MERICAN RED CROSS 
ABRIDGED TEXT-BOOK ON 
FIRST AID 
-ENERAL EDITION AMERICAN RED CROSS 
ABRIDGED 
FIRST AID TEXT-BOOK 
GENERAL EDITION 
LYNCH AMERICAN RED CROSS ABRIDGED TEXT-BOOK 
ON 
FIRST AID 
GENERAL EDITION 
A MANUAL OF INSTRUCTION 
BY 
MAJOR CHARLES J^YNCH 
MEDICAL CORPS, UNITED STAINS ARMY 
Prepared for and Endorsed by the American Red Cross 
WITH 55 ILLUSTRATIONS 
PHILADELPHIA 
P. BLAKISTON’S SON & CO. 
1012 WALNUT STREET 
19 10 Copyright, 1910, by P. Blakiston’s Son & Co. 
Printed by 
The Maple Press 
York, Pa. CONTENTS. 
CHAPTER I. 
Structure and Mechanics of the Body. pages 
The Body; Bones; Joints; Muscles; Circulation; Respira- 
tory System; Digestive System; Nervous System; 
Special Senses; The Skin 1-19 
CHAPTER II 
First Aid Materials. 
Bandages; Compresses; Plaster, Collodion and Similar 
Substances; Splints; Tourniquets; Heat and Cold; 
Stimulants; Emetics . . 20-48 
CHAPTER III 
General Directions for Rendering First Aid 
Shock 49-53 
CHAPTER IV. 
Injuries in which the Skin IS NOT Pierced nor 
Broken. 
Bruises; Strains; Sprains; Dislocations; Fractures . . . 54-76 
V VI 
CONTENTS. 
CHAPTER V. 
Injuries in which the Skin IS Pierced or Broken. 
PAGES 
Wounds and Hemorrhage; Internal Hemorrhage; Xose 
Bleed; Abdominal Wounds; Wounds in which 
Foreign Bodies Remain 77—95 
CHAPTER VI 
Injuries from the Local Effects of Heat, Cold, and 
Electricity. 
Burns and Scalds, including Burns from Electricity; 
Frost Bite 96-100 
CHAPTER VII. 
Unconsciousness, Partial and Complete, and 
Poisoning. 
Shock; Electric Shock; Fainting; Alcoholic Poisoning; 
Apoplexy and Injury to the Brain; Sunstroke and 
Heat Exhaustion; Freezing; Suffocation; Poisoning. 103-122 
CHAPTER VIII. 
How to Carry Injured 123-141 
CHAPTER IX 
Injuries and Emergencies of Indoor and 
Outdoor Sports. 
1. Gymnasium. 2. Baseball. 3. Football. 4. Celebra- 
tion of July Fourth 5 Boating, Skating and VII 
PAGES 
Swimming. 6. Shooting and Fishing 7- Auto- 
mobile 8. Camping and Summer Outings .... 142-164 
CHAPTER X 
Common Emergencies. 
1. Cramp or Colic. 2. Diarrhea. 3 Constipation. 4. 
Nausea and Vomiting 5. Hiccough. 6. Chill from 
Exposure. 7. Nervous Attacks, 8. Croup. 9- 
Neuralgia of Face. 10. Tooth-ache. n. Earache. 
12 Styes. 13. Prickly Heat 14- Chilblains. 15. 
Corns. Emergency Supplies for the Home 165-177 
Index • • • 09 
CONTENTS. PREFACE. 
GENERAL EDITION. 
This edition is one of a series which are being published under 
the auspices of the American Red Cross on the subject of First Aid 
to the Injured. The body of all these editions will be identical, 
as the most essential facts in respect to first aid are the same, but 
in order to adapt each to the needs of the particular class for which 
it is designed appropriate chapters have been added to the body 
of the book for each edition. 
The industrial edition which has already been published is 
better adapted to the special needs of workmen in that field and 
its use for them is advised. This edition is for general use. 
As the experience of the author increases in first-aid instruction 
he is more and more convinced of the benefits to be gained there- 
from and impressed with the fact that anyone of ordinary intelli- 
gence can learn how to administer first aid if he seriously desirtes to 
do so, and the subject is well taught. This serious purpose must be 
furnished by the student and it is hoped the present manual fills 
its mission in teaching as well as may be. As is the case with 
most practical subjects, however, a good teacher is highly desirable 
if not absolutely essential; and the services of such a teacher 
should be obtained by every class when practicable. 
IX X 
PREFACE. 
The American Red Cross is prepared to arrange for the examina- 
tion of first-aid classes on the conclusion of courses of instruction 
on this subject. Successful candidates may obtain certificates of 
proficiency of that association. Similar examinations are held 
by the Y. M. C. A. which grants a combined certificate with the 
Red Cross. Full information in regard to these matters may be 
obtained from the First Aid Department, American Red Cross, 
Washington, D. C. INTRODUCTION. 
Everybody knows that within a comparatively few years better 
knowledge of the causes of many diseases has enabled us to 
reduce deaths from them to a very great extent. Take the most 
common disease, tuberculosis or consumption for example—the 
exact knowledge of how it is spread and general instruction in 
the subject and better treatment have reduced death therefrom 
about one-half. It is even supposable as time goes on many 
diseases will be so well understood that they will be banished 
from our midst. 
With the prevention of disease it would seem that every year 
many more persons should die of old age, and this is the case. 
But with the lessened number of deaths from disease, are deaths 
from violence also less? Quite the contrary. The following 
shows what has happened on railways alone during the past few 
years. 
Railroads, 1888-1907. 
Killed i53>336 
Injured 1,042,486 
It is safe to say with the increased use of machinery in the daily 
life of all of us injuries from accidents are liable to continue to 
increase instead of to decrease and it is very important that every 
one should learn first how to prevent accidents and second how to 
treat them. 
It is realized that prevention is many, many times better than 
XI XII 
INTRODUCTION. 
cure and that prevention in the main is dependent on the individual 
exercising common care. 
This subject is taught in the present manual. Just as with 
tuberculosis, study of the methods of preventing accidents will well 
repay the effort. It will be noted that in speaking of tuberculosis 
it was stated that better treatment was one of the factors which 
had operated to lessen deaths from this disease. Better treatment 
is equally effective in accidents. In disease this treatment is 
practically always given by a doctor as it always should be. Is 
this the case in accidents? Certainly the services of a doctor are 
always demanded except for trivial injuries, but the vast majority 
of accidents occur when no doctor is on the spot—then if you 
know what to do and what not to do you can save a life or make 
the effects of the injury much less severe. General knowledge 
of how to prevent accidents can be made just as effective as general 
knowledge of how to prevent disease; and good treatment of the 
injured is as important as good treatment of the sick. Moreover, 
for the early treatment of injured a doctor is often not available 
and so knowledge of first aid is of great value. 
Two classes of students are encountered in teaching first aid. 
The former studies the subject theoretically rather as a matter 
of general education without intending to make practical appli- 
cation of the lessons taught and in fact without being well pre- 
pared to do so on account of lack of practical teaching, and the 
other practises all the various dressings, bandages, etc., so that 
in case of need he can give a comrade excellent attention. With- 
out question the latter method is capable of the best results, but 
the former is not without benefit to the student. AMERICAN RED CROSS ABRIDGED 
TEXT-BOOK ON FIRST AID. 
GENERAL EDITION. 
CHAPTER I. 
STRUCTURE AND MECHANICS OF THE BODY. 
A workman, in order that he may repair his machine, must 
know exactly how it is made and how it operates. This is exactly 
the knowledge which a surgeon should have of the human body. 
The latter is such an extremely complicated mechanism, however, 
that months and years are needed to acquire such knowledge. 
Fortunately, it is not necessary for the first-aid student to go far 
into these subjects. His efforts to relieve suffering should be con- 
fined to emergency treatment. To render this intelligently it is 
necessary to know comparatively little of the structure and mechan- 
ics of the human body or, in technical terms, of anatomy and 
ohysiology. 
In this chapter will be found all facts on these two subjects 
which are necessary for the student of first aid. But even the 
simple anatomy which he must know cannot be 
earned from books alone. What is said here should, therefore, be 
dded to by careful study of the skeleton and of the form of its 
aore important bones and of his own body or, better, that of a 
,omrade. Thus the positions and relations of the more important 
1 2 
STRUCTURE AND MECHANICS OF THE BODY. 
structures may be clearly pictured in his mind. Good charts such 
as those of the Red Cross may be made of considerable assistance 
to him in this connection. 
THE BODY. 
The body is composed of hard and soft parts. The bones are 
the hard parts and the muscles and the internal organs, such as the 
heart, lungs, liver, etc., constitute the soft parts. 
BONES. 
The bones are hard and firm and together make up the Skeleton. 
The skeleton— 
Forms a strong and rigid frame-work for the body. 
Supports and carries the soft parts. 
Protects vital organs from injury. 
Gives attachment to muscles. 
Forms joints so that movements are possible. 
The skeleton is divided into three parts: 
1. The Head, made up of the Cranium, a bony case which en- 
closes and protects the brain; and the Face, with the eyes, ears, nose 
and mouth. The only movable bone in the head is the lower jaw. 
2. The Trunk, which is divided into two parts by a muscular 
partition—the diaphram. The upper portion is the Chest, which 
contains the esophagus or gullet, the lungs, the heart and some 
large blood-vessels. The lower portion is the Abdomen, in which 
are found the stomach, liver, kidneys, bladder, the intestines and-, 
other organs. 
The trunk is formed of several bones which are of interest to the 
first-aid student. 
The Spinal Column, a strong pillar with several curves, is made BONES. 
3 
Fig. i. The skeleton. (Holden), 4 
STRUCTURE AND MECHANICS OF THE BODY. 
up of a number of bones called vertebra with a softer substance 
called cartilage between them. At its lower end, the spinal column 
terminates in the broad Sacrum or Rump Bone and the pointed 
Coccyx. The spinal column supports the head and the ribs, and is 
itself supported on the pelvis. 
The Ribs, 12 in number, form the greater part of the walls of 
the chest. All the ribs are connected to the spinal column behind, 
but the two lower ones on each side are shorter than the others 
and are not connected to anything in front. The 10 upper ones 
on each side are united to the Breast-bone. 
The Breast-bone or Sternum is a flat, dagger-shaped bone which 
forms the front of the chest. Above it forms joints with the Collar- 
bones, or Clavicles, being notched for the purpose on each side. 
The Pelvis is a wide, strong, bony basin formed of the Haunch 
bones (ilia) at the front and sides and partly behind where it is 
closed by the sacrum and coccyx. It supports the trunk and 
forms joints with the lower limbs. 
3. The Extremities Comprising the 2 Upper and the 2 Lower 
Limbs. Each upper limb is made up of the Scapula or Shoulder- 
blade, a flat, triangular bone at the back of the shoulder; the Clavicle 
or Collar-bone, a curved long bone placed horizontally across the 
upper part of the chest above the first rib; the Humerus, the bone of 
the upper arm; the Radius and the Ulna, the two bones of the 
forearm; and the Hand, which has 8 small, irregular bones in the 
Carpus or wrist, five Metacarpal Bones for the hand itself, and 14 
bones, Phalanges, in the fingers and thumb. 
Each lower limb is made up of the Femur or Thigh-bone; the 
Patella or Knee-cap; the Tibia and Fibula, the two leg bones; and 
the Foot. The foot is made up of the Tarsus, writh seven irregular 
bones, which form the heel, part of the ankle, and the instep, 5 
Metatarsal Bones for the middle of the foot; and the toes with 14 
bones, Phalanges. JOINTS. 
5 
The principle interest which bones have for the student of first 
aid is that they may be broken or fractured, one of the commonest 
accidents. (See Fractures, page 63.) 
JOINTS. 
Wherever two or more bones are in contact or touch each other 
they form a joint. The ends of bones forming a joint are covered 
with a smooth substance called cartilage or gristle, so that they 
may move without friction on each other. Joints are hermetically 
closed by a flexible sac, the capsule, which secretes an oily fluid. 
This fluid lubricates a joint just as oil does an engine. The 
ligaments of a joint are strong, fibrous bands which hold the bones 
together. The most important joints to study are the hip and 
shoulder, which are ball-and-socket joints having movements in all 
directions, and the elbow, wrist, knee and ankle, hinge joints. 
These have only to and fro movement like an ordinary hinge. 
Joints are of importance to the student, as bones are liable to 
be put out of place or dislocated at the joints. (See Dislocations, 
page 59-) 
MUSCLES. 
The movements of bones at the joints are caused J>y the Muscles. 
The muscles, the flesh or meat, form two-fifths of the body by 
weight. They are made up of red fibres which have the power 
of shortening or contracting, so that if one end of a muscle is fixed 
and the muscle is contracted the other end will pull on and move 
whatever it is attached to. By doing this muscles cause all the 
movements of the body. For example, the biceps, the big muscle 
at the front of the upper arm, by contracting causes the elbow 
joint to bend by bringing the forearm closer to the upper arm. All 
muscles are somewhat on the stretch, as otherwise prompt move- 
ment would be impossible. Some of the muscles are attached to 6 
STRUCTURE AND MECHANICS OF THE BODY. 
Fig. 2.—The muscles. (Brubaker.) bones by Tendons or sinews. These are strong, fibrous cords. 
They may be well seen in the wrist. 
Muscles are of two classes: Voluntary muscles, such as those 
of the arm and leg—these are under the control of the will; and 
Involuntary muscles, such as the heart—these work independently 
of the will. By this wise provision of Nature all vital processes 
go on without our being compelled to give any thought to them. 
Voluntary muscles are of prime interest both in fractures and in 
dislocations, as their pulling causes displacements and their 
resistance offers the chief obstacle to setting fractures and to reduc- 
ing dislocations. (See Fractures and Dislocations, pages 63 
and 59.) 
CIRCULATION. 
The Heart.—In order that the blood may reach all parts of the 
body it is, of course, necessary that some force shall propel it. 
This is provided by the Heart, which is not the seat of the feelings, 
but a most skillfully devised pumping machine. 
The heart is about the size of a man’s fist and is located in the 
chest between the lungs. It is a hollow, muscular organ, with 
valves which close and prevent the blood from flowing backward, 
all its force being expended to send the blood forward. The beat 
of the heart which we feel in the chest is its contraction by which 
it is made smaller inside, thus forcing the blood to the furthest 
parts of the body. After the heart contracts it dilates or becomes 
larger inside and the valves open so that it may fill with blood. 
The next contraction again forces the blood forward, and so on as 
long as a person is alive. 
The heart contracts usually about 72 times per minute. 
While, as has just been stated, the heart is a pump, it is not a 
single but a double pump, being divided into two entirely separate 
halves by a muscular partition. The left side of the heart, or the 
CIRCULATION. 
7 8 
STRUCTURE AND MECHANICS OF THE RODY. 
left pump, drives the blood through the body, and the right side 
drives it through the lungs alone. 
Blood-vessels. -A series of closed tubes, or blood-vessels, 
as they are called, carry the circulating blood. They are of three 
classes: i, Arteries; 2, Capillaries, and 3, Veins. 
1. Arteries.—Leaving the left side of the heart is the largest 
artery in the body—the Aorta. This strong tube is just about 
large enough so that a man’s thumb may be introduced into it if 
it is separated from the heart. It soon divides into branches which 
again branch and rebranch, the individual branches constantly 
growing smaller in size, to reach finally the furthest parts of the 
body. It should be remembered, too, that the smaller branches 
of the arteries join freely with one another. The blood passes 
from the heart to the aorta and thence to the smaller arteries, not in 
a steady stream but in waves, each of which is produced by a con- 
traction of the heart. The beat of these waves causes the Pulse, 
which may be felt not only at the wrist and temple, but also any- 
where else an artery is near enough the surface of the body. 
Naturally, if an artery is cut, there will not be a steady stream flow- 
ing from it, but the blood will be expelled in spurts or jets. The 
walls of arteries, especially those of large calibre, remain apart 
when divided. 
As the course of the blood in the arteries is away from the heart 
toward the extremities and the head, if an artery is cut, in order 
to stop the bleeding the artery must be compressed either on the 
side of the heart or on the bleeding point itself. Pressure on the 
further side of the cut will, as may be easily understood, do no 
good so far as stopping bleeding from an artery is concerned. It 
is also necessary to press on the artery on the near or heart side 
as close to the bleeding point as possible. This is because arteries 
in their branching and re-branching join each other, and if pressure 
is made on an artery far above the bleeding point, so many branches CIRCULATION. 
9 
may bring blood into it between the point of pressure and the bleed- 
ing point that a great deal of blood will be lost, notwithstanding 
the fact that the main branch is blocked by pressure at a distant 
point. However, it is not in every part of the body that arteries 
lie near enough to the surface to be compressed in their course. 
Moreover, it is necessary in compressing an artery to select a point 
where a nearby bone gives a hard surface to press against. There- 
fore, the student of first aid must know, first, the situation and 
course of the principal arteries and, second, the points on which 
pressure will be effective. 
The aorta has three great branches which are of particular 
interest to the student of first aid. One of these, the Carotid, sup- 
plies the head and neck with blood; the second, the Subclavian, the 
upper extremity; and the third, the Femoral, the lower extremity. 
The table which follows gives certain necessary information 
regarding these arteries and their branches. 
Artery 
Course 
Point on which to exert 
pressure 
Head and Neck. 
Carotid 
From upper, outer 
Deep. Down and back, 
edge of breast-bone 
an inch to the outer 
to angle of jaw. 
side of Adam’s apple. 
Facial (a branch of 
Diagonally across the 
On the face, an inch in 
carotid). 
lower jaw from below 
front of the angle of 
upward. 
the lower jaw. 
Temporal (a branch of 
Upward one-half inch 
On skull, immediately 
carotid). 
in front of ear. 
in front of upper part 
of ear or on temple. 10 
STRUCTURE AND MECHANICS OF THE BODY. 
Fig. 3.—The arteries and pressure points. CIRCULATION. 
11 
Upper Extremity. 
Artery 
Course 
Point on which to exert 
pressure 
Subclavian 
Across the middle of 
Deep. Down and back 
first rib to arm pit. 
over centre of collar- 
bone on first rib. 
Shoulder should be 
drawn down first. 
Brachial (a branch of 
Descends along inner 
Against humerus by 
a branch of the sub- 
side of biceps muscle; 
grasping and pulling 
clavian). 
about line of seam of 
biceps to outer side. 
coat, to just below 
Or at elbow by putting 
centre of crease at 
a tight roll of cloth or 
bend of elbow. 
a rolled bandage in 
bend of elbow, and 
bending up arm as 
much as possible. 
Lower Extremity. 
Femoral 
Down thigh from 
Against femur high up 
pelvis to knee, line 
inner side in line given 
from middle of line 
about three inches 
between point of hip 
below upper end of 
and centre of pelvis 
in front to inner side 
of knee. 
line. 
Popliteal (a continua- 
Down in middle of 
In bend of knee as 
tion of the femoral). 
space at the back of 
knee-joint. 
described for elbow. 12 
STRUCTURE AND MECHANICS OF THE BODY. 
Arterial bleeding is always more serious than other bleeding 
because blood thrown out in jets from the cut artery with each con- 
traction of the heart is rapidly lost. The blood which spurts from 
an artery is always bright red in color, as arterial blood has not 
yet lost the characteristic bright red of the oxygenated blood from 
the lungs. 
2. Capillaries.—The arteries, as they go further and further 
from the heart, become smaller and thinner-walled, till they finally 
terminate in still smaller vessels which are called capillaries, from 
the Latin word meaning a hair. The capillaries form a delicate 
network of vessels everywhere, and give the rosy color to the skin. 
Slight pressure on the skin will cause a white spot to appear. This 
is because the pressure has forced the blood from the net-work of 
capillaries and the white skin is seen instead of the rosy color due 
to the presence of the blood in the capillaries. In capillaries the 
pulse, or contraction wave from the heart, is no longer apparent, as 
these fine, hair-like tubes break up the waves. Slight cuts or 
pricks of the skin are sufficient to divide some capillaries and 
therefore to cause bleeding. Naturally, on account of the minute 
size of these vessels, bleeding from them, except from a very large 
surface, is not dangerous to life. Capillaries branch so freely that 
pressure used to check capillary bleeding, to be effective, must be 
made on the bleeding point. 
The blood lost from capillaries is no longer bright red in color like 
that from arteries, but is somewhat darker. 
3. Veins.—The blood-vessels which return the blood to the 
heart from the points furthest from it are called veins. They may 
be easily recognized as the blue lines under the skin. Capillaries 
unite to form small veins, these unite to form larger veins, and 
finally these vessels become very large before entering the right 
side of the heart. The best known of the large veins is probably 
the jugular vein of the neck. Bleeding from a cut vein is in a CIRCULATION. 
13 
continuous flow instead of in jets as is the case with bleeding from 
arteries, and it is mainly through this difference that one distin- 
guishes venous from arterial hemorrhage. Venous blood, too, is 
dark, bluish-red in color, as the oxygen in the blood stream is lost 
in its passage through the capillaries. While bleeding from veins 
has not the almost terrifying appearance of arterial bleeding, a 
dangerous amount of blood may be lost from a large vein. As the 
course of the blood in the veins is toward the heart, in stopping 
bleeding from them pressure must never be made on the side 
toward the heart, but on the bleeding point or on the side away 
from the heart. 
The Blood. —The blood is a fluid which carries properly pre- 
pared food, oxygen, and heat to feed and warm all parts of the 
body, from which it also removes waste materials for final expul- 
sion. These processes go on constantly as long as life lasts. 
Coagulation or clotting is the property of the blood which is of 
most interest to the student of first aid. While the blood is circu- 
lating in the living vessels it remains fluid, but as soon as this 
influence is removed it coagulates or clots, thus tending to stop 
bleeding. It is easy to see if Nature did not provide this safe- 
guard that the slightest scratch sufficient to draw blood would result 
in the loss of all the blood in the body. The rate of loss would 
be regulated simply by the size of the opening just as is that of water 
flowing from a pipe. Very rarely a person is found whose blood 
does not clot. These people are called “bleeders,” and they often 
bleed to death from a trivial injury, such as the pulling of a tooth. 
In order that one may know what to do to stop bleeding, it is 
necessary to know what conditions favor or impede coagulation 
of the blood. First in importance, in order that blood may clot, 
is comparative rest. A spouting stream of blood will never clot 
except where it falls and is therefore at rest. Free exposure to air 
also favors clotting. Coagulation . is likewise more promptly 14 
STRUCTURE AND MECHANICS OF THE BODY. 
effected by contact with foreign substances, especially if they 
afford many points on which clots may form. Gauze is a good 
example of such a material. Cobwebs are also, and they were 
much used even by surgeons before the danger of dirt in a wound 
was so well understood. 
For further discussion of this subject, see Hemorrhage, page 81. 
RESPIRATORY SYSTEM. 
The Respiratory System consists of the Nose and Mouth, the 
Windpipe and the Lungs. All of these organs except the lungs 
may be regarded simply as the passageway for the air going to 
and coming from the lungs. Naturally, anything which blocks 
this air in its course will interfere with the supply of air to the lungs 
and complete blockage will result in early death from smothering 
or asphyxiation. 
At the upper end of the windpipe is the Larynx, part of which 
we know as the prominent Adam’s Apple in the throat. As the 
larynx is in front and the gullet is behind, food passing to the latter 
must pass over the upper end of the larynx and would enter it 
if some protection were not provided. This is afforded by the 
Epiglottis, a muscular flap or curtain which falls into position, 
covering the upper end of the larynx so that ordinarily food does 
not enter it. Sometimes, however, the epiglottis does not do this, 
especially if one swallows quickly or attempts to talk while 
swallowing. In this case choking results from food entering 
the larynx, or, in common words, one has swallowed the 
wrong way. The attempt to give food or water to an uncon- 
scious person will also result in choking him because his epiglottis 
does not close. 
The Lungs may be described as two soft, spongy structures, 
each of which is bag-like in shape and is made up of air cells with DIGESTIVE SYSTEM. 
15 
many blood-vessels surrounding them; they are sometimes com- 
pared to a bunch of grapes. The lungs are hermetically enclosed 
in the chest, so that when the cavity of the chest is increased 
or diminished in size, the same effect is produced on the lungs 
themselves. Certain muscles are of great importance in fill- 
ing and emptying the chest and lungs. Ordinarily, the muscular 
movement consists simply of the bellows action of the chest and the 
up and down movement of the diaphragm. In order that the chest 
may be enlarged to its greatest capacity, however, some of the 
muscles of the upper extremity must also take part. In order that 
they may do so, the arms are raised vertically above the head, 
so that certain muscles attached to the chest wall and to the upper 
extremities will, when the latter are fixed, raise the ribs and thus 
enlarge the chest. The chest, too, is elastic and direct pressure 
upon it will diminish its size and so force the air from the lungs. 
(See Artificial Respiration, page 107.) 
The rate of respiration is 16 per minute. 
The lungs aerate or oxygenate the blood. The small blood- 
vessels surrounding the air cells which the pure air breathed in 
finally reaches, carry dark blood which has lost its oxygen in the 
body. This blood receives oxygen from the pure air and returns 
to the heart as bright arterial blood. The air which is expired 
from the lungs has not only lost its oxygen to the blood, but has 
also received certain impurities from the latter. 
DIGESTIVE SYSTEM. 
This is the system by which the food is received and prepared 
for the use of the body. From the mouth the food enters the 
Esophagus or Gullet through which it passes to the stomach and 
then to the Small and Large Intestines from which the residue is 
expelled. 16 
STRUCTURE AND MECHANICS OF THE BODY. 
NERVOUS SYSTEM. 
'Through the Nervous System the actions and functions of the 
various parts of the body are performed, regulated and controlled 
This system is really double. One part is composed of the Brain, 
Spinal Cord and Nerves connected with them, and the other is the 
so-called Sympathetic Nervous System. 
SPECIAL SENSES. 
THE EYE. 
The Eye is the organ of sight. It is a ball surrounded by three 
coats. Covering the eyeball in front is a delicate membrane 
called the Conjunctiva. Protec- 
tion to this membrane is afforded 
by the eyelids when they are 
closed, but when they are open it 
is very liable to injury and to 
the entrance of foreign bodies. 
These are commonly spoken of as 
“something in the eye.” On 
account of the sensitiveness of 
the conjunctiva, they cause much 
pain and distress. The eyeball 
itself is well protected from in- 
jury, as it is situated deeply in 
the head and the brows overhang 
it. Pointed objects may, however, 
enter it. When this occurs severe 
damage almost always results. 
THE EAR. 
The Ear is the agent of hearing. Leading from the outer ear 
which we see is the auditory canal which ends in the Ear Drum. 
Fig. 4.—The eye. {Potter's Anatomy.) THE SKIN. 
17 
Rupture of the drum is a very serious accident as it results in deaf- 
ness. It is caused by a loud concussion near the ear, or by put- 
ting objects, especially pointed ones, into the auditory canal, as 
well as by disease. 
Fig. 5.—The ear. (Gould’s Dictionary.) 
THE SKIN 
The Skin covers the entire body. Under it is a fatty layer, the 
padding, which assists it to prevent the escape of the body heat 
which is produced by chemical processes in the interior of the body. 
One of the most important functions of the skin is to act as a 
defense against the introduction of germs into the tissues of the 18 
body. Germs cannot pass through the unbroken skin, and any 
injury which is accompanied by a break in the skin makes a breach 
in this defense and is therefore much more serious. 
QUESTIONS. 
1. Of what is the body composed? 
2. What is the skeleton and what does it do as a part of the body? 
3. Of what parts is the head made up? 
4. Into what two parts is the trunk divided and what does each contain ? 
5. Describe the spinal column; the ribs; the breast-bone; and the 
pelvis. 
6. Of what bones is the upper extremity formed ? The lower ex- 
tremity ? 
7. What is a joint ? 
8. What movements do joints have ? Give an example of a ball-and- 
socket, and a hinge joint. 
9. What are the muscles? 
10. What is the purpose of the muscles? 
11. What is the difference between voluntary and involuntary muscles? 
12. What is the importance of muscles in reference to fractures and 
dislocations ? 
13. What is the purpose of the heart? Describe its action. 
14. What is the heart beat and how often does it occur ? 
15. What are the different classes of blood-vessels; describe each. 
16. What are the characteristics of bleeding from an artery? 
17. In bleeding from an artery where would you press, and why? 
18. Give the points of pressure for the following arteries: Carotid, 
Facial, Temporal, Subclavian, Brachial (2), Femoral, and Popliteal. 
19. What are the characteristics of bleeding from capillaries? 
20. How would you stop bleeding from capillaries, and why? 
21. What are the characteristics of bleeding from veins? 
22. How would you stop bleeding from veins? 
23. What is the blood? What does it do? 
24. Describe clotting of the blood ? 
STRUCTURE AND MECHANICS OF THE BODY. PRACTICAL EXERCISES. 
19 
25. What helps to make the blood clot? 
26. Of what does the respiratory system consist ? 
27. Why would you not give food or water to an unconscious person ? 
28. Describe the action of the lungs? What is the purpose of the 
lungs? 
29. What is the purpose of the digestive system ? 
30. What is the purpose of the nervous system? 
31. What may cause a rupture of the ear drum? 
32. Why does something in the eye cause so much pain and distress? 
33. What is the purpose of the skin ? 
PRACTICAL EXERCISES. 
(In order to make such exercises of value a “subject” on which to 
illustrate will usually be necessary. A small boy should be procured for 
this purpose or a member of the class may be asked to volunteer.) 
Show the bones and joints on a chart of the skeleton. 
Show some of the muscles on the subject and explain the action of the 
muscles in fractures and dislocations. 
Show the circulation on the chart. 
Show the points on which pressure should be made on arteries on the 
subject. 
Illustrate the action of the muscles in respiration on the subject. 
Describe the eye on the subject. CHAPTER II. 
FIRST-AID MATERIALS. 
Bandages; Compresses; Splints; Tourniquets; Heat; Cold; 
Stimulants; Emetics. 
It is almost as important for the workman responsible for the 
operation of a machine to know how to make practical use of the 
tools which he requires to repair it as to know how the machine is 
constructed and how it operates. This is equally true for the 
first-aid student. Therefore, this chapter is devoted to his tools 
and repair materials. 
BANDAGES. 
Bandages are used for the following purposes: 
To keep dressings in place. 
To fix splints. 
To stop bleeding by pressure. 
As slings. 
Whatever the bandage used, care must be taken that it is not put 
on too tightly. It should be firm and secure, but must not be so 
tight that it presses and constricts at any point, for this will interfere 
with the circulation by cutting off the blood supply, and if the 
bandage is left in place for some time even so severe an injury as 
mortification or actual death of the part may be caused. 
Any bandage may be fastened by a knot or be pinned or sewed. 
If a pin is used, a safety-pin is preferred, as it holds better and one 
20 is less likely to be scratched by it than by the pin with unprotected 
point. 
The reef knot, as it is secure, should always be employed in place 
of the granny knot. To tie the reef knot proceed as follows: 
Hold the ends of the bandage in the two hands; wind the end held 
BANDAGES 
21 
Fig. 6.—Reef knot. (Davis.) 
in the right hand over that held in the left; then wind the end now 
held in the left hand over that held in the right and bring it through 
the loop. When a choice is given, the knot should be placed where 
it causes no discomfort to the patient and where it may be easily 
reached. 
Fig. 7.—Reef knot. (Davis.) 
The kinds of bandages used are: 
The triangular bandage. 
The roller bandage. 
Special bandages. 
Triangular Bandage.—The triangular bandage is perhaps 
best suited for general first-aid work, as it can be easily made, is 
not difficult to apply as a temporary dressing and is not likely to 22 
FIRST-AID MATERIALS. 
be put on so tightly that it will cause injury by stopping the 
circulation. 
The triangular bandage is preferably made from unbleached 
cotton cloth, though any strong cloth will answer. Bed sheets, 
pillow cases, napkins and hand- 
kerchiefs are all used in case of 
emergency. It is desirable that the 
piece of cloth for the bandage be 
not less than 34 to 38 inches square. 
It is folded diagonally and is cut 
across in the fold; of course this 
will give two triangular bandages. While made triangular band- 
ages may be readily bought, the only advantage they possess is 
that most of them have illustrations showing methods of applica- 
tion stamped upon them. 
The triangular bandage may be 
applied in two ways: 
Unfolded. 
Folded. 
Unfolded means that the ban- 
dage is used in the form of the 
whole triangle. 
To fold, the point of the triangle 
is brought to the middle of the op- 
posite side, and then the bandage is 
folded into three, lengthwise. 
It is, of course, necessary to de- 
termine in each case of injury in what special way the triangular 
bandage will be used and persons expert in its use are very 
skillful in adapting it to special cases. Certain set methods 
have, however, been found by experience to be the most generally 
useful, and these will now be described. 
Fig. 8.—Triangular bandage. 
Pig. 9.—Brachio-cervical triangle. 
(.Esmarch and Kowalzig.) BANDAGES. 
23 
The most important uses of the unfolded triangular bandage are 
the following: 
1. Arm sling. 
Place one end of bandage over 
shoulder of uninjured side. Allow 
length of bandage to hang down in 
front of chest so that point of triangle 
will be behind elbow of injured arm. 
Bend elbow of injured arm to a right 
angle. This will bring forearm across 
middle of bandage. Then carry 
lower end of the bandage over the 
shoulder of the injured side and tie 
to the upper end behind the neck. 
Bring the point of the bandage at the 
elbow forward to the front and pin 
there so that bandage is snug but 
does not pull. (Fig. 9.) 
This makes an excellent arm sling, 
but even without a bandage a good 
sling may be made for the arm by 
pinning the sleeve or the skirt of the 
coat to the front of the coat. The 
shirt may be used in the same way. 
(Fig. 10.) 
2. Foot bandage. 
Spread out bandage. Place foot in 
centre with toes toward point. Raise 
point over toes to instep in front. 
Bring both ends forward, cross them 
over instep and tie them round the ankle. (Fig. n.) 
This bandage has but a limited range of usefulness. 
Fig. io.—Arm sling from 
shirt sleeve. 24 
FIRST-AID MATERIALS. 
3. Hand Bandage. 
This is applied exactly like the foot bandage. The bandage 
is spread out. The hand is placed on it, palm down, with the 
fingers toward the point (if desired, the hand may be closed), and 
the wrist is at the long side. The point is then brought over the 
back of the hand to the back of the wrist and the 
two ends are crossed over the wrist and tied. 
This bandage will be found useful more often than 
the preceding one. 
4. Head Bandage. 
First, fold a hem about one and one-half inches 
wide at the long side of the unfolded triangular ban- 
dage. Place the bandage so that the hem lies 
squarely across the forehead just above the eyes and 
the bandage is over the head with the point hanging 
down the back. Carry the two ends around the head 
above the ears, cross at the back and tie them across 
the forehead. Draw the point down tight, turn it 
up and pin it at the top of the head with a safety- 
pin. (Fig. 12.) 
This is a useful bandage. 
The triangular bandage, folded, is sometimes called 
the cravat bandage, and in practice by folding the 
cravat is made wider or narrower as required. As may readily be 
seen, a cravat may be made of use in any part of the body. It is 
especially useful to hold splints, dressings, etc., in place, and to check 
bleeding when applied snugly so as to compress the bleeding point. 
The following are good examples of the use of the folded tri- 
angular bandage, or cravat. 
1. Eye Bandage. , 
Place the centre of the cravat over thd injured eye, bring the ends 
to the back of the head and tie. (Fig. 13.) 
Fig. ii.—Tri- 
angular ban- 
dage for foot. BANDAGES. 
25 
2. Jaw Bandage. 
For this, two cravats are necessary. Apply the centre of the first 
across the chin in front, bring the ends to the back of the neck and 
tie. Place the centre of the second cravat under the chin, cross the 
ends over the top of the head, bring them down and tie under 
the chin. 
3. Neck Bandage. 
The centre of the cravat is placed over the injured place and the 
ends are carried around the neck and tied as convenient. This 
Fig. 12.—Triangular bandage applied to head. 
bandage may sometimes be improved by the use of a cardboard 
support which is held firmly in place between the layers of the 
bandage. 
4. Bandage for Palm of Hand. 
Place the centre of the cravat on the palm of the hand, cross the 
ends at the back of the hand and again at the front of the wrist and 
tie at the back of the wrist. (Fig. 14.) 
The cravat may also be used for an arm sling. For this purpose 
it is employed in the form of a loop which encircles the forearm 26 
FIRST-AID MATERIALS, 
bent at a right angle and the neck. When the cravat is used to 
hold splints or dressings in place on an extremity it is simply 
carried around the splint, or dressing, and the limb, and is tied at 
the most suitable point. Of course, 
the number of cravats employed for 
this purpose is dependent on the size 
of the special splint or dressing. 
The Roller Bandage.—The roller 
bandage may be used for any of the 
purposes already described, though 
as sometimes employed by the surgeon 
it is rather too complicated for the 
student of first aid. Lengths cut 
from the roller bandage may, of 
course, be used to replace the folded 
triangular bandage, and for the un- 
skilled this method of application is 
always to be preferred to that usually 
employed by the surgeon, which consists of winding the roller 
around and around the part which it is desired to cover. This 
method of application makes the roller bandage especially valuable 
in maintaining pressure so as to 
stop capillary bleeding, to fix 
dressings after operation, etc. 
These are not, however, questions 
which often confront a student of 
first aid, so if they were the only 
ones the use of the roller bandage 
might be wholly disregarded here. 
But this is not the case. The first-aid student should know how 
to take advantage of any appliances he may have at hand and he 
is very likely in an accident to find it much more convenient to 
Fig. 13.—Eye bandage. 
Fig. 14.—Cravat for palm of hand. BANDAGES. 
27 
obtain the roller bandage, so for this reason he should know the 
principles of its application. 
Roller bandages are usually made of muslin, cotton cloth, 
flannel, gauze or cheese cloth, and they may be improvised by 
tearing strips from a sheet and rolling them up. By far the best 
material is gauze or cheese cloth. This is elastic and adapts 
itself well to the part to be bandaged so that it is easy to apply and 
does not have the disadvantages of the old inelastic bandages of 
muslin, etc., which in unskilled hands are very apt either to be 
Fig. is.—The circular. (Davis.) 
pulled so tight on one edge that they cut off the circulation or to be 
so loose that they will not stay in place. 
While roller bandages may usually be readily bought, it is well 
to know how they should be rolled. One end of the bandage 
should be turned over for a distance of about 6 inches, this lap 
should be folded on itself and this process should be repeated till a 
small hard roll is formed. Then place the bandage on the thigh 
(the foot should be on a stool or chair so that the thigh is nearly 
at right angles to the body) with roll of bandage near the body, 
length of bandage at bottom of roll and bandage extending down 
the thigh. Roll, beginning with the fingers of right hand running 
down to the wrist, and repeat till bandage is completely rolled. 
The left hand is used to hold the bandage tight and even. The 28 
FIRST-AID MATERIALS. 
bandage when completed should be in a hard roll with even edges. 
It may be fastened with a couple of pins. 
Roller bandages are preferably used in the following sizes: 
For the finger, § of an inch wide and i yard long. 
For the arm and head, 2% inches wide and 4 to 6 yards long. 
For the leg and thigh, 3 inches wide and 6 to 8 yards long. 
Fig. 16.—The reverse. Preparing to reverse. (Davis.) 
For the chest and abdomen, 4 to 5 inches wide and 8 to 12 yards 
long. 
The bandage 2J inches wide and 4 to 6 yards long is the most 
generally used. 
While it is not, of course, absolutely necessary to use the bandage 
best adapted in size for the part to which it is to be applied, it should 
be remembered that it is very difficult to bandage satisfactorily 
a small part with a wide bandage. Any bandage when rolled may BANDAGES 
29 
be easily cut through with a sharp knife and thus a bandage of the 
required size tnay always be obtained. 
The roller bandage is applied by holding the roll in the right 
hand, the loose end being in the left, and laying the outer side of 
the end on the place where it is desired to start the bandage. 
The simplest method of application is the Circular, but this can 
be used only when the part to be bandaged is of nearly the same 
Fig. 17.—The reverse. The roller reversed. {Davis.) 
circumference throughout. This is the case with the forearm 
above the wrist and with the fingers. Moreover, in first-aid work 
the roller bandage is usually applied to hold splints or dressings in 
place which much extends the field of the circular method of appli- 
cation as, especially with splints, an even circumference is likely to 
be presented. The circular method is also more often available 
with gauze bandages for on account of their elasticity they adapt FIRST-AID MATERIALS. 
30 
themselves to slight pulling much better than do bandages made 
of stiffer cloth. The circular method of application consists simply 
of a series of circular turns from below upward, each turn over- 
lapping the upper third of the one below. 
Where the part is larger at one end than the other, at the start 
a few turns should be made round and round one over the other, 
then begin to move up the limb, using the circular method as long 
as a turn overlaps the preceding one about one-third. It will be 
found as soon as the limb increases notably in size that if the 
bandage lies flat, spaces will be left. To prevent these spaces 
the Reverse must be employed. The Reverse is generally con- 
sidered to be the most difficult point to learn in the application of 
the roller bandage. This is not quite the case, however. While it 
is certainly much more difficult to bandage successfully a part 
larger at one end than the other, this is due rather to the fact that 
one not experienced in bandaging is likely to try to force the 
bandage instead of at once resorting to the method which allows 
it to lie flat, and thus to make unsightly and insecure loops at the 
back where they are not immediately seen than to any real difficulty 
in making the reverse itself. Bad bandaging in this as well as in 
other respects can only be avoided by practice and care. 
To make the Reverse, place the thumb of the left hand on the 
lower edge of the bandage to hold it in place, slacken the bandage 
between the hands (about 3 inches) and turn the roller one half 
over toward you. Pass the roller under the limb keeping the 
lower edge of the bandage parallel with that of the turn below, 
reverse again at the proper point and so on. The reverses should 
be made so they lie in the center of the limb or to its outer side and 
all reverses should be in one line up the limb. 
The figure-of-8 bandage is found specially useful about joints. 
It consists of a series of loops each overlapping the one below 
by about two-thirds the width of the bandage. The middle part BANDAGES, 
31 
is over the bend of the joint while the loops lie one below the other 
above it. (Fig. 18.) 
The spica bandage is a modification of the figure-8 bandage, 
having one loop much larger than the other. 
Precautions. 
In addition to those already mentioned, some other precautions 
must be observed in the application of the roller bandage: 
Fig. i8.—Figure-of-8 of foot. (.Heath.) 
Always bandage from below upward and always bandage from 
within outward, over the front of a limb. 
Always bandage firmly, but never too tightly or loosely, and use 
firm, equal pressure throughout the bandage. 
Always in bandaging a limb, leave the tips of the fingers or of the 
toes uncovered so that they may be seen. If the tips of the fingers 
or toes become blue and cold or if great pain is complained of it is 32 
FIRST-AID MATERIALS. 
almost certain that the bandage has cut off the circulation and it 
must be loosened or dangerous results may follow. 
Never reverse the bandage over a sharp bone and always use 
the figure of 8 over a joint. 
Always place the part to be bandaged in the position in which 
it is intended to leave it, as otherwise change of position may result 
in cutting off the circulation by drawing the bandage too tight at 
some point. 
Never put on a bandage under, but always over a splint. 
Always in applying a bandage immediately after an injury 
remember that there may be swelling and use care in order that the 
bandage may not become too tight from this cause; always be ready 
to remove or to loosen a bandage when such swelling makes it too 
tight. 
Never apply a bandage wet, for as it dries it will shrink and 
become too tight. 
A very valuable exercise in the application of the roller bandage 
is afforded in bandaging the leg from the foot to include the hip. 
This gives an opportunity to practice all the methods of application 
which have been described. 
The fact that lengths cut from the roller bandage prove useful in 
the hands of those unskilled in bandaging has already been men- 
tioned. There are, however, three special bandages made in this 
way which are so simple and well suited to their special purposes 
that they should be known to anyone interested in bandaging. 
i. The Arm Sling will be first described. For this a 3- or 4-inch 
roller bandage is required, preferably the latter. Bend the forearm 
on the arm at the angle at which it is desired to hold it, this is 
usually about a right angle. Put the end of the roller about mid- 
way between the forearm and shoulder and hold for a moment to BANDAGF.S, 
33 
get length required when it may be allowed to drop. But before 
doing so pass roller in front and under forearm just in front of the 
elbow. Then carry roller along front of chest to the shoulder on 
the injured side, over this shoulder to back of neck, in front of 
sound shoulder, down to make loop for hand, back over sound 
shoulder, back of neck and in front of 
shoulder of injured side to starting 
point where length required will be 
cut off and the ends will be tied to- 
gether. Two loops have, of course, 
been made, one for the forearm near 
the elbow and the other for the hand. 
(Fig. 19.) 
2. The Four-tailed Bandage is 
the second of these bandages. This 
is especially useful for fractures of 
the lower jaw and for injuries of the 
head. The 4-inch roller bandage is 
wide enough to make it for the 
former. It should be folded length- 
wise in the centre and cut or torn in 
the fold so as to leave 2 or 3 inches in 
the middle of the bandage which, in applying the bandage, is placed 
over the chin. The lower ends are then carried up over the top 
of the head and tied there while the upper tails carried back are tied 
at the back of the neck. For injuries of the top of the head the 
four-tailed bandage made in this way from the 4-inch roller 
bandage will usually be found too narrow. It may, however, 
sometimes be used, especially if more space is left in the middle, or it 
may be made from two lengths of the 4-inch roller by sewing or 
even by pinning them together with safety-pins for the required 
distance in the middle. When available, a piece of cloth from 
Fig. 19.—Arm sling. 34 
FIRST-AID MATERIALS. 
6 to 8 inches wide and 3 feet long should be used for this bandage. 
To apply it the middle of the bandage is placed on the top of the 
head, the two front ends are carried back and tied at the back of the 
neck and the two rear ends are carried forward and tied under the 
chin. 
3. The T Bandage is the last of these bandages which demands 
our attention. It is used only for the crotch, especially to hold 
dressings on that part of the body. It is made from two lengths of 
a 3-inch roller bandage. To the centre of 
one of these, i§ yards long, is sewed or pinned 
at right angles the other, which is 1 yard long. 
The bandage is applied by placing the long 
strip around the waist with the short one at 
the middle of the back. The long strip is 
then pinned in front and the short strip is 
brought forward between the legs to join the 
long one at the centre in front where it is 
pinned. 
Special Bandages.—The only special 
bandage which need be mentioned here is the 
one supplied in the first-aid outfit of the American Red Cross. 
In each of these packets is found a long gauze bandage with a 
compress of gauze sewn to it in the centre, a triangular bandage 
printed so as to show how to apply it, and two safety-pins. 
The directions, which are also found inside the metal case, are 
as follows: 
Gauze Bandage with Compress.—If there is a wound or any 
injury in which the skin is broken, this bandage and compress are 
used by unfolding the bandage, being careful not to touch the 
inner surface of the compress. The compress should then be 
placed directly on the wound or injury, and held in place by 
wrapping the bandage around the limb in opposite directions and 
Fig. 20.—Four-tailed 
bandage of head. 
{Stewart.) BANDAGES. 
35 
tying it or pinning it in place. With a very large wound which the 
compress will not cover, apply it to the middle of the wound and 
wrap the bandage around as before. In this case be careful not to 
touch any surface of the bandage which is placed on the wound. 
In case there is no wound, this bandage may be used like an 
ordinary bandage to hold splints in place, etc. 
Fig. 2i.—Red Cross first-aid outfit. 
Triangular Bandage.—The triangular bandage may be used 
as an outer bandage or as a sling in the manner pictured on it. 
This bandage should also be tied or pinned in place. 
Do not touch an open wound with the fingers, water, or anything 
except the compress, or when very large the untouched surface of 
the bandage. 
The pressure of the bandage will stop ordinary bleeding. 
The advantages of this outfit are that the contents will always 
be clean and ready for use, the dressing can be easily applied, 
and not only does it contain a dressing, but also a sling. With it 36 
FIRST-AID MATERIALS. 
and material for splints which may usually be easily found one is 
ready for any ordinary injury. 
COMPRESSES. 
Compresses have already been spoken of in connection with 
the Red Cross first-aid outfit. A compress is simply something 
which is used to press on or, in other words, to cover an open wound. 
Fig. 22.—Red Cross first-aid outfit—showing contents. 
It should always be sufficient in size to do so with a lap of at least 
ij inches on all sides. Compresses should preferably be made of 
gauze or cheese cloth. 
Above everything else they should be safe to apply to wounds. 
That is to say, they must have been properly disinfected in the first 
place, and in the second they must not be contaminated by the COMPRESSES. 
37 
Fig. 23.—How to apply Red Cross compress. 38 
FIRST-AID MATERIALS. 
fingers or anything else in the handling necessary to apply them. 
(See Germs.) This is the great advantage of the Red Cross 
first-aid outfit, which is so prepared by the manufacturers that 
it is safe to put in direct contact with a wound and is then pro- 
tected from accidental contamination by being enclosed in a 
sealed metal box. Moreover, the compress is so attached to its 
bandage that only gross carelessness in applying it will contaminate 
it then. A number of other first-aid packets are on the market 
which contain compresses that may be safely applied to a wound, 
though none is quite so easy to handle without accidental con- 
tamination the Red Cross outfit. Each has printed directions 
on the box or container which must be carefully followed. If a 
first-aid packet can be procured it should always be used in 
preference to anything else to dress a wound. The next choice 
should be sterile or antiseptic gauze. Small packages of such gauze 
suitable for compresses may be bought in most drug stores, and 
are found in emergency cases. (Sterile gauze is ordinary gauze 
in which the germs have been destroyed by heat, and antiseptic 
gauze is ordinary gauze in which germs have been destroyed by an 
antiseptic, usually bichloride of mercury.) In a city, therefore, or 
if an emergency case is available, one may easily procure a safe com- 
press and all he need do is to handle it so that he will not contami- 
nate it. This may be accomplished by holding it not with the 
fingers, but by the paper which covers it, allowing only the inner 
surface of this paper to come in contact with the gauze and never 
removing part of the paper until it has served this purpose. If, by 
chance, the gauze is touched by the hand great care should be taken 
to drop the untouched part on the wound and to place the gauze 
which has come in contact with the hand as near the outer layer of 
the dressing as possible. 
As discussed under the heading Germs, unless a safe gauze 
can be procured it is much safer to leave a wound exposed COMPRESSES. 
39 
Fig. 24.—How not to apply Red Cross compress. 40 
EIRST-AID MATERIALS. 
to the air than to cover it, but this will not always prove prac- 
ticable. It is especially in localities where no gauze can be pro- 
cured that circumstances render it necessary to cover wounds. 
In such localities it may be hours before the services of a doctor can 
be procured, so an uncovered wound will be exposed for a long time 
to accidental contamination, which will be almost inevitable from 
the hands or clothing of the patient who must perhaps be moved. 
A compress, too, affords an excellent means of checking bleeding, 
being often all that is required for this purpose. Under such cir- 
cumstances, therefore, it will be necessary to make a compress 
which, if not as safe as is desirable, is, at least, as good as can be 
procured. First, as surgically clean cloth for the compress as can 
be obtained should be used. This will be found in a towel, a hand- 
kerchief or other cloth of the same kind which has recently been 
laundered and has not been used since it was washed. Preferably, 
this cloth should be boiled for ten minutes or soaked in a solution of 
i-iooo bichloride of mercury, corrosive sublimate, for an equal 
length of time. (Tablets of corrosive sublimate are in common use; 
they are known as antiseptic tablets. This substance is a deadly 
poison and its solution cannot be made in metal vessels.) The 
process recommended will give a compress which is safe to use, but 
an important practical difficulty is presented in applying such a 
compress to a wound. It will, of course, be so wet that it will not be 
possible to put it on the wound without squeezing some of the water 
out of it. To do this the compress must necessarily be handled and, 
as’will be explained, pus germs exist in countless millions on the 
hands. If possible, therefore, the hands must be cleaned surgically, 
which means they should be freed of germs. This should be done 
by active scrubbing for five minutes with hot water, soap and a nail- 
brush, paying special attention to the nails. Preferably the hands 
should be washed under a tap instead of in a basin, and if a basin is 
used the water had best be changed two or three times. As a further COMPRESSES. 
41 
precaution, when corrosive sublimate is procurable, the hands after 
being washed should be soaked in a i-iooo solution of that chemi 
cal for a period of five minutes. The hands must not be wiped and 
they must not touch anything except the compress. The piece 
of cloth which is intended for a compress may now be taken 
from the vessel in which it has been boiled or disinfected, but in 
so doing the operator should be very careful not to allow his hands 
to come in contact with that part of the compress which he intends 
to put on the wound. On the contrary, he should pick up the 
piece of cloth by its outer surface and, holding it at all times by 
this, squeeze the water from it until it is comparatively dry and then 
put it on the wound without delay. If a fairly large piece is taken 
for the compress and if, previous to boiling, or disinfection, it is 
folded so as to fit the wound it will be handled much more easily 
and safely. 
When no facilities are available for washing and disinfecting the 
hands, naturally this must be omitted, but the same precautions 
should be taken in handling the compress. Suppose, however, 
that in addition the compress cannot be boiled or disinfected, and 
yet it is absolutely necessary to have one. In this case one should 
again take a towel, handkerchief, etc., which has just been laun- 
dered, and without unnecessary handling apply its inner surface to 
the wound. Towels, handkerchiefs, etc., which have been used 
or handled, though they may look clean, are never so in the surgical 
sense and are therefore particularly dangerous to use as compresses. 
No attempt should be made to wash or to disinfect a wound. 
These are matters for the surgeon, and for him only in favor- 
able surroundings and conditions, dt is as unjustifiable for a 
student of first aid to wash or to attempt to disinfect a wound as 
it would be to probe it. If he leaves the wound undisturbed and 
untouched except with the safest compress that can be procured, he 
will have done his best and the patient should be greatly his debtor. 42 
FIRST-AID MATERIALS. 
If he goes further than this he may be solely responsible for much 
unnecessary suffering and perhaps even for an unnecessary death. 
PLASTER, COLLODION AND SIMILAR SUBSTANCES. 
These, of course, seal wounds on which they are used, so that if 
any pus germs have been introduced they are in the most favorable 
condition for doing harm. The use of plaster (except court plaster, 
to cover a trivial, scrape not involving the entire thickness of 
the skin) must be absolutely condemned, for not only does plaster 
seal the wound, but it is also very likely not to be surgically clean. 
Collodion is not surgically dirty, like plaster, and the ether which 
it contains has some antiseptic properties, so it is not really as 
dangerous as plaster. But it also may seal up germs under A 
good rule to adopt is to use it only on slight, cleanly cut wounds 
made by sharp instruments, and to have it removed by a surgeon 
if inflammation occurs. 
SPLINTS. 
Splints are used to prevent movement at the point where a bone 
is broken. They must, therefore, be made of a stiff and rigid 
material. For first-aid purposes splints must generally be im- 
provised from something which may easily be procured on the spot. 
Such articles are pieces of wood, broom handles, lathes, rules, 
squares, wire netting, heavy cardboard, umbrellas, canes, pick 
handles, spades, rolls made of blankets or cloth, pillows alone or 
with pieces of board outside, rifles, swords and bayonets. With a 
broken leg it is even posible to use the other leg as a splint. 
In improvising splints a few precautions should be observed. 
Besides being rigid enough to prevent movement at the point where 
a bone is broken, they should be long enough to prevent movement 
at the nearest joints, as this will move the broken bone and they TOURNIQUETS. 
43 
should be as wide as the limb to which they are applied, as other- 
wise the bandages holding them on will press on the limb as well as 
on the splint and thus cause pain and perhaps displace the ends of 
the broken bone. On account of the danger from swelling and in 
order to promote the comfort of the patient and not to rub the skin, 
splints should be well padded on the inner side with some soft 
material. The clothing sometimes answers this purpose fairly 
well when it is not removed. Substances generally used are cotton 
batting, waste, tow, flannel, pieces of cloth, grass, etc. If splints 
are not well padded, the limb to which they are applied must be 
watched with special care because the swelling is likely to make 
the splints too tight which will cut off the circulation and may cause 
mortification. 
TOURNIQUETS. 
Tourniquets are instruments used to stop bleeding from an 
artery. Each has a strap to go around the limb, a pad to place on 
the artery and some means by which the pad may be made to press 
on the artery and thus stop the flow of blood. In an improvised 
tourniquet, which is the type most commonly used, the strap may 
be made of a handkerchief, towel, bandage or cravat, and a smooth 
round stone, a cork or some object of similar shape and size 
may be used for the pad. The stone, etc., had best be wrapped in 
a small piece of cloth so that it will not bruise the skin too much. 
It is then placed over the artery above the wound and the strap is 
best passed twice around the limb and tied loosely at its outer side. 
A stick is introduced between the two layers thus formed and is 
twisted around until the bleeding is stopped. If desired, another 
bandage may be used to loop over and to hold the end of the stick 
from twisting back and so relieving the pressure of the pad on the 
artery. One layer of bandage may be used for the strap if more is 44 
FIRST-AID MATERIALS. 
not procurable. In order to avoid bruising in using this it is best 
after introducing the stick into the loop to twist away from the 
body. This is illustrated under the heading Hemorrhage. The 
inner tube of a bicycle tire makes an ex- 
cellent tourniquet. Its end is used for 
the pad. 
Besides the bruising of the muscles and 
skin which is certain to occur to some 
extent with any tourniquet, there is a 
much graver danger connected with their 
use. This is due to the fact that in 
consequence of cutting of! the circula- 
tion, mortification and death of the part 
may follow. If a tourniquet has been 
in place for an hour, therefore, it is de- 
sirable to loosen it and to all6w it to 
remain loose if no bleeding occurs. It 
should not be removed as it may be 
necessary to tighten it again quickly 
should bleeding recommence. When- 
ever a tourniquet is used, a doctor 
should be sent for as quickly as possi- 
ble, for if three or four hours pass with 
a tourniquet in place, mortification is 
very liable to follow. 
Instead of tourniquets, appliances to 
make pressure on the whole circum- 
ference of a limb and thus to stop bleeding are sometimes em- 
ployed. The strap which has just been described, without the 
pad, may be used for this purpose. A special elastic bandage 
and elastic suspenders have also been Recommended. When 
possible, however, use the tourniquet, as cutting off the whole 
Fig. 25.—U. S. Tourniquet. HEAT AND COLD. 
45 
circulation by pressure on the entire circumference of a limb is 
much more likely to cause mortification than the tourniquet, which 
presses to the greatest extent on the artery alone. If circular 
constriction is used it should not be employed for over an hour. 
HEAT AND COLD. 
Heat employed externally is such a very valuable general stimu- 
lant that every first-aid student should know how to make use of it. 
The ordinary hot-water bag is most convenient for this purpose, but 
glass bottles and jars are good. They should be covered with cloth 
or paper to prevent them from burning the patient. Hot bricks 
and stones are also useful. In using heat in this way it must be 
remembered that, especially with an unconscious person, there 
is considerable danger of causing severe burns, so one must make 
sure by testing the bottle, etc., on his arm or face, that it will not 
burn even if left in contact with the skin for some time. In 
applying heat by means of the objects mentioned, to get the greatest 
effect, they should be placed between the legs, at their outer sides 
and between the body and the arms. A light hot-water bag lying 
over the heart acts as a special stimulant to it. 
Heat applied locally causes the blood-vessels to enlarge momen- 
tarily and then to contract. Every one knows how shrunken the 
hands look after they have been in hot water for some time. For 
this reason heat may be used to prevent or to diminish swelling 
after an injury. Cloths wrung out in very hot water are usually 
employed for this purpose. 
Cold as well as heat is used in first-aid work. It is employed for 
three important purposes: first, to reduce the temperature of the 
body in sunstroke; second, to contract the blood-vessels locally and, 
third, to stimulate the respiration or breathing. 
While the full cold or ice bath is the best method of applying 
cold to reduce the temperature, cold may be utilized for this 46 
FIRST-AID MATERIALS. 
purpose by placing bags filled with ice around the body. Sheets 
wrung out in cold or ice-water wrapped around the patient, may 
also be used. 
Cold may be applied locally to contract the blood-vessels to 
prevent swelling after an injury. It always seems strange that the 
two opposites—-cold and heat—should have the same effect on the 
blood-vessels, but this is actually the case. Cold is generally pre- 
ferred to heat for this purpose, however, at least in all recent cases, 
such as those which are cared for by first-aid students. Ice bags, 
cold water running from a tap, cold water in a basin or pail or 
cloths wrung out in cold water are generally used. Cold metal, 
such as a wide knife-blade, sometimes proves a convenient means 
of applying cold especially to prevent black eye. 
Everybody knows that on jumping into cold water or on being 
struck by a stream of cold water he involuntarily takes a deep breath. 
This effect of cold is taken advantage of to cause breathing to 
start when it has stopped or to quicken and deepen it if it is slow 
and shallow. For this purpose cold water should be sprinkled on 
the face—the front of the body, the chest and the abdomen are also 
particularly sensitive. 
STIMULANTS. 
All stimulants taken internally are best given hot when possible 
as aside from the particular simulant used, heat itself is a powerful 
stimulant whether employed internally or externally. Safe and 
easily procurable stimulants are tea and coffee, a glass of wine, a 
dessertspoonful of whisky or brandy with an equal quantity of 
water, or a teaspoonful of pure alcohol with three times the quantity 
of water (not wood alcohol or denatured alcohol, which are poisons). 
Alcohol in some form may usually be easily procured and this 
use of alcohol is, of course, purely a medicinal one which has nothing 
to do with the question of the habitual drinking of alcoholic QUESTIONS. 
47 
liquors. But many people object to the use of alcohol under any 
circumstances, and for other reasons it is not advisable to carry 
whisky or brandy for first-aid purposes. Aromatic spirits of 
ammonia which has none of the disadvantages of alcohol fulfils 
this need better than any other stimulant. It is best given in 20- 
drop to half-teaspoonful doses in one-third of a glass of hot water. 
EMETICS. 
It is necessary to know a few simple and easy methods to cause 
vomiting. 
Running the finger down the throat or drinking a large quantity 
of warm water are usually effective. A teaspoonful of mustard or 
salt in a cupful of warm water are household remedies of value and 
the wine or syrup of ipecac are usually easily procured. The 
last are given in doses of from one to two teaspoonfuls. An emetic 
will always work better if the patient drinks something before tak- 
ing the emetic. 
QUESTIONS. 
1. For what purposes are bandages used? 
2. What precautions must be taken in applying them ? 
3. What are the three kinds of bandages? 
4. Describe the triangular bandage. Of what is it made ? What is its 
size? 
5. What is the unfolded bandage? 
6. What is the cravat? 
7. For what purposes can the unfolded bandage be used? The 
cravat ? , 
8. What are the uses of the roller bandage? From what is it made? 
9. What are the sizes used for different parts of the body? 
10. What precautions must you take in applying the roller bandage? 
11. Describe the Red Cross first-aid outfit. 
X2. What is a compress? 48 
FIRST-AID MATERIALS. 
13- What is necessary in compresses which are to he applied to wounds ? 
14. What precautions would you take in applying them ? 
15. How would you go to work to obtain a compress fit for application 
to a wound ? 
16. What is taught here in regard to disinfecting a wound ? 
17. What is a splint? 
18. From what materials can a splint be made? 
19. What precautions should you always take in applying splints ? 
20. Wrhat is a tourniquet? For what purpose is it used? 
21. Describe the strap tourniquet with the pad, and the elastic con- 
strictor. 
22. What are the advantages of the former? What are the dangers 
from tourniquets ? 
23. How long is it safe to allow a strap tourniquet to remain in place; 
an elastic constrictor? 
24. For what purposes may heat be used by the first-aid student ? 
25. How would you use heat to prevent swelling after an injury? 
26. What are the dangers which may result from heat and how would 
you prevent them if you used it ? 
27. What uses can you make of cold and how would you use it? 
28. For what purposes would you use stimulants? 
29. Name some stimulants you would use and how you would give 
them. 
30. What would you do in order to cause a person to vomit? 
PRACTICAL EXERCISES. 
Show a triangular bandage. Show how it is used unfolded and folded. 
Apply arm sling with bandage and with coat sleeve. 
Foot bandage. Hand bandage; apply with cravat. 
Eye bandage; jaw bandage; neck bandage; bandage for palm of hand. 
Show roller bandage and apply it to leg and thigh. 
Show arm sling with cravat. 
Four-tailed bandage and “T” bandage. 
Show Red Cross first-aid outfit and illustrate its use. 
Show the method of applying a splint and a tourniquet. CHAPTER III. 
GENERAL DIRECTIONS FOR RENDERING 
FIRST AID. SHOCK. 
General Directions for Rendering First Aid 
In giving first aid several points must be taken into account. 
In case of accident when no doctor is present the man trained in 
first-aid work occupies for the time being the same position as a 
physician. For this reason in justice to his patient and to himself 
he must take control of matters. The only persons who should 
be near a patient are those actually needed to help him. Do not 
be hurried into moving a patient and always make sure first that he 
is not going to be injured by being moved. Broken bones must 
always be secured before a patient is moved. 
If the services of a doctor are procurable it is best to send for 
one at once except for slight injuries. 
Moreover, if any doubt exists in regard to the latter point, it 
is best to send for a physician or to take the patient to a doctor 
as soon as possible. It should be remembered that injuries and 
emergencies which are apparently trivial may sometimes, if not 
treated promptly by a doctor, have serious consequences, and that 
a physician called in time may with comparative ease prevent con- 
ditions which when fully established are beyond the help of medical 
science. 
In approaching the patient do so calmly and without hurry. 
Be quiet and cool. Generally speaking, the first thing to do for the 
49 50 
GENERAL DIRECTIONS FOR RENDERING FIRST AID. 
patient is to get him into a safe and comfortable position. The 
best position, unless there is some reason to the contrary, is on the 
back with the head low. Never raise the head more than necessary 
to put a small pillow, such as one made of a folded coat, under it. 
With a flushed face, the head may be raised to this extent; with a 
pale face, it should not be raised at all. If a person is vomiting, 
he should be placed on his side or his head should be turned to one 
side, so that the matter vomited will not go into his wind-pipe and 
choke him. It should also be remembered that unconscious 
persons cannot swallow and so they should never be given water, 
stimulants, etc., as these will choke them by entering the wind-pipe. 
Slight cases of illness and injury may sit up, but one must be sure 
that all serious cases are kept in the lying position. 
Tight clothing interferes with both breathing and circulation. 
The collar should be loosened at once and also usually the belt 
and suspenders. 
A hurt person will frequently ask for water, which may be 
given him with perfect safety. Cold water is usually more re- 
freshing, but whether cold or hot, it must be given fairly slowly so 
that the patient has time to swallow between sips. Stimulants 
have already been discussed. To neglect giving a stimulant when 
it is required would be a grave error of judgment. The first thought 
with many people, however, is to procure whisky or brandy for 
every sufferer from illness or injury. These are really as un- 
necessary for every case as would be the application of splints to 
the leg of every injured man. They should never be given in 
injuries of the head, and it should be remembered that while a 
small quantity of liquor acts as a stimulant, that large ones are 
depressing. 
Whatever the injury may be, it must be seen clearly before any 
attempt is made to treat it. In order to do this it will generally 
be necessary to remove some of the clothing. This is likely to be SHOCK. 
51 
a very painful and possibly a dangerous process for the patient 
unless he is handled with the greatest gentleness. In removing 
clothing, rip up the nearest seam in the outer clothing and cut or 
tear the underclothing. The sound side should be undressed first 
so that the injured side will be subjected to less movement. In 
injuries to the foot and ankle it will rarely be possible to remove 
the boots or shoes without giving severe pain and perhaps doing 
considerable damage, so they should be cut freely when this is 
necessary. 
Shock. 
More or less shock accompanies all injuries and it must always 
be thought of and treated when necessary. 
Description. 
Shock is a more or less profound depression of the nervous 
system. It is sometimes called collapse. 
Causes. 
Usually a severe injury. Some persons are sensitive to 
shock, however, and so with them more shock will follow a 
slight injury than is the case with a severe injury in less sensi- 
tive persons. 
Prevention. 
The prevention of accidents, especially severe accidents. 
Also do not allow an injured person to see his own injury, as 
this is apt to increase shock. This is especially true with 
severe bleeding. 
Symptoms. 
Usually appear immediately after an injury. 
Patient is more or less stupid and takes no interest in what is 
happening near him. 
May be partly or totally unconscious or mind may wander. 52 
GENERAL DIRECTIONS FOR RENDERING FIRST AID. 
Face is pale, anxious and pinched; eyelids droop; eyes are 
dull, with dilated pupils. 
Skin is cold. 
Breathing is feeble and shallow. 
Pulse is rapid and feeble and may not be able to feel at the wrist. 
Usually patient gradually improves, in a few hours becoming 
more like himself, but may not do so, but die of heart failure. 
Treatment. 
Send for doctor immediately if possible. Combat depression 
and warm and stimulate in every possible way before arrival 
of doctor. 
First, place patient on back with head low so that plenty of 
blood will enter brain. 
Stimulants should always be given if patient is able to swallow. 
Hot coffee, hot tea or half a teaspoonful of aromatic spirits 
of ammonia in a tablespoonful of water. Whisky may be 
only stimulant procurable. If used, give one large drink only, 
as more is likely to cause depression. 
Ammonia or smelling salts to nose help when procurable. 
Never remove more clothing than necessary from an injured 
person as this will cause more severe shock, and when possible 
spread coats or blankets over him. 
Place hot-water bottles or hot bricks around patient when 
possible; flannels wrung out in hot water applied to abdomen 
and chest have the same effect. 
Rubbing legs and arms toward body, under blankets, quickens 
circulation and is useful. Be careful while doing this not to,, 
uncover patient. 
Warning. 
While shock is so extremely common in injuries that it should 
always be kept in mind and treated, it must not be forgotten. 
that something more dangerous even than shock may require QUESTIONS. 
53 
attention. The symptoms of severe bleeding are very like 
shock, and if shock only is treated in such a case and the 
bleeding is not stopped the patient may very readily bleed to 
death. 
QUESTIONS. 
1. Suppose you are called upon to care for an injured person. What 
would you do first ? 
2. What about moving an injured person ? 
3. When should you send for a doctor, or take the injured person to 
a doctor? 
4. In treating an injured person what general measures would you 
take? 
5. What about tight clothing? 
6. What do you know about giving injured persons water 
stimulants? 
7. When would you remove some of the clothing and how would you 
do this? 
8. When does shock occur? 
9. What is shock? Cause of shock? Prevention? Symptoms? 
T reatment ? 
10. Suppose you see a person whom you think is severely shocked, 
what would you look for in order to determine nothing more severe 
than shock had occurred? 
PRACTICAL EXERCISES. 
The application of all the bandages described in the preceding chapter 
by the members of the class. CHAPTER IV. 
INJURIES IN WHICH THE SKIN IS NOT PIERCED NOR 
BROKEN. 
Bruises, Strains, Sprains, Dislocations and Fractures. 
Causes. 
These injuries are all caused by external violence in the form 
of blows or falls or by wrenching the body. 
This does not apply to all compound fractures, however, 
as will be seen later.* 
Prevention. 
Every one is liable to these, the commonest of injuries, and 
they occur under so many different circumstances that it is 
impossible to suggest other than the most general means for 
preventing them. It is safe to say, however, that a great 
many of them result from carelessness and that especially in 
dangerous places, people should be more alive to their sur- 
roundings. In other words, they should always exercise 
common care. 
Posted directions should always be observed. Such directions 
are not arbitrary, as they are, unfortunately, sometimes 
regarded, but represent the teachings of experience. 
* Compound fractures are more conveniently described under frac- 
tures, though properly they are injuries in which the skin is pierced and 
first and foremost require the treatment of such injuries. 
54 BRUISES. 
55 
BRUISES. 
Description. 
These are perhaps the most common injuries. When a 
person falls and strikes some part of his body or when he is 
struck by something, usually the skin is not broken, but the 
force of the blow or fall injures the tissues immediately 
beneath the skin breaking numbers of small blood-vessels 
therein. Blood escapes from these small vessels and this 
causes the swelling and the ordinary black-and-blue spot 
which is due to the blood which has escaped. 
Causes. 
Blows or falls. 
Prevention. 
As given above under general heading. 
Symptoms. 
Pain at once from injury to nerves. 
Swelling from escape of blood from vessels. 
Black-and-blue spot from same cause. 
Pain also later from pressure of this blood on sensitive nerves. 
Pain increased by movement. 
Treatment. 
Slight, no treatment. 
More severe, object is to limit swelling and to decrease pain. 
At once: Ice or very hot or very cold water, or half alcohol 
and half water. Arnica or witch-hazel. These contract 
blood-vessels and so prevent escape of more blood and also 
deaden the nerves to some extent, thus relieving pain. Ice 
may be applied directly to injured part. Best in using liquid 
remedy to wet cloth with liquid and then to apply cloth. 
Raising bruised part diminishes pain, as it diminishes the 
blood-supply to the part. 56 
INJURIES IN WHICH THE SKIN IS NOT PIERCED NOR BROKEN. 
In arm, when severe and movement is painful, use a sling. 
No doctor is usually required for a bruise. 
Warning. 
A bruise may be only the least important part of an injury. 
So with a bruise always try to. make sure there is no other 
injury, such as a fracture. 
Bruises of the chest and abdomen sometimes result in internal 
injuries. They may be very dangerous from breaking of the 
blood-vessels of the lungs, of the abdominal organs, or from 
actual rupture of the soft internal structures. Severe bruises 
of this character therefore demand the immediate attention 
of a physician. In case shock is very severe after a bruise of 
the abdomen or chest, serious injury of the internal organs 
should be suspected. 
STRAINS. 
Description. 
A strain is the name given to the injury produced by over- 
stretching of a muscle. In severe strains small blood-vessels 
in the muscles are often broken so that blood escapes into the 
muscles in the same way that, with a bruise, blood escapes 
beneath the skin. The commonest strains are of the muscles 
of the back and shoulders and of the small tendons of the 
wrist and ankle. 
Cause. 
Usually a sudden wrench—may be due to lifting too heavy a 
weight. 
Prevention. 
As given above. SPRAINS 
57 
Symptoms. 
Pain increased on movement. 
Stiffness. 
~ Lameness. 
More or less swelling. 
Treatment. 
Not necessary to call doctor unless severe. 
Absolute rest at first. 
Alcohol and water, arnica and witch hazel gently rubbed in to 
deaden pain. Rubbing should always be toward body. Later 
such rubbing may be harder to help absorption and to make 
strained muscles more supple. When pain and stiffness 
have improved, gentle movement until both have entirely 
disappeared. 
SPRAINS. 
Description. 
Sprains are injuries of joints. They result from violent 
stretching, twisting and partial breaking of the ligaments 
about a joint and are sometimes accompanied by actual 
breaking of the bones. The twisting or stretching results in 
breaking of the blood-vessels and the escape of blood and of 
blood-serum (the liquid part of the blood) both around and in 
the joint. 
Sprains of the wrist and ankle are most common. 
Cause. 
Unnatural movement of a joint. Sometimes the cause is 
apparently a slight one, such as twisting the foot in stepping 
down from a slight elevation. 
Prevention. 
See above under general heading. 58 
INJURIES IN WHICH THE SKIN IS NOT PIERCED NOR BROKEN. 
Symptoms. 
Severe pain immediately. 
Pain is much increased by movement of the joint. 
Swelling of joint. 
Bones are not out of place and there is no deformity other than 
that due to swelling. 
Shock, when severe. 
Treatment. 
Call doctor always when severe or when in doubt. 
Always begin treatment at once whether doctor has been 
called or not. 
Absolute rest in order not to do more damage by rubbing of 
the injured joint surfaces. This means that the patient should 
not be allowed to move the joint or to step on it. 
Elevate joint when possible and apply heat or cold. Less 
blood will come to the injured joint if it is elevated and heat or 
cold contracts the vessels and thus limits the escape of blood 
and serum. Cold may be applied in the form of snow or 
crushed ice in a cloth. It is usually better to use cloths wrung 
out in very hot or very cold water or to shower the joint with 
very hot or cold water. Putting sprained joint under a cold 
or hot water tap is also excellent. 
Either heat or cold should be made use of sufficiently long to 
get full benefit from it, that is to say, from 24 to 48 hours. At 
first on the application of either heat or cold, the pain may in- 
crease, but after an hour, at the latest, it will commence to im- 
prove and will finally disappear. 
Remember there may be shock and, if so, treat. 
Warning. 
A severe sprain, especially a sprain of the ankle, is by no means 
a trivial injury but one which demands the services of a 
physician. DISLOCATIONS. 
59 
Description. 
Dislocations are injuries of joints and are due to the head of a 
bone slipping out of its socket. A dislocation cannot occur, 
except in a joint which has been dislocated before, without 
tearing the ligaments which keep the joint close. Some 
persons, however, on account of frequent dislocations of the 
same joint have its ligaments so stretched that not only is 
dislocation easy, but no further injury of the ligaments results 
from it. By far the most frequent dislocation is that of the 
shoulder-joint, which occurs in one-half of all cases of dislo- 
cation. But dislocations of the hip-joint, the jaw and the 
fingers are not particularly uncommon. 
Causes. 
Dislocations are usually caused by a blow or a fall, but some- 
times result from a violent muscular effect, such as throwing a 
stone. 
Prevention. 
As given under general heading. 
Symptoms. 
Deformity; that is, the joint has an unusual appearance, 
because the head of the bone is not in its proper place. This 
may be best recognized by comparing the injured with the 
uninjured side of the body. 
The limb in which a joint is dislocated may be either longer 
or shorter than the uninjured limb. This depends on the 
direction in which the dislocation has taken place. The 
head of a dislocated bone may often be felt out of its place. 
Limited movement as the displaced head of the bone is tightly 
held in its new position. 
Pain from pressure of the displaced head of the bone on sensi- 
tive nerves. 
DISLOCATIONS. 60 
INJURIES IN WHICH THE SKIN IS NOT PIERCED NOR BROKEN. 
Fig. 26.—Dislocation and fracture. DISLOCATIONS. 
61 
Swelling from bruising of the soft parts by the displaced head 
of the bone. 
Shock. 
Treatment. 
Send for a doctor at once. 
Await his arrival except in dislocations of the jaw, the fingers 
and the shoulder without attempting to reduce dislocation. 
Remember that attempts to reduce dislocations, other than 
those of the finger and jaw, by one not familar with anatomy 
may result in great harm to the patient, for the movements 
necessary to do so may cause serious injury to the blood- 
vessels, nerves and soft parts. 
When no attempt is made to reduce the dislocation, the patient 
should be put in a comfortable position and the injured joint 
should be covered with cloths wrung out in very hot or very 
cold water so as to contract the vessels and to prevent swell- 
ing as much as possible. 
Dislocation of the Lower Jaw. 
This may usually be successfully treated by almost anyone. 
This is fortunate, as a dislocated jaw with the open mouth in 
consequence is most painful and uncomfortable. To reduce 
a dislocation of the jaw, both thumbs must first be wrapped 
in several layers of cloth so that they will not be liable to 
injury. Both thumbs are then placed in the patient’s mouth 
resting on his lower teeth on each side while the fingers seize 
the lower jaw outside. First pressure is made downward 
and then backward. As soon as the jaw starts into place the 
thumbs should be slid off the teeth to the inside of the cheeks 
or they will be caught between the teeth when the jaw springs 
into place. The overstretched muscles act just like a rubber 62 
INJURIES IN WHICH THE SKIN IS NOT PIERCED NOR BROKEN. 
band and one must be quick or his thumbs will be injured. 
When dislocation is reduced put on jaw bandage. 
Dislocation of the Fingers. 
These, not including those of the second joint of the thumb, 
present no great difficulties to the first-aid student. The 
dislocated finger should first be grasped firmly on the hand 
side. The end of the finger should then be pulled straight 
out away from the hand and the bone will usually slip into 
place. No bandage will be required. 
Dislocation of the Shoulder. 
No attempt should be made to reduce this dislocation if the 
services of a physician can be obtained within a reasonable 
time, say four hours. Make your decision on this point at once, 
for if you are compelled by circumstances to attempt to reduce 
the dislocation you must get to work immediately before the 
muscles have become set and rigid from the irritation caused 
by the displaced head of the bone. 
Frequently little difficulty will be experienced in reducing a 
dislocation of the shoulder, especially if the joint has been 
dislocated before. To accomplish it, the patient should be 
made to lie down flat on his back. The person who is going 
to try to reduce the dislocation should then sit down beside 
him on the injured side facing toward his head and should 
place his inner heel, after the shoe has been removed, in the 
arm-pit of the patient’s injured side and then draw down the 
dislocated arm and drag it toward the uninjured side at the 
same time pressing outward and upward with the heel. This 
will usually pry the end of the dislocated bone outward, and 
as soon as it is free it will snap back into place. In order to FRACTURES. 
63 
keep the bone in place, the arm should then be bandaged to 
the side with the forearm carried across the chest and the hand 
placed on the opposite shoulder. 
'Warning. 
In case much difficulty is experienced in reducing any dis- 
location, do not persist in attempts to do so. 
FRACTURES. 
Description. 
When a bone is broken, the injury is called a fracture. Our 
bones are brittle and when the force used against them is 
sufficient they break much as would a dry stick. Fractures 
are among the commonest injuries, ten times as common as 
dislocations. About two-thirds of all fractures are of the bones 
of the limbs. Next in frequency are those of the collar-bone 
and ribs. Fractures of the skull, spine and pelvis are com- 
paratively rare. 
A simple fracture is one in which the skin is not pierced. 
A compound fracture is one in which the skin is pierced. 
Causes. 
Simple: blows and falls. Compound: also,—from bad han- 
dling of simple fractures and from wounds. 
Prevention. 
Simple: as given under general heading. Compound: also,— 
by proper handling of simple fractures and the prevention of 
wounds. 
Symptoms. Simple Fracture. 
History of blow or fall. 
Pain at point of fracture. 
Tenderness at point of fracture. 
Person injured is unable to move fractured limb. 
Deformity. With a fracture a limb will be altered in shape 64 
INJURIES IN WHICH THE SKIN IS NOT PIERCED NOR BROKEN. 
and shortened or bent. Always compare with the uninjured 
side. 
Recognition by touch,—an inequality may often be felt by 
running finger along a broken bone. 
Loss of rigidity of bone. On moving a limb in which bone is 
fractured, instead of the bone being moved as a whole it will 
be noticed that at the point of fracture there is unusual 
movement, something like that of a hinge. 
Crepitas. This is the surgical term applied to the grating 
which is heard or felt when the broken ends of the bone are 
rubbed on each other. 
Shock. 
Warning. 
As one may do great harm by moving a broken bone, for the 
broken ends are likely to be very sharp, it is much safer when 
an injured person is unable to move a limb, and from appear- 
ances it seems probable that a fracture has occurred, to con- 
clude that it is a fracture without further examination, and to 
so treat it. 
Treatment. Simple Fracture. 
Send for a doctor. 
The object of treatment before his arrival is to prevent further 
injury, especially puncture of the skin by the sharp, knife-like 
edges of the broken bone. If this occurs the simple fracture 
is, of course, converted into a compound fracture. In the 
former injury there is no chance of wound infection as the 
unbroken skin prevents germs from reaching the break in the 
bone, while in the latter the skin is cut through and in con- 
sequence germs reach the broken bone ends and infection 
occurs. So instead of the few weeks of comparatively painless 
healing of the simple fracture without much danger, a com- 
pound fracture is caused with probable wound infection, FRACTURES. 
65 
inflammation, pus or matter, and perhaps months of sickness 
from blood-poisoning, with considerable danger of death. 
In the treatment of simple fractures the primary object is 
accomplished by preventing movement of the ends of the 
broken bone. 
If the doctor may be expected to arrive promptly, nothing 
need be done except to put the patient in a comfortable posi- 
tion. If it is evident that in order to do this the broken 
bone will be moved, it must be supported firmly by the hands. 
One hand should support the broken bone on each side of the 
break. The bone must not bend at the break while the 
patient changes his position to a more comfortable one. 
Then the broken bone had best be supported in the natural 
position on a pillow or a folded coat. In so supporting it 
great care must be taken that it is not bent or does not drag 
on the point of fracture. 
If the patient must be moved more than slightly, as just 
described, the broken bone should be set; that is to say, it 
should be gently drawn into its natural position, always 
determining this by comparing it with the opposite side, and 
held there firmly by the application of splints. 
If the injured person is wearing thin summer clothing, it 
will not usually be necessary to remove the clothing in order 
to examine for fracture. In fact, it will be better not to try 
to do so, as this may result in injury from moving the sharp 
ends of the bone, and when the clothing is left on it furnishes 
excellent padding for splints. With thick clothing, however, 
very likely one will not be able to tell that a fracture has oc- 
curred or what the character of the injury is. In this case 
never try to take off the clothing, but cut it in the seams with 
a sharp knife or scissors. 
Treat shock. 66 
INJURIES IN WHICH THE SKIN IS NOT PIERCED NOR BROKEN. 
Symptoms. Compound Fracture. 
Besides the symptoms already described, there is a wound 
leading down to the broken bone, or the broken end of the 
bone protrudes through the skin. 
Treatment. Compound Fracture. 
Send for doctor. 
Expose fracture by cutting clothing. 
Turn back clothing from wound. 
Use same precaution as in simple fracture to prevent move- 
ment of sharp ends of broken bone. 
Do not touch wound with fingers or anything else. 
As soon as possible procure an antiseptic or surgically clean 
compress and place it on the wound. 
If sharp bone is buttoned-holed through the skin, as fre- 
quently happens, do not attempt to restore it to its place, but 
by padding splint hold it in position as it is. 
Always treat wound first, then fracture. 
Treat shock. 
Warning. 
Never in any fracture attempt to transport patient until the 
broken bone is firmly fixed in position by splints. 
Fracture of Lower Leg. 
Symptoms. 
As given above. Patient falls to ground. Is not usually 
difficult to detect fracture. 
Treatment. 
Send for doctor. 
Secure pillow, sack stuffed like pillow with hay, straw or the 
like or a blanket rolled on poles at each side so as to make 
trough. 
Gently lift the leg to pillow, etc., placing one hand above and FRACTURE OF LOWER LEG. 
67 
the other below break under leg, always holding in natural 
position. 
Leg on pillow, should not allow toe to turn in or out, but 
Fig. 27.—The pillow splint. {Dulles.) 
should be supported in same position as toe of uninjured leg. 
Nothing further unless must move patient. If this must be 
done the leg should be drawn into natural position and splinted. 
Fig. 28.—Splints for fracture of lower leg. 
Use two splints when procurable. Though any stiff material 
may be used for these splints, preferably they should be of 
thin boards longer than the leg so as to prevent movement 68 
INJURIES IN WHICH THE SKIN IS NOT PIERCED NOR BROKEN. 
at the knee-joint, and wider than the leg is thick. The splints 
should be applied outside of pillow, one at the inner and the 
other at outer side of leg. They should be held in place by 
3 or 4 strips of cloth, straps or handkerchiefs passed around 
splints, pillow and leg and tied. Care must be taken that none 
of these strips is directly over break, as this will cause intense 
pain by pressure. The pillow alone makes a fairly good 
support even without splints. Splints also may be used with- 
out a pillow. If this is done the clothing, straw, hay, cotton, 
leaves or something else soft must be used for padding under 
the splints, which are tied in place in the way described above. 
In case of emergency anything stiff of sufficient length, such as 
Fig. 29.—Splints for fracture of thigh. 
a cane, umbrella or the like, may be used for the outer splint, 
the other leg being used for the inner splint. The strips of 
cloth or handkerchiefs are then passed around the splint and 
both legs and tied as before. 
Treat shock. 
Fracture of Thigh. 
Symptoms. 
As above, patient falls to ground. 
May be difficult to detect fracture on account of thick muscles. BROKEN KNEE-CAP. 
69 
Treatment. 
The necessity of procuring a physician and of treating shock 
are greater than in fracture of the leg. Remarks in reference 
to careful handling of broken bone apply. 
If difficult to detect fracture, treat as fracture. 
A long splint extending in a solid piece from foot to arm-pit 
is required for outside splint to prevent movement of hip- 
joint. This should be firmly fixed by encircling strips of 
cloth to the chest as well as to the limb. 
Inner splint had best extend from crotch to foot. If no inner 
splint can be obtained, tie legs and thighs together. 
Broken Knee-cap. 
Symptoms. 
As above, patient falls to ground and cannot raise leg. 
Not difficult to detect fracture, as can feel groove in knee-cap 
immediately beneath the skin. 
Treatment. 
Services of a physician will be required and shock generally 
demands treatment. Must also use care in moving leg. 
Straighten leg. 
Secure splint long enough to extend from middle of thigh to 
middle of lower leg. Preferably, this should be a thin board 
as wide as thigh, but a cane, umbrella or the like may be used 
in case of emergency. Make pad for splint, apply splint to 
back of thigh and leg with middle opposite bend of knee and 
tie in place with strips of cloth or handkerchiefs. Be careful 
not to put bandage over break, but one strip immediately 
above and one immediately below knee. 70 
INJURIES IN WHICH THE SKIN IS NOT PIERCED NOR BROKEN. 
Fracture of Collar-bone. 
Symptoms. 
Patient supports elbow of injured side with hand of other side. 
Is unable to raise arm above shoulder. 
Is easy to feel depression by running finger over injured 
collar-bone. 
Treatment. 
Send for doctor. 
Make pad from a large handkerchief, two medium-sized 
handkerchiefs, a triangular bandage or the like. 
Fig. 30.—Dressing for fracture of collar-bone 
Place this pad in arm-pit of injured side. Put arm in sling 
with forearm at right angle to upper arm. 
Take a bandage about 3 inches wide, put this horizontally 
around body and injured arm at elbow. It will, of course, 
encircle both the elbow, the bent arm and the body. When 
tied by pulling elbow to body it will force upper end of humerus 
outward. FRACTURE OF UPPER ARM AND FOREARM. 
71 
Another method: 
Have patient lie down and place his injured shoulder on 
pillow7 in a comfortable position till doctor arrives. 
Treat shock. 
Fracture of Upper Arm and Forearm. 
Symptoms. 
These fractures can almost always be easily detected by the 
symptoms already given. 
Fig. 31.—Fracture of upper 
arm. (Drill Regulations, H. 
C., U. S. A.) 
Fig. 32.—Splint and sling for forearm. 
(Drill Regulations, H. C., U. S. A.) 
Treatment. 
Send for doctor. 
Treat shock. 
Gently straighten limb so as to put it in natural position. 
Secure two splints long enough, in upper arm to extend from 
shoulder and arm-pit to elbow, and in forearm from elbow to 72 
INJURIES IN WHICH THE SKIN IS NOT PIERCED NOR BROKEN. 
middle of hand. These are best flat boards, shingles are 
excellent, but may be of any stiff material, such as twigs, 
cover of wine bottles, tin trough, etc. 
Pad splints well. 
In upper arm, if lower part of bone is broken, apply one 
splint behind and the other in front. If fracture is of middle 
or upper part, apply one splint to inner and the other to outer 
side of arm. 
Support by sling. 
In forearm: 
Place forearm across the chest, thumb up. 
Apply one padded splint—clothing will do for padding—to 
outer side from elbow to beyond wrist and the other to inner 
surface extending to tips of fingers. 
Support by sling. 
Broken Wrist. 
This is an extremely common injury resulting from falls on the 
hands which are put out in falling forward to protect the body. 
Symptoms. 
This belongs to a class of fractures to which the name impacted 
is given. The force of the injury actually drives one bone into 
the other so that they are held together. 
Great deformity, no crepitas, movement, etc. 
Treatment. 
Send for doctor. 
Do not attempt to free bones, but leave them as they are. 
Otherwise treat like fracture of forearm. 
Broken Fingers. 
Symptoms. 
Usual symptoms of fracture, which is easily detected. FRACTURE OF RIBS AND SKULL. 
73 
Treatment. 
Gently draw into natural position. 
Put narrow padded splint under finger and hold it in place 
with a narrow bandage. 
Support hand in sling. 
Show to doctor as early as practicable. 
Fracture of Ribs. 
Symptoms. 
Sharp pain on taking a long breath or coughing. Breathing 
is usually short, patient often presses hand to side to prevent 
movement of chest. 
May feel grating of ends of broken bones on each other by 
placing hand on chest at point where pain is most severe. 
Treatment. 
Tie a large handkerchief or a triangular bandage firmly 
around the chest, pin a large towel snugly around chest or 
apply a roller bandage to chest. These limit chest motion 
and thus diminish pain. 
If shock is severe, call doctor immediately. If not, after 
bandage is in place may visit a doctor as soon as practicable. 
Treat shock. 
Fracture of Skull. 
Symptoms. 
Patient probably unconscious from injury to brain. If at 
base of skull, there will probably be a discharge of blood 
from nose, ears or mouth. If at vault, fracture can easily 
be detected under skin. 74 
INJURIES IN WHICH THE SKIN IS NOT PIERCED NOR BROKEN. 
Treatment. 
Send for doctor. 
Place in lying-down position with head slightly raised and 
keep very quiet until doctor arrives. 
Fracture of Lower Jaw. 
Symptoms. 
Mouth open, patient cannot speak. 
Fracture may often be felt outside, and inside there will be an 
irregularity of the teeth. 
May be bleeding from gums. 
Shock. 
Treatment. 
Send for doctor. 
Gently raise broken jaw and bring lower against upper teeth. 
Support in this position with the jaw bandage described 
on page 25 or with two strips of bandage, one vertical, tied 
over top of head and the other longer, brought to back of 
head, crossed and brought horizontally to forehead and tied 
there. 
Treat shock. 
Fracture of Nose. 
Symptoms. 
Usually not difficult to detect. 
Pain, swelling, crepitas and deformity. Swelling may be 
so great that obscures deformity. 
Is .not infrequently compound. 
Treatment. 
Put in as natural position as possible and hold there with an 
adhesive-plaster strip across nose from cheek to cheek. BROKEN BACK. 
75 
Before applying plaster, put a small compress of gauze on each 
side of nose. 
If you have no adhesive plaster put on bandage over nose and 
around head, but do not pull tight enough to flatten nose. 
Consult doctor, as there is danger of permanent deformity. 
Broken Back. 
Symptoms. 
Patient unable to move. 
No motion or feeling of body below injury. 
Treatment. 
Send for doctor at once. If possible, do not move patient 
before his arrival. 
If patient must be taken from the spot where his injury has 
occurred, procure ample assistance to lift him. This should 
be done with the greatest care so as not to bend spine for this 
will crush spinal cord. 
Put stretcher under patient and gently lower him to stretcher. 
Treat shock. 
QUESTIONS. 
1. What are the common causes of injury without a break of the 
skin ? 
2. How may such injuries be prevented? 
3. Describe bruises. 
4. What are the symptoms of bruises? 
5. How would you treat them? 
6. In a severe bruise what else must you look out for? 
7. What is a strain? How is it caused? What are the symptoms? 
8. What is the treatment ? 
9. What is a sprain? How is it caused? Symptoms? Treatment? 
10. Is a severe sprain a slight injury? 76 
INJURIES IN WHICH THE SKIN IS NOT PIERCED NOR BROKEN. 
11. What is a dislocation? 
12. How are dislocations caused? Symptoms? Treatment? 
13. Under what circumstances would you be justified in trying to 
reduce a dislocation? 
14. When should you proceed to do so? 
15. Danger of attempts to reduce dislocations. 
16. Describe special treatment for dislocations of the lower jaw, 
finger and shoulder. 
17. What is a fracture? 
18. Are fractures common accidents as compared to dislocations? 
19. What is a simple fracture? 
20. What is a compound fracture ? Causes of simple fractures and 
compound fractures ? 
21. How would you prevent a simple fracture from becoming a com- 
pound one ? 
22. How would you recognize a simple fracture in an injured person? 
23. How would you treat a simple fracture? 
24. How would you recognize a compound fracture ? 
25. Treatment of compound fracture? 
26. Symptoms and treatment of fracture of the lower leg; the thigh; 
of knee-cap; of collar bone; of upper arm and forearm; of wrist; of 
fingers; of ribs; of skull; of lower jaw; of nose; of back. 
PRACTICAL EXERCISES. 
Show methods of treatment of dislocations of lower jaw, shoulder and 
fingers. 
Show methods of treatment of a simple and of a compound fracture. 
Show treatment and application of splints in fracture of lower leg; 
the thigh; the knee-cap; collar-bone; upper arm and forearm; wrist; 
fingers; ribs; skull; lower jaw; nose; back. CHAPTER V. 
INJURIES IN WHICH THE SKIN IS PIERCED OR 
BROKEN. 
Injuries in which the skin is broken or pierced are commonly 
called wounds. 
Description.—In a wound not only is the skin broken or pierced, 
but there is usually more or less damage to the tissues beneath 
it. This serves to distinguish wounds from the injuries which have 
just been described (except compound fractures, which are really 
wounds) for with the former the injury is confined to the tissues 
underneath the skin. In wounds, as the protective covering, the 
skin, is broken through, there is danger of the entrance of pus germs 
and consequently of inflammation with the formation of matter or 
pus. In wounds, too, as some blood-vessels must be injured, there 
is more or less hemorrhage or bleeding. 
It is very important for the first-aid student to understand clearly 
the action of germs which enter the body through a wound. These 
germs are vital or, in other words, living organisms. While with 
injuries from mechanical and chemical agencies the damage to the 
body is done at once at the time the injury is received, with 
injuries from vital agencies this is not the case. No effect is appar- 
ent at the time of the injury, but the damage comes later with the 
:growth of the living organisms. 
The germs which we need consider can only enter the body 
through a wound or a break in the skin. These germs which are 
too small to be seen except through a powerful microscope cause 
inflammation and the formation of pus, or matter. They exist 
77 78 
INJURIES IN WHICH THE SKIN IS PIERCED OR BROKEN. 
in countless millions, but they do not live in the tissues of our bodies 
and must, therefore, always enter from outside. This is a most 
important fact to remember. It is also important to know that 
pus germs do not float in the air and so cannot be carried to a 
wound from the air. Pus germs are found on the surface of our 
bodies, on knives and other objects which cause wounds, in the 
dust of houses, in water, etc., and also on surgical instruments 
and dressings unless special means have been taken to free them of 
germs or, in other words, unless they have been disinfected. 
Suppose a wound is received, what happens? If pus germs do 
not gain entrance to it, there will be no inflammation and it will 
heal quickly and kindly; but if, on the other hand, the wound is 
infected by pus germs, this means that inflammation will follow, 
more or less matter will form, and there will be some absorption 
of poisonous products from the wound which may result in the 
more severe forms of blood-poisoning and almost inevitable death. 
But as pus germs are so generally present, it may appear that under 
ordinary conditions they would always be carried into a wound 
when it is received, either from the surface of the body or by the 
object which causes the wound. This is true, but if only a few 
pus germs are carried into the tissues they will dispose of the germs 
without trouble and no harm will result; moreover, unless too 
many pus germs are carried into the body, the blood resulting 
from the injury will often wash so many out that the tissues can 
dispose of the few left with little difficulty. This is exactly the 
reason why a wound which bleeds freely is less likely to prove 
dangerous. We may assume, then, that every wound is not con- 
taminated and must use every care not to contaminate it by our 
hands, by instruments, dressings, etc. This is best accomplished by 
covering it with a disinfected dressing, as this will prevent con- 
taminated articles from coming in contact with it. (See Com- 
presses, page 36). But if no such dressing is available, it is best, VARIETIES Of WOUNDS. 
79 
when possible, to leave it exposed to the air, for, as has been 
stated, little danger of contamination is to be feared from the air. 
Ordinary water is dangerous as it may contain many pus germs. 
~The symptoms of inflammation in a wound are heat, redness, 
pain, swelling and partial or complete loss of use of the wounded 
part. If these appear in a wound three or four days after an injury, 
unless they are slight a doctor is necessary, as they may grow much 
worse. 
Varieties of Wounds. 
1. Cut or incised wounds, in which the skin and underlying 
tissues are cleanly divided by a sharp instrument. They are 
caused by razors, sharp knives, glass and the like. To prevent 
them as with the former class of injuries common care should be 
exercised. In this variety of wounds, as blood-vessels are cleanly 
cut across, there is likely to be severe bleeding. 
2. Torn or lacerated wounds, in which the tissues are torn 
rather than cut. They are caused by a tearing or crushing injury, 
such as the blow of a blunt instrument, by machinery or by being 
run over or struck by a wagon, trolley or railway car. As a means 
of prevention, attention need be called only to common care. 
With them, as the blood-vessels are crushed as well as the other 
tissues, hemorrhage is not nearly so likely to occur as in the 
preceding variety, but on account of the character of the injury, 
dirt is likely to be ground into the tissues and they are so extensively 
torn and destroyed that infection followed by inflammation and 
matter or pus is extremely common. 
h 3. Punctured wounds are deep wounds of small calibre produced 
by sharp-pointed instruments, such as daggers, bayonets and the 
like. Wounds caused by bullets are also included in this class. 
Wounds of this variety are, of course, frequently purposely inflicted, 
but the great majority of bullet wounds in civil life result from 80 
INJURIES IN WHICH THE SKIN IS PIERCED OR BROKEN. 
carelessness which is almost, if not quite, criminal. “I didn’t 
know it was loaded” is not sufficient excuse for shooting a fellow- 
being, and if one observes the rule of never pointing a gun or pistol 
at himself or at anyone else he will have no occasion to make this 
excuse. The amount of bleeding in this variety of wounds is 
often slight, but may be great if a large blood-vessel is injured. 
Infection is not uncommon, as pus organisms when carried into 
such wounds have ideal conditions for multiplication. 
Symptoms of Wounds. 
Presence of the wound. 
Pain. 
Shock. 
Hemorrhage. 
Hemorrhage: Practically all wounds bleed more or less, but 
comparatively few are accompanied by dangerous hemorrhage, as 
large blood-vessels usually escape injury. Besides the actual 
appearance of blood in hemorrhage, the loss of a considerable 
amount of blood gives rise to certain symptoms: Faintness, with 
cold skin, pale face, dilated pupils, feeble, irregular breathing, 
sighing, weak pulse, dizziness and loss of consciousness. The 
severity of the symptoms depend on how much and how rapidly 
blood is lost. 
Treatment of Wounds. 
This had best be considered under two headings: 
1. Treatment of wounds without severe hemorrhage, and 
2. Treatment with wound with severe hemorrhage. 
i. Treatment of wounds without severe hemorrhage. 
In deep wounds or those which cover a considerable 
always send for a doctor at once. It is always better to call in 
a physician if you doubt your ability or resources. 
Cut or rip clothing so as to get a view of the wound. 
Turn back the clothing so it does not touch wound. VARIETIES OF WOUNDS. 
81 
Do not touch wound yourself nor allow patient to touch it. 
Remember there is no hurry, for air will not infect the wound. 
If a physician may be expected to arrive within a few moments, 
it will usually be necessary to do nothing further. 
Exposure to the air is much safer than the application of any- 
thing which is not surgically clean or antiseptic. If, however, 
you have a surgically clean or antiseptic compress—apply it to 
the wound at once and bandage firmly into place. This will 
prevent accidental contamination and will usually stop any 
bleeding there may be. In fact, this procedure will stop 
hemorrhage in ninety-nine per cent, of all wounds. 
Treat shock, if any. 
If patient is faint, always have him lie down with his head low. 
With trivial wounds, such as scratches, it is much better to 
encourage bleeding than to try to stop it. 
Do not suck such wounds, but by pressure at their sides make 
them bleed. In the fingers this is best done by milking the 
finger. 
Do not wipe off the blood unless you have a surgically clean 
cloth with which to do so. This is the only class of wounds 
in which water may be used to wash off the blood. The 
danger of contaminating these small wounds by water is very 
slight and the matter washed away by the water is much more 
dangerous than the water itself. 
A piece of clean gauze makes a good dressing. 
2. Treatment of wounds with severe hemorrhage. 
Check the bleeding. 
, Put patient in such a position that he will be least affected by 
the loss of blood. This is lying down with the head low so that 
the brain will get as much blood as possible. Do nothing 
which will increase bleeding. Violent movements must be 
prevented. When once the bleeding has ceased the patient 82 
INJURIES IN WHICH THE SKIN IS PIERCED OR BROKEN. 
should remain quiet, as any movement may dislodge the clot 
and start it again. See that the patient gets plenty of good air, 
cover him warmly and put hot bottles around him if they can 
be obtained. Naturally, stimulants increase the force of the 
heart, so they are undesirable; but sometimes the patient 
becomes so weak that it is absolutely necessary to give them 
to prevent him from dying. Whenever possible, always avoid 
doing so until the bleeding has been checked by some mechan- 
ical means. One-half teaspoonful of aromatic spirits of am- 
monia in a tablespoonful of water or a tablespoonful of whisky 
are good stimulants. 
In order to check the bleeding it is necessary to know from 
which kind of vessels it comes. 
1. Arterial hemorrhage is recognized by bright red blood 
expelled in jets. The blood is lost very rapidly. 
2. Venous hemorrhage is recognized by a steady flow of dark 
blue blood. 
3. Capillary hemorrhage is characterized by the oozing of 
blood of a brick color. 
Hemorrhage will not be severe except from arteries and large 
veins. 
Naturally, as arteries, capillaries and veins may all be cut in a 
wound, there may be bleeding from all three. In this case 
arterial hemorrhage demands first consideration, and with 
venous and capillary hemorrhage the latter may be disregarded 
for the time being. 
Arterial Hemorrhage. 
Treatment. 
Send for a doctor at once. 
Do not wait for him, for by so doing the patient may die or be 
in a hopeless condition when he arrives. 83 
ARTERIAL HEMORRHAGE. 
If necessary, cut off clothing at once so as to see bleeding point. 
In very severe hemorrhage proceed with next step before doing 
this. 
Press with your fingers or thumb on the artery between the 
bleeding point and the heart. This stops the bleeding just 
as you can check the water flowing from a hose by pressure in 
any part of its length. It does more than this, however. 
Nature’s method of checking hemorrhage is by the formation 
of a clot, and as pressure prevents the washing away of the 
blood beyond the point of pressure an opportunity is given for 
a clot to form. 
The points where pressure can best be made on arteries in their 
course have already been given, but it will be best to review 
this subject so far as the principal points where pressure can be 
most effectively made with the fingers or thumb, etc., are 
concerned: 
The temporal artery which furnishes the most dangerous 
bleeding in scalp wounds is reached by pressure in front of the 
ear just above where the lower jaw can be felt working in its 
socket. A branch of this artery crosses the temple on a line 
from the upper border of the ear to above the eyebrow. Either 
of these points can be used for bleeding above on the same side 
of the head. Bleeding from any part of the scalp may be 
stopped by a tight bandage around the head. This band- 
age should encircle the head, going across the forehead just 
above the ears to the base of the skull behind. 
The carotid artery may be compressed by pressing the thumb 
or fingers deeply into the neck in front of the strongly marked 
muscle which reaches from the upper part of the breast- 
bone to behind the ear. Figure 33 shows pressure on the 
carotid on the left side. All bleeding from the head, except 
from the side above, which has already been referred to, had 84 
INJURIES IN WHICH THE SKIN IS PIERCED OR BROKEN 
best be checked by pressure on the carotid artery. Wounds 
of the neck whether from arteries or veins are so immediately 
and extremely dangerous, however, that direct pressure on the 
bleeding point should be resorted to at once. 
In bleeding from wounds of the shoulder or arm-pit, the 
subclavian artery may be reached by pressing the thumb 
deeply into the hollow behind the collar bone. (Fig. 34.) In 
Fig. 33.—Pressure on carotid 
artery. (Drill Regulations, H. C., 
U. S. A.) 
Fig. 34.—Pressuse on subclavian 
artery. (Drill regulations, H. C., U. 
S. A.) 
bleeding from any part of the arm or hand, the brachial artery 
should be pressed outward against the bone just behind the 
inner border of the large muscle of the upper arm. (Fig. 35.) 
While bleeding in the palm can be checked in this way direct 
pressure by means of a stone wrapped in gauze or the like 
firmly bandaged in the palm with the hand closed upon it is ! 
much better. 
In bleeding from the thigh, leg or foot, press backward with J ARTERIAL HEMORRHAGE. 
85 
the thumbs at the middle of the groin where the artery passes 
over the bone. (Fig. 36.) 
In making pressure with the fingers, if you feel the beat of the 
artery, you can be quite sure that with a little care to get it 
between your fingers and the hard point you can check 
the bleeding. If you have stopped the bleeding in the manner 
just described, you may also be quite sure that the patient 
is safe so long as you continue the pressure. 
Fig. 35.—Pressure on brachial artery. (Drill regulations, H. CU. S. A.) 
You will hardly be able to do this for more than ten or fifteen 
minutes, however, as your fingers will become tired and 
cramped. It will be best, therefore, in wounds of the ex- 
tremities to have a tourniquet made to place around the 
limb against your fingers, with the pad on the artery; the 
tourniquet then to be twisted. Tourniquets are described on 
page 43. Another method which gives the same results 
as a tourniquet may be used in bleeding below the knee 
or elbow. In either a good-sized pad made of gauze or a 86 
INJURIES IN WHICH THE SKIN IS PIERCED OR BROKEN. 
roll of cloth should be put in the bend of the joint and the 
joint bent together and tied in this position with a bandage 
or a strip of cloth so that the pad makes pressure on the 
artery in the joint angle. 
One of these methods will usually be all that is necessary if 
the services of a doctor can be produced within two or three 
Fig. 36.—Pressure on Femoral Artery. 
hours. If this is not the case you will be in a serious position. 
If either apparatus is left in place much longer than this 
there is considerable danger from cutting off the blood-supply 
that you will cause the death of the part below. No part of 
the body can do without blood for a long period, and yet if the 
pressure is removed the bleeding may recommence. Under ARTERIAL HEMORRHAGE. 
87 
Fig. 37.—Tourniquet Applied to Brachial Artery. 88 
INJURIES IN WHICH THE SKIN IS PIERCED OR BROKEN. 
such circumstances, therefore, leave the tourniquet or pad in 
position as long as you dare, say two hours. In the meantime 
procure an antiseptic compress or have one prepared in the 
manner already described. Place this gently on the wound and 
bandage firmly in place so as to make strong pressure on the 
Fig. 38.—Tourniquet Applied to Femoral Artery. 
bleeding point. The pressure between the heart and the wound 
may now be gradually released. If the bleeding does not 
recommence, well and good; if it does, the tourniquet or pad 
must be reapplied. Another attempt to remove it should not 
be made for at least an hour, as time is needed for the clot to 
reform. 
Suppose, at first, and this is by no means improbable, that VENOUS HEMORRHAGE. 
89 
you have failed to stop the bleeding by pressure between 
the heart and the bleeding point—there is still no reason 
why you should become panicstricken. Of course you 
do not want to put your fingers in the wound as this will be 
very likely to infect it, but in case of a severe arterial hemor- 
rhage which you are unable to check by pressure between 
the heart and the bleeding point you must at once make 
pressure on the cut artery in the wound. If you have an 
antiseptic compress or a surgically clean cloth to put over 
your fingers, which are used to make direct pressure, so much 
the better, as this will prevent infection; but do not wait 
to obtain it. When direct pressure is made in this way, it 
should be replaced, if possible, by a compress bandaged in 
place in the manner which has already been described. 
With wounds of the smaller arteries if a compress is firmly 
bandaged in the wound at the beginning it will often be 
all that is required to check bleeding. Position is also of 
value in stopping such hemorrhage. By elevating the arm or 
leg the heart is made to pump against gravity and a much 
better chance is given for a clot to form, which will block the 
injured artery. 
Venous Hemorrhage. 
(Large Veins.) 
Treatment. 
Stopping bleeding of this character is rather simple as com- 
pared with checking arterial hemorrhage. 
Send for a doctor. 
Remove any bands, such as tight collars, belts, garters and 
clothing which prevent the return flow of blood to the heart. 
If a limb be wounded, elevate it so as to assist the flow of 
blood back to the heart. 90 
INJURIES IN WHICH THE SKIN IS PIERCED OR BROKEN. 
Apply a compress directly to wound and bandage on tightly. 
If no compress can be obtained which is surgically clean or 
antiseptic, if bleeding is very severe it will be necessary to 
make direct pressure in the wound with the fingers. 
This will, of course, be done at the risk of infecting the wound. 
If possible, keep wounded part in an elevated position for 
some hours after bleeding has stopped. 
With wounds of the neck, such as those caused in an 
attempt to cut the throat, some of the jugular veins are 
often divided. It is quite probable in such a case that death 
will occur before anything can be done. If not, jam the 
fingers on the bleeding point at once and replace them with 
a compress at your leisure. This compress should be ban- 
daged tightly in place. 
Varicose Veins are veins which have become very large from 
weakening of their walls. Only those of the legs need be 
considered here. They may burst from injury or without an 
injury, causing serious or even fatal hemorrhage if they are not 
given prompt attention. 
Send for a doctor at once. 
Put patient on- his back. 
Remove all bands around leg above bleeding point. 
Raise leg. 
Cut and rip clothing so as to get at bleeding point. Turn 
back clothing from wound. 
Place surgically clean or antiseptic compress on bleeding point 
and bandage firmly in position, or when absolutely necessary 
use fingers first for direct pressure on the bleeding point and 
replace them by a clean compress. Keep patient lying down 
for some hours with the leg elevated. 
If there has been considerable loss of blood, cover patient 
warmly and place hot bottles around him. Give stimulants NOSE-BLEED. 
91 
only when absolutely necessary to prevent death, as they will 
increase the force of the heart and so the bleeding. 
Internal Hemorrhage. 
May result either from a deep wound which cuts a large blood- 
vessel of one of the internal organs or from the bursting of a 
blood-vessel of the lungs or stomach. 
Symptoms. 
Those of hemorrhage, but as the bleeding is internal it will not 
be seen. 
Treatment. 
Send for a doctor at once. ' 
Put patient in a lying-down position immediately, with his 
head lower than his body. 
Apply ice or cloths wrung out in very cold water to the point 
from which you think the bleeding comes. To distinguish 
between bleeding from the lungs and stomach, remember that 
from the former the blood is bright red and frothy and is 
coughed up, while from the latter it is dark and is vomited. 
Give stimulants only when patient is becoming very weak. 
Nose-bleed. 
Usually this does not result from a wound, but comes on 
spontaneously. Slight nose-bleed does not require treatment, 
as no harm will result from it. 
T reatment.—Severe. 
Place patient in a chair with his head hanging backward. 
Loosen collar and anything tight around the neck. 
Apply cold to the back of the neck by means of a key or of a 
cloth wrung out in cold water. 92 
INJURIES IN WHICH THE SKIN IS PIERCED OR BROKEN. 
Put a roll of paper under the upper lip between it and the gum- 
If bleeding does not cease, salt and water, a teaspoonful of 
salt or vinegar to a cupful of water, should be snuffed up the 
nose. 
If bleeding still continues, send for a doctor to come at once. 
Before his arrival place a small piece of cotton or gauze in 
the nostril from which the blood comes and shove it in gently 
for about i inch. A pencil answers very well to push this 
plug in. 
Pinching the soft part of the nose below the bone will also 
help to stop bleeding. 
Stimulants should be used only as in the other classes of 
" hemorrhage. 
Abdominal Wounds. 
All wounds should be treated on the general principles already 
described. A word or two is required, however, on the 
subject of Abdominal Wounds in which more or less of the 
abdominal contents escape through a large cut. 
Send for a doctor at once. 
Place a clean cloth over the wound and keep it constantly 
wet with a weak solution of salt and water, for if these delicate 
structures become dry they will suffer almost fatal damage 
from this cause alone. 
Treat shock. 
Wounds in Which Foreign Bodies Remain. 
Treatment. 
Such bodies should be gently pulled from the wound in a 
direction contrary to that in which they entered. 
If they are of considerable size and have damaged the tissues EYE WOUNDS. 
93 
a good deal, the wound should be shown to a doctor at the 
earliest opportunity. 
With a splinter of wood, the commonest of such foreign bodies: 
„ Pull the splinter from the wound with a pair of pincers or by 
putting a knife blade against it and holding it on the blade 
with the thumb-nail. 
The same method may be used with a splinter under the nail. 
But if it is broken under the nail, scrape the nail thin over it 
and cut out a small V-shaped piece so as to reach it. 
Small splinters in the skin may be removed by a needle. 
In order to avoid possible infection it will be much safer to 
wash the skin with hot water and soap and to pass the needle 
through a flame before using it. 
A wound from which a foreign body has been removed should 
never be sealed with plaster or collodion. 
Eye Wounds. 
As previously stated, the eyeball is fairly well protected from 
injury, but such injuries do occasionally occur. The symptoms are 
severe pain and redness of the eye, and if a wound has been in- 
flicted it is usually easy to see the cut. Such injuries should be 
treated by a doctor. Therefore, in any injury of the eyeball, cover 
both eyes with absorbent cotton or soft cloths soaked in cool water 
so as to keep the eyelids still, and bandage them into place with 
bandages around the head. Be careful not to put on these ban- 
dages so tightly that they will press on the eyeballs, and in order to 
prevent inflammation keep them constantly wet with cool water 
until the services of a doctor can be procured. While boiled water 
is safer for this purpose there is little danger in the use of any clean 
water. 
Splinters in the eye should be pulled out if possible. If they 
cannot be removed, put a few drops of olive or castor oil in the eye. 94 
INJURIES IN WHICH THE SKIN IS PIERCED OR BROKEN. 
Whether removed or not, the eyes should be treated in the manner 
just described and a doctor should be consulted as soon as possible. 
Foreign bodies in the eye are usually cinders, sand or particles 
of dust. They cause a great deal of discomfort and pain, and tears, 
which, fortunately, often wash them out. 
Never rub the eye, as this will be likely to rub the foreign body 
into its delicate covering. 
First, close the eye so that the tears will accumulate and the 
foreign body will frequently be washed out or into view, so that it 
may be easily removed. If this fails, pull the upper lid over the 
lower two or three times, close the nostril on the opposite side with 
the finger and have the patient blow his nose hard. 
If the foreign body still remains in the eye, examine first under 
the lower, then under the upper lid. For the former, have the 
patient look up, press the lower lid down and if the foreign body is 
seen brush it off with the corner of a clean handkerchief. The 
upper lid is not so easy to see. Seat patient in a chair with his 
head bent backward. Stand behind him and place a match across 
the upper lid one-half inch from its edge. Turn the upper lid up 
and back over the match and brush off the foreign body as before. 
A few drops of castor oil in the eye after removing a foreign body 
will soothe it. 
Lime in the eye may be neutralized by bathing it with a solution 
of vinegar, a teaspoonful to a cupful of water. Particles of lime 
large enough to be seen should be removed like other foreign bodies. 
QUESTIONS. 
1. What is a wound? 
2. What is the special danger to be feared in a wound ? 
3. What are the vital agencies? 
4. What is the difference in the effect produced by a mechanical or 
chemical, and a vital agency? 
5. How can a germ enter the body? PRACTICAL EXERCISES. 
95 
6. Where are the germs found ? 
7. What does disinfection mean? 
8. What happens in a wound if germs gain entrance to it ? If they 
do not gain entrance to it ? 
9. How does free bleeding diminish the danger of wound infection ? 
10. What is inflammation? 
11. What is blood poisoning ? 
12. How would you prevent pus germs entering a wound? 
13. What does the word “symptoms” mean? 
14. What are the symptoms of inflammation in a wound? 
15. When do they come on and what should you do if they appear? 
16. What are the varieties of wounds? 
17. What are the symptoms of wounds? 
18. What are symptoms of hemorrhage? 
19. How would you treat a wound without severe hemorrhage? 
20. Why should one try to make a trivial wound bleed ? 
21. Treatment of wounds with severe hemorrhage? 
22. How would you know whether bleeding comes from an artery, a 
vein, or from capillaries? 
23. How would you treat arterial hemorrhage; venous hemorrhage; 
capillary hemorrhage ? 
24. What are varicose veins and how would you treat bleeding from 
them ? 
25. What is internal hemorrhage; how would you treat it? 
26. How would you treat nose bleed? 
27. Treatment of abdominal wounds? 
28. Treatment of wound in which a splinter remains ? 
29. Treatment of a wound of the eye? How would you remove a 
foreign body from the eye ? 
PRACTICAL EXERCISES. 
The pupils should be required to treat all the dislocations and fractures 
described in the preceding chapter. 
Have each member of the class show where he would make pressure 
in bleeding from the different arteries. CHAPTER VI. 
INJURIES FROM THE LOCAL EFFECTS OF HEAT, 
COLD, AND ELECTRICITY. 
Burns and Scalds, Including Burns from Electricity 
Frost-bite. 
BURNS AND SCALDS. 
Description. 
Burns result from exposure of the body to dry heat, such 
as a fire, while scalds are produced by moist heat in the 
form of hot water, steam, etc. With either, the injury 
may be confined to the skin alone or it may extend deeper. 
With burns all the tissues of the body may be charred down 
to the bone and with scalds all the tissues may be actually 
cooked. With either the danger will depend upon the depth, 
extent and part injured as well as on the age of the injured 
person. Both burns and scalds of the throat and wind-pipe 
are especially dangerous, as the swelling of the injured part 
is likely to result in suffocation. 
Cause. 
Burns: Flames or fires, hot or molten metal, electric shock 
and explosions of gas or gunpowder. 
Scalds: Steam, boiling water or hot oil. 
Prevention. 
The prevention of ordinary burns and scalds is rather a 
complicated subject, as it involves: (i) Prevention of fires. 
96 PUTTING OUT TIRES. 
97 
(2) Putting out fires. (3) Rescue of persons at fires. (4) 
Extinguishing burning clothing. (5) Avoidance of danger 
from hot or molten metal; and (6) Methods to prevent 
explosions of gas and gunpowder. 
Prevention of Fires. 
Many fires result from carelessness. The general principles 
governing their prevention comprise care in making sure to extin- 
guish all burning objects before they are left where they may ignite 
other objects and in never putting lamps or the like where they 
may later set fire to something which is inflammable. 
Putting Out Fires. 
A fire almost anywhere may be easily put out when it starts, 
whereas a very few moments’ delay may result in so big a fire that 
nothing can be done to subdue it vyrtil it has burned everything 
inflammable within reach. It is clear, therefore, that everyone 
should act promptly in case of fire. 
At first a fire may be smothered by a few buckets of water or by 
throwing blankets or woolen clothing upon it. Sand, ashes or 
dirt will all quickly smother a fire. One of these should always be 
used instead of water on burning oil, as water will spread the oil and 
the fire. Anything hanging should, when possible, be pulled down 
before attempting to smother the fire in it. A bucket brigade will 
often prove valuable in putting out a fire. This should consist 
of two lines of men from the nearest water supply to the fire. The 
‘men in one line pass buckets, pitchers or anything else that will 
hold water from one,to another till the last man throws the water 
on the fire. He returns the buckets to the water supply by the 
other line. Remember that a draft will fan a fire and therefore 
keep everything closed as much as possible to prevent drafts. 98 
INJURIES FROM HEAT, COLD, AND ELECTRICITY. 
Rescue of Persons at Fires. 
While searching through a burning place, it will be best to tie 
a wet handkerchief or cloth over the nose and mouth. Remember 
that the air within six inches of the floor is free from smoke, so 
when unable to breathe crawl along the floor with the head low, 
dragging anyone you have rescued behind you. Crawl backward 
in the same way down a staircase or any slope. 
Extinguishing Burning Clothing. 
If your own clothing catches on fire when you are alone, do not 
run for help as this will fan the flames and make them burn fiercer. 
Lie down on the floor and roll up as tightly as possible in a rug, 
shawl, overcoat, blanket or other woolen cloth, leaving only the 
head out. If nothing can be obtained in which to wrap up, lie down 
and roll over slowly, at the same time beat out the fire with the 
hands. If another person’s dothing catches fire, throw him to the 
ground and smother the fire with a coat, blanket, rug or the like. 
Avoidance of Danger from Hot or Molten Metal. 
Naturally, only persons working about them are subject to burns 
from these sources. Common care and watchfulness will do 
much to prevent them. 
Methods to Prevent Explosions of Gas and Gunpowder. 
The mixture of illuminating gas and air in certain proportions 
is a very explosive one. This is also true of the mixture of cer- 
tain other gases with air. Any unprotected light will cause an 
explosion. 
In handling gunpowder it will be best to have no matches in 
the pockets, and cigars, cigarettes, pipes and lights of every descrip- 
tion are, of course, extremely dangerous. SYMPTOMS OF BURNS AND SCALDS. 
99 
Symptoms of Burns and Scalds. 
Severe burning pain. 
_ Depending on depth of injury: Reddening of skin; formation 
of blisters, or destruction of the skin and some of the tissues 
beneath it. 
Shock. 
Treatment. 
When the skin is simply reddened: 
Exclude air by a thin paste made with water and bicar- 
bonate of soda (baking, not washing soda), starch or flour. 
Ordinary vaselin or carbolized vaselin, olive or castor oil, 
and fresh lard or cream are all good. One of the sub- 
stances mentioned should be smeared over the burned part 
and on a cloth used to cover it. A light bandage should be 
put on to hold this dressing in place. 
The services of a doctor will hardly be required for such 
injuries. 
When blisters have formed: 
Treatment may be the same, but if the blistering is very 
extensive it will be best to show this injury to a doctor. 
Destruction of the skin and some of the tissues beneath it: 
Deep burns require prompt attention from a physician. 
Pending his arrival they may be treated by the application 
of the dressing which has been described or like an open 
wound. A specially valuable dressing material for such 
burns, or in fact for all burns, is picric acid gauze which is 
applied in the form of a compress which should be bandaged 
in place like any other compress. ' '' 
Treat shock. ■'? sW 
Besides the burns which have been described, burns are fre- 
quently caused by strong acid and alkalies. 100 
INJURIES FROM HEAT, COLD, AND ELECTRICITY 
The symptoms of burns by acids and alkalies are the same as 
of burns caused by heat. 
Treatment. 
With either, wash off as quickly as possible; best under a 
water tap. 
Acids: While washing injury, have lime-water procured 
or make a mixture of baking soda and water or get soapsuds 
and apply freely. If acid has entered the eye, wash it as 
quickly as possible with water and then with lime-water. 
Alkalies: Wash in same way as with acid burns. Neu- 
tralize with vinegar, lemon juice or hard cider. Lime burns 
of the eye should be washed out with a weak solution of vinegar 
and water or with olive oil. 
With both acid and alkali burns, after neutralizing, treat like 
other burns. 
In severe burns of this character always see a doctor, and 
when either acid or alkali has entered the eye secure the 
services of a doctor as soon as possible. 
Treat shock. 
ELECTRIC BURNS. 
The subject of electric shock is treated at length under the 
proper heading ( page 104). Here, however, it is necessary to call 
attention to the fact that the local effect produced by contact 
with an electric current is a burn. This burn may be superficial 
or deep, depending on the strength of the current and the dura- 
tion of contact. Frequently such burns are Treatment of 
electrical burns should be exactly the same as for other burns. 
Warning. 
In all burns, whatever the cause, use care in removing the 
clothing. When the clothing sticks to a burn, do not drag it 
off, cut around the part that sticks and soak it off later with oil. FROST-BITE. 
101 
FROST-BITE. 
This is due to the local effect of cold on the body, parts of which 
freeze much as do certain other objects. The parts of the body 
which are most liable to frost-bite are the nose, ears, toes and 
fingers. 
Cause. 
Cold; insufficient clothing; general weakness with poor circula- 
tion of blood. 
Prevention. 
Protection of the body, especially the exposed parts named 
above with sufficient covering when it is necessary to expose 
yourself to intense cold. 
Rubbing of any part of the body which becomes very cold 
in order to increase circulation. 
Symptoms. 
* In intense cold, frost-bite not infrequently occurs without 
one’s knowing it, but usually the ears, fingers, etc., become 
painfully cold and then one suddenly realizes that they no 
longer have feeling. 
The color of the frozen part is white or grayish-white. 
Treatment. 
Object: To gradually bring the frozen part to its natural 
temperature. 
Rub with snow or cold water. Then use warmer water 
, 1 gradually. 
Warning. 
The use of heat at once may result in mortification or death 
of the frozen part. 102 
INJURIES FROM HEAT, COLD, AND ELECTRICITY. 
QUESTIONS. 
1. What is a burn? 
2. What is a scald ? 
3. Why ate burns of the throat and wind-pipe specially dangerous? 
4. What are the general principles governing the prevention of fires ? 
Suppose a fire occurs, how would you try to put it out ? 
5. How would you rescue a person in case of fire ? 
6. How would you put out burning clothing ? 
7. What are the symptoms of burns and scalds ? 
8. Treatment: Very slight burns and scalds; where blisters have 
formed; very deep. 
9. What is the treatment of burns from strong acids and alkalies ? 
10. What can you say of burns from electricity? 
11. What is frost-bite? What are the symptoms of frost-bite? 
12. How would you treat frost-bite? 
PRACTICAL EXERCISES. 
Treatment of all classes of wounds including burns and methods*of 
checking hemorrhage by the class. CHAPTER VII. 
UNCONSCIOUSNESS, PARTIAL AND COMPLETE; 
AND POISONING. 
UNCONSCIOUSNESS. 
Unconsciousness, of course, means lack of consciousness or, 
in other words, one who is unconscious knows nothing of his sur- 
roundings or of what is occurring. Perhaps no condition which 
the first-aid student may be called upon to treat may prove more 
puzzling than this. Unconsciousness may result from a number 
of different causes, so in order to give the proper treatment one 
must determine first what has caused his patient to become uncon- 
scious. Always make an earnest effort to do this by taking the 
surroundings into account as well as by examination of the patient. 
Suppose, however, that you are unable to determine the cause of 
unconsciousness. At least make very sure that it is due neither 
to a poison, to bleeding nor to sunstroke, for each of these demands 
immediate special treatment. Then, unless it is necessary to give 
the special treatment, if the patient is pale and weak have him lie 
down with his head low and warm and stimulate him in every 
possible way; on the contrary, if the face is red and pulse is bound- 
ing and very strong, while the position for the patient should also 
be lying down, the head should be raised. No stimulants should 
be given in the latter condition and cold water should be sprinkled 
on face and chest. 
The common causes of unconsciousness are shock, electric 
shock, fainting, alcoholic poisoning, apoplexy and injury to the 
103 104 
UNCONSCIOUSNESS, PARTIAL AND COMPLETE. 
brain, sunstroke and heat exhaustion, freezing, suffocation, opium 
and carbolic-acid poisoning. A number of poisons besides those 
mentioned cause unconsciousness. 
It should be remembered that while these all may cause com- 
plete unconsciousness they do not necessarily do so. That is to 
say, partial as well as complete unconsciousness may be due to the 
same cause. 
Shock. 
(See page 49.) 
Cause. 
An injury. 
Prevention. 
Of injury. 
Symptoms. 
The history and probably the presence of an injury. 
The symptoms given under the heading Shock. 
Treatment. 
As given. 
Electric Shock. 
The more general use of electricity is making accidents due to it 
more common year by year. Even now the third rail and the live 
wire are responsible for many injuries and deaths. In mines espe- 
cially the dangers from electricity are very great. 
The ordinary trolley wire carries a current of about 500 volts and 
incandescent and arc-light currents run from 2500 to 3000 volts. 
The passage of these powerful currents through the body causes 
dangerous shock or even death. ELECTRIC SHOCK. 
105 
Prevention. 
The third rail is always dangerous, so avoid it. 
Swinging wires of any kind may somewhere in their course 
be in contact with live wires, so they should not be touched. 
Electric wires must always be carefully avoided. 
Symptoms. 
Sudden loss of consciousness when the electrical current 
passes through the body. 
Shallow breathing and weak pulse. 
If hands are in contact with a live wire, person may not be 
able to release them at first. 
Burns of hands or other parts of the body are common. 
Little difficulty should be experienced in making out cause 
of injury. 
Treatment. 
First, rescue; second, treat patient. 
Rescue. 
In some cases it will be possible to shut off current and this 
should always be done if it can be done quickly. Patient in 
contact with wire 6r rail carrying an electric current will 
transfer current to rescuer if he puts himself in the line of 
passage of the current. 
Therefore, he must not touch the body of a person suffering 
from electric shock still touching a live wire or a third rail 
unless his own body is thoroughly insulated. Naturally, 
too, he must not himself, in attempting to aid the injured per- 
son, bring any part of his own body in contact with the live 
wire or other apparatus carrying the electric current. More- 
over, he must act very promptly for the danger to the patient 
is much increased the longer the electric current is permitted 
to pass through his body. If possible, the rescuer should 
insulate himself by covering his hands with a mackintosh, 106 
UNCONSCIOUSNESS, PARTIAL AND COMPLETE. 
rubber sheeting, several thicknesses of silk, or even of dry 
cloth. In addition he should, if possible, complete his insula- 
tion by standing on a dry board or a thick piece of dry paper, 
or even on a dry coat. Rubber gloves and shoes or boots are 
still safer, but they cannot usually be procured quickly. 
If a live wire is under a patient and the ground is dry it will 
be perfectly safe to stand upon it and to pull him off the wire 
with the bare hands. But they should touch only his clothing 
and this must not be wet. 
A live wire lying on a patient may with safety be flipped off 
with a dry board or stick. 
In removing the live wire from the patient, or the patient from 
the wire, do this with one motion as rocking him to and fro on 
the wire will increase shock and burn. 
A live wire may be safely cut by an axe or hatchet with a dry 
wooden handle and the electric current may be short-circuited 
by dropping a crowbar or poker on the wire. These should 
be dropped on the side from which the current is coming and 
not on the further side as the latter will not short-circuit the 
current before it has passed through the patient’s body. Drop 
the metal bar, do not place it on the wire or you will then be 
made a part of the short circuit and receive the current of 
electricity through your body. 
How to Treat Patient as soon as He has been Rescued. 
Many cases of electric shock from powerful currents will be 
hopeless from the beginning. It is impossible to tell this at 
first, however, and in every case, therefore, an attempt should 
be made to save the life of the patient by prompt treatment. 
Send for a doctor. 
Loosen clothing around neck, chest and abdomen. Place 
the patient on his back with a rolled-up coat, a small log or 
some other object of the same shape under the shoulders so as ELECTRIC SHOCK. 
107 
to throw the chest up. Press on the left chest and upper part 
of the abdomen about twenty times per minute. Pressing 
down firmly then taking off pressure and then applying it again. 
This stimulates the heart as well as helps to start breathing. 
Pull out tongue by grasping it with a dry cloth. Have some 
one else hold it out. Or if alone, if possible, tie in this position 
with a bandage or rubber band over the tongue and under the 
jaw. The reason for pulling the tongue forward is because in 
Fig. 39.—Artificial Respiration. First Movement. {Buckley.) 
an unconscious person it is likely to fall back and block the 
windpipe. Perform Artificial Respiration. The Sylvester 
method is one of the best. Kneel just above patient’s head, 
catch both his arms just below the elbows. Draw jhe arms 
outward and upward gently and steadily and hold them as far 
as they will go above head for about two seconds. This motion 
opens and expands the chest to the greatest possible extent. 
This is due to the fact that certain muscles are attached to 108 
UNCONSCIOUSNESS, PARTIAL AND COMPLETE. 
both arms and ribs and when the arms are raised these muscles 
raise the ribs and so enlarge the chest. 
Then bring the arms down till the elbows press against the 
chest; a little pressure will diminish the size of the elastic chest 
as much as possible. Do this for about two seconds. 
Continue these motions about fifteen times per minute. Keep 
this up till the patient begins to breathe himself. 
Artificial respiration when done properly is hard work for the 
Fig. 40.—Artificial Respiration. Second Movement. (Buckley.) 
operator and he should be relieved by some one else as soon 
as he grows tired. 
Another excellent method of artificial respiration is called the 
“ prone pressure method.” The patient lies face down. The 
operator kneels by his side, places his hands across the lowest 
ribs and swings his body forward and backward so as to allow 
his weight alternately to fall vertically on the wrists and to be 
removed; in this way hardly any muscular exertion is required. 
The size of the chest being diminished forces the air from the 
lungs. The elastic chest then springs back and the air enters 
the lungs. The rate is fifteen per minute. 
Artificial respiration should be kept up for at least an hour. ELECTRIC SHOCK. 
109 
Ammonia on a sponge or handkerchief put under, but not on 
the patient’s nose will help to revive him. 
At the same time that one or two persons are performing 
artificial respiration, without interfering with them, others 
should cover the patient with a dry coat or blankets. 
As soon as the patient begins to breathe himself, but not 
before, his limbs should be well rubbed toward the heart under 
the blankets. This will help to restore the circulation. 
When the patient is partially restored he may have a chill 
and vomit. If he vomits while on his back he must be turned 
on his right side so that the vomited matter will not enter the 
windpipe. 
He should afterward be put to bed well covered and sur- 
rounded with hot bottles. The windows should be opened so 
that he may have plenty of air. 
After the danger is over the patient should be allowed to sleep 
quietly. 
He will feel very nervous and shaken for a time and should be 
given absolute rest till he recovers from this condition. No 
food except hot beef tea should be given for several hours. 
Hot coffee, however, is useful as soon as the patient can 
swallow and retain it. 
It is possible for those who have received an electric shock 
which does not render them unconscious to perform artificial 
respiration of a sort on themselves and so to recover without 
further treatment. This is done by raising the upper ex- 
tremities and lowering them again and again while taking deep 
breaths. 
Burns from electricity should be treated like other burns. 
See page 99. 
Warning. 
If the breathing stops at any time after it has once begun you 
must immediately start again with artificial respiration. 110 
UNCONSCIOUSNESS, PARTIAL AND COMPLETE 
Fainting. 
Cause. 
A lack of blood to the brain. Some persons often faint. 
Fainting is common in any form of weakness, as when recover- 
ing from a severe illness. Some people faint at the sight of 
blood. 
Prevention. 
A person who has not yet recovered his full strength after an 
illness or injury should be careful not to overdo physically. 
Persons who faint from trivial causes require the advice and 
treatment of a physician. Remember that fainting may be 
due to a hemorrhage, and if there is any reason to suspect that 
the patient is bleeding, examine him carefully and check the 
bleeding promptly. 
Symptoms. 
Usually occurs in overheated, crowded places. 
Patient becomes paler and paler and finally sinks to the floor 
unconscious. 
Unconsciousness is partial or complete. 
Face is pale, frequently covered with cold perspiration. 
Pupils are natural. 
Breathing is shallow and sighing. 
Pulse is weak and rapid. 
No other cause for unconsciousness. 
Treatment. 
Sometimes can prevent fainting by having person who feels 
faint double over so that head is between knees. 
If this does not prove effective at once do not continue. 
Air, especially cold air, and cold water often prevent actual 
fainting when a person feels faint. 
If patient has actually fainted, put him in lying-down position 
with his head lower than the rest of his body, so that brain ALCOHOLIC POISONING. 
111 
will receive more blood. Loosen clothing, especially around 
neck, for same purpose. Open windows, if necessary, and keep 
away crowd so that patient may get plenty of air. Sprinkle 
face and chest with cold water. Smelling salts or ammonia 
to nose. Rub limbs toward body. Do not allow patient to get 
up until fully recovered. May give stimulant when patient 
has so far recovered that he is able to swallow. 
Alcoholic Poisoning. 
Alcoholic poisoning or intoxication represents the final stage in 
acute drunkenness; that is, the common spree. 
Methods of prevention are clear without being discussed. 
Symptoms. 
Perhaps history of intoxication. 
Unconsciousness, partial or complete; are frequently able to 
arouse patient to some extent. 
Face usually flushed and bloated, but sometimes pale. 
Skin cool and may be moist. 
Pupils natural or large. Eyeballs red, but not insensitive 
to touch. 
Breathing about as usual when in deep sleep. 
Pulse, usually rapid and weak, but may be slow. 
May be strong odor of liquor. 
No paralysis. 
Warning. 
In practice insensibility from alcohol and apoplexy are more 
often mistaken one for the other than are any other forms of 
unconsciousness. The most important symptoms in which 
they differ are the state of the pupils, the sensitiveness of the 
eyeballs and paralysis. The odor of liquor on the breath is 
of no value, because a person with apoplexy may have been 
drinking. 112 
UNCONSCIOUSNESS, PARTIAL AND COMPLETE. 
Treatment. 
If any doubt whether drunkenness or apoplexy, always treat 
for apoplexy and be particularly careful not to make patient 
vomit, as this will cause more bleeding into brain. 
In drunkenness, if able to arouse sufficiently, give emetic— 
mustard and water or luke-warm water are usually easily 
procured. 
Afterwards strong coffee or aromatic spirits of ammonia. 
Hot bottles around patient. 
Rub toward body to increase circulation. 
Should send for doctor, as may prove dangerous. 
Apoplexy and Injury to the Brain. 
Apoplexy is due to the bursting of a diseased blood-vessel in 
the brain. The escaping blood presses on the nerve-centres and 
this causes the symptoms. An injury of the brain also injures 
these centres, so from a first-aid stand-point the symptoms and 
treatment of apoplexy and brain injuries may be considered 
under, one head. Methods for preventing apoplexy are far too 
complicated for discussion here and, naturally, brain injuries are 
prevented like other injuries. 
Symptoms. 
Apoplexy often comes on suddenly. 
In brain injury, may be history and evidence of injury to head. 
In brain injury there may be hemorrhages f.om nose, ears, 
mouth and eyes. 
Unconsciousness, complete. 
Face: Red in apoplexy. Pale in injury. 
Pupils, large and frequently unequal in size. 
Eyeballs insensitive to touch. 
Breathing, snoring. 
Pulse: full and unusually slow. SUNSTROKE AND HEAT EXHAUSTION. 
113 
Paralysis usually on one side of body. Test by raising arm 
or leg. If paralyzed, will drop absolutely helpless. 
Treatment. 
Send for doctor at once. 
Rest and quiet, in a dark room if possible. 
In lying-down position with head and shoulders high on 
pillows. 
Ice or cold cloths to head. Hot bottles to limbs. 
No stimulants. 
SUNSTROKE AND HEAT EXHAUSTION. 
Sunstroke. 
This is a condition produced by excessive heat. It is a very 
dangerous one. 
Cause. 
Sometimes due to direct exposure to the rays of the hot sum- 
mer sun, especially when the air is moist. 
Most commonly due, however, to somewhat prolonged ex- 
posure to excessive heat while working indoors, especially 
if overfatigued. 
Too heavy clothing is likely to help to cause sunstroke, 
and hats and caps which do not protect the head from the 
sun are dangerous. 
Drinking any kind of alcoholic liquor before physical exertion 
with exposure to the summer sun is very apt to result in sun- 
stroke. 
Prevention. 
Avoidance of exposure to sun in middle of day in summer. 
The best possible ventilation of workrooms in summer, and 
avoidance of overfatigue as far as possible. 
Light clothing for summer and light head-gear with space 
above head for ventilation. UNCONSCIOUSNESS, PARTIAL AND COMPLETE. 
114 
Avoid alcohol before exposure to sun. 
If one feels the first symptoms of sunstroke he can often pre- 
vent actual sunstroke by stopping work, finding a cool place, 
lying down, bathing face, hands and chest in cold water and 
drinking freely of cold water. 
Symptoms. 
Usually before actual attack, pain in the head and feeling of 
oppression. 
Unconsciousness complete. 
Face red. 
Pupils dilated. 
Skin very hot and dry. 
No perspiration. 
Breathing labored and sighing. 
Pulse slow and full. 
Treatment. 
Consists in reducing temperature. 
Send for doctor. 
Remove at once to cool place. 
Loosen and remove as much clothing as possible. 
Apply cold to head and body. To do this, cold water or 
ice should be rubbed over face, neck, chest and in arm- 
pits. Is still better to put patient in a very cold bath or 
' to wrap him in sheets wrung out in cold water which should 
be kept wet and cold with water or ice. If this is done, must 
rub continually to prevent shock and to bring hot blood to 
surface. 
When consciousness returns, may be allowed to drink cold 
water freely. 
Cold may be discontinued when consciousness returns, but 
if skin again becomes very hot, must renew. 
No stimulants. HEAT EXHAUSTION. FREEZING. 
115 
Heat Exhaustion. 
Though this condition is caused and prevented in the same ways 
as sunstroke, it is really quite different from it. Heat exhaustion is 
just what its name states—exhaustion or collapse due to excessive 
heat. 
Symptoms. 
Great depression and weakness but not really unconscious. 
Face pale and covered with clammy sweat. 
Breathing shallow. 
Pulse weak and rapid. 
Treatment. 
Send for doctor. 
Remove to cool place and have patient lie down in most com- 
fortable position with clothing loosened. 
No cold externally, but may sip cold water. 
Stimulants, as tea, coffee, aromatic spirits of ammonia or small 
amount of brandy or whisky with a good deal of water. 
Freezing. 
This condition is produced by long exposure to extreme cold. 
Cause. 
Extreme cold. 
Effect of which is increased by overexertion, hunger, alcoholic 
liquors and insufficient clothing. 
Prevention. 
If you expect to be exposed to extreme cold, procure warm 
clothing sufficient in amount to protect you from its effects. 
Do not attempt a long journey in the cold without food and 
and do not make the journey so long that you are likely to 
have to stop and perhaps lie down on account of exhaustion, 116 
UNCONSCIOUSNESS, PARTIAL AND COMPLETE. 
Do not drink alcoholic liquors, for though they give a tem- 
porary sense of warmth, you will be more easily overcome by 
cold after this effect wears off. 
If caught out without shelter in very cold weather use all 
your energy to keep moving. Lying down under such cir- 
cumstances almost always results in freezing. 
Symptoms. 
Circumstances should be taken into account. Depression is 
so great that appearance of patient is like that of a dead man. 
Treatment. 
Object is gradually to restore warmth to the body. 
Take patient into a cold room, rub limbs toward body with 
rough cloths wet in cool water, increase temperature of room 
if possible. This should be done gradually and cloths should 
be wet in warmer and warmer water. As soon as patient can 
swallow, give stimulant—coffee or tea in small quantities, 
frequently repeated with the addition of a little whisky, 
brandy, or aromatic spirits of ammonia. 
Patient should not be placed before an open fire or in a hot 
bath until circulation has become active in cool room. You 
will know this by an increased force of the pulse, better 
breathing and more warmth and color in the skin. 
Suffocation. 
(Especially Gas Poisoning.) 
Suffocation may be caused either by something which blocks 
the windpipe and so prevents air from entering the lungs or by 
the inhaling of some fluid or gas other than air which by its presence 
prevents the air from entering the lungs. Moreover, such a gas 
is usually poisonous in itself. Hanging and choking are examples 
of the former condition and drowning and gas and smoke poisoning SUFFOCATION. 
117 
of the latter. Every first-aid student should know how to treat a 
person who has been choked or nearly drowned. The treatment is 
essentially artificial respiration. In drowning, before artificial 
respiration is performed, mud and water should be cleaned from 
the mouth with a handkerchief on the finger and in order to drain 
the water from the throat and lungs the patient should be turned 
on his face, the hands should be clasped around his waist; he should 
be raised up by the middle and kept elevated for a few seconds. 
The various forms of poisoning by gas are of great importance 
and especially so to miners and workmen in sewers and wells, 
nor are leaky gas fixtures in dwellings particularly uncommon. 
Causes. 
A gas which produces suffocation and is also poisonous in 
itself: The common gases of this character are sewer gas, 
coal gas from furnaces or stoves, illuminating gas and smoke. 
The deadly back draft is caused by a fire in which the place 
becomes packed with smoke which contains many combus- 
tible matters which a draft of air causes to explode. 
Prevention. 
Naturally is dependent on the cause. Extraordinary care 
must be taken wherever much gas is present. 
In sewers and wells it is customary to lower a lighted candle 
or torch; if this does not burn it is certain that the air is so 
impure it will not support life. 
Leaks in gas pipes should be promptly repaired. Be careful 
in turning off gas to make sure that gas is actually shut off. 
It is dangerous to leave a gas jet burning faintly when you go 
to sleep, as it may go out if pressure in gas main becomes less, 
and if pressure is afterward increased, gas may escape into 
room in large amount. 118 
UNCONSCIOUSNESS, PARTIAL AND COMPLETE. 
Coal gas will escape through red-hot cast iron, and very big 
fires in such stoves are dangerous, especially in sleeping 
rooms. 
Charcoal burned in open vessels in tight rooms is especially 
dangerous. 
Symptoms. 
History of the presence of a gas or of escaping gas. First: 
headache, dizziness, throbbing of head, ringing in ears, 
spots before eyes, then gradually unconsciousness. Face and 
lips bluish. 
Tongue blue, may be swollen and protruding between the 
teeth. 
Skin pale or bluish. Nails blue. 
Pulse weak and rapid. 
Breathing intermittent. 
With back draft, also severe burns. 
Treatment. 
Send some one else for a doctor at once. 
Rescue patient promptly and bring him to place where there 
is plenty of good air. To rescue an unconscious person in a 
place filled with gas, move quickly and carry him out with- 
out breathing yourself. Take a few deep breaths before enter- 
ing and if possible hold breath while in the place. Frequently 
less gas will be found near floor. So, one may be able to 
crawl where it would be dangerous to walk. 
Loosen clothing about chest and abdomen. 
Perform artificial respiration, sprinkle cold water on face and 
chest, give stimulants as soon as patient recovers sufficiently 
to swallow. CARBOLIC ACID POISONING. 
119 
Poisoning by Opium or by Some Mixture Containing 
Opium. 
Symptoms. 
May get history of having taken opium or may find bottle 
which contained poison. 
Unconsciousness which comes on gradually and finally 
becomes complete. 
Face red at first, finally dark purple. Lips bluish. 
Pupils very small, like pin heads. 
Breathing full and slow at first, gradually slower and shallow. 
Pulse, slow and full, afterwards weak. 
Possibly smell of laudanum on breath. 
Symptoms that should be especially noted are pin-head 
pupils, character of breathing and patient is first very sleepy 
and then becomes unconscious. 
Treatment. 
Give an emetic; mustard and water; salt and water; luke- 
warm water alone in large quantities. Exact dose is unim- 
portant, give in large quantities and repeat if profuse vomiting 
does not occur. (May have difficulty in getting emetic to 
work). Plenty of strong coffee. Try to arouse patient by 
speaking loudly and threatening him, but do not exhaust 
his strength by compelling him to walk. Artificial respiration 
and stimulants. 
Carbolic Acid Poisoning. 
Symptoms. 
History of poison or presence of bottle which contained poison. 
Vomiting and great pain. 
Skin covered with cold sweat. 
If severe case, unconsciousness, usually followed promptly by 
death. 120 
UNCONSCIOUSNESS, PARTIAL AND COMPLETE 
May almost always know by the strong smell of carbolic 
acid. 
Lips, tongue and mouth are burned white by pure, and black, 
by impure carbolic acid. 
Treatment. 
Rinse mouth with pure alcohol. If grown person, should 
swallow 3 or 4 tablespoonfuls of alcohol mixed with an equal 
quantity of water. Follow this in five minutes with 2 table- 
spoonfuls of Epsom salts dissolved in a little water. Though 
not so good, lime-water may be used to rinse mouth, several 
glasses of it being also swallowed. Three or four raw eggs may 
be given or castor or sweet oil. Stimulants always, and 
keep warm. 
POISONS. 
Any substance taken into the body which will cause death is a 
poison. But only poisons which are swallowed will be considered 
here. 
Prevention. 
Accidental poisoning may be prevented to a very great ex- 
tent by never taking any medicine which is not properly 
labeled, and by putting poisons, when they must be kept on 
hand, in a safe place under lock and key. 
Symptoms and Evidences of Poisoning. 
The symptoms vary somewhat with the special poison. But 
there are certain evidences which indicate, in the majority of 
cases, that a poison has been taken. 
Sudden and severe sickness in a person who has been in good 
health, after eating, drinking or taking medicine. 
Possibly the patient has been melancholy or has talked of 
suicide. QUESTIONS. 
121 
The presence near the patient of bottles, glasses or the like 
in which some of the poison remains. 
Frequently a person who has taken poison intentionally be- 
comes frightened and is only too glad to tell some one that he 
has poisoned himself and what poison he has used. 
In accidental poisoning the patient is, of course, willing to 
tell all he knows in reference to the poison. 
If a number of persons who have eaten the same food become 
seriously ill after a meal, it is almost certain they are suffer- 
ing from poison, probably decayed food or the so-called 
ptomaine poisoning. 
Treatment. 
This has been discussed at some length on pages in and 119 
for alcohol, opium and carbolic acid. 
The general practice in the treatment of other poisons should 
be to give an emetic. 
Send for a doctor at once and, if possible, have messenger 
tell him what poison has been taken so that he may bring the 
proper antidote. 
Do not wait for doctor to arrive, but give an emetic to rid body 
of poison. 
Good emetics are: Mustard and water, salt and water, luke- 
warm water alone in large quantities, ipecac. The doses of 
each are given under the heading Emetics. Do not waste time 
in getting the exact dose, however, and repeat if profuse vomit- 
ing does not result. 
QUESTIONS. 
1. What does the word unconsciousness mean? 
2. Suppose you found an unconscious person and you did not know 
what caused him to become unconscious, how would you treat him? 
3. What are the common causes of unconsciousness? 122 
UNCONSCIOUSNESS, PARTIAL AND COMPLETE. 
4- How weak a current will cause dangerous electric shock ? 
5. Electric shock; prevention; symptoms? 
6. What would you do to rescue a person in contact with a live wire? 
7. How would you treat him after he had been rescued? 
8. How would you treat a burn due to electricity ? 
9. Fainting: cause; prevention; symptoms and treatment? 
10. Alcoholic poisoning: With what is this often confused and what 
would you do in order to prevent your making such a mistake? 
11. Treatment of alcoholic poisoning? 
12. Apoplexy and injury to the brain; symptoms and treatment? 
13. Sunstroke; cause; prevention; treatment? 
14. What is the difference between sunstroke and heat exhaustion? 
15. Treatment of heat exhaustion ? 
16. Symptoms and treatment of freezing? 
17. What is suffocation due to? 
18. How would you treat a person who was apparently drowned ? 
19. What is back draft ? 
20. To what may gas poisoning be due ? 
21. Treatment of gas poisoning? 
22. Treatment, suffocation from back draft? 
23. What are the symptoms and treatment of opium poisoning? 
24. Symptoms and treatment of carbolic acid poisoning ? 
25. Suppose you came across an unconscious person, what would make 
you think he had been poisoned? 
26. What would be your treatment for a poison of which you did not 
know the exact character ? 
PRACTICAL EXERCISES. 
Artificial respiration. CHAPTER VIII. 
HOW TO CARRY INJURED. 
A man trained in first aid will usually find when he has treated 
an injury that his duty is but half performed. Accidents usually 
occur in places from which it is absolutely necessary to carry 
patients, and unless the proper means for transporting them are 
understood and practiced very grave harm may result to them. 
In fact, the benefits from good first-aid treatment may be undone 
by bad transportation. 
It should be understood, of course, that whatever method of 
transportation is adopted, first aid should be given before it is 
attempted, and that when necessary the clothing should be loosened 
so that it will not constrict the neck, chest nor abdomen during 
transportation. 
The kind of transportation which should be furnished must, of 
course, vary widely with the character of the complaint. All serious 
cases of illness or injury should be carried on stretchers whenever it 
is possible to procure or to improvise them and in case of doubt 
it is always much safer when practicable to carry the patient lying 
down. 
STRETCHER TRANSPORT. 
The ordinary type of stretcher is so well known that it hardly need 
be described. It consists of two long poles with a bed usually 
made of canvas between them and cross-pieces to keep the long 
poles apart and thus to stretch the canvas. The poles are long 
123 124 
HOW TO CARRY INJURED. 
enough to afford handholds for the bearers at each end of the 
stretcher. Fairly satisfactory stretchers may be improvised. The 
easiest one of these to make usually is the coat stretcher. For this 
two coats and a pair of poles are needed. The sleeves of the coafs 
are first turned inside out and the coats are then placed on the 
ground with their lower edges touching each other, the poles are 
passed through the sleeves on each side, the coats are buttoned up 
Fig. 41.—Coat stretcher. 
and the buttoned side turned down. Two poles and a large 
blanket or rug may also be used to make a stretcher. The blanket 
or rug is spread on the ground with the two poles at the edges 
of its long sides. These edges are then rolled on the poles till a 
distance of about 20 inches is left between them. This stretcher 
may be turned over before being used, and especially with narrow 
blankets or rugs it is much safer to bind them to the poles with 
twine. With both these stretchers it is desirable, when possible, STRETCHER DRILL. 
125 
to tie on two pieces of wood for cross-pieces so as to prevent the 
poles from approaching each other when the weight of the patient 
is put on the stretcher. 
~ Instead of rugs and blankets, bags and sacks may be employed 
for stretcher beds. The bottoms of the latter should be ripped so 
that the poles may be passed through the number sufficient to 
give the length of stretcher required. With these and similar 
stretchers careful tests should be made before allowing them to be 
used for patients; care is also necessary to guard against accidents 
during transportation. 
Numbers of articles, some of which may almost always be easily 
procured, may also be used for stretchers in case of necessity. Such 
articles are doors, window shutters, boards, bed frames, benches, 
ladders, mattresses, rugs, blankets and mats. 
Whatever the type of stretcher used, the greatest gentleness should 
be observed in transferring the patient to it, and unless he is to be 
subjected to unnecessary suffering all his bearers must work in 
unison. The necessity for bearers working together has been so 
thoroughly appreciated by all the armies of the world that they all 
now give a regular stretcher drill to men charged with the duty of 
carrying wounded. 
It is not absolutely necessary for every student of first aid to 
learn a drill but it is very desirable, as men knowing the drill can 
always work together better and without any confusion, to the 
great benefit of the patient. 
The drill given here is modified from that of the United States 
Army. 
STRETCHER DRILL. 
Each Stretcher Squad Consists of Four Men. 
i. Fall In.—The four men form in line and count off beginning 
at the right. No. i commands the squad and issues the orders. 126 
HOW TO CARRY INJURED. 
In his absence No. 4 takes command; if Nos. 1 and 4 are both 
absent the duty falls on No. 3. 
2. Procure Stretcher. March.—No. 3 steps one pace to 
the front and, facing in the direction of the stretcher, proceeds 
thither by the shortest route, takes the stretcher and places it on 
his right shoulder. He then returns to his place in line. 
Fig. 42.—Carry stretcher. 
3. Carry Stretcher.—No. 3 drops the upper handles forward 
with canvas to the left; No. 2 steps forward and catches the front 
handles with his left hand; Nos. 1 and 4 advance to the middle of 
the stretcher, to the right and left, respectively; Nos. 2 and 3 hold 
the stretcher between the hand and the hip, grasping the lower 
handles. STRETCHER DRILL. 
127 
4. Open Stretcher.—Nos. 2 and 3 open the stretcher and 
arrange the braces. All the bearers take the position shown in 
Fig. 44, but with stretcher lowered to the ground. 
-45. Close Stretcher.—The movements are reversed and the 
position of “Carry Stretcher.” is taken. 
Fig. 43.—Patient lifted. 
6. Take Posts To Load Stretcher; March.—Nos. i and 4 
run ahead and take positions at the patient’s right and left sides, 
respectively, examine the patient and give him first-aid treatment; 
Nos. 2 and 3 follow with the stretcher. 
7. Lower Stretcher.—Nos. 2 and 3 lower the stretcher one 
yard from the patient’s head and in line with his body. This com- 
mand is given by No. 3. If the stretcher is not open before 128 
HOW TO CARRY INJURED. 
giving the command “Lower Stretcher” No. 3 commands “Open 
Stretcher.” 
8. At Patient’s Right (or Left) Posts.—Nos. 2 and 3 take 
posts at patient’s right (or left) ankles and shoulders. They 
then assist Nos. 1 and 4 in first-aid work. When the patient is 
ready for the stretcher the next command given is: 
Fig. 44.—Stretcher lifted. 
9. Prepare to Lift.—All bearers kneel on the knee nearest 
the patient’s feet, right for his right and left for his left; No, 2 
passing both his arms under the patient’s legs; Nos. 1 and 4 passing 
their arms under his loins and thighs; No. 3 passing one arm under 
his shoulders and the other under his neck to the further shoulder, 
thus supporting the head. In case of a fracture, the bearer nearest 
to it supports the part and looks after it. UNLOADING THE STRETCHER. 
129 
10. Lift Patient.—All lift collectively and raise the patient 
slowly and gently to the knees of the three bearers who are in line; 
then the odd bearer, No. i or 4, arises and passing by the shortest 
route to the stretcher, grasps it by the middle, one pole in each 
hand, and places it in front of the bearers and against their ankles. 
11. Lower Patient.—No. 1 or 4 stoops and assists the other 
bearers to lower the patient gently to the stretcher and then all 
resume their respective posts. 
12. Prepare to Lift; Lift.—At Prepare to Lift, Nos. 2 and 3 
stoop, place the slings over their shoulders—if the stretcher 
has siings—grasp the handles and at the word lift they rise and 
stand erect. 
13. March.—With the lifted stretcher the bearers march with 
a short, sliding step of about 20 inches; Nos. 1, 2 and 4 step off 
with the left foot and No. 3 with his right, forming a “break step.” 
The patient is carried head first. 
14. Halt; Lower Stretcher.—Nos. 2 and 3 lower the stretcher 
gently to the ground. When lowering or lifting a stretcher, the 
rear bearer must always watch the front bearer and move simultane- 
ously with him. 
Unloading the Stretcher. 
15. Prepare to Lift.—The bearers, standing at their respective 
posts, kneel and adjust their hands as in lifting to load the stretcher. 
16. Lift Patient.—The bearers lift the patient to their knees 
and No. 1 removes the stretcher. 
17. Lower Patient.—Nos. 2, 3 and 4 lower him to the ground, 
or, if he is to be put on a bed, or an ambulance bed, they rise from 
their knees and side-step to the bed, the stretcher having been 
placed one yard away and in line with the bed. 
When there are only three bearers, the patient is lifted or lowered 130 
HOW TO CARRY INJURED. 
to the knees of two, while the third places or removes the stretcher; 
or he may be carried on a two-handed seat, his legs being sup- 
ported by the third bearer. 
Position of Patient on the Stretcher. 
The position of a patient on the stretcher depends on the char- 
acter of his injury. An overcoat, blanket, or other suitable and 
convenient article should be used as a pillow to give support and 
slightly raised position to the head. If the patient is faint the head 
should be kept low. Difficulty of breathing in wounds of the chest 
is relieved by a sufficient padding underneath. In wounds of the 
abdomen the best position is on the injured side, or on the back if 
the front of the abdomen is injured, the legs in either case being 
drawn up, and a pillow or other available object being placed under 
the knees to keep them bent. 
In an injury of the upper extremity calling for stretcher trans- 
portation, the best position is on the back with the injured arm 
laid over the body or suitably placed by its side, or on the unin- 
jured side with the wounded arm laid over the body. In injuries 
of the lower extremity the patient should be on the back, or in- 
clining toward the wounded side; in cases of fracture of either 
lower extremity, if a splint cannot be applied, it is always well to 
bind both limbs together. 
To Cross an Obstacle Such as a Wall. 
Lower the stretcher about three feet back from the obstacle. 
Nos. 3 and 4 grasp the stretcher poles at the end, one on each 
side; No. 2 climbs over the obstacle and receives the stretcher as 
it is passed over to him; Nos.- 1 and 4 then climb over and again 
taking the stretcher poles pass it entirely over the obstacle; No. 3, TO LOAD AN AMBULANCE OR WAGON. 
131 
who has been holding the head of the stretcher at this time, now 
climbs over, they to resume their former positions and proceed. 
Transportation along narrow passages or a ditch is effected 
by Nos. 1 and 4 bestriding the stretcher in a narrow place or de- 
scending into the ditch to support the stretcher. If the ditch be 
Fig. 45.—Crossing an obstacle. 
deep and wide, the stretcher must be halted and lowered with 
the handles near the edge; then Nos. i and 4 descend and proceed 
as before. 
To Load an Ambulance or Wagon. 
Carry the stretcher, with the patient’s head foremost, to within 
one yard of the rear of the ambulance and lower the stretcher to 132 
HOW TO CARRY INJURED. 
the ground; Nos. i and 3 take positions at the patient’s right 
and left shoulders, respectively. At the command prepare to 
load No. 2 faces about and stooping, grasps his handles, and Nos. 
1 and 3 the poles on their respective sides. No. 4 opens the doors 
and sees that everything is in proper condition. 
At the command load, the bearers lift the stretcher to the height 
of the ambulance floor and advance, keeping the stretcher level. 
The legs of the stretcher are placed on the ambulance floor by 
Nos. 1 and 3, the stretcher is pushed in by No. 2 assisted by the 
others. 
Whenever it is possible all the bearers should accompany the 
ambulance, Nos. 1 and 3 occupying the seats inside, No. 2 inside 
at the patient’s head, and No. 4 standing on the footboard outside. 
To Unload an Ambulance or Wagon. 
At the command prepare to unload, No. 4 opens the doors 
if necessary, No. 2 grasps the handles of the stretcher and at the 
command unload, draws out the stretcher, assisted by Nos. 1 and 
3 who, facing inward, support the poles until the inner handles 
are reached. The stretcher must be kept level and lowered abou t a 
a yard from the vehicle. Then No. 4 closes the doors and all take 
their posts at the stretcher. 
GENERAL DIRECTIONS. 
In moving the patient either with or without the stretcher, every 
movement should be made deliberately and as gently as possible, 
taking special care not to jar the injured part. The command 
steady will be used to prevent undue haste or other irregular 
movements. 
The loaded stretcher should never be lifted or lowered without orders. GENERAL DIRECTIONS. 
Should your patient have a broken bone be particularly careful 
that he is not jolted. A little intelligent care will prevent this. 
Never carry a stretcher on your shoulders. 
—- Always carry a patient feet foremost except when going uphill. 
But in cases of fracture of the leg or thigh if he has to be taken 
down a steep hill carry him head foremost, keeping him as nearly 
level as possible. 
Wherever obstacles are in your path go around them, for 
every time a patient is set down or lifted it gives him additional 
pain. 
Only when the crossing of obstacles is unavoidable, as where 
a fence cannot be torn down, a breach cannot be made in a brick 
wall or cars cannot be gotten out of the way should they be crossed 
as provided on page 130. 
Accompanying all accidents there is a certain amount of shock, 
which induces a sensation of cold, so that even at midsummer 
injured men sometimes shiver with cold. Therefore, it is important 
that the patient be well covered with blankets or whatever clothing 
may be handy, whether the season be summer or winter. 
All commands should be given in a low tone, but distinct enough 
to be heard by all the bearers. 
It should be the duty of the bearers to keep at a respectful 
distance the morbidly curious people who are always attracted by 
accidents, who ask questions, shut out fresh air and do many other 
things detrimental to the patient. 
Time being an essential factor in accidents, the patient should 
be borne to his home or a hospital without unnecessary delay. 
With this end in view, the ambulance driver should drive as fast as 
the condition of the road and comfort of the patient will permit, 
exercising special care and driving slower where the road is bad. 
It is also important that a physician be notified as early as 
possible, and equally as important that at the same time he be 
133 134 
HOW TO CARRY INJURED. 
informed of the nature of the accident. Due attention to this mat- 
ter may prevent fatal results. 
When wagons or other vehicles must be used in place of an am- 
bulance always, if possible, put plenty of straw, leaves, or boughs- 
on the floor so as to reduce the jolting. 
TRANSPORTATION WITHOUT A STRETCHER. 
Not infrequently in accidents it will not be possible to procure a 
stretcher for the patient. The first-aid student should therefore 
learn good methods of procedure under such circumstances as 
lack of knowledge in this particular will subject the patient to risk 
of further injury and to a great deal of unnecessary pain. 
With Two Bearers. 
If the injured person be unable to walk, has not lost conscious- 
ness, and can use his arms, a good plan to adopt is the four-handed 
seat or “lady’s chair” of children. To form it twro men grasp 
each his left wrist with his right hand, and with his left hand 
grasps his fellow’s wrist. Seated on this, the patient throws his 
arms over the shoulders of the bearers. 
A twTo-handed seat is more comfortable, both for the patient and 
the bearers. The right-hand bearer grasps with his right hand the 
left wrist, and with his left hand the right shoulder of his fellow- 
bearer; the left-hand bearer grasps with his left hand the right 
wrist of his fellow, and with his right hand the left shoulder. (See 
Fig. 46.) 
Still another method which requires no effort on the part of the 
patient, but is not applicable to severe injuries of the limbs, is 
called carrying by the extremities. For this one bearer takes posi- 
tion between the patient’s legs and the other at his head, both 
facine toward his feet. TRANSPORTATION WITHOUT A STRETCHER. 
135 
Fig. 46.—Two-handed seat. HOW TO CARRY INJURED 
136 
Fig. 47.—Assisting to walk TRANSPORTATION WITHOUT A STRETCHER. 
137 
The rear bearer raises the patient to a sitting position, clasps 
him from behind around the body under the arms, while the front 
bearer, standing between the legs, passes his hands from the out- 
side under the flexed knees. Both rise together. 
With One Bearer 
There are four methods for this: 
1. The bearer merely assists the patient to walk. 
2. The patient is carried in the bearer’s arms. 
3. The patient is carried across the bearer’s back. 
4. The patient is carried astride the bearer’s back. 
No. 1, Assisting to Walk. 
The patient is probably suffering from a comparatively slight 
injury of the upper part of the body, his legs uninjured. Stand 
by his side; put his sound arm over your shoulder and behind your 
neck; grasp his hand with your own and pass your other arm around 
his waist to support him. A single bearer may thus, if necessary, 
assist two slightly injured persons. (See Fig. 47.) 
No. 2, Carrying in Arms. 
The patient is lying on the ground probably insensible, and 
totally helpless. 
The bearer, turning patient on his face, steps astride his body, 
facing toward the patient’s head, and with hands under his arm- 
pits lifts him to his knees; then clasping hands over abdomen, 
lifts him to his feet; he then with his left hand seizes the patient by 
the left wrist and draws left arm around his (the bearer’s) neck and 
holds it against his left chest, the patient’s left side resting against 
his body, and supports him with his right arm about the waist. 
(Fig- 47-) 138 
HOW TO CARRY INJURED. 
Fig. 48.—Carrying in arms. TRANSPORTATION WITHOUT A STRETCHER. 
139 
From this position the bearer with his right arm upon the patient’s 
back passes his left under thighs and lifts him into position, carry- 
ing him well up. This method is very easy for the patient but 
hard on the bearer; therefore, it is used only when the patient is 
insensible and his destination not distant. (Fig. 48.) 
No. 3, Carrying Across Back. 
The patient is first lifted erect as described in previous paragraph, 
when the bearer with his left hand seizes the right wrist of the 
patient and draws the arm over his head and down upon his left 
shoulder, then shifting himself in front, stoops and clasps the right 
thigh with his right arm passed between the legs, his right hand 
seizing the patient’s right wrist; lastly the bearer with his left hand 
grasps the patient’s left and steadies it against his side, when he 
rises. This method is comfortable for the patient and easy for 
the bearer and is particularly recommended when the patient is 
not insensible, but is unable to render his bearer any assistance. 
(Fig. 49-) 
No. 4, Carrying Astride of Back. 
The patient is lifted erect (as described), when the bearer shifts 
himself to the front of the patient, back to the patient, stoops and 
grasping his thighs, brings him well upon his back. 
As the patient must help himself by placing his arms around 
the bearer’s neck, this method is impracticable with an uncon- 
scious man. 
In lowering the patient from these positions the motions are 
reversed. Should the patient be injured in such a manner as to re- 
quire these motions to be conducted from the right side instead of 
left, as laid down, the change is simply one of hands—the motions 
proceed as directed, substituting right for left and vice versa. 
A patient astride the back of a bearer may, when necessary, 140 
HOW TO CAREY INJURED. 
Fig, 49.—Carrying across back. QUESTIONS. 
141 
be carried up a ladder, though with considerable difficulty. A 
better method is sometimes used, especially in mines. This re- 
quires an apparatus which consists of a wide belt which is held just 
below the armpits of the bearer by suspenders over the shoulders. 
From the belt a wide band leads to join the belt on the opposite side. 
The patient sits in this band supporting himself partially by his 
hands on the bearer’s shoulders. 
QUESTIONS. 
1. When would you use a stretcher for a patient? 
2. What position would you put the patient in on a stretcher? 
Usually; if fainting; if abdomen is injured; if leg is broken? 
3. When is command steady given? 
4. Is patient carried head or feet foremost ? 
5. What would you do to prevent shock to patient on stretcher? 
PRACTICAL EXERCISES. 
(In all these exercises in which the services of more than one man are 
required, one man should be selected to take charge and should give 
the necessary directions to his assistants.) 
1. Make a coat stretcher. 
2. Fall In; Procure Stretcher. March; Carry Stretcher. 
3. Open Stretcher; Close Stretcher. 
4. Take Posts To Load Stretcher. March; Lower Stretcher; At 
Patient’s Right. Posts; Prepare To Lift. Lift Patient; Lower Patient. 
5. Prepare To Lift. Lift; March; Halt. Lower Stretcher. 
6. Unload stretcher by command. 
7. Cross a wall with loaded stretcher 
8. Load an ambulance. 
9. Unload an ambulance. 
10. Carry a patient with two beare 
11. Assist patient to walk. 
12. Carry in arms. 
13. Carry across back. 
14. Carry astride of back. CHAPTER IX. 
INJURIES AND EMERGENCIES OF IN-DOOR AND 
OUT-DOOR SPORTS. 
i. Gymnasium. 2. Baseball. 3. Football. 4. Celebration 
of July Fourth. 5. Boating, Skating and Swimming. 
6. Shooting and Fishing. 7. Automobile. 8. Camping 
and Summer Outings. 
As it is now universally admitted that great physical benefit 
results to those who engage in healthy sports, the possibility of 
injuries occurring therein should not be given too heavy weight. 
The man or boy who enters a physical contest will not go far if he 
has always before his eyes the possibility of accident. In sport, 
just as in everything else in life, the successful contestant is he who 
puts all his energy into making the best possible showing and 
nothing that is said here should be taken to mean that he should 
not do this. The risks run are but part of the game and should be 
accepted as such. Remember that foolhardiness is not courage, 
however. 
There is also one other point which is worthy of consideration 
here. Violent physical exertion should be gradually prepared 
for and not rushed into without preparation. A man who is soft* 
has not only soft voluntary muscles, but the muscle of his heart is 
also soft so that it may be easily strained with perhaps permanent 
injury. Many of the accidents which we read of as occurring to 
those engaged in sports are due to their poor physical condition. 
142 BASEBALL. 
143 
A man or boy in good training has firm muscles which, to a great 
extent, prevent his internal organs from blows and falls. Soft 
muscles cannot do this and with them a trivial blow may prove 
dangerous. 
i. GYMNASIUM. 
Bruises, strains, sprains, dislocations, and fractures are the 
commonest gymnasium accidents. The section devoted to these 
subjects should therefore be studied in connection with them. 
Boxing is of course responsible for many bruises, especially black 
eye, which should be treated by the application of cold water or a 
cold knife-blade. The so-called “alum curd” made by putting 
powdered alum in milk till a curd is formed is also an excellent 
application. Both cold and alum contract the vessels and so 
prevent the escape of more blood. Persons said to be knocked 
out by blows or falls in gymnasiums will in almost all cases be 
found to be suffering from shock and should be so treated. 
2. BASEBALL. 
Severe injuries of the head are sometimes caused by being 
struck by balls or bats. Blows in the abdomen are also not uncom- 
mon. Both should be treated like any other severe injury of the 
same general character. The services of a doctor should be 
secured as soon as possible. 
Bruises are more common but their treatment is not peculiar. 
Injuries of the hands and fingers are the commonest baseball 
injuries. Dislocated and fractured fingers are treated just as 
are these injuries from other causes. 
The name “split finger” is given to the splitting down of the 
web between the fingers and also to the splitting of the soft tissues 
of the fingers themselves. Split of the web between the fingers 
generally makes a clear-cut wound which often bleeds freely. The 144 
IN-DOOR AND OUT-DOOR SPORTS. 
best way to treat it is to bring the two fingers together and to 
bandage them in this position without putting anything in contact 
with the wound itself. This injury should be shown to a doctor. 
Splits of the fingers themselves are best dressed with a piece of 
gauze and a bandage. A surgically clean bandage may be put 
directly on such a wound. Severe splits of this character should 
also be shown to a doctor. Shock is sometimes severe in these 
injuries and should be treated. 
The finger-nails are frequently torn partially off by base balls. 
They should be replaced and held in place by a strip of rubber 
plaster. 
Wounds of the legs and feet, and sometimes of the hands, 
from the spiked shoes worn by baseball players, are common. 
So common, that it is a serious question if it would not be better 
to do away with spikes by rule. These spikes make very nasty 
wounds. After the clothing or shoes and stockings have been 
removed the part should be immediately covered with gauze and 
a bandage. Like other wounds, touching such wounds with the 
hands is likely to prove dangerous. 
Shock must often be treated. 
These injuries demand attention from a physician. 
Emergency supplies are now usually kept at hand by pro- 
fessional and college teams. All that are needed are a few narrow 
gauze bandages wrapped up so they are kept clean, two Red Cross 
first-aid packets, a roll of rubber plaster, a two-ounce bottle of 
aromatic spirits of ammonia, a sharp knife, a pair of scissors, and 
a few safety and common pins. 
3. FOOTBALL. 
This, on account of the very severe exertion involved, is the 
best example of a game which should not be played without 
careful and gradual preparation. CELEBRATION OF JULY FOURTH. 
145 
Bruises, strains, sprains, dislocations, and fractures are not 
particularly uncommon. They are treated exactly like such 
injuries generally. The knocking out of a football player is 
usually due either to shock or exhaustion. Men in fine condition 
recover from slight shock promptly and are again able to take 
part in the game. Exhaustion always requires rest, and when a 
man is visibly exhausted it will certainly be better for him, and 
probably for the eleven to which he belongs, to take him out of 
the game. 
Of course, at big games doctors are, as they should be, available 
to treat football injuries. 
CELEBRATION OF JULY FOURTH. 
This celebration is still so widely indulged in by young, and 
sometimes old, America, and the injuries resulting from it are so 
numerous that it is quite worthy of discussion here. 
Burning powder in one way or another was formerly such a 
large part of the celebration of July Fourth that it had national 
sanction. Now, however, on account of the numerous injuries 
which resulted the movement for a sane Fourth is making greater 
progress year by year. Fortunately, too, for the youth of America 
even in localities which have not fully adopted the idea of a sane 
Fourth many of the more dangerous things which make a noise 
have been prohibited by law. 
This matter may also, of course, be regulated to a considerable 
extent in the individual family and each mother and father should 
at least see that their children, according to their age, have only 
firecrackers or fireworks which they may set off with a reasonable 
degree of safety. So much has been said in the newspapers of 
recent years in reference to the dangers of lock-jaw from Fourth 
of July accidents that larger children are not generally deaf to 
warnings in regard to setting off firecrackers. 146 
IN-DOOR AND OUT-DOOR SPORTS. 
Burns, torn wounds from explosions and injuries to the eyes 
are the commonest Fourth of July accidents. 
The careful father and mother should not scorn to take the 
precaution of obtaining a jar of carbolized vaseline and a half 
dozen gauze bandages in preparation for the Fourth. Torn wounds 
demand immediate attention from a doctor on account of possible 
danger from lock-jaw. 
5. BOATING, SKATING AND SWIMMING. 
Drowning is the only accident which will be discussed here. 
Prevention. 
This will be spoken of under two heads: 1. Prevention of 
accidents that may result in drowning. 2. Rescue of drown- 
ing persons. 
1. Prevention of Accidents that may result in Drowning. 
Boating accidents are frequent in all parts of the country 
during the summer season. In order to do your part to 
prevent them— 
Remember: A light boat is not intended for heavy seas; do 
not change seats except in a wide and steady boat, and above 
all things do not put yourself in the class of idiots who rock 
the boat. In case you are thrown into deep water by the 
turning over of a boat, or from any other cause, do not lose 
your presence of mind even if you cannot swim. Remember 
that the water will almost support your weight. Allow yourself 
• to sink low so your nose is just above the water and support 
yourself by a hand on the boat. Even an oar under the chin 
will hold you up. If there is nothing which will help to sup- 
port you, lie flat on the back with the arms stretched out. 
Especially in salt water with light clothing, one may float 
almost indefinitely in this position. To do so it is necessary 
to keep cool if the water or spray rises over the face moment- BOATING, SKATING AND SWIMMING. 
147 
arily. Throwing up the head, or still worse the limbs, to 
prevent this will result in your sinking. 
At the seashore, unless you are a strong swimmer, do not go 
outside the life-lines and if the undertow is strong be careful 
that you do not walk out so far that you may be carried off 
your feet. 
The art of swimming should be made a part of the education 
Fig. 50.—1. Rescue of drowning person. 
of every boy and girl. It is not enough to know how to swim 
a few strokes. One should at least be able to swim for a 
few moments while dressed. 
Very cold water and very long swims are likely to result in the 
exhaustion of even a strong swimmer and are therefore hazard- 
ous unless a boat accompanies the swimmer. 
2. Rescue of Drowning Persons. 
If possible, do not attempt to rescue a drowning person in 
deep water by entering the water yourself. The best interests 148 
IN-DOOR AND OUT-DOOR SPORTS. 
of the drowning person are served when practicable by 
holding out or throwing something into the water on which 
he can support himself till he can be pulled ashore or reached 
in a boat. In case a person has fallen into deep water near 
the shore take an oar, a pole, a rope or even your coat and 
hold it out so the drowning person may grasp it. Life pre- 
servers, boxes, boards or logs may also be thrown into the 
Fig. 51.—2. Rescue of drowning person. 
water close to the person drowning. As has been stated above, 
a small, floating object is quite sufficient to sustain a person’s 
weight in the water. 
If the person in danger of drowning is so far from the shore 
that the methods just spoken of cannot be used you must 
enter the water to rescue him. Take off as much of your 
clothing as possible. It is especially necessary to rid yourself 
of your shoes. If you are not a strong swimmer it will be 
much better to support yourself with a life preserver, a board, 
box, or the like when swimming out to the drowning person. BOATING, SKATING AND SWIMMING. 
149 
Always take care not to permit him to grasp you, for this may 
result in drowning you both. If he succeeds in seizing you 
it will be safest to allow yourself to sink or to strike him a blow 
in the face in order to make him loosen his hold. There is no 
cruelty in such a blow; it may be his only salvation. Uncon- 
scious persons are in fact rescued much more easily. 
Fig. 52.—3. Rescue of drowning person 
Always approach a drowning man from behind, grasp his 
hair or collar with your left hand and his right shoulder with 
your right hand keeping him at arm’s length with his mouth 
and nose just above the water, then “tread water.” As soon 
as you can, seize his right wrist and pull it behind his head, 
then take a few strokes to get on your back, at the same time 
pull the person you are rescuing on your chest and start to 
swim backward to shore. Swim as low as possible, with your 
face and that of the drowning person, just out of the water. 
To rescue a person who has broken through the ice: You 150 
IN-DOOR AND OUT-DOOR SPORTS. 
should first tie a rope around your body and have the other 
end tied, or held, on shore. Then secure a long board, or 
a ladder, crawl out on this or push it out so that the person 
in the water may reach it. If nothing can be found on which 
you can support your weight do not attempt to walk out 
toward the person to be rescued, but lie down flat on your 
Fig. 53.—4. Rescue of drowning person. 
face and crawl out, as by doing this much less weight bears 
at any one point on the ice than in walking. 
Symptoms. 
Are of course those of suffocation. In addition a frothy fluid 
is often noticed in the mouth and nose and the body is cold. 
Treatment. 
Is naturally that of suffocation in general preceded by that 
necessary to get rid of the water which has entered the wind- 
pipe and lungs. Also, afterward, necessary measures to restore 
warmth to the body. BOATING, SKATING AND SWIMMING. 
151 
In order that the proper treatment for drowning may be given 
promptly, the necessary directions should be posted at all 
boat-houses and bath-houses. 
As soon as the nearly drowned person has been taken from 
the water loosen all tight clothing, at the same time send some 
one else for a doctor and for dry clothing and blankets when 
possible. Quickly clean mud or water from the mouth with 
a handkerchief on the finger. 
Turn the patient on his face, clasp your hands around his 
waist, raise him up by the middle and keep him elevated for a 
few seconds in order to allow water to drain out of throat and 
lungs. 
Turn the patient flat on his back. 
Pull out tongue by grasping it with a dry cloth. Have 
some one else hold it out. Or if alone, if possible, tie in this 
position with a bandage or rubber band over the tongue and 
under the jaw. The reason for pulling the tongue forward 
is because in an unconscious person it is likely to fall back 
and block the wind-pipe. 
Perform artificial respiration. This is described elsewhere 
in this book, but is repeated here for convenience of reference. 
The illustrations of the Sylvester method, an old and good 
method, are found on pages 107 and 108. 
First put a pad, such as a rolled-up coat, under the shoulders. 
This helps to expand the chest. Do not allow the head to 
hang back so as to strain the wind-pipe; if necessary, a little 
pad under the head may be used to prevent this. Kneel just 
above patient’s head, catch both his arms just below the elbows 
Draw the arms outward and upward gently and steadily 
and hold them as far as they will go above the head for about 
2 seconds. This motion opens or expands the chest to the 
greatest possible extent. 152 
IN-DOOR AND OUT-DOOR SPORTS. 
This is due to the fact that certain muscles are attached to 
both arms and ribs and when the arms are raised these 
muscles raise the ribs and so enlarge the chest. 
Then bring the arms down till the elbows press against the 
Fig. 54.—Prone-pressure method—pressure exerted. 
chest, a little pressure will diminish the size of the elastic 
chest as much as possible. Do this for about 2 seconds. 
Continue these motions about fifteen times per minute. 
Keep this up till the patient begins to breathe himself. 
Persons have been restored after several hours of artificial 
respiration and after they have been in the water for some 
time. BOATING, SKATING AND SWIMMING. 
153 
Artificial respiration when done properly is hard work for 
the operator and he should be relieved by someone else as 
soon as he grows tired. 
Another excellent method of artificial respiration is called 
Fig. 55.—Prone-pressure method—pressure relaxed. 
the “prone-pressure method.” The patient lies face down. 
The operator kneels by his side, places his hands across the 
lowest ribs and swings his body forward and backward so as to 
allow his weight alternately to fall vertically on the wrists and 
to be removed; in this way hardly any muscular exertion is 
required. The size of the chest being diminished forces the 154 
IN-DOOR AND OUT-DOOR SPORTS. 
air from the lungs. The elastic chest then springs back and 
the air enters the lungs. The rate is 15 per minute. 
At the same time that one or two persons are performing 
artificial respiration, without interfering with them, others 
should remove the patient’s wet clothing and dry him with 
towels or something else, then covering him with a dry coat 
or blanket. 
As soon as the patient begins to breathe himself, but not 
before, his limbs should be well rubbed toward the heart 
under the blankets. This will help to restore the circulation. 
He should afterward be put to bed well covered and surrounded 
with hot bottles. The windows should be opened so that 
he may have plenty of air. When he can swallow, hot stimu- 
lants should be given him. 
After the danger is over the patient should be allowed to 
sleep quietly. 
Warning. 
If the breathing stops at any time after it has once begun 
you must immediately start again with artificial respiration. 
6. SHOOTING AND FISHING. 
Shooting accidents are common and generally result from 
carelessness in the use of rifles or shot-guns. 
Shooting. 
Prevention. 
Never put a cartridge or shell into the chamber before you 
need it and always remove it when the need for it ceases. 
Do not cock a gun except when you expect to shoot at anv 
moment and uncock it when this necessity ceases. Never 
point a gun, whether loaded or unloaded, toward yourself 
or anyone else. Be particularly careful in going over or 
through fences, and in boats. SHOOTING AND FISHING. 
155 
When hunting in company try to know where your compan- 
ions are at all times and do not fire in that direction. Make 
sure in firing at anything in the woods that you are not shooting 
— at a man. 
Symptoms. 
Wounds from rifles have already been described as punctured 
wounds. Wounds from shot-guns received near the muzzle 
are tearing wounds with great destruction of the tissues and 
often actually tear off parts of the body. At a far distance 
shot may lodge just under the skin or may only produce a 
bruise with a stinging sensation. 
Treatment. 
For the trivial injuries which have just been mentioned the 
services of a doctor are never immediately necessary, though 
when shot has lodged under the skin, a doctor should always 
remove it, as blood-poisoning may follow attempts to do so 
by other persons. 
With serious shot-gun or rifle injuries circumstances are 
usually such that a doctor cannot be obtained promptly, 
though one should be secured as soon as possible. A comrade 
of the injured man will, therefore, almost always be compelled 
to give necessary treatment. This does not differ in any 
respect from the treatment of such wounds due to other causes. 
The bleeding may be very severe, however, and must be 
checked at any cost, even if the wound will probably be in- 
fected in doing so. 
Shock always demands treatment. 
Fishing. 
A fishhook caught in the flesh, if the barb is not engaged, is 
easily removed. If the barb is firmly fixed, however, quite the 
contrary is true. In this case the point of the hook should be 156 
IN-DOOR AND OUT-DOOR SPORTS. 
pushed through till the barb has passed through and out of the skin. 
The barb should then be cut off with a strong pair of nippers 
Such a wound should, when possible, be shown to a doctor, as it is 
very likely to become inflamed. If this occurs a doctor’s services 
are always required. In any event, the wound should be put in 
hot water, which, if possible, has been previously boiled, and 
squeezed so as to squeeze out poisonous matter. Such a wound 
should never be sealed with collodion or plaster, but should be 
dressed with a surgically clean or antiseptic compress or bandage. 
7. AUTOMOBILE. 
Automobile injuries are becoming increasingly common on 
account of the more general use of the automobile. 
Such injuries are usually bruises, strains, sprains, dislocations, 
fractures, or wounds, and are likely to be very severe and of a 
crushing or mangling character. 
Prevention. 
Every owner of a car should himself know or have some 
responsible person in his employ who is able to recognize 
whether his automobile is in fit condition to run with safety. 
Automobile accidents due to the most obvious defects in 
the mechanism of machines are far too common. 
High speed, especially at night and on poor roads, is respon- 
sible for many accidents. Slippery roads demand especial 
care on the part of the driver, on account of the danger from 
skidding. 
The use of alcoholic liquors by drivers of automobiles is as 
much, if not more, dangerous than similar indulgence on the 
part of locomotive engineers. 
Grade crossings of railways should be approached by the 
automobilist with the greatest care, as accidents due to 
collisions with railway trains are very common. SUNBURN. 
157 
Cranking, unless carefully done, is very liable to result in 
a fracture of the wrist or forearm. 
The Symptoms and Treatment of automobile injuries 
need not be described as they are exactly the same as with 
similar injuries due to other causes. 
8. CAMPING AND SUMMER OUTINGS. 
A number of not closely related injuries and emergencies will 
be discussed under this heading. None is peculiar either to life in 
camp or to summer outings, but they all do occur more commonly 
under such conditions. As out-of-door active life is also not 
infrequently accompanied by injuries, such as bruises, strains, 
sprains, dislocations, fractures, and wounds, these should also be 
studied in this connection. 
This section comprises: Sunburn, Mosquito bites, Stings of 
insects, Poison ivy, Plant poisons, especially Mushrooms, Bites 
of snakes, Injuries of feet, Cramps in legs. 
Sunburn. 
This may vary from a slight redness of the skin to a very severe 
burn. Persons with delicate skins may avoid a good deal of 
needless discomfort and pain by protecting themselves when 
exposed to the bright summer sun. That there is anything healthy 
in sunburn or tan is a wholly false idea. The measures of protec- 
tion are naturally the use of hats and clothing which shade the face 
and body from the sun. Wetting the face, especially with salt 
water, is likely to cause very severe sunburn. Any toilet powder 
will protect the face from the sun’s rays to some extent, though 
the pink Calamid powder is undoubtedly the best. 
The treatment consists of soothing applications; ordinary or 
carbolized vaselin may be used. An excellent application and 158 
IN-DOOR AND OUT-DOOR SPORTS. 
one easily prepared is i part lime-water to 3 parts almond or 
olive oil. 
Mosquito Bites. 
These injuries are usually regarded as of trivial importance, but 
it is well to remember in malarial districts that malaria is caused 
by mosquitoes and that to prevent this disease mosquito nets and 
other means of protection against them should be used. 
Ammonia is the best remedy, as the poison is an acid one. Lime- 
water with two drops of carbolic acid to the ounce is also good. 
Menthol and toilet powder often give temporary relief. 
Stings and Bites of Insects and Spiders. 
These are rarely dangerous to life, though they may cause a 
great deal of pain and discomfort. Nothing need be said in refer- 
ence to prevention or symptoms. Ammonia should be immedi- 
ately applied to the part where the sting entered; this should be 
removed if it remains in the wound. Afterward cool, wet dressings 
should be used. Cloths wet with water in which a very few drops 
of carbolic acid have been thoroughly mixed, wet salt, and wet 
earth are all good applications. 
Poison Ivy or Oak. 
These plants which so commonly cause skin poisoning belong 
to the sumac family. Two varieties are described—one, a shrub 
or small tree, with oval, pointed leaves arranged in clusters of 
from seven to thirteen on a common stalk; the other is a creeper or 
a climbing plant with broad leaves, sometimes slightly notched, 
arranged in clusters of three. Both have berries. 
These plants cause poisoning in almost every one if touched, and 
some persons can scarcely go near them without being poisoned. PLANT POISONS. 
159 
Early in an attack a person may convey the disease from one part 
of his body to another, and extremely rarely one person infects 
another. 
Prevention. 
Is naturally avoiding poison ivy or oak. Remember there 
is no certainty that if you have handled these plants at one 
time without injury that the same will be true on another 
occasion. 
Symptoms. 
Are those of a severe inflammation of the skin. This, of 
course, appears more often on the exposed parts, usually 
the hands and arms and the face. The skin becomes much 
inflamed and swollen, blisters form and even pus sometimes. 
There may be loss of the upper layers of the skin and a red, 
weepy surface. The pain, itching and discomfort are severe. 
The symptoms, as a whole, are very violent. 
Treatment. 
If severe, a doctor should be consulted promptly. A very 
good and simple treatment is a wash of a two or three per 
cent, boracic acid solution followed by the ordinary zinc 
ointment. Lime-water for the wash and carbolized vaselin 
for the ointment are fairly good remedies. The ointment 
should be washed off daily with the wash, the part dried 
gently and the ointment reapplied. 
Plant Poisons, Especially Mushrooms. 
A number of the common plants are poisonous. Among them 
are Bitter Sweet, Deadly Night Shade, Mountain Ash, Hemlock, 
Hellebore, Jamestown Weed, Wild Parsley and Lettuce and cer- 
tain Mushrooms and Toadstools. Cases of poisoning, except 
from the last, are rare. 
A rule which should always be observed is never to eat anything 160 
IN-DOOR AND OUT-DOOR SPORTS. 
growing unless you are very sure that you know that it is not 
poisonous and to prevent children from doing so. 
Mushroom, sometimes called toadstool poisoning, is commonly 
due to failure to distinguish between the poisonous and non- 
poisonous varieties. 
The rules which are commonly accepted for doing so are as 
follows: 
Consider dangerous all mushrooms which have: 
x. “A cup-like formation at the base of stem (so-called 
death cup).” 
2. “A scaly or close-fitting layer at the base of the stem. 
3. “Loose warts on the cap.” 
4. “A milky juice (unless this is red.)” 
5. “Great brittleness, with gills nearly all of equal length and 
the flesh of the cap thin.” 
6. “A honeycombed appearance of the gills, if the flesh tastes 
bitter, or the mouths of the tubes are reddish, or the flesh 
changes color when cut or bruised.” 
7. “A cobwebby veil or ring when the plant is young.” 
8. “A slimy cap and clay-colored spores” (Dulles). 
Moreover, all mushrooms that are decaying or are in the imma- 
ture button stage should be discarded. 
Symptoms of poisoning from Growing Plants. 
Nausea and vomiting. Severe pain in abdomen. Great 
depression. Unconsciousness, sometimes weak pulse, shallow 
respiration. 
Delirium from some poisons. 
Treatment. 
Send for doctor. 
Cause vomiting. 
Stimulants. 
Rest in lying-down position, with head low. SNAKE BITE. 
161 
Cover warmly and apply heat by means of hot bottles around 
patient. 
Snake Bite. 
Snake bites are exceedingly rare injuries in this country, but bites 
from poisonous snakes are so rapidly fatal if not promptly given 
proper attention that it is necessary for the student of first aid to 
know how to treat them. The rattlesnake and the moccasin are 
probably most generally to be feared in the United States. Neither 
is equally virulent at all seasons of the year. 
Prevention. 
When it is impossible to avoid the localities where poisonous 
snakes are commonly found, comprises the wearing of high 
boots or leggings by day and sleeping on a cot or raised plat- 
form at night instead of on the ground. The Mexican plan 
when sleeping on the ground of surrounding the sleeper with 
a hair rope or lariat is undoubtedly a good one, as snakes 
will not cross such a rope. 
Symptoms. 
Great pain in the wound. Rapid swelling. Much depres- 
sion and weakness, followed promptly by death in some cases 
unless proper treatment is given. 
Treatment. 
Immediately to tie a string, handkerchief or bandage between 
the bitten part and the body if this is practicable. Naturally, 
this can only be done in the extremities. This cutting off of the 
return of the blood to the body, of course, prevents absorp- 
tion of the poison. The wound should then be soaked in hot 
water if this is obtainable and in any event squeezed, milked, 
or sucked. This is for the purpose of extracting as much 
poison as possible. Sucking the wound is not dangerous 
unless one has cuts or scrapes in the mouth. These procedures 162 
IN-DOOR AND OUT-DOOR SPORTS. 
should not be delayed for a moment in order to send for a 
doctor but one should be summoned as soon as possible. The 
further first-aid treatment consists of cauterizing or burning 
the wound with ammonia. Strong ammonia should be used 
for this purpose if it can be procured. The patient should 
also be dosed with stimulants. It is not necessary to give 
whisky or brandy so as to intoxicate him. But a large drink 
of whisky or brandy or a full dose of aromatic spirits of 
ammonia should be given at once and should be repeated as 
often as seems necessary to keep up the strength of the patient. 
Do not be afraid to give too much, for persons bitten by poi- 
sonous snakes require a large amount of stimulants. 
Leave the string or bandage tied above the wound in place 
as long as you dare. After an hour, however, if no doctor 
has arrived you must remember that your tight bandage is 
likely to cause mortification as it has cut off circulation. Do 
not try to remove it at once, loosen it a trifle so that a little 
poison escapes to the body and then tighten it again and 
repeat after a few moments. If the patient does not seem to 
be greatly affected by the poison you will finally be able to 
remove the constricting band entirely. But, on the other 
hand, if the poison which escapes into the body seriously 
depresses the patient you must keep the bitten part tied off 
and take the chance of mortification. 
Injuries of the Feet and Cramps in the Legs. 
The pleasures of a camping trip which requires much walking 
depend to a great extent on the condition of the feet. 
The importance of well-fitting shoes cannot be overestimated 
The shoes should have heavy soles, moderate heels, and be neither 
tight nor loose though they should be tightly laced and longer than 
the feet. New and stiff shoes are almost sure to be very uncom- INJURIES IN THE FEET AND CRAMPS IN THE LEGS. 
163 
fortable; shoes should be worn sufficiently beforehand so that 
they will have adapted themselves to the shape of the feet. Cotton 
U the best material for the socks or stockings and they must be 
long enough so that the toes have free play. Great care should be 
taken to have any darns smooth. The feet should be carefully 
washed and dried after a day’s walk and clean socks or stockings 
should be put on. If the feet are swollen or hot, wash them with 
warm salt water or alcohol before putting on fresh hose. Talcum 
powder will prevent foot troubles. In the morning dry the feet 
thoroughly, rub on the powder, and shake a good amount in each 
shoe. 
Blisters are best treated by washing the foot thoroughly in hot 
water, then taking a clean needle and pricking the blister, not 
directly, but through the skin at the side, and gently pressing out 
the fluid in the blister till it is flat. 
To toughen and harden the feet soak them for some time in a 
bowl of cold tannic acid solution, a tablespoonful of the acid to a 
bowl of water. A solution of alcohol and salt answers the same 
purpose. 
Cramps in the leg-muscles often come on after unusual exertion. 
They are best treated by rubbing and kneading the muscles. 
Wrapping the legs in hot cloths will also assist. 
The emergency supplies for a camp should, if possible, be those 
given on page 175 for the household. They may, however, be 
somewhat cut down in bulk and number in case of necessity. The 
minimum should be: 
Aromatic spirits of ammonia, 2 oz. bottle, rubber cork. 
Syrup of ginger, 2 oz. 
Seidlitz powders, 12 in tin box. 
5 Gr. bismuth subnitrate tablets (200). 
yV Gr. calomel tablets (50). 
Carbolized vaselin, 1 tin. 164 
IN-DOOR AND OUT-DOOR SPORTS. 
Oil of cloves, x drachm bottle, labelled “Poison.” 
Soda mint tablets, 50 
1 Tin talcum powder. 
1 Small package antiseptic gauze. 
2 Red Cross first-aid outfits. 
1 Box tooth wax. 
1 Box tooth plaster. 
1 Box corn plaster. 
1 Sharp knife. 
1 Pair scissors. 
Needles and pins, ordinary and safety. 
Thread. 
PRACTICAL EXERCISES AND QUESTIONS. 
A general review which should include practical problems in first aid 
of genera) interest and of interest to the special class. As an example 
of a problem of the former kind the following is given: Four friends 
are walking along a country road and find a man who has been thrown 
from his horse. He is unconscious, his right thigh and left arm are 
broken. Treat him and move him fifty feet. 
Questions should always be asked in connection with the problems 
so that the instructor may make sure the members of the class clearly 
understand what they are doing and the reason for each step. CHAPTER X. 
COMMON EMERGENCIES. 
i. Cramp or Colic. 2. Diarrhea. 3. Constipation. 4. 
Nausea and Vomiting. 5. Hiccough. 6. Chili, from 
Exposure. 7. Nervous Attacks. 8. Croup. 9. Neu- 
ralgia of Face. 10. Tooth-ache. ii. Ear-ache. 12. 
Styes. 13. Prickly Heat. 14. Chilblains. 15. Corns. 
Emergency Supplies for the Home. 
1. CRAMP OR COLIC. 
This condition is such a common one that it is almost unneces- 
sary to describe it. As everyone knows, abdominal cramp is a 
severe pain in the abdomen which is not constant. The cramps 
may follow one another very rapidly or there may be some time 
between them. 
Cause. 
As has been explained under the head of anatomy there 
are a number of different structures in the abdomen. The 
common cramp is due to a spasm of the intestines caused 
by indigestible food, or by cold, especially when overheated 
in hot weather. More uncommon causes are appendicitis 
*- and gall or kidney stones. 
Prevention. 
As one of the commonest causes of cramp is indigestible 
food you should be careful to avoid this; unripe fruit and 
partially spoiled food are most dangerous. Even in very 
165 166 
COMMON EMERGENCIES. 
hot weather the abdomen should be lightly covered, especially 
at night, and if one is subject to cramps they will often be 
prevented by the use of an abdominal ba,nd. 
Prevention of cramp due to the other causes which have 
been mentioned is too complicated a subject for discussion 
except in medical books. 
Symptoms. 
Severe cramping pain in the abdomen and shock in severe 
cases. If shock is severe, it is well to conclude that something 
more serious than intestinal cramp is present. 
Treatment. 
A hot bottle placed on the abdomen or rubbing it will often 
give relief. Soda mint tablets, or even better, hot water with 
a little spirits of peppermint or syrup of ginger should be 
taken. Indigestible matter may be gotten rid of by vomiting 
or by a cathartic, such as a compound cathartic pill, salts, 
or a Seidlitz powder. If shock is severe always send for a 
doctor. 
2. DIARRHEA. 
Is caused just as in the common type of abdominal cramp and 
naturally its prevention is the same. 
Treatment. 
The object of treatment is to expel the indigestible matter 
from the bowels. This is best accomplished by giving 
To grain doses of calomel, 15 minutes apart until 6 doses 
are taken and by following this after 8 or 10 hours by a Seidlitz 
powder or a dose of Epsom Salts. 
After this if the diarrhea continues with considerable cramping 
pain a teaspoonful of syrup of ginger in | of a glass of 
water should be given after each passage. For painless 
diarrhea, 20 grains of subnitrate of bismuth, 3 times daily, NAUSEA AND VOMITING. 
167 
is a good and safe remedy. For children a dose of castor oil 
should be given instead of the remedies which have been 
mentioned. 
The diet is also of great importance in diarrhea and nothing 
should be eaten which will furnish new food for fermentation 
or will irritate the digestive organs. 
Milk in small quantities is the best food for both grown-ups 
and children. Boiling the milk is the wiser plan unless it is 
certain that it is very fresh and pure. 
If the remedies mentioned do not cure the diarrhea it is much 
safer to consult a doctor. There are any number of so-called 
cholera cures on the market but the majority contain opium 
in some form and are therefore dangerous, especially for 
children. 
3. CONSTIPATION. 
Constipation may be prevented in most people. Persons 
inclined to be constipated should be careful to eat bulky food; 
oatmeal and the like are especially good as they irritate the intes- 
tines slightly. They should also drink plenty of water. Many 
persons too suffer from chronic constipation because they are 
careless and do not establish regular habits. Instead of always 
resorting to cathartics one who suffers from chronic constipation 
should try to get rid of the cause of this condition. To do this 
the advice of a doctor is required. 
For acute constipation, six A-grain doses of calomel at inter- 
vals of 15 minutes, taken at night, and a Seidlitz Powder or a dose 
-of Epsom Salts the next morning are excellent remedies. 
4. NAUSEA AND VOMITING. 
These are also usually due to indigestible food but may be 
caused by dyspepsia or nervousness. 168 
COMMON EMERGENCIES. 
Treatment. 
When due to indigestible food, several large drinks of luke- 
warm water will usually cause free vomiting and will wash 
out the stomach, which is very desirable. The further treat-' 
ment is the same whatever the cause. Patient should lie 
down in cool place. Hot applications to abdomen; cloths 
wrung out in hot water or a mustard plaster. A soda mint 
tablet or a little baking soda will usually stop both nausea 
and vomiting and in other .cases sucking small lumps of ice 
will be found efficacious. 
5. HICCOUGH. 
Is usually due to overeating and indigestion. It is caused by 
a spasmodic contraction of the diaphragm, the great muscle which 
separates the chest from the abdomen. This is the reason that 
holding the breath as long as possible will usually cure it as the z ir 
in the chest forces the diaphragm down so it does not contract. 
Drinking a large glass of water in small sips without taking a 
breath has exactly the same effect. The reason that a scare stops 
hiccough sometimes is because this causes the patient to take a 
long breath. If none of these methods are successful, vomiting 
by removing the irritating material from the stomach will almost 
always cure the hiccough. 
6. CHILL FROM EXPOSURE. 
When one is exposed to the cold, especially to cold rain or snow, 
or falls into cold water he will often become what is commonly 
called “chilled through.” 
Cause. 
This condition is due to the fact that the cold contracts the 
blood vessels of the skin, driving the blood to the interior 
of the body. This gives one the sensation of chilliness. CROUP. 
169 
Prevention. 
Is, of course, sufficient clothing and avoidance of exposure 
to cold. 
Symptoms. 
The sensation of cold. The lips become blue and the teeth 
chatter. 
Treatment. 
Remove the clothing, if possible, and put into a warm bed 
covering the patient warmly. Two or three hot bottles will 
warm the bed well. Rubbing his limbs and body will also 
bring the blood to the surface and so help to cure the chill. 
Hot drinks should also be given. Hot tea, hot coffee, hot 
milk, and hot lemonade, are all good. 
7. NERVOUS ATTACKS. 
These are usually a mild form of hysteria, and are more com- 
mon in women. The patient usually has a fit of shivering and 
complains of feeling cold and upset. The treatment is exactly 
the same as that described for a chill from exposure. 
8. CROUP. 
This is a children’s disease due to a spasm or contraction of the 
muscles of the upper air-passages. Children often have what is 
called a croupy cough whenever they catch cold. This is a hard 
ringing cough which is distressing but not particularly alarming 
except to parents, who fear, perhaps from previous experience, that 
an attack of true croup is coming on. Lighting the light, talking 
to the child, reading to him, or telling a favorite story will often 
result in the attack passing off and in the child becoming drowsy 
and finally going to sleep. 
True croup is much more alarming though not often dangerous. 
The child has the ringing cough and croupy crow and becomes 170 
COMMON EMERGENCIES. 
partially suffocated because sufficient air does not enter the lungs. 
The face becomes bluish and the child struggles to get its breath. 
Treatment. 
Send for a doctor but do not wait for him to arrive. Such 
a child should at once be given an emetic. A teaspoonful 
of syrup of ipecac is best for this purpose or a | teaspoonful 
of powdered alum followed by a drink of warm water. Then 
cloths wrung out in as hot water as the child can stand should 
be put about the throat and on the chest. These should be 
covered with a piece of dry cloth, or, better, of oiled silk if this 
can be procured. Change these cloths as soon as they begin 
to grow cool, but do nothing further till the physician arrives. 
9. NEURALGIA OF THE FACE. 
Some people are very subject to neuralgia or pain in some of the 
nerves of the face. This neuralgia may be due to the irritation of a 
bad tooth or to some other irritation less easily found, but unfor- 
tunately in certain people the cause cannot be discovered. Persons 
who suffer from attacks of neuralgia should always consult a 
doctor, but such attacks often come on suddenly when no physician 
can be obtained. 
Treatment. 
Hot applications are usually better than cold ones and should 
always be tried first unless the patient knows from previous 
experience that cold will do him more good. Either hot 
water, or cloths wrung out in hot or cold water may be used. 
Painting the painful part with the ordinary menthol stick 
relieves many people. Some are benefited by the irritation 
produced by rubbing, and pressure on the painful nerve often 
gives temporary relief. If the neuralgia is due to a bad tooth TOOTH-ACHE. 
171 
the proper emergency treatment of the tooth will frequently 
cure the neuralgia. 
10. TOOTH-ACHE. 
The prevention of decay of the teeth consists in the removal 
of all food from between them for such food ferments quickly, 
thus producing an acid which corrodes the teeth. The teeth should 
be brushed night and morning and after each meal, if possible. 
Dental floss should also be used if difficulty is experienced in dis- 
lodging particles from between the teeth with a brush. 
Tooth-ache is due to decay and to food entering a cavity of a 
tooth where it decomposes and causes irritation and pain of the 
sensitive nerves. 
Treatment. 
If the cavity can be reached, it should be cleaned out and 
afterward something put in it to deaden the nerve. To clean 
it, twist a very small piece of cotton around a toothpick or 
fine knitting-needle and put it in the hole in the tooth, twisting 
it around and around so as to clean out the cavity thoroughly. 
After this has been done another small piece of cotton should 
be dipped in oil of cloves and then gently put into the cavity 
on the end of the tooth-pick or needle. Tooth-wax is used 
in the same way. If the cavity cannot be reached, the aching 
tooth must be treated by an application to its gum between 
the latter and the cheek. A small piece of absorbent cotton 
soaked in spirits of camphor is excellent for this purpose. 
The burning caused by it is severe, but it will usually cure 
the tooth-ache. Tooth-plasters may be used in the same 
way. Of course, these are merely emergency measures, and 
because they cure the tooth-ache for the time being, this does 
not mean that it is safe for you to go on without the services 
of a dentist. You should realize that unless you have 172 
COMMON EMERGENCIES. 
proper attention, decay will go on in the tooth, you will 
have tooth-ache again, and will probably finally lose the tooth. 
n. EAR-ACHE. 
This is particularly common in children, and may be due to bad 
teeth, to disease of the throat, or to trouble in the ear itself. 
Treatment. 
The teeth should always be examined, and if a cavity is 
found it should be treated in the way already described. If 
nothing is found the matter with the teeth or treatment of 
bad teeth fails to relieve the pain in the ear, it will be necessary 
to try to stop the pain by treating the ear itself. Cloths wrung 
out in hot water, changed as soon as they begin to grow cold, 
or a hot-water bottle put on the face covering the outside of 
the ear will often cure ear-ache. Another method is to heat 
a cloth very hot and to pour a few drops of alcohol on its 
center and then apply this over the ear so that the alcohol 
fumes will enter the ear. Alcohol on a hot shovel is even 
better, but harder to use. Heating sweet oil just hot enough 
not to burn and then putting a few drops in the ear and intro- 
ducing a small plug of absorbent cotton should be tried if 
the other remedies mentioned do not prove effective. 
Severe ear-ache always demands the services of a doctor as 
disease of the inner ear may result in perforation of the ear- 
drum, which may often be prevented by a physician if treated 
promptly. 
12. STYES. 
Styes are a local inflammation at the edge of the eye-lid, usually 
of the small glands there. As they commonly indicate ill health 
or an error of vision, a doctor should be consulted in order that he 
may give treatment which will prevent styes appearing again. CHILBLAINS. 
173 
The pain of a stye may be diminished to a considerable extent by 
the use of compresses as hot as can be borne. If pus appears, a 
doctor should make the small cut necessary to permit it to escape. 
13. PRICKLY HEAT. 
Is the well-known irritating disease of the skin produced by 
heat. It is most common in children whose skin is very delicate 
and occurs in hot weather, not infrequently being due in part to 
too much clothing. It may be prevented to a great extent, even 
in the tropics, by not exercising so as to produce sweating and 
by avoiding heating drinks. A good talcum powder frequently 
applied also does much to prevent this annoying affection. 
When prickly heat is severe the skin should be bathed with a 
mixture of one part of alcohol and three of water, afterward dusting 
on talcum powder. Lime-water with about two drops of carbolic 
acid to the ounce is an excellent application for prickly heat, as the 
carbolic acid numbs the nerves of the irritated and painful skin. 
14. CHILBLAINS. 
This common condition is caused by local chilling of some part 
of the body and is most frequently seen in old people with poor 
circulation. The most common places for chilblains are the heel, 
toes, ears, nose and fingers. 
In susceptible people, as it is due to cold, it may be prevented 
by warm clothing and frequent bathing of the part of the body 
affected in warm water, afterward drying it with soft towels. 
Symptoms. 
They are the well-known red appearance of the skin, which 
appears when the part is brought near the heat, especially 
in winter after being in the cold. There is considerable 
burning and itching. 174 
COMMON EMERGENCIES. 
Treatment. 
Paint every two or three days with tincture of iodine pure or 
diluted with alcohol. Several coats of collodion at intervals, 
of a few days are also good, as the collodion exerts consider- 
able pressure on the dilated blood-vessels. If these measures 
fail, it is best to consult a physician, as chilblains are sometimes 
very difficult to cure. 
15. CORNS. 
Corns are of two kinds—hard and soft. The former occur at 
the sides of the toes and at the sides and bottoms of the feet. Soft 
corns occur between the toes where the natural secretion makes 
the skin soft and pulpy. Both varieties of corns may be prevented 
by the most scrupulous cleanliness of the feet and stockings and by 
wearing well-fitting shoes which do not rub and so cause irritation 
of the skin which leads to the formation of a corn. 
If a callous begins to form, rub the place gently with vaseline 
night and morning. Nitrate of silver stick will usually cause 
corns to disappear. An excellent corn remedy is one part of 
salicylic acid to three parts of simple cerate. Bathe and soak the 
foot in hot water for twenty minutes, dry and apply ointment; 
cover corn with cotton. 
Hard corns should never be cut, but should be rubbed down 
smooth with sandpaper after washing the skin. They should 
then be covered with a corn plaster or a piece of adhesive plaster. 
Cutting a corn, if you get below the hard skin of the corn, is 
likely to prove very dangerous, as it often results in blood-poisoning. 
Soft corns should be treated by careful washing and drying of 
the foot, especially between the toes, then dusting in a little talcum 
powder and keeping the toes separated by a small piece of gauze. 
A corn which has become inflamed requires treatment from a doctor 
on account of the danger of blood-poisoning. EMERGENCY SUPPLIES FOR THE HOME. 
175 
EMERGENCY SUPPLIES FOR THE HOME. 
~ In every household, even in the middle of a city with drug stores 
near by, it is wise to have a few simple remedies and surgical dress- 
ings on hand. This is more especially the case if there are children 
in the household, as little people are so likely to hurt themselves and 
are much more liable to sudden illness than are grown-ups. 
Neat emergency cases which fill all requirements fairly well 
may be purchased. Being especially made for the purpose, they 
possess the advantage of having a place for everything and every- 
thing in its place. They are rather expensive, however, and there 
is no reason, if you care to take the trouble, why you cannot buy 
your own box and fill it to suit your own particular requirements. 
The standard size for your bottles of liquid medicines had best be 
2 ounces, and the square bottles should be used. The box should 
be just high enough to take a 2-ounce bottle corked, standing up, 
and big enough for all the supplies you need. Medicines prescribed 
by a doctor in illness are much better put in a safe place where they 
will not be meddled with, so it will be wise to leave space for them 
in your box. This may be made of metal or hard wood and should, 
preferably, have a key. 
The supplies suggested for the ordinary first aid household box 
are as follows: 
Alcohol. 
Aromatic spirits of ammonia (rubber cork). 
Castor oil. 
Epsom salts (or j doz. Seidlitz powders). 
Lime-water. 
Mustard, powdered. 
Sodium bicarbonate. 
Syrup of ginger. 
Syrup of ipecac. 176 
COMMON EMERGENCIES. 
Witch-hazel. 
yVgrain calomel tablets (small bottle, 50-100 tablets). 
5-gr. bismuth subnitrate tablets (100). 
Carbolized vaselin (1 glass jar). 
1 Drachm bottle oil of cloves (labeled “poison”). 
1 Bottle 50 soda mint tablets. 
1 Tin talcum powder. 
1 Small package antiseptic gauze. 
Pound absorbent cotton. 
6 Gauze roller bandages (3 large and 3 small). 
2 Red cross first-aid outfits. 
1 Roll oiled silk. 
1 Roll old muslin. 
1 Small bottle Collodion, with brush. 
1 Box tooth-wax. 
1 Box tooth-plasters. 
1 Box corn-plasters. 
1 Sharp knife. 
1 Pair scissors. 
Pins, ordinary and safety. 
QUESTIONS. 
1. What are the commonest causes of colic? 
2. How wouhd you treat colic? 
3. How would you treat diarrhea; constipation? 
4. Treatment of nausea and vomiting?- 
5. Treatment of hiccough? 
6. How would you treat chill from exposure to cold ? 
7. How would you know that a child has croup and how would 
you treat it ? 
8. How would you treat neuralgia of the face ? PRACTICAL EXERCISES. 
g. Treatment of tooth-ache ? 
io. Treatment of ear-ache ? 
n. How would you treat a stye? 
- 12. How would you prevent prickly heat and how do you treat 
it? 
13. Prevention and treatment of corns? 
PRACTICAL EXERCISES. 
General Review. 
177 INDEX. 
Abdomen, 2 
bruises, 56 
wounds, 92 
Acids, burns from, 100 
in eye, 100 
Alcohol, as stimulant, 46 
intoxication, in 
poisoning, in 
Alkalies, burns from, 100 
in eye, 94, 100 
Ammonia, aromatic spirits of, as 
stimulant, 46 
Anatomy, 1 
Antiseptic tablets, 40 
Apoplexy, 112 
Arm, fracture, 71 
sling, 23, 32 
Aromatic spirits of ammonia as 
stimulant, 46 
Arteries, 8. 
course, 9 
hemorrhage from, 8, 82 
points on which to make 
pressure, 9, 83 
Artificial respiration, 107, 151 
Automobile injuries, 156 
Back, broken, 75 
Bandages, 20 
cravat, 24 
eye, 24 
figure-of-8, 30 
foot, 23 
four-tailed, 33 
hand, 24, 25 
head, 24 
Bandages, jaw, 25 
neck, 25 
roller, 26 
special, 34 
spica, 31 
T, 34 
triangular, 21 
Baseball injuries, 143 
Bearer drill, 125 
Bichloride of mercury, 40 
Bleeders, 13 
Bleeding (see hemorrhage) 
Blood, 13 
coagulation of, 13 
course in arteries, 9 
in capillaries, 12 
in veins, 12 
Blood-vessels, 8 
Boating, 146 
Body, the, 2 
Bones, 2 
Bones, broken, 63 
Brain, 16 
injuries of 112 
Broken back, 75 
Bruises, 53 
strains, sprains, dislocations 
and fractures, 54 
Bullet wounds, 79 
Burns, 96 
acids, 100 
alkalies, 100 
electric, 104 
Camp emergency supplies, 163 
Camping emergencies, 157 
179 180 
INDEX. 
Capillaries, 12 
Carbolic acid poisoning, 1x9 
Carrying patients, method for, 123 
Chest, 2 
bruises of, 56 
Chilblains, 173 
Chill from exposure, 168 
Choking. 116 
Circulation of blood, 7 
Coagulation of blood, 13 
Coat stretcher, 124 
Cold, uses of, 45 
injuries from, 101, 115 
Colic, 165 
Collapse, 49, 51, 104 
Collar-bone, 4 
fracture of, 70 
Collodion, 42 
Common emergencies, 165 
Compound fractures, 66 
Compresses, 36 
Constipation, 167 
Corns, 174 
Corrosive sublimate, 40 
Cramp, 165 
Cramps in the legs, 163 
Croup, 169 
Cuts, 79 
Diaphragm, 2 
Diarrhea, 166 
Digestive system, 15 
Dislocations, 59 
fingers, 62 
jaw, 61 
shoulder, 62 
Drowning, 146 
Drunkenness, 111 
Ear, 16 
Earache, 172 
Electricity, burns, 100 
shock, 104 
Emergencies: boating, skating and 
swimming, 146 
camping and summer outings, 
157 
common, 165 
indoor sports, 142 
outdoor sports, 142 
Emergency supplies, camp, 163 
home, 175 
Emetics, 47 
Exhaustion, heat, 113 
Explosions, gas, 98 
gunpowder, 98 
Extremities, 4 
Eye, 16 
acid in, 100 
alkali in, 100 
bandage of, 24 
foreign bodies in, 93 
injury of, 93 
lime in, 94 
splinters in, 93 
Fainting, no 
Feet, injuries of, 162 
Figure-of-8 bandage, 30 
Finger, dislocation of, 62 
fracture of, 72 
Fires, 97 
First aid, general instructions for 
rendering, 49 
materials, 20 
packets, 38 
Red Cross, 34 
Fish-hook, 155 
Fishing injuries, 155 
Foot, arterial hemorrhage from, 84 
bandage of, 23 
Football injuries, 144 
Forearm fracture, 71 
Foreign bodies, eye, 93 
in wounds, 92 
Four-tailed bandage, 33 INDEX 
181 
Fractures, 63 
arm, 71 
collar-bone, 70 
_ compound, 66 
fingers, 72 
forearm, 71 
jaw, 74 
knee-cap, 69 
leg, 66 
nose, 74 
ribs, 73 
simple, 63 
skull, 73 
spine, 75 
thigh, 68 
wrist, 72 
Freezing, 115 
Frost-bite, 101 
Gas, explosions, 98 
poisoning, 116 
General directions for rendering 
first aid, 49 
Germs, 77 
Gunpowder explosions, 98 
Gunshot wounds, 79 
Gymnasium injuries, 143 
Hand bandage, 24, 25 
hemorrhage from, 84 
Hanging, 116 
Head, 2 
arterial hemorrhage from, 83 
bandage, 24 
Heart, 7 
Heat, exhaustion from, 113 
injuries from, 96, 113, 115 
use of, 45 
Hemorrhage, 80 
arterial, 8, 82 
checking by direct pressure 
in wound, 89 
by tourniquet, 85 
Hemorrhage, from arm, 84 
from arm-pit, 84 
from foot, 84 
from hand, 84 
from head, 83 
from leg, 84 
from neck, 84 
from shoulder, 84 
from thigh, 84 
internal, 91 
lungs, 91 
nose, 91 
stomach, 91 
varicose veins, 89 
venous, 89 
Hiccough, 168 
Home emergency supplies, 175 
Incised wounds, 79 
Infected wounds, 78 
Infection, pus, 78 
Inflammation, 78 
Injured, transportation of, 123 
Injuries, automobile, 156 
baseball, 143 
brain, 112 
eye, 93 
feet, 162 
fishing, 155 
football, 144 
from cold, 101, 115 
from electricity, 100, 104 
from heat, 96, 113, 115 
from local effects of heat, cold, 
and electricity, 96 
gymnasium, 143 
indoor sports, 142 
in which the skin is not 
pierced nor broken, 54 
in which the skin is pierced 
or broken, 77 
July Fourth, 145 
outdoor sports, 142 182 
INDEX. 
Injuries, shooting, 154 
Insect bite, 158 
Internal hemorrhage, 91 
Intoxication, alcoholic, 111 
Jaw, bandage, 25 
dislocation, 61 
fracture, 74 
Joints, 5 
dislocations of, 59 
July Fourth injuries, 145 
Knee-cap, fracture, 69 
knot, reef, 21 
Lacerated wounds, 79 
Leg, arterial hemorrhage from, 84 
fracture, 66 
Lime in eye, 94 
Liquor poisoning, in 
Lungs, 14 
hemorrhage from, 91 
Materials, first-aid, 20 
Microorganisms, 77 
Morphine poisoning, 119 
Mosquito bites, 158 
Muscles, 5 
Mushroom poisoning, 160 
Nails, splinters under, 93 
Nausea, 167 
Neck, bandage, 25 
hemorrhage from, 84 
wounds, 84 
Nerves, 16 
Nervous system, 16 
Nervous attacks, 169 
Neuralgia of the face, 170 
Nose, bleeding from, 91 
fracture, 74 
Opium poisoning, 119 
Packets, first-aid, 38 
Red Cross, 34 
Physiology, 1 
Plant poisons, 159 
Plaster, 42 
Poison, ivy or oak, 158 
Poisons, 103, 120 
alcohol, hi 
carbolic acid, 119 
gas, 116 
morphine, 119 
opium, 119 
treatment in general, 121 
Prickly heat, 173 
Prone pressure method artificial 
respiration, 153 
Punctured wound, 79 
Pus, 78 
Red Cross outfit, 34 
packet, 34 
Respiration, 14 
artificial, 107 
Respiratory system, 14 
Ribs, 4 
fracture of, 73 
Roller bandages, 26 
Scalds, 96 
Shock, 49, 51, 104 
electric, 104 
Shooting injuries, 154 
Shoulder, arterial hemorrhage 
from, 84 
Simple fracture, 63 
Skating, 146 
Skeleton, 2 
Skin, 17 
Skull fracture, 73 
Sling, arm, 23, 32 
Snake bite, 161 
Special bandages, 34 
senses, 16 INDEX. 
183 
Spider bite, 158 
Spinal column, 2 
fracture of, 75 
Spinal cord, 16 
Splinters in eye, 93 
in skin, 93 
under nail, 93 
Splints, 42 
Split finger, 143 
Sprains, 57 
Spica bandages, 31 
Stimulants, 45, 46 
Stings and bites of insects and 
spider, 158 
Stomach hemorrhage, 91 
Strains, 56 
Strangulation, 116 
Stretcher drill, 125 
Stretchers, 123 
Styes, 172 
Suffocation, 116 
Sunburn, 137 
Sunstroke 113 
Swimming, 146 
Sylvester’s method, artificial respi- 
ration 107, 151 
T bandage, 34 
Thigh, arterial hemorrhage from, 
84 
fracture, 71 
Toothache, 171 
Torn wounds, 79 
Tourniquets, 43, 85 
Transportation of injured, 123 
by ambulance or wagon, 131 
by stretcher, 123 
without stretcher, 134 
Triangular bandage, 21 
Trunk, 2 
Unconsciousness, 103 
Varicose veins, 90 
Veins, 12 
hemorrhage from, 89 
varicose, 90 
Vomiting, 167 
how to cause, 47 
Wounds, 77 
abdominal, 92 
cut, 79 
gunshot, 79 
incised, 79 
infected, 78 
in which foreign bodies re- 
main, 92 
lacerated, 79 
punctured, 79 
splinters in, 93 
torn, 79 
treatment of, 38, 80 
Wrist, fracture of, 72 AMERICAN RED CROSS FIRST 
AID BOOKS AND SUPPLIES. 
American Red Cross Text-book on First Aid and Relief 
Columns. 
American Red Cross Abridged Text-book on First Aid, In- 
dustrial Edition. 
American Red Cross Abridged Text-book on First Aid, General 
Edition. 
American Red Cross Charts. For Teaching First Aid. 
American Red Cross First Aid Instruction Outfit. 
American Red Cross First Aid Outfit. 
American Red Cross First Aid Box. Industrial. 
The first aid outfits mentioned are those which are on hand 
at the present time. Special first aid outfits are, however, pre- 
pared from time to time and any firm or individual which re- 
quires such an outfit may procure it at the lowest obtainable 
price by communicating with the First Aid Department, 
American Red Cross, Washington, D. C. 
All books, charts and first aid supplies may be obtained 
from that department. The books and charts may also be 
procured from booksellers. Articles to replace those which 
have been expended from cases may be secured from the Red 
Cross First Aid Department. First Aid outfits and cases bear 
the seal of the American Red Cross and none is genuine with- 
out this seal. 
AMERICAN RED CROSS TEXT-BOOK, On First Aid and 
Relief Columns. By Major Charles Lynch, Medical Corps, 
U. S. Army. A comprehensive text-book on first aid to the 
injured for the individual and for the organization. In this 
small book of 2 50 pages will be found everything on the 
subject of first aid which any student of that subject ought 
to know. Directions are also given on how to organize Red 
Cross Relief Columns. Price, $1.00 net. AMERICAN RED CROSS ABRIDGED TEXT-BOOK ON 
FIRST AID, Industrial Edition. By Major Charles Lynch, 
Medical Corps, U. S. Army, and ist Lt. M. J. Shields, Medical 
Reserve Corps, U. S. Army. A small text-book which treats of 
first aid subjects of interest to the worker in the industrial 
field. This book is intended for the railroad man, the 
miner, and the factory and workshop. All subjects not of 
interest to the worker in the industrial field have been ex- 
cluded so it is not necessary for him to search here and there 
in a large book for subjects of interest. Price, $ .30 net. 
AMERICAN RED CROSS ABRIDGED TEXT-BOOK ON 
FIRST AID. General Edition. By Major Charles Lynch, 
Medical Corps, U. S. Army. This small book is an abridgment 
of the larger book by the same author and has been pub- 
lished to meet the demand for a smaller book at a very low 
price. While the industrial edition should be chosen by the 
worker in that field, for ordinary classes this book is to be 
preferred. Price, $ .30 net. 
AMERICAN RED CROSS CHARTS. For Teaching First Aid. 
Being a Series of Five Wall Charts, Each 20x28 inches. 
Price per set, Mounted on Rollers, $2.50 net. 
Chart I. The Skeleton. 
Chart II. The Muscles. The various muscles being 
named, thus making this chart very plain for study and 
teaching purposes. 
Chart III. Scheme of Systemic Circulation, in three colors. 
Chart IV. Fracture and Dislocation. 
Chart V. Arteries and Points of Pressure for Controlling 
Hemorrhages. This chart is printed in two colors. 
Illustrated Circular upon Application. 
AMERICAN RED CROSS INSTRUCTION OUTFIT. This outfit 
is intended for instruction purposes. With it and the Red 
Cross charts any teacher will be supplied with all the mate- 
rials which he needs to give a class practical instruction in 
First Aid to the Injured. It is packed in a pasteboard case, 
and consists of: £ dozen triangular bandages, x dozen roller bandages, assorted sizes, 4 wooden splints, 2 U. S. Army 
tourniquets, 6 Red Cross First Aid Instruction Packets, 2 
dozen safety-pins, large. Price, $3.00, f. o. b. Chicago. 
AMERICAN RED CROSS FIRST AID OUTFIT. This small 
outfit has received the highest praise from some of our most eminent surgeons. It consists of a metal case which con- 
tains a gauze bandage with a compress sewed in its centre, a 
triangular bandage with methods of application printed 
thereon, two safety-pins and a card of directions. With it 
and splints which can usually be procured without great 
difficulty one is prepared to treat any ordinary injury. The 
case is hermetically sealed, so the contents which are clean 
will stay so. Price, $ .25, f.o.b. Chicago; postage, 6c. 
AMERICAN RED CROSS FIRST AID BOX. Industrial. For 
Railroads, Mines, Factories and Workshops. This case is 
well fitted for use in any industrial establishment. It is 
made of tin and neatly painted and packed. It consists of: 
American Red Cross first aid outfits, 6; American Red Cross 
large first aid dressings, 4; gauze, sterilized, i-yard pack- 
ages, 2; gauze bandages, assorted sizes, 12; tourniquet, 1; 
carbolated vaseline, 1; gauze, picric acid, i-yard packages, 4; 
splints, wooden, 4; cotton, absorbent, J-yard packages, 2; 
pins, safety, 12; shears, 1; tweezers, 1; aromatic spirits of 
ammonia, 2-ounce bottle, 1; paper cup, 1; Red Cross First 
Aid Book, 1. Price, $6.00, f. o.b. Chicago.