O STEO GRAPHIA, 
OR THE 
A NAT O MY 
OF THE 
BONES. 
BY WILLIAM CHESELDEN 
SURGEON TO HER MAJESTY; 
F. R. S. 
SURGEON TO ST THOMAS’S HOSPITAL, 
AND MEMBER OF THE ROYAL ACADEMY OF SURGERY AT PARIS. 
LONDON MDC CXXXIII. TO THE 
TlnsWork In all Humilitjis 
DEDICATED; 
MoftDudfull S ervant, 
WILLIAM CHESEI DEN. T O 
THE READER. 
Very bone in the human body being here delineated 
Kjjp jjj .agi as large as the life, and again reduced to lefler fcales, 
/|f| *n or^er to A1CW them united to one another; I thought 
Kt it ufelels to make long defcriptions, one view of fuch 
Spy EffiiMBEj prints {hewing more than the fulleft and beft deicrip- 
tion can poflibly do; and for this reafon in the feveral 
chapters the mechanical contrivances of the bones are rather treated of 
than their fliapes. 
The firft drawing we made was a front view of the fcull, (Tab. iii.) in the 
fame attitude with a moil excellent one in Vefalius (whofe figures were 
drawn and engraved by Giovanni Calker, as Giorgio Vafari informs us in 
his book of the lives of the painters; they are performed in fo exquifitc 
a tafte that they have ufually been taken for Titian’s, and always confide- 
red as a ftudy for painters; yet it muft be confefled, that moil of them 
are far fliort of juft: reprefentations of the things they were drawn after.) 
Then we proceeded to others, meafuring every part as exa&ly as we could, 
but we foon found it impoflible to execute the difficult parts of fuch a 
work in this way; upon which I contrived (what I had long before me- 
ditated) a convenient camera obfcura to draw in, with which we corrected TO THE READER. 
fome of the few defigns already made, throwing away others which we had 
before approved of, and finiftied the reft with more accuracy and lefs la- 
bour, doing in this way in a few minutes more than could be done 
without in many hours, I might fay in many days: And however fufli- 
cient artifts may think themfelves to execute perfectly the more difficult 
parts of drawing without fuch helps, it is well known that when they 
have occafion to draw ftreight lines or circles, they do not difdain to ufe a 
ruler or compafs. But my engravers, Mr. Vandergucht and Mr. Shinevoet 
not lefs skilled in drawing than in their own proper art, knew too well 
the difficulties of reprefenting irregular lines, perlpedtive, and proportion, 
to defpife fuch afliftance, always declaring that it was impofilble to do 
thefe things fo well without. 
Two of the fmaller plates, the head of the man-tyger, and the fceleton 
of the tortoife, and all the large plates except viii. xi. xxi. and xxxi. were 
done by Mr. Gerard Vandergucht, and how great an artift he is, the open 
free ftile in which thefe plates are etched and engraved, and the inimita- 
ble manner of exprefling the different textures of the parts fufficiently 
{hew. 
The reft were performed by Mr. Shinevoet who left Holland, his native 
country, on account of misfortunes. He had done in England before thefe 
fome excellent works, particularly infide views of cathedral churches, 
which he was forced to fuffer another man to fet his name to, and e’er he 
had finiflied my work he died. The laft thing he attempted was the fcele- 
ton of a horfe, which being done in the winter in his chamber without 
the camera, it was fo unequal to the reft that I could not ufe it; his manner 
of etching, though wonderfully neat and expreflive, and well luited to 
fuch things as he was moftly employed in, is neverthelefs much inferior 
in ftile to that of Mr. Vandergucht. 
The actions of all the fceletons both human and comparative, as well 
as the attitudes of every bone, were my own choice: and where particular 
parts needed to be more diftindtly exprefled on account of the anatomy, 
there I always directed; fometimes in the drawings with the pencil, and 
often with the needle upon the copper plate, and where the anatomift 
does not take this care, he will fcarce have his work well performed. The 
exprefling the fmoothnefs of the ends of the bones by engraving only with 
Angle lines, while the other parts were all etched, was alfo my contriving; 
and what advantage this has been to the work will be feen by compa- 
ring the fmooth part of the acetabulum of the os innominatum in the be- 
ginning of the book, with the heads and fockets of other bones. TO THE READER* 
When I begun this work I intended a whole fyftem of anatomy ador- 
ned with the comparative, in three volumes in this manner, provided I 
found any encouragement. This volume being nearly finifhed it was offered 
by fubfcription (without folicitations) at four guineas, with a promife that 
none fhould be fold afterwards for lefs than fix; but meeting with little 
fuccefs, the further profecution of this defign was laid afide: This volume 
is made above twenty per cent, (which I always intended) better than the 
fubfcription propofals. There are no more printed in englifh than three 
hundred, and one hundred prints are taken off defigned for a latin or 
french edition, which being finifhed, the plates fhall be deftroyed that the 
price of the book may never fink in the pofleflion of the fubfcribers. THE 
INTRODUCTION 
HE ufe of the bones is to give fhape and firmnefs to 
■jj':ffig| the body, to be levers for the mufcles to a6t upon, and 
i to defend thofe parts from external injuries that are 
°f greateft confequence to be preferved; as the brain, 
||AJgJ Spfef fpinal marrow, heart, &c. Their fibres when firft 
—_i23Ml formed are very foft, until by the addition of a matter, 
which is feparated from the blood into them, they grow by degrees to 
the hardnefs of a cartilage, and then perfect bone: But this change is 
neither made in a very fhort time, nor begun in all the parts of the fame 
bone at once. Flat bones (Tab. i. and xxxi.) that have their fibres dire&ed 
to all fides, begin to offify in or near a middle point; but the cylindri- 
cal bones and all others, whofe fibres are nearly parallel, begin about the 
middle of each fibre; and thence fhoot forth to their extremities; not 
always in continued lines, but frequently beginning new ollifications, 
which foon join the former. (Tab. i.) By the continual addition of this 
offifying matter, the bones increafe till their hardnefs refills a farther cx- 
tenfion; and their hardnefs always increafing while they are growing, the 
increafe of their growth becomes flower and flower, until they ceafe to 
grow at all; and in old perfons, (Tab. vi) and confumptive, (Tab. xxiii.) THE INTRODUCTION 
and fometimes in difeafed or wounded limbs, (Tab. 1.) they decreafe as 
well as the flelhy parts, though not fo fall becaufe of their hardnels. 
Sometimes the oflifying matter flows out of the bones, and forms bony 
excrefcencies: (Tab. xlii. xlvi. and li.) In old men it fometimes fixes on 
the arteries, and makes them grow bony; and when this happens to a de- 
gree, the arteries lofe their power to propel the blood, and then the ex- 
treme parts mortify: Sometimes membranes and other parts oflify. The 
moft extraordinary cafe of this kind I have ever known, was of part of the 
mufcular fibres of the heart. (Tab. i.) I have alfo known one inftance of 
a deficiency of this oflifying matter, in the lower jaw of an adult body; 
(Tab. ix.) where all that part on one fide, which is beyond the teeth, was 
of a fubftance between that of a cartilage and a ligament. In children that 
have died of the rickets, I have found the nodes on the bones foft, Ipongy 
and bloody, and in one fubjedt feveral of them as limber as leather, and 
the perioftcum infome places many times its natural thicknefs; but the 
cartilages and cartilaginous epiphyfes had no apparent alteration in their 
texture, though fome were fwelled to more than twice their natural 
diameters. 
Every cylindrical bone has a large middle cavity, which contains an oily 
marrow, and a great number of lefler cells towards their extremities, 
which contain a bloody marrow. (Tab. i. and ii.) The bloody marrow is 
alfo found in all Ipongy cells of bones. (Tab. xiii.) The ufe of the firfl: 
kind of marrow I imagine is to foften, and render lefs brittle, the harder 
fibres of bones near which it is feated; and that the other marrow is of 
the fame ufe to the lefs compact fibres, which the more oily marrow 
might have made too foft; and that for this reafon, there is lefs of the oily 
marrow, and more of the bloody in young bones than in old ones. Every 
one of thefe cells is lined with a fine membrane, and the marrow in the 
larger cells is alfo contained in thin membranous veficles; in which mem- 
branes the veflels are Ipread, which enter in obliquely, about the middle 
of the cylindrical bones, from fome of whofe branches the marrow is fe- 
creted, while others of them enter the internal lubftance of the bones for 
their nourifliment; and the reafon why they enter obliquely is, that they 
may not weaken the bones by dividing too many fibres in the fame place. 
If the bones had been formed of the fame quantity of matter without 
any cavities, they would if they were ftreight be able to fuftain the fame 
weight: But being made hollow, their ftrength to refill: breaking tranf- 
verfly is encrcafed as much as their diameters are encreafed, without en- 
creafing their weights, which mechanifm being yet more convenient for THE INTRODUCTION 
birds, the bones of their wings, and for the fame reafon their quills have 
very large cavities. But the bones in the legs of all animals are more folid, 
being formed to fupport weight; and mens bodies being fupported by 
two limbs, the bones of thofe limbs are therefore made more folid than 
thofe of quadrupeds. Infects and moft of the fmalleft animals, have fhells 
inflead of bones like lobflers, which ferve themalfo for defence; and the 
mufcles being inferted into the fhells at a greater diflance from the center 
of motion of each joint than in animals that have bones, their motions are 
neceflarily flower and flronger as well as more Ample; therefore in this 
fort of animals, quicknefs of motion, where it is wanted, is procur’d by a 
number of joints, as may be feen in the legs of a flea; and variety of mo- 
tions by joints with different directions, as may be obferv’d in a lobfter. 
In a fraCtured bone, in which the fame kind of matter that oflified the 
bones at firfl is thrown out from the broken ends of a bone, there is form- 
ed a mafs of callous matter, of equal folidity with any part of the bone, 
and of equal or greater diameter, which will make the flrength of the 
bone in that place greater than it was before; which is very convenient, 
for bones when broke, are feldom or never fet in fo good a direction as 
that in which they were firfl formed, and therefore they would be more 
liable to be broke in the fame place again, and would be reunited with 
greater difficulty, and fometimes not at all, becaufe the callus being lefs 
vafcular than a bone, it does not fo eafily admit the offific matter to flow 
through it to form a new callus. 
Bones that are without motion, as thofe of the fcull, the ofla innomi- 
nata, &c. alio bones with their epiphyfes, when they meet, prefs into 
each other, and form futures, which foon difappear in thofe that join, 
while their offific matter is foft; but thofe that grow harder before they 
meet, prefs more rudely into each other, and make more uneven futures, 
fome of which in the fcull endure to the greatefl age : (Tab.iiiiv. v.vi.) 
And fometimes while a bone is offifying from its center, a diflant part be- 
gins a new offification and forms a diltinCt bone, which may happen to be 
of any figure. Thefe bones are oftenefl found in the lambdoidal future, 
and are called ofla triquetra. (Tab. vi.) But the ends or fides of bones that 
are intended for motion, are hindered from uniting, by the cartilages 
which cover them; for when thefe cartilages are eroded the bones very 
readily unite. (Tab. xliii. xliv. xlvii. li. liv.) This diftemper is called an- 
chylofis. 
The ends of all the bones that are articulated for very manifefl motions, 
or that are not placed againft other bones, are tipped with epiphyfes, or THE INTRODUCTION 
additional bones; (Tab. i. xxxi. xxxii. xxxiii.) which in fome meafure de- 
termine their growth and figure; for if they had nothing to give bounds 
to them? they would fhoot out like the callus from the broken ends of a 
bone that is ill fet, (Tab. 1. li.) and grow as ragged as the edges of bones 
which are joined by futures; and fometimes epiphyfes are made ufe of to 
raife procefles upon bones for the infertibns of mufcles, as the trochanters 
of the thigh bones, (Tab. i. xxxi. xxxii. xxxiii.) where it would weaken 
the bones too much to have procefles raifed out of their fubftance. 
The fibres of bones, for ought that we candifcover from experiments 
or microfcopical obfervations, appear to be connected to each other by 
the lame means that the parts of a fibre are connected, that is, by the 
flrong attradtion which belongs to particles of matter in contact: but 
this cohefion of fibre to fibre is not equal to that in the parts of a fibre, 
though very nearly. Indeed, if it was, a bone would not be a ftrudture of 
fibres, but one uniform mafs, like that of any pure metal, the cohefion of 
the parts of which are every way alike. Nor are the parts of bones dilpo- 
fedinto vifible lamella?,, ftratum luperftratum, as many have painted; for 
though young bones may in fome places be fplit into lamellae, yet they 
not only appear one folid uniform malsto the naked eye, but even with 
amicrofeope, till we come to their inner fpongy texture, which alfo ap- 
pears uniform. Their texture when firft formed, is every where loofe and 
fpongy, but as they increafe, they become in many places very compact 
and denfe, which refults in great meafure from the prefliire of the bellies 
of the mufcles, and other incumbent parts; as appears from the impref- 
fions they make on the furfaces of the bones, and the rough fpines that 
rife on the bones in the interftices of the mufcles, which are very remark- 
able in men who have been bred up in hard labour. In thofe parts of the 
flat bones that receive but little prefliire, the outer lamina; only become 
compadt and denfe, and the middle part remains fpongy; but where the 
prefliire is greateft, as on the fcapula (Tab. xxii.) and the middle of the 
ilium, (Tab.xviii.) they become in an adult, one denfe body or table, and 
are ufually thinner in thofe places than in a child before it is born. The 
cylindrical or round bones being prefled moft in their middles, become 
there very hard and flrong, while their extremities remain fpongy, and 
dilate into large heads, which make ftronger joints, and give more room 
for the origins and infertions of the mufcles; and increafe the power 
of the mufcles, by removing their axis farther from the center of mo- 
tion of any joint they move. 
All the bones, except fo much of the teeth as are out of the fockets, THE INTRODUCTION 
and thofe parts of other bones, which are either covered with cartilages, 
or where mufcles or ligaments arife or are inferted, are covered with a fine 
membrane, which upon the fcull is called pericranium, elfewhere pe- 
riofteum. It ferves for the mufcles to flide eafily upon, and to hinder them 
from being lacerated by the roughnefs and hardnefs of the bones, it is eve- 
ry where full of fmall blood veflels, (Tab. i.) which enter the bones for 
their nourifhment; but the internal fubflance of the larger bones is nou- 
rifhed by the veflels, which enter obliquely through their middles, as 
has been before obferved. 
In a child who died of a fpotted fever, I found in many of the bones a 
perfect ecchymofis, and in feveral places, particularly on the os humeri 
and os femoris, a quantity of blood between the periofteum and the bones. 
I am inclined to think that impofhimations and carious bones, which 
fometimes follow fevers and the fmall pox, may proceed from fuch ex- 
travafations of blood. CHAPTER I. 
SUTURES AND BONES OF THE CRANIUM. 
r _ Suture is made by the mutual indentation of one bone 
Bj with another. Thofe which have proper names, are 
fcj here defcribed; thofe which have not, derive their 
Jjj| names from the bones they furround, and are known 
Sutura coronalis (Tab. iii. iv.) runs acrofs the fcull, 
from one upper edge of the fphenoidal bone to the other, and joins the 
parietal bones to the frontal. 
Sutura fagittalis (Tab. iii.iv. vi.vii.) joins the parietal bones: It begins 
at the os occipitis, and is continued to the os frontis, in children down to 
thenofe; the os frontis in them being two bones, and fometimes fo in 
adult bodies. 
Sutura lambdoidalis (Tab. v. vi. vii.) joins the back part of the ofla breg- 
matis, or parietal bones, to the upper part of the occipital: In this future 
are frequently obfervedfmall bones called ofla triquetra, and fometimes 
in other futures. 
t 
Sutura fquamofa (Tab.iii.iv.v.vi.) is made by the upper part of the 
temporal and fphenoidal bones, wrapping over the lower edges of the 
parietal bones- CHAPTER I. 
Sutura tranfverfalis (Tab. iii. iv.) runs acrofs the face, through the bot- 
toms of the orbits of the eyes; it joyns the lower edge of the frontal bone 
to the os fphenoides, maxillas fuperioris, olla nafi, ungues, plana, palati, 
and jugalia, or malarum. 
The fcull being divided into many bones, is neither fo fubjeCfc to fra- 
ctures, nor to have fractures fo far extended, as it would have been were 
it compofed of one bone only. This ftruCture is alfo convenient for the 
offification of the bones, as has been already Ihewn, and for the birth; 
becaufe thefe bones not being perfect at that time, may be prefled toge- 
ther and make the head lefs. 
Ten of the bones of the head compofe the cranium, to contain the 
brain and defend it from external injuries. 
Olla parietalia or bregmatis (Tab. iv. vi. vii.) are two large bones which 
compofe the fuperior and lateral parts of the fcull; on the inlide they are 
remarkably imprinted by the arteries of the dura mater. 
Os frontis (Tab. iii. iv. vii.) makes the upper and forepart of the cra- 
nium; its lower parts compofe the upper parts of the orbits of the eyes, 
where on its inlides are imprefled the volvuli of the brain, which un- 
evennefles help to keep that part of the brain fteddy; in its middle above 
the os ethmoides ufually arifes a thin fpine, which ftrengthens that part 
of the bone, it being otherwife weak from its flatnefs. In feme fculls this 
fpine is wanting; but then the bone is ufually thicker in that place, and 
from its middle, externally, goes a procefs which fupports the bones of 
the nofe. Immediately above the os ethmoides in this bone is a fmall 
blind hole, through which runs a vein into the beginning of the longitu- 
dinal linus of the dura mater; and on the upper edge of each orbit, a fmall 
perforation, or a notch, through which nerves and an artery pafs fecure 
to the forehead; it has alfo a fmall hole in each orbit near the os planum, 
through which palles a branch of the fifth pair of nerves. In the hibftance 
of this bone near the nofe are two, three, four, and fometimes five fi- 
nufes, which open into the nofe; (Tab. vii.) they differ very much in dif- 
ferent perfons, and are very rarely found in children. Thefe finufes, and 
the fpine in this bone, make it very dangerous, if not impracticable, to 
apply a trephine on the middle and lower part of the forehead. 
Os ethmoides or cribriforme (Tab. vii. viii.) is a fmall bone about two 
inches in circumference, feated in the anterior part of the bafis of the fcull, 
being almoft furrounded by the laft defcribed bone; it is full of holes like 
a fieve, through which it is faid the olfaCtory nerves pafs, which I could 
never difcover. In its middle arifes a large procefs named chrifla galli: CHAPTER I. 
And oppofite to this a thin one which in part divides the nofe. The 
greater part of the lamina: fpongiofie in the nole belong to this bone, 
(Tab. v. vii. viii.) 
Os fphenoides, (Tab. iv. v. vi. vii. viii.) is of a very irregular figure; it 
is feated in the middle of the balls of the fcull, bounded by the os fron- 
tis, ethmoides, vomer, occipitis, maxilla; fuperioris, ofla parietalia, palati, 
malarum, temporum, and petrofa, which are parts of the former bones. 
In its infide next the brain is a cavity named fella turcica, which is 
bounded by four procelfes called clinoides; under the two foremoll of 
which pafs the internal carotid arteries, and from their outfides are con- 
tinued two thin long procelfes upon that part of the frontal bone, which 
feparates the anterior lobes of the brain from the polterior; oppofite to 
the fella turcica is a procels which makes part of the feptum narium. On 
the outfideof the fcull adjoining to the upper jaw, are two procelfes of 
this bone on each fide, named pterygoides, from which arife one on each 
fide near the palate, which have no name; over thefe pafs the tendons 
of the pterygoftaphylini externi mufeles; and nearer towards the oc- 
ciput, between thefe and the flyloid procelfes of the ofla petrola, arife 
two more fmall rugged procelfes; and under the fella turcica, in this bone, 
is a finus or two, for the moll part, in adults, but in children only luch a 
Ipongy fubltance as is feen in the ends of feme of the bones. At the infide 
of the balls of the two anterior clinoid procelfes are two round holes, 
which are the firft foramina of the fcull; through thefe the optick nerves 
pafs; almoft under thefe, towards the fides of the fcull, are two irregular 
flits named foramina lacera, or the fecond foramina of the fcull, through 
which pals nerves and blood-velfels into the orbits of the eyes ; and un- 
der thefe, towards the occiput are two round holes, which are the third fo- 
ramina, through which pals nerves to the face; about half an inch nearer 
the occiput are two more of an oval figure, which are the fourth fora- 
mina, through which pals the large!! branches of the fifth pair of nerves ; 
and a ftraw’s breadth farther two very fmall ones called the fifth forami- 
na, through which thofe branches of the carotid arteries enter that are be- 
llowed upon the dura mater. Between this laft defcribed bone and the of- 
la petrofa are two large rough holes, in which I have feen large veins; and 
from thefe holes, through part of the os Iphenoides, under the pterygoid 
procelfes, are fmall holes, through which pafs arteries to the back part of 
the nofe. 
Ofla temporum, (Tab. iii. iv. v. vi. vii.) are fituated below the parietal 
bones, at the middle and lower parts of the fides of the fcull; they have CHAPTER I. 
each at their back-parts one large fpongcy procefs called mammillaris, 
or maftoideus, and from the lower and middle parts of each a procefe 
which joins the offe malarum, named jugalis or zygomaticus. 
Ofla petrofa lie between the former bones and the occipital bones, or 
are truly portions of the former bones, being never found feparate in ad- 
ult bodies. They have each on their outfides one long flender procefs cal- 
led ftyliformis, and near the fide of this procefs a foramen, which runs ob- 
liquely forwards into the fcull, through which the carotid arteries pafs to 
the brain; thefe are the fixth foramina, and one foramen in the infide of 
the fcull leading to the organs of hearing, which are the feventh fora- 
mina. The ridge on the upper parts of each of thefe bones help to keep 
the brain fteady, and are ftrong fupports to the thin and flat parts of the 
fcull, which elfe would be exceeding weak. What remains of this bone 
belongs properly to a difcourfe on the organs of hearing. 
Between the lafl: defcribed bones and the following bone, are two 
large holes, which are the eighth foramina. Through thefe holes pafs the 
eighth pair of nerves and lateral finufes; fometimes they are two on each 
fide, one for the nerve and one for the finus. To thefe we may add an- 
other very fmall one on each fide, through which pafs the portiones du- 
rx of the auditory nerves; and fometimes there is another for an artery. 
Os occipitis, (Tab. iv.v.vi.vii.) makes all the back-part of the fcull: It 
is bounded by the fphenoidal, temporal, petrofal, and parietal bones; it 
has two fmall apophyfes, by which it is articulated to the fpine; near thofe 
apophyfes are two fmall foramina, which are the ninth of the fcull; 
through thefe pafs the ninth pair of nerves; and between thefe is the 
great or tenth foramen, through which the medulla oblongata defeends 
into the fpine, the cervical arteries enter, and the cervical veins pafs out. 
In the infide of this bone is a crucial fpine imprefled by the longitudinal 
and lateral finufes; and on the outfide oppofite to the middle of this fpine, 
in feme bodies, is an apophyfis, and from that down to the great foramen 
a fmall thin fpine. The fpines in this bone are of the feme ufe with thofe 
intheosfrontis, &c. viz. to ftrengthen it. The thinner parts of this bone 
are alfo defended by the mufcles that cover them; which provifion is very 
neceflary, becaufe we can leaft defend this part, and blows here are of 
worfe confequence than on any other part of the fcull, becaufe wounds 
in the cerebellum, which is underneath, are mortal. There are in moft 
fculls, a foramen behind each apophyfis of the occipital bone ; through 
which pafs finufes from the lateral finufes to the external cervical veins: 
By means of thefe communications, as in all other communications of CHAPTER I. 
the finufes, the blood palfes from thofe that happen to be furcharged by 
any pollure of the head, into thole that from the fame pollure would have 
been almoft empty. Such fculls as want thefe foramina have two linufes 
for the lame purpofe. 
A cafe of a fractured fcull in a girl nine years of age, Vide Tab. vi. 
who was brought into the holpital feven days after the accident, having 
had all that time very bad fymptoms; I opened the fcalp immediately, 
and let out about two ounces of grumous blood, and laid the fcull bare 
near four inches one way, and three the other, and tied the blood vellels. 
The fracture extended acrofs the os bregmatis, from the fagittal luture to 
the temporal bone; that part next the os fronds was deprefled equal to 
its thicknefs, and a great deal of extravafated blood and matter lay under 
the other part of the fame bone. I made two perforations with the tre- 
phine, dole to the fra&ure, that I might raile it up fteadily through both, 
and have more room for the extravalated blood to difeharge: And ten 
days after the former operation, the apertures being almoft filled up with 
the callous, I was obliged to make another perforation, to difeharge the 
matter more freely; for during a month, it ran through all the drellings 
down her face, twice every day, and was exceedingly foetid; and for the 
fpace of five months the matter decreafed very little in quantity, but 
grew lefs and lefs oftenfive, when the leaft piece of bone came away leav- 
ing fome very fmall parts, from whence a callous arole, which perfectly 
fupplied its place, and fixteen days after the larger piece came away entire; 
then the matter grew good, and not too much in quantity, and that Ipace 
filled with a common cicatrix, through which the motions of the vellels 
of the brain are ftill plainly to be feen, though Ihe was cured many years 
fince. CHAPTER II. 
OF THE BONES OF THE FACE, &c. 
Ej3 Sfa Nafi, (Tab iii. iv. vii.) make the upper part of the 
§§ nofe; they form that kind of arch which is fittefl to 
fuftain fuch injuries as the nofe is moffexpofed to. 
|vj Ofla malarum. (Tab. iii. iv.) Thefe bones compofe 
the anterior, lower and outer parts of the orbits of the 
L—eyes; they have each a fhort procefs, which procefles 
join the proceflus jugales of the temporal bones, and form arches which 
have been called ofla jugalia. 
Ofla ungues, (Tab. iii. iv.) are feated immediately below the os frontis 
towards the nofe in the orbits of the eyes, whofe anterior and inner parts 
they help to compofe; and between each of them and the upper jaw is a 
foramen as large as a goofe quill, into which the pun&a lacrymalia lead, 
to carry off any fuperfluous moifture from the eyes into the .nofe. 
Ofla plana (Tab. iii. iv. viii.) are feated immediately beyond the forego- 
ing bones, in the orbits of the eyes, and are near thrice as big. They are ra- 
ther fmooth furfaces of the os fpongiofum, than diftinct bones, and are 
very often imperfect. 
Maxilla fuperior, (Tab. iii. iv. v. vii. ix.) is always defcribed Angle, though 
it is manifeftly divided by a future which is fcarce ever obliterated; it has CHAPTER II. 
two procefles, which join the os frontis, and make part of the nofe, and 
another, which joins to the cartilage of the feptum nafi. Its upper and 
outward parts make the lower parts of the orbits of the eyes; its lower 
fide, all that part of the face under the cheeks, eyes, and nofe to the 
mouth, and two thirds of the roof of the mouth. A little below the orbits 
of the eyes, in thisbone, are two holes, and behind the dentes incifores one 
more, which divides into two, as it opens into the nofe, on each fide the 
feptum nafi. Between the pofterior grinding-teeth and the orbits of the 
eyes are two great finufes, called antra maxilbs fuperioris, which open in- 
to the upper part of the nofe. And in the lower edge of this jaw are the 
alveoli, or fockets for the teeth. Part of the fides of thefe cavities, that 
lie next the nofe, are only membranes which make the cavities like drums, 
perhaps to give a grave found to the voice when we let part of it through 
the nofe; but brutes not needing fuch variety of founds, have thefe cavi- 
ties open to the nofe, and filled with lamellas, which are covered with 
membranes, in which the olfactory nerves terminate, for a more exquifite 
fenfe of fmelling than is neceflary for men. Impofthumations fometimes 
happen in thefe cavities: The figns of this difeafe are great pain about the 
part, matter in the nofe on the fide difeafed, {linking breath and rotten 
teeth. Mr. Cowper firft defcribed this cafe, and the cure; which is per- 
formed by drawing out the laft tooth but one, or two, or more, if rotten; 
and through their fockets making a perforation into the antrum; or if 
drawing a tooth makes a perforation, which fometimes happens, and 
perhaps gave the firlt hint of this cure, then that opening mull be enlar- 
ged, if it is not fufficient to difcharge the matter. 
Ofla palati, (Tab. v. vii. viii.) are two fmall bones that make the back 
part of the roof of the mouth, and a fmall part of the bottom of each or- 
bit. Between the ofla palati and os maxillare near the pterygoid procelfes 
of the fphenoidal bone, are two fmall foramina, through which arteries 
and nerves pals to the palate. 
Os vomer, (Tab. v. vii. viii.) is feated between the bones of the palate, 
and the lphenoidal bone. It is alfo joined to the procefs of the ethmoides, 
and part of the lower jaw. Its fore-part is fpongy, and is continued to the 
middle cartilage of the nofe. This bone and cartilage are the feptum 
nafi. 
Os fpongiofum, (Tab. viii.) is ufoally treated as a diftin£l bone, though 
it is only the fpongy lamina; in the nofe, of the os ethmoides and ofla pla- 
na, but chiefly of the os ethmoides, to which it always adheres. In confi- 
dering thefe lamella as a diftin<St bone, we follow the antients, who did CHAPTER II. 
not diftinguilh the bones of the fcull only, as they are divided by futures, 
but according to the differences of their texture, figure, fituation, or ufe. 
Thus they called thefe parts os fpongiofum; a procefs of the temporal 
bone, joined to the os malse, os jugale, &c. 
Maxilla inferior (Tab. ix.) is articulated with loofe cartilages to the tem- 
poral bones, by two procefles, named condyloides. Near thefe arife two 
more, called coronales, and at the infide of the chin a fmall rough pro- 
ceflus innominatus. In the infide of this bone under each proceflus co- 
ronalis, is a large foramen which runs under the teeth, and pafles out near 
the chin. In this foramen, the veflels pafs that belong to the teeth; and 
in the upper edge of this jaw are the fockets for the teeth, which feldom 
exceed fixteen in each jaw ; the four firft in each are called incilbres, the 
two next canini, the reft molares; the four laft of thefe are named den- 
tes fapientte, becaufe they do not appear till men arrive at years of dift 
cretion. The incifores and canini have only one Angle root, but the mo- 
lares more; the eight firft, two; and the reft, fome three, fbme four, eft 
pecially in the upper jaw; where alfo they are fpread wider, becaufe that 
jaw being more Ipongy than the other, the teeth need more fpace to fix 
them. Each of thefe roots has a foramen, through which pafs an artery, 
vein, and nerve, which are expanded in a fine membrane that lines the 
cavity in each tooth. Thefe veflels and membrane are the feat of the 
tooth-ach. The teeth of children caft off while they are growing; but 
the fucceeding teeth arife in new fockets, deeper and larger than the for- 
mer; for the jaws increafing fafter than the teeth, mull otherwife have 
left chafms between them, fuch as are in the mouths of brutes; but where 
teeth are drawn in adult bodies, the fockets clofe, and new ones very 
rarely fucceed. CHAPTER III. 
OF THE BONES OF THE TRUNK. 
ygS5al':i'?^^tj bones of the trunk are thole which compofe the 
a # fpine or chain of bones from the head down to the 
|yc|%l rumP> the ribs and fternum, to which may juftly be 
|f ;jj added the ofla innominata. 
.CjSlil JMJ!!! The Ipine, is compofed of twenty four vertebrae* 
(each of which in a young child is three bones) befides 
thofe of the os facrum and coccygis; feven belong to the neck, the firfl: of 
which is called atlas, becaufe it immediately fopports the head; its upper 
fide has two cavities, into which the apophyfes of the os occipitisare re- 
ceived, but thefetwo cavities together, unlike all other joints, are lateral- 
ly portions of concentric circles, by which means they are but as one 
joint, and fo fuffer the head to move ealily fide-ways, which otherwife 
it could no more do than the knee, which alfo has two heads and two 
cavities. The under fide of this bone has a very flat articulation with the 
next, which fits it for a rotatory motion. The fecond vertebra is called 
dentata, or axis, from a procefs which pafles through the former bone, 
and is the axis upon which it turns; neverthelefs all the vertebne of the 
neck contribute fomething to the rotatory motion of the head. The pro- 
ceeds dentatus is ftrongly tied to the os occipitis, and to the atlas by li- CHAPTER III. 
gaments, to prevent its hurting the fpinal marrow. Twelve of which 
belong to the backs five to the loins. The os facrum is fometimes fives 
fometimes fix boness and the os coccigis four. If this chain had been 
compofed of fewer bones5 they muff have either not been capable of 
bending fo much as they do, or have bent more in each joint, which 
would have prefled the fpinal marrow, the ill confequences of which 
are fufliciently feen in perfons grown crooked, or who have had diftor- 
tions from external accidents. 
The uppermoft vertebra of the neck, being fixed behind the center of 
gravity of the head, the neck is therefore fo far bent forward, as that the 
laft of thefe vertebras (which has a firm bearing upon thofe of the tho- 
rax) may be exactly under the center of gravity. Thofe of the thorax are 
bent backwards, behind the center of motion, to make room for the 
parts contained in the thorax, and that they might not be made too weak 
by this ftru£ture, they are formed for lels motion than other vertebra:; and 
thofe in particular, who are bent fartheft from the center of gravity have 
the leaft motion. The middle vertebras of the loins, are again bent for- 
wards under the center of gravity, or near it; and from thence they go 
backwards to the os facrum, where being fixed to the ofla innominata 
behind the center of gravity, the articulation is therefore firm and with- 
out motion, and from thence the ofla innominata are fo formed, as that 
their fockets into which the thigh bones are fixed, where there is a free 
motion, are exactly under the center of gravity. In brutes the fpine is 
differently formed, according to the actions for which they are defigned. 
(See chapter x.) 
In all thefe vertebras, except the firft, is a middle anterior Ipongy body, 
by which they are firmly articulated with a very ftrong intervening liga- 
ment; and from the middle of the hind part of each, except the firft, 
ftands a procefs named lpinalis, and from every one a procefs on each fide, 
called tranfverfalis, and two fuperior, and two inferior fliort ones; by 
which the back parts of the vertebras are articulated, named obliqui, fu- 
periores, and inferiores. 
The fore part of the feven vertebras of the neck, and two upper of the 
back, are flat forwards, to make room for the alperaarteria and gula: The 
third and fourth of the back acute, to give way to the veflels of the lungs 
and heart, and bent to the right fide for the better fituation of the heart, 
which makes that fide of the breaft more convex than the other, and 
therefore ftronger; which feems advantageous to the right arm, its mo- 
tions depending upon the fupport it receives from the breaft. CHAPTER III. 
hence, I think, it feems that the almoft univerlal preference of that 
arm is not an arbitrary thing, but founded upon obfervation, that it is ca- 
pable of more perfect actions than the other. 
The fpinal procefles (Tab. x. xi.) of the fecond, third, fourth and fifth 
vertebrae of the neck are forked, the two lafl: long and horizontal, the 
three or four upper ones of the back like them, only a little declining, the 
middle ones of the back run obliquely downwards, and the procefles of 
the remaining vertebra become fucceflively thicker, flronger, and lefs 
declining; thofe of the loins being horizontal, like the lafl; of the neck. 
The mufcles that are inferted into the Ipinal procefles of the vertebra of 
the neck and loins will act with more ftrength than thofe of the back, 
becaufe their procefles being perpendicular to the fpine, they are longer 
leavers; befides, thofe of the back almoft touch one another, to prevent 
much motion, becaufe it would interrupt relpiration; but more motion 
being neceflary in the neck and loins, their procefles are made fit for it. 
The tranfverfe procefles (Tab. x. xi.) of the vertebra of the neck are per- 
forated, for the ad million of the cervical blood-veflels, and bowed down- 
wards, and hollowed, for the paflage of the cervical nerves. The eight or 
nine upper ones of the back, receive the upper ribs; and the reft, with 
thofe of the loins, ferve only for origins and infertions of mufcles. 
Os facrum (Tab. xii.) has two upper oblique procefles, fome lmall Ipi- 
nal procefles, and two foramina in each interftice of the bones it is com- 
pofed of, both before and behind. Ofla coccygis have none of thefe parts. 
Through every bone of the Ipine, the ofla coccygis excepted (Tab. xiii.) 
is a large foramen, which together make a chanel through the Ipine, in 
which is contained the medulla fpinalis; and in each fpace between the 
vertebra are two large holes for the nerves to pafs out. 
’Tis worth confi dering, the provifion that is made to prevent luxations 
in this chain of bones, fuch luxations being worfe than any other, becaufe 
of the fpinal marrow which is contain’d within thefe bones. The bodies 
of the vertebra are all in the lame manner connected by flrong intervening 
ligaments or cartilages. In the neck the oblique procefles of the received 
bone are wrapped over thofe of the receiving bone, which forbids their 
luxating forwards. The tranfverfe procefles with a fmall apophyfis of the 
body of the fame bone, in like manner, fecures them from flipping back- 
wards, and an apophyfis on each fide of the body of the receiving bone, 
hinders them from flipping to either fide. The vertebra of the back are 
hindered from diflocating forwards by the fame provifion with thofe of 
the neck; and from luxating backwards, by the ribs which are faftened CHAPTER III. 
to the tranfverfe proceffes of the inferior vertebras* and againft the back- 
part of the body of the next fuperior; they alfo hinder them from diflo- 
cating to either fide; but the laft ribs are not fixed to the tranfverfe pro- 
cefies of the vertebras of the back, and therefore it is that luxations are 
moft frequently feen in this part; but the vertebras of the loins are receiv- 
ed into deep cavities, and are tyed with much ftronger ligaments for their 
fecurity. Each joint of the vertebras, except the two uppermoft, has two 
centers of motion, one upon the bodies of the vertebra;, when the trunk is 
bowed forwards; and the other at the articulations of the oblique pro- 
cefles, when the body is bowed backwards; from which ftructure the ex- 
tenlbrs will have about twice the leaver to a£t with, and confequently 
twice the power to raife the trunk into an eredt pofture, that they have 
to carry it beyond that pofture; for then the oblique procefles begin to 
be the centre of motion, and give a like advantage to the benders. With- 
out this contrivance it would be more difficult to keep the body eredt, 
or to recover an erect pofture with confiderable ftrength after a bend of 
the body. 
The ribs (Tab. xiv. xv.) are twelve in number on each fide; the feven 
uppermoft are called true ribs, becaufe their cartilages reach the fternum; 
and the five lowed: are called baftard-ribs. They are articulated to the bo- 
dies of the twelve vertebras of the back, and all, except the two or three 
laft, are articulated to their tranfverfe procefles, and the under fide of the 
middle ribs are hollowed for the paflage of the intefcoftal veflels. They 
defend the parts contained in the bread, and when they are drawn up- 
wards, the cavity of the breaft is enlarged for infpiration, and fo the con- 
trary. In two children, which I have diflccled, I found the ribs broke in- 
wards, and on the outfide a very plain print of a thumb and fingers, which 
had been done by their nurfes hoifting them up on one hand, taking 
hold of their breads, and being often repeated, had broke the ribs in- 
wards like a green flick, without feparating the broken ends of them; 
I have alfo very frequently feen the fhape of childrens breafts quite fpoil- 
ed by fuch tricks, which have occafioned weaknefs of body, crooked- 
nefs, and other difeafes. 
Sternum, or breaft-bone (Tab. xvi. xvii.) is generally made up of three 
fpongy bones, fometimes more; to this the true ribs are articulated by 
their cartilages, which fometimes in robuft men have moveable joints, 
fuch as are feen in oxen and other quadrupeds. At the end of the fter- 
num is the cartilago enfiformis, fo called from its fhape, but it very often 
is double; there is alfo frequently found variety in the form of the car- CHAPTER III. 
tilages, which join the ribs and flernum, fometimes one cartilage ferving 
two ribs, and fometimes a cartilage not joined to any rib; frequently in 
old perfons we find parts of them offified, and I have twice found them 
totally olfified in men between forty and fifty years of age, both of which 
died with a great difficulty of breathing; and befides, one had a jaundice, 
and the other a dropfy, but the lungs in both were very found. 
There are feldom found fewer than four and twenty vertebra in the 
fpine, befides the osfacrum, but often more; fometimes thirteen of the 
back, with as many ribs of a fide; and fometimes fix in the loyns: And 
in fome bodies two ribs from the firfl: vertebra of the loyns; but then it has 
wanted tranfverfe procefles. 
Os innominatum (Tab. xviii.) is in young perfons compofed of three 
bones, the upper is named ilium, the lower and pofterior os ifchii, and 
the anterior os pubis; the upper edge of the ilium is called its fpine, the 
anterior part of the fpine its apex, and a little lower is the procefliis inno- 
minatus. Ilium has two procefles, the one named the obtufeprocefs, and 
the other the acute; in the center of thefe bones is the acetabulum or 
focket for the thigh bone; in the bottom of which focket is another ca- 
vity, in which lies the lucrifiating gland of this joint. CHAPTER IV. 
BONES OF THE UPPER LIMB. 
- 1 Lavicula (Tab. xxii.) is connected at one end to the 
\ S ernum a cartilage, and at the other to the 
§f %1: proceffus acromion of the fcapula; its chief ufe is to 
fi M keep the fcapula a fufficient diftance from the breaft, 
by which means the Ihoulders are hindred from co- 
Z ming near together, as they do in thofe quadrupeds 
who ufe their fore limbs only to walk on, and not as men do their hands. 
Scapula (Tab. xxii.) is fixed to the fternum by the clavicula, but its 
chief connection is to the ribs and fpine, by thofe mufcles which are made 
alfo for its various motions; and in fuch quadrupeds as have no clavicles 
it is fixed only by mufcles, whofe actions give to this bone a great deal of 
that motion which feems to be in the joint of the fhoulder. The under 
fide of this bone is a little concave, partly to fit it to the outer liirface of 
the ribs on which it moves, and partly to give room for the fub-fcapula- 
ris mufcle. On the outfide arifes a large Ipine; the fore part of which is 
called the procefliis acromion, to which the clavicula is fixed: In men 
and fuch quadrupeds as have clavicles, and ufe their fore limbs like arms, 
this procefs and Ipine are much larger and more prominent, not only for 
the better fixing the clavicle, but alfo to remove the mufcles farther from CHAPTER IV. 
the center of motion, whereby they are able to move a greater weight 
Near this procefs is another called coracoides, from whofe extremity,with 
like advantage, arife two mufcles of the arm; this procefs with the former, 
and a flat ligament between them both, hinder the os humeri from being 
diflocated upwards. The fide oppofite to the focket is called the balls of 
the fcapula, and the lower edge cofta inferior from its figure, which is 
thick, and like a rib to the fcapula; but its upper edge being very thin, is 
improperly fo called in the human fceleton, though not fo in many qua- 
drupeds: At the fore part of this edge, clofe to the coracoid procefs, is a 
femicircular nitch for the paflage of blood veflels, which nitch is joined 
at top with a ligament, and fometimes with bone. 
Os humeri: (Tab. xxiii.) Its upper end or head, where it is joined to the 
fcapula, is fomewhat flat and much larger than the focket which receives 
it. At the upper part are two procefles for the infertions of mufcles of the 
arm; between thefe procefles is a long chanel, in which lies a tendon of 
the biceps cubiti. At the lower end are two confiderable procefles, both 
formed to give origins to mufcles of the wrift and fingers, and the flex- 
ors of thefe joints being much more confiderable than the extenlors, the 
inner procefs from which the flexors arife is therefore much larger than 
the outer, from which the extenfors take their origin: Between thefe pro- 
cefles is the joint. That part to which the upper end of the radius is fixed 
is fitted not only for the motion of the elbow, but alfo for the rotatory 
motion of the radius; the reft of this joint is made of portions of une- 
qual, but concentrick, circles; which inequality feems defigned to pre- 
vent the ulna from diflocating fide ways, which fo fmall a joint with fo 
much motion would be very lubjedt to: Of a like ufe is the little finus 
on the forepart of the humerus, and the large one behind; the firft of 
which receives a procefs of the ulna when the arm is bent, and the other, 
the olecranon of the ulna, when the arm is extended. 
Ulna: (Tab. xxiv.) At the upper end it has one large procefs called o- 
lecranon, and a fmall procefs on the forepart; (fee the laft paragraph.) On 
one fide between thefe is alfo a fmall cavity, which receives the upper 
end of the radius for its rotatory motion; and down the fide of this bone, 
next the radius, is a fharp edge, from which the ligament arifes, which 
connedts thefe bones together. At the lower end, is a procefs, called fty- 
liformis, and a round head, which is received into the radius for the 
rotatory motion of the cubit. 
Radius: (Tab. xxiii.) Its upper end is received into the ulna, and joined 
to the humerus, in a manner chiefly fitted for its rotatory motion, for the CHAPTER IV. 
flrength of the elbow joint receives but little advantage from the union 
of thefe two bones. A little below this head is a large tubercle, into which 
the biceps mufcle is inferted, which by the advantage of this infertion 
turns the cubit fupine, as well as bends it. At the lower end, which is thick- 
er, is a focket to receive the carpus, and at the fide next the ulna a fmall 
one to receive that bone, and a thin edge, into which the tranfverfe liga- 
ment, which arifes from the ulna, is inferted. This ligament ties thefe 
bones conveniently and firmly together; for the ulna being chiefly arti- 
culated to the os humeri, and the radius to the carpus, a weight at the hand 
without this ligament, would be liable to pull thefe bones alunder. 
Of the bones of the hand. (Tab. xxv.) Carpus is compofed of eight 
bones of very irregular forms, undoubtedly the propereft that can be; yet 
why in thele forms, rather than any other, no one has been able to ftiew. 
They have all obfcure motions one with another, and with thofe of the 
metacarpus; but the motion of thofe of the firfl rank, or order, with thofe 
of the fecond is more confiderable, and are moved by the fame mufcles 
which move the carpus on the radius. The metacarpus confifts of four 
bones which fuftain the fingers; that of the fore-finger having the leaft 
motion, and that of the little one the moll: The other ends of thefe bones 
have round heads for the articulations of the fingers; but the other joints 
of the fingers double heads and fockets. The thumb is fliorter and ftrong- 
er than any of the fingers, becaufe in its actions it is to refill: them all. 
The firfl: joint is very lingular, each bone equally receiving and being re- 
ceived ; but for the lhape of thefe bones, and whatever elfe relates to 
them, I mull refer to the prints. CHAPTER V. 
BONES OF THE LOWER LIMB. 
S femoris (Tab. xxvii.) at its upper end has a round 
/'[ ■% y& head, which is received into the focket of the os inno- 
/1 ; * i I jj minatum. In moft quadrupeds this head is oblong, and 
\ i M ma^es a &met articulation; but that fhape will not al- 
low of lb much motion as a rounder head. The two 
procelles near the head are called the greater and let 
fer trochanters, which are evidently formed for the infertion of mufcles, 
as the neck which lies between thefe and the head, is formed to make 
room for that neceflary quantity of mufcles which are feated on the in- 
fide of the thigh, and alfo by projecting outwards to make long levers 
for the mufcles, which are inferted into its upper and external parts. 
Between the great trochanter and the neck is a large finus, into which 
mufcles are inferted; between the two trochanters is a remarkable rough- 
nefs for the fame ufe, from which begins the linea alpera: The middle 
of this bone for the conveniency of the mufcles is bent forwards, which 
would make it fubjeCt to break backwards, if there was not a ftrong ridge 
on the back fide, which ftrengthens it fufficiently, and ferves alio for ad- 
vantageous infertions for feveral mufcles; this ridge is called the linea a- 
fpera. At the lower end of this bone are two large heads called the outer CHAPTER V. 
and inner apophyfes: Thefe are fo contrived, partly from being projected 
backwards, and partly from their fliapes, as to remove the centre of mo- 
tion very far behind the axis of the bone, which gives great power to the 
mufcles that extend this joint to raife the whole weight of the body, 
though it lelfens the power of the benders which move the leg only; 
between thefe precedes the large vefiels defcend fecurely to the leg. 
Patella (Tab. xxvii.) is feated at the forepart of the knee; its firft ap- 
pearance is in the center of the tendon, through which it foon extends, 
until the tendinous fibres are loft, and appear to be converted into bone; 
however, when this bone is broke, the original tendinous fibres feem to 
prevail, feeing the broken parts, unlike all other bones when fradlured, 
unite with a tendon-like fubftance, which is rarely converted into bone, 
and efpecially in thofe cafes, where the joint recovers with moft motion; 
its ufe is to fecure the extenfors of the tibia, left palling over the joint, 
they might be too much expofed to external injuries; it alfo encreafes the 
advantage (mentioned in the laft paragraph) of removing the common 
axis of the extenfors of the tibia farther from the centre of motion, and 
is a moft convenient medium for thole mufcles to unite in, to perform 
one common adtion. 
Tibia, (Tab. xxviii.) the ftiin bone, is large at its upper end, where are 
two Ihallow fockets which receive the thigh bone; between thefe is a 
rough procels, to which the crols ligaments of this joint are connected. 
Near the upper end is a procefs, into which the ligament or tendon of 
the patella is inferted, and at the lower end is a procels, which makes the 
inner ankle, and fecures this bone from dillocating outwards: Towards 
the upper end this bone is triangular, and even concave on the fide next 
the mufcles to make room for them; but lower, as the mufcles grow lels 
and tendinous, the bone grows rounder; that being upon the whole a 
ftronger form: It is not madefo ftrong as the thigh bone, though it bears 
a greater weight, which it is able to do by being ftreighter, and bearing the 
weight of the body in a more perpendicular direction. 
Fibula (Tab. xxviii.) is feated on the outfide of the tibia; its upper end is 
joined to that bone below the joint of the knee, and its lower end is re- 
ceived into a Ihallow finus of the lame bone, and below that makes the 
externa lancle; which procels, with the procels of the tibia, ftrengthens 
the ancle joint, which neverthelels being fo fmall would have been not 
ftrong enough, if it had been made for more motion. It is doubtful to me, 
whether or not this bone contributes to the fupport of the body; but its 
great ufe is for the origins of mufcles, and even its lhape is fuited to theirs. CHAPTER V. 
Of the bones of the foot. (Tab. xxix.) Tarfus is compofed of feven 
bones, the firft of which, called aftralagus, fupports the tibia, and is fup- 
ported by the os calcis, which being projected backwards makes a long 
lever for the mufcles to act with that extend the ankle, and raife the body 
upon the toes. Thefe two bones have a confiderable motion between 
themfelves, and the aftragalus alfo with the os naviculare, and all the reft 
an obfcure motion one with another, and with the bones of the mcta- 
tarfus, the greateft part of thefe motions being towards the great toe, 
where is the greateft ftrefs of action: Thefe bones thus giving way are lefs 
liable to be broke, and, as a fpring under the leg, make the motions of the 
body in walking more eafy and graceful, and the bones which are fup- 
ported by them lefs fubje£fc to be fra£tured in violent actions. To thefe 
join five others called the metatarfal bones; that which lupports the great 
toe is much the largeft, there being the greateft ftrefs in walking; under 
the end of this lie the two fefamoid bones, which are of the fame ufe as 
the patella; the great toe has two bones, the lefler three each, the two 
laft of the leaft toes frequently grow together; for what remains fee the 
plate, which makes a farther defcription needlefs. CHAPTER VI. 
CARTILAGES. LIGAMENTS, Sec. 
gglMiMliailMy Very part of a bone which is articulated to another 
M bone for motion, is covered or lined with a cartilage, 
I® cfj# as far as it moves upon, or is moved upon by another 
m, bone in any a&ion; for cartilage being fmoother and 
gP lbfter than bone; it renders the motions more eafy than 
they would have been, and prevents the bones wear- 
ing each other in their actions. 
In each articulation of the lower jaw, (Tab. xxxviii.) there is a loofe 
cartilage, upon which the condyloid procefs moves on one fide, while the 
jaw is moved to the other; and the two procefles being thus railed at 
once, the jaw is thruft forward. Thefe cartilages are alfo found in ani- 
mals that chew the cud, but not in beafts of prey, as far as I have examined, 
their articulations being alfo deeper and firmer; and in the otter particu- 
larly, fe£tions of the fockets which receive the condyloid procefles of 
the lower jaw, are more than half circles; fothat the jaw cannot be diflo- 
cated directly without breaking the fockets. This ftru£hire renders the 
motions of the jaw more firm, as that with intervening cartilages makes 
it more loofe and voluble. There are alfo cartilages of this kind between 
the clavicles and the flernum. CHAPTER VI. 
In the joint of the knee (Tab. xl.) are two loofe, almoft annular carti- 
lages, which being thick at their outer edges, and thin at their inner ones, 
they make the greatefl parts of the two fockets in this joint. The ufe of 
thefe cartilages is to make variable fockets to fuit the different parts of the 
lower end of the os femoris; for none but a round head and a round cavity 
can fuit in motion, unlefs the fliape of one or the other alters; and it is 
plainly neceffary, that this lower end of the os femoris fhould be flattifh, 
and projected backward, to give advantage to the mufcles that extend the 
tibia, by fetting the center of motion backward; which mechanifm, 
though it equally leffens the power of thofe mufcles which bend this 
joint, is yet of great fervice, becaufe the extending mufcles move this 
joint under the weight of the whole body, but the flexors onlyraife the 
legs; and as no head or focket moves fo eafily as round ones, here feems to 
be fome provifion made againft the inconvenience of a flattifh head and 
cavity, by having the friction made upon two furfaces, the os femoris up- 
on the loofe cartilages, and the loofe cartilages upon the tibia. This contri- 
vance is imitated by mechanicks, where the fridtion of the joints of any 
of their machines is great, as between the parts of hook-hinges of heavy 
gates, and between the male and female fcrews of large vices, where they 
uliially place a loofe ring. 
There are other cartilages which ferve to give fliape to parts. Of this 
fort are the ciliary cartilages at the edges of the eye-lids, the cartilages of 
the outer ears, and thofe which compofe the lower part of the nofe, which 
have this particular advantage in thefe places, that they fupport and fliape 
the parts as well as bones do, and without being liable to be broke; and 
to thefe might be added thofe of the larynx, but they do not belong pro- 
perly to the fceleton. 
Of the ligaments. Bones that are articulated for motion are tied to- 
gether by ligaments, to prevent their diflocating, which alfo furround the 
joints to contain their lubricating mucus. The thicknefs and ftrength of 
thefe ligaments are proportioned to the actions of the feveral joints, and 
their lengths are no more than fufficient to allow a proper quantity of 
motion; but the forms of them are different according to the different 
actions of the feveral joints. 
The bones of the limbs that move to all tides have ligaments like pur- 
fes, which arife from or near the edges of the fockets of the receiving 
bones, and are inferted all round the received bones a little below their 
heads. The beginnings of thefe ligaments, from the edges of the fockets 
of the fcapula and os innominatum are very hard, almoft cartilaginous, CHAPTER VI. 
which ferves in the fcapula to make a larger focket, and fuch a one as will 
alter its figure as the bone moves, for thereafon I have mentioned in the 
loofe cartilages of the knee; for the head of the os humeri, not being an 
exa<9: portion of a Iphere, requires fuch a focket, and the hard part of this 
ligament of the focket of the os innominatum makes the focket deeper 
than the femidiameter of the focket, by which means the articulation is 
made flronger without any hindrance to motion, becanfe it will give way 
to the neck of the os femoris when it prefles againft it; and the thigh bone 
being more difpofed to be dillocated upwards than any other way, the 
upper fide of this burfal ligament is made exceeding ftrong to prevent 
fuch an accident. From the lower edge of the acetabulum or focket of 
the os innominatum arifes a ligament about an inch long called teres, or 
rotundum, (Tab. xxxix.) which length is neceflary for that quantity of 
motion which this joint has in human bodies; it alfo hinders the os femo- 
ris from diflocating upwards, but downwards it will fuffer it to go far out 
of the focket; but in brutes the head of the os femoris being oblong, and 
the cavity fuitable, there can be only a rotatory motion, which in the ef- 
fect will be very little more than that kind of motion which is called 
bending and extending; and this never removing the end of the head of 
the bone far in the focket, a Ihort ligament is enough for it, and will bet- 
ter keep the bone in its place; and therefore it is that theirs is fo Ihort. 
This ligament in men may alfo ferve to prefs the gland in the bottom of 
the acetabulum or focket. 
The ligaments of thole joints which admit only of flexion and exten- 
fion, differ from the former in this, that they are much fliorter and ftrong- 
er at the fides of the joints, and thinner backward and forward. Befides 
thefe ligaments in the middle and back-part of the joint of the knee (Tab. 
xl.) are two very ftrong ligaments which arife from a procefs at the end of 
the tibia. They crofs each other in fuch a manner, as is bell to fecure the 
joint from being difplaced any way; they alfo hinder the extenfors of the 
tibia from pulling that bone too far forwards, and are fo connected to the 
femilunar cartilages, as to move them as the joint moves; befides thefe 
in this joint is another fmall one, which arifes from the os femoris, and 
ends in the fatty membrane which it fupports. 
The bones of the carpus and tariffs (Tab.xxxviii. xl.) are tied together 
by ligaments running promifcuoufly upon their furfaces from one to ano- 
ther; which at the under fide of the tarfus are vaftly ftrong, becaufethey 
fupport the whole body; thefe ligaments together contain the mucus for 
all thofe joints. There is alfo to the carpus a ftrong ligament which runs CHAPTER VI. 
from the fifth bone to the eighth, and the procefs of the fourth bone: 
the proper ufe of this is, to bind down the tendons of the mufcles that 
bend the fingers. 
The proceflus dentatus of the fecond vertebra (Tab. xxxviii.) is tied to 
the fcull by a ligament, and kept clofe to the forepart of the firft vertebra 
by another in that vertebra, that it may not bruife the fpinal marrow; and 
when either this ligament or procefs is broke, it makes that fort of broken 
neck which is attended with fudden death. All the bones of the verte- 
bra, and every joint that is without motion, and not joined by a future, 
as the ofla innominata with each other, and the os facrum with the ofla 
innominata, are joined by intervening ligaments, or (as they are com- 
monly called) cartilages. The ofla innominata are alfo tied by very ftrong 
ligaments which run from the back parts of the fpines of the ofla ilia to 
the os facrum, (Tab. xxxix.) and other ligaments which go from the os 
facrum and os coccygis to the acute and obtufe procefles of the ofla if- 
chia: thefe ligaments ferve alfo for origins of mufcles. Towards the great 
foramen of the ofla innominata the acetabulum has a deep notch, from 
the one fide to the other of which runs a ligament which compleats the 
focket; this ligament is fometimes oflified: a ligament fomewhat like 
this, there is between the procefles of the fcapula. 
From the edge of the ilium to that of the os pubis, runs a ligament 
which is contiguous to,- and appears to be a part of the tendons of the 
mufcles of the abdomen; its ufe is to cover the iliack veflels as they de- 
fcend to the thigh: under this ligament* together with the veflels, I 
have often feen a rupture of matter, and, I think, fometimes of the gut, 
from the abdomen into the anterior part of the thigh, immediately be- 
low the groin; however, I dare affirm this to be a poffible cafe. 
It is generally agreed, that the ligaments are infenfible; and the reafon 
affigned is, that they would elfe be injured by ordinary motions. But they 
are much better contrived, feeing none of them, not even thofe which 
lie between the vertebra, are fubjedt to attrition; but the other experience 
{hews are capable of very acute pains, there being not any thing our pa- 
tients more grievoufly complain of, than colledtions of matter within 
thefe parts, or {harp medicines applied to them when laid bare. 
Every joint, where the bones are faced with a cartilage for a Aiding mo- 
tion, is furniffied with fmall glands, which feparate a mucilaginous matter 
for the lubricating of the ends of the bones, that they may move eafily 
upon one another; and that there may benowafte of this neceflary fluid, 
it is contained in the invefling ligaments; which for this very reafon CHAPTER VI. 
are no where divided, except to communicate with the ligaments of 
tendons. 
Thefe glands are generally feated in a little fat near the infertion of the 
ligaments, that they may be comprefled by them when the joints are in 
motion; which is a proper time to have their fluid preffed out. The 
moft confiderable parcel of thefe glands with their fat, are feen in the 
joint of the knee, and the largeft gland of this fort is found in the finus 
at the bottom of the acetabulum of the os innominatum, and is com- 
prefled by the ligamentum teres. 
This work being principally defigned for the defcription of the bones, 
and the parts treated of in this chapter being only confidered as they relate 
to their connections and motions, the cartilages are therefore only de- 
fcribed in a general manner. Of the ligaments, the molt confiderable 
only are mentioned, fo as to Ihew their general mechanifms and ufes, 
and the glands are treated of more fparingly than either, there being in 
them yet lefs variety of forms and ufes. CHAPTER VII. 
OF DISEASED BONES. 
• -j T is not the defign of this chapter to enter minutely 
into all the difeafes of the bones mentioned by au- 
jjp|k: thors, but in a general manner fo far only as relates to 
I I; iT *pfer|| their cure, or to fuch extraordinary difeafed bones as 
1 ave ma<^e Prints of in this work. 
-iZL&zssu&aBk The bones are fubjedt to difeafes from all the fame 
caufes that the other parts are, but either from their hardnefs, infenfibi- 
lity, or other caufes, they neither are fo frequently difeafed, nor do their 
difeafes appear fo various, and it is generally of more confequence what 
texture the difeafed bone, or part of the bone is of than frcm what caufe 
that difeafe proceeded; for when difeafes happen upon the furfaces of the 
hard bones, they ufually admit a cure by exfoliation; but when matter is 
made in the fpongy ends of the cylindrical bones, or in the bodies of o- 
ther fpongy bones, the matter whatever was the firft caufe inlinuates it 
felf through thofe fpongy cells, fwelling the bone, and making generally 
an incurable caries; but if the matter is corrofive, it often ulcerates thefe 
parts (Tab, xlix. Fig. v.) and ufually makes fo large a difcharge as to deftroy 
the patient where the part difeafed cannot be extirpated, which is often the 
cafe when matter is made in the bones in fcrophulous habits. CHAPTER VII. 
The venereal difeafe (Tab. xli. xlii. xlviii) rarely attacks any but the hard- 
eft parts of the bones, very foon railing large tumours and caries or mor- 
tification ; but thefe caries parts of bones from this or other caufes are 
but partially mortified, for were they perfectly fo, the found and unfound 
parts would feparate though the integuments were not taken off; whence 
it happens, that where there is a good habit of body caries bones are often 
endured many years without much inconvenience, and we find from ex- 
perience that fuch feparations are not to be made till the difeafed part is 
laid bare and perfectly mortified by being expofed to the air, &c. and then 
the found part underneath feparating from the unfound there firfl: gra" 
nulates a fungous flelhlike appearance, which ought never to be treated 
with corrofive medicines, it conftantly Ihrinking and hardning of it felf, be- 
ing the fame fubftance which Ihoots from the ends of broken bones, where 
alfo it foon Ihrinks and converts into a callous to reunite them. 
There is a caries diftindt from thefe, which I have only feen in two pa- 
tients who died after a long rheumatic diforder, in which the outer fur- 
face of all the hardeft bones as the middle of the dlindrical bones and 
the top of the fcull, in one which I boiled, and in the other as far as I 
was allowed to examine I found the outer part every where crumbly or 
fcaly, falling into pieces like dull or fand, with very little appearance of tu- 
mour any where, and no appearance of difeafe in the fpongy parts. 
The difeafes of the joynts either happen from ulcers in the lubrica- 
ting, glands which pouring out matter that cannot be difcharged, fouls 
the ends of the bones, or elfe from fwellings in the ends of the reipedtive 
bones, either of thefe in time create exceflive pain, which appears to me 
to be chiefly in the ligaments of the joynts, notwithftanding what has 
been faid of the infenfibility of thefe parts by authors. When a joynt is 
much fwelled, in thefe cafes it is vulgarly called a white fwelling, and 
more properly than fpina vertofa; and whatever may be done (of which I 
never dare promife much) when once the limb waftes, and the fingers or 
toes of the limb grow thinner at their joynts, lofe their fliape, and are 
what a painter would call out of drawing, the cafe then is abfolutely irre- 
coverable. Sometimes in thefe cafes the ends of the bones erode, thenjoyn 
together and form an anchylofis (Tab. xlvii. li.) which though a bad difeafe 
of it felf, yet it is often a remedy of this difeafe, which is much worfe: 
In like manner the bones of the hands and feet (Tab. liv.) when they are 
ulcerated fometimes unite and are thus preferved from total ruin. But 
there is one cafe of a white fwelling that is amazing, where the pain is fo 
great that we are forced to take off the limb, and yet neither perceive the CHAPTER VII. 
ligaments or glands difeafed, nor matter in the joynt, nor the bones caries, 
or any difeafed appearance, except that the ends of the bones are a little 
larger and fofter. 
Not only thefe parts but even the large medullary cavities of the cy- 
lindrical bones have fometimes matter formed in them (Tab. xlix.) which 
conftantly increafing and wanting vent, will partly by corroding and ren- 
dering the bone carious, and partly by preffiire tear afunder the ftrongeft 
bone in an human body, of which I have known feveral inftances (Tab. 
xlix.) in one cafe where the matter had fufficient difcharge by an exter- 
nal caries formed together with the internal one, all the internal hard 
part of the bone which contains the medulla was feparated from the reft, 
and being drawn out through the place where the external caries made a 
vent, the patient received a perfect cure. (Tab. xlix.) Another cafe of this 
kind, where the internal part which contains the medulla was alfo fepa- 
rated from the reft, and there being holes through which the matter was 
difcharged, but none fufficient to take out the exfoliated bone; the mat- 
ter continued to flow in great quantity till it deftroyed the patient; (Tab. 
lv.) and poffibly if this cafe had been rightly known, the internal ex- 
foliated part might have been taken out, and the patient cured: In both 
thefe cafes it feems as if only fo much of the internal part of the bone 
was become carious as receives nouriftiment from the artery which en- 
ters the middle of the bone; and as a caries is a mortification of a bone, 
might not this difeafe arife from a hurt in the velfel which nourifties 
that particular part. Thefe are the moft common difeafes of the bones; 
others deferibed in the prints and explained in the references, would have 
been treated of more largely in this chapter if there had been room. CHAPTER VIII. 
comparative SCELETONS&c 
HE frontice-piece rcprefents Galen contempla- 
gJS ting the fceleton of a robber, who being killed by a 
Jth i Cavelier had his bones picked in two days by vultures: 
ftfr This opportunity he mentions as a piece of good for- 
|jj|yjy fjdgp tune, though he had feen another fceleton which was 
accidentally walhed out of a burying place, by the 
overflowing of a river; befides one which was fliewn in a public fchool 
at Alexandria, which he thought was worth the trouble of any one to 
go on purpofe to ftudy. 
The print in the title page reprefents the camera obfcura, with 
the manner of ufing it: About fix inches within that end where the 
draftfman fits, is fixed the table glafs, upon the rough fide of which he 
draws with a black-lead pencil, which he afterwards traces olf upon paper; 
towards the other end, in a Aiding frame, is put the objcct-glafs, which be- 
ing moved backward or forward, makes the picture bigger or lels, and the 
infide of the cafe is made black to prevent reflections of light. 
The next print is the QUEENS arms fet upon a pedeftal; on 
which is reprefented in bafs relieve, arts and fciences flourilhing under 
her Majesties protection. COMPARATIVE SCELETONS &c. 
TO THE READER; 
The frontice-piece is the fceleton of a young buck, flopping fud- 
denly and turning. 
The head-piece is the fceleton of a dog as he lies fleeping. 
The tail-piece is the fceleton of a thornback a little dried, and fo 
carefully performed, that there is not one rib or joynt more or lefs than 
in the life. 
THE INTRODUCTION 
The frontice-piece is the fceleton of a monkey, fitting on the flump 
of a tree. 
The head-piece reprefents the three famous fceletons in Vefalius, fo 
juflly admired for their attitude, and the great tafle in which they are 
drawn. The artifl has defigned thefe in their general outlines, not in the 
proportions of fceletons, but of whole human figures, confequently much 
too broad for their heights; which, though productive of many errors in 
particular parts, I am inclined to think, that to thole who have not been 
converfant with fceletons, they look much the better for it. The firfl 
flands on one fide of the monument, and leans on the other, which muft be 
the diameter of the whole monument out of the upright; and all of them 
are drawn from fceletons whofe bones were very ill put together. 
The tail-piece is the fceleton of a crane, with the fceleton of a fifli: 
This kind of birds living on fifli, their legs are made very long to Hand 
in waters, and the whole fceleton as light as may be, they having no great 
occalion for flrength. 
CHAPTER I. 
The frontice-piece is the bones of the head of a man-tyger. 
The head-piece is the bones of the head of ahull, the grinding tooth 
of an elephant, and the bones of the head of a fea-horfe, all done to the 
fame fcale. Here in one view may be feen the different perfe&ions of the 
two gravers. 
The tail-piece is the fcull and horns of a ram. COMPARATIVE SCELETONS &c. 
CHAPTER II. 
The frontice-piece : The uppermoft figure is the bones of the head 
of a pike; which being loofely connected, and the lower jaw compofed 
with an additional bone on each fide, like the jaw of a viper, their jaws 
are thereby capable of being vaftly extended when they fwallow their 
prey, which they do whole, and oftentimes things of greater diameter 
than themfelves. The reft of thefe figures are bones of filh from the Weft 
Indies: The firft are the upper and lower jaw of a filh remarkable for the 
number and ftiape of its teeth; the next on the left hand is an upper jaw 
of a filh With teeth in the roof of the mouth, and in the lower jaw are 
rows of teeth one below another: The other figures are the upper and 
half a lower jaw and the tongue of another filh, all as it were ftudded 
with hard bones to grind their food. 
The head-piece is the fceleton of a cat frighted, at the fceleton of 
a dog. 
The tail-piece is the fceleton of a lizard, which is a perfect mix- 
ture of the ferpentine kind and quadrupede. 
CHAPTER III 
The front ice-piece is the fceleton of a water tortoife laid upon its 
back. 
The head-piece is the fceleton of a crocodile. 
The tail-piece is the fceleton of an eagle,or abird of that kind; this 
bird is every where formed for ftrength: before it, is the fceleton of a vi- 
per, in which every lingle rib and bone is exprefled. 
C H A P TER IHL 
The front ice-piece is the fceletonof a bear, in which is remarkable 
the great ftrength of the jaws, and the neck, and the fore feet, and the 
fhortnefs of the uppermoft ribs, which makes them ftrong for their fore 
feet to gripe any thing again!!. This fceleton being put together with 
fliff wires, I could not alter it into a properer pofture. 
The head-piece is the fceleton of a rabbit whofe bones are lb con- 
ftru&ed as to bring the hind feet eafily under the center of gravity of the 
whole body, while they fcratch their holes; and for this reafon the fore COMPARATIVE SCELETONS&c 
feet are bent for the earth to pals ealily underneath them; the bread: is 
alfo concave for the lame purpofe, and the hind legs Hand wide for the 
earth to be thrown between them, and their jaws are particularly con- 
ftru£ted for their feeding on the bark of trees, as well as on grafs. 
The tail-piece reprefents a mole in two views, to fliew the vaft 
ftrength of the fore feet for digging; the flendernels of the head, the 
back bones with fmall procefles, and the pofture of their hind legs, all 
contrived for their palling eafily along the holes they dig. 
CHAPTER V. 
The frontice-piece is the fceleton of an oftrich, which is a bird made 
for walking, therefore the ofla innominata and bones of the legs are made 
exceeding ftrong, and when handing ftreight (unlike other birds) almofl: 
under the center of gravity; the wings are fmall, but neverthelefs very 
ufeful when they run faft or leap. 
The HEAD-piECEisthefceletonofafparrow; and the fceleton of abat, 
which though it flies like a bird, has the body of a quadrupede; it hangs 
by two little hooks, which nature has provided for that purpofe. 
The tail-piece is the fceleton of a fwan, one of the fineft of the fwim- 
ming birds: The body is made broad for floating, and the legs which 
are their oars, are formed to pufh advantageoufly backwards. 
CHAPTER VI. 
The frontice-piece is the fceleton of an hog laid upon boards. 
The head-piece is the fceleton of a camelion handing as they ufu- 
ally do in trees, where they live by catching flies, and for their drink 
they thruft forward their lower jaw, and receive the drops of dew that 
fall down their foreheads. 
The tail-piece is the fceleton of a fquirrel; its fore teeth are formed 
for biting nut-fliells, like the teeth of rats and rabits; and like the bear 
and monkey has its fore limbs ftronger than the hind. 
CHAPTER VII. 
The frontice-piece : The uppermoft figure is the bones of the head 
of a cat, prepared to Ihew the lamella: in the nofe for the membranes 
to be fpread upon for the fenfe of fmelling, and part of the fcull is taken rr'N 
comparative sceletons&c 
off to fliew the procels that feparates the cerebrum from the cerebellum, 
which is of bone only in fuch rapacious animals. The lower figure is the 
end of a boar’s jaw, in which one of the teeth is grown quite round 
and through the jaw again. 
The head-piece is a pocky fceleton, in which there is fcarce one 
found bone. 
The tail-piece is the fceleton of an hedghog remarkably made for 
folding his body round; the action here reprefented is that when he be- 
gins to unfold himfelf. 
CHAPTER VIII. 
The frontice-piece is the fceleton of an armadilla, a flow and ftrong 
animal, covered with a very thick hard fcaly skin for its defence, part of 
which is left upon the tail of this fceleton. 
The head-piece is the fceleton of a weefel, and of a rat. 
The tail-piece is the fceleton of a frog. 
The last plate reprefents a broken obelisk, and upon its bafe is the 
fceleton of Hercules refting from his labours. 
The ten initial letters can need no explanation, they being de- 
figned to liiit the feveral chapters; there are fifty fix folio plates of hu- 
man ofteography, one fet unlettered to Ihew them in their full beauty, 
and one fet lettered for explanations, and of plates for ornament forty 
four including the initial letters. TABLE I. 
FIG. I. 
Half the os frontis of an abortive human foetus, magnified about four times its natural 
diameter: Communicated to me by Dr. Nichols. 
A The edge of the orbit of the eye. 
B Part of the orbit. 
C C Some detached offfications. 
FIG. II. 
The os parietale of an human foetus, in which the bony fibres feem to proceed from 
the center. 
F I G. III. 
Part of the laft bone viewed in a microfcope. 
f i g. mi. 
A bit of an os femoris. 
A B The periofteum full of blood veffels. 
FIG. V. 
A bone taken out of the middle of an human heart. 
F I G. VI. FI G. VII. 
The hand and foot of an human foetus, in which the cartilaginous parts being fhrunk and 
dried, have loft their fhape. 
F I G. VIII. 
The fcapula of a foetus. 
A The acetabulum. 
B The end of the proceffus coracoides. 
C The end of the acromion. 
D A part of the bafis of proceffus coracoides. 
E E F The bafts of the fcapula: All thefe parts are cartilaginous. 
F I G. IX. 
The os innominatum. 
A A The upper edge of the ilium. 
BB A fpace between the three bones. 
C C The edge of the os ifchium and pubis: all cartilaginous< 
D The place where the os facrum joins. 
FIG. X. 
The os femoris cut open* 
A A A A The cartilaginous parts at the ends of the bone. 
B The medullary cavity. 
CCCC The fpongy cells. FIG I 
FIG III 
FIG IIII 
* 
FIG II 
FIG 
VI 
(Tv 
FIG V 
FIG 
VII 
FIG VIIF 
FIG 
X 
FIG IX TABLE IL 
Several bones fawed through to fhew their inward fpongy 
texture, the cells not being perfectly clear’d of the marrow 
that dried in them. 
FIG. i. 
The clavicula. 
FIG. II. 
The os humeri. 
A 7he joining of the epiphyfis at the upper end of the hone, 
B Part of the finus into which the olecranon is received\ 
C The large medullary finus, 
■_ 4k 
D D The fpongy cells. 
FIG. III. 
A A Plain marks of the joining of the epiphyfes. 
B The large medullary finus. 
C C G C The fpongy cells. That part near the fecond C at the upper end, having been acci- 
dentally broken, is not well reprefented. 
F I G. IIII. 
Part of the os innominatum in which the outer table being rafped off, the in- 
ward texture is difcovered. 
A The place in which there is ufually one denfe fubflance without fpongy cells% 
B That part of the acetabulum which is covered with a cartilage. 
FIG. Y. 
The leffer os Cuneiforms. 
FIG. VI. 
The patella. 
FIG. VII. 
The metatarfal bone of the great toe. FIG III 
FIG I 
FIG IT. 
fig mi 
FIG V 
FIG VI 
TIG VII TABLE HL 
FIG. I. 
A Os front is. 
B The hole through which a nerve and an artery pafs to the forehead 
C A notch which fometimes appears infiead of the lafi mentioned hole> and fometimes there 
are both. 
PDD Sutura tranfverfalis, 
EE Off a nafi. 
FFF Maxillafuperior. 
G A hole througjo which a nerve and an artery pafs fecure to the face. 
H Os unguis, in which may be feen the duBus ad nafum. 
I Os planum„ 
K The hole, or the firfi foramen of the fcull through which the optic nerve paffes to the eye. 
JLL The off a malarum. 
M M Dentes incifores. 
N Dens caninus. 
O Dentes molares. 
P The meatus audit orius. 
fiyloides. 
R Proceffus mamillarh> 
5 Os jugale. 
T Foramen lacerum, or the fecond foramen of the fiull. 
U Of fphocnoides. 
V Ox temp oris, 
W Ox bregmatis. 
X Septum nafi. 
Y Sutura fojuamofa. 
Z Sutura cqr onalis. 
FIG. II? 
A Os frontis. 
B B TIoat part of the os frontis, which makes the upper part of the orbits of the eye. 
C of the os frontis, /to /x conneBed to the offa nafi and maxilla fuperior, below 
which is feen in fhadow the procefs, upon which the offa nafi are fupportcd. 
D The notch of the os frontis, in which the os ethmoides is placed, 
E E Sutura tranfverfalis. 
F F That part of the os frontis that joins with the os ethmoides. 
FIG. III. 
A A The infide of the os frontis. 
B B That part of the os frontis, which makes the upper parts of the orbits of the eyes. 
C C Two openings into the frontal flnuffes. 
D That part of the os frontis that is join'd to the offa nafi, and maxilla fuperior. 
E E E Sutura coronalisf 
F F E E F F Sutura tranfverfalis. 
G The fagittal future continued through the os frontis. III 
TIG I 
TIG II 
FIG nr TABLE IIII. 
FIG. I. 
A Os frontis. 
B Sutura coronalis. 
C Os bregmatis. 
D Sutura lambdoidalis0 
E 05 occipitis. 
F Sutura fquamofa„ 
G 0$ temporis. 
H 05 fphoenoides. 
I 05 mala. 
K Maxilla fuperior. 
L 05 unguis. 
M 05 
3ST Procejfus mafioideus. 
O Meatus auditorius. 
P Procejfus fiyloides. 
r' * 
jugales. 
R Procejfus pterygoides. 
FIG. II. 
The infide of the os malae. 
A joining of the os mala with the os frontis. 
B That part which joins to the maxilla fuperior. 
C That part which joins with the procejfus jugalis. 
D foramen of the os mala. 
FIG. III. 
The little bones of the ear. 
fig. iiii. 
The infide of the os unguis. 
fig. y. 
The infide of the ofia nafi. 
FIG. VI. 
- . i 
The infide of the os bregmatis. 
A A Sutura coronalis» 
B B Sutura fagittalis. x 
C C Sutura lambdoidalis. 
D D D Imprejfons made by the' arteries of the dura mater upon the infide of the os bregmatis• TIG I 
riti in 
rid ii 
Tld IIII 
Eld V 
TIG VI TABLE V. 
FIG. I. 
A A The upper jaw divided by a future. 
B A foramen through which fmall vejfels pafs. 
CC Os palati. 
DD The external pterygoid procejfes. 
EE The joining of the procejfes of the off a temporum and off a malarum (commonly called ojfa 
jugalia.) 
F Foramen lacerum. 
G G The places to which the lower jaw is articulated\ 
H The end of the os petrofumy which is feldom joined to the neighbouring bones. 
$ I The mamillary procejfes. 
K K The finufes on the infide of the mamillary procejfes. 
L L The procejfes of the occipital boney to which the firfl vertebra is articulated. 
M Os vomer. / , 
N N The fourth foramina, through which pafs the principal branch of the fifth pair of nerves• 
O Part of the puff age of the carotid artery, into the fculL 
P P The fifth foramina, through which fmall arteries pafs to the dura mater. 
QfXfiThe fixth foramina for the puff age of the carotid arteriesy and the branches which be- 
gin the intercoftal nerves. 
Between P and Qjthe Jlyloid procefs. 
RR The eighth foramina> through which pafs the eighth pair of nerves and the internal jugu- 
lar veinsy and near the letter R on one fide is feen a fmall holey through which 
paffes the portio dura of the auditory nerve. 
S A foramen for the paffage of a vein behind the apophyfes of the occipital bone, which is 
fometimes very largey and fometimes wanting. 
T The great foramen9 
U U U Os occipitis. 
W A large procefs of the os occipitis. 
F I G. II. 
The temporal bone. 
A A The infide of the futura fquamofa. 
B procejfus jugalis. 
C procejfus Jlyloides. 
D The feventh foramen. 
E The infide of the os temporis imprejfed by the brain. 
F The infide of that part which is called os petrofumy alfo imprejfed by the brain. 
F I G. III. 
The os occipitis. 
A 7he crucial fpine. 
B An os triquetrum in the lambdoidal future. 
C C The eighth foramina of the fculL 
D D The ninth foramina of the fculL 
E E The procejfes which articulate with the firfl vertebra» 
F The part which joins the os fphenoides. 
G G G The lambdoidal future. V 
FIG I 
FIG II 
FIG III TABLE VI. 
FIG. I. 
A back view of the fculh 
A A The parietal hones. 
B The coronal future. 
C The fagittod future. 
P One of thofe diftinCl irregular hones y ufually found in the lamhdoidal future > called offa 
triquetra. 
EEE The lamhdoidal future. 
F The occipital hone. 
G The temporal hone, ; ... 
H The mamillary procefs, 
I Os jugate. 
K The upper jaw. 
L Os malee. 
FI G. II. FIG. III. 
Parts of the os parietale, taken from a fra&ured fcull, of which a large account is gi- 
ven in the firft chapter. Fig. II. fhews the under ftde of one bit that came off> 
which leaving behind many very fmall portions, from them proceeded a callous 
which perfedly fupplied this part of the bone,* but the other coming off entire, 
there never came any callous in its place: The two uppermoft holes were made 
to raife feveral fractured parts, and the third afterwards to difcharge matter when 
the two firft began to clofe. 
F I G. IIII. F I G. V. 
The upper and lower jaw of a very old man that had loft all his teeth: Thefe two bones did 
not weigh a fourth part fo much as they ufually do in men of the fame ftature. 
A A Maxilla fuperior. 
BB Off a palati. 
C C The fockets of the teeth contracted and clofed\ and the whole hone vajlly diminifloed, as will 
appear hy comparing it with the following one> though that alfo is much contraBed. 
FIG. V. 
The lower jaw. 
AAA The fockets of the teeth contracted and clofed: Thefe hones Jloew that the drawing in 
of the mouth and cheeks of very old men, is not fo much from the lofs of teeth as 
from the fhrinking and contracting of the fockets and other the more fpongey parts 
of the hones of the face, while the bone of the forehead and under fide of the lower 
jaw being much harder do not wafie and for ink fo much. VI 
FIG I 
FIG II 
FIG nr 
FIG HIT 
FIG V TABLE VII. 
FIG. I. 
The infide view of the bails of the fcull. 
A A The impreffions made by the brain on the infide of the os front is. 
B B The openings into the finufes of the os frontis. 
C Crifia galli. 
D D The impreffions on the os fphenoides. 
E F E Sutura tranfverfalls. 
G Sella Turcica. . 
H H The anterior clinoid proceffes. 
11 The pojlerior clinoid proceffes. 
KK The holes through which the optic nerves pafsy or the firfi foramina of the fcull. 
L L The third foramina of the fcull. 
M M The fixth foramina of the fcull. 
N N The fourth foramina of the fcull. 
O O The fifth foramina of the fcull. 
P P Off a petrofa. 
QjThe great foramen. 
R The crucial fpine of the os occipitis. 
S S Remarkable impreffions on the os occipitis, in which the cerebellum is lodged\ 
T Part of the crucial fpine of the os occipitis. 
U U The infide of the os temporis. 
V The eighth foramen of the fcull. 
FIG. II. 
The infide view of the fcull, cut perpendicularly. 
A Os frontis. 
B Sinus frontalis. 
C C Os bregmutis. 
D Os occipitis. 
E Os petrofum. 
F The feventh forameny through which the auditory nerve paffes. 
G The ninth foramen. 
H Proceffus clmoides. 
I Sella turcica. 
K Crifia galli. 
L L Sinus fphenoidalis. 
M Os nafi. 
N A procefs of the os ethmoides, that makes part of the feptum nafi. 
O Part of the os that makes part of the feptum nafi. 
P Os vomer. 
QfThe future of the upper jaw. 
R Proceffus pterygoides. 
S Maxilla fuperior. 
T The Jlyloid procefs. 
U U Sutura fagittalis. 
V The fpongey fubftance of the os fphenoides. 
W Part of the diploe of the os occipitis. VII 
FIG I 
FICt II TABLE VIII. 
FIG. I. 
The os ethmoides or cribriforme. 
A A procefs of the os ethmoides call'd crifia gallu 
B That part of the os ethmoides that is call'd planum. 
FIG. II. 
Another view of the fame bone. 
A Os planum which makes part of the orbit. B Os vomer. 
FIG. III. 
The os palati. 
A The bafts of the os palati. B That part of the os palati that lies in the orbit. 
fig. mi. 
The vomer. 
A The bafts of the vomer. B That part of it next the eye, 
C That part of it next the roof of the mouth. 
fig. y. 
The os fphenoides. 
A A The concave part of the os fphenoides, B B The anterior clinoid proceffes. 
C Sella turcica. D D The foramina, through which the optic nerves pafs. 
E E The third foramina of the fcull, through which paffes the fecond branch of the fifth pair 
of nerves. 
FF The fourth foramina of the fcull, call’d foramina ovalia, through which paffes the third 
branch of the fifth pair of nerves. 
G G The external ala of the pterygoid proceffes. 
H The internal alee of the pterygoid proceffes. 
I Proceffus over which the tendons of the pterygofiaphylini mufcles are refle&ed. 
FIG. VI. 
A Sella turcica. B That part of the os fphenoides that joins to the os occipitis. 
C C The anterior clinoid proceffes. D D The external ala of the pterygoid proceffes. 
E The internal ala. F Proceffus innominati of the pterygoid proceffes. 
G G The concave parts of the os fphenoides. 
H H Apophyfes fpinofa, which meet the off a petrofa. 
II Two foramina, through which an artery paffes to the nares. 
FIG. VII. 
A The convex part of the os fphenoides. B That part of it that makes the internal orbit. 
C The feptum of the fphenoidal finus. D D 7he internal ala of the pterygoid proceff es. 
E Proceffus fpinofus next the os petrofum. F The third foramen of the fcull. 
G G The external ala of the pterygoid proceffes. H The firfi foramen of the fcull. 
I Proceffus innominati. K The fphenoidal finus. L Foramen lacerum. 
M The foramen through which an artery paffes to the nofe. 
F IG. VIII. 
A A That part of the fphenoides that makes part of the orbit of the eye. 
B B The convex part of the os fphenoides. C The Septum of the fphenoidal finus. 
D D The fourth foramina of the fcull. E E Proceffus fpinofi zvhichjoin to the off a petrofa. 
F F The external ala of the pterygoid proceffes. G The internal ala. 
H The firfi foramen of the fcull. I Foramen lacerum. K The fphenoidal finus, 
L The third foramen of the fcull. 
M The foramen through which the artery paffes to the nofe. VIII 
FIG I 
FIG II 
FIG III 
FIG IIII 
FIG V 
FIG VI 
FI(x YII 
FIG 
VIII TABLE IX. 
FIG. I. 
The lower jaw with the teeth. 
A A Procejfus condyloides. B B Proceffus coronalis. 
C A Foramen through which the blood-veffels and a branch of the fifth pair of nerves enter 
for the nourifhment of the teeth. 
D That through which they come out, E E Two of the dentes incifores. 
F One of the dentes canini. G Four of the dentes molares. 
F I G. II. 
The upper jaw with the teeth. 
A A The upper part which is joined by a future above to the os frontis, on the fore part to the 
offa nafty and on the back part to the os unguis. 
B B Foraminay through which a branch of the fifth pair of nerves, and veffels pafs to the 
face• 
C C Thofe parts which are joined to the offa malarum. 
D A future which parts the jaw in the middle, DD Dentes incifores. 
E Dens caninus. F Dentes molares, 
FIG. III. 
The fockets of the teeth of one half of the lower jaw. 
A Proceffus condyloides. B Procejfus coronalis. 
C The fockets of the teeth, as they appear upon taking away their external Jides. 
D A foramen through which the blood-veffels and nerve pafs from the teeth, 
fig. iiii. 
Half of the upper jaw with its antrum. 
A The procefs of the upper jaw, that joins to the os nafi\ frontisy &c. 
B That part that joins to the os mala. 
C That part of it that contributes towards making the orbit of the eye. 
D A foramen through which the nerve pajfes to the face. E Antrum Highmorianum. 
F A little procefs without a name, G Dentes inciforii. H Dens caninus. I Dentes molares. 
• fig y 
The internal view of half of the lower jaw. 
A Proceffus coronalis. B Proceffus condyloides. 
C A foramen through which the veffels and nerve pafs to the teeth. 
D The an fie of the lower jaw. E A remarkable rough ridge. F The bony cells. 
FIG. VI. 
The infide of one half of the ppper jaw. 
A That part towards the cavity of the nofe. 
B 7he upper part of it that joins to the os frontis, nafiy &c. 
C That part that joins to the other half of the upper jaw. 
D That part that makes the greatefi fhare of the roof of the mouth. 
E That part that joins to the os palati. 
F The little procefs that appears in the fore part of the cavity of the nofe. 
G One of the dentes inciforii. 
FIG. VII. 
The teeth of both jaws. 
A Eight of the teeth of the upper jaw. B Eight of the lower jaw. 
G Two of the dentes molares grown into each other. 
P One of the dentes molares faw'd perpendicularly to fhew the cavities, through which the 
yeffels and nerve pafs. IX 
Fid i 
Fid ii 
Fid mi 
Fid hi 
Fid VI 
rid v 
FI 6 VII TABLE X. 
FIG. I. 
The vertebrae of the neck. 
X, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7. The fpongey bodies of the vertebra. 
A A The tranfverfe proceffes of the firji vertebra natnd atlas. 
B B Tranfverfe proceffes of the vertebra. 
C The fpinal procefs of the feventh vertebra. 
D D The inferior oblique proceff es of the feventh vertebra. 
FIG. II. 
The twelve vertebrae of the thorax. 
1, 2, 3, &c. The fpongey bodies of the vertebra. 
A A The fuperior oblique proceffes of the firfi vertebra of the back. 
BBBBBBBB The tranfverfe proceffes, 0/ /dvz fuperior of which, is a Jims 
that receives the ribs. 
C C C C C The fpinal proceffes. 
D D Shallow fmufes in the fpongey bodies of the vertebra which receive the ends of the ribs. 
E E The inferior oblique proceffes of the lafl vertebra of the back. 
FIG. III. 
The five vertebrae of the loins. 
1, 2, 3, 4, 5. The anterior fpongey bodies of the vertebra• 
A A The fuperior oblique proceffes. 
B B B B B The tranfverfe proceffes. 
C A fpinal procefs. FIG I 
FIG II 
FIG III TABLE XL 
FIG. I. 
The under fide of the firft vertebra, * 
A Foramen. B B The articulation with the fecond vertebra. 
C The articulation with the procejfus dentatus of the fecond. D The fide. 
E E The perforations for the cervical arteries. F The fore part. 
G G The tranfverfe proceffes. H The hind part. 
F I G. II. 
A Foramen. BB Toe articulation with the os occipitis. C Toe fore part. 
D D The tranfverfe proceffes. E E The foramina for the cervical arteries. 
F The hind part. 
FIG. III. 
The fecond vertebra. 
A Proceffus dentatus. B The articulation with the firfl vertebra. 
C A lower procefs Y> Proceffus tranfverfus. E Proceffus obliquus. 
F Proceffus fpinalis. 
FIG. Ill I. F I G. V. 
The fourth and fifth vertebras 
A A Foramina. B B The bodies of the vertebra C C C C The oblique proceffes. 
DDDD The tranfverfe proceffes with their foramina. EE Proceffus fpinales. 
F I G. VI. 
The loweft vertebra of the neck. 
A Foramen. B Tloe body. C C Oblique proceffes. 
D D Tranfverfe proceffes. E The fpinal procefs. 
F I G. VII. F I G. VIII. 
The fixth and feventh vertebrae of the back. 
A A The bodies. BBBB The oblique proceffes which articulate together. 
CCCC Toe tranfverfe proceffes. DDD The other oblique proceffes. 
E E The fpinal proceffes. 
F 1 G. IX. 
The loweft vertebra of the back, 
A The body. B The articulation of the lowefl rib. C The oblique proceffes. 
D The tranfverfe proceffes. E The fpinal procefs. 
FIG. X. FIG. XI. 
The third and fourth vertebrae of the loins. 
A A The bodies that joyn together. BBBB The oblique proceffes that joyn together. 
CCCC The tranfverfe proceffes. DD The fpinal proceffes. 
E E Oblique proceffes. FIG I 
FIG II 
FIG III 
FIG VI 
FIG Till 
FlGV 
FIG VII 
FIG X 
FIG vm 
fig XI 
FIG IX TABLE XII. 
FIG. I. 
The lafl vertebra of the loins. 
A The under fide of its fpongey body. 
B B The inferior oblique proeeffes. 
C One of the fuperior oblique proeeffes. 
D D The tranfverfe proeeffes. 
E The fpinal procefs. 
FIG. II. 
The forefide of the os facrum. 
, s 
i, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6. Parts of the os facrum, young fubjeSs are dif inB bones. 
A That part of the os facrum, zvhich articulates with the fpongey body of the lowejl vertebra 
of the loins. 
BB Two proeeffes of the os facrum, which articulate with the inferior oblique proeeffes of 
the lafl vertebra of the loins. 
C That part of the os facrum, which articulates with the os coccygis. 
D That part of the os facrum, which joins with the os innominatum. 
E E, See. Foramina for the exit of the nerves. 
FIG. III. 
The back fide of the os facrum. 
A A The two proeeffes, which articulate with the inferior vertebra of the loins. 
B That part which articulates with the os innominatum. 
C Remarkable ruga & foramina. 
DD Two fpinal proeeffes. 
E E, Sec. Foramina for the puff age of the nerves. 
F The channel through which the medulla fpinalis paffes. 
G The end of that channel. 
F I G. IIII. 
The external view of the os coccygis. 
i) 2, 3, 4. Shews its compoftion of four diflinB bones in young fubje&s. 
FIG. Y. 
i# 2, 3, 4, 5. The external view of the osFoccygis, with part of the os facrum. XII 
I1 G» II 
nci i 
Fl£ III 
n(r v 
tfi (J iiii TABLE XIII. 
F I G. I. 
i, 2, 3, &c. Sixteen of the fuperior vertebras fawed through to Ihew their fpongey texture. 
A A The Channel in which the fpinal marrow is contained. 
B B The fpinal proceJJ'es of thefe vertebra. 
C A wire pafs'd through the bodies of the vertebra. 
FIG. II. 
17, 18, &c. The remaining vertebras of the fpine faw’d through. 
A A The channel for the medulla fpinalis. 
B B The fpinal procejfes of thefe vertebra. 
C The wire paffing through the bodies of the vertebra. 
• • • • T' ' ' , 
D The os facrum faw*d through its middle. XIII 
TTI Gr II 
TIG I TABLE XIV. 
Fig. i,ii,hi,iv,v,vi* 
The fix upper ribs. 
AAA, &c. 7hofe parts of the ribs, which articulate with the pro cejfes of the fpongey bodies 
of the vertebray 
BBB, &c. Thofe parts of the ribs7 which articulate with the tranfverfe proceffes of the ver- 
tebra. 
C C C, &c. 7*he extremities of the ribsy which join to the cartilages of the flernum. 
DDD, See. Sinufes in the internal and inferior parts of the ribs for the pctjfage of the inter- 
cojial veffels• XIV 
FIG I 
FI G IIv 
.FIG III 
fi g mi 
.FIG V 
FIG VI TABLE XV. 
FIG. I. 
The fixth and feventh vertebra of the back, with part of the feventh rib. 
A A fmooth firms in the tranfverfe procefs, into which a procefs of the fixth rib is received. 
B Another fmus, into which the end of the rib is received\ 
C Part of the feventh rib. 
D The union of the feventh rib> with the tranfverfe procefs of the vertebra. 
FIG. ii, hi, iv, v, vi, vii. 
The fix loweft ribs. 
AAA, &c. The ends which are articulated to the vertebra. 
BBBB The proceffes which articulate with the tranfverfe proceffes of the vertebra. 
CCC, &c. The ends next the fiernum which join to the cartilages. 
DDD, &c. The fmufes of the ribs} in which the veffels pafs. TIG I 
TIG II 
TIG III 
tig mi 
TIG V 
TIG VI 
nci vii TABLE XVI, 
FIG. I. 
The forefide of the fternuiru 
AAA Three bones of the fiernum of a young man* 
B The lower part of the fiernum not yet offified\ 
BBB The ends of the ribs joining to the cartilages of the fiernum, 
C The cartilago enfiformis double in this fubjeB. 
D D The cartilaginous parts of the fiernum. 
FIG. II. 
AAA, &c. The bony part of the fiernum in five difiinB bones. 
B d perforation fometimes found in the fiernum, XVI 
PI Cr I 
FIG II TABLE XVII. 
FIG. I. 
„ The iniide of the fternum. 
A A A A Four difiinB bones• 
B Cartilago enfiformis. 
C C C The ends of the ribs joining to the cartilages of the fternum. 
FIG. II. 
The external view of part of another fternum. 
A A, &c. Five diftinB bones of the fternum. 
B One cartilage dividing to two ribs, which is not a very uncommon lufus nature. 
C An imperfeB cartilage. 
D A perforated cartilago enfiformis. XVII 
FI I 
TIC II TABLE XVIII. 
FIG. I. 
The outward view of the offa innominata. 
A The external part of the os ilium. 
B The ohtufe procefs of the os ilium• 
C C The part of the acetabulum or focket of thefe hones, which is covered with a cartilage for 
the motion of the os femoris. 
D Afrnus in the acetabulum, in which is lodged the lubricating gland of this jo int, and in which 
the ligamentum teres lies fecure from being hurt by the motion of the os femoris. 
E That part of the os pubis, which joins the other os pubis* 
F The acute procefs of the os Mi* 
G The obtufe procefs. 
H That part of the os ilii, which joins the os facrum. 
I The foramen of the offa innominata* 
FIG. II. 
The internal view of the offa innominata. 
A The inward and concave fide of the os illii* 
B The part which joins the os facrum. 
C Aroughnefs for the origin of ligaments and tendons. 
D The obtufe procefs* 
E The acute procefs of the os ifchii* 
F The foramen of the offa innominata. 
G That part of the os which joins the other os pubis* XVIII 
FIG I 
FIG II TABLE XIX. 
The anterior view of the trunk of a fceleton, 
2, 3, &e. to 24. Three and twenty of the vertebra, the atlas being taken off with the fculL 
1, 2, &c. to 12. The ribs. 
A Proceffus dentatus of the fecond vertebra. 
B The tranfverfe proceffes of the vertebra of the neck. 
C C The clavicles. 
P D The acetabula of the fcapula. 
EE Proceffus Coracoides. 
F F Proceffus acromion. 
G The bone of the Jlernum9 
H H The cartilages of the fiernum. 
I The lowefi bone of the fiernum, to which is joined the cartilago enfiformh. 
K ft facrum. 
L ft coccygis. 
M M illia, 
N pubis. 
O ft ifchium. 
P P The tranfverfe proceffes of the vertebra of the loins. XIX TABLE XX. 
6, 7* The iwo lowefl vertebra of the neck. 
8, g, &c. to 19. The twelve vertebra of the back. 
20 to 24. The five vertebra of the lorn. 
1, 2, 3 to 12. The ribs. 
A The under fide of the fternum. 
B B The tranfverfe procejfes of the vertebra of the loins. 
C 05 facrum. 
D D Offa ilia. 
E E Offa ifchia. 
F F The acute procejfes. 
G Os pubis. XX TABLE XXI. 
FIG. I. 
A fide view of the vertebrae of the fpine. 
A The fpinal procejfes of the vertebra of the neck. 
B B B The fpinal procejfes of the vertebra of the back and loins. 
C The os facrum. 
D D The tranfverfe procejfes of the fix lowejl vertebra of the neck. 
E E The tranfverfe procejfes of the vertebra of the back. 
F F Parts of the vertebra to which the ribs are articulated. 
G One of the foramina through which the nerves pafs from the fpinal marrow. 
H H The intervening cartilages. 
FIG. II. 
The fore-view of the vertebrae of the fpine, the lower end upwards. 
A Os facrum. 
B The foramina through which the nerves pafs from that bone. 
C C The tranfverfe procejfes of the vertebra of the loins. 
D D The tranfverfe procejfes of the vertebra of the back. 
E E The tranfverfe procejfes of the fix lowejl vertebra of the neck, XXI 
FIG II 
TTIGt I TABLE XXII. 
FIG. I. 
The convex fide of the fcapula. 
A A The fpine of the fcapula. 
B Proceffm acromion. 
C Proceffm coracoides. 
D Acetabulum. 
E The dorfum fcapula above the fpine. 
F The fuperior cofla of the fcapula. 
G G Bafts fcapula. 
H The dorfum fcapula below the fpme. 
11 The inferior cofa of the fcapula. 
K The fuperior angle of the fcapula. 
L The inferior angle of the fcapula. 
FIG. II. 
The concave fide of the fcapula. 
A A The roughneffes on the inftde of the fcapula. 
B The bafts of the fcapula. 
C That part of the proceffm acromion? which the clavicle is articulated, 
D The fpine of the fcapula. 
E Proceffm coracoides. 
F The edge of the acetabulum fcapula. 
G The neck of the fcapula. 
H The fuperior cofa of the fcapula. 
I fuperior angle of the fcapula. 
K femicircular fmus on the fuperior cofa, 
L The inferior angle of the fcapula. 
M M inferior cofla of the fcapula. 
FIG. III. 
The upper furface of the clavicle. 
A The end that is articulated with the proceffus acromion. 
B The end that is articulated with the flernum. 
FIG. IY. 
The under furface of the clavicle, 
A The end that joins to the proceffm acromion. 
B roughnefs for the origin of ligaments and mufcular fibres. 
C The end that joins to the flernum, 
D A remarkable roughnefs. XXII 
PI Cl I 
PIG! 
III 
FIG II 
FIG, 
IIII TABLE XXIII. 
FIG. I. 
The forefide of the os humeri. 
A !The head of the os humeri. 
B A tubercle near the head of the os humeri for the infertion of mufcles% 
C Another tubercle for the infertion of mufcles. 
D The finus in which one of the heads of the biceps lies. 
E A cavity which receives a procefs of the ulna. 
F The internal apophyfis of the os humeri. 
G The external apophyfis of the os humeri. 
H That part which articulates with the radius. 
I That part which articulates with the ulna. 
FIG. II. 
The outfide of the os humeri. 
A The Head of the os humeri. 
B A tubercle nigh the head of the os humeri for the infertion of mufcles. 
C A cavity which receives the olecranon ulnce. 
D The internal apophyfis of the os humeri. 
E The external apophyfis of the os humeri. 
F That part which artjculates with the ulna. XXIII 
lit 
T'lG 
I 
II TABLE XXIV. 
FIG. I. 
The radius and ulna, 
A The end of the radius that receives the bones of the carpus. 
B The round end of the ulna which the radius turns upon. 
C Procejfus Jlyliformis. 
D The fpace between the two bones that is fill'd up with a ligament. 
E The tubercle of the radius for the infertion■ of the biceps mufcle. 
F A tubercle on the ulna for the infertion of the brackeus mufcle. 
G The round end of the radius that turns upon the ulna. 
H Olecranon ulna, cavity whtch receives the os humeri. 
FIG. II. 
The ulna. 
A The extremity of the ulna next to the carpus. 
B Procejfus Jlyliformis ulna. 
C The fmooth cavity which receives the head of the radius. 
P Olecranon ulnay and the cavity which receives the os humeri. 
FIG. III. 
The radius. 
A The fmooth cavity which receives the end of the ulna. 
B A [harp ridge on the middle of the radius. 
C The tubercle of the radius. 
P the round head of the radius that articulates with the upper part of the ulna. FlC iii 
Fl£ I 
FIG} II TABLE XXV. 
FIG. I. 
The backfide of the hand. 
i, 2, 3, 5, 6, 7, 8. iSmvz of the bones of the carpus. 
AAA The three bones of the thumb. 
B B B B The metacarpal bones of the fingers. 
C C C C The firfl bones of the fingers. 
D D D D The fecond bones. 
E E E E The third bones. 
F I G. II. 
That part of the carpal bones, which articulate with the thumb and fingers. 
A The bone upon which the thumb is placed. 
B That upon which the metacarpal bone of the forefinger is placed. 
C That upon which the metacarpal bone of the middle fing°r is placed. 
D E That upon which the metacarpal bones of the two la ft fingers are placed. 
F G Two procejfes, to which the carpal ligament is conneBed. 
H The carpal bone, from which part of the fame ligament arifes. 
FIG. III. 
The infide of the hand. 
1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8. The eight bones of the carpus. 
AAA The three bones of the thumb. 
B B B B The metacarpal bones of the fingers. 
C C C C The firfl bones of the fingers. 
DDDD The fecond bones. 
E E EJ E The third bones. FI£ I 
FIC II 
fight TABLE XXVI. 
FIG. I. 
The outfide of the fcapula, arm and hand. 
A A The hones of the fingers. 
B B The metacarpal hones. 
C The hones of the thumb. 
D The hones of the carpus. 
E The radius. 
F Ulna. 
G The articulation of the radius and ulna with the os humeri. 
H Os humeri. 
I Procefius coracoides. 
K K The convex part of the fcapula. 
L The clavicle• 
FIG. II. 
The infide of the fcapula, arm and hand. 
A The concave part of the fcapula. 
B The clavicle. 
C Oj humeri. 
D Radius. 
E KW. 
F Carpus. 
G Metacarpus. 
H thumb. 
II The hones of the fingers. 
K The joint of the humerus. 
L The articulation of the elbow. XXVI 
FIG II 
FIG I TABLE XXVII. 
FIG. I. 
The forefide of the os femoris. 
A The head of the os femoris. 
B The neck of the os femoris. 
C The great trochanter. 
D The little trochanter. 
E F The two lower apophyfes of the os femoris. 
G That part of the os femoris, upon which the patella lies. 
F I G. II. 
The backfide of the os femoris. 
A The head of the os femoris. 
B The great trochanter. 
C The neck of the os femoris. 
D The body of the os femoris. 
E remarkable roughneffes near the trochanter. 
F The little trochanter. 
G Linea afpera. 
HI The two lower apophyfes of the os femoris. 
K K The parts of the os femoris, againjl which the tibia moves. 
L cavity between the two apophyfes. 
F I G. III. 
A The forefide of the patella. 
B The lower extremity of the patella, by which it is fixed to the tibia. 
C The upper end> into which the mufcles are inferted. 
FIG. IV. 
A The under fide of the patella, which moves upon the os femoris. 
B The lower part, by which it is tied to the tibia. FICrJ 
II 
FIG III 
FI CF 
I 
FKt Jill Stable xxviii. 
FIG. I. 
The forefi.de of the tibia and fibula. 
A A procefs from which the crofs ligaments arife. 
B The procefs to which the ligament of the patella is fix'd. 
C A remarkable impreffion of the mufcles. 
D The procefs which makes the inner ankle. 
E That end of the tibia which articulates with the foot. 
F The head of the fibula. 
G The end of the fibula that makes the outer angle. 
FIG. II. 
The backfide of the tibia. 
A That part of the tibia, with which the head of the fibula is articulated. 
B B The fockets in which the apophyfes of the os femoris are received. 
C The procefs from which the crofs ligaments arife. 
D The perforation through which the vejfels pafs to the internal fubftance of the bone. 
E The fpine of the tibia from which the tranfverfe ligament arifes. 
F The outfide of the tibia with which the lower end of the fibula is articulated. 
G The procefs of the tibia which makes the inner ankle. 
H I The end of the tibia which receives the aflragalus. 
FIG. III. 
The infide of the fibula. 
A A procefs at the upper end of the fibula into which a ligament is fixed. 
B A fharp edge of the fibula. 
C The lower end of the fibula which makes the outer ankle. XXVIII 
FIG I 
Fl£ TT 
Fl£ III TABLE XXIX. 
FIG. I. 
The under fide of the bones of the foot. 
A Os calcis. BCD Three protuberances of the os calcis. 
E The fmooth part of the afiragalus which joins the os naviculare. 
F The upper fide of the afiragalus which articulates with the tibia. 
G Os naviculare. H Os cuboides. I A fulcus in the os cuboides. 
K Os cuneiforme majus. L Os cuneiforme maximum. 
M The metatarfal bone of the great toe. 
N The part upon which the fefamoid bones are moved. 
O The firfi bone of the great toe. P The lafi bone of the great toe. 
QffQffThe metatar fal bones of the four lejfer toes. 
R R R R The firfi bones of the four lejfer toes. 
S S S S The fecond bones of the four lejfer toes. 
T T T T The lafi bones of the four lejfer toes. 
FIG. II. 
The fefamoid bones of the great toe. 
FIG. III. 
The upper fide of the bones of the foot. 
A Afiragalus, that part which articulates with the tibia. B Os calcis. 
C A prominence of the os calcis. D Os naviculare. E Os cuboides. 
F Os cuneiforme majus. G Os cuneiforme minimum. H Os cuneiforme maximum. 
I The metatarfal bone of the great toe. K The firfi bone of the great toe. 
L The lafi bone of the great toe. M M M M The metatarfal bones of the four lejfer toes. 
N N N N The firfi bones of the four lejfer toes. 
O O O O The fecond bones of the four lejfer toes. 
P P P P The lafi bones of the four lejfer toes. 
FIG. IIII. 
The fide (next to the great toe) of the bones of the fecond toe. 
A That part of the metatarfal bone of the fecond toe which articulates with the os cuneiforme 
maximum. B The end which joins the toe. 
C The firfi bone of the toe. D The fecond. E The third. 
fig. y. 
The infide of the bones of the foot. , 
A Afiragulus. B That part of the afiragalus which articulates with that apophyfis of the 
tibia which makes the inner ankle. C Os calcis. D A protuberance of the os calcis. 
E Os naviculare. F Os cuneiforme maximum. 
G Afmooth fur face over which part of the tendon of the tibialis anticus paffes to be inferted 
into the metatarfal bone of the great toe. H Os cuneiforme minimum. 
I The metatarfal bone of the great toe. K The metatarfal bone of the fecond toe. 
L The metatarfal bones of the three lafi toes. M The fefamoid bone of the great toe• 
N The firfi bone of the great toe. O The lafi bone of the great toe, 
P The lafi bones of the two next toes. XXIX 
FI d I 
fiG iii 
Fid II 
FIG iiii 
FIG V TABLE XXX. 
FIG. I. 
The outfide of the bones of the lower limb. 
A The Head of the os femoris. 
B Trochanter major. C Trochanter minor. 
D The external apophyfis of the os femoris. 
E Patella. 
F The head of the t ibia. 
G The protuberance into which the ligament of the patella is inferted\ 
H The concave fide of the tibia. 
I The lower end of the tibia. 
K The upper end of the fibula. 
L The lower end of the fibula. 
M AJlragalus. 
N Of calcis. 
O Of cuboides. 
P Of navicular e. 
cuneiforme majus. 
R Of cuneiforme minimum. 
S Of cuneiforme maximum. 
T metatarfal bone of the great toe. 
U 7&0 0/ gr0#* toe. 
W The metatarfal bones of the four leffer toes. 
X The firfi bones of the four leffer toes. 
Y The fecond bones of the four leffer toes. 
Z The lajl bones of the four leffer toes. 
FIG. II. 
The infide of the bones of the lower limb. 
A The head of the os femoris. 
B Trochanter major. C Trochanter minor. 
D D Line a afpera. 
E The inner apophyfis of the os femoris. 
F 7#0 apophyfis. 
G Patella. 
H The upper end of the tibia. 
I The lower end of the tibia. 
K 0/ */>0 fibula. 
L 7#0 0W 0/ *£0 fibula. 
M Aflragalus. 
N Of calcis. 
O Of naviculare. 
P Of cuneiforme maximum. 
QjThe metatarfal bone of the great toe. 
R The firfi bone of the great toe. 
S 7)&0 /#/? £0/20 0/ *£0 *00. 
T Of fefamoides. 
U metatarfi. FI c; I 
fi<f 
II TABLE XXXI. 
The bones of a full grown foetus, in which their particular fihapes, 
divifions and textures are to be obferv’d. 
FIG. I. 
The fcull, in which the dire&ions of the fibres of the feveral bones are to be obferv’d. 
A The upper part not yet offified, 
B Os frontis. 
C Os bregmatis. 
F I G. II. 
The upper part of the os occipitis. 
FIG. III. 
The lower part of the os occipitis feparated. 
FIG. IIII. 
The bones which compofe one vertebra feparated. 
f i g. y. 
The circular bone of the os temporis on which the membrana tympani is extended. 
FIG. VI. 
The lower jaw. 
FIG. VII. 
The upper limb, in which the cartilaginous epiphyfes are diftinguifhed by a different 
manner of graving. 
A Scapula. 
B Os humeri. 
C Radius. 
D Ulna. 
E Carpus. 
F The bones of the thumb. 
G Metacarpus. 
H The bones of the fingers. 
FIG. VIII. 
The clavicle. 
FIG. IX. 
The lower limb, in which the cartilaginous epiphyfes are diftinguifhed by a different man- 
ner of graving. 
A Os femoris. B Patella. C Tibia. D Fibula. 
F I G. X. 
The os innominatum. 
FIG. XI. 
The bones of the foot. 
A Afiragalus. B The refl of the tarfus. C The bones of the great toe. 
D Metatarfus. E The bones of the four leffer toes. 
FIG. XII. 
The trunk of a full grown fetus. 
A The Spine. B Sternum. C The Ribs. 
D The vertebra of the loins, E E OJfa innominata. F Os facrum, XXXI 
FIG I 
FIG II 
FIG III 
FlG V 
fig mi 
FI G VII 
fig VI 
FIG X 
FIG IX 
fi g viii 
FIG XI 
FIG XII TABLE XXXII. 
The fceleton of a child a year and a half old, with the os humeri 
of a man in the left hand, to Ihew by comparifon the fize of 
the child j here alfo are to be obferved the different fhapes 
and textures of the feveral bones. 
A Os frontis. 
B The hones of the face. 
C Clavicula. 
D Sternum. 
EE Of humeri. 
F F The hones of the cubit. 
G G The bones of the hand\ 
H The os humeri of an adult. 
I The ribs. 
K The fpine. 
LL Of innominatum. 
M facrum. 
N O5 coccygis. 
O O Oy femoris. 
P Patella. 
QjTibia. 
R The right leg forefhortened. 
S S 0/ XXXII TABLE XXXIII. 
The fceleton of a boy nine years of age, leaning on the fcull of 
an horfe, which comparatively fhews the lize of the boy ; here 
may be obferved how the lhapes and texture of the bones dif- 
fer both from younger and older fceletons. 
A Os frontis, 
B The bones of the face. 
C The jaws in which the teeth are newly changed. 
D D Clavicula. 
E E Os humeri. 
F F Radius and ulna. 
G G The bones of the hand\ 
H Sternum. 
I The fpine. 
K K K Off a innominata. 
L Os facrum. 
MM Oj femoris. 
NN Patella. 
O Tib ia. 
► 
P QjTibia and fibula. 
R R Tloe bones of the feet, XXXIII TABLE XXXIV. 
The fceleton of a woman, in the fame proportions with the 
venus of Medicis. 
A Os frontis. 
B The hones of the face. 
C The lower jaw. 
D The vertebrae of the neck• 
EE Clavicula. 
F Sternum. 
G G Os humeri. 
H H Radius ©* ulna. 
I The hones of the hand. 
K The vertebrae of the loins. 
L L L Offa innominata. 
M Os facrum. 
N N Os femoris. 
O Tibia. 
P Tibia• 
Q^Fibula. 
R R The bones of the feet. TABLE XXXV. 
The fceleton of a man, in the fame proportions and attitude 
with the Belvidere Apollo. 
A The cranium. 
B The bones of the face. 
C The jaws. 
D Clavicula. 
E Os humeri. 
F Sternum. 
G The bones of the cubit. 
H The bones of the hand. 
I The ribs. 
K The lumbal vertebra. 
LLL OJfa innominata. 
M Os facrum. 
N N Os femoris. 
O O Patella. 
P QJTibia. 
R Fibula. 
S The bones of the foot. XXXV TABLE XXXVI. 
The fide view of the fceleton of a very robuft man, put into 
this attitude to reprefent the figure in a larger fcale. 
A The bones of the cranium. 
B The bones of the face. 
C The jaws. 
D The fpinal proceffes of the vertebra of the neck. 
E Scapula. 
F F Os humeri. 
G G Radius & ulna. 
H The bones of the hand, 
I The ribs. 
K The cartilages of the Jlernum. 
L 7#? fpinal proceffes of the vertebra of the loins. 
MM Of innominatum. 
N Os facrum. 
O Os femoris. 
P Patella. 
QJTibia and fibula. XXXVI TABLE XXXVII. 
F I G. I. 
The back part of the fceleton of a man five feet and a half high, 
the left hand retting on the hip of another fceleton, which was 
near eight feet high. 
A Os bregmatis. 
B The bones of the face. 
C Os max dice inferior is. 
D The fpine. 
E E Scapula. 
F F Os humeri. 
- - , 
G G Radius and ulna. 
H H The bones of the hands. 
I Cofia. \ 
K K 0$ innominatum. 
L The obtufe procefs of the ifchium. 
M Os facrum. 
NN femoris. 
O O Tibia. 
PP Fibula. 
QJThe bones of the feet. 
FIG. II. 
The back part of fome of the bones of the lower limb of a man, near eight feet high. 
A A Os innominatum. 
B Trochanter major. 
C C Two lejfer trochanters. 
D Linea afpera. 
E The apophyfes of the os femoris. 
F Tibia. 
G G The out lines of the fibula.y and bones of the feet which were wanting. 
FIG. III. 
The fcull of the feme man. XXXVII 
Fid I 
Fid 
II TABLE XXXVIII. 
FIG. I. 
Part of the fcull and the upper vertebrae of the neck cut tranfverfe. 
A A The inner parts of the mamillary proceffes. 
B B The parts of the occipital bone which articulate to the firfl vertebra. 
C The part of the firfl vertebra that articulates with the os occipitis. 
D The dental procefs of the fecond vertebra difcerned through the ligament that holds it in its 
place. 
E F Other ligaments which flrengthen the articulation with the firfl vertebra. 
F I G. II. 
A The loofe cartilage of the condyloide procefs of the lower jaw. 
F I G. III. 
The bones of the carpus next the radius cover’d with their proper ligaments. 
A A A The cartilaginous fur faces that articulate with the other bones of the carpus for an ob- 
feme motion. 
B The cavity through which the tendons of the flexors pafs to the fingers. 
F I G. IIII. 
The remaining bones of the carpus which are articulated to the metacarpal bones cover’d 
with their proper ligaments. 
AB The cartilaginous fur faces of thefe bones which articulate with the other bones of the carpus. 
FIG. V. 
A The fcapula. 
B B B The burfal ligament of the acetabulum fcapula. 
C A ligament which joins the proceffus acromion and the coracoides. 
D A ligament which faftens the clavicle to the proceffus coracoides. 
F I G. VI. 
A The bones of the thumb united with its proper ligaments. 
BThe ligament of the fore finger which ties down the tendons. 
C A ligament which conneBs the ends of the metacarpal bones. 
D The ligament which ties down the tendons, cut open. 
E E Burfal ligaments of the fingers. 
F The tranfverfe ligament of the carpus that binds down all the tendons which bend the fingers. XXXVIII 
FIG I 
FIG II 
FlG III 
FIG TTTT 
FlG V 
FlG vi TABLE XXXIX. 
FIG. I. 
A The cartilaginous ligament that joyns the os facrum to the lafl vertebra. 
B A very ftrong ligament which joyns the os facrum to the os ilium. 
C A jlrong ligament which joyns the os facrum and coccygis to the obtufe procefs of the ifchium. 
D A ligament which joyns the fame bones to the acute procefs of the ifchium. 
E The burfal ligament that joyns the os femoris to the os innominatum. 
F I G. II. 
A The part of the acetabulum of the os innominatum (:overd with a cartilage) on which the 
os femoris is moved. 
B The head of the os femoris. 
C The ligamentum teres which hinders the os femoris from being luxated upwards. 
F I G. Ill; 
A The lubricating gland in the fmus of the focket of the os innominatum. 
B The ligament in the great foramen of the os innominatum. XXXIX 
TIG I 
TIG II 
tig hi TABLE XL. 
FIG. I. 
A A The apophyfes at the lower end of the os femoris cover d with cartilage. 
B The upper end of the tibia. 
C A ligament of this joynt which alfo moves the femilunar cartilage. 
D E The Jlrong crofs ligaments. 
F A ligament of this joynt which is fixed to the upper end of the fibula. 
F I G. II. 
A The outer and lower apophyfis of the os femoris. 
B Part of the burfal ligament. 
C The patella. 
P The ligament or tendon of the patella by which the extenfors aB upon the tibia. 
F I G. III. 
A That part of the os femoris on which the patella moves. 
B B Thofe parts of the apophyfes of the os femoris which move upon the tibia* 
C A ligament of this joynt which moves the femilunar cartilages. 
D D The jlrong crofs ligaments. 
E The fat in which the lubricating glands are contained. 
F The ligament or tendon of the patella. 
G The under fide of the patella. 
f i g. mi, 
A Part of the ligament of the patella. 
B B The femilunar cartilages of the knee. 
C C The upper end of the tibia. 
D D Part of the firong crofs ligaments. 
F I G. V. 
A A A A Strong ligaments on the under fide of the tarfus. 
P The tendon of the peroneus Ion q us. XL 
FIG I 
TIG II 
tig in 
tig ini 
FIC V TABLE XLI. 
FIG. I. 
A woman s fcull who died of the venereal difeafe. 
A The carious part of the fcull. 
B Great part of the upper jaw rotted away. 
F I G. II. 
The fcull of a man who died of the venereal difeafe. 
A The hones of the nofe. 
B The upper jaw. 
C C The orbits of the eyes, 
DD Procejfus jngales. 
E E Carious parts of the the places which appear in Jloadow being exfoliated through 
both tables. XLI 
FI dr I 
FIG 
II TABLE XLII. 
FIG. I. 
The caps of two fculls of men who died of the venereal difeafe, from both which 
had been many exfoliations: Communicated to me by Mr. Palmer late furgeon to 
the Lock hofpital. 
A AAA Tloe dura mater appearing in feveral places. 
F I G. II. 
The jaw of a woman with a large exoftofis: the jaw was broke by a fall at feven years 
old, from which time the exoftofis began, and continued to grow twenty years, and 
then caufed her death: Communicated to me by Dr. Hoddy. 
A A Part of the jaw. 
B The place where it was broke. 
C Teeth in the other fide of the jaw. 
DDDD The extremity of the exoftofis which was not entirely united in one mafs> and on the 
oppofite fide was a tooth m the middle of the tumour• XLII 
I'I Cr I 
FIG II TABLE XLIII. 
£art of the trunk of a crooked fceleton (dug out of a grave) in which all the bones 
were grown together. 
2, 3> 4> h 7, 8, p, io, n, 12, The lower vertebra of the thorax. 
jy iy 3, 4, y, The vertebra of the loyns. 
A Tranfverfe and fpmal proceffes of the upper vertebra of the back. 
B B Some of the ribs. 
C The back part of the vertebra of the loyns. 
D Os facrum. 
EE Os inmmmatum* XLIII TABLE XLIV. 
Two Views of the trunk of a crooked fceleton# 
FIG. I. 
A The five lower vertebrae of the neck. 
B B The ribs. 
C The vertebra of the loyns. 
DD Ojfia innominata. 
FI G. II. 
A The three lowejl vertebra of the neck. 
B B The ribs. 
C The vertebra of the loyns. 
DD Offa innominata. 
E ft facrum. 
F ft coccygis. XLIV 
TIG i 
r I dr II TABLE XLV. 
FIG. I. 
A dislocation of the os humeri from a fra&ure of the acetabulum fcapulae, which 
being broke the o$ humeri could not be retained in its place. 
A Scapula. 
B The head of the os humen. 
F I G. II. 
The bones of the elbow of a perfon who was born with an anchylofis, communicated 
to me by Mr. Goodwin an eminent furgeon at Lyn. 
A Os humeri. 
B Radius. 
C Ulna. 
FI G. III. 
Bones of a fcrophulous thumb. 
A The fecond hone corroded through. 
f i g. mi. 
An anchyloiis of the cubit from a fradture. 
A Ulna. 
B Radius. 
F I G. V. 
An anchyloiis of the lower vertebrae of the back. XLV 
FIG I 
FIG II 
FI G III 
FIG IIII 
FIG V TABLE XLVI. 
FIG. I. 
The os innominatum of a young man, who having an abfcefs formed in the joynt of 
the hip, the matter eroded the focket till it formed a paffage into the pelvis of 
the abdomen, and at length forming alfo a large abfcefs on the outfi.de of the thigh; 
that was opened, and whenever the patient coughed or went to ftool, the matter 
flowed plentifully out of the external wound, as in abfcefles of the abdomen. This 
is not the only cafe of the kind that I have feen. 
A The perforation in the bottom of the acetabulum. 
B B Parts made carious by the matter. 
F I G. II. 
The upper end of the os femoris of the fame perfon. 
A The head of the bone much eroded by the matter. 
F I G. III. 
A carious thigh bone of a young woman, who begun to L feafed upon her ha- 
ving menftrual obftru&ions: Communicated to me by the late Mr. Dobyns to 
St. Bartholomews hofpital. 
AAA Carious excrefcenfes9 
J3 B The lower apophyfes. FIG I 
FlG II 
FIG III TABLE XLVII. 
FIG. I. 
An anchylofis of the os innominatum and os femoris: Communicated to me by 
Mr. fPeftbrook, 
A A Parts that were broke off. 
B A part rough and carious, 
F I G. II. 
An anchylofis of the knee: Communicated to me by Rob. Gay Efq; late furgeon to 
St. Bartholomew’s hofpital. 
A Os femoris, 
B Patella. 
C Tibia, 
D Part of a broken knife flicking in the bone; which had been there from the mans infancy, 
and was furely the caufe of all the future mifchief XLVII 
F I (j I 
FlG II TABLE XLVIII. 
Bones of a woman who died of the venereal difeafe, to whom the Icull belonged 
Fig. I. Tab. XLI. and who had fcarce one found bone: Communicated to me by 
Mr. Danfie, furgeon to Kmgfland hofpital. 
FIG. I. Os femoris. 
A The head\ 
B Trochanter major. 
C Trochanter minor. 
D The carious part. 
E E The lower apophyfes. 
FIG. II. Os humeri. 
A The head, 
B A procefs. 
CC The carious part. 
D The large fmus. 
E The lower cartilaginous end\ 
F protuberance. 
F I G. III. 
A The infertion of the patella. 
B B The carious part. 
C The protuberance that forms the inner ankle. 
FIG. IIII. /?&&. 
A The upper end. 
B The carious part. 
C 7$? /tfwr XLVIII 
FIG I 
FlG III 
FIG II 
fig mi TABLE XLIX. 
FIG. I. 
The upper end of a thigh bone, in which matter being formed in the medullary cavity, 
encreafed till it burft the bone, and made it carious both within and without: Com- 
municated to me by Mr. Feme, furgeon to St. Thomas s hofpital. 
A The head. 
B B The parts broken and carious. 
F I G. II. 
The lower part of the fame bone. 
A A Car mis parts. 
B B The lower apophyfes. 
F I G. III. 
A knee diflocated from an impoftumation in the jo'ynt, commonly call’d a white fwel- 
ling: Communicated to me by the late Mr. Paul, furgeon to St Thomas s hofpital. 
A Os femoris. 
B Patella. 
C The lower end of the os femoris. 
D The upper end of the tibia. 
E Fibula. 
f i g. mi. 
A great part of the os humeri, including all the medullary cavity, of a young woman 
thirteen years of age; who after a favourable fmall pox, found a fwelling appear 
on her arm and ILoulder, which foon after fuppurated and broke a little below the 
head of the os humeri, and continued open for three years, when fhe was brought to 
Mr. Goodrich, furgeon in Ipfwich> July 173 2. He open’d a Anus about two inches 
downward towards the elbow, and continued to drefs it till the December following; 
he then took out this piece, which left every where, except where the wound was, as 
I judge from its appearance, portions of the external furface (from which I fuppofe 
the callus flow’d which fupply’d the place of this bone.) After the taking away of 
this bone, there was a great effufion of blood, neverthelefs fhe mended daily, tho* 
for two years together at times, little bits of bone came away; but being cur’d fhe 
recover’d fo good a ufe of her arm, as to be able to carry a pail of water, and having 
no other deformity in it, but what arifes from the wound. 
» 
A The place of the wound. 
B B Places where the medullary cavity appears. 
F I G. V. ; 
The upper end of the tibia of a boy made carious from a fcropliulous habit of body. 
A The upper end carious. 
B The middle of the bone found\ XLIX 
FI Gr I 
FICi III 
Fl£ II 
fi6 
IIII 
V TABLE L. 
FIG. ,1. FIG. II. 
The thigh bones of a foldier who was fhot in the right groin at the fiege of Gibralter; 
who being brought home the next winter, died foon after of a dropfy: The right 
thigh bone was wafted fo much as appears in the draught, and being weighed after 
they were both fawed lengthways with a fine faw, the right weighed lefs than half 
the weight of the other. 
F I G. III. 
The upper end of a thigh bone fra&ured near the joynt, in which cafe the limb always 
fhortens, and has ufually been miftaken for a diflocation. 
A The head of the hone. 
B The great trochanter. 
C The lejfer trochanter. 
D The frafture. 
f i g. mi. 
A fracture at the lower end of the thigh bone ill fet. 
A A The callus fhot out into proceffes. 
B Another callous procefs. FIG II 
FIG I 
FIG HI 
fig mi TABLE LX. 
FIG. I. 
A thigh bone broke in two places: Communicated to jne by Mr. Wefibrooh, a furgeon 
in IVeftminfter. * 
A The upper fra&ure. 
B The lower fraBure not lefs than the other, tho it does not appear fo large, being m per- 
fpeBive. 
FIG. II. 
The upper part of a thigh bone. 
A A large bony excrefcence. 
F I G. III. 
The lower end of the thigh bone, in which an anchylolis was begun. 
A The patella united to the os femoris. 
B B Parts united to the tibiay which being feparated with a little force appeared bloody like 
a bone from which a carious part is too foon forced off. 
C A fmall part on which the cartilage yet remained. LI 
FI G I 
FlG II 
FIG HI TABLE LII. 
FIG. I. 
The upper half of the tibia carious, 
A The upper end. 
B A little part founds which was cafiing off from the unfound: This and the following bone 
were both communicated to me by John Ranby Efq$ furgeon to the houfhold. 
F I G. II. 
Carious bones with many calous pointed excrefcenfes. 
A Tibia. 
B Fibula. 
C The end next the tarfus. 
F I G. III. 
The tibia of a man who had had the rickets: Communicated to me by Mr. Weflbrooh, 
furgeon in IVefiminfier. 
A A place which tbe fibula preffing upon had worn fmooth. LII 
FI G I 
TIG II 
F lG HI TABLE LIII. 
A most remarkable exoftofis of the tibia, drawn juft half its diameter: Communicated 
to me by Mr. Green, furgeon to St. Bartholomew's hofpital. 
FIG. I. 
The exoftofis on the upper and forepart of the tibia. 
A The lower end of the tibia. 
F I G. II. 
The back part of the fame bone. 
A The upper end of the tibia. 
B The lower end between which the bone is twifled. 
F I G. III. 
The fibula altered in its fhape from the prefture of the exoftofis on the tibia. FI G I 
fiG 
III 
FIG 
II TABLE LTV. 
FIG. I. 
The tibia and fibula joyned by a callus. 
A A Tibia. 
B Fibula. 
F I G. II. FI G. III. 
A A, AA Tibia and fibula joyned by a callus. 
F I G. IIII. 
An anchylofis. 
A 
B Fibula. 
C The metatarfal bones. 
D off from the bones of the tarfus, which were all joyned in one• LIV 
FIG I 
FIG II 
FI G III 
fig iiii TABLE LV. 
Diseased bones: Communicated to me by Monheur Morand. 
FIG. I. 
The os humeri of an officer thus difeafed from a gunfhot wound. 
A A Parts of the inner part of the hone feparated from the external party which is much 
difiended. 
B B Other orifices in the external part of the honey through which there was fo large a dtp- 
charge of matter, that the patient died of it. 
CC The external part of the hone carious. 
F I G. II. 
The inner part of the fame bone (feen at A A) feparately drawn. 
A The upper end. 
F I G. III. 
A fracture of the focket of the os innominatum downwards, which made a new kind 
of focket, but of no ufe. 
A Os puhis. 
B Os ifchii. 
C Part of the natural focket heat inwards. 
D The head of the os femoris. 
EE Part of the preternatural focket. 
F The upper and back part of the os femoris, 
f i g. mi. 
Another view of the fame bone. 
A The ohtufe procefs of the ifchium. 
B The acute procefs. 
C The head of the os femoris. 
P Part of the natural focket of the os innominatum, LV 
riG i 
Fid III 
Fid 
II 
FI 6 IIII TABLE LVI. 
A bony chalky fcetus which was faid to have lain in utero (I fuppofe in the faloppian 
tube) twenty fix years: Communicated to me by Monfieur Arne cm owner of the french 
anatomy waxwork. LVI II V VI VII XI XII XIII XVI XVII XVIII XIX XXI XXII XXIII XXIV XXV XXVI  XXVIII XXIX XXX XXXI XXXII XXXIII XXXIV XXXV XXXVI XXXVII XXXVIII XXXIX XLI XLII XLIII XLIV XLVII XLVIII XLIX LI LII LIV LV LVI FINIS.