
through sporocyst and redia stages to cercaria in which 
phase they leave the snail and become the infective agent 
for man. 
Some trematodes are not content with one intermediate 
host, but have a second, which may be fish or crustacean. 
246 247 
All the intermediate hosts here mentioned are fresh- 
water mollusks, living in streams, ditches, pools, or lakes. 
Practically all are shallow-water forms, frequenting the 
margins of these bodies of water. Some even are am- 
phibious, i. e., they may crawl out upon the wet land 
margins of the water. In sun-exposed places they may 
seek the shade of the aquatic vegetation. 
Most of the species are small. To gather the smaller 
forms it may become necessary to sift some of the mud on 
the water’s edge; a fly screen mesh will be fine enough. 
Or, one may take a burlap sack and sew it to a hoop and 
use this for scraping up mud and vegetable detritus, 
washing the finer silt through the sack and examining 
the residue in the bag for mollusks. 
The living mollusks can be placed in glass jars; fruit 
jars will answer. These should not be placed in direct 
sunlight, but should have ample light. If they prove 
infected, the cercariae will, when they reach the proper 
stage of development, escape from the mollusks and can 
readily be seen as minute free-swimming animals when one 
holds the jar up against the light. 
In plate 1, I have figured representations of most of the 
genera of mollusks that are known to have served as inter- 
mediate hosts for various species of trematodes in the 
Southwest Pacific. The list of explanations tells which. 
I have avoided figuring all the species since I believe that 
is not necessary. 
Jt is very desirable, however, to have representatives of 
the freshwater mollusks from as many places as possible 
sent to the Division of Mollusks, U. S. National Museum, 
Washington, D. C., for positive determination, for com- 
paratively little of the fauna of the South Sea Islands has 
been exhaustively studied. Every sending, therefore, will 
be a decided contribution to our knowledge. It is desir- 
able to have some specimens preserved with the animal 248 
for anatomic study. This can be readily done by drop- 
ping them in 70 percent alcohol. The amount of alcohol 
should be ten times the bulk of specimens. 
Empty shells or shells with the animal dried in them 
are also acceptable. Locality labels with the specimens are 
absolutely necessary and if it has been observed that cer- 
tain species are serving as intermediate hosts this fact 
should be mentioned on the label. 
A determination of the pH of the water from which 
mollusks have been obtained may help in suggesting con- 
trol measures. Schistosome intermediate hosts appear to 
need a slightly acid habitat, which can be changed to an 
alkaline condition by strewing crushed limestone along the 
margin of bodies of water. This in turn produces an un- 
desirable ecologic condition that will eliminate the mol- 
lusk. In some other conditions copper sulphate has been 
found a good control agent. Much desirable experiment- 
ing is needed in this direction. Plate 1 (Appendix H). Illustrating molluscan intermediate hosts of 
trematodes (figures 6, 7, 8, 9, 28, 29, are 0.6 natural size; figures 15, 
16, 17, 18, 19, X 1.5). 249 
Explanation of Plate 1 (Appendix H) 
1. Digoniostoma robusta H. Adams. 
2. Katayama nosophora Robson. 
3. Oncomelania hupensis Gredler. 
4. Schistosomophora quadrasi Mollendorff. 
5. Alocinma longicornis Benson. 
6. Tarebia obliquigranosa E. A. Smith. 
7. Melanoides tuberculatus Muller. 
8. Wanga nodiperda connectens Martens. 
9. Semisulcospira libertina Gould. 
10. Parafossarulus manchouricus Bourguignat 
11. Wattebledia crosseana Wattebled. 
12. Bulimus misellus Gredler. 
13. Stenothyra divalis Gould. 
14. Fairbankia parva Lea. 
15. Lymnaea javanica Mousson. 
16. Fossaria ollula Gould. 
17. Myxas papyracea Tate. 
18. Physastra (Ameria) carinata H. Adams. 
19. Physastra sumatrana Martens. 
20-21. Gyraulus chinensis Bunker. 
22-23. Segmentina hemisphaerula Benson. 
24-25. Hippeutis cantori Benson. 
26-27. Indoplanorbis exustus Deshayes. 
28. Pila conica Gray. 
29. Viviparus javanicus Busch. 250 
Genera of mollusks which have served as intermediate hosts for 
trematodes: 
Katayama 
Oncomelania 
Schistosomophora_ 
Foss aria 
Intermediate hosts of Schistosoma 
japonicum. 
Intermediate host of Fasciola hepatica 
and F. gigantea. 
Segmentina 
Gyraulus 
Hippeutis 
Gyraulus 
Lymnaea 
Fiviparus 
Pila 
Lymnaea 
Indoplanorbis_. 
Lymnaea 
Physastra 
Viviparus 
Segmentina 
Gyraulis 
Viviparus 
Parafossarulus. 
Intermediate hosts of Fasciolopsis 
buski. 
Intermediate hosts of Echinostoma 
ilocanum. 
Intermediate hosts of Echinostoma 
malayanum. 
Intermediate hosts of Echinostoma 
revolutum. 
Intermediate hosts of Echinostoma 
lindoensis. 
Intermediate host of Echinochasmus 
perfoliatus. 
Semisulcospira. 
Intermediate host of Metagonimus 
yokogawai. 
Bulimus 
Intermediate host of Opisihorchis 
felineus. 
Parafossarulus 
Bulimus 
Alocinma 
Semisulcospira. 
Wanga 
Tarebia 
Melanoides 
Intermediate hosts of Clonorchis 
sinensis. 
Intermediate hosts of Paragonimus 
w ester mani.