i v.'.v.,\v. ;■ ■ ■,.,■.'/XVAWoMflaoOWSgBKVt'tV •■^••V^,^,•;^^•^^'■■^^•■'X^'Sffiffi^^reW•. NATIONAL LIBRARY OF MEDICINE Washington Founded 1836 U. S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare Public Health Service t THE DOMESTIC ENCYCLOPAEDIA; OR, A DICTIONARY OF FACTS, AND USEFUL KNOWLEDGE. COMPREHENDING A CONCISE VIEW OF THE LATEST DISCOVERIES, INVENTIONS, AND IMPROVEMENTS, CHIEFLY APPLICABLE TO RURAL AND DOMESTIC ECONOMY. TOGETHER WITH DESCRIPTIONS OF THE MOST INTERESTING OBJECTS OF NATURE AND ARTJ THE HISTORY OF MEN AND ANIMALS, IN A STATE OF HEALTH OR DISEASE ; AND PRACTICAL HINTS RESPECTING THE ARTS AND MANUFACTURES, BOTH FAMILIAR AND COMMERCIAL. ILLUSTRATED WITH NUMEROUS ENGRAVINGS AND CUTS. IN FIVE VOLUMES. VOLUME V. BY A. F. M. WILLICH, M.D. AUTHOR OF THE LECTURES ON DIET AND REGIMEN, IS'c.tS'c. FIRST AMERICAN EDITION; WITH ADDITIONS, APPLICABLE TO THE PRESENT SITUATION OF THE UNITED STATES I BY JAMES MEASE, M. D. AND FELLOW OF THE AMERICAN PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY. PHILADELPHIA: PUBLISHED BY WILLIAM YOUNG BIRCH, AND ABRAHAM SMALL, NO. 17, SOUTH SECOND-STREET. ROBERT CARS, PRINTER* 1804. District of Pennsylvania: to wit. Be it remembered, That on the eighth day of April, in the twenty- seventh Year of the Independence of the United States of America, William Young Birch, and Abraham Small, of the said District, have deposited in this Office the Title of a Book, the Right whereof they claim as Proprietors, in the words following, to wit: " The Domestic Encyclopedia ; or, A Dictionary of Facts, and Useful " Knowledge. Comprehending, a concise View of the latest Dis- " coveries, Inventions, and Improvements; chiefly applicable to " Rural and Domestic Economy. Together with Descriptions of the " most interesting Objects of Nature and Art; the History of Men " and Animals, in a State of Health or Disease; and practical " Hints respecting the Arts and Manufactures, both familiar and " commercial. Illustrated with numerous Engravings and Cuts. " In Five Volumes. Volume I. By A. F. M. Willich, M. D. " Author of the Lectures on Diet and Regimen, ijfe. isfc. First " American Edition ; with Additions applicable to the present situa- " tion of the United States. By James Mease, M..D. and Fellow of " the American Philosophical Society." In Conformity to the Act of the Congress of the United States, entituled, "An Act for the Encouragement of Learning, by securing the Copies of Maps, Charts, and Books, to the Authors and Proprietors of such Copies during the times therein mentioned," and also, to an Act, enti- tuled, " An Act supplementary to an Act, entituled, an Act for the Encouragement of Learning, by securing the Copies of Maps, Charts, and Books, to the Authors and Proprietors of such Copies, during the Times therein mentioned. And extending the Benefits thereof to the Arts of designing, engraving, and etching historical, and other Prints." ( L. S. ) D. CALDWELL, Clerk of the District of Pennsylvania. CONTENTS OF THE FIFTH VOLUME. PAGE Spirits, 26 Spirit of Wine, 27 Spleen, ib. Spleen-Wort, 28 Splents, ib. Sponge, ib. Spots, 29 Sprain, ib. Spring, 30 Spring-Grass-, ib, Spruce-Beer, 31 Spurge, ib. Spurge-Laurel, 32 Spurry, ib. Squill, ib. Squinting, 33 St. Vitus's Dance, 34 Stable, 35 Staggers, ib. Stair Case, 36 Star-of-Bethlehem, 37 Star-Grass, ib. Star-Wort, ib. Starch, ib. Starling, - - 39 Staves-Acre, ib. Stays, ib. Steam, - - 40 Steam-dish, 41 Steel, 43 Steel-Yard, 44 Stirrup, - ib. Stomach, r 45 Stone, 46 Stones, (with a Plate), 49 Stone-Crop, 51 Storax, ib. Stove, 52 Strains, 53 PAGE SNUFF 1 Soal 2 Soap ib. 5 ib. Soda ib. Soft-grass 6 Soil 7 Soiling ib. Solidago 8 Solomon's Seal ib. Soot 9 Sorrel, the Common ib. 10 ib. Soup ib. Sow-bread 11 Sow-thistle ib. Sowing 12 Soy ib. Spade, (with a Cut,) 13 Spar - r 14 Sparrow ib: Spasm 15 Spatling-Poppy, - 16 Spearwort, the Great, ib. . ib. Spectacles, ib. Speedwell, 17 Spencer, Marine, 18 Spermaceti, • - <• - 19 Spice, 20 Spider, 22 Spider-Wort, 23 Spignel, ib. Spike-Oil, 24 Spinach, ib. Spindle-Tree, ib. Spinning, 25 VOL. V. A CONTENTS. page PAGE. Strangles, 54 Tennis, 103 Straw, 55 Terrier, ib' Strawberry, 56 Tetrao, tb. Strawberry-Tree, 59 Theatre, 104 Straw-Cutter, 60 Thermometer, 105 Sturgeon, 62 Thirst, 112 Styptic, ib. Thistle, ib. Sublimate, ib. 63 113 Succory, Thorn-Apple, ib. Suffocation, ib. Thrashing, 114 Sugar, ib. Thrift, ib. Suicide, 73 Throat, 115 Sulphur, 74 Throstle, ib. 75 Thrush, ib. Sumach-Tree, ib. Thunder, 116 Sundew, ib. Thyme, 117 Sun-Flower, 76 Tide, 118 Sun-Scorched, 77 Tile, 119 Surfeit, ib. Tillage, ib. ib. 78 TlLIA, Timber, 120 Suspension, by the Cord, ib. Swallowing, 79 Time, 138 Swallow-Wort, ib. ib. Swamp, 80 Timothy-Grass, 139 Sward-Cutter, ib. Tin, 140 Swearing, ib. Tincture, 142 Sweat, 81 Tinning, 143 Sweating-Sickness, ib. Toad, ib. Sweep-Chimney, ib. Tobacco, 144 Swimming, 82 Tolu, 152 Swinging, 83 Tom-Tit, ib. Swoon, 84 Tongue, 153 Sycamore-Tree, 85 Tonsils, 155 Sympathy, ib. Tool, ib. Syrup, 86 Tormentil, ib. Tortoise, 156 Tacamahaca, 87 Touch-Wood, ib. Talc, ib. Tourniquet, ib. Tanning, - 88 Tower-Mustard, 151 Tansy, 90 Tragacanth, ib. Tap-Cock, ib. Transfusion. ib. Tape-Worm, 91 Transplantation, 159 Tar, 92 Traveling, ib. Tarragon, 94 Treacle, 189 Tarras, ib. Tree, 190 Tartar, ib. Tree-Mallow, 193 Taste, 95 Trefoil, • ib. Tea-Tree, ib. 194 199 Teasel, 98 Truffle, Teeth, ib. Tumbrel, (with a Cut"), 200 Telescope, 101 i Tumor, - " _ 201 Temperance, 102 | Tupelo Tree. ib. Tendons, ib. ! Turbith, 202 CONTENTS.' *ii« page PAGE 202 ib. Washing, Wasp, - 344 Turf, 345 Turkey, ib. Water, (with Cuts and a plate) , 346 Turmeric, 203 Water-Aloe, 359 Turnep, (with Cuts), Turning, '"Tiirn^fil - ib. ib. 215 360 216 217 ib. Turpentine, Turtle ib. ib. 361 Tutenag, 216 Wax, -362 Tutsan, ib. Weaning, - 363 Types, ib. Weasel, - ib. Typhus, 219 Weasel-Snout, 364 Weather, ib. Valerian, 221 Weather-Glass, 365 Valisneria, 222 Weaving, ... 366 Vanilla, 223 Weed, ... ib. Vapour, ib. Weigh, ... 368 Varnish, 224 Weights, (to raise) ib. Vault, 234 Weight, - 369 Veal, ib. Weighing-Bridge, 371 Vegetable Kingdom, 235 Well, (with a Cut), 372 Vegetation, 261 Wen, 377 Veins, 267 Whale, 378 Veneering, ib. Wheat, (with a Cut), 379 Verdigrease, 275 Wheel, - - 392 Verditer, 276 Whetstone, 402 Verjuice, ib. Whey, - ib. Vervain, 277 Whin-Chat, ib. Vessel, ib. W'hiskey,. - - 403 Vetch, or Tare. 279 White-Swelling, ib. 284 White-Washing, 404 285 Whiting, id. Vine, ib. Whitlow, 405 Vlllf^OVlV — 325 •■') Violet, 327 Widgeon, ib. Viper's Bugloss, ib. Willow, 4C6 Vitriol ib. ..........Herb, 409 Vives, 328 Wind, ib. Ulcer, 329 410 Vomiting, 332 Wind-Gall, 411 Usquebaugh, 334 412 Uvula, ib. Windmill, (with a Cut), ib. Wind-Pipe, 413 Waggon, 3.".5 Window, (with a Cnt,) 414 Wainscot, 339 Wine, - - - 416 Wake-Robin, ib. Winnow, 420 Wall-Cress, ib. Wire, ... 422 Walnut-Tree, ib. Withers, ib. Warbles, 342 Woad, ib. Warmth, (with a Cut), ib. Wolf's-Bane, 4i3 Warping, 343 Wolves-Teeth, 414 Warts, 344 Wood, ... ib. Wart-Wort, tft. Woodcock, - 428 viii. CONTENTS. PAGE Wood-pecker, 428 Yard, Woodroof, - 430 Yarn, Wool, ib. Yarrow, Worms, - 437 Yawning, 438. Yeast, Wormwood, ib. Yellow, Wort, ... 439 Yellow-Fever, Wound, ib. Yellow-Hammer, Wounds, in Farriery, 443 Yellow-Rattle, Woundwort, m - ib. Yellows, Wren, - 444 Yew-Tree, Wrestling, ib. Yoke, Writing, ib. Youth, Wry-Neck, 445 Zaffre, Xanthoxylon, 446 Zedoary, Xanthorhiza, 447 Zinc, Yam, 448 Zizany, PAGE 449 ib. 450 ib. 451 457 458 465 ib. ib. 468 470 ib. 473 474 ib. 476 PLATES IN THE FIFTH VOLUME. I. Plate of a Machine for clearing stones from land; and of a Straw-Cutter, to face p. 49. II. Munning's and Knight's Turnip-Drills, and Trans- planter, p. 205. III. Searjant's Machine to raise water; and Besant's Undershot Wheel, p. 352. IV. Hoisting Machine, p. 368. V. &? VI. Weighing Bridge, p. 371. VII. Xanthorhiza Tinctoria, p. 448. INDEX TO THE CORRESPONDING SYNONYMS, OR INVERSIONS OF TERMS, OCCURRING IN THE FIFTH VOLUME. Sole; see SoaL Somnambulism; see Sleep-walk- ing. Sour-trefoil ; see Sorrel, the Common. Spanish Fly ; see Fly, the Span- ish. Spanish Lilac; see Lilac, the Common. Spear-thistle ; see Thistle. Spelt; see Wheat. Spicknel; see Spignel. Spinell; see Ruby. Spunk; see Touchwood. Square Barley; see Bere. Squash; see Gourd. St. James's Wort; see Ragwort, the Common. Starwort, the Water; see Star- grass. Stinking Flower-de-luce ; see Flower-de-luce. Storm-glass; see Weather-glass. Strasburgh-turpentine; see Tur- pentine. Strawberry-trefoil; see Trefoil. Stricken; see Quarter-evil. Suffolk, or Skim-cheese; see Cheese. Sugar-cane; see Sugar. Sulphuric-a'cid; see Vitriolic- acid. Summer-barley; see barley. Sun-fish; see Shark, the Bask- ing. Sweet-cicely; see Cicely, the Sweet. Swine-pock ; see Chicken-pock. Swine's-cress; see Scurvy-grass. Swiss-cheese; see Cheese. Sympathetic Ink; see Ink. Tangle; see Sea-wrack, the Es- culent, r Terras; see Tarras. Threshing; see Thrashing. Tine-tare; see Vetch, the Corn. Tombac; see Zinc. Traas; see Tarras. Tree-moss ; see Liverwort, the Officinal Stringy. Trefoil-buck-bean; see Buck- bean. Venice-turpentine; see turpen- tine. Venice-treacle ; see Treacle, the Venice. Wakefulness; see Waking. Water-chickweed; see Star- grass. Water-crow-foot; see Crow- foot. Water-crow-foot, the Round- leaved; see Crowfoot. Water-dropwort; see Dropwort. Water-fennel; see Star-grass. Water-flower-de-luce; see Flow- er-de-luce. Water-rat; see Rat. Water-starwort; sec Star-grass. Watering of Gardens; see Kit- chen-garden. Way-thistle; see Saw-wort. Weeping-willow ; see Willow. Westphalia-cheese; see Cheese. Wey; see Weigh. Whipt-syllabub; see Syllabub. Whistling-swan ; see Swan, the Wild. Whitloe; see Whitlow. Wild-basil; see Thyme. INDEX. Wild Burnet; see Burnet, the Great. Wild-liquorice; see Milk-veteh. Wild-thyme; see Thyme. Willow, the Sweet; see Gale, the Sweet. Willow-herb, the Hooded; see Scull-cap, the Common. Willow-herb, the Purple-spiked; see Loose-strife, the Purple. Wiltshire-cheese; see Cheese. Winnowing-machine; see Win- now. Wolf's-bane, the Great; see Leo- pard's-bane. Wood-strawberry; see Straw- berry. Wormseed; see Mustard, the Common Hedge. Wort-cress; see Scurvy-grass. Yellow Bed-straw; see Cheese- rennet. Yellow Dead-nettle; see Weasel- snout. Yellow Gum; see Gum. Yellow-flag ; see Flower-de- luce. Yellow Hercules; see Xanthoxy- lon. Yew-leaved Fir; see Fir-tree. Yorkshire Sanicle; see Butter- wort. Zanthoxylon; see Xanthoxylon. ERRATA. Page 38, column 2, line 14 from bottom, for mashed read washed. Page 80, col. 2, line 10, after recovering, read swamps. Page 124, col. 1, line i7 from bottom, before " Mr. Bordley," add a [, and another at the end of the paragraph. Page S57, col. 2, line 15 from bottom, in some copies, for In, read For. Page 409, col. 1, line 14, for Juassia, read Quassia. THE DOMESTIC ENCYCLOPAEDIA. s. SNU SNU SNUFF, a well-known prepara- tion, the basis of which is tobacco, reduced to powder ; other matters being incorporated, with a view to impart a degree of pungency and peculiar odour. It would be an endless task, to enumerate the various compounds that have been introduced to the notice and patronage of the public, in different countries : hence we shall only remark, that there are three principal kinds of snuff, which are known under the names of granulated; imfialfiable; and the bran, or the coarse part remaining afterthe second sort has been silted. The practice of taking snuff, though less detrimental to health, is not less whimsical than that of smoking; for, if continued to ex- cess, it occasions such a copious discharge of mucus from the nos- trils, as will eventually impair the sense of smell, sometimes even corrode the membrane lining the nose, and occasion deep ulcerations in that organ. An instance occurs in the Transactivns of the Learned, vol. v. (Acta Eruditorum), for the year 1715, of a person who, by his ex- travagant use of snuff, at length was troubled with a polypus in the sesophagus, which rendered him unable to take any nourishment, and literally starved him. Another consequence of indulging in this singular custom is, that it fre- quently affects the voice; for, as a kind of stricture is thus induced at the base of the nose, which com- municates its influence to the pa- late and organs of speech, the vo- tary of such custom is consequently stimulated to take additional quan- tities, in order to remove the ob- struction. The occasional and moderate use .pC.snuff, however, is in some cases beneficial. Thus, if a person be subject to head-ach, or to diseases of the eyes, or ears, a few grains of such powder will often afford speedy relief, in consequence of instantaneous sneezing. On the other hand, we would advise those who know the satisfaction of clean- liness, to avoid as long as possible, B 2 S O A S O A the taking of snuff; and such as are liable to phthisical complaints hemorrhages, or internal ulcers, should be particularly cautious; as the indulgence of this practice might, to them, be productive of fatal consequences* SOAL, or Sole, Pleuronectes solea, L. a fish that abounds on the British coasts, and is of various sizes ; those taken on the western shores weighing from six to seven pounds each; while such as are caught on the eastern coast, sel- dom exceed one, or at the utmost, two pounds in weight. The up- per part of its body is of a deep brown colour, and the belly is per- fectly white. Soles are highly esteemed on ac- count of their delicate flavour; the facility with which they are di- gested ; and the rich nutriment they afford : these good qualities, however, are supposed to decrease in proportion to their larger size. Hence, the most diminutive are justly preferred; but they ought to be dressed as soon as possible, because their delicacy is impaired by keeping. SOAP, a composition of fixed alkaline salt, in a state of combi- nation with animal or vegetable oil: it is sometimes dry and hard, at others soft and liquid ; being manufactured in various ways,with and without heat; but, as these depend on the same principle, we shall, state only the common me- thods. Where large quantities of soap are to be formed, heat becomes in- dispensable. For this purpose, a L-y is made of soda and quick-lime, in the proportion of four parts of the former to one of the latter; and which is sufficiently strong to bear an egg. Equal parts of such lev. and of some tallow, or oil, arc next poured into a copper, placed over a gentle fire, and stirred continu- ally, till they begin to unite; v» hen the rest of the ley is added, and the agitation continued, till the ingre- dients be completely incorporated. The mixture is next cast into pro- per vessels, at the bottom of which a little pulverized chalk is spread, to prevent it from adhering: and, in a few days, the soap acquires a sufficient degree of consistence, to be taken out, and formed into ob- long squares. Such is the process by which the various kinds of soap are ma- nufactured ; the only difference being in the oils employed in the composition. Thus, the common hard soap is prepared from the caustic ley above-mentioned, with the addition of tallow. The Ve- nice, Alicant, or Sfiani&h Soap, with olive-oil; Green Soap with that of rape, hemp, or linseed ; Black Soap with train-oil; and, lastly, the ordinary Soft Soap is formed hy using pot-ash as a substitute for soda, together with tallow, or train-oil; to which is added a large quantity of common salt......The perfumed compounds, known un- der the names of Palm, Violet, Al- mond, or other Soaps, are prepar- ed in a similar manner ; the oils of such vegetable substances being employed, instead of those of the usual kind. The vegetable oils, as well as the fat of animals, generally consumed in the manufacture of soap, raising this article to a high price, ex- periments have successfully been made, with a view to substitute fbh-oll. The only objection to its general use, is a disagreeable smell, of which it cannot be easily di- vested.....With a similar design, SOA SOA S Chaptal has proposed to employ wool. He directs (u Annales de Chimie," vol. 21) the ley to be prepared in the usual manner, and made boiling hot; when shreds or rags of any kind of woollen cloth are to be gradually thrown in, and they will be speedily dissolved..... Fresh portions are then to*be spar- ingly added; the mixture must be constantly agitated : when no more of the woolly substance can be dissolved, the soap will be rea- dy ; and when cool, is fit for use. ....This compound has been tried in washing, and found to answer the same purposes as common soap : we therefore conceive, it might be advantageously substi- tuted for that expensive article, in numerous families ; provided the rags could be obtained in suffici- ent quantities, and at a reasonable price. As various frauds are practised by the manufacturers, and espe- cially by the retailers of soap, by adding ingredients that increase its weight, but diminishes its value, we deem it our duty, to give a few hints for detecting such im- positions. The liquor, generally employed for such nefarious pur- pose, is a strong brine made of common salt and water, which may be added to soap formed of tallow (the ingredient principally used in the manufactories of Bri- tain), without rendering it softer, or less consistent. In -order to prove this adulteration, it will be sufficient to expose a piece of the suspected soap to the air, for se- veral days, when the water will evaporate, and the quantity thus fradulently added, may be accu- rately ascertained, by the dimi- nished weight of the soap. Seve- ral other methods have been con- trived for corrupting this article, but these being neither so lucra- tive as that before stated, nor ge- nerally known, we are not dispos- ed to propagate such knowledge. Hence we shall proceed to review the principal patents that have been granted to speculators in this article ; and next explain the uses to which soap may be ap- plied. In November, 1790, Mr. Sa- muel Pugh obtained a patent, for a method of preparing oils for ma- nufacturing hard soap, either with, or without the aid of any tallow, or other grease, at a cheaperthan the usual rate. His process how- ever, is too complex to be under- stood, excepting by manufactur- ers : the inquisitive reader will, therefore, consult the 2d vol. of the Repertory of Arts, See. where a diffuse specification is inserted. In July, 1800, a patent was granted to Mr, John Crook, for a method of making soap,by means of the volatile, mineral, and vege- table alkalies, Sec. His invention consists in extracting the volatile alkali from urine, either by distil- lation, or in its raw state; and rendering it caustic by means of unslacked lime, in the proportion of one pint to eight of raw urine. These are poured into a cask for 6 or 8 hours, when the clear liquor is drawn off, and incorporated with the common materials for making soap. The patentee likewise em- ploys such alkaline ley, and also the raw urine, for the purpose of strengthening the ordinary soap, so as to impart to it greater clear- ness and solidity. He farther ob- serves, that such urinous lixivium may be profitably applied to the cleansing of raw goods from th* unctuous matter with which they 4 SOA are impregnated ; by boiling the liquor, and causing the steam that arises from the volatile alkali in a state of vapour, to pass into close vessels, in which such goods are suspended. Soap is one of the most valua- ble articles in domestic economy: its uses in various manufactures require no description. The ash- es, refuse, or waste, remaining after this compound is made, fur- nish an excellent manure. (See Ashes.) The suds, or water, in which soap has been dissolved, are of great service to gardeners ; as they effectually destroy insects in hothouses. (See also vol. 3. p. 331 and vol. 4. p. 110.) Farther, it appears from a patent granted, in June, 17 80, to Mr. Samuel Un- win, and which is now expired ; that soap-suds, after being used in scowering, washing, 8cc. may be rendered sufficiently strong to serve the same purpose, repeat- edly, and even for the re-produc- tion of soap. He directs any quantity of the suds (when ren- dered useless by the foul or grea- sy matters they may hold in solu- tion) to be boiled over a brisk fire ; in consequence of which, a scum of grease, oil, &c. will rise to the surface. This must be saturated or dissolved, by the gradual addi- tion of pot-ash, or similar alkaline salt; the whole being stirred, till the scum disappear. The soap- suds, thus corrected, are now to boil for two hours, when the fire must be discontinued, in order that all feculent or earthy parti- cles may subside. The liquor will then be found sufficiently pu- rified, and may again be employed for scowering, &c. every time re- peating the process before describ- SOA ed. In order to make soap of such rectified suds, the patentee directs any quantity to be drawn off into shallow vessels, in which it must be evaporated over the fire, till it acquire a due consistence ; and, by adding the usual proportion of sea- salt, the mixture will become hard, and possess all the propeitics of saponaceous matter. Soap is also of considerable uti- lity in medicine : for this purpose, however, it is prepared without the aid of heat; the ley being fil- tred and concentrated by evapo- ration, to such a degree, that a phial capable of holding an ounce of water, will contain one ounce and 216 grains, or nearly li oz. of such lixivium. One part of the latter is then mixed with two parts of the oil of sweet-almonds, or of olives, in a stone vessel ; the in- gredients are occasionally stirred ; and, in the course of a week, a firm white soap will be obtained. ....This compound is reputed for its efficacy in dispelling calculi, or stones, in the human body ; and, when dissolved in ale, it has with advantage been administered in the jaundice. Boerhaave always prescribed it with resinous pills ; as it contributes to decompose them in the stomach. But, of late years, soap has fallen into disrepute, and is now seldom employed in medicine; though we are informed by M. Bellot, that soap-water has been given, with the happiest effects, To per- sons bitten by mad animals. There are numerous vegetables, that may afford proper substitutes for soap, in its various applications to domestic uses ; but, as tiuinv of these have already been pointed out; and others will cccur in the SOA SOD B subsequent pages; we refer the reader to our General Index of Re- ference. SOAP-EARTH, or Steatites, L. a species of fossil, which abounds in Devonshire, Cornwall, and the islands in the vicinity of the Lizard point. [It also abounds on the ri- ver Schuylkill, near Philadelphia.] It is generally of a white, or grey colour, intermixed with greenish or yellowish shades ; is compos- ed of very fine particles ; of a firm, equal, and regular texture : and is very heavy. Its surface is smooth and glossy ; it feels soft and grea- sy ; and neither melts in the mouth, nor adheres to the tongue, or stains the fingers. This mineral may be formed in- to a paste with water, which is ea- sily worked on the potter's wheel; and if, thus manufactured, it be exposed to an intense heat, it be- comes so hard as to emit fire, when stricken against steel. The soap-earth possesses simi- lar properties with Fuller's-earth, and is employed for the purpose of cleansing woollen cloths from grease: it does not, however, work so easily as clays ; and, when digested with vitriolic acid,it forms a salt somewhat resembling that obtained by evaporating Epsom- water. SOAP-WORT, the Common, or Bruise wort, Sa/ionaria offici- nalis, L. a native perennial, grow- ing in meadows and hedges ; flow- ering in July and August.....The leaves possess a disagreeable bitter taste : if bruised and agitated with water, they produce a saponaceous froth, which may serve for remov- ing greasy spots from linen, as well as woollen cloths; but it discharges no colours....The roots are some- wh.it pungent, have a sweetish taste, and in smell resemble thoc,e of liquorice : a strong tincture .iny be prepared, by digesting them in rectified spirits....In medicine, this plant is now exploded ; but, in do- mestic economy, the sap express- ed from the root, stalk, end leaves, may be employed as a substitute for soap, in cleansing raw or coai se cloth, and likewise for fine linen, in the washing of which, it will save at least one-half of that ex- pensive article, otherwise rcquir- ed....Lastly, the admirers of win- ged insects may catch the most beautiful butterflies on the flow- ers of the common soap-wort, which are visited by them during twilight. SODA, Fossil, or Mineral Alkali, a peculiar suit, which is found native in various parts of the world ; but, as the quantity thus obtained, is inadequate, to its ex- tensive consumption, various me- thods have been devised, for pro- curing it from sea-salt ; and also by the burning of the salt-wort, together with other saline plants, which grow in the vicinity of the sea-coast...See Barilla, and Fos- sil Alkali. Few articles are of greater im- portance to the arts, manufactures, and domestic economy, than soda. It is indispensably necessary for making hard soap ; and also forms an excellent substitute for this ar- ticle : as four ounces of the for- mer, and six of the latter, are fully equal to 16 ounces, or one pound of sonp, for cleansing Hlbs. of cloth, by hand ; while it softens the hardest water : thus, a saving will arise in the expence of from one-third to one-half, accordingly as that operation is performed by the hand, or by machines....The superior effects of soda arc fully 6 SOD SOF evinced in the cleansing of fleecy hosiery, flannels, or worsted stock- ings ; which, when managed with warm water, soap, and pot-ash, acquire an unpleasant odour, and are apt to shrink, in consequence of the rubbing, particularly if they be immersed in cold water: where- as, by using the fossil alkali, these inconveniencies are said to be com- pletely avoided, and neither the quality of the goods will be im- paired ; nor the hands of women, when the soda is judiciously em- ployed, be injured in the same man- ner, as generally happens by the common ley. Farther, as frequent bathing or washing of the body greatly con- duces to health, it has been re- commended to dissolve a small portion of soda in the water thus employed ; or, at least to pass a towel wetted with a solution of soda and soap, over the surface ; for such practice opens the pores, and removes the disagreeable odour arising from profuse per- spiration :....a similar application will be productive of equal advan- tage to horses that are employed for racing, postchaises, or other purposes, where great exertions are required. If a weak solution of soda be poured into foul bottles or casks, in which wine has been kept for a considerable time, it will com- pletely dissolve the tartarous crust that is formed on their inner sur- face :....boot-tops, saddles, or bri- dles, may with such liquid be ef- fectually cleansed, while the origi- nal colour of the leather is pre- served. This alkali may, likewise, be employed for sweetening kitchen- utensils, and particularly for re- moving grease or acids from cop- per vessels; because these con- cretions, when suffered to remain, form a strong poison, and may be productive of deleterious effects. In a similar manner, it may be used for tin and iron vessels, to prevent them from becoming rus- ty. Lastly, as the utensils of the dairy are apt to acquire an acid, disagreeable smell, during the summer, and particularly after a thunder-storm, though every at- tention be bestowed on them, such fetor may be completely removed by a small portion of soda, which will render the milk-vessels per- fectly sweet; while it neutralizes and dispels the acid ferment im- bibed by the wood, and which might otherwise taint the milk. The crystals'of soda are not less useful in a medicinal point of view. Thus, a solution of this salt, is an excellent gargle for cleansing the throat, mouth, and gums, both in a sound and-in a diseased or ulce- rated state ; while it whitens the teeth ; and dissolves all incrusta- tions that may be formed on their surface, without injuring their ena- mel. And, if a small quantity of this liquid be occasionally swal- lowed, after washing the fauces, it is said effectually to remove a. fetid brtath. Soda is, in many instances, preferable to- magnesia, for cor- recting acidity in the stomach ; nay, it is even asserted, that it prevents the gout, gravel, stone, and similar disorders : lastly if the fossil alkali be mixed with cream of tartar, in the proportion of 14 parts -of the former to 12 of the latter, it furnishes one of the mild- est laxatives ; namely, the Ro- chelle Salt....See also Glauber's Salt. SOFT-GRASS, the Meadow, or IIolcus lanatus, L. a native pe- SOI SOI rennial, growing in meadows and pastures, particularly in moist, light situations: it flowers in the months of June and July. This grass, though vegetating late in the season, is very productive ; but is not much relished by cattle : it makes a soft, spongy hay, that is very ljurtful to horses ; which, by eating it, become affected with a profuse discharge of urine, and general weakness. In case any hay, obtained from this vegetable, be accidentally given to those valua- ble animalsan immediate changeof food will prevent its farther ill effects As the stalks of the meadow soft-grass attain a height of from two to three feet, and the root is eminently calculated for consoli- dating loose sandy soils, it merits to be cultivated in such situations. [See Grass.] SOIL, signifies the ground or mould, in which vegetables grow ; and which serves as a reservoir for receiving and dispensing their nu- triment. Having already, under the ar- ticles Arable Land ; Land; Marsh ; Moor ; See. stated the most approved methods of reno- vating or restoring exhausted soils, and of converting them from a state of nature ; we shall now com- municate a few hints, by which their quality may be ascertained. To effect this purpose, Berg- man, Fordyce, Kirwan, and other eminent chemists, have analyzed the constituent parts of different soils, namely ; carbon, lime, clay, and siliceous sand; and, according to the respective por- tions of these ingredients, they con- ceive that the relative fertility of soils might be determined. But, ais such analysis 'a very inaccurate and uncertain, Dr. Darwin pro- poses to dry a few pounds of dif- ferent soils, in the same tempera- ture : when their moisture is eva- porated, they must be weighed, and exposed to a red heat. As carbon is a principal ingredient in calcareous earths, he conjectures, that the soil which loses the great- est portion of its weight, is the most fertile ; because the carbonic matter, being the principal nutri- ment of plants, will be dissipated in the flame. Another mode of examining the fertility of soils is, by calculating their specific gravity, when dried at equal distances from the fire, in bladders furnished with small aper- tures ; and, after immersing them in water, by accuratelyNobserving the difference between their re- spective weights, both in that fluid and in the air. But the most certain criterion, by which to judge of the value of land, is afforded by At- tending to the growth and colour of the vegetables spontaneously produced; and which in some measure indicate the nature of the soil beneath their roots. Thus, the Fox-glove, and Sand-wort, abound in sandy situations; the Brook- lime, and some species of Cresses, in moist ground , the Corn Saw- wort, or Way-thistle, indicates a good, as the Dock shews an infe- rior, soil. Many plants might be added to this list; but, we shall conclude with remarking, that if an accurate Geographical Catalogue of such vegetables, as grow in par- ticular situations, were published in every country, it would be of great service, in ascertaining the degree of fertility, as well as the nature of different soils. [SOILING, -the act of cutting 8 SOL SOL grass for stall-feeding cattle ; or, the practice of feeding cattle with cut grass. The superior economy of this practice, compared with that of pasturing, was fully pointed out under the article Cattle. When treating of clover, an expected statement of the number of hogs soiied with clover, was promised. The particulars, however, did not arrive in time for insertion in the proper place, but were since com- municated, and are as follow : Twenty-five shoats were fed for three months, with green clover, cut from less than one acre ; they were then fed on Indian corn, and when killed, weighed three thou- sand pounds. SMing has been uniformly re- commended throughout this work, where the practice can be follow- ed ; but where it cannot be adopt- ed, the English mode of pasturing, as detailed by Lord Dundonald should be followed, viz.; to keep the fat, half fed cattle, and the lean or young stock, in different inclosures. The fat cattle should only top the grass, the half fed should succeed those, and lastly, the lean or store cattle should fol- low on the same pasture, and eat the herbage close down : repeat- ing this practice as often as the fresh growth of grass will permit. SOLIDAGO, Casta, Throat- wort, Rattle-snake-Golden-rod..... This is a beautiful species of Soli- dago, and a native of the United States : flowering in August and September. JV{any diverging slen- der stems arise from a root and many corymbs or clusters of gol- den yellow compound flowers, terminate the stems, forming a panicle. The leaves are h.r.cio- late, ani sharply serrated, ending in a slender or acute point. The stems are smooth, covered with a purple bark, softened by a glacous nibule, or mist, and of a very pun- gent taste, somewhat similar to the Radix Senega (Seneka snake- root). Tb;? Indians use this plant as a cure for the bite of the rattle- snake, applied externally and in- ternally. They also prescribe it in strong decoction, as a gargle, and diet-drink for the sore-throat. Wji. Bartram.] SOLOMON's-SEAL, the Sweet-smelling, or Convallaria Polygonatum, L. a native perenni- al, which grows in mountainous woods, and the fissures of rocks, principally in the county of York : it flowers in the months of May and June. This vegetable is eaten by sheep and goats, but is refused by horses, hogs, and cows. Its roots consist of a pulpy, tuberous, white, sweet, and mucilaginous substance : in times of scarcity, they have been converted into a wholesome bread ; and are always used for that purpose, by the lower classes in Sweden and Russia: a good starch may likewise be ex- tracted from them ; and the ex- pressed juice being somewhat acrid, serves as a cosmetic, or a lotion for pimples, Sec. The young shoots of this, as well as of the fol- lowing species may, in the spring, be eaten like asparagus. SOLOMON's-SEAL, the Com- mon, or Convallaria mutti/lora, L. is also perennial ; grows in woods and thickets : and flowers in May or June. This plant is eaten by cows, goats, and sheep; it posses- ses the properties of the preced- ing, but in an inferior degree ; and to which it bears so close a resem- blance, that it can be distinguish- ed only by its smaller, white How- soo trs, tipped with green ; whereas, those of the former are larger, though less in numbcr7 and white, with a green line running down each segment. Sooju. See Soy. SOOT, a volatile powder, of a deep black colour, and an extreme- ly bitter taste : it arises from burn- ing wood, coal, or other fuel; or, more strickly speaking, from the smoke condensed, and deposited at the sides of chimnies. Considerable quantities of soot are employed in the manufacture of sal ammoniac; and also by dyers, for imparting a. fawn colour to wool.....See article Dyeing)..... But the principal advantage deriv- ed from it, is, when used as a manure for cold, moist, and clayey meadows, and pastures ; as it is of a warm ameliorating nature ; affords nourishment to grass, [on- ions] ; destroys noxious insects ; protects the crop from chillingrains; and prevents the growth of moss. [Soot, according to Dundonald, is used in many parts of Britain, with very beneficial effects, for the destruction of the wire-worm, and other insects, which prey upon the young tender leaves and roots of plants.] The quantity varies in different counties, from fifteen to twenty- five, and even 40 bushels per acre ; but it ought to be strewed on the land during the winter, and in calm weather, so that the subse- quent vernal rains may wash it in- to the soil: for, if its distribution be delayed till the end of February, or the beginning of March, the great heat then evolved, will affect the tender shoots of the grass, and occasion a temporary check to its vegetation. Some circumspection, however, is required, that the soot vol. v. SOR 9 be genuine; as the chimney-sweep- ers frequently mix with it finely- sifted coal-ashes ; in order to in- crease the bulk; but this fraud may be easily detected, by the grittiness and uncommon weight of the soot. .Sorb. See Service-tree. Sore-throat. See Quinsy. SORREL, the Common, or Sorrel-Dock, Rumcx Acetosus, L. a native perennial, growing in meadows and pastures, where it flowers in the month of June..... This vegetable is eaten by horses, cows, goats, sheep, and swine..... It is cultivated in France and Bri- tain, for culinary purposes ; as, in the former country, its leaves are a frequent ingredient in soups, and also eaten in salads ; ih the latter, they are esteemed for their cooling properties, because they tend to allay thirst; to promote the urin- ary discharge ; and when boiled in whey, they afford a palatable drink to persons labouring under inflammatory fevers.....In Ireland, the sorrel-leaves are used by the lower classes, both as a kind of sauce to fish, and also with milk : they possess, however, a very aus- tere, acid taste, when raw, inso- much as to divest the teeth of their enamel; hence they should not be eaten by those whose stomach a- bounds in acidity. The seeds of this vegetable were formerly used in medicine ; but are at present, according to Hedin employed by the Swedes, among their bread-corn, and reduced to flour ; nay, the inhabitants of Ca- relia convert them into bread, with- out any addition. Its roots have an austere, bitterish taste, and are chiefly valuable to tanners; and also for the red tinge which they yield, after having been dried and boiled. On adding alum to this decoction, C 10 S O R SOU painters prepare a fine red colour, but which is useless in dyeing..... Boerhaave obtained from the juice of the Sorrel-dock, an essen- tial salt, resembling that of lemons. [Sorrel is a very troublesome plant in meadows. Lord Dundo- nald, upon chemical principles advises, 1. The use of lime on soils in which the plant abounds..... The next growth after sorrel will be chckweed, which is a certain indi- cation of its being in a state fit to produce grain or other crops : 2. The application of the alkaline salts, when the crop of sorrel is in the greatest abundance.] SORREL,the Sheep's,oi" Dock, Rumex Acetosella, L. is also a na- tive perennial, which grows in sandy meadows, pastures, and gravel walks : it flowers in May and June. The stalks of this plant, which affords a wholesome food for sheep, seldom exceed twelve in- ches in height: it deserves, how- ever, to be mentioned, that cows partaking of the Sheep's Dock, yield a milk tinged with blood. SORREL, the Common Wood, Sour Trefoil, or Cuckow- Bread, Oxalis Acetocella, L. a- nother native perennial, which a- bounds in woods, shady hedges, and on heaths : it flowers in the month of April. This vegetable is eaten by goats, hogs, and sheep ; but is not relished by cows, and is refused by horses. Its purple leaves yield on expression^gratefully acid juice, which has been beneficially used in scorbutic eruptions : and, if such juice be properly clarified, evaporated, and deposited in a cool place, it will produce a considera- ble quantity of acid crystals, which may be employed for removing iron moulds from linen cloth; and which are sold under the name of Essential Salt of Lemons. An infu- sion of the leaves makes a palata- ble diet-drink in ardent fevers ; and, on being boiled in milk, they form an agreeable whey. They have also been successfully applied to scrophulous ulcers, when rolled in a cabbage leaf, and digested in warm ashes, till they were reduc- ed to a pulp. But the most easy and efficacious way of preserving these leaves, is that of converting them into a kind of conserve, with the addition of double their weight of sugar ; in which form, they are an excellent substitute for lemons, and may be given with advantage in all putrid and other fevers, where antiseptics are indicated. SOUP, a strong decoction of beef, veal, or other animal sub- stances ; and which is generally seasoned with aromatic vegeta- bles, pepper, or similar heating spices. Soups form a principal article at the tables of the luxurious ; be- ing generally served as a first course ; though sometimes they constitute the whole dinner of those who are less opulent, under the mistaken notion, that such li- quid is more wholesome and easy of digestion, than solid meat..... Such dishes ought, however, to be given with great caution to con- valescents ; as the large propor- tion of spices, wines, and other stimulating articles that enter into the composition of soups, cannot fail to oppress the stomach, to ir- ritate the system, and not unfre- quently to- occasion a relapse. Portable-soup is a kind of cake formed of concentrated broth; which, being divested of all fat', while the putrescent parts of the sow SOW 11 meat have been evaporated by boiling, is reduced to a gelatinous consistence, resembling that of glue. The composition may be preserved, in a dry place, for three or four years : it is recommended, on account of its nutritive quali- ties, by Sir John Pringle, and may prove of essential service on long sea-voyages; as it requires to be eaten with a large proportion of vegetables; andthus, in some mea- sure, prevents the attacks of that scourge of mariners, the sea-scurvy. When portable soup is to be cook- ed, it will be advisable to put half or a whole ounce of this substance into a vessel containing a pint of boiling water, which must then be placed over the fire, and conti- nually agitated with a spoon, till it be perfectly dissolved: thus, it will form an excellent and nou- rishing liquid : requiring no other seasoning,but a little common salt. Southern-wood, the Common. See Mugwort, the Common. Southern-wood, the Sea : See Wormwood, the Sea. SO W-BRE AD, or CyclamenEu- ropaum, L. an exotic plant, some- times cultivated in the gardens of the curious. There are five spe- cies of this diminutive herb, each of which produces several varie- ties ; all bearing beautiful fragrant white, reddish, purple, or flesh- coloured flowers. All the species of the sow-bread may be propagated by their seeds; and the respective varieties, by di- viding their roots ; they require a light, dry soil ; and to be planted in-borders of walks : in case of se- vere frost, the plants should be sheltered by mats. In a fresh state, the root of the sow-bread has an extremely acrid and burning taste; but, when dried, it is almost totally divested of such property. It is recom- mended as an errhine; or to be formed into cataplasms, for dis- cussing scirrhous* and scrophulous tumors. Internally taken, it ope- rates slowly, though with great virulence, as a purgative ; and is apt to inflame the fauces and in- testines : but, when roasted in em- bers, it may be eaten with safety. In Germany, an ointment is pre- pared from these roots, which serves the useful purpose of re- lieving costiveness, when rubbed on the abdomen. If, however, the root of the sow-bread should have been inad- vertently swallowed, or eaten a- mong other vegetables, it will be advisable either to take an imme- diate emetic; or, if some time have elapsed, to drink large portions of oily and mucilaginous liquors, such as the solutions of mutton-suet in milk, of gum-arabic, salep-pow- der, and similar demulcents. SOW-THISTLE, or Sonchus, L. a genus of plants forming 13 species, four of which are indige- nous : the principal are the follow- ing : 1. The oleraceus, or Common Sow-thistle, grows on cultivat- ed ground, dunghills, and in hedges ; its yellow flowers appear from June till August. The leaves of this troublesome weed are the favourite food of hares and rab- bits : they are likewise dressed and eaten among other culinary herbs. The roots have occasionally been converted into bread. Sheep.goats, and swine, devour this vegetable, but it is not relished by horses. 2. The arz'ensis, Corn or Tree Sow-Thistle,is perennial,thrives in clayey corn-fields, and on ditch- banks, where it blows in August, 12 SOW SOY It is remarkable, that the flowers of this plant follow, in a regular manner, the course of the sun..... Cows and goats eat this species, of which horses are oxc^edingly fond. ....Bechstein remarks, that the young shoots of the Corn Sow- thistle, when cut out in the spring, and mixed with bran, afford an ex- cellent food for cattle and swine. 3. The palustris, or Marsh Sow-Thistle, grows in watery places, and on the banks of rivers, where it attains the height of from six to ten feet; flowering in July and August. While young, this plant furnishes nourishing food for cattle : hence it deserves to be cul- tivated in swampy meadows..... Its flowers, like those of all the thistles, are visited by bees. SOWING, is the act of com- mitting the seed of vegetables to the earth, in order to obtain a fu- ture crop. This operation is performed ei- ther in the Broad-cast method, or by Drilling : but, having al- ready stated the respective ad- vantages attending both, we refer the reader to articles Broad-cast, Drill. The most important objects in sowing are ; 1. To commit the seed to the ground, at as early a period of the season as the nature of the grain, and the situation of the soil, will admit; and 2. To place every seed at a proper depth, and distance from each other. Due regard to the former circumstance will be attended with great profit, particularly in the cultivation of turnips ; as an early harvest will . not only thus be obtained ; but the roots will also be protected from the depredations of the fly. Some agriculturists strongly re- commend to " sow dry, and set wet;" but, where the soil has bee» newly turned by the spade, Dr. Darwin justly remarks, that nq bad consequence can result from sowing, in general, during rainy weather: such method, however, ought to be adopted with caution on clay-soils (see Clay-land) that are much softened by long-contir nued rain; because, if the seed bo put into holes, and a dry season follow, the water will necessarily evaporate, and an impenetrable crust will be formed on the sur- face, by the setting, or running to- gether of the clay. But this acci- dent may, in some measure, be prevented, by sowing in the auT tumnal months, during moist wea- ther....See also Seed. SOY, or Sooju, a species of li- quid condiment, which is import- ed from India, and is used as a sauce for fish. It is prepared from the leguminous fruit of the Soja (Doliclws soja, L.) a native of Ja- pan. The pods are first boiled, till they become soft; when equal parts of them, and of muggi (wheat or barley that has been coarsely ground), are thoroughly mixed.... This preparation is then kept in a close vessel, and a warm place, for twenty-four hours, in order to fer- ment ; after which, the mass is put into a pot, and covered with a large portion of common salt, when two measures and a half of water are poured over the whole. The compound is stirred, once at the least, every day, for the space of two or three months , and at the end of that period, it is filtred ; the expressed liquor being pre- served in wooden vessels. Fresh water is next added to the same mass ; which, after stirring it oc- casionally for several day's, is at SPA SPA 13 length strained; and the liquor, though of an inferior kind, thus rendered fit for use. Soy possesses a strongly saline taste, but has only a slight aroma- tic flavour: it is chiefly used at the tables of the luxurious ; and is one of those artificial stimulants of the palate, which deserves no com- mendation, especially for vitiated or relaxed habits. [The Soy-bean bears the cli- mate of Pennsylvania very well. The bean ought therefore to be cultivated.] SPADE, a well known imple- ment, which is principally employ- ed in horticulture. The bit, or blade of this tool, is composed wholly of iron, being about 8 or 9 inches broad, and a foot in length : the upper part is flat; and, in the centre, there is a hole or socket, in which is in- serted a handle or shaft, being 1| inches in diameter, and about 3 feet long. It is employed for stir- ring and dressing the ground ; the labourer thrusting it in, to the depth of ten or twelve inches, ac- cordingly as the nature of the soil may require. The English spades, in general* are well calculated for heavy gar- den soils ; but, as there are many situations, especially those abound- ing in sand and gravel, which might be more easily managed with a tool of a different shape, we procured the following cut, that represents the spade employed in Tuscany, and the northern parts of Italy. It consists of an iron spear, which is somewhat concave, being also longer, and thicker, than the implement used in Britain: in- TUSCAN SPADE. stead of the workman setting his foot on the top of the blade, he places it upon a piece of wood, which" crosses the shaft, three or four inches above such blade; though, we conceive, the distance need not exceed one or two inches. The manner in which this imple- ment is used, varies in different 14 SPA SPA places. Thus, at Geneva, it is thrust into the soil, perpendicular- ly ; at Persia, the earth is divided horizontally, or at least in a slant- ing direction; so that the mould is thrown to a greater distance be- fore the labourer. The peasants of that country, indeed, have an excellent mode of using the spade, without undergoing too great fa- tigue : it consists simply in sup- porting and lifting up the handle of the implement (after it has en- tered the soil) on the knee; by which means they are enabled to penetrate to a greater depth, and consequently to bring up a larger quantity of earth to the surface. SPAR, the Ponderous ; Ba- rytes ; or heavy earth, a name giv- en to a fossil naturally combined with the sulphuric or carbonic acids, and found in different parts of England, particularly in the counties of York, Derby, [ and Lancashire.] Its principal use in domestic economy, as a poison to rats, hav- ing "been already stated, we shall only remark, that the ponderous spar may be procured in a very pure state, for medicinal purposes, by the process which Vauquelin and Fourcroy have adopted ; and a translation of which has been given in Mr. Nicholson's Journal of Natural Philosophy, Sec. vol. i. 4to, p. 535....It would, however, be hazardous to mention the dis- orders, and doses, in which this powerful remedy is employed. [The Lapis Hepaticus, a variety of this spar, has been lately found in Albemarle county, Virginia.] Sparagus. See Asparagus. SPARROW, the Common, or Domestic, Fringilla domestica, L. a well-known bird, whieh abounds in Britain, particularly in the vici- nity of villages and towns. Sparrows construct their nest beneath the eaves, and in the holes of walls, roofs, especially in those of willow-trees, where they lay five or six eggs of a pale- reddish colour, spotted with brown. These birds are very crafty, and voraci- ous ; committing great depreda- tions in corn-fields, where they par- take of every species of grain : on the other hand, they are also use- fully devouring numerous worms, insects, and particularly the green caterpillar. But, in situations where sparrows are very troublesome from their numbers, they may be easily taken, by constructing a trap of unpeeled oziers, about two feet in diameter, nine inches deep ; and resembling in its form a fish- pot. The tunnel is somewhat dish- ed, having an inverted cone in the centre, which extends to within the space of one inch from the bottom of such basket; the opening, form- ed by the points of the twigs, being an inch in diameter. This trap must be baited with wheat, or other grain ; and, when the birds have entered through the internal aperture of the cone, they cannot escape. For the protection of fields, gar- dens, and especially of wall-fruit, from these predatory birds, we can suggest the following expedient.... Slips or pieces of spangle-metal (plate-foil) six inches long, and three broad, should be suspended on long poles by means of strings, about half a yard in length, and fastened to the top : by -the agi- tation of the wind, they will occa- sion a continual crackling noise, which is so terrifying to sparrows, that they will not venture to ap- SPA proach the vicinity of such scare- crows : in fields, however, the lat- ter ought to be placed at a distance of about 12 or 15 yards square, from each other. Sparrow-hawk : See Hawk, the Common. SPASM, an irregular and in- voluntary contraction of the mus- cles, generally accompanied with painful sensations : this complaint has, of late years, made such rapid and formidable progress, especi- ally among the female sex, as to demand serious attention. Spasms are either general, where many or most of the muscles are attacked (as in tetanus, catalepsis, &c.) ; as partial, when the con- traction is confined to single mus- cles, for instance, of the jaw, of the throat, and other parts, which have been stated under their re- spective heads. Among the chief, pre-disposing causes, is an irritable, weak, ner- vous system ; while the occasional ones are, passions of the mind ; in- jury produced by external violence, by poisons, of every description ; worms ; suppressed perspiration ; cosmetics and lotions ; repelled cu- taneous eruptions; and whatever, may induce an increased action of the nerves and muscles. Nothing, indeed, has so evidently contri- buted to the frequency of this af- fection, as the defective modern education, particularly of females ; and according to which, children are considered as adults ; they are allowed to read seductive books ; to dress in an improper, or at least, unbecoming manner; and even infants are suffered to partake of tea, wine, and spirituous liquors, under the pretext of using them as medicines. SPA 15 The danger attending spasmodic paroxysms, depends on the greater or less violence of the attack :....if they proceed from too profuse eva- cuations, there is great danger to be apprehended ; as the patient is already exhausted. Where spasms are occasioned by the taking of mineral or animal poisons ; or, if the patient labour under an acute fever, the event is generally fatal. Cure ......The first step will be to remove the irritating cause ; and next, to restore tone to the organs: thus, if the spasm originate from an injury by a sharp instrument, such as a needle, especially if a piece of it remain in the wound, it ought to be immediately extracted. During the fit, clysters made of a decoction of chamomile flowers, with a dram of ipecacuhana, asa- foedita, or other antispasmodics, to be repeated every two or three hours, will afford the greatest re- lief: beside these, recourse may be had to warm-baths, frictions, and the application of volatile lini- ments. If the teeth are not too closely shut, half a tea-spoonful of either the tinctures of castor, asa- fcedita, or valerian, diluted with a table-spoonful of water, may be in- troduced through the mouth..... Next, it will be necessary to regu- late the treatment according to the cause of the malady. If it arise from a suppression of cutaneous disorders, blistering plasters, and other artificial issues, will be the most proper means of restoring the discharge of humours : if it pro- ceed from two tight shoes, or other garments, the part should be rub- bed with warm oil, till it become soft; and then a tight bandage be applied round it: the leg should afterwards be bathed in cold vva- 16 S P E SPE ter impregnated with scales of iron, or rubbed with volatile lini- ment :.....if induced by worms (which see) suitable remedies must be administered. But, where it originates from mental causes, the cure itself ought to consist of mo- ral remedies; as physical means would, in general, be found inade- quate. With a view to re-invigorate the system, and to prevent future at- tacks, decoctionsof quassia, worm- wood, chamomile, Peruvian bark, valerian, and other antispasmodics, may be taken with advantage, es- pecially when conjoined with cold bathing ; and, in cases of worms, with the liberal use of red-port; a glass of which may, for that pur- pose, be drunk every morning, on an empty stomach. SPATLING-POPPY, White Bottle, or Bladder Campion, Cucubalus Behen, L. a native pe- rennial, which grows in corn- fields, dry meadows, and pastures : it flowers in July and August..... The leaves of this vegetable, when boiled, possess the flavour of peas ; and are by the Gothlanders advan- tageously applied to erysipelatous eruptions. The flowers are eager- ly visited by bees, as well as by the most beautiful butterflies; in twi- light. Spavin : See Bone-spavin. Spawn : See Roe. Spear-mint : See Mint. SPEARWORT, the great, or Ranunculus- Lingua, L. an indige- nous perennial, growing in wet pastures, and at the sides of lakes: it flowers in the months of June and July. The stem of this poi- sonous plant is very thick, and at- tains the height of two feet ; the leaves have no stalks; and the large bright-yellow, glossy flowers, appear on the extremities of the shoots. The whole is extremely acrid, and if any part of this herb be eaten by cattle in a fresh state, it is apt to produce fatal distem- pers. SPEARWORT, the LEssER,or Ranuncules Flammula, L. is also a native perennial, growing on bogs, swampy meadows, and the sides of rivulets ; flowering from June to September. It is eaten by horses, in which it occasions many concealed disorders, but is refused by cows, goats, sheep, and hogs.... This plant is very acrid ; if exter- nally applied, it inflames and blis- ters the skin :....its distilled water is a most powerful emetic, operat- ing as soon as it is swallowed ; and Dr. Withering states, from his own experience, that, in cases of poison having been accidentally swallowed, or in which it becomes necessary to produce an immedi- ate vomiting, such distilled water is preferable to any other prepa- ration ; as it does not excite the painful contractions, which are sometimes consequent on the use of white vitriol, and thus defeat the object for which the latter is admi- nistered. SPECTACLES, a well known and useful optical contrivance, in order to aid the eyes of the aged, or young invalids of defective vi- sion, by means of two appropriate lenses. Those used by short- sighted persons, are generally con- cave ; as the spectacles employed by the far-sighted, or convex. The choice of spectacles being an object of great importance, to ail who are anxious to preserve their eyes, we shall select a few rules from Mr. Adam's valuable Essay on Vision ; and the Editor's Lc~c~ turcs on Diet and Regimen. By SPE SPE 17 a careful attention to such direc- tions, the failure of sight may be retarded, and the eyes greatly re- lieved. Those, who stand in need of spectacles, ought at first always to chuse such as represent objects, without enlarging or diminishing them ; and which, on being placed near the eye, exhibit printed cha- racters clearly and distinctly, with- out straining that organ. It will, therefore, in every instance, be ad- visable to consult the artist of whom the glasses are purchased : for, though every person must eventually determine what lenses affordhim the most accurate vision, the former will thus be enabled to accomodate them to the eye of the latter, with greater certainty and advantaqe. Besides, the fa- tigue of trying a variety of glasses, will thus be obviated ; and the purchaser will procure a pair, best adapted to the structure of his eyes. Short-sighted persons ought always to make a very gradual al- lowance in changing their specta- cles, so as to select others which magnify a little more than the pre- ceding pair, though somewhat less distinctly, without obscuring the object. Thus, their sight will be imperceptibly improved ; and, after making use of less concave lenses, the defect of vision may, in process of time, be entirely reme- died. These transitions, however, ought not to be sudden; lest the resources of art should be too early exhausted. And, as it would be difficult to meet either with a pair of glasses in the shops, that ex- actly fit both eyes, or with a per- son whose organs of sight are both of a size and construction per- fectly equal, it rationally follows, that such important choice should VOL. V. be separately made, with respect to each of these useful organs. Spectacles are generally trans-. parent and colourless; though sometimes green lenses are prefer- red by those, whose eyes are una- ble to support a vivid light. Such colour is believed to be the most soothing to the human eye ; though it tends, at first, in some degree to darken the object..... Hence, this shade will prove bene- ficial only to persons who possess strong, but irritable eyes ; yet even such individuals should not indulge in it, if light-coloured ob- jects continue to assume a reddish tinge, after having tried the expe- riment for a few days. In all cases, however, spectacles ought to be employed only in writing, reading or similar occupations that render this artificial aid necessary; and during which, the eye is retained at an uniform distance. In December, 1793, a patent wasgranted to Mr. John Richard- son ; for his invention of a ma- chine that may be applied to spec- tacles or glasses, and pebbles of every kind. As, however, no dis- tinct idea can be formed of his con- trivance^ without a proper delinea- tion, we refer the reader to the 10th volume of the Repertory of Arts, &c. where it is described, and illustrated with an engraved figure. Hence, we shall only observe, that the chief object of the patentee's invention, appears to be that of preventing the necessity of em- ploying two pair of spectacles, where these arc occasionally re- quired ; as two distinct sights may thus be obtained, for any purpose, according to the desire of the wearer. SPEEDWELL, or Veronica^ L. a genus of plants comprehending D 18 SPE SPE 54 species, 17 of which are indige- nous : the principal of these are the following: 1. The Beccabunga : See Brook- lime. 2. The Chamxdrijs: See Ger- mander, the Wild. 3. The officinalis, Common Speedwell, Male Speedwell, or Fluellin, is perennial, grows on heaths, and in barren grounds ; flowers from May till August..... The leaves of this vegetable are slightly bitter and astringent: for- merly, an infusion of them was highly prized, as a domestic reme- dy in coughs and asthmatic com- plaints. In a decoction with iron- filings, these leaves yield a black dye for leather. The plant is eat- en by cows, sheep, goats and horses : refused by hogs. 4. The scuttelata or Narrow- leaved Speedwell, thrives on poor swampy soils, and flowers from June to August. It affords grateful food to geese and ducks. 5. The Anagallis, or Narrow- leaved Pimpernell - Speed- well, grows in slow streams and shallow ponds, where it flowers in July and August. This species may be eaten both as salad, and among other culinary vegetables. Spelter : See Zinc [SPENCER, (Marine.) A very useful contrivance by K. Spencer, Esq. of London^ for the preserva- tion of lives in cases of shipwreck, or other accidents, in rivers or at sea. It consists of A, a girdle, of a diameter to fit the body, six inches broad, composed of about 800 corks, strung upon a strong twine, well lashed together with lay-cord, covered with canvas, and painted in oil, so as to make it water- proof. B, B, are tapes or cords, about two feet long, in the middle of which a few corks are strung, co- vered with canvas, and painted as above. D, is a pin of hard wood, three inches long, and half an inch in diameter, fastened to the front of the girdle by a tape or cord about two inches long. E. the same. When the spencer is to be used, slide it from the feet close up un- der the arms; bring the tapes or cords B, B, one over each shoulder, and fasten them by the loops to the pin D; bring the tape or cord C, between the legs, and fasten it to the pin E. "A person thus equipped, though unacquainted with swimming, may safely trust himself to the waves ; for he will float head and shoulders above water in any storm, and by paddling with his hands, may easily gain the shore, or keep afloat until taken up by boats.] SPE SPE 19 MARINE SPENCER. Sperage : See Asparagus. SPERM ACET I, a flaky, white- ish, somewhat unctuous substance, and nearly destitute of smell; be- ing obtained from the head of the Physeter macro-cephalus, L. a spe- cies of whale. As the manner of preparing this expensive article is studiously con- cealed, we shall only observe, that good spermaceti is perfectly white, glossy, and semi-transparent; ra- ther soft and oily to the touch, though friable and dry ; its taste resembles that of fresh butter, and its smell is faint, like that of tal- low. It is said to be often adul- terated with wax ; but such fraud may be speedily detected by the peculiar smell of the latter sub- stance, and by the dullness of the colour. A preparation of the oil obtained from the tail of the whale, is likewise vended for genuine sper* 20 SPE maceti; but, as it assumes a yel- low shade on exposure to the aii> such imposition may be easily dis- covered. It will, however, be ne- cessary, in all cases, to preserve spermaceti in vessels, closely se- cluded from the atmosphere: as this drug is apt to become rancid, and to acquire a disagreeable co- ldur ; thought it may be restored to its original purity, by steeping it in a ley, composed of quick-lime and alkaline salts. The quantity imported, being not only inadequate to the demand, but also grossly adulterated, Mr. Smith Giubks (now Dr. Gibbes of Bath) proposed, in the 2nd Part of the P/iilosophical Trans- actions of the Royal Society, for 1794, to convert animal muscles into a fatty substance, resembling sperniaceti : His chemical process consists in enclosing the carcass of a horse, cow, &x. in a box perfo- rated with holes and immersing it in a clear stream or river, for the sp.ice of a month, or longer; when it will be converted into a mass of unctuous matter. A certain por- tion of nitrous acid (aqua-fortis) is next poured on this cheesy sub- stance, in order to discharge the offensive smell, and separate the fat in a pure, though somewhat yellow- ish stale. Such colour may, how- ever, be removed, and the whole tolerably bleached, by submitting it to the action of the oxygenated muriatic acid. Dr. Gibbes far- ther observes, that this remarkable conversion may be effected in the course of three days, by pouring nitrous acid on a piece of lean meat. Nay, the illustrious Lord Bacon mentions the following curious circumstance in his work, entitled M, " Sylva Syharum;" namely, that the fl^sh of animals may be changed SPI into a fatty substance, by cutting it in pieces, which are to be put in a glass covered with parchment, and thus allowed to stand six or seven hours in boiling water. " It may be an experiment of profit (says Bacon) for making grease or fat, for many purposes; but then it must be made of such flesh as is not tdible, as horses, dogs, bears, foxes, badgers, Sec." It appears, likewise, from Dr. Gibbes's Me- moir, that the putrefactive process is not necessary for effecting this change ; as it would waste a con- siderable portion of flesh, that might serve to form a larger mass of waxy substance. Great quantities of spermaceti are annually consumed in the ma- nufacture of candles and tapers, which are preferable to those made of wax ; as the former burn not only brighter, and are of a finer colour, but when genuine, do not stain, or grease the finest silks, linens, or cottons....This drug is also used as a cosmetic, for soften- ing and cleansing the skin. In medicine, it is chiefly recommend- ed in the form of an emulsion, with distilled waters and the yolk of eggs, for relieving various affec- tions of the intestines ; coughs arising from defluxions of asrid humours, &c....Spermaceti is also dissolved in oils, and beneficially- applied to bruises, sprains, and si- milar injuries ; as it contributes to mitigate pain. SPICE, a general denomination of aromatic drugs, possessing hot and pungent properties. Such arc All-spice, Nutmeg, Pepper, the seeds of the Caraway and Cardamom, Ginger,Mace,Salt, £-c. of which we have given an account, in the progress of this work. Hence, it will be useful SPI here, to subjoin a few remarks on the general properties of spice, and conclude with enumerating several substitutes for the imported drugs, that deserve to be more generally cultivated. The chief culinary use of spices, is that of serving as an ingredient in sauces, or for seasoning different articles of food, either with a view to render them more palatable, or to obviate some hurtful effects, such as flatulency, acidity, &c..... Nevertheless,condiments are most- ly of a hot and stimulant nature, tending to irritate the nerves, and ultimately to relax the stomach : hence they ought to be employed with moderation, and only with provisions that cannot be easily digested without them ; for the daily use of pungent drugs at the table, necessarily excites thirst; and many persons thus contract the ruinous habit of committing excess in fermented, vinous, or spirituous liquors. Among the various plants,which merit the attention of gardeners, with a view to serve as substitutes for Indian spice, we shall mention the following: I. Monarda, or Indtan Hore- hound (Monarda Zeylonica, L.) a native of Ceylon, but which thrives in the open air of our cli- mate. There are two species of this plant....thefstulosa, and didy- ma: the leaves and blossoms of both possess a very delicate fra- grance ; so that they may be used for making tea, and for imparting a fine flavour to made wines, or brandy. But the most useful part of this vegetable, is its aromatic seeds, whichM.ZizMAN, a German clergyman, has lately cultivated to a great extent, and found them equally serviceable in domestic SPI 21 economy, as the most costly spices obtained from the Indies. Beside the utility of the Monar- da, or Oswego-tea, as a substitute for spice, its leaves may be advan- tageously used instead of those of the Tea-tree : the flowers also, when infused in brandy, impart to it an agreeable flavour, resembling that of peaches. II. Basil (Ocymum), a native of warm climates, consisting of eight species: these are propagated by seeds, and will also thrive in the open air- of this country : if placed in a green-house, even their seeds attain to maturity. The following: three species are the principal: 1. The common Basil (O.vulgare); 2. The Citron-flavoured Basil (O. citri odorej; and, 3. The Pink- scented Basil (O. caryophyllutum maximum). The leaves of all these plants should be employed in a dried state ; as they are too pe- netrating while fresh: those of the last kind, in particular, may serve as excellent substitutes for nutmeg and mace, in tarts, pies, mulled wine, and other preparations. III. Garden-Thyme (Thymus vulgaris) is a spicy herb, the fra- grant blossoms of which should be colic*, ted, dried, and used like th^ie of the preceding. IV. Savory : which see. V. Marjoram : See p. 42. VI. Cicely: See vol. ii. p. 132. VII. Sage, the Balsamine : See p. 9. of this volume. VIII. Tarragon: which see. IX. Spignei. : See next page. Beside these, wc shall remind the reackT of a few other spicy plants commonly met with, in British gardens ; for instance, fen- nel, coriander, mustard, caraway, rue, mint, penny-royal, bairn, mug- wort, 8cc.....When compared with 22 SPI SPI some of the foreign drugs, they excel many of the latter, both in flavour and virtues, so as to render their importation superfluous: nay, the untutored Indians may justly smile at the folly of Europeans who, instead of encouraging the culture of native plants, or such as readily grow in their climates, send the money earned by the in- dustry and hard labour of their husbandmen, over the tempestuous ocean.....frequently at the loss of many valuable lives. SPIDER, or Aranea, L. a genus of insects comprehending 50 spe- cies, of which the following are the principal, namely : 1. The Common House-Spider, is generally of a black-colour ; has eight legs, each of which is fur- nished with three joints, and ter- minates in three crooked claws. This insect has eight eyes ; and, in the fore-part of the head, there is a pair of pincers, or claws, with which it kills flies, Sec. for food. It is also provided with live warts or prominences, at the extremity of the abdomen, through which its viscous filaments are evolved. Spiders abound in almost every house, spinning their webs in cor- ners of the ceiling, where they are not disturbed. The females are very prolific, hying from 4, to 500 extremjly minute eggs ; and, tho' both sexes mutually devour each ether with great ferocity, except in the breeding season, their num- bers ere not perceptibly diminished. These insects are remarkable for their industry: their appearance, however, excites a degree of dis- gust in many weak-minded per- sons, who are apt to persecute and destroy them, without mercy. But, independently of their utility in reducing the number of flies that appear during the summer, they afford a very accurate natural ba- rometer ; because the celerity, or indolence, with which they work, indicate the approaching variations of the atmosphere, Thus, if the weather be about to change, and become wet, or windy, the saga- cious creatures make the terminat- ing filaments that support their web, uncommonly short. But, if such threads be extended to an un- usual length, the weather will re- main serene for 10 or 12 days, or for a longer period, according to the proportionate extension of the former. On the contrary, when the spiders are totally inactive, rain will shortly follow ; but, if they continue to spin during a shower, it is a certain indication, that the rain will speedily cease, and be succeeded by calm, fair weather. 2. The Calycina, or Garden Spi- der, varies from the preceding spe- cies only in its having around,pale- yellow belly, and two hollow points. It inhabits the calyces, or cups of flowers, after the floral leaves are decayed; where it preys upon bees, and other flies, that resort thither for honey.....This insect yields a kind of silk, which is by some deemed little inferior to that pro- duced by the worm ; but, as the filaments of the former are, in the opinion of Reaumur, not equal to those of the latter,either in strength or lusture,they are never employed in manufactures. SPIDER, the Red, or Scarlet Tree-mite, Acarus baccarum, L. a small insect having a roundish body, and a smooth, glossy skin. The colour is a deep-red, and the whole animal appears to be dis- tended, and ready to burst. It frequents currant and other fruit- trees ; but it is particularly destruc- SP I SPI 23 tive in hot-houses. Hence gar- deners have resorted to different methods of extirpating them, and especially that of sprinkling them with a strong ley of wood-ashes ; but, as the saline particles of this liquor are very hurtful to tender plants, it will be more advisable to remove such vermine, by means of a common painter's brush ;...their depredations may likewise be pre- vented, by keeping the hot-house perfectly clean. Independent of the method of exterminating these vermin, al- ready suggested, the-following is recommended by Mr. Forsyth. It merely consists in irrigating the infested plants with lime-water, in the afternoon, particularly on the lower side of the leaves. In hot- houses, however, he advises a bar- row-engine to be filled with soft water, and all the plants to be sprinkled, by directing the stream against the top-lights, and shelves, till the water be an inch deep in the paths. But, where the building will not admit of the entrance of a barrow-engine, the front or top- lights must be slidden down, and the water poured in from above. When this affusion is commenced, if in the inside, every light ought to be shut; but if the fluid be in- troduced from without, one light only should be opened at a time ; and which must be shut, as soon as the part opposite to it is suffi- ciently watered. The other lights are then to be successively remov- ed ; and, when the irrigation is com- pleted, the hcuse should be care- fully closed till the next morning. In consequence of this operation, vapours will arise in every part of the building; cover all the plants; and effectually destroy the red spi- der, together with all other vermin. Mr. F. farther observes, that the watering must be repeated every day, during hot weather ; and that it will, in general, shorten the la- bour, which would otherwise be required in irrigating plants. Such vegetables, however, as require copious humidity, ought to be wa- tered previously to sprinkling the house : thus, the plants will imbibe all the moisture, and the paths will become perfectly dry, during the night. See also Insects,'Pine- Apple. [The bites of spiders are some- times very painful. A remedy for the complaint was described under the article Plantain.] SPIDERWORT, the Marsh, March-tofieldia, or Scotch Asphodel, Anthericum calycula- tum, L. (Tofieldia palustris of Drs. Smith and Withering), a native perennial, which grows in bogs, on mountains in Scotland, and flowers from July to September......This plant, though useless in domestic economy, deserves some notice ; because it may serve as a guide to &\%iox peat, in situations destitute of sea-coal. SPIGNEL, or Spicknel, JEthu- sa Meum, L. a native perennial, growing in mountainous pastures, principally in the northern coun- ties, where it flowers in the month of May.....The roots and seeds of this vegetable have a pleasant aro- matic smell, and a hot, bitterish taste. They have occasionally been used as carminatives; and also been administered in tertian agues. At present, they are sel- dom employed, cither in domestic economy, or in medicine ; though Dr. Withering , observes, that they will often answer as substi- tutes for pepper, or other pungent aromatics. 24 SPI SPI SPIKE-OIL, the name of an es- sential oil distilled from the La- vender-spike, considerable quan- tities of which, are used by var- nish makers, painters in enamel, c:c....See also Lavender. SPINACH, or Spinage, the Common, Spinacia oleracea, L. an exotic pkm, cultivated in Britain, for culinary purposes. If intended for winter-use, it is propagated by the seed, in beds of light, rich earth, towards the end of July, and during moist weather. When the young plants appear, they must be carefully weeded, and thinned to the distance of five inches: in October, they will be fit for use ; when the longer leaves only should be gathered to ; those in the centre being suffered to grow to a larger size; so that a bed, thus managed, will afford a supply of this vege- table during the winter, till the spinach sown for spring-use, is fit for the table; which generally suc- ceeds in April. Beciistein remarks, that the agriculturists of Germany strongly recommend the culture of the common spinach, on land which has been once ploughed after a crop of barley ; where it will pro- duce early and excellent spring- food, cither for sheep, hogs, or cattle : it may, farther, be mown two or three times during the sum- mer, and afterwards be fed off by sheep, or suffered to run to seed. This vegetable is greatly esteem- ed at the table ; but, when dressed with melted butter, it passes speedily through the bowels, with- out being duly digested ; and con- sequently affords little nutriment. It is particularly improper for per- sons of weak and relaxed habits; as it debilitates the alimentary canal; excites looseness ; and not unfre- quently occasions the heart-burn, or acidity in the stomach. Spinage, the Wild. See peren- nial Goose-foot. SPINDLE-TREE,the Common, Prick-timber, Gatteridge- TREK,orLousE-BERRY,iJ/yom/mu* Europaus, L. an indigenous shrub, which, in favourable situations, at- tains the height of 20 feet: it grows in woods and hedges, and is very cor-raon in Devonshire ; where it flowers in the months of May and June. Theberriesof this elegant shrub operate violently, both as an emetic and carthartic :...if eaten by sheep, they infallibly destroy them. Re- duced to powder, and sprinkled on the skin of men or animals, these berries are said to exterminate ver- min of every description.....When the Spindle-tree is in blossom, its wood is remarkably tough, and broken with difficulty; in such state, it is employed by watch-ma- kers, for cleaning time-pieces; by musical instrument makers, tur- ners, and for veneering....We learn, however, from Bohmer, that some artisans, working in this wood, have asserted, that they became subject to nausea and vomiting.......The shoots of the Spindle-tree, in the spring, are so grateful to cows, that they generally damage the banks of fences, in order to obtain their favourite food....Sheep and goats also eat the leaves ; but they are disliked by horses. In dyeing, the bark of this shrub imparted, according to Siefert, a pleasing sea-green colour to wool- len cloth, by adding to the decoc- tion of such rind, one-sixth part of a solution of vtrdigrease, saturated with crystals of tartar. The tint , was so permanent, that no change took place injts shade, after having SPI SPI 25 been exposed for a fortnight to the rays of the sun...The seed capsules of the Gatteridge-tree, when fer- mented in alum-water, produce a durable pale-yellow dye. [Three species of Evonymus, are natives of Pennsylvania, and being highly ornamental, deserve a place in the garden or grounds of every country residence. These species are E. Caroliniensis; E. latifolius, and E. sempervirens, all of which grow naturally in moist shady places.] Spine, Luxations of. See Dis- tortion, and Ribs. SPINNING, is the art of twist- ing flax, hemp, silk, cotton, wool, or similar matters, so as to reduce them into yarn or thread. Spinning is generally performed, either by means of a wheel, or sometimes with a distaff and spin- dle : but, as the wheels commonly employed for this purpose, are aukward and inconvenient, Mr. Antis, of Fulneck, near Leeds, in 17;J3, submitted to the inspection of the Society for the Encourage- ment of Arts, Sec. a model of an im- proved spinning-wheel; for which they conferred on him a bounty of 20 guineas. The usual method of stopping the wheel, with a view to remove the yarn from one staple on the flyer to another, necessarily occa- sions great loss of time ; but, in Mr. A.'s contrivance, the bobbin is so arranged, as to pass backward and forward, in order to prevent any interruption ; and at the same time to obviate both the breaking of the thread, and losing the end : hence, the spinner is enabled to perform more work, in a given time, than is practicable by any other spinning-wheel. Such object vol. v. is effected, by extending the axis of the great wheel through the pil- lar next the person spinning ; and forming it into a pinion of one leaf, which catches into a wheel, seven inches in diameter, having on its periphery 97 teeth; so that 97 re- volutions of the greatwheel require only one of the smaller wheel. On the latter, a wire-ring is fixed; which, being supported on six legs, stands obliquely to the wheel itself; touching it at one part, and pro- jecting nearly three quarters of an inch at the opposite edge. Near the side of this wheel, is an up- right lever, about 15 inches in length, moving on a centre, three inches from its lower extremity, and connected at the top with a sliding bar. From such bar rises an upright piece of brass, which works in the notch of a pully, and drives the bobbin to and fro, during the revolution of the wheel. In order to regulate and assist the alternate motion, a weight, is suspended by a line from the slid- ing-bar ; and, passing over a pul- ley, it rises or falls, as the bobbin advances or recedes ; tending con- stantly to keep the pin in contact with the wire. In consequence of this construction, the flyer requires only one staple; which, being fixed near its extremity, the thread en- tering through, is regularly laid on the bobbin, by the rotary motion of the latter. Since Mr. Antis presented the model of the machine here describ- ed, he has made several alterations, which greatly contribute to its per- fection ; and for which the Society, in 1795, rewarded him with the additional sum of 15 guineas. As we conceive, that an account of these improvements will be inte- E 26 SPI resting to every industrious house- wife, we shall concisely state them, together with Mr. A.'s remarks. 1. At every revolution of the wheel, in his former machine, the pinion with one leaf occasioned a very disagreeable catch, while the bobbin moved only by jerks, and did not receive the thread in an uniform manner. With a view to remedy this inconvenience, Mr. Antis has adopted the motion of an endless screw, working a toothed wheel, on which is fixed a heart- shaped piece of brass. 2. As the spinner should al- ways be enabled to hold the thread at pleasure, and not let it in, till it be sufficiently twisted, Mr. A. ob- served that, the bobbin moving on a square, its motion was so impeded, that when it began to be filled with thread, it became im- moveable, notwithstanding the ac- tion of the weight; and, when the thread was afterwards left at li- berty, it started at once half an inch and upwards. 3. As, in the wheels of the com- mon construction, and also in those of Mr. Antis's first improvement, the friction of the bobbin could be augmented only by stretching the common cord, which was not practicable, without making the wheel revolve with increasing dif- ficulty, particularly when the bob- bin was nearly filled ; he was in- duced to make use of a single cord, the sole design of which is to turn the flyer ; and, in case it should become slack, it may be contracted or shortened, without requiring any screw. Farther, to regulate the friction of the bobbin, Mr. A. has fastened a neqk of steel or brass to one end, which is kept steady by a vice, or by pincers, fixed to the sliding-bar. SPI Such vice is directed to be made either of two elastic springs, fur- nished with wooden tops ; or whol- ly of wood bushed with leather, and provided with a spring, un- der the shoulder of the screw, to answer the same purpose. By tightening this screw to a greater or less degree, the friction may be most accurately regulated,with- out impeding the velocity of the whole ; as no additional machine- ry obstructs the general motion- Mr. Antis, therefore, concludes that a wheel, on this improved plan, will be found to run more freely than those with a double cord ; a circumstance of the great- est importance, to a person whose daily livelihood is obtained by spinning : nay, even a lady who sometimes spins for her diversion, was much pleased with his first invention, and thought it might save a person at least two hours in a day. He observes, that his contrivance may be added to old spinning wheels of every construc- tion ; and that it would not consi- derably increase the price of a new machine, made according to his plan. SPIRITS, a general name given to ardent liquors, obtained by dis- tillation. Surprizing as it may appear to many of our readers, who are un- acquainted with vegetable nature, we may positively affirm, that a sufficient quantity of wild neglect- ed fruit annually grows in this country, to produce an adequate supply of spirituous liquor, with- out using any bread-corn, for such wasteful purpose. Of this de- scription, in particular, are the berries of the Dog-rose, Quick- en-tree, and numerous other native shrubs, that have been men- SPL tioned in the progress of the pre- sent work; and a recapitulation of which, will appear at the con- clusion, in the General Index of Reference. SPIRIT OF WINE, an ardent, colourless liquor, destitute of any peculiar flavour: it may be ob- tained by distilling the farinaceous or saccharine roots, as well as the pulpy fruit of vegetables, in gene- ral, by means of a common still, but more effectually in what is termed a water - bath (balneum maris) ; after which, the spiritu- ous fluid is purified by repeated rectification ; and, when divested of nearly all its aqueous particles, it is called Alkohol. This expensive liquor is chiefly employed for dissolving gum-re- sins in the preparation of varnish- es : for separating resins from the vegetable matters containingthem; and also for making essences, tinc- tures, elixirs, and various other compounds, for medicinal use. It may likewise, be applied with ad- vantage to different parts of the body, especially in sprains and bruises ; as it strengthens the ves- sels ; but, if inadvertently swal- lowed in a pure state, and in a large quantity, it corrugates the membranous parts of the stomach; being attended with a temporary suspension of their functions, and sometimes even inducing apoplexy or palsy, which generally ends in " death. Hence, spirit of wine ought to be preserved with the greatest caution, so that children or igno- rant persons may not have an op- portunity of tasting so deleterious a liquor. SPLEEN, is a spongy viscus, situated in the left side near the Jower part of the stomach, under SPL 27 the ribs. This organ is supposed to be designed by Nature to pre- pare the blood for the secretion of bile in the liver. Its purpose, though inacurately known, must be important to the animal eco- nomy ; as indigestion, and a varie- ty of other complaints, have re- sulted from splenetic affections..... It deserves to be remarked, that the term Spleen is frequently used to denote a disorder, which is more strictly, by physicians, called hy- pochondriasis. The principal diseases of the spleen are inflammations, obstruc- tions, and indurations. In the first case, the causes and symp- toms are similar to those describ- ed under inflammatory fever: at the same time, a tumor and pain are felt in the left side ; the latter increasing on pressure....Chronic inflammation of the spleen, how- ever, may also be consequent on diseases of the liver, such as the jaundice, piles, &c. The treat- ment will, therefore, chiefly con- sist in the application of the same remedies as are mentioned in the page above quoted ; but, where the patient is of a plethoric habit, or was previously subject to the piles, leeches applied to the anus have proved of great service..... Calomel and antimony, taken in- ternally, under judicious manage- ment, have likewise been attended with good effects. If the spleen be obstructed or indurated, a pain and tumor will also be felt on the left side, bear- ing downward like a weight; the patient finding it difficult to lie down on that side : the bowels are generally costive : and respi- ration is impeded....The cure of this affection requires the same 28 SPL SPO method as is recommended for obstructions and scirrhosity of the liver....See Scirrhus. SPLEEN-WORT, or Hart's Tongue, Asplenium scolopendri- um, L. a native perennial, growing in the fissures of moist shady rocks, old walls, and at the mouths of wells : where it flowers in the months of August and September. .....The medicinal powers of this vegetable are highly praised for curing the bites of venomous ser- pents ; in hypochondriasis; pal- pitation of the heart, 8cc. ; of which, however, we have had no experience. SPLENTS, in farriery, denote hard excrescences of various shape and size, appearing on the shank- bone of a horse....Unless they arise from blows, or other accidents, few horses put out splents, after they are seven or eight years old ; and, when occuring in young horses, they frequently wear off, and spon- taneously vanish. Splents, on their first appear- ance, should be well bathed with vinegar, or old verjuice ; which often checks their farther pro- gress : in some animals, purga- tives and diet-drinks will contri- bute to remove watery swellings about the limbs, which frequently induce such malady. According to Mr. Taplin, a radical cure may, in general, be effected by rubbing the excre- scences, for a considerable time, twice every day, with the utmost force of the operator's hand ; well moistening the part after each fric- tion, with a little of the following liniment :....Take of camphorat- ed spirit of wine, and spirit of tur- pentine, each 4 oz.; to be uni- formly incorporated. Or, oil of origanum, and spirit of turpentine, each half an ounce : and campho- rated spirit of wine 2 oz. to be du- ly mixed.... A pledget of tow, wet- ted with either of these prepara- tions, ought to be fastened round the splent, with a proper ban- dage. Should those powerful discu- tients fail of success, recourse must be had to the strongest mer- curial ointment: a portion of the size of a hazel-nut, ought to be chafed into the part affected, every night and morning, till two oz. of it have been used ; applying the roller or bondage, as before di- rected. But, if these various remedies be insufficient to procure relief^ the best and most speedy method, will be that of extirpating the ex- crescence by the knife....This ope- ration may be performed by a longitudinal incision through the integuments (without bruising, hammering, Sec.), then dissecting, and extracting the substance : thus, the cure may be completed by taking up a couple of stitches, and treating the part like a super- ficial wound. SPONGE, or Spongia, L. a genus of animal plants, compre- hending 50 species, the principal of which is the officinalis, or Com- mon Sponge. It is imported from the Levant; being a soft, porous, light, substance, which easily im- bibes water. Sponge is of extensive utility in domestic economy, medicine, and surgery. If it be cut in small pieces, fried or dipped in honey, and given to vermin, it distends their intestines, and effectually de- stroys them [see Rats]. As it strongly adheres to the orifices of SPO SPR 29 wounded vessels, it is advantage- ously employed as a styptic ; often preventing the effusion of blood more effectually than the puff-ball or agaric....When burnt and pul- verized, it has been successfully administered internally, in scro- phulous complaints, and cutaneous diseases, in doses of one scruple and upwards : it is also consider- ed as a specific, on account of its efficacy in removing the glandu- lar swelling of the neck, known under the name of bronchocele..... See Wen. Spoon-wort. See Scurvy- grass, the English. SPOTS, are marks or stains ac- cidentally occurring on linen, wool- len, cotton, silk, or other stuffs.... Under the bead of Cloth, we have already communicated seve- ral methods of discharging spots from woollen-cloth : hence we shall, in this place, add another remedy which may be easily prepared; though we have had no experience of its effects :......Dissolve two ounces of pure pearl-ash in a quart of spring water, and add to this solution a lemon cut in small slices. Let the whole be proper- ly mixed, and kept in a warm place for 24 hours ; when the li- quor should be strained, and the clear fluid decanted for use. It is asserted, that this compound, when poured on the stained part, instantaneously removes all spots, whether they arise from grease, pitch, or oil ; and, as soon as they disappear, the cloth must be wash- ed in pure water....See also Balls (Portable.) Ink-spots on woollen-cloth may be discharged by rubbing them with a composition, made of the white of anew-laid egg, and a few drops of oil of vitriol, properly in- corporated ; afterwards washing the stain with pure water, and lastly, smoothening it with a piece of while cloth, or flannel, in the direction of the nap :....to remove ink from silk stuffs, it will be ad- visable to apply strong distilled vinegar, and wormwood-ashes, to the blotted part, which ought to be well rubbed with these matters,and then cleansed with soap-water. Red-port on linen, we under- stand, may be almost effectually cleared, by pouring warm milk on the stained parts, while they are in a wet state :.....another, and per- haps more successful, method, is that of dropping the tallow from a candle on such wine-marks before they are dry ; and suffering them to remain till the cloth is sent to the laundry; because ink-spots may, in this simple manner, be removed from linen. [To take ink-spots out of linen.... Moisten the place with undiluted marine acid, (spirit of salt;) in about 2 or 3 minutes, wash the linen well in cold water....This is dangerous, if continued too long, but it may be managed with care ; if the acid be diluted with water, it is apt to burn. Another....Rub the spot with a piece of lemon, or squeeze lemon juice upon it, and then wash it in warm water. Mr. Henry, in his Epitome of Chemistry, prefers the oxalic acid, (acid of sorrel) citric, (of lemon) and tartareous acid, which may be applied to the most delicate fabrics without injury : and the same so- lutions discharge, from paper, written but not printed ink.] SPRAIN, denotes an extension of the muscles, ligaments, and ten- dons, without dislocation : it gene- rally proceeds from external inju- 30 SPR ry; and is attended with pain, swelling, and inflammation. In treating this local affection, the first object should be, to check the swelling, and prevent the inflam- matory symptoms. For this pur- pose, cold, astringent fomentations with water, ice, vinegar, Sec. or, in a very recent case, camphorated spirit of wine, must be applied as speedily as possible: to relieve pain, where it is considerable, a few drops of laudanum may be added to the lotion....The regimen recommended under the article inflammation, will here like- wise be proper....During, and for some time after, this treatment, the sprained part should be kept in a state of rest and relaxation. SPRING, a fountain, or source, whence water spontaneously rises from the bowels of the earth. Various conjectures have been formed by naturalists, concerning the origin of springs; but, con- sistently with our limits, we shall only observe, that the most plau- sible theory appears to be that of Dr. Halley, who supposes them to originate from the rain and snow waters; which,penetratingthrough the soil, at length settle in the fis- sures of the earth, and form foun- tains or springs. As water is indispensable to the health and convenience of man- kind, many expedients have been devised, with a view to ascertain the particular spots, whence a supply might be obtained: we shall, therefore, state a few indi- cations, or land-marks, by which that necessary article may be dis- covered. 1. As all mountains are colder in proportion to their height, the evening mist descends on them, particularly in damp situations, SPR much sooner than on the vallies, and thus may indicate the exist- ence of springs. 2. Another observation is sug- gested by Dr. Darwin, in order to determine the existence of sub- terraneous springs, in rimy morn- ings :....moist earth conducting heat better than dry soil, the rime will be dissolved more speedily on those spots which are moistened by springs under ground, than on the adjacent parts. Lastly, the rise of these natural fountains may be discovered dur- ing the winter, in wet ditches, by the growing of brook-lime, water- cresses, or similar aquatic plants : for such vegetables do not thrive in the ditches that become dry in the summer. And Dr. Darwin remarks, that when those ditches which contain springs, are nearly dry, the direction of the current may be ascertained by the point, to which the leaves of the aquatic plants may turn, with as great a degree of certainty as can be ef- fected by a level. SPRING-GRASS, the Sweet- scented, or Veunal-grass, An- thoxanthum odoratum, L. an indi- genous perennial, growing in mea- dows and pastures ; flowering in the months of May and June..... This is one of the earliest British pasture-grasses, and occasions the delicate flavour perceptible in new- ly-made hay. It is eagerly eaten by cows, horses, goats, and sheep; on account of its aromatic taste, and juicy, nutritive nature.....Mr. Swayne, however, observes, that it abounds in wet lands, particu- larly on peat-bogs ; and that it ap- pears to be of little consequence ; as it is neither very productive to the farmer, nor palatable to cattle, ...NevertheIess,other agriculturists SPR SPU 31 are of a different opinion; and Mr. Sole (Letters and Papers of the Bath and West of England Society, vol. ix.) conceives that the vernal- grass would be an useful addition to meadows, by sowing it in the proportion of one-eighth. This ju- dicious advice, every practical hus- bandman will be induced to adopt; as it is a well-known fact, that this fragrant herb not only remarkably spreads, and increases in its bushy stalks, when cultivated in favoura- ble situations, but it also effectu- ally checks the growth of moss, in your meadows......It is farther re- markable, that the root of this moss possesses a strong odour, re- sembling that of musk....The dried blossoms are, on the Continent, employed for imparting an agree- able flavour to snuff and tobacco. [See Grass.] SPRUCE-BEER, a kind of diet- drink, which is prepared in the fol- lowing manner : Eight gallons of water are first poured into a cask, or other vessel; and a similar quantity of boiling water is added ; 16 pounds of molasses are next mixed, together with a few table- spoonfuls of the essence of spruce (which is obtained from the cones of the spruce-fur.) Half a pint of sweet yeast must now be put in ; and the whole, after being well stirred, should be placed in a tem- perate room, for a few days, till the fermentation ceases. The li- quor may then be bottled; and, in the Course of a fortnight, it will be fit for use. [Another.....To a four ounce pot of essence of spruce, add three quarts of molasses, two gallons of warm rain or soft- water, and half a pint of good yeast. Stir the whole well, till the liquor bears a froth, then put the mixture into a cask, and fill it with eight gallons of water, shaking it well; set it by for two or three days, to ferment, with the bung open ; when sufficient- ly worked, bung the cask close, and place it in a cool cellar, and in 24 hours it will be fit for use.... If intended for bottling, let the cask stand undisturbed three days before it is drawn off: for a second brewing, the sediment remaining in the cask, may be used instead of yeast. If well-water be used, it should be a little warmed. The above receipt, the Editor can recommend from experience. But he must ber?;, that attention be paid to every part of the process ; that the cask be clean, the corks sound, and the bottles strong..... The purity of the essence of spruce also,must be attended to, as that article is often greatly adulter- ated.] Spruce-beer has a peculiar fla- vour, which renders it disagreea- ble to the palate of many persons ; it is, however, a most powerful antiscorbutic, and affords a whole- some beverage, particularly during the summer; as it does not affect the weakest stomach. Spruce-fir. See Fir. Spunge. See Sponge. Spur, a disease to which corn is subject....See Corn and Rye. SPURGE, or Euphorbia, L. a genus of plants, comprehending 110 species; 12 being natives of Britain ; the principal of which are the following: 1. The charatias, or Red Spurge, grows in woods and hedges, where it flowers in the month of June. The pulverized leaves of this plant, if taken in doses of from 32 SPU 15 to 25 grains, operate as a brisk purgative :....its juice, like that of all the other species of the spurge, is so extremly acrid, that it ulce- rates every part of the body, with which it comes in contact. Hence, it is never used internally :....but, a single drop put into the cavity of an aching tooth, is said to have removed the pain, and at the same time destroyed the nerve. This corrosive liquid, however, may, ac- cording to Dr. Withering, be applied with safety to warts and corns; as it eradicates them in a - very short time. 2. The helioscopia, or Sun- spurge. See Wartwort. 3. The Cyparissias, or Cyprus Spurge, grows in dry woods (at Enville, in Staffordshire), where its yellow flowers blow in May and June....Goats are exceedingly par- tial to this herb ; and its seeds afford grateful food to pigeons.... The beautiful caterpillar, which is changed into the Spurge-butterfly, derives its nourishment from the leaves of this species.....[See Eu- PHORBIUM.] SPUUGE-FLAX. SeeMEZEREON. SPURGE-LAUREL, or Lau- rel Mezereon, Daphine Laure- ola, L. an indigenous shrub, found in woods and hedges, principally in the county of York, where it flowers in March and April. The whole of this vegetable, especially the bark of the root, is very acrid : it has been employed with success in rheumatic fevers,operating pow- erfully as a purgative. It is like- wise an excellent vermifuge ; but, as it possesses great acrimony, it ought never to be administered without medical advice, and in small doses, which should not ex- ceed ten grains. On account of its elegant green and yellow flowers. SQU which appear in the early springy and sometimes in the winter, this- evergreen is cultivated in shrub- berries ; but it deserves to be re- marked that its black berries, though eagerly eaten by phea- sants, prove mortal food to man, and all the mammillary animals. Spurge-Olive. See Meze- reon. SPURREY, or Spergula, L. a genus of plants comprising 5 spe- cies ; three being natives of Bri- tain. The principal of these is the arvensis, or Corn Spurrey, which grows in corn-fields, and sandy situations; flowers from July to September. This vegetable is eat- en by horses, sheep, goats, and hogs ; but is, according to With- ering, refused by coavs. Bech- stein, Funke, and other natural- ists, however, informs us that the corn-spurrey is.not only devoured with avidity by Seattle, but is also conducive to their health, while it remarkably tends to increase the milk of cows, and to fatten sheep. Hence this weed is industriously cultivated in Flanders; because it is so far superior to other pasture- grasses, that it continues green till a late period of autumn, and often throughout the winter. Its seeds are eagerly swallowed by poultry, and afford on expression a good lamp-oil : nay, the flour obtained from them, when mixed with that of wheat or rye, produces whole- some bread, for which purpose, it is often used in Norway and Goth- land. SQUILL, the Commw, or Sea- onion, Scilla maritima, L. an ex- otic plant, growing on the sandy shores of the Levant, especially on those of Spain, and Portugal, whence considerable quantities of its roots arc annually imported.... SQU The best sea-onions ought to be sound, fresh, and to contain a vis- cous juice : they are nauseous, bit- ter, and, if much handled, are so acrid as to ulcerate the skin. The squill is a powerful stimu- lant, promoting the discharge of urine ; and, if the patient be kept warm, a profuse perspiration. It is chiefly employed, in cases, where the organs of respiration are clog- ged, or oppressed with mucus :.... when combined wilh nitre in the proportion of from 4 to 10 grains of the dried root, with a double quan- tity of saltpetre, it has been great- ly extolled for its efficacy in drop- sical swellings, and inflammations of the kidnies. If the squill be taken in a large dose, it operates as an emetic; and, in some persons, as a purgative. It is often pre- scribed in the form of pills; though, when mixed with honey into an oxymel, it affords an useful me- dicine for obstinate coughs.....The roots of the sea-onion pay, on importation, the duty of 2s. 9d. per lb. Squinancy-berries. See Cur- ran r, the Black. SQUINTING, or Strabismus, an affection of the eyes, occasioned by the optic axis not converging ; in consequence of which, the or- gans of sight appear distorted. Improper habits frequently in- duce this defect, while the eye and its muscles are perfect; for instance, in children, who accustom them- selves to view different things at one time ; or, who are placed ob- liquely towards any object that may attract their attention. Ano- ther cause is mal-conformation of the retina, or such parts as serve to convey impressions to the point of vision; so that persons thus situ- ated, are obliged to turn the eye vol. v. SQU 33 from the object to be investigated, in order that they may be enabled to behold it more distinctly....Far- ther, it often proceeds from weak- ness, or defect of either eye, so that both cannot be mutually em- ployed. Besides, it may be conse- quent on affections of the brain, epilepsy, terror, and defluxions of rheumatic humours. ' The method of cure to be adopted in this unpleasant distortion, varies according to the cause. Thus, in children, and in cases of weakness of the eyes, it may be remedied by mechanical contrivances. Hence, when there is no organic defect in either eye, which is frequently the case with persons who squint from a depraved habit of moving their eyes, the disease may often be cured. Dr. Darwin remarks (Philosophical Transactions, vol. 68), that in all the squinting people he had occasion to attend, one eye was less perfect than the other: these patients are, in his opinion, certainly curable, by covering the best eye-many hours in the day; as, by a more frequent use of the weak eye, it not only acquires a habit of turning to the objects which the patient wishes to see, but gains at the same time, a more distinct vision : in both these res- pects, the better eye is under some disadvantage, which also facilitates •the cure. This ingenious physi- cian relates, in the same paper, a remarkable case of a boy, then five years old (now a reputable Eng- lish clergyman at Edinburgh), who has the misfortune of viewing every object with one eye only at a time. Dr. D. directed a paper gnomon to be made, and affixed to a cap ; and, when this artificial nose was placed over the patient's real nose, so as to project an inch 34 SQU ST between his eyes, the child, rather than turn his head so far to look at oblique objects, immediately began to exert the eye which was nearest to them. But, having the misfortune to lose his father, soon after this method was begun to be followed, the child was neglected for six years, during which time the habit was confirmed in such a manner as seemed to leave little room to hope for a cure. Dr. D. however, being again called, at- tempted a second time to remove the deformity, by a similar con- trivance. A gnomon of thin brass was made, to stand over his nose, with a half-circle of the same metal to go round his temples: these were covered with black silk; and, by means of a buckle behind his head, and a cross-piece over the crown of his head, this gnomon was worn without any inconveni- ence, and projected before his nose about two inches and a half. By the use of this machine, he soow found it less inconvenient to view all oblique objects, with the eye next to them, instead of the eye opposite to them. After this habit was weakened, by a week's use of the gnomon, two bits of wood, about the size of a goose-quill, were blackened all but a quarter of an inch at their summits ; these were frequently presented to him to look at; one being held on one side the extre- mity of his black gnomon, and the other on the opposite. In viewing these, they were gradually brought forward beyond the gnomon, and then one was concealed behind the other; by such means, in another week, he could bend both his eyes on the same object for half a mi- nute together ; and, by continuing the use of the same machine, he was in a fair way of being cured. Lastly, if squinting arise from any adventitious circumstance, such as terror, defluxions of humours, Sec. the removal of those causes will also cure the disorder; but, where it originates from mal-con- formation of the organs of vision, or has been so long neglected as to become confirmed, it is not in the power of art to afford any re- lief. Squitch-grass, the blue. See Creeping Bent-grass. St. Anthony's Fire. See Rose. St. John's-wort. See John's Wort. ST. YITUS's DANCE, a spas- modic disorder, mostly incident to young persons of both sexes, from the age of ten to fifteen : it is dis- tinguished by continual involuntary motions of the hands and feet ; so that the patient appears in a man- ner to dance, while he is obliged to drag one leg after the other. Caused."....Worms ; suppressed eruptions ; checked perspiration, he. but the peculiar affection of the muscles thus contracted, has hitherto eluded the researches of the physiologist. However distressing this com- plaint be to the patient and his friends, it may afford some consola- tion, that it neither proves fatal nor permanent; and that frequently, after every mean has been em- ployed, it spontaneously disap- pears. A favourable change may, in general, be expected about the age of puberty. Cure :....As it is often difficult to ascertain the cause of this malady, it will be proper to administer such medicines as are calculated to carry STA ST A 35 off worms (see the article Worm); and to allay the spasmodic motions. With the latter intention, antispas- modics and tonics, namely, asafoe- tida, valerian-root, wormwood, musk in conjunction with bark and port wine, Sec have often been attended with good effects. Far- ther, the remedies directed in the epilepsy, may also, with advan- tagej be so modified as to be salu- tary in this complaint. Lastly, we conceive that the tepid bath may always with safety, if not with uniform benefit, be resorted to ; especially in an affection which ob- riously arises from a preternatural irritability of the nerves and mus- cles. On the other hand, the cold sea-bath will probably be of great service, when the skin of a robust patient is not in a dry, contracted state ; and when there appears to be a sufficient degree of re-action in the system, to withstand the sudden shock of the water. STABLE, an edifice erected for the reception and accommodation of horses. The principal object in building stables, is the situation, which ought to be, 1. On a gentle decli- vity, in order that the urine, &c. may be carried off; 2. On a pure, airy spot ; not exposed to noxious exhalations ; and, 3. On dry, hard ground. The walls must be mo- derately thick, and furnished with casements on the north and east sides ; both with a view to admit iiir, and receive the benefit of the rising sun. The windows should, at the same time, be provided with shutters, [or louffers in preference] for excluding the.light, in case it be deemed necessary for the ani- mals to sleep during the day. With respect to the paving of stables, it will he advisable to co- ver the part, on which the horses, are to lie down, with oak boards, placed transversely upon a level; and which should be perforated with holes, for conducting the urine into the common drain. The other part should be paved with small stones ; and the wall contiguous to the rack, ought to be lined with a wainscoat of sound oak. [For some remarks on the best form of stables, t\\e reader is refer- red to the article Farm Yard.] When a stable is designed for several horses, the stalls should be made sufficiently wide to enable them to lie down, or turn round without inconvenience ; while the partitions ought to be raised so high towards the head, that the animals can neither see, smell, nor molest each other. Lastly, the strictest cleanliness must be ob- served in the management of the stable, both in order to preserve the health of horses, and to prevent the generation of any contagious effluvia. In case, however, in- fectious distempers should prevail, it will be necessary to resort to the following process, in order to destroy the contagion : Let half a pound of oil of vitriol, diluted with an equal quantity of water, be gradually poured into a vessel, containing 4 ounces of pulverized manganese, mixed with a pound of sea-salt. The dish ought to be pla- ced on a heated brick; and the operator should carefully avoid the fumes arising from the vitriolic acid ; as they will powerfully af- fect the organs of respiration. See also Fumigation. STAGGERS, or Apoplexy, a diorder in the heads of horses, which becomes evident from the drowsiness ; bad appetite ; watery and inflamed eyes ; and the a tag- 36 ST A ST A gering or reeling gait of the ani- mals. The head is continually re- clining on the manger; a slight fever prevails ; and the discharge of urine is in a very small pro- portion. If the disease arise from wounds, or blows on the head, the horse will, in addition to these symp- toms, become frantic, particularly after feeding ; and, if it-fall down, without being able to rise, there will be little prospect of recovery. Sometimes the staggers proceed from colds, caught by too early turning the animal out to grass, alter violent exertions : it will, therefore, be requisite to bleed him freely, and to support the head and shoulders with straw : if he sur- vive the fit, clysters prepared from a strong decoction of senna and salt, or a. purging clyster must be administered every morning and evening. It has farther been re- commended, to blow a dram of the powder of Asarabacca, once in the course of the day, into the animal's nostrils, in order to pro- mote a discharge-: after which, two or three aloetic purges (see Horse-medicines, vol. hi.) ought to be given ; and, to prevent a re- lapse, small doses, not exceeding one ounce, and consisting of equal ports of cinnabar, antimony, and guaiacum, formed into balls, should be daily administered, for the space of a month. When the staggers originate from fulness of blood, high feed- ing, or want of exercise, it is the practice of farriers, frequently to take small quantities of blood from the horse, and to give an opening diet, together with scalded bran or bai ley. It appears to us, however, that such bleedings, unless in cases of urgent necessity, might be avoid- ed ; by keeping the animal on hay mixed with double its quantity of cut straw, and making him work moderately every day. [In the first vol. of" Anderson's Recreations," is a paper on this disease, which it is now known was written by Col. Tatham, at pre- sent in London, and author of se- veral late and ingenious works..... From the facts collected by Mr. T. it is highly probable, that the di- sease proceeds, at least in North Carolina, " from the cobwebs which bespread the ground every where in autumn ; but whether the infec- tious particles are taken in through the nose or mouth, or both, seems to be yet unsettled." It appears that it is the cobwebs moist with the due, that produce the disease. By experiments, dry cobwebs were found innocent. These facts are highly worthy of investigation. Dr. Anderson observes that the f taggers, as af- fecting sheep, is the only disorder of this sort frequent in Britain.] Staggers, in Sheep, is a spe- cies of apoplexy, arising from too great fulness of blood. It princi- pally attacks young lambs, which fall down ; and, if not timely re- lieved, they speedily perish. The mode of cure generally adopted by shepherds, is to bleed the creatures frequently in the eye-vein, and to remove them to a coarse pasture, with a view to prevent the danger of a relapse. Staining. See Marble; and Wood. [STAIR CASE. All stone stairs and landings, projecting from the walls, without any support at one end, are extremely dangerous; their safety, or support, depends on the supposition that every stone is sound, every joint and bearing ST A S T A 37 geometrically exact, and the walls compleatly settled before the stairs are built in. This supposition is generally groundless, or at least uncertain, as events shew. Not long ago, says Dr. Garnet, one of these elegant, but unsafe stairs, tumbled down at the New Opera- House, in the Hay-Market, and another at the Tontine, or Ex- change, in Glasgow. And serious apprehensions of a similar acci- dent, were entertained at the house of a nobleman at the west end of the town. Stone stairs when built with good roomy landing-places, and a thin wall to support the off ends of the steps, as recommend- ed by Dr. Garnet, are certainly the best on account of fire..... Many instances having occurred of the inhabitants of houses being burnt from the stairs taking fire below, by which they were de- prived of the means of escaping.] STAR OF BETHLEHEM, or Ornithogalum, L. a genus of plants, comprising 35 species, 7 of which are indigenous: the principal of these is the luteum, or Yellow Star of Bethlehem, growing in woods, and moist sandy places ; where its beautiful yellow flowers appear in April. All the species of this vegetable are hardy perennials, and prosper in any situation : they may be ea- silv propagated by off-sets from the bulbous roots. These may be pre- served for a long time, either in a raw or roasted state ; and Ruel- lius remarks, that a wholesome and nutritious bread may be pre- pared from a mixture of the roots and seeds of this plant.....It is eaten by horses, goats, and sheep, though not relished by hogs ; and is to- tally refused by cow......See also ClIKLSt. STAR-GRASS, or Callitriche, L. a genus of plants, consisting of four species, two of which are in- digenous, namely : 1. The vcrna, Vernal Star-grass, Water-Star- wort, Water-Fennel, or Star-head- ed Water-Chickweed, grows in ditches, ponds, and slow streams: it flowers from April to August. 2. The autumnalis, or Autumnal Star-grass, abounds in ditches and still waters, where it flowers in August. Both these vegetables grow so thickly matted together, as to en- able a person to walk over them, without sinking : hence, they may be advantageously planted, with a view to consolidate swampy, or marshy grounds, so as to prepare them for tillage. STAR-WORT, the Sea, or Aster Tripolium, L. a native peren- nial, growing in salt-marshes, both on the sea-coast, and in those which are more distant from the shore : it flowers in the months of August and September. This vegetable is eaten by goats and horses ; but is not relished by sheep, and totally refused by hogs. From its thriving in inland situations, the Sea-Star- wort has been conjectured to indi- cate the presence of subterraneous salt-springs. STARCH, or Amylum, is a pre- paration from wheat, obtained by steeping the flour of that grain in cold water, then straining it through a cloth, and suffering the farinace- ous particles to subside. In many places, however, it is manufactured in the following manner : Pure wheat is put. into tubs of water, and exposed to the heat of the sun, to induce a proper degree of fermentation ; the water being changed twice every day, for six or eight clays, according to the 38 ST A ST A warmth of the season. When pro- perly softened and fermented, it is poured into canvas bags, which are worked or beaten on a board, placed over an empty vessel, in order to extract the mealy part. When such vessel is filled with the liquid four, a reddish fluid appears on the sur- face, which must be carefully skimmed, and pure water added ; when the whole ought to be briskly agitated, and allowed to subside. As the sediment increases, the wa- ter is gradually drained, and at length the starch is formed into cakes, which are cut in small pieces, and dried for use. Good starch, when dry, is pul- verulent, tasteless, without odour, insoluble both in cold water and ardent spirit: on the addition of boiling water, however, it forms Paste, or Pastry, of which the reader will find an account.....It is one of the constituent parts in all mealy or farinaceous seeds, fruits, roots, Sec. of plants ; though some vegetables contain a much larger proportion of it than others. Thus, the Wake-Robin, and White Bryo- ny, afford more starch than pota- toes ; and the Salep-roots, espe- cially those of the Meadow-On- chis, for the greatest part, consist of that valuable substance. Starch being the basis of hair- powder, and also of extensive uti- lity for domestic purposes, various experiments have been instituted, with a view to ascertain such vege- tables as might be advantageously substituted for wheat.....As the reader will find a recapitulation of those useful plants which have been mentioned throughout this work, in the General Index of Re- ference, we shall, at present, only Botice the method adopted by Mrs. Gibbs, for preparing starch from the roots of the Wake-Robin ; for which the Society for the Encou- ragement of Arts, &c. in 1797, presented her with their gold me- dal. She observes, in her com- munication, that such roots are found in the Isle of Portland, in the common fields, whence they may be dug out, cleansed, and pounded in a stone mortar with water. The whole is then strain- ed, and the starch settles at the bottom : a peck of these roots pro- duced, upon an average, about four pounds of starch, which was sold at 1 Id. per pound.....See .also Wake-hobin. [Starch abounds in a great va- riety of vegetables. Mr. Par- mentier has shewn that the roots of 22 vegetables yield starch, and that the seeds of nine plants and trees contain it nearly pure. He omits however,, the Arum Tryphyl- lum or Indian turnip, which pro- bably does not grow in France..... See Turnip (Indian). Dry mealy Potatoes yield a large proportion of starch, which is preferable, when properly pre- pared, to the starch of wheat flour. The following is the method re- commended by Baume. Rasp clean mashed potatoes, col- l*ct the pulp in a tub, and mix it with a g'reat quantity of clean water. Place two wooden rails on the brim of another very clean tub to support a sieve, which must not be too fine. Throw the pulp and water into the sieve; pour fresh quantities of water on the pulp, till the clear water runs through. In six hours the water will have deposited the flour suspended in it; when the water is to be poured off, and a great quantity of very ST A ST A 39 clean water poured npon the flour remaining at the bottom of the tub, which is to be stirred up in the wa- ter, and the whole is to stand quiet till the day following. The flour will then be found to have settled at the bottom of the tub : the water is again to be poured off; the flour washed in a fresh quantity of pure water, and the mixture pas- sed through a silk sieve pretty fine. The whole must once more be suffered to stand quiet till the flour is settled ; if the water above it is clean, the flour has been suffi- ciently washed; but if the water has any colour,it must be again washed. When perfectly washed, take out the flour, and place it upon wicker frames covered with paper, and dry it, properly defending it from dust. When dried, pass it through silk sieves, to divide any clotted lumps that may remain ; and steep it in glass vessels stop- ped with paper only.] STARLING, the Common, or Sturnus vulgaris, L. an useful bird, inhabiting various parts of Eng- land. It is about eight inches in length, and weighs from three to four ounces: the plumage is black, spotted with blue, purple, or yel- low, though sometimes with white dots ; and the beak is yellow. Starlings breed in hollow trees, the caves of houses, in ruins, and even on lofty cliffs; where they construct their nests of straw, the fibres of roots, and similar mate- rials : the female lays from 4 to 7 pale-greenish, ash-coloured eggs : the young afford adelicats repast; but the flesh of the old birds is so uncommonly bitter, from devour- ing worms and insects, that it can- not be eaten. As, however, these creatures have a pleasiny note, and display great docility, they are fre-. quently taken by bird-limeor other means, and taught to imitate hu- man speech, in the same manner as Parrots. The breeding of starlings, in a wild state, ought: to be encouraged by every rational farmer; because they are of extensive service, by devouring noxious vermin, and eating no grain or seeds of plants, or other fruit, unless compelled by necessity. ST AVES ACRE, or Delphinium Staphisagriu, L. an exotic plant, growing in the southern parts of Europe, and particularly in Italy, whence its rough, blackish seeds are imported. They possess a dis- agreeable odour, and a nauseous, bitterish taste. Their chief use, at present, is, for destroying fleas and similar vermin ; and if horses, or other animals, be occasionally washed with a decoction of the seeds of the stavesacre (in the pro- portion of one ounce to \~ pintol water), all nils, &c. will be effec- tually exterminated. These seeds were formerly cele- brated for their purgative qualities; but, on account of their violent operation, are now exploded front the list of internal medicines. If, however, a small portion of such poison should have been accider. tally swallowed, the most proper antidote will be, either an immediate and brisk emetic; or, if some time have elapsed, large draughts of oily, mucilaginous, milky, or other demulcent liquors, should be swal- lowed, with a view to prevent an inflammation of the intestines. STAYS, an article of female dress, which is usually made of canvas or dimity, supported by whale-bone, and laced behind. 40 S T A Few articles are of greater im- portance to the health and com- fort of females than stays : hence, instead of being manufactured from hard substances, they ought to be made of such as would allow a free motion of the limbs ; for instance, felt, shamois-leather, &c.; without any stiff materials. So great, how- ever, is the prevalence of custom, that such absurd casements are still retained by the most numerous class of women, who lace them- selves in whale-bone, to the great detriment of their constitution. To this cause we may justly attribute many of the cancers, hard tumors, and similar affections of the breast; nausea; indigestion; compression of Ahe ribs; distortion of the spine ; and a long train of painful disorders. To prevent such fre- quent disasters, we recommend the use of corsets made of the pli- ant and elastic texture used for stockings, or gloves; which, if properly lined, and worn with a moderate compression, will not only afford sufficient warmth, but also contribute to the preservation of an erect form. In short, we find from history, that among the most elegant nations of antiquity, namely, the Greek and Roman wo- men, never resorted to such cum- bersome articles of dress. In March, 1801, Mrs. Lloyd Gibbon, of Sackville-street, Pic- r adilly, obtained a patent for new- invented stays, for women and others. They consist of a back and front-piece, both of which are supported by strips of whale-bone, that are nearly parallel : the two pieces are joined by means of hooks and eyes, or similar contrivances, which meet at the side, and admit of being accommodated to the size S T E of the wearer. Farther, these stays are made of such a length, as not to produce any inconvenience on sitting down ; and are asserted to be principally calculated for cor- recting deformities, as well as for supporting the abdomen, where this aid should be required; as they may be lined and stuffed, or padded, at pleasure. STEAM, denotes the visible, moist vapour ascending from hot or boiling liquors ; and also from substances containing humidity, which is easily evaporated by a degree of heat, that is insufficient for their combustion. Steam being one of the most powerful agents in Nature, is an object of great importance to ma- nufactures, as well as to horticul- ture. Hence several machines, known under the names of steam- engines, have been invented, with a view to facilitate the operations of extensive iron-works, and also to expel noxious exhalations from mines- Among these contrivances, that by Mr. James Watt, of Bir- mingham, first deserves honoura- ble mention for its ingenuitv ; next in order of time, is Mr. Jonathan Hornijloweu's machine, for rais- ing water or other liquids by means of fire and steam, for which a pa- tent was granted in 1781 ; then Mr. James Sadler's engine for diminishing the consumption of steam and fuel, as well as gaining a considerable effect in time and force ; in consequence of which, he obtained a patent in June, 1791 ; aTjd lastly, the Rev. Mr. Edmund Cartwright's improvements in constructing, working, and apply- ing steam-engines ; for which a patent was granted to him in No- vember, 1797......As, however, a STE STE 41 description of these respective in- ventions would be unintelligible, without the aid of numerous en- gravings, the curious reader will consult the 4th, 7th, and 10th vols. ofthe Repertory of Arts, &c. where full specifications are inserted, and illustrated with plates. Farther, steam may be made subservient to the purpose of pro- moting vegetation; by means of flues and other contrivances, con- ducted beneath hot-houses :....with this economical design, various suc- cessful experiments have been made under the inspection of the Earl of Derby, and also by Tho- mas Wakefield, Esq. of Norlh- wich. Our limits, however, being circumscribed, we cannot specify the machinery invented by Mr. W.; because such account would necessarily be deficient without an engraving. We shall, therefore, only remark, that during the last five years, the steam has been used in his vine-house, with the best success; the plants vegetating with uncommon luxuriance throughout the summer; and producing " the greatest abundance of large and well-flavoured fruit." Another ad- vantage attending this new method of raising fruit, is, that it prevents the depredations of the red spider : because, if a sufficient volume of steam be applied, that destruc- tive insect never appears. For a more minute account of the nume- rous trials made with Mr. Wake- fied's flues, the reader is referred to the 18th vol. of the Transac- tions of the Society for the Encou- ragement of Arts, &c. Steam may, with equal advan- tage, be employed in domestic eco- nomy, and particularly in cooking. Thus, steamed potatoes are always more wholesome and nutritious, than such as are boiled in water ; and Dr. Darwin observes, that if the heat of the steam could be in- creased after it has left the water, the art of boiling all vegetables might be considerably improved ; and thus the mucilage, abounding both in potatoes and flour pud- dings, and also in the roots, seeds, stems, leaves and flower-cups of plants, may be rendered more nu- tritive, and probably, more palata- ble. See also the article Cook- ing. [STEAM-DISH. This very use- ful contrivance is described in the 4th vol. of the Repertory of Arts. In Philadelphia, it is a very com- mon' practice to surround meat, with potatoes, in an earthen dish, which is sent to the oven. The potatoes are thus soddened, and the meat is hard and dry, and acquires a very unpleasant taste from the variety of exhalations with which it is surrounded. The steam-dish obviates all these inconveniencies. " It is made of tin, or xearthen- ware; (for a family of six or eight) twelve inches by nine, at the top, and nine by seven, at the bottom, four and a half inches deep, on the slant rim, and three inches, in the clear, under four resting knobs, (a little below the top,) which space is to be occupied by the meat of which the pastry is made. vol. v. G STE STE Fig. \. Is the perforated cover, in the centre of the cover, for the with its steam-pipe, made exactly rising of the steam, and play of the to fit the dish, when resting on the valve L, thrown up by the steam knobs. whilst the pasty is baking. M is a I K L M Fig. 2. Is the loWer nut, screwed on to a piece of wire part of the steam pipe, with its fixed at the bottom of the valve, valve and screw ; (one third less to prevent the steam from forcing than the real size) it is soldered it too high in the steam-pipe. upon the perforated cover, as Fig. 3. Represents the steam- at Z> leaving a sufficient hole pipe, with its leafy ornament: it STE STE 43 screws on to fig. 2. and is suffici- ently hollowed about the screw part, (as the dotted lines shew) to suffer the valve N to play freely.... The loops O O are for the pur- pose of lifting off the perforated cover to serve out the meat, when brought to table. Directions for making Potatoe- pastry. Take of beef, mutton, veal, or other meat, two pounds ; season it, and place it in the bottom of the steam-dish, with a bit or two of butter, (two ounces is enough for the whole pastry, including what is rubbed into the mashed pota- toes), and a sufficiency of water to draw a good gravy ; a few slices of carrot may be added, if the pas- try is made of mutton. Take also of mealy potatoes, one gallon; boil, peal, and mash them ; rub into them a little butter: when washed, place the perforated cover over the meat, and put the pota- toes smooth and even upon it, slop- ing them up, and pressing them very closely round the edges of the dish. The pasty may now be sent to the oven, which, if quick, will bake it in an hour. When the pastry is removed, the air closes the valve, the steam then rises through the perforated cover, and incorporates with the potatoes. When served up to table, the potatoe crust may be cut off and served round ; then by lifting up the perforated cover, you will find an excellent dish of beef, ^c. swimming in gravy, which is to be taken out and eaten with pota- toe crust; and a more palatable mixture or cheap dish, cannot be served to a family.] STEEL, is iron refined in the fire with certain ingredients that render it white, and impart to it a harder and finer grain than that of the original metal. Iron is converted into steel, ei- ther by fusion, or by cementation. The former method is employed for making steel immediately from the ore, or from the crude, cast metal. In the latter, bars of iron are placed in furnaces, with a stra- tum of charcoal between each ; till the pile is raised to a sufficient height. The whole is then closely covered, to prevent the access of the air ; when a strong fire is kind- led, and uniformly continued during the whole process. The su.face of the metal, manufactured in either way, generally exhibits nu- merous vesicles, whence it is cal- led blistered steel; but these may be removed by repeated ignition between red-hot coals, and by forg- ing^ The finest metal of this descrip- tion, is the Damascus-steel, which is imported from Syria; but the process pursued in the Turkish manufactories, is not accurately known in Europe. The German- steel is made by breaking the blis- tered bars into small pieces, which are exposed to the strong fire of a furnace : these are next welded, and extended the length of about 18 inches, when they are doubled; welded a second time; and at length drawn to the requisite size and shape. The celebrates Bres- cian-steel is obtained by roasting the iron-ore in strata, with layers of wood between, each ; and, when these are sufficiently smelted, the metal is taken out of the furnace, broken to pieces, picked, ancf wash- ed in troughs of pure water. It is next conveyed to an oblong square 44 STE S TI cavity, termed the fuxing-bed, which is strewed with a mixture of finely-sifted ashes and sand, that are carefully compressed. A stra- tum of charcoal is then laid on ; the smelted metal is gradually add- ed ; and, at the end of three or four days, the conversion is com- pleted. [For an account of the mode of making steel by cementation, see the Transactions of the Manchester Society, vol. 5 ; and for informa- tion on the subject generally, see TI l l oc h 's Philosophical Magazine, and Nicholso.i's Philosophical Journal, in both of which much in- teresting matter n:;>y be found.] The best steel manufacured in Britain, is known under the name of cazf-stetl. It is prepared from the common blistered metal ; which, being broken to pieces, is put ir.to proper crucibles, with a Jlux ; and, after the fusion is effect- ed, the metal is cast into ingots, when it undergoes the operation of tilting, and is at length tempered, by repeated ignition and immer- sion in water. In 1801, a Mr. Eggs obtained a patent for a new method of bend- ing steel. After giving the neces- sary shape to the blade, spring, or other article, it is extended over a convex piece of iron, denominated a fia'. The bent steel is next stricken repeatedly with an iron machine, resembling a chissel, that cuts into the former, and completes the bending; by which practice he conceives, that considerable la- bour will be saved in the manufac- turing of springs, trusses and sur- geons' instruments. Rmty steel may be cleaned, by first anointing it with sweet-oil, u hich in the course of two or three days will ^often the rust; after- wards vriping it dry with clean rags, and polishing the tarnished parts with pumice-stone or eme- ry, by means of hard wood: but the most effectual composi- tion for giving a high degree of lustre to steel, is a paste made of levigated blood-stone and spirit of wine. STEEL-YARD, or Stilyard, is one of the most ancient machines for ascertaining the weight of bo- dies, by its counterpoise. It is al- luded to in the Pentateuch, and to this day used by the Arabs, and all the asiatic nations. The Greek and Roman goldsmiths preferred it to the balance, which was the instrument used by the people. The steel yard consists of a lever of unequal arms ; and, in its most perfect form, is constructed on the principles of the usual balance ; to which however it is greatly infe- rior, in point of minute accuracy. See Balance. There is another species of pa- tent steel-yard, consisting of an elastic spring, which is confined in a tube ; thus serving by its expan- sion, as a substitute for the long arm, and pointing out the weight of substances, by marks made on the moveable perpendicular bar in its centre. It would be superflu- ous to enter into a detailed descrip- tion of these portable machines : let it therefore suffice to observe, that such contrivance is not suffi- ciently accurate to determine the difference of ounces or drams ; though it may answer the purpose of weighing larger quantities ; pro- vided it be properly handled, and preserved from moisture, or rust. STIRRUP, a semi-circular ma- chine, manufactured of steel, plat- ed iron, fcc. serving to support the foot of the horseman: as it en-! ST O ables him to mount, and to main- tain a due equilibrium, while seat- ed on the animal. Without entering into an histo- rical account of this contrivance, the utility of it is obvious. Hence, an ingenious artisan, Mr. Kelly, of the Strand, London, several years since, obtained a patent, which is now expired, for manu- facturing stirrups, one side of which opens by means of a spring, if the rider should accidentally be thrown off his seat, or otherwise be entangled ; in order to prevent dangerous injuries often arising in consequence of being dragged by the horse. We understand, how- ever, from thje patentee, that this invention is not so effectual in pre- venting danger, as his lately con- trivedstirrup-leathers, with a spring beneath the suddle: thus, if the horseman happen to fall off, both the stirrup and the leather will be immediately disengaged. As the price of the whole appartus is not considerably raised by this useful addition to a hunting-saddle, we recommend it to the notice of our readers. Stock-bill : See Herb-Ro- bert. STOMACH is a membranous viscus,serving to receive and digest the various articles of food, con- veyed through the mouth and gul- let, for the nutrition of the body. It is situated in the epigastric re- gion (see Abdomen), towards the left side, in the form of a horizon- tal, long sack, furnished at each end with an orifice, namely, the upper or left, called the cardia, where this organ is connected with the gullet; and the inferior, or right opening, termed the pylorus, by which it is united to the intestines. ST O 45 As the function of the stomach is of the first importance in the animal economy, it will be useful to give a concise view of the princi- pal affections to which it is liable. If foreign substances have, by accident, been swallowed, such as nails, stones, pieces of bones, coins, knives, 8cc. the proper remedies will be those of a fat or oily nature, namely, castor-oil, butter-milk, spermaceti,mucilages, &c. clysters of similar liquids ; in order to sheath the internal membranes against injury; and, in consequence of which, indigestible bodies are generally evacuated with the feces, though sometimes not without pain ; so that, in some instances, they have proved fatal. The far- ther treatment is stated, vol. iii.p. 220, and vol. iv. p. 72. Of a more serious complexion, however, is an inflammation of the Stomach, or Gastritis: the principal symptoms of this malady are, violent fever of the malignant kind; anxiety ; intense heat and pain in the epigastric region: nau- sea and vomiting attended with hiccough. Causes :.... Acrid substances, for instance, glass,corrosive sublimate, arsenic, Sec. too large quantities of nitre; suppressed perspiration; re- pulsion of the gout, particularly in plethoric and bilious habits; vio- lent passions ; cold draughts when the body is heated ; though it may also arise from external injury sus- tained in other parts, such as the brain, &c. This dangerous malady, gene- rally terminates between the fourth and eighth day. If the symptoms continue without intermission, and become more violent, a mortifica- tion may be apprehended: thus, 45 S T O sudden cessation of pain ; low pulse, and great weakness, denote that gangrene has taken place; but, in less urgent cases, where no re- markable changes happen for seve- ral days, a more favourable event mciy he expected; though, when the affection proceeds from injuries in other parts, or the swallowing of poisons, it generally terminates in death. Cure :....The chief remedy to be resorted to here, is immediate and copious bleeding, after which a blister ought to be applied to the pit of the stomach : great benefit has also been derived from emol- lient, and mildly opening clysters. The patient's beverage should be of a diluent, mucilaginous, or oily nature, and taken in small quan- tities ; the latter will prove saluta- ry, where the irritating substance has, for some time, remained in the stomach. If the disorder ori- ginated from corrosive poisons, the most proper means of decomposing them, and of counteracting their effects, will be timely and copious draughts of a solution of soap; or sulphureous waters ; warm baths, and the subsequent use of mucila- ginous liquids....See vol. i. p. 121. After the cure has been success- fully effected, the convalescent should be cautious in his diet, avoiding all coarse and heating food ; he ought likewise carefully to keep his stomach and feet warm, especially in changeable weather. Another species of gastritis, is the erysipelatous, which occurs more frequently than is generally understood; the signs by which the existence of this affection may be ascertained, are as follow: the mouth and fauces appear inflam- ed ; there is pain at the pit of the stomach, attended with frequent STO vomiting, and a slight fever. The disorder often changes its place, and sometimes spreads through the whole alimentary canal, where it occasions vomiting or diarrhoea. In most instances, it proceeds from acrid substances introduced into the stomach, and from internal causes, the nature of which has not been hitherto discovered ; though it also frequently appears as a symptom of putrid fevers, and during convalescence in general. Cure :..A\hen this inflammatory complaint arises from acrid sub- stances, it will be necessary to take copious draughts of warm, bland liquids, with a view to excite vo- miting, by which it may be re- moved ; or, if it proceed from mineral poisons, recourse should be had to the antidotes mentioned under their respective heads..... Bleeding, in this case, is neither advisable nor safe, especially if the patient be in a debilitated state : on the contrary, small quantities of vegetable acids, and the careful use of the Peruvian bark, will be productive of good effects. With respect to the method of treating Indigestion, we refer the reader to that article. STONE, or Lithiasis, is a con- cretion of calcareous matter, form- ed in different organs of the body, but particularly in the kidnies, uri- nary passage, and biliary ducts ; though other parts are not exempt from its influence: thus, accumr- lations of this kind have frequently been discovered, upon dissection, in the heart, brain, lungs, intes- tines, Sec. of various sir.e, shape, weight, and number. There are instances, where more than 200 small stones have been gradually voided by stool. An inquiry into the nature of STO these morbid productions being fo- reign to our purpose, we shall briefly state, that they probably originate from a deposition of cer- tain particles of the blood, which cohere to any small body, they may find in their passage, thus forming the nucleus or basis. Hence we shall confine our attention to the practical treatment of this dreadful malady, in the instances before mentioned; and commence with the urinary ston'es, as being the most frequent. These are situated either in the kidnies, urinary ducts, bladder, or urethra. Symptoms of the stone in the kidnies :....An obtuse pain about the loins; nausea and vomiting; small pieces of calcareous matter are discharged with the urine; but, if the concretion be settled in the bladder, an uneasiness will be felt at the end of the urinary passage, especially in emitting the water, which suddenly stops; or, it can be passed only when lying on the back : the urine is of various co- lours, and often tinged with blood; and, if the accumulation be of a considerable size, a fixed pain pre- vails about the neck of the blad- der. More certain signs, however, for ascertaining the presence of a stone, are the following: 1. when the discharge of urine is accom- panied with small pieces of such stony matter; and, 2. by sounding, which is performed, either by the introduction of the finger into the anus, or of the catheter into the bladder. Causes ."...This distressing afflic- tion may be induced by a great va- riety of circumstances, especially by improper articles of diet (see Gravel) : though, in some coun- tries, it is endemial, where a pe- culiar disposition in the habits of STO 47 the people promotes its formation. These painful concretions have, likewise, been observed to be very common in the countries provided only with hard spring waters,which constitute the daily beverage of the inhabitants : they may also arise from the copious use of acids,*and certain wines, for instance, Mo- selle and Rhenish, or Old Hock ; not less than from cheese, and other gross aliment. Farther, well- attested instances have occurred, in which this excruciating disorder was occasioned by the shot swal- lowed with game, and even by the dust from mill-stones, mixed with the flour. During the passage of stones from the kidnies into the bladder, the patient is afflicted with pain, vomiting, &c. which form the paroxysm of the gravel and stone; being sometimes even attended with inflammation (see Kidnies). In the bladder,they are mostly pro- ductive of pain ; strangury ; bloo- dy urine ; inflammation ; though in some instances they have re- mained in a dormant state for a considerable time ; and, unless re- moved by proper means, death closes the scene. Cure:.....An endless variety of remedies, under the name of li- thontriptics, have been recom- mended, for dissolving the stone ; but as an account of all these pre- tended specifics would be equally tedious and useless, we shall only mention such as appear best adapt- ed to the purpose. A preparation, which formerly stood in great re- pute, is the caustic ley, which, however, requires mucilaginous or gelatinous drink as a vehicle : thus, it was administered vrith great secrecy by an empiric of the name of Chittick, to whom the 48 STO STO patients sent a vessel containing veal-broth, which he returned with the medicine mixed in the liquor, and secured by a lock : for this ex- position we are indebted to Mr. Blackrie. It is evident,that great caution is requisite in the dose of so active a medicine. Considerable benefit has been derived from the use of water impregnated with fixed air, as directed by Dr. Fal- coner.... An infusion of the seeds of w ild carrot (Daucus sylvestris. L.) sweetened with honey, is a simple and much esteemed re- medy....The late Dr. De Haen, recommended the Bear - whortle- berry (Arbutus Uva ursi, L.) as a most efficacious remedy for the stone : it may be taken in doses of from one scruple to half a dram in powder, twice or three times a day ; or, in the form of an infusion thus prepared: Take of bear- whortleberry leaves three drams, and boiling water one pint: after simmering for one or two hours, the liquor should be strained : and from two to three table-spoonfuls may be given twice or three times a day....Lime-water has likewise proved beneficial in this complaint, both when taken internally, and in- jected into the bladder....Another simple remedy has been prescribed with great success by Dr. Mac- bride : thirty berries of raw cof- fee ought to be boiled in a quart of pure water, till it acquire a deep greenish colour ; of this li- quor about half a pint is to be taken, morning and evening, with 10 drops of sweet spirit of nitre : during such course, the bowels should be occasionally opened, by a dose of castor-oil. Similar at- tention ought to be paid, when any of the other remedies are admini- stered ; and their operation may al- so be assisted by the use of mild diuretics. [Jelly made of black-berries, has obtained much credit in the Unit- ed States for relieving this pain- ful complaint. A mixture of the juices of common garden leeks, and horse mint, taken every day, has been also said in our papers, to have effected a cure in Virgi- nia, in a clergyman : but it is not known what plant was used under the name of horse mint, as there are several, bearing that appella- tion. The intentions of the humane publisher are therefore entirely defeated ; and hence the impor- tance of fixing the true botanical name to a plant, when speaking of its virtues.] In their diet, patients should avoid coarse and heavy provisions, such as salted, dried, or smoked animal food, especially substances of an oily nature, and all high- seasoned dishes : farther, red-port, Rhenish, and Moselle wines, are uncommonly pernicious ; as they naturally promote the accumula- tion of stones: the beverage ought, therefore, to consist of cooling di- luents, in which some mucilage of gum arabic or tragacanth is dis- solved....Symptoms of violent pain may be relieved by emollient cly- sters with opium. Should, however, all endeavours of dissolving the stony concretion prove abortive, recourse must be had to an operation, as the only eventual means of extirpating the disease. If the stone should be retained in the urinary passage, speedy application must be made to a professional man ; because delay, or neglect, cannot fail to in- crease the evil. Gall-stones, or concretions formed in the biliary ducts, are of .JtadUriffor rtwitny land (f/h •>Z-i;7 (S J/ya«> ( uj/ci. STO STO 49 various size and colour. There is/a fullness and pain about4 the stomach ; loss of appetite; lan- guor ; nausea ; colic ; vomiting ; and restlessness : the eyes have a yellowish appearance ; and jaun- dice is a frequent attendant on the disorder. With a view to expel such'bili- ary concretions, the patient may first resort to a warm bath, and then take a gentle emetic; though, in plethoric habits, or if the pain be violent, a small portion of blood may be drawn from the arm, and an opiate given ; in order to allay the spasms. But, where the symp- toms do not abate after the second bathing and emetic, medical ad- vice will be indispensable.....In slight cases, a decoction of the Soap-wort, or of Dandelion and Dog's-grass, in which a few drams of vitriolated kali are dissolved, has been found of effectual service. Great benefit has, likewise, been derived from the liberal use of ace- tated kali, especially if administer- ed at an early period. Brugna- telli, has for some time employ- ed with great success, the acidula- ted carbonate of lime. In all calculous affections, the body should be regulated by the mildest laxftives, the good effects of which ni'ay be still farther pro- moted by moderate exercise on horse-back ; though the same cau- tion ought, to be observed in this respect, as well as in the use of emetics ; for every violent effort, or concussion of the viscera, tends to aggravate the complaint. STONES, in general, are de- fined to be hard, solid bodies, which ai>e neither soluble in wa- ter, nor malleable. They are formed in the progress of time, within the bowels of the earth, by VOL. V. the gradual accretion of earthy particles ; which, by different combinations, acquire various de- grees of hardness. Stones have, by mineralogists, been divided into numerous classes, according to their respective con- sistence, colour, form, and other properties: but, as we state the most valuable kinds and species of these fossils, in alphabetical order, we shall'in this place only remark, that the practice of indiscriminate- ly collecting stones from land, is productive of great disadvantage, because it tends to diminish its fertility. (See also vol. i. p. 107.) There are, however, certain situa- tions abounding with stones, that might be usefully employed in re- pairing roads:....the usual mode of gathering them by hand, or sepa- rating them from the soil by means of an iron or wooden riddle, being equally troublesome and expensive, we have procured the .[annexed plate] of a machine for clearing land from stones, and also for sift- ing sand or gravel : it was invent- ed by Peter Francis Ponti, an ingenious Italian mechanic, on whom the Patriotic Society of Milan, conferred a premium jof 16 scurii, and a silver medal. a, a, a, a, are four wooden feet, serving to support a beam, to the ends of which are fixed two pieces of wood, d, and g, containing the iron axis c. A hoop of iron is fastened over such axis, by means of a hook, /, to prevent it from being raised up by the weight of the receiver pr basket, marked by the letters i, m, h ; i, m, h. b, b, are two cross pieces, fixed to the inner surface of the feet; and which contribute to strengthen the machine, and to keep it steadv. H 50 STO They are made to project in the form of handles, for the greater convenience of transporting the implement to different places, two men being thus enabled to carry it with ease. k, is a continuation of the iron axis, e, so as to form the handle of the basket; and, on turning it round, the basket moves in a cir- cular direction : the axis is fixed to the bottom of the receiver by a cross of iron,/-, or, such axis may be made to pass through the bas- ket, and be so firmly attached to its inner surface, as to support its rotary motion. The receiver described by the letters /, m, h ; i, m, h ;. consists of a thick wooden bottom, to which are fastened (by means of nails re- presented by black dots) the iron bars, of which all its sides are com- posed. These bars extend in an oblique direction to the bottom ; so that the diameter of the outer periphery, h, h, is double to that of the bottom: they are equal in length to the diameter h, h; at which part they are fastened to a strong iron hoop. The original basket delineated in our figure, is nearly two Paris feet in diameter ; and all the other parts are constructed accordingly : the size of the machine may, how- ever, be enlarged, or diminished, as occasion requires. But, as the spaces between such bars would be disproportionally wide, in case the latter were throughout of an equal size, or breadth, these are made somewhat round towards the letters i, i; becoming gradually broader as they approach to h, h ; so that the spaces between the bars do not increase in proportion to the width of the basket. Lastly, in case such bars be not STO sufficiently strong, they may be supported by fixing another iron hoop round them, at m m. And, if this machine be designed to sift sand or gravel, as well as to clear land from stones, a sieve of iron wire may be fastened around it; and the interstices of which may be enlarged or diminished, accord- ing to circumstances. In employing this machine, i' must be placed at one end of the field; two men, furnished with spades, should place themselves in the front, and throw the earth dug up into the basket, which may be turned round by a boy, or any other person. The soil and stones strike against the wooden bottom, and fall upon the bars, being whirl- ed round by the rotary motion of the receiver. During such revolu- tion, the sand, small stones, and earth, fall through the interstices of the bars on the ground, while such as are larger will be thrown to a certain distance from the bas- ket into a trench, made for their reception. When the labourers are so far advanced that they can- not, without difficulty, supply the basket, it will be necessary to spread the sifted parts on the sur- face, and to remove the machine by means of the handles b, b, so as to be exactly over the stones already separated. Thus, the work may be continued in a similar pro- gression, till the land be properly cleared. The most favourable time for this agricultural labour, will be during very temperate weather ; when the ground is neither so moist as to adhere between the in- terstices, and consequently to di- minish the utility of the machine ; nor so dry and dusty as to be trou- blesome to the labourers. In such STO STO 51 seasons, stony land may be greatly improved ; as the stones will be buried in those spots to which the roots of annual plants do not ex- tend ; and in which neither trees nor shrubs will prosper. [For an account and plate of a machine to raise heavy stones and other weighty substances, see arti- cle Weight.] STONE-CROP, or Sedum, L. a genus of perennial plants, com- prising 31 species, 9 being indi- genous ; of which the following are the most remarkable : 1. The Telephium, or Orpine Stone-crop. See Orpine, the Common. 2. The acre, Wall-Pepper, Biting, or Pepper Stone-crop, grows on the surface of walls, roofs, rocks, and in dry pastures ; flow- ers in June or July. This vegeta- ble is eaten by goats, but refused by horses, cows, and sheep. It continues to vegetate, while sus- pended in a chamber : being very acrid, if applied externally, it ex- cites blisters; but, when taken internally, occasions vomiting.... According to Dr. Withering, it is an excellent remedy in scorbu- tic cases, and in quartan agues : a table spoonful of its expressed juice operates powerfully as a pur- gative. At present, however, it is seldom employed ; though, on account of its active properties, the wall-pepper promises to be an use- ful medicine, when administered with judgment. 3. The refiexum, or Yellow St one-crop, thrives on walls, roofs, and rocks, where its bright yellow flowers appear in July. 4. The rupestre,or'RocK Stone- crop, grows principally on St. Vincent's rock, near Bristol, and on the Cheddcr hills, in Somerset- shire. It differs from the preced- ing speciesonly,in its smaller flow- ers, which likewise blows in July. Both vegetables last mentioned, having an agreeable, pungent taste, are cultivated in Holland and Ger- many, where they are esteemed as ingredients in salads. They may be easily propagated, by planting either their roots, or the cuttings of the shoots in a moist soil, where they will readily take root, and spread with great luxuriance. STORAX, a fragrant gum-resin, exuding from incisions made in the Common Storax-tree, or Styrax officinalis, L. a native of Italy and the Levant, where it flowers in July. The best storax is obtained from Asiatic Turkey, in small, irregular, transparent masses, of a pale-red, or yellowish colour, and generally abounds with whitish tears, resem- bling those of Benzoin- The drug, however, which is common- ly sold in the shops, consists of large, light pieces, very impure, from the saw-dust with which the resinous juice is mixed. And, though inferior to the preceding sort, yet in a purified state, it pos- sesses greater fragrance. Storax is one of the most grate- ful of the odoriferous gum resins, but is at present disused in medi- cine ; and employed chiefly in fu- migations, or as a perfume. There is another species, known under the name of Liquid Storax, which exudes from incisions made in the Liquid-ambar Styracifi.ua, L. [Sweet Gum, or Maple-leaved li- quid-amber tree,] a native of Vir- ginia. It is farther obtained, by boiling the bark or branches of that tree ; in consequence of which the purer particles rise to the surface. The genuine liquid storax is of the. 52 STO consistence of honey, possessing a fragrant smell, somewhat resem- bling that of the preceding, solid specie's. But the drug of this lime kept in the shops, is an ar- tificial compound of the concrete storax, common resin, wine, and oil, properly incorporated. Whe- ther genuine or spurious, it is only used externally as a balsamic. STOVE, in domestic economy, a contrivance, or apparatus, in which fires are made, with the view of conveying heat throughout houses,churches,or other buildings. A Mr. Sharp procured a patent, several years since, for certain improvements, which are calculat- ed to obviate the inconveniences [of Franklin's stoves.] Thus, by adding a funnel to the top, these fire-places can be adapted to any chimnies; and, if the funnel be lengthened, it may be accommo- dated to libraries, ball-rooms, or other buildings, which have not the advantage of a chimney: Mr. S.'s stove-grates are provided with a hollow base ; in consequence of which, he is enabled to applythem, without any additional brick-work, more effectually to the purpose of heating rooms, than is practicable with those on Franklin's con- struction : at the same time, by his alterations in the air-box, a larger portion of air is introduced. Our limits permit us only to add, that Mr. Sharp's stove-grates may be accommodated to every building, whether public or private: and we refer the reader to his " Account of the Air-Stove-Grates," Sec. 8vo. In June, 1796, a patent was granted to Mr. William Whit- tington, for his invention of a Portable Baking Stove. The pa- tentee asserts, that the contrivance is calculated for baking all kinds STO of bread, particularly that prepar- ed of oats, with a cheapness and facility not hitherto experienced. It may be manufactured from any metal, or even from clay, of any size or shape ; and either with or without an oven : the door for sup- plying fuel, together with the pipe or flue for carrying off the smoke, may be fixed in any part of the stove. Besides, this machine may be used in any situation, whether on land or at sea ; being easily portable, and requiring only one- fifth part of the fuel consumed in the common way ; as it may be easily heated with coke, coals, wood, charcoal, or any other sub- stance. For a more diffuse account of such contrivance, the reader will consult the 12th vol. of the Reper- tory of Arts, Sec. where it is illus- trated with an engraving. A patent was likewise granted to Mr.EDWARD Walker, for a port- able Stove or Kitchen ; to facili- tate the processes of cooking, or dressing provisions. The whole is manufactured of either cast or wrought iron ; having a fire-place in its centre, which is inclosed by a door: beneath is an ash-hole; and on each side, there is a closet, one of which may be employed for baking ; the other will contain two spits, with racks, &c. complete ; the top may be used as a broiling- plate, heated by the same fire; while the smoke is carried off through an iron funnel, having a smoke-jack for the purpose of turning the spits. A more com- plete idea of this stove may be ob- tained from the 15th vol. of the Repertory, he. where the specifi- cation is illustrated with an en- graving......See also the articles Fire-place, Furnace, Grates, and Kitchen. STO ST R 53 Stoves, in Horticulture, are buildings erected for the purpose of preserving tender plants, which would otherwise perish, from the moisture and coldness of our cli- mate. These erections are usually di- vided into two classes, namely, bark and dry-stoves, according to the plan on which they are esta- blished. In the former case, a pit is dug to the depth of three or four feet, that generally extends over the whole length of the hot-house, and is filled with fresh tanner's bark, in which the pots, containing the plants, are plunged.......See Hot-bed. Dry-stoves are built of bricks, in the form of flues, which are conveyed either beneath the pave- ment, or attached to the back wall of the house ; one being construct- ed above another, and returned six oreighttimes throughout the whole length of the building. In such stoves, it is necessary to arrange the pots on shelves, rising pro- gressively. Their dimensions ought to be adapted to the number of plants to be preserved ; the floor being elevated to a greater or smaller height above the surface of the ground, according to the natural humidity or dryness of the soil. It will be necessary to make paths about two feet wide in the front, for the convenience of walk- in;;. The furnace may be placed either in the middle, or at one end of the building ; but it should, in every case, be adapted to the na- ture of the fuel to be employed..... The best for this purpose is turf; because it burns more uniformly, and slowly, than any other com- bustible substance,and consequent- ly requires less attendance. Such is the manner in which these kinds of stoves are generally constructed ; but Dr. Anderson has lately contrived another ap- paratus, upon a new plan, and ac- commodated to his Patent Hot- house (See hot-house.) : as, how- ever, a mere description of his peculiar stove would convey an imperfect idea of the invention, we are obliged to refer the curious reader, as well as the lover of horticulture, to the first volume of the new series of Dr. A.'s Re- creations in Agriculture, he. where the principle is fully developed, and illustrated with several cuts. STRAINS, in farriery, denote such accidental injuries as some- times happen to horses, by a vio- lent or unnatural distention or stretching of their muscles or ten- dons ; in consequence of which, the animals suffer great pain, and are generally lamed. The treatment of this affection must be regulated according to the situation of the injured parts. Thus, if the ligaments, that connect the thigh, or other bones, be strained, it will be advisable to turn the horse into a good pasture ; as the richness of the food will prevent his health from becoming impair- ed ; and the gentle exercise in the field will preserve the joints from stiffness and rigidity. Where the shoulder has thus been hurt, the horse will not put the strained leg forward in the same manner as that which is sound ; and, in trotting, describes a circle with the former, instead of a straight line: the lame leg like- wise projects beyond the other. If such strain be accompanied with inflammation, bleeding will be- come necessary ; after which the 54 STR STR part affected must be well bathed three times every day with hot vinegar, or verjuice in which soap has been dissolved. But, In case no swelling appear, the animal ought to rest for two or three days, and the muscles should be rubbed with c^ccMoc, or with a mix- ture of camphorated spirit of wine ; and oil of turpentine, in the pro- portion of two parts of the former to one of the latter. Poultices, consisting of oatmeal, rye-flour, or bran boiled in vinegar or wine-lees, together with a suffi- cient portion of hog's-lard, to ren- der them soft, will be of great ser- > ice, if timely applied ; and, when the inflammation subsides, the strained parts may be bathed with either of the liniments before spe- cified, till the perfect use of the limb be restored. The pasterns, and knees, are liable to strains, chiefly in conse- quence of blows, or similar ill usage : if they be much swelled, a poultice may be applied, and the parts treated in the same manner as the shoulder; or, they may be bathed with a liquor compounded of one pint of vinegar, four ounces of camphorated spirit of wine, and two drams of white vitriol, pre- viously dissolved in a little water. As these parts are generally sub- ject to great weakness, after vio- lent strains, the horse should be sent to a level pasture, which will greatly promote his recovery. The last case deserving notice, is that of strains in the hock..... These must be bathed in cooling and corroborant liquids ; but, if the ligaments be injured, it will be proper to foment them with wool- len cloths, dipped in a hot mix- ture of verjuice and spirit of wine, to which a small quantity of crude sal ammoniac may be added..... Lastly, if any internal callosities remain, it will be advisable to fire the joint carefully with razes, or lines set closely together ; after which, a mercurial plaster should be applied; but, in case such con- cretions appear externally, they may be removed by the repeated use of the blistering plaster, the composition of which has been spe- cified under the article Bone-spa- vin ; omitting, however, the sub- limate, on account of its corrosive nature. STRANGLES, a disorder inci- dent to colts and young horses : it becomes evident from a collection of impure humours, that are dis- charged by the nostrils, or by sup- puration from the glands, situated beneath the bones of the lower jaw. The symptoms, indicating this disease, are, loss of appetite, dull- ness, and inactivity ; a hollow, dry, cough ; and, progressively, intense thirst: as its virulence increases, the animal becomes languid ; and, in consequence of the painful tu- mours formed in the jaw-bone, will at length be unable to swallow. The first object of attention, in case the fever continue moderate, and the evacuations be regularly perform- ed, is to examine the swelling, and promote suppuration ; which may be effected by cutting off all the hair contiguous to the tumified part, and fomenting it for ten mi- nutes withflannels, dipped in strong and hot decoctions of marsh-mal- low, chamomile, or similar eino- lient vegetables. The following poultice must then be applied, namely: Take coarse bread crumbs; barley meal ; and elder-flowers, of each two handfuls ; boil them in a sufficient portion of milk; and, while the mixture is hot, add three STR S T R 55 oz. of turpentine, and six oz. of hog's-lard. The quantity thus prepared will be sufficient for two or three poultices, which ought to be used moderately warm, and be firmly secured, every night and morning, after repeating the fo- mentation for five or six days; or till a suppuration be effected. When the discharge ceases, the following ointment, spread on tow, should be applied to the wound, and the poultice laid over it, to promote the healing of the ulcerated part: .....Take of resin, and Burgundy pitch, six oz. each ; of hog's-lard, 4 oz.; of honey and common tur- pentine, two oz. each ; and one oz. of yellow wax. These ingredients must be melted together: on re- moving the mixture, two drams of finely pulverized verdigrease must be gradually incorporated, and the whole frequently stirred, till it be- come cool. Should the horse, during the strangles, be seized with consider- able fever and inflammation, or the swelling be so situated as to threat- en suffocation, it will be advisable to bleed him moderately. The food, throughout the course of the disease, ought to consist of warm mashes, given frequently in small quantities ; to which half an ounce of liquorice and aniseed, in pow- der, may be advantageously added, together with about two ounces of honey. The diseased animal must be kept warm ; and, if the weather be favourable, he should take gen- tle exercise, or undergo the usual discipline of the stable, though in a less compulsory degree. This malady is seldom produc- tive of dangerous consequences, unless it be neglected. As it mostly terminates with a discharge from the nostrils, these parts should be often cleansed with sponges, dip- ped in warm water; but, if such evacuation continue to be copious and fetid, after the swellings have suppurated and healed, it may be considered as symptomatical of the Glanders ; in which case it will be advisable to adopt the treat- ment already stated under that article. Strangury. See Urine. STRAW, denotes the stalk on which corn grows, and from which it is separated by threshing. Straw is an article of extensive utility in rural and domestic eco- nomy......When chopped or cut small, by means of the machine known under the name of Straw- cutter (to which we refer), it af- fords a wholesome provender for horses and oxen, especially if it be mixed with green food. It is like- wise usefully employed in thatch- ing cottages, houses, and barns.... But, as such buildings are liable to be uncovered by violent storms, farmers should, if possible, annu- ally save a sufficient quantity of wheat-straw, in order to be pro- vided against accidents : thus, the necessity of purchasing straw at a high price, or of threshing their wheat at an improper season, may be effectually obviated. . In May, 1798, Mr. Peter Boi- leau, obtained a patent for a new and improved method of manu- facturing straw into hats, bonnets, Sec. but such privilege having been annulled by a Court of Justice, we shall state the plan on which he proceeds.....The straw is first separated at the joint, and deprived of its external skin or covering; one end of each tube being cut in the form of a pen, so that it may be inserted into the cavity of another; afterwhicb it is immersed in water, 56 S T R STR to render it pliant, and susceptible of the requisite shape on the block. Next, a small circle is to be traced on the surface of a wooden mould (having the form of the crown cor- responding with the article to be manufactured); from which, lines are to be drawn perpendicularly, diagonally, or in any other direc- tion. At the top of each line must be fixed a nail or pin, to which a double wire should be fastened : the straw is then plaited between such wires, and the ends are joined by introducing the sharp end of one tube into another, till the crown be completed. For making the brim of the bon- net or hat, a sheet of thick paste- board must be formed into the re- quisite shape ; lines or curves, si- milar to those above described, are next to be drawn, and the wires fastened through small holes made at the top. The straw is worked in the same manner as that for the crown ; to which the brim may be attached, either by continuing the work so as to form one piece, or by sowing both together, and con- cealing the juncture by a wreath of straw, or any other mode, which fancy may suggest.......See also Paper. STRAWBERRY, or Fragaria [vesca] a genus of plants, compre- hending three species,two of which are indigenous ; but the principal is the vesca, or Common Straw- berry, growing in woods, hedges, and hollow ways ; where its flow- ers appear in the month of May or June ; and are succeeded by small red fruit. The plant is eaten by sheep and goats, but is not relished by cows ; and is totally refused by horses and swine. The common Strawberry is the parent-stock from which all the different varieties have been ob- tained by culture : the most re- markable of these, are : 1. The Wood-Strawberry, with oblong serrated leaves, and small white, round fruit....2. The Green, or Pine apple Strawberry, which has received this name from its de- licate flavour, resembling that of the Pine-apple....3. The Scarlet, or Virginian Strawberry, which has also oval serrated leaves, and bears a roundish berry, of a deep scarlet colour......4. The Hautboy, or Musk Strawberry, is a native of America, but has long been raised in British gardens : it is remarka- ble for its rough spear-shaped leaves, and its large pale red fruit. .....5. The Chili Strawberry has oval, thick hairy leaves, large flow- ers, and firm berries....6. The Al- pine Strawberry, has small oval leaves, diminutive flowers, and ob- long pointed fruit, of a moderate size....7. The Monthly, or Ever- flowering Strawberry, originally a French variety, produces very de- licate fruit, generally pointed to- wards the top, and bulky below ; being in season from May to No- vember : the plant itself, however, is very small, has diminutive leaves, and furnishes but few off-sets for transplantation. All the varieties of this vegeta- ble are hardy, perennial plants, which flower in May and June, producing perfect fruit in June, July, August, and even till Novem- ber. They may be propagated by planting off-sets, or suckers, in any light, rich garden-soil, where they annually yield abundant crops, if properly weeded, and supplied with moisture. Their fertility, however, will be considerably in- creased, by transplanting them every second year into fresh beds, STR that have previously been dug, or otherwise prepared for their recep- tion. [A pine-board laid between the beds of Strawberries, prevents the growth of weeds : tan, strewed on the walks, has the same effect.... The Strawberry lives only four years. In making a new bed, care should be taken to avoid putting out any black roots, as all such have lost their vegetative power.] As the Strawberry is one of the most exhausting plants, and re- quires ample nourishment, all ■weeds growing in its vicinity should be Carefully removed. Hence it will be found, that the earth, in which an old stock has grown, un- disturbed for several years, on dig- ging up its roots, in a manner re- sembles wood-ashes; because it is deprived of all the soluble parts. Without entering into a minute account of the culture of this use- ful plant, we shall briefly remark, 1. That the most proper ■season for transplanting strawberries, is in the month of August; when they will have sufficient time to take root before the winter: 2. That it is not advisable either to clip or break off the superfluous shoots, but to wind them around the principal stem, and secure the ends between the stalks ; by which simple me- thod, the plant will be supported in an erect situation, and the fruit be preserved from the ravages of vermin, as well as from being soil- ed on the ground: 3. To promote the growth of the berries, the con- tiguous earth around the stocks ought to be covered in the spring with tanners' waste; or, where tills cannot be easily procured, with oyster-shells : thus, all weeds will be effectually suppressed, and an uniform beneficial moisture may vol. v. STR 57 be ensured. Lastly, when the first rudiments of the fruit appear, the soil ought to be carefully stirred by the hoe, and then manured with the following composition, that will remarkably contribute to its fertility. Take three parts of old rotten dung, one part of soot, and a similar portion of dry soap-boil- ers' ashes ; mix them thoroughly, and spread this compost loosely by the hand, so that the newly-moved ground may be superficially co- vered. There is another, and more ad- vantageous, method of propagating strawberries by the seed: it was originally reccommended by Du Hamel, and has been carried to great perfection by Du Chesne. The seeds, consisting of small ob- long, dark red-brown grains,should be collected from the surface of the most perfect, ripe berries, which have almost become dry on the stalk ; and be preserved till the succeeding spring; when they ought to be uniformly mixed with a little dry mould, and sown in a loose, rich garden soil which is properly worked, and levelled with the rake. Next, it will be useful to sift finely pulverized earth, er rotten dung, over the beds, to the thickness of half-a-crown piece only, and to cover the whole with branches or boughs of fir-trees;.,. In the course of three weeks, the young plants will appear, when the covering ought to be removed, and the branches set upright along the borders of the beds ; in order to shelter the tender sprouts from the influence of the meridian sun. Others sow the strawberry-seed in August, and protect the young germs with mats suspended over the beds, by means of poles. The plants, thus raised, ought to b§ 58 STR carefully weeded and watered: those reared in the spring, may be transplanted in the autumn of the same year ; but, when sown in the latter season, they must remain in the seed-bed till the following sum- mer. This mode of cultivating strawberries possesses many ad- vantages over the usual practice : thus, it will be easy to obtain the most delicate foreign sorts, of which it would otherwise be difficult to procure off-sets; nay, by sowing the seed of degenerated sorts, to- gether with those of superior fruit, many new and excellent varieties will result from such combinadon. Du Chesne has made the fol- lowing curious experiments, on the propagation of strawberries from their seeds: He directed the water in which this fruit had been wash- ed, before it was used at table, to be thrown in a shaded corner of his garden, where the soil had been manured with rotten branches and leaves: in this manner, he obtained very beautiful plants for an extensive piece of ground. On covering the beds, over which such seed had been scattered, with con- nected pieces of the moss growing on trees, and removing the latter, when the plants had acquired 2 or 3 leaves, he obtained excellent crops. In March, 1764, straw- berry-seeds were scattered on patches of moss (Gateaux de mousse), in pots placed under the windows of a hct-bed : these af- forded the most vigorous plants. For such purpose, he principally employed the Hypnum triquctrum, orTriangular Feather-moss, which grows on damp meadows, fields, and hedges : it should, however, be remarked, that Du Chesne, in all his experiments, found it neces- sary to moisten the earth, or mess, STR several times every day, till the plants appeared above ground. Lastly, M. Mallet has like- wise (Bibliotheque Physico-Econo- mique, for 1798) strongly support- ed this method of propagating strawberries from the seed ; and he observes, that they should be co- vered with straw, or light branches of trees, and regularly watered two or three times in 24 hours, to ensure a plentiful crop : the cover- ing ought to be removed only after the plants have acquired the fourth leaf; and the irrigation should be continued till the latter end of June. He concludes with remark- ing, that strawberries thus raised, are extremely productive; and, if planted on beds five feet wide, are greatly superior to those produced from off-sets, or suckers. In situations, however, where early strawberries are an object of attention, Dr. Anderson directs them to be planted in pots which may be arranged in flat pans made of milled iron ; and these again placed on a wooden frame, suffi- ciently strong to support their weight. From each corner of such frame, a rope is be passed upwards, over a pully fixed to the rafters of a hot-house, constructed accord- ing to his plan, whence the rope may be drawn horizontally toother pullies fixed in a similar manner, and be carried from these over a cylinder turning upon an axis; so that the whole of the frame, toge- ther Avith the pots and pans, may be elevated, or lowered, at plea- sure. Thus, the pots may be raised, till they are brought closely under the glass of the ceiling ; which, being the warmest part of the build- ing, will cause the plants to vege- tate with the greatest luxuriance. He farther observes, that the pots STR STR 59 may be supplied with water, by pouring it into the pans, without lowering them ; and, as the berries gradually ripen, they may be ga- thered, and the frames again sus- pended. Strawberries are a wholesome, delicious fruit; and may be eaten alone, with sugar, or with milk, but most agreeably with wine : they have a pleasant sub-acid taste; abound with juice ; and possess a fragrant smell. Being of a cool- ing and laxative nature, they may be considered as medicinal; and Linnaeus observes that, by his own experience, a copious use of this fruit has proved a certain pre- ventive of the Stone in the kid- nies. Hoffman states, that con- sumptive patients have been com- pletely cured by a liberal allowance of these berries. Farther, they promote perspiration ; impart their peculiar fragrance, together with a violet colour, to the urine: and dis- solve tartarous concretions on the teeth. In domestic economy, a palatable jam, wine, and vinegar, are prepared from this fruit. An infusion of the strawberry- leaves, while young and tender, makes excellent tea ; but, for such purpose, they ought to be dried in the shade : being slightly bitterish and styptic, they have been used with advantage in laxity and debi- lity of the intestines ; in immode- rate secretions, or suppressions of the natural evacuations, as likewise in hemorrhages and other fluxes. Lastly, they are of considerable ser- vice as aperients, in suppressions of urine; visceral obstructions ; the jaundice, and many other com- plaints. STRAWBERRY - TREE, or Arbutus, L. a genus of shrubs, con- sisting of nine species, three of which are indigenous : namely, 1. The Unedo, or Common Strawberry-tree, which grows on barren lime-stone rocks, parti- cularly in the western parts' of Ire- land, where it flowers in Septem- ber. This species is a principal ornament of our shrubberies, on account of its beautiful foilage, and its fine yellow flowers in autumn, which produce berries in the suc- ceeding year, so that blossoms and fruit appear at the same time : the latter, however, is not greatful to the taste, even though mellowed by frost. Nevertheless, it is eaten by the lower classes of people, who are accustomed to drink water, af- ter partaking of such repast. The Common Strawberry-tree may be propagated by cuttings, by layers, or by seed. These should be set early in March, in pots of light rich earth, and afterwards put in a hot-bed : in the course of five or six weeks they will strike firm root in the mould, when they ought to be gradually inured to the air..... During frosty weather, it will be advisable to shelter them, and oc- casionally to expose them to the open air, in mild weather. After two or three years, the young plants may be removed to the place of their destination ; for they will have become so hardy as to resist the severest winters, in any soil or situation. 2. The Alpina, Mountain Strawberry-tree, or Black- berried Alpine ARBUTUs,thrives on dry mountains in Scotland, and the Western Isles, where its flow- ers appear in May, and are suc- ceeded by round, black berries.... This species is refused by goats ; its fruit possesses a flavour slightly 60 STR STR resembling that of black currants; to which, however, it is greatly in- ferior. Its branches and evergreen leaves have been advantageously employed in tanning. 3. The Uva ursi, Bear-ber- eies, Bear Whortle-berries, or, Bear-berry Strawberry- tree, grows on dry heaths, and woods, chiefly in the Highlands of Scotland; and flowers in the month of May or June. This plant is re- fused by horses, cows, goats, and sheep. Its leaves have an astrin- gent bitterish taste, and are gene- rally used in Sweden, and Russia, for tanning leather ; and in com- bination with iron or its prepara- tions, for striking a black colour.... When dried and pulverized, they have been advantageously given in doses of from [five to ten grains,] repeated two or three times every day, in calculous and nephritie complaints. The berries of both the last- mentioned species of the Straw- berry-tree, have been recommend- ed by Linnjeus, as useful substi- tutes for grain, in the process of making bread : on account of their bitter taste, however, they ought to be bruised, macerated in different cold waters, aud then baked or dried in an oven, before they are fit to be mixed with any other flour. But, even in this improved state, we conceive, they would re- ward the trouble of the housewife, only in times of great scarcity. [This is a low evergreen shrub, trailing on the ground, found in dry, sandy soils, in woods, and on mountains in many parts of this continent. Hearne observed it as far north as lat. 71, and speaks of it, under the Indian name of Jac- kasheypuch. It grows abundantly in New-York and New-Jersey. By the experiments of Dr. J. S> Mitchell related in his Inaugural Dissertation, Philadelphia, 1803, it appears that the leaves of the plant are more astringent than the stalks, which is contrary to Prof. Mur- ray's opinion. Beside the utility of this plant in nephritic and cal- culous cases as mentioned above, the uva urn has been found highly beneficial in the following com- plaints. 1. Old gonorrhoeas, and gleets. 2. In cases accompanied with the common symptoms of the stone in the bladder. 3. The late ingenious Mr. Geo. Lee of the Pennsylvania Hospital, cured a stricture of the urethra, after bougies and other remedies had been used without effect, by giving the patient 15 grains of uva ursi three times a day. An in- fusion of the plant in water, is the common mode of exhibition ; two ounces, three, four or five times a day, may be taken.] STRAW-CUTTER, or Chaff- cutter, as it is commonly term- ed, denotes a machine for the pur- pose of cutting straw, with a view to feed horses and cattle to greater advantage. In the year 1797, the Society for the Encouragement ofArts,hc. con- ferred a reward of 30 guineas on Mr. Robert Salmon, for his improved machine for cutting straw. [Dr. Willich gives a plate and description of Mr. Salmon's straw cutter, which is certainly a pow- erful machine, but too costly for the United States. It has been thought better to substitute the plate of one which can be procured at Wright's, Cherry-street, in Phi- ladelphia, the power of which the editor can speak of from expert- STR STR 61 ence....See the Plate facing page 49. A The box in which the straw is placed. B B The wheel in which the knives are fixed. C C The knives. D D D D The frame of the ma- chine. E The handle that turns the wheel. F The endless screw that turns the wheel G, and the roller H..... This roller is of wood, bound with a tin plate, punched with numerous holes, which draws the straw for- ward at I. Straw-cutters on the above plan are sold at $40. The following cut represents a more simple and cheap straw-cut- ter, invented by Mr. Moses Coats, near Downing's-town, Pennsylva- nia, and is now in general use in the counties of Chester, Lancaster and York. A A The front legs on which the box stands. B A board passing through the legs. C C Two tongues or laths which work on screw pins, and con- duct the knife in its proper course through the straw. D The knife. E A board longitudinal to the knife ; the lathes C C pass betw een them. The knife is concave next the straw, to throw the edge against lt7 and it is furnished with a board above the straw, and treadle to press the straw tighf, and a rake to push it forward in the same manner as the old Dutch straw boxes.] In February, 1801, Mr. Wil- liam Leshek, of Hardingstone, Northampton, obtained a privilege for his ingenious contrivance of cutting straw, hay, tobacco, &c by an engine, to which we have 62 STY SUB alluded under the article Hay ; but, not having been able to procure a satisfactory account of his patent, we shall only remark, that the best proof of its merit, is the general adoption, which we understand it has experienced in Northampton and its vicinity.] Stucco. See Cement. STURGEON, or Accipenser Sturio, L. a fish, which is some- times taken in the British rivers ; being, however, generally import- ed from Russia, or the Baltic sea, as well as from North America; it is principally caught in the rivers Volga, Danube, and Vistula. This fish grows to a prodigious size, frequently 18 feet in length, and weighing from 7 to SOOlbs. Its flesh is very delicate, firm, and white, resembling veal, on which account it is greatly esteemed when roasted : it is, however, generally sold in a pickled state. The sounds of sturgeon afford the fish-glue known under the name of Isin- glass ; and, their roes, when pro- perly dried and salted, are con- verted into Caviar, to which ar- ticle the reader is referred, for an account of its properties. STYPTIC, a term applied to medicines, which serve to stop he- morrhages, or effusions of blood. Various vegetables may be ad- vantageously employed as external styptics, such as the Agaric, Puff-ball, he.; but there are certain preparations of greater effi- cacy, the principal of which is the comjtGund fiowder of alum. It consists of one ounce and a half of alum, and three drams of gum kino, which are finely pulverized, and incorporated.....One of the most successful styptics, however, is prepared by mixing one part of the caustic volatile alkali, with three parts of water : if this fluid be applied to a fresh wound, it ef- fectually checks the flowing of blood, both from large and small vessels. Prof. Stark, of Jena, recom- mends the following styptic pow- der ; which, according to his ex- perience, has proved uncommonly efficacious in suppressing profuse uterine hemorrhages, namely : Pe- ruvian bark, two drams; cinnamon, one dram; blood-stone (lapsis haematites) half a dram ; and loaf- sugar, two drams : let these ingre- dients be reduced to a fine pow- der ; a tea-spoonful of which is to be taken every hour, or oftener, in chamomile or balm tea. We have no doubt of its good effects. SUBLIMATE, a chemical pre- paration, consisting of Mercury eombined with the marine acid. Being extremely corrosive, and the manufacturing of this drug being attended with great danger to health, it is generally imported from Venice and Holland. Solutions of corrosive sublimate, in the proportion of one dram to a quart of water, are chiefly em- ployed for consuming proud flesh, and cleansing foul ulcers. A much weaker solution is sometimes used by the gay, as a cosmetic for re- moving cutaneous eruptions. In a dry state, mixed with flour, honey, he. the sublimate forms a power- ful composition for destroying rats, mice, or other vermin ; but, on account of its deleterious proper- ties, the greatest caution is requi- site, particularly in places to which children have access: for, as they are accustomed to taste every thing, such mistake might be productive of fatal consequences. In case, however, any portion of this poison should have been accidentally swal- SUF SUF 63 lowed, no time should be lost in resorting to the remedies already pointed out, in vol. i. p. 80. SUCCORY, or Cichorium, L. a genus of three plants, the follow- ing of which are the principal; namely : 1. The Intybus, Wild Cicho- ry, or Succory.....[See vol. ii. p. 116.] 2. The Endivia, or Endive, is an exotic annual species, which is generally reared in our gardens, as an ingredient in Avinter salads. It is propagated by scattering the seeds in spots of open ground, at intervals, from the beginning of June to the end of July ; in order to obtain a supply for the table. The young plants must be re- moved into beds or borders, that have previously been well prepared by the spade: and, as the chief ex- cellence of endive consists in the whiteness of its inner leaves, it will be adviseable, either to cover them with flower-pots, or to tie them loosely together, when nearly full grown, so as to exclude them from the sun, for two or three weeks ; in consequence of which, they Avill become perfectly blanch- ed. In the winter, they are either covered Avith straw, and mats ; or preserved in fresh sand, in a dry cellar. In its properties, this plant is not essentially different from the preceding species. SUFFOCATION, denotes a suspension of the most important vital function, namely, that of re- spiringorbreathing; Avithout which animal life cannot be supported. This dangerous casualty may arise from various causes, such as the want of air to a person im- mersed under water ; or the ir- ruption of that fluid into the chest; in which case it is termed Drown- ing (see that article). It is also oc- casioned by too great a determina- tion of blood to the lungs, as in quinsies, suffocative catarrhs, &c. Another cause of suffocation, is the introduction of any substances into the windpipe, or the swallow- ing of such foreign matters as re- main fixed in the gullet; and by compression prevent the access of air to the lungs ; in which cases, a total cessation of breathing may be apprehended. To obviate this fatal accident, gentle percussion of the shoulders and back will be advisable: the steam of milk, or water, should be inhaled, and the throat be tickled with a feather dipped in oil. Farther, the patient ought to take copious draughts of Avater-gruel, milk, oil of almonds, or any other lubricating fluid ; and, if the bodies adhering to the throat be blunt, they may be thrust down by means of a long wax taper, which has been previously render- ed pliable by warmth, and also immersed in oil: or, if this cannot be speedily procured, a piece of sponge may be fastened to a wire, which should be covered with leather, then oiled, and employed for a similar purpose.....See also Gullet, and Metallic pointed. substances. The vapour arising from boiling wines or strong liquors, when in- haled, tends to impede the circu- lation of the blood, and sometimes even produce suffocation. Similar consequences may ensue from in- spiring the fumes of sulphur, anti- mony, and a variety of other mi- neral and vegetable substances, particularly of Charcoal. First symptoms of suffocation..... Giddiness ; head-ach ; lethargy ; fainting ; convulsions ; and gene- ral torpor. 64 SUF SUF External appearance of persons suffocated by the deleterious fumes arising from charcoal; various me- tals, such as copper, lead, antimo- ny, and mercury; the vapours from fermented liquors, moist wood, flax, and turf; as Avell as in consequence of respiring or sleeping in unventilated apart- ments, caverns, and mines ......The head, face, and neck are swoln ; the eyes are propelled from their sockets; the tongue is protrud- ed at one side of the mouth ; the jaAVs are firmly closed ; the face is of a livid, and the lips are of a deep-blue colour; the abdomen is inflated; the body is insensible to pain, and appears to be in a profound sleep. Immediately on discovering a person in such unfortunate situa- tion, the Avindows and doors ought to be opened; the body undressed, removed to the open air, and sup- ported in a leaning posture on a chair. Next, the patient must be covered Avith flannel or blankets, the face be sprinkled Avith vinegar, and the pit of the stomach with cold Avater ; and, if it be conveni- ent, the whole body, or at least the legs, should be plunged into a cold bath. After each application of vinegar or water, the skin ought to be rubbed with flannel or a soft brush ; then leaving the person, thus situated, for a few minutes in an undisturbed state. Farther, clysters consisting of vinegar and water, will be useful; and, on the return of life, an inclination to vo- mit must be promoted by a feather dipped in oil, while gentle friction is to be continued, at intervals. The first symptoms indicating this happy change, will be, foaming at the mouth, and shivering of the whole body, especially after affu- sions of cold water. In some cases of suffocations, however, it will be advisable to em- ploy the united powers of electri- city ; blood-letting ; bronchotomy, or the opening the wind-pipe by an incision ; or the earth-bath ; or the artificial introduction of air into the lungs, by means of a pair of belloAvs described vol. ii. pp. 392. If these effects prove successful, so that the patient is again able to SAvallow, the most proper drink Avill be vinegar and water, or in. fusions of mint and balm. SUG [Nocturnal Suffocalicn. Dr. Trussler of Bath, in a letter to Dr. Hawes, says, he avrs many years in danger of suffocation from a phihysicky cough, that is apt to seize persons who lie with their heads too low. To prevent such an accident to himself, he had his bedstead made to rise as high or low at the head, as he found ne- cessary. The preceding cut is a sketch of it. He had an inner frame made to his bedstead, Avhich can be raised by two iron pins put through holes in the back parts of the bed, on which the inner frame rests; thus he raises it to any height he pleases. a a a a a a Inner frame of the bedstead, b b Handles to raise it by. c c c c Outer frame of the bed- stead. d Head rail to stretch the lacing. e e Iron pins to raise the inner frame. But the bed may be raised, without any alteration in the bed- stead, by a straw matrass, made in the form of a wedge. By sleep- ing on this inclined plane, he has not, formany months, been seized with the cough. Neither has he suffered from the cramp in his legs, to which he was formerly subject. Yv'hen this cramp comes on, stretching out the limb, or rising out of bed, affords immediate relief. See Report of the London Humane Society for 1802.] Suffolk-cuass. See Annual Meadow-grass. i:CC All, a sweet concrete juice, obtained from the Sugar-c?.ne, or Succharum of/i-inarum, L. a spe- cies oi" reed or cane, Avhich grows in the East and West Indies. Ac- cording to modern chemists, how- vol. v. SUG QS ever, it is a true essential salt, ca- pable of chrystallization; and which is contained, in a greater or less proportion, in all vegetables of a sweet taste, but most abundantly in the plant above mentioned. It grows to the height of from 3-| to 7, and sometimes to 12 feet, in strong deep lands. When ripe, it assumes a fine straw-colour; and is usually cut at the age of 12 or 15 months, according to the season, or the nature of the soil. The canes are divided into pieces about a yard in length ; tied up in bundles ; and conveyed to a mill , where they are expressed between three upright Avooden rollers co- vered with iron. The saccharine juice is conducted into a receiver ; and, being apt speedily to ferment, it becomes necessary to separate the sugar as soon as possible. This object is effected by clarifying it in a boiler, over a fire, with a small portion of puh-erized quick-lime ; after Avhich it is evaporated in a cauldron, till it acquires a due de- gree of consistence ; when it is poured into coolers. As the in- spissated fluid becomes cool, the sugar spontaneously shoots into ir- regular crystals, separated from the mother-water. Next, the granu- lated matter is conveyed to the curing-house, where the treacle is completely drained ; in which dry state, the former is called raw, or muscovado sugar : thus it is sent to Europe, where it is subsequently refined. The most perfect purification, or refining of sugar, is performed in the following manner : The tuav powder is again boiled in proper kettles, with lime-water, and bul- locks blood (that has been previ- ously strained, and deprived of its excrcmentitious parts) ; Avhen it u K 66 SUG SUG boiled down to a proper consist- ence. It is then laded into vessels to cool, being continually stirred, to prevent it from shooting into large crystals: Avhen perfectly cold, it is poured into unglazed clay moulds, of a conical form, and suf- fered to coagulate. Farther, Avith a view to carry off any particles of syrup that may still remain in the refined mass, the lower points of the moulds are open, and cover- ed to the thickness ^f several in- ches Avith clay previously softened in water, and which is occasionally moistened. In this manner, the sugar at length acquires the re- quisite degree of Avhiteness and fineness ; in Avhich state it is de- nominated loaf or lump sugar ; and after being dried in heated rooms, it is ready for use. In August, 1784, a patent Avas granted to Robert Murray, Esq. for his discovery of a method of refining sugar, and making it from the cane-juice. As, however, his processes are too minute, to admit of being detailed in this work, the reader will consult the 4th volume of the Repertory of Arts, 8cc. A patent Avas also granted in June, 1801, to Thomas Wake- field, Esq. for a neAv method of refining sugar. It consists simply in placing the hut, or muscovado sugar, in any porous Aessel; Avhen it is to be subjected to a Aveight, acting by rollers, by a screAV, or by a Avedge, " with the help of a steam engine," the action of a mill, or any other means of ap- plying force. Thus, part of the colouring matter, as well as other impurities, Avill be thrust out ; and, from the moisture expressed, sugar, molasses, or rum may be obtained, by the usual processes. The pressure may be repeated, according to circumstances, and the relative purity of the sugar ; after which it may be refined by the methods usually practised. Sugar having become an article of almost indispensable use to eve- ry person in civilized life, various attempts have been made, Avith a view to procure it from other ve- getables ; and particularly from the folloAving, namely : 1. The White Beet ; the sac- charine properties of which were discovered upwards of 50 years since, by M. Margraaff ; and his process haA'ing been improAed by M. Ac hard of Berlin, Ave shall state the method of preparing su- gar adopted by the latter. The fresh beet-roots are first washed, and submitted to the action of a mill, which reduces them to a pulp : next, their juice is extract- ed by means of a press, and boil- ed over a gentle fire, till it is con- verted into a thin syrup. It must now be carefully separated from the mucilage, adhering to the bot- tom of the cauldron, or kettle ; then strained, and boiled, a second time, till it acquires a proper con- sistence for crystallization ; a point which can only be ascertain- ed by experience. The syrup is afterwards poured into tin vessels, from tAvo to three inches deep, that the grain may crystallize: these vessels are directed to be placed on frames, in a room heat- ed by a stove to a considerable, but uniform temperature ; and, in the course of tAvo or three Aveeks, the sugar will be separated in the form of small crystalline grains. The whole is then poured into linen bags ; in Avhich, on com- pression, the sugar remains, Avhile the strained liquor, is received into vessels ; and, after undergoing *i- SUG milar processes, it Avill yield an additional quantity of saccharine matter.....By this management, 20lbs. of roots produce, upon an average, one pound of sugar ; and, to such perfection has it been car- ried, that M. Achard is enabled to sell the sugar at 3d. per pound. ....As we cannot enter into farther detail respecting the culture, pre- paration, &c. of the Beet-root, we must refer those readers, Avho wish for more minute informa- tion, to Mr. A.'s " Circumstantial Account;" of which a translation appeared in Mr. Nicholson's Journal for September, 1799. [See vol. 1. p. 259.] 2. The Sugtir-MAPLE,of Avhich we have given an account in vol. 4. p. 38. There are various other plants Avhich afford sugar, particu- larly parsncp-roots, skirrets, car- rots, and Indian-corn : the latest experiments that have been made with these vegetables, are those of M. Hermbstaedt, whose me- moir is also translated in Mr. Ni- cholson's Journal, vol. iii. for October, 1799. With a view to diminish the use of sugar, or at least to afford a sub- stitute for that article, M. M. Margraaff and Loavitz recom- mended two different processes for purifying honey, so as to anwer the common purposes of a siveet- rner ; but their expedients being too expensive, Father Giovane Batista da St. Marine, an in- genious Venetian Monk, has pro- posed the following method : To three parts (by Aveight) of honey, eight of water must be added ; together with one part of charcoal, broken to pieces, but not reduced to powder. This mixture should boil for one hour, when it ought SUG 67 to be filtered ; and,after being thus purified, it is to be evaporated over a sIoav fire, till it acquire the con- sistence of a thick syrup, Avhich Avill be as palatable as sugar. This process is cheap, and easy ; but Ave question the advantage of con- verting honey into a saccharine substance; as the former may, in this country at least, be pur- chased at a loAver price. Sugar-candy, is the essential part of the saccharine matter form- ed into large crystals, by slowly evaporating the clarified syrup. The Avhole process is managed in strongly-heated chambers, by the aid of vessels containing nume- rous threads that intersect each other ; and which are fastened to the sides, in various directions. The sugar, thus treated, shoots into crystals around the threads ; and, according to its relative puri- ty, the latter acquire a brown, yel- low, or white colour. Sugar-can- dy is chiefly used in a pounded state, for sweetening coffee, and by persons labouring under hoarse- ness and coughs ; the violence of which it contributes to relieve, by lubricating the membranes, and promoting expectoration. Brown Sugar-candy pays, on importation, the sum of 3/. 6d. per cwt.; and the white sort is subject to the charge of 4/. 10«. 9d. per CAVt. [The folloAving directions on the mode of manufacturing map/r- sugar, were published in a pam- phlet, by a patriotic society in Philadelphia, in 1790. It is ob- served in the preface, that four men may turn out in common seasons, which last from four to six Aveeks, 40 hundred Aveight of goc-d sugar ! The following-calculation of utensils, &c. is made for four men : 68 SUG SUG For an excellent account of the sugar maple-tree, the reader is re- ferred to Dr. Rush's paper in the 3d volume of Transactions of the American Philosophical Society. Detail and Description of the neces- sary Utensils and Materials. IZettle:-.....Sixteen, of about fif- teen gallons each. Iron Ladles....'i\vo, the boAvls to contain three or four quarts, each, for shifting the syrup: the handles to have sockets, which may- be extended with wood to any con- venient k ngth. Trammels or Pot-Rack*.....Six- teen, one for each kettle, the flat part, eighteen inches long ; and the round or lower piece, the same ; so as to lengthen to about three feet, occasionally. Screw Augurs....Four, of an half, three quarters, and one inch, for boring the trees. Chopping notch- es into the tree from year to year, should be forborne; an augur hole answers the purpose of drawing off the sap, equally avcII, and is no injury to the tree. Buckets....Eight or ten, of three gallons each, at least, for collect- ing the sap. Boards.....Eight or ten, round pieces, to lay on the surface of the sap, at the top of the buckets, to prevent its splashing over. Coolers....Three or four tubs, of about fifteen gallons each (kettles will ansAver the purpose) to receive the syrup from the boilers, when, upon trial from the proof stick, it draAvs into a thread betAveen the thumb and finger, as hereafter described. Yokes.....Four, to go across the shoulders of the persons employed in collecting the sap, having a bucket suspended at each end. Trough*...Eight hundred should be made of Avhitc pine, Avhite ash, water ash, aspen, linden or bass- Avood, poplar, common-maple or sugar-maple ......avoid for this use, the butter-nut, [juglans alba (ob- longa,)~\ chesnut and oak ;....these Avould either discolour the sap, or give it an improper taste.... A per- son acquainted Avith this business, can cut doAvn the timber proper for the purpose, and holloAV out about twenty of these troughs in a day ; they generally hold from two to three gallons: the largest should be placed to receive the sap of those trees that are most thriv- ing, and Avhich yield the greatest quantity.....It may also be noted, that a\ hite-ash and white-pine will make the troughs Avhen green; the other kinds of timber, above-men- tioned, should be seasoned, or they will be liable to leak. Store Troughs.....Where large cisterns, fit for the purpose, can- not be had, Avhich will generally be the case in a new country, troughs may be made of the Avhite- pine, by felling a large tree of that kind, and fixing it in a level position ; the upper side to be dug out in the shape of a manger for feeding cattle :....the larger it can be made for receiving the green sap, the better. White-ash and linden or bass-Avood, will also an- SAver the purpose ; should any of them split and leak, they may be caulked tight......These troughs should be at a convenient distance from the boilers, in a cool place, and under cover, to prevent snow, 'rain, he. mixing Avith the sap....A linen strainer should be so fixed that the sap, Avhen collected in buckets, SUG may pass through such strainer into these troughs,atone end; and, at the other end, room should be left to dip out for feeding the boil- ers. Sheds, Walls, c5"c....The exposed manner in a, hich sugar has been usually made, in the back country, is attended Avith many inconveni- ences, especially in windy Aveather, when the ashes, leaves, &c. may be blown into the boilers, and thereby discolour the syrup, or in- jure its flavour ; neither can the keeping up a proper degree of heat be always effected in an ex- posed situation. To remedy these inconA'eniences it is recommended that a back wall, for the fire-place, be erected, eighteen or twenty in- ches high, and to extend a suffi- cient length for all the boilers em- ployed. This wall may be made of stones laid in clay or loam, where lime-mortar is not readily to be had. For saving the ashes, and the greater convenience in making and continuing a regular fire, under the boilers, a hearth of flat stone, about three feet wide, should be made to extend an equal length with the back wall. And further to obA'iate the bad ef- fects, which loo open an exposure is subject to, (it being observed where a number of boilers are placed in a range, those at, and near, the outer ends, do not suc- ceed so Avell as the more central ones) it is strongly recommended that sheds be erected, to extend over and cover the Avhole length of the hearth ; and so formed that the smoke may pass off, and be at the same time a shelter from high winds, rain, snow, Sec. For grain- ing the svrup, after it is brought to a proper state in the boilers, it will be right to have a separate SUG 69 shed or building, in which two of the sixteen kettles should be fixed; for this service, charcoal is much better than Avood, as the heat or flame should be confined to the bottoms of the kettles; and be uni- form and regular, to guard against burning or scorching. A Avail, as above described, should be made at the back of the fire-place, as Avell as at each end; and the hearth or bottom laid with flat stones, on which charcoal is to be placed. Andirons.....Pieces of cast-iron, something like andirons, and to serve the same purpose, Avill be very useful : they should, in the long part, be two feet and an half, and two inches square; the turn at the inner end, four inches doAvn- wardr^, and a small turn upwards, at the outer end, of about two in- ches, to prevent the Avood from rolling. Of these, there should be a number to suit the extent of the fire-place, to be placed at the dis- tance of five or six feet from each other. Sugar-Moulds.....These should be made of seasoned boards, or of such Avood as will not impart a taste to the sugar, and somewhat resembling a mill-hopper, about tv, enty-seA'en inches long, and ten or twelA'e inches Avide, at the top, and tapered to the Avidth of one inch, at the loAver end. Frames, to place the moulds in, above described, should be formed so as to admit the moulds to rest in them, about half their depth. Gutters, spouts, or narrow troughs, should be fixed Avithin the frames, under the moulds, in a descending position ; the loAver ends to enter covered casks or ves- sels, so that Avhen the plugs or stop- pers are drawn from the bottom 70 SUG SUG of the moulds, which may be done, in about twenty-four hours after they are set, the molasses that will run therefrom, may fall into these gutters, and pass readily into the covered vessels, Avhich, if open, would be exposed to dust and dirt. Prickers....So termed by the su- gar-bakers, about twelve inches long and a half an inch diameter, at one end, and the other, brought to a point; for want of iron, they may be made of hard wood :....a few hours after the moulds are unstopped, the prickers should be run up the bottom of them, three rr four inches, to make way for the whole quantity of molasses to pass oft'. Process or mode of manufacturing i':r Sap of Maple, which by fur- ther Experience and close Obser- vation may, probably, hereafter, admit of considerable Improve- ment. Seasons for Tapping....By trials, made in the month of February, it will readily be discovered, Avhen this valuable tree oughttobe bored, for the purpose of extracting the sap, as in that month, either ear- lier or later, according to the sea- son, it generally begins to yield a sufficient quantity for commencing the business. Tapping or Boring....Four hun- dred trees, each bored with tAvo holes, as nearly as may be on the south side; and also with two holes on the north side of the tree, in the early part of the season, Avith screAv augurs from tAvo to four charters of an inch, according to the size of the tree ; and toward the n'.odle of the season, a like number of trees to be bored in the same manner, is recommended, as a better mode for the management of four hands, than if the whole number of eight hundred trees Avere tapped at the first running of the sap. The sap of the se- cond parcel tapped, Avill be found richer, and more productive, than if a part had been extracted earli- er. The augur should enter the tree, at first, not more than three quarters of an inch : the holes may, at several times, be deepen- ed to the extent of two inches and an half, as the manner of the sap's running may render necessary.... The hole should be made slanting or descending, so that the sap may run freely in frosty Aveather, and not, by a slow motion, be lia- ble to freeze in the mouth of the orifice. In these holes, spouts should be fixed, to project from the tree, from eight to twelve in- ches, and not to enter the tree more than about half an inch ; as the farther they enter, the more the running of the sap is obstruct* ed : they should be prepared, in readiness for the season, of elder or sumach. Preserving the Sap...\n the early part of the season, the sap will k^ep two or three days without in- jury ; but as the spring advances, it will be necessary to boil the sap the day after it is collected, or it may ferment and sour. Lime....To every half barrel, or fifteen gallon kettle, a table spoonful of slacked lime, should be put in, while the sap is Avarming, and be- fore it boils; this promotes the rising of the scum and forming of the grain. Boiling.... A smart fire should be kept up, Avhile the sap is boiling. As the scum rises, be careful to skim it off. When the liquor is SUG reduced one half in quantity, lade the second kettle from the end, into the end one; and when the content^ Symptoms of apparent death, by suffocation with the cord ;.....The external aspect someAvhat resem- bles that of drowned persons ; the face is uncommonly swoln, and of a deep red hue ; so that every fea- ture is distorted: the eyes are in- flated, and project from their sock- ets , a bloodv froth appears at the mouth ; all the vessels of the neck and face are distended ; and swal- lowiog is totally impeded. Treatment:.... 1. The cord must be instantly cut; the suspended body being gently taken down, every ligature ought to be re- moved ; the head should be sup. ported in an erect posture, and turned towards the left side. 2. Air must be blown upon the face, which should also be sprinkled Avith cold water. The gullet ought to be stimulated by a feather moist- ened Avith oil; and vinegar be ap- plied to the nostrils, while the re- gions of the heart and throat are gently compressed. Farther, the patient ought to be Avrapped in warm flannel, or placed between feather-beds ; and a bladder, filled with tepid Avater, applied to the pit of the stomach : the whole bo- dy may aLo be fomented, or im- mersed in the luke-warm bath. Stimulants :....{. Moderate fric- tion with Avarm flannel, to be gra- dually increased on the left side. 2. The shower-bath, combined with friction. 3. Stimulating clysters, consisting of salt-water and oil: none of these remedies, however, SWA SWA 79 must be resorted to, where the blood appears to be determined to- wards the heart and head. As soon as the first symptoms of resuscitation become evident, the blowing of air into the nostrils, and aspersion of cold water on the face, ought to be continued : next, clysters, consisting of a strong so- lution of emetic tartar, ought to be administered; and the sugillations, or injured parts, be fomented Avith wine, in Avhich chamomile flowers have been infused. Lastly, when the ability of swallowing is re- stored, the patient should take fre- quent draughts of vinegar diluted Avith cold water,.and mild, cooling laxatives. SWALLOWING, or Deglu- tition, is the act of taking any food, whether solid or liquid, doAvn the throat. It succeeds Mastica- tion, and is performed primarily by the tongue,. Avhich propels the aliment into the gullet; Avhence, by the contraction of the muscular parts, the contents are conveyed into the stomach. See also Di- gestion. Deglutition may be impeded or obstructed by various circum- stances, such as swellings in the throat, or the taking of acrid, pun- gent,or pointed substances into the mouth : but, as the most simple and expeditious remedies for such affections have already been point- ed out, the reader will^eonsult the articles Gullet, Gargle, Quin- sey, Metallic Pointed Sub- stances, he. SWALLOW-WORT,theCoM- mon, ovAsclepiasalbav. Vincetoxi- cumJL. a hardy exotic plant, Avhich is a native of the south of France, Spain,and Italy. In a fresh state, the root of this vegetable posses- ses a strong smell, resembling that of valerian ; to Avhich, however, it is inferior in its sudorific and diu- retic properties. The stalk of the Common SAval- low-wort is fibrous, and has on the Continent been employed as a sub- stitute for fax : by mixing it with silk, M. De Biborczfalva, a cre- ditable economist in Hungary, has lately produced a mixed cloth, which was remarkably fine, and cost him about 4s. the yard, Eng- lish measure ; being from 50 to 60 inches wide. There is another species of this exotic, namely, the Syrian Swal- low-wort, or Silk-plant (Asclepias Syriaca, L.) a native of North America, and especially of Virgi- nia. Its strong stalks attain the height of seven feet: the pale pur- plish flowers appear in June or Ju- ly ; emit an agreeable odour ; and are succeeded by large, thick, and rough capsules, the seeds of which are furnished with a long, glossy silk. In this respect, it forms ons of the most valuable productions ; and as the experiments lately made in Silesia, fully evince that it may Avith equal advantage be raised in the more temperate climate of Bri- tain, Ave strongly recommend its culture, which is generally suc- cessful in the most indifferent soils. It may be propagated either by the seeds or roots; vegetating most luxuriantly in a loose, sandy, and rather damp, ground. The seed should be sown in the spring, and the young plants be transplaced into a well ploughed and manured land, Avhere they must be properly weeded in the succeeding summer, and hoed, after having attained the height of 3 feet. When the prin- cipal stem displays the floAveis, all 80 S W A S WE the collateral branches and leaves should be carefully removed. The fruit attains to maturity in August, or September ; and as soon as the external rind becomes soft, yellow, and wrinkled, the seed capsule is to be cut off during dry Avea- ther, and alloAved to burst spon- taneously. The dry stalks are next to be separated by the knife, ap- plied closely to the root; the de- cayed plants must be re-placed by the roots of others ; then thinly co- vered for the winter with long dung; and in the succeeding spring, the surrounding earth should be loosened. Although Bechstein, avIio has furnished us Avith "this account, does not men- tion the distance at which the plants ought to stand ; yet their size appears to require considera- ble space, so that they may be, at the least, 12 inches apart, in every direction. The silk, obtained from the seed-capsules of the Syrian Swallow-wort, is not only useful for stuffing pillows, spinning fine yarn, both by itself and mixed Avith cot- ton, animal avooI, and cod-silk, or the loose filaments of the cocoons ; but it also affords a valuable mate- rial for manufacturing paper of a superior quality. Its stalks may be advantageously employed as substitutes for hemp. In Canada, a broAvn sugar is extracted, by eva- porating the juice of its flowers ; and, in Germany, the young tops are eaten as asparagus: hence, the assertion of some naturalists is erroneous, that the milky juice of this plant is of a poisonous quality. [This plant abounds in the neigh- bourhood of Philadelphia, and de- serves to be cultivated for the many valuable purposes to Avhich it may be applied. Dr. Guthkie (Man- chester Memoirs, vol. 5,) says, that in Germany the plant is cultivated extensively, and that stuffs have been made from it, which rival in lustre the true animal silk. The stems are said to dye a good olive; and also to ansAver for candle Avicks. SWAMP. Under the heads drain and moss, the mode of re- covering has been fully treated. For an elaborate treatise on the subject, the reader is referred to Dr. Anderson's Rural Essays.] SWARD-CUTTER,a machine employed for cutting the sward or surface of the earth, so as to break every clod that might othenvise resist the action of spiked rollers, or any similar implement of agri- culture. In the Letters and Papers of the Bath and West of England Society, Ave meet with an account of a Sward-cutter, invented by the Hon. Robert Sandilands, and which promises to be of great utility to the husbandman. Theoriginal design ofthe Sward- cutter, Avas that of preparing old grass land for the plough, by cut- ting it across the ridges, either at the commencement, or in the course of the Avinter. [This machine is much too com- plicated for general use among far- mers ; the account of it is there- fore omitted.] SWEARING, a term used to denote either the uttering of im- pious expressions, or the judicial, and also official invocation of the Deity, to attest the truth of an as- sertion. The security of oaths in import- ant affairs, has in all ages been re- quired by the laws of civilized na- tions ; nor is swearing, on such oc- casions, prohibited by the Christian doctrine. But, though particular S WE circumstances may sanction this expedient, there is no possible ex- cuse for invoking the Creator, to attest the truth of every trifling transaction, or to witness the im- pertinence of idle, perhaps inde- cent, conversation. SWEAT, a perceptible moist- ure, issuing from the pores of the skin, either in consequence of too violent exercise, or from the ac- tion of certain medicines, which are hence denominated sudorifica ; though it is sometimes occasioned by great debility of the cutaneous vessels, when it is called a cold sweat. SWEATING-SICKNESS, an epidemic which raged in England in 1481, and returned seven times between that period and 1551 ; in which year-it proved so fatal, as to carry off 120 inhabitants of West- minster in one day. It commenced with a most profuse fit of sweat- ing, Avhich attacked the patient, and often terminated his existence in one, tAvo, or three hours ; though its violence continued for the space of 15 hours; and, if he survived 24, the danger was gene- rally overcome. The most correct account of this national scourge, is that published by Dr. Caius, Avho states the symptoms to have been, a sensa- tion of a hot vapour pervading a particular limb, whence it extend- ed over the whole body, being ac- companied with intense thirst; extreme internal heat; profuse sweating ; anxiety ; drowsiness ; sickness ; a violent pain in the head, and delirium....Dr. C. con- jectures the immediate cause of this sickness, in 155l,tphave pro- ceeded from thick fetid fogs, that arose from putrid matters; unclean habitations, and the neglect of vol. v. S W E 81 clearing drains ; all which remark- ably contaminated the air. It is remarkable, that the per- sons most liable to the contagion, Avere those in full health, of mid- dle age, and of the higher clas3es ; Avhile children, the poor, and the aged, were less subject to its in- fluence. [SWEEP CHIMNEY. The Society for the Encouragement of Arts, in London, among the many important subjects to Avhich they have turned their attention, (to the very great improvement of the arts,) meritoriously offered a premium for the best substitute for human labour in sweeping chimnies. The following account of one of the plans offered to the Society, has been published in an English ga- zette : the detailed plan by the in- ventor, will, no doubt, appear in the next volume of the Transac- tions of the Society. It is sincerely to be Avished, that Mv. Smart's ideas may also be carried into ef- fect in the United States. " The machine invented by Mr. Smart, of Camden-ToAvn, Eng- land, for SAveeping chimnies, con- sists of a number of wooden tubes, of about thirty inches long, and three quarters of an inch in diame, ter, which run on a rope or cord- and fastened into one another, to any length. To the upper tube is fastened a square brush, the block of which is about six inches long, by three wide ; and from it, on all sides, issues heath, broom, or any other stiff but flexible substance, large enough to fill the breadth of the chimney. The tubes are about thirty inches long, of course the joints betAveen each will bend to the most crooked chimney, and in coming doAvn must clear the cor- ners, ledges, he. which are some- M 82 S W I S WI times found in chimnies. In the course of the present year, Mr. Smart has, in the presence of many respectable Avitnesses, effec- tually cleansed several lofty and crooked chimnies. So completely does this invention answer the plan proposed by the several societies avIio have undertaken to advocate the cause of the poor climbing- boys, that nothing is noAV Avanting to put an end to the common mode of chimney-SAveeping. By Mr. Smart's method, a chimney fifty feet high, may be swept in six or eight minutes, and Avith much less dirt than happens by the common mode."] Sweet-briar. See vol. iv. p. 414. Sweet-fern. See Cicely, the Sweet. Sweet-flag. [See Acorns.] Sweet-william. See vol. iv. p. 276. Sweet-willow: See Gale, the SAveet. SWIMMING, is the art of floating, or supporting the human body on the surface of water, with a progressive undulating mo- tion. This art is in a manner natural to man (see Amphibious Ani- mals) ; and, from its evident uti- lity, it has in all ages formed part of the education both of barbarous and civilized nations....As an out- line of the principles on which it is practised, may be a mean of saving persons accidentally fallen into deep water, we shall give a feAV directions to that effect, selected from the instructions of Dr. Fr ank- lin, and confirmed by our own ex- perience. First, the learner ought to walk courageously into the wa- ter, till the fluid readies to his breast; when he must gently de- cline his belly tOAvards the surface ; the head and neck being erec"t; the breast pressing forAvard ; the thorax being inflated, and the back bent. Next, the legs must be Avithdrawn from the bottom, Avhile they are extended or stretched out; and the arms should be stricken forwards, corresponding Avith the motion of the former. Swimming on the back is not es- sentially different from the method just described, excepting that the arms are not exerted, and the pro- gressive motion is derived solely from the striking of the legs. With respect todiving, orplung- ing under water, Dr. F. observes, that the swimmer must close his hands together; and, the chin be- ing pressed upon his breast, he ought to make an exertion to bend forwards with energy : while he continues in this position, he should move with velocity under the wa- ter ; and, when he wishes to return to the surface, it Avill be sufficient to bend his head backward, in con- sequence of which he will instant- ly rise. From the natural timidity, or antipathy to water, which in some individuals is constitutional, no- vices in swimming have been ad- vised to employ bladders or corks, for the purpose of supporting the body above the surface ; a prac- tice Avhich has been severely cen- sured. Dr. F. is, however, of opi- nion, that such auxiliary means are useful, while the pupil is ac- quiring the mode of drawing in, and striking out the hands ; which is absolutelfmecessary to a pro- gressive motion. But, as no per- son can^ become a perfect adept, till he can * ufneiently confide in the capacity of the water to sup- port him, he ought to walk into a S WI S WI 83 place, where it grows gradually deeper, till it reach to the breast : the face must then be turned towards the shore, and an egg be throAvn into the water, to such a depth that it can only be obtained by diving. The novice is then to plunge down, when he will find that the element buoys him up against his inclination : he will feel its power of keeping him afloat, and conse- quently learn to venture into it, Avithout apprehension. Considered as an exercise Swim- ming is equally amusing and use- ful; because it combines the ad- vantages of the cold bath and mus- cular exertion. Hence Ave would uniformly recommend to plunge into the Avater with the head fore- most ; while the body is neither cold nor overheated : no dangerous rivers, or muddy streams, should be selected; nor should this at- tempt be made, till the water has in some degree been Avarmed by the genial rays of the sun....Other precautions, necessary to be ob- served, have already been stated under the article Bath. See also Bamboe-habit, and Cork. [Swimming Jacket....From the History of the Royal Academy of Sciences at Paris,for the year 1765. This SAvimming jacket Avas pro- posed to the Academy, by the Ab- bot de la Chapelle, under the name of Scaphander, or < Man in a boat,' from the Greek Avords 2x«ip*j, boat, and av«p man. It is a sort of Avaist- coat without sleeves, which de- scends as far as the hips, and but- tons before. It is composed of two strong pieces of tent-cloth or tick- ing, between which are fixed some square pieces of cork, and the whole is closed at bottom with a border of double eloth, projecting from the back to pass between the swimmer's legs, and to be fasten- ed before. By the help of this jacket, and the art wherewith the Abbot de la Chapelle has distri- buted his pieces of cork in it, one may float in the Avater standing, and keep the head and arms above water. In the experiment that Avas made of it by the Abbot de la Chapelle, he could converse with those that were in a boat to see him; he could lift to his mouth victuals and drink, fire off a pistol; flourish Avith a SAvord, stick, Sec. assume all possible situations, and make progressive motions by the help of his hands and legs. The notion of these sorts of jackets is not new. The Academy gave an account of one, in 1757, present- ed by M. de Gelacy, Colonel of foot, and was not ignorant of the attempts that had been made by M. de Puy-segur for swimming, by the help of a belt of cork, fastened to a sort of cloth slipper, the sole of which was loaded Avith lead. This would be a good expedient for soldiers, Avho were to swim over a river with their arms in their hands : but, as to the case of shipwreck, Avhich the Ai;bot de la Chapelle had principally in view, it appears, that his scap- hander is preferable to all the in- ventions of this sort hitherto knoAvn, as Avell because it is more secure in point of use, as because, in a sudden and unexpected case, its application is more ready, and it causes no embarrassment. See Spencer and Cork.] Savine. See Hog. SWINGING, a species of pas- sive exercise, which is performed in certain contrivances, known un- der the name of swinging machines, or cars; by the undulating motion of which, the body is tossed in an 84 S W O • ascending and descending direc- tion. Swinging greatly contributes to health; and has occasionally prov- ed very serviceable to persons of consumptive habits: it is likeAvise of considerable advantage to se- dentary individuals; but it ought not to be repeated, if it excite gid- diness, head-ach, or other unplea- sant effects. SWOON, or Syncope, is a sud- den fainting, in which the action of the heart is diminished, or for a time entirely suspended. It is generally preceded by anxiety, difficult respiration; the pulse be- ing low and tremulous; the pa- tient turning cold and pale, so that he is nearly deprived of all sensation......In some instances, these symptoms are more urgent; the limbs are flexible, but exhaust- ed of their strength; and the whole body is in a state of deadly, cold torpor. It is remarkable, that patients, during the fit, often hear the whole conversation respecting them, but feel the want of power to exert themselves: the recovery is, in most cases, announced by deep and heavy sighs. When SAA'ooning occurs in the commencement of acute disorders, it is generally an unfavourable omen; though, in the advanced stages, it is less alarming : in vio- lent bleedings, it frequently affords relief; but, Avhen faintings occur, without any apparent cause, there will be just apprehension of dan- ger. Causes :....Long continued exer- tions of the mind, such as deep study ; violent passions ; loss of strength from profuse evacua- tions, particularly of blood ; hun- ger ; pain ; want of rest; sur- feits ; impure air ; worms ; par- s wo cotic poisons; and affections of the interior organs. Cure :....The patient should im- mediately be exposed to the open air, and be sprinkled with cold wa- ter on the neck and face. Strong, pungent odours, or volatile spirits held to the nostrils, ought to be used with caution : and only where the strength of the patient has been considerably reduced, espe- cially in hysterics and hypochon- driasis ; in these cases, spirit of hartshorn, tincture of valerian, cas- tor, or asafcetida may be inhaled with advantage....If the SAvooning originate from anger, and be at- tended Avith nausea, vomiting, bit- ter taste, and pain at the pit of the stomach, a gentle emetic may be given, with copious draughts of warm chamomile tea : similar means may likewise be employ- ed in consequence of a surfeit..... Persons of a plethoric habit, when fainting from A'iolence of passion, ought immediately to lose a few ounces of blood from the arm ; and afterAvards take a cooling ape- rient, for instance, infusions of senna,tamarinds with manna,salts, Sec. If it arise from excess of pain, benefit may be derived from opi- um : and, when it is occasioned by a fit of terror, or a sudden fright, first blood-letting,then small doses of laudanum and antimonial Avine, (from five to ten drops of the former, and double that pro- portion of the latter), will tend to compose the nerves, and to pro- mote perspiration.....Poisons and worms require the treatment mentioned under their respec- tive heads.....When the fit of swooning is the effect of too vio- lent purgatives or emetics, a feAv drops of the tincture of opium, in conjunction Avith an aromatic S YC SYM 85 wine, will prove the most proper remedy. In cases of great debility, it will be necessary to abstain from all stimulating food or drink, and to use the mildest astringents, in combination with a bland and nou- rishing diet. During the parox- ysm, frictions of the extremities with hot flannels, -will greatly as- sist the recovery of the patient. Should, hoAvever, this state of suspended Animation, be the ef- fect of Lightning, Suffocation, Suspension, Sec. the proper means of resuscitation will be found in these respective articles. SYCAMORE-TREE, or Syca- more Maple ; Acer Pseudo-pla- tanus, L. a large and beautiful tree, supposed to be a native of Ger- many, but reared in Britain, prin- cipally for the sake of its elegant appearance in plantations....It is of quick growth, though increasing in size till 200 years old, and attain- ing the respectable age of four cen- turies : it flourishes in exposed si- tuations near the sea, where a plan- tation of these trees, at 50 feet asunder, interspersed with three sea sallow-thorns between every two of the former, makes an ex- cellent fence against the spray of the ocean. The sycamore, thrives in a loose black earth ; [it may be propagated by cuttings,] and the young trees ought to be trans- planted at the age of 15 or 20..... Its Avood is soft and white, readily Avorks in the lathe, and is employ- ed by turners, for manufacturing wooden bowls, dishes, trenchers, &c. When the sap rises in the spring, or retreats in the autumn, a considerable quantity of sAveet- ish juice exudes from a hole made in the trunk, about 12 inches from the root, amounting daily to 7, 8, or 10 quarts from each tree. The Highlanders convert this liquor into an agreeable, and wholesome Avine : Avhen clarified, evaporated, and subsequently inspissated, it affords a fine, white sugar (in the proportion of one pound from 16 quarts of the sap) ; which, how- ever, is too purgative for common use....There are two varieties of this tree, one having broad leaves and large keys, while those of the other are variegated: the latter is propagated chiefly by inoculat- ing and ingrafting ; as it seldom produces perfect seeds. SYMPATHY denotes an uni- son or agreement of affections and inclinations ; or a conformity of naturalqualities,or temperaments; in consequence of which two per- sons are mutually attached to each other. It also signifies the parti- cipation in pain or pleasure ex- perienced by another individual; though it is likeAvise defined to be an imitative and involuntary fa- culty ; for instance, yawning, and laughing, which affect different persons in a similar manner, and at*the same time. Dr. Jackson considers Sympa- thy, as relating to the operations of the mind ; to the activity of the imagination ; and to the impres- sions made on the external senses. Thus, he observes that the various passions and affections of the mind produce different corresponding sensations in the body, and gene- rally determine the animal spirits to those parts which are most lia- ble to be influenced ; for instance, fear and anger to the heart: com- passion, amazement or wonder, sorrow, joy, &c. to the head: . Another proof of sympathy is the participation in the feelings of others, whose propensity to mirth, 86 SYR SYR or gravity, or to sadness and me- lancholy, is in a manner contagious to whole companies. The operations of the imagina- tion, hoAvever, as connected Avith sympathy, are chiefly confined to the body ; and,in general, influence only persons of Aveak minds: hence arise many of those monstrous de- formities occurring in the metro- polis, but which might have been obviated by a proper exertion of reason, before the fancy Avas too much excited by the most se- ductive faculty, namely, that of vision. The semes receive a sympathe- tic impression from odious or dis- gusting objects. Thus, disagree- able sounds set the teeth on edge, and produce an universal tremor or shivering: the taking of nau- seous draughts, or other drugs, occasions a shaking of the head and neck. Similar effects arise from unpleasant odours ; and, if a person suddenly AvithdraAV from the sun into the shade, or from a light place into a dark room, an inclination to shudder will be the immediate consequence.....Those readers, Avho are desirous of ob- taining farther explanations of these ideas, will deri\'e instruction from the perusal of Dr. Jackson's Treatise on Medical Sympathy, (8vo. 5s.)....Some ingenious con- jectures on this subject also occur in Dr. Adam Smith's Theory of Moral Sentiments. SYRUP, a solution of sugar, frequently employed as a vehicle for Aarious medicines ; forming a sweet liquor, of a thick consist- ence, which is made by combin- ing saccharine matter with wa- ter, vinegar, or the juices of ve- getables. Syrups were formerly consider- ed as medicines of considerable efficacy ; but, at present, they are used chiefly for sheathing, or con- cealing the taste of nauseous sub- stances ; yet, as there are certain drugs, which are peculiarly ser- viceable in this form, Ave shall give a few directions for preparing them : First, the vessels employ- ed ought to be well tinned, and kept perfectly clean, lest any im- pure matters be introduced : the sugar should be doubly refined and dissolved in a Avater-bath, in the proportion of 29 oz. to one pint of water, or any other liquid : the whole is then suffered to stand for 24 hours, when the scum must be removed, the syrup be strained, and poured into a vessel, where it remains till the following day. If any saccharine crust then ap- pear, it ought to be taken off the surface, and the liquor will be fit for use. Syrup of Vinegar :.....Let 2^. pints of vinegar be boiled with 3^ lbs. of double-refined sugar, till a syrup be formed. This solution is very pleasant; is often employ- ed in mucilaginous mixtures ; and, from its cheapnesses far preferable to the syrup of lemons. Emetic Syrup consists of two drams of finely pulverized glass of antimony, and 12 oz. of Rhenish- tor Lisbon, Teneriffe, or Fayal- wine :] these ingredients must be digested in a gentle heat for three days, Avhen the liquor ought to be strained through paper, mixed with double-refined sugar, and made into a syrup in the usual manner. This preparation is strongly im- pregnated with the emetic pro- perties of the antimony, and is peculiarly calculated for children, on account of its agreeable taste. Syrup of Lemon-juice :......Let SYR SYR 87 five parts of double-refined sugar, and three parts of filtered ltmon- juice be incorporated, so as to form a syrup. The juices of mul- berries, raspberries, and black cur- rants, may be converted into sy- rup in a similar manner: they are all cooling, pleasant liquids, and may be advantageously em- ployed for mitigating thirst in bi- lious, o' inflammatory disorders; and also for gargling the fauces, in cases of inflammation of the mouth and tonsils. T. T AL T AL TACAMAHACA, a gummy- resinous substance, obtained from the Carolina Poplar. The best sort is collected from the fruit of the tree, in gourd-shells : it is somewhat soft and unctuous, of a pale-green, or yellowish colour, and a fragrant odour, resembling that of amber-grease, or lavender. The drug commonly met with in the shops, consists of variegated semi-transparent grains, procured from the sap exuding through in- cisions made in the poplar; and Avhich are greatly inferior to the genuine species. Tacamahaca is chiefly employ- ed externally, for discussing tu- mors, promoting their maturation, and mitigating pains in the limbs; though the finer sort may be ad- vantageously used for the same purposes, as other balsamics. TALC, a species of fossil, found in England, Bohemia, Spain, &c. comprehending three varieties, namely : 1. The Talcite, or Scaly Talc, is dug in small light scales, which adhere to the fingers : it is Avhite, intermixed with green ; and, when rubbed on the skin, imparts a bright gloss. 2. The Venetian, or Common Talc, is also white, interspersed Avith green or red veins. 3. The Schistose Talc is of a slaty nature, and a grey hue, spot- ted with white, green, or blue ; but, on exposure to the air, it be- comes Avhite and scaly. This mineral is employed in pre- paring compositions for earthen vessels : on account of its smooth- ness, brightness, and unctuous quality, it has been celebrated as a cosmetic ; and various unsuccess- ful experiments have been made, with a vieAV to extract from it oils, salts, and other supposed ingredi- ents....When combined Avith alka- line salts, it is fusible in a strong heat, and forms a transparent, handsome, greenish-yelloAv glass : if equal portions of talc and of chalk be melted together Avith one- fourth part of borax, the mixture Avill produce a fine pellucid green- ish glass, Avhich is of considerable lustre and hardness: gypsous earths 88 TAN may also with advantage be substi- tuted for the chalk, and the result will be a beautiful, pellucid yellow glass, of equal brightness and du- rability. TANNING, is the art of pre- paring leather from raw skins and hides, so as to render it more pli- ant and durable. The processes employed for this purpose, are various; every tan- ner adopting some peculiar me- thod : Ave have therefore selected the following, which is practised with little difference, in the metro- polis and its vicinity; where the leather is divided into three sorts, known under the names of backs, or butts, hides, and skins. The strongest hides are selected for the butts ; and, after being di- vested of the horns, they are laid in heaps for one or two days during the summer, and for the space of five or six, in the winter. Next, they are suspended on poles in a smoke-house, or room containing a fire, made of wet tan, to induce a slight degree of putrefaction, so that the hair may be stripped off; an object which is effected by spreading such hides on a wooden horse, and scraping them with a curved knife. They are then im- mersed in water, to be cleansed from all dirt, and extended a se- cond time on the horse, when all extraneous matters must be care- fully removed. The hides are noAV steeped in a pit containing ooze, or a strong liquor, prepared by infus- ing ground oak-bark in water; after Avhich they are plunged into another pit, containing water poAv- erfully impregnated with oil of vi- triol, or with an acid obtained from rye or barley. They are next im- mersed in another pit filled Avith water; a stratum of bark being T A N strewed between each hide. In the course of five or six Aveeks, the skins are taken out; and the water together Avjth the decayed bark,be- ing removed, the pit is a second time filled with ooze; the hides are again macerated, Avith similar stra- ta between each, for three months. The same operation is then re- peated a third, and, after the lapse of three months, a fourth time: here the hides remain for three months longer, at the expiration of Avhich they are completely tan- ned ; being thus drawn out, they are suspended on poles; Avhen, after being compressed by a steel pin, they are beaten by wooden ham- mers, or beetles, to render them smooth; and then dried for sale. The leather known under the name of hides, is made from the skins of cows, and those of lighter oxen, in the following manner: The horns are first taken off, the hides washed and immersed in a pit full of lime-water, where they remain for a few days ; after which the hair is stripped off, as above described. They now undergo va- rious processes, similar to those already detailed, excepting that the ooze is not at first of equal strength ; and that the hides are shifted every second or third day, for the space of six months, into a stronger liquor ; being at length put into a very rich ooze, where they are turned twice every week, for two or three months. Thus prepared, they are carried to ano- ther pit, with layers of bark ar- ranged betAveen each hide ; the process being again repeated for a similar period, Avhen they are ta- ken out, and treated in the same manner as the butts. Both spe- cies of leather here described, are employed for the soles of pumps, TAN TAN 89 ihoes, boots, &c.; being finer or stronger, as occasion may require. The last division of leather is that of skins, Avhich includes all that is manufactured from those of calves, dogs, Sec. They are washed in water: then plunged in lime- Avater, and deprived of their hair by the same operation as hides ; after removing all uneven and su- perfluous matters, the skins are soaked in a pit of water impreg- nated with the dung of pigeons, for a Aveek or ten days, in order to ex- tract all the particles of lime, grease, Sec. Next, they are treat- ed in a similar manner Avith the hides; and, in the course of five or six months, they will' be suffi- ciently tanned.....The leather thus prepared, is noAv conveyed to the currier ; and, after undergoing the process detailed, vol. ii. p. 299, it is used for the upper parts of boots, shoes, Sec. Such are the old methods com- monly practised in tanning : these, however, being too tedious and ex- pensive, various expedients have lately been devised, with a view to shorten the respective processes, and to procure substitutes for oak- bark. Thus Dr. Macsride pro- posed the use of vitriolic acid, in- stead of that obtained from vege- tables ; Avhich, having been found very serviceable for distending the pores of the skins intended for butts, has been generally adopted by tanners ; as it improves the lea- ther in point of durability ; and at the same time tends to facilitate or simplify the operations. He also recommended lime-water to be substituted for the common fluid, to promote the extraction of the astringent matter from the oak- bark ; but, the former being very powerful, and apt to injure the tex- vol. v. ture of the leather, it is seldom employed. [Mr. Seguin has proved, that in the Avater impregnated with the soluble parts of tan, there are two very distinct and dift'jrent substan- ces : the one Avhich precipitates a black matter from iron, is the gallic acid or principle ; the other, which precipitates animal gelatin or glue, is called the tanning-principle, on ac- count of its efficacy in the prepa- ration of leather. This discovery enables us to ascertain the pre- sence of the tanning principle in any substance immediately ; for every substance of which the in- fusion is capable of precipitating animal gelatin, possesses it. The experiments of Mr. Biggin, (London Philosop. Trans. 1799,) shew, that similar barks, Avhen taken from trees at different sea- sons, differ as to the quantities of tannen they contain, and Mr. Davy observed, that the proper- ties of the astringent principle in barks, vary considerably according' as their age and size are different; besides, these proportions are often influenced by accidental circum- stances, so that it is very difficult to ascertain their distinct relations to each othir. Mr. Davy, (Trans. Royal Soc. Lon. 1803.) is of opinion, "that as lime and pot-ash form compounds with tannen, which are not decom- posable by gelatin, it folloAvs that their effect must be highly pernici- ous, and that there is very little rea- son to suppose, that any bodies will be found,.Which, at the same time that they increase the solubility of tannen in Avater, Avill not likewise diminish its attraction for skin." Dr. Macbride's recommendation therefore of lime, does not appear judicious, and the excellent hint of N 90 T A N Mr. Davy should be carefully at- tended to by all who make expe- riments upon tanning. From some late experiments by Dr. G. Wilkinson,it appears, that the bark of the broad-leaved Avil- low, (salix latifolia) possesses the astringent or tanning principle in a A'ery large proportion (see Tor- mentil) and that the nitric acid acts more poAverfully on vegeta- bles containing tan, than either the sulphuric or muriatic acids : the former of Avhich, according to Dr. Willich, is used by the London tanners. See, Experiments and observations on t'.e Cortex salicis Latifolix, or broad-leafed willow bark, by Dr. Wilkinson, New Castle upon Tyne, 1803, 4*. 6d.] Oak-leaves, gall-nuts, dried and pulverized heath, the barks of the birch and Avillow-trees, the dried and poAvdered leaves of the Avild laurel, and numerous other vege- table productions, have been tried, and proposed, as useful substitutes for oak-bark: numerous experi- ments were also made with plants, by Gleditsch, Bautsch, Boh- mer, and other writers ; but, as Ave state the results of these in the pro- gress of our Avork, it remains only to mention the following patents, among the multitude granted at different periods; namely: 1. The privilege obtained by Mr. Sa- muel Ashton, in January, 1794, for his neAv method of tanning..... 2. Mr. John Tucker's patent, dated in May, 1795, for a mode of tanning and making leather in a much shorter period, and of a su- perior quality, than can be effected by the common method......3. Mr. William Desmond's in January, 1796 ; for a process communicated to him (by Mr. Seguin), of tan- ning hides, Sec. by rendering them TAP more solid and incorruptible in water.....4. Mr. Robert Cross's, in April, 1797, for a tan-pit on a neAv construction, and a method of tanning in one-half of the usual time,&c.....5.Mr. Francis Breav- in's, in June, 1799, for an im- proved process of tanning hides and skins.....As the specification of these patents, however intersting to the tanner, are partly too diffuse, and partly of such nature as not to ad- mit of abridgment, the curious reader will consult the 1st, 3d, 6th, and 11th vols, of the Repertory of Arts, he. where full specifications are inserted, and occasionally il- lustrated Avith plates.....See also Currying, Hides, Leather, Skiks, 8cc. TANSY, the Common, or Ta- nacetum vulgare, L. an indigenous perennial, growing in elevated meadoAvs and pastures, on the banks of rivers, and in sAvampy si- tuations ; flowering in the month of June. This plant possesses a warm, bitter taste ; it is deobstruent, not ungrateful to the palate ; and may be used as a substitute for hops.... The tender leaves are sometimes employed to impart a colour and flavour to puddings : according to Dr. Withering, its seeds are an excellent vermifuge ; and, if any- animal substance be rubbed with this herb, it will be effectually pre- served from the attacks of the i/2e«A:/Z!<......Tahsy-tea is recom- mended as £ preventive of the gout.....From the expressed juice of this vegetable, the Finlanders obtain a green dye.....The plant is eaten by cows and sheep, but re- fused by horses, goats, and hogs. [TAP-COCK. Avery ingenious contrivance to prevent the neces- sity of a vent-peg, in a beer or TAP cyder barrel, was lately invented by Mr. Robert Hare, Jun. of Philadelphia. It has two perfo- rations, one for the admission of air, commencing at the point of insertion in the cask, and termi- nating at the top of the key ; an- other for the emission of the fluid, commencing at the same point, and proceeding to the nozle in a direction nearly similar to that of the instrument in ordinary use..... By this highly useful economical invention, vast quantities of liquor which are annually made sour or vapid by the careless omission of the vent-peg of barrels, will be preserved from acidity, and in their original briskness. The editor has a pleasure in being able to say, that the inventor is about taking measures to bring this excellent Tap-cock into gene- ral use ; and that a more full ac- count, illustrated by engravings, av ill be found in the 6th vol. of the American Phil. Trans. noAV in the press by Miss Aikin.] TAPE-WORM, or Taenia, is one of the most tormenting worms, breeding in the bowels of the lower animals, as Avell as of man- kind, and consisting of several spe- cies, namely ; the armed and un- armed ; the long and short-limbed, or broad tape-Avorm ; but that most frequently occurring in Britain, is thesolium, Avhich moves about, and has a regular round head, resem- bling a Avart. It is from one, to tAventy yards and upwards in length ; the body is composed of a number of articulated rings, or joints, by which it attaches itself to the membranes of the intes- tines. The symptomsby Avhich the pre- sence of this creature may be as- certained, are those of Avorms in T A P 91 general, such as nausea ; vomiting; giddiness ; indigestion ; colic ; and flatulence : the patient feels a pres- sure in certain parts of the abdo- men : which, on shifting its place, mostly produces a chilling sensa- tion in the lower belly, or in the back. A more certain, and in- deed the only criterion is, the ex- pulsion of one or more pieces of the worm itself. Cure:..... An extraordinary num- ber of remedies have been sug- gested, and tried, with various success : nor can such diversity of effects appear surprising, if the difficulty of expelling the tape- Avorm be considered ; as, in the attempt, portions are frequently broken off and discharged: Na- ture having endowed this monster with a poAver of regeneration, it soon acquires its former size, and excites the same turbulent motions, We shall, therefore, state only those remedies which appear to be the most efficacious. 1. The celebrated specific of Mad. Nouffer, Avas purchased, and published, by the King of France.....[For a notice of which See Fern.] 2. The method of carrying off the tape-worm, recommended by Herrenschwandt, is as follows : The patient must swallow one dram of the male fern two succes- sive mornings, before breakfast; and, in the evening, two hours after a light supper. On the third morning, the folloAving poAvder is likeAvise to be taken before break- fast, and followed by large potions of Aveak tea: Take of purified gamboge, 12 grains ; salt of worm- wood 20 grains, and Starkev's soap (a composition of distilled oil and fixed vegetable alkali) 2 grains; the whole to be duly incorporat- 92 TAP TAR ed : three hours after, 1 oz. of cas- tor-oil is to be swalloAved in a cup of beef-tea, and repeated once or tAvice at similar intervals. If the worm be still retained, a clyster, consisting of equal parts of milk and water, Avith 3 oz. of castor-oil is to be sAvallowed in a cup of beef- tea, and repeated once or twice at similar intervals. If the worm be still retained, a clyster, consisting of equal parts of milk and Avater, with 3 oz. of castor-oil, must be in- jected in the evening, which is ge- nerally productive of the desired effect. 3. The last of these specifics (as they are vainly styled), is that which Mathieu, an apothecary of Berlin, lately asserted to have dis- covered ; and for which the pre- sent king of Prussia honoured him with a title, and pension for life. On revieAving these boasted re- medies, it becomes evident that their principal efficacy is derived from the male fern, combined Avith various drastic purgatives ; though it cannot be denied, that the auxiliary ingredients have, in some worm cases, proved equally successful. But all those drugs having been knoAvn to the medical world for centuries, it is to us a matter of surprize, that a man, like Mathieu, should have the effrontery to offer this cluster of vermifuges as things of his own in- vention, and obtain from the royal hand, a gilt laurel, for which others have for past ages, toiled in vain! Nay, we are informed that, in a particular case, his pretended spe- cific has also failed.....Quackery remains the same, Avhether cover- ed Avith embroidered scarlet, or with rags. Electricity has, likeAvise, been recommended for the removal of this troublesome inhabitant of the human body, especially after tak- ing a brisk laxative in the morn- ing....Physicians on the Continent have remarked, that in persons ( who had eaten a supper of straw- berries, the tape-worm could be traced to different parts of the ab- domen, by means of electric sparks drawn from a wooden point, and carefully directed to the body, so that it could afterwards be easily expelled. Lastly, there is another efficaci- ous method of exterminating this Avorm ; and which has frequently been attended Avith the desired ef- fect. Three or four days, previ- ously to the use of opening medi- cines, from one to three tea-spoon- fuls of a solution of tartarized anti- mony (2 grains in 4'oz. of water), is to be taken three times a-day : on the fourth day, a purging pow- der, composed of calomel and ja- lap, from 3 to 6 grains each, ac- cordingly as the patient is moved Avith greater or less difficulty, must be administered before breakfast; but he should endeavour to check vomiting. In case this dose prove not sufficiently powerful, its ope- ration may be promoted by the in- ternal use and external application of castor-oil. During the passage of the worm, care must be taken not to interrupt its progress ; as it has been observed, on the least ir- ritation, either to return into the body, or to break off suddenly ; in consequence of Avhich, the Avhole complaint will be renewed : hence \ it Avould be advisable to sit'on a vessel containing lukewarm milk, into Avhich it may gradually de- scend ; a practice that has often been attended Avith success. Tapioca. See Cassava. TAR, a thick, black, unctuous TAR TAR 93 matter, extracted from pit-coal, by repeatedly boiling the tar in old pine and fir trees, by their avater, in the proportion of two or combustion in a close, smothering" three times the quantity of water heat. as of tar, until the tar nearly be- [Under the article Coal, the fa- comes thick enough for use. The mous coal tar, discovered by the tar may then be draAvn off into a earl of Dundonald, Avas mention- conical vessel, Avith its narroAv end ed, and the experience of our cap- downward : at the bottom should tain Truxton, and others, Avho be a cock, and another about a foot had used it, Avas stated as unfa- higher. Through the loAver cock, vourable to its boasted superiority the tar is to be drawn off AvhHe over vegetable tar, in defending warm, and through the other the the bottoms of vessels from the acidulous mucilaginous water may destructive West-India teredo, or be let off. The tar thus purified, gribble worm ; but lord D. asserts, after pouring off the water, should in his Treatise on the Connexion of be put into the tarring kettle, and Agriculture with Chemistry, that after boiling a little time, it will " its good effects have been mani- throw off any Avater remaining fold in repeated instances, and that mixed with it. Purified oils, (either it is entirely out of use for ship- animal or vegetable) or fats, must bottoms and sheathing, on account be mixed Avith this purified tar, of the protection it affords them any time of its boiling, and the from the worm, for at least thrice quantity must be proportioned to the time Avhich vegetable tar de- the ductility wanted, or to the fends them: and this reason, he heat of the climate. For cold cli- says, Avas assigned for its disuse, mates, Avhale-oil is to be preferred; by some of the most considerable and fresh tallow or suet in prefer- and candid ship-builders on the ence for Avarm climates. One Thames, and other parts of Eng- tenth of suet or tallow is sufficient, land. Vessels have performed six but a greater proportion would be voyages to the West Indies with useful. For a more particular ac- the same sheathing, when payed count of the utility of preparing tar with the coal tar." as above, see the specification of This positive declaration cer- Mr. Chapman's patent, inthe Re- tainly demands attention ; but still perlory of Arts, vol. 2, neAv series, it may be asked, Avhy does not the p. 91.] British government use it in the Tar is an article of great utility, navy ? both in manufactures, and for va- An experiment ought to be rious economical purposes: it like- again made in the United States, Avise affords security to trees, from on the efficacy of the application, the ravages of hares, and other pre - Tar contains a considerable por- datory animals : thus, if one part tion of mucilage, Avhich causes the of tar be mixed Avith six or seven tar to be dissolved in that fluid, parts of grease, and the composi- against which it: is intended to tion be laid on the bark with a preserve them. Tar also contains brush, it will effectually defend an acid which injures the strength plantations, and at the wme time of the yarn. This acid, and this prevent the trees from being bark- mucilage, may be easily separated bound; a disease that often oc- D4 TAR TAR curs, from the injudicious use of tar and lime. There are, however, some delicate shrubs, to which this mixture cannot be safely or conve- niently applied : hence, it will he advisable to surround them with twine covered with tar; and, as this fluid is apt to loose its odour, on exposure to the air, it must be occasionally renewed. Tar Avas formerly in great re- pute as a medicine, both in its ori- ginal state, and also in infusions with water. It has been greatly recommended by Bishop Berk- ley, in the Murrain of cattle ; and likeAvise in cold and phleg- matic habits'of mankind; as it not only raises the pulse, and acceler- ates the circulation, but at the same time exhilerates the animal spi- rits. At present, however, tar- Avater is seldom employed"; though it doubtless may, in some cases, be used with advantage ; and es- pecially in external applications for stings. Thus if a person stung by Avasps, bees, &c. apply to the injured part a pledget dipped in such liquid, it will instantaneously mitigate acute pain, Avhile it pre- vents SAvelling and other conse- quences. Tare. See Vetch. TARRAGON. See Artemisia dracunculus. TARRAS, Terras, or Traas, a species of argillaceous earth, found in Germany, and Sweden, whence it is annually imported ; being subject to the duty of 6id. per bushel. It is of a pale-yelloAV- ish colour, containing numerous particles of spar, and other hetero- geneous matters. Wrhen reduced to poAvder, and mixed Avith Avater, terras forms a most durable cement or mortar which is advantageously em- ployed for lining basons, cisterns, or other reservoirs. In the 5th vol. of the Trantac- tions of the Society for the Encou- ragement of Arts, he. for 1787, we meet Avith a communication by MiVsMoke, stating that a species of red earth has been discovered in the parish of St. Elizabeth, Ja- maica, Avhich is an excellent substi- tute for tarras, in all buildings un- der Avater. Thus if one measure of such earth be mixed with an equal portion of sand, and a double quantity of Avell-slacked lime, the whole -will form a cement, excel- lently adapted for constructing dams, bridges, or any other edifice in water; as it speedily hardens, and acquires the durability of stone. TARTAR, a concrete saline matter, which separates from wines, after they have undergone com- plete fermentation : it adheres to the top and sides of the cask, in red or whitish-grey crystals, ac- cording to the colour of the liquor. In this state, it is called crude tar- tar ; having a sub-acid taste, and being with difficulty soluble in water. By repeated solution, filtration, and crystalization, crude tartar may be depurated or divested of all gross and impure particles, when it is called crystals of tartar ; and, if these be reduced to powder, cream of tartar. This salt is a mild, cooling and aperient medicine : if 1 alf or a Avhole ounce of it be taken in sub- stance, with treacle, or any other vehicle, it proves an effectual pur- gative. Farther, when dissolved in water, it affords, Avith the ad- dition of sugar, an agreeable aci- dulated drink, which is of great service in ardent fevers ; and like- T AS TEA 95 wise forms a pleasant beverage during the summer. Tartar-emetic, or Tartarized Antimony, is prepared, according to the London College, by boiling in a glass vessel, 3 oz. of crocus of antimony, and 4 oz. of crystals of tartar, in 2 pints of distilled water, for about 15 minutes ; when the solution should be filtered through paper, and the strained li- quor kept in a cool place, in order to form crystals. This prepara- tion is employed as an emetic, for which purpose it is far superior to any other composition of antimo- ny ; as it operates powerfully, Avith- out disordering the constitution.... When the full effect of an emetic is required, the dose varies from 2 to 4 grains ; though it may be more advantageously administered in smaller quantities, as a nauseat- ing and sudorific medicine. Dr. Hufeland has observed, that one scruple of starch, combined Avith a single grain of emetic tartar, operates with greater speed, and certainty, than a full dose of the latter. TASTE, in the animal economy, is one of the five senses, or that faculty Avhich enables all organized beings to discern the various im- pressions produced by different substances on the tongue and the palate: thus Ave can distinguish sweet from bitter, and salt from acid. The most certain method of preserving such useful sense, con- sists in adopting the strictest tem- perance, both Avith respect to food, and drink: in this manner, we may at all times not only partake with pleasure of our homely provi- sion, but also relish with a -aperior degree of satisfaction the more lux- urious dishes, that may occasion- ally be introduced at our tables.... At all events, it is one of the most humiliating sensations, which daily reminds us of our animal nature. TEA-TREE, or Thea, L. a ge- nus of shrubs consisting of [one] species. [The different kinds met Avjth, beting only varieties, owing to the soil, culture of the plant, age of the leaves Avhen gathered, and me- thod of curing them. Kaempfer long since asserted this fact, which has been confirmed by sir Geo. Staunton,in his account of Lord M'Cartney's embassy to China.] The Tea-tree produces flowers similar to those of the Dog-rose, and which are succeeded by fruits of the size of sloes, two or three growing together :...it may be pro- pagated in the temperate climates of Europe, as Avell as in the Indies, by setting the seeds in holes, about five inches deep, and at regular distances from each other. No particular care is requisite in its culture ; but the ground must be cleared of Aveeds: at the expira- tion of three years, the leaAes are fit to be gatliered. Great pains are taken in"collectingthemsz'«g7y, at three different times ; nafnely, about the middle of February ; in the beginning of March ; and in April. Although some writers as- sert, that they are first exposed to the steam of boiling Avater, and then dried on copper plates ; yet Ave understand from indubitable authority, that such leaves are sim- ply dried on iron plates, suspended over a fire, till they become dry and shrivelled : Avhen cool, they are packed in lead boxes, to exclucL- the air, and in that state exported to Europe. It is, hoAvever, re- markable that the fresh leaves of this shrub, when used for tea, oc- I 96 TEA TEA casion giddiness, and stupefaction ; which noxious properties are dissi- pated, by roasting them over a mo- derate fire. Nor is it advisable to drink infusions of this narcotic ve- getable, till it be kept at least for 12 months. Since the commencement of the 17th century, the consumption of tea-leaves has become so general, that, according to the most accu- rate calculations, there are at pre- sent 30 millions of pounds Aveight annually imported into Europe. Thus, we are every year drained of a sum of money which, if it Avere applied to the improvement of na- tional agriculture, would support many thousand industrious fami- lies ; by Avhose labour, during six weeks in the year, all the British empire might be provided Avith na- tive teas. Nay, it is still more sur- prising, that though every intelli- gent mind will attest the truth of this remark, yet no landed proprie- tor, who is in any manner connect- ed with commercial speculations, or who has the least interest in the affairs of India, will rise in a legis- lative capacity, Avith a vieAV to re- medy, or at least to check, this se- riousgevil ; an evil which, like a sIoav cancer, consumes the vital principle, and exhausts the best sources of a country. As the Tea-tree groAVS princi- pally between the 30th and 40th degrees of latitude, it might be ea- sily raised in Europe: indeed, from the success Avith Avhich plantations of this shrub have lately been es- tablished by a society of nuns in Franconia, near Wurzburg, there is great reason to believe, that it Avould also prosper in the south- ern counties of Britain, if proper attention were paid, till it become habituated to our climate. There are, besides, many indigenous ve- getables that may be advantage- ously substituted ; such are Sage, Balm, Peppermint, and similar spicy plants ; the floAvers of the Sweet Woodroof ; those of the Burnet, or Pimpernel Rose ; the leaves of Peach and Almond- trees ; the young and tender leaves of Bilberry, and Common Rasp- berry ; and, lastly, the blossoms of the Black-thorn, or Sloe-tree; most of which, when carefully ga- thered, and dried in the shade (especially if they be managed like Indian tea-leaves), can Avith diffi- culty be distinguished from the fo- reign teas, and are at the same time of superior flavour and salu- brity. [The late Rev. Dr. Matthew Wilson, of Lewis, in Delaware, Avho was a learned divine, an ex- cellent physician, as well as a firm patriot, endeavoured to reconcile the Americans to the loss of their favourite infusions atthebeginning of the revolutionary Avar, by point- ing out the evil effects Avhich a constant use of tea, produce in the system ; and proposed a number of substitutes, chiefly from among our native vegetables. The fol-. loAving are in the list. 1. Sassafras root, sliced thin and dried, with raspings of lignum vi- t:c. This, Avhen drank Aveak is pleasant, and clears the com- plexion. 2. SAveet marjoram, and a little mint, relieves the head and nerves, and strengthens the stomach. 3. Dry sage and green balm leaves ate astringent, stimulating andstrengthning. 4. Rosemary and lavender, ex- cellent for disorders in the head. 5. A few small twigs of white- oak, aycII dried in the sun, Avith TEA Iavo leaves of sweet myrtle : this is so good a counterfeit of true tea, that good judges might mis- take them. 6. Fennel seed, and inner bark of magnolia, (spicewood) is a pow- erful remedy against agues and hysterics. For the paper contain- ing a list of substitutes at length, the reader is referred to Ai.;in's Pennsylvania Magazine for 177JY It is probable that at the pre- sent day, but few of the above sub- stitutes will be used for Chinese tea, and yet considering the im- mense sums in dollars, Avhich are annually sent out of the country for this article, it is sincerely to be wished that some substitute could be generally adopted. For by an official statement, it appears, that the amount of teas which paid du- ties, after deducting the exporta- tions from the importations, for each year, of the years 1791 to 1800, were, 28,000,184lbs. The average duty is 15 cents per pound. There can be no doubt of the climate of some part of the United States, being as favourable for the tea plant, as the climates of China or Japan, and the Americans who vi--.it China, would render a service to their country, by introducing the plant.] Teas are divided, in Britain, into three kinds of gret.i, and five of Bohea. The former class in- cludes, 1. Imperial, or EloomTetL, having a large leaf, a faint smell, and being of a light-green colour : 2. //. s.::, which has small curled leaves, of a green shade, inclining to blue : ai.d 3. Sir.glo Tea, thus termed from the place where it is cultivated. The Boheas compre- hend : 1. Souchong, which, on in- fusion, imparts a yeilowish-green colon;•• [The Pud.-e Souchong, n u;.. \. T E A 97 has a finer taste and smell than the common sort.] 2. Camlij, a fine tea, emitting a fragrant violet smell, and yielding a pale shade : it receives its name from the pro- vince where it is reared. 3. Pekoe Tea, iskuov.nby the small Avhite flowers that are mixed with it. -1. Congo, has a larger leaf than the preceding variety, and yields a deeper tint to Avater : and 5. Com- mon Bohea, the leaves of which are of an uniform, green colour. There are, besides, other kinds of tea, sold under the names of Gunpow- der-Tea, he. which differ from the preceding, only in the minute- ness of their leaves, and being dried with additional care. Much has been said and written on the medicinal properties of tea : in its natural state, it is doubtless a narcotic, or stupefying plant; on which account, even the Chinese refrain from its use, till it has been divested of this property by the processes above described. If, however, good tea be drunk in mo- derate qualities, with sufficient nii.lv and sugar, it invigorates the sys- tem, and produces a temporary c.\- hiieraaon ; but, when taken too copiously, it is apt to occasion weakness, tremor, puLLs, and va- rious other symptoms, similar to those arising from narcotic plants ; while it doubtless contributes to aggravate the hysteric and hypo- chondriacal complaints, which now very generally prevail in both sex- es. This drug has, farther, been supposed to possess considerable diuretic and sudorific virtues; which, however depend more o,i the quantity of warm water emplo) - ed as a vehicle, than the quality of the tea itself. Lastly, as infusion.s of these Laves are the safest re- freshment ..fl~r undergoing gre~t O 98 TEA bodily fatigue, or mental exertion, they afford an agreeable beverage to those Avho are exposed to cold Aveather ; at the same time tend- ing to support and promote that perspiration Avhich is otherwise liable to be impeded. TEASEL, or Dipsacus, L. a ge- nus of plants exhibiting five spe- cies : three are indigenous; but the principal is the fullonum (more properly sativus), Manured, or Fuller's Teasel. It is raised from seed, Avhich must be scattered on ridges, 7 or 10 inches apart, in the proportion of two pecks per acre. The most proper season for its pro- pagation, is the month of April: the soil ought to be a strong, rich clay, or, Avhat agriculturists term, a good wheat land. The young plants should be carefully weeded; and, if they grow too closely to- gether, it Avill be proper to thin them,to the distance of one foot. In the spring of the second year, the teasels must be earthed up ; and, in the succeeding month of July, the heads will begin to floAver. In August, as soon as the blossoms decay, such heads must be cut off, and exposed daily to the sun, till they become completely dry ; care being taken to shelter them from rain. The teasel is an article of consi- derable importance to clothiers, Avho employ the crooked awns of the heads, for raising the knap on Avoollen cloths. For this purpose, they are fixed round the periphery of a large broad Avheel; against which the cloth is held, Avhile the machine is turned. Lastly, the blossoms of the teasel supply bees Avith honey ; and the Avater. which collects Avithin the cavities of leaves grown together, is said to be an useful application to weak or in- TEE flamed eyes; and likeAvise to afford a harmless cosmetic for removing spots from the face. TEETH, a set of bones, situated in the upper and loAver jaws, for the purpose of mastication: in adults, there are 32 in number, or 16 in each jaw-bone. The teeth are of A-arious size, being arranged in the folloAving order: four in the front, termed cutting teeth, on each side of Avhich is a sharp-pointed, canine, or eye- tooth ; adjoining to these are five grinders on each side, the last of Avhich is denominated the /tooth of wisdom ; because it seldom ap- pears before the 25th year. The front and eye-teeth are furnished with only one root each; the two first grinders with tAvo; and the hindmost generally with three or four ; which may in most persons be ascertained by the number of small tubercles on the crowns. The tooth is divided into two principal parts; namely, the crown, Avhich projects above the gums; and the root, that is inclosed Avith- in the sockets: the crown is a hard, fine, glossy, Avhite enamel, serving to defend the substance against ex- ternal injury : the root is open at the bottom, where it is connected Avith vessels and nerves, by which it received nourishment, life, and sensation. As an account of the manner in which the teeth are formed, may prove interesting to reflecting read- ers, Ave shall proceed to state con- cisely the process of dentition, or teething; and conclude Avith a short analysis of the diseases to which these useful bones are frequently liable. In an embryo of 3 or 4 months formation, instead of the sockets, small cells are observable: these TEE TEE 99 are separated by thin membranes, each of Avhich progressively ex- hibits a vascular bag, containing a soft knob, that is covered by the rising tooth, forming a hard coat; but the enamel appears to origi- nate from crystallized matter..... During the first year, the tAvo middle front teeth in the under jaw, and shortly after, the two up- per ones, become visible: the/are succeeded by the foremost front teeth. In the commencement of the second year, the first grinder, on each side, groAvs successively in the under and upper jaws : the next in rotation, are the canine or corner teeth, and finally, about the third year, there rise from tAvo to three grinders on each side. About the seventh year, all these teeth are, by an effort of Nature, gra- dually replaced by a neAv set, to Avhich are joined, in the tenth or eleventh year, another grinder, and, at a later period, the tooth of wisdom. During the progress of denti- tion, children are subject to various affections, such as convulsions, in- flammation, fever, &c occasioned by the pressure of the teeth, in burst- ing through the gums. At this period, a moderate looseness, or a copious flow of saliva are, in ge- neral, favourable signs. With a view to promote the latter, it -will be advisable to let the child chew or gnaw such substances, as have a tendency to mollify the gums, and, by their pressure, to facilitate the protrusion ; for which purpose a piece of liquorice or marshmalloAV root, &c. will be of service ; or, the gums may be softened and re- laxed, by rubbing them with sweet oil, honey, or other emollients..... Costiveness should be removed by mild aperient clysters. If, how- ever, all these endeavours prove in- effectual, relief has often been de- rived from an incision made in the gum; though such operation should be undertaken only by the surgeon. In cases of extreme weakness, the application of blisters behind the ears, or to the back, will prove be- neficial; and, as distressing symp- toms frequently arise from crudi- ties and obstructions in the first, passages, it will be necesssary to attend to this circumstance: thus, if the child be troubled with acidi- ty and flatulence, the testaceous poAvder, or calcined magnesia Avith a few grains of rhubarb, mixed Avith powder of sweet fennel-seeds, will form a very useful remedy; or, Avhen worms torment the infant, the means suggested under that article, should be speedily adopt- ed. On this occasion, we deem it our duty, in the strongest terms to caution parents against the use of laudanum, and other composing medicines, especially when the boAvels are obstructed. WTith respect to the diseases of the teeth, we shall, in this place, mention only such as occur more frequently, and Avhich are, by pro- per attention, or by external ap- plications, easily remo\ed....From a view of the nature and formation of the teeth, it must be evident, that whatever may tend to remove the enamel, for instance, acrid dentrifices and tinctures, hard me- tallic tooth-picks, sudden changes from heat to cold (especially in taking food), by exposing the nerve, cannot fail to produce the tooth-ach; and, in the course of time, a decay of the bone itself. There are even instances, Avhere such corruption, unless timely checked, has extended its influ- ence to the jaAV-bone. Nothing, 100 TEE TEE however, contributes to injure them more certainly than unclean- linens ; by which a kind of tartar is generated, that settles on the teeth, and separates them from the gums : thus, the air and the food coming into immediate con- tact with the bony substance, will prove a never-failing source of pain and distress. C .re :....As it would be a vain attempt to point out any specific, by which the tooth-ach can be re- moA'ed, Ave shall recommend only such remedies as are adapted tothe s^verid causes, from Avhich it may originate....If the patient be of a plethoric habit, or the gums be considerably inflamed, recourse should be had to bleeding, parti- cilarly by leeches and cupping- glasses, applied contiguously to the part affected: next, blisters bmind the ears, or on the nape of the neck, aviII be found of service. Dr. Cullen recommends vitriolic sether to be dropped on the cheek, a"d to hold the hand on the part, till that volatile liquor be evaporat- ed. Should, however, the pain still continue, without intermis- sion, a few drops of laudanum on cotton, laid on the tooth, Avill sometimes afford relief. Where t'-e brme is holloAV, and decayed, it will be advisable either to haAre it draxyn by an able d-entist, or to resort to such substances as destroy the nerve : the latter object may b^ effected by a careful application of the strong mineral acids, juni- per-oil, or by a red-hot wire ; but this operation, which has frequent- ly produced the desired effect, eight never to be entrusted to an unskilful person.....As the tooth- ach, is frequently induced by cold, and attended with symptoms of Catavuh, it will in snch cases be requisite to folloAv the direc- tions given in that article. This complaint, likewise, often proceeds from affections or debility of the stomach ; a source Avhich may be ascertained by the symptoms of indigestion, such as loss of appe- tite, nausea, vomiting, and head- ach, Avith this peculiar circum- stance, that the pain generally re- turns at regular periods. In such case, relief can only be expected from a proper use of emetics, and mild aperients, succeded by a ju- dicious course of the Peruvian bark, and similar tonics. Another source of these affec- tions, is an irregular disposition, or arrangement, especially of the front teeth, and mostly in the se- cond set. It may proceed either from some of the first set haA'ing been suffered to remain in the jaw, after the second has appeared; from a want of space in the jaw- bone ; or from mal-conformation. In these c°ses, the only effectual remedy is that of extracting such of the teeth, as by their situation obstruct their neighbours, and sometimes occasion considerable distress. If the teeth should be loosened by external violence, they may again be fixed, by pressing them firmly into the sockets, and pre- serving them in that situation, either by a silk, or other ligature attached to the adjoining tcoth:.... the patient, however, ought to subsist entirely on spoon-meat, or other soft and liquid food, till the desired effect be attained. But, where this separation arises from a sponginess or weakness in the gums, mild astringents, for in- stance, a solution of alum and su- TEL TEL 101 gar, tincture of bark, catechu, he. will serve to consolidate the sur- rounding parts. For cleansing and preserving the teeth, burnt bread, or bark, ap- plied by the small finger, or on a piece of calico, will be found a safe and useful dentrifice.....Lord Dundonald recommends, for this purpose, a Aveak solution of Soda. Lastly, in cases where a substi- tution of artificial teeth should be deemed necessary, these useful bones ought to be manufactured from the tooth of the Hippopota- mus, or river-horse; and on no account whatever to be teken from other persons. There are instances on medical record, where the lat- ter practice has communicated in- fectious diseases, and eA-entually proved fatal. TELESCOPE, one of the most useful optical instruments, con- sisting of a long tube furnished with several glasses, for the pur- pose of viewing distant objects.... This term is mostly applied to the larger kinds of telescopes; the smaller ones being called perspec- tive-glasses, spy-glasses, opera- glasses ; and a particular species, which is much brighter than any omer, is knoAvn under the name of night-glasses. Telescopes are of extensive uti- lity, both in naval and military pursuits, but especially for contem- plating the celestial bodies: hence the merit and honour of their ori- ginal invention have b^en claim- ed by many ingenious men. Ac- cording to the most accurate ac- counts, hoWever the authentic con- triver was Zacharias Jansen, a Dutchman, avIio produced his first instrument in the year 1590. Since that period various improvements and additions have been made by Galileo, Kepler, Kuygens, Mersennus, Gregory, Short, Ramsden, Dollond, Adams, and numerous other philosophers and artists. The most important are, those accomplished by Dr. Her- schel, whose grand instrument, when furnished with proper glass- es, magnifies upwards of six thou- sand times. It would be incompatible with our plan, to enter into the ratio- nale, or an account of the princi- ples on which telescopes are in general constructed. We shall, therefore, only remark, that a com- plete description of the machinery of Dr. H.'s noble instrument is in- serted in the Philosophical Trans- actions of the Royal Society, Part ii. for 1795 ;.....and Ave shall pro- ceed to state the principal patents Avhich have been granted to differ- ent indiA'iduals. The first, within our knowledge deserving notice, is that obtained in April, 1791, by Mr. Robert Blair, for his method of improv- ing refracting telescopes, and other dioptrical instruments ; which is fully detailed in the 7th vol. of the Repertory of the Arts, he. In January, 1799, a privilege Avas granted to Mr. Cater Rand, for an improA'cd military and na- vp.1 telescope, serving to ascertain distances, he. at sight, by means of a new micrometrical adjust- ment. His instruments are made refracting, achroamatical, or re- flecting ; and the micrometer is furnished with four parallel wires, fitted to brass, silver, or other metallic, converging and diverg- ing, plates, together with other machinery ; the whole of which is so arranged, that the interme- diate distance betAveen tAvo un- Ip2 T E M TEN known places may, together Avith the height or size of such dis- tance, be easily ascertained.....A full specification of this ingenious contrivance is inserted in the 12th vol. of the Avork above quoted, Avhere it is illustrated by an en- graAin;;-. The last patent Ave shall men- tion's that procured by Mr. Dud- ley Adams, in May, 1800: for his invention .of a mode of render- ing telescopes, and other optical glasses, more portable. This use- ful object is effected by employing certain springs, Avhich are so con- trived as to occupy the least pos- sible space, Avhile they render the instrument to Avhich they may be applied, strong and steady, on be- ing drawn out: and, in order that the several glasses may acquire their true positions or distances, when such joints or tubes are drawn out, he has invented certain fiaunches, for fixing and retaining them in every situation, in Avhich an observer might find it necessa- ry to place them. For a minute account, the curious reader is re- ferred to the 15th vol. of the Re- pertory of Arts, he. where the pa- tentee's improvements are exem- plified by a plate. TEMPERANCE,strictly speak- ing, denotes the virtuous practice of those, Avho restrain their sen- sual appetites : it is, hoAvever, ge- nerally used to express moderation, in which sense it is indiscriminate- ly applied to all the passions. Temperance has been justly termed the virtue Avhich bridles the inordinate desires : it is, in- deed, closely connected Avith pru- dence and justice. It silences calumny, and substitutes extenua- tion for slander ; expels avarice from the bosom ; and thus de- monstratesthat true happinesscon- sists not in contemplating useless wealth, or indulging in ambitious pursuits, or in the gratification of a vitiated palate ; but in a con- tented mind. The votary of tem- perance views with equal disgust, the sallies of unjust resentment, and those of riotous mirth : he beholds the melancholy conse- quences of intemperance; learns to extinguish revenge, and every desire Avhich humiliates a rational agent; thus proving that such vir- tue is the parent of many others, Avhile it is attended with peace, prosperity, health, and satisfac- tion- Without expatiating on this to- pic, let it suffice to observe, that it is a duty incumbent on all parents, to rear their children with a serict regard to temperance; as, by ad- hering to this rule only, they arc entitled to enjoy either health or longevity. Those of our readers, Avho are desirous of farther infor- mation on this interesting subject, Avill meet Avith judicious hints in Mr. Nelson's Essay en the Go- vernment of Children, he. (8vo. 5s. Dodsley); and particularly in Dr. Haravood's little tract, enti- tled, " Of Temperance and Intem- perance," he. (8vo. 2s. 6d. Becket, 1774) : in Avhich their effects on the body and mind, and their in- fluence in prolonging or shortening human life, are discussed in clear, energetic language ; and confirm- ed by examples. Tempering. See Case-hard- ening, and Steel. TENDONS, or Sinews, in the animal frame, are ligaments, by Avhich the motion of the joints is performed. The principal affections of ten- dinous parts, proceed from exter- TEN nal A'iolence, by which they may be wounded or lacerated. In these cases, surgical assistance ought to be immediately procured; other- wise, inflammation, fever, and even death, may be the consequence. If a tendon be partly divided, a few drops of Peruvian balsam poured into the Avound, will be found an excellent remedy. But the principal relief in wounded or ruptured sinews, will be derived from keeping the limb in such a posture as to relax the muscles, and thus to facilitate the re-union of the injured part; after which, a proper bandage of fine soft flan- nel should be tightly passed round the limb, in order that the muscles may be retained in a state of ease, till a complete cure be accom- plished. A swelling sometimes appears on the tendons, particularly those of the wrist and ankle, where it is called ganglion. Such tumors are of an elastic nature, moveable, and generally arise from external inju- ry, rheumatism, he. : in many in- stances, they spontaneously disap- pear ; but in the contrary case, friction, and gentle compression, by means of a thin plate of lead, secured by a proper bandage, will generally be sufficient to remove them. Should this treatment, hoAV- ever, not prove efficacious or an inflammation of the part ensue, it will be advisable not to neglect surgical aid. TENNIS, a play requiring mus- cular exertions, and at Avhich a ball is driven, by means of a racket. # This game is of French origin, and Avas introduced into Britain in the 17th century : it is performed in a long court, denominated a tennis-court, across which a net is suspended : through the latter, the T E T 103 ball is stricken by a racket; and, accordingly as it is driven into cer- tain galleries, the game is lost or won. Tennis is played by sets, each of which comprehends six games ; but, if an advantage-set be pro- posed, 7 successive games must be obtained, by one or other par- ty....As, however, our limits will not permit us to enter into parti- culars, the inquisitive reader may consult Mr. Hoyle's " Games Re- proved," by Mr.BEAUFORT (12mo. 2s.), in Avhich the rules of tennis are fully explained. Terra Japoniea. See Cate- chu. TERRIER, or Canis terrariue, a variety of the dog-kind, which is of different colours, being some- times spotted, though generally of a liver, or black hue : its body sel- dom exceeds 13 inches in length, and the head is embellished Avith short, smooth, pendent ears. Terriers are very useful to agri- culturists, especially for extermi- nating rats, pole-cats, and similar depredators. Farther, these ani- mals are remarkable for their vigi- lance, and are therefore frequently employed as house-dogs ; but their principal services consist in hunt- ing badgers, foxes, rabbits, and other quadrupeds Avhich burrow under ground ; because they enter the holes of such Avild creatures, and either kill or draw them out of their hiding-places......An ac- count of the disease to Avhich ter- ries are liable, the reader Avill find in the article Dog. [TETRAO, a genus of birds, comprehending several species, 3 of which arc natives of the United States. 1. The Grous: Le Gelinotte- hupee dc I'Ameriquc, of Brisson. 104 T E T Pinnated Grous, of Latham and Pennant. These birds abound in the low- er part of the state of New-Jersey, and on the bushy plains of Long- Island, state of New-York. The male crows for half an hour about day-light, and at that time erects his Aving-like feathers, which com- monly hang on each side of the neck. They breed in July : their chief food consists of huckleber- ries, and acorns of the dAvarf oak. In the winter season, they resort to the pine 3. The female is small- er than the male, less bright in colour, and is Avithout the wing- feathers on the neck. 2. Tctrao Tympanistes, L. The ruffed heath cock, or pheasant of Pennsylvania. A common bird throughout all North America. The male has a ruff on each side of the neck, Avhich he raises at pleasure. The head is crested, the general plumage is brown, in- clined to the rusty on the back, prettily varied Avith black. The black on the ruff is disposed in broad black bars. The under part of the bird, is light with large blown bars. The tail is large and expansible like a fan, in some of an ash, in others of an orange colour. The feet are feathered, toes pecti- nated. The female is Avithout ruff and crest; the plumage in general is like the male. These birds are remarkable for a practice of clapping their wings, against their sides, in the mornings and evenings of spring and au- tumn. They SAvell their breasts like the pouting pigeon, and Avith their wings, make a noise not un- like a drum in sound, and short- ning each sounding note till they run one into another undistinguish- THE ably, like two empty bottles strik- ing together. They are particu- larly fond, of the buds and leaves of laurel, (Kalmia latifolia,) which when eaten late in the Avinter, com- municate a poisonous quality to the flesh :....See Kalmia.] Tetters. See Ringavorm. THEATRE, signifies the place in which spectacles, or dramatic representations, are exhibited. The drama w«s originally in- vented in Greece ; whence the rules of it have been gradually dis- persed over the civilized nations of Europe. It would, however, be inconsistent with our, limits, to trace its progress from rudeness to refinement, or vice versa : Ave shall, therefore, content ourselves with remarking, that dramatic per- formances afford to many persons an agreeable relaxation, after the toils of their industrious pursuits. And, though play-houses have often met Avith violent opposition, as tending to corrupt the morals of the people ; yet, if they be ma- naged with a due regard to deco- rum, and moral truth, inculcating only virtuous precepts, they doubt- less deserve encouragement. In- deed, the tendency of plays de- pends principally on the opinions, manners, and taste of the public : for, us the chief object of those who devote themselves to the stage, is the acquisition of Avealth and fame, or notoriety, it follows that if such taste be gross or cor- rupted, the representations will also partake of the general depra- vity, in order to please a mixed audience : on the other hand, jf the national sentiments be elevat- ed and refined, the performances will likeAvit^e be diverted of rude and licentious expressions ; so that the theatre will then be fa- THE THE 105 vourable to the cause of virtue and morality. As the language of the drama ought to be alike free from affec- tation and ambiguity, we think it highly censurable in performers, either to extemporize, where a fa- vourable opportunity offers for passing off a vulgar joke ; or to substitute words, the meaning of which admits of an explanation unfavourable to moral purity. It would be superfluous to point out the danger of such licentiousness, especially to the young female breast, which is thus impercepti- bly contaminated in the presence of parents and guardians. Nor can we approve of another singularcus- tom, hoav prevalent in our thea- tres ; namely, that of accompany- ing the most serious drama, or a tragedy, with Avhat is vulgarly called an entertainment, or a farce : thus, every grain of taste in the audience, is completely effaced ; and it appears to us nearly in the same light, as if a person, after hearing an impressive discourse, retires to an adjoining tavern, in order to droAvn the calls of con- science, by profuse libations to Bacchus. THERMOMETER, or Ther- moscope, an instrument for mea- suring, with accuracy the degrees of heat or cold in the air, water, Sec.....It is probable, that the ex- pansion and contraction of bodies, in consequence of heat and cold, afforded the first idea for the con- trivance of this useful scale. The thermometer Avas invented early in the 17th century ; and, on account of its extensive service in the arts, manufactures, and domes- tic life, the original merit of con- structing this valuable instrument is variously attributed to Corne- vol. v. lius Drebbel, Paul Sarpi, Ga- lileo, and Sanctorio ; though, Ave believe, the person first men- tioned, deserves the credit of hav- ing invented the earliest thermo- scope, in the year 1638, at Alk- maar, in North Holland. It was, hoAvever, an imperfect attempt; being regulated solely by the ex- pansion of the air ; and serving at the same time as a barometer ; for his tube contained a mixture of water and aqua-fortis. Hence it was, in its primary state, called an air-thermometer; and, after substituting various other liquids, which were adopted by the Flo- rentine Academy, by Sir Isaac Newton, and other philosophers, but, which, on account of their un- certain properties, have long been disused, Dr. Halley proposed, in the year 1680, to employ quick- silver for this important purpose. Daniel Gabriel Fahrenheit, a native of Dantzig, Avas the first who successfully availed himself of that suggestion, in 1709 ; Avhen he produced his neAvly graduated tube, containing the mercurial fluid...... He ascertained the artificial freez- ing point in the same year, during the severe Avinter; by observing, that a mixture of snoAV and sal- ammoniac, uniformly caused spi- rit of wine to descend to the point marked, and no farther.....Hence, he was induced to denote such part of his cylindrical tube Avith O or zero ; from this point to that of the usual temperature of the human body in a healthy state, he divided the intermediate space into 96 de- grees ; and thence to that of boiling water into 126°, so that the latter mark, in his scale, rises exactly to 212°. Thus,Fahrenheit claims not only the merit of having intro- duced the most scientific and con- P 106 THE THE venient division of the thermome- trical scale, but also that of adopt- ing the mercurial fluid, which is doubtless the most proper, and perhaps the only one furnished by Nature, for measuring the various degrees of heat and cold, in the most accurate and sensible man- ner.....M. De Luc has proved, by conclusive arguments, the superi- ority of thermometers supplied Avith mercury, over those contain- ing alkohol; and that the rising of the mercury, at all seasons, very nearly corresponds with the in- crease of heat. On the other hand, De Serviere remarked, that the column of mercury, in a perpen- dicular thermometer, tends to im- pede the accurate motion of this metallic fluid, on account of its own specific gravity: hence, he has judiciously proposed to reme- dy such defect, by keeping the instrument in a horizontal position. M. De Reaumur, in 1730, pro- posed a neAv division of the ther- mometr'n al scale, by introducing 1000 parts of diluted spirits of Avine into his tube with the usual globe, then commencing to count from 6 upwards, to the boiling point, Avhich he marked Avith 80°. Such contrivance, hoAvever, hav- ing been found inconvenient for calculating the different degrees of heat and cold, Avith sufficient ac- curacy, Reaumur's globes, with their tubes, were subsequently also furnished with mercury ; and are at present chiefly employed by the French, and in some parts of Ger- many.....To enable the reader to form a distinct idea of the differ- ence subsisting between the two instruments, here described, we shall subjoin a comparative table of their scales. [Above the o (zero) of Reaumur, or. Below the o (zero} 32° of Fahbeh- of Reaumur. HEIT. Reaun j. Fahren. Reaum. Fahren. 0 32 10 o 32- Tcf 1 34 2 1 29 8 2 36 5 2 27 5 3 38 6 3 25 2 4 41 4 23 5 43 3 5 20 8 6 45 5 6 18 5 7 47 7 7 16 2 8 50 8 14 9 52 5 9 11 8 10 54 8 10. 9 5 11 56 8 11 7 2 12 59 12 5 13 61 2 13 2 8 14 63 5 14 5 15 65 8 15 o 1 8 16 68 16 4 17 70 3 17 6 2 18 72 5 18 8 5 19 74 7 19 10 8 20 77 20 • 13 21 79 2 22 81 5 23 83 8 In the aboA'e 24 86 mode, the scale 25 88 2 may be continu- 26 90 5 ed above or be- 27 92 7 low the freezing 28 95 point. 29 1 97 1 2 The manner of computation in Reaumur's, as Avell as in Fah- renheit's thermometer, is by de- cimals, every degree being divided into 10 parts ; but for their respec- tive gradation, 32 degrees pf Fah- renheit's thermometer must be considered as corresponding with o in Reaubiur's ; and each degree of Reaumur's, either above or be- low o, be counted as equal to two degrees and a quarter of Fahren- heit's. THE THE 107 So, four degrees beloAv o of Reaumur's correspond Avith 23 degrees in Fahrenheit's; as four degrees aboA'e o in Reaumur's likewise correspond with 41 de- grees of Fahrenheit's ; and so, fractionally, in the same propor- tions, either above or below. Hence, to reduce Reaumur to Fahrenheit, the rule is, multiply the degrees of R. by nine, divide the product by four, add S2 to the quotient, and the sum will give the degree on F.'s scale.... And to re- duce F. to R.....From the degrees of F. subtract 32, multiply the re- mainder by four, and divide the product by nine, the quotient will be the degree of Reaumur. The thermometer may be ap- plied to the important purpose of discovering the nearness of a ship to a shoal, coast, bank, rocks under water, and islands of ice, at night, jn fogs, and when the Aveather is too boisterous to sound. Mr. Jo- nathan Williams has published an interesting paper on the sub- ject, in 3d vol. of the Trans. Amer. Phil. Society, from which the fol- lowing is extracted. " In the months of August and September, 1785, I Avas a fellow- passenger Avith the late Doctor Franklin from Europe to Ame- rica, and made, under his direction, the experiments mentioned in his description of the course of the gulph stream, an account of which was annexed to his maritime ob- servations, and published in the Amer. Phil. Transactio?is, vol. ii. page 328, I then determined to re- peat these 'experiments in my fu- ture voyage.. Accordingly oh a passage from Boston to Virginia, in October 17U9, I kept a journal of the heat of the air and Avater at sunrise, noon a'.ul sunset; I then noticed that the sea Avater, out of soundings, was about 10 degrees warmer than that on the coast, and it very naturally occurred to me that the thermometer might be- come an useful nautical instrument to indicate an approach to the shore. I thought it prudent, howCver, to keep this idea to myself till after I had made a course of fair and repeated experiments, which I ac- cordingly did during four passages, first, the one from Boston to Vir- ginia abovementioned, second from Virginia to England, third, from England to Hallifax, and fourth, from Hallifax to New-York. By consulting these journals and ob- servations, made at the dates writ- ten, together with the tracks of the ship's way, marked in a chart given in the 3d vol. Amer. Phil. Trans. p. 84. it will not only appear that Dr. Franklin's account of the warmth of the gulph stream has been amply confirmed, but also that banks, coasts, islands of ice, and rocks under water, may be discovered when not visible, and Avhen the weather is too boisterous to sound, with no other trouble than dipping the thermometer into the sea water. It is well known to sailors, that the water on the banks of Newfoundland is cold, but as they only try this, with the hand, their remarks are contradictory OAving to the varied temperature of the hand, and I never heard oPany further application of Avhat they thought a matter of curiosity. Dr. Franklin's observations had the knoAvledge of currents for their object, and this extension of his discovery did not occur; but as I am indebted to his instructive con- versation and example, for my in- ducement to pursue philosophical researches, when in my poAver to 108 THE THE do so, he may be considered as the original author of what is iioav pre- sented for examination. k' It may not be amiss to state such facts as it is presumed the experiments have a tendency to establish. I. The water over banks is much colder than the Avater of the main ocean, and is more cold in propor- tion as it is less deep. " 2. The Avater over small banks is Lss cold than that over large ones. " 3. The water over banks that are near the coast is warmer than that over banks far distant, but it is colder than the adjacent sea. " 4. The Avater over banks of the coast, i. e. those immediately connected with the land above wa- ter, is Avarmer than that over those which admit deep water between them and the coast; but still it is colder than the adjacent sea. " 5. The water Avithin capes and rivers does not folloAv the above rules ; it being less agitated, and more exposed to the heat of the sun, and to receive the heat from the circumjacent land, must be colder or Avarn.tt- than that in soundings without, according to the seasons, and temperature of the atmosphere. " 6. The passage, therefore, from deep to shoal Avater may be discovered by a regular use of the thermometer, before a navigator can see the land ; but as the tem- perature is relative, no particular degree can be ascertained as a rule, and the' judgment can only be guided by the difference. Thus, in August I found the Avater off Cape-Cod to be 58° of Fahrenheit, and at sea it Avas 69°; in October the Avater off Cape-Cod Avas 48°, and at sea it AAras 59°. This dif- ference Avas equally a guide in both cases, though the heat was differ- ent at different seasons. " I do not presume to say what is the cause of this difference of heat between the sea and bank water, but if a navigator were to observe it when near an island of ice, he Avould very naturally say that the ice conducted the heat from the circumjacent water, and left it colder than at a distance. And as it is Avell knoAvn that stones and sand are great conductors of heat, it seems probable that banks also conduct the heat from the adjacent water, though not so rapidly as the ice. The heat of the water may indeed be supposed to seek its equi- librium, but as long as the islands of ice and banks continue to con- duct, there must be some differ- ence, and this it is, Avhich, by atten- tion, may be made a faithful sen- tinel to give an alarm Avhen danger is near. " I have thought it my duty to present my journals as they were written at sea, to avoid the suspi- cion of having added any thing from the suggestions of the imagination. While this will be received as a cir- cumstance favourable to the truth of them, I hope it will also operate as an apology for their many im- perfections. " My journal from Boston to Virginia, shoAvs that the Avater on the coast of Massachusetts, was at 48° ; at sea between that coast and the stream, 59°; in the gulph stream at its edge, 67° ; between that, and the coast of Virginia far- ther southward, 64° ; and in sound- ings on that coast, 56°. At that season (in October, just after the warm Aveather) the Avater grew warmer as we approached the land. " My journal from Virginia to THE THE 109 England shoAvs, that in December, the Avater on the coast of Virginia Avas at 47° ; betAveen the coast and the stream, 60° ; and in the stream, 70°. This current being in our favour, we did not avoid it, and the water continued with little variation, till we came near the banks of NeAv found land, Avhen the thermo- meter fell from 66 to 54 ; passing these, it rose again to 68°, and then continued a very gradual de- scent as we Avent to the northward, 'till we struck soundings, when it was at 48°. " It may be here observed, that the decrease in the heat of the wa- ter Avas so gradual as to give but one degree in a day's run, while in going to, or coming from the coast of America, the thermome- ter will alter eight or 10 degrees in a feAV hours run. It is Avell known, by sounding, that the Eng- lish coast extends with a very gra- dual descent to a great distance. It is also known that the American coast does not extend very far, and the Avater is suddenly deep.... Let these facts be compared with the changes in the thermometer, on the two coasts and they Avill agree Avith what has been said about the usefulness of that instru- ment. " It may be observed in Doctor Franklin's journal on board of the Reprisal, that in NoA-ember 1776, when near the banks of Newfound- land, his thermometer fell 10 de- grees, though considerably to the southward of them, and after pass- ing them it rose nearly to its for- mer state: the Doctor did not make any observation on this circum- stance ; but it agrees with my jour- nal, in nearly the same place, made nine years afterwards. " My journal from England to Hallifax, shows the changes in the heat of the Avater as we sailed over banks and deep water alternately, with an accuracy that I confess, exceeded my expectation, the land appearing as the thermometer in- dicated our approach to it. " My journal from Hallifax to New-York not only shows the va- riety of depths Ave passed over, but indicates the inner edgeof the gulph stream. As by the thermometer and soundings it appeared to me that the ship was a-head of the reckoning, I made alloAvances for the eddy current of that stream in our favour, and comparing these Avith the chart, I noted in the jour- nal, the longitude I thought Ave were in, under that calculated by the ship's officers: Avhat encouraged this opinion, was the disagreement betAveen the soundings by the lead, and those marked on the chart, in the places Avhere, by the common reckoning, the ship was supposed to be : while upon the other sup- position they both^greed. When we made the land this latter reck- oning turned out accurate, and I Avon a small bett of the Captain Avho candidly acknowledged the usefulness of the thermometer, and declared that he Avould in future always have one on board. "■ Finding the coast of America to grow suddenly deep as it ap- proaches the gulph stream, and finding continued soundings from Cape-Sable to New-York, I am in- duced to believe that it has its shape according to the course of that current, and that it is connect- ed in a sweep from the banks of NeAvfoundland to Florida, the vari- ous banks being only eminences of the coast. If my apprehension of 110 THE THE the accuracy of thermometrical observation is Avell founded, it would be an easy thing to make a general survey of the coast under Avater, more particularly than has hitherto been done by sounding. " On the chart annexed the tracks of my several passages are marked Avith the daily heat of the water in degrees according to Fah- renheit, by Avhich the variations on the approach to land may be seen at one view. The edge of the gulph stream is also traced ac- cording to the experiments as far as the banks of Newfoundland: how far it runs to the eastward I do not pretend to say ; but having found a current in the natural direction of its SAveep among the Avestern islands, I am inclined to think it extends so far, before it turns off to the southward. It may be ob- served, hoAvever,that as this stream, like all other currents, must be af- fected by storms on either side ; it may, as these prevail, run some- what nearer or someAvhat farther distant from the coast. Mr. Williams found by "some experiments on fish, that their ani- mal heat Avas 16 colder than the Avater at the surface ; from which it may be supposed that the water at bottom is in proportion colder than that above. It may be natu- rally suggested, that trying the heat of the water at the surface, (the only way in one's power when sailing rapidly through it,) is too inaccurate to be depended on, since the surface must be heated by the atmosphere. To this it may not be amiss to answer......I. That by repeated experiments at the depth of 30, 40, and 60 fathom I have found the Avater below, out of sound- ings, to be no more than six de- grees colder than that above ; and at four or five fathoms depth, when the sea was agitated, there Avas no difference Avorthy notice. 2. When the sea is not agitated, and the surface, by being exposed to a hot sun, is warmer, the Aveather being calm, it is easy to have water from a considerable depth ; this I have found to make a difference of one or two degrees only, and it is easy to make the alloAvance. 3. The difference of heat which marks an approach to land is sufficiently sensible at the surface for the pur- pose of giving notice of danger, I have generally found it to be six degrees in three hours' run, and long before we Avere near enough to be in clanger. Upon the whole, as it is fact, and not argu- ment, which should inspire belief, I Avish every doubting navigator to endeavour to confute me, by mak- ing other experiments, and there- by, if he can, detect the fallacy of mine." Mr. Williams has given a chart of his different tracks alluded to in the above, which cannot fail to be highly interesting to navi- gators.. Mr. Joseph Donath, of Phila- delphia, by similar experiments in the winter of 1791, during a voyage to Hamburg, was led to the same conclusions, and communicated to the editor the folloAving striking fact, to prove the very great im- portance of regular observations. On the eighth of May 1794, when on the banksof NeAvfoundland, the mercury in the thermometer,when immersed in the Avater, fell from nine to three, in the course of six hours, viz. from four, P. M. to W o'clock ; at 12 at night it fell to 2. The captain, alarmed at the cir- THE cumstance, immediately awoke Mr. D. who, suspecting the dimi- nution of temperature in the wa- ter, to proceed from the approach to islands of ice, advised the cap- tain to stand off. He accordingly did so, and when day-light appear- ed, saAv several islands of ice, dis- tant about four or five miles. At ten o'clock, in 35 fathoms water, the mercury rose to six. In July 1803, the British packet, Lady Hobart, during a darknight, ran foul of an island of ice, on the banks of Newfoundland, which oc- casioned the vessel to founder: had regular observations of the temperature of the ocean-water been taken, this aAvful accident might have been prevented. The above interesting obser- vations of Messrs. Williams and Donath, are confirmed by Mr. Strickland, (Amer. Phil. Trans, vol. 5.) and Mr. Poyntell of Philad. during a late voyage from London to the United States; and should induce masters of ves- sels to keep a regular set of observa- tions, especially Avhen near land, in unknoAvn parts, or on the banks of NeAvfoundland.] It Avould be needless to describe the various thermometers invented during the last century ; because the two instruments before men- tioned have received almost univer- sal sanction ; few others being at present employed, either by artists or men of science. Hence Ave shall merely observe, thatDE L'Isle, at Petersburgh, contrived a new ther- mometer, in 1733, Avhich is di- vided into 50°.....Prof. Christin, of Lyons, proposed a scale of 100 equal parts betAveen the freezing and boiling points : this division was adopted by Prof. Celsius, in Upsala,AYhose improved scale, con- THE 111 sisting of 100 exact degrees, is generally used in Sweden. There are many other thermo- meters, among which, those of Ducrest of Geneva; by Stroh- meyer and Brander, in Germa- ny ; by Grubert in France (who, together with the three preceding, contrived the Universal Thermo- meter, Avhich contains the compa- rative scales of 28 different instru- ments) ; by De Luc ; Renaldi- ni; Cavendish; KonigsdorfeR ; Mudge ; the Bernoullis' ; Fon- tana; Achaud ; Lichtenberg ; Landriani ; Saussure ; Cas- telli ; and Luz. The first idea for constructing a metallic thermometer, or properly, pyrometer, was furnished by Gra- ham, and improved upon by Mor- timer, Ingram, Count Loser, Fitzgerald, Felter, and at length brought to perfection by Wedgeavood. This ingenious ma- nufacturer (of the finest earthen- Avare frombassaltic m asses, or terra- cotta) has rendered an essential ser- vice to society, by his method of ascertaining high degrees of heat: for this purpose he employs small cubes of dry clay ; because that species of earth has the remarkable property of contracting in its bulk, Avhen submitted to the fire, and not again expanding, on suddenlv exposing it to the cold air. In or- der to ascertain the precise degree of heat in an oven, he puts one of his clay-cubes into it; and, after having acquired the temperature of the place, he immediately plunges it into cold v ater. Now, the si^ of the cube (that Avas exactly adjusted to half an inch square) is measured between two brass rules, the sides of Avhich are someAvhat obliquely disposed, so as to form an irregular groove, into Avhich the cube may 112 T H I THI be slidden. In proportion as the bulk of the latter has been contract- ed by heat, it passes down deeper between the scales, on which the various degrees of temperature have been previously marked. Thus, Avhen the division of the scale com- mences from the point of red heat visible in day-light, and the whole range be divided into 240 equal parts, it Avill be found that SAvedish copper melts at 28; gold at 32 ; iron at from 130 to 150 degrees: above this point, the cubes could not be heated. But, if one of these clay squares be put into an oven Avhere other materials, such as bread, earthen-Avare, &cc. are to be baked, they may be usefully em- ployed, for regulating the neces- sary degree of heat. THIRST, is an uneasy sensa- tion, Avhich arises from a deficiency of saliva, for moistening the mouth, and lubricating the throat. Thirst is generally occasioned by the use of strong, salted, or highly- seasoned food : a moderate degree contributes to the preservation of health ; as it requires a certain pro- portion of drink, to promote di- gestion ; but, if it become exces- sive, it is in most cases a symptom of fevers, dropsies, he. The most effectual way of alle- viating thirst, Avill be the use of di- luted vegetable acids; or the chew- ing of a crust of bread Avith a little Avater, which liquid may be gradu- ally swalloAved. Where this un- pleasant sensation, hoAvever, is consequent on any disease, the re- moval of the latter together Avith the aid of diluent liquors adapted to its nature, and taken in small quantities, will also prevent the re- turn of thirst. In other cases, where the use of acids or profuse draughts of diluents, might be pro- ductive of injury to the constitu- tion, this complaint may sometimes be obviated, by chewing the root of the pellitory, or some similar substance, which excites and in- creases the flow of saliva. Lastly, as thirst is often the concomitant of excessive Hunger, and may sometimes occur at sea, the adop- tion of the expedients pointed out in that article, Avill generally afford relief. THISTLE, or Carduus,~L. a ge- nus of plants, comprising 38 spe- cies ; 10 of Avhich are indigenous ; the following are the principal: 1. The marianus. See Milk- thistle. 2. The lanceolatus, or Spear- thistle, groAVs on rubbish, and road-sides, where it floAvers in the months of July and August....Ac- cording to Dr. Withering, this species vegetates on ground newly turned up, where no other Aveed Avill thrive: under the shelter it affords, neAv plants will speedily appear, and the Avhole become fer- tile. Its flowers, like those of the artichoke, possess the property of curdling milk. It is hot relished by horses, cows, or goats ; and is totally refused by sheep and swine. 3. The acaulis, or Dwarf- thistle, thrives in mountainous and rocky, dry pastures; floAvering in the month of July.....This spe- cies is perennial, and should be carefully extirpated; as it is ex- ceedingly destructive to the herb- age growing beneath its shade. It is wholly rejected by cows. 4. The Benedictus, or Blessed Thistle, is an annual exotic, cul- tivated in gardens: it floAvers in the months of June and July, and produces ripe seeds in autumn..... Its leaves possess a penetrating bitter taste, and have an ungrate- s THI ful flavour Avhich,by keeping them for some time, is mostly dissipated. A decoction of this nauseous plant is sometimes used to excite vomit- ing ; and likewise a strong infusion, to promote the operation of other emetics. Good effects have occa- sionally been derived from the Blessed Thistle, in loss of appetite: or where the stomach was impair- ed by irregularities. A strong in- fusion, either in cold or warm wa- ter, drank freely, occasions a copi- ous perspiration, and promotes the secretions. All the species of this neglected vegetable, may be usefully employ- ed for various purposes : thus, the seed-croAvns of the thistle afford both a valuable material for manu- facturing Paper, and a kind of strong cloth ; the ashes obtained by burning the whole plant, are of great service in glass-houses; and the young, tender, mealy stalks may be dressed, and eaten as sub- stitutes for asparagus. THISTLE, the Cotton, Com- mon, Argentine, or Woolly O.vopordum, Onopordon Acan- thium, L. a native biennial, grow- ing to the height of 6 feet, on rub- bish, and road-sides, where it Aoav- eis in July. This vegetable is re- fused by cows, horses, and sheep: .....its expressed juice, Avas among the ancients reputed to be a spe- cific in cancerous cases.....the re- ceptacles or bases of the flower- cups, together Avith the stems, may be boiled and eaten like artichokes. ...The Avoolly substance enveloping the seed, is equally useful in the manufacture of cloth and Paper, (see vol. iv. p. 225)......The seeds of this remarkable plant also pro- mise great advantages to the indus- trious husbandman : we learn from Durande, a French Avriter, in the VOL. v. THO 113 Bibliotheque Physico-economique vol. ii. p. 122, that he collected a number of the seed-crowns, weigh- ing 221bs. from Avhich he obtain- ed 121bs. weight of seed ; and, on expression, Slbs.of excellent lamp- oil, greatly superior to that of lin- seed, and equal to olive-oil. Thistle, the Sow. See Soav- Thistle. THORN-APPLE, theCor-iMoN, or Datura Stramonium, L. origi- nally a native of America, but now indigenous in some parts of Bri- tain, where it grows among rub- bish, and on Dunghills; flowering in the month of July. The seeds of this vegetable have always been classed among the \iolent narcotic poisons : though, according to Baron Storck, and other German physicians, the in- spissated juice of its leaves has, on the Continent, been success- fully employed in maniacal cases : the dose is from one to ten grains, or upwards, to be taken in 24 hours.....It may likewise be ad- ministered internally, both in con- vulsive and epileptic affections. Dr. Withering observes, that an ointment prepared from the leaves, affords relief in external inflammations, and especially in the piles. [It is also highly bene- ficial in burns, and to allay the swelling of a cow's udder.]...Either the seeds or leaves, if swallowed by accident, occasion delirium, tre- mor, swelling, itching, insupport- able thirst, palsy, and death : they likeAvise tend to inflame the skin. The most effectual antidotes will be, speedy emetics, followed by copious draughts of olive-oil and vinegar, aided by soap-clysters..... The thorn-apple is, nevertheless, eaten by coavs, goats, and sheep ; but refused by horses. Q 114 THR THR THRASHING, oi-Threshing, in rural economy, is the operation, by which grain is separated from the straAV. Thrashing is performed by dif- ferent methods, in various parts of the globe: thus, in the eastern climates, corn is trodden out by oxen, coavs, horses, mules, and even by asses: while in Europe, the flail is generally employed.... This implement is certainly prefer- able to the feet of animals; as it is not only more expeditious, but the labour is executed in a much cleaner mode than can be effected by the latter. But, notwithstand- ing these advantages, thrashing Avith the flail, is liable to many ob- jections ; being too laborious, even for persons of considerable strength: and, as they are often paid in pro- portion to the quantity of corn thrashed, such work is seldom ac- complished in a perfect manner ; so that numerous grains generally remain in the straw. To remedy these inconveniencies, machines of various construction, have been in- vented ; and, as some of these con- trivances promise to be of great advantage to agriculturists, Ave shall give an account of the most valuable. In Mr. Boys' General View of the Agriculture of the County of Kent (Sa'o. 4s. Nichol), aw meet Avith an account of a thrashing- machine erected in a barn on his farm......as our limits will not per- mit us to describe its mechanism, Ave shall only remark, that it re- quires four horses, eight men, and four boys, to remove the corn from a distant part of the bam ; to feed the mill; attend the winnowing- fan ; and stack the straw. Thus, if the corn yield abundantly, the machine will thrash out three quar- ters of wheat, four of barley, or five of oats, within one hour, in a cleaner manner than can be effect- ed by the usual mode ; so that nearly one-half of the expence will be saved. [Various other plans have been proposed for threshing machines in England, but they either have been so very expensive, that feAv could use them, or so complicated that they soon av ere put out of order: and the public is still Undecided as to the superiority of any one. In the United States there have also been a few contrivances for thresh- ing ; the latest of which was in- vented by Mr. Christopher Hoxie of Hudson, New York, and Avith some improvements, promi- ses to be more perfect than any yet known.] THRIFT, or Statice, L. a genus of plants comprising 22 species, 3 of which are indigenous: the fol- lowing are the principal: 1. The Limonium. See Laven- der-thrift. 2. The Armeria, Common Thrift ; Sea-gilliflower ; or Sea-cushion, which is perennial j groAvs in meadoAvs, and on rocks near the sea-coast; where it flow- ers in the months of May and June. When in full blossom, it presents a beautiful sight in pasture-grounds; on Avhich account, it is likewise of- ten planted in gardens, as an edg- ing for borders. The Sea-gilliflower forming whole swards, or tufts of grassy, solid, and smooth leaves, its cul- ture is much recommended in loose sands, which are thus speedi- ly consolidated : the naked stalk, in general, attains only the height of 6 inches. The plant is eaten by horses and goats, but refused by sheep. THR THR 115 THRIPS, a genus'of insects com- prising 11 species, that are vari- ously named, according to the trees which they infest. These vermin are extremely minute ; having a small slender body, and a rostrum, or beak, which is scarcely percep- tible to the naked eye : they are very pernicious to fruit-trees, at- tacking both the leaves and fruit; but may be extirpated by resorting to the method already pointed out, vol. ii. p. 162. THROAT, or the cavity behind the tongue and the curtain of the palate : the soft parts of Avhich it is composed, are the common integu- ments and the muciparous glands. The principal use of these parts be- ing destined to support and facili- tate swallowing, breathing, speech, and hearing, it is obvious that all local affections, by which the ex- ercise of these functions may be impeded, require serious attention. But, as most of the diseases to which they are liable, have already been discussed, Ave refer to their respective heads : tlms, for inflam- mations, in the throat, the reader will consult the articles Quinsy ; Savallowing, and Tonsils. Throat-wort. See Giant Bell-floaver. THROSTLE, or Thrush, Tar- dus musicus, L. a Avell-known Bri- tish bird, which, in its melodious notes, is excelled only by the night- ingale. Its head, back, and lesser coverts of the Avings, are of a deep olive-brown ; and the inner surface of the latter is yellow. The cheeks and throat are mottled with broAvn and Avhite ; the belly and breast are of a pale-yellow colour, with large black spots. Throstles build their nests in some low bush or thicket: exter- nally, they are composed of earth, moss, and straw, but the inside is curiously plastered Avith clay. Here the female deposits five or six pale- bluish green eggs, marked with dusky spots. The throstle is by some believed to be the finest sing- ing bird in Britain, on account of the SA\eetuc^s, variety, and conti- nuance of its melody. From the top of high trees, it exercises its harmonious voice, and for the greater part of the year, amuses us with its song. THRUSH, a disorder incident to infants, and of which the fol- lowing are the principal symp- toms : SmalJ Avrritish or grey pus- tules appear on the fauces, ex- tending over the surface of the tongue, and adjacent parts ; Nthe former is sAvoln, and the whole assumes a purplish colour : some- times the pimples are scattered, and distinct, but generally conflu- ent, adhering closely to the mem- branes : if rubbed off, they speedi- ly groAv again, and remain for an indefinite period. This disease is not confined to the mouth and throat, but in some instances extends to the gullet, stomach, and alimentary canal ; quantities of aphthous pustules haA'- ing been vomited up, and also void- ed by stool: in these cases, how- ever, the patient is commonly at- tacked with fever and anxiety, hic- cough, and hoarseness. The principal cause of this ma- lady is a weak digestion, by Avhich the milk becomes coagulated, and unfit for aliment; though it is fre- quently induced by cold and mois- ture- The thrush likeAvise occurs in the course of other disorders, or, in consequence of certain active medicines; but,underthese circum- stances, it cannot be considered as a primary affection, and most- 116 THR TH U ly disappears, when the patient is in a conA'alescent state....The fol- lowing conditions prognosticate a favourable event: namely, when there is neither feA*er nor loose- ness ; the deglutition is easy ; the appetite returned; and when the pustules are of a Avhite colour. Cure :....If the thrush be of a mild nature, it will in general be sufficient to administer the follow- ing powder to the nurse : Take of ca'cined magnesia, 1 oz. ; orange- feel, sweet-fennel, and while su- gar, finely pulverized, of each 2 ('rams; mix the whole, of Avhich a tea-spoonful may be taken in Ava- ter, twice or three times a-day :.... in obstinate cases, it will be advis- able to give the child about a third or fourth part of the quantity pre- scribed for the nurse. During this treatment, the folloAving composi- tion should be applied,, Avith a vieAv to cleanse the mouth : 1 dram of pulverized borax, with 1 oz. of ho- ney of roses. Where costiAeness p, eva'ls, it will be preferable to regulate the bowels by mild emol- lient clysters, repeatedly injected, until the desired effect be produc- ed ; for,if the pustules shouldspread over a considerable part of the ali- mentary canal, laxatives taken by the month, are apt to increase the irritation, and to occasion copious stools, tinged with blood. Where the nipple of the nurse is affected with the thrush, the fol- lowing solution may be applied with advantage ; namely, 2 scru- ples of borax dissolved in 1 oz. of eldcr-floAver water, or tea, adding half an ounce of honey of roses : the nipples should be anointed with SAvett-oil, before the infant is placed to the breast; in order to prevent immediate contact. As, in some cases, the thrush is situated considerably deeper than the throat, and even within the stomach, great benefit may then be derived from a decoction of car- rots in water; or 1 ounce of lin- seed with 1 pint of Avater, boiled to the consistence of a thick muci- lage, and mixed with 2 oz. of ho- ney : a table-spoonful of the latter preparation may be given occa- sionally. In order to prevent this .trouble- some complaint, infants ought to enjoy a pure air ; while the ut- most attention should be bestowed on the cleanliness of both child and nurse, by daily bathing and washing Avith tepid water ; which practices remarkably promote in- sensible perspiration. Farther, the mouth of infants should be fre- quently Avashed, especially after draAving the maternal milk, and during the progress of dentition : nor should their boAvels be neg- lected ; and, Avhen obstructed, they must be attentively relieved by the use of manna/tamarinds, and other mild aperients. Thrush, in Horses. SeeFRUsn. THUNDER, a loud noise occa- sioned by the explosion of a flash of lightning, that is re-echoed from the inequalities on the surface of the earth, and frequently forms a continued rolling or rumbling sound. Various theories have been pro- posed by naturalists, to account for this grand and awful phenomenon; but, like that of lightning, it is now generally understood to arise from electricity. Thunder is frequently produc- tive of beneficial effects on animal and vegetable nature ; as its vio- lent concussions contribute to dis- perse the noxious v: pours collected in the atmosphere, during sultry THU and dry summers : it may also be regarded as a prognostic of the Aveather. Bradley remarks, that frequent thunder, without light- ning, is generally folloAved by tem- pestuous winds; but, in the con- trary case,' it predicts copious and sudden showers. With a view to prevent fatal ac- cidents, during violent thunder- storms, the erection of Conduc- tors has been strongly recom- mended. It has been remarked, by accu- rate observers, that the noise of thunder is not experienced oftener than 16 to 18 times in the year, at any fixed place. This phenome- non occurs most frequently in the months of May and July ; name- ly, in the proportion of three to one, Avhen compared Avith the months of April and September ; but only in that of two to one, when contrasted with June and August. During the months of April and September, the number of thunder-storms is equal; and likewise in June and August.... They arise generally Avith a south- wind; less frequently Avith a south- west ; still more rarely with east and west; and scarcely ever Avith north, north-west, or north-east Avinds. It is also remarkable, that thunder-storms are the most vio- lent, when proceeding from regions where they seldom occur; that they happen in the afternoon, or in the evening, more usually than in the morning; and are in moun- tainous districts more common than in a plain country. When swallows pursue each other in flights, with a loud noise, early in the morning, it may be considered as an almost certain in- dication of as approaching thun- der-storm : many persons, also, THY 117 feel a peculiar heaviness and lan- gour, previously to tempestuous weather; and, though such sensa- tions subside only Avhen the clouds break forth in torrents of fire or rain, yet we are inclined to ascribe these symptoms to some diseased action in the animal frame, or to a preternatural susceptibility of ner- vous impressions. In short, if due attention were paid to the changes taking place among animals and plants, previously to the formation of thunder and lightning, Ave could, perhaps Avith the greatest preci- sion, foretel their approach. Lastly, to prevent unfortunate accidents during thunder-storms, we would seriously advise every person to keep at some distance from trees, and rather to expose himself to a shower. While in a room, it will be proper to aA'oid the fire-place, fire-irons, gilded mouldings, and all articles contain- ing metallic ingredients....See also Lightning. THYME, or Thymus, L. a ge- nus of spicy plants, comprising 17 species, of which the follow ing are the principal, namely ; 1. The serjiyllum, Common, Wild, or Mother-of-thyme, an indigenous perennial, growing on heaths and mountainous places, where it flowers in July and Au- gust. This plant possesses a grate- ful aromatic odour, and a warm, pungent taste: its dried leaves, Avhen infused in boiling water, serve as an agreeable substitute for tea : the essential oil obtained from this herb is so acrid, that far- riers employ it as a caustic. A little cotton avooI moistened -va ith it, and put into the holloAV of an aching tooth, frequently mitigates the most excruciating pain. Bees eagerly visit the aromatic leaves of 118 TID wild thyme, which is likewise eat- en by sheep and goats, but refused by hogs. There is another variety of this species, cultiva ed in gar- dens, and called the Lemon-thyme, which has broader leaves, and a more pleasant flavour. 2. The Acinos, Wi l d Basil, or Basil Thyme, grows on dry hills, in chalky and gravelly situations; flowering from June to August.... This odoriferous plant is much fre- quented by bees, which collect ho- ney from its flowers. 3. The vulgaris, or Garden- Thyme, is originally a native of the southern parts' of Europe, but is now generally cultivated in Bri- tish gardens. It may be propa- gated either by the seed, by off- sets from the roots, or by slips, planted in light, rich and Avell- prepared soils: its aromatic leaves are employed in broths, and for other culinary purposes. In its medicinsd properties, this is one of the most powerful aromatic plants; and its essential oil is of- ten sold in the shops, as a substi- tute for that of Marjoram. Tick. See Sheep. TIDE, denotes the rising and falling of sea-Avater ; a phenome- non Avhich is observable on all the shores of the ocean : it is also termed the fiux and rc-Jlux, or the alternate ebb and flow. The water of the sea Aoavs for about 6 hours from south to norih ; during which period it gradually swells, so that it enters the mouths of rivers, and counteracts the na- tural current from their sources. It then remains stationary for about a quarter of an hour ; after Avhich it ebbs for six hours ; a similar pause of 15 minutes takes place, when it Aoavs and ebbs alternately. Thus, the tide rises and falls once TID in the space of 12 hours and 49 minutes, Avhich period constitutes a lunar day ; as the moon passes the meridian of the earth about 48 minutes later, each succeeding day. The motion of the tides is farther influenced by the moon : hejice, if that luminary be in the first and third quarters, or when it is new and full, they are high and SAvift, being then called spring- tides : op the contrary, when the moon is in the second and last quarters, they neither rise so high, nor floAV with such rapidity ; and are therefore termed neap-tides. Various theorieshave been form- ed, to account for the phenomena of tides; the ancients attributing them to the sun ; Avhile some mo- dern enquiries ascribe them to the liquefaction of the ice and snow, in the polar regions ; but they are now generally understood to de- pend on the principle of gravita- lior. In the 1st vol. of the Repertory of Arts, he. we meet with an ac- count of a Tide-wheel, that may be adapted to any kind of mill; and which Avas invented by Mr. Robert Leslie. Asa mere de- scription of its constituent parts would convey but an inadequate idea of its mechanism, the curious reader Avill resort to the Avork above cited ; where the Avhole contri- vance is illustrated Avith an en- graving. We shall, therefore, only remark, that such wheel, if intended for mills, is by the in- ventor stated to be preferable to all others turned by the tide ; for its velocity is not only greater and more uniform, but a similar quan- tity of water also constantly acts on the wheel, Avhich is so construct- ed, as to turn the same Avay, both Avith the ebb and flow, and in a more TIL TIL 119 simple manner than any hitherto contrived. Thus, it moves hori- zontally, while the generality of tide-wheels revolve vertically ; and the perpendicular shaft may be carried to such a height, as to ad- mit the spur-Avheel, or any other piece of mechanism, to be wholly above the surface of the water..... Lastly, it is asserted to be less ex- pensive than other Avheels of a si- milar construction, and may be advantageously employed for rais- ing Avater; its velocity being fully sufficient, without any cog-Avheels, or Avallowers. TILE, a kind of thin brick, principally employed for covering the roofs of houses ; though it is sometimes used for paving cellars, kitchens, areas, he. Tiles are divided into various sorts, according to the purposes to Avhich they are applied. Thus, Plain tiles are chiefly used for co- vering houses : and they ought to be lOJ inches m length, 6A in breadth, and |ths of an inch in thickness. Ridge-tiles are of a semi-cylindrical form, and, by the statute,must be loinchesin length, and also 6J- inches in breadth: they are chiefly laid on the ridges of houses. Corner-tiles are first made flat, in the manner of plain tiles, excepting that they are quadran- gular ; the tAvo sides forming right lines ; and their ends, arches of circles : previously to bum ing, they are bent on a mould, like ridge-tiles; and ought to be 10£ inches in length, and of a conveni- ent size, being generally placed on the corners of roofs. TILLAGE, in agriculture and gardening, denotes the different methods of moving the ground, by means of a plough, spade, or other implement, to a certain depth, so as to bring the soil to the surface, and to turn the upper part down- wards ; in consequence of which, the earth is less liable to be ex- hausted by the groAvth of weeds or useless plants. The proper time for this opera- tion, varies according to the nature of the soil: thus, in horticulture, hot and dry ground should be till- ed, either immediately before or after rain ; but, if the Aveather be very dry, it ought not to be stirred, unless it be speedily irrigated : in the contrary case, Avhen the earth is strong, moist, and cold, it will be useful to employ the spade, Sec. during the hottest weather. In agriculture, the cold, moist, clayey, or stiff soils, generally re- quire to be tilled three times, name- ly, in the spring, in summer, and at seed-time, for wheat; and four times, for barley. The great advantages arising from tillage, consist, 1. In the pulverization of the soil, so that its nature may eventually be changed, and the toughest clay be rendered as light or friable as commonearth; and, 2. In eradicating noxious Aveeds, by exposing their roots and stalks to the joint action of the air, moisture, and heat, by which they are converted into manure. On these principles, indeed, the new, or horse-hoeing husbandry, chiefly depends ; and, though perhaps some agriculturists may have ex- tolled rather too highly^ the bene- fits derived from frequent stirring of the ground, yet it cannot be deni- ed, that such practice greatly con- tributes to the improvement of the soil, especially Avhen combined with the judicious application of manures. Having already, at some length, described the various modes of 120 TIL TIM cultivating the soil, the reader will revert to the articles Drilling, Harrow, Hoe, Plough, Spade, S.c. [TILIA, a genus of native trees, comprehending tAvo species. See Lime-tree. 1. Tilia Americana. American black Lime, or Linden-Tree....This often becomes a tree of a large size, covered Avith a dark brown bark, and dividing into many branches. The leaves are large, heart-shaped, pointed, and sawed on their edges, of a deep green on their upper sides, but paler and a a little hairy underneath ; and standing on long footstalks. The flowers are produced upon the small branches, and are remarka- ble for having an oblong bractea or floral leaf upon each footstalk; they are of an herbaceous colour, having narroAV petals furnished with nectaries at the base. The capsules are round, a little hairy and about the size of a small pea, having each one roundish seed. 2. Tilia Caroliniana. Carolinian oblique-leaved Lime-Tree.....This is of a smaller growth than the former, rising commonly to the height of about forty feet, Avith a trunk of eighteen inches or more in diameter : coA'ered with a light- ish and somewhat furroAved bark, and sending off many branches.... The leaves are smaller and smooth- er than those of the other kind, somewhat heart-shaped, ending in long points, unequal at the base, or larger on one side of the mid- rib than the other, and slightly saAved on their edges. The bunch- es of flowers stand upon long slen- der footstalks, furnished a\ ith floral leaves. The floAvers are small, and have narroAV, pointed petals, furnished with nectaries or scales at the base ; they diffuse a fragrant odour, and are continually haunted by bees during their continuance. An infusion of the flowers of Lime- tree has been used Avith success in an Epilepsy. The timber ib too soft for any strong purposes, therefore, chiefly used by turners, carvers, he. also, by architects in framing models of buildings, &c Marshall' sArbustrumAmericanum.'] TIMBER, a term denoting every species of wood, that is felled and seasoned, Avith the view of being employed in building houses, vessels, and other structures. Of the different kinds of timber- trees, such as Oak, Ash, Beech, he. we have already treated in the progress of this work, and stated the most appropriate me- thods of rearing them : hence, Ave shall at present confine our atten- tion to the proper times for fell- ing, seasoning, and preserving tim- ber. The age at which timber-trees ought to he cut down, varies ac- cording their nature, and the pur- poses for Avhich they are designed. Mr. Marshall observes, that poplars may stand from 30 to 50 years ; ash and elm-trees, from 50 to 100 years ; but oaks should on no account he felled, till they have attained the age of from 100 to 200 } cars. The durability of tim- ber, however, depends on the soil and sub-soil, on which the trees have been produced : thus, in loose or absorbent lands, the oak and elm decay at an earlier period than those grown in cool and more re- tentive ground ; but, in dry loams with a rocky sub-soil, the oak ra- pidly decays, after it has attained the age of two centuries. Far- ther, the Cypress, Cedar, and Mahogany, are supposed to be in- TIM TIM 121 destructible by time, or the depre- dations of insects, in Avhatever ex- posure they may have been raised; and the Alder endures the action of water, for many years longer than any other species of timber : hence it is deservedly employed for piles in constructing dams ; in order to secure the banks of rivers. The season for felling oak, or fir-timber, commences toward the end of April ; though the winter is often preferred for that purpose, and likewise for cutting down ash and elm-trees ; as it furnishes la- bour to persons Avho Avould other- Avise be unemployed. All branches or limbs, that may injure the trees in their fall, ought previously to be lopped, and the trunk cut doAvn close to the ground, unless it be grubbed or rooted up; which lat- ter method is preferable, as well as more profitable ; because tim- ber, produced from old stocks, is of inferior value. After the trees are felled, it will be advisable to season them, pre- viously to working the timber : it has, therefore, been recommended to pile them, one upon another, with small blocks of wood between each, in an open but not too ex- posed situation; so that the sun and air may penetrate every part; the surface, or uppermost trees, being plastered Avith coAV-dung, to prevent them from cracking. Ano- ther method is that of burying the timber in the earth ; but the most effectual mode of seasoning it, by //cordis performed at Venice, where the trees are exposed to a strong fire, at which they are continually turned round by means of an en- gine, till they become charred, or covered Avith a black crust: by this expedient, the internal part of the Avood is so hardened, as to resist vol. v. equally the effects of earth and Avater, for a long series of years, without receiving any injury. When boards or planks have been properly dried, additional care becomes necessary to preserve them against the depredations of worms, the effects of air, moisture, 8cc. For this purpose, Mr. Evelyn directs common sulphur to be put into a glass retort, Avith such a por- tion of aqua-fortis, as will cover it, " to the depth of three fingers:" the Avhole must be distilled to dry- ness, and rectified tAvo or three times. The remaining sulphur is then to be exposed to the open air on a marble, or in a shalloAv glass- vessel, where it will liquefy into a kind of oil, with Avhich the timber must be anointed : this mixture, he asserts, will not only infallibly pre- vent the attacks of Avorms, but also preserve every kind of avoocI from decay or putrefaction, either in air or Avater. Timber may also be defended from the influence of air, or moisture, by coating it iavo or three times Avith linseed oil ; and some builders have ach'ised the Avood-work to be fainted : the lat- ter practice, however, ought to be adopted with great caution ; be- cause, though it may in some cases be proper, it should always be deferred, till the planks and si- milar articles have become perfect- ly diy. Lastly, no green timber must be employed for any purpose ; as it is apt to crack and splinter, Avhen the work is completed; and will thus disfigure the most expensive buildings. Where such deformity occurs, it has been recommended to anoint the Avood repeatedly Avith a solution of beef-suet: some car- penters, indeed, close the crevices with a composition of grease and R 122 TIM TIM fine saAv-dust; but the former me- thod, in the opinion of M. Cho- mel, deserves the preference ; as he has seen riven or split timber so perfectly closed by such expedient, that the defect Avas scarcely per- ceptible : this operation, hoAA'ever, ought to be performed while the wood is green. See also Board, and Dry-rot. Timber used for buildings, es- pecially for ships, bridges, canals, granaries, and stables, may be ef- fectually preserved from decay, and particularly the rot, by repeatedly impregnatingthe Avood Avith strong brine, or a solution of common salt. This simple process is attended Avith such decided advantage, that wood, thus prepared, Avill remain perfectly sound for ages. An in- stance of this fact lately occurred in the theatre at Copenhagen, Avhere the loAver part of the planks and joists formerly required to be replaced in a feAV years, till Mr. Volmeister, an architect of that city, discovered and employed the process above stated. Since that period (which includes the term exceeding 12 years) the wood, on Temoving one of the boards, was found in such a state of preserva- tion, that he could not observe the least appearance of decay. The increase of plantations, in soils properly adapted for the pur*. pose, being an object of national importance, we have subjoined a Table ; the design of which is, to shew the number of plants that may be set on an acre of land, both according to the Scotch and Eng- lish admeasurement, at the distance of from 1 foot to 30 feet from each other. Thus, the scale from 1 foot to 3 feet gives the number of cab- bages, which may be planted on an acre, for the feeding of cattle ; Avhile the distance from 3 to 6 feet, determines the amount of young forrest or timber-trees, that may be arranged on a similar extent of ground ; the space of from 6 to 20 feet, sheAvs those remaining after the first, second, or third cuttings ; and the interval from 20 to 30 feet, points out the fruit-trees, which may be planted on one acre. Another object, Avhich may tend to render the folloAving Table more interesting to the planter, is that of ascertaining the difference between the Scotch and English acres. Hence, the first numbers in the second and fifth columns re- present the square feet contained in those respective measures : so that the English acre is to that computed in Scotland, as 43,560 is to 54,760 feet. TIM TIM 12S «i Plants on o5 Plants on u S US . an English Acre. u B a Scotch Acre. Short 100 of Long 100 of Short 100 of Long 100 of Q 5 score. 6 score. 5 5 score. 6 score. F. I. F. I. 1 43,560 36,300 1 54,760 45,633 1 6 19,360 16,133 1 6 24,382 20,318 2 10,890 9,075 2 13,690 11,408 2 6 6,969 5,808 2 6 8,761 7,301 3 4,840 4,033 3 6,084 5,070 3 6 3,556 2,963 3 6 4,470 3,725 4 2,722 2,268 4 3,422 2,852 4 6 2,151 1,792 4 6 2,709 2,257 5 1,742 1,452 5 2,190 1,825 5 6 1,440 1,200 5 6 1,810 1,508 6 1,210 1,008 6 1,521 1,251 6 6 1,031 852 6 6 1,296 1,081 7 889 740 7 1,117 931 7 6 774 620 7 6 973 811 8 680 567 8 855 713 8 6 602 502 8 6 758 631 9 537 448 9 675 562 9 6 482 402 9 6 606 505 10 435 363 10 547 456 11 360 300 11 452 375 12 302 252 12 380 317 13 257 214 13 324 270 14 222 185 14 279 232 15 193 161 15 243 202 16 170 141 16 214 178 17 150 125 17 189 158 18 134 112 18 169 141 19 120 100 19 151 126 20 108 20 137 114 21 98 21 124 103 22 90 22 113 23 82 23 103 24 75 24 95 25 69 25 87 26 64 26 81 27 59 27 75 28 55 28 70 29 51 29 65 30 48 30 60 124 T I M TIM [The following concise state- ment is taken from that very use- ful compilation, " Gleanings of Husbandry," American edition.] " 1. State and condition of several kinds after being exposed to the weather ten years. a. Cedar, perfectly sound. i b. Larch, heart sound, but the sap quite decayed. c. Spruce-fir, sound. d. Silver-Fir, in decay. c. Scotch-fir, much decayed. /. Pineaster, quite rotten. g. Chesmit, perfectly sound. h. White Poplar, sound. /. Beech, sound. k. Walnut, in decay. /• Birch, quite rotten. 2. Green fir-timber may be sea- soned and rendered fit for imme- diate use, by soaking the planks or round trees, barked, a few days in lime Avater; or paying them over with lime along with water..... LimeAvater is made by slacking the lime in Avater, and the hotter it is used after the lime is slacked, the better. Mr. Bordley says that Dr. WHARFiELD,of Elkton, Mary- land, sawed poplar logs full of sap into boards, and immediately sea- soned them by fire. Some of these boards were put up in tAvo Aveeks after the tree was felled ; and Mr. B. admired the closeness of the joints. 3. Dry-Rot in timber may be prevented by charring the ends of the joints, and fixing them in an- chorsmiths or foundery ashes laid under the flooring. Leaving one of the boards of the floor loose, and removing it at night, is said to pre- vent it. The Dry-Rot is OAving to a yel- low fungi, and to a white mould spread by a plant, resembling a vine or sea-weed. (Calvaria Hypox- ylon.) 4. Composition for preserving weather boarding ; Avhich is impe- netrable to Avater, and is not in- jured by the action of the Aveather, or heat of the sun, which hardens it. Three parts air-slacked lime, two of Avood ashes, and one of fine sand, or sea-coal ashes ; sift these through a fine sieve, and add as much linseed oil as Avill bring it to a consistence for working Avith a painter's brush ; great care must be taken to mix it perfectly...,(it is thought grinding would be an im- provement).....two coats are neces- sary ; the first rather thin, the se- cond as thick as can conveniently be worked. 5. Painting wood before the sap is dry, hastens its decay." The time for felling timber, is in the autumn, after having taken off the bark early in the spring ; and after having suffered the new foilage to put forth and die. This fact, says Dr. Darwin, was long since observed by S. Pepys, in a paper published in the Philosophi- cal Transactions, vol. 17. p. 455. By the pullulation of the new buds the saccharine matter in the sap- Avood, or alburnum is expended, and it then becomes nearly as hard and durable as the heart wood, being both less liable to de- cay, or to be penetrated by insects. This remark is confirmed by the experience of Mr. Edward Duf- field of Philadelphia county, as stated in vol. 2. p. 484. (with this difference, that he cut the trees in T IiM TIM 125 the spring,) and by the judicious and numerous experiments of the celebrated Buffon. an extract from whose memoir, read before the Royal Academy of Sciences, in 1731, may be found in a paper in the Trans, of the Massachusetts Agri- cultural Society, by B. Vaughan, Esq. of HalloWwell, District of Maine. After having come to the conclusion above stated, Mr. Vaughan continues. " Other trials, however, were made, of Avhich the nature and re- sult were as folloAV :.....1st. A piece of wood, somewhat defective, taken from the top of a tree which had been disbarked and left ex- posed to the air after it Avas felled, was upon trial found to weigh more and to support more than a like piece, which was sound, and taken from the heart of one of the trees felled in its bark.....2d. The sap- wood of trees Avhich had been dis- barked while standing, was in like manner tried against sap-Avood from other trees which had been cut in their bark, and Avas found somewhat heavier, and considera- bly stronger.....3d. The sap-Avood of disbarked trees, if it did not equal the Avood at the heart of the other trees in weight, yet exceeded it much in strength.....4th. But the outer parts of the sap-Avood from disbarked trees, contrary to the ge- neral rule, (which is a circumstance highly Avorthy of remark,) were considerably stronger than the inner parts of the same sap-A\ood. " The author explains the addi- tion of solidity and strength in those different cases, by supposing that the growth of the trunk (in the ordinary course of nature,) arises from layers of new Avood, which are applied to it externally, by means of the several juices flowing between the bark and the sap-Avood. Consequently, Avhen the bark is removed, though the trunk may live, it cannot increase in bulk ; and the materials, destin- ed for this increase, sinking into the cavities of the vessels of the sap-Avood and inner-wood, harden the trunk throughout. " An interruption then of the sap, within certain bounds, ap- pears, according to the author, to harden the Avood in proportion as it is complete ; and if the author's theory above stated, be correct, it has an application here too obvious for it to be repeated.....When the bark is removed, the sap-wood in particular may be presumed to become hard, from its abounding in pores ; and as the pores are largest, according to him, in the outer parts of this sap-Avood, it is hence perhaps that in the outer pores the greatest change is ef- fected. " Under these circumstances, (says M. Buffon) the sap-wood is no longer to be called an imperfect Avood ; and it thus acquires an im- provement in one or tAvo years, by being disbarked, Avhich it would not have obtained, by the usual course of nature, in less than 12 or 15 years, (this being the time re- quisite for changing sap-wood in- to inner Avood in the best soils.)..... By joining then the sap-wood to the other avocc!, the bulk of a tree is in effect prodigiously increased, and a tree of forty years will go as far in Avork (according to M. Bcf- fon) as a tree of sixty years old in common circumstances. " The author's general conclu- sion is, that, Avhenever the exten- sive operation in question in this 1^6 T I M paper, is performed, it should be during the great flow of the sap ; that is, Avhen the vessels are most open, and the sap most in motion ; and when both these circumstan- ces are likely to remain so for some time.....By choosing this period also for the operation, he adds, that it becomes easy to perform it ; for in the proper time of the sap, a man climbing upo'i a great tree maydisbark it, from top to bottom, in less than two hours. " Ail which has here been said, however, relates to oaks ; for upon o.ii.s these experiments Avere in general made. But the practice may be extended probably to va- rious other species of trees : M. Buffon thinks to all. " Before M. Buffon closed the above memoir, he received infor- mation from Mr. Hickman, a fel- low of the Royal Society in London, stating, that the practice, Avhich his memoir recommended, was in use in the county of Nottingham, in England. The bark (it is said) was better for tanning, and the sap- Avood essentially hardened. But though the sap-wood lasted three times as long as the ordinary sap- wood, according to this account, yet its durability Avas not pretend- ed to be equal to that of the Avood Avithin it.....The trees in Notting- hamshire hoAvever Avere represent- ed as standing six months only, after losing their bai k. " Tv!. Du Hamel presented a memoir on the same general sub- ject Avith that of M. Buffon, in the same year, 174 3 ; Avhich Avas noticed in p. 54-58 of the Histori- cal Articles of the Royal Academy of Sciences (prefixed in those days to the memoirs) for the year 1738; but the memoir itself Avas not then prmtfd. TIM " He concludes his memoir bjr recommending that of M. Buffon above noticed, Avhich according to him proves, that nearly the same results have occurred in experi- ments on these subjects made in the eastern and western quarter* of France. " We may take the present op- portunity of suggesting the pro- priety of an inquiry, whether fruit- trees which have been long strip- ped of their bark on account of disease, acquire any additional hardness to their wood, as the re- sult of their new bark being thin ; and if so, whether the hardening of their wood was not one among the particulars necessary to ren- der them productive ; and lastly, whether such trees haAre grown as. fast in their stems and branches, as the generality of other trees cor- responding in size and situation ? At the same time it may be Avorthy of examination, whether a ligature placed round a branch, after the manner recommended by M. Buffon, has in the end any effect upon the solidity of the wood* within, at least till the growth of the branch is checked ? " The query here proposed, respecting the operation of the sun, may be extended to that of the air, the rain, the frost, and even the light.....Internal proces- ses in the tree, such as fermenta- tion of the sap, may also have in- fluence on this occasion. "If we adopt the theory of Messrs. Buffon and Du Hamel, it seems easy to conceive Avhence the limber of certain trees may become benefited by a remoA'al of their branches, (Avhile the tree is standing.) If the roots and stem continue uninjured, much superfluous sap may now remain TIM TIM in motion; of which a large portion may be deposited in the pores both of the sap-wood and of the formed wood, so as to improve each of them.....Of the existence of this sap in many felled trees, in a manner capable of producing buds and shoots, Avithout the aid either of the leaves or even of new supplies from the roots, we have evident proof from the buds and shoots and even blossoms which arise in the spring from certain stems newly cut doAvn when a\ ith- out a leaf. " Hoav far it may be advisable to disbark and to disbranch one and the same tree, is matter for future experiment, and may lead to some decisive facts. " It ought not, hoAvever, here to escape nou< c, that trees hardened by the loss of their branches, are affirmed to be freed from the at- tack of " worms and other acci- dental corruption.".....If this be tlue, Ave have a new consideration addressed to our attention, Avhich will equally Avell apply to the case of disbarking timber-trees. " If these methods have in truth the good effects thus attri- buted to them, they may in some degree render needless the dis- pute as to the season of the year proper for felling certain timber trees.....Some uncertainties, which have existed on this subject, may be seen in M. Du Hamel's ac- count of the contradictory practice prevailing respecting it in his time, in different countries. It may be curious to observe, that in our day, Mr. Snodgrass, the surveyor of the shipping in the East India Company's service, (than whom no man perhaps has seen and heard more on the subject, as far as concerns England and the East Indies,) is in fa\'our of English timber Avhich is winter-falien.* Indeed the question may admit of different decisions in different countries ; especially as relating to trees of different species and of different ages. " Against all these advantages, we must not admit it as any ob- jection, that r.LU-d timber is also hard to Avork : for upon this prin- ciple none but soft Avoods ought to be employed in Avork: In other words, to reduce the first cost of the work, Ave must sacrifice all the * See his letter to Mr. Dundas, with an appendix, printed in 1797, p. 49;..... in which are many valuable facts for ship- builders. Out of 989 vessels built or re- paired under his inspection in 37 years only one had foundered; while in the British navy above 60 vessels are supposed to have foundered in 9 years (from 1775 to 1784 ) M. Du Hamel ridicules the idea of attending to the felling of timber in particular periods of the moon. (See b. 3. Ch. 5.) v [In confirmation of Mr. Sptodgrass's opinion stated above, the Editor mar add, that the season in which Live Oak is cut in Georgia, influences its duration in astriking manner, as the following fact will shew. Captain Frankford of Philadelphia, brought live oak from St. Simons, in 1795; and with a view to sai tisfy himself as to the influence of the season of cutting the wood, he procured some square pieces of a tree which had been felled in July, and also some which had been cut during the winter. Both parcels were permitted to remain in his cellar: The first mentioned decayed rapid- '/'and, wfre cut "P f°r fire-wood, in 1800; the last still retain that firmness tor which live oak-wood is so remarkable As great part of the wood for the United States frigates was cut during the warm weather, and it is known that some of them, and especially the United States rotted in three years after she was built! it is probable the decay may be accounted forfrom the above circiunsrance.] 128 T I M attention due to use and to dura- bility. " But it is time to make a re- mark applicable to the United States. It is this : " Discussions concerning the improvement of timbtr are pecu- liarly important in a vast conti- nent possessed of Avildemesses of Avoods, for the timber of Avhich more extensive markets Avould offer, were it in better repute for strength and durability. An in- crease of exportable timber Avould lead to an increase of freights and of seamen : At the same time that an improvement in the qualities of timber, Avould add to the calls for ship-building, and be highly ser- viceable to domestic carpentry..... These considerations will derive neAV weight from recollecting that the American woods contain a profusion of large trees ; the chief of Avhich are not only destitute of the solidity belonging to trees found in pastures ; but, by being draAvn up in consequence of hav- ing groAvn in company, acquire long trunks with few branches, so as to admit of being disbarked with ease up to the true height. " To Avhat heights in the stem, in different species of trees, and at different ages, and under different circumstances, this disbarking may be carried, is to be decided by ac- tual trials.....It seems reasonable, however, to presume, that so much of the upper part of the tree ought to retain its bark, as shall be ne- cessary for procuring to the part which is disbarked, its due supply of sap. " A fact of a miscellaneous nature shall uoav be introduced, for it may be found to have application to the present subject. " On the meadoAv-land (other- T IM wise called interval-land) overflow- ed by the dam of the upper mill at Cobessee, below Hallowell, many trees have been standing for a long course of years, Avhich though Avithout vegetation, in con- sequence of the action of the water upon their roots ; yet still remain erect, and (to appearance) toler- ably firm. They soon ceased to live as trees, but yet long existed as timber, though exposed to all the injuries of the weather. They also seem to be more free from moss and other " accidental causes of corruption," than could from for- mer theories, have been supposed probable; though some, which were sawed after a long period had elapsed, were found too much Avorm- eaten to be used as plank for ship- ping. " To preA'ent misapprehension, however as to our general subject, in persons living in parts of the U. States, where the practice of gird- ling trees in the American form, is adopted, it may be proper to make the following distinction..... The object of the operations in view in this paper is, to retain a lingering life in trees for a certain period. The farmers, on the other hand, Avho girdle their trees, seek to procure an instant death to the leaf, and an early death to the tree; that they may immediately raise crops, and soon plough the soil Avithout obstruction. They make a cut (or girdle as it is called) round the stem of the tree, passing through the bark into the wood itself, in order to interrupt the communications Avithin the tree, by which the life of the tree is supported.....Objects and proceed- ings therefore so opposite, admit of little comparison in any point of vieAv. T IM T I M 129 " A second reflexion shall here be introduced ; - which is, that we should not suppose that the learn- ed French Academicians from Avhom we have extracted the chief materials for this paper, have mis- taken brittle wood for strong wood: They considered strength and toughness in all their experiments. This, however did not prevent their discovering, that the wood of the disbarked stems was hard, as Avell as heavy ; the strength being in proportion to the Aveight.....It may at the same time be allowed, be- cause it is true, that the best tim- ber, in process of time, when kept dry, will acquire a brittle hardness, so that even soft pine-Avood shall change its qualities in this respect. But since all this timber began Avith being more or less tough, according to its nature, we have no unfavourable conclusions to draw from it ; particularly as worms seem to avoid this brittle wood, which is accordingly found untouched by them in various buildings in Europe erected many centuries ago. " A third caution, also, is ne- cessary, which has a more gene- ral application.....The experiments related in this paper have not been repeated by the compiler of it..... Vet a repetition of them is neces- sary ; and at the same time they ought to be extended, and the re- sult of the Avhole communicated to the public. By this means Ave shall possess, in time, approved rules for operating upon different kinds of trees in different climates, and different situations ; and none ay ill be better circumstanced for the purpose of benefiting by these rules, than the inhabitants of the United States, whose timber trees are so many and so various, vol. v. and are spread through so many latitudes, longitudes, elevations, aspects and soils.....We add, that from the same causes, few have better opportunities than the inha- bitants of the United States for making such experiments." On raising Forest Treesfrom Seed. It is with pleasure that the fol- lowing communication addressed to the Massachusetts Society for the encouragement of Agriculture, is published. It is believed, to be the first attempt in the United States, to supply the enormous and Avanton waste of our forest trees ; and the society, Avith great propriety, bestowed a gold medal to Col.Dodge, forhispraiseAVorthy exertions. " Conceiving that I was posses- sed of land Avell adapted to the groAvth of forest trees, I made choice of a piece of land, and pret- ty near the summit, from Avhich there was a gradual descent in every direction. It had formerly been covered Avith a very heavy groAvth of Avhite and yelloAV oak, and the different kinds of Avalnut, and hickory, groAving native in this part of the country. For many years past it had been improved as a pasture, having several trees of the ancient groAvth scattered over, and still standing upon it..... The piece of ground on which I proposed to make the experiment contained about two acres; and Avas, for the first time, ploughed up two years before; and in each of the preceding years planted with Indian com. The native soil is a pretty deep rich mould, inclin- ed to moisture, and very rarely pinched with drought. Detached rocks of different .izes are scat- S 130 T I M TIM tered over it. The two acres were inclosed with a good fence for the purpose of forming a forest- tree nursery. It Avas then plough- ed once, and harroAved sufficiently to render the mould light and fine, and furrowed both Avays, viz. at right angles, about four and an half feet distant. On a small part of the ground a little barn manure a\ as put in the angles of the furroAvs ; but on the greater part no manure of any kind Avas laid. " The ground having been thus prepared, on the 10th of October, 1797, it Avas planted in the cross furrows, in the form of hills ; a part Avith Avhite and yelloAV oak acorns; a part Avith that kind of walnuts called the shag-bark ; a part with chesnuts, and a part Avith oil-nuts, or \riiite walnuts. Four acorns and four nuts were put in a hilt through the Avhole nursery, and covered about three, or three and an half inches deep. " The labour, in preparing the ground, Avas two and an half day's work of one man and a boy with two pair of oxen ; and the man and the boy one day in planting and covering the seed. " Desirous of varying the expe- riment, I had another piece of ground, containing one quarter of an acre, of a soil and situation near- ly similar, prepared in the same maimer. On the first day of No- vember I soAved it, by broad cast, with the same kind of acorns and nuts, and Avith the seeds of Avhite ash, and then harrowed the ground Avith an iron-tooth harroAv. " Just before the frost set in I examined the hills in the nursery, and found the acorns generally sprouted, and some of the sprouts more than two niches hi hngth. The nuts appeared in the same state in Avhich they Avere planted. In the spring following, I could find only four of the acorns which had sent up shoots out of the ground, and the nuts did not swell sufficiently to burst their shells. But those sowed by broad cast came up pretty well, and I had them transplanted into a part of the nursery. From these circum- stances I concluded that the acorns and nuts planted in the nursery, were put into the ground too early in autumn, and Avere covered much too deep. " Disappointed in the first at- tempt, I was still determined to make another trial on the ground inclosed for a nursery. In the latter part of October, 1798, I ploughed, harrowed and furrowed it, just as I had done the preceding autumn ; and on the first day of November I planted, in the cross furroAvs, as before, Avhite and yel- Ioav oak acorns, shag-bark Avalnuts, chesnuts and oil-nuts, and covered them, excepting four roAvs, much lighter than the preceding year. The acorns and nuts came up very Avell, excepting the four toavs Avhich were covered about three inches deep. In these rows A'ery few appeared in the spring. By this and similar experiments made since, I have found, that both acorns- and nuts vegetate best when only covered over so lightly as that no part of them can be seen above the surface. On the same day I planted a small quantity of the seeds of the elm collected at the time of the seed's falling, which came up remarkably Avell. u To extend the experiment, I prepared a separate piece of ground, by ploughing and harrow- ing it, as I had done in the nursery. T IM On the 2d of November, I sowed, by broad cast,,about five hundred of the shag-bark nuts, and left them on the surface of the ground un- covered. As soon as the frost Avas out in the spring sufficiently to admit the plough, Avhich was about the last of March, or the first of April, I ploughed them in very lightly. The nuts soon sprouted, and about the middle of May ap- peared above the surface. Most of them vegetated and came up far better than any of the other nuts or acorns. " Care has been taken to keep all the forest trees pretty clear of Aveeds. The nursery has been ploughed and hoed three or four times in the course of each sum- mer, but no hills have been raised about the trees. The labour in tending the ground has been about the same as tending so much Indian corn, and the ploughings and hoeings, about the same time in the summer. " The growth of the shag-bark walnuts has been remarkably slow. The acorns grew considerably the two first years, and the last sum- mer they appear to have increased somewhat in size, but most of them very little or none at all in height; some of the largest, howeA'er, have produced luxuriant tops. The chesnuts, oil-nuts and elms, have groAvn Avell. Of all the kinds, the Avhite-ash has much exceeded in rapidity of growth. " In the last autumn I had growing upwards of four thousand and tAvo hundred trees, from all the kinds of acorns, nuts and seeds Avhich I had planted. But my nursery, which Avas on sloping ground, was greatly injured by an unusually heavy rain, just before the IVost set in. The fall of rain TIM 131 Avas so great as to occasion seve- ral strong currents of Avater, which produced deep gullies through the longest direction of the ground. By this unfortunate circumstance, more than six hundred trees were torn up and destroyed. " There are now growing (Oct. 13, 1801,) from the acorns, nuts and seed which I have planted, which are three and four years old this autumn from the time of planting, two thousand seven hun- dred and ninety-tAvo Avhite and yel- Ioav oaks....four hundred andtwelve shag-bark walnuts.......forty-eight oil-nuts....one hundred and ten chesnuts....two hundred and thirty- nine elms....and forty-one white- ash.....The Avhole number, three thousand six hundred and forty- two. On raising young Forest Trees from young shoots on Wood-lots. A communication addressed to the Massachusetts Society for pro- moting Agriculture, bv Moses Bullen, Esq. of Medtield....The premium of 30 dollars or silver medal, Avas adjudged to the author for his exertions. " 1 have, for more than 20 years, turned my attention lo raising forest trees, and have had the satis- faction of seeing my endeavours crowned with success. The method, by AA'hich I have succeed- ed, is as follows : When the Avood is arrived at maturity on a piece of land, I cut it all down, not leaving a single tree ; then I pass over the land with a strong scythe, making it compleatly clean by cut- ting all the shrubs and bushes, which Ave re kept under by the large trees and cattle ; and Avh'ch, if suffered to remaJR, would oh-. 132 T I M TIM struct the groAvth of the young shoots. After doing this, I gene- rally haAre a fine thrifty parcel of young plants and sprouts, A/hich groAV rapidly. When the groAvth is about four or five years old, I go over it again, and cut the poorest sorts of Avood, Avhere there are enough of better; and also, once in tAvo, three or four years, prune as many as my other aAoca- tions will alloAV. Many of the first trees raised Avere large enough for hogshead hoops, and many much too large. I have had more than 4000 poles, of the hogshead kind, cut Avithin a few years on 10 acres of my young trees, Avithout thin- ing them too much, (I am very care full that all the best poles are not taken; which is commonly the case, where an indifferent person is suffered to go into a Avood-lot for the purpose of cutting hoop-poles, to the great detriment of the owner.) The method I have taken for raising forest trees, I conceive to be the best and cheapest, that can be adopted in this part of the country. I have, by Avay of experi- ment, planted acorns, chesnuts, walnuts, and set slips of the Eng- lish green willoAV ; but have never had great success. On lands long cleared, and the groAvth entirely killed, I supposed ploughing and planting acorns, he. as recom- mended by Dr. Dean, to be the best. It is absolutely necessary to keep cattle and sheep aAvay from the land where it is proposed to raise forest trees. " When I first began to raise r.■?<:>. for wood, I used to leave some of the youn^; thriftiest stands to grow scattering on the land. But a feAv years convinced me of my error, for the trees, so left, toon sent out their branches hori- zontally, preventing the groAvth of smaller trees, situated near them, and not groAving high themselves, afforded little timber and much brush. " I eArery year clear a parcel of land, where I cut my fire Avood, so that I have young trees from one to twenty years groAvth. " Experience has showen mc, that the sprouts of chesnut grow much more rapidly, than those of other wood, obstructing their growth. In this case, I found it advantageous to cut them down, especially such as are crooked and full of branches. Fresh sprouts Avill soon spring up from the root, which Avill commonly overtake those of the surrounding groAvth, making much better and straighter timber Avith fewer limbs. "As Avood is among the necessa- ries of life,Avood-landis a necessary appendage to every farm. Forest- trees have the power of reproduc- ingthemselves as well as from their seeds ; and, but for shamefully bad management, they would be found growing in sufficient numbers in almost every part of this country. A farmer's Avood-lot should be nearly as much the object of his care as his orchard. " In applying the axe to'a Avood- Iot, Avhich the owner Avould wish to perpetuate by a series of repro- ductions, the best method is to cut down every tree, as far as the axe- man goes. This will give the young and tender progeny the ne- cessary advantages of a free cir- culation of the air, and of the un- obstructed rays of the sun ; Avhere- as if some of the large trees be left, the shoots, Avhich spring up from the stumps of the others, Avill languish beneath their shade. The part of a Avood-lot, that is fel- TIM led by the axe, should be kept as carefully fenced as a corn-field ; or otherwise the broAvsing of cattle, especially in the spring of the year, will poison and destroy the rising tendrils. Care should also be used to pluck off a part of the ten- drils or shoots around the stumps; leaving only, by the sides of each stump, two or three of the most large and thrifty. " By such a prudent manage- ment, a wood-lot might be render- ed a perpetual fund of timber and fuel." Dr. Daravin observes, " If crooked young trees be repeatedly scratched internally in respect to the curvature, that they will gra- dually become straight, by thus encouraging the growth within the curvature, more than on its convex side." The following judicious observa- tions Avhichshew the importance of preserving forest-trees in the U. States, are from a useful publi- cation entitled, The Weekly Maga- zine, vol. ii. Philadelphia, 1798. " There is, perhaps, none of the natural qualities or productions of this country, of Avhich Ave may more highly boast, than our Avoods and forests : whether Ave consider them as affording the largest, strongest, or most durable timber, wood, and substances for economi- cal purposes ; their beauty in the formation of groves and avenues for our recreation and delight, or fuel Avhich they furnish, and Avhich is indispensable in those districts, that are destitute of, or at too great a distance from coal. " In order to prevent further de- vastation, as well as to repair the injuries already committed, this very important business ought, in my opinion, to be Avell considered; TIM 133 and as soon as possible encouraged and established. " The great importance and in- dispensable utility of public forests, and extensive free districts of Avood- land, must be so obvious, as almost to render it unnecessary to specify their advantages: hoAvever, since my fellow citizens, in general, may not have sufficiently contemplated this interesting subject in all its various views, I shall attempt to exhibit some of the most striking and interesting. " Large districts of woodland, or native forests comprehending the various situations and qualities of soil, are the best nursery for the various tribes and families of the vegetables of the country, Avhich by means of agriculture, pastur- age, and fire, are in clanger of be- ing extirpated ; and thus great in- jury, and perhaps, irreparable loss be rendered to the community, since some of them may possess very useful and salutary qualities, yet undiscovered. v " In order that Ave may avail our- selves in the most speedy and com- plete manner, of this very import- ant benefit, I Avould propose, that every state, county, and township should set apart a certain ex- tent of territory for a public and free forest, to be protected by Ibavs enacted for that purpose; and also, that every freeholder or proprietor, be obliged by law to keep a cer- tain number of acres of woodland, perhaps ten acres to every hun- dred. But freeholds or farms un- der fifty acres, need net be subject to this laAv; they mny have what quantity of wood their owners may choose. Besides, every proprietor of lands lying contiguous to pub- lic roads or highways, should he obliged to i bi't ar.d cultivate trees 134 T I M TIM or shrubs of a certain specified description on that part of his field, immediately adjoining the public road or higlvway ; for a\ hich he should be alloAved by law a small bounty as a compensation for his labour and expence. And the laAv of the state might enact certain penalties to be inflicted on persons, who should wantonly in- jure such trees and shrubs ; be- cause they are for shade»and shel- ter to travellers, and a public be- nefit. " The use of avoocI is great and indispensable for building, fencing, coopering, and other economical purposes, and especially for fuel in the northern district of the Unit- ed States, particularly in regard to the poor, who even at this early day, procure it Avith difficulty, and at a great expence : but a toAvn- ship forest, or free district of Avood- land, to Avhich every citizen Avould have equal and free recourse, un- der necessary and prudent regula- tions, Avould fully obviate their ne- cessities. " These forests should be mark- ed out into districts, and each thin- ned in rotation, by taking aAvay the full-groAvn, and decaying trees, and keeping up Avithin fence or in- closure, the stumps, for the pro- tection of the springs or sprouts. Moreover, the township would be able to sell timber and Avood, which, if applied towards discharging the public expences, would be a great relief to its poor. " The subject before us, natur- ally, unfolds another connected with it; I mean the propriety of re-es- tablishing public and private fo- rests, of the most useful and beau- tiful trees and shrubs, natives of this country as Avell as exotics, that Avould thrive in the climate of the United States. " We of Philadelphia and its vicinity are Avell acquainted with the value and usefulness of the Avood of the White Cedar [Cupres- sus thyoides]. Yet the inhabi- tants of West Jersey, who reap so great a profit from it, seem to manifest little concern for the pro- tection and preservation of those valuable districts, that produce this useful Avood; othenvise they would take more effectuable steps than they have hitherto done for pre- venting the ravages and destruc- tion of fire ; for replanting and protecting the swamps after the fire hath done its mischief, Sec. Perhaps it would be a politic and prudent ordinance, to vest in the state a large district of territory* comprehending the largest pro- portion possible of cedar swamps, for a public forest: this Avould be a means of at least preventing a total destruction of this invaluable Avood. " I shall proceed now to enume- rate the trees, shrubs, he. Avhich seem to be the most valuable and worthy of the expence and care of cultivation and protection, viz. " Chesnut, Black and White Walnut, Plane-tree, Mulberry, Su- gar-maple, Scarlet and Silver- leaved Maple, YcIIoav Poplar, or Tulip-tree, the varieties of Hicco- ry, Wild-Cherry, Locust (Robina pseudo-acacia) Honey Locust, the species and varieties of Oak, all the Pines, Pred-Cedar, Bald-Cypress, Larch-tree,Hemlock-Spruce,NcAV- foundland-Spruce, Balm of Gilead, Linden-tree, Beech, Elm, Sassa- fras, Ash Avhite and Black, Per- simmon for the sake of its fruit, which is, perhaps, not inferior t« T IM the Date, all the species of Mag- nolia, Rhus typhinum, with other species, Snowy Mespilus, Avith some other species ; HaAv-thorns, Myrica cerifera (Myrtle-Avax tree) jEsculus pavia, varieties; Holly, Anona triloba (Papaw), with many others from the southern states, remarkable for their beauty and fragrance. " Of exotics, Quercus ruber (English oak), Fraxinus excelsior, several species of Willow, Jug- lans regia (Corylus avelania), Fil- bert (Olea Europea), Olive, Vine Raisins and Corinths,Fig, Almond, and perhaps, upon trial and repeat- ed experiment, many more valu- able vegetables would succeed in the southern districts of the Unit- ed States, i. e. from Chesapeak Bay in Virginia, to St. Mary's Ri- ver in Georgia. " The East Indies, in all parts, produce a species of tree called by the natiA-es, and by the Europeans there, Teak. I do not recollect the scientific name or characters ; but, the timber of the Teak-tree surpasses all others for ship-build- ing. I have been informed, by respectable authority, that a ship built of Teak will last twice the length of time of one constructed of the best seasoned oak: it con- tains an oil Avhich prevents the iron- bolts from rusting for a great number of years, and the timber resists the worm in a surprising degree. " I haA*e seen two English India- men, built of this timber at Bom- bay, which, after tAvice the num- ber of A'oyages of the English- built ships, Avere still in good con- dition. The English-built India- men rarely go more than four voyages ; one of those Teak-built TIM 135 ships was on her seventh, three years ago, and is still in service. " I remember to have seen an India galley, called the Success Galley, belonging to the Nabob of Arcot, which Avas built of Teak. This vessel out-sailed all Suffre- in's fleet at the important period when the battle of Porto Novo was fought on the coast of Coromandel. Her commander, at that time, was a relation of Mr. Fenavick, our Consul in France, and he told me that the Success Galley Avas, then, seventy years old. " I mention these facts only to shew the advantage that would be derived from the acquisition of the Teak. The tree abounds on the Malabar, and Coromandel coasts, on the islands of Sumatra and Java, and other islands; and seeds or plants may be obtained without the least difficulty. " Would it not be worthy the regard of our commercial men to pay some attention to this valua- ble object? There can be no doubt of the tree's flourishing in our southern states. The present is the period, of all others, Avhen such an object should excite in- dustry and attention." The folloAving extract contains observations highly Avorthy of con- sideration. '' The vast importance of American Wood and Timber, and Wood- lands. " It is Avell knoAvn, that the re- sources of the United States in wood and timber, Avithin a day's hauling of navigable streams are greatly reduced, and in a course of rapid consumption. Our iron- worki, smith's shops, breweries, 136 T I M TIM distilleries, lime-kilns, coopers, house and ship carpenters, and joiners, cabinet-makers, Avharf- builders, bridge-builders, carriage- makers, tanners, brick-makers, potters, and private families, consume yearly an immense and encreasing quantity of avoocI and timber in their trades and dwell- ings. The exports for one year, ending on the 30th September, 1800, Avere as follows: 19,375,625 Staves and heading, 76,027,800 Shingles, 2,121,189 Hoops and Poles, 68,825,280 Feet of Boards, Planks, Sec. 164,319,JW4 1195 Tons of Timber. Dollars. Other Avooden lumber, 73,344 Oak bark, and dye Avoods, 15,774 Manufactures of Avood, 117,651 Besides these astonishing quan- tities and amounts, there Avere sent out of the United States the following casks made of Avood, re- duced to barrels : 60,000 barrel s for Pot-ash and Pearl-ash, 16,594 do. for Apples, 2,800 do. for Cider and Malt liquors, 75,045 do. for Beef, £5,460 do. for Pork, 81,199 do. for Biscuit, 6-53,052 do. for Hour, 50,388 do. for Pickled Fish, 80,000 do. for Flaxseed, 10,000 do. for Indigo, 1 u0,000 do. for Indian and Rye meal, 14,550 do. for Linseed oil, and other oils, 96,500 do. for Tar, Pitch, Rosin, Turpen- tine, Spirits of Turpentine ami Varnish, 1,400 do. for Wax and Tal-low, 1,500 do. for Molasses, 280,000 do. for Rice, 300,000 do. for Tobacco, 16,000 do. for American Spirits, 40,000 do. for Butter, Lard, Biscuit, &c. 1,994,088 Total. The consumption of wood for 8000 tons of pot and pearl-ashes, and in barrels and casks for flour meal, liquors, meat, fish, oil, ap- ples, £cc. for transportation coast- wise, and for home use is very great. Our public and private ships require a large quantity of Avood to build and repair them. Our buildings for residence, stor- ing goods, covering produce and cattle, mills, workshops, Sec. re- quire a prodigious mass of wooden materials. New-England, and the sandy countries, and the neAv set- tlements, build very little of brick or stone, nearly all of boards and logs. The manufactures of tar, pitch, turpentine and rosin, des- troy or injure yearly a great num- ber of trees. In addition to all these, the very great consumption and demands of Great-Britain, for timber and wooden articles and materials, and for tar, pitch and turpentine, is likely to be trans- ferred from the Baltic countries to the United States of America, be- cause the Baltic countries will be more and more averse to sell them. In their secret feelings, the differ- ences are great and serious, and will probably lead to some altera- tion in commerce and economy of wood, on the part of the Northern TIM T I M 137 powers, whose stock is moreoA'cr greatly exhausted. Besides all these circumstances, it is certain that the demand for Avood to re- build, repair, and improve the West India islands, will be very great. The high prices of coffee, su- gar, rum, molasses, cotton, and other West-India productions en- sure the universal cultivation of those islands, which will at least double the demand for American wooden materials to build, and to pack produce. It has become the interest of the people of this coun- try, to consider its property in wood and woodlands Avith attention and forethought ; and our mer- chants and government will not be unmindful of the importance of our private and public ship-building, our carrying trade, and our naval armaments, whether standing or occasional." It may no doubt, seem strange to an unthinking person, that the people of the United States should be so strongly urged to an imme- diate attention to forest trees. But the cause of Avonder will be abat- ed Avhen he reflects upon the in- calculable consumption of Avood, and is informed, what other coun- tries have done, and are noAV do- ing on the same subject. About four centuries since, the great scarcity of Avood caused a very se- rious alarm in France, for the peo- ple of that country had long been in the practice now pursued in the United States, viz. to cut down the trees as wanted, Avithout think- ing how they were to be replaced, or Avhat would supply the Avants of posterity. Government therefore ordered that every man Avho cut doAvn,a tree should plant another, and this rule is observed even to • vol.. v. this day. In England and Scotland, also, many thousand trees have been planting on Avasteplantations, every year for several years past, and there can be no doubt, but that in another century, both those countries will be well stocked Avith timber. The folloAving extract has been communicated to the public, in " A Collection of Papers upon Naval Architecture," noAV publishing in England, and deserves particular attention. " Means of preserving Timber in Vessels and Bridges. " A man Avho had been former- ly concerned in ship-building, but for thirty years past has been a bridge-builder, had early in life observed, on examining Avorm-eaV- en ships, that the worm never eat Avithin the seams where the caulk- ing chisel enters, and the oil, he. He had also observed, that the whaling vessels Avould be eaten to a honey comb, except a little above and beloAv water, Avhere the Avhale is brought into contact Avith the vessel, and is beating till it is cut up. " A plank lying under water at a mill of his, had been obliged to be reneAved annually,because eaten up by the Avorm A\*ithin the course of the year; at length a plank Avas accidentally put down, which for some purpose had been thorough- ly impregnated Avith oil; it re- mained seven years without being affected....hence he took the idea of impregnating the timber of his bridges thoroughly Avith oil, by heating the timhei" as dee,) is possible, and doing it in that state Avith the liver oil of the cod- fish ; he had practiced this for 30 1' 138 TIM TIM years, and there was no instance of the worm attacking his tim- bers, Avhilst those in neighbouring places Avere immediately destroyed .....He had used the liver oil, be- cause very thick ; experiment, he said, must shew whether other oils would do equally well. He ob- served that there would be no dif- culty in heating the planks of a ship after they Avere put on as well as before....but I do not recollect his mentioning ever to have tried it in the case of a ship." Having heard that the bridges at Boston had been preserved by oiling the timbers, the Editor Avas induced to inquire into the fact, and he learned, " That the piles of Chaki.es' river bridge, [built in 1786] Avere originally of oak, burnt [charred] and oiled, and are still sound. The piles of West Boston bridge [built after the for- mer,] Avere pine, without charring or oiling, and worms soon made honey comb of them ; they are all now replaced Avith oak oiled, and Avill probably continue as long as the other."] TIME, in general, denotes either the succession of natural pheno- mena, occurring in the universe ; or, according to Mr. Locke, it is a mode of duration which is marked by certain periods or measures,but principally by the motion and re- volution of the sun : some philoso- phers, however, have lately defin- ed time to be the duration of a thing, the existence of which is neither Avithout beginning nor end. Consistently Avith our plan, Ave cannot enter into any speculative disquisitions respecting the nature of time : Ave shall, therefore, only remark, that it has been divided into astronomical and civil: the for- mer being regulated entirely by the motion of the celestial bodies ; while the latter division compre- hends the astronomical time adapt- ed to the purposes of civil life ; and is distinguished by years, months, days, hours, minutes, and seconds. Few reflections are of greater importance than those on the tran- sitory nature of time ; which is perhaps the only thing in the world, that is absolutely irrecoverable: hence, we are often surprized at the conduct of those who, under the mistaken notion of killing time, contrive and pursue every species of dissipation, in order to suppress the occasional warning of their de- graded understandings, to stifle the remaining sense of their duties,and in a manner to forget themselves as rational agents, who are appoint- ed to fulfil certain purposes, by which they might distinguish them- selves from -the brute creation.... Nevertheless, a moderate partici- pation in the amusements of the day, or the enjoyment of select company, is highly commendable ; but, Avhen such indulgence exceeds the limits of prudence, it not only deserves severe censure, but is ul- timately attended with bitter re- morse. TIME-PIECE, a term including clocks, watches, and other contri- vances, for measuring the pro- gress, or ascertaining the duration of time. The ancients were not acquaint- ed with other time-pieces than the common sun-dial, and water-clocks, or vessels filled with any liquid, which Avas alloAved to descend in drops, so that the portion thus dis- engaged, in an imperfect manner indicated the length of time, which TIM TIM 139 had elapsed : for these contrivan- ces, hour-glasses were afterwards substituted. The present mechanical time- pieces with the pendulum, were probably invented in Italy, towards the end of the 13th, or beginning of the 14th century; but the smaller machines, called watches, were not known in Europe till the middle of the 17th century, Avhen the steel spring was employed as a substitute for weights, and the spiral or regulating spring, in- stead of the pendulum. The me- rit of this invention is claimed by the city of Nurnberg, Avhence Oli- ver Cromwell was furnished with an oval watch, that is still shewn among the curiosities de- posited in the British museum..... In England, these useful chrono- meters were first made by Dr. Hooke ; and in Holland, by Huy- gens ; but the name of their ori- ginal inventor is consigned to ob- livion. Since that period, numer- ous improvements have been made by Tompion, Sully, Le Roi, Berthoud, Gray, Graham, and other artists, Avhose names Ave de- cline to register. From the extensive utility of time-pieces, in measuring with ex- actness the periodical revolutions of planetary bodies, it was farther conjectured, that such machines might be advantageously employ- ed for the purpose of ascertaining the longitude at sea. Various ex- periments have, by order of the British government, been institut- ed with this design ; but the most correct instrument, was that con- structed by the late Mr. Harri- son, and denominated a Time- keeper; for Avhich the Commis- sioners of the Board of Longitude, in 1764, aAvarded him the sum of 10,000/. being one half of the pre- mium which Avas promised by an act of parliament, passed in 1714, to the artist Avhose me- chanical contrivance might be cal- culated to find the longitude at sea. Mr. Harrison's admirable work did not vary more than 43" of time in a voyage from Eng- land to Jamaica: it Avas afterwards improved : and a time-piece, con- structed on his principles, was sent out with Captain Cook, in 1772; which, during the space of three years, did not differ more than 14.| seconds per diem ; the remaining sum of 10,000/. was consequently paid to the inventor. Our limits not permitting us to enter into the rationale of its mechanism, the reader is referred to the Principles of Mr. Harrison's, Time-Keeper, Sec. (4to. 1767, 5s. Nourse), in Avhich its construction, as well as its application, are fully stated, and illustrated with plates. Another time-keeper for ascer- taining the longitude, was invent- ed, a feAV years since, by Mr. Ar- nold, and which during a trial of 13 months differed only 6. 69" dur- ing any tAvo days. Its greatest va- riation Would not have exceeded one minute of Longitude, which might thus be computed with the same accuracy as the latitude can be determined. We understand, however, that this contrivance has not been introduced into the Navv. TIMOTHY-GRASS,orP/M>um, L. a genus of plants, comprehends ing eight species, four being indi- genous ; of Avhich the folloAving are the principal, namely : I. The nodosum, or Knotty Timothy-Grass, groAvs chiefly on the dry, hilly, pastures in the vi- cinity of Bath, and flowers in the month of June....This species, in the opinion of Mr. Sole, is Avell calculated for dairy pastures ;' as 140 T I N TIN it affords a large quantity of rich milk, and is eagerly eaten by coavs. It is also relished by sheep and other cattle; though disliked by horsef, where they find the mea- cIoav or fescue-grasses. 2. The pratense, or Common Timothy-grass, thYrves generally in moist pastures, and floAvers in July. The culture of this grass has been strongly recommended by Mr. Roc que, in the 4th vol. of the Museum Rusticum et Commer- ciat'e. According to him, it is eaten by horses and cows, preferably to any other pasture-grass ; though Dr. Poultnfy observes, that it is disliked by sheep, and is not re- lished by horses or cows : Mr. Sole, and the Rev. Mr. Swayne, likeAvise remark, that the Com- mon Timothy-grass is very coarse, of little value for cattle, and does not deserve to be cultivated in England. Notwithstanding such diversity of opinion, we appeal to the authority of Linnaeus, who expressly states the Common Ti- mothy-grass should be soAvn on lands, Avhich have been neAvly drained ; as it is very luxuriant, attains the height of 3 or 4 feet, and prospers in Avet and marshy situations. Farther, we learn from Bechstein, that its stalk grows to the h-right of 6 feet ; that hjrs'es, and s~Ane, are exceedingly partial to this grass ; consequently, that if merits the attention of farmers who wish to improve moist mea- dows over-grown with moss....[See Grass.] TIX, or S'anmim, one of the imp'.'i-L-ct metals,Avhich is obtained principally from the county of Cornwall, Avhere it is sometimes dug up in a native or pure state ; though more frequently mixed with a large proportion of arsenic, sulphur, and iron. The crude ore is first broken to pieces, and Avash- ed; then roasted in an intense hsat, Avhich dissipates the arsenic; and afterwards fused in a furnace, till it be reduced to a metallic state. Tin is the lightest and most fu- sible of all metals : it is of a grey- ish-white colour ; has a strong, disagreeable taste ; and, when rub- bed, emits a peculiar odour : it is also remarkably malleable ; and, Avhen beaten into very thin plates, or tinfoil, is employed in covering Looking-glasses. Farther, tin readily unites with copper, form- ing the compositions known under the names of Bronze, and Bell- metal : by immersing thin plates of iron into melted tin,they" become coated, and are then termed Block- tin, or Latten ; which is manufac- tured into tea-canisters, and vari- ous culinary utensils. [" a. Native Tin : pure native tin is so very rare, that its real ex- istence has been doubted. " (a) 2. Native Oxyde, Spathose tin ore ; tin combined with oxygen and iron ; is found in various mo- difications. " b. Brown Tin-stone and Spar; consists of calx of tin, calx of iron, and acid of tungsten. k< c. Wood-tin, Stream Tin, or Cornish Tin Ore ; found only in Cornwall, in small globular or re- niform pieces, sometimes of a fi- brous or radiated texture; con- taining tin, with oxygen and iron. " d. Tin Pyrites, Sulpherised Tin, or Sulphuret of Tin ; con- tains tin, sulphur, copper and iron, besides it's matrix; it is distinguish- ed by it's sulphureous smell when heated."....Lettsom's Traveller's Companion. " All the acids attack reguline TIN tin, requiring for their saturation more of the imperfect than of the perfect oxide. The sulphuric acid oxidates it without dissolving it, but the sulphureous acid forms Avith it a sulphite, or sulphurated sulphite of tin. " Water is sufficient to precipi- tate this oxidated metal. Mr. Mon- NET*has obtained crystals, the sul- phite of tin, which resemble fine needles, interlacing each other. "In pure nitric acid it is direct- ly precipitated in a white oxide. The acid must therefore be consi- derably diluted and no heat em- ployed ; thus the nitrate of tin may be obtained. " This nitrate burns with a Avhite and thick flame like that of phos- phorus ; and detonates when well heated in a crucible. On distil- lation it boils up, and fills the re- ceiver Avith a Avhite vapour, smel- ling like nitric acid. " By adding a solution of gold to the solution of tin in the nitric acid, a beautiful purple precipi- tate falls. " Tin is dissolved by the muriatic acid, cold or heated, a fetid gas being disengaged. The solution is yelloAvish, and the muriate of tin crystalizes in needle like forms, and attracts humidity. u The oxide in this salt is im- perfect, and eagerly takes up oxy- gen if presented to it. This it does if brought in contact Avith oxy- muriatic acid in an elastic state, also in the following process. " When amalgamated Avith one- fifth of mercury, and distilled Avith an equal quantity of the whole, of corrosive sublimate, an insipid li- quor first comes over, and then white vapours, Avhich condense in- to a transparent liquor, that emits a considerable ciuantity of vapours, TIN 141 by mere exposure to the air. This is the smoking liquor of Libavius ; appearing to be an oxygenated muriate of tin. " It is dissolved by the oxy-muriatic acid Avith vehemence, and when the acid is highly concentrated, a magma is obtained, resembling pitch, Avhich hardens in time. " It is dissolved in the common aqua fords, prepared with salt- petre of the first boiling, for the composition for scarlet dye, from cochinelle. This solution often dis- appoints, from the variable pro- portions of the muriate of soda, and nitrate of pot-ash ; Avhen it contains too little muriate, a pre- cipitate falls ; and when the acid is in excess, it affords an obscure colour. The most accurate pro- portions for a good solvent of tin, are tAvo parts of nitric, and one of muriatic acid. " It may be combined Avith other metals in various proportions. The malleability of gold is impaired even by an exposure to its fumes. Silver also suffers a diminution of its malleability by being fused Avith it. When alloyed Avith copper, it forms bronze, or bf.ll-mf.tal ; with a very small proportion of iron it becomes harder, and more so- norous. " Of similar mixtures the metal- lic specula for reflecting tel- lescotes are cast, such as 2 parts of copper, 1 of tin, and l-16thof arsenic. " Three parts of tin, with five of bismuth, and two of lead, forms an alloy, which has been termed the soft sobder, it liquefies in boiling Avater.....Lichtenbuug. " Two parts of tin with one of bismuth afford, according to Wal- ler res, the compound called tu- tenag, an appellation Avhich is 142 T I N TIN given in the East Indies to zinc.... Gren. « One part of tin and one of zinc being melted together, and mixed with two of mercury, then agitated in a box rubbed with chalk, forms an amalgam which wonder- fully augments the power of klfc- tkical machines....Kienm\yek. "Itsamalgamating with quicksil- ver, occasions its being employed in the formation of mirrors. 1 part of tin, 1 of lead, 1 of bis- muth, and 2 of mercury, form an amalgam employed for covering CURVILINEAR GLASS MIRRORS. " When combined with lead and antimony, it forms a mixture called pewter, very generally employed in fabricating vessels for A-arious domestic purposes. " It is also employed in the composition for printer's types. " Tin is also employed in ena- melling. A mixture of lead and tin, 100 parts of lead to 15, 20, 30, or even 40 of tin, is to be first calcined, 100 parts of the above calx fused in a potter's furnace Avith 100 of sand, containing nearly. a third of talc, and 25 or 30 of muriate of soda, form the compo- sition for earthen ware. " For enamelling on metal, the sand is previously calcined Avith a fourth part of muriate of soda, and even of minium. Fluxes for the colours are generally similar com- positions, except that lead tarnish- es Avith some colours. For deli- cate colours therefore similar com- positions to the following may be used : Three parts of sand, one of chalk, and three of borax ; or three of glass, one of borax, a fourth of nitre, and one of white oxide of antimbny. " Painting on enamel may be per- formed either on the raw or on the baked enamel. The colours are produced by the matallic ox- ides. The oxide of gold forms purple; iron, by peculiar ma- nagement, red ; lead, antimony, and silver.....yellow ; copper..... green; cobalt....blue; manganese ....violet. " From the affinity of copper Avith tin, it admits of being timied, or of having its surface covered with tin. For this purpose the copper is first scraped, or cleaned by an acid, then heated, some re- sinous substance being applied to prevent oxidation, and the tin is rubbed over its surface. " If care be taken to prevent oxidation, and a proper degree of heat be employed, the tin may be made to enter into combination with iron, and iron may thus have its surface tinned."....Parkinson's Chemical Pocket Book.'] TINCTURE, in general, de- notes a solution of the more vola- tile and active parts of various bodies, from the three kingdoms of Nature, by means of a proper solvent: see Menstruum. This term is, however, more particular- ly applied to those spirituous prepa- rations., Avhich contain the resinous parts of vegetables, as well as their flavour and colour. The usual solvents, employed for extracting the medicinal virtues of plants, are water, and rectified spirit of Avine ; the latter of which is frequently used for obtaining the active principles from resins and the essential oils, that yield them imperfectly to the former. With a view to make a tincture or elix- ir, the vegetable or other matter is usually bruised, put into a mat- ress, and the spirit is poured on it, to the depth of about tAAo in- ches. The glass is then closed, TIN and placed in a sand-heat for five or six days, or till the spirit be- come perfectly impregnated, and acquire a deep colour. The quan- tity of a tincture, to be adminis- tered for one dose, varies accord- ing to its constituent parts; though it seldom exceeds a tea-spoonful, which is taken at such times as the nature of the complaint may re- quire. TINNING, is the process of coating copper vessels, chiefly used for culinary purposes : it is gene- rally performed in the following manner: If the copper be new, its surface is first scoured with salt and dilut- ed sulphuric acid : next, pulveriz- ed resin is strewed over the inte- rior part of the vessel; into Avhich, after heating it to a considerable degree, melted tin is carefully poured, and a roll of hard-twisted flax is passed briskly over the sides and bottom, to render the coating uniform. The tinning old vessels, a second time, the surface is first scraped, or scoured with iron- scales, then pulverized sal-ammo- niac is strewed over it, and the melted tin is rubbed on the sur- face Avith a solid piece of sal-am- moniac. The process for covering iron vessels with tin, corresponds Avith that last described ; but they ought to be previously cleaned Avith the muriatic acid, instead of being scraped or scoured. As many families living at a dis- tance from toAvns, either have no opportunity of sending their cop- per utensils to be re-tinned; or carelessly overlook such necessary repair, Ave think it useful to ob- ser\re, that the whole process may be easily performed by servants, who possesscommon skill anddex- terity. For this purpose, the vts- T O A 143 sel ought to be previously scoured, and dried ; then exposed to a mo- derate heat, with such a portion of pure grain-tin as may be sufficient to cover the inner surface : Avhen this metal is melted, a small quan- tity of sal-ammoniac should be strewed over it; and immediately after, a whisk or roll of coarse and hard twisted flax most be employ- ed, for spreading the composition uniformly over the sides and bot- tom of the vessel. To improve the coating, about a third part of zine may be added to the tin ; though the latter Avould produce the de- sired effect, if it could be obtained in a pure state. [A neAv and excellent mode of tinning copper vessels is given in vol. ii. p. 208 :.....it may here be Avell to observe, that whiting should be used to scour tinned vessels, instead of sand, which is common- ly employed in the United States; and Avhich rubs off this important coat.] TOAD, or Rana bufo, L. is the most deformed and hideous of the lower animals. Its body is broad, the back is flat, and covered with a dusky skin marked Avith pimples; its large belly appears inflated: on account of the short legs, its mo- tions are sIoav, and its retreat ii filthy. Although the external appear- ance of this ugly creature inspires disgust, and even horror, yet it is asserted that the eyes of toads are remarkably brilliant. Insects of all kinds, and particularly flesh- maggots, and winged ants, afihrd food exceedingly grateful to toads. Nevertheless, these dreaded ani- mals por.sess no noxious qualities: on the contrary, it has latclv been asserted, that they fi;;r.ish the means of curing Cancers, by si:~- 144 TOB T OB tion. Mr. Pennant, however, questions their efficacy, and re- marks, " that they seem only to have rendered a horrible complaint more loathsome." Toad-flax. See Flax the Toad. TOBACCO-PLANT, the Com- mon, or Nicotiana Tabacum, L. is a native of America, where consi- derable quantities are annually raised for exporation ; and also in Spain, Portugal, Turkey, and Malta. There are eight species of this narcotic plant, but the principal varieties are knoAvn under the names of Oronokoe, and Sweet- scented Tobacco: both attain the height of from six to nine feet; being distinguished only by their deep green leaves ; the former of which are longer and narroAver than those of the latter. If their culture were not restricted by the legislature (half a pole of ground only being alloAved for such pur- pose, in physic-gardens; but, if that space be exceeded, the culti- vator is liable to a penalty of 10/. for every rod), they might be pro- pagated from seed, Avhich ought to be soAvn towards the middle of April, in beds of warm, rich, light soil. In the course of a month, or six Aveeks, they must be trans- planted into similar situations, at the distance of about two feet from each other. Here they should be carefully Aveeded, and occasionally Avatered, during dry Aveather..... When the plants are about two feet high, they shoot forth branch- es ; and, as these draw the nutri- ment from the leaves, it becomes necessary to top, or nip off the extremity of the stalks, in order to prevent them from attaining to a greater height; ar.d also to re- move the young sprouts, Avhich continually shoot forth between the leaves and the stem. No far- ther attention will be required, .till the leaves begin to ripen; a change which is knoAvn, by their becoming rough and mottled with yellow spots, and by the stalk being co- vered Avith a species of down. The tobacco plants are noAV cut off closely to the roots, and exposed on the dry ground to the rays of the sun, till the leaves become wilted, or so pliant as to bend in any direction Avithout breaking..... They are then laid in heaps under shelter, for three or four days, in order to sweat, or ferment; being turned every day ; next the to- bacco leaves are suspended on strings, at a small distance from each other, for the space of a month ; at the end of which they may be taken down, laid in heaps, and sweated a second time for a week, being then pressed with heavy logs of wood. The last operation is that of picking the leaves ; when they are packed in hogsheads for exportation. Uses:....Various properties have been attributed to this stupefying drug, since it Avas first introduced into Europe, about the middle of the 16th century. Its smoke, Avhen properly blown against noxi- ous insects, effectually destroys them ; but the chief consumption of this plant, is in the manufactures of Snuff and Tobacco, or the cut leaves for Smoking. It is likeAvise (though Ave think, with- out foundation), believed to pre- vent the return of hunger; and is therefore chewed in considerable quantities by mariners, as Avell as the labouring classes of people; a disgusting practice which cannot be too severely censured. For, T OB T O B 145 though in some cases, this method of using tobacco, may afford relief in the rheumatic tooth-ach, yet, as the constant mastication of it in- duces an uncommon discharge of saliva, its narcotic qualities ope- rate more powerfully, and thus eventually impair the digestive or- gans. As a medicine, the use of tobacco requires great precaution ; and it should never be resorted to with- out professional advice : it is chief- ly employed in clysters, and as an ingredient in ointments, for destroy- ing cutaneous insects, cleansing inveterate ulcers, 8cc. Lastly, in- deed Mr. Fowler has success- fully prescribed it, in the various forms of tincture, infusion, and pills, as a diuretic, in cases of dropsy and dysury: if one ounce of the infusion of tobacco be mixed with a pint of water-gruel, and in- jected as a clyster (being occasion- ally repeated), Dr. F. states, that it will afford great relief in obsti- nate constipations of the bowels.... The smoke has, for ages, been ad- ministered in the form ofinjection, as a sovereign remedy for the dry- belly-ach, prevalent in the West Indies. Beside the varieties of this herb already described, there is another, termed English Tobacco, or Nicotiana minor v. rustica, L. it is originally a native of America ; but, having been raised in some British gardens for curiosity, its leaves are frequently substituted for the genuine drug. They pos- sess similar narcotic properties Avith the Hen-bane ; and may be dis- tinguished from foreign tobacco, by the pedicles Avhich abound on them, and also by their smallness and oval shape. It is remarkable, that the daily VOL. V. smoking of tobacco, is a practice which has only Avithin the last cen- tury become general throughout Europe, especially in Holland and Germany; where it constitutes one of the greatest luxuries with Avhich the industrious, poor peasants, as Avell as the more indolent and wealthy classes, regale themselves and their friends. In Britain, Iioav- ever, the lower and middle ranks, only, appear to be attached to such fumigations ; Avhich, though occa- sionally useful in damp and mephi- tic situations, are always hurtful to persons of dry and rigid fibres, weak digestion, or delicate habits ; but particularly to the young, ple- thoric, asthmatic, and those Avhose ancestors have been consumptive ; or who are themselves threatened Avith pulmonary diseases. In proof of this assertion. Ave shall only re- mark, that a few drops of the oil distilled from the leaves of this powerful plant, taken internally, have operated as fatal poison : and, a considerable portion of such oil being disengaged vrithin the tube of tobacco-pipes, during combus- tion, the noxious effects of inhal- ing and absorbing it by the mouth, may be easily inferred. See also Smoking. Lastly, the ashes of tobacco may be applied to many economical pur- poses : they not only extirpate those small and noxious vermin, earth-slugs, but at the same time fertilize the soil, Avhen strevred on it early in the spring. Farther, by scattering them occasionally over the food of horses and geese, the health of these animals is said to be greatly benefited: they also afford a good tooth-powder; a strong ley ; pot-ash ; and an use- ful ingredient in the manufacture of glass. We understand that U 146 T O B considerable quantities of tobacco- ashes might be easily procured from the King's warehouses es- tablished for this merchandize, in London, and other sea-ports ; where large parcels of spoiled leaves are frequently committed to the flames. [The history of this plant, and an ample detail of the mode of its cultivation, pursued in Virginia, may be found in Col. Tatham's work on Tobacco, lately published in London. The use of tobacco is wholly ar- tificial, and no one who used it in any form, ever advised another to follow the example. The reader Avho is anxious to see its injurious effects on both body and mind, de- tailed in an ample manner, is re- ferred to an excellent paper by Dr. Rush, in his " Essays, Lite- rary, Moral, and Philosophical, Phi- ladelphia, 1798." At present, it is our business to point out the good to be derived from the use of this nauseous vegetable ; and for this purpose, we shall make the folioaving extract from an inaugu- ral dissertation by Dr. Brails- ford of South-Carolina, Philadel- phia, 1799. "The medical powers of tobacco Avere generally known among phy- sicians, at an early period, who ascribed many virtues to it in cer- tain obstinate diseases. With re- spect to its operation as a general evacuant, I may, from my experi- ments, and the corroborating as- sertions of various authors, pro- nounce this medicine a valuable acquisition to the materia medica; and that its evident operation on the system, is that of a sudorific, an emetic, a cathartic, and a diure- tic. Hence the propriety of its use, in a variety of diseases. T OB « In cases of ascites and other dropsical affections, it appears to be an invaluable remedy. " As a diuretic, I would venture to assert, that it is excelled by few, if any of our indigenous plants..... The digitalis purpurea, or purple fox-glove, which grows luxuriantly in South-Carolina, has been much celebrated for its diuretic quality, by medical characters ; but I have seen instances Avhere the tobacco has eradicated several violent cases of ascites, where this had proved but of little effect. " Diuretics," says a much celebrated character*, " have so long been employed with benefit in the treatment of drepsies, that it becomes matter of consequence, to increase the num- ber of the medicines of this class, and to learn hoAV to exhibit, with more advantage, those which are already known." In how great es- timation then should Ave hold that plant, which is evidently endowed with a power of evacuating the ac- cumulated Avater by a natural dis- charge, for the relief of ascites and other dropsical affections, in lieu of resorting to a surgical operation, which is painful and disagreeable to the afflicted patient; that Nico- tiana possesses that quality, no one Avill pretend to deny. " Every practitioner of medicine, who has attentively perused the publication of the ingenious Dr. Fowler, on the effects of tobacco, Avith respect to its diuretic quality, must candidly acknoAvledge its sa- lutary effects, in cases of dropsy and dysury. The uniform result attendant on his experiments, to- " * See professor Barton's essay to- wards a materia medica of the United State.-., page 34. T OB T O B 147 gether with the many proofs of its virtues which have come under my cognizance, clearly evince the inde- finite worth of this plant, and the necessity of administering it in those cases of dropsy, which seem to triumph over medicines of less efficacy, although held in the great- est repute. "gThe result of this enquiiy, has afforded him very favourable ideas upon the subject, and from the number of facts enumerated by him, we may infer, that tobacco, under proper regulations, may be administered internally, not only as a safe, but as an efficacious, and valuable remedy ; especially, as a powerful diuretic in cases of drop- sies and dysuries. " To illustrate the manner of its exhibition, and also its salutary effects in many cases, I will take the liberty of inserting a feAv ex- tracts from Dr. F. as related by him, and Avhich were the results of his OAvn observations. " It appears from many experi- ments," says the doctor, "that the average dose for an adult,sufficient to produce the desired effect, will be about eighty drops of the infu- sion ; or to speak with some lati- tude, from sixty drops to one hun- dred, and to be repeated twice a day. " The properest times for ad- ministering the medicine, are two hours before dinner, and at bed- time ; it being observed to disa- gree the most Avith the stomach, in a morning fasting. And such is the difference between morning and night, that almost every pa- tient Avill require to take one fourth, and some even one third less, in the forenoon, than in the evening ; in order to enable them to bear the doses, with equal convenience..... The infusion should always be ad- ministered in some vehicle ; which may either be water, or any other simple drink. " The common dose just men- tioned, relates only to adults of an ordinary constitution; for it de- serves particular notice, that be- tween constitutions, which are very nervous and irritable, and those which are very robust, or torpid, or long accustomed to the use of tobacco, the doses will ad- mit af very great, and surprising variations. " As an illustration of this point, I shall here annex a comparative view of the doses of the infusion, administered in 94 cases of adults ; taking the medium-dose of each case, and reducing the whole into four classes, according to the num- ber of drops. First class. Medium doses. 21 Cases (3 men, and 18 women), from 35 to 60 drops. Second Class. 57 Cases, (29 men, and 28 wo- men), from 60 to 100 drops. Third Class. 13 Cases, (9 men, and 4 women), from 100 to 150. Fourth Class. 3 Cases, (3 men), from 150 to 300 drops. 94 Seeing the diversity of doses is so great, I avouUI lay it down as a rule, by way of caution, to begin with 60 drops, or three fourths of the medium-dose, in a case of a delicate constitution ; and to inj crease the number of drops, by five, eight or ten at a time, till by their obvious effects on the system, the proper dose shall be ascertained. " But if the patient should be a male, and the constitution robust, 148 T O B TOB torpid, or accustomed to the use of tobacco, we may safely venture to begin with 80, 90 or 100 drops ; and thus, with more expedition, re- gulate the further doses according to the effects. " In Nephritis....\n cases of ne- phritis calculosa, or gravel, the in- fusion of tobacco has been given with very good effect; and Dr. F. affirms, that he has seen many cases where it proved of infinite utility, ar.d in some instances per- fected radical cu.'cs. Physicians, many years back, Avere not igi.or- ant of its virtues in such affections; for they have asserted that it has proved " profitable for those Avho are troubled with a stone in the kidney, Loth to ease pain and by provoking urim^oexpel gravel and the stone engendered therein." Thcatrum Botanicu,n, p. 711. " Ascarides...A species of worm', thus termed from their incessant troublesome motion, Avhich exites an itching. They are small and white, Avith sharp pointed heads, and generally exist in the rectum. " They oftentimes occasion such uneasines in some people as to in- duce fainting, and frequently prove so troublesome throughout the night, as to deprive them of sleep. They are so completely enveloped in mucus, that it is with difficulty they can be eradicated, and fre- quently they resist the most pow- erful anthelmintics ; but practical authors observe, " that the fumes of burning tobacco injected clyster- wise into the rectum, is of singular efficacy." " Fankrs are aAvare of its im- mense virtues in such affections, for they generally pronounce it to be infallible in expelling those small worms, commonly' called bots, Avhich so frequently prove mortal to many horses. liInAsthma....ln asthmatic cases, this medicine has frequently af- forded relief, by its expectorant quality. Dr. F. observes, that he has tried the infusion in many cases of asthma, where it proved expectorant, and procured relief. For agreeably to the discharge of mucus, we find the remission of coughing more or less considera- ble : but should an inflammatory type prevail, which generally oc- curs in the recent stage of this dis- ease, its use should be protracted, until proper depletive remedies have had the effect of reducing the system to that state, Avhich Avould render its exhibition the more effi- cacious. " In Odontalgia or Tooth-ach..... In such affections, the smoking of a segar, has imparted considerable relief. A piece of lint, impreg- nated with the expressed juice of tobacco, has often, in some instan- ces, acted as a charm, in mitigat- ing the violence of the tooth-ach. The oil of tobacco, dropped on a piece of cotton, of sufficient mag- nitude to occupy the concavity of the affected tooth, has provedalmost instantaneous in its relief. It must here be remarked that this remedy should not be adopted by persons unaccustomed to the use of tobac- co, as the oil is extremely nause- ous, and will oftentimes induce vo- miting. In these various forms, tobacco acts by its stimulating quality, destroying the sensibility of the nerve, and thereby encoun- tering pain. Opium oftentimes acts in like manner, but neither perfect permanent cures ; for the pains frequently recur, and the only radical remedy, to which we TOB T O B 149 must ultimately resort, is the ex- traction of the affected tooth. " In Colic....The decoction of tobacco, exhibited in the form of an injection, has afforded almost in- stantaneous relief, after other me- dicines had proved ineffectual. " Dr. F. remarks, that by a pro- per administration, the violent ef- fects of tobacco may be avoided. An ounce of the infusion he ob- serves, will be found a medium dose, in the form of an injection, for an adult of an ordinary consti- tution ; and the general rule by which he was guided, is as folloAvs; supposing a common injection to have been administered Avithout effect, I Avould order one of an ounce of the infusion, agreeable to the preceding observation, in half a pint of milk, or common gruel, to be immediately injected. If this procured no relief, or excited no giddiness, or nausea, continu- ing for the space of 30, 40, or 60 minutes; these last effects in ob- stinate constipations, most fre- quently preceding its laxative op- eration, then I would gradually in- crease the strength of the future injections, till one or other of these effects should take place" " By this mode of proceeding, the powers of the medicine, whe- ther successful or not, will be fully tried in the space of a feAv hours ; a matter of serious consequence, where suspense is distressing, and delay dangerous. " In the Iliac passion....11 It is highly proper," says Dr. Syden- ham, " to give a strong purging clyster, an hour or two after bleed- ing." Wallis's Sydenham, p. 443. In such cases, 1 l^ave seen the to- bacco infusion made use of with considerable advantage. The doc- tor himself remarks the salutary effects of tobacco in this disease. " The smoke of tobacco," he ob- serves, « forced up through a blad- der into the boAvels by an inverted pipe, has-been attended with very beneficial consequences." " It is asserted in ihe Encyclope- dia, that a strong decoction of to- bacco throAvn up the rectum, has proved of good effect in Avhat is usually called the stone-colic, and also in the iliac passion. In Hernia. (Ruptures.)....\t ge- nerally occurs that costiveness is one of the most alarming symp- toms attendant on this disease, for the relief of Avhich, stimulating pur- gatives are generally administer- ed ; but it not unfrequently hap- pens that they do much injury ; for when they have not the desired ef- fect, they produce a considerable nausea at the stomach, and some- times vomiting, Avhich promotes the pain and tension of the tu- mour. " In such affections," says Mr. Bell, " I Avould recommend to- bacco smoke throAvn up in the form of injections, as preferable to every other remedy." Bell's Siureiv, vol. I. p. 162.' " In Tympanites Intestinalis.... This is termed a flatulent dropsy, the abdomen frequently becomes considerably distended, and in such cases the chief intention is to dis- charge the flatulencies : various remedies have been indicated for this purpose, and there hsve been instances Avhere the infusion of to- bacco has proved efficacious after the failure of many of them. " A case of two years continu- ance," says Dr. F. " after the trial of various remedies, has been sur- prisingly relieved by clysters of tobacco prepared in a v_;-y strong manner. Their operation Avas 150 T O B T OB moderately purgative, accompani- ed with nausea, vertigo, a copious perspiration, and much discharge of Avind." '■'■In obstinate Ulcers...The dried leaves of tobacco, steeped in water and applied to the parts affected, have sometimes been attended with beneficial effects. "Mr. William Bartram in- formed me, that he kncAV of seve- ral long standing ulcers, after hav- ing resisted the usual remedies, that Avere entirely cured by the use of tobacco in the manner a- bove specified. Dr. Earle, of Maryland, communicated to me the case of a child, who had been for several Aveeks afflicted Avith an eruption on its head, Avhich evad- ed the skill of several eminent physicians, that Avas ultimately cured by an old Avoman, who daily dressed it Avith an ointment of to- bacco, previously Avashing the part Avith a decoction of the same. « In the JtcA...This fulsome dis- order has frequently been cured by the application of tobacco to the affected parts. Mr. Jacobs, a gentleman from Paris, informed me, that the French physicians, make great use of the tobacco wash in obstinate cases of cutane- ous eruptions. The Avash is pre- pared in the folloAving manner: " To one pound of the dried tobacco leaves, add four quarts of water; let these boil slowly over a gentle fire, for the space of half an hour, then pour off the liquor, and add to it one ounce of soda or mineral alkali. The parts affected are to be well rubbed Avith a suffi- cient portion of this mixture, and to be continued from one to three Aveeks, according to the virulency of the case. Though it must be remarked, that in consequence of the irritability of many constitu-- lions, great caution is requisite, with respect to its use ; as it has, in some instances, occasioned vo- miting, and sometimes convul- sions. The same, he avers, sel- dom fails of curing the itch : the eruptive parts are to be washed three or four times a day, until every appearance subsides ; in this way radical cures have been effected, even after the disease had resisted the most poAverful medi- cines. " A strong decoction of the stalks Avith sharp-pointed dock and alum is said to be of good service, used externally, in cuticular dis- tempers : this is also said to be infallible in curing the mange in dogs. See the new Encyclopedia, by George Selby Howard. In Phtheiriasis...JYh'\% is a lousy distemper, to which most children are generally subject, adults also at times, are afflicted with it..... Moist and Avarm situations pro- mote the increase of these detesta- ble vermin ; but a cold and dry one very soon exterminate them. Four species are peculiar to the human body, viz. 1st. Thepediculi, so called from their being more troublesome Avith their feet, than from their bite. They generally infest the head, particularly if sore. " A gentleman informed me, that Avhen young, he Avas neglect- ed by his attendants, and for a time was much afflicted with the first and third species of these vermin, Avhich occasioned obstinate erup- tions, in his head, and on various parts of his body. Many medi- cines Avere tried for his relief, but Avithout any benefit whatever..... Recourse was then had to a strong decoction of tobacco, Avhich Avas applied three or four times a day, TOB TOB 151 to the parts affected, and in a fort- night or three weeks he was radi- cally cured. " 2d. Morpiones or Crab-lice.... They are thus called from the analogy which they bear to a crab- fish. 3d. Body-lice. These are •generated in the apparel of the filthy. 4th. A species which breed undsr the cuticle, and are called by some authors cyriones. They are of a round form, extremely minute, and are generally found in the hands and feet. By creeping under the scarfskin they induce an intolerable itching, and when the skin bursts where they lodge,.clus- ters of them are found deposited in a small concavity. " A good diet and attention to cleanliness contribute much to the destruction of these vermin. Mer- curial ointment, and a solution of corrosive sublimate are held in the greatest estimation ; but I have heard of instances, where these have failed, and an infusion of to- bacco perfected a radical cure. " A decoction of tobacco proves very destructive to flies, when sprinkled about a room. " Dr. Shannon asserts that, there is a large fly in some parts of Africa, that produces often a dread- ful disease, by depositing its ova in the mouth or nose. " It happens frequently to ne- groes, and there are several exam- ples of it among the common sol- diers. While they are sleeping in the open air, the fly deposits its ova most commonly in the nose, but sometimes in the mouth. The pain, sAvelling, and inflammation about the face, after the maggots are formed and ready to brer»k forth, are very great, and the poor sufferers are almost distracted..... The number of living maggots that come aAvay, is often consider- able ; and they are of a large size, being nearly half an inch long. The usual remedy in such cases is, inhaling the steam of a strong decoction of tobacco through the mouth and nose, according to the seat of the disease; it procures re- lief: perhaps washing the mouth and syringing the nose, might be equally or more effectual.....See Shannon on medicinj. p. 382. " Tobacco as a vermifuge is deserving of being held in high repute. " Several of the most powerful medicines, whose virtues as a ver- mifuge, are in the greatest estima- tion, appear to be but feeble in their operation, when compared with the great influence of tobacco in the expulsion of worms. " The celebrated Spigelia Mary- landica of Linnxus, it must be ac- knowledged, is very generally des- tructive to worms ; but, agreea- ble to the first and seventh expe- riments, under the head of anthel- mintics, we find that tobacco ap- pears to be more instantaneous in its operation, though perhaps ulti- mately, not more effectual. Yet, from its more immediate effect on those animals, I should rather pre- sume, that it merits the particular attention of physicians, as a valua- ble medicine, and that, on this consideration, it would, unques- tionably be expedient to give it re- peated trials in those cases, which may resist the more feeble opera- tion of other anthelmintics. " Dr. Shannon on medicine, p. 380, after enumerating several dis- eases peculiar to the Africans, ob- serves, that the Guinea-worm is another evil attendant on the ne- groes in Africa, and is generally cured by anthelmintics. 152 TOB " It may be just, therefore, to infer, that the tobacco infusion may be administered Avith very good effect. " As a Cathartic...An cases of constipations of the abdominal vis- cera, the infusion of tobacco has sometimes been administered, and often Avith immediate relief by oc- casioning a speedy expulsion of the obstructing indurated feces.... The smoke, says Dr. Cullen, throAvn up the rectum, Avill oper- ate in like manner, and has proved beneficial, after the failure of many violent cathartics ; it enters much further into the intestines than in- jections commonly do,and is there- by applied to a larger surface, by Avhich means it may be rendered much more poAverful than the in- fusion. " A gentleman of my particular acquaintance informed me, that he Avas not in the habit of smok- ing much, but whenever he was troubled Avith any degree of cos- tiveness, it Avas only resorting to a segar to obviate this inconvenience, Avhich never failed of acting as a lenient purgafiA'e, and imparted immediate relief. This method he preferred to the taking of physic ; as it was mild in its effects, and left his body agreeably composed. " It is to be regretted, says Dr. Fow ler, that injections of tobacco are not in more general use; for I am thoroughly persuaded, that in cases of the colic, they Avould prove more successful than any other kind Avith which Ave are acquaint- ed. " From the many facts and ob- servations Avhich I have hitherto adduced, relative to the medicinal influence of tobacco,it is, doubtless, reasonable to infer, that it may T O M prove efficacious in many dis- eases." [In the Tetanus or lock-jaAV, in- jections of tobacco decoction, have been used with success ; they not only produce evacuations from the boAvels, which are generally obstinately constipated, but tend to occasion a relaxation of the violent spasms so peculiar in this disease : on this account, they might be ad- vantageously giyen in the disease produced by the bite of mad dog, to produce a suspension of the dis- ease, and give an opportunity for the use of powerful tonic and sti- mulating remedies, which should be given regularly, and persisted in until a good effect be produced.] Toes. See Chilblain, and Corns. TOLU, or Balsam of Tolu, an esteemed drug Avhich is obtain- ed from the Toluifera balsamum, L. a native of South-America, Avhence it is imported in small gourd-shells. This balsam is of a transparent, reddish-brown or yelloAv colour of a thick, tanacious consistence ; and acquires such a degree of brit- tleness by age, that it may be ea- sily reduced to powder. It pos- sesses a very fragrant odour, slightly resembling that of lemons; and has a Avarm, sAveetish taste.... The virtues of this drug corre- spond Avith those of the Peruvian Balsam ; but it is much milder than the latter, and therefore more frequently employed in affections of the lungs and chest, especially Avhen combined with a decoction of Avhite poppies, and the syrup either of marsh-mallows or pale roses. TOM-TIT, a well-known dimi- nutive bird, abounding in woods I TON and orchards, where it constructs its nest with grass, 8cc. in which the female deposits from three to five very small eggs. Tom-tits have erroneously been supposed to injure the young buds and blossoms of trees, on Avhich account, large numbers arc annual- ly caught. They are however, believed to be of great service to fruit-trees ; and though a few buds or blossoms may be occasionally destroyed by them, yet such da- mage is amply compensated; as in- numerable insects are deA'oured by these birds; and Avhich, insinuating themselves into the buds, would commit irreparable injury. Hence, the increase of tom-tits ought to be encouraged ; as instances have occurred, Avhere numbers of those harmless creatures had been taken in one year, after which the blos- soms of trees were, in the succeed- ing spring, completely destroyed. TON, or Tun, a measure of ca- pacity, varying in its dimensions, according to the nature of liquid or solid articles : thus, a tun of wine contains four hogsheads; a ton of timber comprises a square of 40 solid feet: and a ton of coals amounts to 20 cavU TONGUE, in the animal eco- nomy, is an organized muscle situ- ated in the cavity of the mouth, moveable in every direction, and destined for the purposes of speech, mastication, deglutition, and suc- tion. On the upper part, it ii furnished Avith many small ner- vous Avarts, regulating the sense of taste : the whole is covered by the muciparous membrane (ining the inside of ths mouth; and which, by a duplicative at the loAver part, forms the ligament called the frc- num.......If this ligament be too short (which may be ascertained vol. v. TON 153 by the incapacity of the infant to protrude its tongue to the gums, and between the lips; or of suck- ing either the breast, or a linger introduced into iis mouth) an in- cision should be made, by a per- son properly qualified ; and the in- fant, immediately after, be placed to the breast; in order to prevent its swallowing the blood. A simi- lar operation will be requisite, as the only mean of preservation, where a fleshy tumour occurs under the tip of the tongue. Another affection is the Ranula, or swelling beneath, and at the side of, the tongue ; which gene- rally arises froai an obstructed sali- vary gland : in some instances, it contains a gritty su.)sr.ai)<;c, but more frequently a fetid fluid, in consequence of Avhich, the mouth becomes inihi med. Where it pro- ceeds from tainted milk, the nurse ought to be instantly changed^ and the mouth be washed with a de- coction of sage SAveetetKt1. Avith honey ; but, if the tumor be hard, it Avill be advisable to exlhonte it by the knife: alter the operation, the mouth should be frequently rinsed Avith milk and Avater.....to promote the healing of the wound gentle astringents, such as diluted tincture of bark or myrrh, will be useful, when given vi.h due pre- caution. Ulcers of the tongue are some- times produced by the riiarp cuges of the teeth: hi this c.ise, the hitter mlist be f.'ed off, and as'ringeiit gardes frequently employed. A n.o"_' serious malady is G! ssi- */■>, or lnfiaim.,-ui'n of tin Tongue; tlvj following are its symptoms.... A partial or general tumor; the sides and lower surface are red, and uncommonly painful to the touch. Progressively, the patient's X 154 TON TON speech, swalloAving, and respira- tion, become affected ; and, when the complaint is of a violent na- ture, the tongue is so tumefied that it fills up the cavity of the mouth : farther, if the inflamma- tion should extend to the gullet, and thus impede respiration, a symptomatic sore-throat is often induced. An acute head ach, and sometimes delirium occur, Avhich may even proAre fatal. More fre- quently, hoAvever, it terminates either by a resolution, or by a fa- vourable suppuration; though, in some instances, it is eventually followed by mortification, scirrhus, or cancer. Causes......Suppressed perspira- tion ; acrid substances taken into the mouth; or, a deposition of morbid matter from other parts, for instance, in rheumatisms, scro- phula, he. Cure....While the patient is able to SAvallow,cooling aperients should be given ; and, if the symptoms evince crudities in the stomach and intestines, either emetics or purga- tives, according to the seat of such accumulated matter, Avill, in the first stage, prove highly efficacious. Blisters, and other vesicatories, applied to the feet and arms; or, in urgent cases, even to the neck, together Avith bathing the legs in tepid water, cannot fail to be use- ful, by diminishing the inflamma- tion. Warm, emollient fomenta- tions around the neck,Tnuv also be resorted to ; and if the mouth be charged Avith phlegm or mucus, the fauces ought to be rinsed with a decoction of chamomile or elder floAvers, to v hich a small quantity of sal-ammoniac may lie added: for the same purpose, a decoction of figs in milk, will occasionally prove of service....Should venecee'ior; be indicated, it will be preferable to draAV the blood by means of cup- ping-glasses; or, by applying leech- es to the adjacent parts...-If a col- lection of pus, or an abscess be formed, the discharge must be pro- moted by an incision, as soon as the matter is sufficiently maturated. But, where the inflammation ter- minates in a Scikrhus, or Can- cer, the reader will find the pro- per treatment stated under those respective heads. Lameness of the tongue, may originate from various causes: thus, if it proceed from worms, or sup- pressed piles, in the former case, vermifuges, and in the latter, such remedies should be resorted to, as tend to restore that salutary evacu- ation, by the mildest aperients: Avhen this affection arises from violent passions, catarrh, or is symptomatic of palsy, it Avill be useful to employ electricity, setons, and blistering cataplasms to the skin (see Sinapism), Avhich have frequently been attended with suc- cess. The palate, or sense of taste, may be depraved by organic affec- tions, or atony of the parts; by incrustations, for instance, in the thrush ; in consequence of Avarts on the tongue, from a vitiated sa- liva; or the destruction of nerves proceeding to this organ; and lastly, from catarrhs, by which the head is generally affected. If such complaint be occasioned by impurities the tongue should be frequently scraped and washed with a mixture of spring water, vinegar, and honey. A corruption of the saliva being mostly connect- ed with other disorders, it will also be removed by the remedies em- ployed for the cure of the latter: Ave sliall therefore only add, that TOO Avhen it arises from tainted hu- mours (evinced by frequent, foul eructations), the repeated use of thin slices of lemons, or oranges, Avith a little sugar ; or, rinsing the mouth with a mixture of vinegar and lime-Avater, will often remedy such inconvenience. Where the sensibility of the nerves is diminished, the chewing of horse-radish, sweet flag, and si- milar stimulants, has frequently proved beneficial...See also Dumb- ness. TONSILS, or vulgarly called Almonds, are two round glands situated collaterally at the basis of the tongue; each of them being provided Avith a large oval passage opening toAvardsthe fauces,Avhence a mucus is secreted for lubricating the mouth and gullet; such dis- charge being farther promoted by the action of the muscles, compress- ing these glands. The principal affection incident to the tonsils, consists in an enlarge- ment, unattended with paii#, but which sometimes increases to such an alarming degree, as to threaten suffocation : in this case, relief can be obtained only by an operation. When the complaint, however, is consequent on inflammations of the adjacent parts, for instance, in the Quinsy, Scarlet-fever, he. the remedies directed under those ar- ticles, may then afford relief. TOOL, a general term denot- ing any small implement, Avhich is used both for manufacturing other complex instruments or machines, and also those employed in the me- chanic:'! arts. Tools are divided into edged- r-.ol.s, spring-tools, pointed-tools, he. But, consistently Avith the advanced state of the present Avork, Ave sliall only give an account of a patent, granted in January 179_>, to Mr. TOR 155 Arnold Wilde,for makingplane- irons, sickles, scythes, drawing- knives, and all other kinds of edged-tools, from a preparation of cast-steel and iron, incorporated by means of fire....He directs a piece of Avrought-iron to be previously heated in the fire, and hammered ; after Avhich it should be formed of the requisite size : it is then to be fixed in a mould of proper dimen- sions, and in such a direction that, Avhen the cast-steel is poured into the latter, the iron may settle in the middle, or on either side..... Next, the steel must be melted in a crucible exposed to a strong fire; and, Avhen it is nearly in a fluid state, the iron should be prepared in a welding heat. After clearing it from scales, or other extraneous matters, the iron is again to be fixed in the mould, and the fluid steel poured into the vacancy left for that purpose; when the whole will be united into one solid mass. .....The various tools, above-men- tioned, may then be made of such compound metal in the usual man- ner ; or by any method that should be deemed most convenient to the workman, or manufacturer. Tooth ; and Tootk-ach. See Teeth. TORMENTIL, the Common, or Sept-i-oil, Tormcnlilla erecta v. officinalis, L. is an indigenous perennial, groAving in moors, bar- ren pastures, and shady places; floAvering from June to Septem- ber....It is eaten by coavs, goats, sheep and SAvine; but refused by- horses. The Tormentil is propagated by planting the croAvns of its bulbous roots, at the depth of one inch, and at the distance of five or six square inches...These roots are of great utility, both in domestic and in medical economy : on account 156 TOU of their strong astringency, they are advantageously substituted for oak-bark in tanning, and dyring leather of a red colour, with the addition of the Avater-clder berries, and alum......Leaser observes, in his Original Botany (7th century of his Collection of Plants, in Ger- man), that the insr is. ated red juice of this root may be employed as an excellent substitute for the foreign drug, called Dragon's blood, in dyeing, staining, Sec..... Lastly, the tormentil-root has been found remarkably efficacious in the dysentery often pre\ailing among cattle ; and, being one of the most astringent vegetables of our cli- mate, it may, with equal advan- tage, be used for similar purposes by mankind. [Dr. Wilkinson found that Tormentil-root abounds Avith the tanning principle....See p. 155.] TORTOISE, or Testudo, L. a genous cfamphibious animals,com- prehending 33 species, of A\hich the folloAving are the principal : 1. The midas.. See Common Turtle. 2. The imbricata, v. caretta, or hawk's-bill tortoise, is a native of South America; Avhere it attains the length of three feet: its shell is divided into the upper part, which covers the back ; and the loAver, for the protection of the belly : it is composed of thirteen leaves, or scales that form the beautiful transparent substance, known under the name of tortoise- shell. 3. The orbicularis, or common river-turtle, inhabits the milder cli- mates of Europe, particularly the swampy parts of Hungary and Sclavonia; its size seldom exceed- ing tight or nine inches in diame- ter. It is covered v. ith a smooth dark shell; lives in morasses; and T O U spends the Avinter under ground, in a torpid slate....The flesh of this species is much esteemed on the Continent, v here it is eaten by the consumptive and debilitated, on account of its restorative properties. Turtles live on Avorms, insects, small fishes, ar.d marine plants ; they are reputed for their longe- vity, subsisting for twelve months on simple water, and eA'incing mus- cular action, after the head has been severed for a fortnight. Their progress through hit is remarkably slow. Touch-me-not. Sec Balsa- mine. Touch-stone. Sec Gold. TOUCHWOOD, or Spunk, BActus igniarius, L. a species of fungus, or sponge, Avhich grows on the trunks, particularly those of cherry and plum-trees ; Avhere it frequently extends to a size of from two to eight inches. The substance of this vegetable is very hard and tough, of a tawny- broAvfl colour, and is sometimes employed, both in England and in Germany, as a substitute for tin- der : with this design, it is boiled in a strong ley, or urine, after which it is dried, and boiled a se- cond time in a solution of salt- petre. It is also occasionally used as a Styptic ; being collected in August and September ; the hard external crust is separated, and the medullary part is beaten with a hammer, till it becomes soft. TOURNIQUET, in surgery, an instrument composed of rollers, screAvs, straps, See. for the purpose of compressing a limb, or other part of the body ; in order to pre- vent too gre::t an effusion of blood from wounds. The tourniquet is one of the best contriArances in the art of healing r by compressing the blood vessels, T OU TOU 157 it may be so regulated, as com- pletely to check the farther eiflux of that vital fluid, from wounded parts ; and thus frequently to save a valuable life. Without entering into a descrip- tion of the various improA'emeiits that haA'e lately been introduced into this essential part of operative surgery, Ave cannot omit to re- commend to our readers, Avho are situated at'a distance from pro- fessional aid, to provide themselves Avith this simple and useful instru- ment, which may be had in the greatest perfection, of Mr. Bishop, Philadelphia, whom we have men- tioned on a similar occasion. To persons travelling, or inhabiting warm climates, a tourniquet ni;>y prove of the greatest advantage ; and Ave conceive it to be one of the most necessary articles in a medi- cine-dust, as Avell as in a case of instruments. Where it becomes an object of importance, to suppress the bleed- ing from arteries of the lower ex- tremities, without intercepting the circulation through the Avhole limb, the folloAving ingenious method of applying a tourniquet has been re- commended, as perfectly safe, by a skilful young surgeon in the me- tropolis. After providing a'hard roll of linen bandage, about 4 or 5 inches in Avidth, and 3 in thick- ness, as likeAvise a smooth board, 9 inches in length, 3 in width, and ^ of an inch in thickness, Avith the sides and ends squared at right angles ; the roller is to be placed mid-way in the ham on the under sides of the knee-joint; the leg be- ing extended in a straight line. Next, the piece of board must be laid over the roller, Avhich is to act as a pad of compression on the popliteal artery that extends from the ham over the holloAV of the knee; the length of the board run- ning cross-Avays, and projecting on the knee-joint on each side. Noav, the girth of the tourniquet is to go round the knee above (not upon) the knee-pan, and over the pro- jecting ends of the board. The screAV should rest at the upper part of the limb and the knee-pan, hav- ing also a pad interposed between it and the skin. By this mode of compressing the popliteal artery, an important advantage is gained ; because it allows the arterial circu- lation to proceed uninterrupted through the lateral branching ves- sels ; the large superficial veins are not disturbed ; and the limb re- mains in the same state as if the artery alone had been tied....In all casesofprofusehemorrhages, Avhen there is a chance of saving the limb, such method of applying the common tourniquet, will be pre- ferable to the usual manner, by which the circulation of the blood is entirely stopped. Farther, in gun-shot wounds, compound frac- tures, and secondary bleedings af- ter amputation below the knee, the practice here suggested will gene- rally be attended Avith the desired effect. Having thus enlarged upon a subject, which materially relates to the safety of every individual, Ave shall only add (as supplementary to the article Styptic), that in acci- dental injuries, or Avounds attended with profuse bleeding from large blood-vessels, avc are not acquaint- ed Avith a more simple and effectu- al remedy than the Powder of Gum Arabic. This mild application to the orifice of the vein, or artery, speedily forms an incrustation around the part affected ; espe- cially if it be immediately strewed 158 T R A over the spot from Avhich the blood issues; and if the contigu- ous muscles be at the same time gently compressed, till a proper bandage, roller, or tourniquet, can be procured. TOWER - MUSTARD, the Smooth, or Tower-wort, Turri- tis glabra, L. is an indigenous plant growing in gravelly mea- dows, pastures, and pits, where the stalks attain the height of two feet, and the greenish-white, large floAvers appear in May and June.... The taste of this vegetable resem- bles that of cresses; and, affording wholesome food for cattle, we con- ceive it deserves the attention of cultivators, in the northern parts of the island, ay hich abound Avith dry, stony lands and pastures.... Farther, the flowers of the tower- wort supply the industrious bee Avith wax and honey. TRAG AC ANTH,agum obtain- ed from the Astragalus Tragacan- tha, L. a thorny bush, growing in the Levant, in Candia, on Mounts Olympus, Ida, and -/Etna. Tragacanth is incomparably stronger than gum-arabic: one dram of the former, dissolved in a pint of water, renders it of the consistence of syrup, Avhile an ounce of the latter is required to produce a thick mucilage : hence it is preferred to other gums in forming lozenges. Compound powder of Tragacanth, consists of this drug, of gum-arabic, and starch, each 1£ oz. and 3 oz. of double refined sugar ; Avhich in- gredients are conjointly pulverized. .....This preparation is one of the mildest emollient remedies in hec- tic cases, troublesome coughs, strangury, and similar disorders, occasioned by a thin, vitiated state *f the fluids; the dose being from TRA a half to two or three drams, Avhich may, according to circumstances, be repeated every hour, or at longer intervals. Train-oil. See Oil. TRANSFUSION of Blood, an operation by Avhich that fluid may be conducted from one animal body into another. This singular and daring attempt Avas first undertaken by Libavius, at Halle, early in the 17th century: he recommended experiments to be made on calves, sheep, dogs, and other animals. After these had been successfully performed, a whimsical notion of prolonging hu- man life, by the practice of trans- fusion, Avas publicly maintained, with almost general approbation by Lower, in England ; Hoffman, in Germany ; Denis, in France, and other bold physicians. But, when several persons unfortunately fell victims to such experiments, the flattering prospect completely vanished, till the late John Hun- ter resumed the subject, and treat- ed it in a manner peculiar to his pentrating genius. In performing the process of transfusion, the vein, which is usually chosen for blood-letting, Avas opened, and a quill, or other tube introduced in a perpendicular direction : the corresponding vein Avas then pierced in a healthy per- son, or more frequently in robust animals; and a similar tube Avas accommodated to the orifice in a slanting Avay; both tubes Avere then passed one into another, and thus the blood was gradually transfused; the vein being tied up, as is usual after venesection. This operation is certainly inge- nious ; but, as it requires equal judgment and dexterity, Ave doubt whether it will ever become an TRA TRA 159 useful branch of the healing art, in be transplanted ; alloAving them to the present state oT society : nay, grow rude, that is, Avithout being it appears to us, that it cannot be nailed in, or cutting either the side performed with safety, since the or fore-right shoots, during the introduction of the late inoculations, whole summer. In the course of excepting in very desperate cases, the Avinter, the ground ought to be such as hydrophobia, or other m- opened around their roots, and the ternal poisons, in Avhich the Avhole strong ones cut-in ; after Avhich mass of the blood is in a dissolved they must be covered with soil. or tainted state. Besides, this es- Thus, fine young fibres will strike sential fluid is, in every person, of forth; and, in the succeeding au- a peculiar nature adapted to his tumn, or during the winter (the OAvn constitution; and consequent- sooner the better), they may be ly cannot, Avith resonable hopes of transplanted, as standards ; care success, be transfused into ano- being taken to place them, like all ther: hence the visionary idea of other trees which are to be re- renovating the animal spirits by moved into different soils, in a si- artificial means, and of prolonging milar aspect, or towards the same human life beyond the period ap- point of the compass ; but, if out- pointed by Nature, must nccessa- tings are designed to be planted rily be defeated.....See also Life, against a Avail, Mr. F. advises only Longevity, Sec. the roots to be divided; as by such [Sir Edmund King's experi- method a considerable saving will ments, made in the reign of not only result, in time and money, Charles II, on transfusion, de- but the trees also Avill bear fruit, in serve to be mentioned. the first year after their* removal. The blood of a healthy spaniel He remarks, that he has often trans- Avas conveyed into the A'eins of an planted old plum-trees that had old mangy clog ,Avho was perfectly been headed do^ni, and consequent- cured in less than a fortnight. The ly made very fine roots ; Avhich he blood of a young dog was trans- divided, and " thereby obtained fused into one almost blind with four or five trees from one, cutting age, and Avhich before could hardly them so as to form them into fine move ; the latter did, in two hours, heads.".. ..See also Fruit-trees, leap and frisk, and yet the young Orchard, and Planting. dog, Avhich received, in return, the [TRAVELING. The many blood of the old dog felt no sort inconvenienciesandthe embarrass- of injury. See Phil. Trans, abridged, ments Avhich young traA'ellers ge- vol. iii. p. 224.] nerally suffer from their inexpe- TRANSPLANTATION, de- rience, and want of knowledge of notes the act of removing either mankind, render the folloAving di- Cuttings, layers, roots, or entire rections of great consequence to young plants from one soil into them. They are extracted from another. a scarce book, by Count Berch- For this purpose, Mr. Forsyth told, entitled " An essay to direct directs the side-shoots of trees to and extend the inquiries of Patrio- be cut-in, at different lengths, from tic Travellers, he. London 1789. one to three feet, according to their ....Two Arolumes large duodeci- size, in the year before they are to mo. 160 TRA TRA On the most necessary qualifications for a young person intending to Travel. " Since it is almost impossible to perform any- thing well Avithout preparation, it is indispensably ne- cessary for a young gentleman, Avho is desirous to travel, either for his oavii improvement, the welfare of mankind in general, or for the happiness of his country in parti- cular, to lay in a certain stock of fundamental knowledge, before he undertakes the difficult task of travelling to real advantage. Innumerable are the objects Avorthy of a traveller's attention and inquiry, and some of them are of much more importance than others ; in proportion to the advan- tages that accrue to the public from the application of the Iuioav- Iedge acquired of them ; let me therefore advise eArery gentleman, Avho feels an irresistable and lau- dable inclination to collect useful information, and valuable observa- tions, to get such insight at home into those arts and sciences, Avhose extent and improvement must ne- cessarily proAre beneficial to man- kind in general, and to his native country in particular. Reading and reflection will point out many objects Avorthy of a tra- veller's investigation ; but expe- rience, the first of guides, may nevertheless furnish them with that advice which perhaps will be acceptable to my readers, the hints of intelligent friends ought to sup- ply what neither books, nor medi- tation c^n teach ; therefore it should be the first principle of those whose inclination it is to travel usefully, to communicate their plan to public spirited, bene- volent, and well-informed men, and to apply to them for such in- formation rn those heads, which should form the principal objects of their inquiry, and particularly respecting the a1. Jfare of mankind, and the most dangerous diseases of that political body of which they themselves are members. Philanthiophicmen will not he- sitate to give a Avell meaning and inquisitive 'person all the informa- tion in their power; and though much may be learned by conver- sation Avuh men of experience and understanding, yet written instruc- tions are ever to be preferred, be- cause a writer has infinitely more opportunity than a narrator, to re- flect on the true interest of his fel- low-creatures, and the memory at the same time will be much re- lieved. The indispensable branches of knowledge and abilities, for travel- lers, are the following. National Law.....A gentleman, desirous to discover wise laws abroad, which, if proposed to the lawgivers of his country, and in- troduced by him, might render his countrymen more virtuous, more industrious, richer, and hap- pier, ought first to be Avell inform- ed of the smallest defects of the National, Civil, and Criminal Le- gislature, and thoroughly instruct- ed in the Municipal Laws, and Regulations of the Police. ^Natural History.....The study of the general, and particular natural history of his native country, will enable him to render essential ser- vices to his fellow-creatures; but he must deATote himself to those branches, Avhich are the best cal- culated to promote those ends ; it must also leave a Arery serious in- fluence upon his mind, as he will often be excited to contemplate TRA TRA 161 and adore the stupendous power of the Divine Author of those inimi- table Avorks Avhich he surveys. Mineralogy, Metallurgy, and Chemistry.....The usefulness of mi- neralogy, metallurgy, and chemis- try, is universally known, and needs no illustration ; as also their gene- ral tendency to the advantage of manufactures, and consequently commerce, is readily acknowledg- ed. Mathematics.....The study of mathematics being very extensive, ought to be pursued with equal circumspection and industry ; and those branches which are most ap- plicable to common life, ought most principally to engage the at- tention. Mathematics must also have the effect of accustoming the pupil to proceed systematically in all his undertakings, from which he will derive no inconsiderable advantage in his own private economy. Meclmnia.....The study of me- chanics is of the greatest impor- tance, and will enable him to un- derstand Avith ease, the construc- tion and application of many cu- rious, though sometimes very com- plex machines, as looms, mills, and other useful contrivances, Avhich he will have an opportunity to survey in the course of his travels, as well as to introduce in his oavh country. Hydrostatics and Hydraulics..... The use of hydrosti.ical and 0^- draulical knowledge is so very ex- tensive and advantageous, that he Avould be found much wanting, Avere he to overlook those interesting branches of practical Mathematics, Avithout the knowledge of Avhich, he Avould inspect in vain many stupendous engines, put in motion by water, a\ Inch are generally pro- ductive of infinite utility in saving vol. v immense labour, and promoting with ease, many conveniencies of life to the benefit of his fellow- creature s. Perspective.....A more than or- dinary knowledge in perspective is requisite in him, Avho Avishes to give a correct plan of mack hies, looms, he. and a traveller, Avhose knoAvledge of machines enables him to form a true idea of any in- genious contrivance, will be great- ly facilitated in the accurate exe- cution of the representation of those objects Avhich relate to the above-mentioned sciences. Geography.....Geography is a study of so important and useful a nature, that its necessity is known to every class of men ; to travel- lers it is the first and grand re- quisite, without which he is as ill provided, as he would be in at- tempting a journey without food or refreshment. The use of the globes needs no recommendation to prove their matchless utility, and ought to be considered as inseparable compa- nions to Geography. Navigation and Ship Building.... A knowledge of nautical affairs, renders sea voyages both instruc- tive and agreeable ; for while it improves the understanding, it may at the same time prove the preservation of the life of the tra- veller himself, as wJl as those of the ship's company, from the dangers, distresses, and mishaps of the sea, by rendering a man ca- pable of executing that Avhich ir- regularity, intoxication, or other circumstances may disable those from performing, on whom the duty and obligation rests of pro- viding for the safety both of them- selves and others. Agriculture....Agriculture lining Y 162 TRA TRA the most useful as well as most necessary of all arts, ought to be one of the first objects to engage his serious application : an agri- cultural nation must of course be- come powerful, Avealthy, and hap- py ; and each individual ought to contribute to its advancement as much as lies in his power : this Avill therefore be a very great in- citement to exert himself in the pursuit of rural and domestic eco- nomy,. Besides the innumerable advan- tages, an attentive and intelligent observer of agricultural countries may procure to his own native soil, this study will render him still more sensible of the Avants of others, and benevolent towards that most useful, and least esteem- ed class of men, Avho not only feed, but also defend their country. The state of the labouring poor in his own country, is also such an important object of the traveller's attention and inquiry,that he ought to know it as Avell as he does the situation of his own family, other- Avise he will not be capable of com- paring it Avith the state of the pea- santry of other countries, and con- sequently remain uninformed of Avhat is necessary to be known in many respects. With a proper attention to the different methods of cultivating land in his OAvn coun- try, he will soon accustom himself to observe abroad, hoAv the different soils are cultivated to the best ad- vantage, and a little spot forced as it Avere to afford subsistence to a most numerous family. Languages.....It is absolutely impossible to travel to advantage without possessing the language of the country intended to be visited for information; the Latin and French are certainly insufficient, because there are many, with whom an inquisitive traveller ought to converse, Avho are total stran- gers to both languages ; and as it is to be supposed, that there are many publications in the language of the country (not to mention the written National Law, the Muni- cipal LaAVS, and Regulations of the Police) Avhich must demand his attention ; it is obvious, that an as- siduous study of languages is una- voidably indispensable. It ought also to be observed, that the study of the language in the country where it is spoken, Avould deprive him of too great a portion of his time, Avhich could be employed to more useful pur- poses. I appeal to the experience and candor of gentlemen, Avho have travelled Avith the knowledge of of languages, avIio must confess, that the capability of speaking the language of the country has a poAverful influence upon the minds of the natives. They commonly entertain a good idea of a foreign- er, who submits to the toil of ac- quiring their vernacular idiom, and he meets Avith the same easy freedom, and is treated Avith the same friendly familiarity, as if he were a native. It is also very convenient to un- derstand, and to be understood by those who are immediately neces- sary to the progress of the travel- ler, as Avell as those who are the superintendants of his conduct and effects ; and of the inferior class of the people, who compose the greater part of a nation, and who have no knowledge of the afore- mentioned languages. The many impositions, and in- conveniencies to which he is ex- posed, by being ignorant of the TRA TRA 163 language of the country, ought also to excite him to acquire different languages, which will not be dif- ficult to a man of moderate pa- tience, under the instruction of an intelligent linguist. It will not be amiss to mention an infallible method of learning almost any language in six months, as prescribed by the famous Sir William Jones, in his grammar of the Persian Language,Avho says, the scholar should translate from the language he Avishes to learn, into his oAvn, Avith the utmost ex- actness ; then lay aside the origi- nal, and after a proper interval, turn the same translation back into the original, by the assistance of the grammar and the dictionary. The second translation must after- Avards be compared Avith the origi- nal, and the faults corrected ac- cording to that model. Arithmetic.....Is an art, Avhich, though not in the highest esteem as a branch of polite education, has its uses, and is not much less valuable than others ; a competent knowledge of figures, qualifies the the gentleman, merchant, planter, Sec. to form a quick calculation in matters of comparison, produce, proportion, he. and if the art of computing by numbers is not al- lowed to be ornamental, it must ever be reckoned amongst the most useful branches of general information. Drawing.....The art of Drawing is one of the most necessary, as well as one of the politest accom- plishments a traveller can possess. The drawing of landscapes, dresses, sketching, and embellish- ing his own minutes, form an agreeable part of his amusements ; but the scientific draAving, respect- ing complicate machines, engines, &c. with accuracy, in different vieAvs, is by far more useful, and accordingly has been mentioned under perspective. A Legible and Quick Hand..~. It is of the utmost importance, that a traveller be accustomed to a legible hand, the Avant of Avhich will certainly expose him to many inconveniences, and finally occa- sion infinite delay and disappoint- ment. Able copyists are not al- ways to be had ; and experience daily teaches us, that it is impossi- ble to rely upon the honour of strangers, with either prudence or safety. As it is to be expected that an inquisitive traveller, will hear, see, read, and be informed of many remarkable things, none of Avhich he would leave by choice to the chance of forgetting, a quick hand not only relieves the memory, but insures us the possession of the whole treasure, of Avhich avc could only have been able to re- tain perhaps a trifling part. Voluminous papers of conse-, quence may be occasionally lent to him, for a short time, Avhich may not conveniently admit of being intrusted to a copyist, or any one else ; and, therefore, he may not be able to reap the advantage he might Avish, or his friend intended that he should. It would also be extremely use- ful to be instructed in short-hand Avriting; and to knoAv a secret al- phabet, in order to conceal such important matters, as may be im- proper for the inspection of prying or designing persons. Swimming.....Though the law o. self-preservation inculcates to every one to secure himself against dan- ger, it will not be superfluous to recommend the art of SAvimming to a person, Avho probably, in Uv 164 TRA TRA course of his travels, may be ex- posed to the danger of being drowned ; besides the duty of this care of ourselves, humanity directs us to render ourselves as capable as possible to save the lives of our felloAV creatures as often as an op- portunity offers. What action is nobler than the preservation of a life ?•....There is even something divine in it! Soraepeople imagine erroneous- ly, that swimming cannot be learnt by adults ; yet daily expe- rience convinces us that they are mistaken ; for, provided the place o instruction does not increase the natuivi timidity of the pupil; if the master be expert, he Arill soon make a progress in this necessary art. There are many machines con- structing for buoying up the body, which might be used in the begin- ning, in order to accustom him to an easy position upon the Avater, and to inspire confidence. The most common, or best knoAvn, ay hich occur to me at this mo- ment, are the Cuirass ofBAcn- strom, and the Scaphandre of M. L'Abbe de la Chapelle. [See p. 83 of this volume.] Superficial Knowledge of Muli- cim.....Since there is no travelling Avithout health ; since innumera- ble are the disorders to which hu- man nature is liable, and able physicians and surgeons not every where to be had, it is very advi- sable to lay in a stock of medical knowledge, sufficient to be ac- quainted with the chief causes of diseases, and to prepare simple re- medies for those which most com- monly occur. With regard to chirurgical knowledge, it will in many instan- ces be extremely useful to be capable of bleeding,* and dressing a wound, to which travellers are often exposed. He should also know the most approved methods of recovering drowned and frozen persons, and such as have been suffocated by noxious vapours ; because he will certainly find emergencies, which may call upon him for the exertions of this interesting knoAvledge, and enable him to preserve a life....the noblest action of which he can be capable. Travellers in hot cli- mates are often affected by the sudden impression of the sun, cal- led by the French Coup de Soleil ; .....a never-failing remedy for the dangerous accidents of this kind Avould be of great utility. Music.....A competent skill in this art will, on many occasions, be fur more useful to a traveller than he can imagine ; it will agreeably supply a Avant of Society, intro- duce him to many polite compa- nies, and procure him valuable acquaintances. Few people dis- like music, and if he should be- stoAv his leisure hours on that in- nocent amusement, so as to please himself by entertaining others, his pains will be amply repaid. Music will also divert him from the gaming-table, and p.rhaps irregu- lar companies, to Avhich he will be otherwise liable. A portable instrument, as for in- stance, a German flute, is prefe- rable to larger ones. Knowledge of Mankind.......A great many excellent works have been published on this subject in almost all the languages of Eu- rope, by writers of experience and * This .direction is of great conse- quence.....Edit. \ TRA ability, by which I stand wholly excused from commenting further on that extensive and difficult sub- ject, and need only add, that in or- der to make a rapid progress in the knowledge of Mankind, every one should inspect his own heart; before he attempts to inquire into the character of others, he should observe his own inclinations and inconsistencies, Avatch himself on all occasions, knoAV his failings, analize the operations of his soul, and then proceed to observe others Avith the utmost attention, even in trifles. The utility of the know- ledge of Mankind is obvious, it is not difficult to guide men as Ave please, if Ave are able to look into their heart and head. Knowledge of the State of our own Country.....As certain as it is that a Physician Avill try in vain to cure a Patient, Avhose bodily constitu- tion and disease is entirely un- known to hi in* so will a Patriot's inclination for finding out reme- dies for the diseases of the Political Body of his nation be useless, un- less he knoAvs where and how the real cause of the complaint is con- cealed ; therefore to penetrate to the different roots of those evils Avhich may affect his native coun- try, and to acquire a perfect idea of the situation of his own fellow- subjects, it will be necessary to peruse attentively the hints given him by experienced and intelligent men, and to complete an econo- mical and commercial tour through all the districts of his OAvn country, in the company of a well- informed and inquisitive friend, avoiding all precipitation either in his inquiries, or progress of his journey. The most common as well as the most dangerous principles of TRA 165 evil among nations, proceed from the oppression of the peasantry, and from an erroneous system of Agriculture ; Avhich ought to ex- cite him to inquire as minutely as possible into the state of the labour- ing poor; and into the different parts of rural and domestic economy, and with the same anxiety as if sent for that purpose by Govern- ment. It will be advisable to wrife down his observations upon the same plan as he proposed to himself, for his investigations in foreign countries, and by thus collecting the most extensive and useful in- formation he can obtain respecting his oavii country, he will accustom himself to inquire systematically when abroad, and will be capable to compare Avith accuracy,the state of his own country Avith that of any other. The collection of questions in the course of this Avork, will per- haps be of use, and facilitate his inquiries in his economical and commercial tour; Avhich last I think needs no further observa- tions, since I have also stated se- parate queries applicable to each manufacture, and sea port in ge- neral. Previous Knowledge of the Coun- try which the Traveller intends to visit.....Since it is confirmed by truth, that a traveller's curiosity is in proportion to his instruction, it Avill be necessary for him to read the best histories of the an- cient and present state of the country he proposes to visit; to make extracts of them, which he might compare aftenvards Avith his own observations ; to take particu- lar notice of the origin of .the nalicn, its most remarkable, pe- riods, the causes of its flourishing, 166 T R A languid, or declining state ; of its present constitution, resources, wealth, poAver, &c. Sec. Under the history of the present state are comprised geographical descriptions, modern travels and journies, which will point out what hitherto remained unobserv- ed. It will also be requisite to pro- cure, some time previous to his setting out, the most correct, gene- ral, and special maps of the coun- try, to have them properly fitted up on linen, in order to render them convenient for the pocket; this map must be referred to as often as he Avishes to read some ac- count of that country. By the frequency of inspection, the contents of the map will be deeply impressed on the mind ; and by this method he Avill be able to select such a tour as will be probably one of the most instruc- tive : the common road is too well known to afford any thing very new or curious, and consequently feAver discoveries are to be made upon it than upon an unbeaten one. A traveller should also, before he sets out for any place, have an accurate description of the curio- sities of the roads that leads to it, and thus himself verify Avhat has been mentioned by others. The more time he will hestoAV before hand for the acquisition of knoAvledge of the country he is inclined to visit, the more leisure hours he will have for occular in- spection and investigation of ob- jects worthy of his attention. All those gentlemen Avho flatter themselves to have travelled use- fully, will agree, that a traveller ought to know what to look for, TRA in order to discover the object of his pursuit before he comes on the spot ; otherwise it is too late ; the principal work is to see how far the ideas Ave had formed of an object Avere founded on reason during anticipation. In spite of the greatest care and attention, a great many ob- jects Avill escape even a Avell-pre- pared mind; therefore people cannot familiarize themselves suf- ficiently at home Avith those ob- jects they intend to inquire after abroad, and ought to accustom themselves to reflect often upon them before they commence their journey. They should also have written instructions from such of their friends as haA'e traA'elled, how to visit foreign countries to advan- tage, safely, agreeably, and cheap; compare those hints together, and folloAv that advice which seems the most reasonable. It must naturally be expected, that the method of consulting the experience of intelligent persons will save the traveller much time, expence, and trouble, and greatly contribute toAvards his satisfaction. The proverbial sayings of the. nations, contain in a feAv Avords their manner of reasoning, and de- serve to be knoAvn before he pene- trates the country, that he may be previously informed of the Avay of thinking of the natives. On the Objects most worthy of a Traveller's Discovery, and inves- tigation in Foreign Countries. The objects deserving a travel- ler's "attention being multifarious, it will be necessary to divide them into classes according to their im- portance. TRA In the first Class belong....Such objects as affect immediately the welfare of mankind, and conse- quently promote the universal good, and may be investigated by every one endowed with a com- mon share of understanding. In- formation, which has the public utility in view, is generally to be had without expence, and a Avell- directed spirit of inquiry, Avould prove the key to their access ; therefore I am of opinion, that no traveller of any description what- ever should neglect inquiring carefully into such subjects as contribute to the felicity of the human race. The second Class contains....Ob- jects, whereof an extensive know- ledge would be capable of increas- ing the prosperity of a traveller's native country, and Avhich are partly blended with the Avelfare of humanity at large. The third Class comprehends..... Those aims, the objects of Avhich invite, and have respective attrac- tion from personal advantages and improvements, and apply to that sphere of life, in Avhich the travel- ler himself is destined to act. In the fourth Class are included... Such branches of ornamental knowledge as might be cultivated Avithout neglecting, or slighting either one of the preceding classes, and are commonly pursued by every traveller, who wishes to con- vince the world of the improve- ment he has attained by visiting foreign countries. I shall then at- tempt to state the worthiest objects of inquirv. I. Preservation of Human Life. Since the life of man is beyond all calculable value, let me con- T R A 167 jure every philanthropist to exert himself in collecting those regu- lations, charitable institutions, and studied contrivances, and every other material which can be adopt- ed, and is calculated for preserving it. But by taking information con- cerning wise laws on these heads, a traveller may be able to commu- nicate his valuable discoveries to the laAvgivers of his country, and contribute in a great degree to render his countrymen less crimi- nal, and to save the lives of many. In what can the human mind be so happily engaged ? It will be easy to a public spi- rited man, Avho by his knoAvledge of mankind has acquired the art of persuading, to convince other nations of the necessity of adopt- ing the laudable system of pre- ventive justice. Next to the judicious provisions I have above spoken of, there are many Avise municipal laws, and orders of the police of various countries, Avhich tend immediately to the preservation of its subjects. Excellent regulations for pre- venting the plague are enjoined to the Superintendants of Laza- retto's of Leghorn, Marseilles, Malta, Ancona, &c. NeAv and salutary prescriptions for obviating epidemical, and en- demical sicknesses, and for sup- pressing their progress, are to be met Avith chiefly in Tuscany, and in the Emperor's dominions. Establishments for providing against scarcities of corn, and preventingthe poor from perishing by Famine, are to be found in many parts of the continent, par- ticularly in Tuscany, and Prussia. Ordinances for preventing ap- parently dead bodies from being 168 TRA TRA buried alive, are wisely directed and enforced in Austria, different parts of Italy, he. A protecting machine for pre- venting the common evil of over- laying and smothering children, has been invented in Tuscany, and its use countenanced, directed and enforced by the government of Florence, and has been since adopted in Germany, Sweden, Spain, and lately in Great-Britain, where, by an accurate calculation, it has been discovered, that since the year 16S6 upAvards of forty- two thousand children have been overlaid. Discoveries are daily made of, before unknown, causes of mortal diseases, poisonous food, such as the fish called Ciquato, at the Ha- vannah, the plant Aethusa Cina- pium. Lin. Cicuta Tirosa. Lin. &c. Innumerable objects of this kind may be quoted, to prove how far mankind has advanced in useful discoveries, and to excite philan- thropists to continue to increase them. After the preservation of human life, nothing can offer itself as more worthy of engaging our next consi- deration, than II. The Means of providing for the most neglected Class of Inha- bitants. The traveller's utmost ore and attention is now demanded in a minute inquiry into all the chari- table institutions and establish- ments founded for the relief of suffering humanity, as hospitals for the sick, for lying-in poor Avomen, foundlings, and orphan-houses, mad-housss, prisons, and, in gene- ral, all such places as contain ob- jects of our compassion. Charitable institutions of innu- merable kinds are to be found in all parts of Europe ; but most ge- nerally in England, Italy,and Spain. The government of Madrid has even sent to Germany for plans of different establishments, as for in- stance, La Ronda depan y Huevos, a society ofgentlemen remarkablefor the extensiveness and benevolence of their design. Next to the in- firmities to which we are liable, must consider the III. Employment of the Poor. The means of employing the stout, but indolent poor, the not entirely disabled poor of both sex- es, small children, poor house- keepers, and unfortunate people of the middle class of citizens, Avho wish to earn their bread pri- vately in an honest manner, de- serve to be considered as objects of particular notice. So does the manner of provid- ing for the poor, infirm, superan- nated, and entirely disabled; the nature and stability of the neces- sary funds, and the system of ma- nagement of them. The manner of supplying the poor with food, agreeable to their respective ages, and at a very cheap rate, must not be forgot. In order to have a perfect knoAV- ledge of the state of the poor, without which it is impossible to judge Avith any certainty of the de- gree of Avealth and poAver of a na- tion, it will be necessary to peruse all the poor laws, to enquire hoAV far they are en force* 1, and to have occulai proofs, as often as circum- stances Avill permii. After having treated of the employment of the poor, nothing can more justly de- mand our notice than IV. Improvements in Agriculture. It must be the greatest comfort TRA TRA 169 to a feeling mind to increase the methods of subsistence of our fel- low-creatures, by an improved ag- riculture, by introducing useful plants, roots, grains, &c. that hi- therto have not yet been cultivat- ed in the country. A traveller may easily procure himself that pleasure; he ought to get a list of the most celebrat- ed husbandmen of the country, visit them, and inform himself of the most minute, as well as the most lucrative productions of rural economy ; compare that account with the list of the productions of his country, of Avhich he must car- ry with him a duplicate on his set- ting out from home ; and if he finds any seeds, roots, or plants, unknown in his country, neither trouble nor expence must be spar- ed to obtain a very extensive and clear description of the culture, manner of preparing, use, utility, &c. of these productions. If he could have ocular informa- tion, it would be still better, and all he has seen or heard concern- ing that object, must be commit- ted to paper on the spot, also by duplicate; which trifling trouble Avould be highly compensated, if by some accident or other one co- py should be lost. In many instances it Avould be advisable to make our fortunate discoveries known to our friends, Avho are in the agricultural line, because good things cannot be known too soon ; and travellers are sometimes exposed to lose their papers and valuable informa- tions, which are not always to be regained. V. Discoveries of Machines. Instruments and tools, calcu- lated for lessening the fatigues of the poor husbandman, are v©i.. v. so much more desirable, as there are many people annually ener- vated and lost, by vfiflent efforts of labour ; Avhich, it is expected, will be a great excitement for the traveller's utmost exertions, to bring to light inventions of this nature. All contrivances for clearing land from weeds, ploughing, sow- ing, reaping, threshing, grinding corn, draining, and flooding lands, approved methods of raising grass and vegetables, planting timber and fruit-trees, selling and trans- porting timber, saAving-mills of all kinds, ingenious constructions of carts, and in general, all real im- provements in rural and domestic economy,deserve the greatest care and attention. VI. Discoveries made by', and offer- ed to Patriotic Societies. Owing to the rapid progress of a general spirit of improvement in Europe, the number of patriotic, economical, and other useful soci- eties are continually augmenting ; even Spain is not backward in that respect; for towards the end of April 1788, forty-six societies of this nature existed in that coun- try. The greatest part of useful dis- coveries are certainlyoffered,sought for, and procured, by those kinds of societies in Europe; and hu- manity is undoubtedly infinitely in- debted to them. Therefore, a traveller should get a list of all the societies of this de- scription, that are to be found in each country ; and permission ay ill easily be obtained from the res- pective societies, to survey the re- positories of their machines ; to knoAv for Avhat objects premiums have been given, and' promised ; in Avhat they commonly consist, Z 170 TRA TRA he. Perhaps it will not be diffi- cult to get models, prints, or draw- ings of the machines in question, and the necessary explanations of them. It would also be advisable to establish an intercourse by letters with the secretary, or some active member of each society, in order to be informed from time to time of any new and beneficial disco- veries. After having investigated the progress of agriculture, it will be necessary to proceed to the survey of VII. Manufacture and Commerce. There are many voluminous machines, engines, looms, and other ingenious contrivances to be found in manufactures, of Avhich the traveller should endeavour, as much as possible, to procure mo- dels, prints, draAvings, and a very circumstantial description of the construction, expence of making, and utility, as Avell as the use, &c. of such machines ; as also a know- ledge of the residence, and name of the inventor or maker, whether they are permitted to be exported or not; how long such machines may last, &c. Avould also be desir- able. The special subsequent queries, applicable to each manufactory, Avill be sufficient to explain the rest. I Avillonly adjoin, that a traveller, Avho surveys a manufactory, should also endeavour to procure a list of all the articles made there, Avith their respective prices. Next to a well understood sys- tem of husbandry, commerce is the surest Avay of employing peo- ple in a profitable manner, and of enriching and populating a coun- try. Thereiore a traveller, who has the welfare of his country at heart, must be very anxious to get infor- mation, hoAV the inland branches of it are conducted, how the com- mercial intercourse between the country he visits, and his nation, may be increased ; neAv branches of commerce discovered, rendered flourishing, and decayed ones re- vived. Under this head is comprehend- ed also navigation, fishery, and ship-building, each of which is ca- pable of affording sufficient em- ployment to the industrious class of men, and considerably increase the wealth of a nation. • A matter of no small importance is the proper regulation of VIII. Taxes. It is very desirable to know in different countries, hoAV the poor- er class of people is relieved from the burthen of partial, and une- qual taxes, and which system of taxation is the most conducive to the prosperity, of a nation. The objects of taxation and finance be- ing so closely connected,that when we mention the one, it is scarcely possible to forget the other. IX. Finance. \ The various means employed by government, to raise great sums of money, without enervating the subject; the method of preserving the credit of the state at home, as well as abroad ; and the system of Avell understood economy, are ob- jects of the greatest moment to a patriotic traveller. I shall now introduce some ob- servations on laAvs and administra- tion of justice. X. Laws and Aministration of Justice. The importance and utility of those laAvs intended to prevent crimes, have been already treated TRA •f; but there are many others, both civil and criminal, worthy of being inquired into ; because they contri- bute much towards the happiness or misery of those for whom they are made. There are in every country, some remarkably judicious laws, though not always put in force, which deserve to be taken notice of by men inclined for informa- tion. Italy affords an ample scope, and Tuscany more so, of legislative prudence. Before we conclude this section, it will not be amiss to touch upon one of the first objects of the at- tention of the legislative power, that of XI. Education. Education has such a powerful influence upon all our actions, that it may be looked upon as the spring of the happiness or misery of man in particular, and society at large ; it Avill invite the attention of a tra- veller, to inquire into the different methods of forming the bodies of children with powers of vigour, and activity, and improving their hearts and understanding. Besides a great many useful ob- servations that may be made, by studying national education; and to apply it to the benefit of our own native country, it will be found an easier matter to judge Avith some degree of certainty of the national character; because men in general adopt that charac- ter and manners, which education and habit have forcibly impressed on them. On Information, and the Means of obtaining it. I /Travellers ought t© lay down as TRA 171 a rule to themselves, never to re- ceive information upon subjects of less utility, as long as more pro- fitable ones are challenging their attention; nevertheless it atHI be advisable, rather to take the trouble of inspecting ten seemingly useless objects, than to neglect examining one, that might be instructive and profitable. 2. He who looks for information, should never rely upon the reports of others, except there is a posi- tive impossibility to do othenvise ; we are often misled by our own eyes, and still oftener, if Ave neg- lect surveying things ourselves. 3. He that travels should make as many observations as he can upon every object that will present itself to mm; and thus accustom himself to take notice of every thing, and nothing of consequence will escape his attention. 4. They who visit foreign countries for the sake of informa- tion, Avill act with prudence, to con- ceal the motive of their journey to such persons as may seem very anxious to know it; it will be easy to find a plausible pretext to amuse them with, without a necessity for the violation of truth; great care must be taken not to put on a mysterious air, or to incur the par- ticular attention of inquisitive per- sons. 5. Before the traveller inquires into the perfect state of important objects, he should endeavour to get information respecting their beginning, their most memorable periods, and epochs, the causes of their increase or decrease, till the present moment, and to review the most authentic documents, and afterwards to form queries in such a manner, that one may lead to the other, in order to curtail the inquiry. 172 TRA 6. He should endeavour as much as possible to obtain a complete list of celebrated men for services rendered to the public, and know for what services the country is the most ready to be grate- ful. 7. Eminent booksellers will be capable of giving a -traveller directions and hints concerning authors of useful literary produc- tions, and through them he may also gain access to those sons of genius ; for this reason foreigners should not neglect to visit the first booksellers' shops in every town, as soon as may be convenient. Fa- mous authors of useless publica- tions do not deserve the traveller's attention ; time should not be tri- fled Avith, since there are plenty of more important investigations ever waiting to be made. 8. Men with the best of hearts, and improved understandings, will be the best company he can seek after; and he may be assured of being well received by them, if he discovers, that he wishes to con- tribute, by a collection of useful knowledge, to the welfare of hu- manity, and the happiness of his country ; and it may be expected that they will communicate to him many observations tending to the felicity of mankind. Instructions procured by conversations with virtuous and well informed men, are very pleasing, because a man may learn with ease in a short time, Avhat has cost them an un- wearied application of many years. The maxims and remarks of such men, should be carefully treasur- ed up, and the greatest part of a traveller's time spent in their com- pany, as far as it can be done with- out inconveniencing them. A tra- veller who is so happy as to be ad- mitted into an intimacy with men TRA of merit, should endeavour at hi» departure from the place of their residence, to establish an epistola- ry intercourse and friendly connec- tion with them, inform them of any important discoveries made in his tour, and beg them to acquaint him of any thing useful to man- kind that may have been produc- ed by them, or communicated to them by others. 9. An inquisitive traveller should also procure the address of all able artists, and a minute ac- count of their ingenious inventions tending to promote the happiness of their fellow-creatures ; it will be advisable to visit this useful class of men as soon as possible, and to communicate to them such discoveries, as have been made in the traveller's country, relative to the public good, and of which he should have a very minute descrip- tion on his setting out. This act of exchange of mutu- al kindness will banish reserve, and open the mind to humane sen- sations, and excite them to sheAV the traveller whatever advantage their inventions may have produc- ed. Before the traveller leaves the place of their residence, he should establish a correspondence Avith these artists, in order to have an account from time to time of all new inventions and useful contri- vances. A person who visits foreign countries in this manner, must Avithout doubt collect inestimable materials for the improvement of useful arts, and advancement of really profitable science. 10. It would not be amiss to have also a list of such persons as are reputed as eccentric geniuses, and extraordinary men ; an ac- quaintance with those kind of peo- ple, Avould procure the traveller all sorts of useful discoveries,which TRA perhaps are little esteemed in the country, because generated in the brains of a man, who is thought to be uncommon and singular. 11. It is usual, in many places, to publish all sorts of political and commercial accounts, by which a proper judgment of the country may be formed; therefore it will be necessary to apply for such in- formation, and chiefly at the offi- ces of those booksellers, who are the law printers of the country, and the editors of such works as concern the regulations of finance and commerce. 12. A traveller whose intention is to study the genius, manners, and customs of a nation, will find them much more original in such provinces, as are at the greatest distance from the capital. The most ancient people, and most ori- ginal language of the country, are to be found among the mountai- neers ; the good or bad effects of the government are also more obser- vable in distant provinces, than in those which are nearer the metro- polis. 13. In order to knoAV the cha- racter and genius of the inferior class of people, he ought to con- ceal his rank in his conversation Avith them, othenvise they will not discover themselves, or converse either free, or openly ; they will endeavour to appear more than commonly civil, and the traveller will not be capable of forming a just opinion of them. 14. To ridicule the manners and customs of the foreign country the traveller is in, Avould argue a great imprudence anchvant of knoAvledge of mankind; he should, on the contrary, find out a reasonable ex- cuse for the Aveaknesscs of the nation; yet, Avithout making him- T R A 173 self guilty of servility, or flattery, and by conforming Avith circum- spection to the style of the natives, he will gain the confidence of eve- ry description of its inhabitants, which will open the passage to that information which he wants. 15. His being present at civil and criminal procedures, and par- ticularly while interesting subjects are pleading, will greatly contri- bute to his knowledge of the laws, and administration of justice of the country, and enable him to make important observations on the practice of its courts. 16. Travellers should availthem- selves of the advantage of having a list of all the manufactures that are to be found in the country, but chiefly of those that are establish- ed in every place they pass thro', and in its neighbourhood, with as extensive a description as the in- structing person can give. 17. A traveller will see a manu- facture to much more advantage, and be enabled to ask more in- structive questions about the busi- ness carried on in it, if he will be at the trouble, before hand, to read the whole description of its Avork- manship in the dictionary of arts ; by these means he Avill be prepar- ed for its inspection, and know chiefly what to look for, and where- in the greatest difficulty consists. 18. When travellers examine establishments of this kind, they should not neglect inquiring into the time of their institution, and the degree of increase or decrease, in order to judge of the state of industry in the country. 19. By inspecting the manufac- tures of a country, the inquisitive traveller should also study the taste and fancy of the natives, in order to inform his countrymen in 174 T R A TRA the manufactural line, how to sup- ply that foreign country Avith such commodities, as are best adapted to its consumption and uses ; and thus keep up an extensive trade, by Avhich its cultivators may be rendered comfortable, rich, and happy. 20. In passing through villages, he should carefully inquire how much population and consumption have increased, or decreased, dur- ing the last five, ten, or twenty years, and to Avhat causes it is to be attributed. 21. Annals of different places contain often very useful and re- markable anecdotes ; therefore it is highly worth a traveller's atten- tion, to peruse their index, and to extract what may be most use- ful in common life. 22. When a traveller inspects a library, he should not neglect asking, whether it contains manu- scripts that have never yet been ushered into the Avorld, what their titles are, and whether it is to be supposed, that they might be of any particular utility to mankind, if published. 23. When a gentleman travels in countries, Avhich formerly haA'e been remarkable for their splen- dour and riches, he ought to in- form himself very accurately re- specting those places where most antiquities have been dug up, of what kind they are, how they are commonly disposed of; whether ancient gold and silver coins are not bought by goldsmiths for the purpose of melting, Avhich would be the easiest manner of procuring such coins, Sec. By those kind of inquiries, many precious pieces may be rescued from the fire, and the Republic of Letters enriched by their preservation. Since Spain remains so little investigat- ed, I hope to oblige the curious, by informing them, that in the neighbourhood of Barcelona, Tar- ragona, Morviedro, Valencia, Murcia, Granada, Ecija, Seville, Medina-Sidonia, Corduba, &c many valuable antiquities of differ- ent sorts might be collected, and often bought up very cheap. On committing Observations to Paper. 1. An inquisitive traveller should never be Avithout paper, pen, and ink, in his pocket, because anno- tations made with lead pencils are easily obliterated, and thus he is often deprived of the benefit of h» remarks. 2. Travellers ought to commit to paper Avhatever they find re- markable, hear or read, and their sensations on examining different objects; it is advisable to doit upon the spot, if the time, the place, and the circumstances will admit of it; even such observations that pro- mise but a remote advantage, should be Avritten down as soon as convenient. 3. The daily remarks ought to be copied from the pocket-book into the journal before the travel- ler goes to rest: by using this me- thod, nothing essential will be for- gotten, and the Avhole remain fresh on the memory. 4. The journal ought to be writ- ten in such a manner as to admit notes to be annexed. Truth must religiously be adhered to, and ele- gance of expression banished from it, if it be in the least unfavourable to veracity. 5. It is very useful to keep ano- ther book besides the journal, Avherein a certain number of sheets TRA are dedicated to each head. This book ought to contain matters of fact only, and nothing dubious should find a place in it. Travel- lers should generally be inclined to doubt, and never take any thing for granted, unless its truth be evi- dent. Printed lists, accounts pub- lished by government, may not- withstanding, kbe false ; neverthe- less they deserve a place in the above mentioned book, because their authenticity seems to be con- firmed by public authority. This book being an extract of the most interesting facts the journal con- tains, becomes the more valuable, in case the journal should be lost, because there is a dependance on the contents of it. Since the journal may compre- hend a great many interesting mat- ters, it may not be advisable for a traveller to carry it about his per- son for fear of losing it, unless in the side pocket, and thus suffi- ciently secured against the at- tempts of common thieves. Trav- ellers, who are afraid of accidents, generally keep a double journal, and preserve it in tAvo separate places. It is also imprudent, and often very dangerous for a travel- ler to lend his journal; in case he has promised to a friend to com- municate to him some valuable in- formation, which he should not frequently do, it will be better to take the trouble of giving a copy of that subject* than to put the journal in anotHfcr man's hand. 6. A secret, undecypherable character, already mentioned under the article, Quick and Legible Hand, will ever prove of infinite service. 7. A traveller's memory will be greatly relieved by putting doAvn the queries he Avishes to have an- T R A 175 swered; and the numbering of them Avill prevent confusion, It is necessary to be remarkably cau- tious with regard to these queries ; they should be taken the utmost care of; for should they, by some accident, be lost, and found in some countries, where the government is conscious of its weakness, the in- nocent proprietor might perhaps be looked upon as a spy, and treated as such if discovered. 8. If information is given to the traveller upon any subject of con- sequence, it is proper to mention the name and employment of the persons Avho communicated it, with the place, and date, in the journal, because the veracity of the intelli- gence depends much on the quality of him Avho furnished it. On the Means of providing for the Safety of the Traveller's Person and Property. 1. A traveller exposes himself to many inconveniencies, if he cannot depend upon the fidelity, sobriety, secrecy, intrepidity, and aversion to illicit and dangerous amuse- ments of his servant ; for this rea- son, his character cannot be too well knoAvn, before an agreement takes place. A servant selected to accompa- ny a gentleman on his travels, should be conversant Avith the French language ; Avrite a legible and quick hand, in order to be able to copy Avhatever is laid before him; know a little of surgery, and to bleed Avell, in case his mas- ter should meet Avith an accident in a spot where no chirurgical assist- ance is to be expected. Gentlemen should endeavour to attach such useful servants to their persons, by showing them the >, 176 TRA TRA same care as a father has for his child, and promise him a settle- ment for life on their return. 2. Familiarity with fellow trav- ellers beyond a certain degree, is very imprudent, and may some- times produce dreadful consequen- ces ; never ask another man's name, the motive of his travelling, the time he intends to continue in a place ; and if you observe, that people wish to knoAV your concerns, answer them with circumspection, in such a manner, as may make them give up their curiosity with- out being offended. S. The company of drinkers, players, and Avomen, should be carefully avoided, because by'asso- ciating with them, reputation, health, money, and what is still more precious, time, is lost, and melancholy experience is bought very dear. 4. There are in all countries to be found some very dissolute coun- trymen of every traveller, whose company is by all means to be avoided ; their chief effort will be to borrow money, to live, and riot at the expence of the unexperien- ced ; to be introduced into respect- able families, to whom foreigners of prudence are recommended ; and to dishonour, and possibly plunder them also. It will be ad- visable to inquire Avhether those of our countrymen, Avhose conduct may be suspected, frequent their ambassador's house, and how they are received there : and even if they are well received by the mi- nister, travellers should not be too fond of their company, unless they are men of merit, and of an in- quisitive turn. 5. As soon as foreigners arrive in attipital, they should Avait on their ambassador, in order to claim his protection in case of an acci- dent ; and to be presented at court, and to the first nobility, if they feel a pleasure in such companies. In some places they will not be admitted into the first companies, unless they are known to the am- bassador, which leaves an impres- sion of respectability. 6. It would be a ridiculous va- nity for a traveller to carry dia- mond rings, or very expensive watches, precious snuff-boxes, and valuable trinkets; they Avould often expose his life, and serve as a standard to inn-keepers, and others of that kind, to raise their charges by. In some countries, it is even dangerous to shew gold coins, sil- ver spoons, and such articles; therefore too much caution cannot be used against exhibiting such dangerous property. 7. The best way of conveying papers of consequence, is to put them in a girt of buck-skin, fur- nished with four pockets, each one inch distant from the other ; for its easier pliancy, the girt ought to be ten inches broad, and fasten- ed under the waistcoat round the body with six small buckles, and each pocket buttoned with three very small, flat, metal buttons : it will be of great use in riding hard, and can, if properly made, contain many papers, Avhich would easily be lost out of the pocket. To leave papers of importance behind in the trunk, is HfcMar not so safe, because a fire mfy happen or the trunk may be lost by some ac- cident. 8. Double-barrelled pocket pis- tols are ATery Avell calculated for the defence of the traveller, par- ticularly those which have both bar- rels above, and do' not require turning: it is necessary to ascer- TRA tain their strength before they are used; and agate jstones are pre- ferable to the common flint..... Many people prefer putting a piece of cork upon the balls, and pre- tend that it prevents them from moving. The best position for pistols in a coach is the horizontal one, and the little bolt which ob- viates their going off, is a real improvement. 9. Since it is impossible to'know what goods are forbidden in differ- ent countries, information on that head should be had before foreigners enter into another territory, in or- der to avoid many inconveniencies, which might arise from trifles : in some countries the whole lug- gage is confiscated, if prohibited goods are found with them, and the owners condemned to imprison- ment, or to pay a heavy fine. I in- stance Spain. In case of a traveller having for- bidden articles, he should dispose of them in the least profitable man- ner, rather than expose his honour and his-purse ; and in case they lay in small compass, should be disco- vered to the postillion, Avho com- monly are in league Avith the cus- tom-house officers, in order to di- vide the produce of this treache- rous contract. The Italian vettu- rinos are famous for this insidious practice. 10. (.reat precaution is required in the passing of rivers, and over bridges, particularly at night.... Coachmen are liable to drink hard, and by that means frequently miss the passage, and are the cause of the destruction of the traveller, as v well as of their oavii. 11. Travellers should not per- mit strangers to place themselves behind their vehicle, under any pretext whatsoever, because there vol. v. TRA 177 are innumerable instances of coach- es haA-'ing been disabled from pro- ceeding, and unsuspecting travel- lers robbed and killed by this scheme. 12. In suspicious places, the trunk should be placed before the coach ; which place should be ge- nerally made use of as often as circumstances will admit. 13. Extensive Avoods should ne- ver be passed at night Avithout the necessary precautions; and in dan- gerous places it is safer to walk, in order to be ready for defence, if sudden violence is offered, than to remain sitting in the coach, where little resistance can be made. 14. If foreigners are robbed at night in the streets of large toAvns, it will be dangerous to pursue the flying thief, because he is seldom or never alone ; and the pursuer is almost sure to be wounded or killed by his lawless accomplices. N. B. The remarks on inns con- tain also many important hints'^ relative to the safety of the travel-, ler's person. ^^^m On the Mans of preserving a Tra- veller's Health, particularly in h .1 Countries, 1. A traveller ought to be per- fectly Avell acquainted Avith what agrees, or disagrees with his con- stitution, and observe those rules Avhich custom has established in favour of his health, at least as f,ir as circumstances will admit of.... He Avill act prudently, to pay a strict attention with regard to eat- ing, drinking, dress, exercise, and rest; and conform to the customs, and mode of lifeoLthe most sober class of the iqMHfltifrqf the coun- try he is in. T£xpen|pnee has taught people3of all jjpuntriesj A A 178 TRA Avhich manner of living is the most wholesome in the climate they in- habit. Though the Siesta (the after- noon's sleep) agrees perfectly Avell Avith most foreigners in Spain and Italy ; nevertheless it is liable to bring on apoplexies in cold cli- mates, Avhere meat and soporifer- ous malt liquors are used in great quantity. Travellers in Avarm countries, who may be invited to an afternoon's sleep, ought to ob- serve, that the duration of it should be proportioned to the quick or difficult digestion of the person : one quarter of an hour, or half an hour is sufficient; people should ahvays be awaked before the end of an hour. To sleep in an hori- zontal position Avould be prejudi- cial ; the fittest place for that kind of rest is an arm chair, or a can- nopee. The head ought to be laid high, and the body bent backwards, and a little turned toAvards the left side. Every thing that is likely to prevent the circulation of the blood, must be removed, otherwise vio4ei»t head-aches Avill be felt. 3. Water is very unwholesome in some places, and ought to be considered so, if soap will not dis- solve in it. If a person should hap- pen to be very thirsty, and no other drink to be had, that Avater should be soaked through a piece of very fine linen, and a little vine- gar, juice of lemon, or a toast put into it. It Avould be still better to boil it, if the circumstances Avill admit, and drink it Avhen cool.... Wells that are situated in marshy grounds, or near privies, or those Avhich are observed to have a Avhit- ish scum on the surface of the Ava- ter, are generally reckoned to be umvholesomeV* |Pp 4. Violent exercise after dinner TRA is prcjudicial,and more so in warm countries than in cold ones ; there- fore people Avho travel on horse- back, or in a vehicle, Avhose motion is rather violent, will act prudently, if they eat and drink sparingly..... The shaking of the carriage heats the blood, consequently strong li- quors should be taken with the greatest moderation, particularly in southern climates. 5. Cleanliness requires people to bathe oftener when they are trav- elling, than Avhen they are at home; yet they must be very careful ne- ver to bathe Avhen their Hood is agitated, or the stomach full, or the day is very hot. The cool morning and evening hours are the only times to take this saluti- ferous recreation. Even the most expertswimmer should never bathe in the sea or in a river, Avithout taking along Avith him another person, who knows Iaoav to swim. He should be careful to choose a bathing place where the bottom is clear sand, and has no sea weeds upon it; for they frequently con- tain a species of pointed shells, which are apt to inflict dangerous wounds if trodden upon. One of the most necessary precautions in bathing, is to plunge into the Ava- ter head foremost, otherAvise the blood rushing into the head expo- ses the person to an apoplectic attack*. 6. Travellers in carriages are very liable to have their legs swel- led ; in order to prevent being thus incommoded, it will be advisable to wear shoes rather than boots, * After fatigue, the tepid bath should never be omitted, the middle of the day (or before dining) is the preferable tiiue tor the purpose....Editor. TRA TRA 17b to untie the garters, to alight now and then, and to Avalk as often as opportunity permits it, Avhich will favour circulation. If the Avindows of the carriage are kept shut the air is soon affected, and may prove prejudicial to respiration. 7. Feather beds and counter- panes of cotton are very liable to collect noxious exhalations; for this reason those who travel, ought to make use of the hart skins, de- scribed under the remarks on inns. 8. The vapours of charcoal are also exceedingly prejudicial ; peo- ple should be remarkably careful never to permit a pan of charcoal to he brought into their apartment, unless it is quite burnt to ashes ; it would be dangerous to sleep with it in the bed-room; as a great ma- ny lives have been lost in that manner. 9. In marshy grounds the air is remarkably unhealthy, and there are countries, for instance, the Pontin Marshes in the Pope's do- minions, where it is often attended with fatal consequences to sleep even in day time. Foreigners should inform themselves minutely concerningthe salubrityor umvhole- someness of the air of those places Avhere they sleep, and take the ne- cessary precautions to guard against the destructive effects of the latter. 10. Sweet or boiled Avines, such as are to be found in the Papal do- minions on the coast of the Adri- atic, delay the digestive faculty for a long time, and as they tend ex- cessively to inflame the blood, they must be used in the most sparing manner. 11. Fresh fruit, and even the ripest grapes, relax the stomach in hot climates, and an immoderate meal on them would infallibly pro- duce the most dangerous conse- quences, if bread Avas omitted to be eaten Avith them. 12. Travellers in Avarm climates should abstain from meat as much as possible, particularly at night, otherwise they might be exposed to putrid fevers, Avhich are seldom easily removed. [The personal experience of Dr. Jackson in Jamaica, and of Mr. Jackson in India, sufficiently con- firms this important hint. See Jackson on Fevers, and Jackson's Tour from India to Hamburg.] 13. Sleeping with the AvindoAvs open in hot climates is so umvhole- some, that many have hardly time enough to repent of their impru- dence. Those who travel on foot should never sleep under the sha- doAV of a tree, or near a hemp field. 14. Thirst is more effectually quenched by eating fresh fruit, and a morsel of bread, than by drinking Avater : if no fruit is to be had, it is better to mix a little vinegar,.or the juice of a lemon Avith it, than to drink it by itself. 15. After a long journey on foot, it is unwholesome to take a plen- tiful meal, or to sit near a greaf* fire. 16. Such as are under the neces- sity of remaining in places in a marshy situation, should reside in apartments in the upper stories, and in dry houses; they ought to take proper exercise,withoutluhour, in the sun,or in the eveningdamps: a just quantity of vinous liquors, and victuals of good nourishment, are necessary in such circumstan- ces. 17. A person who is not accus- tomed to walk a great deal, should gradually increase the length of the station. If the wind is very 180 TRA high, it is better to have it side- ways, than in the face. 18. Since transpiration is easily impeded, and its effects attended with bad consequences, it is pru- dent for travellers on foot to wear a flannel waistcoat next the skin. 19. Fresh killed meat, greens, and fresh fish, are preferable to any other food, and simple nourish- ment the best. 20. Damp beds are very often found in inns little visited, and in the rooms Avhere fire is seldom made : they ought to be carefully avoided, for they not only bring on illness, but sometimes prove the death of the person who has the misfortune to sleep in one. Those Avho travel should examine the beds, to see whether they are quite dry, and havfe the bed-clothes in their presence put before the fire. If the mattresses are suspected, it Avill be preferable to lie doAvn on dry and clean straAv. If a friend offers you a bed, endeavour to have it Avarmed, with the necessary pre- cautions, because there are in cer- tain houses certain beds kept only for particular visitors, and therefore they mig*ht be damp, if not used for, a long Avhile. ^21. People Avhose clothes have been Avet through, should look for very dry beds, have the sheets Avell aired, put on clean shirts, smoking them first with sugar, or some- thing of that nature, and before they go to bed, rub their skins Avith dry flannel, which promotes perspiration. Those parts of the body that have been wet ought to be Avashed with luke-Avarm Avater, in which a little soap has been dis- solved. Those Avhom circumstances may not permit to put on dry clothes, should keep their bodies in constant motion, till the clothes TRA are become dry again upon them: this inconvenience ought to be avoided as much as possihle, be- cause it brings on rheumatic pains, agues, colics, 8tc. to people Avho are not used to it. 22. Persons who have perspired copiously from the heat of the sun, should shelter themselves as much as opportunity wilt permit, during the falling of the dew ; if they can- not avoid it, they should by no means sit down. Continual exer- cise favours transpiration, and di- minishes the bad consequences which the cool air exposes people to. 23. Since a body, Avhich is void of food, is more apt to attract contagious sicknesses, a traveller should never visit an hospital in the morning before he has break- fasted ; it will not be amiss to eat a bit of bread dipped in vinegar, and to wash the nostrils and mouth Avith camphor-vinegar, before visit- ing the sick. During the time he is in an hospital, he should never swalloAV his spittle, and rather use something to draAV it up, such as spunge, and blotting-paper. It is also very Avholesome to drink a glass of wine, with a little sugar and the juice of half a lemon, on these occasions. 24. Travellers should not neg- lect to carry Avith them A bottle of vinegar, de quatre voleurs [A vial of laudanum. One ditto sp. sal. ammoniac. One box of purging pills. A lancet.] Ou the Means of being supplied with Money. 1. It is very imprudent and use- less for a traveller to carry a large TRA sum of ready money about him ; he ought to be supplied with let- ters of credit from one town to the other. 2. Letters of credit on substan- tial : ouses, are in many respects preferable to bills of exchange ; the latter may happen to be either too small or tooconsiderable, and many times expose the traveller to a te- dious law process, as Avell as the disagreeable necessity of delaying his journey ; besides a letter of cre- dit is generally esteemed to entitle the traveller to advice and protec- tion from the merchant or banker. 3. It is advisable to have more than one letter of credit, in order to prevent disappointments and in- conveniences, Avhich must neces- sarily arise from want of money, if payment was to be refused. 4. If a traveller takes a letter of credit from a banker, Avho requires immediate security for the credit Avhich he gives, it Avill be more advantageous fo deposit such notes as bear interest, than to deliver him ready money, for Avhich the banker will perhaps not alloAV any interest; or at least not so much as may be expected: but the guar- rantee of a friend known to, and accepted of, by the banker is most convenient, and in general use. 5. In all the countries of Europe counterfeited bank-notes and bills of this kind are to be found ; there- fore travellers cannot be too care- ful in this respect, and ought never to receive paper money, unless from people of Avell known credit, particularly in the Pope's domi- nions. 6. In many parts of Europe, gold has sometimes an extra value, Avhich travellers are obliged to al- Ioav to the bankers, and Avhich other persons v, ill not agree to in TRA 181 payments; therefore it is neces- sary to be well informed in that respect, in order to avoid losses. On Letters of Recommendation. 1. A traveller, Avho wishes to have the benefit of his ambassador's protection, should either be knoAvn to him before, or be introduced by letter, or be presented to him by a respectable person. 2. Besides the Letters of Re- commendation to the ambassador, travellers should be furnished with letters for bankers and merchants, Avhich in some respects are more valuable than letters of introduction to the first noblemen ; because they will be able and inclined to inform the inquisitive traveller in more interesting matters than the latter: nevertheless, letters for great per- sonages are ahvays Arery acceptable, and may be of service on many oc- casions. 3. Travellers should even accept of Letters of Recommendation to the inferior class of people : a fo- reigner can never have loo many friends ; and it is a great thing to find a stranger, be he who he will, Avho has your interest and welfare at heart. Men of the inferior class may be very usefully employed for the traveller's instruction, provided he has sufficient knowledge of the Avorld, and is capable of judging of the qualifications of every indivi- dual. Man deserves to be studied attentively in all stations of life ; and the visiting of a cottage is of- ten more instructive than frequent- ing a palace. 4. Letters of Recommendation to the higher class of Custom- House officers, may enable a tra- veller to get very essential instruc- tions of themrespecting commerce, 182 TRA TRA manufactories, and many other ob- jects : some of them will even con- descend so far as to communicate authentic accounts and valuable documents, which no other person could furnish. On Inns. 1. A traveller should always lodge in the best inn, because, upon the Avhole, a good lodging will not cost him much more, than if he had chosen an indifferent one; and he will at least be better serv- ed, Avith an additional security to his property, Avhich is not ahvays the case in inferior inns, where people of all conditions, even to the loAvest, resort, and the inn- keeper has not so great an incite- ment to support his credit. In many houses of less reputation of this kind, the expense will eA'en be greater, than in those of the first rank, as the proprietors seize every opportunity to impose upon the richer order of strangers. 2. Travellers Avho go post, should never permit the postillion to drive them to such houses as he pleases; almost all of them have secret mo- tives to prefer some to others ; therefore it would be prudent to inquire of the post-masters, or inn-keepers of the first reputation, for a list of the best houses of ac- commodation, which are to be met Avith in the places through Avhich you pass, Avhose veracity is at least more to be depended upon, than the drivers. 3. It is of the greatest impor- tance to travellers ahvays to have a room to be in alone, and never alloAV any person (well-knoAvn peo- ple excepted) to sleep in the same apartment, unless absolute neces- rity compels them. Foreigners cannot be distrustful enough to- wards strangers ; many of them travel at the expence of the pub- lic, and insinuate themselves under various pretexts, growfamiliarvery soon, and are frequently the authors of the ruin of many young, unwary travellers, whose experience is not sufficiently ripened to open their eyes to their dangers. Many of those impostors will render essen- tial services to foreigners, in order to captivate their benevolence ; and those, of all others, are the most artful, and consequently the most dangerous. 4. Servants in the inns should never be hired, unless their hones- ty be well known to the landlord, Avho should always be questioned, if he is answerable for their fidelity. 5. As soon as travellers enter into an inn, they should immedi- ately agree for the price of the room, dinner, supper, firing, 8cc. and never neglect this useful pre- caution, otherwise they will often be obliged to pay for their negli- gence in that respect an extrava- gant price, especially in Holland and Italy. 6. The best method of avoiding mistakes and double charges, is to pay daily the bill of the landlord, and to take a receipt for it [in a book:] this precaution will always render people more attentive and serviceable. 7. Many inn-keepers are remark- ably inquisitive, and take particu- lar delight in visiting and exam- ining the traveller's trunk, during the time he is out, and particularly if you forget to agree : they make those researches in order to ena- able them to judge more properly of the circumstances, and conse- quence of their company ; there- fore it will ahvays be prudent l» TRA TRA 183 lock the trunk or boxes, and to conceal from them Avhat could give them a too favourable idea of the traveller's importance. 8. In lonesome country inns, where safety ought always to be suspected, it Avill be better to per- mit the servant to sleep in the same room, and to have a wax candle burning the Avhole night: it Avill also be necessary before the traA'eller goes to bed, to visit behind it, and to look into the chests, un- der and behind them, and in all such places Avhere concealment is easy. Pocket door bolts in the form of a cross, are applicable to almost all sorts of doors, and may on many occasions save the life of the traveller, where desperate at- tempts may be made by needy as- sassins ; for this reason, it is recom- mendable to be ahvays provided with a pair of those bolts. The safety of the doors should also be carefully examined ; and in case of bolts not being at hand, it will be useful to hinder entrance into the room by putting a table, and chairs upon it, against the door. Such precautions are however less necessary in England, but on the Continent they are much more so. 9. It will not be amiss in such lonesome places, where accidents may oblige a traveller to remain the Avhole night, to show his fire- arms to the landlord in a familiar discourse, without acquainting him of his Avell-grounded suspicion of. insecurity ; and to tell him with a courageous look, that you are not afraid of a far superior number of enemies. Such stratagems have frequently had the most desirable effect, a:ul may yet be practised A\iih every promise of success. 10. Since it is \ cry unwholesome to eat or to sleep in a room, the windows of which have been shut long before, it will be necessary to open them as soon as you enter into it; and it will not be superflu- ous to purify the air of the apart- ment, by throwing a little strong vinegar upon a red hot shovel, [and to make a fire in the chimney.] 11. Travellers never being sure whether the lodgers, who slept in the beds before them, Avere not affect- ed Avith the itch, venereal, or any other disease, they should make use of a preventive of infection : a light coverlet of silk, two pair of sheets, and tAvo dressed harts [or deer] skins put together, six feet six inches in length, three feet six inches in breadth, should be al- Avays carried along with them in the box. The hart's skin which is put upon the mattresses, will hinder the disagreeable contact, aud prevent the noxious exhala- tions. The hart's skin is tb be covered Avith the traveller's oavh sheets; and if the coverlet be not sufficient to keep him warm, his coat put upon it, will increase the heat sufficiently. It wi 11 be neces- sary at rising in the morning to expose the hart's skin to the fresh ■air for five minutes before it is packed up again ; and this precau- tion will alone be sufficient to guard against the unwholesome effects of bedding, much more dangerous in hot countries than may be imagined. If the traveller be not provided with these materials, it will not be prudent to undress entirely; the necklace, garters, girt, and any thing else, Avhich hinders the cir- culation of the blood, must he un- tied, in order to prevent apoplectic affections. 22. A purse, or any temptation, should never be left on the table, because it stimulates distress »o;ne- 184 TRA TRA times to actions, which at other times would raise ablush,and pre- vents the commission of many crimes by the difficulty of perpe- trating them, and of course many an ignominious fate. 13. In many countries the land- lords are not answerable for the property of their company ; there- fore, if they are obliged to stay any time in one place, and intend to remain at the inn, they should ask the landlord, the very moment they make their agreement Avith him, whether their package is safe, and whether he is responsible for the consequences : in case he is not so, the most prudent Avay will be to deposit his valuables at a banker's, or the next person's in reputation, and to secure himself by receipt, which should ahvays be demanded. 14. Foreigners, Avho remain for some time in a place, will save money, and be better accommo- dated, by taking private lodgings per week, or per month. On Luggage. 1.Travellers whoundertake a long tour, should only carry such bag- gage as is indispensably necessary. Among the many inconvenien- cies of a too cumbrous baggage, the following deserve to be consi- dered, viz. First. The heavy expence of the carriage of it, which in some coun- tries amounts to much more, than the passage of his person and ser- vant. Secondly. Unavoidable loss of time, and the difficulties of the Custom-Houses, particularly if the packages should unfortunately con- tain any contraband goods, Avhich might happen very easily, because travellers cannot be ahvays accu- rately informed of those articles, Avhich may have been recently pro- hibited. That valuable time, which must be bestowed upon packing and unpacking ; Avhich, though the province of the servant, must often command the attention of the mas- ter, who may be anxious, lest his property should be shaken and de- stroyed by the violent motion of the carriage, if not carefully pack- ed up ; or lest any thing valuable should be left behind. Thirdly. The disappointments; if sometimes the coach is damaged by the too great Aveight of the packages, or if the luggage on some occasions cannot be loaded upon the same coach, and conse- quently be hindered from following its oAvner. Fourthly. The greater'cxpence in the inns, where travellers are frequently charged according to the quantity of baggage and con- veniences they carry with them. 2. A person who travels for im- provement, is not supposed to be inclined to shine in foreign coun- tries with the ostentatious magni- ficence of equipage; and there- fore the traveller, if he means to proceed with either economy or convenience, should be very cau- tious of incumbering himself with a superfluous wardrobe. 3. The best way of carrying papers that are not bound like books, is to roll them very tight, to cover them with strong paper, in order to prevent them from rubbing against any thing, and to Avrite the title of the contents upon the rolls, to knoAv them again on all occasions. 4. Since it sometimes happens, that the custom-house officers (through mere Avantonness) will throw papers carelessly out of the TRA trunks of passengers, it Avill be prudent to keep all the Avritings together in a large Avell defended port-feuille ; a preference is to be given to those of Russia leather, because water cannot penetrate to, and destroy the contents: that leather is also best adapted to coverings of trunks, as its smell is obnoxious to vermin, and not liable to harbour worms, he. in- cidental to hot climates. 5. Short and high trunks are preferable to long and low ones, because they can be put upon any carriage Avhatever. The so- lidity of a trunk is also one of its necessary qualities, it being, sometimes, most unmercifully handled by the Custom-House of- ficers. 6. Travellers should never per- mit revenue officers to visit tAvo trunks at the same time, as the owner's eyes and attention may be fixed on one, at the great hazard of his being pillaged by the other. Even, in these cases, experience often proves, that complainis do not produce redress. 7. It is sometimes very dange- rous to accept of commissions, and sealed parcels, because they may contain forbidden goods. 8. A traveller should also for- bid his servant to take contraband goods Avith him, because in case nf an unfortunate detection, the servant Avould perhaps be arrested, or the master be obliged to give a considerable security, and to defend the cause of his servant in the pro- per court. 9. The trouble of having his trunk searched, can in som« coun- tries be obviated, by having it sealed by the Custom-House of- ficers ; therefore a traveller who dislikes those visits, should inquire vol. v. TRA 185 Avhether this custom is alloAved, and the trouble and pains dispensed with. 10. Bound books Avith stiff covers are liable to rub against, and greatly injure the baggage; therefore it will be prudent to have them lightly bound in leather, without its being stiffened by paste-board, and after- wards cut off smooth and even Avith the leaves. In case a person car- ries books with stiff covers, it will be advisable to place them at the bottom of the trunk as firm as can be, as a foundation, and over them Avith strong paper. 11. Among the requisites for travelling, the following will not be useless; A case of instruments for.draw- ing,measures, draAving paper, India ink. A good watch, or exact time- keeper. A mariner's compass. A barometer. A thermometer. General and special maps of the country which the traveller visits, pasted upon linen, and rendered portable by folding. A good telescope. A dark lantern, Avax candles, and a tinder-box. Bolts suited to all sorts of doors. On Sea Voyages. 1. Before a passenger agrees with a master of a vessel for the expence of a passage, he ought to inform himself respecting the age of the vessel, the cargo, the num- ber the ship's creAV, the quality cf the passengers, and the destination of the voyage, he. Each of these circumstances has its advantages and disadvantages, and deserves particular notice. B B 186 TRA TnA 2. It is also a matter of impor- tance to knoAv whether that flag which the vessel carries, is re- spected by the piratical poAvers of Barbary, or not, if the course of the vessel should lie near to any such ports. 3. Some masters are excessively polite during their residence on shore, and remarkably otherwise when the passengers are on board ; therefore it is necessary to inquire, before an agreement takes place, Avhether the master behaves well, and treats his passengers with politeness and attention. 4. If time can be spared, the traveller may sometimes travel re- markably cheap, therefore he should make an early inquiry con- cerning the price of the passage, if circumstances will permit. The masters are generally desirous of having passengers, and a man has a much greater opportunity of economizing by sea, Avhen a num- ber of vessels are bound to the same port ; there is then a rival- ship betAveen them for passengers, and the consideration is, of course, proportionably moderate. .s. People, Avho endeavour to make the master believe, that their rank in life is not unimportant, must often pay dear for their ricii- culeus vanity, Avithout meeting Avith better treatment ; therefore, people of rank, who have a proper idea of the value of money, should, and will be on their guard in that respect. 6. There are different things to be observed with regard to each sea voyage, with which most tra- vellers are unacquainted, and for this reason it a; ill be advisable to consult the bankers, and those Avho are expert in sea affairs, relative to what ou^ht to be observed con- cerning the agreement for their passage, as Avell as other import- ant objects in voyages; for instance, if they intend to embark merchan- dize, or goods requiring certain precautions. 7. In long voyages it is neces- sary to do all that lies in our power to entertain a good harmony with the captain, officers, and fellow pas- sengers ; we ought also to give the same orders to our sen-ants ; and avoiding playing at cards, hard drinking, disputes, and giving of- fence. Small presents, given to the sailors, may on some occasions produce very desirable effect. 8. It would not be a bad scheme to have a letter of recommenda- tion to be delivered on the arrival to the Consul of the country, of which the captain is a native ; this would in some cases render him more attentive, if he was previous- ly informed of this letter. 9. Those Avho wish to inform themselves of the method of work- ing a ship, and of navigation in general, should be very attentive to every command the captain gives to the creAv, and inquire into the reason of it. Perhaps it may not be difficult to obtain a copy of the ship's journal, which is an in- teresting matter for a passenger. 10. If passengers embark mer- chandize, they should not be too sincere in discovering their inten- tions concerning the disposal of them, because people may some- times take advantage of the impru- dence of such discoveries. 11. The example of the illus- trious Captain Cook, who, during a voyage of three years and eigh- teen days, under every latitude, lost from his Avhole company of 113 men, only one man, is the greatest proof that the longest TRA TRA 187 voyages may be performed without prejudice to the health, if proper regulations are strictly attended to. It is at all times dangerous for the seaman, to indulge himself with too large a meal of animal food, and that even if it is fresh killed : sour crout is the best food that can be used, and at the same time an excellent antiscorbutic: portable soup is an exquisite nou- risher of the body, and particular- ly if boiled up Avith vegetables: oatmeal, rice, and potatoes, are valuable articles : a proper quanti- ty of cyder, perry, and vinegar, should by no means be forgotten, and the last should be added in a small quantity to almost every dish ; the juice of oranges, lemons, and limes, form a very necessary part of a ship's stores. 12. The muscles of the body must be put in exercise every day ; the passengers should assist the sailors in working the ship ; bathe themselves at least once a week ; attend particularly to neatness ; be as often as possible on deck; ex- pose their beds daily to the circu- lation of the air; smoke in damp weather ; eat often and little at a time ; sleep moderately ; endea- vour to be perpetually diverting themseh-es, and to keep up their spirits. 1.3. Those who are very liable to sea sickness, should keep to- Avards the middle of the ship, Avhere the motion is not so violent. 14. Persons Avho are subject to a costivtness in the body, should take such medicines Avith them as relax the bowels, Avithout too much stimulation. They should also abstain from heaAy food, and drink heating liquors sparing- 15. Merchantmen, from 100 to 200. tons, have seldom any person on board who understands either surgery or physic , it will therefore be a most necessary caution, to provide such a small chest of me- dicines, as may be immediately relative to such accidents and ma- ladies, as particularly attend on sea voyages. 16. A private lancet is also ne- cessary for a traveller, because a lancet, which has been used in the bleeding of a scorbutic person, will infallibly infect any other man, who may be bled in a short time afterwards. 17. Persons of venereal habits should absolutely avoid any long sea voyages: and all those Avho intend to travel by sea, should peruse and consult the excellent work of Dr. Lind, on Diseases of Hot Climates, on the Scurvy, and on the Health of Seamen. Miscellanies. 1. As the sudden death of thr traveller may possibly occasion in- finite distress and disputes in his family, he Avoujd consult his own tranquillity, if he committed u» paper his peremptory Avill, before his departure from his native coun- try. 2. A traveller who visits foreign countries for information, ought to be remarkably cautious, with re- gard to the choice of a companion for a long journey ; if the person proposed has not exactly the same turn of mind, the same interest to pursue ; and if he is not a good natured, active, and inquititive man, he will be an intolerable burden, a real obstruction to useful travels, and convert the SAveets of company into bitterness. J. It is totally improper to hold 188 TRA TRA any discourse in foreign countries on religion, politics, or our own particular affairs, and especially Avith strangers. 4. Our curiosity becomes a A'irtue when its aim is purely in- struction, and from a Avish to be useful to our countrymen. 5. Those Avho are naturally des- titute of judgment and prudence, become still greater fools by their travelling than they Ave re before ; it being impossible for him, Avho is a fool in his own country, to be- come Avise by running up and down, Avhich made Socrates say, he must change his soul, and not the climate, to become Avise. 6. When you come into any company observe their humours, and suit your own carriage there- to ; by which insinuation, you will make their converse more free and open. Let your discourse be more in queries and doubtings, than per- emptory assertions or disputings. Sir I. Newton. 7. The art of pleasing in com- pany, is not to explain things too circumstantially, but to express only one part, and leave your hear- ers to make out the rest. 8. There is no man but delights to be questioned in his own pro- fession ; when being moved by others, he may seem to publish his knoAvledge Avithout ostentation. 9. A wise man counts his mi- nutes. He lets no time slip ; for time is life, Avhich he makes long by the good husbandry of a right use and application of it. 10. A philosophic traveller looks upon his country as a sick friend, for Avhose relief he asks advice of all the Avorld. 11. If a person limits himself to the knowledge of other people's discoveries, it will be an infallible cause, that he can make none himself. He Avho follows another, proceeds Avithout an aim ; for how should We find that which we are not in search of. 12. The duty of a man is to be useful to men, to a great number, if he can, if not then to a less; if that is impossible, then merely to his relations ; if that be equally so, at least to himself. In rendering himself useful to himself, he labours at the same time for others ; for a vicious man not only injures himself, but also those to whom he might have been useful, had he proved virtuous : in the same manner, if we labour for ourselves, we labour also for others, because Ave form a useful member of society. 13. To a nation so particularly illustrious as the English, for the extent of their possessions, the stupendous scale of their com- merce, as Avell as the free power of exercising those riches, in ren- dering active that sensibility which they intrinsically possess ; it may not be amiss to address a few words in favour of those unfortu- nate men, Avho not only have the melancholy assurance of their pre- sent misery, by the suffering of it, but the additional accumulation of human Avoe, the idea of being forgotten, whilst labouring under it. By this unfortunate part of society, I allude to the captives under tlie piratical states of the coasts of Barbary ; men, who far from rendering themselves unfor- tunate by their vices, become so perhaps in the very act of extend- ing, or protecting the commerce of that country, to Avhich they belong, and to whose continued protection they must be consequently entit- led. TRA T R E 189 To reflect upon the misery of those objects, who perpetually pre- sent themselves to our eyes, and make a living and forcible call on our sensibility, is a Avorthy, is a philosophical virtue: but to turn a mindful eye on more imagery sorrow, which we know to be ex- isting, though we cannot perceive it with our eyes, or receive its com- plaining tones in our ears ; to im- press the imagination with the bust of languishing and distant sorrow, so as to work our sensibility into action, is the highest prerogative of reason and intellect. Yet with that extent of power, and command ©f fortune, joined to that education, which many English travellers possess, such sentiments Avould neither be romantic, or such un- dertakings impossible. We should remember, as Cicero says, that there are two sorts of men, each of whom derive a totally different splendor from their expences ; the one are mere prodigals, but the other justly deserve the title of generous ; the first dissipate their property in entertainments, hounds, horses, and gaming: Avhat will prove the remains of a similar profusion ? A fleeting remem- brance, perhaps total oblivion : but men, who are truly generous, con- secrate their fortune to more noble purposes ; to the ransom of unfortu- nate captives, by pirates, ilfe. &c. 14. This sentiment of Seneca is particularly noble, as contradis- tinguished from that idea of learn- ing, merely for a personal accom- plishment. I would only learn, says he, in order to be able to teach : the most interesting disco- very would cease to haA'e any charms for me, if I Avas only to be the repository of it. No, I would not accept of Wisdom herself, were it on the condition of keeping her secluded within myself. Pos- session is only rendered agreeable by participation. TRAVELLER'S JOY, Hones- ty, Virgin's Bower, or Great Wild-Climber, Clematis Vitalba, L. a hardy, indigenous shrub,grow- ing in hedges and shady places, in calcareous soils, where it flow- ers in June and July.....It is easily propagated by layers or cuttings. The fibrous stalks of this vege- table may be converted into paper: .....the whole plant is very acrid to the touch ; on Avhich account it is frequently employed as a caustic, and for cleansing old ulcers..... Both leaves and branches may, with advantage, be used in dying ; and Dam bourney obtained from the latter alone, a yellow decoction. .....Bechstein observes, that the hard, compact, yelloAV, and odori- ferous wood of this shrub, fur- nishes an excellent material for ve- neering. Treacle, the Common. See Molasses ; and Beer. TREACLE, the Venice, or Mithridate, Theriaca Andro- machi, a celebrated medley of drugs, composed of 60 ingredients; prepared ; pulverized ; and, Avith honey, formed into an electuary : it was reputed among the ancients to be a specific against poisons, and was formerly employed in inter- mittent, malignant, and other fe- vers. At present, however, it is superceded by the opiat electuary, Avhich consists of purified opium, 6 drams ; caraAvay-seeds, long- pepper, and ginger, of each 2 oz.; and three times their weight of the syrup of Avhite poppy, boiled to the consistence of honey. The solid substances are to be pulverizedi and the opium first separately in- 190 T R E THE corporated with the syrup, over a moderate fire ; when the other in- gredients should be gradually add- ed. This composition is very pow- erful : the closes vary according to the age, sex, strength, and other circumstances; so that they ought to be regularly prescribed. Treacle-Mustard. See Mi- thuidate-Mlstard. Treaclk-Hedge-M^stard, or Treacle Wormseed. See Mus- tarp, the Hedge. TREE, the largest of vegetable productions, rising to a considera- ble height, with a single stein. Trees are divided into two prin- cipal classes, namely, fruit, and umber trees : the former includes all such as are raised chiefly, or en- th ely, for their edible fruit; an ac- count of Avhich, together with their mode of cultivation, the reader will find in alphabetical order, and also in the articles Fruit-trees, Orchard, &c....The second divi- sion comprehends those trees, the Avood of which is employed in ship- building, machinery, or for other useful purposes, such as the Oak, Larch, he. ; the culture of Avhich has been discussed under those respective heads.....See also Tim- ber. The growth of trees is a subject of considerable importance ; but few accurate experiments have been made, in order to ascertain their annualincrease in height and bulk. ....In the Philosophical Trausalions of the Loyal Society, for 1708, Mr. Barker states, as the result cf his observations, that oak, and ash-trees, <:row nearly in equal proportions, increasing about 1, or 1,5- inch every year. He remarks, that AAhen the annual growth ;> mounts to one inch in height, a coat one-sixth of an inch in thick- ness will accrue to the tree ; and as •' the timber added to, the body every year, is its length multipli- ed into the thickness of the coat, and into the girth," more timber is produced in proportion, to the increasing thickness of the stem. The health and vegetation, of trees may be greatly promoted, by scraping them ; by cutting away the cankered parts ; and by Avash- ing their stems, annually, in the month of February or March..... Hence, Mr. Forsyth, in his inge- nious " Treatise on the Culture and Management of Fruit-trees," he. recommends fresh cow-dung tp be mixed with urine and soap-suds; and the composition to be applied to the stems and branches of fruit, forest, or timber trees, in the same manner as the ceilings of rooms are Avhite-washed. This operation, he observes, Avill not only destroy the eggs of insects, that are hatched during the spring and summer, but also prevent the growth of moss ; and, if it be repeated in autumn» after the fall of the leaves, it w ill kill the eggs of those numerous insects, which are hatched during that season and the winter ; thus contributing to nourish the tree, and to preserve its bark in a fine and healthy state. A similar prac- tice of washing and rubbing trees Avas devised many years since, by Mr. Evelyn, and Dr. Hales, who direct it to bt; performed first Avith simple Avater and a scrubbing brush, and afterwards with a coarse flaun-el: the trees, thus managed, tlirove uncommonly ; and Mr. Mars ham relates, that a beech- tree, between spring and autumn, increased 2 five-tenths inches in thickness, which Avas one-tenth of an inclr -raoce. than an unwashed tree. Mr. Forsyth's mixture. TRE T R E 191 however, is far preferable to com- mon Avater ; and, if the use of the latter fluid be attended Avith such betieficial effects, it may be ration- ally concluded, that the former will be productive of still greateradvan- tages. In common with other objects of the vegetable creation, trees are liable to a variety of diseases ; Avhich, if not timely attended to, eventually destroy them. Having already treated of such affections, under the heads of Canker,Moss, &c.; Ave shall in this place intro- duce a concise account of Mr. Forsyth's improved method of curing injuries and defects in fruit, or the forest trees ; for which His Majesty has graciously rewarded him; on condition that it should be published. Mr. F. directs all the decayed, hollow, loose, rotten, injured, diseased and dead parts, to be cut aAvay, till the knife ex- tend to the sound or solid wood, so as to leave the surface perfectly smooth. The composition (pre- pared in the manner described vol. i. p. 96, and rendered of the consistence of thick paint, by add- ing a sufficient quantity of soap- suds and urine) should then be laid on Aiith a painter's brush, to the thickness of about 1-Rth of an inch, and the edges finished off as thin as possible. Next, five parts of dry pulverized AA'oocl-ashes should be mixed with one part of bone- ashes, previously reduced to poAV- der, and then put into a tin-box, the top of Avhich is perforated Avith holes: the poAvder must be sprink- led over the surface of the compo- sition, being suffered to remain half an hour for absorbing the moisture ; Avhen an additional por- tion of the powder should be gent- ly applied Avith the hand, till the whole plaster acquire a smooth surface. As the edges of such ex- cisions groAv up, care ought to be taken, that the new Avood may not come in contact Avith the decayed; for which purpose, it will be advi- sable to cut out the latter, in pro- portion as the former advances; a holloAv space being left betAveen both, in order that the newly- grown wood may have sufficient room to extend, and fill up the cavity, so that it in a manner forms a new tree. By this process, old and decayed pear-trees have, in the second summer after its ap- plication, produced fruit of the best quality and finest flavour; nay, in the course of four or five years, they yielded such abundant crops, as young healthy trees could not have borne in 16 or 20 years. By such treatment, likewise, large, aged elm-trees,all the partsof which were broken, having only a small portion of bark left on the trunk, shot forth stems from their tops, to the height of above thirty feet, within six orseA'-en years after the composition had been applied..... Thus it appears, that both forest and fruit-trees may be renovated, and preserved in a flourishing state; while the latter may be rendered more fruitful than at any former period. We regret that our limits confine us to the present short ac- count, and refer the reader to Mr. Forsyth's Treatise above cited; ay hich is illustrated Avith 13 elegant engravings. [Under the articles Fruit, Or- chard, some observations on the subject of fruit-trees by the inge- nious Mr. Bucicxal Avere given, and the occasion of the present head is taken to introduce some additional and highly important remarks by the same valuable prac- 192 T R E TRE tical Avriter ; from the Transactions of the Society of Arts, vol. 20, for 1802, on the varieties of en- grafted Fruit-trees. " Some friends have requested that I would introduce another pa- per on the nature of the valuable varieties of engrafted fruits, as they are of opinion that the Essay in the 17th volume of the Trans- actions of the Society is not suffi- ciently extended for a subject so important to the fruit-growers, and those interested in the productions of fruits. As a proof of my wil- lingness to make the orchardist as perfect as I can, I beg you to pre- sent my compliments to the Soci- ety, with the following elucida- tions. " This is a subject in rural eco- nomy which ought to be much better understood than it is, in or- der to enable the planters to judge of the sorts proper to be planted, either as an article of pleasure, profit, or recreation ; as much of the credit of the plantation must arise from judiciously choosing trees of the best, new, or middle- aged sorts, and not of the old worn-out varieties, which latter cannot, in the planting of orchards in common situations, ever form valuable trees, and must end in the disappointment of the planter. " Engrafted fruits, I have before said, and I iioav repeat, are not permanent. Every one of the least reflexion must see that there is an essential difference between the poAver and energy of a seedling plant, and the tree Avhich is to be raised from cuttings or elonga- tions. The seedling is endued with the energies of nature, Avhile the graft, or scion, is nothing more than a regular elongation, earried perhaps through the seve- ral repeatings of the same variety; whereas the seed, from having been placed in the earth, germin- ates and becomes a new plant, wherever nature permits like to produce like in vegetation ; as in the oak, beech, and other mast- bearing trees. These latter trees, from each passing through the state of seedlings, are perfectly continued, and endued with the functions of forming perfect seeds for raising other plants by evolu- tion, to the continuance of the like species. " This is not the case with en- grafted fruits. They are doomed by nature to continue for a time, and then gradually decline, till at last the variety is totally lost, and soon forgotten, unless recorded by tradition, or in old publications. " Reason, with which Provi- dence has most bountifully blessed some of our species, has enabled us, when we find a superior varie- ty, to engraft it on a Avilding stock, or to raiae plants from layers and cuttings, or even to raise up the roots, and thus to multiply our sources of comfort and pleasure. This, however, does not imply that the multiplication of the same va- riety, for it is no more, should last for ever, unless the species will naturally arise from seed. " Nature, in her teaching, speaks in very intelligible lan- guage, AA'hich language is convey- ed by experience and observation. Thus Ave see that among promis- cuous seeds of fruits of the same sort, one or more may arise, Avhose fruits shall be found to possess aAra- lue far superior to the rest in many distinguishable properties. From experience, also, Ave haA'e obtain- ed the power, by engrafting, of increasing the number of this TRE T R E 193 newly-acquired tree, can change its country, give it to a friend, send it beyond the seas, or fill a kingdom with that fruit, if the na- tives are disposed so to do. Thus Ave seem to have a kind of creative poAver in our own hands. " From the attention lately paid to the culture of engrafted fruits, I hope we are noAV enabled to con- tinue a supposed happily acquired tree, when Ave can find it, for a much longer duration than if such variety had been left in the state of unassisted nature ; per- haps I may say-for a duration as long again, or something more. After these sanguine expectations, I may reasonably be asked, to what does all this amount ? for here there is no direct permanency..... and why ? The why is very obvi- ous....because the kernels Avithin the fruit, which are the seed of the plants for forming the next generation of trees, will not pro- duce their like. I allow they may do so accidentally ; but nothing more can be depended on. " For example, suppose we take ten kernels or pips of any apple raised on an engrafted stock : soav them, and they will produce ten different varieties, no two of which Avill be alike ; nor will either of them closely resemble the fruit from whence the seeds were col- lected. The leaves also of those trees raised from the same primi- genious or parent stock, Aviii not actually be a copy of the leaves of any one of the varieties or family, to Avhich each is connected by a vegetable consanguinitv. I inten- tionally used the word actually, be- cause a resemblance may be found, though not much of that is to be expected. " I begthatwhathasbeen last men- vol. v. tioned may not be taken as a dis- couragement to attempts for rais- ing new varieties. I was obliged to speak very strongly, in order to place the culture upon its true foundation. I think it need not be observed, that there is no ac- quiring a new variety, but through the means of a seedling plant; and therefore whoever wishes to succeed must attempt it that way, or wait till others in their planta- tions may more fortunately pro- duce it. "'• In chusing the seeds, that ap- ple is most likely to produce the clearest and finest plants, Avhose kernels are firm, large, and well ripened. The size of the Iruit is not to be regarded ; for large ap- ples do not ahvays ripen their fruit Avell, or rather for cycle 1 the small fruits are generally prefer- red for making the strongest, highest-flavoured liquor. And from what I have been able to col- 1 ct in the cyder-countries, it is there the opinion, that an apple something above the improved crab promises the best success..... This advantage also attends the practice : if there are no valuable apples raised from that attempt, these wildings will make excel- lent stocks to engraft u >->n. " Gentlemen who actually cm- ploy themselves in attempting to acquire neAv varieties, should re- member that they ought to select all the sets, from the bed of apple- quick, whose appearai: :e is i:Uhe least degree promising, and plant them together, at such a distance as to allow each to produce its fruit, Avhich will happen in about tAwhe, fifteen, or eighteen yea-s. My fiiei.il Mr. Knmght, who un- doubtedly is the first in actual •-;- ertions for procuring these happily C c 194 T R E TRE acquired neAv varieties, has had tAA'o plants bear fruit at six years old, and one at five. The cyder- countries have offered several pre- miums for procuring new varieties, and some Avith good effect. Pre- miums have been given both to Mr. Knight and Mr. Alban. " When the new variety is to be raised from a valuable admired apple, I should recommend the placing these seeds in a garden- pot, filled Avith mould from an old melon-bed ; carrying the pot into a retired situation near the Avater, and giving attention to run the plants to as large a size as is con- venient within eighteen months. With this vieAV, the pot should be placed in the green-house the first winter; and when the plants are aftenvards to be set out in the spots, they should not be placed under the drip of trees, or much exposed to the Avincls. " Two instances have been men- tioned, the improved crab, and most admired apple; but pru- dence says, try all sorts, and something probably will arise ; and the process is attended with little trouble or expense to a per- son Avho constantly resides in the country : yet, after all this scien- tific care, the apple may want fla- vour, and be in other respects no- thing better than a common Avild- ing. " It is an undoubted fact, and worthy of observation, that all the different trees of the same variety have a Avonderful tendency to si- milarity of appearance among themselves ; and that the parent stock, and all engrafted from it, have a far greater resemblance to each other, than can be found in any part of the animal creation ; and this habit does not vary to any extent of age. " As an encouragement in at- tempting to increase the number of neAv valuable fruits, we can prove that the golden pippin is na- tive English. The red-streak, a seedling of Herefordshire, if not raised, yet Avas first brought in- to notice by Lord Scudamore, and was for along time calledScu- damore's Crab. The Stire Apple Avas accidentally raised in the for- est of Dean, in Glocestershire, and took the name of Forest Stire. The cyder made from this apple Avas the strongest the country ever produced, according to any living record. The Haglo-crab, the best cyder fruit now remaining, was discovered in the parish of Ecloe, on the banks of the Severn ; and about sixty or seventy years ago, many scions Avere taken from this tree by Mr. Bellamy, and en- grafted on seedling stocks about Ross. These are noAV groAvn old ; and to ascertain the age of the va- riety, I Avent with Charles Ed- win, Esq. to Ecloes, in hopes of seeing the primigenious of this family. The pioprietor of the estate acquainted Mr. Edwin that it had ceased to bear, years ago, and Avas cut down. Those at Ross are but poor bearers now, and I should suppose the variety must be 140 years old, though Mar- shal, who Avrote in the year 1786, mentions these trees Avere prolific, and he supposes the sort to be about eighty years old ; but from present experience, it must be much more. The Tinton Squash- pear is of Gloucestershire; the Barland and Old-field Avere near Ledbury, Herefordshire. The tA\o last pears clearly bear the name* TRE T R E 195 of the two fields where they Avere raised. The Barland fell about six years ago, visibly from Aveight and longevity, Avhich Avas supposed to have been about 200 years. There have been many other names of estimation handed clown to us, though the realities are noAV total- ly Avorn out, and have ceased to exist. Can any better proof be desired, that engrafted fruits are not permanent, than the regret we feel for the loss of these old valu- able fruits. " To make my paper as short as convenient, I have dwelt only on the apple and pear : yet all the engrafted fruits are under the same predicament of the seed not pro- ducing its like, and the offspring in time falling into a nothingness of growth and bearing, though that space of time must certainly de- pend on the natural longevity and hardiness of the sort, soil, position, care, 8cc. All these are more ful- ly expressed in the papers publish- ed in the different volumes of the transactions of this Society, and the two volumes of the Orchard- ist, wherein the whole system is extended, to form a rational culture for the management of slandard fruits. " It should be remembered, that as I am now alluding to the state of actual permanency, fifty years are to be accounted as nothing; and as often as Ave come to that point, Ave are compelled to resort to our first assertion, " That en- grafted fruits are not permanent, they being continued from elonga- tions, and not raised as a repeti- tion of seeds." This is the only rational Avay as yet introduced of accounting for the loss of the va- luable Old varieties of fruits. Should a better system be introduced, I shall readily adopt it; but this sufficiently ansAvers the purposes of the planter. " Some years ago, from -due in- vestigation and thorough convic- tion, I propagated this principle ; and it was published in the 17th vol. of the Society'sTranactions, in the following Avords: " All the grafts taken from this first tree, or parent stock, or any of the de- scendants, Avill for some genera- tions thrive ; but Avhen this first stock shall, by mere dint of old- age, fall into actual decay, a nihi- lity of vegetation.....the descend- ants, however young, or in what- ever situation they may be, will gradually decline ; and, from that time, it would be imprudent, in point of profit, to attempt propa- gating that variety from any of them. This is the do"gma Avhich must be received. I do not expect a direct assent, neither do I wish it; for it should be taken with much reserve ; but it is undoubt- edly true." These considerations should stimulate us in searching after new varieties, equal, or per- haps superior, to those of which we regret the loss. u Observe, that from the time the kernel germinates for apple- quick, should the plant be disposed to form a valuable variety, there will appear a regular progressive change, or improvement, in the organization of theleaves, until that variety has stood, and grown suf- ficient to blossom and come into full bearing; that is, from the state of infancy to maturity ; and it is this and other circumstances, by which the inquisitive eye is ena- bled to form the selection among those appearing likely to become 196 T R E TRE valuable fruits. But from that time the new variety, or selected plant, compared Avith all the en- graft ments which may be taken from it, or any of them, these shall shew a most undeviating sameness among themselves. " It is readily allowed, that the different varieties of fruits are ea- sily distinguished from each other by miciy particulars ; not only res- pecting their general fertility, and the form; size, shape, andflavourof the fruit; but also the manner of the gi'GAvth of the tree, the thick- ness and proportion of the tAvigs, their shooting from their parent stem, the form, colour, and con- sistence of the leaf, and many other circumstances, by which the variety can be identified : and Ave re it po rible to engraft each A'ariety upon the same sleek, they would still retain their discriminating qualities, with the most undeviat- ing certainty. u The proper conclusion to be draAvn from the statement in the last paragraph, is this....that Avere any one to put the thought in prac- tice on a full-grown hardy or crab stock, it would produce an excel- lent proof that engrafted fruits are not permanent. For if twenty different varieties were placed to- gether, so '.hut each might receive its nurture Irom the same stem. they would gradually die off in actual succession, according to the age or state of health of the res pective variety, at the tiine the scions were placed in the stock ; and a discriminating eye, used to thh business, Avould nearly be able to foretell the order in which each scion Avould actually decline..... She-'.Id it also happen that tvo or three suckers from the Avilding stock had been permitted to grow among the ^ttventy grafts, such suckers or Avilding shoots will con- tinue, and make a tree after all the rest are gowe. A further con- sequence Avould result from the ex- periment : among such a number of varieties, each of the free groAv- ers would starve the delicate, and drive them out of existence only so much the sooner. It must be observed, that this supposed stem is the foster-parent to the twenty scions, and real parent to the suckers; and those the least conversant Avith engrafted fruits know the advantage acquired from this circumstance. And here it is Avorth while remarking, that a Gascoyne, or wild-cherry, will groAv to twice the size that ever an engrafted cherry did. " By an experiment we have had in hand for five years, it will appear that the roots and stem of a large tree, after the first set of scions are exhausted or a\ orn out, may carry another set for many years; and we suspect a third set, provided the engrafting is properly done, and the cngrafter chuses a new variety. Now the Ripston pippin, of Yorkshire, is the fa- vourite, as being a free grower and good bearer, Avith fine fruit. This, hcAvever, may be certainly depended on, that when a neAv ap- ple is raised from seed, if a scion Avcrc placed in a retired situation, and constantly cut down, as a stool in a copse-wood, and the ap- ple never suffered to fulfil the in- tentions of nature in bearing fruit, the practitioners of the following ages may secure scions from that stool, to continue the variety much longer. Hence, though I have written as much as is in my power agamst permanency, yet I have taken some pains to assure the TRE T R E 197 planters, that forecast, selection, pruning, cleanliness, and care, Avill make the orchards turn to more profit for the rising generations, than what they have done for the last hundred years. " To place the nature of varie- ties in its true light, for the infor- mation of the public, I must maintain, that the different varie- ties of the apple Avill, after a cer- tain time, decline, and actually die away, and each variety, or all of the same stem or family, will lose their existence in vegetation ; and yet it is a known fact, and mention- ed in the 17th vol. of the Transac- tions, that after the debility of age has actually taken possession of any variety, it will yet thrive by being placed against a southern wall,'and treated as a wall-fruit. Who, however, can afford to raise cyder at that expence, except as matter of curiosity, to prove, that when the vital principle in vegeta- tion is nearly exhausted, a super rior care and warmth will still keep the A'ariety in existence some time longer ? " It should be understood that the external air of Britain is rather too cold for the delicate fruits, which is the reason why, in the Orchardist, I lay such a stress on * procuring warmth for the trees, by draining, shelter, and manure. It would be now lost time to attempt to recover the old varieties as an article of profit. " If I have not expressed my- self, in this Essay on the Nature of Varieties, Avith so much clearness and conviction as might have been expected, it should be considered, that it is an abstruse subject, very little understood, and requiring at first some degree of faith, observa- dw>, and perseverance. The pre- judices of mankind revolt against it. They are not disposed to alloAV the distinction of nature ; and they imagine, that, in the act of engraft- ing or multiplying, they gi\e neAv life ; A\hereas it is only continuing the existence of the same tree, stick, or bud. Observe what I said before: the seed of the apple, Avhen placed in the earth, germinates, and unfolds iteelf into a new plant, Avhich successively passes through the stages of infancy, maturity, and decay, like its predecessors. I might say, all created nature is similar in this respect; though, from the circumstance that varie- ties are much longer-lived than man, the plants have appeared to be possessed of eternal poAvtrs of duration : nothing sublunary how- ever, which possesses either ani- mal or vegetable life, is exempt from age and death. " Within the last tAventy years I have traA'elled many hundred miles, and conversed Avith the most intelligent men in each coun- ty ; and I iioav Avant to convince mankind, for no other reason than because it is their interest so to believe, that there is in creation an order ofbeings (engrafted fruits) so formed, that we have the poAver of multiplying a single variety, to whatever number of trees we please ; that the first set arises from a small seed ; that the next and descendant sets are propagat- ed by engraftings, or from cut- tings, layers, he.; and although these trees may amounttomillions, yet, on the death of the primige- nious or parent stock, merely from uld-age, or nihility of growth, each individual shall decline, in Avhat- e-ver country they may be, or how- ever endued Avith youth and health. I say they shall gradually begin to 198 T R £ T RE decline ; and in the course of time or of centuries, to those Avho would prefer that expression, the whole variety will scarcely have a single tree remaining to show what the fruit Avas. Let those Avho are not disposed to assent to the state- ment, ask themselves Avhat is be- come of the old lost varieties ? did they die, or did wicked men mali- ciously cut them up ? " I, who am firmly convinced of the truth of Avhat I have ad- vanced on this subject, have no doubt but that the same Avould happen by engrafting on the oak or beech, if the mast raised from the engrafted tree did not produce .the like; for there the question turns. " Is it not knoAvn that the wood- man, in setting out his sapling oaks, always selects new seedling plants, and never continues one upon an old stool; and that if he should so blunder, that tree, from the stool, will neither have free- dom of groAvth, nor the size or firmness of timber, equal to the neAV-raised plant. " I Avish I could persuade my friends, that, with the same atten- tion Avith Avhich the woodman acts, the planter is to raise his orchard from the young fruits Avhich thrive in the neighbourhood, or are in health and full bearing in the country Avhence they are to be brought. " The fruit-grower should look to selection, cleanliness, and care. To me it is a circumstance per- fectly indifferent, whether he is to use Mr. Forsyth's composi- tion, Mr. Bulincham's boiled lin- seed oil, or my medication. I only maintain that the wounded parts of trees Avant something to destroy the insects and vermin, and heal the wood, from which the trees are kept in health. " Let those who are blessed Avith fruit-plantations attend to their preservation, and not leave them to the state of unassisted nature."] TREE-MALLOW, the Sea, or Velvet-leaf, Lavatera arborea, L. an indigenous biennial, growing on the sea-shores, where it flowers from July to October....This being the only native species of eleven plants, belonging to the same ge- nus, Ave shall briefly remark, that all the Tree-mallows deserve to be more generally cultivated, both in gardens and fields , not only for their elegant flowers,which abound Avith honey, but chiefly for the va- luable material obtained from their fibrous stalks :....We learn from Bechstein, that such stalks may, Avith equal advantage, be convert- ed into paper, and pack-thread or bass, serving as a substitute for hemp. TREFOIL, or Trifolium, L. a genus of fifty-five species, 16 of which are indigenous : of these we shall mention the following : 1. The pratense, or Common CloA-er; 2. The medium, v. alpestre, or Red, Perennial Clover ; 3. The firocumbens, v. agrarium^ Hop-clover, or Hop-trefoil; and 4. The repens, or White Clover. Which see. 5. The Millotus officinalis, or Melilot-trefoil. SeeMELiLOT the Common. 6. The arvev.se, or Hare's-foot Trefoil, grows in sandy pastures, corn-fields, and chalky situations ; where it floAvers in July and Au- gust. This species is strongly aro- matic ; and, A\hen dried, retains its odour for a considerable time :...it affords a grateful food to cattle; TRE andis,by Bechstein,recommend- ed as a valuable substitute for oak- bark, in tanning leather. 7. The fragiferum, or Straw- berry Trefoil, thrives in moist meadows, chiefly in the vicinity of London, where it flowers in Au- gust....This perennial vegetable is industriously cultivated by the Greenlanders, who propagate it by seed, and also transplant the stalks, which thus attain the height of seven feet. Its Avhitish and reddish flower-heads are nearly globular, and slightly compressed on the up- per surface. The Avhole plant af- fords as nutritive food to cattle as the Common or MeadoAV-clover. TREFOIL, the Common Bird's- foot, or Lotus corniculatus, L. an indigenous perennial, groAving in meadows, pastures, heaths, and road-sides, where it floAvers from June to August.....This plant is eaten by coavs, goats, and horses ; but, according to Linnjeus, is not relished by swine or sheep ; tho' it is propagated in Hertfordshire as pasturage for the latter animals. ....Dr. Anderson strongly recom- mends it to be cultivated for cat- tle; and Mr. Woodavard remarks, that it may be raised to great ad- vantage : as it attains a consider- able height in moist meadows, and makes good hay.......Its flowers, when dried, acquire a greenish cast: in which respect, they re- semble those of the plants produc- ing Indigo : it is, therefore, pro- bable, that they may be advanta- geously employed for obtaining a substitute for that expensive dye- ing material. According to Bradley, an in- fusion of the seeds, flowers, and leaves of the Common Bird's-foot, in wine, operates as a diuretic; and T R U 199 at the same time tends to allay the irritation of the urinary canal. TROY-WEIGHT, isthatmode of weighing certain commodities; in which the pound contains twelve ounces, each of them being divided into twenty penny-weights and the latter into twenty-four grains each: on the contrary, a pound of avoir- dupois consists of sixteen ounces • so that each oz. has eight drams or drachms; each dram three scruples; and each scruple, twenty grair.s.......See also Avoirdupois and Weight. [The proportion of a pound, avoirdupois to a pound troy, is as 17 to 14.] True-love. See Herb-Paris. TRUFFLE, or Trubs, Lyco- perdon tuber, L. (Tuber cibarium of Dr. Withering,) is a species of puff-ball, which grows under ground, Avithout any roots or the access of light; and attains a size of from a pea to the largest potatoe. In Britain, however, it is of a glo- bular form, resembling that of a large plumb: and, when youno-, its surface is Avhitish ; being inter- spersed with elevated dots, the centre of which contains a brown powder, similar to that of the com- mon Puff-ball : as it becomes old, the colour turns black....This species of fungus may be searched for in hilly forests, which have a sandy or dry clayey bottom, at the depth of four or five inches in the earth ; though it seldom exceeds four or five oz. in Aveight, while those produced on the Continent, frequently Aveigh from eight to six- teen ounces....It is one of the most wholesome and nutritive of the es- culent fungi, and is generally dis- covered by means of dogs, which are taught to scent it; so that, o;» 200 T U M TUM smelling the truffle, they bark, and scratch it up.....In Italy, it is like- wise rooted up by pigs, which are either furnished with a ring around their snout; or, it is taken from them by an attendant. Truffles are highly esteemed at the tables of the luxurious, Avhere they are served up, either roasted in a fresh state, like potatoes ; or, they are dried, sliced, and dressed as ingredients in soups and ragouts. The most delicious are internally white, and possess the odour of garlic. Tube-root. See Meadow- Saffron. TUMBREL, a machine employ- ed chiefly in the county of Lin- coln ; for the purpose of giving food to sheep, during the winter. In the 4th vol. of the « Reper- tory of Arts," &c. Ave meet with a descriptiction of a contrivance which is equally simple and useful: we have, therefore, been induced to give the annexed Cut, represent- ing its structure. It consists of a circular cage or crib, which may be made of Avil- Ioav, osiers, or similar pliant brush- wood. The whole is ten feet in circumference, being closely wat- tled to the height of one foot, above which it is left open for the space of about 18 inches; when it is again wattled to the height of 8 or 9 inches; an opening, 18 inches broad, being left at the top, for the purpose of putting in turnips, or other provender. The staves, form- ing the skeleton of the machine above represented, are 10 inches apart, so that 12 sheep may feed at one time in each tumbrel. Considerable advantages are de- rived from this method of feeding sheep ; as it greatly reduces the expense of provender, Avhich is thus prevented from being soiled TUM TUP 201 with dung, or trodden under foot. In such a state of separation, the Stronger animals cannot drive away the weaker sheep; each being secur- ed by the head, while they are eat- ing. Farther, the construction of the tumbrel being attended with no difficulties, it may be readily pro- cured, and be daily conveyed to any part of a farm : if proper care be taken, this utensil may be pre- served in constant use, for eight or ten years. TUMOR, or Swelling, in animal economy, denotes an en- largement or preternatural tume- faction of any part of the body; and is either of an indolent nature, duch as Cancer, Schirrus and Scrophula ; or inflammatory, as occurs in the female breast, in chil- blains, and various other local af- fections.... With respect to the lat- ter, we refer to the article In- flammation; and, as most of the former are distinguished, either by the cause from which they arise, or by other circumstances, whence they have received particular de- nominations, Ave shall in this place only give a feAv directions, relative to the treatment of indolent tumors In general. When swellings of this nature gradually appear on any part of the human body, and are not attended with either pain or inflammation, the mode of discussing them en- tirely depends on their situation. Thus, when the glands are swoln, cold astringent fomentations, or Saponaceous and mercurial plasters, conjoined Avith cold-bathing, espe- cially in sea-Avater, will generally be attended with good effects. If the tumor be situated on muscular or fleshy parts, Avarrn fomenta- tions have often been found of ser- vice ; on bony or tendinous pans, vol. v. gentle friction, and afterwards mo- derate compression, are in most cases sufficient to remove the ob- struction. [TUPELO TREE,.AV*z,L.a genus of trees, comprehending 3 species, all of which are natives of the United States. 1. N. Aquatica, Virginian wa- ter Tupelo Tree, grows in swamps in Carolina and Florida. The ber- ries are nearly the size of a small olive, and are preserved in like manner by the French inhabitants on the Missisippi, where it abounds, and is called Olive Tree. The timber is Avhite and soft vrhen un- seasoned, but light and compact when dry, which renders it very proper for making domestic table utensils. 2. N. Ogeche. . The Ogeche Lime Tree. This tree was brought from Georgia by Mr. Bartram, to the neighbourhood 'of Philadel- phia. It is a tree of great singu- larity and beauty, growing natur- ally in the Avater. The fruit is nearly oval, of a deep red colour, of the size of a Damasane plum, and of an agrefeable acid taste, from which it is called the lime tree. 3. Nyssa Sylvatica, Upland Tu- pelo Tree, or Sour Gum. This species grows naturally in Penn- sylvania, and New-Jersey. The timber of this tree is close grained and curled, and docs not split ea- sily ; and therefore much used for hubs of wheels forAvaggons and carriage-;. It also is much used by economists for back-lojrs of fires, from its incombustible na- ture. The Sweet Gum, is a very dif- ferent tree : it is the Uqu'uUr.iber, styracifiua of Linnaeus, the leaves of Avhich resemble the maple, and Do 202 T U R TUR the wood dry, light and inflam- mable.] TURBITH, 'or Tukpeth, an officinal drug, being the bark from the fleshy roots of the Convolvu- lus Turpethum, L. an exotic species of the Bind-Aveed, growing in Cey- lon. Turbith is imported in oblong- pieces, Avhich are of a brown, or ash-colour externally, and Avhitish within. The best is brittle ; con- tains a large portion of resinous matter ; and is at first of a SAveelish taste ; but, Avhen cheAved, it be- comes pungent and nauseous..... This drug is occasionally employ- ed as a purgative ; but is by no means safe, or uniform, in its ope- ration. TURBITH - MINERAL, or \ ELLOAV - VITRIOLATED QUICK- SILVER,a medicinal precipitate ob- tained by cautiously mixing eight parts of vitriolic acid Avith four of purified mercury; and distilling the Avhole to dryness, in a retort placed in a sand furnace. The Avhite calx, on being reduced to poAvder, and thrown into warm dis- tilled water, assumes a yellow co- lour ; and becomes tasteless after repeated ablutions. Turbith-mineral is a poAverful emetic, and has been gh'en with frequent success, in doses of from li o 6 or 8 grains, to robust per- sons, Avho Avere alflicted Avith le- prous diseases, and glandular ob- structions, that had resisted the poAver of other medicines. It has also been recommended, in doses amounting from six grains to a scruple every day, in cases of hy- drophobia ; and some instances haA'e occurred, in which it hot only prevented madness in dogs that had been bitten, but also effected a cure, after the disease had actually taken place. Lastly, the Avater, in which this mineral is Avashed, has been used externally for lotions, in the itch and other cutaneous affec- tions ; but such practice ought ne- ver to be adopted Avithout proper advice ; as it may be attended Avith danger. TURF, a broAvn or blackish fos- sil, consisting of a rich earth com- bined with the fibrous roots of ve- getables, mineral oils, &c. Turf differs from peat, only in its harder consistence ; the latter being obtained from peat-bogs, and the former is dug out of more solid ground, such as dry commons, on which cottagers exercise the right of turbary, by prescription : both species are chiefly used as fuel, in those countries Avhere coal and wood are scarce. After the turf or peat are consumed, their ashes are employed either as a Manure, or they may be advantageously strewed on land infected with Chafers. (See Chafer.) Far- ther, it appears from the experi- ment of M. Sage, that turf may be charred, or reduced to a state of cinder, in the same manner as Charcoal ; and thus serve as an excellent substitute for the latter; because it not only bums with a more intense heat, but is also of a longer duration. TURKEY, or Meleagris gallo- pavo L. a bird originally from North America ; but Avhich has long been domesticated in Britain ; it has a caruncle both on the head and throat; the breast of the male being tufted. When irritated, the feathers of this part are remaka- bly erected ; the prominence on TUR T U R 203 the forehead is relaxed ; and the bare spots of the face and neck be- come uncommonly red. Turkies subsist on grain and in- sects : early in the spring the fe- male frequently wanders to a con- siderable distance from the farm- yard, for the purpose of construct- ing her nest; where she deposits from 14 to 17 white eggs, marked with redish or yellow freckles ; but seldom produces more than one brood in a season. Great numbers of these birds are reared in the North of England ; and, towards autumn, hundreds at a time are driven to the London market, by means of a scarlet shred of cloth, fastened to the end of a stick ; which, from their antipathy to this colour, serves as a whip. Turkies, being extremely deli- cate fowls, are much oppressed by cold; hence the Swedes plunge their chicks into cold water, soon after, or at least on the same day, Avhen they are hatched ; then force them to SAvalloAv one whole pep- per-corn each ; and restore them to the parent bird. Thus, they are enabled to resist the impressions of the severest winters and their growth is not retarded. Young turkies are liable to a peculiar disorder, Avhich frequently and speedily proves fatal : on in- specting the rump feathers, tAvoor three of their quills will be found to contain blood ; but, on drawing them out, the chick soon recovers; and afterwards requires no other care than common poultry. Turkies are highly esteemed, on account of their delicate flavour ; for their flesh is not so rank as that of either geese or ducks, and is likewise more nutritious. TURMERIC, or Curcuma, L. a genus of exotic plants, compre- hending tAvo species, namely ; 1. The rotunda, having a round fleshy root, similar to that of gin- ger ; and 2. The longa, Avith long yellow roots, which spread to a considerable extent. Both are na- tives of India, Avhence their roots are annually imported by the East- India Company, paying 21. per cent, according to their value ; and a farther duty of, 2i-d per lb. for home consumption. Turmeric has a weak, though agreeable smell; and a bitterish, pungent taste : it is naturally of a deep saffron-colour, which it com- municates to Avatery infusions.... This drug is by the Indians, prin- cipally employed for seasoning rice, and other culinary prepara- tions....It is reputed to he aperient, and of considerable efficacy in the jaundice ; but is chiefly consumed in dyeing the finest yellow colours, which are also the least permanent; and giving a brighter, though pe- rishable, shade to scarlet cloth..... See also Yellow. TURNEP, TURNIP, or Knol- les, Brassica Rapa, L. an indi- genous biennial plant, growing in corn-fields, and chiefly in their borders ; where it flowers in the month of April. There are many A'arieties of the turnip, Avhich are cultivated, both for feeding cattle, and for culinary purposes ; but Ave shall enumerate only the principal, namely : 1. The Oval, Common ll'hitc- stock, or Norfolk Turnip. 2. The Large Green-topped Tur- nip attains a considerable size, and is very SAvcet and soft; but, grow- ing above the ground, it is liable to be injured by severe frosts. 3. The Purple-stock resembles 204 T V R TUR the first variety, excepting that its size is somewhat smaller; the rind is of a dark-red or purple colour ; and its pulp is also more close and firm, than that of theCommonNor- folk turnip. It withstands the se- verity of winter, without receiving material injury, and is more suc- culent in the spring ; but, not be- ing relished by cattle so well as either of the tAvo preceding varie- ties, it is not generally cultivated. 4. The Ruta-Baga, or Swedish turnip, is one of the most valuable roots of the kind. Its inside is either Avhite or yellow ; Avhich co- lour, hoAvever, does not affect its quality : it is more hardy than either of the preceding varieties, .and suffers no injury from the most intense cold....As this turnip, Avhen allowed to seed near the Oval, or Norfolk white, produces numerous varieties ; it has teen conjectured, that a new sort may, by a judicious intermixture, be ob- tained, Avhich Avill probably acquire from the one, a sufficient degree of hardiness, to resist the Avinter ; and, from the other, an increase of size, as well as a quicker groAvth. 5. The Hastings is a new varie- ty, imported several years since, from Tibet, in Asia, by Governor Hastings.....This plant has not been hitherto cultivated to any ex- tent ; but it appears, as far as Ave can ascertain, to be one of the most wholesome and profitable roots of this species. Turnips, in general, succeed better in light soils, consisting of a mixture of sand and loam, than in very rich or heavy lands : the crops of the latter Avill be rank, and run to flower at too early a period of the spring; though their weight may not be perceptibly di-r minished. These roots are raised from seed> which ought to be changed annu- ally, or every second year, with- out exception ; as it is apt to de- generate, and the quality of the roots will consequently be impair ed. The season for sowing* varies according to the time of feeding: thus, if the turnips be intended for feeding cattle from December to February, the seed must be committed to the ground from the middle of May to the end of June; but, in case they be designed tQ supply food till May, it should not be soAvn before the latter end of July, or early in August. The quantity of seed depends upon the method of culture ; for, if it be broad-cast, 2 lbs. per acre will be necessary : but a more ad-- vantageous mode is that of Dril-> ling, in rows three feet asunder, Avhich requires only one pound of seed. Although Ave have given an account, vol. ii. pp. 172-180, of the most valuable Drill-machines, yet as two implements of this descrip- tion have lately been contrived, fop the express purpose of drilling turnips, Ave have been induced, for their remarkable simplicity, and practical utility, to furnish ou? readers Avith a complete account and delineation of such improve-, ments. In the year 1801, the Society for the Encouragement of Arts. he. granted a premium of 10 guineas and a silver medul, to the Rev, T. C Munnings, for his inven- tion of a Turnip-drill, of which he communicated a model, accompa-r niecl with a narrative of experii ments, to determine '■< the compa.i rativc advantage of the drill or t //:.?^/..A'*;,,/*/J ;//* //<"/<<>« l-ig.l Wr-r'?'^^*. //tfttntm/'i ."StCmM a'/ it'". c t /'ta/fj/f/tfft/ft ShtUwJe TUR broad-cast method, in the cultiva- tion of turnips."....It consists of a tin box, resembling the shape of a barrel, which is fixed to the axis of a wheel about 22 inches in dia- meter, and vertical Avith such box ; dropping the seed during its revo- lutions, through certain small a- pertures, Avhich are in the middle of the barrel, about fourteen inches asunder. Description of the Turnip-Drill, invented by the Rev. T. C. Mun- nings. Fig. 4....A, the wheel Avith an iron rim. B, the tin barrel, or seed-box, which is fixed to the axis of such Avhcel. C, the opening, through Avhich the seed is introduced into the box; and which is afterwards closed by a cover. D, a semi-circular plate of tin, the design of which is to exclude all impurities from the seed-box. E, E, the two handles of the machine. Fig. 5....F, represents the seed- box on a larger scale. G, the holes in the tin box, through which the seed falls upon the land. H, part of the axis of the Avheel, to Avhich the seed-box is fixed. Mr. Mannings considers his drill for turnips, as much superior to any other, from the single cir- cumstance of its depositing the seed so instantly after the plough, as en- tirely to preserve the good effects of the first evaporation : and he conceives, that such evaporation contributes to the uniform vegeta- tion of minute seeds. Thus, in the six acres of his drilled plants, there was not a deficiency of six TUR 205 square yards ; though, on three acres of broad-cast, before rain fell, not one half, perhaps not one- third, of the seeds vegetated. He is fully persuaded, that the drill- method, in the cultivation of tur- nips, will, in all seasons, be supe- rior to the broad-cast; but, that the very great and striking differ- ence betAveen the two methods, will most effectually be preserved in a season of uncommon drought. The second drill-machine is, that contrived by Thomas An- drew Knight, Esq. of Elon, near Ludlow; on whom the Pa- tritic Society above mentioned, in 1801, conferred their silver medal. Description of Mr. Knight's Drill- Machine for Sowing Turnip-seed. Fig I.....A, is an iron Avheel; which, running on its edge, form- ed by two concave sides, makes the groove, in which the seeds fall. B, a wheel, that moves on the same axis as that marked A, and turns the wheel C, which gives out the seed, by means of a strap. D, the tube, through Avhich the seed passes, and falls into the chan- nel made by the iron Avheel. E, are the feet of the imple- ment. F, represents six lengths of a jack-chain, which Mr. Knight finds to cover the seed remarkably Avell ; and which he believes to be preferable to any kind of harrow; as it can never become obstructed by the Ioosr straAv generally oc- curring on the surface of land re*. cently manured. G, I, the seed-box. H, H, the handles of the ma. chine. Fig. 2, is a section, on a larger scale, of the seed-box G, in I'ig.. 206 ' T U R 2.....The wheel marked C, is the same in both figures : it is fixed on the axis of the cylinder I, the sur- face of Avhich is perforated Avith holes, as at K, for the distribution of the seed. Such cylinder re- volves Avithin a groove, at the bot- tom of the box ; in which it is so firmly fixed, that no seed can pass through, Avithout being delivered by the holes K. L, is a small brush, rubbing against the cylinder, for clearing out any seeds that may remain in the holes....The seeds fall into the tube beneath the cylinder, whence they are conveyed into the furroAV or channel, made by the indenting rim of the iron Avheel ; being then covered with soil by the loose chains above described. Fig. 3.....A front view of the wheel, exhibiting its edge : the angle forming that edge must be made more or less acute, and the strength of the machine in pro- portion to that of the soil. Mr. Knight has, sometimes, added weights of lead over the axis of the wheel; but he observes, that they will seldom be required; having tried the instrument on different soils, Avith equal success. Great advantage may be derived from sowing turnips Avith it, at the time when horses, uoav commonlv em- ployed for such purpose, are other- wise engaged. In this respect, a few days are frequently of import- ance ; as the plants in conse- quence of fortunate rains, obtain a remarkable superiority over those which have been soAvn a few days later. The labourof using thismachine is so easy, that a Avorkman usually drills four statute acres, or some- what more, in one day ; the rows TUR being at the distance of 18 or 20 inches, and the plants six inches apart in the row. It is necessary either to harrow the ground across, or to roll it, previously to the in- strument being used, that the la- bourer may see the roAvs he has made : but, Mr. Knight remarks, that he always found the crop to succeed better, after the roller, than after the harroAV, eAren in ve» ry strong lands. When the turnips have five leaves, they must be hoed, and thinned so as to be six inches apart, whether soAvn by the drill or broad-cast method: in the course of another month, or sooner if the weather prove wet, the hoe- ing ought to be repeated, and the plants be left (according to some agriculturists), at least 14 inches asunder. These roots must like- wise be kept clear of all Aveeds ; for which purpose a horse-hoe is usually employed : but, as many farmers, in distant parts of the island, may not be provided with that implement, Ave have annexed the folloAving figures of a plough, employed chiefly in the county of Roxburgh, for the expres* pur- pose of cleaning turnips. It con- sists of tvvo ploughs, which are of a size considerably less than those in common use: each of them without the small stilt or handle, but joined together with Avooden and iron bars; so that both instruments may be fixed at any requisite distance, for taking the earth from turnips: on being brought closely together, they form a common double-mould-board- plough, that may be advantage- ously used for passing between the drills, and forming the ridges. TUR TUR 207 ^>,3. B Fig. 1, is a vieAV of the plough, when ready for removing the soil from turnips (as it appears to a person standing on one side and towards its front); each beam hav- ing its distinct coulter, and fea- thered sock.....A, B, is a strong iron rod, formed into a screw, for the greater part of its length : this screw being affixed to the left hand beam at A, passses through the other beam, to Avhich it is attached by means of tAvo nuts Avith hand- les, marked a and b; and, when firmly screwed on each side of such beam, it fixes both at any distance required. C, and D, are two wooden (or sometimes iron) bars, that are fixed in a similar manner to the left-hand beam,and passed through the other, where they are secured by Avedges. E, is a bar of iron, which is likeAvise inserted through both beams|; beingperforated with holes for fixing the bridle, by Avhich the plough is draAvn. The mould- boards are fastened to the sheaths by hinges, and are placed at any requisite width, by means of tvo iron pins, / and g; Avhich, de- scending through the beams, pas.i through holes made in a thinir- » 208 TUR TUR bar, fixed to the inside of each mould-board.....F, and G, are the Iavo feathered socks. Fig. 2, is- a bird's-eye vieAV of the same implement; in which the manner of altering the mould- hoard may be more clearly per- ceived. When the plough is em- ployed in this Avay, it is draAvn by two horses. Fig. 3, is another view of the plough, from above; when the tAvo beams are brought into con- tact, forming one double-mould- board-plough. In such case, the coulters are removed ; the tAvo sOcks are taken off'; and that marked H, is put upon the points of both the sheaths, so as to clean the bottom of the furrow betAveen the drills, Avhile it seiwes to keep the tAvo sheaths firmly together. The machine is noAV drawn by one horse,....The advantages derived from the use of this implement are great; as double the work of a common plough may thus be per- formed ; and, as the machine does not, like the latter, lay the soil too much upon the drill....Sometimes, the Roxburgh plough is made with tAvo additional moveable mould- boards, Avhich are suspended by hooks ; when the two beams are separated, as in Fig. 1, and 2. In this case, it will set up two drills at once ; though it ought then to be made proportionably stronger, and to be draAvn by tAvo horses. In November, 1801, a patent was granted to Mr. William Jackson, for a machine or drill designed to sow turnips, By this contrivance, turnip, rape, or simi- lar small round seeds, may be chilled at any requisite distance : it may be farther adapted to the width cf any furrow ; and, by va j-.ins of certain ingenious machi- nery, the seed may be deposited either under such furroAV, or upon the ground. Our limits not per- mitting us to detail the constituent parts of Mr. Jackson's drill, we can only state, that his implement unites cheapness Avith utility, and may be purchased for the small price of 1/. 1 Is. 6d.: hence Ave re- fer the reader to the 16th vol. of the " Repertory of Arts," he. where the specification is illustrat- ed with an engraving. [The cultivation of turnips being considered of the first consequence in England, the Editor has deem- ed it important to state the latest improvements in that branch of husbandry, and to determine by fair comparison, the crops and cost, of the drill and broad-cast system. The first paper he shall select, is by M. J. Boate, of Atherstone, upon Tower, and inserted in the 7th vol. of the Trans, of the Soc. of Arts. " I fixed upon a tAventy-acre piece, which Avas trench-ploughed for a turnep-falloAv in the beginning of November, 1786, and dunged about Christmas following ; after- terwards ploughed three limes, at proper intervals ; also harrowed .occasionally, and drilled with tur- neps, in toavs twelve inches apart: the turneps avcre hoed three times, and produced an exceeding good crop, Avhich av^s eat off by sheep in autumn : the land Avas after- Avards trench-ploughed, four acres of which were drilled with four bushels of Arheat; the same day four acres adjoining (the soil as similar as possible) were soavi:I broati-ca.st Avith tti. bushels of wheat, in order to make the com- parative experiment. " In the first \veek of April, 17S8, the drilled Avheat was hoed, and repeated the last Aveek in the TUR same month ; at which time the broad-cast was also hoed, with hoes of a proper size for the purpose, in order to give it every advantage: at harvest the crops of the respective four acres were separately reaped, each laid by itself in the barn, and separately thrashed, in order to ascertain, with the greatest accu- racy, the difference of each pro- duce. The result as follows ; which also appears in the numbers 14 and 15 of the next ascertain- ments. " Produce of four acres drilled, one hundred and nineteen bushels, one gallon, and four pints; pro- duce of four acres broad-cast, nine- ty-four bushels, tAvo gallons, and four pints....difference in favour of drilling, twenty-four bushels, seven gallons, Avhich, at five shillings and sixpence per bushel, together Avith six bushels of seed saved by drilling, Avhich cost me seA'en shil- lings and four pence halfpenny per bushel, amounts to nine pounds one shilling and three farthings. Deduct the extra-expences of dril- ling four acres at sixpence, and extra-hoeing at eighteen pence per acre, amounting to eight shillings, the net profit in favour of drilling will be eight pounds thirteen shil- lings and three farthings, or two pounds three shillings and three pence per acre. " ToAvard the latter end of April, 1788, when the four acres drilled, three weeks after it had been hoed, gained such a decided superiority overthe adjoining four acres broad- cast, which Avas self-evident by the strength of the plants, and being of a darker green, I determined to give the broad-cast every advan- tage : accordingly I had it as Avell hoed as Avas practicable to be done; Avhich is, in fact, doing all that can V"L. V. TUR 209 be done for any broad-cast crop : this evidently improved the four acres broad-cast; otherwise I am decidedly of opinion, that, in case the hoeing of the four acres broad- cast had not taken place, but the weeds had been suffered to grow, the four acres drilled would have exceeded the four acres broad-cast more than one third ; from whence I cannot see that I have any rea- son to make the least abatement respecting my assertions in a for- mer letter, that I was apprehen- sive I should lose sixteen pounds by sowing four acres broad-cast.... Hoeing of broad-cast corn is no- thing neAv with me, or others ; it is commonly done in Berkshire, and other places ; and Avas my uni- form practice for twelve or thir- teen years of my broad-cast farm- ing : but as it cannot be performed so effectually in a broad-cast crop as in a drilled one, it is unreasonable to expect equal advantages from it, since, after all the care and pains that can be taken in hoeing abroad- cast crop, there will be many Aveeds left growing, being so mixed and interwoven with the corn, as not to be cut up without cutting up the corn also. I must own, that nei- ther the produce of the above four acres drilled, nor the produce of the four acres broad-cast, came up to my expectations, considering the due preparation of the soil. This I attribute entirely to the dry- ness of the season: there is never- theless this inference to be drawn from it, that in whatever proportion any drilled crop may suffer in a dry season, for Avant of moisture, the broad-cast will suffer still more by reason of the seed being deposited at improper depths ; for the plants of those seeds in particular which Avere sown too near the surface of Ee 210 T U R TUR the land, will be almost parched up for Avant of moisture in a dry season. " In my attempts to ascertain the difference between drilling and broad-casting, I am someAvhat sur- prised it should never occur to me before noAV, to ascertain the differ- ence in quality as Avell as quantity of grain produced from both me- thods of culture, by weighing equal quantities of each. In the above comparative experiment the drill has no material advantage over the broad-cast; a bushel of the latter being nearly equal in weight to a bushel of the former: this I attri- bute to the circumstance of the broad-cast crop being hoed, parti- cularly as my neighbour Mr. Wm. Green way informs me, that, from the result of his experiments of last year, in order to ascertain the difference between drilling and broad-casting, the grain of his drilled crop was superior to that of his broad-cast, not only in quan- tity, but also in quality,tAvo pounds Aveight per bushel; and his broad- cast crop Avas not hoed: from whence I conclude, that the grain of his broad-cast crop was imper- fectly vegetated, and not brought to full maturity, by reason of the injury done to it by the Aveeds, or for want of the soil being pulver- ized by the hoe. " In one of my early experi- ments in drilling, I found that hoeing the intervals betAveen the rows or chills Avas indispensablyne- cessary ; otherwise, Avhere land Avas found foul Avith Aveeds, or caked upon the surface, so as to exclude the air from the fibres of the phiiili, or hinder the exten- sion of the fibres in the soil, the advantages of drilling Avere, upon the Avhole, not worthy of notice. On the contrary, and by the same experiment, I found that, by hoe- ing the intervals, cutting up the weeds, and pulverizing the soil at seasonahle times, a surprising and almost incredible advantage might be derived : this left me no alter- native but that of declining the drill system altogether, except for beans and peas, at Avide distances, where the horse-hoe, or shim, might work ; or of submitting to the for- midable expence of hand-hoeing the intervals of drills at nearer dis- tances. To the advantages gained by hoeing, I was at that time no stranger; and I was not long in finding out that the value of seed saved by drilling, would more than defray the expences of hoeing; and the hoeing, 1 was confident, would insure a superior crop: from whence I concluded that the only obstacle that lay betAveen me and success, in the drill system, upon a large scale, was the difficulty, if not the impossibility of procuring a sufficient number of labourers to perform the business of hoeing, just at the time required: and, as I apprehended, so it has turned out: the difficulty in procuring a num- ber of hands in due time, and, in ticklish seasons,perhapsatan hour's notice, is very considerable; exclu- sive of the attention required in seeing that the Avork was done in a husbandmanlike manner, and the fear of the crops of corn growing too high to admit of the use of the hoe : the Aveeds at the same time committing such hor- rid depredations, without a possi- bility of retrieving the less, must needs create no little anxiety of mind." The second paper is by Mr. John Exter,inserted in the Trans. SocLty of Arts, vol. 15. TUR TUR .211 " A six-acre field of light sandy loam, from four to five inches deep, on a clayey substratum, which had been previously ex- hausted by Avhite straw crops, and Avhich I rent at 30s. per acre, though I consider, it too dear in the price (the soil of which differs but very little in any part of the field), was ploughed from a barley stubble, in December, 1796, and was cross-ploughed the last Aveek of May, scuffled across in June, four acres of which was manured Avith dung, and the remainder by the sheepfold. The part dunged had 120 horse-loads of rotten stall dung, 250 cwt. each, per acre ; the part folded had at the rate of 1200 sheep per night, per acre. The Avhole field was ploughed again as soon as the manuring was com- pleted, and on the 15th of July was soavti across the different ma- nurings, as follows : half the field broad-cast, one pound of seed per acre; of the remainder, drilled with Cooke's drill machine, with about half a pound of seed per acre, at eighteen inches distant from row to row; and the remain- der Avith the same machine, three quarters of a pound per acre, in ioavs, at a foot asunder. The weather being favourable, with fre- quent showers, the whole field was planted sufficiently Avell for a crop; but the different parts varied much in their progress in getting into the rough leaf, and consequently es- caping the danger of the fly..... The drilled, at afoot apart, seemed to lose the smallest number of plants ; the drilled at eighteen inches, the next ; and the broad- cast, the largest number ; and con- sequently Avas, in many places, patchy, va ith intervals of four or live feet without any plants at all. There Avasalso a degree of vigour observable on the part manured with dung, much superior to that manured by the sheepfold; the former got into the rough leaf many days sooner, and saved a much larger number of plants..... The whole crop was hand-hoed once ; the broad-cast cost 8s. 2d. the drilled part 5s. IGd. per acre. A large quantity of seed weeds, Avhich had been carried out Avith the dung, had shoAvn themselves previous to the hoeing, and many sprung up again after, and were more particularly apparent in the broad-cast part of the field, and in the intervals where that crop had failed: the drilled part had not nearly as many weeds, from the turnips growing faster, and keep- ing them under, or perhaps their being more effectually cut up by the hoe, in the intervals between the roAVs. The part of the field manured with dung Avas all supe- rior in its growth to the part fold- ed on, throughout the autumn, and is at this time as three to two bet- ter. The superior advantage of drilling to broad-cast is more par- ticularly apparent in the part of the field manured Avith the fold ; and the twelve-inch intervals are also in this part more superior to the eighteen-inch intervals, than on the part manured with dung. " February 27, 1798, four square perches of each of the different modes of sowing, Avere measured off by the minister of the parish, and the overseer of the poor, who is a farmer, and rents 400/. per annum in the said parish, in pre- sence of several other persons ; and the turnips drawn from each portion Avere separately Aveighed, their tops and tails having been previously cut off; and the pro- 212 T U R TUR duce of clean roots was as fol- harrow or dig the land as often as lows : it is weedy ; and always previous The four perches drilled at a to the ploughings, manure should foot, 962 be laid on immediately before the The four perches drilled at 18 last ploughing. If the land is dry, inches, 888 plough it quite flat; if the soil is The four perches broad-cast, 55 5 disposed to be wet or springy, " I think it right here to re- gather it into beds or ridges, suffi- mark, that the four perches of the ctently high to keep it dry ; or broad-cast fixed on Avere more gather it, after manuring, into fully stocked Avith good plants than four furrow ridges, and drill on the general average of the broad- the top of each ridge ; and plough cast part, these four perches hav- the intervals twice during the ing scarcely a failing spot. The _ groAvth of the crop, first ploughing broad-cast part in general being oh" from the sides of the ridges, someAvhat patchy, and the drilled and next back again, up to them. pretty uniformly filled a\ ith plants, Hand-hoe the tops of the ridges. over all the field ; I am certain, had " Paring and burning the turf, the whole of each portion been at first breaking up old swards, Aveighed, the drilled would have is the best preparation in many si- exceeded the broad-cast more than tuations. After paring and burn- tAvo to one. The bulbs of the ing, plough twice, the first time drilled turnips were rounder, and very thin ; then spread the ma- more nearly of a size, than the nure, and turn it in with a full- broad-cast, Avhich I think must be depth furrow, on which soav im- OAving to the more equal distances mediately, and harrow once to their roots had to feed in ; and cover the seed. perhaps to this circumstance, more " Manuring.....Land cannot be than any other, it owes its extra too rich for tuniips, especially if produce. the crop is to be carted off from " The folloAving remark on the the land. The best manures I cultivation of turnips have been haA'e experienced are as follow: I made by myself, in succession of place the best first, the others in practice for fifteen or sixteen years; succession, according to my opi- and I therefore take the liberty of nion of their merits; 1. dung, 2. adding them, as I can declare them soap-ashes, 3. sheepfold, 4. lime ; founded on observation. the last and least to be depended Soils for Turnips. ...Sandy loams, on. I think it is of very little use in good heart, are most favourable in securing the young plant from to their growth, though they will the fly, but it promotes the after- thrive well on strong loams, if growth of the crop. I think all they are not Avet: but on clayey, the nostrums offered as preserva- thin, or Avet soils, they are not tives against the fly are mere worth tilling ; the crop is always quackery. Good manuring, with poor, and the land injured by fresh dung, just rotten enough to them. plough under, is the best; spread Preparation of the Soil for them, your dung just fresh before the Plough three or four times ; the plough, and as soon as possible first time before Christmas, and after the last ploughing. TUR TUR 213 " Seed and seed process, Ufc...... The tankard turnip the best for early feed, the Avhite round stock for the middle season, the green top for late spring feed. Sow new seed in preference to old : if broad- cast, one pound and a half per acre ; and harrow once at a place to cover it. I have often mixed my seed in damp saw-dust, for the sake of increasing its bulk, and distributing it more regularly, al- lowing half a bushel of saw-dust to the quantity of seed per acre soAvn broa i-cast. If you drill, half the seed is sufficient, and deposit it from one inch and a half to two inches deep ; if the soil is damp at the time, the better. The placing turnip-seed deep in the soil acce- lerates the groAvth ofthe plant, by giving it moisture, and gets it sooner out of the poAver ofthe fly. The best distance for the rows ap- pears to be at one foot apart, ex- cept for the tankard turnip, in very rich soils, to be eaten off early, where perhaps eighteen inches may be equally advantageous..... I have seAreral times drilled my turnips in Arery foul land, two rows at a foot asunder, with an interval of two feet, the narrow interval hand-hoed, and the Avide intervrl twice ploughed with the common plough ; and this far exceeded the broad-cast in the same field, both in falloAV and crop. Never har- row fine, or roll the land after sow- ing the seed: the more small clods are left on the surface the better, provided they do not ex- ceed the size of a turkey's egg..... Horse-hoe the drilled, and hand- hoe the broad-cast crops, and both at an early period, viz. as soon as the plants expand their leaves as wide as a crown-piece. By early hoeing the Aveeds are checked, and the crop forwarded in growth. The operation may be repeated if weeds come on again. In ge- neral, a second hoeing is necessary. From repeated trials, I am satis- fied that drilling turnips is prefer- able to sowing them broad-cast on every soil where the land is not so declivous as to prevent soAving Avith a drill, and even on lands too stony to admit the horse-hoe : it distributes the seeds more regular- ly, and deposits it to any depth re- quired, by Avhich it is often secured from the fly, by being accelerated in its groAvth; and, in soils that will admit the horse-hoe, it lessens the expense of hoeing more than one half : and, besides producing a better turnip-crop, it prepares the land better for the crop of corn that folloAvs it than any hand- hoeing whatever. Besides, tur- nips always come to hoeing in the busy time of harvest; and when you cannot spare them to hand- hoe at all, a man, boy, and horse, will horse-hoe five or six acres per day.] In the 4th vol. of the Letters and Papers of the Bath and West of England Society, Ave find an ac- count of a peculiar and very suc- cessful cultivation of turnips ; by J. Kirkpatrick, Esq. of the Isle of Wight. He states, that-a Mr. Cubitt Gray, of Southrepps, Norfolk, never harrows his land, till it is to be ploughed again; but leaves it as open as possible, in or- der to warm it; conceiving that land can never be too warm or drv for turnips; in consequence of which, lie has uniformly for the last 16 years, had the best crops; even though the sowing season was dry.....Notwithstanding every pre- caution, it frequently happens in turnip-fields, that large spots re- 214 TUR TUR main barren : we have, therefore, subjoined the folloAving represen- tation of a simple instrument in- vented by Mr. Gray, for the pur- pose of filling up such vacantspaces from the adjoining parts of the same field; and Avhich has also been employed for transplanting other vegetables. [See plate fac- ing page 205. The handle A, must be held with the left hand ; and the short handle B, drawn up Avith the right. The transplanter should next be put over the vegetable intended to to be taken up, and forced into the ground with the foot: it is then to be twisted round, and carefully draAvn up, so that the earth may adhere to the root. A hole should, in the mean time, be made by an assistant, furnished Avith a similar instrument, for the reception ofthe turnip ; the root be conveyed in the first transplanter, and deposit- ed in the cavity : after which, the right hand being kept steady, the left must be gradually raised ; Avhen the earth and plant will be left in the hole undisturbed. Turnips are subject to the de- predationsof numerous insects, and particularly to those of the follow- ing, namely : 1. The Black Canker: which see. 2. The Black Fly; an insect Avhich may he preArented from at- tacking turnips, by soAving them betAveen beans; or, by adding one- fifth part of radish-seed to the former, and rolling it into the ground. The steeping of turnip- seed in Avater, for 24 hours pre- viously to soAving, is likewise be- lieved to secure the future roots against injury ; but the most effi- cacious method appears to be that adopted by the late Earl of Or- ford (Annals of Agriculture, vol. xiv.) : it simply consists in im- mersing the seed in train-oil, dur- ing the night before it is sown. The roots do not acquire any ill taste ; and seven gallons of such oil are stated to be sufficient for steeping a quantity of seed that will cover 200 acres...See also vol. iii. p. 55. [The following met/tods are lately recommended. First. To a quart of turnip-seed, add one ounce of brimstone finely powdered......put them both into a bottle large enough to afford room to shake them well together every day, four or five days previously to sowing, keeping the bottle well corked. Second. Take such a quantity of elder leaves, as, Avhen bruised, will yield juice sufficient to cover the turnip-seed you intend to sow, in which let it soak about 12 hours, the next day mix it with bruised leaves, and a small quantity of al- lum....then soav all together. Turnip-seed is generally coA'ered Avith a brush-harrow : Take elder bushes for this purpose. If, notwithstanding these pre- cautions, the fly should attack the young plant, draw elder bushes gently over them. If turnip-seed is sown while it rains it does not require to be har- rowed in, and the young plants shoot so strongly that they soon gain strength beyond the power of the fly.] 3. The Slug, to which Ave refer. 4. The Worm, an insect feeding upon the root; in consequence of which, the plant gradually withers* and at length perishes.....No cet- TUR tain remedy has been hitherto de- vised for destroying this depreda- tor ; but it has been conjectured, that its ravages may be prevented, by manuring the soil with soap- boiler's ashes. The turnip is one of the most valuable roots raised for culinary, or economical purposes...Itsyoung tops, Avhen boiled, afford a good substitute for greens ; and, though nutritive, they are somewhat fla- tulent ; Avhich property, may, how- ever, be corrected by the addition of pepper and vinegar. More wholesome, and easy of digestion, are the Swedish Turnips; but they should not be long kept in heaps; being thus apt to become rank, and, consequently, still more in- digestible.....Mixed Avith wheaten flour, and properly baked, the Ru- ta-baga furnishes a nutritious kind of Bread...See vol. i. Farther, Knolles, are very useful as a fallow-crop; and for fattening cattle of every kind. Thus, if sheep be fed Avith them in the mannerbefore directed,see Sheep, they will thrive uncommonly, and their flesh will acquire a delicate flavour. With the mercenary view of obtaining the greatest profit, some sheep-breeders in Lincoln- shire extract the fore-teeth of cul- led eAves, and turn them into the field, where they speedily fatten on the tops, without biting the roots. Turnips likewise afford an invigo- rating food to horses ; and, Avhen cut into small pieces, these ani- mals Avill be induced to eat chaff, and other provender Avith a good appetite. Such food not only pre- serves them in health, but also saves the expense of corn : their coats are thus rendered perfectly smooth ; and, if the Ruta-baga be used, it is eminently calculated to T U R 215 cure the grease.......Coavs devour both the tops and roots of turnips, with equal eagerness; and, as their milk is apt to acquire a pecu- liar flavour from the former, the butter obtained from it may be ren- dered perfectly sweet, by mixing one quart of boiling water with eight of the neAv milk, immediate- ly on its arrival in the dairy; after which it may be put into the usual vessels, to stand for cream.....See also vol. i. Lastly, the roots of turnips be- ing of such extensive utility, dif- ferent means of preserving them from frost, and decay, have been contrived: and of Avhich the fol- loAving appears to be the most suc- cessful. After draAving the tur- nips in February, and cutting off the tops and,tap-roots (Avhich may be given to sheep), Mr. Varlo directs them to be exposed on dry soil, for a feAV days : a layer of straAV should next be spread on the ground; and, on this, a stratum of turnips, about two feet thick: other layers of straAV and roots are then to be formed alternately, till the top be carried to a point; the edges of the straw being turned up, to prevent the turnips bra rolling out. The Avhole should noAV be covered with straAV, which will serve as a thatch ; one load being sufficient for 40 tons of roots. Thus managed, the turnips will be effectually sheltered against the frost; and may, for several months, be kept in a sound state. Turnip-cabbage, and Turnip-rooted Cabbage. See Cabbage. TURNING, is the art of form- ing Avood, ivory, and other hard bodies into an oval or round shape, by means of a Lathe. This art was carried to great per- 216 TUR TUR fection among the Romans ; and is of his tools, gives it the requisite of such importance at present, that form. After having completely it materially contributes to the per- turned the Avork, it requires to be fection of many other branches, in polished either with the skin of the mechanics. The machine ought Shark, the Rough Horse-tail, or to be fixed in a light place, at a suf- other substance adapted to the na- ficient height to alloAV the turner to ture of the material, thus manu- inspect his Avork, without enclan- factured. gering his eyes by the sudden se- TURNSOL, or Turnesol, a paration of chips. valuable dyeing drug, Avhich is pre- Previously to fixing the wood, pared chiefly in the village of bone, ivory, or metal, on the lathe, Grand-Galargues, near Montpel- it ought to be rounded Avith a small lier, from the Croton tinctorum, L. hatchet, Avith a file, or Avith a plane; in French called Maurelle : this and the centres of the surfaces at plant produces a round stalk with each end should be ascertained : many leaves, and seldom exceeds for this purpose, it will be advisa- nine inches in height....It is there- ble to lay the piece of wood upon a fore erroneous, when our volumi- board ; and, after opening a pair nous contemporaries uniformly as- of compasses nearly to half the sert, on the authority of M. Nis- thickness ofthe piece, one of the sole, that Turnsol is obtained from legs must be attached to the board, the tops ofthe Hcliotropium tri- and the point ofthe other brought coccum, L. and though it may be into contact with one of the ends of true, that such drug is occasionally the piece to be turned. Four equi- manufactured from the latter ve- distant arches must then be de- getable, yet the genuine article is scribed at the circumference of such doubtless the result of the follow- end, Avhich should intersect each ing process. other within ; and, if these be ac- Toward the latter end of July, curately made, the point of inter- or early in August, the flowering section will be the centre. The tops of the Maurelle, or Litmus- middle of the opposite extremity" Croton, are expeditiously collected, ought now to be determined in a and bruised; Avhen the dark-green similar manner; a small hole be £ap is expressed into stone vessels, made in both ; the points of the with the addition of urine. Linen puppets inserted; and the piece or Avoollen rags are next dipped into firmly fixed, so that it may be ea- this liquor, and immediately dried sily re\olved. in the sun ; after Avhich they are Next, the cord ought to be suspended for seven or eight hours, passed twice round the piece, and over casks containing stale urine, adjusted to the strap connected quick-lime, and alum, till they ac- Avith the Avheel: when the rest is quire a blue or dark violet colour; placed as closely to the work as and, if necessary, again immersed possible, the turner moves the in the juice, dried, and treated as wheel, by means of the fool-board; before. Thus prepared, they are then presses a gouge, or other chis- packed, and sold by the French sel, against the wood, in an hori- under the name of Tournesols en zontal direction ; and thus, by the drapcau. These blue shreds are steady, well-regulated application chiefly employed for tinging wines, TUR cheese, linen and paper. When infused with distilled Avater, they afford an excellent test; for, on pouring a little of this solution into any liquor containing an acid, it Avill instantly turn red. [The above account is left entire, though it is now known, that the Dutch prepare Turnsol from that kind of lichen called orchil, (Lich- en-Rocella,) or, when that cannot be procured, from the large oak moss.] TURPENTINE, a transparent, resinous substance, Avhich exudes naturally, but is chiefly obtained by incision, from various species of the pine-tree ; and is divided into four kinds, namely : 1. The China, or Cyprus tur- pentine, is derived from the Pista- chia-tree: it is of a thick consist- ence, resembling that of honey ; has a fragrant smell; and a bitter- ish, pungent taste. 2. The Venice turpentine, which exudes from the Larch-tree, has a strong smell, and a hot, disagree- able taste : it is less viscid than any of the other turpentines, and gene- rally of a clear Avhitish or yellow- ish cast. 3. The Strasburgh turpentine possesses an agreeable aromatic odour, but an uncommonly bitter taste ; is neither so thick as the first species, nor so thin as the se- cond ; but clearer, and less tena- cious than either ; being common- ly of a yelloAiish broAvn colour..... it is imported from Germany. 4. The Common turpentine is extracted from the spruce fir ; it is of a dark brown colour; of the consistence of honey ; and has the most disagreeable odour and taste, of all the different species.....Con- siderable quantities of this drug are prepared from the resin, in Bri- voi.. v. T U R 217 tain ; but, as they are insufficient to supply the market, is is im- ported from America, and other countries. All the turpentines yield, on dis- tillation, an essential oil, which is extremely pungent. On account of their diuretic and tonic properties, they are often successfully prescrib- ed in calculous complaints. The Venice turpentine is preferably re- commended as a diuretic, and de- tergent : while those of Chios and Strasburghareusedascorroborants. The common sort b mostly em- ployed as an ingredient in the plasters used by farriers; and its essential oil, obtained by distilla- tion, is consumed partly in the pre- paration of Gin, and partly by house-painters; as likewise for the different varnishes in the floor- cloth, umbrella, and many other manufactures. Lastly, when com- bined with honey, this oil is sup- posed to afford a powerful remedy in rheumatic affection-;. TuRi'ETii. See Turbith. TURTLE, the Common, or Giant Turtle, Tcstudo midas, L* a native of the West-Indies and South-America. This amphibious animal attains to a prodigious size; being sometimes three yards long, and six feet broad ; weighing from 5 to 800 lbs. The female digs nu- merous holes in the sand, \vhere she annually deposits more than 1000 eggs, on which she broods during the night. The young, however, are chiefly hatched by the sun, and frequently become a prey to ravenous birds. Turtles are taken, either by turning them on their backs, a\ hen on land ; or, by hunting them in boats, and killing them by a kind of spear, similar to that employed for taking whales.....Thsir flesh is V F 218 TUR T YP highly esteemed, particularly the belly, Avhich is of a delicate white colour, resembling veal ; and the green fat possesses a peculiarodour. The whole is very nutritious, and of a soft gelatinous nature ; but, containing a large portion of strong fat (Avhich is exceedingly un- Avholesome when rancid or tainted), it should never be eaten without salt, pepper, or other spice, and ought to be carefully avoided in every form, by convalescents, and those whose digestive poAvers are reduced....As the turtle, however, subsists chiefly on vegetables, its flesh is uncommonly palatable and wholesome, especially in a salted state : thus, it forms a considerable article of trade in the West-India Islands, where the natives convert the upper shell of this animal into canoes, troughs bucklers, he. Mock-Turtle Soup, may be pre- pared in the following manner :.... First, a calf's head must be scalded, without stripping off the skin ; when the gristly or horny parts should be taken out, and cut into small pieces. These ought next to be washed, Aviped, and put into a vessel containing four quarts of strong broth, prepared of 71bs. of beef, a calf's foot, a shank of ham, with an onion, carrot, turnip, some thyme, and other pot-herbs: to which may farther be added, a little parsley, sAveet marjoram, and savory, cut small ; together with some pounded cloves and mace, a little Cayenne pepper, a few young onions, some chopped mush- rooms, and half a pint of Madeira Avine. All these ingredients are to be sloAvly steAved, till the liquor be reduced to two quarts ; Avhen a little broth, thickened Avith flour, should be gradually added, to- gether Avith the yolks of two eggs* and carefully stirred, till the whole nearly boils : it is now suffered to stew for another hour, at the end of Avhich, it is fit for use. Such is the method of making this ex- pensive soup, Avhich is so highly gratifying to the vitiated palates of those, Avho prefer the luxuries of the table, Avith their concomitant evils, to temperance, health, and longevity. [TUTENAG, Zinc, according to Sir Geo. Staunton, is extract- ed from a rich ore, or calamine.... The calamine from which tutenag is thus extracted, contains very lit- tle iron, and no lead or arsenic, so common in the calamine of Eu- rope. Hence the Chinese zinc is more beautiful than European zinc] TUTSAN, or Park-leaves, Hypericum Androsccmum, L. is an indigenous perennial, groAving in woods and moist hedges, Avhere it flowers from July to September. This vegetable deserves to be more generally known ; as it may be advantageously employed for the preservation of Cheese, in the manner already stated, vol. ii. p. 97. Farther, as the leaves of the Tutsan assume a red colour, and sometimes yield a red juice, Ave conceive, they might be converted to some useful purpose, either as a pigment, or dyeing material; by treating them according to the processes described under the heads of Colouring Matter, vol. ii. and Turnsol. TYPE, a term employed by printers, to denote the letters used in printing; and Avhich includes not only large CAPITALS, Small Capitals, Italics, and LoAver Case Sec, but likeAvise all the points* T YP figures, and other marks that are adopted in Typography. See Printing. Numerous improvements have, during the last century, been made with a view to expedite the busi- ness in this noble art. Among these, we cannot omit to notice, first, a contrivance by Mr. Wil- liam Ged, in 1731 ; who formed a plate, of any character required, for every page or sheet of a book, from which plate he printed, in- stead of using single types for every letter, as is practised in the com- mon method. Thus, the expence of printing was lessened, Avhile the Avork Avas performed with more accuracy, beauty, and uniformity ; but such practice was relinquished in the course of a feAv years, and has not been revived in Britain. In the year 1784, a patent was granted to Mr. Henrt Johnson, for a neAv mode of printing, termed Logography, which consists in em- ploying types expressive of whole words instead of those correspond- ing to single letters. In conse- quence of this alteration, Mr. J. observes, that the compositor is less liable to error ; the type of each word being taken up Avith as much facility as single letters; and, Avhen a sheet is printed off, such types may be more easily distribut- ed. Lastly, it is asserted, that the expense or number of types in logography, does not exceed that required by the common mode of printing : Ave doubt, however, the expediency of this contrivance ; and believe, that much greater ad- vantages mkiht be derived from casting syllables instead of whole r^ practice is not to be commended, as the Avork may receive much in- jury from the insects .and dust of the streets settling on it. A close room, warmed Avith stoves or the windoAvs thrown open, with canvas before them, is certainly to be pre- ferred as the most eligible mode of preserving anddrying the work." The following directions to keep a varnished coach clean, Avere given to a friend by an artist. " Dip a sponge in clean water, and Avash oft" all the mud imme- diately when the carriage comes in; then take a piece of woollen cloth, dipped in rotten-stone finely powdered, and passed through a fine sieve, and rub it pretty hard till the gloss comes out, then take a piece of soft flannel dipt in lin- seed-oil, and rub over the pannel and with another piece dipt in fine flour, rub off the oil. Care must be taken not to let the oil lie too long on the pannels." The folloAving original and ex- cellent observations on Varnishes, Avere furnished the Editor by Tho- mas Cooper, esq. of Northumber- land. The liquids in which the sub- stances proper for making varnish- es are generally dissolved, are lin- seed, nut-oil, [sunfloAver-oil,] oil of turpentine and spirit of wine....... Hence the substances themselves are all ofthe class of rosins. Nut- oil is not often used, though being of a clearer colour than linseed-oil, it might sometimes deserve the pre- ference. The other essential oils as rosemary, bergamotte, he. are too dear and do not dry. The substances commonly em- ployed are such as form a trans- V A R 227 parent solution Avith the sohents above-mentioned, and are not liable to be affected by moisture of any kind : since none of the gums, or gum-resins are fit for the purpose. The resins usually employed are: Copal, amber, mastic, sandarac, lac, (both stick lac and seed lac) pine turpentine from Chios or Ve- nice : common white rosin, dra- gon's-biood,gum-elemi,asphaltum, or JeAv's-pitch and common pitch. To which may be added, elastic gum, or ca-out-chouc, though this is only used at present for balloons. Oil of turpentine deadens the cofour of paints : the varnishes of amber and copal brighten them. Linseed-oil, is procured by grind- ing linseed in mills for that pur- pose. It is of a brownish,colour. Before it can be used it must be made drying. The reason that oil will not dry without preparation is either that it contains a quantity of uncombined mucilaginous sub- stance, or a quantity of uncombined acid, or both. I have not seen this any Avhere ascertained; Mr. Watt told me it Avas acid. The common method of making drying oil, is to put about half an ounce of litharge to each quart of the oil: boil it not hastily or vio- lently, but Avith a moderate and equal fire for about tAvo hours, scumming it. If it be boiled too hard it Avill be burnt and become brown. Let this rest till all sedi- ment has perfectly subsided, then separate the clean oil, Avhich will grow the clearer and the better for keeping. When it is made per- fectly drying, it will have a scum formed at the top. Perhaps white lead Avould be better to use than litharge. Poppy-oil is from the seeds of the common poppy. 228 V A R V AR Nut-oil, is the oil expressed in the same manner from Avalnut, or the ben-nut. It is made drying in the same manner as linseed-oil: and being clearer, is preferable for colourless varnishes. To make boiled linseed-oil co- lourless, take three or four gallons of oil: add to it about two quarts of fine clear sand, and three or four gallons of boiling water : agi- tate it for half an hour, separate the oil, and repeat the process with fresh Avater. Oil of turpentine is produced by the distillation of common turpen- tine : the residuum is rosin. It comes chiefly from Carolina. Copal, is a resin produced from certain trees in NeAv-Spain. The best is the clearest, and such as Avill glaze a hot tobacco-pipe Avith- out blistering. Amber,' (Karabe, succinum) is a substance (but Avhether vegetable or animal is not quite determined), found upon the sea-shores of Po- lish Prussia....It has been by some thought a resin from trees; by others, a fossil: by others, the in- durated excrement of the Avhale. Ma-tic, is a resin produced from a small tree called the Lentisk, growing in the isle of Chio. The bark is cut, and the juice exudes. Sandarac, is a resin produced in the same A\ray from a species of juniper, groAving on the coast of Africa. Lac, gum-lac, seed-lac, is pro- duced on certain trees of the fig kind, in the mountainous parts of the East-Indies, by the perforation of insects in the bark. It has been by some thought a kind of Avax produced by the insects themselves. [See Lac] Turpentine, is collected in the Greek isles, by making an incision in the fir-trees : the juice is turpen- tine : the same might be obtained equally Avhite, clear and liquid, by the same means, from the pines of this country, [America,] Venice, [Chian,] turpentine is brought over in large earthen jars. South-Ca- rolina furnishes a good deal. Common Rosin, the residuum of turpentine, after distilling it to ob- tain the essential oil. Dragon's-blood, a resin of a red colour produced from certain trees in the East-Indies, and Madeira, and the Canary-Islands. Gum-Elemi, a resin, the produce of trees growing in the East-Indies and Brazil. Asphaltum, JeAv's-pitch. This is a native bitumen found in various parts of the Avorld, of a blackish- brown colour. Common Pitch, is the residuum after the distillation of tar. Elastic-Gum, a substance from the East-Indies and the Brazils, having all the properties of inspis- sated bird-lime, or of the juice of the Misletoe, as Avas first discover- ed by Mr. Thieleben. It dissolves in petroleum and oil of turpentine. [See Caoutchouc and Vegetables.] General Observations on making varnishes of all kinds. 1st. As the substances that form varnishes are extremely inflamma- ble, they ought only to be made in a brick or stone room with a floor of the same materials. They should be cautiously kept from a fire that flames; nor should a lighted candle come near them ; for the vapour, particularly of oil of turfientine and spirit of wine, will catch fire at some disfa.\re, by means offiaow of any kind. The opera- tor should ahvays have by him a woollen cloth or small blanket in « V A R tub of Avater to cover the vessel containing the ingredients in case of their taking fire. They can only be put out by thus excluding the air. 2d. The substances should be freed, as much as possible, from impurities of every kind, particu- larly sandarac{ and preserved free from dust. The utmost cleanli- ness, in and about the vessels, is essentially necessary to good colour and transparency. 3d. The substances after being broken into pieces, freed from im- purities and heterogenous sub- stances, should be put by them- selves in the melting pot. If re- duced to powder or very small pieces, they stick to the sides of the pot and burn and hurt the co- lour. 4th. All the resins should be kept in vessels Avell stopt and closed from dust. So of the oils and spirit. 5th. When the varnish is made, it should be left some time for the dregs to settle : then be poured off clear, and then be filtered through silk or laAvn. 6th. For goods that are not to be exposed to the heat of the "sun, the spirit varnishes Avill ansAver: but as sandarac and mastic will melt in the sun, the oil varnishes of Copal and Amber are the most proper. 7th. Glazed earthen vessels are better than iron : copper is solu- ble in oil, and therefore is not to be used. The most scrupulous cleanliness is necessary to success. Of Varnishes with spirit of wine. Copal-spirit Vaniish. This re- ceipt is kept a great secret. ' Mr. Henry, of Manchester^ in Kng- lund, and the Sieur Watin, at V A R 229 Paris, make it. Henry's is rather coloured. I have made it, by dissolving Copal in a warm place, in any of the following essential oils: berga- motte, lavender, orange, lemon, rosemary, of which the last is the cheapest; dilute it Avith twice the quantity of highly rectified spirit of wine. If the oil of rosemary is much adulterated with oil of tur- pentine, it Avill not succeed. Oil of turpentine precipitates the copal, but by 12 hours digestion (in a small retort Avith a lamp-heat) of oil of turpentine on copal, I suc- ceeded in making a perfectly co- lourless varnish. See Hopson's translation of Weigleb's Chemis- try, 4to. p. 475. Colourless Spirit Varnish of Mastic and Sandarac. To one quart of rectified spirit, add two ounces of mastic, in drops, ano! six ounces of sandarac, when Avell dissolved, add four ounces of pure Venice turpentine. If it is wanted to be harder, sub- stitute two ounces of gum-lac, half an ounce of gum-elemi, and tAvo ounce of clear Avhite rosin instead of the mastic and turpentine. But the colour v,;!l not be so good..... T$e first is proper for toilet-boxes, he. the last for cane, chairs, furni- ture, he. Avhich are much handled. Varnish for Violins and Musical Insirti.u-.n's. Spirit of wine one quart, sanda- rac four ounces, gum-lacca and mastic,each two ounces,gum-elemi one ounce; when all is melted add tAvo ounces of turpentine.1 G'old-Colour VuruiJi. Bruise separately four ounces of lacca, as uiv.di gamboge, as much 230 V A R V AR dragon's-blood, as much annatto, and one ounce of saffron. Put each of these into a quart of spirit of wine. Digest them in the sun or in a moderate heat for a fortnight, mix them with clear varnish of sandarac according to the tint you want. Four ounces of aloes dis- solved in a quart of spirit will also be a good addition to the above ingredients, and give you more command over the tint you may require. General Observations on Spirit Varnishes. 1st. A Avater-bath is the proper heat for spirit-varnishes. A sand- bath is liable to be too hot, and embers or coals, dangerous. When the water once boils, keep it boiling till the substances are dissolved. This you will find by stirring it with a glass, or Avhite wood spatula, or a tobacco-pipe.... By*lissolving salt in the water, you may increase the heat. When your substances are not quite dis- solved, never put them on the fire a second time to finish the solution. Never fill the vessels but about three parts full. 2. Gum elemi gives consistence to the varnish, but should be used in small proportions. Brilliancy is given by the Venice and Chio tur- pentine. 3. The turpentine should al- Avays be melted separately, Avhen the substances are dissolved: it should be melted in a small quan- tity of spirit of Avine and then add- ed. After the turpentine is add- ed, give the Avater-bath 6 or 8 boils, and then take it off, and strain it through a very fine sieve or fine linen. It will be still clearer by standing and repose. 4. The general proportion of sandarac is about 10 or 12 oz. to a quart of spirit, and so of the other gums : if others are substituted, the sandarac must be proportion- ably diminished.....The spirits of wine should fire gun-powder. 3. If you want red or black var- nishes, dragon's blood and Ver- million, Jew's pitch and lamp- black will ansAver your purpose. 6. Seed-lac, makes harder var- nish than shell-lac, about 10 oz. to the quart is enough. Oil Varnishes. General observations on Oil Var- nishes. 1. Copal and amber are the two principal substances for oil var- nishes ; as each of them possesses the property of making a hard and transparent varnish, they need not be mixed, but copal should be reserved for the lighter coloured varnishes. Amber, however, is tougher than copal and a little ©f it certainly improves copal var- nish, if the tinge of colour is no objection. 2. It requires a stronger fire to dissolve copal and amber Avhen mixed withoiI,than alone: a strong heat hurts the colour. Melt there- fore these resins by themselves broken into small pieces, employ no more heat than is necessary to melt them ; when melted, add to them the hot linseed oil by degrees, stirring as you pour it in, then give a few boilings to incorporate the whole. 3. If you have more than one resin to add, melt the hardest first, otherwise, the most fusible will burn before the other is melted. 4. A sand-bath or bright coals that do not flame, is the proper heat for oil varnishes : but give no more heat than is barely necessa- ry to melt them. 5. The vessels should be glazed VAR •arthen ware Avithacover; and new ones used, for copal varnish espe- cially, every time. 6. When the oil and the resin are incorporated and well stirred to- gether, add your hot oil of tur- pentine ; this should be about dou- ble the quantity of the oil employ- ed, but the oil should not be boil- ing hot Avhen the turpentine is poured in, otherwise it may catch fire. Stir it. 7. Filter or strain the varnish ; then let it rest at least 48 hours.... The sediment will do for a coarser or more coloured varnish of the same kind: the oil mixed with the sediment will tarnish the co- lour at the second melting. Copal Varnish. 1. Melt slowly 1 lb. copal, add half a pint of boiling drying oil: when incorporated, add one pint of oil of turpentine made hot. You may add from half a pint to three pints of boiling drying oil, accord- ing to the consistence required. [2. Melt in a perfectly clean ves- sel, by a very slow heat, a pound of clear copal, to this add from one to two quarts drying linseed oil; Avhen the materials are tho- roughly mixed, remove the ves- sel from the fire, and keep con- stantly stirring it till most of the heat is gone : then add one pound of oil of turpentine. Strain the varnish through a piece of close linen, and keep it for use. The older it is, the more drying does it become......Monthly Magazine, vol. 9. M. Carendefiez formerly of St. Domingo, and at present resi- dent at New York, finds that an ounce of good sulphuric xther, and an ounce of copal in gross VAR 231 powder, mixed together in a well stopped bottle, and placed in a moderate sand heat or water bath, form a perfect solution. Mr. C remarks, that the solution, though not very cheap, affords a fine and brilliant varnish, and the process is so easy as to be repeated by any person though of very moderate skill.] Amber Varnish. Use the same proportions as in the former, and proceed in the same way, by adding about 4 oz. of fine Venice turpentine, dissolv- ed in about 8 oz. oil of turpentine separately, and to the above var- nishes the quantity may be en- creased without the quality's being much injured. [Mr. Shelshake says, (Nichol- son's Journal, 2 vol. 8vo. edit. p. 237) " by experiments repeated and varied every way that imagi- nation can suggest, he is convinc- ed, that amber is not soluble in alkohol, or any essential oil. It is soluble in expressed oils, by the process described in Lewis's Phi- losophical Commerce ofthe Arts, but that solution does not dry well..... See vol i. p. 274.] Gold colour Varnish, or Lacker. Eight ounces amber, two ounces lacca ; melt them ; add 8 ounces drying oil: then add oil of turpen- tine coloured with gamboge anat- to, saffron and dragon's blood, ac- cording to the tinge you want. Black Japan. Melt 8 oz. amber, melt (sepa- rately from the amber) 4 oz. of asphaltum and 4 oz. rosin : Avhen melted, add 8 oz. boiling oil, and then 16 o>;. of oil of turpentine, 232 VAR VAR then stir in from half an ounce to 1 ounce lampblack, and give it ano- ther boil or tAvo. Common Varnish. One pound rosin, one ounce gum- elemi, eight ounces drying oil, six- teen ounces oil of turpentine. Varnishes with Turpentine alone. Oil of turpentine will dissolve any of these resins, except copal and amber, but it does not make so good varnish as when mixed with boiled oil. Common Turpentine Varnish, Is frequently made by dissolving one pound of turpentine, or about ten ounces of rosin in oil of tur- pentine alone. Quere ? Whether oil of turpen- tine would not mix Avith copal in oil of rosemary ? Chio turpentine dissolves it Avell. See Nichol- son's Journal, p. 264, April, 1802. Elastic Gum Varnish. Cut the gum into small pieces, and digest it Avith 32 parts of pure oil of turpentine for 24 hours in a Avarmplace. Rosemary, lavender^ and other essential oils also dis- solve it. So does nitric scther. If softened by boiling in water, or still more in a solution of alum, it may be joined. Varnishes of Gumr. Gum tragacanth and gum ara- ble may be dissolved in Avater ; or the first in brandy. Ichthyocolla (isinglass) is best dissolved in bran- dy (or Avhiskey). Elastic Gum, (see above). Sir.r....Yrom diluted glue ; frcra white leather cuttings. Fish Size....Boiled eel skins. MAn Tin's Copal Varnish. In a large gallon earthen pot with a cover like a chocolate pot, melt four ounces chio turpentine : when fluid, pour in .eight ounces of amber powdered : set it on the fire a quarter of an hour. Take off the pot , add to it one pound of pounded copal, four or more of turpentine, and one gill of Avarm oil of turpentine. Encrease the heat a little : when it has been on the fire half an hour, take it off, stir the ingredients, adding two ounces of the finest and whitest colophony or rosin. Set it again on the fire and encrease the heat till the whole is quite fluid. Re- move the pot: let the heat sub- side a little ; haA'e ready 24 oz. (about li pint) of drying linseed- oil, poppy, or nut oil; pour it boiling hot by degrees into your gums and stir them well. When mixed, set it again on the fire, stirring it till it boils up : then take it off and add a quart of turpentine made hot: stir and give it one boil more : then add another pint of turpen- tine made hot, stir it Avell, give it One more boil, and it is enough. Strain it : if thicker than linseed oil, thin it Avith oil of turpentine. Let it stand a month before it is used. It should be made in an open yard, for the frequent prac- tice is very unwholesome. [Great danger w ill attend the ad- dition of copal, as the same heat Avhich would br required to dis- solve the copal Avould volatalize the turpentine, and take fire if the vapour Avere directed to the flame.] Amber Varnish. Melt eight ounces of chio tur- pentine, pour in one pound of poAV- dereu amber by degrees, stirring it all the while : set it on the fire VAR for half an hour, then add tAvo ounces of white rosin : stop the cover close, and increase the fire till the Avhole is melted. To this add one pound of hot drying oil; and then by degrees a quart of oil of turpentine. Amber can only be dissolved clear, by melting it with some less glutinous gum..... Same process for copal varnish.] Copal varnish, of a superior quality, may be procured in the folloAving manner : Take a certain portion of finely-pulverized copal; let it be thoroughly washed in soft or rain-Avater, then perfectly dried, and put in a glazed earthen vessel well covered, over a moderate coal- fire. After all the gum has been sloAvly melted, the vessel is to be removed from the fire, and half the quantity of prepared linseed- oil must be added, by gradually dropping it into the former; both being in a state nearly boiling.... In order to prepare the latter, take one pound of pure linseed-oil, and an equal quantity of filtrated Ava- ter ; pour them together in a new earthen or tinned vessel; place this mixture over a fire, and sus- pend the folloAving five ingredi- ents in a coarse linen bag, which, however, must not touch the bot- tom ; namely: amber, green and white vitriol, litharge of gold, and red-lead ; of each half an ounce. When the oil begins to foam, all feculent matter should be skim- med off the surface, and the li- quor be suffered to Boil very slow- ly, till the water be completely evaporated; an effect which may be readily ascertained, if the height of the oil in the vessel has been previously measured. After the two different ingredients have been incorporated in the manner vol. v. VAR 233 above directed, and have become cool, they ought to be diluted Avith oil of turpentine. In the course of tAvo or thres days, all the coarse particles will subside; and the clear liquor should then be care- fully decanted, or rather filtred, through fine linen. Thus, a white and transparent varnish may b6 obtained : it is of extensive use for all light grounds, and it is remark- ably improved by age. If it be required of a harder consistence, it will be advisable to employ equal quantities of Avhite amber and gum- copal, instead of the latter sub- stance alone. Another excellent white varnish may he made, by infusing 8 oz. of pulverized sandarac, and 2 oz. of Venice turpentine; and 32 oz. of highly rectified spirit of Avine, in a glass vessel, the orifice of which must be covered with a bladder, and pierced with a pin that is suf- fered to remain there. The whole is exposed for eight days to the rays of the sun, or in Avarm sand, near a fire, and frequently shaken. When all the ingredients are dis- solved, it should be alloAved to stand at rest, till the liquor become pel- lucid ; after which it must be de- canted into another vessel, and will then be fit for any purpose re- quired. A yellow varnish may be pre- pared by dissol ving,separately, 2 oz. of pure gum-lac, in 48 oz. of alko- hol, and 1 oz. of dragon's-blood in the same quantity of spirit: the so- lutions must then be mixed, and 3 grains of yellow wood be added : the whole is then suffered to digest for 12 hour in a gentle heat; Avhen the liquor should'be filtred through blotting-paper, and preserved for use, in bottles closely stopped.... H H 234 V A U VE A This preparation is chiefly em- ployed for imparting a gold colour to brass, or iron; and Avhen appli- ed to leather that has previously been ornamented Avith tin-foil, it communicates a similar colour. [VAULT. The vaults of pri- vies only shall here be noticed.] " The vaults of privies in cities ought to be constructed of the best materials ; and the bricks, if bricks are made use of, should be suffi- ciently hard and Avell made to re- sist the passage of the soil as Avell at bottom as the sides ; the wiills should be covered Avith the best tarras work, and by that means made perfectly tight. But a composition of boiled tar and charcoal, finely pulverized, will be found for durability, superior to any other covering. [The cement mentioned in vol. ii. p- 68, Avill ansAver for this purpose.] The vaults, if there is room to extend them sideAvays, need not sink more than six feet beloAV the sur- face of the ground. It is of im- portance to arch them completely over, except where the seats are placed, in order to confine the ef- fluvia from the building. There should be two air funnels in oppo- site places to admit and let out the air. When vaults ate empti- ed, the soil should be mixed up, and afterwards covered, Avith coal- ashes or lime, which will almost entirely prevent the effluvia. This should be done by persons who understand the business, Avho have coA'ered carts, and other necessary conveniencies provided, and are licensed for the purpose. The soil should be conveyed out of the city to a distant and retired spot. The detestable and injurious prac- tice of throwing night-soil into docks, and the use of tubs, should be abolished. " It is a very false prejudice to suppose that the springs will be injured by sinking vaults. Every good bricklayer knoAvs, or ought to know, how to make them se- cure ; and, if any difficulty should in this respect arise, the master Avorkmen in this branch of trade should be put under license, and be SAVorn to execute such works as may be thought worthy of legal regulation. It is not uncommon for the laAvs to dictate to a man how he should build his house.... Great evils require extraordinary remedies, and it must be recollect- ed that we are devising means to rid the community of a distemper little less infectious than the plague. A vault, well built, will not become peculiarly offensive, even though, as in London, it is not emptied more than once in eight or ten years." [See Sabatier on promoting the health of New-York, in the New- York Medical Repository, vol. 6.] VEAL, or the flesh of calves, is highly esteemed, on account of its tender fibres ; but these animals ought to be fed chiefly with milk, or liay-tca, and to be at least six Aveeks old, before they are used as food. Nor should the calf be con- fined in a dark place, or bled fre- quently, during the short period of its existence, with the luxurious view of rendering the flesh whiter and more palatable. [Mr. Bordley found it best to sell his live calves by Aveight; tho' contrary to the wishes ofthe butch- ers, because of the certainty of re- ducing the usual profits, gained from their superior skill in esti- mating the Aveight of the animal. A calf alive weighed' 146 lbs. V EG V E G 235 the four quarters 70 lbs. Avhich is Avithin 3 lbs. of half the live weight. At third live Aveight, this veal would cost the butcher 36s. 6d.: but, for such they gave from 32s. to 33s. on the foot. They Usually sold at 7^d. and 8d. gaining above 40 per cent, profit.] VEGETABLE KINGDOM, a term including all plants and roots which groAv above and under ground ; being nourished by the air, water, &c......See Food of Plants. The different classifications of plants by Ray,Tournefort, Lin- nets, and other eminent botanists, having already been mentioned, vol. i. p. 344 ; Ave shall at present confine our attention to the con- stituent parts of vegetables, and conclude with a few directions for collecting and preserving simples, both for medicinal and economical purposes. According to the most accurate chemical analysis,plants have been found to contain: 1. Sugar : [Sugar is decom- posed by heat, and the folloAving compounds are formed from it. Water, pyromucous acid, oil, char- coal, carbonic acid, carbonated hy- drogen gas. The quantity of oil is inconsiderable, the pyromucous acid is by far the greatest, for it makes its appearance always when- ever syrup is raised to the boiling temperature. Hence the reason, that Avhen Ave attempt to crystal- lize syrup by heat, there always remains behind a quantity of in- crystallizable matter known by the name of molasses; whereas, if the syrup be crystallyzed Avithout arti- ficial heat, every particle of sugar may be obtained from it in a crys- talline form. Hence, we see the importance of properly regulating the fire during the crystallization of sugar, and the immense saving that would result from conducting the operation at a low heat....See also article Sugar.] 2. Starch ; Avhich see. 3. Gluten is a viscid matter, that remains after Avashing Avheaten flour, in the preparation of starch, and which also subside when paste is" repeatedly washed Avith cold Avater, till that fluid become per- fectly transparent. It is very te- nacious ; and, if combined Avith the nitric, it may be converted into the oxalic acid, Avhich is knoAvn under the name of Essential Salt oj Lemons. 4. Albumen : [If the Avater in which flour of Avheat has been washed in order to obtain starch and gluten, be filtrated, and after- wards boiled, a substance precipi- tates in Avhite flakes, to Avhich Mr. Fourcroy, who first pointed it out, has given the name of Albumen, on account of its resemblance to the white of an egg. Mr. Four- croy found albumen in the express- ed juice of scurvy-grass, cresses, cabbage, and almost all cruci%rm plants, but never a particle in those parts of vegetables which contain an acid.] 5. Jelly; 6. Gum ; 7. Cam- phor ; and, 8. Resin ; to Avhich we refer. v 9. Caoutchouc, or Elastic Re- sin, is obtained not only from the tree mentioned in that article, but exists in numerous plants, parti- cularly the misletoe, from Avhich it may be extracted by infusion in Avater. [Dr. Physick of Philadelphia obseiwesA .It has long since been known, mat elastic gum may he rendered very soft by spirit of tu. - pentine, and that it can be dissolv- 236 V E G VEG ed in it by the assistance of heat, but it has been observed, on eva- porating the turpentine, that the gum looses, in a great degree, its elasticity, and on handling, it sticks to the fingers. " After a number of experi- ments, I found, that by immersing it in weak vit. aether for 12 hours after the action of the sp. turp. its original properties were regained. By exposure to the air, the sether evaporates, and leaves the gum in its original state. I have observed, hoAvever, that when the gum elas- tic is dissolved with the assistance of heat in spirit of turpentine, it cannot be restored to its former state so perfectly, as when it is made into a parte Avithout heat. When gum-elastic is immersed in spirit of turpentine, it is unequal- ly affected by it; at the end of two days some portions will be found very soft, and others remain more firm, so that it cannot be spread evenly over a surface: by rubbing it, hoAveA'er, on a marble slab, most of these solid portions may be broken down ; and by straining it threugh fine linen, a paste of gum clastic may be obtained of equal consistence. This paste may be used for the construction of cathe- ters, he. either by itself, or it may be applied over cat-gut or silk, Avove by the Avhip makers into cy- lindrical tubes. If the paste be made Avith spirit of turpentine, prepared as below mentioned, it will become dry by exposure to the air for a few hours, when ano- ther layer may be applied, and this may he repeated until the in- strument is sufficiently covered Avith elastic gum, after Avhich it may be immersed in rcther, and then dried. Dr. P. found that spi- rit of turpentine distiiied from quicklime, acted rapidly on the gum elastic, and dried completely in about six hours : the gum Avas left free from stickiness, and pos- sessed its former elasticity, and he thinks that spirit of turpentine distilled two or three times, would be depurated sufficiently to have the elastic gum in a more perfect state, and enable us to apply it to different uses, Avithout being under the necessity of using xther." See A*. York Medical Repository, Hex- ade, 2d, vol. i. p. 36. See also Domestic Encyclopedia, aoI. i. p. 502. Severak vegetables in the United States yield caoutchouc, and an interesting Memoir will shortly be published on the subject, by Dr. Wood house.] 10. Wax : [See also Mvrica] ; 11. Acids; 12. Alkalies (see also Barilla, Kelp, Pot-ash, he.) [Under the above heads, may be found some observations on the utility of alkaline salts; and their beneficial effects in curing the ef- fects of a snake's bite was noticed in vol. iv. p. 471. The following condensed observations on pot-ash may be useful. Pot-ash.... An alkaline salt, ob- tained generally from Aregetable substances by incineration. It has beensaidtopre-existinsomeplants; but though this should be the case in a feAV instances, the common mode by which it is produced, is through the agency of fire. In the table of chemical nomen- clature, pot-ash is ranked among the elementary substances. And, indeed, it must be acknoAvledged, that its exact constitution by ana- lysis is not known. But there is strong reason to believe, that the septon Avhich is the basis of azo- tic air, enters into combination VEG with one or more ingredients in the Avood, and therewith forms this saline material. And it is al- ledged, that if carbon be burned in oxygenous air alone, that car- bonic acid Avill be formed, but that there Avill be no pot-ash. Tho' this alkali is so generally afforded during the processof com- bustion, yet some vegetables af- ford much more of it, than others. Thus pine-wood affords but a small quantity of ashes, while worm- wood yields a very large propor- tion. It generally however hap- pens, that combustion is a process by which pot-ash is produced ; and thus alkali, salamander-like, may be called the creature or child of the fire. Dr. Mitchell has attended Avith great caie to the history and economical effects of this salt. He considers this alkali as working great and admirable effects in the world by its anti-pestilential and anti-septic qualities. Wherever fuel of wood is converted by fire into ashes, an agent is produced, which has, by a wonderful proA i- sion of nature, the poAver to coun- teract putrefaction, and to check the nastiness and pestilence Avhich so commonly spring from it. Hence he has explained, Avhere- fore the aborigines of America, so generally employ the fine and un- mixed ashes of Avood, fresh from the fire brands to season their ani- mal food as they broil and roast it, Avhen no sea-salt can be procur- ed. White-men Avho have lived among the Indians, and eaten meat Avith a sprinkling of this al- kaline condiment, declare, that though inferior in relish to the muriate of soda, (common salt) it is however palatable and whole- kome. VEG 237 In like manner, among those rude tribes Avhere the daAvnings of useful arts may be seen, Dr. Mitchell has remarked the em- ployment of Avood-ashes for the purpose of preserving their animal food from putrefaction, and of keep- ing it SAveet and good to eat. The Iikehad^been doneby Dean Hamil- ton, in his paper published in the Transactions of the Royal Irish Aca- demy ; in which papers, the anti- septic power of the vegetable fixed alkali is clearly sheAvn. Ashes of sound and hard wood, as of hickory for example, are found to be of excellent service, in the preservation of hams and bacon. To rub gammons Avith clean ashes, or to dip them in a solution of pot-ash, is found to be an excellent practice. The addi- tion of a portion of pot-ash to the brine of common salt, is commend- ed by many domestic economists, as an excellent mode of pickling bacon and preparing it for the smoke-house. It supercedes the necessity of salt-petre; for the septic acid formed in the meat or flesh, during the incipient stage of putrefaction, is neutralized by the pot-ash when thus applied, and a quantity of septite of pot-ash or of salt-petre is formed upon the spot. This supercedes the exter- nal application of salt-petre. From these uses of pot-ash, man- kind seems to have passed to the a- gency of it in cleansing the human body. When put into Avater, wood- ashes and pot-ash impart to it an alkaline quality. This solution is called a lixivium, or a ley. Such a ley, possesses admirable effect-. in removing from the human skin, all kind of perspiratory matter and uncleanness. In order to be used for the purpose of detersing the 238 VEG living skin, pot-ash ought to have been exposed to the air to attract carbonic acid, and the -ley should be of moderate strength. Then it cleanses away all filth., and by do- ing so, neutralizes or destroys the subtle venom which lurks in the perspiratory discharges, after they have been for some time exposed to the atmosphere. Alkaline ley is thus a remarkable promoter of cleanlhiess and health, and a pre- ventive of typhus and other fe- vers. Dr. Mitchill reasons in the same manner as to the clothing Avorn by human beings ; and in- terprets the operation of pot- ash to make themclean and healthy in the like Avay. The same filthi- ness as to beds and bedding, and the same method of correcting and removing have been equally Avell made out. The floors, furniture, and apartments of inhabited houses require to be rendered pure and healthy, by pot-ash, and other al- kaline salts. The febrile and other diseases consequent upon the ac- cumulation of human nastiness in the unventilated, umvashed, and unalkalized dwellings of the poor, have induced Dr. Mitchill tore-. commend to the friends of that suffering portion of men in Eng- land, to carry Avith them into the habitations ofthe indigent, alkaline salts and earths, the great neutra- iizers and destroyers of pestilence.] 13. Oil ; Avhich has already been explained. 14. Earths....(or instance, lime, which abounds in almost every plant; silica, or pure flint, has been discovered in the different species of Horsetail and Grass ; mag- nesia, Avhich occurs chiefly in the marine plants, particularly the Se a-avrack. and the exotic species VEG of the Saltwort, or Salsola soda, and lastly, alumina, or pure clay, Avhich is found only in a feAV vege- tables. 15. Several metallic substances have likewise been chemically se- parated ; though in very small por- tions. Thus M. Sage has clearly proved that gold exists in many plants; M. M. Scheele and Prouse have obtained manganese from the ashes of the Vine, Green Oak, Fig-tree, Pine, Sec. Iron also forms an ingredient in almost every plant, but particularly in the different species ofthe Saltwort. 16. The Woody Fibre is the ba- sis of all vegetables : it abounds mostly 'in trees, but occurs less frequently in herbs; is insoluble either in Avater or alkohol, but is acted upon by alkalies ; and is also decomposed by the mineral acids: when burnt in a smothering heat, it yields a large proportion of Car- bon, or Charcoal. [17. Tan, , or Tannen....is the tanning principle of plants. It Avas first discovered by Mr.SEGUiN,who pointed out some of its properties, and the method of detecting it in plants. Tan exists in the solution of nut-galls combined Avith gallic acid. The oxyde of tin has a strong affinity for it. Tan exists in almost all vegetable substances which have an astringent taste, and is almost constantly combin- ed Avith gallic acid. The folloAving table drawn up by Mr. Biggin (Philo. Transactions, 1799) will give some idea of the proportions of tan which exist in different plants. Pro. of Tan, Elm,.......2 1 Oak cut in winter, ... 2 1 Horse Chcsnnt, .'...22 Beech, ......2 4 VEG VEG 239 Pro. of Tan. Willow (boughs) ... 2 4 Elder, ......3 0 Plum-tree,.....4 0 Willow (trunk) ...40 Sycamore,.....4 1 Birch, ......4 1 Cherry-tree,.....4 2 SalloAV,......4 6 Mountain Ash, .... 4 7 Poplar,......6 0 Hazel, ......6 3 Ash,.......6 6 Spanish Chesnut, ...90 Smooth Oak, .... 9 2 Oak cut in spring, ... 9 2 Huntingdon, or Leicester Willow,.....10 1 Sumach,......16 2 See article Tanning.] The mode of collecting vegeta- bles, or simples, varies according to their peculiar nature, and the different parts to be preserved. Thus, annual roots should be dug up before they shoot forth either stalks or flowers ; biennials in the autumn of the year in Avhich they were soAvn; and perennials also in the autumn ; though some natura- lists prefer the spring for the col- lection of the latter; because at that season they abound with juice, or sap :.but, as they are then apt to shrivel in drying, the autumn is doubtless the most proper time for such purpose. Herbs ought to be gathered, Avhen the leaves have attained their full groAvth, though previously to the appearance of the flower-buds. With respect to the removal of leaves, no certain rule caii be given ; but flowers should be pluck- ed on a clear day, Avhen they are moderately expanded: after hav- ing been carefully selected, both herbs and flowers must be cau- tiously dried in a gentle heat, so that their strength and properties maybe more completely preserved: and, if they contain any subtle or volatile matter, it will be advisable to pulverize them as speedily as possible, and to keep such powder in close glass vessels. All fruits, however, should be allowed to become perfectly ripe, before they are removed from their stems or branches, excepting sloes', and one or two other astringents, that lose their virtues, if suffered to remain on the trees till they at- tain to maturity. Nor should seeds be collected, until they begin to groAv dry, and are about to drop or shed spontaneously ; when they ought to be preserved in an open situation, Avithout being separated from their husks : as these serAe to protect them from injuries of the air and weather. Under the article Preservation, we have alluded to a neAv and ex- cellent method of keeping vegeta- bles of every description in a sapid state, for many years, excepting cucumbers and radishes.....it sim- ply consists in drying them on a plastered floor, or an oven, mode- rately heated by a fire made beloAv the structure ; so as to avoid singe- ing or burning the leaves, stalks, he. the Avhole process being con- ducted in the manner about to be described, and requiring no farther care in regulating the degrees of heat,^than is necessary in the bak- ing of thin biscuits ; provided the former be exposed on their surface to the open air, for dissipating the moisture, Avhile the latter are^con- fined in an oven. In order to succeed completely in this useful pursuit, the herbs and roots, as Avell as every species of fruit to be preserved, ought first to be cleaned, either by wiping, Avash- 240 VEG ing, and otherwise cleansing it in a manner similar to that practised for culinary purposes. The Avater should be completely drained, by placing the different articles on sieves, or frames on Avhich canvas is expanded, or perforated boards, or similar contrivances. After re- peatedly turning the leaves, stalks, or fruits, so that each side may be- come dry, they must be spread over a floor or oven, constructed on the principle before mentioned, till all their moisture be thoroughly evaporated ; for, if the least hu- midity remain within the substance of such vegetables, they will be- come mouldy and corrupted...... The best criterion for ascertain- ing the clue degree of exciscation, is that of the stalk breaking rea- dily, and the lea\res being easily reduced to poAvder betAveen the fingers. In this shrivelled state, however, they could neither be packed nor conveniently trans- ported : hence, it will be proper to remoA-e them previously to a cellar, or other damp place, till they have become so pliable by the absorp- tion of moisture, as to be-com- pressed without crumbling to pieces. This degree of humidity is, according to experience, not detri- mental to the preservation of the plants, and in its effects very dif- ferent from that retained in their interior parts. Next, the A'egeta- bles thus prepared, ought to be packed either in a strong paper formed in the manner adopted Avith tobacco-leaA-es, or in Avooden boxes Avhich have been completely dried; as otherAvise they Avill ac- quire the flavour peculiar to the Avood. If the directions here given be strictly followed, vegetables may not only be preseved for a long time, without losing any of their VEG essential properties, but they may also be reduced to the 16th, 26th, nay, to the 24th part of their na- tural bulk. Mr. Eisen, the in- ventor of this process, observes in his paper quoted in a former arti- cle, that half an ounce of such concentrated herbs or roots will be a sufficient allowance for each per^ son, if eaten together with animal food; and that a traveller may carry provisions for tAvo months in his pockets, especially as mushrooms, lobsters, small fish, and other ani- mal substances, may be preserved with equal success....Lastly, Avhen such provisions are to be dressed, it will be necessary either to infuse them for a short time in hot wa- ter, before they are exposed to the fire; or, to steep them, particularly leguminous fruhs, in cold Avater, so that they may SAvell to nearly their natural size ; after which they may be treated in every respect like other culinary objects. [Under the article Seeds, some directions Avere given on the selec- tion, preservation, and sowing of seeds.....The following additional remarks, on seeds generally, are added from Dr. Daravin's admi- rable Avork, entitled," Phytologia." " Many of the circumstances before related concerning the pro- duction and enlargement of fruit, are applicable to the production of the seeds, Avhich are included in them; but those seeds, Avhich contribute most to the nourishment of mankind, many of which are the progeny of annual or biennial plants, require other modes of cul- tivation. "I. 1. To produce seeds early in the season. " Those plants, Avhich are re- quired to yield a forward crop, as VEG VEG 241 the peas and beans of our gardens, and those which our cold and short summers will not otherwise per- fectly ripen, as Avheat, should be soAvn before the commencemeLt of Avinter, cither in natural ground, as in the cultivation of wheat, or in situations sheltered from the north-east, as in the garden culti- vation of peas and beans ; or they may be soavti very thick in hot- houses, or under hot-bed frame;;, or under warm Avails, and be trans- planted, when they are one or two inches high, into the natural ground, at due distances, when the Aveather is milder, and the plants are become hardier or less liable to be destroyed from their having longer acquired the habits of life. " When young plants of any kind are transplanted, the ground should be recently dug; as their expeditious growth depends so much on the atmospheric air being buried in the pores or interstices of the earth, by the production of carbonic and nitrous acids, and ammonia, and heat. " The same advantage occurs by soaking seeds in Avater, or in the drain.age from manure heaps, till they are ready to sprout, and then sowing them in a soil lately turned over; as their roots will then im- mediately put out, by the neAvly generated heat, and newly produc- ed carbonic acid in its fluid, not its gasseous, state. " 2. The transplanting of young roots, if they be set no deeper than before, does not, I suppose, multi- ply the number of stems; as occurs when Avheat is transplanted so deep as to cover the second joint: but by tearing off several small ex- tremities of the roots, the new pro- duction of many viviparous buds is vol. v. prevented, and that of oviparous buds increased in consequence. " When the roots of wheat are transplanted and'divided, not only a great increase of the crop is pro- duced, but I believe the seed is likewise ripened earlier. And it is well knoAvn to gardeners, that transplanting garden-beans for- wards them in respect to time, but shortens the height of the stem. Hence transplanted vegetables grow lcsi; in height, as transplant- ed beans,and less branchy,as trans- planted melons, but produce and ripen their seeds earlier ; which is a great advantage*™ the short sum- mers of this climate ; and if the roots can be divided, as in Avheat, or new scions can be produced by their being transplanted deeper, as also occurs in wheat, the quantity of the seed may also be Avonder- fully increased by transplanting. " 3. Another mode of forward- ing the production of seeds, and of sooner ripening them, consists in pruning off the viviparous tops or lateral shoots, which will bear no seeds at all, or only small or im- perfect ones, in our northern sum- mers. For this purpose the cutting aAvay the tops of beans and of peas, and the lateral branches of arti- chokes, after the fruit buds are formed,both forwards and enlarges thdfloAversandseeds, Avhich remain, as more nourishment is derived to them. " 4. As a superfluous supply of water is more friendly to the pro- duction of leaf-buds than to the ge- neration of floAver-buds, to derive less Avater than usual to the roots, forwards the production of seeds, a fact well knoAvn in the gardens of Avarmer climates, which are per- petually Avatere 1 from reservoirs I i 242 VEG VEG or Avheel-engines. But Avhen the blossoms appear, an addition of Avater must forward their growth by supplying nourishment, Avhich should again be lessened Avhen the fruit has acquired its full size, both to expedite its ripening, and to in- crease its flavour; as the saccha- rine matter and essential oil will be less diluted Avith water. " In the dry summer of 1799,1 had the opportunity of, flooding some rows of beans in my garden, Avhich by being done toofrequently, or too copiously, occasioned them to groAv to a mujch greater height than ue-ual, and in consequence to bring to perfection few seeds, and some of them none. As I suppose the new shoots of fig-trees in the beginning of summer occasions the first production of young figs to fall off, from the Avant of that, nourishment, which is now expend- ed in the groAvth of neAv leaf-buds. Whence the facility of producing leaf-buds seems evidently to prevent the generation of flower-buds ; and the use of cutting off the summits of tall beans is thus explained, as directed above. " II. 1. To produce seeds in great quantity from annual or biennial plants they should be brought for- Avard in respect to the season in our northern summers; that a greater quantity of viviparous buds may arrive early at their maturity for the purpose of generating ovi- parous buds soon enough in the summer to ripen their seeds ; on this account those should be sown in the autumn Avhich will bear the severity of the winter. " Nevertheless the seeds of those plants, which are natives of this climate, should probably be soavh Rt the time they become perfectly ripe, as occurs to them in then* natural,state; that is,either when the seedki shed upon the ground by the parent plant, or when the fruit or husk, Avhich encloses it, becomes naturally ripe after it has fallen on the ground. Thus I have seen crabs covered Avith leaves in hedge- bottoms, Avhich have not decayed till the early spring. Many pears do not become ripe in our store- rooms till March or April ; and ivy-berries and holly-berries hang on their respective trees till the vernal months, and are not, till that time, eaten by the thrushes. Hence it is probable, that the seeds in these durable fruits or berries con- tinue to ripen, or to become more mature, and prepared for their fu- ture growth during the winter months. " 2. It was heretofore shewn, that when Avheat was transplanted so deep as to immerse the first joint above the root into the soil, many new steins Avould shoot up and strike their roots into the earth; and that thus fourorsix new plants, or more,Avouid be generated by the caudex of the leaf-bud, Avhich con- stitutes that joint. This mode of transplantation therefore will much increase the quantity of the crop of seed, if it can be done soon enough for these additional stems to ripen the corn, before the sum- mer ends. " There is another mode of in- creasing this product of addition- al stems Avithout transplantation, which consists in sowing the wheat in i'oavs by Avhat is called a drill- plough accordingtoMr.TuLL's me- thod; and when the first stems rise a feAv inches high, a horse-hoe, made like a very small plough, is to be brought so near each roAV,as to turn VEG «p some earth against the stems, so as to cover the first joint above the root with soil ; Avhence neAv stems will be generated, and shoot up round the old one ; and thus in- crease the crop in the same man- ner as by deep transplantation. " The theory of Mr. Tull's drill husbandry, which is of late years supposed to haAre been im- proved by introducing the hand- hoe in place ofthe horse-hoe, and thus giving an opportunity of sow- ing the rows or drills nearer to- gether, as Avill be seen by the fol- lowing method, iaoav introduced into almost general use in Norfolk by Mr. Coke ; though Mr. Tull himself much prefers the horse- hoe as turning over the earth much deeper than the hand-hoe, and thus rendering that part of it more exposed to the air, which Avas be- fore more deeply secluded from it; and also rendering it more pervi- ous to vegetable roots ; to Avhich may be added, that both kinds of hoeing render the surface more permeable to the rains and dews, and prevent the cracks in dry Avea- ther, which are very injurious to the roots of plants ; both Avhich advantages depend on the porosity of the soil, which must extend deeper by the use of the horse-hoe than the hand-hoe. " Mr. Tull makes other inge- nious remarks on the use of horse- hoeini;. In the beginning of win- ter, Avhen the Avheat has obtained one blade like grass, or two or three leaves, the horse-hoe is brought near the i'oavs and deep, and the earth turned from them so as to form a ridge between them. By this ridge, in level grounds, he thinks the ioavs are shaded from the cold winds in some stituations, and th^t the roots of VEG 243 theAvheat are kept drier, and thence less injured by frost,. In the spring this ridge in the intervals between the rows is divided by the horse-hoe, and turned back against the rows of corn after it has been fertilized by the air and rains, and dews of Avinter. " Mr. Coke of Holkham in Nor- folk, assured me, that in thirteen years' experience on a farm of 3000 acres, he had found the drill husbandry in that country greatly superior to sowing seeds of all sorts by the hand in Avhat is termed the broad-cast method, but differs in the number and arrangement of his rows from the method of Mr. Tull, in the folloAving circum- stances. " Mr. Tull drilled tAvo rows of seed a few inches from each other, and then left a space of tAvo or three feet, and then drilled tAvo more rows near each other, for the purpose of passing a hoe between each double row drawn by a horse, which Avastherefore termed a horse- hoe ; but Mr. Coke drills all his rows of wheat and of peas '■) inches from each other, and those of bar- ley six inches and three quarters from each other;. this is per- formed by a drill-plough made by the Rev. Mr. Cook, which drills six rows at a time, and thus sows an acre of land in an hour, and is drawn by a single horse ; and the quantity of seed consumed is about six or seven pecks to an acre, Avhich is about half Avhat is used in sowing by the hand in the broad- cast method. " Early in March Mr. Coke uses the hand-hoe, Avhich for hoe- ing the roAvs of Avheat and of peas is 6 inches Avide, and for hoeing those of barley, 4 inches Avide. By this hoe the surface is not only turned 244 VEG VEG over, and the weeds betAveen the roAvs rooted up, but it is also ac- cumulated about the roots of the growing corn, and covers and con- sequently destroys the low growth of poppies amongst them ; which are a very frequent Aveed in that part of the country. A second hoeing is performed about the mid- dle of May, and the soil is again, not only .'eared from Aveeds, but accumulatea against the rising corn, each of wh. !i hocings cost about 20 p ;.ee an acre. " Nevertheless I am informed, that some attentive agricultors use the horse-hoe belonging to Mr. Cook's drill-machine, though the rows of corn are but nine inches from each other ; and assert, that this occasional trampling of the horse on the young plants is of no very ill consequence, a circum- stance well Avorth observing, as it removes the principal disadvantage of the horse-hoe, Avhich consists in the too great distance of the alter- nate rows ofthe corn plants. " By the earth being thus accu- mulated against the roots of the corn it is said to tiller or tellure much ; that is, to throAv out four or six stems, or more, around the original stem, and thus to increase the' number of ears like transplant- ing the roots, insomuch that Mr. Coke obtains by this method be- tAveen four and five quarters of wheat on every acre, whichvinthe broad-cast method of sowing, did not yield more than three quarters on an acre; beside saving a bushel and half of the seed corn, unne- cessarily consumed in the broad- cast method of sowing. To this should be added another advantage, that as the land is thus kept clear ficm we^es, and has its surface twice turned over, and thus ex- posed to the air, it is found to save one ploughing for the purpose of a succeeding crop of turnips. " It is probable, that one hand- hoeing in the beginning of Avinter, so managed as to turn the soil from the roots of the corn, and to leave it rather elevated betAveenthe rows, asMr.TuLL recommends to be per- formed by his horse-hoe, might give a similar advantage to this mode of cultivation ; and also if another hand-hoeing was applied, as soon as the wheat is out of blos- som, to supply more nourishment to the young seed might increase its plumpness and weight. " The lands thus managed by Mr. Coke are laid level, and not in ridges and furrows, and can thus be ploughed crosswise; and the crop is equally good throughout the whole ; whereas in the furrows of some lands it is less forward or less prolific than on the ridges; whence much lignt corn is mixed Avith the good, which is obliged to be separated from that, which is marketable, and used for hogs or poultry. Add to this, that in this mode of husbandry the straAV is believed to be larger and in greater quantity as well as the grain, and the land to be less impoverished; as no weeds are suffered to grow on it, and as its surface is so fre- quently turned over, and exposed to the air. " In China the corn lands are hud on a level, not in ridges and furroAvs ; which is supposed to be the most advantageous plan in al- most every situation, which is pro- per for the cultivation of corn; as by being thus rendered capable of being divided by cross-ploughing, almost any kind of soil may be ren- dered more proper for the use of the drill-husbandry, by which it is VEG VEG 245 seen in the above account of Nor- folk management, that 12 bushels more of Avheat are raised on an acre, and one bushel and a half saved in the consumption of seed- wheat, Avhich at six shillings a bushel arises to a considerable sum on a large farm. " Nevertheless there seem to be many advantages attending the forming the surface of land into ridges and furrows ; in Avet lands with a substratum of clay the fur- roAvs are convenient channels to carry off the water, where there is a sufficient declivity, as treated of by Mr. Tull in his horse-hoeing husbandry, ch. xvi. Add to this, that in some situations a deeper stratum of the soil, where it is va- luable, may be occasionally turned up, and exposed to the air, and to the roots of vegetables, by gradu- ally changing the locality of the ridges ; and lastly, in every situa- tion a greater surface both of the soil, and of the summits of the stems, or ears, are exposed to the influence of the air by means of ridges and furrows ; for as the plants of Avheat are but three or four feet high, the surface of a crop of wheat is increased as well as the surface of the ground it e, ' ws upon, and not as the base on which the declivities or hills rest, as some have erroneously, sup- posed. " There is another method of sowing wheat in rows used in some countries, which is termed dibbling in the language of agricuhors, and consists in making perpendicular holes one inch and half or two inches deep, as is commonly done in planting potatoe-roots; there holes are made by a man, who has a proper staff shod with iron in each hand, and as he Avalks hack- wards is able by looking at the pari of the toav already made to keep nearly in a straight line, and to make tAvo holes at once at about nine inches distance from each other every way. Tavo or more children attend the man, and drop Iavo, or three, or four seeds into each perpendicular hole, Avhich are afterwards covered by drawing over them what is called a bush-harrow. " This method of sowing the Avheat in rows adapts it for the use of the hand-hoe, as well as for the drill machine ; but must be at- tended with greater expence, and I suspect Avith less accuracy of the distrihiiiion of the seed, owing to the hurry or fatigue of the child- dren employed ; and I also suspect that soAving in drills is preferable; because a greater quantity of earth is turned over, and much air in cm- stqueiKc included in its interstices ; where;-s in making perpendicular holes the sides of the holes are compressed, and rendered more solid: Avhence potatoe-roots also might probably be more advanta- geously planted by making drills instead of perpendicular holes. " A correspondent of the board of agriculture asserts, that on look- ing over a field of potatoes near Leicester, Avhich had all been plant- ed at the same time, and on land equally manured, he observed a great difference of the growth of one part of the field, Avhich on en- quiry he found to have been ow- ing to the roots having been plant- ed in drills, Avhere the plants Ave re so much stronger; and by a set- ting stick in holes, Avhere thev were so much Jess vigorous ; English Encyclopedia, Are. Husbandry, page 483 : Avhich difference of groAvth I suppose to have been OAving to the circumstances above iueniiouc,;. 246 VEG VEG " A few ears of wheat Avere lately given me, which were branched, having four or five less ears grow- ing out of each side of the princi- pal ear ; it Avas procured at Liver- pool, and Avas called Egyptian Avheat, or Smyrna Avheat. It is described in the Supplem. Planta- rum of the younger LinnjEUS, as Avell as the species Plantarum of the elder; and is said to be a na- tive of Egypt, and to be cultivated at Naples ; it is called " trilicum composilum, or wheat with a com- pound ear, crowded Avith less ears, awned : and is said to be related to triticum estivum, summer wheat; but the spike is four times larger, a hand in length, composed of less spikes, tAvo faced, alternate, ap- proximated, from nine to twelve, the loAver ones being shorter, and the top one solitary." " The plant which Avas given me, had five tall and thick stems from one root, but seemed to have been plucked up before it was quite ripe, whence I cannot judge ofthe size ofthe grain, but should imagine, that it is a species Avell worthy of attention. The few ears which I possessed, were soAvn in the spring of this year, 1799, not having obtained them soon enough to soav in the autumn. When they Avere an inch or tAvo high, they were transplanted into a moistish part of my garden ; and though the year has been uncommonly cold and Avet, and a great part of the autumn-soAvn Avheat of this country is blown doAvn upon the ground, and is not yet ripe, yet almost every root of the Egyptian wheat has from ten to twelve stems, and stands upright on strong straAv about three and a half, or four feet high. The best stems have one principal ear3about five inches long, with five or six shorter ones branch- ing out on each side of it. They begin to appear brown, and I hope will ripen. I have since found that this species of wheat is men- tioned in Tull's Husbandry, under the name of Smyrna wheat. He addsthatit is highly productive,but on that account requires a good soil. " 3. Another method of promot- ing the groAvth of lateral stems consists in destroying the central shoot; Avhen this is done, other new stems arise from the joint immediately above the root, which in wheat is in contact Avith the earth. On this account, Avhen Avheat plants are sufficiently for- ward in respect to the season, it is thought to be advantageous to eat the first stem doAvn by sheep, to increase the quantity of the subse- quent crop. It should be never- theless observed here, that the trampling of the sheep on lands, which are not too adhesive, will press down the first or second joint into the earth, and thus assist the production of many side shoots. But in very adhesive soils this trampling of the stems into the ground may be injurious. In soils which are not too adhesive, Avhen the crop appears thin, it is proba- ble, that a roller draAvn OA'er it by pressing the first or second joint into the soil, might promote the production of side shoots, or make them tiller, or tellure, in the lan- guage of agricultors. And Avhen grass or clover-seeds are designed to be soAvn on the Avheat-land, it might first be harrowed, and then either rolled or trampled by the sheep, Avhich eat it; either or both of Avhich might press doAvn the root-stems of the corn, and cover the neAvly-sown clover-seeds Avith soil. VEG VEG 247 « This mode of eating doAvn forward wheat with sheep is analo- gous to cutting off the central buds of melons and cucumbers to make them produce earlier fruit, and in this climate perhaps in greater quantity ; as those produced after the great extent and elongation of the central branches Avould be too late to ripen in this climate: and by their exuberant generation of a viviparous progeny would retard the succession of lateral shoots, and a consequent quicker produc- tion of flowers. " Nevertheless where the crop is not too luxuriant or too forward, the eating down the first stem by sheep may be an injurious practice; as Mr. Tull thinks, that by thus destroying the first stem, the ears of the later ones have not time to ripen, and thence becoming light in respect to the size or plump- ness of the grain ; and that these secondary stems become weak, and are liable to fall doAvn, both Avhich he says commonly occur Avhere the crops are eaten by sheep. " Mr. Tull, Avhose Avork is throughout a great effort of human genius, adds a very wise axiom, " that it is most advantageous to hasten Avhat Ave can, the time of blossoming ; and to protract the time of ripening :" for it is the fa- rinaceous reservoir of nutriment laid up in the cotyledon of the new seed for the future growth of the corculum or new einbryon, for which Ave cultivate the plant; and this reservoir is formed between the blossoming and ripening ofthe grain, either before or after the impregnation of the pericarp, or seed-vessels, and thus renders the grain plump and heavy. Mr. Tull in another part of his Avork, recommends v.n additional horse- hoeing immediately after the blos- som is over, to supply more nutri- ment to the ripening grain. Mr. Tull esteems the eating down of wheat by sheep to be generally a very injurious practice in this cli- mate, by rendering the ears light and the straw Aveak; by retarding the time of blossoming, as Avell as the growth of the stems. " 4. In the moist springs of this climate many annual or biennial plants are liable to shoot out too many, or too strong, viviparous branches, which cannot generate flower-buds soon enough to ripen their seeds, in our cold and short summers. This ahvays happens to cucumbers and melons, which Avere brought from warmer coun- tries, and to the peas and beans of our gardens, and sometimes to corn plants, Avhich are liable in Avet seasons to produce too strong stems and foliage, Avhich have not time to generate the floAver-bud at their summit soon enough to per- fect and to ripen the seed. Melons and cucumbers have heretofore been mentioned ; and in respect to garden beans their viviparous tops should be pinched off, which if not too old may be eaten as an agreea- ble vegetable, when Avell boiled; and thus more nutriment is derived to the oviparous buds beneath, which renders them larger, and perhaps more numerous. To pre- vent field peas from running into straw ih moist soils less manure should be used ; and field beans may have their tops cut off by a scythe fixed into a straight shaft. " Annual cotton plants are much cultivated in some colder parts of the Chinese empire, and the culti- A'ators lop off the tops to increase the number of pods, and to hasten their production ; and in the West 248 VEG VEG Indies the flowers of the rose-tree are believed to be accelerated and increased by topping the branches. Embassy to China, by Sir George Staunton, vol. iii. p. 208, Svo. edition. " When the stems and.foliage of Avheat are thus too vigorous, it may be advantageous to eat it down by sheep as above mentioned; Avhich may not only destroy the too vigo- rous Aiviparous central stems, but also produce a greater number of lateral ones ; Avhich may sooner terminate in oviparous ones so as to produce more grain Avith less straw. " 5. It is also propable, that roll- ing them as mentioned above, if it be done in a morning before the dew is off, might so far bruise the stems and roots, as to stop their too great propensity to nourish the viviparous buds, andin consequence to favour the growth of the ovipar- ous buds on their summits ; which might forward the harvest season, as Avell as increase the product of grain in proportion to the quantity of straAv. From rolling Avheat in spring on fields Avhere the surface remains uneven or cloddy, another advantage may be derived, by breaking the clods or eminences, and thus earthing up many ofthe stems above the second joint, and thus inducing a neAv set of root-sci- ons to put forth, or tiller. " 6. The garden plants, which are too vigorous in situations where there is a command of Avater, as in the gardens of Avarm climates, should have less vwiter derived to them, till the blossoms appear ; because a greater quantity of mois- ture facilitates the production of viviparous buds so much as to re- tard that of oviparous ones, and thus diminishes the quantity as Avell as retards the ripening of the crop. But in these situations, as soon as the blossoms appear, a greater supply of Avater should be alloAved, a>* hich will contribute to nourish and enlarge them, as men- tioned above ; as is practised in some countries of the east, where they do not flood their rice-grounds, till they are in floAver. But less water is again required, when the seed has arrived at its full size, as before spoken of. " III. 1. To forward the ripening of seeds. A due degree of Avarmth and of dryness seems to include the circumstances'principally required. The warmth not only accelerates the various secretions of vegetables by increasing their irritability and consequent activity, but after the mucilaginous, starchy, saccharine, and oily matters are secreted into proper reservoirs, may contribute perhaps chemically to their change into each other, or to their greater perfection. And the dryness of the air, whether hot or cold, is ne- cessary to give perfect ripeness to seeds ; as otherAvise the due ex- halation of the aqueous parts of the secreted fluids, Avhich form the nutritive parts of seeds, does not properly proceed; and the seed gathered in this condition is liable to mlldeAV in the barn or granary, or to become shrivelled and wrink- led, as it dries. " 2. It is believed in Scotland, that even the frosty nights of ' au- tumn contribute to ripen the late- crops in that inclement climate, Avhich some have ascribed to the moonlight, but, Avhich I have in- deed suspected, that the frost may in some measure effect, by con- verting the mucilage of the grain sooner into starch. This I was induced to imagine by having cb- VEG VEG 249 •served that book-binder's paste, made by boiling Avheat-flour in Ava- ter, lost its adhesion after having been frozen ; and also from a culi- nary observation, that Avhen ice or shoav is mingled Avith flour instead of Ayatcr in making pancakes,that it much improves them ; the truth of which I have heard boldly asserted, but never witnessed theexperimcnt. " There is nevertheless an ex- periment related by Dr. Roebuck in the Edinburgh Transactions,"vo\. i. which seems to sheAV, that the grains of oats continue to fill and to become heavier even during the autumnal frosts ; which may probably occur during the sunshine of the middle part of the day, as occurs in the vernal frosts of this part of the country. In 1780, near Borrowstoness, the oats Avere green even in October, Avhen the ice Avas three-fourths of an inch thick. He selected several stalks of oats of nearly equal fulness, cut half of them, and marked the remainder, which continued 14 days longer in the field; after being dry, the grains of each parcel Avere Aveigh- ed; and 11 of those grains, Avhich had remained in the field, weighed 30 of those which had been cut a fortnight sooner. " ' This important experiment should teach our farmers not to*cut their peas and beans too early in inclement autumns ; Avhich are so frequently seen to become shrunk and shrivelled in the barn or gra- nary, and inclined to rot from de- ficient ripencs;, and consequent softness or moisture ; and thus con- tain much less flour in proportion to the husk or bran. " 3. The Avheat produced after land has been much limed, is be- lieved to be thinner skinned, and to yield more good meal, than vol. v. other Avheat, and to make better bread. On this account 1 suppose one use of lime is to forward the ripening of seeds by convertng their mucilage scorer into starch or oil; as according to the expe- riments of M. ''krmentier, the' goodness of bread depends much on the quantity of starch contained in it ; vvho found, that if the starch taken from eight pounds of raw potatoes, by grating them into cold Avater, Avas mixed Avith eight pounds of boiled potatoes, as good bread might be produced as from Avheat flour. u 4. The seeds of some plants, Avhich also propagate themsehes by bulbs at their roots, Avill not ripen in this climate naturally, as the orchis ; but are said to ripen, if the neAv bulb be cut off early in the season ; or if the propagation by their roots be retarded or pre- vented by confining them in gar- den-pots, as the lilly of the valley; and it is probable, that the seeds of potatoes might be rendered more perfectly ripe', and in consequence, better for the cultivation of new varieties ; if the young roots Avere taken aAvay early in the season from that, Avhich is to bear seed; or if they were confined in garden- pots. " If the orchis could by these means be cultivated from seed on moist meadows or morasses, it might become a profitable article of husbandry ; as when it is scalded in boiling Avater, and the peel rub- bed off, it is sold by the name of salep, and might become a nutri- tive article of diet, like sago and vermicelli, if it could be propagat- ed at less expense. u It is also probable, that Jeru- salem, or ground artichokes, Heli- anthus tuberosus, might be induced K. K 250 VEG VEG to ripen its seeds in this country, if the neAv roots from a feAV of the forwardest plants were taken aAvay early in the season, or if they Avere confined in garden-pots. And if this plant could be propagated by seed, it might make an useful pro- duct in agriculture, as horses are fond of the leaves, and SAvine ofthe roots ; both of which are produced in great quantity ; and as the latter contain much sugar, they must be very nutritive; and in respect to their culinary vise, are remarkably grateful to moist palates, as Avell as nutritive, when cut into slices, and baked in beef or mutton-pies; but are said to be flatulent in the bowels of those Avhose digestion is not very powerful; a property which might be Avorthy attention, where the propensity to fermenta- tion is required, as in making bread Avith potatoes, or in the dis- tillery. " It is also probable, that if the large neAv root-suckers of other perennial plants, which do not bear bulbous or tuberous roots, and which are late in ripening their seeds, or do not ripen them per- fectly in this climate, wrere cut or torn off early in the season, as of the Rheum palmatum, palmated rhubarb, or Rheum hybridum, mule rhubarb ; or if their roots Avere confined in garden-pots, that they might be more liable completely to ripen their respective seeds. " IV. 1. To generate the best kinds of seed':, the most healthy plants must be chosen, and those which are most early in respect to the season ; these should be so in- sulated, as to have no weak plants of the same species, or eA'en genus, in their vicinity, lest the fecundat- ing dust of Aveaker plants should be blown by the winds upon the stigmata of the stronger, and thus produce a less vigorous progeny. " Where new varieties are re- quired, the male dust of one good variety, as of the nonpareil apple, should be shed upon the stigmas of another good variety, as of the golden-pippin; and it is probable some iicav excellent variety might be thus generated. " Mr. Knight has given a cu- rious experiment of his impregnat- ing the stigmas of the pea-blossoms of one variety with the farina of another. He says, Treatise of Ap- ple and Pear, p. 42, " Blossoms of a small white garden-pea, in Avhich the males had previously been de- stroyed, were impregnated with the farina of a large clay-coloured kind with purple blossoms. The produce of the seeds thus obtained were of a dark grey colour, but these having no fixed habits, Avere soon changed by cultivation into a numerous variety of very large and extremely luxuriant white ones; Avhich were not only much larger and more productive than the ori- ginal Avhite ones, but the number of seeds in each pod Avas increased from seven or eight to eight or nine, and not unfrequently to ten. The neAvly made grey kinds I found Avere er.sily made Avhite again by impregnating their blossoms with the farina of another Avhite kind. In this experiment the seeds,which greAV towards the point of the pod, and Avere by position first exposed to the action of the male, Avould sometimes produce seeds like it in colour, whilst those at the other end Avould folloAv the female. " In other instances the Avhole produce of the pod would lake the colour of one or other of the pa- rents ; and I had once an instance in Avhich two peas at one end of a VEG VEG 251 pod, produced white seeds like the male, two at the other end grey ones like the female, and the cen- tral seeds took the intermediate shade, a clay colour. Something very similar appears to take place in animals, Avhich produce many young ones at a birth, Avhen the male and female are of opposite colours. From some very imper- fect experiments I have made, I am led to suspect that considerable advantages would be found to arise from the use of new or re- generated varieties of wheat, and these are easily obtained, as this plant readily sports in varieties, whenever different kinds are soAvn together. " 2. The white and blue peas sown infields as well as in gardens, sometimes possess the property of becoming soft by boiling, at other times not. This circumstance is said to depend on the nature ofthe soil, but has not yet been sufficient- ly investigated ; perhaps the great- er or less maturity of the peas at the time of reaping them may have more or less contributed to fill their fibrous cells or divisions with mucilage or starch. The greater or less mealiness produced by boiling potatoes seems to be an analogous circumstance, and is thought by some to arise from the nature of the soil rather than from the spe- cies or variety of the planted root. " The mealiness of some boiled potatoes, and the softness of some boiled peas, may occasionally be affected by the acidity ofthe spring water, in which they are boiled ; but is generally, I suppose, OAving to the mucilage of smie of them, being more or less coagulahle by heat, than that of others. Some- thing similar to which obtains in animal mucus, as the crystalline humour of the eyes of fish, be- come hard and opake by boiling ; while the skins of animals, and the tendons of their feet, become a soft mucus or jelly by boiling; and some of the liquids, which are found in the cells or cavities of the body in dropsies, are observed to coagulate by heat, and others to be- come more fluid. The causes of this difference merits further en- quiry. " V. 1. To collect good seeds, ac- cording to the observations of Mr. Cooper of Philadelphia, consists not in procuring new seeds from distant places, as is generally supposed, but in selecting the best seeds and roots of his own ; which though he has continually soAvn or planted them in the same son*, every article of his produce is greatly superior to those of any other person, Avho supplies the market, and they seem still in a state of improvement. He be- lieved that no kind of incest would degenerate the breeds of vegeta- bles, and therefore adopted the plan of Mr. Bakewell, in Eng- land, in respect to quadrupeds, Avho continued to improve his flocks and herds by the marriages of those, in which the properties he Avished to produce Avere most conspicuous Avithout regard to con- sanguinity or incest. " Mr. Cooper Avas led to his pre- sent practice, Avhich he began more than forty years ago, by ob- serving that vegetables of all kinds Avere very subject to change with respect to their time of coming to maturity, and other properties, but that the best seeds never failed to produce the best plants. Among 252 VEG VEG a great number of experiments, he particularly mentions the folloAv- ing. "About the year 1746, his father procured seeds of the long watery squash, and though they have been used on the farm ever since that time without any change, they are at this time better than they were at the first. " His early peas Avere procured from London, in the year 1756, and though they have been planted on the same place every season, they have been so far from degen- erating, that they are preferable to what they Avere then. The seeds of his asparagus he had from New- York, in 1752, and though they have been planted in the same manner, the plants are greatly improved. " It is more particularly com- plained of, that potatoes degener- ate, when they are planted from the same roots in the same place. At this, Mr. Cooper says, he does not Avonder, when it is customary with farmers to sell or consume the best, and to plant from the re- fuse ; Avhereas haAring observed that some of his plants produced potatoes, that were larger, better shaped, and in greater abundance than others, he took his roots from them only ; and the next season he found, that the produce was of a quality superior to any, that he had ever had before. This prac- tice he still continues, and finds that he is abundantly rewarded for his trouble. kl Mr. Cooper is also careful to sow the plant, from Avhich he raises his seed, at a considerable distance from any others. Thus, when his radishes are fit for use, he takes ten or twelve, that he most approves, and plants them at least one hundred yards from others that blossom at the same time. In the same manner he treats all his other plants, varying the circumstances according to their nature. " About the year 1772, a friend of his sent him a few grains of a small kind of Indian corn, not larger than goose-shot, Avhich pro- duced from eight to ten ears on a stalk. They Avere also small, and he found that feAV of them ripened before the frost. Some of the largest and earliest he saved, and planted them betAveen roAvs of a larger and earlier kind, and the produce was much improved..... He then planted from those that had produced the greatest number of the largest ears, and that were the first ripe, and the next season the produce with respect to qua- lity and quantity Avas preferable to any, that he had ever planted be- fore. " The common method of sav- ing seed corn, by taking the ears from the heap, is attended, he says, Avith two disadvantages ; one is the taking the largest ears, of which in general only one grows on a stalk, which lessens the pro- duce ; and the other is taking ears that ripen at different times. " Many years ago Mr. Cooper renewed all the seed of his winter grain from a single plant, Avhich he had observed to be more pro- ductive, and of a better quality than the rest; which he is satis- lied has been of great use. And he is of opinion, that all kinds of garden vegetables may be improv- ed by the methods described above, particular care being taken that different kinds of the same yege- VEG VEG 253 tables do not bloom at the same time near together ; since by this means they injure one another."... Communications to the Board of Agriculture, vol. I. part 3. Letter from Dr. Priestley. " 2. As the varieties of plants are believed to be produced by different soils and climates, Avhich varieties will afterwards continue through many generations, even when the plants are removed to other soils and climates, it must be advanta- geous for the agricultor to inspect other crops as well as his oavii ; and thus, Avhercver he can find a superior vegetation,to collect seeds from it, which is more certain to improve his crops, than an indis- criminate change of seed. " But where seed corn is pur- chased without a previous obser- vation of its superior excellence, perhaps it would be more advanta- geous to take that from better kinds of soil, and from someAvhat better climates ; as the good habits acquired by such seeds may be continued long after their removal to inferior situations. And on the contrary, care should be taken not to collect a change of seeds from Avorse climates or inferior soils, unless the agricultor is previously certain that they are of a superior kind. " VI. 1 To determinethe goodness of seeds, the weighing a given measure of them may generally be esteemed a criterion ; as it is known, that Avhen seeds are put into cold Avater, those which are less perfect are liable to swim, and the, sound ones to sink ; thus the imperfect seeds of rye-grass and of clover may be detected by throAving a spoonful of them into water; but the seeds of rye- grass are said to be frequently adulterated by a mixture of the seeds of tAvitch or dogs' grass, which can only be discovered by an experienced eye. This even is said to be a test of the goodness of malt; as those grains which are not perfectly germinated will SAvini with one end upwards, I suppose the root end; and those which are perfectly germinated swim on their side, whilst the sound ungerminated barley sinks in water. " It is therefore a proper crite- rion of good seed-wheat to cast it into salt and water, just so saline as to float an egg ; as the more salt is dissolved in the water, the heavier it becomes; and hence none but quite sound grains of wheat Avill sink in this brine ; and that Avhich swims is properly re- jected. This rejection of the light grains by steeping wheat in brine, is probably of greater consequence to the ensuing crop, than the ad- hesion of any salt to the grain, which has been believed to destroy the eggs of insects supposed to adhere to it, or to fertilize the soil. " 2. The weight of a given measure of corn will also with con- siderable certainty, discover the quantity of husk or bran contain- ed in it, compared to the quantity of flour; as that grain, Avhich is cut too early, or which is othenvise not quite ripe, as happens in wet seasons, shrinks in the barn or granary, and becomes wrinkled, and has thus a greater proportion of skin or bran, than that Avhich has been more perfectly ripened, and Avill hence weigh lighter in proportion. " A test of this kind may enable us to determine whether peas and beans, or oats, are preferable in 254 VEG respect to economy as provender for horses. A strike or bushel of oats Aveighs perhaps forty pounds, and a strike or bushel of peas and beans perhaps sixty pounds ; and as the skin of peas and beans is much less in quantity than that of oats, I suppose there may be at least fifteen pounds of flour more in a bushel of peas and beans than in a bushel of oats. " There is also reason to believe, that the flour of beans is more nu- tritive than that of oats, as appears in the fattening of hogs ; whence according to the respective prices of these two articles, I suspect, that peas and beans generally sup- ply a cheaper provender for horses than oats, as Avell as for other do- mestic animals. But as the flour of peas and beans is more oily, I believe, than that of oats, it may in general be someAvhat more diffi- cult of digestion ; hence when a horse has taken a stomach full of peas and beans alone, he may be less active for an hour or two, as his strength will be more employ- ed in the digestion of them, than Avhen he has taken a stomach full of oats. According to the experi- ment of a German physician, who p-ave to tAvo dogs, Avhich had been kept a day fasting, a large quanti- ty of flesh food ; and then taking one of them into the fields hunted him Avith great activity for three or four hours, and left the other by the fire. An emetic was then ghren to each of them, and the food of the sleeping (log Avas found per- fectly digested, Avhilst that of the hunted one had undergone but lit- tle alteration. " Hence it may be found advis- able to mix bran of wheat Avith the peas and beans, a food of less VEG nutriment, but of easier digestion ; or to let the horses eat before or after them, the coarse tussocks of sour grass, Avhich remain in moist pastures in the winter ; or lastly, to mix finely cut straAv with them. " 3. Another way of distinguish- ing light corn from heavy, is by winnoAving ; as the surface of the light grains being greater in pro- portion to their solid contents, they Avill be carried further by the cur- rent of air, which is produced by the fan ; though the heavy grains would roll further on the floor after rolling doAvn a grate to separate the dust; because their vis inter- tie Avould carry them further, after they are put in motion ; and their surfaces Avould be resisted by the air no more than those of the lighter grains. " 4. Finally, there is reason to believe that a progressive improve- ment of many seeds exists during the Avarmer days of winter in our granaries, Avhich probably consists in the process of the conversion of mucilage into starch ; in the same manner as the harsh juices of crab-apples and of austere pears, are continually changing into su- gar during the winter ; both which processes are probably in part che- mical, like the slow but perpetual change of sugar into vinous spirit, when the juices of sweeter apples and pears, or grapes, are put into bottles in the manufacture of cyder, perry, and Avine. " This improvement of Avheat, and ofbeiley, and of outs, is well known to the baker, the maltster, and the horse-dc:Jer; as better bread is made from old Avheat, and barley is converted into better malt in the vernal months; and horses are believed to thrive better, aiid VEG to possess more vigour, when they are fed Avith old than with new oats. " VII. 1. The preservation of seeds next demands our attention. Those seeds which are liable to lie upon the ground, as peas and corn, when thrown doAvn by stormy or Avet seasons, should be gathered rather ealier; lest they should begin to germinate, as they lie upon the ground, and would hence become a kind of malt after drying. Other seeds should be gathered, before they would spontaneously fall from their pericaps, to prevent the loss Avhich must otherwise ensue in the reaping, or mowing, and car- rying them to the bam, Avhich of- ten amounts to as much as is ne- cessary to sow the land, which pro- duced it, as well as to supply the depredations of birds, insects and vermin. " Mons. B. G. Sage accuses the farmers of some parts of France of collecting their vvheat Avith ma- ny green Aveeds immediately after reaping it, and pressing it close together in their barns ; by Avhich the stack undergoes a fermentation with great heat like some hay- stacks ; and that the corn is by this fermentation killed, and will not groAv AvhensoAvn like hay-seeds from a fermented hay-stack ; and also that the gluten, or A'egeto-ani- mal matter of the corn is destroy- ed; and it, on that account, makes less agreeable and less Avholesome bread ; and lastly, that the straw is much injured by becoming mouldy. Journal de Physique, September, 1794. " Mons. B. G. Sage adds, that the following process Avill discover whether Avheat has been thus in- jured, which may be interesting both to the baker, and Avheat buy- V E G 255 er, who wants it for seed-Avheat. Make a paste Avith flour and wa- ter, then Avash it Avith your hands under Avater, which must be fre- quently changed, till it no longer becomes discoloured. The sub- stance remaining on the hands is the gluten ; if the corn be good, this is elastic, and will contract when drawn out; if the corn has begun to heat, it is brittle; if the corn has fermented, none of the gluten will be obtained. " In this country, where corn is seldom cut too early, or pressed together on the stack, the princi- pal circumstance required is to keep it dry ; as the straw is not liable to ferment like new hay made Avith young grass, which contains sugar at every joint of the stem. To preserve a stack of Avheat dry, a good cover of thatch may seem sufficient; but as this is liable to injury by vermin, it Avould be an additional security, if at the time of making the stack the sheaves were laid highest in the middle, and loAver on every side, so that if any Avet should find its way into the stack, it might drain onwards along the straAV of the sheaves, which would thus act like thatch throughout the Avhole stack. " There are instances of great durability of seeds, Avhich have been preserved dry, and secured from either so great heat or so great cold, as might destroy their life or organism. Thus there is an account of the seeds of Indian- wheat, which grew Avell in a hot- house after having been kept 34 years, as was accurately ascertain- ed. Bath Society, vol. v. p. 464. And it has been lately asserted, that many seeds of more than 100 years old, AvhichAvere found in some old herbarium at Vienna, have 256 VEG VEG been mr.de to germinate by the use of oxygenated muriatic acid aiul water. Philos. Mag. But if the organic life of a seed be destroyed by frost, or fire, or mechanic in- jury, putrefaction succeeds, and decomposition; as when the or- ganic life of an egg is destroyed by a iolently agitating it, it is knoAvn soon to putrefy. " To preserve seeds in bams or granaries our principal attention should be first to make them dry; and secondly, to keep them dry ; because no seeds can vegetate Avith- out moisture. The art of drying most seeds must consist in duly ventilating them, especially on dry days ; Avhich may be done by fre- quently turning over the heaps of them: and to preserve them dry in this climate the door and Avin- dows of granaries should open to the south to receive the Avarmth of the sun, Avith apertures round the building for sufficient ventilation : Avhich must be prevented from ad- mitting rain or suoav by shelter- ing boards on the outside. " The heaps of corn should be surrounded with boards to keep them from contact with brick or stone Avails; which, when warm moist south-west Avinds succeed cold north-east winds, are liable to precipitate the moisture from the atmosphere by their coldness, and to communicate it to all bodies in contact Avith them. For a similar purpose in stables some have put up a tail wooden trunk from the chamber to the room below, three or four feet square, and 10 or 12 feet high, Avith a sliding valve to draw out the corn below, Avhich is poured in at the top ; in three or four places a tin or wooden pipe full of holes is made to pass hori- zontally through the box to give air to the corn, the Avhole of Avhich, when any of it is drawn out below, is moved in descending ; and new surfaces of corn are applied to the air-holes of the horizontal tubes. " The most secure Avay of pre- serving a great quantity of Avheat, according to Mr. Tull, is by gen- tly drying it on a hair-cloth in a malt-kiln, with no other fuel but clean straAv, and no greater heat than that of the sunshine. In this situation the Avheat remained from four to twelve hours, according to the previous dampness o; it. Mr. Tull knew a farmer in Oxford- shire who purchased wheat, Avhen it was cheap, and kept it by thus ' drying it for many years, and made a large fortune by selling it again in dearer seasons. The life ofthe seed Avas not destroyed by this pro- cess ; as he asserts, that some of it greAv, which had been kept in this manner seven years ; whereas in drying potatoes on a malt-kiln so great heat was employed as to destroy their life, and violent pu- trefaction ensued. " 2. AdueA'entilation also, where corn is kept in the common warmth of the atmosphere of this climate, is necessary, except in seasons of frost, and also the admission of light; as otherwise the vegetable mucor, called mould, is liable to grow upon the corn, and injure it; as this mucor like some other funguses will groAv, where there is little or no change of air, and Avithout light, as in cellars, if there be sufficient moisture and warmth. " 3. Another method of presett- ing seeds may consist in secluding them from heat, as in granaries beneath the soil; Avhich are so deep or so well covered with earth, as not to be affected by the difference of seasons. Thus there have been VEG VEG 257 instances of mustard-seed produc- ing a crop on digging up earth, which had not been removed for many years, and, as was believed, even for ages.' And in ice-houses it is probable, that not only seeds might be long preserved, but per- haps fruits also ; if they were after- wards very gradually thawed by putting them into cold water, that they might not be destroyed by the too great stimulus of sudden heat. " 4. Where it has been neces- sary suddenly to collect and to pre- serve great heaps of corn, without shelter, for the provision of armies, some have moderately moistened the upper surface ofthe heap daily, which has occasioned the upper grains to grow, and thus to pro- duce a sward or turf over those below ; which, it is said, has thus preserved the lower part of the magazine. But in respect to gra- naries for the purpose of laying up very large quantities of grain to prevent famines in scarce years, I suppose the stacks of covetous far- mers, Avho keep their corn in cheap years, hoping to sell it at a better price in scarce ones, is a more cer- tain method, and a cheaper one to the public, to keep up a sufficient stock of corn, than by any other experiment that can be devised. " 5. Gardeners in general pre- fer new seeds to old for their prin- cipal crops, as they are believed to come up sooner, and with greater certainty, and to grow more luxu- riantly. ' But peas and beans of a year old,' Mr. Marshall observes, ' are by some preferred to new, as not so likely to run to straAv. And cucumbers and melons are best to be several years old, in or- der to their shooting less vigorous- ly, and thence becoming more vol. v. fruitful. But this principle is car- ried too far by some gardeners, who say these seeds cannot be too old, and Avill allow 10 years to be within bounds : three for cucum- bers, and four for melons, however, is age enough. ' As to the age of seeds, at which they may be sown, it is un- certain, and depends much upon hoAV "they are kept; those of cu- cumbers and melons are good a long time, because very carefully preserved. ' Peas and beans will germinate very Avell at seven years of age ; but the seeds of lettuces and kid- ney-beans, and some others, are not to be depended upon after a year or two ; and, generally speak- ing, the smaller seeds are of the least duration.' Marshall on Gardening. " 6. Where seeds of a perishable nature are to be carried to, or brought from, distant countries, I suspect that covering them in su- gar would be the most certain and salutary method of preserving them; and even, that flesh meat, cut into thin slices, and covered Avith sugar, or syrup, or treacle, Avould be better preserved than in brine, and afford a much more sa- lutary nourishment to our sailors. " Since I wrote the above, I have seen a paper in the Transac- tions of the Society of Arts, vol. xvi. from Mr. Sneyde, of Belmont in Staffordshire, avIio having ob- served some seeds, Avhich came ac- cidentally amongst raisins, to groAv readily, directed many seeds to be sent from the West-Indies,covered with raisins, and others in sugar, and others in the usual manner of sending them,and found, that those immersed in sugar or coA'ered Avith raisins, both looked Avell, and grew Ll 258 VEG VEG readily; A\Fiereas many of the others would not vegetate. » Since the powder of fresh burnt charcoal is known so poAver- fully to absorb all putrid vapours, it is probable the seeds mixed with and covered Avith charcoal-dust, which has been recently burnt, or not long exposed to the air, might be successfully employed for the preservation of seeds either in long voyages, or in domestic granaries. " VIII. 1. To sow seeds advan- tageously, it is probable, that those of our native plants might be suf- fered to drop on the surface of the earth in autumn, or to fall from their parent plant, covered only by their deciduous leaves, in which situation their fruit might contri- bute to nourish them, as our crabs and sloes ; or defend them from insects, as the acrid husk of the Avalnut; or from birds, as the hard stones or shells of nuts and cherries, since this is the process of nature. " But when the seeds brought originally from other climates are to be sown, an attention is requir- ed to the circumstance of season and of soil. Those which will ripen their seeds in the same year, are to be soAved in the early spring, and covered lightly with earth to preserve them from birds and insects ; and should be buried thus beneath the soil, soon after it has been ploughed or dug, as its interstices are then replete Avith atmospheric air; Avhich may be necessary tostimulate intoelevation the plume of the embryon plant; as the moisture of the earth is necessary to stimulate the root into its elongation doAvnwards..... Those seeds nevertheless, Avhich will not perfect their vegetaticn in the same year must be sown in the early autumn; and though all seeds vegetate better, when placed but a little beneath the surface of the soil, as one inch, because they have then a better supply of atmos- pheric air, Avhich maybe necessary for their first growth, before they have acquired leaves above ground; yet as many foreign seeds may not be sufficiently hardy to bear our inclement winters, it maybe neces- sary, as some believe, to bury them an inch and a half, or two inches, deep in the soil, to prevent the frosts from doing them injury, as well as to preserve them from the depredations of birds. And the drill semination, or sowing all kinds of seeds in toavs, is the most con- venient method for sowing them at a determined depth, and also for the purpose of keeping the young plants clear from weeds by the more easy application of the hoe. " To soav many seeds earlier than is usually practised, is much recommended. There is a paper by Lord Orford in Mr. Young's Annals of Agriculture, vol. ix. p. 385, Avho seems to have found considerable adA'antage by soAving barley so early as the seventh of February, three and an half bush- els on an acre. But, as much moisture, Avith or without subse- quent frost, is more liable to de- stroy the embryon in its very ear- ly state in the seed, than after it has sjiot out roots and a summit, snd thus acquired some habits of life ; this early soAving must some- times be practised with caution. Seeds may, nevertheless, be sown still earlier in hot-houses, or in warm situations, as peas, beans, Avheat, and may be afterAvards transplanted in the vernal months with safety and advantage. VEG « The difficulty of determining the best season for sowing seeds in the spring, owing to the varia- tion of the weather in the same latitude, as well as laying down the exact seasons for soAving in differ- ent latitudes, occasioned Linn^us to construct Avhat he terms a calen- dar of Flora ; at hich Avas afterwards adapted to this climate by Stil- lingfleet ; which consisted in observing the first appearance of the root scions, or flowers of the unculth-ated native vegetables; with directions to sow the cerealia, or harvest seeds, when such plants or flowers became visible. By at- tention to such observations on the uncultivated native plants in many climates, it is probable that inge- nious tables might be produced, Avhich might direct the best time of soAving the useful seeds in all latitudes, and iw all situations. " Another table of the climates, where plants groAv naturally, and of their native situations in respect to moisture or dryness, hill or val- ley, with the kind of soil where they Avere originally found, might also contribute to their successful cultivation. " 2. In the gardens near large toAvns, Avhere the land is more va- luable and better manured, gard- eners sometimes sow two or three kinds of seeds on the same ground, for the purpose of economy........ Thus Mr. Marshall observes, that, on the same ground they sow radishes, lettuces, and carrots; the radishes are draAvn young for the table, the lettuces to plant out, and a sufficient crop of carrots is It-ft; for carrots, if you wish them to be large, should not grow very near to each other. " In defence of this mode of culture it is said, if one crop fails, VEG 259 the others may do well, and there is no loss of ground or time ; and if all succeed they do very Avell.... Radishes and spinach are com- monly soAvn together by the com- mon gardeners, and many manoeu- vres of inter-cropping are made by them, as the sowing or plant- ing between rows of vegetables that are wide asunder, or present- ly to come off, or in the alleys of things cultivated on beds. " Thus if a piece of horse-radish be neAv planted; it may be top- cropped Avith radishes or spinach, &c. or if a piece of potatoes be planted wide, a bean may be put in between each set in every, or every other, row; a thin crop of onions upon neAv asparagus beds, is a com- mon practice,drawing them young from about the plants." Introduc- tion to Gardening. Riving ton. " The farmer likeAvise, in the cultivation of grasses for feeding sheep, finds an advantage in sow- ing a mixture of seeds on the same ground, as rye-grass, trefoil and clover, which are said to succeed each other in respect to the pro- duction or maturity of their herb- age. And, for the purpose of pre- venting smut, it may be useful, as I have before observed, to sow in the same ground, in separate rows, two kinds of Avheat, one of a for- warder nature than the other; whence if the farina of one kind should be injured by Avet weather, that of the other may impregnate the ears of both. The tAvo kinds of Avheat recommended are beard- ed and smooth-headed Avheat which are called by farmers cone Avheat and Lammas Avheat; of both of which there are many va- rieties, and it is asserted, that one third of cone Avheat is frequently sown with two thirds of Lammas 260 VEG wheat, and that the crops are much superior to either of them sepa- rately. " In respect to kinds of soil, those should be chosen, which have been found by observation to suit particular seeds, both in re- gard to their nutritive properties, and the moisture and warmth of their situations. And for those seeds, Avhich produce tuberous roots within the earth, previous to their flowering, as potatoes, pars- nips, radishes, a soil of less cohe- sion should be found or prepar- ed. "3. Add to this that there are some seeds, as those of carrots, that are so difficult to be disseminated in uniform quantities, that it has been customary to mix them previously with sand or garden mould, for the purpose of giving them Aveight, or bulk, or to detach them from each other. And some even suffer them to begin to put forth their roots in such a mixture of moist sand or garden mould for the purpose of more regularly dispersing them. " In dry seasons, the soaking seeds in Avater, a day or two before committing them to the ground, Avill forward their growth, as Avell as by artificially Avatering the ground before or after sowing them ; and the soaking them in a solution of salt and Avater may have another advantage of giving an opportunity of rejecting the light seeds, \vhich float, and perhaps of destroying some insects Avhich may adhere to them ; the sprink- ling some kinds of seed with lime may also be of advantage for the purpose of destroying insects, if such adhere to them, and of attract- ing moisture from the air, orloAv- er parts of the earth, or for its other useful properties ; but Avh'crc VEG the seed, soil, and season are adapt- ed to each other, none of these condiments are required. " It may, nevertheless, on other accounts, be very advantageous to steep many kinds of grain in the black liquor, which oozes from manure heaps. Mr. Chappel, in the papers of the Bath Society, found great benefit by steeping barley in the fluid above mentioned for 24 hours, and skimming off the light grains. On taking it out of the water, he mixed Avood-ashes sifted with the grain to make it spread regularly, and obtained a much finer crop, than from the same corn soAvn without prepara- tion. To this we may add, that to steep the seed in a solution of dung in water, as in the draining from a dunghill, is believed in Chi- na both to forward the growth of the plant, and to defend it from a variety of insects, according to the information given to Sir George Staunton. " There is an old proverb, ' sow dry and set wet;' but where the earth has been lately turned over by the plough or spade, there can be no bad consequence from soav- ing during rain in general; but in some clay grounds much softened by rain, if seed be put into holes, and a dry season succeeds, an im- penetrable crust may supervene by the exhalation ofthe Avater, and the setting, as it is called, of the clay : but even this could not frequently occur, when seeds are sown in the moist Aveather of the autumnal months; but generally in both cases, the groAvth ofthe seed would be for- Avarded by the moisture. " 1. Where the fruit, which sur- rounds any kinds of seeds, can be soavii along Avith them, it may an- swer some useful purpose. Thus VEG VEG 261 the fruit of crabs, quinces, and some hard pears, will lie all the winter uninjured, covered only with their autumnal leaves, and will contribute much to nourish their germinating seeds in the spring- So the holly-berry and the ivy-ber- ry remainduring the winter months uninjured by the rain or frosts, and undevoured by birds or insects, and contribute to nourish their germi- nating seeds, when they fall on the ground in the spring. The acrid husk of walnuts sown along Avith them preserves the sweet kernel from the attack of insects; the same must be the use of the acrid oil of the cashew-nut. The haw- thorn possesses both a nutritive covering and a hard shell for the above purposes; and the seeds of roses are armed with stiff pointed bristles, as well as furnished with a nutritious fruit, so long known as an agreeable conserve in the shops of medicine, conserva cynosbati; the former constitutes a defence against insects, and the latter sup- plies a reservoir of nutriment for the germinating seeds. " 5. To this should be added, that in our short and cold summers the viviparous buds of some vege- tables are too luxuriant, and do not produce oviparous buds soon enough to ripen their seeds, as melons and cucumbers, and many other plants, in those seasons which are moister than common. It is believed, that by Avashing the seeds of melons and cucumbers from the saccharine and mucilaginous mat- ter of their fruit, and by keeping • the seed three or four years before it is used, that the viviparous buds become less vigorous^ and the ovi- parous ones more numerous, and forwarder in their flowering ; and for the production of earlier as well as of larger crops, all such luxu- riant vegetables should be sown early in the vernal season, or in the autumnal months, if they are not too tender to bear the winter frosts."] VEGETATION, is the natu- ral process by which plants receive their nourishment. Naturalists have formed various conjectures, to account for the mysterious phenomena occurring in vegetable nature.; and though unable to discover the primary source from which plants are en- lh'ened, yet it is noAV agreed, and proved, that all vegetables origin- ate from seeds, each of Avhich com- prehends three parts, namely : 1. The cotyledons, or two porous late- ral bodies or lobes, that imbibe moisture : 2. The radicle, or eye, which appears between the lobes : and, 3. The plumula, a small round body attached to the radi- cle, though Avholly concealed with- in the cotyledons. If a seed be deposited in the earth, in a favourable situation, it imbibes moisture, and evolves car- bonic acid gas ; but, if any oxygen gas be present, it is gradually ab- sorbed by the seed, and the farina- ceous matter,contained in the coty- ledons, acquires a saccharine taste. Numerous vessels then appear in the lobes which convey the nutri- ment to the radicle, that progres- sively increases in size, and at length assumes the form of a root; strikes dowmvards into the earth ; and thence derives the nourish- ment necessary for the support of the future plant....Now the cotyle- dons shoot above the ground/be- come leaves, and form Avhat bota- nists have termed the seminal leaves. Thus, the plumula is gradually en- larged, and rbes out of the earth, 262 VEG VEG spreading itself into branches, he.; after which the seminal leaves wi- ther and decay, while the different processes of vegetation are carried on in the plant, Avithout their as- sistance. [Plants, are very various, and of course, the structure of each spe- cies must have many peculiarities. Trees haA'e principally engaged the attention of anatomists. We shall therefore take a tree as an instance of that structure of plants: and Ave shall do it the more readi- ly, as the greater number of vege- bles are provided Avith analagous organs, dedicated to similar uses. A tree is composed of a root, a trunk, and branches. Each con- sists of three parts, the bark, the avoocI, and the pith. The bark is the outermost part of the tree. It is usually of a green colour. If Ave inspect a ho- rizontal section, Ave shall perceive that the bark itself is composed of three distinct bodies. The outer- most of these, is called epidermis, the middlemost, is called paren- chyma, and the innermost, or that next the root, is called the cortical layers. The epidermis is a thin transpa- rent membrane, Avhich covers all the outside of the bark. It is pret- ty tough, is reproduced when rub- bed off. In old trees it cracks and decays, and a new epidermis is form- ed. T ■ ence, old trees have a rough surface. The parenchyma lies immediate- ly below the epidermis ; it is of a deep green colour, very tender, and succulent. Both in it, and the epidermis there are number- less interstices Avhich have been compared to so manv small blad- der,. The cortical layers form the in- nermost part of the bark, or that next the Avood. They consist of several thin membranes, lying the one above the other; and their number appears to increase Avith the age of the plant. The Avood consists of concentric layers, the number of Avhich in- creases with the age of the part. Next the bark, the Avood is much softer and Avhiter, and more juicy than the rest, and is called alber- num or aubicr. The perfect wood is broAvner and harder, and the layers increase in density, the nearer they are to the centre. The pith occupies the centre of the Avood. It is a spongy body, containing numerous cells. In young shoots it is very succulent, but it becomes dry,as the plant ad- vances, and finally disappears. The leaves are attached to the branches of plants by short foot- stalks. The whole leaf is covered with the epidermis of the plant; containing many glands. Plants are continually increasing in size. New matter is continual- ly making its appearance in them, and this matter they must receive by some channel or other. Plants then require food as well as ani- mals. Now, what is this food, and Avhence do they derive it ? These questions can only be exa- mined by an attentive survey of the substances Avhich are contain- ed in vegetables, and an examin- ation of those substances Avhich are necessary for their vegetation. This subject has already been treat- ed of, under articles, Food ok Pi a\ts, and Manure......Some additional remarks shall now be given. The analysis of vegetables af- fords hut three essential principles, namely, carbon, hydrogen, and ox- VEG ygen, or charcoal, inflammable air, and pure air ; and the propor- tions between these principles form all the shades, varieties, modifi- cations, Avhich the vegetable crea- tion exhibits. Analysis further shews, that vegetable fibre, when cleared of all extraneous matter, is scarcely any thing else than a congeries of carbon. But how is carbon conveyed into the body of the plant ? It is Avell known, that pure carbon, such as is used for burning, mixed with pure, dry earth, affords no nourishment to vegetables ; and it is also known, that when dead plants are so far decomposed, that their texture is softened or destroyed, living vege- tables imbibe all their constituent principles. This difference ap- pears to arise from hence, that, in the last case, the carbon.remaining dissolved in the oily, resinous, or alkaline principle, the Avater, Avhich has the property of disjoining these natural combinations, serves as a vehicle to convey them into the vegetable system. Air, heat, acids, and even rest alone, are sufficient to precipitate the carbon ; so that, the agents proper to facilitate the concretion of the fibre, and to pro- mote nutrition, are every where to be found. The principle of life, Avhich governs and animates every organ, suitably divides this nutri- tive matter. It modifies the ac- tion of external agents, and pre- sides oArer all the operations of this living laboratory. Hence it is easy to see, that hydrogen, carbon, or oxygen, predominates in the plant, according to the nature of the soil, exposure and climate, and accord- ing to the proportions in Avhich these nutritive principles are pre- sented. Since the only part of plants VEG 263 which is contiguous to the soil is the root, and since the plant pe- rishes when the root is pulled out of the ground, it is evident, that the food of plants must be imbib- ed by the roots. It is highly pro- bable that the great changes, at best which the food undergoes af- ter absorption, are produced, not in the roots, but in other parts of the plant. The sap, as Dr. Hales has sheAvn us, ascends Avith such impetuosity from the cut end of a vine branch, that it supported a column of mercury 321 inches high. It is certain, that the sap ascends through the wood, and not through the bark of the tree ; for a plant continues to grow, even when stripped of a great part of its bark, Avhich could not happen, if the sap ascended through the bark. It is impossible to account for the motion of the sap in plants by capillary attraction, or by any me- chanical or chemical principles whatever; Ave know indeed, that heat is an agent, but its influence cannot be OAving to its dilating poAver; for unless the sap vessels of plants Avere furnished with valves, (and they have no valves) dilatation would rather retard than promote the ascent of the sap. We must, therefore, ascribe it to some other cause ; the vessels themselves must certainly act..... Many philosophers have seen the necessity of this, and have accord- ingly ascribed the ascent of the sap to irritabUity. Saussure sup- poses, that the sap enters the open mouths of the vessels, at the ex- tremity of the roots ; that these mouths then contract, and by that contraction propel the sap up- Avards ; that this contraction gra- dually follows the sap, pushing it 264 VEG VEG up from the extremity of the root to the summit of the plant. This irritable principle is seen in many plants, particularly in the stamina of the barberries, Avhich are thrown into motion Avhen touched. The sap ascends to the leaves, where it undergoes certain altera- tions, and is converted into the pe- culiar juices, which like the blood in animals, are afterwards employ- ed in forming the various substan- ces found in plants. Great part of the sap when arrived at the leaves, is thrown off by evaporation, by means of particular organs. What remains must be very different in its proportions from the sap. It is performed chiefly by the upper surfaces of leaves. Leaves have also the property of absorbing carbonic acid gas from the atmosphere, and have been supposed to exhale much pure air. Hence they have been universally deemed highly use- ful, when planted near a house, but though useful as a source of shade, yet the following observations will shew that their benefit does not depend upon the supposed addi- tion of pure air derived from them, to the atmosphere. The air of the atmosphere, ac- cording to the most celebrated chemists, is composed of twenty- two parts of oxigenous gas or air, and seventy-eight parts of azotic gas. There is a constant con- sumption of the oxigenous portion of this air, by the burning of com- bustible bodies ; by the respiration of animals ; by the fermentation and putrefaction of vegetable and animal substances; and by the calcination of metals. The oxi- genous gas, decomposed by respi- ration and combustion only, in the city of London, is supposed to amount to the enormous quantity, of five millions cubic feet an hour. (Nicholson's Philosophical Jour- nal, vol. v. p. 184.) The atmospheric air of Great Britain, France, of parts of Africa, and of America, has been examin- ed by philosophers, and has been found to be exactly of the same de- gree of purity. The oxigenous gas contained in it, is in the same proportion, at all times and in all places, in rainy or in dry Aveather, in depth of winter, and in the middle of summer, on the land and on the ocean, in the crowded city and remote village. In consequence of a most valua- ble discovery, made by the illus- trious Dr. Priestley, that grow- ing vegetables under certain cir- cumstances, exposed to the light of the sun, yield oxigenous gas; an opinion has been adopted, that they are the sources of the oxige- nous part of common air. This sentiment has been adopt- ed by the chemists of all nations, but has lately been controverted by Dr. James Woodhouse, pro- fessor of chemistry in the Univer- sity of Pennsylvania. (Nichoi son's Philosophical Journal, June, 1802.) The Doctor reasons in the fol- lowing manner : 1st. He says, whenever oxige- . nous gas has been obtained from vegetables, carbonic acid, (or fixed air,) has been present. Upon re- vieAving the experiments of Dr. Priestley, he finds that this cir- cumstance has actually taken place. The Dr. exposed plants to the in- fluence of light, in atmospheric air, in Avhich spirit of wine, and Avax, and tallow candles, had burned out; to air which had been vitiated by the death or putrefac- VEG VEG 265 tion of mice and fishes ; and to air which had been frequently taken into his lungs, and found that the purity of the air, Avas in every instance restored. (Priest- ley on air. vol. hi. p. 247 to 347.) . In all these cases, carbonic acid, (which is composed of carbon and oxigen) was formed ; the vegeta- ble devoured its coal for food, by Avhich means its oxigen escaped, in the forui'of pure air. 2dly. The seeds of Zea mayz (Indian corn), of apium petroseli- num or parsley, of lactuca sativa or lettuce, of cucurbita citrullus or the water melon, of phascolus sativus or beans, and of raphanus sativus or radishes, were planted in earth, and made to vegetate in atmosphe- ric air, confined over Avater in ves- sels of white glass, and exposed to the action of solar light. This air, Avhen examined at various times, Avas found to be reduced in purity, and when its oxigenous portion was completely absorbed, the plants died. Its oxigen united to the coal of the cotyledons of the seeds, or to that of some ani- mal or vegetable matter contained in the earth, in which they Avere planted, or to that of some decayed portion of the living leaves, and formed carbonic acid, quicker than the living plant could decompose it. To these experiments, avc may add, that the celebrated and accurate Scheele observed, that beans groAving in atmospheric air, ahvays rendered it impure. Sdly. Young plants of datura stramonium or Jameslon weed, of Phytolacca decandra or the poke, of Zea mayz or Indian corn, he. groAving in earth, Avere exposed to solar light in from forty to eighty ounce measures of atmospheric air, which was examined at various VOL. V. times, from one hour to thirty days after the plants had been placed in it. Carbonic acid gas Avas gene- rally formed, and whenever this circumstance happened, the purity of the air was diminished. When a plant in perfect health, groAving in a soil, which contains little vegetable or animal matter, is confined in atmospheric air, it will live a long time without pro- ducing any change in it. Many of the vegetables, Avhich were the subjects of these experiments, did not affect the air in five days ; some diminished its purity in three hours, and others altered it in a most sIoav and gradual manner, causing little change in it, in 20 days. 4thly. Many of the same kind of A'egetables were also confined in forty ounce measures of oxige- nous gas, which had been Avell washed in lime water, and the purity of this air Avas very gene- rally lessened, carbonic acid being formed. 5thly. A small handful of the healthy leaves of a variety of plants, containing no decayed parts, were exposed during four, six, and eight hours to the influence of the light of the sun, in atmos- pheric air confined by Avater, and its purity Aras found to be neither increased nor diminished. 6thly. The leaves of various ve- getables gathered promiscuously, exposed in the same manner, ge- nerally diminished the, purity of atmospheric air, several degrees. 7thly. A handful of the leaves of several hundred different plants, among Avhich may be mentioned, those of the apple, pear, peach, poplar, fringe, and persimmon trees, Ave re separately exposed during several hours in glass ves« M M 266 VEG VEG sels to solar light, in forty ounce measures of pump water, and from five to nineteen dram measures of oxigen air, were produced in each vessel. Upon analysing the Avater, it Avas found to contain car- bonic acid, Avith Avhich it had been impregnated from a necessary, which stood Avithin a yard of the pump. 8thly. The leaves of 13 dif- ferent plants, were separately ex- posed in the usual manner, in forty ounce measures of the water ofthe river Schuylkill, and about ten dram measures of air Avere pro- cured, the principal part of which was azotic gas, which Avas disen- gaged from the Avater. No car- bonic acid could be detected in the watenof this river. There are three Avooden bridges erected over the Schuylkill, which rest upon large wooden logs, upon which great quantities of a species of conferva grew, and which is covered by the wrater. Upon view- ing this vegetable Avhen the sun shone upon it, for several hours, at different times, for several years, no air could be seen to form upon it, or to rise through the water. 9thly. The leaves of the same vegetables were exposed to light, in the same manner, in the same river water, impregnated with four quarts of the water, saturated Avith carbonic acid, from the carbonate of lime and the sulphuric acid ; and 77 dram measures of oxi- genous air of a very high degree of purity, were obtained. lOthly. No oxigenous air could be procured by exposing vegetable leaves in boiled, distilled, rain, or lime water; a proof that they do not decompose water. 1 Ithly. Atmospheric air Avas impregnated with carbonic acid gas, and an handful of the leaves of nine different vegetables, Avere separately exposed in it, to light, seven hours. The fixed air disap- peared, and the atmospheric air Avas greatly increased in purity. 12thly. The limbs of trees co- vered with healthy leaves, and some yigorous evergreens growing in their natural soil, were confined from one day to a month, in atmos- pheric air over water, and exposed to light, and its purity was never found to be increased, but Avas ge- nerally considerably diminished. These experiments incontesti- bly prove, that whenever oxigen gas has been obtained from vege- tables, by exposing them to the influence of solar light, carbonic acid has been present, and that it is from the decomposition of this gas, that the pure air is obtained. As it is acknowledged, that the leaves of plants separate the oxi- gen from carbonic acid, it may be said, that the oxigenous portion of atmospheric air is supplied by the decomposition of this gas, as it is always found in the atmosphere. The quantity of carbonic acid, accidentally diffused, in atmosphe- ric air, (for it is not one of its com- ponent parts) is reckoned to be about one part in an hundred. It must however vary in different places. We would expect to find the most of it in cities, where it L formed by combustion, respira- tion, fermentation and putrefac- tion. If one measure of the air of any great city, be passed up over lime water, in an eudiometer, no carbonate of lime will be form- ed, so that the quantity of carbonic acid in this air, must be extreme- ly small. As this gas is also seized upon by alkalies, earths and metals, and absorbed by water, VEI the proportion of it in the atmos- phere may be less than one part in ten thousand. When we consider likewise, that the oxigen is never separated from the carbonic acid by leaves, but Avhen they are exposed in con- tact with it to the light of the sun, and that every perforation made in a living leaf, hoAvever minute by an insect, causes the part to decay, and absorb oxigen by day and by night; and that in the autumn, in some countries, all leaves fall on the ground, ferment and putrify, and thus diminish the purity of common air, and that the petals and fruit of vegetables, have the same effect, we must pronounce, that the oxigenous portion of at- mospheric air cannot be supplied by vegetation.] Many valuable hints respecting the phenomena of vegetation, are contained in Dr. Ingenhouse's " Experiments on Vegetables," he. (Rvo. 6s.), and also in Mr. Gough's " Experiments and Observations on the Vegetation of Seeds," inserted in the 4th vol. of the " Memoirs of the Literary and Philosophical Society of Manchester." VEINS, in the animal body, are membranous canals, destined for the purpose of re-conveying the blood from the arteriestothe heart. They run chiefly by the sides of arteries, but more towards the sur- face ; and are, like these, composed of three membranes, namely, the interior coat, resembling the arte- rial ; the second, or cellular ; and the third, consisting of longitudinal fibres ; the Avhole being, however, of a more delicate texture, so^hat they are apt to rupture, in conse- quence of too great expansion. Farther, the veins are provided Avith numerous thin, semi-lunar V E N 267 valves, Avhich prevent the return of the blood ; a circumstance that would otherwise frequently occur, from a Avant of muscular poAver in the venous system : hence, no pul- sation can take place in these ves- sels. The blood which they re- ceive from the arteries, flows but slowly to the heart; and is con- veyed thither by the contractility of their membranes; the propul- sion of the succeeding columns of that fluid from the arteries ; the contraction of the muscles; and by the act of respiration. In cases of venesection by the lancet, the blood being generally taken from the veins, we deem it a duty, to caution our readers against resorting to unskilful hands, where such an operation becomes neces- sary ; as, from the contiguity of the arteries, as well as the nerves and tendons, serious injuries may be sustained, and which, in many cases, have proved fatal.....If, dur- ing blood-letting, the patient be- come faint, it Avill he advisable to admit fresh air into the room ; to give mild cordials ; and to lay the person in a horizontal posture ; by these means, the circulation will again be restored, and all farther inconvenience be obviated. , For an account of the varicose aneurism, an affection ofthe veins, we refer the reader to the article Aneurism. Velvet-leaf. See Tree-mal- loav. VENEERING, is a species of inlaying or marquetry, in Avhich several thin leaves, or slips of fine wood, are applied to a ground- Avork of common avoocI : it is per- formed in the following manner : The wood intended for veneer- ing, is first fixed in a vice, or saw- ing-press, where it is divided into 263 V E N leaves, not exceeding one line in thickness. Such leaves are then cut into small slips, of various forms, according to the design proposed ; and, Avhen the ground- work is duly prepared, they are cemented by means of glue, and submitted to the action of a press, till the whole becomes perfectly dry; after Avhich the articles are scraped and polished. Ventilation. See vol. i. p. 24. also the article Granary. [The reader is referred to the above parts of this work for obser- vations on ventilation. And the following judicious remarks on this important subject, by Sir George O. Paul, deserve particular at- tention. They are extracted from the Tecne. of the Society of Arts, London.] 14 Although particular conclu- sions muy be controverted, I may venture to assume as the basis of all observations on this subject, " First, that a certain and fre- quently reneAved supply of vital air is essential to the purposes of animal life ; and the more regular und uninterrupted that supply, the more favourable Avill it be to health. " Secoivj'y, that Avhere the quantity of atmospheric air intro- duced into an apartment is less than nature has bestoAved in free circulation, her purpose is in a de- gree counteracted ; and although the breathing impure air (/. e. air despoiled of its natural proportion of vital air) for a short time may not produce an immediate sensible effect, an injury may arise to the constitution, proportionate to the extent of that time. And farther, Avhen (as in the ordinary inter- courses of Society in London) persons are in the habit of placing themselves, during a considerable V EN portion of every tAventy-four hours, in a situation to breathe in this de- fective atmosphere, the accumu- lated consequences may be serious and important. " Thirdly, that in rooms from which currents of fresh air may not be excluded, they may be so injudiciously directed as to be use- less and injurious. And, " Fourthly, that if, in addition to the consumption of vital air by the lungs, the persons of those as- sembled in any apartment should be filthy, should their clothing (particularly that made of woollen) have been so long Avorn as to have absorbed any considerable portion of the perspiration of the body, or should the apartment itself be damp and foul, the vital properties of the air will be contaminated ; and although instant death may not ensue (which has been known to be a consequence), the fevers emphatically termed the gaol, hos- pital, or ship fever, from its usually originating in these places, will be generated with a degree of malig- nancy proportionate to its causes, and, being so generated, will be- come infectious with a like degree of malignancy. " It is about tAventy years since the deleterious consequences of in- attention to ventilation were set forth by Mr. Howard. So strong and so general Avas the conviction of the public mind, not only as to the evil pointed out, but regarding the remedies proposed by that indefa- tigable philanthropist, that the le- gislature thought fit to adopt the whole of his principles, and to mate them the basis of several positive laws, under the direction of Avhich the greater number of prisons of the kingdom have since been reconstructed, and the VEN V E N 269 remainder (with feAV exceptions) altered in conformity to the prin- ciple recommended by him, name- ly, tluit of introducing currents of fresh air into and through every apartment. "In these prisons, Avhere atten- tion is also paid to personal clean- liness, I venture to say,the gaol feA'er is unknown, unless brought into them by prisoners committed in a state of previous infection. " By equal exertion on the like principles, the healthiness of the ships of Ava • has been so improv- ed, that they are no longer sources of this desolating pestilence. " Regarding hospitals, I fear it cannot be proved that a relief so complete has been effected. Mr. Hoavard was not sparing in his strictures on the management of this important branch of our public institutions ; but the improvement he suggested went no farther than simply the introduction of fresh air. The reconciling this advan- tage with that generally diffused Avarmth, necessary in sick rooms, seems to have escaped his con- templation. u Of the several hospitals con- structed since his observations avcre made public, most have been planned with a view to facilitate the passage of outward air through the wards. The directors of old hospitals have adopted alterations more or less tending to the same purpose ; but all seem to have rested at this point: yet, consider- ing the importance of pure air to patients, during the tedious cure of compound fractures, and other accidents or diseases,together Avith the no less important object of se- curing them from currents of cold air, it cannot be denied that much still remains to be effected. " In the construction of the larger work-houses, termed Hun- dred-houses, similar principles of ventilation have been attended to with evident success, in preserv- ing the health of the inhabitants; but with respect to parish Avork- houses on the lesser scale, school rooms (both for boys and girls in every rank of life), manufactories, apartments for public lectures, and ladies assembly-rooms, these, to- gether with the circumscribed cot- tages of the poor, remain in a state most dangerous to health from imperfect ventilation. To these sources, and to no other, may be traced the feAV putrid and con- tagious diseases Avhich occasionally show themselves amongst us; and which, to the credit of free venti- lation, can no longer juslly be call- ed gaol or ship fever. " At a period of demonstrated success of the doctrine recom- mended by Mr. Howard, and adopted by his disciples, the valu- able essays and experiments of Count Rumford appeared before the public. Whilst opening to the world a new and most useful sys- tem of domestic philosophy, he has advanced opinions unfavoura- ble to those means by which these important effects have been pro- duced. " In theoiy this ingenious philo- sopher and friend of mankind has decidedly negatived the necessitv, and questioned the propriety, of ventilation, by the admission of currents of air. In the' construc- tion of those buildings most im- mediately under his direction he has certainly adopted a practice of a direct opposite tendency. " Opinions of such authority could not fail to be respected ; they niu,t at least raise a doubt in the 270 VEN mind of the most confident advo- cate of an opposite theory. " As the Count's observations and practices tend to invalidate a material part of that system, in the pursuit of Avhich immense sums had been confidently expended in the kingdom, and respecting Avhich I bear more than a common share of responsibility, I felt myself pe- culiarly called upon to scrutinize his objections, and to obviate such as should appear to be denied by experience ; but, at the same time, certainly to abandon whatever ground could not be fairly main- tained by a result. " As my conclusions on the point disputed are formed on cir- cumstantial observations made within a prison and hospital imme- diately under my own eye, and as these particular institutions have not unfrequently been resorted to as examples for imitation, a de- tailed reasoning regarding them may serve for general application. "' The county gaol at Gloucester is constructed on the principles of admitting air to pass into and through it, in strait lines, from one extremity to the other. There is no obstruction to a freedom of cur- rent, other than as the streams of air passing through the long pas- sages, open at each end, move with the greater velocity, they of neces- sity carry with them the weaker currents, passing into and through the cells at right angles. " From the time this prison was opened in 1791, until the year 1800, about 1300 persons were committed to it; and, on the ave- rage, about 100 prisoners were constantly confined in it. In these nine years the number of deaths has been thirteen ; and of these, four sunk under the effects of VEN disease brought into prison with them. During the last year, the prison has been croAvded in an un- common and very improper de- gree : two hundred and fourteen have been confined ; and the ave- rage number has been one hundred and sixty-seven. One prisoner only has died (a woman aged sixty) in the month of October last. At the opening of the spring assizes, 1801, (the time of the greatest numbers) there Avas not one pri- soner sick, or in the hospital ward. " By this statement it appears, that the proportion of deaths is so much below the common average, in the ordinary situations of life, that the healthiness of this abode may be said to be peculiar: and it is in proof, that hoAvever cur- rents of air may be found injurious to particular constitutions, they are not unfavourable to general health. " Every prisoner in this gaol, when not in the infirmary-Avard, sleeps in a room containing from 52 to 57 feet of superficial space, built with brick, resting on an arch, and arched over ; so that no air can enter it but through the openings provided for it. As air is constantly passing immediately under it, and round it on every side, it is, necessarily dry : it is ventilated by opposite openings near the crown of the arch. To that opening, which is toward the outAvard air, there is a shutter, which the occupant may close at will; but it is so imperfectly fitted, that, Avhen closed, a considerable portion of air must enter by its sides. The opposite opening to the passage, the prisoner has no means of closing in any degree. " During the ten years these rooms have been inhabited, there have been three winters in Avhich VEN VEN 271 the cold has been intense. As I had considerable apprehensions of the effects of this situation in severe weather, I directed the sur- geon of the gaol to be constant in his attention ; and particularly in the report of his observations dur- ing the inclemency of these sea- sons. I also made a point fre- quently to visit the prison, and to examine every prisoner as to the effects apprehended ; and, as much to my surprize as to my satisfac- tion, notwithstanding the querulous disposition of persons in their si- tuation, I never heard a complaint from old or young, from male or female, suffering by cold in the night apartments*. And farther it is the decided opinion of the two able physicians who have most li- berally undertaken to superintend the health of this prison, that no ill consequences have arisen from prisoners sleeping in the situation above described. " I must contend, therefore, it is a fact established by experience, that in a room containing not more than from 415 to 439 cubical feet of air, in which there is no fire, the body of a person sleeping under a proper alloAvance of wool- len bed-clothes will so far Avarm the atmosphere around him, or to speak more conformable to modern doctrine, so little of the heat ge- nerated in the body will be carried off by the surrounding air, that he will not suffer by a current t pass- • Fahrenheit's thermometer has never been observed to be below 33° in the severest nights, in the middle region of a cell in which a prisoner was sleep- ing; \vheru2S, in the ordinary apartments of a dwelling-house, water is frequentlv Known to freeze by a bed-side. t The term " current" H; net to be ing at a distance over him, provid- ed the apartment be secured from damp. On the points, therefore, of Avarmth and ventilation combined it must surely be allowed (regard- ing rooms so constructed) there is no farther desideratum. " Prisoners, on their rising in the morning, are removed into small working-rooms or wards si- tuated on the ground-floor. These day apartments are, in like manner, constructed with cross openings near the cieling or crown of the arch ; but there is also in each of them an open fire-place. Res- pecting these apartments, my ob- servations tend to confirm Count Rumfobd's objection to open fires, and his preference to closed stoves. Nay, farther, I am disposed to ad- mit, that openings for free ventila- tion are incompatible with strong fires in open fire-places. " It is certain that, in rooms so provided, the danger arising from impure air is completely guarded against; yet this advantage is gained at the risk of another evil, Avhich, though not so important, should, if possible, be avoided. " The air which in the same room Avithout an open fire-place. Avould pass inwards by one open- ing, and outAvards by the other, being attracted by the fire to sup- ply the constant rarefaction in the chimney, passes imvards from both openings tOAvards the fire place, and the body of a person placed near it, being in its current, is ex- posed to the danger of partial chill. To this circumstance, in these understood i n a stronger sense than merelv to signify that species of circulation of air, which is directed m strait lines from point to point, by the action of anv d~.- cient eauu\ 272 VEN V EN apartments, I am inclined to attri- bute the few complaints of a dy- sentery or aguish tendency, Avhich haAe occasionally interrupted the general health of this prison. " In the hospital, the scene of my observations, the morbid ef- fects of foul air in the wards have, until lately, been no otherwise re- lieved than, " First.....By introducing cur- rents of fresh air by the Avindows, Avith an improved mode of hang- ing the upper sash, peculiar to this hospital, by the effect of which the current of air admitted is turned upwards to the cieling, and prevented from descending on the patients, whose beds are placed under the windoAvs ; " Secondly.....By piercing holes in the cieling of the wards, and by means of plastered channels or wood funnels, leading the foul air, rising into them, to the roof. " In warm Aveather, when the doors of the wards are open, and the fires Ioav, these channels or funnels operate Avith considerable effect. Much foul air will by its relative specific lightness (not be- ing counteracted by a stronger power) ascend them and escape ; a farther portion Avill pass off by the AvindoAvs opening to the lee- ward, and ventilation may be duly effected. " But, on the contrary, when the doors are shut, and strong fires are made, these will inevitably at- tract the currents of air inwards and towards them, from all the openings ; and should patients he situated in their course, the effect cannot fail to be injurious. " Besides, as the AvindoAvs are generally closed in the night, (the most important time for ventila- tion,) no other change of air takes place, but what is effected by the open fires, Avhich, Avhilst supplied immediately from the middle re- gion, are constantly consuming the best air of the room. " Hence it appears that free ventilation, or the transverse pas- sage of outward air, may be incon- sistent with the general Avarmth required in the apartments ofthe sick; and that channels for the escape of the foul air, unassisted by a power more constant and de- cisive than the relative specific lightness of that air, is a mean inefficient to preserving a health- ful respiration in the crowded wards of an hospital. " As a remedy to these apparent defects in the ordinary mode of ventilation, it has been imagined that the draft, or determination of the air, to the funnels in the ciel- ing of the rooms requiring venti- lation, is accelerated by the opera- tion of fire ; and by causing an in- creased degree of rarefaction, at the termination of the funnel, to discharge the air rising to the ciel■> ing in a degree depending on the correct application of the appara- tus and quantity of fuel consumed. " In all rooms or apartments requiring ventilation, it is presum- ed that (according to the old sys- tem) channels or funnels are pro- vided for the discharge of air as- cending into them. These chan- nels or funnels, so provided, should be rendered air-light, and brought to terminate immediately under the fire intended to work them. The ash-pit and fire-place should be so closed, by doors, as to pre- vent the fire from draAving the air from the room, surrounding it..... The whole draft or consumption VEN occasioned by the fire will then be supplied from the further termina- tion of the channel or funnel. " This effect may be applied according to circumstances, either to the cieling of the room in which the fire is made, to the room be- low, or to that above it; and the draught thus produced may, by a proper apparatus, be increased or diminished at Avill. " In the hospital in Avhich I have made the first experiment of this design, I have caused a stove to be so formed as to answer the culina- ry purposes ofthe ward in which it is fixed, and at the same time to ventilate the ward beneath it; and no additional expense is created in fuel by the operation. u By a fire made in one of these stoves, a ward beneath it, contain- ing about 18,000 cubical feet, filled with patients, (and Avhich, in spite of all former means, Avas ever re- markably offensive,) Avas in a feAV minutes so relieved of contaminat- ed air, as to be sensibly felt by all the patients in it, Avithout their perceiving any increased current. " The principle of the means of ventilation adopted in this hospital may be applied Avith perfect faci- lity to ships. "■ By carrying the funnel from a cabin or ship stove, of any kind or dimension, (observing only to exclude the admission of surround- ing air,) to the hold or under-decks, they may be as completely venti- lated as the Avards of an infirmary. In stormy Aveather, Avhen the decks of a ship must of necessity be closed, the fires Avould perform a service Avhich could no otherwise be attained ; Avhilst, by the nature of the apparatus, the fire itself would be secured from the effects of the wind. VOL. v. VEN 273 "If the stove or grate over a lady's drawing-room were proper- ly fitted to this purpose, on the evening of her assembly, it might be set in action, and the room be- neath cleared of its impure air, without recourse being had to the opening of windoAvs : the openings in the cieling might be rendered ornamental. " By applying the same princi- ple to German or other closed stoves, the chief objection to their use in croAvded rooms Avould be obviated ; and I should then agree Avith Count Rumfoud, that in all rooms, Avhere the indulgence ofthe habit of open fires was not in ques- tion, such stoves (if constructed of earthen materials) Avould afford a more ' genial warmth,' and a due circulation be at the same time effected. " So fitted and constructed, they would be incontestably better than open fires for the Avards of hospi- tals, poor-houses, manufactories, theatres for lectures, school-rooms, and prisons. Respecting the last- mentioned structures, I must far- ther observe, that if a sutler Avere appointed in public kitchens under due regulations, the present neces- sity of open fires for prisoners to cook individually for themselves, would be superseded, much to their advantage. t u On the other hand, I must also observe, that if closed stoves, acting on this principle, Avere adopted, Count Rlmfohd'sobjec- tions to the introduction of fresh air would be obAiated, with regard to any room in which they should be in action, provided the opening through which it entered avus made on a level Avith the cieling. " Air entering at this level Avould, in the absence of open fires, be N N 274 V E N acted upon by no other draft than the mouth of the funnel in the ceil- ing, and could not descend in cur- rents to the lower region of the room. " In a room so filled Avith com- pany as to vitiate the air Avithin .it, the atmospheric air entering, be- ing specifically heavier, Avould in- deed descend, and be replaced by the ascending impure air ; but, as it Avould not descend by a stronger impulse than its difference of spe- cific Aveight, it must be sIoav in its motion, and would produce no sen- sible current." To the above observations the Author annexes a description and plate of the stove in use for culi- nary purposes, and at the same time to ventilate the Avard beneath it, Avhich is highly worthy of being introduced into all houses crouded by living persons. The folloAving plan of ventilation Avas adopted in the large rooms of the house of industry in Dublin, upon the recommendation of Count Rumford. There are tAvo fire places, one in the ofhce of the master of the work, the other in the hall of merit, Avith flues extending horizontally, at the height of five feet from the floor, to a chimney in the centre. These communicate a sufficient and equable degree of heat through the tAvo great dining halls. Tavo of Count RuMFOKD'slooAers carry off the vitiated ;.ir, and a fresh supply of atmospheric air is ob- tained by small apertures, which are made at the bottom of the side Avails, and covered with perforated boxes. These loovers consist of three six-sided vertical wooden tubes, Avhich passing through the roof of the building, project three or four feet above it, and communi- VEN cate Avith the room beloAv. By tAvo of the tubes, placed at the two ends ofthe room, and terminating in two long wooden boxes, A\hich are bored full of holes, and rest on the floor of the room, fresh atmosphe- ric air from Avithout is forced into the room, Avhile the foul air is car- ried off by means of the third tube placed over the middle of the room, Avith its loAver opening even Avith the ceiling. This tube is furnish- ed Avith a register or damper. Sec 8th Report ofthe Society for better- ing the Condition of the Poor, Lon- don 1790, Ventilation, cleanliness, and the use of seap and water and scrub- bing brush, will do every thing, (nay much more) than can be done by any substitutes for these essen- tial requisites in our preservation from infection, and will continue to be employed by mankind, when the vile suffocating acid fumes of Smith and Mouveau will be for- gotten. The ventilation of ships is of great consequence to the health of those on board, to cargoes, and to the preservation of the timber of the vessel which are known to suf- fer very materially and rapidly from the action of confined air upon them. Even the durable live oak of Georgia is not proof against the corrosive effects of this agent, as the almost unexampled rapid de- cay of the United States national frigates built Avithin the last eight years fully proves. It is knoAvn that the timbers of those ships Avere placed so close, as to prevent the free passage of any considera- ble current of air between them. Various ventilators for ships have been proposed in England. Dr. Hale's and Suttok's plans were used Avith success, and lately Mr. AnEiiNETHY of London, Iras VEN suggested some improvement on them, which are certainly Avorthy of attention by all concerned. An account of Hale's ventilators may be seen in the Philosophical Trans- actions ; and that of Abernethy, in a late volume of Philips's Montldy Magazine, and in Dr. Gleig's supplement to the Ency- clopedia Britannica of Edinburgh. In the Transactions of the Bath and West of England Society, Mr. South also describes a ventilator for preserving grain on ship board. The United States have not been without attempts on this important head. Mr. Benjamin Wynkcop's contrivance consists of four bellows. connected in a frame, and having their nozzels opening into one tube which descends from the deck to any distance in the hold of the vessel; and as the frame is con- nected with the side of the vessel, the belloAvs are Avorked without manual labour. Captains Lloyd Jones, Irvine, and Moore of Philadelphia, have all borne tes- timony in favour of the utility of the machine. Mr. Richard Robotham ofthe city of Hudson, New-York, has also obtained a patent from the United States for an air pump ventilator. The following are the words ofthe patentee. Air-pump-ventilator, for the venti- lating of ships, mines, prirons, Ir.s- j.itak, bV. invented bi Richard It o bot H a m , ofthe city cf Hudson, (N. Y.) ki It is a single belloAvs, fitted upon the top of a tube of v.cn:',or a trunk made of p'ank. Avhich, in n ship, stands in the lovert part of the held, by the kelson, nnd runs up through the lower d V'.T... The bellows is fixed' on .: c top of V E R 275 this trunk, with a valve in the usual place, at the inlet. The outlet of the belloAvs is made of wood, with a square angle, which turns up- wards, and a valve in the upright part, that shuts down, in such manner that the bellows fills from the bottom and discharges at the top. If the bellotvs discharges one barrel at a time, the insides of the trunks must be six inches square ; it will be then sufficient for a vessel of three hundred tons ; but if they are four or five times this size, V-.z machine may be worked by the labour of one man: or, "about one square inch of en- largement may be made in the trunks to each gallon in the bel- lows : then it will fill and discharge about twenty times in a minute. The bellows may be made in various shapes and sizes at plea- sure. This improvement consists altogether in filling the belloAvs at, or from the bottom, and discharg- ing the contents at the top, above the upper deck, or out of a port- hole."] Venus-comb. See Needle, the Common Shepherd's. VERUIGllEASK,or Acetite of Copper, is a kind of rust usu- ally prepared from th:.t metal, by corroding it with vinegir. The best verdigrease is mostly manufactured at Montpelier, in I'Vance, by forming alternate strata of copper-plates, and the husks of grapes, duriu;>; their vinous fer- mentation ; Avlien they speediiy become ecid, and corrode the cop- per : alter the plates have stood in such situation for a sufficient time, they :.ie nio'.v.er.ed with water, and xposed t-> th„ air ; the ver- ih'.p';. se be'mg successively scrap- ed >-f., as it collects on the saiT.w.e. in this sta'.e, ihe ac.litj is called 276 V E R V ER fresh or moist verdigrease, having the form of paste ; Avhich after tri- turating it in proper troughs, is put in bags, and dried in the sun. Crystals of Verdigrease are pre- pared by saturating vinegar Avith the common acetite of copper, and leaving the solution to clarify; after which it is poured into a kettle, Avhere it is evaporated till a pellicle appear on the surface : when cool, the vessel is furnished Avith small sticks, on Avhich the crystals gra- dually settle. Verdigrease is chiefly consumed for striking a black colour, when combined with a decoction of log- Avood ; but, as it is apt to corrode the texture of the cloth, the So- ciety for the Encouragement of Arts, he. in 1782, conferred their silver medal and ten guineas on Mr. Clegg, for his discovery of a substitute for verdigrease, in dyeing black. He directs equal parts, by weight, of vitriol of copper and of pot-ash, or other strong alkaline salt, to be separately dissolved : the solutions are then to be gradu- ally mixed ; and, if thfe vitriol be saturated, the water on the surface Avill become transparent, on adding a feAV drops of the alksfline solu- tion ; in the contrary case, a blue colour Avill be produced ; so that more ashes should be added, till a complete saturation be effected.... Mr. C. observes, that these propor- tions of vitriol and alkaline salt, v ill be equiAalcnt to a similar quantity of verdigrease ; and, on being combined v.ii.h decoctions of logwood, they impart a fine black dye, Avhich is not injurious to the texture of cloth, hats, or any other article that may be tinged of such colour. Verdigrease is,in surgical cases, sometimes applied externally ; it operates as a mild detergent in cleansing foul ulcers, or other open wounds. On account of its viru- lent properties, however, it ought not to be used as a medicine, Avith- out professional advice ; and, in case any portion ofthis poisonous substance be accidentally swallow- ed, we refer to the remedies al- ready pointed out, vol. i. p. 80. VERDITER, a preparation of copper, Avhich is occasionally used by painters as a blue, but more ge- nerally, in combination with a yel- low pigment, or a green colour. It is obtained in the folloAving man- ner : Let pure copper be dissolved in aqua-fortis ; pulverized quick- lime be added to the solution ; and the whole be Avell stirred. When the precipitate has subsided, it must be repeatedly washed in pure Ava- ter ; levigated Avhile moist; and from 5 to 10 parts of quick-lime be incorporated with 100 parts of such precipitate : after Avhich it is fit for use. See also vol. ii. p. 183. VERJUICE, an acid liquor pre- pared from grapes or apples, that are unfit to be converted into Avine or cyder. It is also made from crabs ; which, after being laid in a heap to"sweat, are next stamped or ground in a mill: the pulp is put into bags, and submitted to the ac- tion of a press, in order to obtain all the juice ; Avhich is then poured into barrels, where it undergoes a fermentation for 10 or 12 days; after Avhich it is fit for the pur- pose. Verjuice is principally used in sauces, ragouts, he. though it sometimes forms an ingredient in medicinal compositions, especially in farriery ; and is also employed by Avax-chandlers, for purifying that substance. When intended for VES V E S 277 sale, it is subject to the same du- ties asCi'Di'.u and Perk v. Vermiiuge. See Worms. Vermillion. See vol. i. p. 133, and vol. ii.p. 1S1. Vernal-grass. See Spring- grass. VERVAIN, the Common, or Simplers Joy, vcrvena officina- lis, L. an indigenous plant, growing in waste places, on stone Avails, and the sides of roads ; flowering in the months of August and Sep- tember. This plant is eaten by sheep, and its flowers are visited by bees. The roots impart a very agreeable taste to pickled cucum- bers. Among the ancients, the Simplers Joy Avas dedicated tolsis, the goddess of birth ; and, though , at present exploded in medicine, Hoffman asserts, that the most inveterate and violent head-ach may be cured, by filling a bag with the leaves of Vervain, in a dry state, and applying it around the throat of the patient. [VESSEL, signifies, 1. Any thing in which liquids are put. 2. The containing parts of an animal body. 3. Any vehicle in which men or goods are carried on the water. 4. Any capacity. 5. Any thing containing. In this place reference is had, only to the third explanation. How to raise from the bottom of rivers, a vessel that has sunk : from Montucla's edition of Ozan- am's Recreations, translated by Dr. IIutton. "Thisdifficult enterprize has been several times accomplished, by means of a very simple hydrostati- cal principle. \\v. : that if a boat be loaded as snv.rli us possible and then unloaded, it tends to raise it- self with a force equal to that of a volume of water which it displac- ed Avhen loaded, and hence we are furnished Avith the means of em- ploying very powerful forces to raise a vessel that has sunk. The number of boats employed for this puipose, must be estimated according to the size of the vessel, and by considering that the vessel weighs, in Avater, no more than the excess of its Aveight over an equal volume of that fluid ; unless the A'esselis firmly bedded in the mud; for then she must be accounted of her full Aveight. The boats being arranged in two roAvs, one on each side of the sunk vessel, the ends of cables, by means of divers, must be made fast to different parts ofthe vessel, so that there shall be four on each side for each boat. The ends of their cables Avhich remain above Avater, are to be faftened to the head and stern of the boat for Avhich they are intended. Thus, if there are four boats on each side, there must be thirty-tAvo cables, being four for each boat. When every thing is thus ar- ranged, the boats are to be loaded as much as they A\ill bear, Avith- out sinking, and the cables must be stretched as much as possible.... The boats are then to be unloaded, two and two, and if they raise the vessel, it fs a sign that there is a sufficient number of them ; hut in raising the vessel, the cables affixed to the boats which remain loaded will become slack, and for this reason they must be again stretched as much as possible. The rest of the boats are then to be unloaded, by shifting their lading into the forme.'. The ves- sel will thus be raised a liiLle more 278 V E S VE S and the cables of the loaded boats will become slack ; these ca- bles being again stretched, the lading of the latter boats must be shifted back into the others, which will raise the vessel still a little higher ; and if this operation be repeated as long as necessary, she may be brought to the surface of the Avater, and conveyed into port or into dock. An account of the manoeuvres employed to raise, in this manner, the Tojo, a Spanish ship belong- ing to the Indian fleet, sunk in the harbour of Vigo, during the battle on the 10th of October, 1702, may be seen in the Memoirs des Acade- miciens Estrangers, vol. 2d. But as this vessel had remained more than 36 years in that state, it Avas imbedded in a bank of tenacious clay, so that it required incredible labour to detach it; and when brought to the surface of the Ava- ter, it contained none ofthe valua- ble articles expected. It had been one of those unloaded by the Spa- niards themselves,beforethey were sunk, to prevent them from falling into the hands ofthe English.' Additions by Dr. Huff on. On the same principle is con- structed the camel, a machine em- ployed by the Dutch, for carrying vessels heavily laden over the sand banks in the Zuyder Zee. In that sea opposite to the mouth of the river Y, about 6 miles from the city of Amsterdam, there are tAvo sand-banks, between Avhich is a passage called the F'ampus, suffi- ciently deep for small vessels, but not for those which are large and heavily laden. On this account ships Avhich are outward bound, take in before the city, only a small part of their cargo, receiving the rert Avhen they have got through the Pampus. And those that are homeward bound, must in a great measure unload before they enter it. For this reason the goods are put into lighters, and in these transported to the warehouse ofthe merchant, in the city ; and the large vessels are then made fast to boats, by means of ropes, and in that manner towed through the passage to their stations. Though measures were adopted so early as the middle of the 16th century, by forbidding ballast to be throAvn into the Pampus, to prevent the farther accumulation of sand in this passage, that incon- venience increased so much, from other causes, as to occasion still greater obstruction to trade ; and it at length became impossible for ships of war and others heavily laden to get through it. About the year 1672, no other remedy Avas known, than that of making fast to the bottoms of ships, large chests filled with Avater, which Avas afterwards pumped out, so that the ships were buoyed up, and ren- dered sufficiently light to pass the shallow. By this method Avhich was attended with the utmost dif- ficulty, the Dutch carried out their numerous fleet to sea in the above mentioned year. This plan how- ever, gave rise soon after to the invention of the camel by Avhich the labour Avas rendered easier. The camel consists of tAvo half ships, constructed in such manner, that they can be applied below tvater, on each side of a hull of a large vessel; on the deck of each part of the camel, are a great many horizontal Avindlasses, from Avhich ropes proceed through aper- tures in the one half, and being carried under the keel ofthe ves- sel, enter similar apertures in .the' VES other (half) from which they are conveyed to the windlasses on its deck. When they are to be used, as much water as may be neces- sary, is suffered to run into them : all the ropes are cast loose, the vessel is conducted between them, and large beams are placed hori- zontally through the port holes of the vessel, with their ends resting on the camel on each side. When the ropes are made fast, so that the ship is secured betAveen the two parts of the camel, the Avater is pumped from them, by Avhich means they rise, and raise the ship along Avith them. Each half of the camel is generally 127 feet in length : the breadth at one end is 22, and at the other 13. The hold is divided into several compart- ments, that the machine may be kept in equilibrio, while the wa- ter is flowing into it. An East- India ship that draws 15 feet of water, can, by the help of the ca- mel, be made to draw only 11 ; and the heaviest ship of Avar, of 90 or 100 guns, can be so lightened as to pass without obstruction all the sand-banks of the Zuyder-Zee. Leui'OLD, in his Thcatrum Ma- chinarum, says that the camel was invented by Coknf.liis Meyer, a Dutch engineer. But the Dutch Avriters almost unanimously ascribe this invention to a citizen of Am- sterdam, called Mecuves Mein- dI'.rtsoon Barker. Some make the year of the invention to haA'e been in 1688, and others 1690.... HoAvever this may be, avc are as- sured on the testimony of Barker himself, Avritten in 1692, ar.d still preserved, that in the month of June, Avhen the Avater Avas at its usual height, he corn-eyed in the course of 24 hours, by the help of the camel, a ship of Avar called the V E T J 279 Maagdvan Enkhusen, which was 156 feet in length from Enkhuy- sen hooft, to a place Avhere there Avas sufficient depth ; and that this could have been done much sooner had not a perfect calm prevailed at the time. In the year 1693, he rais- ed a ship called the Unie, six feet, by the help of this machine, and conducted her to a place of safety. As ships built in the NeAva, cannot be conveyed into harbour, on account ofthe sand-banks forfh- ed by the current of that rh-er, camels are employed also by the Russians, to carry ships over these shoals ; and they have them of A'arious sizes. Bernoulli saAV one, each half of Avhich was 217 feet in length, and 36 in breadth. Camels arc used likewise at Ve- nice V The chevaux d? frisc, which had been sunken in the river De- laware, below the city, to oppose the passage of the English ships, during the American war, Avere raised upon the above principles, after the peace.] VETCH, or Tare, Vicia, L. a genus of plants comprehending 30 species, of Avhich 8 or 9 are indi- genous ; and the folloAving are the most remarkable, namely: I. The sylvatica, or Wood Vetch, grows in Avoods and hed- ges, especially in mountainous si- tuations ; Avhere it flowers in July and August, attaining the height of from two to four feet. II. The Cracca, or Tufted Vetch,is frequent in shady places, * An engraving cf the camel may be seen in, L'Art de batir les Vaisseaux ; Amsterdam 1T09, 4to. vol. ii. page 93.... See also the Encyclopedia, Pans cuiiier.. vol. hi. p. f'7. 5280 VET V E T meadoAvs, and fields ; flowers in the months of July and August.... Both this, and the preceding spe- cies, are said to restore Aveak or starved cattle to their former strength, more speedily than any other vegetable hitherto discover- ed. III. The sepium......See Bush Vetch. IV. The sativa, Common Vetch, Fetch, or Tare, thrives in dry meadoAvs, pastures, and corn-fields, Avhere it flowers from April to June. This species is one of the most valuable of the Vetch kind, and is divided into three varieties, namely: 1. The Summer Vetch, is raised from seed, Avhich is usually soAvn toward the end of March, or early in April, in the proportion of 8 or 10 pecks per acre, broad-casf; though, when drilled, half that quantity is sufficient, and the crop will be greatly superior. This va- riety is chiefly propagated and used for Aveaning lambs and sheep, as well as for soiling horses and cows; its seeds afford an excellent food for pigeons.....Bees obtain a copi- ous supply of honey from the young leaves of this plant, which are marked Avith black, and the spots oi which contain a delicious saccharine juice. 2. The Winter Vetch, is sown in the month of September, in the same proportion as the preceding sort ; a small quantity of beans, or (which is preferable) of black oats, being intermixed, to support the plants; which are generally covered Avith long dung, to pre- serve them from the frost. This variety is subservient to the same purposes as the Summer Vetch : Avhen ploughed into chalk-lands in the month of May, it serves as an excellent manure for Avheat intend- ed to be sown in the succeeding autumn. In the county of Glou- cester, the Winter Vetch is cul- tivated as pasturage for horses, and is eaten off* so early, as to admit of turnips being raised in the same year. 3. The Pebble Vetch, is. sown in the spring, but is seldom cultivat- ed ; because it is less hardy than either of the preceding varieties, and does not produce an equal quantity of fodder. [The folloAving paper on the be- nefit arising from the cultivation of vetches as a summer falloAvcrop, is by Mr. R. R. Livingston.] " The introduction of a plant unknoAvn to our soil and climate, and its relative value here, and in countries in which it has long been naturalized, is ahvays important to agriculture, either as it presents the farmer a neAV object Avorthy his attention, or as it keeps him from entertaining false ideas of its value, and wasting his time and money upon one that will not repay his expense. " Having observed that vetch- es, or as they are sometimes call- ed, tares, Avere cultivated in Bri- tain and in many . other parts of Europe, either for seed or forage, I procured from England nine bushels, six of which are called spring, and three of Avinter vetches. " 1st May, 1794. Ploughed and cross-ploughed one acre of rye-stubble; the land, a light loam, inclining to sand, upon a sandy bottom, soil much Avorn out; the preceding crop Avas summer rye. After harrowing fine, I soAved three bushels of spring A'etchcs. When they wrere up, spread six bushels of gvpsum. About one- fifth part of the field was on a de- VET VET 281 clivity and very poor; here the crop was thin, yet Ioav and short, the rest of the land was finely co- vered with a thick, close crop. The vines matted in each other, insomuch that the plants moulded at the bottom. When in full blossom they Avere cut, about the 20th August; they yielded two large waggon-loads of hay, Avhich I compute at 25 cAvt. The pro- vender appeared to me remark- ably succulent, and extremely well calculated for coavs and sheep. Mine Avas applied to the use of the latter, but not having been at my farm since the winter set in, I can give no account of its appli- cation. Second Experiment. " Soil, a loose, slaty gravel, mix- ed with clay, being a dry hillock, containing one acre exclusive of some part in wood. In 1793, bore buckAvheat ; ploughed tAvice last April, and first of May sowed three bushels of vetches ; strewed over them when they made their appearance, six bushels of gyp- sum. These Avere designed for seed, but the summer proving wet they continued growing all through the season, the seed at the bottom moulding and dropping out, while they blossomed at the top so that I could not tell Avhen to cut them. They stood till October; Avhen stretched out the plants Avere four and five feet long, but generally moulded beloAv ; when threshed I only got from them three pecks of seed of a very indifferent quality. " Upon comparing these expe- riments with the usual increase in England, it appeared to me that the quantity of forage obtained Avas not inferior to Avhat a similar soil would have produced there, and of course that our climate is vol. v. not unfaA'ourable to the culture, provided we can render them more productive of seed ; which I can hardly doubt. My error Avas, I believe, in sowing them too thick, and manuring Avith gypsum, which makes every plant on which it ope- rates, run to haulm. The wetness of the season also contributed to this evil, which may, I hope, be corrected by a little more experi- ence and care. " Upon this head, hoAvever, Ave are authorised to say little, but that this experiment has failed, so far as relates to the production of seed ; but that the general health and vigour of the plant gives us reason to hope that future experiments maybe more success- ful. If this should be the case, and Ave .can Avith facility raise our oavo seed, (its common product in Eng- land being 25 to 30 bushels to the acre) this plant will be extremely useful to those farmers Avho want a competent proportion of mea- dow, and indeed in another point of view to every farmer. "If cut for forage it comes suf- ficiently early to plough and soav wheat, for which I should think it the best of all preparations. The ground is so Avell coA'ered that eve- ry Aveed is stifled : the air at the roots is stagnant, and the plant be- ing of that succulent kind which feeds much upon the atmosphere, I think it cannot fail to add to the fertility of the soil. Mine appear- ed so melloAV and free from weeds Avhen the vetches came off, that I Avas tempted to sow the piece Avith lucerne, which looked very fine and promising Avhen the winter set in. " Our Indian corn comes off too late for wheat, it is therefore usual Avith us to fallow it Avith a Oo 282 VET VET summer crop of oats and a small proportion of flax ; this I believe to be bad husbandry, as the corn is an exhausting crop, so is oats, and in this way the ground is al- ways growing worse, and as it is seldom rich enough to bear wheat after oats, wre generally summer fallow for wheat, Avhich is render- ed by that means a very expen- sive crop. On the contrary, if we followed our corn with vetches, Ave should be able to put wheat in the same ground ; and if clover is sown over the Avheat in the spring, and permitted to continue only two years, and then followed by corn, the labour of farming will be di- minished, and the fertility of the land increased by the double ope- ration of these leguminous crops on the air, and in the quantity of manure that will be furnished by the additional stock they enable the farmer to keep. As this subject, so well understood in Europe, has hardly been attended to here, I will endeavour to state the profit and loss of two farmers, each cultivat- ing (besides their meadoAvs) one hundred acres of arable land, one in the usual mode of this country, and the other by the intervention of vetches and clover. Common agriculture 100 acres. Profit per acre. 20 acres of Indian corn, 35 bushels at 4s. 7 0 0 20 — Oats on corn ground of the preceding year, 20 bushels at 2v. 2 0 0 20 — Summer falloAv, 0 0 0 20 — Wheat 10bush.at8s.4 0 0 20 — Wheatstubblein pas- ture, 0 2 0 LOO —Five years, yield per acre, L. 13 2 0 Expenses per acre for five years. Indian corn,ploughing, he. 2 0 0 Oats, tAvice ploughed, 1 0 0 Harrowing, and seed, and sowing, and harvesting, 0 14 0 Summer fallow, 1 10 0 Wheat-seed and harvest- ing, 1 0 0 Rent on five acres at 4s. a year, 1 0 0 L. 7 4 0 Balance of profit on one acre in five years, or on five acres in one year, 5 18 0 L. 13 2 0 Profit on farming by intervention of Fallow Crops instead of Fallow. 20 acres Indian corn, 7 0 0 do. Vetches 25 cwt. at 2s. 6d. 3 2 6 do. Wheat 12 bushels, 4 16 0 do. Clover 25 cwt. at 2s. 6d. 3 2 6 do. Clover the same, 3 2 6 Five year's produce of one acre or one year's of five, ------— L. 21 3 6 Expenses. Indian corn, 2 0 0 Ploughing corn-ground for vetches, 0 10 0 Seed three bushels, and soAving, he. 0 12 0 Cutting and making hay, 0 8 0 Vetch stubble ploughed once for wheat, seed, and harvesting, 1 10 0 12 lb. clover-seed and sow- ing, 0 15 0 Mowing clover paid by the second crop, 0 0 0 Rent 20*. or 4s. a year, 1 0 0 L. 6 15 0 VET VET 283 Brought forward, L. 6 15 0 To balance of profit per acre in five years or on five acres in one, 14 8 6 L. 21 3 6 " Thus while one farmer makes 1/. 3s. 5d. a year per acre, upon his hundred acres, clear of expense, the other makes 21. \7s. 5d.; the one gets little better than one hun- dred, while the other gets nearly 300 a year. In the above state- ment I have given one farmer cre- dit for tAvo bushels of wheat more than the other, since I am per- suader! that the vetch crop Avill improve the ground more than the difference; as the dung given to the corn Avill not be exhausted by the intervention of an oat crop be- fore the wheat is sown. To this profit should also be added the continued advance in the improve- ment of the crop by the one mode of husbandry, and the continued decrease by the exhausting the land in the other. " The falloAV farmer has no fod- der Avhich the rotation crop farm- er does not possess, except the straAV of his oats, which we will value at half a ton of hay per acre ; he then has from his oats on 20 acres, Tons 10 0 0 The fallow crop farmer from 20 acres vetches, 25 0 0 From 40 acres clover, 50 0 0 75 0 0 Deduct oat straw, 10 0 0 Superiority to fallow crop farmer, Tons 65 0 0 " He can thus winter at one ton a head, 65 head of cattle more than the fallowinjriarmer, and as each of these will afford at least six loads of dung, he will be able to carry out yearly 390 loads of dung more than the falloAving farmer ; besides that he has one exhausting crop less. It will be easy to see what difference this must make in a feAV years in the produce of a farm, and hoAV much more it would be than I have rated it at. We often ask with astonishment, hoAV the British farmer can afford to pay a guinea an acre rent ? The difficulty is solved if we examine the above statement; since the difference betAveen fallowing and establishing a rotation of crops amounts to more than the differ- ence of our rents and theirs ; be- sides that, their produce must be reckoned at a higher price. I know there are some stiff soils on Avhich it Avould be difficult to es- tablish the rotation I mention; but this should be no argument against it Avhere the soil will admit of it, particularly as clover and vetches may be introduced with a certain- ty of success, even if the ground should be naturally poor, by the addition of only four bushels of gypsum to the acre, Avhich will in- deed add 16s. a year to the accrue- able expense ; but it will at the same time, in all probability, add near a ton to the produce. I have gone into this digression for the benefit of farmers into whose hands our publications may fall, and who have not had an oppor- tunity of examining the great im- provements that have of late years been made in Britain, by the in- troduction of clover and falloAV crops instead of falloAV. I would not be understood to confine my observations to vetches, which have not yet been sufficiently tried in this country ; potatoes, carrots, 284 V E T VET or peas, sown thin, and cut green for provender, may all ansAver the purpose, but above all, clover. If this last is the only crop to be brought into the rotation, the sys- tem must be changed to the fol- lowing course: 1st, Corn; 2d, Barley and Clover ; 3d, Clover ; 4th, Clover ; 5th, Wheat on one ploughing ; by this means a crop of clover will be substituted to a fallow. The Avheat on a clover lay will require but one ploughing, and will follow two improving crops. The dung which will be applied to the corn, will serve to bring forward the crop of barley, or oats, if that should be preferred to bar- ley ; clover will do Avell with either. " I have iioav in the ground one acre of Avinter vetches ; this look- ed extremely Avell last Deeember, but as I have not seen them since, I know not Avhether they will stand our winters; the result there- fore of this experiment must make the subject of a future communi- cation.".... Trans. New York Agri- cultural Society.'] V. The lathyroides: Strangle Vetch, or Tare, abounds in dry pastures,gravel-pits and corn-fields, in chalky and sandy soils; Avhere its small blueish-purple flowers ap- pear in the month of May. Its culture should be encouraged in sloping grounds, and sandy hills exposed to the stm ; as it affords the most tender and agreeable food to sheep. Beside the different kinds above enumerated, there is another, call- ed the Chinese Vetch, Avhich Avas a few years since introduced into England : its culture is at present confined chiefly to the county of Glamorgan, v.here it grows in tufts, from 18 to 24 inches in height. This species promises to be very profitable to agriculturists; as it is said to yield four crops in the vear, and to afford food excel- lent for cattle, both in a fresh state, and when made into hay. VETCH, the Bitter, or Wood Peasling, Orobus sylvaticus, L. an indigenous perennial, growing in woods, hedges, and pastures, especially in mountainous situa- tions ; where it flowers from May to July. This hardy plant is chief- ly cultivated in gardens, for the beauty of its numerous blossoms ; either by sowing it in autumn, or by dividing the roots: the latter being very nutritious, are in Scot- land applied to the same uses as those of the Heath Pea.....The leaves of the Bitter Vetch are much more relished by cattle, and especially by game. VETCH, the Chickling, or Vetchling, Lathyrus, L. a genus of plants consisting of 13 species, 7 being indigenous ; and the prin- cipal of these are : 1. The Ap/iaca, or Yellow Vetchling, grows in sandy corn- fields, and meadows, where its greenish-yelloAv-floAvers appear from June to August. Dr. Wi- thering remarks, that the legu- minous fruit of this, as well as the other species of Vetchling,are very nutritious, and may be eaten either in broth, or be converted into bread ; though a larger proportion of wheaten or rye-flower be re- quired for such purpose. 2. The sylvestris. See Pea, the Narrow-leaved Everlasting. 3. The pratensis, Everlast- ing Tare, Common Yellow, or Meadoav Vetchling, Avhich abounds in pasture-lands, in woods, thickets, and hedges : it grows to the height of six feet; flowers in July and August. This species VET V I N 285 is reputed to be an useful vegeta- ble in the feeding of cattle; though Mr. Swayne remarks, that they seldom eat it, if there be a varie- ty of other grasses in the same field ; and, as it produces few seeds, which are mostly devoured by in- sects, it does not appear to merit attention. Nevertheless, Bech- btein observes, that the Yellow Vetchling, both in a fresh and dry state, affords excellent food for cattle in general, and therefore deserves to be cultivated in mea- dows. 4. The latifolius, Broad-leaved Vetchling, or Everlasting Pea, is frequent in woods and hedges; floAveringin the months of July and August. It is often raised in gardens chiefly for the beauty of its variegated floAvers ; but Dr. Anderson believes it may be use- ful to the farmer ; and, as it at- tains the height of 10 or 12 feet, having very strong stalks, he sup- poses that it would afford a large crop of hay. There is an exotic species of the Chickling, namely, the tuberosus, which the Germans term Earth- nut, or SoAV-bread; growing in stony and mountainous fields :.... this plant is a valuable addition to meadows ; not only on account of its odoriferous floAvers, which blow from May to July, and are eagerly frequented by bees; but also for its black tuberous roots, Avhich are in Holland eaten as fruit, and boiled for culinary use ; hav- ing the sweet and agreeable taste of nuts. 1 hese. roots contain a larger proportion of mealy parti- cles than potatoes : and Beugius extracted from one pound of Earth- nuts, three ounces of a beautiful staich : whereas the same quanti- ty of the former yielded only one ounce. Why, therefore, should it not be used for bread ? VETCH, the Corn, Wild, or Hairy Tare, Tine-tare, or Rough-podded Tare, Ervumhir- sutum, L. an indigenous plant, growing in sandy corn-fields, hed- ges, and meadows, Avhere it flow- ers in the month of June. This vegetable is eaten by horses, coavs, goats, and sheep ; but it ought to be carefully eradicated ; as, during Avet seasons, whole crops of corn have been overpoAvered, and their growth completely stifled by this pernicious Aveed. VINE, the Common, or Vitis vinifera, L. a native of Japan, and the v armer regions of Asia: it has for centuries been raised in Bri- tain ; though its culture is most successful in the temperate cli- mates, or between the 30th and 50th degree of northern lati- tude. There are numerous varieties of this valuable shrub, which are cultivated for the delicious grapes they afford. Without entering in- to an account of their respective periods of maturation, Ave shall simply state the names of the most remarkable sorts : point out such as are peculiarly serviceable; and conclude Avith an account of their culture. 1. The July grape, or Morillon Noir Hatif.,.2. The Royal Musca- dine....3. The Malmsey Musca- dine...^. The Black Muscadine.... 5. The White Muscat of Alexan- dria...^. The Red Muscat of Alex- andria...^. The White Muscat of Lunel....8.The Black Muscadel.... 9. The Red Muscadel.....10. The Black Damascus.... 11. The Black Tripoli... 12. The BlackSpanish,or Alicant....l3. The Black Lisbon.... 14. The Black l'rontiniac, or Mus- 286 V I N cat Noir...\5. The Red Fiontiniac, or Muscat Rouge....\6. The White Frontiniac, or Muscat Blanc... 17. The Grizzly Frontiniac... 18. The Red Hamburgh.....19. The WhiteHamburgh...20. The White Morillon....2l. The Early WThite Grape or Teneriffe....22. The Cio- tat, or White Parsley-leaved Grape .....23. The White Corinth.....24. The Aleppo Grape....25. The Red Grape of Syracuse...26. The Ceur, or MoroccoGrape...27. The Black Raisin....28. The White Raisin.... 29. The Malvoise, or Blue To- kay....30. The Genuine, or White Tokay.....31. The Lombardy..... 32. The Smyrna...33. The Brick... 34. The Claret....35. The Syrian Grape....36. The Auverna, or Ge- nuine Burgundy....37. The Cat's Grape....38. The Greek Grape.... 39. The Black Corinth....40. The Cornichon..A 1. The Red Chaselas. ...42. The Black Prince...43. The Black Burgundy....And, 44. The White Early Leipzig.....See also vol. iv. p. 194. To these may be added, the White, or Common Muscadine, having fine, round amber-coloured berries, and a rich vinous flavour. The White Sweet-Avater, Avhich bears large Avhite fruit, and abounds Avith an agreeable juice......The Small Black Cluster, produces oval berries, Avhich have a pleasant sac- charine taste.....The Large Black Clusterpresents more bulky grapes than the preceding variety ; but which, on account of their rough, harsh taste, are not edible in afresh state, and therefore chiefly con- verted into Port-wine...The Miller Grape, or New Muscat of Jerusa- lem, yields large round, red fruit; Avhich, in prosperous seasons, at- tains nearly the size of goose-ber- ries....The Black Hamburgh pro- VIN duces fine clusters of oval, black berries, that possess a SAveet, vi- nous flavour....All these varieties are recommended by horticultu- rists, as being eminently adapted to small gardens....It is a remark- able historical fact, that, a few cen- turies since, the extensive Vale of Gloucester was industriously plant- ed with this delightful shrub; from the grapes of which, England was then chiefly supplied with excel- lent native Avines. The vine is generally propagat- ed.from seed, cuttings, or layers ; though it is sometimes raised by engrafting, or inoculation.... In the first case, the seed should be set toAvard the end of Februa- ry, or early in March, in pots con- taining light rich mould ; and be plunged in hot-beds of a moderate heat. During Avarm weather, they ought to be gently watered in the afternoon, Avhen the frames should be carefully closed. About the end of August, the young plants are to be gradually exposed to the air, so that they may become hard- ened before the approach of Avin- ter ; but in the latter season, they must, be sheltered by frames, co- vered Avith ma,ts. After having attained the height of about six inches, it will be proper to remove them into larger pots, filled with similar soil; to immerse them a- gain in the hot-bed; and to tie them to slender sticks, or rods, in order to prevent them from trail- ing. ToAvards the end of the suc- ceeding March, or in the begin- ning of April, they may be plant- ed against the Avail, at Avhich they are intended to remain. In this si- tuation, Mr.Forsyth directs them to be cut at the third eye, if they be vigorous ; but, in the contrary case, at the seco?id: the lower bud, VIN V I N 287 however, must be rubbed off, as soon as it appears. If vines are designed to be rais- ed from cuttings, these ought to be selected from strong and full grown shoots, Avhich should be cut perfectly smooth, immediately be- neath the part Avhere they were produced, and have one or two joints of the last year's Avood. The cuttings must be planted against walls, at the distance of one foot from each other, and at such depth, that the second eye may be leAel with the ground; but the lower eye ought to be rubbed off, on its first appearance ; because, if that operation be delayed, the upper eye will be injured in removing the former. Runners and lateral shoots should likeAvise be cut off, excepting Iavo which are to be trained against the wall. Vines may also be propagated by laytrs. Forthis purpose, let the most vigorous shoots be laid in pots filled with fresh mould, and placed about tA\*o inches beneath the surface of the ground; the in- cision being made in the old wood beloAv a joint, so as to leave one or two eyes on each. When the shoots or layers have taken root, they must be separated from the parent stock; manured with rot- ten clung or leaves ; and Avatered twice a Aveek during dry summers-: all lateral excrescences should also be picked off, and the layers treat- ed in the same manner as the cut- tings. During the first year, vines w ill not advance rapidly ; but, in the second, the strongest may be easily distinguished, and these may be suffered to stand, while the weaker ones must be transplanted to other situations. The quality and size of grapes depend greatly on the strength of the plant on which they grow..... Mr. Forsyth, therefore, recomT mends the vines to be cut down to two or three eyes, in the first year, if there be a superfluity of naked wood. In the following year, a considerable increase of fine wood will be obtained, when all runners, &c. must be picked off; and the main shoots be nailed to the Avail, progressiA'ely as they in- crease in length. During fine Aveather, it will be advisable to ex- amine them every second or third Aveek, and speedily to remove eve- ry lateral shoot. No farther at- tention will be required, excepting that all weeds must be careful- ly eradicated ; for othenvise the growth of the vines would be im- peded. In the month of Februa- ry, in the second year, the prun- ing should be repeated ; and three buds be left to each of the strong- est main shoots; but in those of a Aveaker growth, two eyes only must be permitted to remain. Mr. F. observes, that his composition ought to be applied as early as possible, after each pruning; for the vine, being very porous, spee- dily imbibes moisture, and thus quickly decays : should it acciden- tally have been cut at a late sea- son, it will be necessary to sprinkle the poAvder of the preparation be- fore quoted over the Avound, till the bleeding or flow of the sap be completely checked. Numerous insects prey upon the vine ; which, unless timely de- stroyed, will totally kill the plant: as we have already stated the best methods of exterminating them, in the articles Hot-house, In- sects, Red Spidek, Pine Ap- ple, he. Ave shall here only re- mark, that their depredations may. in a great measure, be prevented 288 VIN by Avatering the vines, three times in the Aveek ; a simple expedient by Avhich the luxuriance of this shrub, as avc 11 as the swelling of its fruit, will be greatly promoted. When the clusters are verylarge, and the grapes begin to ripen, it will be useful to cover them with nets ; or Avith buntine, a stuff that serves for the flags of ships ; and which Avill not exclude the sun and air from the fruit, Avhile the lat- ter is protected from the ravages of birds. The leaves,hoAvever, should only be plucked off in small por- tions, as often as the grapes are ga- thered ; by Avhich method these Mill continue in succession for a much longer period than could be effected, by hastily removing all the foliage from their branches. Those readers, who are desirous to obtain farther information, relatiA'e to the raising of grapes, will consult Mr. Speec h ley's " Treatise on the Cul- ture of the Vine" 4to.; -and*Mr. Forsyth's Treatise on the Culture and Management of Fruit-trees," he. in which the subject is amply discussed. Vines are chiefly valued on ac- count of their delicious Grapes ; but they may be made subservient to many other useful purposes: thus, the young t\vigs, when dried, cut into small pieces, and moisten- ed Avith water, afford aVvholesome food for cattle, and particularly for horses. Dr. Daravin conjectures, that the leaves of the variety, Avhich produces purple grapes, would im- part a colour, and astringency of taste, to British wines, similar to those derived from the skin of the same grape, in foreign vinous li- quors...The wood of vines reduced to charcoal, affords (according to Jacobi, a reputable German Avri- ter) an excellent blue colour for VIN painting and drawing. He em* ployed equal quantities of fixed vegetable alkali, and vine-coal: af- ter melting the former in a cruci- ble, he gradually introduced the latter; both were allowed to act on each other,till the ebulition ceased; when the compound Avas poured out, dissolved in rain-Avater, and precipitated with spirit of vitriol: in consequence of which the ley, and especially the sediment assum- ed a deep blue cast. After edulco- rating this poAvder, by repeated Avashings in fresh water, and then calcining it, he obtained a very bright and*pleasing blue pigment, Avhich acquired a dark blackish hue, on dissolving it in oil of vi- triol ; though its lustre and shade, Avere instantly re-produced, on di- luting the solution Avith pure wa- ter....Lastly, Ave learn from Bin- der, another German author, that the' purified stones or seeds of grapes, when moderately roasted, and ground in acoffee-mill,serveasa good substitute for chocolate; which, on the proper addition of sugar, cinnamon, and a little Vanilla, is Aery grateful to the palate, and cannot be readily distinguished from the genuine sort prepared of cacao. [The article Vine is preserved entire ; as some useful hints may be derived from it, though the directions refer chiefly to the cul- tivation of the vines in a hot- house.....We shall noAV describe, 1. The species and varieties of North America. 2. The most approved culture of vines in the United States. 3. The art of making Avhie. Description of the species and varie- ties of VinesJn North America. The folloAving very interesting VIN VIN 289 paper on the vines of the United States, was drawn up last spring, by Mr. Wm. Bartram, at the re- quest of the Editor. The inser- tion of it in the present work, is ne- cessary to enable the reader to speak with certainty as to the spe- cies which may be cultivated, or met with, and thus prevent that confusion which the want of a true classification of our vines has hi- therto produced. " The most obvious characters which distinguish the grape-vines of America from those of the old continent, are, 1. The berries of all the American species and vari- eties that I have seen, approach the figure of an oblate spheroid ; that is, the poles are flattened, and the transverse diameter is longer than the polar: however, I have observed that Alexander's grape, and some of the bid or bul- let grapes, approach nearer to an oval or elipsis, which is the figure of all foreign or European grapes that I have seen ; viz. a prolate spheroid....2. Most of the Ameri- can species and varieties have a glaucous and yellowish pubescence on the under surface of their leaves ....3. All that I have observed in the northern and eastern districts of the United States are polyga- mous ; i. e. those vines which bear fruit (female) have hermaphrodite flowers (pentandria monogynia); but the males have only ti\'e sta- mina, without any female organ, and are always barren. One should suppose, from Walter so strong- ly marking this character as to in- duce him to place Vitis in the class Dioecia, when Linnjeus and the other European botanists had placed it in Pentandria (he him- self being an F.uropean), that all I he grape-vines of the old conti- vol. v. nent are hermaphroditousandPen- tandrian. I knoAv not, from my own observation, Avhether the bull- grape of Carolina is hermaphrodi- tous or dioecious, and therefore rest satisfied with Walter's as- sertion. " With regard to the vine of A- merica, I find a great difficulty in discriminating the species from va- rieties or hybrids, which, per- haps, may be partly accounted for from some of our vines being dioe- cious, and there being a much greater number of male vines than of fruit-bearing ones, Avhose ./Sm^a fecundans, mixing Avith the air and winds, is carried to a great dis- tance to the female organs of her- maphrodite floAvers. I shall now give my opinion of the distinct species or established races from which all the varieties or mules have originated. " 1st. The Common Blue Grape, or Bunch Grape, Vitis sylvestris, or V. occidentalis. This is the most common grape. The acini or berries are of the oblate figure, of various sizes on differ- ent plants, and of as various tastes. ....Some are sweet and pleasant enough, having a musky flavour. They are nearly as large as the Burgundy grape ; are black Avhen ripe, having a glaucous bloom, like the damascene plum. The leaves of this species are large; their under surfaces covered Avith a clay-coloured down or pubescence. They are tri-lobed, each lobe sub- divided ordentated. Some varie- ties haA'e very deep sinuosities, al- most touching the mid-rib. " 2d. Fox-grape, Vitis vulpina of Bartram, V.foliis cordatis sub- trilobis, dentatis ; subtus tomentosis, Linn. Spec, plant. V. vidpina dicta Virginiana alba ; Pluckn. aim. 392. P P 290 VIN VIN Vitis vulpina dicta acinis peramplis pur/iureis in racemo paucis, sapore fetido et ingratopreditis, cute eras- sa cumosa Clayt. n. 696. The last part of the description is decisive; every Avord true when applied to our fox-grape of Penns) Ivania; andDr.CLAYTON'sauthority should be relied on, as he Avas a native of Virginia, spent his life there, and Avas an excellent botanist. The leaves of the fox-grape are large and lobated, not much unlike those of the common bunch grape, but not so deeply sinuated and tooth- ed ; their under surface thickly co- vered Avith a yelloAv pubescence or down ; the fruit bunches short, having feAV acini or berries on them, but these few are large, and of an oblate figure. Some are as large as a musket-ball, and are of different sizes and colours ; black, red, purple, green and Avhite, when ripe. All possess a strong rancid smell and taste, have a thick coriacious skin, and a tough jelly- like pulp or tegument which en- closes the seeds. BetAveen this nucleus and the skin is a sAveet lively juice, but a little acerb or stinging to the mouth if pressed hard in eating them. There is another property of this grape which alone is sufficient to prove it to be the Vit. vulfiina, that is, the strong rancid smell of its ripe fruit, very like the effluvia arising from the Ijody of the fox, which gave rise to the specific name of this vine, and not, as many have imagined, from its being the fa- yourite food of the animal; for the fox (at least the American species) seldom eats grapes or other fruit if he can get animal food. , '• The vines, though they make vigorous and extensive shoots, never mount high, but ramble over shrubs and Ioav trees to a great distance from the original root. This appears to be the V. tauri- na of Walter, and the labrusca of Linnjeus. "3d. Bull-grape, Vitis tauri- na of Bartram, Vit. vulpina of Linn^us and Walter. This excellent grape is called by the inhabitants of Georgia, Carolina and Florida, Bull-grape.* The preceding species is called fox- grape from Pennsylvania to Flori- da. The bull-grape has a stiff, lig- neous, smooth stem, of pale ash- colour, and mounts to a great height by climbing up trees. The leaves are cordated and serrated, thin, and both surfaces naked or smooth. The racimes or fruit bunches short, containing 15 or 20 grapes at a medium. The berries or acini are large, near the size of a rifle-ball; of a black co- lour when ripe ; having a blueish nebule over them, Avhich being rubbed off, they appear of a deep blood-colour. In figure they ap- proach to an ellipsis or prolate spheroid : however, at a little dis- tance they appear black and round. This species is deservedly esteem- ed the best native grape in Ame- rica, and would make a rich and delicious wine. The juice is sweet, rich, and lively, and there is but little of the tough jelly-like sub- stance enclosing the seed. The skin of the grape is rather thick, yet there is a sweet melting pulp within, Avhich mixes Avith the saccharine juice Avhen eaten. v Mr. Bartham lately informed me, that the word bull is an abbreviation of bullet; tbe grapes being so called from their approaching the size of a bullet. The name " taurina" is, therefore, not ihe rno»t proper. VIN VIN 291 This undoubtedly is the first Ame- rican grape which merits attention and cultivation for Avine. It thrives in every soil and situation from the sea-coast to the mountains; it even thrives and is fruitful Avhen grow- ing in the barren sand-hills of Ca- rolina and Florida. " 4-th. Winter-grape, Vitis se- rotina. Cotyledon palmated. This is a vine remarkable for its sweet flowers. It mounts to the top of highvtrees; the stems and twigs more hard and ligneous than the bunch grape, to which I think it approaches the nearest. The leaves are small, cordated, smooth, thin and serrated. The fruit bunches branched, but the berries small and black, not so large as currents: the fruit not ripe till late in the autumn, and the juice extremely sour and ill-tasted, so that even birds Avill not eat them till winter frosts have meliorated them. " I shall now mention the varie- ties that appear to me to have arisen from a commixture of the several species or races. " Alexander's or Tasker's grape is a large grape, black or blue, the size of the fruit of the Vit. vinifera of the old continent. The grapes approach to the elliptical figure. They are, Avhen fully ripe, perfectly black, and as sweet as any grape. Many persons think them too luscious. Beforethey are quite ripe, some think they possess a little of the stingy taste of the fox-grape, but my taste never could discover it. It has been supposed to be a hybrid betAveen Vit. sylvestris (common bunch grape) and Vit. vinifera, because it was found on the rocky hills near the river Schuylkill, above the upper ferry, in the neighbour- hood of an old vineyard of Euro-' pean grapes ; but I believe it to be an American. « Bland's grape. . This is an ex- cellent grape. The bunches large, branched, and Avell shaped, six or eight inches in length. The ber- ries large, about the size of the common Avhite grape of Europe, and round or oblate ; when per- fectly ripe, of a dark purple or red Avine colour; the juice SAveet and lively, having a little musky flavour, with a small portion of an agreeable astringency, someAvhat like our best bunch or wild grapes, though much sweeter than any of them. If this grape is what I take it to be, a genuine American, it is a hybrid or variety. It was found in Virginia, where it is called the Virginia muskadell, and sent to me by the late Col. Bland. This excellent grape bfds fairest, next to the bull-^rape, to afford a good wine. " There seems to be no end to the varieties of Vit. sylvestris, or bunch grape, in size and taste of the fruit, as also in the leaA'es. There is a middle-sized round grape, called Raccoon-grape, which appears to be much of the nature of the fox- grape : they are black when ripe ; have much ofthe stingy taste and rancid smell of the fox-grape, and the tough jelly pulp that envelopes the seed ; the skin thick ; but they are not more than half the size of the fox-grape. " Thus it appears to me that we have in the United States, four species of Vitis or grape vines, viz. 1. Vitis sylvestris, or Vit. Ame- ricana, or occidentalis, common bunch grape. 2. V. vulpina, fox-grape. 3. V. taurina, bullet-grape. 4. V. serotina, winter-grape, by 292 VIN VIN some called Bermudian grape, and innumerable varieties and hy- brids. By varieties I mean different sorts of an individual species, and by hybrids, spurious offspring by intermixture of species. Of the latter sort are, 1. Alexander's, or Tasker's grape. 2. Bland's grape. 3. Raccoon-grape." The variety of vines which Cover every part of the American continent, and the success which has attended the attempts to cul- tivate foreign and native grapes upon the large scale, by Colonel TASKERin Maryland; by the Hon. Mr. An til in Monmouth county, New Jersey; by Dr. Howard, near New Brunswick; and by Mr. Alexander on the Schuyl- kill, long before the American revolution, is sufficient to prove that our climate is perfectly con- genial to the cultivation of the vine. But the recent experiments of Mr. Legaux at Springmill, though made, according to his own account, in a situation, and under circumstances not the most favourable for success, leave no room to doubt, that there is as much chance of good crops of grapes, as of any other fruit culti- vated among us, and that even the number of bad years in the United States, are fewer than in those parts of the continent of Europe, where the vine is accounted a staple ; that violent rains, exces- sively high Avinds, and hail storms, which so often blast the grapes of the European vigneron, rarely oc- curs here, and finally that those still more destructive insects, Gribouri and Beche, are unknown in the United States. With a knowledge of these advantages why should we any longer import grapes from Portugal or Spain, or wine from any country ? The luxurious inhabitants of our sea- ports, will probably long be averse from encouraging the cultivation, of vines; but the inhabitants beyond our mountains, are guilty of un- pardonable extravagance, in pay- ing 15s. for a quart of wretched Sherry, Lisbon, or Teneriffe wine, when they might drink their own wine at one-fourth the expence* and this too, without the loss of a moment's attention to their/iroud articles, wheat and mayz. For their benefit principally, the Edi- tor has taken much pains to con- dense the most valuable informa- tion within his power, on the sub- ject of cultivating the vine, and the making of wine; and will be happy in hearing the result of any experiments which his rea- ders may make, tending to ren- der the processes more easy or certain. 1. On the vine considered in re- gard to climate, soil, exposure, sea- sons, culture, 8cc. Cours D'Agric. torn. x. " Soil, climate, exppsure, culti- vation, ought to be appropriated to the inflexible nature of vines ; and the least violation of this natural character, essentially alters the product. The plants of Burgundy transported to the south, no longer produce wines so agreeable and delicate. 2. Soil.....If we couldjudge of the quality of the vine by the vi» gour of its vegetation; it is in faf> moist soil, well dunged, that it ought to be cultivated. But we are taught by experience that the goodness of wine is never propor- tioned to the force of the vine..... VIN VIN 293 Clayey (or argillaceous) soils are improper for vines ; but a calca- reous soil (chalky, limestone) is in general proper, being dry and light, affords a proper support to the plant; the water with Avhich it becomes impregnated, circulates and freely penetrates through the whole stratum ; the t numerous ramifications of the roots imbibe it at every pore, and the wines produced are spirituous. Soils light and pebbly are also favour- able. Volcanic earth, also produces delicious wines. The best wines are produced among the remains of volcanoes. The wines of Tokay and the best Avines of Italy are the productions of volcanic soil." An anonymous writer in the 33d vol. of Young's Annals of Agriculture, who appears to be well instructed on the subject, says, " The lands best suited to the cultivation of vines in America, are situated in a latitude «omeAvhat lower than in Europe. There is strong reason to believe that wines similar to those made in the neighbourhood of Bourdeaux, call- ed Vin de Medoc, Vin de Grave, red and white, might be produced in Pennsylvania, Maryland, and Vir- ginia. Some parts of Pennsylva- nia, some lands three or four miles from the banks of the Susque- hanah, and of the Potowmack; those which lie between the Sus- quehanah and Baltimore ; those which lie on the road from Balti- more to Alexandria, appear in their nature, in their declivity, in their aspect, in their degree of elevation, and in the sorts of oaks and plants they produce, to resem- ble the environs of Bourdeaux..... Those lands consist of a mixture of sand, gravel, quartz, * in pebbles generally white, sometimes of various colours, about the size of an egg, more or less, mixed with, some flinty, and some calcareeus ones, and also of a small quantity of black vegetable earth, which is found on the surface, and appears formed by the dead leaves of vege- tables. Those' lands, though not much elevated, are free from all sediment of water, and their de- clivity is gentle. " The land should be at the dis- tance of about a mile from any woods; the greater distance, the better the vine Avill succeed. In the forests of Virginia, the author of this treatise has eaten, in the middle of September, between Baltimore and Alexandria, black grapes of small size, very sweet and ripe, similar to those from which the Vin de Medoc or claret is made t. They had been ga- thered in the middle ofthe woods, and there is reason to believe, that with proper cultivation, this species of wild grapes might be improved so as to make excellent Avine.".... " Stiff ground, says Mr. Antil,^ may be mended by sand, ashes, soot, the rubbish and mortar of old buildings, dust of coal kilns, gra- vel, fowls' and sheep's dung, or the old dung of neat cattle. Worn out ground may be renewed by fresh mould, creek mud, and deep ploughing." * Quartz consists of flint and clay, and alitdelime.....Edit. t Will any ofthe readers of this work, in the vicinity of the above mentioned grapes, ascertain by means of Mr. Bar- tram's description, the kind of grapes alluded to, and communicate with the Editor ? \ Trans. Amer, Phil. Soc. vol. i. 294 VIN VIN " 3. Exposure.....The same cli- mate, the same cultivation, and the same soil, often furnish Avines of very different qualities. The summit, the middle, and the bot- tom of a hill give productions very different. On the top, the tempe- rature is variable and cold, the grapes less abundant, and mature Avith difficulty, and the Avine aris- ing from them, is of an inferior quality to that furnished by the sides of the hill. The bottom of the hill produces vines of great vigour, but the grapes are never so saccharine or agreeable as those which groAv towards the middle region." European Avriters constantly re- commend an eastern or southern exposure for the vine. Mr. Antil of New Jersey, also advises a S. and S. E. aspect ; but Mr. Legaux of Springmill, finds an eastern ex- posure unfavourable, and the Edi- tor saAV at Mr. Notnagel's little vineyard, near Bristol, that more grapes Avere blasted in 1S02, in the parts looking to the east, than in any other exposure. In Penn- sylvania, a northern exposure is preferable, because it keeps back vegetation in the spring, and thus saves the vines from late frosts. " 4. Seasons.....The vine is fond of Avarmth, and the grapes never come to perfection but in dry soil, exposed to the rays of an ardent sun. Rains which fall Avhen the grapes are increasing in size, are favourable, they assist the organi- zation of the vegetable ; and fur- nish it with its principal nutrition. Winds are always prejudicial to the vine. The farmers, therefore, carefully avoid situations exposed to wind ; they prefer calm situa- tions, Avell sheltered, where the plants may be exposed only to the benign influence of the lu- minary towards which they are placed. Fogs are destructive to the blos- soms, and do essential hurt to the grapes. 5. Culture.....The culture ofthe vine has its rules as Avell as its boundaries. The soil where it grows must be often dug up ; but it refuses the manure necessary for other plantations. All those causes Avhich poAverfully concur to give activity to the vegetation of the vine, alter the quality ofthe grapes. The culture ought to be directed in sucjh a manner that the plant may receive only poor nourishment. Dunging is forbidden at Gaillac, for fear of lessening the reputa- tion ofthe Avhite wine." "The first step to be taken, says Antit., is to provide a stockof vine cuttings, not only enough to plant the vineyard, but a small nursery too. If these cannot be had all at once, begin to lay up a year or tAvo beforehand, and plant them in your nursery in even rows, at four inches distance, and the toavs three feet asunder, that they may be howed and kept clean ; and scat- ter some short straw and chaff along betAveen the rows to keep the ground moist and the Aveeds clown. The reason of planting the cuttings so close in the nursery is, to preA'ent their shooting their roots too far into the ground. which would render them very difficult to take up Avithout dam- aging the root, and more tedious to plant out. " Do not plant various sorts of vines in your vineyard, if you mean to make good Avine. The most experienced vignerons say, that grapes of one sort make the best Avine : that if they are mix- VIN VIN 295 ed, they hurt the wine, by keep- ing it constantly upon the fret, by means of their different fermenta- tions. If my vineyard contained one acre of ground, I should chuse to have but two sorts of grapes in it, if I meant to make a profit of it by selling the Avine ; if it contained tAvo acres, I avouIcI have four sorts in it; and if it con- tained three or four acres, I should not chuse more. But if it con- tained six, eight or ten acres, per- haps I might incline to have a greater variety; but then I should prefer those kinds that make the best Avines and such as do not come in at the same time, from avhence I should reap many ad- vantages. " The next thing to be consider- ed is the quality ofthe vines to be made choice of. This must be limited, and adapted to the cli- mate, where the Vineyard is plant- ed. The most hardy and the earli- est ripe, Avill best suit the most northern states, I mean those of NeAv-Hampshire, Boston, Rhode- Island and Connecticut. The vines proper for these countries are. 1. The black Auvernat, 2. The black Orleans, 3. The blue Cluster, 4. The Miller Grape, The black Hamburgh, The red Hamburgh, The Avhite Muscadine, The Muscadella, The Melie Blanc, The white Morillon, The white Auvernat, • The grey Auvernat, u All these are ripe September. " All the foregoing sorts Avill do very Avell for New-York, New- Jersey, Pennsylvania, and Dela- 1 a -ft C en n rr w *• - CD c % 3 at? c- 3 v 7? a early in Avare. I mean for the clear and open parts of these countries ; to which may be added the folloAving sorts, which I recommend by way of trial, they being more ten- der, but ripen in September ; they should have the warmest birth in the vineyard. The Chasselas Blanc, called the Royal Muscadine, The Malvois or Malmsey, The grey Frontiniac, The red Frontiniac, The black Lisbon, The Avhite Lisbon, The Chasselas Noir. All the foregoing sorts will do very Avell for the states of Mary- land, Virginia and North-Carolina, to Avhich I shall add the following sorts, and recommend them for trial, but then they must have a warm place. The white Frontiniac, The malmsey Muscat, The claret Grape of Bordeaux, The Avhite Oporto, The black Oporto, The black Damask, The Chicanti of Italy, which makes a rich wine much admired in Italy. All the above-mentioned sorts will do A\ell in South-Carolina, and in the country still farther south. To which 1 shall add the folloAving sorts, as being still more tender and later ripe. The raisin Muscat, The Alicant and Malaga Raisin Grape, The red Muscat of Alexandria,- The white Muscat of Alexan- dria, The gros Noir of Spain, The St. Peter's Grape." The anonymous writer in the 33d volume of Arthur Young's annals before-mentioned, recom- 296 VIN VIN mends " to procure cuttings of the vine, called in Medoc carmenet, and in Les graves de Bordeaux, petite vigne dure ; or otherwise cuttings of grand carmenet, carbonet, or grande vigne dure, three different names given to the same species, in the vineyards of different par- ishes in the environs'of Bordeaux. The sprouts should be three feet long, cut in November or Decem- ber ; and bound together in bun- dles of one foot diameter. The ex- tremities of these bundles must be closed, where the branch has been cut from the vine, Avith clay three or four inches thick, and the Avhole must be wrapped up care- fully in mats or coarse cloth, and may be packed in the hold of a ship, and arrive in February." From the experience, hoAvever, of the editor and his friends Avho have found much difficulty in na- turalizing foreign vines, he recom- mends the cultivation of the native grapes of the United States, par- ticularly the vitis sylvestris, or small blue or bunch grape; Bland's, Tasker's or Alexander's, and the bull-grape of Carolina and Georgia. " In many parts of Virgina, North and South-Carolina, and in Geor- gia, the soil is chiefly a hot dry sand, and what strength nature af- forded, has been exhausted by to- bacco, Indian corn, rice, Sec Hoav- eAer these grounds, where they lie near to rivers and creeks, may ea- sily be recruited ; for these rivers abound Avith rich mud, Avhich is the best kind of manure for such lands, and it would be no great ex- pence to procure a sufficient quan- tity of it to cover a piece of ground large enough for a^vineyard, espe- cially if it be considered, Avhat a number of hands the gentlemen of these countries have, who might be employed at such times, when other business is not very urgent: But then this mud must lie some time upon the ground, before it be mixed with the soil, at least a sum- mer and a winter ; for at first it will bake very hard, and be very crude; but the winds, dews, rains and frosts, Avith the help of the sun, will soften, mellow, and bring it into proper temper. Then it must be equally spread and Avell mixed with the soil. Thus may the land be recruited, and kept in good heart, from time to time, and from a barren useless piece of ground, it may become profitable both to the owner and his country. The nature and quality of the vines being considered and made choice of, the next thing to be knoAvn is, Iioav to make choice of cuttings to plant. Avoid all branches that have not borne fruit, all suck- ers, nephews, lateral and secondary branches, and especially the long runningbarren branches.These dif- ferent sorts seldom produce fruitful vines. Choose the cuttings from the teeming part of the vine, from among those branches that Avere set apart for bearing fruit ; and among these, choose such as are short jointed, and have been most fruitful the last summer; let them be cut doAvn close to the old wood. The upper part of the same branch is less ripe, and more loose and spungy, and more apt to fail, and very seldom makes so firm and lasting a vine. These branch- es must be trimmed and cleared from the nepheAvs and the lateral or secondary branches; great care must be taken not to wound the buds or eyes, which a careless hand is very apt to do. If the bud be bruised Avith the back of the knife, so that the cotton, that VIN V I N 297 iies under the thin bark, that cov- ers the bud, and is Avisely intend- ed to preserve it from the injuries of the Aveather, be rubbed off, the bud will perish. Therefore as the buds lie close to these lateral branches, and are in so much dan- ger of being wounded, it is best and safest to cut the branches off, a little above the height ofthe bud, that the little stump or stub left behind may be above the top of the bud, so shall the eye be left se- cure. " These branches being thus trimmed, remain Avhole and at full length tilt the next April*, which in the northern states is the best time for planting. They should be separated from the mother plant, sometime in September, or as soon as the vintage is over, that being the best time for the trim- ming of vines; because the wounds Avhich the mothers receive are healed up, and securely closed from the severity of the winter sea- son. If this work be left till Fe- bruary or March, the parent suf- fers by her fresh wounds in long rains, sleets and frosts that folloAV ; or if the weather be favourable, she groAvs faint and exhausted by excess of bleeding, and her eyes are drowned in her own blood. " The best Avay I have found for presennng the cuttings through the winter, is as follows. At or near the north-west corner of your vineyard or garden, the fence being good and close, let a small trench be dug five or six inches deep and * Mr. Legacx recommends the au- tumn to plant vines, but many in Penn- sylvania, who have successfully culti- vated them, adhere to the spring, and plant early in March. Editor. vol. v. Avide, and so long as may contain all your branches. In this, plant them thick and close with the but ends down, and fill up the trench, as you go, with the ground, that came out of it, and press it down Avell with your hand, all about the bottom of your branches ; let the dirt rise two or three inches above the surface of the ground, to pre- vent the water from settling about the vines, which would rot them. Between evejy sort, drive down iavo stakes and fix a label to one of them, to distinguish the vines from each other, by their proper names. Before you plant your vines in this manner, drive doAvn two or more crotches, according to the quantity of vines, at about three feet from the trench, and parallel with it, upon which poles are laid, to support the upper part of the branches about twelve or fifteen inches from the ground.... Thus they all lie sloping without touching the ground, which pre- serves them from growing mouldy and from rotting. The vines then are to be covered Avith straw, laid lengthways upon them, up and doAvn a little beyond the trench, so that the water is carried off be- yond the foot of the vines by this straAV roof; and yet the straAV must not be laid on too thick, least it continue moist too long, and occa- sion mouldiness. Across the top, a pole is laid, and across the bof- tom, and fastened down to prevent the straw from blowing aAvay..... Thus they remain 'till spring. In the beginning of April Avhen you are ready for planting, the weather being moderate and calm, the frost out of the ground, and nature teeming with fresh vegeta- tion, then cut your branches for planting. If one cutting from 298 VIN VIN eA-ery branch be sufficient for your purpose, then cut the lower part about tAvelve or fourteen inches long. But as it is most likely, that you Avill not be so lucky, as to have enough of these, then do Avhat necessity requires, and make two or three cuttings of every branch, not less than a foot long ; and having a trench made ready, place them in it close together, the but or loAver end down, and cover them up with earth to the upper eye, 'till you are ready to plant, carefully placing every sort by themselves, Avith a label denoting the kind. This direction is calcu- lated for the three [or middle bread states]. The more northern states will be a month later, and the more southern states will be at least a month, some tAvo months earlier ; they must conduct themselves ac- cordingly. To these last states, I would recommend the cuttings to be longer, that they may be plant- eddeeper,the better to preserve the vines from excessive heats and droughts. " Your ground as I said before, being well manured and brought into good heart if old, or being na- turally rich if neAv, and having been, at least twice, deep ploughed and Avell harrowed the summer before, in the fall of the year it must be deep ploughed the third time, and always across the hill or rising ground, and let it lie rough just as it is ploughed, all winter, Avhich Avill greatly prevent wash- ing, and the frosts will mellow it and prepare it the better for vege- tation. " In the spring of the year, as soon as the ground is dry, let it be well harrowed both ways, with a sharp iron tooth harroAV and laid doAvn smooth and even ; and take this caution along with you, Avhich I now give once for all, never to meddle with the ground of your vine- yard when it is wet, or even moist at top, nay, I would have you avoid as much as possible, walking in it at such a time. Your own expe- rience will soon teach you the rea- son of this caution. For you will find that, the lighter and moreopen and loose the soil of a vineyard is kept, the more the vines will flou- rish, and the more fruitful they will prove. " When your ground is in pro- per order, provide a small stake of four feet long for every vine; and begin to lay out your vineyard in the most regular manner the nature and shape of the ground will ad- mit of. If you mean to plough and harrow your vineyard, Avith a small single horse plough, and a small corn harrow, you must leave a border of 10 or 12 feet on each side of every square, to turn your horse upon, lest he trample upon and destroys the outside vines.... There will be no need of such borders along the upper or lower side of the squares, unless you chuse it for regularity's sake ; be- cause your vineyard should never be ploughed up and down hill, but transversely, unless you mean to have it gullied, and the rich soil washed away by hard rains. " The following method of lay- ing out a vineyard, I think is as easy, as regular and as expeditious as any, for a long square or a four square piece of ground. Your squares being laid out, and having concluded how far your vines shall stand every way from one another, in Avhich every man is to please himself; stretch a line of a proper length, and stitch small pieces of red, blue, green, or any other co- VIN VIN 299 loured cloth at such distance from each other as you mean to plant your vines. I will suppose eight feet*, because upon the most ma- ture deliberation, I think that the best distance for vines to stand at in this country, as I shall after- Avards sIioav more fully. " The line being ready, stretch it along the head or upper part of your square, so that a rag appears at each corner. Then drive down a stake at every rag: This done, move your line down to the lower side of the square, Avhich is oppo- site to the first, and stretch your line along that, having a rag at each coiner, and drive down a stake at every rag: then turn your line the other way, up and cIoavd, and fasten it to the upper, and to the loAver outside stakes, so that a rag be at each stake, and driv» down a stake at every rag, and so go on from stake to stake, till the whole be completed. If you have been careful not to disturb or moA'e the line, Avhen you drove down the stakes, and have driven them all on the same side of the line, your square will be uniform, and the stakes near the ground, will range exactly every Avay. "If your vineyard be large enough to divide into four, six, eight squares, or more, according to the different sorts of grapes you design to have in it, and you are not pinched for room, you will find it very convenient on many ac- counts to have cross walks of 12 * The anonymous author in Young's Annalt, before mentioned, recommends six feet: a less distance is certainly im- proper; Editor. feet, between the squares, not only to turn upon when ploughing, but for carting in manure, Avhich will be a great saving of labour, besides being attended Avith many other advantages. " Having staked your ground, when it is dry, and having as many vine cuttings as you can plant in half a day, soaking in rich dung water, in a pail, the but-ends be- ing down, dig holes at every stake larger or smaller,according to your own judgment: for it matters not, so they are deep enough to con- tain the plant. But here I must clear up a point, which has led many people into mistakes, and rendered this Avork more tedious, and that is the throwing into the holes, in Avhich the vines are plant- ed, rich mould mixed with old dung, thinking that this must be a great advantage to the vine. This is a great mistake. For as soon as the vine shoots its roots beyond this rich mixture, into the common soil, Avhich is many degrees poorer and colder, the roots, as it Avere, recoil and shrink back at a cold- ness and poverty, they had not been used to, and the vegetation is stopped, and the plant dAvindles into poverty and barrenness; and if you examine the plant at bottom, you Avill find that instead of extend- ing its roots to their usual length, it has shot out a great number of small fibres like threads, which ex- tend no farther than the good mould, and these being quite in- sufficient to answer the demands of nature, the plant perishes, or remains in an inactive and barren state, whereas, had the vine been planted in the common soil at first, it Avould have met Avith no altera- tion, no sudden change to check 300 VIN VIN its groAvth*. This sheAvs that the soil should be Avell mixed ; and let me tell you once for all, that the vine delights in a warm, com- fortable, fruitful soil: but proves unfruitful and perishes in a soil cold and barren. Yet a soil may be too rich, or made too rank by dung, and this extreme is also to be avoided. But to return to plant- ing our vines, the holes being dug according to your mindf, plant your vine, setting the foot forward from the stake, and bend it a little, Avithout cracking the bark, and bring it gently up against the stake, so that one eye only remains above the surface of the ground. Let not the eye touch the stake, but look from it. Then mixing the ground Avell together, throAv it in, and press it gently about the vine, till the hole is almost full, and throAv the rest in lightly, without pressing, so that it may rise up to the eye of the vine, Avhich ought to be about two inches above the common surface. By this means, the vine will be preserved from drying winds and the hot sun, till it begins to grow. Some place four or five paving-stones about the foot of the vine, not so close but that the roots may shoot out be- tween them, and condense the air in hot dry seasons, and nourish the * This direction is of great conse- quence. The ground must be uniformly rich and light, for at least three feet be- low the surface; or success need not be expected. Editor. •f Mr. Mohtmouis recommends to dip the lower end of the cutting in a mix- ture of bee's-wax and hog's-lard, to pre- vent the loss of sap which sometimes takes place. Editor. vine Avith moisture, and cool and refresh it when parched with ex- cessive heats. In the northern states, the vines should be planted on the south side of the stakes, for the sake of the sun : In the south- ern states, they should be planted on the north side to avoid too great heat. The upper eye only shoots out branches, from Avhich the head of the vine is formed. If any shoots should rise from below, which sometimes is the case, the sooner they "are removed, the better; these are called suckers, and very much exhaust the vine. And thus you proceed till all be finished. " When your vines are all plant- ed, if you have any cuttings re- maining, plant them in a nursery or along the north side of your stakes, for you will have occasion for them, as many of your vines will miscarry, and the sooner their places are supplied the better. If some of your vines do not shoot till July, do not give them up ; they may grow notwithstanding. I have had many that have not shot till August, and yet have done Avell. The filling up all the vacancies, Avhere the vines have miscarried, is absolutely necessary to be done so soon as possible, either the fall after the vines Avere planted, with plants, if you have any growing in your nursery, which are best set out as soon as the leaf is fallen; or the next spring, Avith cuttings, which is the best season for plant- ing them ; for the latter having no root suffer greatly in the Avinter season, and if planted in the fall, most of them perish. Some plant two cuttings in a hole, lest one should miscarry. To this the chief objection is, that hereby the regu- larity of your vineyard is hurt, VIN VIN 301 many of the vines standing out of rank and file. For-a well regu- lated vineyard resembles a fine regiment under proper and exact discipline. If some of your vines prove weak the first summer, and do not recover strength the second summer, though manured and cul- tivated Avell, root them out, for they very seldom are worth rais- ing ; and plant healthy vines in their stead, out of your nursery. " In digging up the plants from your nursery, be careful to take them up without wounding or bruising the roots, and having a pail or small tub, half full of rich dung water, put the plants with the roots down, into that, so shall they be preserved from the sun and dry- ing winds, which would soon parch and dry up these young tender roots and kill the vine. When you have dug up about a dozen or twenty plants, proceed to planting, in the folloAving manner: Your holes being dug deep, and suffici- ently wide, for the roots to be spread in at full length, throw in some loose earth, and spread it over the bottom of the hole, and fix in your plant near the stake, so high that the little branches rise an inch or two above the surface of the ground. The roots, you will perceive, for the most part groAv in rows, one above another. The ifpper roots of all, which are called the day roots, must be cut aAvay; the under roots of all must then be spread at full length, and covered with earth, then the next must be served in the same man- ner, and so on till all be regularly extended and covered. " Your vines being all planted as above directed; and the vine cuttings, with one eye only above ground, and that almost covered with light earth, to preserve them from suffering Avith heat and from drying Avinds till they be- gin to grow; this upper bud only Avill shoot out branches, and the lower ones Avill throw out roots : And this is much better than to have tAvo or three buds above ground, and branches growing from them all, which only serve to weaken the vine, and to hinder the forming of a good head, Avhich is the first and chief point to be gained and well secured. "We now proceed to the manage- ment of the vine in its infant state, upon which will very much depend the success of your vineyard. " There are but two Avays of forming andmanaging of vines to ad- vantage for vineyards, viz. By stakes orespaliers."CHAPTALL says'The method of cultivating vines on poles or props ought to be com- manded by the climate. This method belongs to cold countries where the vine has need of the Avhole heat of the sun. By rais- ing them therefore on poles, placed perpendicular to the ground, the earth, being uncovered, receives all the activity of the rays, and the whole surface of the plant is ex- posed to their action, and allows the vines to be placed nearer to one another, and the produce to be thus multiplied on equal sur- faces. But in warmer climates the earth requires to be sheltered from the excessive heat of the sun: the vines are therefore suffered to creep on the ground. But Avhen the increase of the grapes has at- tained to its maximum, and nothing is necessary but to bring them to maturity, the cultivators collect in bundles the different branches of the vine, uncover the grapes, and by these means facilitate the ma- 302 VIN VIN turation.' The northern and south- ern states of the Union may profit by these facts. " I shall begin with the proper culture of vines that are designed lor stakes. " In this case the head ofthe vine is formed near the surface of the ground, and this method is now generally practised throughout wine countries, and indeed it is the only method proper for coun- tries, where the frosts in winter are so hard as to hurt vines. " The first summer after the Vine is planted, you have nothing to do, but to tie up the little bran- ches to the stakes Avith a soft band, as soon as they are grown about a foot or fifteen inches long, which will save them from being torn off by hard Avinds; to keep the ground clean and free from weeds and grass. If you have any litter, short straAV and chaff, the shives of broken hemp or flax, the chaff of flax seed, the dust and chaff of buckAvheat, and the straw trod fine with horses when it is dry, any or all of these spread over your vine- yard after it is hoed or ploughed and harrowed, will keep down the grass and Aveeds, keep the ground moist and light, and will greatly preserve the good soil from wash- ing aAvay. If this be done the first three or four years, it will greatly forward the vines; bring the ground into good heart, and finally, prepare it to produce good crops, by keeping it loose, airy and light, in which vines greatly delight." The Avriter in Young's Annals, above noted, recommends four ploughings ; the first time in Fe- bruary, when the furrow must be levelled, and left in that state for six weeks; (this hoAvever is in general too soon) the second time, the furrow must be reinstated. The third time, the same operation as the first must be repeated, tak- ing care not to plough Avhen the vine is in blossoms or flowers. The fourth, in August, as at the second time. The grass must be destroyed by hoes;" For this pur- pose the light shim or scuffle des- cribed in vol. 3. p. 295, would an- SAver well. " In the month of September, Avhen the leaf begins to wither and fall off, as I have already observed, cut down all the branches, to one good bud each, and always remem- ber that the lowermost bud next the old Avood, is called the dead eye, and is never reckoned among the good buds. When thus trimmed, take away the dirt from the foot of the vine, about four inches down, and cut away all the upper roots that appear above that depth. These are called day roots, and must be taken away every fall, the first three years. The best Avay is, not to cut them off close to the body of the vine, but about a straAv's breadth from it, so shall they not be so apt to groAv again. Let the foot of the vine be left open, after the day roots are cut aAvay, that it may dry and harden, till the hard frosts come. Then the holes are to be filled again, and the head of the vine covered with chaff and short straw mixed, or Avith bog hay, or salt hay, or with horse litter, that is free from dung and grass seeds ; for these should be carefully kept out of a vineyard, which will save the labour of root- ing out the grass that would spring from them. Some cover the head of the A'ine Avith the ground when they fill up the holes ; but this is wrong, it greatly endangers the vine, as I have found by expert- VIN VIN 305 ence, for I have lost many of them by this management, before I dis- covered the danger. The ground, in warm rains, moulds and rots the vine. For the same reason, suffer no dung to be among the straw, hay, or horse litter, with which you cover your vines. The heat ofthe dung, in warm rains or muggy warm weather, will mould and rot them ; the cooler and dry- er they are kept, the better. When you trim your vines, if you find that any of them have mis- carried, Avhich is very common, plant others in their room imme- diately, of the same sort in your nursery ; or provide cuttings ofthe same kind, and preserve them till spring, and plant them in the va- cant places, that your vineyard may be full and compleat as soon as possible. " The second summer let the shoots grow, till they are ten or twelve inches long, then choose eight, that are short jointed and much of a size, that grow on all sides of the vine, and with your finger strike off all the rest. If any one branch among the Avhole number, appears much more thrif- ty than the rest, you may perhaps be tempted to save it ; but let not your eye spare it. It will only prove a thief and a robber. It will draw to itself the chief nourishment of the vine, and starve the rest of the branches, and after all will bear but little fruit. The short jointed branches, proA'e the best bearers, and these standing on all sides of the head, preserve the vine in full strength and vigor. For this rea- son the rounder the head of the vine is formed, the better. If the branches be suffered to groAv from one side of the head, the other side suffers greatly, and is apt to perish. " This year there should be two stakes to a vine, one on each side, to fasten the branches to, by this means they are spread at a distance from each other, and groAv the stronger and better. Whereas, Avhen they are huddled all together, and fastened up to one stake, they suffer greatly for want of the sun and air to dry them after rains, mists and heavy dews: and in close muggy Aveather, they will mildeAV and rot. Let your vine- yard always be kept clean and free from weeds and grass; and the dryer the ground is, and the hotter the weather, the more effec- tually they are destroyed, by hoe- ing, ploughing and harroAving..... But remember never to meddle Avith your ground Avhen it is wet. " This second summer your main branches should be suffered to groAv about five feet long, and then the ends of them must be nipped off, in order to keep them Avithin proper bounds. The lateral or secondary branches should be nipped off at the end, when they are about a foot long, the nephews, also should be nipped off when they are about six inches long. This is much better, than the taking all these smaller branches clean away,, Avhich is the practice of some..... For I have found, by experience, that Avhen these secondary branch- es are clean taken away, the main branches suffer; they grow flat, and appear distorted; Avhich plainly shows, that nature is deprived of something, that is essentially ne- cessary to her Avell being. It is quite necessary to nip off the main branches, when they are grown about five feet long. They grow the larger and stronger, the wood ripens the better, the loAver buds are well filled, and better prepared 304 VIN VIN for the bearing of fruit. Some time after the tops of the main branches are nipped off, they will shoot out a second time, and then they generally throAv out, from near the end, tAvo branches instead of one; these also must be nipped off; at the same time the lateral or secondary branches must be looked to and nipped off, if any of them are shooting out anew. " In the fall of the year, as soon as the leaf begins to Avither and fall off, cut the branches down again to one good bud each, and take aAvay the earth round the heads of the vines, as before di- rected, and cut away the day roots, and manage them in the same manner as you did the fall before. Noav as some of your forward vines will bear fruit the third year from the planting, and as it is natural for you to desire to know what sort of fruit your vines will bear : I would advise you to set aside twro or three at most, of each sort of your most thriving vines for that purpose, and instead of cutting down all their branches to one bud each} like the rest, leave two branches on each of these vines, with two or three good buds each, Avhich will shew some fruit to your satisfaction..... But be persuaded to prevent the rest from bearing fruit till the fourth year, and the Aveaker vines till the fifth year, for it greatly weakens a vine to bear fruit Avhen so young. " The third summer manage your vines in the same manner as the second, tying up all the branch- es to the stakes, one above ano- ther ; only of those vines that are to bear fruit, the fruit-bearing branches should be tied up above the rest, that the fruit may have the benefit of the sun, the air and winds, all which are necessary and conspire to bring the fruit to ma- turity ; and this should always be the practice. This year a third stake is to be provided, which in the spring is drove down just on the north side of the vine, upon a line Avith the rest, for order sake. To this stake the branches that bear fruit, will be best fastened, because there will be the more room for the branches of reserve, which are to bear fruit the next year, to be distinctly fastened to the side stakes. These branches of reserve are now of great importance to the OAvner, as the next crop will de- pend upon the right management of them. They are, therefore, to be carefully tied up at proper dis- distances, to the side stakes, that they may grow Avell, that the Avood may ripen, and that the buds may be well filled. When they are grown about five feet long, the ends must be nipped off, the lateral branches kept short, and the nepheAvs restrained ; whereas, if they are all tied up to one stake, the Avood remains green and spun- gy, and does not ripen, the buds do not fill Avell; and Avhere the band is, all the branches mildew a'.id rot. As to the few vines that bear fruit this dimmer, let the fruit-bearing branches be nipped off five joints above the fruit, and let the side branches and nepheAvs be kept short as above directed. " In the fall of this third sum- mer, preserve tAvo of the best short jointed branches of resirve, one on each side of the head of the vine, for bearing fruit the next year: the rest cut dovvn to one good bud each. If some of your vines be very stro.ig and flourishing, you may preset".i: four branches for bearing fruit,but by no means more, one on each quarter of the vine ; the branches on the feAV vines, that VIN bore fruit this year, must be cut down to one good bud each ; for the same branch must never be suffered to bear fruit two succes- sive years, unless you fall short of branches of reserve, in that case, let the old branch bear a second time, but they seldom or never bear so large clusters, nor so fair fruit. On all the vines, thai bore fruit this year, not above two branches on each, should be kept for bearing fruit the next year, they will last the longer, and bear fruit the more plentifully hereaf- ter. The rest of the management is the same Avith that of the last year ; only some time in the latter end of NoArember or someAvhat later, if the hard weather keeps off, a small long trench on each side of the vine, is to be dug with a hoe, and the branches that are kept for bearing fruit, are laid doAvn gently into them, without forcing them so as to crack them, or split the bark, or strain the wood too hard, and must be co- vered over Avith the earth. If any part appears above ground, it must be well covered with straw, bog or salt hay, and indeed if the whole that are buried Avere also covered in the same manner, Avith straw, he. it Avould be best; for the branches being of an elastic nature, they are very apt, upon the thaw- ing of the ground, to rise Avith their backs above the ground, and remain exposed to the weather, so that your crop may be lost notwith- standing your trouble, Avhich a small covering of straw or hay will prevent. If any of them should be so stiff and stubborn as not to bend down, then bind straw round them and the stake. " In the spring of the fourth year, the branches that have been vol.. V, V I N 305 preserved for bearing fruit, must be carefully trained up to the side stakes, the higher the better; and the branches that shoot out from the head this spring, which are called branches of reserve, and are designed to bear fruit the next succeeding year, must be tied up to the stakes belcvw the fruit bear- ing branches, and one or two to the middle stake, if there is room ; for oftentimes the fruit bearing branches, occupy the middle as well as the side stakes, and espe- cially in a plentiful year. The management of the vine in its hearing state, calls for a close and particular attention." The writer in Young's Annals, says, 'In about four years, when the sprouts, planted in a great plantation will have taken root, towards the end of the winter, they must be bent, and bound about ten inches above the ground. For that purpose stakes must be pro- cured one inch or more thick, and two feet three inches long. They must be sharp at one end, and driven into the ground with a mallet, about half their length, at the distance of two feet from one another, and on the same line as the vines. Care must be taken to place one of them close to each vine. To these stakes fixed as above, is fastened a long pole or reed, eighteen feel long, or more, and one inch thick or more, and tied horizontally at about ten inches aboA'e the ground, leaying about five inches of the stakes above them. These poles must be fastened to the stakes Avith os- iers *. * The common yellow or basket wil- low of the United States, if planted ne^r R a 306 VIN VIN i To these horizontal poles are tied the branches of the young vines, to keep them near the ground, by which means, the fruit is Avarmed by the reflection of the sun from the ground, and arrives at maturity. In order to fasten each vine, the stake is cut three or four inches from the ground ; only tAvo divergent branches, about tAvelve or fifteen inches long are left. They are bent in the form of an arch, and fixed to the poles Avith oziers. These branches are called the arms ; the grapes hang from these branches, and some- times touch the ground. In that case the earth is remoAred tAvo inches from the grapes to prevent them from rotting.' " Some who have \vritten best upon this subject, recommend the taking aAvay all the lateral or se- condary branches and the nephews close to the body of the fruit bear- ing branch, and to leave only the nriin leaves of that branch, think- Lig, by this method, that all the nourishment ofthe vine is thrown into the fruit. They also order the top of the branch to he taken off, within three joints of the upper- most cluster of grapes. Others a rain are for following nature, and suffer all the branches to extend themselves as they will- These I look upon to be, two extremes, and think that a middle way, is every Avay best, most rational and safest. I knoAv, that when these smaller branches are taken clean away, the main branches, instead of groAving round, full and plump, which is their natural state, be- water, and kept closely trimmed, becomes very pliable, and answers very well for |»indirj....£-//fcr. come broad, flat and distorted, and have an unnatural appearance..... Besides these branches, when kept a\ ithin proper bounds, serve to shade the fruit from the scorch- ing rays of the sun, and to screen them from violent winds, from hail and beating rains, from damps and fogs, cold nights, and dews, whicM are all injurious to the fruit, as Avell as the cold dry north-east Avinds, and the cold chiving north- east btorms. " Before I proceed to the ma- nagement of vines for the frame or espalier; it will be necessary to acquaint you with some things of a general nature. " When vines are trimmed in the fall, which they ought to be as soon as the leaf Avithers and falls off, they seldom bleed. If vines have been neglected and not trim- med in the fall, let it be done in February,if good Aveather happens, or early in March. If it be done later, they will bleed too much, and endanger the crop. Searing the wound, as soon as it is made, will prevent the bleeding. In trimming, keep about two inches from the bud, or half Avay between bud and bud. The rule is, to cut sloping upAvard, on the opposite side to the bud, that the slope may carry off the tears from the eye, but I never found this any kind of security to the eyes below. If searing every wound be thought too much trouble, the only remedy, besides that, is, to wash the branches that are wounded and bleed, and especially the buds, with a rag dipped in warm Avater, Avithout touching the wound, which in eight or ten days will stop of itself; the liquor forming a- stiff jelly upon the wound, like coagulated blood, and drying by degrees, hc.i, up VIN VIN 307 the wound. The washing must be deferred till they have done bleeding. Unless this is done, the eyes below will be in danger of being blinded. For so glutinous is the sap, that it binds up the bud it reaches, so that the leaves can- not open and unfold at the time of vegetation. In cutting off large limbs from old vines, it sometimes happens that ants fall upon the pith, eat their way in, and make a hollow, where the water settles and rots it. In this case the re- medy is, to cut such branches close down to Avhere it is solid and green, .and it will bark over and heal. " It is common for large buds to shoot out two or three branches each. One only on each should be suffered to grow; if you expect fruit on them, be not in a hurry to strike them off, till you know Avhich is most fruitful, and save that. Vines that are close planted in a vineyard, cannot be expected to bear so much fruit, as single vines, or as those that are planted at a distance : and this is a suffi- cient reason for restraining them, and for limiting the number of bearing branches, if you mean to make good wine, to keep your vines in full vigour, and to pre- serve them for many years." It is the practice of some vig- nerons to lay doAvn and bury 1 or 2 branches the 2d or 3d year, thus enabling the vine to shoot out roots from every joint, and to be- come very strong, and even to thrive more than the parent vine. This practice is called in France Provigner, and is constantly follow- ed by Mr. Montmollin Avho cul- tivates vines Avith great success, near Philadelphia. In the succeed- ing year, the branch which had been laid down, must be cut off close to the main stem. In set- ting out vines, room should always be left for laying down, hence the propriety of planting the cuttings at eight or ten feet distance from one another. " When vines have been cover- ed with earth during the winter season, let them not be uncovered in the spring, till the hard frosts are oyer, and then let it be done in a fair, warm, drying day, that they may dry before night, for if they should freeze before they are dry, it would greatly hurt, if not ruin the crop. " The head of the vine, proper- ly speaking, when it is formed near the ground, is composed of the butt-ends of the branches, that are cut doAvn to one good bud each, which ought to be eight, at least, in number. These branches, the second year of the vine's growth, shoot from the solid Avood chiefly, and then is the critical time to prepare for forming a proper head to a vine ; therefore preserve eight of the best short jointed branches', that grow on all sides of the stock, and much of a size, and these must be carefully tied up singly to the stakes, that the buds may fill Avell, and that the wood may ripen, on which greatly depends the future success of your vineyard, as this is the foundation ofthe whole.If more than eight branches have grown from the head, the rest must be struck off with the finger. If one ofthe branches outgroAVS the rest, and appears more flourishing, that in particular must be struck off.... For if suffered to groAv, it will rob the rest of their due proportion of nourishment, and ruin the vine.... Fight branches are sufficient for a thrifty young vine, four of which I 308 VIN are intended for bearing fruit,when that time comes, and the other four are designed for branches of reserve. The third year, which is the first year of the vine's bearing, the lowermost good bud on the bearing branches, will produce one or two clusters of grapes each..... The fourth year, two or three of the lowermost buds will bear fruit, and after that five or six of the loAver buds will bear fruit, but sel- dom more ; so shall you have five or six branches, growing from each bearing branch, producing fruit, which 20 or 24 bearing branches upon one vine, and each of these branches yielding tAvo, three or more clusters, according to the fruitfulness of the year, and the due cultivation of your vineyard. " Nay, if your vines are avcII chosen, as I have directed, and properly cultivated, and your soil kept clean and Avell improved, you shal', in a fruitful year, see some ofthe secondary branches and even the tendrils bearing fruit. This , happened to some of my vines in the year 1767. I had four suc- cessive crops hanging on several of my vines at one and the same time, one under another, which I sheAved to several gentlemen, who admired, and were surprized at such a production : but I took away all but the first crop, lest my vines might be too much Aveahcned by over-bearing. I mention this to sheAv what nature will do in a fa- vourable year, under proper ma- nagement. And here I must re- mark, that the greater the vintage, the better the Avine, but a meagre thin crop produces thin Aveak wines, which require dexterity and art to make them fit for use ; but this I shall instruct you in, when I come to the making of wine. VIN " In transplanting vines or trees of any kind, I have by long ex- perience found, that removing them in the fall, after the leaf is fallen, is much surer and safer, than doing it in the spring. For if trees are well staked, so as to stand firm against hard winds, the ground will be so well packed about the roots, that they will grow in the spring, as if they had not been removed, and are in no dan- ger, if a dry season should hap- pen, especially if some horse litter or old hay be throAvn round them in the spring, so as not to touch the stern. Whereas if they are removed in the spring, and a drought succeeds,before the ground be Avell settled about the roots, many of them will miscarry. " As vines are best planted upon rising grounds to prevent too much wet, and as it is necessary to keep the soil loose and melloAV, it there- by becomes the more liable to washing aAvay by hard rains, Avhich must be a great injury to a vine- yard ; now if by any means so great an inconvenience might be avoided, it would be a great point gained ; and, therefore, it very well deserves our attention : For it is no small cost and labour to renew the soil, that is sometimes carried off by sudden floods of rain. I have tried several Avays to prevent this evil, so as neither to injure the vines, nor hurt the crop. The fol- loAving method, Avhere a person has the conveniency, 1 find to be the most effectual. Lay broad flat stones, not exceeding two inches in thickness, close along the lower side of the vines, after the ground has been made loose and mellow. These stones being broad, and not very heavy, do not press hard upon the roots of the vines, nor VIN pack the ground too close. They reflect great heat up to the vine and fruit, which helps to bring it to full maturity; they preserve the soil from washing aAvay, they keep the ground moist in the driest times, and hinder too much wet from penetrating down to the roots near the head of the vine, which chiefly occasions the bursting of the grapes, when they are near ripe, after a shower of rain. To prevent this evil, is one reason for cutting away the day roots, Avhich extend themselves along near the surface of the ground. But where such flat stones are not easy to be had, I would recommend short straAV mixed with chaff, the shives of flax and hemp, the chaff of flax seed, which is also an excellent manure, old half rotten salt hay, or bog hay, free from grass seeds, spread thin between the rows ; if it be spread thick, it keeps the ground too long wet and cold in spring, Avhich retards or keeps back the growth of the vines..... These I have experienced to be profitable, and very much to hinder the soil from washing away. On the side of steep grounds, of hills and mountains, stones in propor- tion to the descent, or logs of Avood, where stones are not to be had, must be laid along the loAver side of the vines, to keep the soil from Avashing aAvay, which otherwise it will do, to the great damage, if not the ruin of your vineyard; amd therefore when you begin a vineyard, remember that, this is one, and an essential part of the cost. " A vineyard will thrive the better, and the crops will be more sure, if it be Avell screened, by some good fence, buildings, moun- tain, or thick copse of wood at a V IN 30* small distance, from those points that lie to the north of the east, and to the north ofthe north-Avest; the winds from those quarters, in the spring ofthe year, being very unfriendly to vines. But then a vineyard should be quite open to all the other points of the compass. For vines delight much in an open, clear, pure, warm air, free from cold damps, fogs, mists, and from condensed air, arising from bogs, swamps, and wet clay grounds, and from large tracts of neigh- bouring woods. The north-west winds, indeed are rather advanta- geous to a vineyard : For although in America, they are extremely cold in winter, and occasion severe frosts, yet as the vines are then covered, they do them no harm. Besides those winds are generally drying and seldom bring wet; in the spring and summer they are always cool; and I find, by long ex- perience, that they are quite neces- sary, to brace up, harden and con- firm the leaves and tender new shot branches of all trees and vegeta- bles, which otherwise remain lan- guid and weak. " There are three seasons when careful and experienced vignerons deny access to their vineyards, first when the ground is wet, because then the weight of a man presses down and packs the earth too close and hard upon the rootsof the vines. Secondly, when the vines are in blossom, because if they are then disturbed by handling, shaking, or rubbing against them, the farina or fine dust that is formed on the blossom, which impregnates or gives' life to the fruit, is shaken off and the fruit miscarries. Third- ly, Avhen the fruit groAvs ripe, be- cause the temptation is too strong to withstand, and people will pluck 510 V I N off the fairest, ripest grapes, which vignerons do say is an injury to the Avhole hunch ; be that as it may, it certainly is a great injury to the owner, for the fairest, ripest grapes make the richest and finest fla- voured wines. " I iioav pass on to the manage- ment of vines upon espaliers : but then you are to remember that, the training up of vines to these frames, is only fit for the southern or war- mer climates, where the Avinter frosts are not so severe, as in our more northern regions; for as they are to stand exposed to alhveathers, the germ or bud, from which the grapes do spring, are apt to be chilled and destroyed by the se- verity of a sharp season, and espe- cially by moist sticking snows freezing hard on the branches. " The first year the young vines are trimmed and managed in the same manner you have been before directed. 'k The second year, set apart two of the best short jointed branches, on each vine, that you may be se- cureof one,in case theother should fail; for all vignerons well know, that vines shoot forth more barren and unfruitful branches, than fruit- ful ones ; therefore always set apart short jointed branches for bearers, and strike off all the rest of the branches with your finger. Again, chuse fruit-bearing branch- es, that grow as near the head and shoulders as possible ; train them up as straight as you can, one on each side of the stake : when they are grown about 15 inches long, bind them gently Avith a soft band to the stake ; for they are then yet very lender: and, as they grow longer, bind them a second and a third time ; and, when they are grown up to the top of the stake, VIN Avhich must be five feet high, nirj off the ends. When you have ta- ken aAvay the tops of the vine she will try to recover herself, and Avill shoot out tAvo branches at the top instead of one ; but these you must also nip off, and keep short, hut take away none of the lateral branches or nephews till you come to trim them in the fall, only nip them off to keep them within pro- per bounds. In the fall when the vine-leaves begin to wither and fall, cut away one of these standards from each vine, close to the stock, leaving such as you best like, Avhich is now out of danger, and trim aAvay from her all the branches and nephews, and cut off her top within three feet and a half of the ground ; leave four buds at the top, and cut off all the ends of the buds beloAv them ; all these wounds will be healed before the hard Aveather comes on, which should not be over severe where espaliers are used; the tAvo upper buds will be the arms of the vine, the two loAver buds will be shoulders, and just under these the vine is fastened to the espaliers, and is called the head of the vine. It requires the great- est skill to manage and cultivate vines thus educated, and trained up to espaliers. "• The third summer the espa- liers being regularly set up, six feet high, in a line Avith the vines, the posts being of some lasting wood, as of red cedar, locust, mul- berry, or good thrifty chesnut^ln the middle space between vin#and vine ; and the rails being four in height, and placed on the north side of the vines, the loAvermost about three feet from the ground: the vine must be fastened with a soft yet strong band to a stake firmly fixed down near the foot of VIN the vine, and fastened to the frame, near the loAver rail, the four buds rising above it. When these buds shoot forth their branches, they must be regularly trained up to the rails above by a careful hand; because these branches, at first, are very tender. When the branches are grown up to the top of the frame, the ends must be nip- ped off even with it, and kept doAvn even with the frame, that they may keep within the limits assigned them. The lateral branches and nephews also must be kept within proper bounds and not suffered to grow too long. If any fruit should appear this third year, Avhich may happen, let it be taken away. " In the fall of this third year, the lateral branches and nepheAvs must be carefully cut away from the main branches, so as not to hurt, or rub against the loAver buds, with the back of the knife, which is frequently done, by cutting off the branches too near the germ or bud. The four main branches, that sprung from the four buds, must now be cut down to tAvo good buds each. In cutting off the main branches, cut slanting upwards, and let the slope be on the opposite side of the bud, that if it should Aveep, the tears may drop free of the bud. In cutting, approach not too near the bud that is left, but keep at -two inches distance from it, lest you endanger it, by letting in the cold air and Avet upon it, before the Avound can heal. "If any fruit should appear on any of the branches, that groAv front the shoulders, which is often the case, let them be taken away as soon as they appear; for these being branches of reserve, they are designed to bear fruit the suc- ceeding year: the arms only are to VIN 311 bear fruit the present year : these directions will serve for the fourth, the fifth, and the succeeding years. " In the fall of this third year, I have above directed you to cut the four main branches, that grew from the four buds, doAvn to two good buds each, but this is design- ed for the strong vines only; those that are weak, must be cut down to one good bud, each branch ; and if any fruit should appear on the weak vines the fourth or even the fifth year, strike them off as soon as they appear; and once for all, be persuaded not to overload young vines writh fruit. " The fourth year when you trim your vines in the fall, you may cut the arms" clown to one good bud each, instead of taking them clean avvay ; ti.ese will bear fruit the next, and then you can save the two lower buds, that greAV en the branches that sprung from the shoulder, for branches of re- serve, by taking away the fruit as soon as they appear, and these a\ ill bear fruit the year after. " The sixth year you may have three good buds on each branch for bearing fruit, and the seventh year you may have four buds on each branch, which will make eight bearing branches, which are suf- ficient for the strongest vines. " Vines that are designed for espaliers, must be planted further asunder than those that are intend- ed for stakes. " One general rule is, in trim- ming vines, that the young Avood, that grew this year, must be pre- served for bearing fruit the next year, and those branches, that did not bear fruit, are better for the purpose, than those that did bear fruit; and for this reason, strike off, Avith your finger, the young 312 VIN VIN clusters from those branches which which are designed for stakes, at you reserve for bearing fruit the soon as the leaf falls, or the' vin- succeeding year. When I men- tage is over. The third year, in- tion a branch, I mean a main stead of driving stakes doAvn to branch of young wood, not a side fasten up the branches to them, or lateral branch, that grows upon let short crotches be drove down these young main branches. ' about six feet asunder, and pretty " When the arms have borne strong poles laid across upon them, fruit, they are to be cut clean away in so that they may lie about 14 in- the fall of the year, as soon as the ches from the ground, and so near vintage is over, provided you have to each other, that the branches of branches of reserve, growing on the vines may conveniently run the shoulders, to supply their upon the poles without dipping places; but if you have been so down and running upon the ground; unlucky as to have failed in if the ends of the vines should run these, you must cut the arms down beyond the sidesof this bed of poles, to two, three, or four buds each, they must be turned and confined according to the strength ofthe to their proper bed : because it will vine ; but then remember, not to be necessary to have a Avalk or suffer any fruit to grow on the path of two feet Avide betAveen bed branches, that spring, from the and bed to regulate the vines, and lower bud on each old arm, these to gather in the vintage. being now absolutely necessary for " This bed of poles should be so branches of reserve, in order to placed, as to extend three feet on recruit the arms the next year. each side of the row of vines, so " As some of our southern states that the rows of vines, standing have a hot sandy soil, and are sub- eight feet asunder, there will be a ject to great heats and parching path of two feet betAveen toav and droughts, and thereby find it very row for the necessary purposes be- difhcult to raise and preserve vines, forementioned.Particularcare must so as to become fruitful ; I shall be taken, not to take aAvay too here offer some thoughts and di- many branches from these vines, rections, which I imagine most unless there should happen an un- likely to succeed in these parching common wet season, nor to keep * hot countries. them too short, because they are "In the southern states I think it designed to shade the ground as necessary to shade the young vines much as possible ; but then in the the first two or three years, during beginning of August, or.about a the hot dry seasons, by driving month before the different sorts of down firmly in the ground, branch- fruits begin to groAv ripe, each in es of trees thick set with leaves, their proper time, take aAvay the on the south side of the vines, and lateral branches and cut off the to Avater these young vines tAvice tops of the main branches, but a week, during the hot dry seasons, this must be done, not all at once, in the evening; thebranches should but by degrees, to let in the sun not be tied up to stakes, but should and the air ; the Avetter the season, be suffered to run on the ground at this fatter part of the summer, to shade and keep it moist and the more branches must be taken cool. These vines must be trim- aAvay, and the shorter the main med in the same manner as those branches must be cut, and if ne- VIN VIN 313 •essary most of the leaves must also be plucked off: the fruit will ripen the better. " Here I Avould observe, that the same management with regard to the thinning the branches and the leaves at this season of the year, is necessary for vines that are fast- ened to stakes or espaliers, in or- der to meliorate and hasten on the full ripeness of the fruit; and re- member that the longer white grapes hang on the vines, even after they are ripe, if the season be dry, the richer wine they make.... But it is otherwise with the black grapes ; when they are full ripe, they must be gathered and made up into Avine, if not, they rot and dry away suddenly, and perish in less than a week. "A vineyard planted on a piece of good strong new ground needs no dung the first seven years. The best manure for a vineyard is such as is warm and free from grass seeds, for grass is a great enemy to vines: fowl's dung of every kind, except water-fowl; soap- ashes, or other ashes sprinkled thinly between the toavs of vines, but not too near them ; for this manure is very hot and sharp, and is best spread on the ground in the fall, that it may mix with the soil, and be properly tempered be- fore the heat of the next summer comes on, otherwise it Avould burn up the plants ; the rich soil that is washed down and settles along the sides of brooks and rivers, and in many low places along roads and highways ; sea sand, mixed with common soil that might be taken up along the highways ; in short, sand of every kind mixed in large proportions with good soil, is very comforting to vines, for those vines produce the sAVeetest vol. v. and richest grapes, and the strong- est and best flavoured wines, that grow in rich sandy soils: the mortar of old buildings, that has been made of lime and sand, pounded fine ; the dust of char- coal, the small coal and the earth that the coal kilns are covered Avith Avhen burnt; the soot of chim- neys ; the small cinders and black dirt found about smith's shops: all these are excellent manure for loamy or clay grounds to warm, to open and to dry them, and especi- ally if a large quantity of sand be mixed Avith it; creek mud, or the mud along the sides of riA'ers thrown on in the fall, or thrown up and SAveetened all Avinter, and laid on in the spring, is a rich ma- nure for sandy lands, or for clay and loamy lands if mixed Avith a good quantity of sand. All warm rich untried earth is excellent, so is street dirt of cities." Grapes often drop off when about ripening, Avithout any evi- dent cause. To prevent this, ci- tizen Lambhy of the department of the Seine and Oise, directs the following mode, Avhich he says he found successful, viz. Cutting a circular incision in the wood, and taking aAvay a ring of the bark about the length of two millimetres. The wood acquires a greater size about the incision, and the operation accelerates not only the maturity of the Avood, but likeAvise that of the fruit. The vines on Avhich the incision is made too deep, and further than the bark, will be spoiled both in wood and fruit. Monthly Magazine, vol. viii. p. 557. "The best method lever discov- ered to get rid of birds, Avas to de- stroy their food, that ripens about S s 314 V IN VIN the time as the grapes. Their food consists of Avild cherries and poke- berries chiefly*. Wasps are great en.mies to grapes ; the best way I have met with to destroy them, is to hang up phials here and there, along the outAvard rows of vines, filled half full of Avater well sweet- ened Avith honey, molasses, or coarse black sugar, the mouth of the phial must he so wide as easi- ly to recei\re a Avasp into it, and not much Avider, the wasps soon find out the molasses by its scent, and getting into the phial, are drowned in the SAveetened water. Another Avay I have discovered, Avhich comes very near to the for- mer, if it does not exceed it, Avhich is to cover flat wide earthen pans, all over the bottom with honey or molasses Avithout Avater, if there be three or four of these pans placed at a good distance, the whole length of the vineyard, eve- ry Avasp to leeAvard, that is Avithin smell of them, will come to the feast,theyAvillsoon entangle them- selves in the molasses, that if you attend them, you may make it a deadly feastto almost all that come; when the wind comes from ano- ther quarter, place your pans along another part or side of your vine- yard, that so the Avind may blow from the vineyard to the place from whence you would draw the wasps, * Mr. Legaux drives away birds in the following mode. Perceiving that they only committed depredations just bef re the rising and setting of the sun, he has two boys to patrole the vineyard, each with a whip in one hand, and a rat- tle in the other, making all the time, as much noise as they could for about an hour and a half. This process was con- tinued for three weeks every year. Editor. and so go round till you have de- stroyed them all. "The same grub, which is a short smooth earth worm, that cuts off the English beans, &c. is very hurtful to young vines ; if the earth were taken away round the foot of the vine, about two inches down, and some tar and hog's- lard, mixed in equal quantities, were daubed round that part of the vine, I think, though I never have made the experiment, it Avould prevent the mischief. " Vine fretters also are often in- jurious to vines ; they are very small animalcule, or insects, of what species, I have never exa- mined, but they appear in great numbers, in mere clusters, upon the young tender branches, upon the juice of which they feed; the only remedy I know, is to take away the branch with them upon it, and so destroy them bodily ; but if the branch cannot be spared, they must be mashed and rubbed off by a careful tender hand; if they are chiefly destroyed the first two or three years, they are not so numerous nor so troublesome af- terward." Rose bugs arc also very de- structive to vines. They may be draAvn off from the grapes, by plant- ing many rose bushes round the vineyard. " It is common with gardeners and vignerons, who cannot bear to see a good piece of ground lie idle, to raise a crop of cabbages, cauli- floAvers or brocoli, between vines when young. This is very wrong and very injurious to vineyards.... The soil cannot be too fresh for a vineyard. " I have already mentioned the planting of vines at a proper dis- tance, and in this I have exceeded VIN VIN 315 the common distance practised in most vine countries ; and that for reasons which I shall now assign. " The advantages of this manner of planting I think are many; with a single horse plough, having a foot fixed in the fore part of the beam, by way of gage, to prevent the plough from going so deep as to cut the roots of the vines ; a man, Avith the help of a careful boy to ride and guide the horse, (the horse always supposed to be tame and under good government,) may plough a full acre or more in a day, Avhich is as much as six men will generally dig up with hoes, and isevery way much better done; the furrows lying across the de- scending ground, Avill very much prevent washing away by hard rains ; the ground lies light, hol- low and loose, by which means it readily receives all the benefit of the atmosphere, the dews, he..... After this it requires no more cul- ture for twelve or fourteen days time, or more, according to the weather. If a drought succeeds the ploughing, it will need no other stirring till rain comes, pro- vided the ground turned up mel- low and crumble, Avhich it will do if it Avas not Avet Avhen it was ploughed. If the Aveeds should ap- pear, it must then be harroAved with a sharp iron tooth harrow ; Avhich the same man, boy and horse can manage; the man if careful and diligent, can with ease harroAV three acres a day, and if this be repeated three, four or five days, after every rain, or upon the first appearance of weeds, they may Avith great ease be kept down. Again, when vines are planted at a proper distance, a wheel or a hand-barrow may pass freely through them,Avhich will greatly fa- cilitate the manuring of the ground and the gathering in of the vin- tage ; or a horse Avith panniers on each side, made flat on the side next his body, or a long square basket fixed on a hand-barroAV and slungr?ross tAvo hardy boys' shoul- ders, would give dispatch to either work. Vines too, planted at a dis- tance, produce the best and richest Avines, and to croAvn all, it is the opinion of men knowing and ex- perienced in these things, that a vineyard planted at eight or ten feet distant each way, will pro- duce as many and as fine grapes, as one planted within half that dis- tance, though there be tAvice as many vines. " The German double pick, or sarkling iron, is the best instru- ment for digging a vineyard ; this instrument digs the ground with more ease than the hoe, and nei- ther cuts nor Avounds the roots..... It is fixed on the handle like a hoe, and bends downward as that does. " Stakes are a necessary article, and must be about an inch and a quarter square, not less ; if both ends were dipped in boiling tar, it Avill greatly help to preserve the stakes from rotting. The stakes should be six feet long, so as to stand five feet out of the ground, and should be drove by a line and stand strait. " The materials proper to make bands of, to bind the vines to the stakes are, the sweet flag, other- Avise called the Calamus Aromati- cus. These long flat leaves cut in June and dried in the shade, and then bundled up and kept in a dry place for use do very Avell, but then they must be made wet Avhen you bind with them. The long flat leaves of reed, the rushes and three square that grow in marshy 316 VIN VIN or meadoAV ground preserved and used in the same manner do as well." Bass of Russia matts is very useful. " Having noAV gone through the necessary directions for planting and managing vines for vineyards, I proceed tQ the making of wine, a subject though short and easy, yet calls for great nicety and ex- actness. The making, fermenting and preserving of Avine is a mys- tery to the people of America, but Avhen the methods of managing these things are brought to light and explained, nothing appears more simple and easy ; but before I proceed to this Avork, it will be necessary to give some directions about gathering the grapes. " Grapes must be fully ripe be- fore they are gathered ; gather them in a fair day, Avhen they are perfectly dry ; and take away all the rotten and unripe grapes, for they spoil the wine : If your vin- tage be large, and you gather more grapes than you can mash and press out in one day, let them be gathered Avithout bruising, for bruised grapes soon contract an unsavory taste and hurt the wine; however, if they are mashed the same day they are gathered, the bruising Avill do no hurt." Chaptat.l advises to cut off the tails of grapes very short Avith a pair of scissars, and to choose none but sound grapes, and those clus- ters which are best exposed, re- jecting those Avhich have been sheltered, and near the ground, and to prefer those which ripen at the bottom of the . vines. They are then to be put into small baskets to prevent the loss of juice, by the superincumbent weight; and when full they ought to be put in carts, or on the backs of men or horses. " I would advise the gathering of them to be directed by some grave discreet person ; for as this Avork is done generally by servants and children, it is made matter of pastime and frolic ; and so many grapes are torn off, and either bruised or scattered on the ground, to the no small damage of the OAvner, both in the loss of fruit, and in hurting the Avine : and these things should be impressed on the minds of the gatherers before they begin, that every thing may be done regularly and in order, by which means more work will be done, and to much better pur- pose. " If Avhite frosts happen before some of your grapes are fully ripe, let them still hang on the vines, and they will grow ripe, rich and high flavoured ; but they must be gathered before the Aveather be so hard as to freeze the grapes, for that will spoil them : the light frosts that only kill the leaves do not hurt the fruit, unless it be such as are late ripe, these should be carefully covered from all frosts, they should grow against walls or board fences fronting the south or south-east, and at night be covered. with mats or frames thatched with straw, Avhich should be so contriv- ed as to be set up to cover the fruit or let down at pleasure. " As the wine made from black grapes has a different manage- ment from that made of white grapes, I shall begin with the white ; these then must be ga- thered as I mentioned before in a fair day, when the grapes are per- fectly dry ; and both the rotten and unripe grapes being carefully plucked off from every bunch, the clusters are then thrown into the mash vat, and two or three men, V IN according to the quantity, having washed their feet and legs very clean in bran and water, get into the vat and trample and mash the grapes thoroughly, so that none escape." Chaptall says, as a general rule, that the grapes must be equally pressed, to insure an uni- form fermentation : and the vat filled in 24 hours, to avoid the in- convenience and imperfections ari- sing from a successive series of fermentations, and when unexpect- ed rain suspends the collection of the grapes, the juice of those al- ready collected and placed in the vat, must ferment separately. " The first and second pressing being mixed together is put into hogsheads, and filled Avithin four inches of the bung, that it may have room to work and ferment, the casks placed in some warm room or dry cellar. Then having a small spile fixed in the middle of the head of the cask, the third or fourth clay, draw a little of the wine in a glass, and if it be pretty fine, draw it off immediately into a clean dry well scented cask, the larger the better, so you have wine enough to fill it, which you must do within two inches of the bung, and stop it close, leaving only the Arent-hole open for a second fer- mentation ; after a few days it Avill work a second time, but not so much as at the first; if your Avine be strong and good, which you may know by the age of your vine- yard, and by the goodness of the seasons, it will be best to leave the bung-hole open for this second Avorking, the Avine will be the bet- tc-r: for strong Avines require a greater fermentation than Aveak wines, and the stopping of the bung-hole, checks the working, and VIN 317 prevents weak wines from spend- ing themselves too much, on the contrary, if strong wines have not a thorough woihing, they are apt to grow thick and ropy : by this you may form a proper judgment what degree of fermentation is proper for the wine that is under working, and govern yourself ac- cordingly. Three or four days after the second fermentation be- gins, carefully watch your Avines every day, again try them in a glass, and if they be pretty fine, prepare a cask sweet and good, bum a good large brimstone match in it, and as soon as the match is burnt out, Avhilst the cask is full of smoke, draw off the Avine into it; now fill up your cask to the brim, and bung it up tight and stop the vent hole ; the smoke of the brimstone Avill hinder any further fermentation ; and this is called stumming or sulphuring; then make a mortar of clay and horse dung mixed up with strong flaxseed jelly, and cov- ering the bung and vent hole close with it, let it stand till it is fit for use. " When you first rack off, if you have any old Avine that is rich and good, of the same kind or colour, put four or six gallons of it, and two gallons of good brandy into your cask (this quantity is suffi- cient for an English hogshead) and then rack off your Avine into it for the first time, this will great- ly strengthen and preserve it. " When wine is in fermentation, all the gross parts are thrown up to the top of the cask, or vessel that it ferments in, and there meeting the air, they contract a harshness. If then they are suffer- ed to pass down through the body of the wine, which they certainb/ will do as soon as the fermentation is 318 V I N VI N over, they will communicate those evil qualities to the wine. For this reason, draw off your wine both times before the fermentation be quite over." These general rules are of great consequence. " I now pass on to the making of red wines from the black grapes. Red wines have a different ma- nagement from the white ; the whole of one or even two days treading or mashing, (where the vintage is great) is thrown into a large vat, the must, stalks, skins and all, and stands in some Avarm dry place or cellar. The vat is covered close with sheets or blan- kets, or both, and thus it remains, according to custom from four to seven or even ten days, according to the coldness or heat of the weather. This is done to obtain a strong fermentation, in order to give a deeper colour to the Avine ; and this is the only end proposed by it; the manager of this work, visits the vat twice a day, and in a glass views the colour of the wine and tastes it ; if the tincture be not deep enough to his mind, he knoAvs by the taste of the wine, Avhether it Avill stand a longer fer- mentation : if it will not, he con- tents himself with the colour it has, and draAVS and presses it off, and fills it into casks, leaving about two inches from the bung, for a second fermentation. When the second fermentation is over, which generally happens in four or five days, he then draAvs itoff into clean Avell scented casks, and adds to it six gallons of good old wine and tAvo gallons of brandy to an Eng- lish hogshead, which contains from 60 to 63 gallons. Where the same kind of wine is not to be had, he makes use of Port wine. He then fills the cask quite full and bungs it up tight, leaving only the vent hole open to let out the ge- nerated air. Note : Avhen I say, where the same kind of wine is not to be had, he makes use of Portugal wines, this is mentioned for our practice, not that the French make use of such wines, for they always have wines enough of their own of the same kind. " Besides the main pulp or core of the grape, which is white in black grapes as well as others, there sticks to the inside of the skin, a considerable body of rich pulp, of a deeper die in some than in others. This pulp gives the colour to the grape, this same pulp also gives the colour to the Avine, for the same grape is capable of making while wine as well as red wine ; if the main core Avhich is first trod out, be only used, the Avine will be white ; but if the red pulp be mixed Avith it, it makes it of a rich purple colour ; as this is a clear case the great point of improvement is, to dissolve or ex- tract this rich pulp, without injur- ing the wine. That the present method is the best and most effec- tual to that purpose, I can by no means think ; the violent fermen- tation through which the wine is made to pass, in order to procure the tincture, must exhaust the spi- rits in a very great degree, and leave the body in a weak and lan- guid state, and subject it to harsh- ness, to turn eager or vapid in a short time ; I think I have reason to conclude, that if the husks or skins, after four days lying in the murk, were taken out, and thrown into the mash vat, and trod over again, and especially if some of the must, or rather wine, be now and then throAvn over the husks, in order to wash away the pulp, VIN VIN 319 that a full tincture may be obtain- ed, without torturing the wine, as the present manner is, and Avith- out running so great a risk of spoil- ing it." On the proper fermentation ol the juice of grapes depends the quality of wine. For this reason the following extracts are given from Chaptall's excellent trea- tise on the subject, and are parti- cularly valuable inasmuch as they refer to the practices pursued in various parts of France, each of which has a climate nearly similar in the United States. " The method of disposing grapes to fermentation varies in different countries. The stalks are harsh and austere, and wines produced from grapes not freed from stalks, do not participate in that quality ; but these are weak and almost insipid wines, and are apt to become oily. Fermenta- tion also proceeds with more force and regularity, in must mixed with the stalks, than in that which has been freed from them. Near Bourdeaux the red grapes are freed from the stalks, when it is pro- posed to obtain good wine, and when the grapes are not quite ripe, and when frost has taken place be- fore they are collected, but when the grapes are very ripe, it is per- formed Avith less care. The stalks facilitate fermentation, and effect a more complete decomposition of the must, and produce all the alkohol it is perceptible of yield- ing. But it is added, this is only necessary when the wine is to be distilled. When delicate Avine is to be prepared for drink, it is ne- cessary to withdraAv the stalks from the fermentation, to pick the grapes, and to clean them with care. In the south, where the wine is naturally generous, the stalks would add a disagreeable harshness to the liquor. They may be freed by a fork with three prongs, which the workman turns and agitates in the vat, and by be- ing drawn up to the surface, are removed by the hand, or by a sieve of ozier twigs, distant from one another about half an inch, and having above it a close ozier pad or presser, about four inches thick." It is more than probable, that the juice of the grapes of the U. States, will bear to have the stalks mixed with it, but it would always be best to make two parcels, one Avith the stalks, and another with- out. " The 54th degree of Fahren- heit is generally considered the temperature most favourable to spirituous fermentation; below that degree it is languid, above, it be- comes too great. Fermentation is slower, as the temperature has been colder at the time of collect- ing the grapes. In consequence, it has been recommended to place the vats in covered places; to remove them from damp and cold situations, to cover them, in order to moderate the cold of the atmosphere; to heat again the mass by introducing boiling must, and to make choice of a warm day for collecting the grapes, or to ex- pose them to the sun. " Must shut up in close vessels undergoes very slowly the pheno- mena of fermentation, and pro- duces more generous wine, as the aroma and alkohol are retained, which are in part lost in fermen- tation in tlie open air. If the dis- engagement of the gas which es- capes by fermentation, be checked by keeping the fermenting mass 320 VIN VIN in close vessels, the movement then slackens, and the fermenta- tion terminates Avith difficulty and after a very long time. " The activity of fermentation is proportioned to the mass ; but it is not ahvays of advantage to carry on the process in a large mass. Extremes must be avoid- ed ; and care must be taken not to obtain it with too great precipita- tion ; the volume must be varied according to the nature of the wine and the object proposed. A small mass will preserve the aroma, a large mass developes the spirit. Ripe, SAveet, and almost dry grapes produce a thick must, and fermentation is slow in com- mencing, and a great mass of liquid is required, otherwise the Avine remains thick, and too luscious, and requires long keeping to per- fect it. <■' The temperature of the air, the state of the atmosphere, and the weather which prevails during the vintage ; all these causes and their effects must be ahvays present in the mind of the agriculturist, that he may be able to deduce from them rules proper for directing his conductin regard to this object. "When the must is very aqueous, (as in many seasons) boiling it is of advantage. Drying the grapes before fermentation is founded upon the same principle. Saccha- rine grapes require the addition of tartar, which must be boiled in a kettle Avith the must. " The carbonic acid gas disen- gaged from the vintage, and its hurtful effects to respiration, have been known since fermentation itself Avas known. This gas, re- tained in the liquor by all means that can be opposed to its evapora- tion, contributes to preserve the aroma, and a portion of alkohol which exhales along with it. This carbonic acid holds in solution, a pretty considerable portion of al- kohol. " As the object and effect of spirituous fermentation,are merely the production of alkohol, by de- composing the saccharine princi- ple, it thence folloAvs that the for- mation of the one is always in pro- portion to the destruction of the other, and that the alkohol will be more abundant, as the saccharine principle is greater ; for this rea- son, the quantity of alkohol may be augmented at pleasure by ad- ding to the must the sugar which seems to be wanting. " It must never be forgotten that the fermentation ought to be ma- naged according to the nature of the grapes and agreeably to the wine that may be required. Weak wines must be fermented in casks, strong wines ought to be suffered to work in the vats. " The period for taking the wine from the vats, ought to vary ac- cording to the climate, the season, and the nature of the wine pro- posed to be obtained, and of other circumstances, Avhich must always be kept in view. In general the following consequences may be es- tablished : " 1. The must ought to remain in the vats the less time, according as it is less saccharine. Light wines, cannot bear the vat above from six to twelve hours. " 2. The must ought to remain the less time in the vats, accord- ing as it is proposed to retain the acid gas, and to form brisk wines; in that case, it is thought sufficient to tread the grapes, and to put the juice into the casks after it has been left in the vat 24 hours, and VIN VIN 321 sometimes Avithout having been in the vat at all. In this case, the fer- mentation, on the one hand is less tumultuous ; and on the other, the gas can with less ease be volati- lized ; Avhich contributes to retain that highly volatile substance, and to make it one of the principles of the liquor. " 3. Must ought to be left in the vats less time, according as it is proposed to obtain Avine less co- loured. This condition is of great consequence in regard to brisk Avines, one of the most valuable qualities of Avhich is their wajit of colour. " 4. Must ought to remain in the vats less time, according as the temperature is warmer, and the mass more voluminous &c.; in that case, the briskness of the fer- mentation makes up for its short- ness of duration. " 5. The must ought to remain in the vats less time, according as it is proposed to obtain wine of a more agreeable flavour. " 6. The fermentation, on the other hand, will be longer, accord- ing as the saccharine principle is more abundant, and the must thicker. " 7. It will be longer if the wines are destined for distillation ; in which case, every thing ought to be sacrificed to the production of alcohol." " 8. The fermentation "will be longer, according as the tempera- ture has been colder when the grapes were collected, and accord- ing as the Avine is required to be coloured. " From these principles it may be- conceived Avhy in one country the fermentation in the vat termi- nates in 24 hours, Avhile in others it continues for 12 or 15 days; vol. v. why one method cannot be gene- rally applied, and Avhy particular processes may be attended with errors, Sec. " Gentil admits as an inva- riable sign of the necessity of re- moving the wine from the vat, the disappearance, in regard to taste, of the sweet and saccharine prin- ciple. This disappearance, he observes, is only apparent, but the savour of the little that remains is concealed ; the alcohol, the savour of which predominates, terminates its decomposition in the casks..... It is also evident that this sign, which is not at all applicable to white Avines, cannot be employed for wines destined to remain lus- cious." It is highly probable that the important rule suggested by Gen- til, Avould answer very Avell for the Avines made from the native grapes ofthe middle United States. But the great point is to draw it off, before the feculent matter which rises in fermentation, falls down again. " New casks destined for re- ceiving Avine, must be well im- pregnated Avith salt and Avater, to extract the injurious bitterness of the wood. Old casks must be Avell scoured and washed. The Avine should be draAvn from the vats into a reservoir and carried to the caskt;. The liquor Avhich floats over the deposit of the vat, (Surmout) is to be draAvn off and put into casks : it forms a lighter kind of wine, more delicate and less coloured. The head remain- ing after the wine is draAvn off, Avill still yield wine, if pressed, but it must be separated, and pres- sed by itself, and it will produce good vinegar." " Wine made from vounr>- vhtage the cure can be greatly expedited, by approxi- mating the edges of the ulcer with stripes of sticking plaster, spread on linen or leather, and then cov- ering the whole Avith a plaster of simple cerate ; a bandage h after- wards to be applied, extending from the toes to the knee, in such a manner as to press equally on all p..rts. These dressings are to he renewed every 21 hour;;. When lhe patient's business compels him to take exercise, this method is ab- solutely necessary for the cure of an ulcer. If the granulations ri.uiild rise so high as to be above the level ofthe surrounding skin, they are to be kept under by touch- ing them with lunar cauV.ic. It Kilen happens that after the ulcer becomes clean, it sheAvs no dispo- sition to fill up, and has an indo- lent appearance, dressing it with red precipitate ointment, will gene- rally cause the granulations to rise and thereby fill it up. When the ulcer is completely healed, a bandage ought to be worn for severed Aveeks after, together Avith a piece of bheet lead over the part where the ideer existed, to defend it from accidents."] A new and ingenious method of treating old ulcers of the legs, has lately been recommended by Mr. Baynto:.', of Bristol ; and which has since been successfully adapted by many rcspec'.alle surgeons. It consists in carefully drawing the skin that surrounds the ulcer, to- wards its centre; and which is gradually effected at each dress- ing, by the aid of slips of adhesive plaster (for instance, that of di.\- chylon, or J;, tharge), spread on smooth linen cloth, 'iitese shjji must lie made 2 inches broad, and of such a length that, after pe-sring round the limb, from 1 to 5 in- ches may remain : the middle cf this piece is to be applied to the sound side of the limb, opposite to the inferior part of the ulcer, about one inch below the lower edge cf the sore, and the ends are drawn over the ulcer Avith as much gradual extension as the pa- tient can bear. Other strips are then to be placed in a similar manner, each above and in con- tact Avith the other, until the Avhole surface of the sore and limb be completely covered, at least cue inch below, and two or three incises above, the diseased^Jarl. Next, the limb is lo he defended by rollers of soil ca!ico,passed round as smooth- ly as possible, above and below the ulcer. In cases cf violent inllammu- 332 V O M tion, and considerable discharge, Mr. B. recommends repeated af- fusions of cold Avater : the patient should take frequent exercise, and apply this bandage early in the morning; as the limb is then lesslia- ble to sAvelling. In a short time, the pain, which at first is considerable, will be found gradually to abate, while the limb recovers its tone and sensibility. VOMITING, is the inverted vermicular motion of the muscular fibres of the stomach and intes- tines ; being attended with con- vulsions of the abdominal muscles and midriff: Avhen this action is so mild as to be confined to the sto- mach, it is then termed nausea.... As vomiting is a frequent symptom in other diseases, especially in fe- vers, Ave shall here consider it only as a primary complaint. Cause.? .-...Crudities accumulated in the stomach ; such as bile ; mucus ; hard, indigestible food ; scirrhus, and other organic affec- tions ; acrid and poisonous sub- stancestaken by the mouth; worms; ruptures ; nephritic complaints, or stone, as well as violent passions. Cure :...If the stomach be foul; or if hurtful substances have been swallowed, emetics should be ad- ministered in the mannerdescribed, vol. ii. p. 451 ; but, in cases Avhere poisons have been taken, the anti- dotes recommended under their respective heads, should first be re- sorted to ; and the cure be com- pleted by strengthening medicines. In callosity, or scirrhosity of the stomach, benefit has often been derived from the internal use of soap, mercuriaUuand other altera- tive;....Worms require the treat- ment already suggested, for their expulsion....If vomiting has been induced by violent pasrio:i3, espe- UR I cially by anger and vexation ;• it will be advisable to take a tea- spoonful of vitriolated kali in spring Avater, and, on the following morn- ing from 10 or 15 grains of powder of rhubarb : the beverage should consist of barley-water, and other diluents, with cream of tartar, and a few grains of nitre. Persons of an irritable temper, and conse- quently more liable to a return of this complaint, ought at least to abstain from spirituous liquors, and high-seasoned food. Where the vomiting, or nausea, continues after the stomach is cleansed, about a scruple of salt of Avormwood should be taken in Ava- ter ; and immediately after, tAvo tea-spoonfuls of lemon-juice in the same liquid ; which remedy may be repeated every two or three hours ; drinking balm-tea in the intervals. The Columbo-root has, likewise, been of great service in these cases. Infants at the breast are often troubled with vomiting : if the milk be coagulated, and the stools have a similar appearance, or a green colour, and an acid odour,, the testaceous powder should be given, as directed, p. 99 of this vol. after Avhich the infant ought to drink pure whey ; but, during the attack, lukc-warm water must be administered ; farther, a mix- ture of SAveet-oil and laudanum may be rubbed in, or warm cu- shions filled with aromatic plants, be applied to thepit ofthe stomachs If such vomiting be followed by greatdebility, a feAV tea-spconfuls of mulled red-wine, with a little nut- meg, may be alloAved with benefit; though this practice should never be adopted on trivial occasions. URINE, is that part ofthe blood which is separated by the exlremL- URI U R I 33=3 ties of the arteries connected Avith the kidnies. It drops by the ure- ter into the urinary bladder, where it usually remains a few hours ; and is prevented from returning into the ureters, by their entrance being oblique, and provided with valves. As this secretion is of import- ance in the animal economy, Ave shall give a concise view of the principal diseases arising from that source. It deserves to be previ- ously stated, that the obstruction of the urinary passage is always at- tended Avith greater and more im- mediate danger, than that of the bowels....When the inclination to vnake Avater is succeeded by a dis- charge of a few drops only, it is termed a strangury; if the diffi- culty of voiding it be attended Avith pain, a dysury ; and a total sup- pression, is called hchury. Causes :....The most frequent are, an acrid state of the blood ; spasms ; compression ofthe neigh- bouring parts ; scirrhous, or cance- rous tumors forming internally ; suppressed perspiration ; repulsion of rheumatism, gout, and cutane- ous eruptions ; stone in the bladder or kidnies; inflammation of the bladder, he. Cure :......In urinary affections arising from acrimony, suppressed perspiration, or spasms, it will be advisable to take antispasmodics, combined with mild sudorifics ; for instance, emulsions with tinc- ture of guaiacum ; camphor, he. at the same time, Avarm fomenta- tions should be applied to the lower belly ; or, tepid bathing, followed by emollient ciysters, may be of still greater advantage. If the dis- order originate from a repulsion of rheumatic, gouty, and othei' morbid matter, attempts must be made to reduce the affection to its former seat, by means of diaphore- tics ; blisters applied to different parts, and the use of warm baths. In cases of inflammation of the bladder, or stone, Ave refer the reader to vol. i. p. 295 ; and p. 47 of the present volume. In every stage of these painful maladies, the patient should take lukewarm, mucilaginous liquids ; such as solutions of gum-arabic in water; or linseed-tea; and a bland, nutritious diet. If, how- ever, the desired relief be not speedily obtained, proper medical aid ought to be procured, Avithout delay. Sometimes the urine is involun- tarily emitted, but Avithout pain ; a complaint Avhich frequently af- fects children. It generally origi- nates from indolence ; so that mo- derate correction will prove the most certain remedy : it may, how- ever, also arise from a Aveakness of the sphincter of the bladder; in. which case, tonics, such as bark, valerian, See. together with blisters applied to the loins, or to the sacral bone, will be the most proper means. But, where it proceeds from worms, anthelmintics may be employed with advantage. Another affection of the urinary system, is diabetes, or an immode- rate and long-continued discharge of urine, the quality of Avhich is, in most cases, preternaturaliy chang- ed : thus, in some instances, it has the smell, colour, and taste of ho- ney ; Avhile, in others, it is entirely limpid.....It is a remarkable cir- cumstance in this affection, that the excretion of urine exceeds the quantity of liquid taken by the patient. Causes .-...Spasms ; general debi- lity, cr local Aveakness in the kid- 334 U S Q nies ; strong diuretics, and Avhat- ever may induce a laxity of the body......This malady is seldom cured, unless it be attended to in its earlier stages. Treatment ......The remedies hi- therto prescribed for this affection, are tonics, such as bark, with small doses of rhubarb, or mixed with the diluted vitriolic acid ; and the daily use of mucilaginous drinks, conjoined Avith lime-water, either alone, or with milk. But the most important point appears to be, ab- stinence from all vegetable food ; a practice Avhich has been attended with the best effect. [See Dia- betes.] Lastly, there occurs sometimes an alarming affection of the blad- der, when the urine is mingled with blood....If this malady be suffered to continue for a long period, it may prove fatal ; but, in general, it is not attended Avith danger. Causes ......Violent exertions and local injury ; inflammation of the kidnies ; drastic and diuretic me- dicines ; excess in sensual plea- sures ; suppression ofthe piles, &c. Cures:...When the disorder arises from debility, tonics, combined with astringents, should be employed. If acrid matters produced such bloody discharge, it will be neces- sary to resort to mucilaginous sub- stances and antispasmodics ; such as chamomile, rue, opium, he. but, when it is occasioned by suppress- ed evacuations, these ought, if possible, to be speedily restored.... Where the passage is ulcerated, it will be useful to take th*: Peruvian bark Avith sal ammoniac, or lime- water and milk. In cases cf Ston e, the reader will find the proper re- medies stated under that article. LSQUEBAUG11,astiong, com- pound, spirituous liquor, which is u vu prepared in the folloAving manner* Take of cloves, cinnamon, and nutmegs, each 2 oz. ; of caraway, anise, and coriander-seeds, each 4 oz. ; and half a pound of liquorice- root, cut in slices. Let these in- gredients be bruised, and distilled Avith 11 gallons of proof-spirit, and two gallons of water, till the Joints begin to rise. "When the liquor i.s about to run, 2 oz. of British saf- fron, tied in a linen bag, should be fixed to the extremity of the Avorm, so that the spirit may filtre through and extract all the virtues of the saffron. When the distillation is completed, the Avhole should be sweetened Avith a sufficient quan- tity of double-refined sugar, and decanted for use. Usquebaugh is chiefly employed as a cordial, and may occasionally be drunk Auth advantage, by per- sons Avho have undergone great bodily fatigue ; but, as the posses- sion of such luscious beverage is apt to introduce detestable habits, Ave conceive, that diluted rum, or other simple spirit, would afford a proper substitute for thii expensive com- pound. Usunv. See Interest. UVULA, in animal economy, denotes a soft glandular body, of a conical figure, that is suspended from the palate, or posterior part of the roof of the mouth, perpendicu- larly over the chink of the wind- pipe, which lies at the root of the tongue. The uvula is by Nature design- ed to modify the current of cold air, previously to its entering the lungs. As the affections, to which this part is exposed, do not essen- tially differ from those of the Ton- sils, avc shall conclude with re- iflarking, that a gargle, consisting of a decoction of Peruvian hark, U V U U V U 335 sage, rose-leaA-es, or other astrin- gland is so relaxed or inflamed, as gents, has generally pro\red effica- to be attended with a difficulty of cious, in cases where this useful swalloA\ing. w. W AG W A G Wages. SeeLABouii. WAGGON, a species of Avheel- rarriage, the form of which varies, according to the different purposes for Avhich it is designed. hew implements of husbandry are of greater importance, or ad- mit, perhaps, of more essential im- provements, than Avheel-carriages. Hence Ave cannot but express our surprize at the infatuation of those farmers, who employ large Avag- gons, on the erroneous principle, that a greater quantity may thus be carried at one time ; Avhile they overlook the injury Avhich such un- Avieldy machines necessarily occa- sions, both in their fields, and par- ticularly on roads, by making deep ruts, and otherwise tearing or breaking up the soil. The princi- pal objection to the use of these heavy vehicles on farms, is their weigh' ; Avliich requires an in- creased number of horses or cattle, that might he more profitably em- ployed in tillage. The same obser- vatjon is applicable to the common road or stage-waggons : these usu- ally Aveigh about 2^. tons, and are drawn by 8, 10, or more horses, acoording to the distance to w hich they travel. Now, a single horse, of a moderate size will, in a Avell- constructed vehicle, and on tolera- ble roads draAV 30 cwt. with ease, independently of the Aveight occa- sioned by the cart : and it will per- form this task for a series of days, months, and even years. But, if the common waggons were laden according to such draught, they ought to carry from 20 to 40 tons; a weight exceeding their strength, and incompatible Avith their mode of construction. The superiority of small carriages being too evident to require any farther demonstra- tion, Ave shall subjoin a table, ex- hibiting the load which Avaggons and carts are, by act of parliament, permitted to draw on the turnpike- roads ; and which includes both the whole incumbent load, and the vehicle itself. 336 WAG WAG Waggons, with wheels not exceeding 9 inches, Ditto, Avith wheels not exceeding 6 inches, Ditto, Avith wheels not exceeding 3 inches, Carts, Avith Avhcels not exceeding 9 ] inches, Ditto, Avith wheels not exceeding 6 ] inches, Ditto, Avith wheels not exceeding 3 ] inches, Summer Weight. "Winter Weight. tons. civt. qrs. /tons. cwt. qrs. 6 0 0 4 5 0 3 10 0 3 0 0 2 12 0 1 10 0 5 10 0 3 15 0 3 0 0 2 15 0 2 7 0 1 7 0 Our limits not admitting a far- ther disquisition, Ave request those readers, who wish to obtain addi- tional information on this subject, to consult Dr. Anderson's "Dis- sertation on the Means of Con- structing Waggons, and other Car- riages employedfor the Purposes of Agriculture ;" an ingenious essay, which is inserted in the 4th vol. of his " Recreations in Agriculture," &c. See also the article Cart. [The above table is preserved, from an opinion that the English regulations may be advantageously adopted in the United States, where it is highly pleasing to see a spirit prevailingin favour of those great sourses of riches to a coun- try, Turnpike Roads. The great importance of enabling ahorse oroxto draw Avith the great- est poAver,is self-evident; and hence the reader is presented Arith the folloAving observations, by Mr. Walker, extracted from his " Lectures on Philosophy," 4to. It is eA'ident, that Avhere the neck rises from the chest of the horse, the shoulder-blades form the resting place of his collar, or harness, into a slope or inclination ; and as this slope forms an angle, with a perpendicular to the hori- zon, of about 14 or 15 degrees, it is evident, the line of his draught should form the same angle Avith the horizon, because he will then pull perpendicularly to the shape of his shoulder, and all parts of that shoulder will be equally pres- sed by the collar. The following figure may render this more intel- ligible, and show that a horse draAvs more conformably to his mechanism in a sloping, than a» horizontal line. WAG WAG 337 The horse himself, considered as a lever, has in this inclined draught a manifest advantage over his obstacles, in comparison of an horizontal draught, as may be seen by the next figure. When a horse is yoked to a post, or has any great obstacle to overcome, he converts himself into a lever, making his hind feet the fulcrum, and the centre of gravity of his body to lean over it, at as great a distance as possible, by thursting out his hind feet; by this means acting both by his weight and muscular strength, and lengthening the acting part of the lever a b, he overcomes the diffi- culty more by his Aveight than by his muscular strength ; for the muscles of the fore legs act upon the bones to so great a mechanical disadvantage, that though he ex- erts them Avith all his might, they serve in great difficulties, for little more than props to the fore part of his body. Hence Ave see the great use of heavy horses for draught. But the great mechanical advan- tage of the inclined draught, may be more particularly seen, by call- ing the line a b the acting part of a lever, and the nearest approach from the fulcrum b to the inclined line of draught, (that is, b c) the re- sisting part ofthe lever ; compare this with the resisting part of a lever, touching the horizontal line of draught, (that is, b d) and it Avill be found nearly double ; conse- quently, agreeably to the known properties of the lever, a weight at g would require double the exer- tion in the horse to remove it, that the same weight' would require Avas it placed at e. These advan- tages, great as they are, are yet so obvious,that one Avonders how they could be overlooked. Let any one with the model of a horse from a toy-shop, set his hind feet on the edge of a table, and it will be found that he Avill draw double the weight along the table a, that he can upon the table b. vol. r. X x 338 WAG W AG %r& T *£&s&S. The obvious conclusions from this experiment is, that single horse carts are preferable to teams ; that four horses, with each a properly constructed cart, will draw much more, and Avith mpre ease to themselves, than when they are yoked in a team to one cart; be- cause, in that case, three of the horses must draw horizontally, and consequently in a manner incon-. sistent Avith their mechanism, and the established laAvs of mechanics. The horse's collar is also drawn against his throat, by which his breathing is interrupted ; and in cart teams, (where the horses are not marshalled, as in Avaggons,) one horse is standing still, perhaps, while another is wasting his strength in pulling him forward.... One horse to relieAe himself, leans on one Avay out of the line of draught, Avhiht another is leaning a contrary way; in short their strength is seldom united. From a number of experiments made by Mr. Walker, for the pcrpose of determining the pro- per draught, there appeared, to be an evident disadvantage indraAving from above the centre ; and on the contrary, a considerable increase of power in drawing from the axles. Hence he concludes as the splinter bar, or point of draught, in most carriages, is placed about one fourth the diameter ofthe fore wheel above its centre, it is evident, that a pressure equal to one fifth of whatever weight lies upon it, is actually added to the natural weight, by this situation of the point of draught. For 24oz. sur- mounted the obstacle when the pull was from the centre, and 30oz. were required to surmount it, at half the length of a spoke above the centre. From Mr. Walker's experi- ments to ascertain the best propor- tions between the heights of the fore and hind Avheels ; it appeared, that there was little superiority or inferiority in all the variety of com- binations of heights in fore and hind wheels. Fore wheels, Iioav- ever, of four feet eight inches, and hind wheels of five feet six inches, seem to have what little advantage there is. To the objection Avhich might be made against these di- mensions, founded upon the incon- veniences arising to the coach- 3690135367642� 199971 WAK maker in altering the routine of his business, he replies it is cer- tainly as easy to fix the splinter- bar under the futchells, as upon them ; and I see no great outrage that would be done to appearance and fashion, if the buttons on which the traces are looped, were under the splinter-bar instead of being a-top.« In these cases the draught would have all its mecha- nical advantages, and the horses would draw agreeably to their form and anatomy ; the pole Avould have the same command of the car- riage down hill, and the same command in turning as in the present method.] WAINSCOT, denotes the tim- ber-Avork employed for lining the walls of apartments : it is usually- made in the form of pannels, and painted, in-order to serve as a sub- stitute for hangings. According to the modern prac- tice of building, rooms are wains- coted only to the height of tAvO or three feet; the intermediate space, to the ceiling, being usually cover- ed Avith paper. The walls, hoAV- ever, ought to be thoroughly dry, before the Avainscot is fixed ; as the moisture exuding from the bricks is apt to loosen the pannels, and thus disfigure the workmanship. With a view to prevent such acci- dents, charcoal and wool are usu- ally placed between the timber and the Avail; but the most certain me- thod of preserving the wainscot, consists in priming the inner sides of the joints Avith white lead, or with a mixture of Spanish-broAvn and linseed oil. WAKE-UOBIN. Cuckow- riNT,or Lords and Ladies, Arum maculatum, L. a native and hardy perennial, groAvingin shady places, WAL 33$* ditch-banks, and rough grounds ; ffoAvering in M'.y and June. Both the bulbous root, and the leaves of this vegetable, in a fresh state, are extremely acrid. Never- theless, the former has sometimes been used internally as a powerful stimulant, and externally as a sub- stitute for blisters. When dried and pulverized, these roots lose all their acrimony, and afford an al- most tasteless farinaceous poAvder. According to Dr. Withering, good bread may be prepared from them, as well as an excellent starch. .....The French manufacture from the same root, when properly dried and reduced to powder, a harmless cosmetic ; which is sold under the name of cy/iress-powder. Such preparation may also, and, we con- ceive, Avith greater advantage be used in domestic economy, instead of srjap. Wall. See Biii.ding. Wall-barley. See Barley. WALL-CRESS, the Common, or Codded Mouse-ear, Arabis thaliana, L. an indigenous plant, growing on walls, roofs, and in dry, sandy pastures : it flowers in the month of May.....The Wall- cress seldom exceeds the height of 4 or 5 inches ; it produces small Avhite blossoms, which are succeed- ed by long slender pods, containing minute round seeds....This plant is said not to be relished by sheep, and is wholly refused by hogs ; but we are informed by Bechsteix, that sheep are so remarkably par- tial to the Codded Mouse-ear, as " to run after it." Wall-pepper. See Pepper- Stone-chop. Wall-worth. See Dwarf-EL- der. WALNUT-TREE, or Juglans, " &0 W A L L. a genus of exotic trees compre- hending 8 species ; the principal of Avhich is the regia, or Common Walnut-tree. It is originally a native of Persia, and attains, in this country, the height of from 50 to 60 feet; having a beautiful erect trunk, that branches out into a large spreading crown, Avhich is furnished Avith pinnated leaves..... There are numerous varieties, generally raised for their palatable fruit, Avhich ripens from the begin- ning of September till the end of October ; but the most esteemed are the Double Walnut, the Largo Walnut, the French Walnut, the Thin-skinned, and the Late Wal- nut. The Common Walnut-tree is propagated by drilling the ripe, dry nuts, together Avith their ex- ternal rind, at the distance of one inch from each other, and in rows nine inches asunder, in a light garden soil, that has been well ploughed or trenched. If the au- tuuin be dry, they may be sown in that season ; in the contrary case, the nuts must be preserved in dry sand till the month of Fe- bruary, or etevly in March, when they may be set in the manner above directed. In the succeeding Avinter, it Avill be advisable to shel- ter the nuts either with rotten dung, decayed leaves, or Avith tan- ner's w^ste, over which flat stones or slates may be placed, till they begin to shoot, when such cover- ing Avill become useless. Should the ensuing summer prove dry, it will be proper to water the young plants ; and those in a prosperous condition may be removed in au- tumn, into beds arranged in rows one foot asunder, and at the dis- tance of four inches from each W A L other in the row: the weaker plants must be suffered to remain in the seed-bed for another year. Thus, the Walnut-trees ought to be train- ed Avith single stems, till attain- ing the height of six or seA'en feet; Avhen they may be suffered to form heads; as the branches will then be above the reach of cattle. » The trees should now be trans- planted to a deep rich soil (though they also flourish on chalky lands), six feet asunder, and in rows at similar distance, in the form of a quincunx, till they bear fruit. Such as promise to be the most produc- ti\re, may then be selected, and left for bearing, while the others are to be planted out for timber : the for- mer must be thinned as they in- crease in size, by removing every intermediate tree, till they stand at the distance of from 24 to 48 feet from each other, according to the richness of the soil, and the progressive growth of the trees. In trimming the stems of Wal- nut-trees, Mr. Forsyth directs the shoots and small branches to be separated close to the bole, or trunk; but, Avhen the operation of lopping is performed, or any diseased, da- maged, or cross branches, are to be pruned, he recommends the ex- cision to be made at a fork, or eye ; as part of the branch will other- Avise decay, and thus materially injure the tree: in both cases, hoAvever it will be requisite imme- diately to apply the composition already described. The Walnut is equally valuable as a timber, and as a fruit-tree. Its Avood was formerly often employed both for building and in the manu- facture of household-furniture ; but being very brittle, it is at pre- W AL • sent superseded by mahogany, and other foreign timber. Neverthe- less, it is highly prized by joiners and cabinet-makers, for tables, gun-stocks, and other light arti- cles ; as it is beautifully veined, and admits of a fine polish. Far- ther, these trees are well calculat- ed for planting them in the bor- ders of orchards ; because their large spreading heads shelter the smaller, and more Aveakly fruit- trees, from the effects of boiste- rous Avinds :....an infusion of their leaves in boiling Avater, mixed Avith soap-suds, urine, and lime-Avater, has, according to Mr. Forsyth, been found very efficacious in de- stroying worms, and slugs in the ground, as likeAvise for exterminat- ing insects on trees. The fruit of the Walnut-tree is used at tAvo different periods of its growth, namely, Avhen green, for pickling, and in a ripe slate, at the desert. For the former purpose, the nuts are fit in July or August, when they are about half, or three- fourths groAvn; but those only which are free from spots, should be selected, and plucked off the trees carefully by the hand. Walnuts attain to maturity in the months of September and Oc- tober, when they are usually beaten doAvn by means of long poles ; for, as this fruit grows principally at the extremities of the branches, indolent or timid persons find it too troublesome to gather it by hand. The former practice, Iioav- ever ought to be relinquished ; as it is very detrimental to the ferti- lity of the trees, and breaks or othenvise mutilates the young shoots: besides, the nuts cannot be easily preserved, Avhen beaten down before they are sufficiently ripe. W A L 341 The best method of gathering walnuts, is that of shaking the trees only at a time Avhen the fruit has commenced spontaneously to drop ; so that they may thus be easily obtained. If the nuts are to be kept for a considerable time, in a fresh state, they should first be well dried in an airy place, then packed in boxes, casks, jars, or other convenient vessels, in alternate layers of fruit, and fine, clean sand, that has been previous- ly deprived of all moisture by the sun, or in an oven. Thus, wal- nuts may be preserved in a sound state till the approach of summer ; but, in case the kernels be shri- velled, Mr. Forsyth recommends such nuts to be immersed in milk and Avater, for the space of six or eight hours, previously to being used; by Avhich expedient they will become so fine and plump, as to be easily divested of their inter- nal skin. [The Juglans nigra, or black Walnut of North America, is a grand forest tree, and highly va- luable for cabinet Avork. The nuts are large and nearly round, and contain a large kernel, of pleasant taste, abounding with oil, which is expressed for the purpose of mix- ing with paint for inside work, but might be usefully substituted (if not rendered rancid in the opera- tion of expression) for imported olive oil. The husk or shell of the nut, dyes different shades of brown. The Juglans alba oblonga, or white Walnut or Butternut, gene- rally groAvs to a less size than the black Avalnut. The nuts are oval; and, freed of the hull, are rough, and furroAved, containing a soft, oily, SAveet kernel. When ripe the nuts are covered with a viscid se- 342 W A R WAR cretion. The young nuts pickled make an excellent condiment for fish or beef steaks, quite equal to the Maderia nut, commonly called English walnut. An extract of the bark made into pills, constitutes a mild and safe purge. The bark and shells of the nuts dye a good brcAvr. colour. See Hickory- tree.] WARBLES, in farriery, are small, hard tumours arising on a horse's back, and generally oc- casioned by the heat, or friction, of the saddle, in travelling. As these injuries frequently oc- cur in horses, after hard journies, or a seA-ere chase, Ave Avould advise every person, to Avhose care these noble animals are entrusted, mi- nutely to examine the back everv time when the saddle is removcci. If anyhar Iness or inequality should be perceived, from which a warble may probably ensue, the affected part must be bathed with the fol- loAving liniment, that alone Avill be sufficient to check the progress of the swelling : Take of extract of lead, half an ounce ; camphorated spirit of v/ine, two ounces; soft Avater, half a pint. Previously to adding the Avater, the extract and spirit should be Avell shaken, so that they may be duly incor- porated. WARMTH, a term expressing a moderate degree of heat. The warming houses, in a cli- mate so variable as that of Britain, is an object ofthe first importance, both to health and domestic com- fort : hence, the invention or dis- covery of the most economical me- thod of effecting such purpose, has engaged the talents of many able philosophers and artisans. Having already stated several of their use- ful contrivances, in the articles Fire-place, and Stove, Ave shall iioav lay before our readers the fol- lowing Cut, which represents a simple, and perhaps the least ex- pensive, mode of communicat- ing Avarmth from the kitchen-fire, throughout houses, manufactories, or other buildings, by means of steam. A, is a copper furnished Avith a still-head, and fixed over the fire. B, a leaden or copper tube, pro- ceeding from the vessel, and being heated by the steam of the boiling water : it is carried through eight rooms (as delineated in the figure above given) ; traverses that side of the Avail where the chimney is usually erected; and is likewise provided with stop-cocks, C, C ; by means of Avhich the course of the steam may be accelerated, or retarded, at pleasure. WAR WAR S43 D, is the spot at Avhich the steam is dh- harged, after having circulated through the rooms. E, is a cistern, by Avhich the copper may be occasionslly sup- plied an ith water. This cot.trivance Avas proposed many years since, by Col. Wil- liam Cook : it deserves to he more generally knoAvn, on account of its obvious simplicity ; uniting convenience with economy, in warming a number of rooms by one grate : a considerable saving in fuel will thence result, while the kitchen-fire may, at the same time, be employed in roasting, or in any other culinary process....See the article Room. [WARPING, signifies, I.Toav- ing of ships. 2. Preparing webs of cloth for the loom. 3. That spe- cies of irrigation which deposits a quantity of sediment from the fioAving tide, and which form a stratum of soil or manure when the waters have receded from it. It is in this last sense that we shall notice it. The origin of this great im- provement in husbandry, is un- questionably derived from the Egyptians. Every one acquaint- ed with the history of the Nile, knows, that the sediment left by that river in its annual oA'er-floAv- ings, acts as excellent manure, and enables the inhabitants to leap abundant crops. In England the practice has been partially fol- lowed, particularly in the coun- ties of Lincoln and York ; and also in Italy, according to Simondk. The improvement consists in letting in the tide at high water to deposit the warp, and permit- ting it to run off again as the tide falls. But to render it efficacious, the Avater must be at command, to keep it out and let it in at plea- sure ; so that there must not only be a cut or canal made to join the river, but a sluice at the mouth to open and shut as wanied ; and that the Avaters may be of a proper depth on the land to be Avarped,and also prevented from flowing over contiguous lands, banks are raised around the fields to be warped, from three or four, to six or seven feet high, according to circum- stances. Thus a soil of any depth is formed, Avhich consists of mud oi a vast fertility, though contain- ing not much besides sand. Mr. Tatham, from Avhose ex- cellent work on " Irrigation " (see vol. 3. of this work, p. 395) has collected several accounts of the utility of Avarping, from the agri- cultural surveys of the counties of England, from all which the great advantage of the practice i3 rendered evident, and encourages its adoption in the United States. It appears, that many estates, which before the commencement of warping, were Avorthless, had been rendered as Araluable as any in the kingdom. The lands in the vicinity of muddy creeks in NeAv Jersey, might be considerably ameliorated by Avarping; the sub- ject is therefore suggested to the consideration of the proprietors. Lord IIawke Avhose details of the benefits derived from warping, are highly important, gives the folloAving directions with respect to the cultivation of the lands thus improved : " The land " says he, " must be in tillage for some con- siderable time after Avarping, for six years at least. The land, when laid doAvn, and continued in grass is not warped ; for the salts in the mud would infallibly kill the grass-seeds. When it is 344 WAR was proposed to soav the land again with corn (grain) then the land is Avarped ; when they find the grass decline, then they warp and plough it out. As the land varies in quali- ty, so does the time in Avhich it will produce good grass ; the land is never fallowed but in the year Avheq it is Avarped." In Italy, (particularly in Tusca- ny) Avarping is called comblee, and is fully described by Simonde in his late work on the Agriculture of Tuscany.] WARTS, are small, hard, indo- lent excrescences, or tumors, that have a rough surface, and appear principally on the face and hands of young persons ; though some- times settling on other parts of the body. But, if such deformities oc- cur in individuals advanced in years, and are of a livid hue, with a smooth surface, they frequently become cancers, and ought to be treated in a similar manner. Warts do not, in general, require immediate attention : for, unless painful or troublesome, they will, in most cases, gradually disappear. Where, however, they increase in size, and are attended Avith pain, it will be proper to remove them by a ligature. Another method of ex- tirpating them is by evulsion, or plucking them out; but such prac- tice is by no means to be recom- mended; as the Avarts speedily re- turn. A preferable mode of era- dicating them, is by the applica- tion of escharotics, or mild caute- ries ; for instance, crude sal-ammo- niac, which must be moistened with Avater, and rubbed on the tu- mors, two or three times every day ; or Averting them -with the liquid salt of tartar; spirit of hartshorn, or tincture of Spanish flies ; either of Avhich has been successfully employed for this pur- pose....Another mode of extermi- nating warts, as Avell as corns, has been recommended, by the follow- ing plaster: Dissolve 1 oz. of gum galbanum in vinegar; evaporate the solution to a proper consist- ence ; and add half an ounce of common tar, 2 drams of simple dyachylon plaster, 20 grains of verdigrease, and an equal portion of sal-ammoniac : let the two last ingredients be finely pulverized, and the whole be duly incorporat- ed. Previously to its application, the Avarts ought to be well rubbed with moistened soap, again dried, and the plaster renewed every 12 hours. In obstinate cases, hoAV- ever, it will be necessary to resort to internal remedies, and tochange the milk-diet of children, by al- lowing them a greater proportion of animal food. WART-WORT, Churn-staff, Cat's-milk, or Sun-spurge ; Eu- phorbia helioscopia, L. an indige- nous plant, growing in gardens, corn-fields,andcultiyated grounds; AoAvering in July and August.... This vegetable, though eaten by cattle and sheep, imparts to the flesh of the latter animals a dis- agreeable flavour, and is also de- trimental to their health.....The milky juice exuding from the stalk, tinges paper of a fine azure-blue colour. WASHING, in general, signi- fies the cleansing of bodies or sub- stances Avith water, and other ab- stergent ingredients. Washing essentially contributes to cleanliness, and consequently to the preservation of health; hence, all persons ought to be habituated to this salutary practice, from their earliest period of life. Great cau- tion, hoAveA'er, is requisite in wash- WAS ing infants: for which purpose, the water ought at first to be tepid, or of a moderate warmth ; then gra- dually reduced to a cool tempera- ture ; and at length, it may be used as cold as the common at- mosphere ofthe season. The head and neck must, farther, be rubbed during the whole process, with a wet sponge; and, together AAdth the rest of the body, be immediately wiped dry Avith clean cloths; which, in the winter, should be previously warmed. Thus, children will be early inured to habits of cleanli- ness ; and the attention of parents to this important object will be amply reAvarded. WASP, or Vespa, L. a genus of insects comprising 139 species, three of which only are natives of Britain. 1. The Crabro. See Hornet. 2. The Vulgaris, or Common Wasp, is from half to three quarters of an inch in length ; it is divided into 3 classes ; namely, the queens, or females, which are furnished with stings, and are much larger than any other wasp, on account of the numerous eggs they contain. The males are less than the queens, and are not pro- vided Avith stings : the number of these two classes is nearly equal in a nest, amounting in general to 200 or 300. The mules are princi- pally employed in constructing the nests, and in providing the other Avasps and the young insects Avith food : like the females, they are furnished Avith long stings. The common Avasps build their nests in the ground, Avhere the females deposit their eggs singly: these are hatched in the spring; and in the course of three Aveeks, the young insects pass through the different states of larvae or grubs, vol. v. WAS 345 and of chrysalids ; when they be- come perfect Avasps. The mules come first into existence ; immedi- ately enlarge the hole ; and form the nest with fibres of wood, leaves, Sec ; they feed the young males and females (more judiciously than some human parents) adapting the quantity and nature of such pro- vision to the Aveakness of their stomachs. This food consists, first of the juices extracted from fruits and meat, but afterwards of the bodies of insects. As soon as each wasp acquires sufficient strength, it flies into the fields, and gardens, where the fruit is plundered, and bees are killed, Avith the vieAV of obtaining their honey. Similar de- predations are committed through- out the summer; but, in the month of October, when their supply be- gins to diminish, the males and mules attack the newly-hatched insects of their own species, and destroy them, together va ith the larvae, chrysalids, and eggs: they then fall upon one another, till the frost and rain exterminate nearly the whole, excepting a feAV fe- males; which, in the ensuing spring lay new eggs, and thus become the parents of a numerous progeny ; as a nest of Avasps, towards autumn, consists of from 14 to 15,000 cells. 3. The coarctata, or Small Wasp, is about half an inch long : it is hatched like the preceding species, with which its habits also correspond. The nests of the Small Wasps are constructed of Avoody fibres, reduced to a fine substance resembling paper : they are of an oval form ; being suspended from the branches of trees; and covered with a kind of varnish, that renders them impenetrable to water. Wasps are not only destructive to grapes, peaches, and the more Y y 346 WAS WAT delicate kinds of fruit, but also to bees ; the hives of Avhich they at- tack and plunder, frequently com- pelling those industrious insects to change their habitation. To pre- vent such depredations, Mr. For- syth recommends several phials, or small bottles, to be prepared, towards the time when the Avasps appear. These vessels are to be rilled, half or three parts full, with a mixture consisting ofthe lees of beer or Avine, and the sweepings of sugar, or the dregs of molas- ses : next, they must be suspend- ed by yelloAv pack-thread, on nails driA'en into different parts of gar- den-Avalls, so as to reach nearly the bottom. When the bottles are filled Avith insects, the liquor must be poured into another vessel, and the Avasps crushed on the ground. Should the Aveather proAre very hot, so that these marauders become very numerous, and will not enter the glasses exposed for their recep- tion, Mr. F. directs them to be touched on the back Avith a little oil, Avhen they will instantly fall down; their bodies acquiring a black or green colour ; and the la- teral pores through which they breathe, being closed up by the oil, they consequently perish. As the proper remedies for pro- curing relief in the painful sensa- tion arising from the sting of these insects, are similar to-those em- ployed for the Sting of Bees, we refer the reader to vol. i. p. 244. If, however, any Avaspsbe acciden- tally sAvalloAved in beer, or other liquor, a small portion of honey, vinegar, and sweet-oil, may be mixed together ; a tea-spoonful of Avhich should be frequently taken ; till the pain and inflammation abate. The efficacy of this remedy hhs keen fully proved by experience. Waste Lands. See Land". Watch. See Time-piece. WATER, a transparent fluid, destitute of colour, taste, and smell: it was formerly considered as one of the four elements: when perfectly pure, it does not sponta- neously undergo any perceptible change; remains liquid in the common temperature of the at- mosphere ; becomes solid, at 32 degrees of Fahrenheit's ther- mometer ; and is converted into vapour, at 212° ; but resumes its fluidity, on being reduced to any intermediate degree. Water is capable of dissolving most of the natural bodies, and particularly salts ; while it consti- tutes a material part both of the animal and vegetable kingdoms. Till the latter end of the 18th century, Avater Avas generally be- lieved to be a simple element, which might, by repeated distillation, be converted into earth: it is now, however demonstrated to be a com- pound. Water may be divided into two general classes, namely, saline, and fresh. The former is derived from the different seas Avhich surround the globe: it contains a large por- tion of common salt, magnesia, &c. See Sea-water. Fresh water may, farther, be di- vided into atmospheric, Avhich in- cludes hail, rain, and snow-Avater, and also dew ; stagnant, such as that of lakes, ponds, and marshes ; and running, which comprehends spring, Avell, and river-water. To these may be added Mineral Waters, being impregnated with various earthy and metallic ingre- dients, from which they derive pe- culiar properties. \Vater is one of the most useful elements in the arts and manufac- WAT WAT 347 tures, as well as in rural and do- mestic economy: hence, various machines have been invented, for the purpose of raising and diffus- ing this salutary fluid....the follow- ing contrivances deserve particular notice. The machine, of which the an- nexed figure will convey an accu- rate idea, was executed at Oulton, in Cheshire, by Mr. Whitehurst, for the service of a brewhouse, and other offices, belonging to Philip Egerton, Esq. Its design is, to raise water by the momentum, or force which this fluid acquires Avhen confined : it having effectually an- swered the purpose, we have been induced to give a description of its constituent parts, from the 65th vol. o{the il Philosophical Transac- tions of the Royal Society," for 1774. A, represents the original reser- voir, or spring ; the upper surface of which corresponds with the ho- rizontal line B, C, and also with the bottom of the reservoir K. D, the main pipe, Avhich is 1-J inch in diameter, and nearly 200 yards in length. E, is a branch-pipe of similar di- mensions, for the use ofthe kitchen- offices......Mr. Whitehurst ob- serves, that these offices are situ- ated 18 or 20 feet, at the least, be- neath the surface of the reservoir A, and that the cock F, is about 16 feet below it. G, represents a valve-box; and g, exhibits the valvo II, is an air-vessel. o, o, represent the ends of the main-pipe, which are inserted in the air-vessel, and are bent down- AVards, to prevent the air from be- ing driven out, Avhen the water is forced into it. W, denotes the surface of the water. M r. W h i t e k u r s t re m ark s that, as water discharged from an aper- ture beneath a pressure of 16 feet perpendicular height, moves at the rate of 32 feet in one second of time, its velocity from the ccck F, will be in a similar ratio. A.id, though the aperture of such cock be not nearly equal to the diame- ter of the pipe D, yet the pressure of the fluid contained in the pipe 9999999 55 348 W A T WAT will be very considerable : so that if a column of water, 200 yards high, be thus set in motion, and then suddenly stopped by the cock F, its great force will open the valve g; and condense the air in the box H, as often as the water is drawn from the cock. This con- densation was sufficient to force the water into the resenroir K, and even to burst the vessel H, within a few months after its first construction ; though it was made of sheet-lead, in the proportion of 9 or 10 lbs. to one square foot; and Avas apparently very firm. Hence it may be rationally concluded, that the impetus of the water is far su- perior to the simple pressure ofthe eolumn I, K; and is therefore equal to a greater resistance (if it Avere required) than a pressure of four or five feet perpendicular height. This ingenious contrivance is noAV applied to a variety of ma- chinery, by the patriotic Mat- thew Boulton, Esq. of Soho, near Birmingham ; who obtained a patent in December, 1797, for an improved apparatus, and methods of raising Avater and other fluids.... Mr. B. has substituted valves for cocks, and manufactures the pipes of such materials, as are calculated to prevent accidents from bursting. .....For a more specific account of these improvements, the reader Avill consult the 9th volume of the " Repertory of Arts," he. Avhere they are illustrated Avith tAvo en- gravings. The following machine, Avhich is constructed on the principle of Hiero's Fountain, forms the sub- ject of a plate in Dr. Daravin's admirable work, entitled " Phyto- logia ;" it is designed to raise Ava- ter to a great perpendicular height, for the irrigation of land, in such situations as have the advantage of a small fall. a, b, is the stream of water. b, c, c, represents the water-fall, supposed to be 10 feet. d, e, are two leaden or iron- vessels, containing a certain quan- tity of water, which may be com- puted to be about 4 gallons each. J, g, h, i, k, I, are leaden vessels, each holding about two quarts. o, p, two cocks, each of which passes through tAvo pipes, opening the one and closing the other. q, r, is a water-balance, that moves on its center *,• and by which the two cocks o, and p, are alternately turned. t, u, and w, x, are two air-pipes of lead, both internally one inch and a quarter in diameter. y, z; y, z; y, z; are water- pipes, each being one inch in dia- meter. The pipe b, c, c, is always full from the stream a, b: the small cisterns g, i, /, and the large one d, are supposed to have been previ- ously filled with water. The fluid may then be admitted by turning the cock o, through the pipe c, c, into the large cistern e. This wa- ter, Dr. Darwin remarks, will press the air, confined in the cis- tern e, up the air-pipe w, x, and will force the fluid out of the cis- terns g, i, I, into those marked h, k, and C.....At the same time, by opening B, the water and condens- ed air, which previously existed in the large cistern d, and in the small- er ones marked/, h, k, will be dis- charged at B.... After a short time, the water-balance, q, r, s, will turn the cocks, and exclude the water, WAT WAT 349 while it opens the opposite ones : In the year 1783, an excellent the cisterns,/, h, k, are emptied in engine was erected at Windsor !>y their turns by the condensed air the command of His Majev , from the cistern, d, as the water for the purpose of raising < >r progressively enters the latter from from a deep Avell, to supply the the pipe, b, c. wants of the Castle. It consists 350 W A T WAT simply of a grooved wheel, 3 feet in diameter, which is fixed on an axis that revolves horizontally over the well : an endless rope, suffi- ciently long to reach into the Ava- ter, is passed over the wheel. Far- ther, a winch is attached to one end of the axis, by means of Avhich it may be turned ; and, on its op- posite extremity, there is another Wheel, Aveighted with lead, that acts as a fly, and serves to increase the velocity. When the wheel is turned, every part of the rope is draAvn through the water, and ascends to the top, carrying Avith it a considerable quantity of that fluid : thus, by the pressure of the rope on the wheel, during its revo- lution, the Avater is discharged into a cistern placed for its reception.... This expedient was suggested by a sagacious mariner; and so re- markable is the facility with which the whole may be worked, that, though the well is nearly 200 feet in depth, the machine may be turned by one hand, and sufficient Avater be raised to fill a pipe ; the diameter of which is equal to that of the rope. In those situations, where it is an object of some importance to raise Avater to the height of a few feet, by the power of the Avind, for the purpose of draining morasses, or of watering lands on a higher level; Ave conceive the horizontal wind-mill, with a centrifugal pump, to be a most useful machine : we have therefore annexed a represen- tation of it, similar to that given by Dr. Darwin, in the v\ ork above quoted. The machine here delineated, consists of a windmill-sail, which is placed hi an horizontal direction, similar to that of a smoke-jack, and is surrounded by an octagon toAver. The diverging rays of such toAver, a, b, a, b, if on a small scale, may be made with deals tAvo inches in thickness ; but, on a large plan, they should be construct- ed of brick work. These upright pillars are connected by means of oblique boards, represented at A, B, Avhich are placed horizontally from pillar to pillar, with respect to their length ; and at an angle of 45 degrees, with regard to their breadth ; so as to form a complete octogan, including the horizontal windmill-sail near the top :....as the wind strikes against any of such boards, from whatever quar- ter, it is bent upAVards, and then acts upon the horizontal Avind-sail. Farther, these boards may either be fixed in their respective situa- tions, or be made to turn upon an axis a little beneath their centres of gravity, so as to close them- selves on that side of the octagon toAver, which is most distant from the wind. Below the shaft of the wind-sail, a centrifugal pump is fixed, with tAvo arms, as represented at C, D. It consists, simply, of an erect, bored trunk, or of a leaden cylin- der, furnished Avith two opposite arms, having a valve atthe bottom; Avhich is so constructed as to pre- vent the return of the water ; and another valve at the extremity of each arm, for excluding the access of air above the current of the Ava- ter, Avhile the latter flows out. c, c, c, c, a circular trough for the reception of the streams from C and D, to convey them to those situations Avhere the water may be required. In December, 178 3, a patent Avas granted to Mr. Joseph Bra- mah, for his invention of a Avater- cock upon a new construction..... WAT W A T 351 09 98 352 WAT WAT His privilege is now expired;but, as the principle on which he pro- ceeds could be explained only by the aid of an engraving, Ave refer the "Cider to tne 1st vol. of the " Repertory of Arts," kc. Another patent Avas obtained, in January, 1791, by Mr. Joseph Brocks, for his invention of a buoyant machine, calculated to raise water from a lower to a high- er level, Avithout the aid either of fire or of wind, and Avithout taking any Avater from the uppermost le- vel :....the curious reader will find a particular description of this contrivance, in the 7th vol. of the work above quoted. In the year 1801, the Society for the Encouragement of Arts, &c adjudged their silver medal to Mr. H. Sarjeant, of Whitehaven, Cumberland, for a Machine for raising Water, of which we have giA'en an engraving. This engine Avas erected at Irton- Hall, which is situated on an ascent of 60 or 61 feet perpendicular height: at the foot of this eleva- tion, about 140 yards distant from the offices, there runs a small stream of water ; and, in order to procure a constant supply of that necessary fluid, the object was to raise such stream to the house, for culinary and domestic uses. With this view, a dam was formed at a short distance above the current, so as to cause a fall of about four feet: the Avater was then con- ducted through a wooden trough, into which a piece of leaden pipe, two inches in diameter, was in- serted, and part of Avhich is de- lineated at A. The stream of this pipe is di- rected in such a manner as to run into the bucket B, Avhen the latter is elevated ; but, as soon as it be- gins to descend, the stream passes over it, and flows progressively to supply the Avooden trough or Avell, at the foot of which stands the forcing-pumpC,beingthree inches in diameter. D, is an iron cylinder, attached to the pump-rod, which passes through it: such cylinder is filled with lead, and weighsabout 240lbs. This power works the pump, and forces the water to ascend to the house, through a pipe, one inch in diameter, and Avhich is 420 feet in length. At E, is fixed a cord, which, Avhen the bucket approaches to within four or five inches of its lowest projection, extends, and opens a valve in the bottom of the vessel, through which the" water is discharged. The machine, here described, had at the time of Mr. Sarjeant's communication to the Society above mentioned, been six months in use, and fully answered the pur- pose for which it was designed.... The artizans employed were a plumber, blacksmith, and car- penter : the whole expense, ex- clusive of the pump and pipes, did not exceed 5/. The latest contrivance, Avithin our knowledge, for facilitating the motion of machinery, is the un- dershot water-wheel, invented by the late Mr. Besant, of Bromp- ton ; on whose widoAV, the So- ciety for the Encouragement of Arts, he. in 1801, conferred a reAvard of ten guineas : and, as it pro- mises to be of great service in many situations, Ave have given a repre- sentation of it in the annexed plate. Description of the late Mr. Be- sant's Undershot Water-wheel. Fig. 1, a.....A, represents the X>. /( , t /( .. Aft 7/ <>st // /J r f/r/f//, //> *- . . *-//■) or "ttvtutHtp //tt/eiA. l't\f.J.b. WAT WAT 353 body of the Avater-wheel, which is hollow, in the form of a drum, and is so constructed, as to resist the admission of Avater. B, is the axis on which the Avheel lure.s. C, The float-boards, placed von the periphery ofthe wheel, each of which is firmly fixed to its rim, and to the body of the drum, in an oblique direction. D, is the reservoir, that contains the water. E, the pen-stock, for regulating the quantity of water, Avhich runs to the wheel. F, represents the current, that has passed such wheel. Fig. \,b, is a front view of the water-Aveel, exhibiting the obliqie direction, in which the float-boards C, are placed on the fctce of tiie wheel. In the common Avater-wheels, more than half the quantity of that fluid passes from the gate through the Avheel, without affording it any assistance : the action of the floats is resisted by the incumbent atmos- phere, at the moment when these leave the surface of the tuil- water; and, as a similar propor- tion of water wiJi tii.it which passed between the floats at tiie head, necessarily flows between them at the tail, the motion of the wheel is greatly impeded. On the contrary, by Mr. Besant's con- trivance, no Avater can pass, ex- cepting that Avhieh acts Avith all its force on the extremity of the wheel: and, as the floats emerge from the water, in an oblique direction, the weight of the atmosphere is thus prevented from taking any effect. Although iiis new wheel is consi- derably heavier than those con- structed on the old plan, yet it re- volves more easily oa its axis ; the VOL. v. water having a tendency to float it. Lastly, repeated experiments have proved Mr. Besant's wheel to be so decidedly superior, that, Avhen working in deep tail-water, it will carry weights in the proportion of three to one ; on which account it will be particularly seiviceable to tide-mills. As a constant beverage Avith meals, water is certainly prefera- ble to any other liquid. Its rela- tive salubrity, depends on the peculiar properties which it pos- sesses ; on the various animal, vegetable, or mineral particles, with which it may be impregnat- ed, and the places Avhence it is procured. Thus, the water from Springs, being conveyed and filtered througii different layers of stone, sand, he. before it arrives at the surface of the earth, is imich purer than most other waters. The transparency of that obtained from wells, varies according to the strata of earth throu^n Avhicu it rises; but the most wholesome fluid is derived from sandy ioiis, where it has undergone a perfect nitration. The water of lakes and ponds, in general, has hiimlar properties with that of rivers, but, being.le::s agitated, it acquires a greater de- gree of impurity, and is conse- quently unfit for culinary purposes; though, on account of its softness, it may be advantageously employ- ed in washing linen....Rain-water collected in the vicinity of towns, of marshes or of mines, especially during the summer, is likewise im- pure : it ought, therefore, to be used solely for cleaning houses, or Iiru the mixture is completely settkd, it forms, what the patentee calls, a blanching lixivium. The linen, woolen, cotton, or silk stuffs, hats, or Lather, are to be immersed in such lixivium, and 3 A 362 WAT WAX extended on a frame. Caoutchouc is then to be dissolved in spirit of turpentine (the smell of which may be dissipated by the addition of equal parts of oil of Avormwood -and spirit of wine), so as to form a varnish : this liquor must noAV be applied to the wrong side of the stuffs that are to be prepared, by means of a solid piece of India rubber; and minute shreds of cloth, vyool, silk, or Avorsted, should be sifted over the varnish: in the course of tAvo or three days, it will be perfectly dry ; and the shreds, by their adhesion to the dissolved caoutchouc, will form a lining im- permeable to Avater. In 1801, another patent Avas granted to Messrs. Ackermann, Suardy, and Co. for their inven- tion of a process, by which every species of cloth may be rendered water-proof.......As the patentees have not thought proper to pub- lish the particulars of their process (though such concealment is con- trary to the nature of Letters Pa- tent), Ave shall briefly remark from our OAvn observation, that their method appears to be a simple im- pregnation of cloth with wax pre- viously dissolved, and incorporated with Avater, bythe addition of pure vegetable alkali, or pot-ash. This being the cheapest and most expe- ditious mode of reducing wax to a fluid state, we are farther inclined to believe that our conjecture is Avell founded ; because all the Avoollen cloth prepared in the ma- nufaciciy of Messrs. Ackermann, Suardy, and Co. feels somewhat harder than such as has not been waxed ; for the same reason, it will stand a shoAver of rain only so long as it has not been subject to fric- tion ; and we understand from those who have worn patent water-proof coats, that in the sleeves particu- larly, they are very apt to admit moisture through the different folds. Nevertheless, their process is entitled to attention ; and it de- serves to be adopted principally in those cases, where the manufac- ture is not liable to be impaired by friction ; such as coverings for tents ; for horses exposed to the rain Avhen at rest; and especially for paper in Avhich gunpowder, or steel and other goods, are to be packed. The following simple process is stated to be that employed by the Chinese, for rendering cloth water- proof: Let an ounce of white wax be dissolved in one quart of spirit of turpentine ; the cloth be im- mersed in the solution, and then suspended in the air, till it be per- fectly dry. By this method, the most open muslin, as Avell as the strongest cloths, may be rendered impenetrable to the heaviest show- ers ; nor will such composition fill up the interstices of the finest laAvn ; or in the least degree affect the most brilliant colours. Watering-of-land. See Ir- rigation. WAX, a solid concrete, abound- ing in the vegetable kingdom, whence it is collected by bees..... In the article Bee's-avax, avc have stated the manner in Avhich this substance is obtained, and likewise the uses to Avhich it is applied : at present, therefore, Ave shall direct our attention to the blanching or Avhitening of Avax, and to the pro- cess by which it may be artificially extracted from vegetables. With a vieAV to bleach wax, it is cut in small pieces, melted, and poured into cold Avater, where it granulates. In this state, it is ex- posed to the sun and air ; melted, WE A W E A 363 and granulated repeatedly; then submitted to the influence of the sun, air, and deAv, in the interval between each liquefaction. When the Avax is perfectly blanched, it is dissolved for the last time, and cast into flat moulds, in Avhich it is again exposed to the air, for one or tAvo days, in order to render it more transparent. [See Bleaching.] Wax may be extracted from the lea\res and petals of numerous Ae- getablcs (see the General Index of Reference); by collecting, bruising, and dissolving them, first in Avater, and then in alkohol, or spirit of Avine, till every other ingredient that is soluble in these fluids, be completely separated. The resi- duum is noAV mixed with six times its weight of a solution of pure ammonia: Avhen it has been tho- roughly macerated, the liquor must be decanted ; filtered ; and, while it is briskly stirred, a sufficient por- tion of sulphuric acid must be gra- dually added, to super-saturate the alkali. Thus, the Avax Avill be pre- cipitated in the form of a yelloAv k powder ; Avhich, on being carefully Avashed Avith simple Avater, and melted over a slow fire, possesses all the properties of bees-Avax. Way-bennet. See Wall-BAR- LEY. Way-bread.See GreaterPLAN- tain. Wayfaring-tree. See Mealy GuEI.DEK-R/>SE. WEANING, is the act of gra- dually removing an infant from the breast, and habituating it to take common food. Weaningrequires to be conduct- ed with some precaution : it will therefore, be advisable to inure children to take proper aliment out of a boat or tea-cup, at the age of 3 or 4 months ; so that they may not too suddenly, and sensibly, feel the loss of the breast. To facili- tate this change, the human milk should be occasionally Avith-held from them, Avhile the mother or nurse may partake of such aliment as tends to diminish the secretion of that salutary fluid. Children committed to the care of Avet-nurses, ought, in prudence, not to be allowed to suck, after the age of six or eight months ; as their infantine faculties then begin to unfold; and they are apt to ac- quire an undue degree of affection for their foster-mothers. On the other hand, they should not be precipitately removed from the breast; because this tender part is thus liable to become inflamed, and ulcerated; so that scirrhous tumors, and even cancers, may arise from such conduct. Lastly, the diet of children, when Aveaned, ought to be light, and adapted to the strength of their stomach, and constitution : hence, all coarse food must be strictly avoided, during the first and se- cond year of life ; for such mista- ken indulgence often lays the foun- dation of diseases originating from a bad digestion ; of scrophula, or other glandular affections; and even of eventual consumption, at the age of puberty. WEASEL, the Common, or Mustella vulgaris, L. a diminutive animal of prey, frequenting barns, granaries, and out-houses: its body seldom exceeds 6 or 7 inches in length, and the legs are'remavk- ably short. Weasels propagate in the sum- mer, when they retire to low grounds, near mills ; and either conceal themselves among brush- wood, or in old avUIoavs ; the fe- male producing from 6 to 8 young 364 W E A WE A ones, that are blind at first, but soon acquire their sight, and are enabled to join their parents in nocturnal depreciations....Like the Polecat, and Ferret, Aveasels emit a very offensive odour; and, though of a diminutive size, they are formidable enemies to many larger animals. Among rabbits, poultry, and young birds, weasels commit extensive depredations, and they likewise devour incalulable numbers of eggs. But to counter- balance, in some measure, these depredations, they also destroy many noxious animals, such as rats, mice, and moles. The folloAving method of en- trapping Aveasels has often been practised with success: It consists of a Avooden box, or hutch, resem- bling the kennel usually, provided for a house-dog ; but it is divided in the middle by an open wire-par- tition, extending from one end to the other ; and being again sepa- rated into two cages, one of Avhich may be baited with a tame rabbit, and the other .with a live fowl; while the remainder of the hutch may he form; d into a falling box, for securing the depredator. This trap may be place.; ii. coppices, and hedge-rows.....See also Mar- tin. WEASEL-SNOUT, Y ei.low Archangel, or Yelloav Deat- nkttlk, Galcvbdolo?! luteum, L. is an indigenous perennial. groAving in Avoods, shady places, and moist hedges ; blowi; g in the month of I*ay. The flowers of this plant afford to bees an abundant supply of honey. WEATHER, a term denoting the state of the atmosphere, with respect to II.-at, Colo, Hail, Rain, Snow, £-:c. Herring already discussed, in the course of this Avork, the pheno- mena of the meteors above men- tioned, we shall at present com- municate a feAV simple rules, which may serve to prognosticate the weather, or to ascertain its future variations, Avith tolerable accuracy. For this purpose, Mr. Kirwan (" Transactions ofthe Royal Irish Academy," vol. v.) has laid down the following plan, from observa- tions that had been made in Eng- land, during a period of 112 years; namely, from 1677 to 1789. 1. When no storm has either preceded or folloAved the vernal equinox, the succeeding summer is in general dry, or at least so, five times out of six. 2. If a storm happen from an easterly point, on the 19th, 20th, or 21st day of May, the ensuing summer will, four times in five, be also dry....The same event ge- nerally takes' place, if a storm arise on the 25th, 26th, or 27th days of March, in any point of the compass. 3. Should there be a storm, either at south-west, or at west- south-west, on the 19th, 20rh, 2 1st, or 22d of March, the folloAving summer is wet, rive times out of six. In England, if the winters and springr, be dry, they are mostly cold ; but, if moist, they are gene- ra1!}' warm ; on the contrary, dry summers, and autumns, are usually hot; as moist summers are cold. Thus, if the humidity or dryness of a particular season be deter- mined, a tolerably correct idea may be formtd respecih g its tem- perature......To these indications may be added the following max- ims ; Avhich, being the result of observations made by accurate in- quirers, may so far be depended W E A W E A 365 upon, as they a'iII afford a crite- rion of the mildr>es.. or severity, and of the d- vuezs or moisture, of future seaso-s. 1. Am -is*, '.uuimn. succeeded by a mihi Avh ,.>r, is generally fol- lowed by a c'.i ami cold spring ; in conseq'ierce of Avhich, vegeta- tion is grealy retarded. 2. ~heu. 1 the summer be un- common!)' wet, the suc'-.ee; ing Avinter Avill be severe; because the heat or warmth of the earth will be carried off by such unusual evaporation. Farther, Avet sum- mers are mostly attended Avith an increased quantity, of fruit on the Avhite-thorn, and dog-rose; nay, the uncommon fruitfulness of these shrubs is considered as the presage of an intensely cold winter. 3. A severe winter is always in- dicated by the appearance of cranes and other birds of passage, at an early period in autumn; because they never migrate southwards, till the cold season has commenced in the northern regions. 4. If frequent showers fall in the month of September, it sel- dom rains in May ; and the re- verse, 5. On the other hand, Avhen the wind often bloAvs from the south-west, during either summer or autumn ; when the air is un- usually cold for those seasons, both to our sensations, and by the the"- mometer; at the same time, the mercury being low in the barome- ter : under these conditions, a profuse fall of rain may be ex- pected. 6. Great storms, rains, or other vioh-nt commotions of the clouds, produce a kind of crisis in the at- mosphere; so that they are at- tended with a regular succes- sion, either of fine or of bad wea- ther, for some months. Lastly, an unproductive year mostly succeeds a rainy winter; as rough and cold autumn prog- nosticates a severe winter.....See also the article Climate. WEATHER - GLASS, or Storm-glass. An ingenious con- trivance of this nature has lately been announced by Wiegleb, in Germany ; and the invention of it i>j likeAvise claimed by Mr. Fran- cis Anone, of High Holborn: it consists of a glass tube, con- taining a liquor that holds in so- lution a compound substance, the transparency, or turbid appearance of which, indicates the changes in the atmosphere. Thus, if the weather promise to be fine, the solid matter ofthe composition will settle at the bottom of the tube, while the liquid is pellucid ; but, previously to a change for rain, the compound will gradually rise ; the fluid will continue transparent; and small stars will be observed moving or floating about the glass. Twenty-four hours before a storm, or very high wind, the sub- stance will be partly on the surface of the liquid, apparently in the form of a leaf; the fluid in such case, Avill be very turbid, and in a state resembling fermentation. During the Avinter, small stars being in motion, the composition is remarkably white, and somewhat higher than usual, particularly when white frosts, or snow prevail. On the contraiy, in the summer, if the Aveather be hot and serene, the substance subsides closely to the bottom of the glass tube. Lastly, it may be ascertained from Avhat point of the compass the wind blows, by observing that 366 W E A WEE „the solid particles adhere more closely to the bottom, on the side opposite to that, from which the tempew happens to arise....This instrument has been satisfactorily employed both at sea and on shore: being small, portable, and toler- ably exact, it may often serve as a substitute for the more bulky and expensive contrivances'in common use....See also Barometer. WEAVING is the art of work- ing a Aveb of linen, silk, avooI, or any other material, by means of looms. Having, in the article Cloth, A given an .outline ofthe manner in •'s&W which weaving is performed, we ^ shall at present notice two im- provements that have lately been introduced in this important branch of our staple-manufacture. - j The first is, Mr. Robert Mil- 4k ler's method of weaving all kinds h of linen, Avoollen, or other stuffs, t)y(4peans of looms worked by wa- ter,j|team-engines, or horses; for whilft Hhe obtained a patent in June, ljjlfi.....Our limits not ad- mitting of diffuse accounts, Avhich would also require the aid of en- gravings, we refer the reader to the 8th vol. of the " Repertory of Arts," Sec. Avhere the specification , is illustrated with tAvo plates. In the year 1800, the Society for the Encouragement of Arts, he. con- Inferred a bounty of 15 guineas on f Mr. Thomas Clulow, for his in- vention of a loom, designed to weave figured ribbons. The great advantage attending the use of this machine is, not only a considerable saving of time, but ribbons may thus be Avoven Avith greater neat- ness, and beauty, than by the com- mon looms : the Avork being ne- cessarily stopped in the latter. while the figure is formed by the hand ; whereas, by Mr. C.'s con- trivance, the tire-cords, or those Avhich trace such outline, Avithout retarding the progress ofthe Avork, are acted upon by straps affixed to the centre treddle. A farther ac- count of this useful improvement, will be found in the 18th vol. of the Society's " Transactions," Sec. See also article Loom. WELD, a term applied to all rank, coarse vegetables, that grow spontaneously, to the detriment of other plants. Weeds are usually divided into two. chores, namely, annual, and perennial. Yv ith a view to eradi- cate the foiT.-'.er, it will be advis- able to plough them up, shortly before their seeds are formed, or at least previously to their attain- ing to a state of maturity..-..The small seeds of weeds, that are se- parated in winnowing grain, ought to be carefully burnt; because, Avhen thrown upon dung-hills, and afterwards spread on land among manure, they vegetate Avith in- creased luxuriance. Perennial Aveeds are extermi- nated with the greatest difficulty ; as they strike very deep root. The usual method of extirpating them, is that of bringing them to the surface by the plough; after which they are gathered by hand: but, as this mode is very expens'iA'e, it Avill be more advantageous to cut them half-through, about the mid- dle of June, or when they are in full vigour : for the sudden inter- ruption of their circulating sap, causes that fluid to stagnate in the roots; in consequence of Avhich the plant gene ::]'}• perishes: thus,such weeds may be collected by means of Mr. Sandilands' Wrack-Har- Wee WEE" ,,367 row, (see vol. iii. p. 252) then burnt, and streAved on the land by way of M.vNuitE....See also vol. iv. p. 32. Weeds often abound in the beds of navigable canals and rivers. As their eradication, however, is tedi- ous, and sometimes occasions con- siderable expense, M. De Betan- court Molina, in 1796, present- ed to the Society for the Encour- agement of Arts, he. a model of a machine designed to mow or cut them, so that they may then be carried down with the stream ; or, if the current be not sufficiently rapid for that purpose, they may be collected on the surface of the Avater, and employed as manure. For this contriA'ance, he- Avas re- AA-arded Aviththe premium of forty guineas; but, as a plain descrip- tion Avould not convey an adequate idea of the principles on which it is constructed, Ave refer the reader to the 14th volume ofthe " Tran- sactions " of that Society, where a complete account is inserted, and illustrated with an engraving. [ " Operations " says Dr. An- derson, " may be conducted ei- ther so as to be calculated for the extirpation of weeds in general, Avithout having a view to any par- ticular class of weeds ; or, as be- ing calculated, in an especial man- ner, for the extirpation of some particular class of Aveeds, such as, 1. Weeds that spread by the root, and are chiefly propagated in that way, viz. a docks, peren- niel; b dandelion, this also spreads greatly by seed.s ; c hemlock, this also ; d colts-foot; e croAV-foot; / perennial convolvulus; g wild liquorice ; // perennial lychnis ; * couch-grass ; k lion's-tongue ; I horse-tail (equisetum) ; m net-*- ties, he. "» , 2. Shrubs and perHftd Ave|H that increase chiefly by%j&ls...... Of this description the following are those that chiefly abound in thiscountry,(England) viz. a furze, goss, or whins; b broom; c heath; d brambljfc: e briars ; f docks ; g dandeli^P; h hemlock; i wild earn*; k narrow leaved sttrel, 8cc. 5*^^. "I5" 3. Biennial plants. The mbst common of these are,Adz. a rag- * wort, b rattle, c narrow leaved dock, d biennial trfsile, j? hem- lock, he. • ' f 4. Annual weeds theft are prq- : pagated by seeds only, Wz. a wild oat, b charlock, c corn poppy, d spurry, e chickAveed,/ annual so- lanum, g annual ragwort, h annual thistles, 8cc. 5. Aquatic plants, viz. a rushes, b flags, c reeds, &c 6. Moss, as affecting pastures, lichens, and other plants of the cryptogamia class, as affecting trees and perennial plants.misletoe, and other parasitical plants, he. " ** Mr. Dean, (« N. England farm- er") in order to destroy Aveeds, directs " the land to be employed in hoed crops for two or three years in succession, not omitting autumnal Aveeding. A crop of peas, or any crop that forms a close cover to the surface may do much." A crop of the Cassia Chamecrista, (which see) Avould answer very Avell. Mr. Dean adds " if all other methods were to prove ineffectual, laying tillage- land doAvn to grass, and soAving it with cleaned grass-seeds, will not fall. " ] Weevil. See Corn-chafer. [The Society of Meaux in France 368 W E I WEI has invited all those who may think proper to make use of the following very simple method of preserving grain from Weevils and other insects, to communicate the result of those trials. Soak cloths, made of flax, in water, wring them, and cover your heaps of grain with them : in two hours time you will find all the Weevils upon the cloth, which must be carefully gathered up, that none ofthe insects may escape and then immersed in water to de- stroy them. A plant of henbane, placed in the middle of a heap of corn, drives them away : in this case, it is ne- cessary to watch and crush them as fast as they come out, which they do in a short time....See also vol. iv. p. 492.] WEIGH, or Wey, a species of provincial English Aveight, employ- ed for cheese, wool, Sec. : it con- tains 256lbs. avoirdupois. A weigh of corn should comprise40bushels; that of barley or malt, amounts to 6 quarters; but in Essex, and some other counties, a weigh of cheese consists of 300lbs. [WEIGHTS to raise....In build- ings, heavy stones and timbers are often required to be raised, Avhich require many men. The annex- ed plate represents an elevation and section of a simple and A*ery effectual contrivance, for the pur- pose of saving labour, Avhich has been used with great success in Philadelphia. The letters, a, b, c, d, represent the frame of this machine, which is 10 feet long, by 5 feet Avide, and made of 3 inch, by 7, Avhite oak scantling, Avell pinned and strapped together, (e e e e, in elevation.) There are six Avheels,....2 of Avhich are 4 feet....2 of 1 foot....and 2 of 8 inches diameter on the pitch lines, by 2\ inches thick, the cogs are about | of an inch thick. As the 4 small wheels are fixed on one axle, it is therefore made to move sidevrise occasionally as the smallest *, or second sized Avheels are used......there is necessarily a double set of bushes for this axle (f, in elevation,)....for when the small wheel is used, it must be moved two inches (or half the dif- ference in diameter between the small Avheels) up to the large Avheels. The rope being guided by snatch-blocks, the machine is made to act upon buildings, ves- sels, Sec....The lower part of the frame is floored, that it may be loaded to prevent its being dragged, stakes are also driven in the ground for this purpose. There is nothing new in this machine but its application to the erection of buildings. Mr. Latrobe architect, and engineer, introduced it at the erection of the neAv build- ing for the Pennsylvania Bank, and in the buildings of the Water- Works, for the purpose of hoisting the heavy materials used in their erection, particularly marble. In that part of the roof of the Pennsylvania Bank, Avhich is of marble, there are several blocks of from 5 to 71 tons Aveight, the heaviest of which were hoisted by two of these machines, and eight men, in the short space of fifty-five minutes. And the columns of the Centre Square Engine House, Avhich Aveigh about 9 tons each, Avere set by the same force. The same kind of machines were em- * The smallest wheel is used when the utmost power of the machine is requir- ed. Hoisting Machini: . Elevation. M- [ rnfiifimit Flan and. S/clieu .throuah the trudAonsofthe Wheels. -_jj_ ■T WEI ployed in lowering the most Aveighty stone used in the piers and abutments of the Schuylkill Permanent Bridge, as Avell as in unloading the shallops employed in transporting large stones from the different quarries. Single machines (having wheelson one side only) are sufficiently poAv- erful for common purposes. They are in many respects preferable to walking capstans, cranes, 8cc. 8cc] WEIGHT, denotes a method of ascertaining the quantity of any solid or fluid body, by means of the balance, or othenvise. Having already stated, in the articles Avoirdupois, Troy- weight, Clove, Sec. the different weights used in England, we shall only remark, that various statutes have been enacted, with a vieAv to regulate the uniformity of weights and measures ; but the Avisdom and accuracy of those laAvs have not yet produced the desired effect; and so prevalent is the force of ha- bit, that the old Aveights are still employed in many parts of the kingdom, to the great detriment and confusion of commerce..... Hence, ingenious mathematicians have proposed various schemes for introducing a more uniform scale in weights and measures ; the principal of Avhich are the fol- lowing : In the year 1779, the Society for the Encouragement of Arts, he. conferred a bounty of 30 gui- neas on Mr. Thomas Hatton, for his " Attempt to find, by Approxi- mation, un Universal Standard.".... Mr. H.'s plan consists in applying a moveable point of suspension to one and the same pendulum, in order to produce the full effect of two pendulums, the difference of the length of which, is the intend- vol. v. WEI 369 ed measure. An abstract of Mr. Hatton's memoir, will be found in the 1st vol. of the Society's Transactions. Several years hav- ing elapsed without his suggesting any farther improvement, Mr. Whitehurst proposed, in 1787, " An attempt tOAvards obtaining an invariable measure, length, and capacity, from the mensuration of time; independently of the me- chanical operations, necessary to ascertain the true length of pen- dulums." In short his contrivance is founded on Mr. H.'s apparatus, in an improved state ; and the in- quisitive reader, Avho is desirous of farther information, will con- sult Mr. W.'s elaborate essay (4to. 55. Bent); the title of which has before been specified. Numerous abuses, relative to weights and measures, are also stated, Avith appropriate remedies, in the late Sir John Riggs Mil- ler's " Speeches in the House of Commons, upon the Equalization of the Weights and Measures of Great Britain," Sec. (8vo. pp. 128, 2*. 6d. Debrett, 1790);....in the late Sir James Stuart's " Plan for intro- ducing an Uniformity in Weights and Measures, within the Limits ofthe British Empire" (8vo. pp. 64, 1*. 6d. Stockdale, 1790) ;....and in Sir George Shuckbuugh Evelyn's Memoir, inserted in the " Philo- sophical Transactions of the Royal Society," for 1798.....As, however, a specification of their different i plans, Avould be incompatible with our limits, we shall give our read- ers an account of the 7iew French weights and measures; because they frequently occur in transla- tions of works from that language. The principal measure of length is the metre, which is equal to 39.404 English inches : it is mul- 3 B 370 W E I WEI tiplied by perfixing the Greek nu- meral adjecti\'es to the Avord me- tre : thus, the Decametre signifies 10 metres ; Hectometre, 8 ; Kilo- vie irr, 1000 ; and Myriametre, 10,000 metres. The measures below a metre, are named in a si- milar manner; the Latin nume- ral adjectives being substituted for those ofthe Greek : hence, a deci- metre denotes the tenth part; cen- timetre, the hundredth part; and millimetre, the thousandth part of a metre. The standard measure of capa- city is denominated a Litre, which is equivalent to 61.1816 English cubic inches, or about 1, 5-7th of a pint, ale-measure, and 2, l-10th of a pint, wine measure. Its mul- tiplication, and sub-multiplication, are performed in a similar man- ner. The Gramme is adapted to weigh- ing bodies, and is equal to 15.4457 English grains, Troy-Aveight. Its divisions, and sub-divisions, corre- spond with those of the metre. The French are is employed for measuring the superficies of land, and is equal to 1076, 2-5ths square feet, or 119, 3-5th square yards, or about one-fortieth part of an acre. Lastly, the Stere is used in mea- suring Avood for fuel: it is equal to 35.31467 cubic feet. ./ Comparative table of the Unities of the French Metres, Litres, and Grammes, with their corresponding English Inches, Gallons and Grains. litres in English. French Measures. METRES in English Inches. A GRAMMES in English Grs. Troy. r Cubic Inches. Ale gallons. of 282 Inc. i Wine Gallons, of 231 Inches. 1 39.404 61.1816 0.21695 0.26485 15.4457 2 78.80S __ 122.3632 0.43390 0.52970 __ 30.8914 3 118.212 _ 183.5448 0.65085 0.79455 __ 46.3371 4 157.616 __ 244.7264 0.86780 1.05940 __ 61.7828 5 197.020 305.9080 1.08175 1.32425 77.2285 6 236.424 367.0896 1.30170 1.58910 92.6742* 7 275.828 __ 428.2712 t.51865 1.85395 — 108.1199 8 315.232 _ 489.4528 1.73560 2.11880 — 123.5656 9 354.636 5 50.6344 1.95255 2.38365 139.0113 10 394.04 611.816 2.1695 2.6485 154.457 20 788.08 __ 1223.632 4.33';0 5.2970 — 308.y)4 30 1182.16 __ 1835.448 6.5085 7.9455 — 463.371 40 1576.16 __ 2447.264 8.6780 10.5940 — 617.828 50 1970.20 3059.080 10.8475 13.2425 772.285 60 2364.24 3670.896 13.0170 15.8910 926.742 70 2758.28 __ 4282.712 15.1865 18.5395 — 1081.199 80 3152.32 __ 4894.528 17.3560 21.1880 1235.656 90 3546.36 __ 5506.344 19.5255 23.8365 — 1390.113 100 3940.4 — 6118.16 21.695 26.485 —I 1544.57 « T« Y- ■ fhetersiete of the Flalfi, H^ *■ -.,* '? ."» ii m* 'Mmi > 1 ^ ! J| 2/lit 3 0 739230 WEI From the table here given, the English weights and measures, corresponding Avith those used in France, may be easily ascertained, by multiplying the hundreds,and ad- dingthe tenths and units, as circum- stances may direct; or, if the num- ber be less than one hundred, by adding the units to the tens. After the number required is thus found, it may be reduced to English feet, or inches ; to quarts or pints ; to pounds, ounces, drams, or grains, by means of the common rules of arithmetic. A more ample specification of these weight and measures is pub- lished in the 3d vol. of Mr. Ni- cholson's " Journal;" and which is abstracted from a report pub- lished in 1799, at Paris, by autho- rity of the French government. In the year 1791, the Society for the Encouragement of Arts, he. gave a bounty of 20 guineas to M. Hanin, of Paris, for his weighing machine ; in which the weights of the principal countries of Europe, together with their relative differ- ences, may be ascertained at one vieAv : as a description of this con- trivance Avould be unintelligible, without the aid of engravings, we refer the reader to the 9th vol. of the Society's " Transactions," he. which contains a complete analy- sis of the subject, illustrated Avith two plates. [WEIGHING-BRIDGE. The annexed plates represent two views of the Weighing-Brioge,erected by the Lancaster turnpike compa- ny at the first gate, and Avhich for expedition, far exceeds the com- mon cumbrous scales and Aveights. Its accuracy is also superior to the latter mode, as the common Aveights suffer considerable friction by rolling off and on the bridge, WEI 371 while in the neAv mode, it is only necessary to put into a small scale (connected with the long lever on which the bridge lies) certain Aveights adjusted to other heavy Aveights passing over the bridge, so that scarcely half a minute is required to Aveigh any waggon. The model Avas sent over by Joshua Ringrose, but the con- trivance is said to be in general use in England. Drawings were taken from the model, by permission of the managers of the Lancaster turnpike company. Plate 1. Directions for the brick and timber work, by a scale of 35 to an inch. Plate 2. Directions for the dif- ferent levers and iron work, by a scale of 15 to an inch. The first step is to dig a cellar 16 feet long, by 10 feet broad, six feet ten inches deep, to alloAV head room, to repair the machine. The brick or stone walls are to be 18 inches thick, the flank Avail two feet three inches in the foun- dation, until the Avail is raised to a height of four feet, to receive No. 3, (the timbers for the diagonal levers) nine inches broad and se- ven inches thick, seven feet four inches long. The inside of the Avail remains 13 feet long by seven feet four inches Avide. No. 4. The wall for the long lever, three feet nine inches high, one brick and a half thick, at two feet six inches distant from the back wall No. 2, on which is placed the long lever timber, ten irehes broad, and eight inches thick, 12 feet long. Continue to raise the Avail one foot eight inches, over the diagonal timber, to lay the upper frame No. 2, of eight inches Avide, and seven inches thick, 16 feet 372 WEI W EL long, the end pieces eight feet eight inches including mortises.... This frame receives the platform. No. 9, The platform, 13 feet long, by seven feet tAvo inches broad, iavo feet thick. The joice one foot square out- side. The middle No. 6, six inches and one foot deep. The cross piece eight inches square. The planks for the floor four inches thick. The platform is thus made two feet thick. The loAver timbers are laid on Avhen the brick Avork is at the proper height, and are\o be filled up Avith the brick work to the up- per side ; then the iron bearers are to be let in and screwed on in the folloAving manner. Nail a piece of Avood marked 5, about five inches in height, find the centre each way, make tAvo centres on the longitu- dinal line three inches and a quar- ter apart on the lines 5 and 6, and provide a rod with a square end, and an aAvl hole six feet nine and a quarter inches from the end..... Screw the diagonal lexers togeth- er by their prick-punch marks, and with a rod take the distance from the middle of the dyes in each lever, Avhich rod lay the middle of the bearers, then apply the former rod until the end comes on the edge of the bearer. The same is to be observed in fixing the bearers on the under side ofthe bridge or platform of the engine ; only the rod made use cf is to be six feet one and a half inches in length, and the temporary block No. 5, eight inches and a half dee;^. To adjust the v.v.a ': inc. This must be done by trials : that is, when the platform and scale are brought to an equilibrium by the two counterpoises, viz. the stone (about 2cAvt. Avith an iron eye run in with lead,) at the end of the long lever, and the sliding brass in the beam, put a few ICOAVts. on the platform, and their counter- poises in the scale, that is, some of the brass or iron weights Avhich are properly marked, and if it is not exact, move the sliding box at the end of the long lever until you restore the equilibrium ; then take the weights from the bridge and scale, and repeat the operation, for it will be found that they vary by moving the box and rod. It will be necessary to leave the piece on which the beam is suspended, until the engine is ad- justed, in order that the rod may be perpendicular, and then to fast- en it.] Welch Bistort. See Bis- tort, the small. Weld. See Dyer's-weed. WELL, a cavity, dug in the ground, Avith a view to collect the Avater from the contiguous strata : it is generally of a circular form, and lined with brick or stone. The folloAving method of pro- curing water, in almost every situ- ation, has lately been suggested by 3VI. Cadet dk Vaux. He directs the soil to be perforated Avith a borer: a Avooden pipe is then to be placed in the hole, and driven doAvn with a mallet, after Avhich the boring must be continued, in order that a pipe may be driven to a greater depth- As the auger be- comes filled with earth, it ought to be drawn up, and emptied; so that, by the addition of fresh por- tions ofthe pipe, the boring is car- ried to a considerable extent under ground, and Avater is in most in- stances obtained. Wells, thus WEL W E L 373 formed, arc preferable to those dug in the usual manner ; being less expensive, while the supply of water is more copious and cer- tain. Indeed, it often happens, in the common practice of digging for wells, that the Avorkmen are ob- liged to fix the Avindlass, in order to preA'ent the springs from gaining on them : by this practice, a small quantity of Avater is the necessary consequence, and it is apt to fail during dry summers. Hence, M. De Vaux advises the earth to be perforated ; a cylindrical pipe to be inserted ; and to search for that element at a greater depth, in the manner before suggested. This method is stated to be very useful in camps, or fortresess; and, in case the fluid near the surface be neither sufficiently sweet, nor of a good quality, he supposes this ex- pedient to be the best that can be adopted, for obtaining water of a purer kind, at a greater depth. [The above plan would be highly useful in the limestone counties of Pennsylvania, particularly in North- ampton, and the dry lands of Cum- berland, where the inhabitants have been obliged to dig from 90 to 150 feet deep for Avater. The utility of the plan has lately been shewn at Nazareth in Pennsylvania, where in boring for coal, a spring of water issued, which noAV con- tinues to run freely.] Farther, Avhen avcIIs hive, in large towns, been rendered unfit or useless, in consequence of the ground having been tainted by pri- vies, church-yards, he. he very properly recommends such reser- voirs to be emptied, and the bottom perforated in a similar manner, so as to reach the loAver sheet of wa- ter ; which, being thus contained within the cylindrical pipe, will rise in a pure state into the body of the pump fixed for this pur- pose. If wells be disused for a consi- derable lime, the water generally becomes foul; the ambient atmos- phere is corrupted ; and thus arise mephitic vapours which have often proved fatal to animal life. Hence it has been suggested, to employ a pair of smiths belloAvs, and a tube, according to the manner directed in the article Vapour ; but, as these are two bulky to be conveni- ently carried to any distance, and frequently cannot be procured on the spur of the occasion, Mr. Sal- mon, of Canterbury, has invented the folloAving aparatus, for dis- persing noxious air from wells..... We are induced to recommend this ingenious contrivance to the notice of our country readers ; as it is not very expensive, and will prevent many fatal accidents. A, B, C, D, E, F, represent six lengths of a metal pipe, each being eight feet long, and two inches in diameter : all these joints (except- ing that marked F, which is made of copper, for the better support of heat), are manufactured of tin- plate. G, is a tin-kettle, or vessel (con- taining about tAvo gallons), that is fastened to the upper pipe F, and the sides of which are perforated for the admission of air, and con- sequently for supporting the fire. This vessel must be fixed iR such a direction as to have at least five feet of pipe above its top. H, isa conical cap. designed to confine the heat to the sides ofthe lube. When the machine is applied to the well, a Avire must be passed thiough the holes a, a, in the upper part of the Lngth A, and in the 374 W E L W E L loAver extremity of B ; the joint ought to be luted Avith oil-putty, to render it air tight; the upper end of each joint should be covered with Avire, to prevent it from bend- ing ; and to form a receptacle for the putty. The other lengths are then to be managed in a similar manner, till that marked A, reach nearly to the surface of the water. The vessel G, ought to be placed on tAvo pieces of timber laid across the well. i j The apavatus, being noAV fixed, will speedily be filled Avith the foul air extracted from the Avell: and, as the gravity of the exter- nal and internal air, is equal, they become stationary. Burning coal or wood must next be put into the kettle G ; by which the copper tube, F, is heated ; and, the inter- na! air being rarefied, while the ex- ternal air presses dowmvard, the noxious vapours are gradually dis- sipated ; and a purer element is introduced into the Avell, whence it issues during the continuance of the fire. Mr. Salmon remarks (in his communication, inserted in the 9th volume of the " Repertory of Arts," he-), that hoAvever small the cur- rent of air passing out of the fun- nel or pipe, F, may appear, the ef- fect is considerable ; because such discharge consists whollyof noxious vapour; Avhereas, ten gallons of fresh air are probably blown into the well, by means of the com- mon bellows and leather pipe, be- fore two gallons of mephitic va- pour are removed. Such purifi- cation Avill be still more effectual, if the fire-kettle, G, be placed at D, when the internal air becomes more rarefied: it ought, however, to be remarked, that this advan- tage is over-balanced by the at- mosphere being rendered unfit for respiration, in consequence of the suffocating properties of the char- coal. [The following plan recommend- ed in the Columbian Magazine, for 1739, may be found useful and even preferable to the above, in some rase-. Let a stove, witii a hole mare ir> it. for an extra pipe, be placed near the mouth of the Avell, so as tb i loAver end maybe near the bottom of the well; fix WEL WEL 375 the other end of the pipe in the stove ; then make a brisk fire in it, and as the bad air comes from the Avell to the stove, and from thence through the pipe that con- veys the smoke, fresh air from the mouth of the well, will supply its place. A coal-pit in England was cleared of noxious vapours, by a method nearly similar to that here recommended: a pot being used instead of the stove. A constant rule should be, to loAver down a candle before any Avorkman de- scends : if it burn clear, there is no danger ; but if it go out, Ave may be sure of the presence of fixed air,or suffocating choke damp. The folloAving easy method of expelling the foul air from wells, Avas pursued with success by Mr. Robert Patterson of Philadel- phia. It is much more practica- ble than that of Mr. Robertson, noticed under the articles, Aik, Vapour. He took a hoop a little less in diameter than that of the Avell, to which he fastened a piece of cloth, nearly in form of a scoop net.... Three cords were made fast to the hoop at equal distances from each other, each about the length ofthe diameter of the hoop and knotted together. This vessel was let down to the bottom of the well, by a strong line over the windless, which was placed directly above the cen- ter of the Avell ; he took hold of it with his hand, and running from the well's mouth, forcibly dreAV up the vessel, with the Avhqle volume of incumbent air. Tavo or three repetitions of this simple process, completely cleared the Avell of all its noxious air, and the workmen descended with safely. The ex- periment has been frequently re- peated, and ahvays with equal suc- cess. Mr. Latrobe mentioned to the Editor, that he frequently saw an experiment tried in England found- ed upon the same principle as that of Mr. Patterson's. A rope was fastened to a bush of furze, and let doAvn the Avell; a person then hav- ing laidhold ofthe rope,run quickly back from the well, forcibly drawing upthe furze bush, and causing a cur- rent of air after it, and thus forcing up the deadly vapour. Another successful method, is to loAver down a dish into the well, containing quick-lime, in a state of effervescence. The carbonic acid (fixed air) seizes greedily upon the quick-lime, and leaves the space it formerly occupied, to be filled Avith the common atmos- pheric air. Repeatedly dashing buckets of Avater down the well, also dissipates the fixed air.] In the year 1794, the Society for the Encouragement of Arts, he. conferred their silver medal on George Butler, Esq. for his in- vention of a Bucket for drawing water from deep wells. It consists of a common barrel, the head of Avhich is taken out : across the top are fixed tAvo thin bars of iron, having in the centre a small piece of the same metal, Avhich Mr. Butler terms a standard. This is furnished Avith a collar, which has 4 moveable arms ; and above it, there are a mortise containing a small brass pulley, and a loop, to which the Avell-rope is secured: farther, a cord is tied to one ex- tremity of the collar, which, after passing over the pulley, communi- cates Avith a valve applied to the loAver head of the vessel.......The bucket, thus constructed, Avhen let down into the Avell by a rope, is filled through such valve ; and, on being drawn up, the iron cross 376 WEL WEL above mentioned is passed against two parallel bars, so that the valve is opened, and theAvater discharged into a trough? or vessel, prepared for its reception.....The principal advantage, arising from this con- trivance is, that the bucket is not only filled expeditiously, but it is also brought up steadily, so that no water is spilt; and, if any of it accidentally drop, it falls directly from the valve into the Avell, with- out Averting the descending rope; a circumstance of considerable im- portance ; for, by such continual moisture (Avhich is necessarily oc- casioned by the common buckets), it speedily decays, Avhile the ves- sels are seldom draAvn up com- pletely filled. A more minute ac- count of Mr. B.'s invention will be found in the 12th volume of the " Transactions" of the Society a- bove mentioned, where it is illus- trated, Avith an engraving. A patent was granted in Au- gust, 1798, to Mr. John Ashley, of Islingtom, for a method of rais- ing water from wells of any depth, upon a very simple and permanent construction ; of Avhich, however, Ave have not met Avith a specifica- tion. [The folloAving simple and con- venient mode of constructing what is called in the U. States, Sweep, the editor is favoured with, by Mr Benjamin Dearborn, to Avhom it Avas shewn by some person Avhose name he forgets. In con- venience it is superior to the com- mon kind, as the bucket, when this is fixed, is drawn double the perpendicular distance which the end of the sweep moves where the pulley is fastened. Its simplicity is such, that the only remark ne- cesary to make is, that one end of the cord is to be fastened inside of the Avell, at or near the top. The contrivance in other respects, con- sists of a strong post, firmly set in the ground, at a small distance from the Avell, and which is about eight feet above the surface of the earth, as represented at a....With the top of this post is connected a baulk, b, that turns on an iron pin ;.....c is a pole, linked to the smaller end of each baulk, and on Avhich the pail d is suspended, that sAvings Avhen empty over the well e. In order to raise water by the apparatus here described, a person lays hold of the pole, which is pulled down till the bucket de- scends into the well for filling it; Avhen it is again easily lifted up- Avards by a small force at c, being assisted bv the Aveight delineated at/; ^m~.- WEN WEN, is an indolent tumor, or an enlargement of the thyroid gland, Avhich is situated in the an- terior part of the neck. This af- fection frequently occurs, and is endemial in some parts of Eng- land ; for instance, in Derbyshire. It is uncommonly prevalent among the inhabitants of marshy, low countries, surrounded by wood-;, bordering on rivers and standing waters, or exposed to southerly, hot Avinds ; and especially among females, young people, children, and persons of a delicate or tender habit: even strangers, Avho settle in these parts, are not exempt from its attacks. Nevertheless, if timely attended to, it is often cured; but, Avhere it is hereditary, or has been suffered to remain after the age of adolescence, its removal is ex- tremely difficult. The principal causes of wens, are scorphulous matter; violent exer- tions ; poor, or indigestible food ; and bad Avater. Several authors suppose it to arise from the use of snow-Avatcr: thus, Forster, in his voyage round the world, ob- served glandular obstructions to originate from drinking solutions of ice. Cure....Where this malady pro- ceeds from a vitiated lymph, as in the Scrophula, it will be neces- sary to have recourse to the treat- ment recommended under that article. Should it have been in- duced by frequently taking solu- tions of ice, or snoAv, great benefit may be derived from the use of water, saturated with fixed air..... With a vieAV to dissolve the tumor, various remedies have been de- vised ; of which the following de- serve particular notice: Electricity in conjunction Avith alteratives ; for instance, mild mercurials and VOL. V. W E N 377 antimonials; hemlock; or 30 grains of the liver of sulphur dissolved in a quart of water, 2 table-spoon- fuls of which are to be taken every 3 hours. During such course, Pe- ruvian bark, or other tonics, ought to be used as auxiliaries. Among external remedies, camphor com- bined Avith sweet-oil; or a solution of sal-ammoniac in vinegar, have often successfully been applied to the tumor. Internally,the use oiburntsponge (as directed in the article Scro- phula) has. been attended Avith the best effects, in dispersing Avens. [The following prescription is warmly recommended by .the re- spectable Mr. J. Ring of London, who says, " He has been very suc- cessful in the cure of bronchocele Avith it. " Take of burnt sponge 2 oz.: poAvder of gum arabac 2 dr.: cin- namon I a dr.: simple syrup a sufficient quantity to make 24 lo- zenges. The mass is to be Avell beaten, and the syrup added slow- ly. The lozenges are to be dried before the fire, on a plate that has been slightly oiled, or in a galli- pot, tied over Avith skin. One of them is to be taken tAvice or three times a day. Mr. Ring says, he knew an instance, Avhere one Avas taken tAvice a day, for a great length of time, to no purpose ; but Avhen the number was increas- ed to three, the good effect Avas soon evident. The bronchocele, or goitre, as this disease is called, pre- vails in several parts ofthe United States, particularly in the Avestcrn part of Pennsylvania, and in the Genesee district of the state of N. York. It also prevails in Canada to an alarming degree. The above prescription deserves the attention of sufferers by the complaint. 3 C 878 WEN WH A Wens frequently make their ap- pearance in the side of the cheek, or the back of the neck. To re- move these, the mere bathing Avith salt and water has been found ef- fectual, as the followino: account sheAvs. From the Gentleman's Magazine. Chisholme, Roxburgshire, November 20, 1799. Mr. Urban, Having had a wen of the stea- tomatous kind, of large size, and long standing, upon the side of my face, immediately before and beloAv my right ear. 1 Avas inform- ed by different people that, if I Avould apply salt and water to it, I Avould get rid of it. In August, 1798, I put a quantity of salt and Avater in a saucepan, and boiled it for four minutes, Avith Avhich I bathed the whole surface frequent- ly Avhile it continued Avarm, as also after it became cold, so often as ten or Uvelve times daily ; al- av ays stirring up the salt deposited at the bottom of the bason, and incorporating it again Avith the Ava- ter, befoie I applied it. On the 1 Ith day from the first application, Avhile shaving, I observed a small discharge ; while assisting by a gentle pressure, the Avhole con- tents Avere soon emptied, Avithout the smallest pain, and Avithout blood. Being informed of some others who had been benefitted in like manner from the same application, and knowing myself of some late instances under my OAvn immedi- ate direction, I feel it a duty thus to make it public ; being convinced it can produce no bad effect, and every person having it in his power to make the trial. At the same time, I beg leave to caution that no one should be disheartened from the length of time it may be ne- cessary to continue the applica- tion ; as, in some cases, it has re- quired 3 or 4 months, though in the last, only thirty days ; but in all, Avithout pain or inconveniencies of any kind, or any previous no- tice of the discharge, till it actu- ally took place. William Chisholme.'] WHALE, the Common, or Ba- l&na mysticetus, L. is the largest inhabitant of the ocean, frequent- ing the north-seas, Avhere it is from 70 to 90 feet, and in those of the Torrid Zone, to 160 feet in length. Its head is uncommonly large, so that it is equal to one-third of its length : in the middle are tAvo ori- fices, through which it spouts Ava- ter to a considerable height; and to- Avards the back, there.are tAvo small eyes, protected by eye-lashes, like those in quadrupeds. The tail has the form of a crescent; and the colour of the Avhole body is vari- ous, the backs of some being red, and the belly perfectly Avhite. The female produces o'ne, or not ex- ceeding tAvo young Avhales, after a gestation.of nine or ten months, which are suckled in the manner of other mammillary animals. The whale is a very useful fish : its flesh, however, is rank and un- fit to be eaten ; but the small la- minae, known under the name of whale-bone, Avhich arc taken from the upper jaAV, furnish a lucrative article in commerce. The tongue consists of a soft, spongy, fat sub- stance ; which, Avhen boiled down, often yields five or six barrels of oil ; though the most valuable part is the Blubber, or fat, found be- neath the skin, to the depth of from WHE eight to twelve inches, and which is converted into train-oil. Whales are chiefly caught in the vicinity of Greenland ; though a fishery has lately been success- fully commenced in the South Sea. As their fat is of essential utility in domestic life, the maritime powers of the north annually send nume- rous vessels on this pursuit. Each ship is provided with six boats, which are respectively furnished with harpoons, appended to ropes from 200 to 300 fathoms in length. When a whale is perceived float- ing on the surface of the ocean, and spouting up torrents of Avater, the boats approach and a harpoon is discharged. The wounded fish plunges into the deep; and if the rope belonging to one boat be run- out, that of another is speedily fas- tened to it, to prevent the little bark from being carried doAvn Avith the Avhale. As soon as the un- Avieldy creature re-appears,another, and,it necessary,a thud harpoon,is discharged, till it rises to the sur- face, and at length expires. The Avhale bone is then taken out, the blubber cut to pieces, and stowed in hogsheads. The proper season fortheAvhale- fishery, is from May to July ; and great are the advantages derived from it, not only as an object of commerce, but also as a nursery for seamen. WHEAT, or Triticum, L. a ge- nus of plants,comprehending about 16 species, of which the following are the principal: I. The refuns. See Dog's- grass. II. The astivum, or Spring Wheat, is probably a native of Southern Siberia andSicily,whence its culture has been gradually dis- persal throughout Europe : it ri- W H E 379 pens about the same time as the Winter, or Common Wheat, even though it be soavh in February or March. This species is divided into the following varieties, name- ly: 1. The T. testivum, spica et grana rubente, or spring-Wheat, with a red spike or ear and grain. 2. The T. testivum, rubrum, spi- ca alba, Red Spring-Wheat, with a white ear. T>. The T. testivum, spica et gra- na alba, or Spring-Wheat, with a white spike and grain. These, and all other varieties of the same spe- cies, are beardless, and may be sown from the end of February: till early in May. They are not easily affected by moisiure, or se- vere frost, and afford excellent starch. HI. The hybernum, Winter or Common Wheat is principally raised in Britain : its grains are someAvhat fuller than those of the preceding species ; and its chief varieties are : 1. The T. hybernum, spica et grana rubente, or Common Wheat, with a red ear and grain, 2. The T. hybernum rubmim, spica alba, or Common Wheat, with a white ear. 3. The T. hybernum rubrum, spica et grana alba, or Winter Wheat, with white ears and grains. ...These varieties are also destitute of beards, and should not be soavo earlier than in September,nor later than in November....They produce the most Aaluable Avheat, Avhich yields the largest proportion of flour. IV. The turgidum, Thick-spiked, or Cone Wheat, each plant bearing from four to eight ears, and each of the latter from 30 to 70 grains; it differs from the preceding spe- 380 W H E cies, both in its bearded ears, and its small plump grains, Avhich are more convexonthe back than those of the Spring or Winter Wheat... The principal varieties are : 1. The F. turgidum conicum al- bum, or White Cone Wheat. 2. The T. turgidum conicum ru- brum, or Red Cone Wheat. 3. The T. turgidum aristiferum, Large-bearded Cone-Avheat, Clog- wheat, Square-Avheat, or Rivets. 4. The T. turgidum, spica mul- tiplici, or many-eared Cone-Avhc?.t. .....These varieties are Avell-calcu- lated for strong, damp, soils ; but the corn is apt to lodge, if it be sown too closely. Its grain is said to be productive of more flour than any other sort of wheat, though it is much browner, and of an inferior quality. V. The Polonicum, or Polish Wheat, resembles the preceding- species ; but its stalks attain the height of 5 or 6 feet; the leaves are Avhite-striped from \2 to 24 inches, and the ears six inches, in length. This noble grain is not cultivated to any extent in Britain, though remarkably fruitful, and yielding abundance of flour. It ought to be soavii sparingly ; as it is apt to lodge, in consequence of which the quality of the corn is impaired. VI. The Spelta, Spelt, or Ger- man Wheat, is principally raised in that country, and nearly resembles barley ; though its stalks are short- er. In Thuringia, it is generally soavii about Michaelmas, in stony, mountainous lands,which are other- wise fit only for oats. In France, Swabia, Franconia, and on the banks of the Rhine, it is more ex- tensively cultivated, even in better soils....:It is well knoAvn in com- merce, that the incomparable Nu- WHE remberg and Frankfort starch and flour are solely obtained from Spelt- Avheat. Hence, Ave are induced to recommend its culture in the nor- thern parts of this island, Avhich abound in rocky pasture grounds, especially in Scotland, where they are often rented at 1 s. 6d. per acre. We must, however, remark, that this excellent grain cannot be di- vested of its husks by thrashing, and that it requires the operation of a mill for that purpose; but it ought to be soAvn or drilled together with the husks. VII. The Siberian Spring W heat, has but lately been introduced into Britian : it attains to maturity as early as theCommon SpringW heat, and increases in the proportion of 25 to one. VIII. The Switzerland Spring Wheat, ripens a fortnight earlier than the common sort of that sea- son. IX. The Egyptian Wheat is re- markable for its uncommon fruit- fulness : its straw is strong and tough, Avhence it has received the name of reed-wheat. The grains, however, do not yield so large a proportion of flour or meal as any of the preceding species or varie- ties ; and the floAver is scarcely su- perior to that obtained from the finest barley. X. The Zealand Wheat is chiefly raised in the county of Kent: the straAV is long and tough, resembling reeds; the ears are large; the grains white* and full-bodied....... This species is Avell calculated for poor soils ; for if it be soavii on rich lands, it is apt " to run up to straw." Lastly, there is a species of Spring Wheat, cultivated in the island of Jersey, and which is termed Froment Tremais; being WHE only three months in the ground : its ears and grains are small, but yield a nutritious flour....Like the Cone-wheat, the last seven species are furnished Avith long beards. The White, or Spring and Sum- mer Wheats, flourish best on light soils, Avhile the other kinds and varieties are more advantageously raised on strong lands. The ground, hoAvever, ought previously to be Avell tilled and pulverized : thus, if a crop of Avheat be taken after clover has been ploughed in, it will prove uncommonly fine and abundant. This beneficial corn is propagated, by sowing it either broad-cast, or by Drilling it Avith Mr. Cooke's, or similar drill-machine ; or by Mr. Jervas Win cut's implement for sowing Avheat and other grain; which may be affixed to a plough, or manufactured of any requisite size......Mr. W. obtained a patent for this invention, in 1784 ; and, farmers may avail themselves of his contrivance, described in the 15th volume of the " Repertory of Aria," where it is farther illustrated by an engraving. Wheat may also be dibbled; but, though a considerable saving is thus obtained in the quantity of seed, yet such method is by no means preferable to drilling. With- in a few years, indeed, it has been proposed to increase the plant by dividing the root; and various ex- periments have been successfully made, with a vieAv of saving seed- corn : the most remarkable is that of Mr. Charles Miller,of Cam- bridge. He soAved some Avheat on the 2d of June, 1766 ; on the 8th day of August in the same year, a single plant Avas taken up, divided into 18 parts, and each part sepa- rately transplanted. Between the W H E 381 middle of September and October, these plants Avere again removed, their roots divided into 67 portions; which were likewise set at a pro- per distance from each other, for enduring the Avinter. Next, they were dug up a third time, and di- vided in a similar manner, between the middle of March andthe 12thof April; in consequence of which, they produced five hundred plants. Thus, a single grain yielded in one season : Ears 21,109 In number 570,000 fold ! In measure 31 pecks. In weight 47 pounds. For a more particular account of this experiment, the reader will consult the 58th vol. ofthe " Phi- losophical Transactions of the Roual Society".....The superiority of the Transplanting System over the Drill-Husbandry, is also fully de- monstrated in the 3d vol. of the " Letters and Papers cf the Bath and West of England Society." Wheat is subject to the Mil- dew, and various other disorders, of Avhich we have already treated, under the heads of Barlev, Corn, he. Hence we shall, by Avay of supplement, communicate two other remedies, which are recom- mended as being singularly effica- cious in preventing the Smut...... M. Hochheimer, Avhose authority is often questionable, relates in his German collection of economical and other facts, that Avheat mois- tened Avith strong vinegar, in the proportion of 24 lbs. of the grain to one pint of this liquor, will be perfectly secure from that distem- per. The corn should thus be pre- pared, shortly before it is sown ; and, though it be kept for a fort- night in such acidified state, on account of rainy weather, yet it 382 WHE WHE will not receive the least injury.... poAvder. The whole must now The next remedy is that proposed boil, till the last ingredient be com- by Mr. Rouert Somekville pletely dissolved : the liquor ought (u Communications to the Board of afterwards to be removed from the Agriculture," vol.ii.), who attributes fire, and poured into a large vessel: this disease to an insect resembling when perfectly cold, it should be the wood-louse, though infinitely diluted with such a quantity of smaller; depositing its eggs in the pure Avater as will amount to 30 chaff, or doAvny part of the wheat: gallons. The seed ought to be and, as these vermin, if sown with immersed in this preparation, and the seed, Avould either totally des- briskly agitated for 20 minutes ; troy the stem of the future plant, after Avhich it must be dried on or cause it to produce smut-balls, he canvas, or on the floor....Mr. S. advises the infected or suspected remarks, that if 2 lbs. of coarse grains to be washed in water; by glue or gum-arabic be dissolved, which expedient, all light or im- its tenacity will cause the bitter perfect seed may not only be skim- ingredients to adhere more firmly med off the surface,but the greater to the prain. The expense of this part of the eggs of such insects compound is said not to exceed will be separated. As, 1*owever, seven or eight shillings, and to be some of these eggs, notAvithstand- sufficient for twelve bolls (six Eng- ing this precaution, adhere to the lish quarters) of wheat; and, tho' grain, Mr. S. recommends the such liquor be not prejudicial to following preparation, that is pre- vegetation, it is so nauseous, that ferable to infusions of lime, ar- neither pigeons, nor any other of senic, and other mineral ingre- the devouring tribe, will touch it. dients, which often retard and de- Mr. Somerville, therefore, pro- stroy vegetation : Take of tobac- poses the folloAving method of des- co-leaves, of pulverized hellebore, troying Arermin on the growing and of Barbadoes aloes, each one crop : A piece of double flannel, pound; boil the two fii'st sub- about tAvo yards in breadth, and stances, for about an hour and an sufficiently long to go across a half, in 10 English gallons of wa- ridge, ought to be provided with ter. The fluid should next be cords at each end,'to serve as strained through the sieve; then hands, and also furnished with small put into a vessel over the fire ; and pieces of lead at the bottom, as re- the aloes be added in a state of presented in the following figure. B B WHE A, the flannel. B, B, the cord. cccccccccccccc, are the weights. This cloth, or blanket, must be dipped in the preparation above described, or in a strong decoction of rue, chamomile, and similar bitter herbs ; which is equally dis- gustful to vermin of every descrip- tion. One person is then to lay hold of each end of the cord, and to draw the flannel after them in the direction of the ridge, so as to touch the top of every plant: the same operation is repeated a se- cond time over each ridge, in a con- trary direction ; by which means, both sides will come in contact with the liquid, and the depreda- tions of insects, in general, be ef- fectually prevented. This sweep- ing, however, ought, if possible, to be performed in dry weather ; because those particles of the nau- seous ingredients, which may be left upon the ears, Avill more firm- ly adhere, than if the latter were in a wet state. The proper period for reaping Avheat, is by no means ascertained; some farmers asserting that it is most advantageous to cut the grain before it is perfectly ripe, while others arc of opinion, that it ought to stand till nearly ready to be reaped and housed. The anony- mous author of the " Farmer's Calendar," observes, that the safest way is that of adopting a middle course, Avith a particular regard to a fair time. If, hoAvever, there be any appearance of blight, Mr. A. Young thinks, that farmers cannot cut their Avheat two early. He re- marks, that the green state of the straAv is no indication that the grain is immature ; because the straw of blighted corn never acquires a WHE 383 bright yelloAv colour: but remains green till it becomes black. When the stalk is in this condition, the circulation of the sap ceases ; and the grain daily decreases in size- He therefore advises the wheat to be cut; laid down on the stubble; exposed to the dew; frequently turned ; and, when perfectly dry, the grain may be tied up in sheaves, and carried to the barn. Thus, thousands of bushels may be annually saved, that might af- ford good marketable grain ; part of which would otherwise never be thrashed out of the ears, while the remainder would be so light and brittle, as to be dispersed ia winnowing: the straAV will at the same time be tough, and fit for thatching; whereas, Avithout adopt- ing such method, it could not fail of being beaten to pieces in thrashing.....See also the article Granary. To Prepare Seed Wheat. [Various steeps have been propo- sed to expedite the vegetation of the seed, and to protect it from mildew or rust. The experienced Du Hamel was of opinion that Avashing the seed well in plain water answer- ed better than any artificial im- pregnation, and Mr. Wagstaffe of Norwich, (Bath Soc. Trans.) is of the same opinion. Mr. Cha- pelle 's experiment, however, mentioned in vol. i. p. 180, is de- cisive as to the great advantage derived from soaking barley seed in the black carbonic Avater of a stable manure heap, in a dry sea- son. Mr. William Johnston, of Jenkintown, formerly mention- ed in vol. ii. p. 284, stated to the Editor, that he also steeped Ids 384 WHE WHE grain in the black water of a manure heap, in Avhich was dissolved some nitre, and then sifted gypsum over it: the grain thus prepared Avas soAvn, and from thirty acres of ground he produced 7021 bushels of Avheat. The folloAving experiment is taken from the " Balance, " a pa- pei published at Hudson, (New York) and is Avorth repeating. " A man in this state, in pre- paring his seed wheat for soAving, steeped one bushel, tAvelve hours in pickle, and then rolled it in plaister, and soAved' it through the middle of a field containing eleven or twelve acres ; on each side of this throughout the field he sowed wheat that had been rolled in plais- ter, but not pickled. Soon after the grain began to vegetate, he perceived a striking difference, and that, during the Avhole groAvth, the stems of the pickled seed Avere much superior in thriftiness and luxuriance. " After reaping, thrashing, and measuring the grain, and making a comparison between the products of the pickled and unpickled seed, the owner has affirmed it, as his opinion, that, if he had pickled the whole of the seed, which was soaati in that field, his crop would haAre been increased thereby not less than seventy or eighty bushels." Mr. Cartier, of Quebec also, advises to Avash seed Avheat thrice thoroughly in Avater, then to steep it eighteen hours in strong brine, and to sift lime OA-er it, stirring it Avell Avith a shovel, until the wheat be equally dusted, in the propor- tion of half a gallon to every bushel of wheat. Some exceed- ingly smutty Avheat, Avas prepared in the above Avay, and immediately sown, and produced a good and clean grain. Carey's Museum, vol. vii. p. 273. Modes of Sowing When'. The folloAving modes of soav- ing Avheat are practised in various countries. 1. Broad cast. 2. Drilling in continued ioavs like garden peas. 3. Drilling clusters , in toavs. 4. Dibbling: dropping seed in holes. HoAvever easy the broad cast mode of culture may be to the farmer, he is deprived of the bene- fit arising from hoeing, Avhich the other modes readily admit of. When the second mode is prac- tised, the plants are horse-hoed between the rows. It is generally agreed that this mode yields more than the broad cast. WALTERRUTHERFORDEsq.ofN. Jersey, speaks highly of a mode of drilling Avhich is pursued in N. Jersey. The drill was invented by a farmer, in Somerset county, in that state, and consists of a seed- box over a cylinder that turns with the Avheels, and having four holes in the box, answering to notches sloped in the cylinder, thus per- mitting the seed to fall into drills at 13 inches a part. The drill is draAvn by a pair of horses, with a tongue to turn it: Avhen turning, the Avheel is to be held fast, and brought round, to run in the out- side drill: the head lands are aftei'Avards to be drilled. Eight acres a day may be put in, pro- vided the ground be previously Avell harroAved. The advantages of this method as stated by Mr. Rutheffokd and according to the experience of „ many farmers, are 1. It takes WHE WHE 385 somewhat less seed. 2. The seed is much better covered. 3. The ridges on each side mouldering gradually on the green grain, it xdoes not freeze out, during the winter. 4. It is sheltered from the bleak spring winds. 5. It draws off the Avet. 6. A crop thus put in, stands the drought well, the roots being well covered. Mr. Rutherford observes fur- ther, " Where the land is richly manured, perhaps this method may not be necessary, and if the fallow be covered with large stones or stumps of trees, it will be im- practicable ; but on land considera- bly exhausted, our farmers have experienced it to be advantageous; I reckon U yields double the old method (broad cast.) When I first practised drilling, it was on a field that, the year before, Avas in summer grain : one part of it gave a much better crop than the rest; and I found that Avithout di- rections, the teams-man sowed this part by hand." See Transactions of the New York Agricultural So- ciety, A'olume 1st. Drilling in clusters, permits horse-hoeing and hand-hoeing: and yields still more than Avheat drilled in a continued line. Mr. Bordley is of opinion that dibbling yields the most productive crop : but that eight or ten grains should be dropped in each hole. This method is tedious and expen- sive, where labour is scarce. Mr. Bordley invented a sim- ple strong machine which dropped five or six grains of Avheat in each cluster on about eight acres. The clusters were seven inches apart in the 1'oavs ; and the roAvs Avere about nine inches from one another. A horse on each side of a bed walked in the water furrows, and VOL. V. soAved an intire bed in eight rows at a time. A light pole extended between the horses, from the neck of one to that of the other. It appeared that, as far as nine grains in a cluster, and from Mr. Singleton's experiments, in Tal- bot county, as far as 15 grains in every cluster, the produce in wheat was progressively the better. Mr. B. recommends to drop the seeds so as to touch one another if pos- sible, as they thus proved greatly superior to the same number of grains spread within circlesof three inches, the centres whereof were seven inches from the centres of other similar clusters ; Avhen the dibbled Avere only six inches apart. Mr. B. estimated his crop at 15 per cent, better than drilled wheat in continued rows, both be- ing hoed alike : which Avould be •1 or 33 per cent better than broad cast Avheat not hood. Mr. B. further observes ; " af- ter a number of instructive expe- riments on eleven acres of wheat harroAved in, and compared Avith wheat at the same time ploughed in ; of wheat sown on a broad level; on round ridges of various heights; and on flat beds having deep part- ing furroAVs, the ridges and beds with their Avater furrows being seven feet Avide, some running North and South, and others East and West, I clearly preferred beds to ridges ; because it is immate- rial in what direction they lie, the sun shining equally on the Avhole horizontal surface ; and because the soil being alike in quality on the whole bed, the wheat grew equally well from edge to edge. The wheat, in reaping, also, Avas better saved, no short Avheat being observed as on the edges of ridges, and the furrows being opened deep, 3 D 386 WHE WHE the rains presently glided into the furroAvs, and were by them con- veyed into the main drains of this flat land,Avithout ever drowning the Avheat, or hardening the ground upon the flat beds. " Page 89, 90, 2d Edit, of Notes on Husbandry. Preparative cropfor Wheat....The most experienced farmers in Penn- sylvania, are noAV in the constant practice of preparing Avheat by ploughing downclover after having stood two years. But they have not sufficiently attended to the proper distance of time that ought to in- tervene between the ploughing doAvn, and the soAving wheat. The great point to be attended to, is to soav the wheat at the period when it is expected that the clover is rotting, and when of course the seed will derive the benefit from the extrication of those elastic fluids( which are the great supports of vegetation,) and of the heat of the fermenting plant. Hence, Mr. Macro says, (Young's Annals, vol. i.) " that 20 years experience has convinced him, the best way of.soAving clover lands with Avheat, is to plough the lands 10 or 15 days before you sow it, that the land may have some time to get dry, and after rain enough to make it dress well." Hence too the propriety of Mr. Macro's practice of ploughing in the clover on a fall of rain, and of waiting for a due state of the ground. Mr. BoRDLEif adds, that if rain falls after burying the clover, and be- fore soAving the Avheat, it may be necessary to wait for the ground becoming only moist, rather than sow Avhen it is Avet and heavy. If the farmer ploughs in clover, when the ground is dry,he may choose to Avait for rain before he sows.Though for this reason alone he need not wait. I have found it generally safe to sow during a drought, Avhen the soil is very dry; but not when a light rain has fallen on very dry ground. In the former case, the seed is safe till a rain falls, which is usually in plenty after a drought; and the seed then quickly grows up: in the other case, it is slightly damp- ed, and it swells, but the moisture is so soon evaporated as to leave the seed to dry-rot and perish." An experienced person made the same observations to the Editor, with respect to soAving seeds in a garden. Mr. Steele, of Montgomery county, (Avhose admirable plan for extirpating wild garlic, was men- tioned in vol. iii. p. 148) commu- nicated the following experiment: He ploughed doAvn part of a ten acre lot, one half of which he harrowed and sowed with wheat, the other half was permitted to re- main about 14 or 20 days, and was then ploughed a second time, har- rowed and sown with wheat. The clover at the second ploughing was found completely rotten, and the wheat soAvn upon this tAvice plough- ed piece, yielded nearly double the crop of the other which had been ploughed but once. In the above experiment it is probable, that the piece first ploughed had been sown before the decomposition of the clover took place ; the part tAvice ploughed, by some management, may not have had the rotten clover turned out as is commonly done when a clover lay is ploughed tAvice ; but there can be no question as to the superiority of the crop, if after being once ploughed, it had beea merely harrowed and sown, at the period, and instead of the se- cond ploughing ; for by this ope- WHE W H E 387 ration, much carbonic acid (fixed air,)musthave been evolved, which would have been retained. Gypsum, a manure to wheat..... In the Friends Settlement in Lou- don county, Virginia, south of the Blue Ridge, a great quantity of fine Avheat is raised. The soil is of a deep chocolate colour. Mr. Wm. \V i-sr, of Delaware county, Penn- sylvania, Avas told last spring, that the crop of 1802, averaged 30 bushels to the acre. Gypsum was scattered on the Avheat in the spring, in the proportion of one bushel to the acre, and Avas said to be attended Avith the most remark- ably good effect of trebling the produce of the land. Gypsum is found useless in Pennsylvania for Avinter grain. See article Gyp- sum. This surprisingly good effect of gypsum upon Avheat, which is so contrary to the experience of our farmers in Pennsylvania, ought to be carefully attended to. The in- telligent farmers of Loudon coun- ty, should inform us of the nature of their soil, and their medical men should analyze it, If gypsum could be generally made to in- crease the product of Avheat, as it has of clover, a Second Mine Avould be opened to the people of the United States. The means of getting out Avheat from the straAv are three. 1. By the flail. 2. By treading Avith horses. 3. By threshing mills. The method by means of the flail is well knoAvn. The second, is but partially used in the United States, though there can not be a doubt of its superiority to the mode by the flail. It is a common prac- tice.in Maryland and Virginia. Mr. Bordley observes " some farmers shift their treading floors Irom field to field ; whence much rough dirty wheat goes to market. rI hose who have a proper earth,on a perpetual floor used for treading crops of Avheat, year after year, will have it glossy, and the Avheat from it Avill have no more dirt than if threshed on plank Avith flails; provided they are attentive in tak- ing off the horse-dung directly as it is dropped, andnotletthe horses stop, to stale, until each journey ends and they are led off; and, provided, that as soon as the tread- ing season is over, they coverthe floor thick with straw, to remain till a week or two before they are to tread in the next season. Cat- tle may be foddered on it all win- ter, keeping it full of litter, to pre- vent horses from sinking and poaching the ground. When horses in halters are led in ranks, and each rank kept as far apart from the others as possible, time is given for taking off the dung dropt before the next rank tram- ples on it; and in this detached Avay of travelling, the horses are kept cool. Mr. Bordley states the advantages to be : 1. An entire crop of wheat beat out before the end of July, which preserves it against the moth-fly. 2. Little opportunity is left for pilferers, and the Avheat is ready for an early market. Treading floors are from 60 to 100 feet diameter, some are only 40 feet; others again 130, and more. The larger the diameter the easier to the horses. I never kneAV a horse disordered on a large floor, (above 60 feet). The track or path, on Avhich the sheaves are laid and the horses tread, is from 12 to 24 feetAvide. Mr. Bordley submits the fol- 388 WHE WHE lowing method as the best within his knoAvledge. The floor is un- incumbered with any fence. A barn 60 feet square is invthe mid- dle of it, around Avhich the horses travel, on the bed of sheaves about 25 feet broad ; so that the diameter ofthe Avhole treading floor is 135 feet. If the AA'eather be likely to con- tinue fair, the1 morning is suffered to pass away until the dew is off the stacks and floor. A row of sheaves is first laid flat on the floor, with the heads and butts in a line, across the stack of it, as a bolster for receiving the other sheaves Avith their heads raised on them ; and these sheaves range Avith the path and circle, the butts resting on the floor. Other sheaves are in like manner ranged, with the heads raised on the former sheaA'es, till the whole floor is filled, appearing Avith nothing but heads of wheat, sloping upwards. The bands are to be cut, layer by layer. A west- erly wind is to be Avished when treading ; and it is preferred to place the stacks eastward of the floor, to give a free passage to the west winds. In my treading, 24 horses are formed at some distance from the floor into four ranks; when the floor is ready, a boy mounted, adA'ances in a AValk with the rank haltered together, and enters on the bed of Avheat; another rank folloAvs, as soon as the first has obtained a distance equal to a fourth part of the circumference of the bed, and so of the other ranks. They are forbid to go out of a Avalk, till having walked upon the bed five or six rounds ; word is given to move on in a sober, slow trot, and to keep the ranks at their full distance from one another. The trot is continued till the horses have travelled 8 or 9 miles ; they are then led off to be fed, water- ed and rested, while the trodden light straw is taken off, as deep as to Avhere the sheaves lie somewhat close, and but partially bruised. One third of the width of the bed, is turned over on the other two thirds from the inner side or circle of the bed. The horses are again led on, and trot out their second journey, till the straAv be again light and clear of wheat. It is then taken off, as deep as to what lies more close. The horses are again rested, Sec. while the outer third of the bed is turned upon the middle part of the bed. A third journey is sufficient. The Btraw being taken off, the Avhole remaining bed is turned up from the floor, and shook out with forks and handles of rakes. The horses tread this well; their journies are then finished. A neighbour viewing the tread- ing of wheat on my floor, said the method is admirably easy to the horses, and that most of the time is spent in taking off and carrying aAvay the straAv ; but he thought it would be a saving, if the outer half of the bed be trodden till enough, and then the horses shift- ed on the inner half of the bed; and Avhilst this is treading, the straw might be carried off from the outer half, first trodden. 3. Many threshing mills have been invented in England and Scotland : but they have all been highly expensive, and so compli- cated that they were easily de- ranged ; and hence, even at this day, opposite opinions are enter- tained as to their utility. In the " Sherborne Mercury," for Janu- ary 12, 1801, mention is made WHE of a threshing machine, erected for J. Hanning, Esq. of. Dorset, which threshes and cleans 400 bushels of grain and sacks it in 12 hours, with the assistance of five men." What a treasure would such an implement prove to an American farmer ! On this subject Dr. James An- derson observes, to the Editor, " that no threshing machines re- quiring a greater power than that of one good horse, can ever give satisfaction to an intelligent far- mer ; because, when it works faster, the man who feeds it, is too much hurried to be able to do it well; in consequence of which the grain is laid in unequal lumps that derange the operations, and great- ly augments the force required : for these obstructions must, to be overcome, break the machine, and never perform the work well." This is an important general rule, well worth attending to. The threshing mill of Mr. Hoxie, of Hudson, New York, was mentioned in p. 114, of the present volume, to which Ave refer. The following observations upon harvesting wheat, and on the mil- dew deserve attention. " What stage of ripeness is the best for cutting Avheat, is not as- certained in America ; but I have seen enough of cutting early to be convinced that it commonly is suf- fered to stand too long. " At the time of reaping, we ge- nerally have a clear sky and a pe- culiar drying air, Avhich in some harvests ripen wheat very sudden- ly, so that the plants from an ap- parent state of vigour, are killed in a day or two, and receive no fur- ther nourishment from the root or blade ; and even the stems becorae WHE 389 exhausted of the nourishment which they had imbibed, so that it could not reach the ear or grain. If Avith this sudden heat and dry- ing state of the air, the plants be struck Avith rust, and are still suf- fered to stand longer, the grain, receiving no more nourishment, can never fill; but by cutting it instantly, and setting it sheltered to cure gradually, the best chance is had for obtaining marketable good wheat. "The reaping corn 10 or 14 days earlier than my neighbours, (says Mr. Parkinson) is an ad- vantage I have attended to. As corn begins to decay first at the root, all the nourishment it can re- ceive, while standing uncut, after the decay of the root, must be de- rived from the straw. The dews may feed the grain at one time ; but when nearly ripe and the root decayed, the sun and Avind have so much Jaower as to ripen it too quickly^ or scorch or dry it before its natural period of maturity. " Riding on the road about har- vest time, he observed a field of wheat that had taken the mildew. The straw was of a remarkably deep green, and instead of being dead, appeared to have acquired a greater verdure ; though after such appearance comes on, it never receives any nourishment or grows larger. Instead whereof the straw becomes distempered^ spotted, and discoloured. The sooner it is then cut the better. He took 12 ears of the wheat, which, as well as the straw, were green as grass, and at thesame time mildewed. A great deal of rain had fallen the forepart of the day > but the ears of wheat were pretty dry. He tied them in a bunch, 390 WHE WHE intending to hang them up in his house to dry and ripen. SeA^eral weeks aftenvards, having been forgot, he took them out of his great coat pocket ; Avhen the straw was found to be still green. The grain Avas then rubbed out, and to his astonishment he never saw bet- ter. It was fine in colour, and well filled ; but what remained in the field, from Avhich he took these ears, Avas very small and of little value. This is a strong case, Avhich ought to make an im- pression on the minds of our far- mers. He adds....From hence it would seem, that if the farmers would cut their Avheat Avhen it is struck with mildew, and set it up in the field in small stacks of about a cart load each, so as neither to heat nor mold, it would be better than to let it stand, as is the prac- tice, uncut. " He had, at the same time, taken tAvelve ears of Avheat from an ad- joining riper field, whicn were likewise found in theother pocket of the great coat. Though these, when gathered, appeared so much superior to Avhat had taken the mildew, they did not turn out near- ly so good as the others. From the above circumstances, Mr. Park- inson was ever after partial to cutting wheat when the straAv ap- peared of a reddish cast, or some of it green Avith the joints full of sap; and it fulfilled his expecta- tions. The straAv, he adds, is bet- ter for chaff; the flour much fairer and heavier ; and for fine flour it will grind into broad bran. But he does not think that if the Avheat escapes the mildeAV, it ought to be cut so green. " The farmer may take into consideration at what time it will bebsst that he cut down his wheat; for a slight degree of rust it need not be hurried ; but Avhen greatly rusted in its advanced state of ri- pening, and when considerably scabbed (which never happens but in the moment before it ripens) immediately cut down, and guard it against sun and Avind, slightly, lest by securing it too close, it heat and be entirely spoiled..... What in Avheat is by some called scab, by others is called empty ears." Captain Romans, in his account of Florida says, that a Mr. Young of Georgia, mixed rye among his seed wheat, and thus escaped the blast. It Avas repeatedly tried till he Avas convinced of its efficacy J and then he soAved five acres with Avheat, surrounded by a list of 25 feet breadth of rye, and this also succeeded. Mr. Bordley heard an English farmer say, that rye soAArn mixed with Avheat, will pre- A-entthe Avheatfrombeing blighted, in England. Beside the mildew, the Avheat has to encounter two great enemies, in the fly and moth. The one at- tacking it in the ground, and the other after it is cut. The first insect has been already noticed in vol. 3d, p. 54. Avhere the valuable observations of Joseph Cooper, Esq. may be found. This insect is now knoAvn to be a Tipula, belonging to the Diptera order of Linn^us, and to the eleventh order or Antiliata of Fabric i us. The other insect is a species of moth. It is believed to be de- scribed by Du Hamel ; its history is accurately detailed by L. Car-, ter, Esq. of Virginia in the 1st vol. of the Trans, ofthe American Phiij. Society. Mr. Carter is of opinion, that the egg is lodged WHE WHE 391 in the grain before it hardens ; and the time required by common the same opinion was expressed wheat, and that twenty bushels per to the Editor, by an intelligent hour can be turned out. farmer, in the neighbourhood of Wheat blanched in this way, Philadelphia. When the grain is may be kept for any length of threshed and laid in heaps it heats time, without any risk, and might and hatches the insect, but if kept be laid 20 feet thick in the ware- cool and free from the air, it will house withou tinjury. escape. It is found best to thresh To what American shall the speedily after cutting the grain, U. S. be indebted, for the intro- and before it is sweated. duction of this useful machine into Mr. Robert Ferryman of his country! ! England, has invented a machine Connected with the subject of to take off the outer coat of wheat, wheat, may be mentioned thepress previously to being ground, by for packing fiour invented by Mr. which the whole ofthe grain may Evan Evans of the Federal city, be used in bread, without any of and Avhich is in actual operation at the inconveniences hitherto found Mr. Oliver Evans' store in Phi- in bread, made from the whole of ladelphia. The following cut and the meal. explanation will give an accurate It appeared in the examination idea of this very useful contrivance, of Mr. F. by a committee of the by winch a barrel of flour may be House of Commons ; that blanch- packed in a minute. ed wheat grinds in two thirds of 392 WHE WHE Explanation.....A, the barrel of flour: B, the funnel, resting upon the edge of the barrel by a shoul- der: C, D, the driver: E, F, the lever : G, H, the connecting bars, fastened by a strong pin to each side of the lever at G, and to the driver at H : I, I, two strong posts put through the floor, and keyed beloAv the joists at K : the levrer works betAveen them on a strong pin L: the lever brought doAvn by the hand, moves the pin G, in the dotted circle I, and the connecting bars draws down the driver C, forcing the flour into the barrel; and, as it becomes harder packed thp poAver of the machine in- creases, as the pin G, approaches the posts I; this with its dispatch, is Avhat constitutes its excellence ; for a weight being hung to the end of the lever, continues to pack more powerfully as the lever de- scends ; by which goods may be packed very hard in a short time. To increase the power, the under sliding part of the lever is drawn out to increase its length ; the le- ver is raised again by the Aveight M, fastened to a line passing over the pullies N, O.] Wheat, the Cow. See Cow- WKEAT. WHEEL, is a simple ma- chine, consisting of a nave, fel- lies, and circular brim, or pieces of Avood generally surrounded with iron ; and thus revolving on its axis. In the year 179S, the Society for the Encouragement of Arts, &c. rewarded Mr. Joseph Dixon with the sum of 15 guineas, for his contrivance of a Preservative Wheel, that may be affixed to a walking Avheel-crane ; by means of Avhich all accidents to labourers will be obviated, in case the Aveight should at any time overcome the power. His implement is attached to the axis of the crane-wheel; over the latter are passed two ropes, of which the men may take hold, so as to suspend themselves Avith the greatest safety, during the time of danger. Pullies are HkeAvise placed near such preser- vative Avheels, over Avhich the ropes turn, and are thus prevented from taking fire, in consequence of the friction. For a more explicit ac- count of this useful invention, Ave refer to the 11th vol. of the So- ciety's " Transactions ;" where his statement is elucidated by an en- graving. A patent was granted in August, 1799, to Messrs. George Dod- son, and John Skidmore ; for a method of making the naves or stocks of Avheels, of cast-iron, brass, or compound-metal. A des- cription of their process is inserted in the 12th vol. of the " Repertory of Arts," he. together Avith an ap- propriate plate. Wheel-drag. See Drag. Wheel-carriages. See Car- riage, Cart, Waggon, he. [" In the second volume of ths Communications to the Board ofAg- griculture, is an excellent paper ' On the effects which carriage- Avheels, Avith rims of different shapes, have on the roads.' By AlexanderCumming, Esq. F. R. S. Edin. " Mr. C. begins with shewing, that the properties of all Avheels, so far as regards this inquiry, de- pend upon their affinity to the cy- linder or the cone: and in order to sheAV the nature and tendency of each class, he proceeds to state such properties as unavoidably arise from the shape of these bodies. / WHE « In the first place, the cylinder having all its* parts of equal diame- ter, will, in rolling on its rim, have an equal velocity at every part of its circumference, and necessarily advance in a straight line : and as all the parts of the rim have an equal velocity, none can have a ten- dency to drag forward, or retard the progress of the others : they all advance with one eonsent, with- out the rubbing of any part on the surface on which they roll. As there is no rubbing, there can be no friction ; and consequently a cy- linder perfectly round, hard, and smooth, would roll on a surface perfectly level, hard and smooth, with the least possible resistance, however great its weight, or the pressure on its rim. It therefore folloAvs, that all the poAver that is employed in draAving forward a cy- lindrical body, in a straight line, on a compressible substance, is ultimately applied in compressing, smoothing, and levelling the sub- stance on Avhich it rolls. The roll- ing of a cylindrical body, therefore, can have no tendency to alter the relative situation or position of the parts of materials on Avkich they pass, nor any how to derange them, but by a progressive dead pressure, to consolidate, level, and smooth them. These properties of the cy- linder are practically confirmed by the effect Avhich frequent rolling with a cylinder has on gravel walks; it renders them compact, hard, smooth, and impervious to rains ; and consequently secure against the devastations of hard frosts.... Nor does it break or grind the gra- vel, more especially after the first time of rolling, when all the parts are laid flat and smooth. If a cy- linder be cut into several lengths, each part Avill possess all the above vol. v. WHE 395 properties; and if the rim of a car- riage-wheel be made exactly of the same shape, it must necessarily have the same tendencies ; and its rolling Avill have the same effect on roads, provided it be not narrow, that cylindrical rollers are observed to have on garden walks*. " All these properties of the cy- linder depending wholly upon the equality of every part of its diame- ter, and consequently upon the ve- locity of every part of its circum- ference, are peculiar to it; and it is impossible to gain equal advan- tages with any other shape of the circumference of a Avheel. But as conical rims have been universally preferred for a series of years, it is natural to suppose that there were obvious reasons for such preference. On this ac- count, Mr. C. proceeds to inves- tigate the properties that must necessarily arise from the shape of the cone ; in order to see how far this preference can be justified. Th'e cone diminishing gradually from its base to its point, the ve- locity of every part of its circum- ference in rolling on an even plane, will be dimished as the diameter ; and at the very point, where there is no visible diameter, there will be no perceptible motion, the cone revolving round it, as a fixed point, or centre. If the cone revolve about this centre, the space described by each part of the cone in rolling round its point, being as the velo- city with which that part moves, the cone will roll in this direction * The advantage of increasing the breadth of cylindrical rims is too obvious, to be insisted on: as the surface which sustains the pressure of the load is in- creased, the pressure on each part of it is diminished; and consequently the pow- er of crushing the materials on whkh they roll. * 3 E 394 WHE WHE without rubbing, and with the same facility that the cylinder does in a straight line. But if the cone be made to advance in a straight line, the natural velocities of its several parts will not be as the spaces over which they are compelled to ad- vance ; therefore a rubbing or fric- tion will take place at its circum- ference, from the different velo- cities of its parts, Avhich must ren- der the draught heavier. And if the cone be supposed cut, and se- parated into several parts, and each to form the rim of a broad Avheel; each part, if r Ale I in this separated state on a level plain, Avould roll in the same circle round the conical centre, that it did when all the parts were .connected. And the difference of velocity of the parts of each Avheel, and consequently the friction and resistance at its rim, Avhen advancing in a straight line, may easily be determined. It will also clearly appear, that the rubbing at the rim of each, will, in passing over a given space, be in- creased as its diameter is dimin- ished, and its breadth augmented: so that a wheel of this shape must have the smallest part of the rim absolutely dragged along the sur- face of the road a certain portion of all the Avay it goes, Avhich will be a great weight to the draught. But the evil arising from this friction at the rim of conical wheels is not confined to the increased labour of the cattle only ; the greatest efficacy is also given to their increased exertions in destroy- ing the hardest and most valuable materials of the roads: the larg- est part of the Avheel dragging for- ward the smallest, and it with equal force resisting, there arises an ac- tion and counter-action, and the largest and smallest parts of the rim advancing with different velo- cities, and pressed by the weight of a heavy load, become alternate fulcrums to each other, for the des- troying and grinding of the hard- est materials that can be procured. Whoever takes the trouble of en- quiring into the requisites of a well constructed pulverizing mill, will find them combined in the conical broad wheel of a heavy-loaded waggon.. The materials being thus ground to poAvder, this is raised in a cloud' of dust, to the great annoyance of the traveller, to re- medy which, AA'atering is used near the metropolis, which keeping the roads moist, anticipates and in- creases the effects of wet seasons. When the roads are moist, pli- ant, and compressible, the effect of the conical rim is altered, but not less destructive: on the ap- proach of wet seasons, the body of pulverized matter that lies upon the more solid gravel which sup- ports the wheels, is soon mixed with water, and forms a body of sludge, which excludes air, and keeps the roads in a constant state of moisture ; this soon renders the interior parts ofthe roads so moist and pliant, that the pressure of a heavy Avaggon-wheel will make the whole breadth of its conical rim to apply flatly, and press hard up- on the more solid materials that lie under the sludge: the parts of which being now in a state more susceptible of altering their relative positions, comply with the motion of such parts of the wheel as im- mediately press upon them : thus all former concretion is destroyed, induration prevented, and the ma- terials Avhich form the crust of the road are left in a broken unconnect- ed state, ready to imbibe the water which the sludge on its surface WHE supplies constantly and abundantly. How different is this from the con- solidating effects of cylindrical rims under the same circumstances. In rolling on paved streets, no- thing can be conceived more calcu- lated for their destruction than the conical rim of a broad wheel. Let us suppose the largest part of the circumference to bear upon one stone of the pavement, and the smallest part of it upon the ad- joining stone; the one will be pushed backAvards, and the other dragged forwards by the force of the horses that draAV the carriage ; if this force be sufficient to open the joints between them, so as to ad- mit water, the mischief is done : a wet joint imbibes more Avater ; this softens the gravel Avith Avhich the paving is laid, and leaves it less able to resist the next effort, by which the joint gets more loose, and admits Avater sufficient to float and discharge the gravel, Cylin- drical wheels will not only pre- vent all this mischief, but also im- prove the streets by producing the effect of the rammer wherever the wheel passes. Conical wheels likewise increase the friction on the axis by their constant tenden- cy from a rectilinear direction : this likewise occasions a rubbing against the sides of deep ruts, which throws up the dirt towards the middle ofthe road, greatly ob- structs the progressof the carriage, and increases the labour of the horses. Number of Avaggons employed on Waggons with twehe-inch Avheels D° Avith six-inch wheels D° with four-inch Avheels WHE 395 Such «are the effects that un- avoidably arise from the conical shape of wheels, and they seem as much calculated for the destruc- tion of roads, as those of cylindri- cal wheels are for their preserva- tion and improvement: and seeing that the cylindrical rim is the most favourable that can possibly be adopted for the preservation and improvement of roads, and that the conical is the most de- structive, a certain advantage must be gained by using the former in- stead of the latter ; and as this ad- vantage must be in proportion to the space and surface that is rolled, it cannot be thought excessive, Mr. C. thinks, to rate that differ- ence at one shilling for every acre of road that is rolled with an im- proving roller instead of an im- pairing one. Mr. C. then goes on to inquire Avhat may be the probable amount of the advantage that may thus be gained to the nation yearly by adopting cylindrical rims for the Avheels of such waggons only as travel the turnpike roads. The number of waggons in England is upAvards of 96,600 : and supposing that only a tenth of that number is employed on the turnpike roads, and a fourth of that tenth, or a for- tieth of the whole, to have wheels tAvelve inches broad: and of the remaining three-fourths^ that ope- half have wheels si} a(jnes broad, and the other halfnj ^ls only four inches, the staten .t will be as follows: ... the roads 9,660 2 415 S',622| 3,622£ -------9,66(J 3W WHE WHE A wheel 12 inches brflad, will, in rolling 30 miles, cover a space of 158,400 feet,and the four wheels of a Avaggon rolling a double sur- face, will, at the same rate, in a day's journey, roll a surface of 633,600 feet, Avhich is equal to the Avhole surface of four miles of a road 30 feet wide; ana* something more than 14* acres. So that 2,-115 Avaggons, with 12-inch wheels will, in a day's journey of 30 miles, roll, 35,012 acres. 3,622 waggons Avith 6-inch avheels 26,259 3,662 Avaggons with 4-inch wheels 17,506 The number of acres rolled in a day by all the waggons 78,777 " And supposing all the Avag- gons, at an average, to travel only 90 days in a year, they will roll a surface equal to 7,089,930 acres ; which, at one shilling only per acre, will exceed 350,000/. per an- num. " Independent of pecuniary es- timates, the quantity of surface that is rolled yearly by waggons that travel the roads of England, is equal to the entire surface of 1,948,880 miles of road 30 feet wide. It is surely therefore of importance to use such wheels to rolj. this very extensive surface, which4 wiuCnfinrove instead of im- pairing it. a th? "In the p^- ieding estimate no allowance v at. made for such wag- gons ar, are used in agriculture, and that seldom come upon the public roads; but as every improve- ment of the private, as well as of the public roads, must be a national benefit, our author proceeds next to consider Avhat advatages may be gained on the private roads by the same means. " 86,940 waggons are supposed to be employed for the purposes of agriculture, Avhich is nine times the number that has been supposed to travel on the turnpike roads: but as they do not keep constantly even upon the private roads, he sup- poses them to travel the roads only 1 day in a month,at which rate they will, ceteris paribus, roll one-ninth more surface than all the waggons that travel the public roads at the rate of eight days in the month. " But supposing it only equal, as the quantity of surface that Avould be rolled annually by all the wag- gons travelling*tne turnpike roads in England, is equal to the surface of 1,948,880 miles of road 30 feet wide ; and in taking an equal quan- tity for the private roads, the whole surface that is rolled yearly by waggon-wheels, on the public and private roads together, if uniformly diffused, Avould cover every part of the surface of 3,897,760 miles of a road 30 feet wide; and in pro- portion as the length of road on which this traffic is supposed to be carried on is shortened, so much the oftener Avould it be rolled. The circumference of the terraqueous globe is computed at 24,900 miles, and if a road 30 feet broad was made quite round it, the waggons that travel the roads of England Avould annually roll every part of its surface 150 times. " Noav suppose tAvo such roads made close to each other, and in every respect similar, as to forma- tion, materials, and exposure, but that the one is rolled by cylindrical and the other by conical wheels, 75 times in the year, the former Avill be rendered more compact, close, and impervious to water, WHE each time of rolling ; and in the end, will be so solid and hard, and its surface so close and smooth, and so free from dust in summer and sludge in winter, as neither to admit nor lodge, water, which is the most effectual means possible of guarding against the destructive influence of wet seasons and severe frosts, and consequently of keeping the roads in continual good repair at the least expense. But the other road being rolled also 75 times, but with conical wheels, they will in dry seasons pulverize and destroy the best materials intended for the protection ofthe roads ; and in wet seasons, they alter the ar- rangement, and destroy the texture of the component parts of the crust, and leave them in a broken uncon- nected state, ready to imbibe wa- ter, which is constantly supplied by the sludge on the surface; which also effectually excludes the sun and air ; and thus the roads become rotten, and break into holes and ruts; and if a rainy season be succeeded by severe frosts, they will raze to the foundation every part into which the water and frost have penetrated. " If any man of observation, who has had an opportunity of attend- ing to the nature and repair of roads, and the expenses attending such repairs, seriously consider all the above circumstances, and make his own estimate of the number of men, quantity of new materials, as well as the extent of labour and expense that Avould be yearly ne- cessary, but more especially after a Avet autumn and a severe Avinter, to restore the road that had been rolled by conical Avheels, to an equal state to the road that was rolled by cylindrical wheels he will probably, make his estimate to ex- WHE 397 ceed any thing that has been here stated. The road rolled by the conical wheels will not only be much more expensive than the other, but is liable, for some months in the year, to be in a very disa- greeable and dangerous state, and at no time so pleasant as the road which is rolled with cylindrical wheels, on account of the dust in summer, and the deep sludge in Avinter. And the draught of car- riages is at all times, and especially after repairs, much heavier than on that road which remains ahvays unimpaired. " When the advantages of cy- lindrical wheels are fully proved, and universally known, there is no doubt that light, smooth rims, truly cylindrical, and broader than are now used, will be adopted univer- sally for carriages of pleasure and dispatch, as wellas for those of burtnen ; which, considering the immense number of carts, coaches, &c. he. in this kingdom, will add greatly to the advantages already stated; and the savings that must arise in the repairs of private roads from the use of broad cylindrical wheels, will very soon repay the first expense of making them of a sufficient breadth to admit carriages of any dimensions, which will to- tally obviate the only reason that now exists for using a bended axis and conical rim, and pave the way for the universal adoption of a straight axle and a cylindrical wheel. " The narroAvness of roads in their early state, made it necessary thatthe Avheel-carriages should also be narroAV, and it is more than pro- bable that the carriages first used Avere only for the purposes of hus- bandry, and draAvn by one horse. But in process of time, it Avas found 398 WHE WHE expedient to enlarge the carriages, and to increase the number of horses ; but the narrowness of the roads, and the depths of the ruts that were already cut in them, made it necessary that the Avheels of the neAv carriages should run in the tracks of the old. To gain the advantage of a wider carriage Avith- out making the Avheels run Avider it became necessary to alter the original construction ; the axletree Avas now fixed immoveably to the body of the carriage, and the Avheels made to turn independently of each other on its ends, Avhich were made to incline, or bend down- wards, by Avhich means the wheels stood farther apart at top than at bottom ; and thus room Avas gained for the body of the carriage, with- out widening the track of the wheels. The axis being for this reason bent, and the Avheels no longer standing parallel, it Avas necessary, in order to gain a flat bearing of the Avhole rim, to shelve it off tOAvards the outer edge, as much as the ends of the axis were bent from the straight line, and thus the rim became conical. The reasons for this structure noAV no longer exist. " If the breadth of cylindrical wheels, and the lengths of the axles be made to bear a regular proportion to the number of drav.ght horses; and the fore Avheels to run narroAver than the hind, so as to roil a double surface; the roads formed flat, and proper regulations made for quartering the roi'.ds; every waggon might be made ascCTecUvdly to improve that pr.rt of the road on Avhich it rolls, as if the horses had been em- ployed for that only purpose. It is true, that the rollers in this case are not so broad as might be de- sirable for that purpose, but if the effect be not so extensive, it is more dense and compressive ; and if the roads are made so nearly flat that carriages may with equal con- veniency drive upon every part of them, they will be more equally traversed, and more uniformly im- proved than at present; the des- tructive effects ofthe conical wheel will be evaded, and the draught of the horses made much easier. " The author next proceeds to ex- amine what sum would pay for the labour of the horses that might be thus made to roll the roads gratis, if they were only employed for the purpose of rolling them ; and on the supposition that the number of Avaggons that travel the roads is 9,660, each on an average drawn by three horses, the number of horses will be 28,980 : and taking an equal number for those wag- gons that use the private roads, the whole number Avill be 57,960 ; and supposing them to be employ- ed only 90 days in the year, at 4s. a day for each horse, it would amount yearly to upwards of a million sterling, without reckoning the expenses of the men necessary to attend the rolling. " Our author then goes on to examine the bad effects Avhich arise from using Avheels that have not an equal bearing of their whole breadth, but bear on a narrow part of the middle of the rim. These Avheels which Avere contrived to evade the Avise regulations of the legislature Avith respect to broad wheels, he shews are still more destructive than the flat conical rims, an they plough up the roads. He next proceeds to inquire into the best methods of constructing roads, and objects to the convex or barrelled roads w hich have been WHE WHE 399 generally preferred. These roads he observes certainly possess the advantage of carrying off the Ava- ter towards the sides when they are just finished, and have their surface of that perfect smooth form which the theory always supposes them to have : but as soon as any ruts are formed, they obstruct the running of the water towards the sides, and retain and conduct it longitudinally along the road, con- trary to the original intention ; and as no proper means have been used in forming the roads, to carry off" the water from those ruts, it remains in them, and is mixed deeper and deeper with the mate- rials of the road by eA'ery Avheel ^ that passes, till at last, the hard protecting crust is Avorn through, and the wheels penetrate to the soft materials of Avhich the road Avas originally formed, and deep holes are thus made, which, by the constant passing of all carriages in the same track, are enlarged into dangerous gulphs ; and all those evils arise from the convex form, Avhich obliges all carriages to drive on the very highest part only ; and thus the imaginary ad- vantages of convex roads vanish in practice, and in place of advanta- ges, we meet with evils ofthe most formidable nature. " When the ctoavii ofthe convex road is rendered impassable by the constant traffic of ail carriages in the same track, if any be com- pelled to travel on the declivity on either side, the Avheels force the hard materials down the sides; aided by their OAvn Aveight and the tremulous concussions of the roads, and thus the best materials of the conA'ex road are insensibly shifted from the middle towards the sides; from the only part of the road con- stantly frequented, to the extremi- ties, Avhere they can be of no ser- vice. * " Flat roads, that are level from side to side, our author observes, are much more pleasant to travel than the convex ; every part of the 'whole length being equally conve- nient, is frequented, and equally worn, and there being no such de- clivities as on the sides of convex roads, the materials have no ten- dency, to shift from the spot on which they are laid ; no deep ruts are formed, because the road is equally traversed, and the traflic of carriages equally and voluntarily dif- fused over every part of its surface; the track of every wheel, however shalloAV, becomes a small channel or drain to conduct the water in small quantities along the road, in Avhich direction it AVas intended to floAv, provision being accordingly made to gain a proper current, and to carry the Avater off the road by shallow channels across it; at proper and convenient distances; and here it is to be observed, that as each carriage takes its own course,there being neither rut nor declivity to pi event it, every carriage making iiew channels to carry the Avater from the surface of the flat road lenthways; the more carriages that pass, the sooner w ill the roads get dry ; and thus the frequency of carriages passing on a flat road, in rainy seasons, has a tendencv to keep it dry, and in that respect, to improve it; Avhereas on a convex road, the frequent passage of car- riages tends to its immediate des- truction. " Mr. Gumming next proceeds to illustrate his doctrines of the ef- fects of conical and cylindrical Avheels on different kinds of roads, by a series, oi Avell contrivedexpe- 400 WHE WHE riments with models. • The appa- ratus is particularly described, and the interesting results given at length, which we cannot copy in this work, as it would extend our account to too great a length ; we shall only observe, that the con- clusions from the result of the ex- periments, and from the theory stated in the preceding part of the paper, concur in proving, that so far as regards the labour of cattle, or the facility of the progress of carriages, as well as the preserva- tion of roads, the cylindrical shape of a Avheel is preferable to any other. We have endeavoured to place before our readers a rude sketch or outlineof Mr.CuMMiNG's excellent paper, Avhich contains 63 quarto pages ; and should the subject be interesting to any of them, they will find their trouble repaid by turning to the Communi- cations to the Board of Agriculture, vol. ii. p. 351." Wheel (lifting) the American lifting Avheel is described by Mr. Wm. Tat ham, in his late Avork, entitled " National Irrigation," p. 39. which has been already refer- red to, and Avhich ought to be con- sulted by every farmer. The diameter of the wheel is equal to the perpendicular height of the summit level to Avhich the Avater is to be raised at a single operation ; allowing for so much thereof as should dip into the stream to fill the buckets, and so much as should pass above the uppermost trough to discharge the water from them. This shape is then reduced to an exact circle by the means of a line and chalk, extended from its centre, and the surplus .plank be- ing heAvn down to the scribe of the circle, an axis of about two feet six inches in length, is fitted to it Avith arms of the same plank, and two small iron gudgeons to turn upon. Flutter boards are then fitted on Avith the saw, and cleated at convenient distances ; with a close box betAveen every second and third of them, nailed upon the rim of the wheel. These boxes (by some, termed gaining and loosing buckets) have two aper- tures or holes for receiving and discharging the water ; and as the bucket is immersed in the stream below, by the power of this little rapid acting upon the successive flutter boards, the water is taken in at one hole and discharged out at the other, as the wheel revolves it over the trough above. These are sometimes formed out of a worn-out cart wheel fixed upon an axis, which answers for a small elevation. The nearest descrip- tion of an invention similar to this wheel, which I have met Avith in any of the English authors, is that described by Mr. Ferguson, in p. 152 of his Lectures, under the name of the Persian wheel. This Avheel of Mr. Ferguson's acts in the same manner by a flutter board, and discharges by strikeing the bucket against a pin at the sum- mit point of its revolution ; but the German lifting wheel has greatly the superiority in respect to simplicity and cheapness, Avhich brings it within the reach of every man who occupies land ; and, pos- sessingequal powerwith thePersian wheel, may be considered' steadi- er in the fixture of its flutter boards, and the best medium betAveen this and the ruder contrivance describ- ed by Sir George Staunton, as one applied to similar purposes in China.] WHE WHE 401 fBMb -'^SMS^i'- f:'fi '■? '$' 'a- ;-l 402 WHE WHI WHETSTONE, is a kind of sand-stone, dug up chiefly in Der- byshire, and other northern coun- ties. It is of a dusky-yellow co- lour ; resists the action of acids, though permeable to water : being of a rough, and coarse structure, it is easily crumbled or broken between the fingers, and will not strike fire against steel. This fos- sil affords an useful article of trade, and is employed for sharpening knives, scythes, bills, and other implements of rural and domestic economy. WHEY, is the serum or Avatery part of milk, Avhich remains after the cream and coagulable matter of that fluid are removed, either by churning, or by separating it Avith Rennet, vinegar, cream of tar- tar, he. Whey is an agreeable and whole- some liquid : the best is that sepa- rated by rennet; as a considerable portion of curd and saccharine particles are suspended in it: where- as the serum, arising from the spon- taneous decomposition of milk, possesses an acid taste, is totally divested of the nourishing proper- ties of milk ; and ought to be used only in certain cases of fever, or inflammation. On the other hand, the latter is a pleasant, cooling, beverage, during the heat of sum- mer, and may be advantageously drank by the scorbutic and con- sumptive. Scalding Whey is prepared by a simple expedient, adopted in the midland counties, for improving the quality of Whey Butteh. It consists in suspending etich meal of cream, as it is taken off the whey, over the fire, till it become scalding hot; care being taken that it may not boil. Thus, the butter is greatly improved; and, if the milk have become rancid or bitter, from the coavs having eaten tur- nips, or barley-straw, such disa- greeable taste will be completely removed. Mustard Whey is made by boil- ing 1^ oz. of mustard in a pint of milk, and an equal portion of wa- ter, till the curd be entirely sepa- rated ; after which the liquid is strained through a cloth. This preparation is one of the most plea- sant and efficacious forms, in Avhich musiard can be taken ; the dose being one tea-cupful, Avhich may be sweetened with a little sugar, and taken three or four times in the course of the day. White-wine Whey is made by pouring equal parts of white Avine and skimmed milk into a bason ; and, after they have stood for a few minutes, by adding a double por- tion of boiling water. In a short time, the curd Avill collect, and subside at the bottom : the Avhey is now to be strained into another A'essel, and sweetened with sugar : a sprig of balm or slice of lemon will greatly improve its flavour. This kind of whey affords a salu- brious beverage ; .and, when taken immediately before retiring to bed, it is particularly serviceable to those Avho have undergone severe bodily fatigue ; or been exposed to the inclemency of the Aveather; as it will excite a gentle perspira- tion, and thus obviate a sudden cold or catarrh. Whins. See Furze the Com- mon. WHIN-CHAT, or Mafacilla rubetra, L. a bird found on British heaths and commons, during the summer months : it is about five inches in length ; the upper parts of its body being blackish, edged Avith rufous spots, and the IcAvcr WHI extremities are reddish-white; but the legs are black. Win-chats build their nests early in the spring, near some low bush or stone, where the female depo- sits five dusky-Avhite eggs, mark- ed Avith black spots. These birds, subsist principally on insects; and, Avhen fat, the flavour of their flesh is esteemed equal to that of the Ortolan. WHISKEY, a spirituous liquor, chiefly prepared in Scotland and Ireland, by distilling barley. With respect to its relative salu- brity, Avhiskey is doubtless prefer- able to any home-made brandy drawn from malt; as the former, though strong, is not very pungent, and, if properly distilled, it is free of any empy reumatic taste or smell. A moderate and occasional use of it, by way of cordial, after great bodily fatigue, may, to some hard- labouring persons, notbe injurious; but, Avhen such practice is carried to excess, as in Scotland and Ire- land, it deserves severe animadver- sion ; and, though the legislature has wisely imposed heavy duties on the distilleries, Ave fear that the immense consumption of this li- quid fire, can be prevented only by the most vigorous measures. If, hoAvever, the lower classes of people cannot be legally restrained in their vicious propensities, the only remedy left to the power of government, Avould be the prohibi- tion of employing grain for such vile and destructive purposes. See the article Spirits. , White. See Colour-making, vol. ii. White-bean. See Haav- tiiorn. White-Bottle. See Spat- ling-poppv. WHITE-SWELLING is a tu- W H I 403 mor of the joints, bu't chiefly of the knee : at first, it is not per- ceptibly enlarged ; being of the same colour as the skin; A'ery pain- ful, and diminishing the poAver of motion. There are two species of this disorder, namely, the rheu- matic, and scrophulous. As it is of the first consequence to distin- guish these maladies, the origin of Avhich is essentially different, we shall state the symptoms peculiar to each. The rheumatic Avhite-SAvelling is attended with acute pain over the whole joint; and Avhich is in- creased by heat: the patient finds the greatest relief in a relaxed po- sition ; the tendons become rigid ; and the joint appears as if thebones Avere enlarged. The tumor in- creases to three or four times the size of the knee, and feels elastic to the touch ; Avhile the limb de- creases, or sometimes becomes dropsical: at length, abscesses are formed, discharging matter Avhich soon degenerates into a fetid ichor. Unless, therefore, a cure be timely effected, the patient is attacked with a hectic fever, Avhich gene- rally closes the scene of misery. In the scrophulous kind, the pain is more acute, and confined to one spot: as the disorder gains ground, the SAvelling, and stiffness increase, while the ends ofthe bones become visibly enlarged. Similar elasticity is perceivable, and abscesses are likewise formed, Avhich, on being opened, discharge an offensive hu- mour : the bones decay, and pieces are often ejected through the ori- fices of the wounds. The adjacent parts become progressively affect- ed, till the sufferings of the patient are also terminated by the hectic fever. As the distinction above pointed 404 W H I out, sufficiently explains the proxi- mate causes, we shall only mention those Avhich occasionally occur; and the principal of Avhich are, suppressed perspiration ; injudici- ous treatment of vutaneous dis- orders ; especially of the measles, small-pox, rose, &c.; external vio- lence, such as falls, Woavs, and frequent kneeling. Cure....ln the rheumatic Avhite- SAvelling, which, at first, is of an inflammatory nature, it will be ad- visable to adopt a cooling regimen. Farther, blood should be taken 1 from the diseased part, by cupping or scarification ; a practice Avhich is far preferable either to venesec- tion or tothe application of leeches; and it may be repeated according to the strength of the patient, and urgency of the symptoms. Next, a blister must be applied to the opposite side, and kept open, till the scarified part is healed. Internally, mild cooling laxatiA-es should be occasionally taken, and heating liquors, as Avell as coarse food, must be strictly avoided. If a stiffness ofthe knee remain, after the SAvelling has subsided, great benefit Avill be derived from the application of pure, Avarm olive oil, and from gentle frictions, repeated three or four times every day. But Avhere suppuration has already taken place (Avhich may be ascer- tained by the softnessof the tumor); or, if the disorder make rapid pro- gress, professional advice should be speedily procured. In the scrophulous Avhite-SAvelling, the treatment specified under the head cf Scrophula, should be resorted to Avithout delay. When this affection is confined to the smaller joints, it has by those means,been sometimes cured ; but, Avhen the larger joints,for instance, WHI the knee, ancle, 8:c. are thus dis- eased, amputation is the only remedy. If, hoAvever, the Avhole system be tainted with a scrophu- lous acrimony, even that operation is frequently ineffectual. White-thorn. See Haav- thorn. WHITE-WASHING, is the act of cleansing ceilings and Avails, Avith a solution of lime in Avater, to Avhich a little size is occasionally added. The practice of white-washing apartments eminently contributes to the preservation of health: hence Ave Avould recommend the proprie- tors of cottages, to enjoin their tenants regularly to perform this operation, at least once annually. In countries abounding with lime, the expense will be trifling ; and, even though the article should be purchased, the whole cost will not exceed one shilling. It ought to be remarked, however, that hot or quick-lime is preferable to any other, and must be employed as soon as possible after it is slacked ; for, by attending to this circum- stance, its effects, in destroying vermin, and removing Infection, will be considerably increased. WHITING, or Gadus merlan- gus, L. a Avell-known fish, of an elegant shape, rarely exceeding 10 or 12 inches in length, and gene- rally weighing from eight to six- teen ounces. During the spring, extensive shoals of Avhitings frequent the British seas ; but seldom come nearer the shore than within half a mile, or retire farther from it, than about three miles. They are caught in considerable numbers by the hook and line, and afford great diversion : in the rivers Thames and Medway, these fish are pro- WHI W I L 405 hibited to be taken, if less than six inches in length ; nor are they alloAved to be caught at any season, excepting from Michaelmas to Ember-week. As an article of diet, the whit- ing is justly valued; being exceed- ingly delicate, tender, and nutri- tious ; so that it affords proper aliment for invalids, and persons having a weak digestion. Whiting, in Mineralogy. See Chalk. WHITLOW, orWuiTLOE, a painful swelling of the extremities of the fingers, beneath the nails, and usually terminating in a dis- charge of serous fluid, that is fre- quently so acrid as to corrode the periosteum, or membrane lining the bones, which thus become ca- rious. It is always attended with inflammation, and sometimes to so violent a degree as to affect the Avhole arm. Where whilloes arise from ex- ternal causes, it will be proper to apply emollient poultices, in order to affect a suppuration. Should such tumors, hoAvever, proceed from unknoAvn causes, it Avill be advisable to apply a feAV leeches, and afterwards ardent spirits, or other astringents; but, if the bones have already become carious, a total or partial removal of the af- fected part can alone effect a cure. Thefollowingpreparation has been extolled, as being A-ery efficacious in common cases of Avhitloes; though Ave cannot vouch for its success : Take equal parts of pel- litory of the Avail, previously bruis- ed, and hog'sdard ; let them be properly mixed, folded in several papers, and surrounded Avith wood- embei'^, of such a degree »f heat as to incorporate the ingredients, without burning the covering. The ointment, thus prepared, must be spread on a piece of soft linen, and applied to the Avhitloe, tAvo or three times every day, till the tumor be healed. WHITLOW-GRASS, the Com- mon, or Nailavort, Drabaverna, L. a native plant, growing on walls and in dry pastures; blowing in the months of March and April. According to Dr. Withering, the Nailwort is one of the earliest flowering plants, and may be used as salad. It is also eaten by horses, sheep, and goats ; but not relished by cows, and is totally refused by hogs. Whortleberry, the Red. See Bilberrey. WIDGEON, the Red-headed, or Anas fcrina, L. a bird of pas- sage, frequenting fenny places in the Avinter season : its breast is black ; the back and coverts of the Avings are of a pale grey, intermix- ed vuith narroAV black lines ; and the legs are of a lead colour. Widgeons subsist on small fish of every kind ; their flight is rapid: and they frequently associate Avith wild Dicks, Teal, and other aquatic birds. Considerable num- bers ofthe former foAvl are exposed for sale in the markets of the me- tropolis, under the name of Dun Birds, and ore greatly esteemed at the tables of the luxurious. Wild-briar. See Dog-rose-, the Common. Wild-climber, the Great. See Traveller's-joy. Wilderness. See Maze. WlLDlNe. SeeCRAB-TRl'E, Wild-parsley. See Milk- weed, the Marsh. Wild Pear-tree. See Haw- thorn. Wild-radis". See Radish. Wild-rocket. See Rccket. 406 W I L WIL Wild-tansy. See Silver- ■wefd. WILLOW, or Salix,h. a genus of trees comprising 42 species ; 22 being indigenous, of Avhich the fol- lowing are the principal : 1. The viminclis. See Osier. 2. The caprca'a. See Sallow. Beside the purposes to Avhich this species may be applied, its soft, white, and smooth Avood,is used for making handles to hatchets, prongs spades, andother rural implements: it also furnishes shoe-makers with cutting and whetting - boards, on which they cut leather, and sharp- en the edges of their knives. In Sweden, the young bark is not only used for tanning, but also, in com- bination with that of the alder-tree, for dyeing linen-yarn of a fine black colour. 3. The purfiurea, v. Helix, v. monandra, Rose, Purple, or Red Willow, grows in hedges, Ava- tery places, and the sides of rivers, where it blossoms in the months of April and May. Its long, slender, and flexible shoots, are manufac- tured into baskets, cradles, and other articles of Avicker Avork.... This species eminently deserves to be cultivated in the sandy banks of rapid streams ; as it is one of the most useful trees for consolidating loose soils, and even drift-sands. 4. The triandra, or Smooth Willow, groAvs to the height of from 6 to 10 feet, in moist woods, hedges, and the banks of rivers ; flov.'crs in the month of April. Its bark, in doses of from one to tAvo drams, haAe been successfully em- ployed in agues. 5. The pentandra, Sweet, or bay-i.eaved Willow, is found in forests and hedges, principally in the North of England, Avhere it floAvers in April. The wood of this species remarkably crackles in the fire ; the young shoots are eaten by sheep and goats ; the leaves af- ford a yelloAV dye ; and the pliant branches are converted into ham- pers, or the larger kinds of bask- ets. For medicinal purposes, the bark from young trees is even pre- ferable to that of the preceding species. Lastly, the down of the seeds, when mixed Avith one-third part of cotton, has been found to be an useful substitute for that vegetable avooI, in the manufac- ture of stockings, and other ar- ticles. 6. The vitcllina, Golden, or Yelloav Willow, abounds in oiHer-holts, and floAvers in May.... Its shoots are used by cradle or basket-makers ; its Avhite, tough, pliant twigs, are employed by nur- sery men and gardeners, for tying up the branches of Avail and espa- lier-trees. The wool surrounding its seed-vessels, Avhen mixed Avith cotton, affords excellent yarn for various manufacturing purposes. 7. The amygdalina, or Almond- leaved Willoav, groAvs on the banks of rivers, Avhere it flowers in April or May ; and a second time in August. The tough branches of this species are employed like those of the preceding. 8. The fragillis, or CrackWil- low, attains a considerable height in moist woods, hedges, and on the banks of rivers ; it blossoms in April or May....This iree grows Avith uncommon luxuriance, and Avill admit of being cropped every year: it has received this name from the remarkable brittleness of its branches ; Avhich, if stricken Avith #' finger, break off at the shoot of the current year. The WI L W I L 407 bark of these branches, possessing uncommon bitterness and astrin- gency, has been recommended as a substitute for the Peruvian : it is certainly preferable to ihat of all other native trees ; and, if given in doses about one-third exceeding the proportion of such expensive drug, it may, Avith advantage, be used Avhere the latter is indicated. When administered in powders, of from one to tAvo drams, it has also proved efficacious in removing in- termittent fevers. On account of its early blossoms, Avhich are Arery grateful to bees, it should be raised near their hives : a decoction of the roots imparts a reddish brown colour. 9. The herbacra, or Herba- ceous Willow, is the smallest tree ofthe Avillow kind ; its stem not exceeding 2 feet in height, and the branches being scarcely one foot long. It groAvs in moist, moun- tainous situations, chiefly on the sides of Snow don, and the moun- tains of Westmoreland, Yorkshire, and Scotland ; Avhere its yellow flowers appear in July. This spe- cies is, according to Hoffmann, fondly eaten by horses and other cattle. 10. The rubra, or Red Wil- low, is a very scarce species, be- ing found wild only in the Osier- holt, between Maiden head and Windsor: it flowers in the month of May. There is a variety of it, known under the names of the Norfolk, Hertford, Hereford, and Broad-ledA'ed, Red-hearted Hun- tingdonshire Willow, Avhich may advantageously be planted in moist situations, on account ofthe luxu- riance and rapidity qf its growth. The lough, light Avood of this tree is employed for gates, hurdles, and other agricultural implements: the pliant twigs are in great request for making baskets, cradles, am} also for tying up wall fruit-trees. 11. The cinerea, or Sallow- willow, is the most common of the kind,abounding in moist hedge rows, and woods ; where it attains the height of more than six feet, and blossoms in April. This spe- cies is chiefly remarkable for its beautiful flowering branches, Avhich are gathered about a Aveek or ten days before Easter, and sold under the name of palms. 12. The alba, White or Com- mon Willow, abounds in woods, hedge rows, in wet meadow, and pasture-grounds, where it attains a considerable size ; flowering in the month of April. Its blossoms are eagerly A'isited by bees; its le- ves and young shoots are eaten bv horses, cows, sheep, and goats: the wood is employed in making poles, hoops for casks, stakes, and likeAvise for fuel : the bark com- municates a cinnamon colour to yarn, and is not only advanta- tageously used in tanning leather, but has also, like that of the Crack and Smooth Willows, been suc- cessfully administered in agues..« The Rev. Mr. Stone (" Philoso- phical Transactions of the Roi/al Society," vol.liii.) directs such bark lobe gathered in the summer, when it abounds Avith sap, and to be taken in doses of one dram, every 4 hours, between the fits : in a few obsti- nate cases, Mr. S. found it neces- sary to mix one-fifth part of Peru- vian bark Avith that ofthe Common Willow. As this tree frequently grows in Avet, marshy, situations, where agues are most prevalent, v.% bark promises to afford a valuable substitute for the foreign drug, especially as the price ofthe latttr has lately been so exorbitant, that 408 W I L WIL the poor cannot easily procure it; while its quality becomes every year more impaired, by base and fraudulent adulterations. Beside these indigenous species, there are tAvo exotics, which de- serve to be mentioned : 1. The Babylonica, or Weep- ing-willow, is a native of tiie East, whence its culture has been introduced into Britain. It flourish- es by the sides of rivers, attaining to a considerable size ; and its long, depending branches, contri- bute greatly to diversify the scene- ry : it is raised chiefly for orna- ment. 2. The Dutch Willow has lately been transplanted into England. Its wood is chiefly employed for posts, rails, gates, he. to which purposes it is Avell adapted. All the species above enume- rated, delight in moist situations, excepting the salloAV, which thrives better in a dry soil. They may be easily propagated by planting sets, cuttings or truncheons of avUIoavs, about 6 years old, either in spring or in autumn ; as they speedily take root, and in the course of a few years, amply repay the ex- pense and trouble bestowed on their culture. In order to ensure success, the truncheons ought pre- viously to be steeped in soft water, for a feAV days : both ends must then be obliquely smoothened ; the upper part be covered Avith soil, and exposed with its orifice toAvards the east. The earth should be mo- derately compressed Avith the foot, around the stem, so that it may more readily absorb mois- ture : in the third year, the top should be cleared, to promote the growth of the bark. The Yellow Willow, however, ought never tu be planted too near wells or springs, because its spreading roots retard their course: thus, Mr. Bordley (in his u Essays and Notes on Hus- bandry," he.) mentions an instance, in which a spring was completely choked up, by their rapid absorp- tion of Avater. On the contrary, this species may Avith advantage be propagated in swampy situa- tions ; as its roots tend to consoli- date the ground ; and, after a few years, the soil will generally be converted into a firm meadoAV. [The salix latifolia, or broad- leaf AvilloAv, possesses greater me- dicinal properties than any of the bther species of salix ; and is now substituted by many British phy- sicians for the Peruvian bark. Dr. Wilkinson, has published a dis- sertation on this species, and from his work the folloAving account is taken. " This species of salix may be distinguished by the shape of its leaves from all others, except the S. Pentandra, or bay-leafed wil- low. The leaves of the latter are smooth, and shining, of a deeper green, and have not the doAvny ap- pearance on the under surface, which is so remarkable in the S. Capreata. It is found in Avoods and hedges on hilly situations, and de- lights in cold, clayey, moist grounds. " The most proper time to gather the bark, is in May or June; it should be cut in small pieces, and dried in the shade. This bark is very astringent to the taste, and somewhat bitter, but it looses the latter quality when dry : the to.mentil root has nearly the same tas$e, but is more astrin- gent. It gives out its virtues more freely to soft Avater in decoction, WIL W I N 409 than in infusion: Dr. Wilk- inson directs one ounce and a half of the coarse powder of the bark, to be infused in one quart of water, for six hours ; then to boil it over a gentle fire for a quarter of an hour, and strain for use.... The dose tAvo or three large table spoonfuls, three or four times a day ; but in the ague and fever, one or two ounces may be given every third hour in the interval of the fit. When boiled with a small quantity of Juassia root, it is ren- dered much stronger. " Dr. W. relates a number of cases of the successful use of the decoction, in cases of general debi- lity, or relaxation of the body from various causes, and in which bit- ters and tonics are usually prescrib- ed ; and in some instances with benefit, after the common reme- dies had failed : in particular, p. 99, he relates a case of extreme ema- ciation from an ulcered foot, which was perfectly cured, after having resisted the continued use of Peru- vian bark, and the exertions of the physicians of two public chari- ties." It is not known Avhether the salix latifolia is a native of the United States, but it deserves the attention of our medical men in the country, for if found native, they might also substitute it for the Peruvian bark, and other foreign bitters.] WILLOW-HERB, or Epilobi- um, L. a genus of plants consisting of 13 species, 8 being indigenous ; of Avhich the folloAving are the principal : 1. Thehirsutum, Great Hairy, or Large-floweued Willow- herb, or Codlings and Cream, is perennial: grows in moist hedges; ditches, the banks of brooks, rivers, and lakes; Avhere it floAvers in vol. v. July. The young tops of this vegetable possess a delicate odour, resembling that of scalded cod- lings : but Avhich is so transitory, that after they have been gathered five minutes, their fragrance is entirely dissipated. Horses, sheep, and goats eat the plant; though it is not relished by cows, and is wholly rejected by hogs. Accord- ing to Bechstein, this herb1 re- markably absorbs the inflammable air generated in moist situations ; so that it deserves to be cultivated in the neighbourhood of dwellings on marshes, both on account of such useful property, and its large beau- tiful purple flowers. 2. The angustifolium, or Rose- bay Willow-herd, fs also peren- nial, being frequent in woods and hedges ; where its rose coloured flowers appear from June lo Au- gust. This species is eaten by sheep, cows, and goats ; but is refused by horses and hogs. An infusion of the leaves produces intoxicating effects ; though the suckers of the roots, when pro- perly dressed, afford a Avholesome dish. The inhabitants of Kanit- schatka brew a kind of ale from the pith of this plant, which they convert into vinegar ; and the doAvn Avith Avhich its seeds abound, has in combination with cotton, or fur, been advantageously manufactured into stockings, and other articles of Avearing apparel: this fibrous substance may also be profitably employed as a material for making paper. WIND, is a perceptible agita- tion or commotion of the atmos- phere, occasioned by a strong current of air from one region to another. The temperature of climates be- ing greatly modified, by the Arinds; 3 G 410 W I N W-I N and navigation depending almost entirely on their influence, the ori- gin of this powerful agent has na- turally engaged the attention of many inquisitive naturalists: hence different theories have been framed Avith a view to account for the cause of these changes ; but, as none of the conjectures appear to us conclusive, or satisfactory, we shall briefly state the effects produced on the human frame,' by this airy meteor......Thus, a south Avind debilitates and relaxes the Avhole system ; and disposes the body to catarrhal diseases : on the contrary, the north wind in- vigorates the animal fibre, and re- markably contributes to health ; because it dissipates noxious va- pours, while it purifies the air, and renders it serene....WTinds blowing in the earlier parts of the day, are of a drying nature ; and, conse- quently, walking in the forenoon is more salutary than at any other period ; Avhereas the even- ing breezes, being generally damp and cool, are less beneficial both to the healthy and infirm: besides, the latter are frequently accom- panied Avith rain....The relative salubrity of these various winds, however, greatly depends on local circumstances : for, if they blow across the sea, over mountains, or continents, they necessarily con- vey, and communicate to the at- mosphere, a greater or less degree of cold or humidity....See also Anemoscope ; Climate ; and Weathkr. WIND, or Broken Wind, a disorder incident to horses : in this affection, they cannot breathe free- ly, and their natural functions are impaired: it is usually preceded by a dry cough, and may be knoAvn by the animals eating litter, and swal- loAving frequently copious draughts of water. Farriers are by no means agreed, respecting the cause of this mala- dy : Mr. Gibson attributes it to an injudicious or hasty method of feeding young horses, especially those for sale ; so that their lungs, and the other organs contained in the chest, become pretcrnaturally enlarged ; in consequence of which, the chest is not sufficiently capa- cious to admit of their due expan- sion. According to his advice, the diseased animal should be bled tAvo or three times ; when its bowels must be opened by a dose of calo- mel, and the following balls be given for several days:....Let 8 oz. of aurum mosaicum (Avhich con- sists of equal parts of mercury, tin, sal-ammoniac, and sulphur); 4 oz. of myrrh, and an equal quan- tity of elecampane, both reduced to powder ; bay-berries and ani- seed, each 1 oz.; with half an oz. of saffron, be triturated together, and made into balls, Avith a sufficient quantity of oxymel of squills..... This preparation may be divided into 12 doses ; but, as the aurum mosaicum is a tedious and expen- sive preparation, either 8 oz. of pulverized squills, or a similar por- tion of gum-ammoniac, or 4 oz. of each, may -be safely substi- tuted. Mr. Gibson directs the food of broken-winded horses to consist principally of corn, slightly moist- ened with urine or pure Avater; and, if tAvo or three cloves of gar- lic be given Avith each meal, they will afford great relief; as that root stimulates the solids, and dis- solves the viscid fluids, which im- pede the action of the lungs. Mr. Taplin, however, conjec- tures that broken-wind originates W IN W I N 411 from obstructions in the minute vessels of the lungs ; Avhich are occasioned by foul feeding, Avant of sufficient exercise, and inatten- tion to cleansing the intestines of horses, by occasional purgatives ; so that the elasticity of the Avhole system is impaired. He is there- fore of opinion, that a cure can only be effected in an early stage of the disease; and, with this view, he recommends frequent, but mo- derate bloodlettings, which should be succeded by a regular course, or three doses, of the following pur- gative balls, namely: Take of Socotrine aloes, nine drams, jalap and rhubarb, of each 1^ dram, gum-ammoniac, calomel, and gin- ger, of each 1 dram, and 60 drops of oil of juniper. These ingre- dients are to be carefully incorpo- rated, and formed into 3 balls, Avith a proper quantity of syrup of buck- thorn. Three days after the opera- tion of the third dose, Mr. Taplin directs one ball, prepared in the following manner, to be taken every morning, for such a period as Avill enable a person to judge, Avhether there be any prospect of recovery: Take 8 oz. of the best Avhite soap, 3 oz. of gum-ammo- niac, and a similar quantity of guai- acum, 2 oz. of aniseed, and the same portions of liquorice, myrrh, and Benjamin ; also balsam of Peru, Tolu, and oil of aniseed, of each A an oz. these articles are to be compounded into a mass, Avith Barbadoes tar, and divided into 20 doses, or balls. Throughoutthe Avhole treatment 6f this malady, Avhether Mr. Tap- lin's or Mr. Gibson's directions be folloAved, it Avill be advisable to allow but little hay and Avater, lest any accumulation should take place in the intestines......The animal should likeAvise be moderately ex- ercised ; and the greatest precau- tion taken to prevent a cold. Thus, it will speedily be ascertained, how far a total or partial cure may pro- bably be obtained. Wind-flower. See Anemone. WIND-GALL, in farriery, sig- nifies a Avindy swelling, on both sides of the back sineAV, above the fetlocks, in the fore or hind-legs of a horse ; though these tumors may likeAvise arise in Aarious other parts of the body. Wind-galls are generally occa- sioned by strains or bruises on the sineAvs; Avhich, on being over- stretched, produce ruptures of the fibres ; but, if these swellings hap- pen in the interstices of large muscles, and appear distended, similar to air bladders, they may be safely opened, and dressed as a common wound. On their first appearance, wind- galls should be treated Avith re- stringents, and covered with ban- dages ; hence, the tumefied parts ought to be bathed twice a day with strong vinegar ; or the SAvell- ing may be fomented with a decoc- tion of oak-bark, pomegranate, and alum, boiled in verjuice ; applying to it a roller previously soaked in this liquid. Some farriers employ red-Avine lees ; others use curri- er's shavings moistened with the former, or with vinegar, as a substitute for the bath and fomen- tation. Should, hoAvever, these applica- tions prove unsuccessful, it has been recommended to open the parts affected with an aAvl, or by means of a knife ; or, Avhich is still pre- ferable, to apply mild blistering plasters, that will effectually dis- 412 W I N WIN charge the confined humour ; dis- perse the inclosed air, and gradu- ally accomplish a cure. WIND-INSTRUMENTS, or those which must be played by the breath, are generally opposed to such as are stringed, or those of the vibrating kind. The principal wind-instuments are the fife, flageolet, flute, French- horn, hautboy, bag-pipe, clarionet, and trumpet....Playing on the most fashionable of these, is esteemed an elegant acquirement; but Ave deem it necessary to remark, that though the occasional indulgence in such practice, may afford an innocent and agreeable relaxation, yet it should not be too frequently en- joyed : for, as the muscles of the abdomen, are thus necessarily contracted, the circulation of the fluids is impeded; and asthma, cough, pulmonary consumption, or other fatal maladies, are often the melancholy consequence....... See also Flute. WINDMILL, is a contrivance for grinding corn, or raising water : it is put in motion by the action of the Avind upon its sails, or vanes. In the 55th vol. ofthe " Gentle- man's Magazine," for 1785, Ave meet Avith an account of a wind- mill for raising water, by Mr. Merriman. It is furnished with a large sail, affixed to a mast, that inclines to the horizon, and thus imparts motion to certain pieces of machinery termed braces, Avhich are connected with forcers ; so that every gale of Avind will act on the apparatus, and raise a greater or less quantity of Avater. During tempests, the mast will bend, and the sail yield to their force; so that when their violence is abated, the »pper parts are restored to their original position, Avithout injuring the works.....The mechanical de- scription of such contrivance be- ing foreign to our plan, the in- quisitive reader will consult the work above cited. As wind-mills essentially contri- bute to agriculture and domestic convenience, we shall present our readers with a delineation of a specimen of those empoyed in the vicinity of Lisbon ; because the construction of their sails is in some respects different from, and, in the opinion of Lord So- merville, superior to, those used in Britain. The advantages of mills, on this construction, are stated by his Lordship to be the following : 1. That the broad part of the sail is at the end of the lever, or branch, and thus an equal resist- ance may be overcome with less length of branches, or arms. These being consequently shortened, a considerable weight of timber will be rendered unnecessary, and a material saving of expense, be obtained, in the height, prime- cost, and subsequent repairs of the mill. 2. The sails, constructed on the plan above represented, may be set to draw in a manner similar to the stay-sails of a ship ; and, as they are swelled more than those in England, Lord S. remarks, that they Avill render it unnecessary to bring the mill so frequently to the wind ; a practice which, in ma- chines of the usual construction, is ahvays attended with considerably trouble. In November, 1783, a patent was granted to Mr. Benjamin Wise- man, for his invention of sails, Avith horizontal levers, designed to communicate motion to windmills* WIN WIN 413 His patent is now expired ; but, as a description of such machinery would be unintelligible Avithout the aid of engravings, the reader is referred ra»the 4th volume of the " Repertory of Arts," he. ; Avhere his specification is illustrated by two plates. A patent Avas likeAvise granted in December, 1795, to Daniel Maunsel, Esq. for his invention of a horizontal Avindmill, upon neAv principles, for grinding com, and for other purposes : an account of his complex machinery is inserted in the 7th vol. of the Avork above cited, and- elucidated Avith two en- gravings. WIND-PIPE, or Trachea, is a tube composed of cartilaginous rings, and situated in the fore part ofthe neck,before the gullet. After descending to the third or fourth joint of the back, it divides itself into two branches, called bronchia, Avhich enter the substance of the lungs, and there spread themselves in numberless ramifications, termi- nating in the air-cells, that consti- tute the chief part of the lungs. ToAvards the posterior part, the rings are fleshy, or fibrous; in consequence of Avhich structure, the Avind-pipe is enabled to shorten or lengthen itself, as Avell as to di- late or contract the diameter of the passage. The internal surface is lined with a very sensible mem- 414 W I N WIN brane, which, like the whole tra- chea, is continued from thejarynx, being the upper part of thelormer, heloAv the root of the tongue ; and lubricated by means of numerous glands. This membranous form facilitates the descent of food ; and, by its contraction and dilatation,en- ables us to expel and admit the air in greater or smaller quantity, and Avith more or less velocity, as may be required, in speaking or sing- ing. The afiections to AAdiich this part is exposed, are but few. Thus, if acrid or corrosive vapours, or exhalations, have been inspired, demulcents, and mucilaginous drink, for instance, oil, milk, or linseed tea, should be swallowed in copious draughts, and the steam of the same liquids frequently in- haled ; or, the throat ought to be diligently gargled with them, in order to sheath the internal sur- face, and prevent the inflammation. For this purpose, a spoonful ofthe folloAving mixture should be taken at short intervals; namely equal parts of sweet-oil, syrup of violets, and honey of roses, properly in- corporated. But, if the inhaled vapours have been of a corrosive nature, such as those of arsenic, aqua-fortis, Sec. the treatment re- commended under the article Ar- senic, should be immediately adopted. Sometimes improper substan- ces, such as crumbs of bread, coarse dust, See. enter this pas- sage ; and, though they may often be expelled by a fit of coughing ; yet great precaution is necessary, that such effort be not too violent; because ruptures of blood-vessels, or instant suffocation, have often been the melancholy consequence. S'iould, hov.ever, the substances fallen into the wind-pipe, be point- ed, or of large dimensions, they generally produce fatal effects; unless relief be timely obtained by an operation, Avhich has occasion- ally proved successful....See also Gullet. With respect to inflammation of the Avind-pipe, Ave refer the reader to vol. iv. p. 353. WINDOW, an aperture left in the Avails of houses, with a vieAV to admit the light, and which is ge- nerally provided Avith glass, dis- j£ posed in sashes. A patent was granted in May, 1783,toMr. William Playfaik, for his method of making bars for sash-AvindoAvs, of copper, iron, or any mixed metal, containing cop- per. Although the term of his pri- vilege is noAV expired, yet as a mere description Avould be insufficient to explain the manner in which the requisite forms are imparted to the metals, the curious reader Avill con- sult the 8th vol. of the " Repertory of Arts," he. Avhere a full specifi- cation is inserted and illustrated with an engraving. Another patent was obtained in 1S01, by Mr. David Young, of Connecticut, in North America ; for a new mode of raising sash- windows. His contrivance is re- markably cheap and eafy : "it con- sists simply, in boring three or four holes in the side of the sash, and inserting in them common bottle- corks, so that the latter shall pro- ject about the 16th part of an inch. Such corks press against the win- dow-frames, along the usual groove; and by their elasticity, support the sash at any requisite height...See also Country-house; Farm-house, he. [The proper distribution of AvindoAvs in a house, is an object of WIN great importance. The following just observations on the subject of lighting apartments general- ly, are taken from Mr. James Malton's late elegant work entit- led '• Collection of Designs for Rural Retreats," a Avork which cannot be too Avarmly recommend- ed to the consideration of all Avho are about to build. The common rules observed by builders in the United States, in the arangement of Avindows, exhibit any thing ex- cept taste and utility. " Experience and observation," says Mr. Malton, " have deter- mined me to be decidedly of opi- nion, that the cheerfulness of rooms depends chiefly, if not in- tirely, on the mode of conveying in the light ; not on the quantity of it. It is not abundance merely that makes it cheerful; an apart- ment may be too light, it may be glaring. Furniture, dimensions, and proportion, may have consi- derable influence in making a room cheerful, but all these aids combined are insufficient Avhen light is ill diffused. " I am fully satisfied, that an apartment is made cheerful by a sufficiency of fight floAving in from a centre. Convinced of the above position, I have throughout the designs contained in this Avork (Designs, he.) uniformly aimed, Avherever it Avas necessary to con- sider beauty especially, to throw the light into the rooms from the middle of a side or end, as either best suited. In internal areas, light is more attracting, and first engages attention, it is therefore that light should be central ; and is best situated, Avhen opposite to the door by which an apartment is entered. " A moderately sized well-pro- W IN 415 portioned room, sufficiently light- ed from one windoAV in the mid- dle of a side or end, aa ill be cheer- ful, from the united circumstances, of immediately draAving regard to a centre, by that regard not being distracted by rival lights; and by the light being uniformly distri- buted over the space it is confined in. These objects are best effect- ed when the apartment is lit from a hoAV in the middle. " An apartment to be Avell lit, should have the light to flow in uninterruptedly ; this it does not do Avhen the Avails are thick, and jaumbs are kept square ; the jaumbs should be splayed to convey the light Avell into an apartment. If a room be large, and cannot be handsomely lit from one opening of light, there should be then three openings, or five or seven ; the middle should be distinguished by an opening, not by a pier. " In the smaller class of town- houses, where three AvindoAvs can- not be introduced into the drawing room ; by the adoption of splayed sides, three advantages will be ob- tained, setting aside the more elegant appearance to the eye, the room Avould be better lit, the mid- dle pier would be greatly reduced, and the necessity would be avoided of .battening so much, to receive the necessary depth of boxing to contain the shutters. " It is a mistaken notion that by the extra sized side piers, made in consequence of having but one AvindoAv in the side of a room, the corners next the light are very dark. But I have observed it not to be so, and I know theoretically, from the reflection of light, that it will not be so. The great and brilliant body of light emitted through a middle Avindow, strikes 416 WIN WIN centrally on the opposite side of the room, and is reflected back again with adequate force and brightness ; and inasmuch as that centre is light, so will the opposite side be also, by reflection." Mr. Malton (and with great propriety) appoints the space over the chimney piece for the looking glass, instead of the pier, between the Avindows. " How one windoAV can be made handsome, and eAren to appear more elegant than two, I shall next explain. " I propose that in rooms up to 20 or 21 feet in front, Avithin, but one Avindow only, be employed ; which window, if not a bow, may be such as are represented in the following Cut, and which might be variously ornamented, agreeably to the general elegance of the apartment. We1' The above is for a 16 feet front : The proportion is one and two thirds the breadth of glass of two separate windoAvs. The small pilasters between, might be fluted or othenvise ornamented; the lower pannels of the splayed shut- ters might be plates of looking- glass, or the AvindoAvs might be down to the floor, and finished in the utmost style of elegance."] WINE, is an agreeable, spiri- tuous, aromatic liquor, prepared by fermenting the juices of those vegetables which contain saccha- rine matter. Its constituent parts are : 1. Sugar, or the sweet juice, usually termed must, from which the liquor is obtained ; 2. Alkohol, or pure spirit, that is disengaged during the vinous fermentation ; and 3. Water, which is the most in- W IN WIN 417 nocuous part of the Avhole, and tends to moderate its properties, that may otherwise prove hurtful. A receipt to make an excellent American Wine, by Joseph Cooper, Esq. of Gloucester county, New Jersey. " I put a quantity of the comb, from which the honey had been drained,' into a tub, and added a barrel of cyder, immediately from the press ; this mixture Avas well stirred, and left for one night. It was then strained, before a fer- mentation took place ; and honey was added, until the strength of the liquor was sufficient to bear an egg. It was then put into a bar- rel ; and after the fermentation commenced, the cask Avas filled every day, for three or four days, that the filth might work out of the bung-hole. When the fer- mentation moderated, I put the bung in loosely, lest stopping it tight might cause the cask to burst. At the end of five or six Aveeks, the liquor was drawn off into a tub ; and the Avhites of eight eggs, well beat up, with a pint of clean sand, were put into it: I then added a gallon of cyder spi- rit ; and after mixing the Avhole well together, I returned it into the cask, which was well cleaned, bunged it tight, and placed it in a proper situation for racking off, when fine. In the month of April folloAving, I drew it off into kegs, for use ; and found it equal, in my opinion, to almost any foreign wine: in the opinion of many judges, it Avas superior. " This success has induced me to repeat the experiment for three years ; and I am persuaded, that, by using clean honey, instead of the comb, as above described, such vol. v. an improvement might be made, as would enable the citizens of the United States to supply themselves with a truly federal and Avholesome wine, which would not cost a quar- ter of a dollar per gallon, were all the ingredients procured at the market price ; and would havethi? peculiar advantage over every other wine, hitherto attempted in this country, that it contains no foreign mixture, but is made from ingre- dients, produced on our own farm?." We shall now state the method, in Avhich Foreign Avines are obtain- ed from the fruit of the vine. See also Vine. When the grapes are sufficiently ripe, they are gathered, and sub- mitted to the action of a press ; from which their juice runs into vessels furnished for that purpose. Here it remains for several hours, or for a few days, according to the temperature of the atmosphere : when the fermentation commen- ces, tiie liquor rises, and a consi- derable portion of fixed air, or car- bonic acid gas, is evolved. At the expiration of some days, the fer- mentation ceases : when the liquor becomes clear, and cool, it is poured into other casks or vesfiels, where it undergoes a slight de- gree of a neAv fermentation ; in consequence of Avhich, it become^ divested of all feculent particles, Avhile its taste and flavour are re- markably improved. In order to clarify it still farther, the Albu- men, or Avhites of eggs, Is ing lass, Sec are either suspended or dis- solved in the cask ; and various other expedients are practised, most of which have already been stated in the article Clarifica- tion, as Avell as in different parts of this work : a summarv of thee 3 H 418 W I N WIN materials, the reader will find in die General Index of Reference..... With the same vieAV, it has been recommended to filter turbid wine through fine sand laid on a sieve ; but, as the mucilage of the foul liquor speedily fills up the inter- stices, the following method may be preferably employed: it con- sists simply in showering such sand on the Avine, through a sieve ; so that the weight of this mineral may carry along vrith it, and de- posit all the mucilaginous and gross particles of such wine..... Should, hoAvever, any matters ac- cidentally remain. Dr. Darwin directs a little gum-arabic,' or a feAV whites of eggs, to be added ; after Avhich the sand-shower is to be repeated, till the fluid become perfectly clear. The colour of Avines is, in gene- ral, independent of their proper- ties ; being in many instances ar- tificial, and imparted to those li- quors, after they have come into mercantile hands. Thus, Avhite Avines are tinged red, by decoc- tions of logwood, the juices of elder and bilberries ; in France, by the husks of tinged grapes; and, when a proper colouring matter is required, solutions of stick-lac, and turnsol, haA'e been proposed as useful substitutes. There are, hoAvever, other ingredients fre- quently employed by unprincipled persons , and which produce dele- terious effects on the human sys- tem. As it is of great importance to expose such adulterations, Ave shall communicate a feAV simple means, by Avhich they may be dis- covered, both by the taste, and by the tye. Thus, if new white wine be of a sweetish flavour, and leave a certain astringency on the tongue; if it have an uncommonly high co- lour, which is at the same time disproportionate to its nominal age, and to its real strength ; or, if it have an unusually pungent taste, resembling that of brandy, or other ardent spirits, such liquor is gene- rally sophisticated....Farther, when red wine presents either a very pale, or a very deep colour ; or possesses a peculiarly tart and astringent taste ; or deposits a thick crust on the sidesorbottomsof glass-vessels, it has then probablv been coloured with some of the substances above mentioned; and Avhich may be easily detected, by passing the li- quor through filtering paper; Avhen the tinging matters will remain on its surface. Such fraud may also be discovered, by filling a small phial Avith the suspected wine, and closing its mouth with the finger : the bottle is then to be inverted, and immersed into a bason con- taining pure Avater; Avhen, on with- drawing the finger from its aper- ture, the tinging or adulterating matter will pass into the Avater, so that the former may be observ- ed sinking to the bottom, by its greater weight. Wines frequently become tart, and even sour, in consequence of the fermentation having been mis- managed ; or by keeping them in improper places ; or from unfore- seen accidents : in these cases, cy- der, or the juice of carrots and tur- nips, is commonly mixed with the liquor, to overcome its acidity ; but, as such juices do not always SAveeten the wines to a sufficient degree, the latter are often adul- terated Avith alum, or Avith sugar of had; preparations, that cannot fail to be productive of the worst effects; as they doubtless are slowly operating pois'.is. Hence Ave deem it our duly to give an WIN analytical account of the principal tests, or test-liquors, discovered by ingenious chemists, both for the health and satisfaction of our rea- ders. If wine be adulterated Avith alum, M. Beraud directs a small qu an - tity of the suspected liquor to be mixed with a little lime-water: at the end of ten or twelve hours, the compound must be filtered; and, if crystals are formed, it contains no alum : in the contrary case, the residuum, after filtration, will split into small quadrilateral segments, that Avill adhere to the paper on which it is spread. In order to detect the litharge, or sugar of lead, 10 or 12 drops of a solution of yellow orpiment and quick-lime should be poured into a glass of Avine : if the colour of the fluid change, and become successively dark-reddish, brown, or black, it is an evident proof of its being adulterated with lead. As orpiment, hoAvever, contains a large proportion of Arsenic, it is apt to produce effects equally fatal Avith those resulting from the sugar of lead: we shall, therefore, subjoin a feAV other tests, Avhich are per- fectly harmless. Thus, Fourckoy (<■<■ History and Memoirs of the Royal Academy oj Sciences at Paris, for the year 1787," he.) directs a few drops of vitriolic acid, or of pure saccharine acid, to be intro- duced into a certain portion of the suspected liquor. These will cause the lead to sink to the bottom of the glass, in the form of Avhite powder ; Avhich, if laid on a piece of solid charcoal, may be reduced to metallic globules, by means of the lamp and bloAv-pipe. Never- theless, he preferably recommends a solution of hepatic gas in dis- tilled water : this, he observe:., W I N 419 • will, on being added to wine so- phisticated Avith lead, produce a black sediment, and thus shew the smallest quantity of that metal; whereas, in pure wine, no preci- tation will take place : the preci- pitate of lead may be readily dis- tinguished from that of other mi- nerals, by its deep colour. Dr. Watson (u Chemical Es- says," vol. iii.) advises 1 oz. of quitk-lime, and ludf an ounce of flowers of sulphur, to be boiled in one pint of Avater : Avhen the liquor is cold, it must be carefully bottled up ; and, on adding a feAV drops to the wine, or cyder, impregnated with lead, the colour of the Avholt: will become of a lighter or deeper broAvn, according to the quantity held in solution. But, as this test also precipitates iron, when dissolv- ed in any vinous fluid, Ave think the following probatory liquor may be preferably employed : it Avas in- Vented and published in 1791, by Dr. Hahnemann, but the merit of his claim has lately been assumed by an obscure German chemist in London ; and avc understand, that the recipe for this test has been surreptitiously sold to a French speculator, on whose account it is now retailed by several venders, under his directions. Dr. H.'s original test has, within the last three or four years, been simplified and improved, so that it is noAV prepared in the folloAving manner: Let one dram of the dry liver of sulphur, and tAv o drams of cream of tartar be shaken in two ounces of distilled Avater, till the whole become saturated with hepatic ;> as: the liquor must now be filtered through blotting paper, and kept in a piiial closely stopped. In order to try the purity of Avine, from 1<» to 20 drops of this test are to he 420 WIN WIN poured into a small glass : if the Avine become only turbid, Avith Avhite clouds, and a similar sedi- ment be deposited, it is then not impregnated with any metallic in- gredients. Should it, hoAvever, turn muddy or black; its colour approach to a deep red ; and its taste be at first SAveet, and then astringent; the liquor certainly contains the sugar, or other per- nicious preparation of lead. The presence of iron is indicated by the Avine acquiring a dark-blue cast, similar to that of pale ink; and, if there be any particles of verdigrease or copper, a blackish-grey sediment Avill be formed. In making all these experiments, the test ought to be neAvly prepared, and the trials made in the open air. A small portion of sulphur is always mixed with white wines, in order to preserve them : but, if too large a quantity be employed, the Avine thus impregnated be- comes remarkably intoxicating; oppresses the organs of breathing ; and excites intense thirst; while cutaneous eruptions, palpitation of the heart, gout, and numerous other nervous affections, are often induced. Sulphur may, however, be easily detected : for, if a piece of an egg-shell, or of silver, be immersed in the Avine, it instan- taneously acquires a black hue. Quick-lime is also frequently mixed Avith wine, for imparting a beauti- ful deep-red colour: its presence may be ascertained, by suffering a little Avine to stand in a glass, for tAvo or three days; when the lime, held in solution, will appear on the surface, in the form of a thin pellicle or crust. The last, and certainly the least hurtful adulteration of wine, is that with water, which may be detected by throwing into it a small piece of quick-lime : for, if the lime be slacked, the wine must have been diluted ; as, on the con- trary (Avhich however will seldom be the case), such liquor may be considered as pure. The moderate use of wine cer- tainly conduces to health,especially in Aveak and languid habits : hence it has been emphatically termed the " milk of the aged :" it accelerates the circulation ; invigorates both the bodily and the mental faculties; increases the action of thestomach; and is of essential service to con- valescents, especially to those Avho are recovering from the severe attacks of typhus, or other malig- nant fevers. On the other hand, intemperance in Avine is productive of drunkenness, or intoxica- tion, with all their attendant evils, and not unfrequently lays the foundation both of acute and of chronic disorders : the mental poAvers are impaired; and linger- ing death only terminates the suf- ferings of the debauchee. Hence, Ave seriously advise parents, to beAvare of giving wine to their children indiscriminately; because, to them, it can be of service only Avhen taken as a medicine: and those injudicious persons, Avho en- courage young people to take Avine habitually at their meals, are guilty of an abuse, Avhich cannot be easily repaired by future abstinence. WINNOW, or more properly, Winnoaving-machine, is a con- trivance employed for separating, by an artificial current of air, the chaff from the grain, after it has been thrashed out of the straw. In the year 1797, a patent was granted to Mr. S. W. Dix, for his invention of a winnoAving-machine, designed to clear grain from the WIN straw, instead of thrashing. It consistsof an uprightsquare frame, furnished with a hopper for receiv- ing the corn, while in the ear : the grain is separated from the chaff, by means ofthe friction of a large circular rubber. The implement is set in motion by a pair of ribbed rollers, connected Avith the main axle, by a band or strap ; and this axle is turned by the aid of a com- mon hand-winch. The advantages resulting from the use of this contrivance, are by the patentee stated to be as follow : 1. No grain will be scattered ; and the farmer will be enabled to carry in one Avaggon, ten times more corn in the car, in sacks, and without the straw, than possi- bly can be conveyed with the straw, at one load. 2. As the same quantity of com may thus be conveyed in one day, as is usually performed in ten, it follows, that not only nine days la- bour, both of men and cattle, may be saved, but also the risk of Avet weather, which frequently injures the grain, and increases the ex- pense of housing, is in this man- ner effectually avoided. 3. The corn being in the ears without any straw, and such ears being rough, it will lie lightly, so as to admit a free current of air: hence, sweating and shrinking of the grain will be prevented; Avhich accident often happens, when ma- naged according to the prevailing method. 4. The ears of corn, thus sepa- rated from the straAv, Avill occupy incomparably less room in the bam ; consequently farmers Avill be enabled to guard it more com- pletely from the depredations of rats, m'n e, and other vermin. 5. The reed, or prime straw, W I N 421 being thus preserved in a sound state, will be more fit for thatching, collar-making, the manufacture of hats, &c. for it is neither broken nor split, as generally happens Avhen the flail is employed : at the same time, all the natural chaff remains in an integral state for feeding cattle. Lastly, every grain is by means of such contrivance separated from the ears : thus, the advantages of a thrashing and Avinnowing ma- chine are combined ; and Mr. Dix is of opinion that every farmer, who adopts the various methods proposed in the specification oLhis patent, will find an increase of pro- duce, far exceeding the most san- guine expectations. It is, howeA'er, to be justly ap- prehended, that most agriculturists Avho are already provided with large barns, and who are accus- tomed to submit their corn to the action of the flail, in the manner of their forefathers, will not be dis- posed to introduce new methods, unless convinced of their superi- ority, by the most decisive result of experience. And, as we cannot, in this instance, produce vouchers to attest the excellence of Mr. Dix's plan, Ave decline entering into any examination of its merits. [Winnowing machines, or fans, as they are called, Avere first intro- duced into Philadelphia by Adam Echard, forty or fifty years since, from a Holland model. Some years since, a Mr. Every presented a model of the same machine to the Society of Arts in London, and obtained a premium of 50 guineas for the invention. It is represented in Bayley's Plans of Machines, folio. Excellent fans are con- structed in Philadelphia.] Yv inter-cresses, or Winter- 422 WIT Rocket. See Mustard, the Hedge. WIRE, is a cylindrical piece of gold, silver, copper, iron, or other metal, forced and draAvn through holes of an iron frame: it is made of various sizes, according to the purposes for av hich it is designed. Wkiten-tree. See Salloav. WITHERS, a term in farriery, denoting the juncture of the shoul- der-bone, at the bottom of the neck and mane. This important part of the horse's body, is liable to bruises, generally occasioned by a narrow saddle ; frequently form- ing imposthumes ; and, if impro- perly treated, becoming fistulous. On the first appearance of the swelling, it should be bathed with hot vinegar, three or four times in the day : but, if this fomentation be insufficient to disperse the tu- mor, an ounce of oil of vitriol may be added to a quart of vinegar, or half an ounce of Avhite vitriol dis- solved in a small portion of Avater, may be mixed with the former li- quid, and the compound be ap- plied to the part affected. If the swelling be attended Avith pain, heat, and small watery pustules, it ought to be bathed Avith the fol- lowing preparation : Take 2 oz. of crude sal-ammoniac, and bcil it in a quart of lime-v/ater : when it has subsided, pour off the decoc- tion, and add to it half a pint cf spirit of Avine ; after Avhich, the tumor should be dressed with lin- seed oil, or elder-ointment, in order to soften the skin. In critical SAvellings, hoAvever, repellents should, on no account, be resorted to ; but it aviII be pro- per to apply suppurating poultices. Experienced farriers advise, never to open these tumors till they spon- taneously burst ; as otherwise the W O A excoriation will become spongy, discharge a bloody ichor, and speedily degenerate into a foul ul- cer. Where fungous flesh happens to be troublesome, and the matter discharged is of a yellow colour, and an oily, viscid, consistence, pledgets soaked in the folloAving composition have proved very suc- cessful : Dissoh'e half an ounce of blue vitriol in a pint of water; add oil of turpentine, and rectified spirit of Avine, each 4 oz. ; white- Avine vinegar 6 oz. ; oil of vitriol, and oxymel of verdigrease, each 2 oz. Farther, let the tumefied part be Avashed Avith a mixture of spirit of Avine and vinegar. But, when the cavities of the wound are fistulous, the callosities must, if practicable, be extirpated with a knife, and the remainder de- stroyed by escharotics. WO AD, or Isatis, L. a genus of plants comprehending six species, of which only the tinctoria, or Wild Woad, is a native of Britain. It is biennial; groAvs in corn-fields, prin- cipally at New Barns, in the Isle of Ely; where it floAvers in the months of June and July. The stalk attains a height of from 3 to 4 feet; and the leaves are eaten by cows, but refused by horses,goats, and sheep: these lcaAres are highly valued by dyers, for the beautiful blue colour which they impart to avooI; hence, this vegetable is cultivated to a considerable extent. Woad prospers in a deep, fat loam, though a moderately rich and mixed soil is the most proper: as this plant remarkably exhausts the ground, more than tAvo crops should never be taken in succes- sion. The land ought to be plough- ed four times ; first, shortly before the v.inter ; a second time in the spring, Avhen it will be adrisaLie WO A lo form the ridges; a third time in June ; and, lastly, towards the end of July, or early in August: in the intervals betAveen each ploughing, it will be necessary to harrow the soil, so that all weeds may be destroyed. Woad, in this country, is soAvn early in August, and generally broad-cast, though the drill-hus- bandry is the most advantageous. At the end of two or three weeks, the plants must be hoed, at the dis- tance of at least six inches; after which they will require no farther attention, except a careful weeding in October, and particularly in the month of March. The proper time for gathering the leaves, is determined by their full growth, and the first change of colour at their points: they are cut Avith an edged tool, and collected into baskets by Avomen and chil- dren. If the land be good, three or four successive crops may be taken ; but the two first are the finest, and produce from 25/. to 30/. per ton ; whereas, the third or fourth do not sell for more than 7 or 8/. per ton. After the leaves are gathered, they are submitted to the action of mills, similar to those employed for grinding oak-bark ; and in Avhich they are reduced to a kind of pulp. The woad is then laid in small heaps, which are closely and smoothly pressed down. As often as the crust, formed on the outside, cracks or separates, it is again closed, to preserve the strength of the colouring matter. In this state, it remains for a fort- night ; at the expiration of which, the heaps are broken up ; the ex- ternal part is worked into a mass, and the Avhole is formed into o\i.\ balls, either by the hand, or by means of moulds. The balls are W O L 423 noAV exposed to the sun, under shelter: when perfectly dry, they are ready for sale; or are prepared for the vat, in the manner stated in article Dyking....Such is the pro- cess which woad undergoes, before it becomes fit for dyeing blue co- lours; but M. Astruc is of opi- nion, that, if this A'egetable Avere cured in the same manner as in- digo, it would produce a colour of equal lustre to that obtained from such an expensive foreign drug. Thus,considerable sums of monev, that are annually exported for indi- go, might probably be saved; a con- jecture which is now corroborated by the test of experience.....Dam- bourney directs to boil the fresh leaves of Avoad with diluted bul- locks' blood, or more effectually Avith caustic soap-boilers' ley : in this simple manner, a dark green decoction of a blueish shade will be obtained ; and, after clarifving the liquor, it will form a blue pre- cipitate ; which, dissolved in oil of vitriol, and properly diluted, im- parts a beautiful colour to woollen cloth. Farther, even the leaves, in a state of fermentation with pure water, on adding a small portion of a caustic alkaline ley, afford a fine- blue sediment, resembling the true indigo. [This useful article abounds in the western states, and also in Pennsylvania, according to the re- port of an experienced native of Britain, who is set1 led near the head of Ohio, in Washington coun- ty, Pennsylvania. It appears, that the farina is much richer than that in England ; and that instead of two crocs, Avhich are produced in England, five arc yielded in the United States. This plant is well worth cultivation.] WOLF'S-BANE, the La^ge 424 W O L WOO Blue, or Monk's-Hood, Aconi- lam Napellus, L. is an exotic pe- rennial, growing wild in the moun- tainous parts of Switzerland and France......The juice of this plant possesses a disagreeable smell and an acrid taste : of the latter, how- ever, it is in a great measure di- vested by inspissation. Being one of the most active vegetable poi- sons, Avhen taken in large portions, it excites sickness, vomiting, di- arrhoea, giddiness, delirium, faint- ing, cold sweats, convulsions, and death. Dr. Stoerk, of Vienna, informs us, that the Wolf's-bane is a very effectual remedy in glandular swell- ings, the itch, amaurosis, in gouty and rheumatic pains, intermittent fevers, and in convulsions. He prescribed 10 grains of the pow- der to be taken at night, and in the morning ; but the dose is to be gradually increased to six grains of the inspissated juice, twice every day. Other physicians have em- ployed a tincture prepared of one part of the dry, pulverized leaves of this herb, and six parts of spirit of wine ; in doses of 40 drops..... In Britain, however, this remedy has not ansAvered the high expecta- tions formed of its virtues : though it doubtless is a very active, and useful medicinal plant, if duly pre- pared, and regularly prescribed. A decoction of the roots of the Wolf's-bane, affords an efficacious liquor for destroying bugs...if this root be reduced to powder, mixed with oatmeal and honey, or any other palatable vehicle, and thus exposed to i :Us or mice, it will cor- rode and inflame their intestines, so as speedily to prove a fatal re- past......The juice expressed from this plant, is occasionally poured on flesh, ;-nd thus employed -as a bait to allure Avolves, foxes, and other beasts of prey. Lastly, it is remarkable, that the best antidote for the poison of the Monk's-hood, is asserted to be the root of the anthoru, a species of the same genus called healthful, or wholesome Monk's-hood. Wolf-fish. See Sea-wolf. WOLVES-TEETH,in farriery, frequently occur in old horses, when the upper bones ofthe mouth considerably project over the loAver ones : thus, the almost only incon- venience resulting from this cir- cumstance is, that the points of the teeth prick, and lacerate, either the tongue or gums, and thus distress the animal Avhen feeding.....In or- der to remedy such defect, the su- perfluous prominences, or unequal points of the teeth, may be filed down; by which simple expedient, these useful bones will be reduced to their natural size. Wolverene. See Bear. WOOD, denotes the fibrous sub- stance, of which the branches, trunks, and roots of trees, are prin- cipally composed. [The Society for the Encourage- ment tf Arts, in London, bestowed in 1801, a silver medal to Mr. R. Knight of Cheapside, for the dis- covery of a method of breaking up logs of Avood for the purposes of fuel, by blasting them with gun- powder......The following is the mode of procedure. First, an entrance for an auger is made by, a gouge. The auger is then introduced, and a hole bored of a proper depth to receive the rending or bUnving screAv. A charge of gun-powder is then in- troduced ; a screAv, having a small hole drilled through its centre, and a head formed into two strong horns, is then turned into the hole woo WOO 425 till it nearly touches the powder ; a quick match 18 inches long, is then to be put down the touch-hole till it reaches the charge, and fire set to it, the attendant retiring..... The hole of the screw must be well cleared previously to the in- troduction of the quick match: this match may be made of a twine, or cotton twist, steeped in a solu- tion of salt-petre. A strong round bludgeon or stick, must be used to wind the screw into the wood, and a leather thong attached to it, in order to fasten it occasionally to the screw, to prevent its being lost, in case it should be thrown out Avhen the block is burst open; a circumstance which does not often occur; for in all Mr. K.'s experiments, Avhen the wood Avas tolerably sound, he found the screw left fixed in one side of the divided mass.] Having already stated the most approved methods of seasoning wood, under the article Timber, we shall at present direct our at- tention to the most advantageous expedients that have been devised for preserving this useful substance; and conclude Avith an account of the best modes of imparting to it different colours. To render timber more durable, it has been recommended to saw the trees into scantlings; or, where the wood is designed to be used entire, to hew it into the requisite shape ; Avhen it is to be laid in a bed of sand (contained in a case or shell of brick-AVork) and heated by means of a furnace, built beneath. As soon as the wood becomes hot, the sap exudes, and is imbibed by the sand; in consequence of Avhich, the quality of the timber is greatly improved. This method has been successfully tried ; but, as it is too vol. v. expensive, Dr. Lewis advises all wood, that is exposed to the incle- mency of the Aveather, to be coated with a preparation of pulverized pit-coal and melted tar, reduced to the consistence of paint, Avhich he has found very efficacious. In those cases, hoAvever, where piles, or other masses of timber, are subject to the action of water, the most simple mode of preserving it, is that employed in the Bermuda Islands, and other parts of Ame- rica. It consists in covering such wood repeatedly Avith train or whale-oil, allowing each coat to become perfectly dry, before an- other is applied.....For preventing the combustion of Avood, the rea- der will consult the article Fire- proof. Mahogany, ebony, and the finer woods, being very expensive, ar- tisans have contrived various pre- parations for tinging timber, so as to be with difficulty distinguished from them. Thus, ebony maybe imitated, by boiling clean, smooth box in oil, till it become perfectly black; or, by washing pear-tree wood, that has been previously planed, withaqua-fortis, and drying it in a shady place in the open air; after which, writing-ink must re- peatedly be passed over it, and the wood dried in a similar manner, till it acquire a deep black colour. It may then be polished with Avax and a woollen cloth, Avhich will give it a fine lustre. In the neAv " Transactions of the Royal Society of Gotringen," Prof. Beckmann has published the re- sult of numerous experiments, re- lative to the staining or dyeing of Avood. He directs, for instance, a piece of plane-tree to be put into a glass vessel, containing pulverized dragon's-blood mixed with oil or 3 I 426 WOO WOO turpentine, and placed over the the whole be reduced to a fine fire : in a short time, the wood will powder, and rubbed with a woollen acquire a beautiful colour, resem- cloth on the wood, till it acquire a bling that of mahogany ; and the fine polish: the stain must now dragon's-blood, adhering to the sur- be prepared as follows : Let 6 lbs. face, may be separated by applying of stick-lac be boiled in three rectified spirit of Avine. If gam- gallons of water, till the colour be boge be dissolved i:i spirit of tur- extracted, Avhen the liquor ought pentine, it will impart a bright-yel- to be strained : half a pound of low colour ; and one part of dra- madder-root is also to be boiled in gon's-blood, Avith two of gamboge, three quarts of water : next, half communicate various shades to the a pound of cochineal, a similar wood of the beech and plane-trees, quantity of kermes, and 4 oz. of A fine walnut-tree tint may be clean scarlet-rags,are to be digested obtained, by rubbing common avooc! in a glass vessel, containing one Avith a mixture, prepared of the gallon of spirit of wine, and a so- bark of the trees, or the shells of lution of 2 oz. of pearl-ash in half walnuts, previously dried, pulve- a pint of water, till all the tinging rized, and reduced to a proper con- matter be combined with the li- sistence with nut-oil. quor. After straining it, the de- Another preparation for commu- coction of stick-lac must be added, nicatinga perfect mahogany-colour and a sufficient quantity of aqua- to inferior woods, especially those fortis be mixed with the whole, to of the elm, maple, and sycamore- impart a proper red colour; when trees, consists of the following in- the compound may be laid on with gredients : Dissolve tAvo drams of a brush.....In order to prepare the dragons's-blood, one dram of wild varnish, the patentee directs one alkanet (Anchusa tinctoria, L.), and pound of clear white amber, half half a dram of aloe, in half a pint a pound of copal, a similar quan- of rectified spirit of wine. Previ- tity of spirit of tui pentine, as well ously to using this tincture, the as of the oils of rosemary, and Avood ought to be moistened with lavender ; and six pounds of nut- aqua-fortis ; when two or three oil, to be digested in a sand-heat, coats of the former, each being al- till the oils acquire the consistence lowed to dry before the next is of syrup: the liquor is now to be applied, Avill be sufficient to pro- strained for use ; and, when the duce the desjred effect. varnish becomes clear, it must be In March, 1778, a patent Avas applied to the stained wood with granted to Mr. Humphrey Jack- a painter's brush; after which it son, for his method of beautifying, should be suffered to dry. and preserving the colour of every A patent Avas likeAvise granted, kind of Avood, by means of a stain, in November, 1791, to Samuel varnish, and powder. He directs Bent ham, Esq. for his invention the substance first to be polisbed of a method of planing wood. Avith the following- composition : Our limits will not admit of an Take pumice-stone andburntalum, analysis of his diffuse specification: of each equal parts ; lapis calami- Ave shall therefore only state that, naris, and greei-vitriol ca'cined to by his contrivance, the operation ■redness, of each half a part; let of pinning is simplified to such a WOO degree that animals, steam, water, machinery, and other brute or inanimate agents, may be advan- tageously employed. A minute account of his patent is inserted in the 5th vol. of the " Repertory of Arts," he. Various other methods of stain- ing wood blue, green, purple, red and yellow, are practised by artifi- cers. Of these, Ave shall commu- nicate only the most expeditious, and least expensive. Blue....Take tAvo drams of the best indigo reduced to a fine pow- der; put it in a glass with 2 oz. of oil of vitriol, and agitate them with a new clay-pipe.....After standing 10 or 12 hours, at the farthest, in a temperate place* pour it into a large glass vessel, or china bowl, and add such a portion of pure water as may be expedient to give it the tint required....Those, to whom the saving of time is an ob- ject, may purchase this staining liquor ready prepared, from the dyer. Another mode of tinging wood blue, is that of dissolving verdigrease in distilled vinegar; then making a separate solution of 2 oz. of pure pearl ashes in a pint of water : the former liquid should be first repeatedly applied to the surface of the wood, till it be of a sufficiently deep green colour; when the latter preparation must be draAvn over it, with a soft painters brush, as often as may be necessary to change it to a proper blue cast. Green :—Dissolve purified ver- digrease in distilled vinegar, or in aqua-fortis diluted, Avith 15 or 20 times its weight of water, and ap- ply the solution to wood previously warmed. Purple: Take 1 oz. of log- wood, and 2 drams of Brazil-wood; WOO 427 boil them together in a quart of water, slowly, over a moderate fire : when-one half of the fluid is evaporated, it must be strained, and several times laid on the Avood, with a proper brush, till it have re- ceived a dark-red shade. Thus prepared, and being alloAved to become perfectly dry, it may be changed to a fine purple shade, by drawing over it repeatedly a weak solution of the purest pearl-ash, namely, one dram in a pint of Avater. Some dexterity, however-, must be exerted on this occasion ; as,, by too sudden and frequent applications of either of the tAvo liquids, the colour is very apt to assume a dark blue, instead of a purple shade. Red :—Take 2 oz. of Brazil- wood, and 2 drams of purified pot-ash ; mix them with a quart of water ; and let the composition stand in a warm place for several days ; stirring it occasionally.— When sufficiently extracted, the coloured liquor must be decanted, moderately Avarmed, and in that state applied to the Avood as many times as may be deemed necessary for giving it a more or less bright cast. Next, a solution of alum, in the proportion of 2 oz. to a quart of Avater, is to be laid on the Avood (while it is still Avet from the former stain) with a soft brush, or other instrument.—After polishing the articles thus stained, their co- lour may be rendered still more beautiful and permanent, by giv- ing them one or more coats, with a varnish prepared of shell-Lc. Yelloav :—This delicate lint may be easily imparted to Avood, which is naturally white : for this purpose, take 1 oz. of pulverized turmeric, and a pint of rectified spirit of Avine ; shake ihem in a 428 WOO WOO glass bottle ; alloAV the infusion to stand for several days, closely co- vered : then decant the liquor, and lay it on the Avood repeatedly, as may be found necessary.—A cheaper method, however, con- sists in applying weak aqua-fortis to wood previously Avarmed, and immediately after the stain is given holding it to the fire, at some dis- tance, till it acquire the desired cast. But it should be remarked, that the aqua-fortis must be suffi- ciently, diluted with Avater; as otherwise, the Avood is apt to ac- quire a brown or blackish hue. In order to improve the articles thus stained, the same expedients may be adopted, as those suggested in the preceding paragraph. To conclude :—As it is fre- quently an object of some import- ance, to close and secure the chinks, flaws, or other accidental defects in wooden vessels, in the most expeditious manner, we con- ceive that a tough paste, com- posed of whiting, a solution of gum arabic or tragacanth, and a proper quantity of oak-bark re- duced to a fine poAvder, may be advantageously applied to tubs or casks, with a view to prevent far- ther leaking. But on such occa- sions, it Avill always be more ad- visable to empty the vessels ; and, after drying them, to use a ce- ment, consisting of pitch, bullock's blood, linseed-oil, turpentine, and the finest brick-dust, melted toge- ther in an iron pan : before, how- ever, this powerful lute be laid on, all the crevices or chinks ought to be properly taulked, or filled up with toAv or oakum. Wood-ashes. See Ashes. Wood-bine. See Honey- suckle, the Common. WOOD-COCK, or Scolopax rusticola, L. a bird of passage, generally appearing in England to- Avard the latter end of October, and retiring early in March.—It ia about 14 inches in length, and, Avith expanded wings, 26 in breadth; the croAvn of the head, hind-part of the neck, back, and coverts of the wings, are beautifully marked with ferruginous red, black, and grey colours; though the breast and belly are barred Avith numerous transverse lines of a dusky hue. Wood-cocks, on their first ar- rival, take up their residence in copses of 9 or 10 years growth ; but seldom continue in one place longer than 12 or 15 days. They subsist on worms and insects,which their long bills enable them to extract from soft grounds, and moist woods. In the evening, these birds repair to pools and springs, whence they retire to open fields and meadows, for the remainder of the night. The sportsman may, therefore, with ad- vantage, take his stand in those narroAV passes on the borders of woods, communicating with streams ; or he may watch these fowls about the close of the even- ing near the pools which they fre- quent. As an article of food, the wood- cock affords, to the luxurious, one of the most delicious dishes : its flavour is consideredsuperiorto that of the Partridge. Wood-louse. See Slaters. WOOD-PECKER, or Picus, L. a genus of birds comprising 10 species, 4 of Avhich are frequently met with in Britain : the following of these are the most remarkable. 1. The viridis, or Green Wood- pecker, is about the size of a throstle ; of a greenish-yellow shade ; and feeds entirely on in- woo WOO 429 sects: its principal employment consists in climbing up and down the trunks or boughs of trees, which it perforates with such exactness, as if the holes were made Avith hu- man art. After having sufficiently excavated an unsound tree, the fe- male deposits 5 or 6 semi-transpa- rent, white eggs ; and the young brood are taught to ascend and de- scend trees, before they are able to fly.—These active birds are said to occasien great havock among bees, in the Avinter season. 2. The minor, or Least-spotted Wood-pecker, scarcely Aveighs one ounce, being only about 6 inches in length, and 11 in breadth : it is likewise a formidable enemy to bees :—in the winter, this bird fre- quents orchards, whither it resorts for the purpose of picking up the larvae of caterpillars, and other in- sects. It also builds its nest in holes of trees, previously scooped out with its penetrating bill ; and is known in some part* of Eng- land, by the name of hickwall. [This family of birds is remark- able, for the gay and variegated colours of their plumage ; as also in the structure and formation of their feet, tail and bill; their short strong feet and position of their toes, and the stiff pointed feathers of the tail, assist them in climbing and attaching themselves to the trunks and limbs of trees, and the beak formed like a hatchet, and wedged, is well adapted for per- forating the barks and chipping decayed wood, to obtain their prey. We have nine species in the Uni- ted States, tour of which we shall particularly notice. 1st. Picus principalis, (Avhite- billed Wood-pecker, Carpenter.) This is a large bird, above the weight ofthe domestic hen, and his Avings extended, measures near 4 feet, has a high peaked crest of beautiful crimson red feathers, his bill large and strong, wedge shap- ed and white as ivory. The re- maining part of his head, neck and body, black and white. Two or three of these birds Avorking to- gether, will in a short time reduce the trunk of a decaying tree to a heap of chips. They build their nest in the trunks and limbs of trees which they excavate for that purpose. 2. Picus auratus (Golden Aving Flicca.) This is a fine bird drest in feathers of splendid colours and elegantly variegated. A rich crim- son pile covers the back part of the head, Avhich with the upper side of the Avings, back and tail, are dusky brown, variegated. The lower part ofthe neck, joining the breast, is of a dove-blush. Breast and belly yellow, finely speckled with black, and a dark or black cresent lays on the breast. Under side of the wings, and their shaft are of a splendid golden yelloAV. Some eminent zoologists have been inclined to establish this bird in the family of Cuculus, from the form ofthe bills and of some of his habits : but we adhere to Cates- by and Linnjeus's arrangement: for although I is beak is not so Avell formed for hacking wood, yet his general configuration, and habits of language, sufficiently declare him to be of the family of Picus. 3. Picuspileatus. (Woodcock.) In size next to P. principalis, but yet not half so large ; of a colour mostly a deep black, having a few spots of Avhite on the quill-feathers. His head ornamented with a high crest of crimson feathers. Cheeks and throat variegated with black, white and yelloAV feathers: they 430 WOO utter a loud crowing and screaming noise : their habits, and vigilance in chipping Avood is similar to P. principalis, and like it, they inha- bit forests, and in consequence are become scarce in the cultivated districts: their flesh is eaten, and much esteemed by epicures. 4. Picus eryocephalus. (Red Head.) This is a fine bird, about the size of a Jay or Thrush. He has no crown or pecked crest, but the whole head and neck is of a deep and splendid scarlet colour: wings, breast and belly Avhite, quills of wings and tail speckled black and white. They build in hollows of trees near our habita- tions : they are fond of ripe apples and pears. The red head migrates, leaving us, passing south, gene- rally a few weeks he fore Christ- mas, and returns to us the succeed- ing spring, about the last of April. It is a general observation, that if these birds leave us in the autumn, or early in the Avinter, it prognos- ticates a long and severe winter. It may be proper to observe, that all the four species here noticed, are passengers in severe winters, re- treating southerly. Wm. Bart- ram.] WOODROOF, the Sweet, or Asperula odorata, L. an indigenous perennial, groAving in Avoods and shady places ; where it floAvers in the month of May. This plant possesses an exceedingly grateful odour, that increases on being mo- derately dried: it has a sub-sa- line, and someAvhat austere taste, Avhich, together with a peculiar fine flavour, it also imparts to vi- nous liquors. According to Lin- Ki£vs,the smell of this herb, ex- pels ticks, and other insects. The sweet woodroof is supposed to attenuate viscid humours, and strengthen the boAvels ; to remove WOO obstructions of the liver and bili- ary ducts ; and was formerly es- teemed a medicine of great effica- cy in epilepsies and palsies. The plant is eaten by cows, horses, sheep, and goats ; having the re- markable property of increasing the milk of animals, and especially of those first mentioned. See also Tea. Wood-sage. See Wood-Ger- mander. Wood-sorrel. See Sorrel the Common Wood. Woody - nightshade. See Nightshade. WOOL, in general,signifies the hairy substance which forms the covering of Sheep. The groAvth of wool is ahvays completed in one year, Avhen it spontaneously decays, and is natu- rally relieved ; in which respect it resembles the hair of most of the lower animals; though that of sheep is considerably finer, and grows Avi|h more uniformity, each filament advancing at an equal distance ; separating from the skin nearly at the same time ; and, if it be not previously shorn, it falls off naturally ; the animal being al- ready provided with a short coat of young wool, that undergoes simi- lar changes in the subsequent year. Another circumstance, that dis- tinguishes woof from hair, is its va- rious thickness in different parts of the same sheep ; being closer at" the points than at the roots ; and the part, which grows during the winter, being considerably finer than that produced in the sum- mer. Wool, when first shorn, is called afieece, and every fleece is divided into three kinds, namely : The prime or mother wool, which is taken from the neck and back ; the seconds, or that of the tails and woo legs ; and the thirds, which is ob- tained from the breast, and beneath the belly. [Other authorities say, that the back and belly give superfine wool; the neck and sides fine, and that the breast, shoulders and thighs yield a coarse quality.] The finest and most esteemed sorts of British avooI, at present, are those obtained from the Rye- land, South-DoAvne, Shetland, Cots- wold, Herefordshire, and Cheviot- sheep : and as this article forms the most extensive staple commodity of British commerce, various and successful attempts have lately been made to improve its quality. To effect this desirable object, re- course has been had to intermixing or crossing the different breeds ; and, by the patriotic exertions of the British Wool Society, the Board of Agriculture, Lord Somerville and Dr. Parky, the British wool is now little inferior to the best kind imported from Spain. Our limits not permitting us to detail the results of their useful and interesting experiments, we shall only remark, that those who are about to select a flock of sheep, whether for fattening, or chiefly on account of their avooI, should not venture to purchase any animals Avithout the assistance of an emi- nent Avool-stapler ; for such person, being conversant Avith the different qualities of avooI, is doubtless bet- ter enabled to form an accurate judgment, than could be expected from any farmer or agriculturist. Besides, the situations to Avhich sheep have been accustomed, ought to be carefully imrestigated. Those, for instance, which have been habi- tuated to hilly or mountainous pas- tures, should not be removed to a verdant plain : ncr must the re- W O O 431 verse plan eA'er be adopted ; for it is not the gigantic size that consti- tutes the value of sheep, but an ability to withstand the seasons, together with a disposition to fatten kindly, and to produce the largest quantity of fine avooI, in poor lands. It is principally by attending to the natural habits of this noble animal, that the Spanish avooI has acquired such celeLrky. But as a complete account of the management of sheep in Spain, Avould exceed the limits of this Avork, we shall only recommend to the consideration of our country readers, Loud SoMERVILLE's".%s/i?m/o/- lowed during the Two last Years by the Board of Agriculture," life. 1800 ; also the 2d vol. of >' Com- munications to the Board of Agri- culture ;" and, lastly, Dr. Par- ry's " Facts and Observations tend- ing to shew the Practicability and Advantage to the Individual and Nation, of producing in the British Isles, Clothing Wool, equal to that of Spain," he. 4to. p. 93. 4*. Ca- del and Davis, 1800. The utility of avooI, as a Avarm and useful clothing (see Cloth, Flannel, he.); and Avhen no longer serviceable as a garment, its shreds or rags in the manufac- ture of Soap, having already been sufficiently explained, it will be needless to enter into farther de- tail. We shall conclude with briefly stating the different exclu- sive privileges that have been granted for dressing, preparing, and manufacturing wool, and wool- len cloth. The following are the principal patentsof Avhich specifications have been published,' namely : 1. In March 1787, Mr.Jo;i\TlARMAR's, for a machine designed to raise a shag on woollen cloth : 2. Mr. 432 WOO WOO Geo. Jeffrey's, in March, 1791, for a neAv method of dyeing stuffs, and woollen cloth of various co- lours : The Reverend Edmund Cartwright's, in May, 1792, for a machine designed to comb wool. [By this curious and useful ma- chine the following advantages are obtained. Each machine in the course of a day's Avork of 12 hours work a pack and a half, or 360 lbs. of wool; and the saving of labour is at the rate of 1150/. sterling per annum ; but the mills are calcu- lated to work by night also. Five sets of these machines, saved in one year 5750/. on the single operation of combing, Avhich is only a preparative operation for the spinning. When worked by night, the profit on the labour of the five machines is estimated at 10,000/. It is represented by a plate in 1st. volume of the Repertory of Arts.'] 4. Messrs. Henry Wright and John Hawkins, in June, 1793 ; for their invention of certain ma- chinery, that may be employed in combing dressing, and preparing wool. And 5. Mr. Thomas Con- top's, in January, 1795 ; in conse- quence of his newly invented ma- chine for batting wool. These various contrivances, however, be- ing too complex to admit of plain descriptions, the inquisitive reader will consult the 1st, .2d, 3d, 8th, and 12th volumes ofthe " Reper- tory of Arts," he. where full spe- cifications are inserted, and illus- trated Avith several engravings. \_Process for cleaning, carding, and spinning clothing wool. The first thing which is to be done to the wool, Avhen it is put into the hands of the maufacturer, is to clean and free it, as much as possible, from the greasy matter, which, by perspiration, issues from the body of the animal ; ad- heres to the wool ; gives it nour- ishment, and brings it to the re- quisite degree of maturity. For this purpose, a liquor is prepared, consisting of three parts rain or river water, and one part of urine: when this liquor is brought to a scalding heat, so as that the hand can hardly be borne in it; about 20, 30, or 40 lbs. of wool, according to the size of the kettle, must be put into a net, and plunged into the hot liquor. It must then be Avell stirred, and agitated for about ten minutes, so that all the parts of the wool may be Avell soaked, and the perspirable matter drawn out or loosened by this bouking, that it may be brought out by the washing which is immediately to follow. But it would be very detrimental in many respects if this bouking water or bath, has not the degree of heat which has been mentioned. For if it were but lukeAvarm,'it would not loosen the animal perspiration sufficiently. And if it Avere too hot, the sweat would boil into the wool, and only settle the faster. The one, therefore, is as detrimental as the other. It would be much better to have the wool worked up without any bouking or clearing at all, than to have it done under either of those mistakes. For cloth which has been made of avooI badly bouked, will never get pro- perly clean in fulling. It must then lie much longer in the earth or soap, which renders it less valu- able. There is even a great risk, that it will always remain greasy woo WOO 433 and sweaty ; because it is difficult to get the sweat out when it is once hardened and boiled in. The manufacturers know by their own experience, that the fullers, in their own way of Avork- ing, follow a certain routine, and proceed in the old accustomed manner, which the smallest diffi- culty will be apt to stop in its progress ; and likewise, that these people will not give themselves the least trouble, to obviate, or remedy even the smallest obstacles. It is therefore a great advantage, to deliver them the cloth, as well prepared for fulling as possible. In order to avoid the too great heat of the water, the wool ought to be cooled, from time to time, by lifting it up above the kettle, Avith the stick, which is usual for stir- ring and airing it. In this ease, the same care ought to be taken, as is required in dyeing the avooI. For either by putting more Avood under the kettle, or by taking it aAvay from under it, the water Is kept in the necessary temperature as above mentioned. When the wool has lain a suffi- cient time in the bouking liquor, and is sufficiently soaked through, it is taken out of the kettle, and throAvn in a heap, on a wooden railing or hurdle, Avhere it is left for about half a quarter of an hour to drain. During this time the liciuor perfectly penetrates the avooI ; and it gets sufficiently cool to be fit to be rinsed or washed in the current of a river. The wool must not be Avashed whilst too hot, because the cold Avater Avould cool it too suddenly ; Avhereby, the sweat that is in it Avould harden, and then it would not be an easy matter to get it out of the- avooI. But again, if the wool vol. v. was to get too cold, the running water would not be able to carry away entirely the sweat which had been chilled and got stiff therein already. It must, therefore, be brought into the run, Avhen it is neither too cold, nor too Avarm: moreover, the frequent use and the natural qualities of the water, will soon afford the knoAvledge requi- site for this part ofthe work. That Avater which has the strongest current, and is the purest, is the best fitted for this purpose, because it takes off the sweat with more certainty, and renders the wool much whiter. Asthewool leaves its sweat ordirt in the bouking liquor, which will form a sediment at the bottom of the kettle, it is proper to strain it by inclination each time it is used ; and if the matter is properly car- ried on, the same liquor may serve for six months. In Languedoc, the avooI is cleared from its sweat by making the bath of common Avater only, Avithout any addition of urine, and by soaking therein, first, the raw- country avooI, the SAveat or grease whereof perfectly cleanses the Spa- nish wool, and makes it even whiter than if it had been put into urine. As both Avays of proceeding are equally good, it would be unne- cessary to force the manufacturers to clean their wool of the sweat according to the first mentioned method in preference to the se- cond, and so vice verse. The only end is, that the avooI is to be well cleaned, and it is unimportant whether this be done in the first manner or the second. The avooI Avhich has lain in the warm bath in the manner before described, must, Avhen it is to be 3 K 434 WOO WOO washed, be put into large baskets of wicker Avork, either round or square. These baskets are 5 or 6 feet long, 4 feet wide, and 3 feet high. In these the avooI is carefully Avashed and frequently stirred, in order that the greasi- ness and other dirt that may be in it, may be carried off by the cur- rent of the Avater. Out of the first basket it is put into the second; and sometimes even into the third, if it is to be very clean and pure. No more than 6 or 7 pounds must be put into the baskets at once, and this, Avhen it is rinsed clean, is gradually taken out, and other wool put into it, and this may be continued as long as there is wool that wants washing after the bouk- ing in the kettles. From this circumstantial de- scription, it appears, that the Avash- ing of the avooI must not be delay- ed too long, after it comes out of the kettle ; for as has been said already, it must be still lukewarm Avhen it is put into the fresh water for rinsing. After the wool is washed, it is hung up in garrets upon thin rods which are called drying rods.,.. Here it is dried as quick as possi- ble ; but this rather to get it out of the way, than from any fear that it should loose any of its quality if it lay long undried. It is not proper to dry it at the fire : the fire might take away the fatness and silky substance in the avooI, Avhich is absolutely necessary for the well Avorking of it; but it will do very well to dry it in the sun. When the avooI is dry, it is beaten, that the dust may come out. This work is done either on a hurdle of wooden strips, or on ropes, plaited into a square frame, put upon two tressels. On this 5 or 6 pounds of avooI are laid, and beaten with sticks of about an inch thick. The avooI is then put into the hands of Avomen who pull it, and pick those parts that stick too closely together: but they must be very careful not to pull the wool to pieces, nor to tear the hair. These women pick out the coarse lumps, with the bits of straw, thistles, and other things, which frequently adhere so close, that they must be cut out Avith scissars. It is true this work does not seem to be of any great consequence, nevertheless it is highly necessary, in as much as it prepares the avooI, that it may be easily carded ; for this reason, great care ought to be taken of this operation. The avooI then comes into the hands of the carders, Avhose first care is to grease it. They use for this purpose; olive oil, and to one pound of wool, Avhich is in- tended for chain, they take £ of a pound; and, to the filling avooI the fifth or sixth part. In many manu- factures, they make use for this purpose of rape-oil or hog's-lard, but the latter is not as good as the common sweet or olive oil. The former dries and hardens the avooI, and makes it so tough, that it is not so good for spinning after- wards, nor is it an easy matter to get the grease again out of the stuffs that have been manufactur- ed thereof. Sweet-oil (olive-oil), therefore, is ahvays preferable wherever it can be had. Amongst the different kinds of sweet-oils, the green Seville-oil is to be pre- ferred, particularly if it be clear and pure. Carding is one of the most ne- cessary operations, in the manu- facture of avooI. It is upon this, that the goodness of the cloth woo WOO 435 principally depends. For if the wool is not Avell carded, it is im- possible to spin it smooth and even. Many other very bad conse- quences originate from this cause; for the mixed goods get an un- even colour thereby, and appear, here and there, spotted or striped,if the colours have not been Avell mix- ed and absorbed one by the other. Therefore, the dyed avooI which is intended to be mixed, must pass once oftener through the cards than white wool. It Avould be even very desirable if the cards for the last carding, Avere much finer than for the former, although the manu- facturers do not make it a prac- tice. There are three kinds of avooI- cards of the same size. The whole difference depends upon the qua- lity of the iron vvire, of Avhich they are made; and the number of teeth in each. Those cards wherewith the avooI is to be Avorked for the first time, are called breaking cards; they must be made of a stronger wire, and the. teeth less numerous. The others AvhereAvith the work is repeated once or twice, consist of a finer Avire, Avhich, with respect to the vvire, are in proper proportion Avith the former. The proportion of the strength of the Avire and the number of teeth, depends upon the kind of wool Avhich is to be carded. The teeth of the cards must be perfectly even, in order that the card may not lay hold quicker in one part, than in another: the teeth must be set even and per- fectly Avell fixed and distributed. If there is a fault in this, the wool will be carded better or Avorse in one place, than in another. As the cards for the first, as vvell as for the second and third card- ing, are exactly of one size, it naturally follows, that, the Avire in the cards, used for the second and third carding, being finer than that of the first kind of cards, the num- ber of the rows of teeth must be greater, and the teeth in the rows more numerous. One of the cards is fixed on a Avooden bench or frame which serves for a seat for the avooI carder, in such manner, that the work, Avhich he has to do, lies be- fore him. The other card he moves backvvards and forwards with both his hands, by means of a handle Avhich is fixed on the top of the card. Before they begin to work with these cards, they ought to be filled with shear-wool, for Avhich there are three reasons: First, the shear- avooI supports the teeth in the cards, and prevents them from bending: Second, the carder then cannot lay on so much avooI on the card at once, and the avooI gets better carded. And lastly, if the cards were not filled in this man- ner, a part of the wool Avould re- main in them, which could not be ,taken out. The shear-Avool Avhich is used for this purpose of filling the cards, is that wool which comes off Avhen shearing the cloth. The carder performs his work in this manner; he first Avorks the avooI with the coarse cards, and afterwards dravvs it once or twice through the clearing cards. For Avhite wool, two kinds of coarse cards are sufficient; but for avooI of mixed colours, three kinds are necessary. It is to be observed, that too much wool must not be put in the cards at once, because then the avooI Avill not be drawn clear enough. Whether the wool be suf- 436 WOO WOO ficiently carded, may beknoAvn by holding it against the light. If it be Avell draAvn out, it appears thoroughly clear, loose, and lying even and Straight: but if it be badly worked, there are little lumps or twists seen in it, which is a certain sign, that the wool was not equally carded. By carefully observing these directions, Avell carded wool will be obtained. This is afterwards de- livered into the hands of other carders, who work it Avith small cards, in such a manner, that it is now made into rolls for spinning. This last carding is done on the knees, with small cards, which may be three inches wide, for the wool for the chain, and four in- ches for the avooI for the filling. The difference in the size of the tAvo last mentioned kinds, is there- fore necessary; because the rolls for the filling ought to be some- what thicker than tr.ose for the chain ; and consequently the wool which is intended for the filling must be spun into a thread about one third thicker or coarser than the avooI for the chain. It is of consequence that this work should be Avell done, because it is a great assistance to spin the yarn afterwards in that due pro- portion, Avhich must be observed between the chain and the filling. If this be not done, the manufac- ture of cloth never can be brought to any perfection, let the care and attention bestoAved upon the other parts of the labour be ever so great. As soon as the avooI is converted into roll"-, it is delivered into the hands of the spinners. There arc two kinds of spin- ning, the one for the chain, and the other for the filling. They ought always to be kept separate. The yarn for the chain must be fine, close, and well tAvisted, that it may have strength enough to bear the constant motion of the gears, and the strokes of the reed in the box. To this may be added, that it is the chain which binds and keeps together the filling. The proportion of the thickness of the thread between the chain and the filling, which has been observed in the common cloth manufactures, is usually one third ; so that if the yarn for the chain weighs 20 pounds, that for the fill- ing must weigh at least 30 pounds, and must be less twisted, because it is intended for the purpose of spreading on the surface of the cloth, and of covering the chain. The chain and the filling are spun on the same Avheels. The wheels made in the Holland fash- ion are the best, because the frame of the wheel before, is even with the floor, and the hind part there- of is raised about a foot above it, Avhereby the wheel is kept in a kind of equilibrium, is easily moved, and can be much better governed by the spinners, than if it stood horizontal. Besides this, the spin- ners who draw their thread from below upwards, are by such a sloping direction, better enabled to observe the inequalities, use- less hairs, and little lumps in the avooI, than if they had to draAV the thread straight towards them." The following slight sketch will sheAv the process pursued in pre- paring wool in the British manu- factories, and at the same time, give an idea of the number of peo- ple to whom Ave are obliged for every coat we wear of English WOR W O R 437 cloth. The fleece is sorted, ac- cording to its different qualities, by the wool stapler, and the Spa- nish has all its pitch marks clip- ped off. It is then carried to the Dye-house, and when cleansed from its impurities, (by scouring it in a furnace of hot water) dyed, and returned to the manufacturer ; afterwards, woven in the loom, burled, by nipping off its knots and burs; milled by the fuller, dubbed Avith cards of Teazle: [Dispsacus Fullonum] stretched on the tenter-hooks ; dressed ; shear- ed ; pressed between heated planks and press-paper; and packed for the markets. " Warner's excur- sions from Bath.'] Woolen Cloth. See Cloth. Work. See Labour. Work - house. See Poor- house. WORMS, are the meanest of the lower animals. Those Avhich infest the boAvels of the human body, are generally divided into three kinds, namely, l. the, asca- rides, or small round and short white worms ; 2. the teres, or lum- bricus, a round and long worm ; and 3. the taenia, or tape-AVorm. Having already treated of the first and third kinds, under their re- spective heads, Ave shall now give an account of the second, or round worm. Symptoms of Worms:...Paleness of the face ; itching of the nose ; dilatation ofthe pupil ; grinding of the teeth during sleep ; voracious, or bad appetite ; fetid breath ; nau- sea, while the belly is mostly in- flated, hard and painful. Erup- tions often appear, particularly on the face : and, in the morning, the patient is affected with a copious floAV of saliva, and an uncommon craving for dry food, such as bread, potatoes, &c. The manner in which Avorms originate in the human body, is not yet ascertained; but, in general, it has been observed, that they are found principally in persons and children of a weak and relaxed di- gestion ; in such as eat great quan- tities of fruit, and raAv vegetables, as Avell as in the inhabitants of the sea-coast. Hence persons, Avho sub- sist chiefly on fish, are often trou- bled with worms. Cure ....To expel such as already exist in the body, and to prevent their re-production, it will be ad- visable to administer strong purga- tives and tonics. With the former intention, a variety of medicines have been recommended, and man v unprincipled empirics have levied contributions on the credulous; but one of the most efficacious reme- dies, is a composition of'jalap and calomel, when used in the manner directed, p. 92 of this vol. The dose should be repeated tvvice or three times, during the space of a fort- night. The following treatment has likewise, in many instances, been attended with success. Take of pulverized worm-seed, two drams; jalap, valerian, and .£thi- ops mineral, of each one dram; mix the Avhole Avith a sufficient quantity of treacle, or honey, to form an electuary r of which a tea- spoonful is to be taken twice a dav. The operation of these medicines may be considerably increased by clysters, consisting of strong: so- lutions of salt Avith the addition of oil. The principal tonics to be used against Avorms, will be the Peru- vian bark, valerian, and steel ; but none of these active dru;. s can 438 WOR WOR with safety be resorted to, with- out proper advice. The patient's diet should be duly regulated : his beverage ought to consist of cold water, or sweetened with honey, carefully avoiding new beer, and all fermented liquors. Writh regard to solid food, the bread ought to be Avell baked, and a slice spread with treacle and scraped carrot, garlic, or pulve- rized Avormseed, eaten every morn- ing, has often been productive of good effects. Onions, horse-radish, salted and dried animal food (even sound Dutch herrings, occasion- ally), as well as spices, and \'ipe fruit, are here proper articles of food. On the other hand, all such substances as tend to occasion fla- tulence ; especially Avhite cabbage, pease, dried beans, potatoes, and other farinaceous articles ; for in- stance, pastry, confectionary, and whatever is of a fat and oily na- ture, particularly pork, ham, &c. must be carefully avoided. Children troubled Avith worms, should take moderate exercise ; and be directed to masticate their food properly. It is farther abso- lutely necessary, that the motions of their limbs and body should never be constrained by tight gar- ments, particularly those around the belly and hips ; as such inju- dicious practices cannot fail ulti- mately to impair their digestion. [An infusion of the West India plant Spigelia Antlulmia isapoAver- ful vermifuge : it is given in infu- sion, in the dose of two table spoonfuls to children four or five years old ; of the juice, one table spoonful is to be given. From five to ten grains of the dried plant may be given. The Carolina pink root, or Spigelia Marylav.dica, is a Avell known and poAverful A'ermifage. See also Cabbage tree bark, Calomel, Couhage, Melia, Fern, Tenia, Vermifuge.] WORMS, or Earth-worms, in husbandry, are very injurious creatures, especially in corn-fields; Avhere they consume the young roots, and thus destroy the greater part of the crop. To prevent such depredations, it has been recommended to manure the soil Avith soot, or salt; or to sprinkle it with sea-water ; and, where this cannot be easily pro- cured, with a solution of bay-salt in common water. The brine of salted meat may likewise be em- ployed in gardens ; or, if walnut- leaves be steeped in Avater for a few days, the fluid will acquire such a degree of bitterness, as to prove a certain poison to reptiles of every description. Worm, the GIoav. See Glow- worm. Worm, the Silk. See Silk- worm. Worm, the Tape. See Tape- worm. Worms, in Dogs. See Dogs. Worms, in Horses. See Botts. Wormwood, the Common. See Mugwort. WORMWOOD, the Sea, or Sea Southern-wood, Artemisia maritima, L. is an indigenous pe- rennial groAving on the sea-coasts, and flowering in the month of August.....In its wild state, the odour of this plant is similar to that of the Marum Germander (see vol. iii. p. 15.); or of Camphor ; but, when cultivated in gardens, it becomes less fragrant. Its vir- tues correspond Avith those of the Mugwort, or Common Worm- wood, though in an inferior de- gree. wou W O U 439 The Sea Wormwood is fre- quently used as an ingredient in distilled waters : Avhen triturated with fine sugar, it is formed into a conserve. This marine plant is eaten by horses ; but refused by cows, goats, and sheep. WORT, is an infusion of malt, from which different kinds of Ale and Beer are brewed. Wort possesses considerable an- tiseptic properties, and has often proved an excellent diet-drink, which remarkably promoted the cure ofthe true Scurvy :....it may also be advantageously used as common beverage, in cancerous ulcers, and in all other cases, where a strong putrid disposition prevails in the fluids. WOUND, in surgery, is a re- cent and violent solution of con- tinuity, in a soft external part of the body ; being attended Avith an effusion of blood.....To* enter into a full discussion of the different kinds of wounds, as denominated from the parts affected, would ex- ceed the limits of this Avork : Ave shall, therefore, first give a short account of wounds in general, and afterwards treat of such casualties, according to their particular situa- tions. The danger attending a wound, depends chiefly on the part Avhich is injured, and on the constitution ofthe patient. If, however, the heart, any of the large internal blood-vessels, the spinal marroAV, or the brain, be wounded, the as- sistance of an expert surgeon ought instantly to be procured ; as the event generally proves fatal. Si- milar consequences may be appre- hended, when nerves proceeding to the heart, are materially in- jured. On the other hand, if the AAround be superficial, or what is usually termed a cut, in the upper or lower extremities, especially in the mus- cular part of the arm, hand, finger, or in the leg or foot, it will be ad- visable immediately to compress the wounded part (without exa- mining its size or dimensions), so as to exclude every access of air, and to prevent the efflux of blood : next any tenacious matter, such as glue, shoe-maker's wax, gold- beater's leaf, or the common sticking-plaster ofthe shops, should be speedily applied. Thus arti- sans, Avorking with edged tools, very properly treat the frequent accidents of this nature: and, though the Avound may extend even to the bone, yet.it will in this simple manner, be safely and ex- peditiously healed. Nay, daily experience evinces, that external injuries of the head, neck, breast, Sec. may be successfully treated by a similar method, especially by the aid of slips of adhesive plaster ; which, in the latter situation, must be applied to the part during tli§- act of inspiring ; so that it may not be displaced by the alternate expansion and contraction of the muscles in breathing; and that it may prove no impediment in that important process of the animal economy. Where, however, a wounded part has been neglected, and exhibits rough edges ; or, if the skin and muscles have been lacerated, a different treatment must be adopted : in these cases, a pledget or lint dipped in sweet- oil, should be applied to the in- jured spot, and the whole covered with a piece of fine oil-cloth. After 24 hours, the first dressing may be remoA'ed, Avithout tearing or breaking the small fibres adhering to the lint; when the pledget 440 W O U WOU ought to be renewed. On such occasions, a proper bandage will be indispensably necessary, in or- der to promote the juncture ofthe lips of the wound ; but in case the latter shew a disposition to sup- purate, the use of oil Avill be hurt- ful ; as the Avound must be treated in the manner pointed out, under the article Ulcer. In fresh wounds, or in severe bruises, the application of cold wa- ter is strongly recommended by Nannoni, an Italian; and Ar- quebusade Avater, [Avhich see] by Theden, the first German sur- geon. Percy advises the follow- ing efficacious ointment: Take a small glassful of the clarified juice expressed from the green leaves of the burdock, and a similar por- tion of almond or olive-oil: these liquids must be duly incorporated in a pewter vessel or mortar, by means of a leaden pestle. Thus a green ointment will be obtained. which may be spread on lint or soft linen, and applied to the wound every 12 hours, or oftener. This preparation softens the cal- lous edges of the ulcer, and clean- ses the latter, while it equally pro- motes suppuration and cicatriza- tion. If the fungous flesh grow too rapidly, the simple juice of burdock, without the oil, will be preferable. At each dressing, the pledget or lint may be covered Avith a fresh leaf of the same plant; which may also be laid on the neAvly formed scar, with a view to render it more firm. As the un- guent above described is in great estimation on the Continent, Dr. Unzer adds, that it may be pre- served for a considerable time, when kept in a cool place ; or, for long voyages, it should be boiled, and alloAved to become cold, two or three different times, till it ac- quires a thick consistence. M. De Kessel, a respectable German writer,observes from long experience, that neAv honey spread on folded linen, affords an excel- lent remedy for fresh and bleeding Avounds, which ought not to be washed or othenvise handled; pro- vided they contain no foreign sub- stances ; for instance, glass, splin- ters, &c. If they happen to be deep, or have large orifices, the honey-plaster should be repeated every four or five hours, and after some days, only once in twenty- four. He farther states, that such application not only stops bleed- ing, but also prevents inflamma- tion, sAvelling, and suppuration, while it checks the growth of fun- gous flesh. In all open wounds, it is an ob- ject of the first importance, that the patient,' especially during the act of dressing them, breathe a pure, salubrious air ; for, a foul or contaminated atmosphere, such as that of hospitals, and croAvded ha- bitations, ahvays increases the danger ; so that small, superficial injuries haA'e, from that source, frequently been attended with fatal effects. Tight bandage? often occasion a considerable swelling of the adja- cent parts : in such cases, the roller ought to be very gradually remov- ed ; as, otherAvise the tumefaction of the compressed places will sud- denly increase, and sometimes ter- minate in mortification. Hence, Petit recommends the bandage to be renewed every three hours, so that it may each time be less tightly fastened. In Avounds which, from their nature, cannot be spee- dily healed, the use of Goulard- Avater, or other preparations of wou lead, is extremely improper; as they should, from their commence- ment, be dressed with suppurating remedies. Hence, in all cases of febrile heat, and external inflam- mation, emollient poultices, com- posed of the crumb of bread boiled in milk, must be instantly applied, and changed several times in the day ; or, as often as they become cold, Avithoutdisturbing or touching the Avounded part with the fingers. In order, if possible, to obviate the symptoms of inflammation, it will, in some instances, be advisa- ble to draw blood from a vein of the arm or foot; to resort to open- ing medicines, such as neutral salts, with a feAV grains of nitre ; to apply similar clysters ; and, on the whole to observe a cooling regimen. Such treatment is par- ticularly necessary, in consequence of stabs or cuts given with sharp- pointed or edged instruments, and in other wounds proceeding to interior parts. Hence, persons who had been dangerously Abound- ed in the chest, in the abdomen, or in the thighs, have completely recovered [by frequent bleeding,] by abstaining from all animal food, even from broths, and salted and pickled provisions of every descrip- tion ; Avhile they subsisted for se- veral weeks exclusively on barley- water, wort, or other mucilaginous vegetable decoctions; Avithout using any medicines, or applying oint- ments. Foreign bodies, such as iron, lead, splinters of wood, glass, linen, Sec. should, if possible, be speedily extracted from Avounded parts ; and, in all serious accidents of this nature, surgical aid ought to be procured Avithout delay. When the wound is not inflamed, such extraction may be promoted by vol. v. W O U 441 enlarging its orifice Avith a proper instrument; afterwards immersing the limb in tepid water, or repeat- edly applying to it a cloth soaked in a similar fluid. But, if any pointed bodies, for instance, pieces of glass, cannot be thus removed, the Avounded part should be ex- posed to the steam of Avater, and frequent emollient cataplasms be laid over it, Avith a vieAv to facili- tate the ejection of hurtful matters, by means of a speedy suppura- tion. As soon as-the tumor thus treated becomes soft, and presents a yellowish-Avhite spot in its cen- tre, it must be opened ; though such favourable change sometimes requires an attentive treatment, for several Aveeks. Wounds inflicted by blunt in- struments, or by the grazing of a bullet, or by the large and blunt teeth of animals, provided they be not poisonous, should also be treat- ed in the manner already stated ; though it will, in these cases, be useful to apply a pad of folded linen, moistened with sAveet-oil, or Avith a tepid mixture of vinegar and water; because such tvounds partake of the nature cf bruises. With a vieAv to afford greater se- curity, the parts thus bitten, may preferably be washed Avith milk, or Avith luke-warm vinegar and Avater. There are many instances on medical record,where smallwounds ofthe veins, inconsequence of un- skilful blood-letting, have been at- tended with fatal effects: thus, if a tendon, or cutaneous nerve, be injured, or the orifice in venesec- tion be made too small, the Avhole arm or leg will become inflamed, and the swelling suddenly spread to the points of the fingers or toes. In these cases, the whole limb 3 L 442 W O U WOU ought to be speedily tied up Avith a proper bandage, and dressed Avith lead-water; and Brambilla re- commends emollient, anodyne, and antispasmodic remedies to be ap- plied to the wounded part...There are, however, instances, Avhere the method before suggested Avould be insufficient to effect a cure The celebrated Heister recommends a mixture of oil of turpentine and spirit of Avine, to be applied to such Avounded nerves: others advise Avarm spirituous liquors; and Shek- wen justly praises the efficacy of warm til of turpentine, which is used by country people, in deep Avounds inflicted by a needle, or other pointed instrument, with a view to prevent suppuration : and he observes, that cooling1 and emol- lient external remedies are unavail- ing in those nervous casualties, consequent on blood-letting. [See Lock Jaw.] Pt rsons wounded by gun-powder, especially in the face, should not attempt to extract such particles of the powder as may have pene- trated through the skin ; because they are apt to break, and sink deeper into the muscular fibres: the only application necessary, on these occasions, is Goulard-water, or, more effectually, the ointment composed of oil and lime-water, stated under the article Burns. With respect to gun-shot wounds, we shall only remark that, accord- ing to the experience of the ablest surgeons on the Continent, such injuries are always more speedily healed with oil and emollient cata- plasms, than Avith essences, bal- sams, and other heating drugs. But, as the opinions of professional men greatly differ on this subject, Ave must refer the curious reader to Mr. John Bell's late publica- tion, entitled " Discourses on the Nature and Cure of Wounds," (8vo. 9s.) and shall add a feAV remarks of Dr. Robert Jackson, extract- ed from the 11th vol. of" TheLon- don Medical Journal," where this skilful practitioner expresses him- self to the folio v. i;ig effect....The p"actice of dilating, poulticing, &.c. of gun-shot wounds, appears to be justifiable only in those cases, wlu ve it becomes necessary to extract the ball, or the fragment of a bone ; or in which inflammation is about to commence. In all other in- stances, Dr. J. considers dilatation asrsuperfluous, and even as contri- buting to retard the cure: in his opinion, it is sufficient to bind the wound with linen rags, or similar bandage, to prevent the access of air. Cataplasms, says he, may be serviceable in cold climates ; but, in warm countries, bandages moist- ened with laudanum, or spirituous liquors, and even the affusion of cold water upon Avrounded limbs, dispose them to heal in a very re- markable manner. He confirms these observations by numerous cases of soldiers Avho Avere wound- ed in the contest with America; and who recovered more speedily by this treatment, than by adopting the practice of dilatation, and sup- puration. See also the articles Styptic, Tourniquet, and [Ge- ranium Maculatum.] Wounds of the joints, such as the knee, foot, he. heal most ex- peditiously by the simple applica- tion of cold water; provided the orifice of such Avounds be immedi- ately contracted by means of ad- hesive plaster. If they happen to be deep, Schmucker advises blood to be drawn from a vein: while he observes, that, by renewing the compresses with fresh water, as w ou W O U 443 soon as they become warm, such injuries have generally been cured, Avithout producing inflammation, or any other symptom....See also Tendons. WOUNDS, in farriery, may be occasioned by various accidents ; but, as our prescribed limits do not admit of a minute detail, we sliall at present state only the treatment, winch may be most advantageously adopted, on common occasions. In all fresh wounds, occasioned by cutting instruments, it will be sufficient to bring the lips together by ligature, or by suture: after Avhich,rags dipped in brandy should be applied : or the orifice may be covered with a pledget spread with the following ointment: Take of Venice turpentine, and bees-wax, each 1 lb. ; of olive oil li lb. ; and 12 oz. of yellow resin: let these ingredients be melted together, and 2 or 3 oz. of finely-pulverized ver- digrease be added: the whole be- ing stirred, till it become cold.... See also art. Horse. In cases of scalds or burns, where the skin remains sound, it will be advisable to bathe the part Avith camphorated spirit of Avine, and to cover it with rags dipped in the same liquor: salt may also be applied to the burn or scald with considerable efficacy. But, if the skin be once broken, the pail af- fected must be anointed va ith lin- seed or sweet-oil, and a plaister, consisting of bees-wax and oil, be laid over it. If, in consequence of the pain, a slight degree of Fever occur, the animal must be bled, and treated in the manner direct- ed under that article. The most important, and also the most frequent, of the simple wounds, however, are those of broken knees : this injury is some- times occasioned by accident, but more commonly by the negli- gence of groom:; ; the careless- ness of bad riders on rough roads; or, by exhausting the horse's strength through excessive la- bour. On such unfortunate occa- sions, the wounded parts must first be washed Avith a sponge dip- ped in warm Avater, to prevent the inflammation that would otherwise ensue, from the particles of gravel or sand adhering to the flesh :...... next, they ought to be gently wiped with dry cloths, and bathed with a mixture, consisting of equal parts of camphorated spirit of vine, and vinegar: thus cleansed, they should be covered with a pledget of tow, dipped in the same composition. But, if the Avound be so deep, as to produce a considerable degree of inflammation, it will be necessa- ry to promote suppuration, and to treat it in the manner pointed out vol. iii. p. 465....For the proper ma- nagement of the more dangerous wounds, the reader will consult the articles Hoof-bony, Hoof-hurt, Over-reach, Punctures, Quit- toh-bone, he. WOUNDWORT, or Stachys, L. a genus of plants consisting of 22 species ; 4 being indigenous ; of Avhich the following are the principal. 1 The palustris, or Marsh- Woundwort. See Clown's All- heal. 2. The sylvatica, or Hedge- nettle Woundavort, is peren- nial , groAvs in hedges and woods, where it flowers in the months of July and August....The whole of this plant possesses a fetid smell; and under its shade, toads are said to retreat for shelter. A yellow dye is obtained from its leaves and branches. It is eaten by sheep and 444 W R E WRI goats ; but refused by horses, coavs and hogs.....Bechstein observes, that the stalks of the Hedge-nettle Woundwort, when managed in the manner similar tothat pursued Avith hemp, afford a woolly substance, Avhich may be spun into yarn ; and on bleaching it, becomes remarka- bly Avhite. WREN, the Common, or Mo- tacilla troglodytes, L. is a very di- minutive bird, inhabiting all parts of Europe, and especially Eng- land, where it maintains itself, during the severest Avinters. It is from 3 to 4 inches in length ; the head, neck, and whole body, are of a deep brown colour. Wrens construct their nests in the corners of out-houses, stacks of wood,or holesin Avails, being nearly of an oval shape, and composed chiefly of moss, lined with feathers: the female lays from 16 to 18 mi- nute white eggs, marked with red spots ; and produces two broods in a year....These creatures subsist on small Avorms and insects : they have a pleasing note in the pairing season, as well as in the winter, especially when fed Avith poppy- seed; andtheA'oiceismuch strong- er than could be reasonably expect- ed from a little warbler Avhich scarcely Aveighs 3 drams. WRESTLING, is a wanton combat, or engagement between two unarmed persons, who exert all their strength and dexterity to throw each other on the ground. Wrestling was in great repute among the ancients; but, with the modern nations, it is seldom prac- tised. Indeed, it is almost forgot- ten in Britain, excepting in a feAV ofthe less civilized counties, where it forms a favourite game at wakes. This exercise, however, like that of cudgel-playing, ought to be abo- lished ; on account ofthe accidents thus wilfully occasioned ; for every nerve is strained by the candidates for rural fame, Avho thus frc» quently lay the foundation of some severe chronical complaint,ormeet with dislocations, fractures, and other casualties, Avhich often ter- minate in lingering illness, or pre- mature death. WRITING,is the art of convey- ing our ideas to others, by means of certain characters. As the history of this noble in- vention is lost in the remote pe- riods of antiquity, it Avould be fo- reign to our plan, to enter into a detail of the opinions and hypothe- ses that have been formed by anti- quarians, with a view to account for its origin....Hence we shall no- tice the patent Avhich was granted in February, 1780, to Mr. James Watt, for a new method of Copy- ing Writings. He directs a piece of thin, unsized paper, of the same dimensions as that which contains the original Avriting, to be moist- ened with water ; or, which is pre- ferable, with the following liquor : Take 21bs. of distilled vinegar, and let 1 oz. of the sedative salt of bo- rax be dissolved in it: next, 4 oz. of oyster-shells, calcined to Avhite- ness, are to be put into the vine- gar : the mixture must be repeat- edly shaken, during 24 hours; when it is suffered to stand till it deposit its sediment. The clear li- quor should nowbe filtered through blotting-paper into a glass vessel ; 2 oz. of bruised Aleppo-galls be added ; and the mixture kept in a warm place for 24 hours, being frequently shaken : at the end of that period, it must be filtred a second time, and afterwards dilut- ed with one quart of pure water. Now it should again be suffered WRI WRY 445 to stand for 24 hours ; and, if any sediment be deposited, it ought to be strained a third time....When the paper has been moistened with this liquor, it should be placed between two thick unsized pieces of the same material, in order to absorb the superfluous humidity ; and, thus prepared, it must be applied to the writing which is to be copied : a piece of clean writ- ing paper being placed over both. The whole is now directed to be submitted to the action of a rolling press : in consequence of which, the written characters will appear on both sides of such moistened paper....The patentee employs a peculiar press, of his own inven- tion ; which, however, cannot be satisfactorily described, without the aid of delineation : hence, the in- quisitive reader will consult the 1st. volume ofthe " Repertory of Arts," he. ; where this specification is il- lustrated by an engraving. [The Polygraph, invented by Mr. J. Hawkins, and improved by Mr. C. W. Peale, of Phila- delphia, is the most simple and complete writing apparatus, yet invented. Tavo or three copies, (or rather originals) are taken at the same time......The apparatus folds up in a large portable Avriting desk, and is sold for fifty Dollars.] Besides the simple method of restoring illegible writing, already stated under the article Deed, avc shall mention tAvo other expedi- ents, either of Avhich may be used, accordingly as the characters are more or less obliterated : Boil half an ounce of best Aleppo-galls in 4 oz. of Avater, till one half of the fluid be evaporated ; filter the de- coction through blotting-paper, and apply it by means of a soft paint- ers' brush, to the effaced part of the Avriting ; on Avhich it must be suffered gradually to dry : thus, the illegible letters will in most cases, become black, and re-ap- pear. If, however, this mode of recovering them should not prove successful, the following applica- tion has often effectually answered the purpose : Take a leaf of white unsized* paper ; moisten it Avith a strong solution of green vitriol in water; so that it may be damp, Avithout being wet. Next, apply such paper to the illegible part of the writing, by means of the flat hand, in order to communicate its moisture to the latter ; Avhen it must be allowed to dry in the open air. In this manner, the almost dissipated astringency of the galls will be renovated, so that the va- nished characters will generally re- appear on the surface. Let it, however, be remembered,that both preparations must not be tried on the same paper; as they would certainly change the whole to a black colour. WRY-NECK, or Jynxtorquilla, L. is a bird of passage, someAvhat larger than a lark ; of a broAvn and black colour, Avith Avave-like stripes; appearing in Britain in the spring, and preceding the Cuckow: it has received its name from a whimsi- cal habit of turning and twisting its neck, so as to bring the head over its shoulders : it also possesses the faculty of erecting the feathers of its head, similar to those of the Jay. Wry-necks construct their nests of dry-grass in the hollows of trees: the female lays 6 or 8 white eggs, which have a very thin shell: it is remarkable, that the young brood, while in the nest, utter a hissing noise, not unlike that of snakes.... 446 WRY W YM During the period of incubation, neck becomes exceedingly fat; and the male attentively supplies the that its flesh, in point of delicacy, hen Avith ants, which furnish to is equal to that of the Ortolan. these birds a very agreeable repast. Wymote. See Maush-mal- M. Buffon informs us that, to- low. ward the end of summer, the Wry- X. X AN X AN XANTHOXYLON, Prickly Yelloav Wood, or Yellow Her- cules, is a native of Jamaica, and other tropical countries, where it grows to the height of 16 feet, and is about 12 inches in diameter..... This straight tree somewhat re- sembles the common ash: the bark ofthe trunk is covered with nume- rous prickles ; and the Avood is of a bright-yellow cast. The wood of the Xanthoxylon is chiefly employed for the heading of hogsheads, for bedsteads, and nu- merous other purposes: it also pos- sesses remarkable medicinal vir- tues. The fresh juice, expressed from the roots, affords certain re- lief in the painful disease, termed dry belly-ache. This important fact Avas discovered in the West- Indies, by watching a female slave, Avho collected the root in the woods, and gave two spoonfuls of its juice to a negro, suffering under that colic, at an interval of two hours. Such medicine occasioned a pro- found, but composed, sleep of 12 hours ; when all sense of pain, and other distressing symptoms, had vanished: the cure was completed, by giving an infusion of such ex- pressed roots in water, by way of diet-drink. farther, the juice of the Prickly Yellow Wood, Avhen preserved in rum, and administered in doses not exceeding a wine-glassful, has effectually removed the most ob- stinate epileptic fits ; but Dr. FIe- ney has not mentioned the manner in which this preparation ought to be managed. [Two species grow in the United States. 1. X. fraxinifolium or ash-leaved X. growing in Pennsylvania, and Maryland: and X. calvis Hercules or Prickly Yellow Wood, which grows in the more southern states. The bark and capsules are of a hot acrid taste, and when a small quantity is chewed, powerfully promotes the flow of saliva. It is used in this way to relieve the tooth-ache. A tincture ofthe same X AN X A N 447 parts ofthe tree is a common coun- try remedy for the chronic rheu- matism. In the West-Indies, a decoction of the bark is used Avith great suc- cess as an internal remedy, and also as a wash for foul ulcers, which it powerfully cleanses, and disposes to healthy granulations...........The powdered bark is also mixed with the dressings. In the London Medical and Physical Journal, vol. 2d. and following, there are seve- ral cases related of the efficacy of this medicine in the above disease. XANTHORHIZA, tinctoria, Shrub Yellow Root. Is a native plant of I\. Carolina, first brought by the late John Bartram, from that state, and planted in his gar- den at Kingsess in the county of Philadelphia, where it has conti- nued to flourish in a most luxuri- ant manner. It is denominated Simplicissima by Mars hall ,Apiifc- lia by L'Herretier, and Mar- boisia by Mr. Wm. Bartram, in honour of Mr. De Marbois.....X. tinctoria is a more expressive name than any it has yet received. Dr. Woodhouse has given an excellent account of this valuable plant, in the 5lh vol. of the Medi- cal Repository of Arew-York, from which the present extract is taken. " The stems are three feet high, and somewhat thicker than a goose quill. The root is from three to twelve inches long, and about the diameter of a man's little finger, sending off numerous scions. The leaves are placed alternately, hav- ing long petioles and pinnated, terminating in an odd one ; the folioles sessile, and lacerated deeplv on their edges. The peduncles are branchy, and are placed im- m diately beneath the first leaves, from which cause, the flowers ap- pear before the leaves, very early in the spring." The stem and root are of a bright yellow colour, and possess a strong bitter taste. The Xanthorhiza tinctoria, con- tains a gum and resin both of which are intensely bitter ; the resin is more abundant than the gum. It imparts a drab colour to cloth, and a handsome yellow to silk, but the dye will not take on cotton or linen. The different mordants which were used, altered the shade ofthe yellow colour considerably, but did not appear to render it more permanent. While every shade of this elegant colour can be obtained from that truly valuable dyeing drug, the quercitron bark, (black oak), Dr. W. thinks it will always supercede the Xanthorhiza, and every other native dye, among which that of the hydrastis Cana- densis, may justly be reckoned the most superb. The Avatery extract of the grated roots, mixed with alum, and added lo Prussian blue, was first used by Mr. James Bartram, for colour- ing plants, and the plumage of birds of a green colour....The green is far more lively and elegant than that made with gamboge and Prus- sian blue, which is generally used for painting in water colours, and stands Avell in the shade, but soon contracts a dull colour when ex- posed to a bright light, and to a high temperature. Various sub- jects coloured by this green, and inclosed in a book, were as lively after one year, as when first point- ed. It is a strong and pleasant bit- ter, and preferable to ail our native bitters. It sits easy on the sto- mach, in the dose of two scruples (40 grains.) 448 X A N X AN The colour of the leaves appears to reside in a resin, Avhich is altered by the combined action of light and oxygen, by either of which, sepa- rately, it cannot be affected. As the Xanthorhiza is a strong and pleasant bitter, and very nearly allied to the columbo-root, it pro- mises to become a valuable addi- tion to the American Materia. It is preferable to all our native bit- ters. The Arislolochia Sipho, (Dutchman's pipe,) is a weak aro- matic bitter. The root of Actea racemosa, (black snake-root,) is a nauseous bitter. Chironia angula- ris, (Centaury,) Gentiana Safiona- ria, (blue Gentian ;) Veratrum lu- teum, (Devil's-bit;) the red berries of cornus fiorida, (dog-wood,) and the bark of several species of salix, or Avillow, are weaker bitters than the yellow root. Dr. Wtoodhouse has often used the powdered stem and root of the Xanthorhiza Avith success, in the dose of two scru- ples to an adult, in many of those diseases in Avhich bitters are re- commended, but generally com- bined Avith other remedies. It is a medicine, Avhich sits easy upon the stomach, and produces no dis- agreeable effects. Reference to the Plate. A, a branch representing the fo- liage, flowers, and fruit of the X. tinctoria. a, a flower somewhat magnified. b, a branchy peduncle, shoAving the capsules. c, a capsule. d, a capsule open, showing the single seed. /, a portion of the root, sending off a scion. The Editor is indebted to Dr. Woodhouse, for the use of the an- nexed plate.] Y. YAM YAM YAM, or Dioscorea bulbifera, L. is a nativa of Ceylon, whence its culture has been introduced into the West Indies, and other parts of America : it is divided into two varieties, known under the names of red, and white ; from the colour of their bulbous roots. Yams flourish best on poor soils; and retain their beautiful verdure till a late period in the year: hence, they are said to ameliorate the ground nearly as much as a crop of turnips. Being propagated by setting the eyes, their culture cor- responds with that of potatoes; and, like these roots, yams often prove an excellent preparatory crop for Avheat. Farther, they are very productive; so that the red variety Xant/ior/iiza fuwtvria YAM yields, in general, 12 tons per acre: the white sort is less fruitful; but, being more delicate, it is ehiefly raised for the table, in the West- Indies. The culture of these bulbous roots in Britain is, at present, we understand, confined to the coun- ties of Mid-Lothian and Stirling; where they are given to cows ; the milk of which is thus considerably increased, without affecting its quality or flavour. As an article of food, the yam possesses similar properties with the potatoe, excepting that it is less mealy: in a raw state, it is viscous ; but, when roasted, this bulbous root is equally wholesome and nourishing, so that the inhabi- tants of the West-Indies prefer it even to bread. In some respects, therefore, yams are more valuable than potatoes ; because the former are much lighter, and more easily digested......when first dug out of the ground, then dried in the sun, and preserved from humidity, in casks full of dry sand, they may be kept for several years, uninjured by frost, and without losing any part of their nutritive quality.... These beneficial roots may also be peeled, deprived of their moisture by pressure, and dried in the same manner as Mr. Millington di- rects potatoes to be preserved (see vol. iv. p. 326). In this manner, yams may be packed in casks, like flour, and imported in a perfectly sound state, from the West-Indies: Avhen grated, and mixed with wheaten or barley-flour, they may be formed into a light and salu- brious brtad. Nor are they less nourishing, when converted into poltage, or pudding, Avith the addi- tion of milk. Thus, Mr. R. Pear- son (^ Annals of Agriculture," vol. vol. v. YAR 443 S5), informs us that the meal, ob- tained from the boiled and grated roots, when beaten up with milk and eggs, without any flour, yield- ed a firm and well-flavoured dish; which could Avith difficulty be dis- tinguished from a common batter- pudding. By this treatment, the yams are divested of their saccha- rine taste, Avhich renders them at first disagreeable to some persons; though such property, is, on the whole, of considerable use ; as it saves the expense of sugar. YARD, is a measure of length, employed for measuring cloth, stuffs, Sec The English yard contains three feet, or 36 inches: it is converted into ells English, by subtracting a fifth part, or 7 one-5tH inches; and into ells Flemish, by adding one- eighth, or 4| inches. YARN, in general, denotes the manufacture of wool, hemp, flax, cotton, 8cc. converted into filaments or threads, which are subservient to a variety of useful purposes. Formerly, all yarn Avas spun or twisted by means of the distaff, or wheel; but lately, both the inge- nuity of mechanics, and the powers of machinery, have been called in aid (see the articles Cotton and Spinning), to facilitate that ope- ration: and, in June, 1787, Messrs. John Kendrew and Thomas Porthouse, obtained a patent for their invention of a machine, upon new principles, designed to spin yarn from hemp, toAV, flax, or wool. As this privilege is now expired; and such contrivance pro- mises to be very useful in the avooI- len as well as other manufactures, we subjoin a concise account of its construction. The machine consFts of a frame which supports a cylinder, three 3 M 450 Y A R feet in d'ameter, and ten inches in breadth ; made of dry wood or metal ; and its circumference be- ing covered Avith smooth leather. On this, are placed six rollers, also covered with leather, and upheld in their situations by slits made in a piece of wood, in which the iron axis of the rollers move, at the same time suffering them to press on the principal wheel : such rol- lers are of different Aveights ; the highest on the cylinder weighing two stone, Avhile the others gradu- ally decrease, so that the lowest is only two lbs. in weight. A cloth is placed beneath the cylinder, that revolves upon two rollers, inserted in the frame ; and by its side there is a table of an equal length and breadth, furnished with two simi- lar cloths. The workman lays on this table a greater or smaller quantity ofthe material intended to be spun, ac- cording to the degree of fineness required; spreading it uniformly on the cloths, whence he removes and applies it to the revolving c'oth. The rollers and cylinders are then put in motion by wheel-work moved by a horse, ayuIu", or any other impulsive power ; the flax, Sec. is drawn forward, and extend- ed, during its passage, into a thread or sliver; which, on being sub- mitted to the action of a similar machine, but of different dimen- sions, is spun ivr.o thread of various degrees of fineness : af.erthe yarn has thus passed beneath the roll- ers, it fails into canisters suspend- ed below, for its reception. A minute specification of this useful machinery is inserted in the 16th vol. of the •■ Repertory of Arts," he. Avhere it is illustrated by an engraving. YARROYv'j the Common, or YAW Milfoil, Achillea Millefolium^ L. an indigenous perennial, grow- ing in meadows, pastures, and on road-sides; blowing from June till August. The flowers of this vegetable yield an essential oil, which'possesses an aromatic odour, a bitter taste, and is similar to that of chamomile. A decoction of its leaves v. ith chamomile flowers is said to form a corroborant diet- drink for children who, on account of their ra;-.id growth, are unable to retain meir Avater, during the night: but for this purpose, from one to two pints of such prepara- tion ought to be taken in the course of 24 hours. Linnjeus observes, that the D-'ecarlians have a prac- tice of throwing the flowers and leaves of the common yarrow into beer, while in a state of fermenta- tion ; with a view to increase its intoxicating effects. Bautsch, in Germany, has usefully employed the whole herb, in the process of tunning. The Milfoil being a creeping plant, which • -preads uncommonly from its numerous seeds, it often becomes a troublesome Aveed, if it be once suffered to grow in fields. Nevertheless, Dr. Anderson re- commends its culture as a. proper food for cattle. It is eaten by sheep and hogs ; but it is relished neither by horses, cows, nor goats. YAWNING is an involuntary opening of the mourii ; which is occasioned by Aveariness, or an in- clination to sleep , though it fre- quently occurs early in the morn- ing, and immediately after rising. Yawning is performed by ex- tending all the muscles, that are capable of spontaneous motion ; by expanding the lungs; by slowly and gradually inhaling a large por- tion of air, and expiring or breath- YEA ing it out, after it has been rarefied in the bo< y ; and lastly- by restor- ing the muscles to their natural position. Persons of strong and healthy constitutions are most lia- ble to this natural impulse, when they awake, on account of the perspirable matter that lodges in the pores of the skin : hence Boerhaave observes, that yawn- ing appears to be designed by Na- ture, to move, accelerate, and uni- formly to distribute the humours throughout the system ; conse- quently, to render the various muscles capable of discharging their respective functions. Such involuntary motion, therefore, greatly conduces to health ; but, if it become habitual, or be too often repeated, especially by per- sons of sedentary lives, it will be advisable to take a short walk in the fresh air, and to inspire a large portion of that salutary fluid, in temperate weather. Sometimes, however, yawning is the fore-run- ner of convulsions or ague-fits ; in which cases, those distressing af- fections might often be prevented, by adopting timely and proper remedies. Year. See Kalendar. YEAST, or Barm, is the froth or scum which rises on beer, during the act of fermentation. Yeast is an article ofthe greatest importance in domestic economy ; forming a necessary ingredient in bread, which would otheiwvise be- come heavy and umvholesome. As it cannot at all times be ob- tained in sufficient quantities, we propose to state various methods Avhich have been contrived, for generating and preserving this commodity. In the 2d vol. of the " Memoirs •f the Philosophical and Literary YEA 451 Society of Manchester," Mr. Hen- ry has published a method of pre- paring artificial yeast, by which good bread may be made, Avithout the aid of any other ferment. He directs flour and water to be boiled to the consistence of treacle ; and Avhen the mixture is cold, to sa- turate it with fixed air. Next, it must be poured into large bottles with narrow mouths, Avhich should be loosely covered Avith paper; and, over this, Avith a slate and a Aveight, to keep them steady. The bottles ought now to be placed in a room, the temperature of which is from 70 to 80° ; and the mixture be stirred iavo or three times in the course of 24 hours. At the end of about two days, according to Mr. H. such a degree of fermen- tion will have ensued, that the mixture acquires the consistence of yeast. In this state, the flour, intended to be made into bread, must, be incorporated Avith such artificial barm, in the proportion of 6lbs. ofthe former to one quart of the latter, and a due quantity of warm water. The whole is now to be kneaded together in a proper vessel, covered with cloth, and suffered to stand for 12 hours, or till it be sufficiently fermented ; when it should be formed into loaves, and baked. Mr. Henry adds, that this yeast Avould be more perfect, if a decoction of malt Avere substituted for Avater. A simple decoction of malt, however, is noAV fully proved to be convertible into yeast, fit for brewing : this discovery was made by Mr. Joseph Senyor,oii whom the Society for the Encouragement of Arts, in the year 1790, confer- red a bounty of 20/. He directs 3 wooden or earthen vessels to be procured, one being capable af 452 YEA YEA holding 2 quarts, the other 3 or 4, and the third 5 or 6 quarts. A quarter of a peck of malt is then to be boiled for 8 or 10 minutes, in 3 pints of water; when one quart must be poured off the grains into the first vessel: as soon as the liquor becomes cool, such vessel ought to be removed towards the fire, or to a temperature of about 70 or 80° of Fahrenheit's ther- mometer. In the course of thirty hours, the fermentation will com- mence ; Avhen 2 quarts of a simi- lar cool decoction (made, we sup- pose, from the same malt), must be mixed with this yeast, in the second, or larger vessel; and be repeatedly stirred in the- manner practised in common vats. As the fermentation increases, a great- er portion of the like decoction must be added, and be worked in the largest vessel: thus, at length a sufficient quantity of yeast will be produced, for brewing 40 gal- lons of beer. This useful contrivance of Mr. Senyor, is farther confirmed by the recent experiments of a cor- respondent, whose plain and inte- • resting account we are induced to quote in his own words: " I caused (says he) a gallon of rather weak wort to be made ; with part of which, Avhen cool, I filled the mid- dle part of Nooth's machine : as soon as it Avas thoroughly satu- rated Avith fixed air, I mixed the whole, and pHced it in a wooden vessel near the fire, the weather being rather cool. In about 24 hours, there were some faint signs of fermentation ; ye*, at the expi- ration ofthe fourth day, I obtained no more than tAvo table-spoonfuls of very indifferent yeast; and the wort had become extremely of- fensive. As the yeast was not only very poor, but in too small a quan- tity for any domestic purpose, I made an infusion of malt and a decoction of hops, in the manner used among the inhabitants of the island of Jersey, Avhen they find it necessary to increase a small quan- tity of brewer's yeast. To this preparation, I added my two spoon- fuls of yeast; let the mixture stand 24 hours; then poured off the watery part; mixed the sediment with an increased proportion ofthe malt and hops ; which fermented, and produced yeast enough to work a gallon of strong-beer, that yielded a pint of very fine yeast, of which excellent bread was made. Hav- ing some reason to suspect, that the fixed air was of little or no use in this experiment, and that a wort might be made, Avhich would fer- ment of itself, before the liquor Avere spoiled by too long keeping, I caused to be made four gallons of good wort, rather above porter strength, Avell hopped, and Avith a considerable quantity of colour, and treacle, to preserve it from putre- faction. It Avas equally divided, one-half impregnated Avith fixed air, as in the first experiment; each was put into a wooden vessel; and both Avere placed in an equally Avarm situation. At the expiration of 24 hours, there being no signs of fermentation, I stirred in a tea- spoonful of salt, and shook a little flour on the surface of each. In 12 hours more, the unimpregnated Avort shewed some appearance of fermentation, Avhich went off, and Avas renewed by placing the liquor near the fire ; and at the seventy- fourth hour, it had a tolerably good head of yeast; but the impreg- nated wort Avas only beginning to ferment. In 24 hours after, Ave took a pint of yeast from the Avort YEA YEA 453 which was not impregnated Avith fixed air, and alx>ut a tea-cupful from the other, which was as inferior in quality as in quantity. The Avorts were then mixed, put into other vessels, and bid fair to become excellent beer. I cannot say that this is a very expeditious mode of making yeast; but I be- lieve it is a sure one, and within the poAver of every person who can procure the necessary ingre- dients for making good beer.".... Our correspondent, therefore, con- ceives to haA'e proved by his ex- periment, " that fixed air is, at least, not requisite to produce a fermentation in beer." Dr. Lettsom (" Hints for pro- moting Beneficence," he. 1797) re- commends the following prepara- tion as a substitute for yeast: Boil 4 oz. of flour in 2 quarts of water, for half an hour ; and sweeten it Avith 3 oz. of Muscovado sugar. When the mixture is nearly cold, pour it on four spoonfuls of yeast, into an earthen or stone jar suffi- ciently deep to admit the new barm to rise : it must noAV be well shaken ; placed near the fire for one day ; and then the thin liquor be poured off the surface. The remainder is next to be agitated, strained, closed up for use, and kept in a cool place. Some of the yeast thus prepared, ought ahvays to be preserved, for renewing or making the next quantity that may be Avantcd. The following method of pre- paring excellent yeast, we state from the " Transactions of the Economi- cal Society of Petersburg/!," on the auth >rity of Baron Von Mestma- cher : When the Avort is made, and it becomes necessaryjo provide yeast for its fermentation, he directs forty gallons to be drawn off, into a vessel provided with a lid, and capable of holding one-third more than that quantity. Next. 7 lbs. of leaven are to be dissolved in a little wort, and mixed with the 40 gallons : 17 lbs. of rye-meal, and an equal quantity of ground malt, must noAV be added, by agitation for some minutes, and suffered to stand for half an hour. At the end of that lime, a spoonful of the best yeast ought to be incorpo- rated with this compound ; the lid be placed upon the vessel; and the whole remain undisturbed for 48 hours ; when the m xture will be found converted into 60 gallons of remarkably good barm. In the 1st vol. of "Annals of Agriculture," Mr. Kir by suggests mealy potatoes to be boiled, till they become perfectly soft, in which state, they must be mashed with hot Avater, so as to acquire the consistence of yeast. Two ounces of coarse sugar, or molas- ses, are then to be added to every pound of potatoes ; and, w hen the mixture is lukewarm, two spoon- fuls of barm must be stirred into it, according to the proportion above stated. This composition should now be removed towards the fire, or to a warm place, till the fermentation cease; when a cer- tain portion may be kneaded with flour, which ought to stand eight hours before it is baked. Mr. K. observes, that every pound of po- tatoes, thus managed, produces nearly a quart of yeast, Avhich will remain good for three months.... The roots, hoAvever, ought, in the opinion of Mr. Bordley, to be perfectly ripe and well-sprouted; as, in the contrary case, no fermen- tation Avill ensue. Similar to this preparation, is the substitute for yeast contrived by 454 YEA Mr. Richard Tillyer Blunt ; in consequence of which he ob- tained a patent, in October, 1787. He directs 8 lbs. of potatoes to be boiled in water, in the same man- ner as for the table : af er which, they must be mashed ; and, while they are warm, 2 oz. of honey, or other saccharine matter, and one quart of common veast should be added. Three pints of this com- pound are sufficient, with the aid of Avarm water, for making the sponge ; and, when this begins to sink, the dough ought to be formed into loaves, and baked. [The great importance of good yeast to the making of wholesome bread, induces the editor to commu- nicate several receipts which may be defended on. Any one of them will answer, but it may be useful to enable a choice to be made. 1. Boil a pint bowl full of hops in two quarts of water to one quart; put eight table-spoonfuls of flour into a pan, and strain the hop-water boiling on it; when mixed, it should be thick batter, and when milk-warm, stir in a breakfast-cup of good yeast, pour it into three porter bottles, stop- ping them Avith paper; put them in a milk-pan near the fire, and as soon as the mixture rises to the top of the bottles, remove them to the cellar until it subsides, then cork the bottles, and set them on a cool cellar floor, or in an ice- house. In very warm weather, the corks ought to be taken out every day, to let out the carbonic acid air, and the bottles again stopped. 2. Another receipt directs the addition of a table-spoonful of gin- ger, which is to be boiled with the hops; and the further addition YEA of a table-spoonful of broAvn sugar before the flour is stirred in. 3. Perpetual yeast:.....Mix one pound of flour with boiling water, to the thickness of gruel, add to it half a pound of brown sogar, mix them well together ; put three spoonfuls of purified yeast into a large vessel, upon which put the above ingredients, vvhch will soon ferment. Collect the yeast off ths top, and put it into a small necked pot, and cover it from the air; keep it in a dry place, and mode- rately warm. When used in part, replace it with flour made into a thin paste, and sugar, in the for- mer proportion. It will keep for half a year or more. No yeast is necessary except the first time.... Columbian Magazine, December, 1788. 4. The editor can recommend yeast made after the following re- ceipt, as preferable to any other kind. Boil twelve clean washed, mid- dle sized potatoes; and at the same time, boil, in another vessel, a handful of hops in a quart of Avater; peel, and mash the pota- toes in a marble mortar, pour part of the hop-Avater, Avhile hot, upon the potatoes, mix them Avell, and pass them through a sieve; then add the remainder of the hop-water, and half a tea-cupful of honey, beat all Avell, and add a small portion of leaven to bring on the fermen- tation. Put the whole in a stone jug, and set it by the fire, (in the winter). All the utensils must be scalded every time they are used, and washed perfectly clean. One tea cupful of the above potatoe yeast, will answer for two quarts of flour. In summer, the yeast ought to be made every second day. YZ% YEA 455 The following mode is most commonly adopted out ofthe great towns in the Lnited States : Four table-spconsful of bran or shorts, and one of hops are boiled in a quart of Avater, and set by the fire to ferment. A small quantity of salt to the Avater, Avhcrewith the flour is kneaded, is an im- provement. With this, hoAvever, the practice is to use leaven saved from a former baking. Vv here bread is made from lea- ven alone, some sugar should be added to correct the sour taste, and probably a small quantity of pearl-ash, would acid to the rising of the bread, as well as correct the acid of the leaven.] An useful substitute for yeast, may be obtained by nearly filling a bason, or tea-cup, with bruised, or split pease, and pouring on them boiling Avater : the whole is now to be set on the hearth,or other warm place, for 24 or 48 hours, accord- ing to the temperature of the sea- son : at the end of that time, a froth, possessing all the properties of yeast, will appear on the sur- face of the fluid. This method, we understand, is commonly practised in the eastern countries ; and the barm, thus procured, is said to render the bread light and palata- ble. [See article 13rkad.] To the different modes of pro- curing yeast, already specified, Ave shall add an e^sy and expeditious process, Avhich appears to be very plausible ; and has lately been communicated to the editor, by an anonymous correspondent; though he cannot vouch for its success.... Take six quarts of soft water, and tAvo handfulsof Avheeteu or barley- meal ; stir the latter in. before the mixture is placed over the fire, where it must very gradually sim- mer, and at length boil, till two- thirds of the fluid be evaporated, so thatit may consist of two quarts. When this decoction becomes cool, incorporate Avith it (by means of a Avhisk) a powder, consisting of two drams of salt of tartar, and one dram of cream of tartar, pre- viously mixed. The whole should now be kept in a warm place.... Thus a very strong yeast for breAv- ing, distilling, and baking, is said to be obtained. For the last men- tioned purpose, however, such barm ought to be first diluted with pure water, and passed through a sieve, before it be kneaded Avith the dough ; in order to deprive it of its alkaline taste. The preservation of yeast, for a considerable time, is an object of equal importance to that of pro- ducing it artificially : hence, it has been recommended to put a quantity of that commodity into a canvas bag, and to submit the whole to the action of the screw- press, so as to deprive it of all moisture; in consequence of which, the barm will remain in the bag, as firm and tough as clay : in this state, it must be packed in casks, well secured from the access of air, and may be kept in a sound state for any period of time. We believe, hoAvever, it would be more safe and advisable to form the pasty yeast into circular, flat ves- sels, resembling tea-saucers, and in that state to dry the Avhole mass, either in the open air under shade, or in the moderate warmth of a baker's oven. Mr. Felton Matheav's mode of separating beer from yeast, and preserving the latter (for which he obtained a patent, in February, 1796). in many respects corre- spond.* with that just described : 456 YEA the principal difference is, that he directs the bags to be placed in troughs perforated Avith holes, to prevent the former from bursting ; and then to submit them to the action of a lever, aided by in- cumbent weights. When the beer is thus expressed, the yeastremain- ing in the bags, will crumble into coarse poAvder: this must be spread on canvas*, hair-cloth, or similar porous material,and gradually dried in a malt-kiln, or in any room or stove, Avhere a regular temperature of from 80 to 90 degrees is main- tained ; and, lastly, as soon as it becomes perfectly dry, the barm must be packed in bottles or casks, from which the air is completely excluded. Another mode of preserving yeast, consists in throAA'ing a withy, or the young shoots of willows twisted together, into the vessel Avhere the yeast is working ; and suspending them in a warm room, till the next opportunity of brew- ing arrives. We conceive, how- ever, the following expedient to be preferable, both in point of clean- liness and economy ; it being suc- cessfully practised by some careful house-wives : Take a clean wood- en bowl, of such size as nicy be most convenient: spread a regular coating of yeast around its inner surface; and, as often as this dries, repeat the process, till a thick cake be formed: the vessel must be kept in a dry place. When any barm is wanted, a small piece may be cut out; and, after dissolving it in warm water, the solution will answer ail the purposes of fr-.-sh yeast,Avhetherdesigned for baking, or for brewing*. The following process being ar1- vantai;• oudy employed in Germa- ny, for preserving barm, so as '•■:> YEA be fit for all domestic uses, after a considerable time, we have inserted it for the benefit of our country- readers : When the yeast is taken from new beer, it must be put into a clean linen bag, and be laid in a vessel half full of dry, sifted wood- ashes : the Avhole is then to be covered to the thickness of three- or four inches with similar ashes, and be pressed together. In this situation, the barm should remain for a day, or longer, if it <>e neces- sary ; Avhen the ashes will absorb all the moisture, and the yerst ac- quire the consistence of a thick paste. It must now be formed into small lumps, or balls ; dried in a moderate beat ; and kept in bags, in an airy, dry place : when any barm is wanted, a few of such balls may be dissolved in Avarm Avater ; or, which is preferable, in beer ; and they Avill answer every purpose of fermentation. Besides its utility in baking and brewing, late experiments have fully proved, that yeast is of sin- gular efficacy in putrid fevers, pu- trid sore throats, and similar ma- lignant complaints : for the first discovery of this important fact, we are indebted to the Rev. Edmund Cartav right. The dose of barm, according to his experience, and that of other practitioners, is two large spoonfuls, to be repeated every three hours: in some cases, this has been sufficient; but, in others, it was necessary to admin- ister the Peruvian bark, between each dose. In a feAV instances, ir':ed, emetics and laxatives were given previously to taking the yeast; but, in general, this simple remedy seldom f.iled to effect a cure ; provided due attention was bef/owed on the diet and regimen of the patient,. YEL YELLOW, is one of the seven primitive colours. The principal article affording a yellow dye, is the Weld, or Dyer's Green-weed; of the culture of which, the reader will find an ac- count in that article. An excellent yellow dye may likewise be prepared from the flowers of the acacia. These must be gathered, before they be fully blown, and dried in an earthen ves- sel over a moderate fire, till they crisp, or curl up, in the same man- ner as tea-leaves. The ripe seeds of the same tree are then added in the necessary proportions; and the whole, when boiled in river-water, with the addition of alum, will im- part a yellow colour of any shade required. [The United States have several fine native yellow vegetable dyes, among Avhich the Hydrastis Cana- densis, Quercus tinctoria, (Black- oak,) and Xanthorhiza,deserve to be particularly mentioned. See those articles.] In the 61 st vol. of the « Philo- sophical Transactions of the Royal Society," for 1771, the folloAving receipt for preparing a beautiful yellow dye, is communicated by Mr. Peter Woulfe: Take half an ounce of pulverized indigo, and mix it in a deep glass vessel, Avith 2 oz. of strong spirit of nitre, previously diluted with 8 oz. of water, to prevent the indigo from taking fire. Let this mixture stand for a week, and then digest it in a sand heat, for one or tvvo hours ; adding 4 oz. of water. The solu- tion is now to be filtered: Avhen mi ed with water, in tiie propor- tion of one part of the former to four or five of the latter; and, on adding a little alum, it communi- vol. v, YEL 4S7 cates a durable yelloAV colour. Mr. Woulfe remarks, that none of the tinging matter separates from the water, during the operation of dye- ing, except the portion adhering to the cloth; so that this preparation promises to be of essential service to dyers. He farther states, that cochineal, cudbear, or orchal, and similar colouring substances, Avhen treated in this manner, will also im- part a yellow tinge to silk and wool. The chief yellows used in paint- ing, are Dutch pink, Turbith-mine- ral, King's and Naples yellow : of these we have given a concise ac- count; see Colours; but, as the preparation of the two last-men- tioned pigments has not been ac- curately stated; Ave shall subjoin, by Avay of supplement, a few hints respecting the manner in which they are compounded, for the use of artists. King's-yellow :....Mix 20 parts of pulverized arsenic with one part of the flowers of sulphur: let them be sublimed in a proper ves- sel, in a sand-heat. When the sublimation is effected, the colour will be found in the upper part of the glass, Avhence it must be care- fully removed, and levigated till it become a fine powder....This pig- ment may also be obtained, by subliming orpiment in a similar manner; and it may be rendered of a deeper or lighter colour, by increasing or diminishing the pro- portion of sulphur. Naples yellow is prepared by le- vigating, on a dry stone, 12 oz. of white lead: 3 oz. of antimony ; 1 oz. of alum ; and a similar quan- tity of sal-ammoniac. These in- gredients must now be exposed, in an open crucible, to a moderate heat for some hours ; after which, 3 N 458 YEL YEL the fire ought to be increased for a short time ; and, at length the mixture should continue for three hours, in a degree of heat suffi- ciently powerful to keep the cru- cible red hot. At the expiration of that term, it Avill acquire a beau- tiful yellow colour; which may be rendered of a brighter golden shade, by augmenting the propor- tions of antimony and sal-ammo- niac. YelloAV pigments of various shades may also be obtained, by- triturating floAvers of sulphur, or yelloAV ochre, in different propor- tions, Avith a solution of gum in ay ate r: and, lastly, the calx of iron, Avhen precipitated by quick-lime, from a solution of green vitriol, has been recommended as a sub- stitute for yellow ochre, in house- painting.... Another method of pre- paring the celebrated Naples yel- low, is that of M. Passery, who makes use of the following ingre- dients, namely: antimony, 1 lb.; lead 1 \ lb. ; alum and. common salt, of each 1 oz....We have in- serted this recipe, on the authority of Mr. Wiegleb ; who simply enumerates the articles here stated, Avithout communicating the pro- cess of compounding them. Yellow Ink may be prepared, by previously dissolving a small por- tion of alum and gum-arabic in pure water, and then infusing a few grains of dry saffron in the same solution....It may, likewise, be obtained by slowly boiling 2 oz. of Avignon, or French berries in one quart of water, Avith half an ounce of alum, till one-third of the fluid be evaporated; when 2 drams of gum-arabic, 1 dram of sugar, and a similar quantity of pulverized alum, are to be dissolv- ed in this liquid: the mixture should then be filtered, and pre- served in bottles. Sympathetic Yellow Ink, is direct- ed, by Wiegleb, to be prepared in the following manner :....Take a handfull of the leaves of common marigold (Calendula officinalis, L.) and macerate them for eight days, or longer, in half a pint of the best distilled vinegar ; Avhen the liquid must be separated from the leaves, by expressing them through white linen or cotton, and preserved in a glass bottle carefully stopped. If the desired colour is to be of a pale shade, an additional quantity of water may be added. Invisible characters may be formed with this liquor on Avhite substances, such as linen, silk or paper; and the yellow tint will appear on im- mersing them in the following liquor:...Take a sufficient quantity of violet or daisy flowers; bruise them in a marble mortar ; add a small portion of Avater; express the liquid through Avhite linen, and also preserve it in a glass bottle.... An infusion of turnsol will ansAver the same purpose. YELLOW FEVER, is one of the most fatal epidemics to which the inhabitants of warm climates are subject. As the opinions of physicians, concerning the nature and treat- ment of the Yellow Fever, are va- rious and contradictory, Ave shall avail ourselves of the clear and sa- tisfactory view of this malignant disease, lately given by Dr. Tho- mas Dancer, in his excellent work, entitled " The Medical As- sistant, or Jamaica Practice of Phy- sic," (4to. Kingston, Jamaica ; and Lond. Murray and Highley,p. 384. 1/. \s. in boards), designed chiefly for the use of families and planta- tions." This intelligent practi- YEL tioner justly observes, that the mis- understanding on the subject has probably arisen from an improper use of terms, or from the variable character of the disease ; accord- ing to the prevailing constitution of the season : the quantity and force of contagious matter, and other causes. He is fully convin- ced, that it is not regularly one and the same disorder: but is often a compound, at one time partaking ofthe nature ofthe Malignant Fe- ver, at another resembling the Bi- lious Remittent. Hence, it is not uniformly contagious, and the fe- ver of new-comers may not always be malignant: there are instances in which, on their first arrival, they had a common fever, which after- wards changed into the yellow fe- ver : though the reverse of this ge- nerally occurs. Means of Prevention : Dr. Dan- cer observes, that, though bleed- ing is precarious and hazardous after the fever has commenced, it may, nevertheless, in particular cases, where the habit is very full, Sec. be considered as a mean of preservation. Young and athletic persons, therefore, may, on their first arrival, lose a few ounces of blood : their bowels should, on the same principle, be kept open ; and every species of intemperance, as also exposure to the sun, and even- ing air, ought to be carefully avoid- ed. It is, hoAvever, of still greater consequence to retreat, as soon as possible, from the shipping and sea-shore, the seats of infection, to a pure, airy, cool situation in the country, and there to remain for some months. Dr. D. has knoAvn many young men, who thus have avoided any dangerous fever ; and some Avho, by returning too speedi- YEL 459 ly to the toAvns or sea-ports, fell victims to the disease. " The prevailing mortality among new comers (says this accurate observer), is a good deal to be at- tributed to their own misconduct. Coming out in convoys, they ar- rive in numbers; meet at taverns ; and, allured by scenes of novelty, they Avalk the streets, indulge to excess in the use of the country fruits; and enter too readily into the customs of the seasoned inha- bitants, which are not at all suited to persons in their situation." According to the experience of Dr. Clark, the best preventive of this destructive epidemic, is mer- cury. Hence, he advises all per- sons, Avho have sufficient leisure, to undergo one or tAvo courses of that medicine, after their arrival in the West Indies; to take a feAV laxatives ; to confine themselves to a moderate use of wine ; and to live principally on fruits and vege- tables, for the first tAvo months: for, by -pursuing such conduct, " they may rely almost to a cer- tainty on escaping the fever." With respect to the character- istic symptoms of this malignant disorder, we cannot, on comparing several authors Avho haA'e Avritten on the subject, select a better or more correct description, than the following, given by Dr. Dancer; whose words Ave do not hesitate to quote ; especially as many of our readers, or their relations, residing in Jamaica, or other parts of the Western World, must feel greatly interested on the occasion : " This fever, then,peculiar to new-comers, attacks suddenly; with alternate fits of heat and cold ; violent pain in the head and back. The face is prodigiously flushed ; the eyes are 460 YEL YEL red and watery; the whole physi- ognomy ofthe patient is very pecu- liar, denoting anxiety and dejec- tion of mind: and this unnatural appearance continues, till recovery begins to take place. The piilse, in the beginning, is frequent, full, and hard, sometimes irregular; the heat of the body very great; and the patient labours under great inquietude. This state of the fe- ver continues for a longer or short- er period: sometimes only for a few hours ; at others, for several days ; and, Avhen the ardent symp- toms begin to decline, if not soon- er, an irritation at the stomach commences, which is hardly, by any means, to be subdued, or even allayed. The patient now feels himself in other respects well; his pulse and heat being nearly natur- al, and he has seldom any return of fever; but the irritation and anguish at the stomach continu- ing, he at length vomits blackish matter; his eyes and neck first become yelloAV, and then the Avhole body. Blood flows from the mouth and nose : Delirium, preceded by a hurried perturbed state of mind, and great restlessness, at length comes on; ending in total in- sensibility, 8cc. and ultimately in death." The yelloAvness ofthe skin, how- ever, is not a constant symptom ; for sometimes it does not appear, or at least not till after death. Dr. Dancer farther observes, that the yellow fever is particularly distin- guished by its sudden attack; as it is seldom, like other fevers, pre- ceded with any symptoms of lan- guor, weariness, 8tc.; by its hav- ing no very sensible abatement or remission, till it totally subsides; by the extraordinary anguish about the fore-part of the chest, and at the same time a torpid state ofthe boAvels ; so that the strongest pur- gatives, and in large doses, are of- ten attended with little or no effect. Such are the general symptoms, attending this fever in Jamaica; but numerous variations often oc- cur in America, and other warm climates, Avhere it is modified by the season ofthe year, or other cir- cumstances, Avhich our limits will not permit us to detail: we shall, therefore, briefly mention the sup- posed origin of this malady, and exhibit an account ofthe treatment that ought to be adopted. The yelloAV fever is certainly endemial in the West Indies: its cause is reputed to be a peculiar contagion, which very generally affects persons recently arrived from a cold climate, and especially Europeans, or those Avho have not long resided in hot countries. Fe- males, and negroes are, in general, exempt from its influence ; but mulattoes, and tawnies, or such as are descended from European and black parents, are equally subject to the fever with the whites. From the West Indies, this epidemic has been conveyed to America, Avhere it committed dreadful ravages, in the year 1793, especially in the- province of Pennsylvania : nor is any person, who has onee been seized with it, secure from a second attack. Cure: Conformably to the symp- toms above stated, and drawn from actual observation, by Dr. Dancer, we shall first exhibit his mode of treatment, in the different stages of the yellow fever, as ap- plicable to the climate of Jamaica. He previously remarks, that his ac- count, though incomplete, is suffi- ciently full and accurate, to enable any person to distinguish that dis- YEL YEL 461 ease from any other, except the malignant fever; to Avhich it has an obvious affinity. Where the yellow fever attacks in the manner of a common remit- tent, and shews no symptoms of malignity, till after some continu- ance, Dr. D. observes, that the fol- loAving treatment may not be deem- ed necessary or suitable ; though, he thinks it is, on the whole, the safest plan, to consider every fever with which a neAv comer may be seized, as being of this kind ; for, unless the method of cure suited to it, be adopted in the beginning, it cannot afterwards be employed with any probability of success. On a supposition, that a person neAvly arrived in Jamaica, or any other tropical country, be suddenly attacked with violent pain of the head and back, with heat and flushing of the face, he. in the manner before described, Dr. D. recommends, in the first place, to let the patient be put to bed, as soon as he is taken ill ; then an opening clyster to be administer- ed ; and, immediately after, a close of calomel and jalap to be taken, either in powder, mixed Avith syrup of tamarinds, or made into pills.... The dose must be regulated by the constitution ofthe patient, andthe greateror less violence ofthe symp- toms ; so that from 5 to 10 grains of calomel, and from 15 to 30 grains of jalap, have been occa- sionally prescribed. Some time (from 2 to 3 hours) afterwards, a tea-cupful of tamarind-water, or a decoction of tamarinds with cream of tartar, should be drank ; and, if stools do not freely follow, the pre- ceding, or a smaller dose may be repeated in the course of 5 or 6 hours. If plentiful evacuations have taken place, but Avithout any abatement of symptoms, small doses of calomel and antimonial poAvder should be given, in the proportion of from 5 to 10 grains of the former, to 3 or five grains of the latter ; to be taken every three hours in barley-water, or thin pa- nada. During the intervals, Dr. D. directs the following saline ju- lep : Salt of Avormwood, or salt of tartar, 2 drams, to be dissolved in half a pint of mint-tea. To evrery two table-spoonfuls of this solu- tion, add one table-spoonful of strained lime-juice ; which mixture is to be swallowed during its effer- vescence, or immediately after. In order to ascertain the exact quan- tity of the acid requisite to neutra- lize the saline draught, it should be tried first, by pouring into the latter small portions of the former, till the frothing be completed. At the same time, the mercurial fric- tions must be commenced; namely, two drams of the strong mercurial ointment, rubbed into the inside of the knees orthighs,every six hours, or, in some cases, every three hours ; or otherwise, half an ounce every six hours. If, in 12 or 15 hours from the first attack, there be no obvious remission, inconse- quence of such treatment, the fric- tions ought to be continued every three hours; and, if the bowels have not been opened, ten grains of calomel must be given in com- bination with jalap ; or, in the cor- trary case, with one quarter of a grain of opium, to prevent the ca- lomel from acting on the bowels, if already too loose. Thin barley- water, or other diluents, may be allowed frequently, and the medi- cines above specified be continued, till the mouth becomes sore, and the breath affected ; unless a dis- tinct remission ofthe fever be per- 462 YEL YEL ceived. Should the stomach be- come irritable, and retchings com- mence, a blister must be instantly applied, either to the pit of the sto- mach, or between the shoulders ; the vitriolic xlher be administered in a little water, or in the saline julep before described. The quantity of mercurial oint- ment to be used, as well as the ca- lomel to be taken,during the Avhole course of this malady, is some- times very considerable, before ei- ther the glands of the mouth are affected, or any remission of the symptoms take place. In some cases, more than 1000 grains of ca- lomel have been given, and several ounces of mercurial ointment have been rubbed in, not only with im- punity, but with evident success. In general, when the salivation commences, the fever and irrita- tion at the stomach subside. Ne- vertheless, it will be necessary to continue the frictions, in a more moderate degree, to support the Cow of saliva. Although Dr. D. does not pre- tend that this mode of treatment is uniformly efficacious, yet, on com- paring it Avith any other in use, it is, in his opinion, eminently suc- cessful, and afibrds the patient a double chance ; because it does not hinder the employmentofany other means that could be devised, if mercury were not administered.... The violence, hoAvever, Avith which the fever frequently attacks, leaves in many cases, but little hope from any plan or cure Avhatever : hence, Dr. Blane justly observes, that there are instances, Avhere the disease is determinedly fatal, or Avhere the animal functions are, from the beginning, so deranged, that there are no possible means of restraining the morbid motions; and dissolution necessarily takes place. In more favourable circum- stances, however, Dr. Dancer re- marks, that the sore mouth, result- ing from the use of mercury,though often very distressing, is seldom at- tended Avith any danger, or incon- venience of long duration. He quotesonthis occasion,Mr.BLANE, who, in his late publication on the use of the nitric acid, says, that although this sometimes causes sa- livation, yet it is the most powerful means of allaying ptyalism, in- duced by mercury. Indeed, this affection of the mouth is not easily removed ; but it may be greatly alleviated by the frequent use of proper gargles, such as the follow- ingdirectedbyDr. Dancer: Sage- tea, 1 pint; vinegar, 4 oz. and honey, 1 oz ;....or, sage-tea, 1 pint; honey, 1 or 2 oz ; and alum, 1 dram. The following gargarism we can recommend, from the frequent experience of its good effects in similar cases, namely : Equal parts of distilled vinegar and lime-water; adding a small portion of syrup of red roses, sufficient to sweeten the mixture. The Peruvian bark may, occa- sionally, be given in the latter stages of the yellow fever, to com- plete the cure ; but, as it is not ahvays found to agree, Dr. Dan- cer concludes with spying, that " food and wine are the only things farther required." HoAvever inconsistent to theory, ortopreconceivednotions,thismode of treatment may appear to others, Dr. Dancer affirms, that " it lias stood the test of experience, and ought to be adopted, till a better one has been discovered." Having thus fairly stated his practice, in this virulent disorder, he briefly recapitulates that of other physi- Y£L sians: and, as it may be of some service to persons Avho reside in tk',se tropical climates, or propose to vi:.it them at any future period, Ave shall aho subjoin a concise view of the various modes of treating this malady, practised by Dr:-:. Hillary, Moskly, Rush, Clark, Blane, and Jackson. With a view to moderate the rapid motion of the fluids, and to abate the violence of the yellow feA'er, during the first two days, Dr. Hillary directs blood-letting, in the proportion of from 12 to 20 oz. according to the age, strength and other circumstances attending the case of the patient. The next in- dication is, to evacuate putrid bile, and corrupted humours, with such expedition as maybe consistentwith safety : hence Dr. H. advises small but frequent draughts of Avarm Avater to be SAvallowed, with the occasional addition of a little oxy- mel, green tea, Sec.; Avhen a grain or a grain and an half, of crude opium is given, in order to com- pose the stomach after the violent retching, pain, and anxiety, neces- sarily occasioned by severe vomit- ing. And, as this organ is unable to retain either solid or fluid mat- ters, the body should be kept open, by means of a mild purging clyster. The third indication is, to prevent the putridity of the fluids, and also the approach of gangrene, by ex- hibiting proper antiseptics....For such purpose, Dr. H. prescribes a slight infusion of the Virginian Snake-root; as it braces the sto- mach, and enables it to bear the Peruvian bark.....A more particu- lar account of Dr. Hillary's treatment, may be found in his " Observations on the Air and Dis- eases of Barbadoes. " Dr. Mosely recommends re- YEL 463 peated bleeding in the first stage, and continued purging Avith vitrio- lated tartar. Dr. Rush bleeds copiously and repeatedly ; gives purgatives com- posed of calomel and jalap ; then continues the calomel alone, till it affects the mouth. He conceives, that as the symptoms of the yellow fever are extremely violent, and its progress is uncommonly rapid, the most efficacious remedies ought to be employed, as early as possible. Hence venesection should, in his opinion, not be deferred beyond the first day ; for it is of peculiar ser- vice to persons of robust and ple- thoric habits, especially such as have recently arrived from Europe. And, though this operation may not be performed sufficiently early to save life, yet it contributes greatly to relieve the sufferings of the pa- tient. Farther, it will be advisable to take some blood, every dav, while the fever continues: the quantity to be drawn depends on the state of the pulse. The blood appears thick and sizy ; and, it is a remarkable fact, that patients of every age can support the loss of that fluid, much better in the yel- low, than in any other inflamma- tory fever. After venesection, pur- gatives are administered : with this intention, small doses of calo- mel, consisting of 2 or 3 grains, taken every hour ; or, of 5 grains, combined Avith half a grain of opi- um ; or, of 10 grains of calomel mixed Avith 15 grains of jalap ; to be swallowed every 5 or 6 hours, haAre been prescribed byDrs.Rusn, Clark, and other practitioners, Avith the best effect. Instances have occurred, in which patients have taken from 100 to 230 grains of calomel, Avithin three or four days ; in all of whom the violence 464 YEL YEL of the disease abated, immedi- ately after salivation commenced. ......Blisters, applied to the legs and thighs, have likewise proved very useful. According to Dr. Jackson,great benefit has been derived from the affusion of cold Avater on the body of the patient, after hav- ing lost 20 or more ounces of blood. But, as this remedy has in some cases produced contrary effects, from being injudiciously employed, Dr. Blane proposes the application of cloths soaked either in cold Avater, or in a mix- ture of that fluid and of vinegar : by such treatment, patients have been recovered, whose cases were apparently desperate. As vomiting is the most dis- tressing symlom in the yellow fever, various remedies have been proposed, with a view to check it, and to dispose the stomach for the reception of the Peruvian bark, or other tonics and antiseptics. With this intention, the saline draughts above mentioned, when in a state of effervescence, have been ad- A-antageously swalloAved. Similar effects have resulted from the use of acid juices, such as those of oranges, and lemons, combined Avith Avine, hot Avater, sugar, and nutmeg; then succeeded by fre- quent doses of magnesia and mint- Avater....M. Desportes affirms, that milk, boiled Avith a little flour or bread, and given repeatedly, in the quantity of one spoonful, ope- rated more pOAverfully than any other remedy, for stopping billious A'omiting. Dr. Blane, however, stales, that this symptom Avas re- lieved by fomenting the stomach with stupes, or cloths, dipped in a decoction of bark, and sprinkled with camphorated spirit, or with the tincture of bark. But the most efficacious means, which he pre- scribed for checking such symp- tom, was that of blisters laid on the stomach : these were attended with the greatest success ; and his practicehasbeen justlyrecommend- ed by Drs. Clark, and Maclean. When the irritation of the stomach has subsided. Peruvian bark may be administered ; and, if such drug disagree, it may be given in the form of a clyster.... Farther, it may perhaps be of some service to try the essence of spruce ; as that vegetable preparation has been retained on the stomach, when every other remedy was discharged by the mouth : it must be diluted with hot Avater, in the proportion of 3 oz. to one quart ; and half a pint of the solution should be SAval- lowed every two hours. Lastly in the more advanced stages, camphor combined with opium, may be given Avith advan- tage, particularly in the evening; as perspiration and sleep will thuspro- bablybe procured, and consequently the patient will be greatly relieved. During the continuance of the yellow fever, few patients are able to take any food: they ought, therefore, to be kept as quiet as possible; and should endeavour to dispel all intense thought or care ; for anxiety cannot fail to aggra- vate the violence of the disorder. Those of our readers, Avho wish to acquire more extensive informa- tion respecting this terrible scourge, in all its various modifications, will meet Avith complete statements in Dr. Clark's " Treatise on the Yellow Fever, as it appeared in the Isle of Dominica,"he. Svo. Murray and Highley, 3s. 6d. ;....in Dr. Jackson's " Outline of the His. tory and Cure of Fever " &c. Svo. YEL YEL 465 9s. ;....in Dr. Rush's « Account of the Bilious Remitting Fever, as it appeared in the City of Philadel- phia, in the year 1793," 8vo. Maw- man 6*. ;....in Dr. Maclean's, -' Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the great Mortality among the Troops at St. Domingo," 1797, 8vo. 7s.;.....and in Dr. Blane's valuable " Observations on the Diseases of Seamen," 3d edit. 8vo. 1799, 7s. Murray and High lev. YELLOW-HAMMER, or Em- beriza citrinella, L. is a well known diminutive bird, 'which inhabits Britain, and other parts of Europe: according to Mr. Pennant, its bill is of a dusky hue; the crown of the head, and the belly, are of a pale yellow, or straw-colour ; the hinder part of the neck is tinged with green ; and the breast is of an orange-red. Yellow-hammers frequent mea- dows, where they construct their large flat nests of dried moss, roots, and horse-hair ; and the fe- male lays six white eggs, streaked with purple veins.....These birds are of considerable service to the husbandman, 5y devouring innu- merable insects during the sum- mer ; but, in winter, they resort for sustenance to farm-yards, in common with sparroAvs and other birds. YELLOW - RATTLE, Cox- comb, or Penny-grass, Rhinan- thus Crista-galli, L. a native plant, growing in meadows, pastures, and avoocIs ; bloAving in the months of lune and July.....This vegetable sometimes overspreads whole mea- dows with its yellow flowers : in a green state it is eagerly eaten by cattle ; but, Avhen dry, it forms a hard and tough fodder. Hence, careful farmers cut off the floAvers, vol. v. before the seed attains to matu- rity, in order to prevent its propa- gation. YELLOWS, or Jaundice, in farriery, is a disorder to which horses are occasionally subject: it is known by the dusky-yellow ap- pearance of the eyes, the inside of the mouth, and of the lips. The animal looses all his vigour, and refuses to take any food ; a slow fever prevails, Avhich increases, together with the yellowness, ac- cording to the malignancy of the disease. His dung is hard, dry, and of a pale yelloAV or green cast: theurine isof a dark-brown colour; and is discharged Avith great pain and difficulty : after it has lain for some time on the pavement of the stable, it acquires a bloody hue. In a short time, if the horse be neglected, he becomes delirious and frantic. When aged animals are thus attacked, there is little prospect of recovery ; but, if the distemper be recent, and the horse young, it will be advisable to adopt the treatment already pointed out,A'ol. iii. p. 351. Should no relief be obtained in the course of tAvo or three days, the animal must be bled copiously ; and the following laxative clyster, be injected : Let two handfuls of marsh-mallows: one handful of chamomile flowers; and one ounce of fennel-seed, be boiled in three quarts of Avater, till one-third be evaporated : the liquor must then be strained, and incorporated Avith 4 oz. of treacle, and a pint of lin- seed, or any common oil. After such clyster has been in- jected, it will be necessary to ad- minister two or three purges, each consisting of 11 oz. of pulverized Indian rhubarb; 2 drams of saffron; and 6 drams of socotrine aloes, 3 O 466 YEL YEL mixed with syrup of buckthorn ; which ought to be given once in 48 hours: on the intermediate days, the following balls and drink should be introduced between each dose: Take half an ounce of vEthiops mineral; a similar quan- tity of millepedes ; and 1 oz. of Castile soap: let them be formed into a ball, and washed down with a decoction made of 4 oz. of mad- der-root ; the same weight of tur- meric ; half a pound of the sliced roots of burdock ; 4 oz. of Monk's rhubarb ; and 2 ounces of sliced liquorice : these ingredients must be boiled in one gallon of forge- water, till one quart be evaporated ; Avhen the Tumor should be strained, and sweetened with honey. By this treatment, the violence of the disease will generally abate in the course of a week, or ten days; a change which may be as- certained by the eyes and mouth losing part of their yellow cast; though it Avill be advisable to con- tinue the medicine above directed, till such colour totally disappear : when the animal is in a state of recovery, a few purges should be given, and he ought to be moder- ately exercised, in order to recruit his exhausted strength. [The yellows, or yellow-water as the complaint is most generally called, has prevailed Avith great mortality in Pennsylvania and N. Jersey, within the last 15 years, among horses. The symptoms, in addition to those mentioned above, are as follow. " The tail is occasionally -projected horizontally and dropped in an unusual manner, frequent and ineffectual attempts are made to dung : the flanks are hollow, partial chills take place, and the hind legs are stiff and straddle wide ; finally, all the limbs failing, the horse falls to the ground and Avrithes in agony. " On dissection, the liver is found schirrous, dry, and may be even rubbed to pieces. In one case it was reduced to one-fourth its original size." Richard Peters, Esq. to Avhom the Editor is indebted for the above remarks, thinks that horses feeding in open pastures, in warm Aveather, exposed to the chilling damps of night, are most subject to this disorder ; and there- fore advises that they be permit- ted to sleep under a shed. He has known a horse affected with the disease, that had pastured in a field for a long time alone, and had no communication with any other horse. He also knew two or three horses that died with the disease in stables containing SO or 40 horses, Avithout spreading the disease. The remedies which Mr. Pe- ters successfully used, Avhen the disease appeared among his horses in 1799, were : 1. copious bleeding, viz. a gallon of blood the first day, and half a gallon every day for three or four days. 2. Frequent doses of the following prescription, two drams of calomel, joined to tAvo oz. of aloes. 3. Large doses of nitre. 4. Roweling and blis- tering, and the free use of mercu- rial ointment about the neck, mouth and cheeks. He observed the salivation to appear, about the period that the blister drew, and from that hour the animal exhi- bited signs of recovery. He also used clysters of a decoction of black snake root (actea racemosa) and peach-leaves, to Avhich some salt and molasses Avere added..... If the clysters are rejected he di- YEL rects the gut to be scraped, to pro- mote the evacuation of hardened dung, cleanliness, good nursing, hard rubbing ; to clothe the horse and to keep him from the night air. Every thing in his opinion depends upon early attacking the disease ; for after a certain time, which occurs probably in the first 24, or at furthest 48 hours, nothing will cure ; and as 12 and often 24 hours are required for the opera- tion of any purgative, it should be given on the first attack. The above treatment Avas pursued by a gentleman on the recommenda- tion of Mr. Peters, and with suc- cess. In the Medical Repository of NeAv York, vol. 3. Or. Sayre, describes the Yellow Water as it prevailed in New Jersey. He also used frequent and copious bleeding, and large doses of calo- mel and jalap, Avith success.] YELLOWS, a disorder affect- ing black cattle, which, if it be not timely attended to, will induce the Murrain, and other fatal dis- tempers. Symptoms ......Every morning, a general tremor over the animal, particularly in the hinder legs, loins, and thighs ; the eye-lids ap- pear hollow ; the whole body as- sumes a yelloAV cast; the nose is dry ; and, if the creature have taken a severe cold, the ears hang doAvn ; the deAvlap, shoulders, and loins sAvell; the udder of cows become tumefied, and produce little milk.; which, in a few days, acquires a peculiarly yellow tinge, coagulating when boiled ; and, lastly, the fore-teeth become so loose as to be in danger of dropping out. It will be necessary to ob- serve these symptoms Avith ac- curacy, and particularly that first YEL 467 mentioned; because, if they re- main unnoticed for a few days. the disease will settle on some of the interior parts, and be followed by uncommon Aveakness, wheez- ing, dropsy, or other fatal dis- temper. This malady is conjectured to proceed from the folds, in the in- ner membrane of the neck of the gall-bladder, becoming too Aveak to perform their functions ; so that the bile, instead of being conveyed into the intestines, preternaturally forces itself into the biliary ducts, whence it passes through the vena porta, and mixes again Avith the blood : hence, that fluid acquires a corrosive quality, becomes thick or sizy, and consequently circulates slowly throughout the system.... From such disorganization, the livers of the diseased animals are incapacitated from performingtheir functions, so that the supply of bile i6 inadequate to the quantity thus unnaturally expended ; and the blood concretes in different parts of the body, forming painful tumors, both internally and exter- nally. This distemper is most to be apprehended, for about five weeks, in the commencement of the spring and autumn, Avhen the days are warm, and the evenings cold : in those seasons, the grass being very rich and succulent, the animals are apt to eat too freely. The folloAving remedies have been recommended, as being pe- culiarly efficacious in removing the yellows. First, take a handful of the tops of rue, and a similar por- tion of the greater celandine : let them be cut into small pieces, mix- ed with 1 oz. of pulverized tur- meric (or, if this cannot be pro- cured, of red Saunders-wcod), and boiled in three pints of stale btci 468 YEW YEW or ale. When the liquor is luke- warm, it must be given to the anF mal, and the dose repeated at the expiration of two days. Should a diarrhoea or scowering take place, the following preparation may be administered in the interval: Let 2 lbs. of oak-bark be boiled in one gallon of water, till one-fourth part be evaporated : it is then to be strained, and 2 lbs. of rice should be boiled in such liquor, till it be soft: half a pound of burnt crust of bread, taken from the lower part of a loaf, and 2 quarts of milk, are next to be added ; and the whole is suffered to simmer for about 20 minutes, when it should be divided into two portions, and given in a Avarm state to the animal. By this treatment, cattle may be re- covered in the course of a few days ; provided they have not been too long neglected : for, when the disease has gained ground, such remedies ought to be continued for an additional length of time. Yellow-Weed. See Dyer's- Weed. YEW-TREE, the Common, or Taxus baccata, L. a native of Bri- tain, and other parts of Europe, as well as of America: it grows in mountainous woods, hedges, and rocky soils; producing its flowers in March or April, Avhich are suc- ceeded by bright-red, soft, oblong berries, containing a mucilaginous Avhite juice, and arriving at per- fection in September. The yew-tree thrives most luxu- riantly in a moist, loamy soil: it may be propagated by sowing the ripe berries in autumn, in a shady bed of fresh earth, and covering them to the depth of half an inch with similar mould: when the young plants appear, they ought to be carefully Aveeded, and occa- sionally watered in dry seasons.... In this situation, they must remain for two years; after which they ought to be removed, in the month of October, into beds of unmanur- ed soil, at the distance of 6 inches from each other, and in rows one foot asunder; being gently watered till they have taken root. Here the plants should again continue for two years ; at the expiration of which, they must be transplanted, in autumn, into a nursery, and placed 18 inches from each other, in rows three feet apart. When the young trees have stood three or four years in the nursery ; it will be advisable to set them, in September, or October, in dry ground ; and, at length, in the sub- sequent spring, to place them in cold, moist situations, where they are designed to remain. The pe- riod of their growth is computed at 100 years; and their duration in the ground, at four centuries. Formerly, the yeAv-tree was cul- tivated in Britain, chiefly for the manufacture of bows ; but, since these implements of war have been superseded by fire-arms, it is ge- nerally raised as an ornament to parks and plantations, on account of its ever-green leaves. This use- ful tree admits of being frequently pruned ; and may be made to as- sume any particular figure: hence the gardens of our forefathers Avere filled with ships,birds, quadrupeds, men, and other vegetable mon- sters. But such absurd fancies are gradually disappearing; a more natural system of horticulture is making rapid progress; and the yew is at present advantageously planted in hedges, as a fence for orchards and shrubberies, against severe Avinds. The Avood of this tree is hard and YEW smooth; beautifully veined with red streaks; admits of a fine po- lish ; and is almost incorruptible '- hence it is advantageously employ- ed by turners and cabinet-makers? for manufacturing spoons, cups, as Avell as tables, chairs, and various other articles. It is also usefully converted into cogs for mill-wheels, axle-trees, flood-gates for fish- ponds ; and may perhaps be effec- tually substituted for box ; so that considerable sums of money might be annually saA'ed, which are noAV exported to the Levant, in order to supply engravers, and other artists, Avith that Avood. The red berries of the yeAv-tree have a SAveetish taste, ami abound with mucilage : they are not only devoured by hogs and birds, with- out any pernicious effects resulting from them, but are also frequently eatei\with impunity by children ; though, in some persons, this fruit is apt to produce noxious effects, especially if the stones be swal- loAved. We are nevertheless, per- suaded, that a very copious and strong spirit may be easily extract- ed from these berries, by distilla- tion ; and that their conversion to this purpose might annually save many thousand bushels of grain, Avhich are unnecessarily Avasted in the still, while the abundant ve- getable productions of the woods, hedges, and commons, are suffer- ed to decays or are heedlessly left to become a prey to wild birds, .and other animals. See also Spirits^ p. 26. The leaves of the yeAV-tree are reputed to be poisonous to the hu- man species, as Avell as to cattle of every description. Attempts, how- ever, have lately been made, to employ them for feeding horses, in limes of scarcity; and, if our ac- YEW 469 count be accurate, Ave have read in some recent publication, that such leaves Avere given to those animals with perfect safety, when cut toge- ther with hay ois straw, so as to use, at first, only the tenth or tAven- tieth part of this foliage, and gra- dually to increase the proportion of the latter, and to reduce that of the former, to one-half, or even a smaller quantity. Thus, it appears to be perfectly consistent w ith rea- son and analogy, that the oily and astringent principle of the yeA\- tree leaves may be corrected, by- sheathing it Avith a large portion of balsamic hay, and absorbent straAV ; yet Ave cannot, on this oc - casion, speak from positive expe- rience. According to agricultural writers, the loppings and bark of this tree are equally pernicious to cattle, especially when in a half- dried state ; several sprigs having been found in the stomachs of dead animals, entire or undigest- ed. It is, however, an erroneous supposition, Avhich still prevails in some country places, that the very shade of its foliage is hurtful to animal life. On the other hand, Beckstein informs us, that the Avood of the yew-teee, Avhen reduced to powder by a fiie, mixed with paste, and baked in an oven, has been highly extolled in Germany, as a sove- reign remedy for the bite of a mad dog : it is, therefore, taken in doses of half an ounce. Dambourney observes, that a decoction of yeAv-tree berries im- parts a handsome chamois dye to avooI previously immersed in a Aveak solution of bismuth....On boiling the red root of this tree, together with the bark of the common birch-tree, he obtained a beautiful cinnamon colour, Avith 470 YOU YOU a mordore tint; but the avooI was first boiled for a considerable time in a solution of tin : and, by adding alum, the dye assumed an aurora, or bright-red colour. YOKE, in agriculture, is a Avooden frame, adapted to the necks of oxen, by means of which they are coupled and fastened to the plough, or other A'ehicle. It is composed, 1. of a thick piece of Avood, that passes over the neck, and is strictly called the yoke, 2. of a bow, Avhich encompasses the neck, and 3. of the wrealhings, or stitchings, that serve to connect the whole. Beside these parts, there are employed, a ring, denominated the yoke-ring; and a chain, for securing the traces. The yokes chiefly used in Eng- land, are those knoAvn under the name ofthe Roman Ox-yokes, Avhich are preferable to the cumbersome frames formerly employed: because the animals thus acquire a greater poAver of draught. As, hoAvever, the Roman yokes are apt to chafe the necks, and the oxen are com- pelled to draw with their noses close to the ground, Ave conceive the Portuguese and French methods of working oxen to be the most effec- tual ; and, having already given an account of them, Ave refer the reader to the article Oxen. Yolk. See Egg. YOUTH, or Adolescence, in general, is that happy period of hu- man life, Avhich commences from childhood; continues as long as the fibres increase in dimensions or firmness ; and terminates at full growth: among the Romans, it was computed from the age of 12 to 25, in males, and to 21, in females. In modern times, the term ado- lescence, includes the age of from 15 to 25 years, and some- times to 30. During this important stage of our existence, the principal revolu- tions take place, both Avith respect to mind and body. While the lat- ter progressively acquires muscular energy, and adopts a more solid deportment, the faculties of the former begin to unfold ; and the young member enters into society, with all the advantages which arise from the tender regard, interest, and indulgence, evinced by the generality of mankind, tOAtards inexperienced youth. As it would be incompatible Avith our limited plan, to enter into a disquisition respecting all the mental and bodily imperfections, and diseases, incident to young persons of either sex ; or to ana- lyze the changes taking place dur- ing the transition from the period of childhood to that of puberty, we shall here discuss only the dan- gerous infiuence of the power of imagination, on the juvenile cha- racter. None of the mental faculties exhibit such interesting and di- versified phenomena, as that of Imagination. While this power- ful agent is restrained within due limits, it often supplies the place of a benevolent guide, through the intricate meanders of life, where Ave frequently meet Avith more ap- pearance than reality; and in which it is of the utmost importance to .be impressed with a due and lively sense of the good and the beautiful, as well asof virtue and truth. On the contrary, no sooner are the boun- daries of the imagining faculty transgressed, than we are involun- tarily led to submit to this dreadful tyrant, who is capable not only of YOU YOU 471 disturbing our repose and happi- ness, but even to deprive his vic- tims of life. Hence, it should be one of the most necessary maxims of intellectual nature, always to guard against this formidable pow- er ; and to regulate its reciprocal influence ; so that we may main- tain a certain superiority. But in order to evince the essential neces- sity of adopting this rule of prac- tical life, and at the same time to demonstrate the danger attending the neglect of it, especially to youth, we shall quote an instance related by Prof. Hufeland, in one of his admired Popular Essays, in Ger- man ; of Avhich no translation has yet appeared. A student at Jena, about sixteen years of age, having a weak and irritable nervous frame, but in other respects healthy, left his apartments during twilight, and suddenly returned, Avith a pale, dis- mal countenance; assuringhis com- panion that he Avas doomed to die in 36 hours, or at 9 o'clock in the morning of the second day. This sudden change of a cheerful young mind naturally alarmed his friend; but no explanation was given of its cause. Every attempt at ridi- culing this Avhimsical notion was fruitless; and he persisted in affirm- ing that his death was certain and inevitable. A numerous circle of his fellow-students soon assembled Avith a view to dispel those gloomy ideas, and to convince him of his folly, by arguments, satire, and mirth. He remained, however, unshaken in his strange convic- tion ; being apparently inanimate in their company, and expressing his indignation at the frolics and witticisms applied to his peculiar situation. Nevertheless, it was conjectured that a calm repose dur- ing the night would produce a more favourable change in his fan- cy ; but sleep was banished, and the approaching dissolution en- grossed his attention during the nocturnal hours. Early next morn- ing, he sent for Prof. Hufeland, who found him employed in mak- ing arrangements for his burial; taking an affectionate leave of his friends ,• and on the point of con- cluding a letter to his father ; in which he announced the fatal cata- strophe that was speedily to hap- pen. After examining his condi- tion of mind and body, the Pro- fessor could discover no remark- ble deviation from his usual state of health, excepting a small con- tracted pulse, a pale countenance, dull or drowsy eyes, and cold ex- tremities : these symptoms, hoAV- ever, sufficiently indicated a gene- ral spasmodic action ofthe nervous system, Avhich also exerted its in- fluence over the mental faculties. The most serious reasoning on the subject, and all the philosophical and medical eloquence of Dr. Hufeland, had not the desir- ed effect; and, though the stu- dent admitted that there might be no ostensible cause of death discoA'erable, yet this very circum- stance was peculiar to his case; and such Avas the inexorable des- tiny of his fate, that he must die next morning, Avithout any visible morbid symptoms. In this dilem- ma, Dr. II. proposed to treat him as a patient. Politeness induced the latter to accept of such offer; but he assured the physician, that medicines would not operate. As no time was to be lost, there being only 24 hours left for his life, Dr. H. deemed proper to direct such remedies as prove powerful excit- ants ; in order to rouse the vital 472 YOU energy of his pupil, and to relieve him from his captivated fancy..... Hence he prescribed a strong eme- tic and purgative ; ordered blis- ters to be applied to both calves and at the same time stimulating clysters to be administered. Quiet- ly submitting to the Doctor' s treatmen!, he observed, that his body being already half a corpse, all means of recovering it Avould be vain. Indeed, Dr. PI. Avas not a little surprised, on repeating his visit in the evening, to learn that the emetic had not, or but very little, operated ; and that the blis- ters had not even reddened the skin. Now the case became more serious ; and the supposed victim of death began to triumph over the incredulity of the Professor, and his friends. Thus circum- stanced, Dr. H. perceived, how deeply and destructively that men- tal spasm must have acted on the body, to produce a degree of in- sensibility from which the worst consequences might be apprehend- ed....All the inquiries into the ori- gin of this singular belief, had hitherto been unsuccessful. Noav only, he disclosed the secret to one of his intimate friends, namely,that on the preceding evening he had met with a Avhite figure in his pas- sage, Avhich nodded to him ; and, in the same moment, he heard a voice exclaiming : " the day after to-morroAV, at nine o'clock in the morning, thou shalt die." He continued to settle his domestic affairs ; made his will; minutely appointed his mneral; and even desired his friends to send for a clergyman; which request, how- ever, Avas counteracted. Night appeared, and he began to com- pute the hours he had to live, till the ominous next morning: his YOU anxiety evidently increased Avith the striking of every clock within hearing. Dr. H. Avas not without apprehension, when he recollected instances in which mere imagina- tion had produced melancholy ef- fects. But, as every thing depended on procrastinating,or retarding that hour in which the event was pre- dicted ; and on appeasing the tem- pest of a perturbed imagination, till reason had again obtained the ascendency, he resolved upon the following happy expedient: Hav- ing a complaisant patient, Avho refused not to take the remedies prescribed for him (because he seemed conscious of the superior agency of his mind over that of his body), Dr. H. had recourse to lau- danum, combined with the extract of hen-bane: 20 drops of the for- mer, and tAvo grains of the latter, Avere given to the youth, with such effect, that he fell into a profound sleep, from which he did not aAvake till eleven o'clock on the next morning. Thus, the prognosti- cated fatal hour elapsed ; and his friends Avaiting to welcome the bashful patient, who had agreeably disappointed them, turned the Avhole affair into ridicule. The first question, however, after re- covering from his artificial sleep, was the hour of the morning : but, on being informed, that his pre- sages had not been verified by ex- perience, he assured the company, that all these transactions appeared to him not unlike a dream ; and he could not conceive how he had been subject to such folly. Since that period, he has enjoyed a per- fect state of health, and has been completely cured of his fancy. There are, nevertheless, several instances recorded, in which per- sons have truly predicted the day YOU YOU 473 and hour of their death. In the 17th century, it was a fashionable practice among the higher classes, to apply to an astrologer, for learn- ing the accurate duration of their lives. Such aberration from the human intellect, could be ascribed Only to an absurd or defective sys- tem of education ; Avhen youth were not taught to discriminate be- tween natural causes and effects ; or, when parents granted every species of indulgence, which alike excited their sensual desires, and pleased a wild, disordered imagi- nation. Many, indeed, are the gradations, in which that peculiar morbid sensation, generally term- ed irregular fancy, displays itself under different forms, even in mo- dern times. It cannot be denied, that the numerous phenomena of nervous disorders, especially the diversified symptoms displayed by hypochondriacal and hysterical per- sons, doubtless originate chiefly from the same source. : We often smiie at such complaints as are supposed to arise from a diseased mind, but certainly not Avith jus- tice. In short, there is no disor- der more to be dreaded, and none has a more solid foundation, than that in which the sensations of our material nature, and the ideas of our very existence, are in a manner unhinged : nay, it is incomparably more easy to sustain a real evil, than to be tormented by an imagi- nary one, the force and extent of which cannot be ascertained. Youth-avort. See Sundew the Round-leaved. z. Z AF ZAFFRE, is the oxyd or calx of cobalt, employed for imparting a blue colour to porcelain and pottery Avare : it is prepared, according to Cronstedt, in the folloAving man- ner. When the tobalt is dug out of the mine, it is first broken into small pieces, and all heterogeneous matters are carefully separated..... The mineral is then submitted to the action of stamping mills, in vol. v. Z AF Avhich it is reduced to a fine pow- der, that is sifted through brass vvire sieves. Next, the lighter par- ticles are carried off by water, and the cobalt is put into a revei berato- ry furnace, terminating in a long horizontal gallery ; through Avhich the arsenic, usually mixed with the mineral, sublimes: farther, the cobalt is frequently stirred Avith long iron hooks or rakes, till it ceases to emit any fumes ; when 3 P 474 ZED it remains in the form of a dark grey calx, denominated Zaffre. Considerable quantities of this oxyd, are manufactured from the cobalt dug, out of the mines in the Mendip-hills, and also in Corn- wall; beside Avhich, there are large supplies annually imported from Saxony : such zaffre, hoAvever, is seldom pure ; being mixed with a considerable proportion of pulve- rized flints. The blue of zaffre is the most per- manent of the different colours employed in glass-works ; as it re- sists, unchanged, the most intense heat : hence, it is also advantage- ously used for giving various shades of blue to enamels, and to the crys- tal glasses that are made in imita- tion of lapis lazuli, turquoise, sap- phire, and other precious stones. ZEDOARY, or Kxmpfcria, L. a genus of exotic plants, consisting of two species ; namely : 1. The galanga, Common Galangal, or Long Zedoary ; which has long, thick, tuberous roots, and produces single white flowers, with purple bases ; and, 2. The rotunda, or Round Zedoary, has thick, round roots, presenting whitish flowers, that are frequently tinged with green, yellow, red, and purple..... Both species are natives of Siam: they may be raised in hot-houses, by dividing the roots in the spring, and planting them in pots of rich, light mould, Avhercthey should be copiously Avatered during the sum- mer, but less frequently in the winter. The roots of the Zedoary are imported in oblong pieces, about the thickness of a finger; or in round masses, generally one inch in diameter; paying a duty of 6-i-d. per lb. They possess an agreeable fragrance, but a bitterish aromatic ZIN taste ; both of Avhich may be im- parted to Avater. The Zedoary is a warm stoma- chic, and has been recommended in dyspeptic cases, for relieving fla- tulency, and invigorating the ner- vous system. Such root may be advantageously used by artisans,as an excellent yelloAV colour: and it may likeAvise be employed in painting Avith Avater colours. For this purpose, it is prepared in the folloAving manner: Boil 1 oz. ofthe root in a quart of water, till the fluid have sufficiently imbibed the colouring matter, for communicat- ing a yellow tinge to paper: it is then to be filtered through a linen cloth. The decoction may be eva- porated or dried in shells ; after Avhich, it may again be diluted, and will easily spread with the pencil. ZINC, or Spelter, is a semi- metal, naturally obtained in a state of combination Avith different mi- nerals, in England, Hungary, and other parts of the globe : it is of a Avhitish colour, nearly resembling that of lead, though it does not so speedily tarnish. Zinc melts a short time before ignition ; but, when heated to red- ness in the open air, it is liable to combustion, and burns Avith a dazzling blaze: so that a loose white oxyd is precipitated, which is known under the name offiowers of zinc. This crude semi-metal is of great utility in the arts. Combined Avith gold, in equal portions, it forms a hard, white compound, that admits of a fine polish, and may be ad- vantageously manufactured into specula, for optical instruments. Zinc and tin, melted together, produce a kind of peAvter ; and, as the former spreads more uniformly, Z IN ZIN 475 while it is much harder, and less fusible than tin, it has been pro- posed as a substitute for the latter, in tinning copper-vessels. Spelter and copper readily unite in the fire ; provided the combus- tion ofthe former be carefully pre- vented during the process : in this state, it forms a metal, distinguish- ed by the general name of yellow copper; but which is divided into several sorts, according to the res- pective proportions contained in the alloy. Thus, three parts of copper and one of zinc, constitute Brass : five or six of the former, and one of the latter, afford Pinch- beck.....Tombac is composed of a still larger proportion of copper to that of zinc : it is of a deeper red than pinchbeck, and bears the name of its inventor. Prince's Metal consists of a larger propor- tion of zinc than either of the pre- ceding compositions.....Similor, or Manhcim gold, resembles pinch- beck : it is manufactured into spu- rious leaf-gold, laces, and similar shewy articles. Zinc is dissolved in all acids ; though the sulphuric is most fre- quently employed : and, in the proportions stated, p. 227, of the present volume, it forms Avhite Vitriol. An useful substitute for white- lead, in painting houses, has lately been discovered in zinc, by M. de Morveau. He directs this mine- ral to be calcined in a crucible, placed horizontally in the cavity usually made for retorts, in rever- beratory furnaces. The oxyd thus obtained, is then to be washed in Avater, with a vieAV to separate such particles as may not have been per- fectly calcined; and, when it is re- duced to poAvder, a small portion of earth of alum, or chalk, must be added ; in order to give it a body. When this pigment is to be used, it Avill be necessary to form the poAvder into a heap, leaving a small hole in the middle, into which oil must be gradually poured, till it be reduced to a proper consistence; Avhen the paint should be laid on, with a soft brush. The Avhilest dry- ing oil must be procured, such as that obtained from poppies, if a Avhite paint be designed ; because coloured oil imparts a tinge that impairs its Avhiteness ; but, if u yellowish or other shade be intend- ed, and drying oil avlI answer the purpose. M. Morveau observes, that such paint is perfectly harm- less, emitting no hurtful effluvia ; and though it does not dry so speedily as that prepared of white- lead, yet it is not only more Avhole- some, but also eventually cheaper; as a smaller portion of zinc will be required. In March, 1796, a patent Avas granted to Mr. John Atkixson, for his invention of a white paint, prepared from zinc, Avhich may serve as a substitute for that of white-lead. He directs the for- mer mineral to be first submitted to a reverberatory furnace, for six hours ; in order to disperse all the ferruginous particles Avhich it may contain. Next, the zinc is to be reduced to poAvder, by the action of a mill, and mixed Avith cne- eighth part of pulverized charcoal, by weight; after which it must be removed to a close or muffled fur- nace, provided with tAvo apertures, one on each side, " and (as the patentee expresses himself ),dilated at the end from the furnace, by a distance of about 20 feet;" the other end joining the body of the furnace: such apertures should 476 Z I N ZIN each be furnished Avith a door at the farthest extremity, and Avhich ought to be sufficiently large to ad- mit a man to enter, for the pur- pose of collecting the colour. Thus the zinc must be introduced into the furnace, through the top or upper part: Avhen it becomes red hot throughout, a large dense, Avhite cloud, with a bright blue flame, will pass into the recepta- cles or apertures above-mentioned, where it Avill collect in the form of a pure, Avhite metallic calx. The ozyd of zinc is now to be diluted with water, and ground or triturated in a proper mill : from this machine it is conducted, by means of gutters or spouts into fine sieves, whence it passes into se- veral cisterns full of water, com- municating with each other by si- milar gutters ; so that the finest particles float into the farthest re- servoirs. After standing about 24 hours, the water may be drawn off, and the colour collected into pans, receivers, or other vessels, capable of bearing heat, in Avhich they are dried ; and in this state, the paint ■vv ill be ready for sale ; but previ- ously to its application, it ought to be properly levigated. According to M. Rinmax, a fine green colour for painters may be procured from the oxydes of co- balt and zinc. He directs any por- tion of cobalt-ore to be dissolved in the nitro-muriatic acid (aqua regi a), and to be mixed Avith half that quantity of nitrat of zinc : a lixivium of pot-ash is then to be added ; and Avhen the precipitate is ignited to whiteness, it will be fit for use. Beside its utility in the arts, zinc is of considerable service in medi- cine, llsfiowers are advantageous- ly employed as an antispasmodic, particularly in epilepsy, and in the acute spasms of the stomach, to Avhich persons of delicate consti- tutions are subject: they have also been given with success in some cases of dry asthma. The dose is from one to tAvo grains, taken tAvice in the day, and gradually increased to 8 or 10 grains; but, being a very poAverful remedy, it ought never to be resorted to, Avithout medical advice. For an account of the affections in which the vitriol of zinc may be of service, the reader will consult the article Vitriol. Z1ZANY, the Water, or Zi- zania aquatica, L. is a native of North America, where it grows in wet and marshy situations....The root of this vegetable is fibrous, and strikes forth many angular, smooth stalks of a serpentine form. The panicle on the central stalk is ge- nerally four feet long, while those on the others never exceed twelve inches. The large, oval, yelloAvisb, mealy seed attains to maturity in September, and has the agreeable taste of rice ; on Avhich account it is much esteemed by the American Indians, who carefully collect and convert it into Bread, or other culinary dishes. Hence Linn-sus recommends its culture in situa- tions abounding with reeds, and producing no other useful plant. END.. INDEX To the Latin Names of Plants, Animals, Minerals, Dis- eases, and other subjects occurring throughout this Work. ACAR US Asiro, Common Mite; A. baccarum, Red Spider. Accipenser Sturio, Sturgeon- Acer campestris, Common Ma- ple ; A. Pseudo -platanus, Syca- more-tree ; A. saccharinum, Sugar- Maple. Achillea Millefolium, Common YarroAV; A. Ptarmica, Sneeze- wort YarroAV. Aconitum Napellus, Large Blue Wolf's-bane. Acorus Calamus, Sweet Flag. Actaa spicata, Herb Christopher. Adonis autumnalis, Antumnal Pheasant's Eye. Adoxa Moschatellina, Tuberous Moschatel. AZesculus Hippocastanum, Com- mon Horse Chesnut; \_JE. Pavia, Scarlet; JE. Flavia, Yellow ; JE. Alba, JE. Spicata flowering.] JEthusa cynapium, Fool's Pars- ley ; JE. Meum, Spignel. Agaricus, Mushroom; A. cam- pestris, Champignon; A. cantha- rellus, Chanterelle Mushroom; A. cinnamomeus, Brown Mushroom ; A. clypeatus, Long-Stalked Mush- room ; A. muscarius, Fly-killing Mushroom ; A. arcades, Meadow Mushroom ; A. Quercinus, Agaric of the Oak; A. semi-globatus, Se- mi-globular Mushroom ; A. viola- eeus, Violet-coloured Musfiroom. Agrimonia Eupatoria, Common Agrimony. Agroslemma Githago, Corn Cockle. Agrostis Spica-venti, Silky Bent- vol. v. grass; A. stolonifera, Creeping Bent-grass. Aira aquatica, Water Flair- grass ; A. caryophallea, Silver Hair- grass ; A. cespitosa, Turfy Hair- grass; A. fiexuosa, Heath Flair- grasst Ajuga, Bugle, A. chamapithys, Ground-pine ; A. reptans, Com- mon Bugle. Alauda arvensis, Common Sky- lark ; A. arborea, Wood-lark. Alcea rosea, Holly-Hock. Alsedo ispida, Common King- fisher. Alchemilla vulgaris, Common- Ladies-mantle. Alisma Plantago, Great Water Plantain. Allium, Garlic ; A. Ascalonieum, Eschallot ; A. Cepa, Onion ; A. oleraceum, Streaked Field-garlic; A. porrum, Leek; A. Schsnoprasum, Chive ; A. ursinum, Broad-leaved Garlic. Aloe Caballina, Fetid, or Horse aloe ; A. Hepatica, Common, or Barbadoes Aloe ; A. perfoliata, Socotrine Aloe. Alopecurus agrestis, Slender Fox- tail-grass ; A. bulbosus, Bulbous Fox-tail-grass ; A. pratensis, Mea- dow Fox-tail-grass. Alsine media, Common Chick- weed. Althaea officinalis, Marsh-Mallow. Alumina, Pure Clay. Alyssum sativum, Gold of Plea. ^'ire. 4 A 2 INDEX. Amaurosis, Gutta Serena. Ammodytes t obi anus, Sand-eel. Ammonia pur a, Caustic Veget- able Alkali. Amomuin, Ginger ; A. cardamo- m;nn m::iux, Greater Cardamom ; 4. C. minus, Lesser Cardamom ; A. zinziber, Common Ginger. [_Am^eUs garrvlrs., C Furry-bird.] Ar.i'Hites, Canal Coal. Amygdalus, Almond-tree ; A. communis, Common Almond-tree ; A. Persica, Peach. Amylum, Starch. Amyris gileadensis, Balm of Gi- lead Tree. Anagallis arvensis, Scarlet Pim- pernell. Anarrhicas Lupus, Sea-Wolf. Anas anser, Goose ; A. a.fcrus, Wild Goose ; A. a. mansuetus, Tame Goose ; A. boschas, Duck ; A. creca, TeaJ ; A. cygnus ferus, Wild Swan; A. c. mansuetus,Tame Swan; A.ferina, Widgeon. Anchusa semper vircns, Ever- green Alkanet, or Bugloss; A. offi- cinalis, Greater Garden Bugloss ; A. lutea, Yellow Alkanet; A. tinc- toria, Dyer's Alkanet. Anemone, Wind-floAver ; A. Al- pina, Blue Mountain Anemone ; A. nemoro-a, Wood-Anemone ; A. pratensis, Dark-flowered, or Mea- dow Anemone ; A. Pulsatilla, Pasque-floAVer; A. rar.unculoides,- Yellow Wood-Anemone. An-"thum fcc.dculum, Common Fennel. Angelica Archvigdica, Garden ■\ngelica; -/. sylvestris, Wild Angelica. .unguis fragilis, F-ind-vvorm. Anthtmis cctuh. Fetid Chamomile; A. nobil:s, Common Chamomile ; A. tinctoria, Ox-eye Chamomile. Anthericum calyculaium, Marsh Spider-wcrt. Anthoxanthum odoratum, Sweet- scented Spring-grass. Antirhinum, Snap-dragon ; A. Elatine, Fluellin ; A. Linaria, Toad-flax'; A majus, Greater Snap-dragon ; A. Orontium, Calf's- snout. Anihyllis, Kidney-Vetch ; A. vulneraria; Ladies-finger. Aphanes arvensis, Parsley-piert. Aphis, Plant-louse. Aphthae, Thrush. Apis, Bee. Apium, Parsley ; A. gravcolens, Celery; A. Petroselinum, Com- mon Parsley. Aquilegia vulgaris, Common Co- lumbine. Arabis thaliana, Common Wall- cress. Aranea Calycina, Garden Spi- der ; A. domestica, Common House Spider. Arbutus, Strawberry-tree ; A. Alpina, Mountain StraAvberry-tree; A. Unedo, Common Strawberry- tree ; A. Uva ursi, Bear-berries. Arctium Lappa, Burdock. Ardca major, Heron ; A. stella- ris, Bittern. Areca catechu, Fassel-nut ; A. oleracea, Cabbage Palm. Arenaria marina, Sea-spurrey SandAvort. Argilla, Clay ; A. aerata, aerated Argile ; A. apyra, Porcelain Clay ; A. Litlnmarga, Fuller's Earth. Aristolochia Clcmalitis, Slender Birthwort ; A. longa, Long Birth- wort ; A. rotunda, Round Birth- wort. Arnica montana, German Leo- pard's-bane. Arrac/ds Hypogaios Amcricanus, Ground-Nuts. Artemisia, Mugwort ; A. Absin- thium, Common Wormwood ; A. dracunculus, Tarragon ; A. mariti- INDEX. 3 ma, Sea Wormwood ; A. vulgaris, Common Mugwort. Artocarpus, Bread-fruit-tree. Arum maculatum, Wake Robin. \A. Tryphyllum, Indian Turnip.] Arundo, Reed ; A. arendria, Matweed; A. calamagrostis, Small Reed; A. epigeios, Wood Reed ; A. phragmites, Common Reed. Asarum Europ&um, Asarabacca. \Asclepias Syriaca, Swallow Avort.] Aspalathus, African Broom. Asperugo procumbens, Catch- weed. Asperula odorata, SAveet Wood- roof. Asphodelus luteus, Common Yel- low Asphodel; A.ramosus, Branch- ing Asphodel. Asplcnium, Spleenwort; A. Sco- lopendrium, Hart's-tongue; A. Tri- chomanes, Common Maiden-hair. Aster Tripolium, Sea Star-wort. Astragalus, Milk-Vetch ; A. gly- cyphyllos, Common Milk-Vetch: A. Tragacantha, Tragacanth-tree. Atriplex hastata, Wild Orache ; A. laciniata, Frosted Orache; A. littoralis, Grass Orache ; A. portu- lacoides, Shrubby Orache. Alropa Bella donna, Deadly Nightshade; A. mandragora, Man- drake. Avena, Oat: A. elatior, Tall Oat-grass; A. fatua, Bearded Wild Oats ; A. fiavescens. Yellow Oat; A. nuda, Naked Oat; A. pra- tensis, Meadow Oat; A. pubescens, Rough Oat; A. sativa, Common Oat; A. stipiformis, Skegs. Balxna mysticetus, Common Whale. Ballota nigra, Black Horehound. Barytes, Ponderous Spar. Bellisptrennis, Common Daisy. Berberis vulgaris, Common Bar- berry. Beta, Beet ; B. albissima, Man- gel-wurzel ; B. hortensis. Common White Beet; A. maritima, Sea Beet. Betula, Aider-tree ; B. alba, Common Birch ; B. alnus, Com- mon Alder-tree ; B. lenta, Canada Birch ; B. nana, Dwarf Alder-tree. Bidens cernua, Nodding Mary- gold. \_Bignonia Catalpa, B. Scmpervi- rens, B. Crucigera, B. radicans.~\ Blatta crientalis, Eastern Cock- roach. Boletus, Spunk; B. hirsutus, ShaggySpunk; B.igniariusACouch- wood. Borago, officinalis, Common Bo- rage. Botrytes, Cauliflower. Brassica, Cabbage ; B. alpina, Savoy ; B. campestris, Field Cab- bage ; /-'. Eruca, Rocket; B. Mo- nensis, Isle-of-Man-Cabbage; B. muralis, Wall Cabbage; B. Napus, Rape ; B. oleracea, Sea-colewort; B. rapa, Turnip. Briza media, Common Quaking Grass. Bromelia ananas, Common Pine- apple. Bromus mollis,Soft Brome-grass; B. pinatus, Spiked Heath Brome- grass ; B. Secalinus, Smooth Rye Brome-grass, [or cheat.] Bryonia alba, White Bryony. Bubon gummiferum, Gum-bear- ing Macedonian Parsley. Bunium bulbo-castanum, Great Earth-nut; B.fiexuosum, Common Earth-nut. Buxus angustifolia, NarroAV-leav- ed Box; B. semper-virens Com- mon Box; ". suffruticosa, Dutch Box. Byssus candclaris, Yellow Pow- der-Avort. INDEX. Cacalia suaveolcns, Alpine Colt's- foot. Cactus cochenillifer, Indian, Fig- tree. Cadmia Fossilis, Calamine. \Calicarpa AmericanaJ] Callitriche autumnalis, Autum- nal Star-grass ; C. verna, Vernal Star-grass. Caltha palustris, Marsh-mari- gold. [Calycanthusfioridus,Sweet scent- ed Shrub.] Cambogia gutta, Gamboge-tree. Campanula glomerata, Clustered Bell-floAver; C.latifolia, Giant-Bell- floAver ; C. rapunculaides, Creeping Bell-flower ; C. rapunculus, Ram- pion Bell-floAver; C. rotundifolia, Round-leaved Bell-flower. Cancer, Lobster; C. crangon, Shrimp ; C. grammarus, Common Lobster; C. major, Common Crab; C. squilla, White Shrimp. Canis, Dog; C. avicularius, Spa- niel ; C. Grains, Greyhound ; C. sanguinarius, Blood-hound; C. ter- rarius, Terrier; C. villaticus, Mas- tiff; C. vulpes, Fox. Cannabis sativa, Common Hemp. Cantharides, Spanish Fly. Capparis spinosa, Common Ca- per. Capra Hircus, Common Goat. Cardamine pratensis, Common Ladies-smock Cardialgia, He art-burn. Cardium, Cockle. Carduus acaulis, Dwarf Thistle; C. Benedictus, Blessed Thistle ; C. lanceolatw;, Spear-Thistle ; C. ma- riunus, Milk-Thistle; C. tomen- tosus, Woolly-headed Thistle. Carex acz/ta,Slender-spiked Seg; C. arenaria, Sea-Seg; C. vulpina, Great Seg. Carlina vulgaris, Common Car- line Thistle. Carpinus Betulus, Common Horn-beam-tree. Carthamus tinctorius, Common SaffioAVcr. Carum carui, Common Caraway. Caryophyllus aromaticus, Clove- tree. Cassia, Cassia; C. fistula, Purg- ing Cassia ; C. Senna, Senna. \_Cassine, Youpon, South-Sea- tree.] Castor, Beaver; C. fiber, Com- mon Beaver ; C. mochatus, Water- rat ; C. zibethicus, Musk-rat. Cavia cobaya, Guinea Pig. Centunculus minimus, Bastard Pimpernell. Cephalalgai, Head-ach. Cerussa, White Lead. Ccrvus, Deer; C. Dama, Fal- Ioav Deer ; C. Elaphus, Stag. Chaerophyllum sylvestre, Wild Chervil; C. temulentum, Rough Chervil, [C. arborescens.'] Charadrius Pluvialis, Common, Plover. Chelidonium, Horned Poppy ; C. corniculatum, Red Horned Poppy ; C. majus, Greater Celandine. Chcnopodium, Goose-foot; C. al- bum, White Goose-foot; C. Bo- nus Henricus, Perennial Goose- foot ; C. maritimum, Sea Goose- foot ; C. olidum, Stinking Goose- foot ; C. polyspermum, Upright Blite, [C. viride botrys, Cut leav- ed ; C. aristatum awncd, anthelmis- ticum, wormseed Jerusalem oak.] Chlorosis, Green Sickness. Chrysomela saltatoria, Turnip- fly. Cicada, Flea-locust. Cichorium, Succory; C. Endivia. Endive ; C. Intybus, Wild Succo- ry. Cicuta virosa, Long-leaved Wa- ter Hemlock. Cinchona, Peruvian Bark-tree ; C. Brachycarpa, Dvvarf Bark-tree ; C. Caribara, Jamaica Bark-tree; C. F/jribv.nda^t. Lucia Bark-tree; C. officinales, Peruvian Bark-tree; INDEX. 5 C. Trifiora, Triple-flowered Bark- tree. Cistus creticus, Cretan Rock- Rose. Citrus, Citron; C. Aurantium, Orange; C. Decumana, Giant Ci- tron ; C. Lima, Lemon-tree; C Mcdica, Citron-tree. Clematis Vitalba, Traveller's Joy, [C. Crispa Virgin's bower.] Clupea, Herring; C. alosa, Shad; C. encrasicolus, Anchovy; C. ha- rengus, Herring; C- sprattus, Sprat. Coccinella, septem-punclata, La- dy-bird. Coccus Cacti, Cochineal Insect; C. Hesperidum, Green-house Bug; C. Ilicis, Kermes; C. Lacca, Gum- lac-insect; C. malorum, Apple-tree Coccus ; C. Phalaridis, Canary- grass Coccus ; C. Polonicus, Scar- let grain of Poland. Cochlearia, Scurvy-grass ; C. Anglica, English Scurvy-grass; C. Armoracia, Horse-radish ; C. Co- ronopus, Common Wort-cress ; C. officinalis, Common Scurvy-grass. Cocos, Cocoa. Coffea, Coffee-tree. Colchicum autumnale, Meadow Saffron. [Collinsonia. Canadensis.] Coluber Berus, Common British Viper ; C. natrix, Common Snake. Columba anas, Domestic Pigeon. Comarumfialust7-e,P\irn\eM9irsh- locks. Conium maculatum, Common Hemlock. Convallaria, Solomon's Seal ; C. Majalis, Lily of the Valley ; C. multifiora Common Solomon's Seal; C. Polygonatum, Sweet- smelling Solomon's Seal. Convolvulus, Bindweed ; C. ar- vensis, Small Bindweed; C. Jalaft- pa, Jalap ; C. Scammonia, Syrian Bindv, eed; C. scoparius, Bushy Bindweed ; C. stfpitcm, Great Bind- weed; C. soldanella, Sea BindAveed; C. Turpethum, Turbith. [C. panduratus, wild Potatoe.] Conyza squarrosa, Flea-bane. Copaifera Balsamum, Balsam of Copaiba-tree. Corallina, Coral. Coriandrum sativum, Common Coriander. Cornus sanguinea, Wild Cornel- tree ; C. suecica, Dwarf Cornel. Corvus, Crow; C. corax, Ra- ven ; C. corone, Common Crow; C. frugilegus, Rook ; C glanda- rius, Jay; C. monedula, Jack-daw ; C. pica, Mag-pye. Corylus, Hazel-nut-tree ; C. avel- lana, Common Hazel-nut-tree ; C. avellana fructu rotundo maximo, Pound-nut; C. Hispanica, Spanish Hazel-nut-tree; C. sativa, Al- mond-nut ; C. sativa, fructu ob- longo rubente maximo, Blood-nut. Costae, Ribs. Crambe, Sea-Kale ; C. maritima, Cliff-Cale. Crataegus, Hawthorn ; C. Aria, White-beam Hawthorn ; C. Oxya- cantha, White-thorn ; C. tormina- lis, Wild Service-tree. Crithmum maritimum, Rock Sam- phire. Crocus, Saffron; C. sativus, Common Saffron; C. vernus, Spring, or Garden Crocus. Crotolariajuncea, Chinese Hemp. Croton tinctorium, Dyer's Wild Ricinus. Cucubalus Behen, Spatling Poppy. Cuculuscanorus,CommonC\ickow. Cucumis, Cucumber; C. anguria, Water Melon ; C. colocynthus, Co- loquintida ; C. melo, Common Me- lon ; C. sativa, Common Cucum- ber. Cucurbit a, Gourd ; C. lagenaria, Bottle-Gourd; C. lignosa, Lig- 6 INDEX. neous-shelled Gourd; C.Mclo-pepo, Erect Gourd ; C. Pepo, pompion ; C. verrucosa, Warted Gourd. Culex, Gnat. Cuminum Cyminum, Cummin. Cupressus semper-virens, Com- mon Cypress-tree. Curculio granarius, Corn-chafer. Curcuma longa, Long-rooted Turmeric ; C. rotunda, Round- rooted Turmeric. Cuscuta Epithymum, Lesser Dodder; C. Europaa, Greater Dodder. Cyclamen Ewryfiteum, Sow-bread. Cydonia Lusitanica, Portuguese. Quince ; C. maliforma, Apple Quince ; C. oblonga, Oblong Quince. Cynanche parotidtea, Mumps. Cynara, Artichoke ; C. cardun- culus, Cardoon ; C. scolymus, Gar- den Artichoke. Cynoglossum officinale, Common Great Hound's tongue, Cynomia, Dog-fly. Cynosurv.s cristatus. Crested Dog's - tail - grass ; C. echinatus, Rough Dog's-tail-grass. Cypcrus, Cyper-grass ; C. escu- lentus, Eatable Cyperus ; C. longus, SAveet Cyperus ; C. papyrus, Pa- per Cypcrus ; C. rotundus, Round Cyperus. Cyprinus alburnus, Bleak ; C. auratus, Gold Fish; C. barbus, Barbel; C brama, Bream ; C. car- pio, Carp ; C. cephalus, Chub ; C. leuciscus, Dace ; C. rutilus, Roach ; C. Tinea, Tench. Cystitis, Inflammation of the Bladder. Cystisus laburnum, Broad-leaved Laburnum. Dactylisglomerata, Rough Cock's- foot-grass [orchard grass;] D. stricta, Smooth Cock's-foot-grass. Daphne Laureola, Spurge-Lau- rel ; D. Mezereum, Mezeron. Datura Stramonium, Common Thorn-Apple. [Jimson weed] Daucus Carota, Common Car- rot, Delphinium consolida, Wild Lark-spur; D. Staphisagria Staves- acre. Delphinus phoexna, Dolphin. Dianthus Armeria, Deptford Pink ; D. Barbatus, Sweet Wil- liam ; D. Caryophyllus, Clove Pink; D. Casius, Mountain Pink; D. Dcltoidei', Maiden Pink; D. proli- fer, Proliferous Pink. Dictamnus Fraxinella, White Dittany. Digitalis purpurea, Purple Fox- glove. Dioscorea bulbifera, Yam. \_Diosperos Virginiana, Persim- mon.] Dipsacus fullonum, Manured Teasel. \_Dirca palustris, Leather wood] Dolichuspruriens, Couhage; \_D. Sinensis, Chinese dolichos.] Doronicum Pardalianches, Great Leopard's-bane. Draba-verna, Common Whitlow- grass. Dractena Draco, Common Dra- gon-tree. Drosera rotundifolia, Round- leaved Sun-deAV. Dyspepsia, Indigestion. Echium vulgare, Common Vi- per's Bugloss. Elymus arenarius, Upright Sea Lime-grass. Emberiza citrinella, YelloAV- hammer ; E. hortulana, Ortolan. Empetrum nigrum, Berry-bear- ing Heath. Enteritis, Inflammation of the Bowels. Epidcndron Nectarium, Vanilla. INDEX. 7 Rpilobium angustifolium, Rose- bay Willow-herb; E. hirsutum, Great Hairy Willow-herb. ✓ Equisetum arvense, Common Horse-tail ; E hyemale, Rough Horse-tail ; E. palustre, Marsh Horse-tail ; E. sylvaticum, Wood Horse-tail. Equus caballus, Common Horse; E. Mulus, Mule. Erica vulgaris, Common Heath. Erigeron Canadensc, Canada Flea-bane. Eriophorum; Cotton-grass ; E. angustifolium, Common Cotton- grass ; E.polystachion, Broad- leav- ed Cotton-grass ; E. vaginatum, Hare's-tail Rush. Eruca aquatica, Water Cater- pillar ; E. sylvestris, Wood Cater- pillar. Ervum hirsutum, Corn Vetch ; E. Lens, Lentil. Eryngium campestre, Field Eryn- go ; E. maritimum, Sea Eryngo. Erysimum, Hedge-Mustard ; E. Alliaria, Garlic Hedge-Mustard ; E. Barbarea, Winter-cresses ; E. cheiranthoides, * Treacle - Hedge- Mustard ; E. officinale, Common Hedge-Mustard. Erysipelas, Rose. Erysiphile, Mildew. Esox Lucius, Pike. Evonymus Europxus, Common Spindle-tree. Eupatorium Cannabinum, Hemp Agrimony. Euphorbia characias,RedSpur°:e; E. Cyparissias,Cyprus Spurge ; E. helioscopia, Wart-wort. Euphrasia officinalis, Eye-bright. Faba Pichurim, Pichurim Beans. Fagus, Beech-tree ; F. Arnrica- na, American Chesnut-tree ; F. Castanea, Chesnut tree , F. Pumi- la, Dwarf Chesnut-tree ; F. sylva- tica, Common Beech-tree. Falco, Eagle; F. xruginosus, Moor Buzzard; F. Buteo, Buzzard; F. chrysaetos, Golden Eagle ; F. Cuaneus, Hen-harrier; F. Gyr- i falco, Jer-Falcon ; F. milvus, Kite; /''. visus, Common Hawk. Farina fecundans, Pollen. Fasciola hepatica, FleAvk-AVorm. Felis Catus, Cat. Ferula Asafatida, asafoetida. Festuca duriuscula, Hard Fescue- grass ; F. elatior, Tall Fescue- grass ; F. fiuitans, Flote Fescue- grass ; F. myuru*, Wall Fescue- grass ; F. ovina, Sheep's Fescue- grass ; F. pratensis, Meadow Fes- cue-grass ; F. rubra, Creeping Fescue-grass. Ficus carica, Common Fig-tree. Flos, Flower. Fluxus umbilicus, Flux, or Sap- flow. Fontinalis antipyretica, Greater Water-Moss. Forficula auricularis, Ear-wig. Formica, Ant. Fragaria, StraAvberry. Fraxinus excelsior, Common Ash. Fringilla, Finch ; F. Calebs, Chaffinch ; F. cawm'a,CanaryBird; F. carduelis, Gold-finch ; F. domes- tica, Sparrow ; F. linota, Linnet; F. spinus, Siskin. Fucus ciliatus, Fringed Sea- wrack ; F. esculenlus, Esculent Sea-Avrack; F. Palmatus, Palma- ted Sea-Avrack; F. pinnatifidus, Sweet Sea-wrack; F. serratus, Serrated Sea-wrack. Fumaria officinalis, Common Fu- mitory ; /'. solida, Solid or Bul- bous Fumitory. Gadus eglesinus, Haddock ; G. merlangus, Whiting; G. morhua, Cod. 8 INDEX. Galanthus nivalis, Snow drop. Galeobdolon luteum, Weasel- snout. Galeopsis Tetralut,CommonNet- tle-hemp. Galium, Goose-grass ; G. apa- rine, Cleavers ; G. Borcale, C'->.■> L-aved Goose-grass ; G. verum, Cheese-Rennet. Gasterosteu-t aculeatus, Common Siick!, .bad.. Gastritis, Inflammation of the Stomach. Genista anglica, Needle-furze ; G. tinctoria, Dyers' Green-weed. Gentiana lutea, Common Gen- tian. Geranium, Crane's-bill ; G. Ro- bertianum, Herb-Robert; [G. Ma- culatum, Crow-foot. Crane's-bill.] Gcum urbanum,Comn\on Avens. Gladiolus communis, Common Corn-flag. Glaucium Phanicium, Red Horn- ed poppy. Glaux maritima, Black Saltwort. Glechoma Hedcracea, Ground Ivy. Glossitis, Inflammation of the Tongue. Glycyrhiza glabra, Common Li- quorice. Gnaphalium Arenarum, Sandy Cudweed ; G. dioicum, Mountain Cuchvsed ; G. Germanicum, Com- mon Cudweed. Gosswf lum, Cotton-tree. Gryllus, Cricket; G. domesticus, Common Cricket; G. Gryllo-talpa, Mofe-cricket; G. Locusta, Locust. Hamatoxylum Campechianum, Logwood. Hcd.tra Helix, Common Ivy. Hedysarum Onobrychis, Common Santfoin. lulianthus annuus, Common Sun-flower ; H. tuberosus, Tube- rous Sun-flower. Heliolropium tricoccum, French Turn sol. Helix hortensis, Common Gar- den Snail; II. pomatia, Red Gar- den Snail. Helleborus, Hellebore ; H.feli- dus, Fetid Heiicbore. Hepatitis, Inflammation of the Live. Hcracleum angustifAium, Nar- row-leaved Cow-parsnep; F.Sphon- dylium, Common Cow-parmep. Herbarium, Herbal. Herniaria glabra, Smooth Rup- ture-wort. Herpes miliaris, Ring-worm. Hesperis inodora, Dame-Avort. Hierasium auricola, Narrow- leaved Hawkweed ; H. Pilosella, Mouse-ear HawkAveed. Hippobosca equina, Common Horse-fly, H. ovina, Sheep-fagg. Hippophaerhamnoides, Sea Buck- thorn. Hippuris vulgaris, Common Mare's-Tail. Hirudo Geometra, Geometrical Leech ; H. medicinalis, Medicinal Leech; H. sanguifuga, Horse- Leech. Hirundo rustica, Common Swal- low; H. urbica, Martin. Holcus, Soft-grass ; H. avenace- us, Tall Oat-grass ; H. lanatus, Meadow Soft-grass ; II. Sorghum, Guinea Corn. Hordeum celeste, Wallachian Barley; //. disticlium Summer Barley ; 11. distichum nudum, Large Naked Barley ; H. frutes- cens, Bushy Barley ; H. hexasli- chnn, Six-rowed Barley ; H. mari- timum, Sea-barley; H. muriv.um, Wall Barley; H.pratense,Meadow Barley ; H. vulgare,Common Bar- ley; //. Zeocriton, Bearded Barley. Hamulus Lupulus, Common Hop. INDEX. 9 Hyacinthus non-scriptus, English Hyacinth. Hydragyrus, Mercury. Hydrocephalus, Water in the Head. Hydrocotyle vulgaris, Marsh Pennywort. Hyoscyamus niger, Common Henbane. Hypericum perforatum, Perfor- ated St. John's Wort ; H. Andro- samum, Tutsan. Hyphocondriasis, Hypochondriac Affection. Hyssopus officinalis, Common Hyssop. Hystrix erinaceus, Common Hedge-hog. Jassione montana, Sheep's-bit. Jasminum humile, Dwarf Yel- low Jasmine ; J. Jruticans, Shrub- by Jasmine; J. officinale, Com- mon Jasmine. Jatropha, Cassada Plant ; J. elastica, Caoutchouc ; J. Manihot, Cassava. Icterus, Jaundice. Ichthyocolla, Isinglass. Ileus, Iliac. Passion. Ilex Aquifolium, Common I lol- ly-tree. Impatiens noli-tangere, Balsa- mine. Imperatoria Ostruthium, Com- mon Masterwort. Incubus, Nightmare. Indigofera tinctoria, Indigo- plant. Inula Helenium, Common Ele- campane. Irisfatida, Stinking Flower-de- luce ; /. pseudacorus, Water Flow- er-de-luce ; I. Xiphium, Bulbous- rooted Flower-de-luce. Isatis tinctoria, Wild Woad. his nobilis, Red Coral. vol.. v. Juglans regia, Common Wal- nut-tree. Juncus conglomerate, Round- headed Rush; /. effuses, Common Rush; J. squarrosus, Moss-rush. Juniperus communis, Common Juniper-tree; /. Lycia, Lycian Juniper-tree; J. sabina, Savin. Jynx torquilla, Wry-neck. Kaempferja, Zedoary. [Kalmia, Laurel.] Lacerta agilis, Common Green Lizard. Lactuca virosa, Wild Lettuce. Lamium album, White Dead- nettle; L. purpureum, Red Dead- nettle. Lapis Calami;r.tris, Calamine. Lapsana communis, Common Nipple-wort. Larus, Gull ; L. parasiticus, Dung-hunter; L. ridibundus, Pe- wit. Lathyrus, Chickling Vetch ; L. aphaca, YcIIoav Vetchling ; L. la- tifolius, Broad-leaved Vetchling; L. pratensis, Everlasting Tare; L. sylvestris, Narrow-leaved Ev- erlasting Pea; L. tuberosus, Earth Nut. Lavandula spica, Lavender- spike. Lavatera arborea, Tree MalloAV. Laurus, Bay-tree ; L. astiva'us. Deciduous bay ; L. Bcnzoe, Ben- jamin-tree ; ,L. Camphora, Cam- phor-tree ; L. Cassia, Base Cinna- mon ; L. Cin.:amo:num, Cinnamon- tree ; L. nobilis, Evergreen Bay ; L. Persea, Alligator Fear-tree ; L. Sassafras, Sassafras-tree. Lemna, Duck's-meat. Leontodon Taraxacum, Common Dandelion. Leonurus Cardiac a, Common Motherwort. 4 i\ 10 INDEX. Lepidlum latifolium, Dittander Pepperwort; L. ruderale, Narrow- leaved Pepperwort. Lepra, Leprosy. Lcfius, Hare ; L. cuniculus, Rab- bit ; L. timidus, Common Hare. Lethargus, Lethargy. Lichen, Liverwort; L. aphtho- sus, Green Ground-Liverwort; L. barbatus, Bearded Liverwort; L. calcarcus, Calcareous Liverwort; L. calicaris, Beaked Liverwort; L. caninus, Ash-coloured Ground- Liverwort ; /.. caperatus, Wrink- led Liverwort; L. cocciferus,ear- lct-bearing Liverwort; L. fiavus, YelloAv-powder Liverwort; L. Is- landicus, Esculent Iceland Liver- Avort; L. onifhalodus, Dark-colour- ed Dyer's Liverwort; L. parellus,, Craw-fish-eyc Lichen; L. plicatus, Officinal Stringy Livenvort; L. pulmonarlus, LungAvort Liverwort; L. prunastri, Common Ragged Hoary Liverwort ; L. pustulatus, Spotted Liverwort; L. Roccclla, Orchal; L. tartareus, Large Yel- loAV-saucered Dyer's Liverwort; L. vulpinus, Gold-Aviry Lichen. Lignum-vita officinale, Common Guaiacum. Legusticum Scoticum, Scottish LoA'age. Ligustrum vulgare, Privet., t Lilium candidum, White Lily ; L. bulbiferum, Fire Lily. Umax, Slug. Linum catharticum, Purging Flax ; L. u-dtatissimum, Common Flax. Liquid-ambar Styracifiua, Liquid Storax. Liriodendron, Tulipifcra, Tulip- tree. Lithanthrax, Fit-coal. I.i'largyrum, litharge. Lithiasis, Stone. Lithoepcrmum arver.se, Corn Gromwe'l ; L. officinale, Common Gromvvell. Lobelia Dortmanna, Water Gla- diole. Lolium, Darnel; L. arvense, White Darnel; L. bromoides, Drank ; L. perenne, Red Darnel; L. temulentum, Bearded Darnel. Lonictra Periclymenum, Com- mon Honey-suckle; L. Xylosteum, Upright Honey-suckle. Lotus corniculatus, Common Bird's-foot Trefoil. Loxia pyrrhula, Bullfinch. Lumbricus, Earth-worm. Lupinus albus, White Lupine. Lycoperdon, Puff-ball; L. auran- tiacum, Orange-coloured Puff-ball; L. Equinum, Equestrian Puff-ball; L. proteus, Common Puff-ball; L. tuber, Truiile. Lycopodium clavatum, Common Club-moss; L. selago, Fir-leaved Club-moss. Lye opus Europxus, Water Hore- hound. Lysimachia nummularia, Creep- ing Loose-strife. Ly thrum hyssopifolium, Hvssop- leaved Loose-strife ; L. Sulicaria, Purple Loose-strife. Magnesia alba, Magnesia; M. nigra, Manganese. Malva crispa, Curled MalloAv ; M. Mauritiana, Mauritian Mal- | low; M. Peruviana, Peruvian Mal- Ioav ; M. sylvestris, Common Mal- | lOAV. Mangofera, Mango-tree. Mania, Madness. Maranta comosa, Hairy Aitoav- root; M. gt.langa, Galangal. AJurAium vulgare, Common White Horehound. Matricaria chamomilla, Chamo- mile Feverfew ; J\f. parthenium, Common Feverfew. Mcdecla Virginica, cucumber- root. Medicag-; Medick ; M. falca'a, Fellow Mcdick ; I*'. Iv/ vlir.a, INDEX. 11 Trefoil-Medick ; M. sativa, Lu- cern. Melampyrum arvense, Purple Cow-wheat; M.pratense, Common Yellow Cow-wheat; M. Sylvati- cum, Wood Cow-Avheat. Meleagris gallo-pavo, Turkey. [Mclia Azederach, Pride of China.] Melica altissima, Lofty Melic- grass ; M. ciliata, Fringed Melic- grass ; M. cterulea, Purple Melic- grass; M. nutans, Mountain Me- lic-grass. Melissa, Palm ; M. Calamintha, Calamint; M. officinalis, Commqn Balm. MelitUs grandifiora, Purple and White Balm ; melissophyllum, Red- dish Bastard-Balm. Meloe vesicatorius, Oil-beetle. Mcnispermum, Moon-seed. Mentha, Mint ; M. arvensis, Corn-mint; M. piperita, Pepper- mint ; M. pulegium, Penny-royal ; M. viridis, Spear-mint. Menyanthes trifoliata, Trefoil Buck-bean; M.nymphaoides, Fring- ed Buck-bean. Mercurialis annua, French Mer- cury ; M. perennis, Dog's Mer- cury. Mespilus, Medlar; M. Germa- nica, Common MedlaiMree ;. M. Oxyacantlui, White-thorn. Mica alba, Pure Mica; M. co- loraia martialis, Coloured Martial Glimmer. Miliaria, Miliary Fever. Milium effusum, Millet-grass; M. panicum, Common Millet. Mimosa, Sensitive Plant ; /•/. acacia, Acacia ; M. Catechu; Catechu; M. Nilotica, Egyptian Acacia. • Minium, Red-lead. Mnium fontanum, Fountain Marsh-Moss. Monarda Zeylonica, Indian Hore-hound. Morus nigra, Common Mul- berry-tree ; M. tinctoria, Fustic. Moschus moschiferus, Musk- bearing Animal. Motacilla alba, White Wagtail ; M. fiava, Yellow Wagtail; M. lucinia, Nightingale ; M. rube- cula, Red-breast. M. rubetra, Whin-chat; M. troglodytes, Com- monWren.[A/. ruticilla.] M.Sia.'is, Blue-bird. Mugil, Mullet. Murana Anguilla, Common Eel; M. Conger, Conger Eel. Mus, Mouse and -Rat; M. ar- valis, Meadow-Mouse ; M. decu- manus Brown or Water Rat; M. messorius, Harvest-Mouse ; M. musculus, Common Mouse ; M. rattus, Common or Black Rat; M. sylvaticus, Long-tailed Field- Mouse. Muse a, Fly. Mustela, Otter and Weasel; M. foina, Martin ; M. J'uro, Ferret; M. lutra,. Otter ; M. putorius, Pole-Cat; M. vulgaris, Weasel. Myrica gale, Sweet Gale. M. cerifera, Candle-berry -Myrtle. Myrisiica moschata, Nutmeg- tree. Myroxylon pcruiferum, Balsam of Peru-tree. Myrtus communis, Common Myrtle. Mytilus edilis, Eatable Muscle ; M. margaritiferus, Pearl-bearing Muscle. Narcissus pseudo-narcissus, Daf- fodil. Nardus stricta, Small Matweed. Narthecium ossifragum, Lanca- shire Asphodel. \_Ndumbium Spe- cissum.] Nepeta cataria, Cat-mint. 12 INDEX. Nerium anti-dysentericum, Anti- dysenteric Rose-bay; vV. Olean- der, South-sea Rose; N. tincto- rium, Dyer's Rose-bay. Nicotiana Tabacum, Tobacco- plant ; N. rrtinor, English Tobacco. Nopalleca, Indian Fig-tree. Numida meleagris, Guinea-hen. Nymphxa alba, White Water- Lily ; N. lutea, Yellow Water- Lily ; N. Nelumbo, Lily of the Volga. Ocymum caryophydatum maxi- mum, Pink-scented Basil ; 0. ciiri- adore, Citron-flavoured Basil; 0. vulgare, Common Basil. -»Oenanthe crocata, Hemlock- Avater DropAvort; O. fistulosa, Common-water Dropvvort. Oesophagus, Gullet. Oestrus Bovis, Gad-fly. Olea Europata, Common Olive- tree. Oleum Tartari per deliquium, Liquid Vegetable Alkali. Oneirodynia activa, Sleep-walk- ing. • Oniscus asellus, Slaters. Ononis arvensis, Rest Harrow. Ophthalmia, Inflammation of the Eye. Orchis mascula, Early Orchis ; 0. morio,, Meadow Orchis. Origanum vulgare, Common Marjoram. Ondthogalum lu'eun:, YelloAV Star of Bethlehem; 0. umbellatum, Common Star of Bethlehem. Ornithopus perf.usillus, Common Bird's-foot. Oryza sativa, Common Rice. Orobus, Peazeling ; O. sylves- tris, Bitter Vetch ; 0. tuberosus, Fleath Pea. Csmunda regalis,, Osmund Roy- al. Osirca, Oyster. Otis tarda, Bustard. Otitis, Inflammation of the Ear. Ovis, Sheep. Oxalis Acetosella, Common Wood Sorrel. Panax quinquefolium, Ginseng. Panicum, Panic ; P. Crus-Galli, Loose Panic-grass ; P. dactylon, Creeping Panic-grass; P. milia- ceum, Millet; P. sunguinale, Cock's- foot Panic-grass ; P. verticillatum, Rough Panic-grass; P. viride, Green Panic-grass. Papaver Album, White Poppy ; P. Argemone, Prickly Poppy ; P. Rhaas, Red Poppy. Papilio Brassica, Cabbage But- terfly. Paralysis, Palsy. Parietaria officinalis, Pellitory of the Wall. Paris quadrifolia, Herb Paris. Parulis, Gum-boil. Pastinaca sativa, Common Wild- Parsnep. Pavo cristatus, Peacock. Pedicularis paluvtris, Marsh Lousewort; P. sylvatica, Com- mon Lousevvort. Percafiuviatilis,Common Perch. Peripneumonia, Inflammation of the Lungs. Pestis, Plague. Petroleum, Fossil Pitch ; P. as- phaltum, Pure Fossil Pitch ; P. induratum, hardened Rock Oil ; P. montana impura, Pis-asphal- tum. Petromyzon, Lamprey ; P. Br on- chialis, Lampern ; P. fiuviatilis, Lesser Lamprey ; P. marinus, Sea Lamprey. Phalxna, Moth ; P. Bombyx Mori. Silk-worm ; P. Bombyx Ncustrix, Lackey-Moth. Phalaris, Canary - grass ; P. arundinacea, Painted Lady-grass ; INDEX. 13 P. canariensis, Manured Canary- grass. Phaseolus, Kidnt y-Bean. Phasianus Colchicus, Common Pheasant; P. Gallus, Cock and Hen. Phellandrium aquaticum, Water Hemlock. Phleum nodosum, Knotty Timo- thy-grass ; P. pratensis, Common Timothy-grass. Phoca vitulina, Common Seal. Phxnix dactylifera, Palm-tree. Phthisis pulmonalis, Pulmonary Consumption. Picris echioides, Common Ox- tongue. Picus minor, Least-spotted Wood-pecker ; P. viridis, Green Wood-pecker. Pimpinella, Anise ; P. magna, Great Burnet Saxifrage ; P. Saxi- fraga, Common Burnet Saxifrage. Pingidcula vulgaris, Common Butter-wort. Pinus, Pine-tree ; P. Abies, Spruce-Fir; P. Ccdrus, Cedar; P, Cembra, Arvenusly ; P. Larix, Larch-tree : P. Picea, Yew-leaved Fir: P. Pinea, Stone-pine : P. pineaster, Wild-pine : P. sylves- tris, Scotch Fir. Piper, Pepper ; P. Cubeba, Cu- bebs ; P. nigrum, Black Pepper. Pistacia, Pistachia; P. lentis- cus, Mastich-tree ; P. terebinthus, Pistachia-tree. Pisum maritimtim, Sea-Pea ; P. sativum, Common Pea. Plantago Coronopus, Buck's horn Plantain ; P. lanceolata, Rib- Avort Plantain ; P. major, Greater- Plantain ; P. maritima, Sea Plan- tain. Platanus occidentalis, Western l;ane-tree ; P. orientalis, Eastern Plane-tree. Pluritis, Pleurisy. Pleuronectes fieaus, Flounder ; P. limanda, Dab ; P, maximus, Turbot; P. platessa, Plaise ; P. solea, Soal or Sole. Plumbago, Black Lead. Plumbago Europtea, European Lead-wort. - Poa annua, Annual Meadow- grass ; P. aquatica, Reed Mea- dow-grass ; P. compressa, Flat- stalked Meadow-grass ; P. mari- tima, Sea Meadow-grass ; P. pra- tensis, Smooth-stalked Meadow- grass ; P. trivialis, Roughish MeadoAV-grass. Podagra, Gout. Polygala, Milk-wort; P. Se- neka, Rattle-snake Root; P. vul- garis, Common Milk-wort. Polygonum, Snakeweed ; P. aviculare, Knot-grass SnakeAveed; P. Bistorta, Great Bistort; P- Convolvulus, Climbing Buck- wheat ; P. Fagopyrum, Buck- wheat ; P. hydropiper, Water- pepper ; P. tataricum, Siberian Buck-wheat; P. vivaparum, Small Bistort. Polypodium, Polypody ; P. Fi- lix-mas, Male Fern ; P. Oreop- teris, Heath Polypody ; P. vul- gare, Common Polypody. Polytrichum commune, Great Golden Maiden-hair. Populus alba, White Poplar; P. balsamifera, Carolina Poplar ; P. fastigata, Po-Poplar; P. nigra, Black Poplar; P. tremula, Tremb- ling Poplar. Portulaca oleracea, Common Purslane. Potamogeton natans, Broad-leav- ed Pond-Aveed. Potentilla, Cinque foil; P. anse- rina, Silverweed ; P. argentea, Hoary Cinquefoil; P. frwicosa, Shrubby Cinquefoil ; P. reptans, Common Cinquefoil. Poterium Sanguisorba, Upland Burnet. 14 INDEX. Primula, Primrose ; P. Polyan- thus, Polyanthus ; P. veris, Cow- slip ; P. vulgaris, Common Prim- rose. Prunella vulgaris, Common self- heal. Prunus, Plum-tree ; P. ' Arme- niaca, Apricot-tree; P. Cerasus, Common Avhite Cherry ; P, domes- tica, Common Plum-tree ; P. insi- titia, Bullace Plum ; P. Padus, Bird-cherry ; P. spinosa, Sloe- tree. Psittacus, Parrot. Psora, Itch. Pteris aquilina, Female Fern. Pterocarpus santalinus, Red San- dal Wood. Pulex, Flea. Pulmonaria Officinalis, Common LungAvort. Punica granatum, Common Po- megranate-tree ; P. nana, Dwarf American Pomegranate. Pyrus, Apple and Pear-tree; P. Aria, White-beam Hawthorn ; P. aucuparia, Quicken-tree ; P. com- munis, Pear-tree ; P. Cydonia, Quince-tree ; P. domestica, True Service-tree ; P. hybrida, Bastard Mountain Ash ; P. ma/us, Crab- tree. Quassia, amara, Bitter Quassia ; Q. Simarouba, Simarouba. Quercus, Oak ; Q. Aigilops, Large Prickly cupped Spanish Oak, Q. cerris, Smaller Prickly cupped Spanish Oak ; Q. coccifera, Coccus-bearing Oak ; Q. esculus, Beach-oak ; Q. Robur, Common Oak ; Q. suber, Cork-tree. Raja, Ray-fish ; R. aspera, Rough Ray ; R. batis, Skate ; R. clavata, Thornback ; R. pastinaca, Sting Ray ; R. torpedo, Electric Rjv. Rallus aquatkus, Water-rail; R. erex, Land-rail. Rana, Frog; R. Bufo, Toad ; R. esculenta, Eatable Frog ; R. temporaria, Common Frog. Ranula, a swelling on the Ton- gue. Ranunculus, Crowfoot; R. acris, Butter-cup; R. aquaticun, Water Crowfoot; R. arvensis, Corn Crow- foot ; R. auricomus, Sweet Wood Crowfoot ; R. bulbosus, Bulbous Crowfoot; R. ficaria, Pilewort , R. Flammula, Lesser Spearwort; R. lingua, Greater Spearwort; R. sceleratus, Round-leaved Water CroAvfoot. Raphanus, Radish ; R. Rapha- nistrum, White-flowered, or Joint- ed Charlock ; R. sativus, Common Radish. Reseda lutea, Base-Rocket; R. luteola, Yellow-weed, or Dyer's- weed. Rhamnus catharticus, Purging Buckthorn ; R. Frangula, Alder Buckthorn. Rheum palmatum, Palmated- Rhubarb; R. rhaponticum, Com- mon Rhubarb. Rhinanthus. Crista-Galli, Yel- low Rattle. Rhodiola communis, Rosewort, the Yellow. Rhus copallinum, NarroAV- leaved Sumach ; R. coriaria, Elm- leaved Sumach ; R. cotinus, Yel- low Sumach ; R? typliinum Virgi- nian Sumach. [R. glabrum, Smooth Pennsylvania sumach ; R. canadense, R. toxicodendron, poi- son oak, R. vernex, Svvamp su- mach ; R. radicans, Poison vine.] Ribes Alpinum, Sweet Moun- tain-Currant; R. grossularia,Rough Gooseberry ; R. nigrum, Black Gooseberry ;. R. reclinatum, Red Gooseberi y ; R. rubrum, Com- INDEX. 15 mon Red Currant; R. uva- crispa, Smooth Goose-berry. Ricinus communis, Castor-nut. Robinnia pseudo-acacia, Acacia, the False. Rosa arvensis, White-flowered Dog-rose; R. canina, Dog-rose; R.centifolia, Hundred-leaved Rose. R. Gallica, French Rose ; R. mun- di, Rose of the World; R. rubi- ginosa, Sweet Briar; R. spinosissi- ma, Burnet Rose ; R. villosa, Ap- ple-Rose. Rosamarinus officinalis^osemary, R. o. angustifolia, NarroAV-leaved Rosemary ; R. o. latifolia, Broad- leaved Rosemary. Rubeola, Measles. Rubia tinctorium, Wild Madder. Rubigo, Rust. Rubus arcticus, Dwarf Crimson Bramble ; R. casius, Dew-berry Bush ; R. chamoemorus, Cloud- berry ; R. corylifolius, Hazel-leav- ed Bramble ; R. fruticosus, Com- mon Bramble ; R. Idxus, Rasp- berry ; R. occidentalis, Virginian Raspberry Bush ; R. odoratus, Sweet-scented Raspberry; R. saxatilis, Stone Bramble. Rumex acetosus, Common Sor- rel ; R. acetosella, Sheep's Sorrel; R. acutus, Sharp Dock ; R. aqua- licus, Water-Dock; R. crispus, Curled Dock; R. obiusifolius, Broad-leaved Dock ; R. mnguina- rius, Bloodwort. Ruscus aculcatus, Common Knee-holly. Ruta gravcolens, Common Broad leaved Garden Rue. Saccharum officinarum, Sugar- cane. Sagina procumbens, Pearl wort, the Procumbent. Sagittaria sagittifolia, Common Arrow-head. Salicomia fruticaa, Shrubby- Samphire ; . Lycopersicon, LoA'e-apple; S. ni- grum, Common Nightshade; 5. tuberosum, Potatoe. Solidago Virgaurea, Common Golden Rod. [S. Casia, Throat- wort, Rattlesnake Golden-Rod.] Sonchus arvensis, Corn Sow- thistle ; S. oleraceus, Common Sow- thistle ; 5. palustris, Marsh Sow- thistle. Sorbus aucuparia, Quicken-tree ; S. domestica, True Service-tree ; S. hybrida, Bastard Mountain-ash. Sparganium eiectum, Greater Burweed. Spartium junccum, Spanish Broom ; S. scoparium, Common Broom. Spergula arvensis, Com Spurrey. Sphacelus, Mortification. Sphagnum palustre, Grey Bogmoss. Sphinx, Hawk-moth. Spinacea oleracea, Spinach. Spiraea ulmaria, Meadow Sweet. Spongia officinalis, Common Sponge. Squalus Canicula, Spotted Shark; S. -Carcharias, Great White Shark ; S. maximus, Basking Shark. Stachys, Woundwort; S. palus- tris, Clown's All-heal ; S. sylvali- ca, Hedge-nettle Woundwort. Statice Armeria,Comn\on Thrift; S. Limonium, Lavender-Thrift. Stannum, Tin. Steatites, Soap-earth. Strabismus, Squinting. Strix fiammea, Common OavI. Struthio Camelus, Ostrich. Sturnus vulgaris, Starling. Styrax, Storax-tree ; S. Benzoe, Benzoin ; S. officinalis, Common Storax-tree. Succinum, Amber. Svffusio, mellita,' Honey-dew. Sus scrqfa, Common Hog. Swietenia, Mahogany. Symphytum officinale, Common Comfrey. INDEX. 17 Syncope, Swoon. Syringa vulgaris, Common Li- lac. Taenia, Tape-worm. Talpa Europaeus, European Mole. Tamarindus Indica, Tamarind- tree. Tamariscus, Gallica, French Ta- marisk. Tamus Africana, African Bryo- ny ; T. cummunis, Black Bryony ; T. Cretica, Spotted Bryony of Crete; T. racemosa, Branched Bryony; T variegata, American Bryony. Tanacetum vulgare, Common Tansey. Taxus baccata, Common Yew- tree. Teres, Round long Worm. Termes pulsatorium, Death- Watch. Testudo, Tortoise ; T. imbricata, Hawk's-bill Tortoise ; T. midas, Common Turtle.; T. orbicularis, Common River-Turtle. Tetrao coturnix, Quail ; T. per- dix, Partridge ; T. tetrix, Com- mon Grouse ; T. urogallus, Wood- cock. Tettigoniae, Grasshoppers. Teucrium chamaedrys, Common Germander; T. marum, Marum Germander; T. scordium, Water Germander; T. scorodinium,Wood Germander. Thalictrum fiavum, Common MeadoAV-Rue. Thea Bohea, Black Tea-tree ; T. nitidis, Green-tea. Theobroma cacao, Chocolate- tree. Theriaca andromachi, Venice Treacle. Thlaspi arveme. Smooth Mi- thridate Mustard ; T. Bursa pas- toris, Shepherd's Purse. Thymus, Thyme ; T. Acinos, Wild Basil; T. serpyllum, Com- mon Thyme; T. vulgaris, Gar- den Thyme. Tilia Europata, Common Lime- tree. Tinea capitis, Scald-head. Tofieldia palustris, Marsh Spi- der-wort. Toluifera balsamum, Balsam of Tolu-tree. Tormentilla erecta, Common Tormentil. Trachea, Wind-pipe. - Tragopogon porrifolium, Purple Goat's.beard ; T. pratense, YelloAV Goat's-beard. Trapa nutans, Water Caltrops. ^ Trifolium arvense, Hare's-foot Trefoil; T. fragiferum, StraAvber- ry Trefoil; T. medium, Red, or Perennial Clover; T. Melitotus, Melilot-Trefoil ; T.pratense, Com- mon Clover ; T. procumbens, Hop- Clover ; T. repens, White-Clover, Triglochin maritimum, Sea Ar- row-grass ; T. palustre, Marsh Ar- row-grass. Trigonella foenum-grecum, Fenu- greek. Tringa alpina, Dunling Sand- piper; T. pugnax, Ruff; T. Va- ncllus, Lapwing. Triticum, Wheat; T. aestivum, Spring Wheat; T. hybernum, Win- ter-Wheat ; T. polonicum, Polish Wheat; T. repens, Dog's Grass; T. Spelta, Spelt, or German- Wheat ; T. turgidum, Thick- spiked Wheat. Tuber cibarium, Truffle. Tulipa Gcsneriana, Common Garden Tulip; T. sylvestris, Wild Tulip. Turdus merula, Blackbird; T. musicus, Throstle. 4 c 18 INDEX. Turrit is glabra, Smooth ToAver- mustard. Tussilago Farfara, Common Colt's-foot ; T. Hybrida, Long- stalked Colt's-foot; T. Petasites, Butter-burr. Typha angustifolia, Small Cat's- tail; T. latifolia, Great Cat's- tail. Vaccinium myrtillus, Bilberry ; V. Oxycoccus, Cranberry ; V. uli- ginosum, Great Bilberry ; V. Vi- tis-Idaa, Red Whortleberry. Valeriana locusta, Com Salad ; V. officinalis, Great Wild Vale- rian. Varicella, Chicken Pox. Verbascum nigrum, Dark or Black Mullein; V. Tliapsus, Great White Mullein. Verbena officinalis, Vervain, the Common. Veronica, Speedwell ; V. ana- gallis, Narrow-leaved Pimpernell Speedwell: V. Beccabunga, Brook- lime ; V. Chamadrys, Wild Ger- mander ; V. officinalis, Common Speedwell; V. Scutellaria, Narrow- leaved Speedwell. . Vespa, Wasp ; V. coarctata, Small Wasp ; V. Crabro, Hornet; V. Vulgaris, Common Wasp, Vespertilio, Bat. Vicia, Vetch, or Tare ; V. Crac- ca, Tufted Vetch ; V.faba, Bean ; V. lathyroides, Strangle Vetch ; V. sativa, Common Vetch; V. sepium, Bush Vetch ; V. sylvatica, Wood Vetch; V. tuberosus, Earth-nut, or SoAV-bread. Vinca minor, Lesser Perriwin- kle. Viola, Violet; V. canina, Dog's Violet; V. odorata, Sweet Violet; V. tricolor, Heart's Ease. Viscum album, Common Mis- seltoe. Vitis vinifera, Common Vine. Ulex Europaeus,Comxnon Furze. Ulmus campestris, Elm Tree. Ulva palmata, Palmated; Sea- wrack. Ureola elastica, Caoutchouc Vine. Ursus, Bear; U. arctos, Black Bear ; U. lotor, Raccoon ; U.. lus- cus, Wolverene ; U. maritimus, Polar Bear; U. moles, Common Badger. Urtica dioica, Common Nettle ; U. pilulifera, Roman Nettle ; U. urens, Lesser Stinging Nettle. Urticaria, Nettle-rash. \Urta Ursi, Bear berry.] Xanthium Strumarium, Lesser Burdock. Zanthoxylon, Prickly Yellow- wood. Zea Mays, Maize. Zizania aquatica, Water-Zi- zany. Zostera Alaides, Water Aloe ; Z. marina, Seargrass-Wrack. GENERAL INDEX OF REFERENCE TO THE ECONOMICAL, MEDICAL, AND PHYSIOLOGICAL FACTS, DISPERSED THROUGH VARIOUS ARTICLES. ABSORBENTS, see Chalk. Abstergents, see Bee-glue. Acid, the Marine ; see Gout: its economical uses ; see Bleach- ing—substances that yield vegeta- ble acid. See Vinegar. Acidity of the stomach, see Gentian. Ague, relieved by snakeroot, Sage, gruel, bark, electricity, spi- ders, arsenic, avens, bistort, Coffee, Germander, Holly, Nux-vomica, Orache, Silver-weed, Sloe-tree, Stone-crop, Willow-bark, &c. Air, hoAV to purify. See Cham- ber, Evergreen, Wells, Sec. Alder, its use in fencing. See Fence. Ale, to clarify. See Albumen, Common Burnet Saxifrage—to im- prove its flavour. See Fern. Alkali, vegetable, may be obtain- ed from Horse-chesnuts, Spanish Lilac, Beech-tree,Common Broom, Glass-wort, Grass-wrack, Arrow- grass, Goose-foot, Purslane,Orache, Sea-plantain, Tamarisk, Sea-holly, Stone-crop, Teasel, Artichoke, Thistle, Fern, MugAvort, Etc Alum, substitute for, see Club- moss ;—is also extracted from Shale. [Anagallis, Pimpernel.] Anchovies, substitutes for ; see Sprat;—their management. Animation, suspended ; see Death, Drowning, Frost, Galvan- ism, Lightning, suspension by the Cord, &c Antidotes; see Coffee, Lead, he. Antiscorbutics. See Cloud-ber- ry, Dame-Avort, Radish, Fir-tree, PepperAVort, Scurvy-grass, See. Antiseptics. See Bilberry, Bis- tort, Buckthorn, Carrots, Cherries, Cucumbers, Fixed Air, Lemon, 8cc Antispasmodics. See Bismuth, Goosefoot, Musk, Zinc. Aperients. See Anemone, Bry- ony, Burdock, Goose-grass, Mad- der,'Radish, Sassafras, Strawberry, Tartar, Charcoal, &c. Aphthse, relieved by Borax, House-leek, &c. Apoplexy. See Rosemary. Apple-trees, to protect. See In- sects. Apricots, to increase their fer- tility. See Irrigation, Ivy. Arrow-root. See Orchis. Arsenic. See Antidote—danger of employing it in granaries. See Corn. Artichoke, substitute for. See Milk-thistle. Asparagus, substitutes for. See Black Bryony, Burdock, Goat's- beard, Ho£>, Swallow-wort. Ass's Milk. See Catarrh. Asthma, remedies for, seeAnise, 29 GENERAL INDEX OF REFERENCE. Coffee; Daisy ; Dame-wort; Gal-1 banum ; Garlic ; Gum ; Honey ; Horehound ; Ipecacuanha ; Ma- rum ; Marsh-mallow ; Mastic ; Mustard; Orache ; Oxymel of Squills ; Sea-air ; Zinc. Astringents, see Alum ; Cate- chu ; Cornel-tree ; Cudweed ; Cy- press ; Daisy ; Gall; Logwood; Peruvian-bark ; Service-tree ; Sloe- tree ; [Geranium maculatum.] Atrophy, causes of, see Con- sumption. B. Baking, difficulty of, and atten- tion necessary in, see Bread. Balls, pectoral, for horses, see Cough. Banks, directions for making, see Earth-banks. Barilla, A'egetables from which it may be procured, see Salt-Avort; Samphire, the Shrubby ; Arrow- grass; Goose-foot; Grass-orache ; Grass-wrack; Orpine, the Com- mon; Artichoke; Eryngo; Sea- plantain ; Teasel ; Tamarisk. Bark (Peruvian), useful in the Ague; a substitute for, see Avens; Willow; Germander; Horse-ches- nut; Nettle. Bark-worm, how to destroy, see Baring. Barley-bread, useful in the Gout. Barley and Oats, reason of tlieir enormous prices, see Corn. Barm, method of raising a bushel of flour, with a tea-spoonful of, see Baking. Barometer; a natural one, see Spider. Baskets, plants which may be manufactured into, see Birch-tree; Spanish Broom ; Osier ; Willow, fcc. Basket-work, see Bent-grass; Birch-tree. Bay ley's Patent Blacking ; Re- cipe to make, see Blacking. [Beans, See also Mazagan.] Beef, method of preserving, see Flesh-meat; [Bene or Binny.] Beer may be brewed from Buck-bean, without Malt, see Malt ;• Juniper-tree ; Bark ;....... hoAV to clarify, see Avens ; Anise ; Common Burnet Saxifrage; Brew- ing ; bottled, how to improve, see Bottle; distempers of, see Brewing. Bees, vegetables frequented by them, see Balm ; Bugloss; Bell- floAver ; Bindweed ; Blue-bottle ; Briar; Spanish Broom; Alder- Buckthorn ; Buck-wheat ; the Climbing ; Butter-cup ; Borage ; Lime-tree ; Lupine ; Self-heal; Sumach-tree, the Virginian ; Sun- flower; Thyme; Vetch;—advan- tageous food for, see Hawkweed; Heath ; Acacia ;—how to expel from their hives, see Mugwort. Bellows, for bee-hives, descrip- tion of, see Bee-hives. Belly-ach, relieved by Castor- oil ;—see also Colic, Tobacco, Zanthoxylon. Bile, relieved by Columbo-root. Bilious diseases, remedies for, see Acids. Bird-lime, see Bread-fruit-tree. Bite of a mad-dog, remedies for, see Eschallot; Liverwort; Pim- pernel. Black, Spanish, how made, see Cork. Black-Canker, its devastation, Iioav counteracted, see Caterpillar. Black dyes, substances Avhich yield,see Hemp-Agrimony ; Ash; Bane-berries ; Bugle; Burnet the Great; Agaric ; Christopher the Herb ; Cinnamon ; Liverwort ; Logwood ; Loose-strife Scull-cap ; Sumach-tree ; Verdigrease. Black-thorn, its uses, see Fence. Blisters, substances used for, see GENERAL INDEX OF REFERENCE. 21 Butter-cup ; Spanish Flies ; Mus- tard-seed; Vinegar; Horse-radish; Crow-foot; Spurge-Olive. Blite, to prevent, see Insects. Blood-spitting, causes of, and re- medies for, see Bleeding. Blue Carmine, how made, see Molybdoena. Blue dyes, vegetables which yield, see Ash ; Blood-wort; Pop- py, the Horned. Blue Lake, how made, see Mo- lybdoena. Blue Pigments, plants which af- ford, see Blue bottle. Boats, good timber for, see Al- der-tree, [Mulberry.] Bogs, hoAV to clear, see Draining. Bolsters, materials for, see Rab- bit ; Cat's-tail. Books, old, how to restore to their original whiteness ; see Bleaching. Bow-strings and Fishing-lines, material for, see Aloe. Brandy, vegetables from Avhich it may be procured, see Carrots; Gooseberry ; Plum-tree. Brass, how composed, see Zinc. Bread, how to detect adultera- tions in, see Alum ;—substitutes for, see Acorns ; All-heal; ArroAV- head ; Asphodel; Bean ; Beech- nut ; Bistort, the Small; Bran ; Brome-grass; Bryony, the White; Buck-bean ; Buck-wheat; Cana- ry-grass ; Clover; Club-rush, the Salt-marsh ; Corn-flag, the Com- mon ; Couch-grass; Dog's-tail- grass, the Rough; DropAvort, the Common ; Fern ; Flote-Fescue- grass; Goosefoot, the White; Gromwell; Guinea Corn ; Hay; Knot-grass ; Lentil; Lime-grass; Lily, the YelloAV and White Wa- ter ; Maize ; Marsh-Marigold ;. Matweed ; Meadow-SAveet; Mil- let; Pease; Pile-wort; Reed, the Common ; Rocket; Seg, the Sea; Silver-weed; Solomon's-Seal; Sor- rel, the Common ; Spinach; Spur- rey ; Star of Bethlehem ; Straw- berry ; Succory; Turnip-rooted- Cabbage ; Vetch ; Wake-Robin; Water Caltrops; Wheat-grass; Yam ; Zizany. Breath, fetid, relief for, see Cherry; Fasel-nut. Breathing, shortness of, relieved by i£ther. Broth,recipe for making, see Diet. Brown dyes, vegetables which yield, see Aloe; Asarabacca; Avens; Purging Buck-thorn; Buck-thorn, the Sea; Buck-wheat; Comfrey; Dog-rose; Elder; Hops; Chesnut; Liverwort; Tamarisk, the German ; [Brown Paint, see Paint.] Bruises, excellent remedies for, see Arquebusade Water; Madder; Spermaceti; Spirit of Wine. Bugs, to destroy, see FloAver-de- Luce ; Insects ; Oil ;—preserva- tive against, see Christopher the Herb. Buildings, how to preserve against Fire, see Fire-proof. Bush-harrow, its uses, see Dib- ble. Butter, substitutes for, see Bay- tree ;—directions for making, see Churning;—for tinging,see Marsh- Marigold ; [to preserve in sum- mer, see Ice.] Butterflies, plants most frequent- ed by, see Soap-wort. C. Calculus, see Fixed Air. Cancers, remedies for, see Arse- nic ; Toad. Candles, useful materials for making, see Alum; Bees-Avax; Gale ; Gaot. Camphor, method of obtaining in China, see Bay-tree. 22 GENERAL INDEX OF REFERENCE. Capers, substitute for, see Broom. Capons, how made to rear chickens, see Hen. Caprification, its utility, see Fig- tree. Cardamons, their use in cook- ery, see Cauliflower. Carminatives, see Coriander; Fennel. Carmine, substitute for, see Anotta [Colours.] • Castile-soap, its use, see Corpu- lency. Castor-oil, its uses, see Beaver ; Copper; Iliac Passion. Cataplasms, substances proper for, see Fenugreek; Hyssop; Mustard ; Hemlock; Lily; Marsh- malloAV. Catarrh, remedies for, see Ab- stinence ; Cough ; Galbanum; Gum ; Smoking ; Whey. Cathartics, see Antimony; Buck- thorn ; Rhubarb. Cattle, directions for rearing, see Breeding ;—indurated liver of, cured by Dog's-grass ;—how to prevent from being hoven, see Clover ;—remedy for the Flux in, see Herb-Robert;—method of kill- ing in Portugal, see Slaughtering. [Catterpillars, see also Fruit.] Cautery, a remedy for the Bite of a Mad-dog. Cement, see Birch-tree; Blood ; Tarras ; Garlic ; [Mortar.] Cephalics, see Rosemary. Chairs, material for stuffing, see Bull-rush. Chalybeate Waters, see Indiges- tion ; [Bristol waters.] Chaps, remedy for, see Borax. Charcoal, best materials for, see Beach-tree; Hazel-nut-tree ; [ma- ple.] Cheese,to preserve, see Sloe-tree. Children, injudicious treatment of, for coughs, &c. see Expecto- rants. China, how to mend, when bro- ken or cracked, see Cement. Chin-cough, see Musk. Chocolate, substitute for, see Vine ;—to improve its flavour, see Lime-tree ; Anotta. Cholera Morbus, may be pro- duced by Ale. Chronical disorders, see Elec- tricity. Citron dyes ; see Chamomile ; Cicely; Goose-foot; Needle-Furze. Cloth, materials for, see Aloe ; Bark ; Broom ; Hop ; SaAV-wort; —to clean, see Balls ; Spots ;—«to render impermeable to moisture, see Water-proof. Clysters, their use as an anti- dote for mineral poisons, see Cop- per ;—for Horses, see Horse-me- dicines ;--subs£ances proper for, see Fenugreek; Mutton. Coaches, close, bad effects of, on travellers, see Breathing. Cocci how to destroy, see Hot- house, [Peach-fruit.] Cochineal, substitute for, see Bane-berries. Coffee, to improve, see Succo- ry ;—substitutes for, see Acorns ; Beech-nut; Seeds of the Common Broom; Chesnut. Cold, its effects on Vegetables, and method of preventing, see Frost. Cold Bathing, directions for, see Bath. Colds, symptoms of, and me- thod of cure, see Catarrh ; Olive- tree ; Pitch. Colic, symptoms of the, see Belly-ach ;—remedies for, see Ammoniac ; Cardamom ; Castor- oil ; Clary ; Holly ; CascariUa—in Farriery, see Gripes. Colours, Aregetable, see Fruit- trees. Combs, material for, see Box. Complexion, delicate, how to preserve, see Freckles. GENERAL INDEX OF REFERENCE. 23 Compost, different kinds of* see Manure. Consumption, a principal cause of, see Dancing ;....medicines for, see Arvenusly ; Birch-Avine ; Hart- fell-water ; Hemlock; Chickweed } Colt's-foot; Cucumber ; Daisy ; Fox-glove ; Issues ; Liverwort; Oysters ; Phosphorus ; Sago ; Tortoise. [Mercury.] Contagion, to prevent, see Olive-tree. [Acids.] Copess, how to strengthen, see Hazel-nut-tree. Corn, best method of storing, see Granary. Corn-Marigold, how to extir- pate, see Chalk. Corns, the causes of, see Foot. Corroborants, see Angelica; Copaiba. Corrosive Sublimate, remedy for the poison of, see Antidote. Cosmetics, see Teasel; Wake- Robin ; Benzoine, Bismuth, Fu- mitory. CostiA-eness, remedies for, see Beet; Charcoal; Breath ; Prunes; SoAV-bread ; Cassia; Flummery. Cough, substances which re- lieve, see Dame-wort; Fir-tree ; Galbanum ; Ground-Ivy ; Gum ; Hound's-Tongue ; Ipecacuanha; Mastich ; Pectorals; Pitch; Squill; Sulphur. Counterpanes, material for mak- ing, see Poplar. Cow-dung, its use as a medica- ment, see Bruises. Cows, food for, see Common Burnet Saxifrage; Burnet, the Upland; Cow-parsnep; Cow- wheat ; Cress ; Nettle ; Dodder; Dyer's Green-weed ; Eye-bright; Fescue-grass ; Feverfew ; Fools- parsley Fox-tail grass ; Furze ; GoId-of-Pleasure; Goose-foot ; Goose-grass ; Gout-weed ; Hop ; John's-Avort; Lentil; Meadow- grass ; Medick ; Melic-grass ; Milk-Vetch ; Oat; Parsnep ; Pea; Potatoes ; Quaking-grass ; Rye ; Sneeze-wort ; Sow-thistle ; Speed- well ; Spindle-tree ; Spurrey; Wood-roof; Yam ; &c....Causes, which affect the taste of their Milk, see Butter; ....Directions for the choice of; see Black Cat- tle....Remedy for the Consump- tion in, see Mullein.........Avhen Sick, how to treat, see Distem- per. Cradles, materials for, see Birch- tree ; Osier ; Willow. Cramp in the Stomach; reme- dy for, see Bismuth. Crickets, to destroy, see Lily, the Water. Crimson Dye, see Dog's-grass; Goose-grass. Crops, on the rotation of, see Field. Crossing of Breeds, its utility, see Cattle. CroAv-foot, see Blister. Crows, their utility to Hus- bandmen, see Chafer. Curl, on the causes and cure of, see Potatoes. Cutaneous disorders, remedies for, see Anise ; Birthwort; Dcok ; Elm-tree ; Lime ; Sponge ; Suc- cory ; Sulphur....see also Cosme- tics. D. Dairy, hints for its management, see Butter. Damp, to prevent its noxious effects, see Flannel. DaAVS, to destroy, see Jack- daw. . Deafness, remedies for, see Agi- tation ; Electricity. Death, apparent, proper treat- ment for, see Drowning. Debilitated perso/is, proper food 24 GENERAL INDEX OF REFER ENCE. and management of; see Debi- lity. Demulcents, see Manna. Deobstruents, see Bryony ; Pen- ny-royal. Detergents, see Copaiba; Fir- tree ; Madder. Diabetes, remedy for, see Lime. Diaphoretics, see Ammonia; Antimony; Burdock ; Dame- wort ; Hartshorn ; Nightshade. Diarrhoeas, remedies for, see Berberries ; Cypress ; . Deer ; Hartshorn ; Nutmeg ; Olibanum 5 Opium ; Rhubarb ; Shepherd's- purse ; Spa-Avater ; CascariUa. Digestion, to promote, see Asa- fcetida. Diseases of Bees, see Bee- hives ; of Dogs to treat, see Dog. Dish, a wholesome vegetable one, to prepare, see Tulip. Diuretics, see Burdock; Fen- nel ; Fumitory ; Nettle ; Tobacco- plant. [Serratulus spicata.'] Dodder, to extirpate, see Flax. Dolphin, or Bean-fly, to destroy, see Bean. Dresses of females, in Avhat re- spects injurious to health, see Cli- mate. Dropsy, remedies for, see Ab- domen ; Anise ; Bay-tree; Broom; Bryony ; Dandelion ; Elm-tree ; Fox-glove ; Garlic ; Lily ; Milk- wort ; Orache ; Sea-air. Drowning, a contrivance for preventing, 'See Bamboe-habit ; Cork-tree ; Spencer-Marine. Dry Baths, their utility ; see Bath. Ducks, their uses in destroy- ing insects, see Black Canker. Dung remedy for the inconve- nience of, in Agriculture, see Arable Land....substitute for, see Compost. Dyes, permanent; see Dyeing. Dyeing, see Leather ; Bismuth; Bramble ; Lime-tree ; Tutsan. Dyspepsy ; remedy for ; see Zedoary. Dysenteries, relieved by Cher- ries ; Cypress : Dock ; Hartfell- water ; Hound's-Tongue ; Mas- tich ; Nutmeg ; Nux Vomica ; Opium ; Quince-tree ; Rose-bay ; Service-tree CascariUa. E Ear-ach, see Ear. Ear-trumpets, their bad effects in Deafness, see Ear. Ear-wigs, how to destroy, see Oil. Earthen-ware, substitutes for lead, in finishing, see Glazing. Eating, excessive, consequences of, see Brain ;—too fast, see Mas- tication. Eels, how to catch, see Bobbing. Eggs, whites of, see Albumen. Emetics, see Club-moss ; Fox- glove ; Ipecacuanha ; Oxymel of Squills ; Spearwort ;—operation of, how to restrain, see Salt. Epidemic Diseases, preservative against, see Flag. Epilepsy, remedies for, see Dog's Violet; Mushroom ; Night- shade, the deadly ; Phosphorus ; Zanthoxylon. Errhine, see Sow-bread. Eruptions caused by shell-fish, see Muscle ;—remedies for, see Chalk. [Esparcet, see Grasses.] Etiolation, its uses and disad- vantages in vegetation, see Light. Evacuations, how promoted, see Excretion. Exercise, partial, consequences of, see Game. Eye-lashes, inverted, how to treat, see Eye ; water, see Vitriol. GENERAL INDEX OF REFERENCE. Eyes, affections of, how reliev- ed, see Anemone ; Antimony ; Blisters ; Buckthorn ; Hair, &c F. Famine, treatment for persons suffering under, see Hunger. Farcy, see Asarabacca. Farms,large,their consequences, see Poor. Fawn-colour-dye, see Soot. Fences, method of constructing, see Bank-fence ;—materials for, see Plantation ; Planting ;—Mr. BakeAvell's method of making, see Hedges. Fevers, remedies for, see Selt- zer-water ; Abstinence ; Barley ; Butter-milk; Butter-burr; Cam- phor; Cherry; Cornel-tree; Harts- horn ; Hop ; Nitre ; Phosphorus ; Sassafras; Tartar; and Casca- riUa. Figs, see Gargle. Filtering Machines improved, see Filtration. Fire, plans for securing houses from, see Buildings. Fish-broth, to prepare, see Broth. Flannel, utility of, when Avorn next the skin, see Autumn. Flatulency, remedies for, see Alum ; Angelica ; Asafcetida ; Cardamom Flax, refuse of, its utility ; see Fruit-trees ;—substitute for, see SwalloAV-wort, Fleas, to expel, see Savory. Flies, to destroy, see Black- Fly ; Fly ; Mushroom ; Oil. Floor, composition for, see Blood ;—for houses, best kinds of; see Fire;—for barns, method of constructing ; see Barn-floors. Flour, vegetables Avhich yield, see Bread. vol. v. 25 Flux, remedy for, see Cinnamon. Fodder, see Acacia; (Acacia, the False.) Angelica ; Bent-grass ; Bird's-foot, Bistort; Soft Brome- grass ; Buck-wheat ; Burnet; Butter-burr; Cabbage; Canary- grass ; Kale ; Cinque-foil; Pars- nep ; Carrot; Serradilla; Pota- toe ; Maize. Food, solid, a cause of diseases; see Climate. Freckles, remedy for, see Albu- men. French-Bread, to prepare, see Bread. Frog, for Horses, Mr. Cole- man's artificial, see Shoe. Frogs, how to extirpate, see Fumitory. Frost-bitten parts, how to treat, see Cold. Frosts and dew, how to protect plants against, see Fog. Fruit, how to raise in winter, see Fruit-trees ;—to protect from Insects, see Caterpillar ;—a cata- logue of the best, see Orchard ;— how to rear, see Forcing and Nursery. Fomentations, see Myrtle. Fuel, see Coal-balls ; Sunflower; and Tulip-tree. Fumigation, see Sulphur-wort. Galls, their uses, see Oak. Gangrene,seeAntiseptics,Dame- vvort, Germander, Nitre, Sec. Gardens, new method of water- ing, see Kitchen-garden. Gargles, see Cinquefoil; Fig- tree ; Myrrh. Gas, see Fixed Air. Gastric Juices, its uses, see Mortification. Giddiness, in sheep, remedy for, see Pimpernell. 4 D ......4^ 26 GENERAL INDEX Ginger, see Milk-weed. Glass, see Grass-wrack ;—to join when broken, see Cement. Gloves, materials for, see Larch- tree, Poplar, Sec. Goats, food for, see Brome- grass ; Purging Buckthorn ; Car- line ; Chamomile ; Cheese-ren- net ; Cherry ; Cinquefoil; Colt's- foot ; Columbine ; Corn-cockle ; Currant-tree ; Dandelion ; Dyer's Greeiweed ; Fescue-grass; Fever- feAv; Fool's Parsley; Furze; Germander ; Gold of Pleasure ; Goose-foot; Goose-grass ; Gout- Aveed; Groundsel; Hazel-nut-tree ; Juniper; Kmv.vell; Ladies-Mantle; Ladies-Smock ; Lark-spur ; Lily ; Lovage ; Lousewort ; Lungwort; Mare's-tail ; Marjoram ; Marsh- locks ; Matweed ; Meadow-grass; Medick ; Melic-grass ; Mother- Avort; Nightshade ; Oat ; Ox-eye- Primrose ; Quaking-grass ; Sca- bious the Field and Small ; Sloe- tree ; Snakeweed : Sneeze wort ; Solomon's Seal ; Sow-thistle ; Speedwell; Spindle-tree ; Spurrey; StarAvort ; Thrift ; Willow-herb ; Wood-roof, Sec. Gold-dyes, obtained from the Angelica, Artichoke, Buck-wheat, Fig-tree, Sec. Goose-dung, its uses as manure, see Dung. Gout, see Germander ; Ground- pine ; Horehound ; Vichy-water, Sec. Grain, hoAV to ascertain its re- lative value, see Corn ;—its pro- portion of flour in a bushel, see Flour ;—Iioav to preserve, see Gra- nary ; —how to clear from insects, see Corn-chafer. Grass, proper time for moving, see Hay. Grass-land, its fertility increas- ed by a manure of Bones ;—its ad- vantages for Pasture, see Cattle. OF REFERENCE. Grates, how set to prevent smo- ky chimnies, see Chimney. Gravel, see Garlic, Onion, Sec. Grease, in horses, to remove, see Burnet, the Upland. Green-dyes, vegetables from which they are prepared, see Ane- mone ; Asarabacca ; Bugloss ; Bird-cherry; Smooth Rye Brome- grass ; Purging Buckthorn; Buck- wheat ; Bell-flower; Carp-gall; Cheese-Rennet; Clover ; Lily ; Liverwort ; Privet ; Reed ; Tan- sy ; Burnet the Great, Sec. Green Pigments, produced from Anemone ; Bell-flower ; Fleur-de- luce, Zinc, Sec. Greens, substitutes for, see Dead-nettle ; Nettle ; Nipple- wort ; Sec. Grub, to extirpate. See Cater- pillar. Gums, how to treat when ulcer- ated. See Gum-boil ; also Cate- chu, Dock, Lac, Sec. Gunpowder. See Cautery. Gutta serena, relieved by Ane- mone. Gut-tie, account of. See Calves. H. Hair, to restore on the head, see Baldness ; Box-tree ; Butterwort; Myrtle, Sec. Hair-powder, materials for, see Beech-mast Oil, Comfrey,Sec. Hats, see Beaver ; Poplar; Seal, Sec. Hay, see Guinea-grass, Butter- cup, Sec. Head-ach, remedies for, see .Ether ; Blisters ; Coffee ; Hair ; Leech ; Nutmeg, Sec. Heartburn, see Crab-fish, Lo- zeng-s, Sec. Heaths, how reclaimed, see Land. Hedges, fence for, see Furze; GENERAL INDEX OF REFERENCE. 27 Buckthorn the Sea ; Hawthorn ; Holly ; Horn-beam-tree, Sec. Hedge-rows, how to make, see Oak. Hemp, substitutes for, see Sun- flower ; Tree-mallow, Sec. Hives, improvements on, see Bee-hives. Hoarseness, remedies for, see Cabbage, Olive-tree, Sec. Hogs, vegetables for fattening them, see Acacia ; Acorns ; Arti- chokes ; Beech-nut; Buck-wheat; Butter-wort; Chickweed ; Crow- foot ; Dandelion ; Dodder ; Duck's- meat; Earth-nuts ; Fern ; Fescue- grass ; FeverfeAV ; Fool's-Parsley; Groundsel ; HaAvthorn ; Hop ; Meadow-sweet; Parsnep, the Wa- ter ; Pea ; Potatoes ; Sea-waure ; SneezeAvort; Sow-thistle ; Timo- thy-grass ; Yarrow; See. Hoofs of Horses, fomentation for, see Scabious. Hooping-cough, relieved by Asafcetida ; see also Chin-cough, Penny-royal, Sec. Hops, the best kind for Beer, see BreAving ;—substitutes for, see Asparagus ; Broom ; Buck-bean ; Clary ; Germander ; MugAVort; Tansey, Sec. Horse-balls, on the use of, see Farriery. Horse-dealers, see Badger. Horse-dung, how to employ in gardens, see Hot-beds. Horse-hoe, see Drilling. Horse-radish, see Blister; its uses for the Skin, see Cosmetic. Horses, cure for Aveeping eyes of, see Eye ; food for, see Chamo- mile ; Corn-cockle ; Cornel-tree ; Cow-parsnep ; Currant-tree ; Dy- er's Green-Aveed ; Eye-bright ; Fescue-grass ; FeverfeAV ; Furze ; Gold-of-Pleasure ; Goose-foot ; Goose-grass; Hazel-nut-tree; Hop; Ladies'"" Mantle ; Lentils ; Lovage; Matweed ; McadoAV-grass ; Mt click ; Melic Grass ; Mother-Avort Osier ; Ox-eye ; Parsnep ; Pea Potatoes ; Rupture-wort ; Rye Sloe-tree ; Snakeweed ; Sneeze- wort ; Speedwell; Spurrey ; Star- wort ; Thrift; Timothy Grass ; WilloAV-Herb; Woodroof; Worm- Avood. Hot-beds, substance for making, see Oak. Hounds, proper method of treat- ing, see Greyhounds. Houses, to prevent taking fire, see Country-houses, and Fire. Hunger, to prevent, see Pea, the Heath. Husbandry, the Drill, advantages of, see. Drilling. Hydrophobia, see Nightshade, the Deadly,[AnagallisCantharides] Orache ; Vinegar, Sec. Hypochondriacal complaints, re- lieved by Asafcetida ; Balm ; Ora- che ; Sassafras. Hysterics, remedies for, see Amber ; Ammoniac ; Angelica ; Asafcetida ; Beaver-oil ; Cheese- Rennet ; Clary ; Mandrake. I. Jail Distemper, see Fever. Jaundice relieved by Alum ; Duck's-meat; Eggs; Ground-pine; Nettle ; Ox-eye ; Strawberry. Jelly, a nutritious one, how to prepare, see Arrow-root; Mutton ; Poplar; Rice. Indigestion, relieved by Moffat Waters ; Tunbridge-Water ; Sec. Indigo, substitutes for, see Anise; Common Burnet Saxi- frage, Trefoil, Acacia the False, cec. Infection, to prevent, see Con- tagion ; Olive-tree. Inflammation, remedies for, see Ducks-meat; Excoriation; House- leek ; Squill. 28 GENERAL INDEX OF REFERENCE. Ink, black, vegetables which produce, see Bane-berries ; Blue- bottle ; Sumach-tree ;—Green, see Anemone;—Sympathetic, see Yel- loAV-ink. Insects, best means of destroy- ing, see Apple-tree ; Caterpillar ; Chafer ; Fir-tree ; Flour ; Fruit- trees ; Oat; Coccus. Ipecacuanha, substitutes for, see Asarabacca; Herb-Paris, [Ipeca- cuanha.] Iron-moulds, to remove, see Sor- rel. Isinglass, how to substitute for glue, see Glue. Itch, ointment for, see Dock ; Elecampane ; Vitriol, [Tobacco,] Sec. K. Kite, electrical, its construction and uses, see Lightning. Knit, in cows, Iioav to cure, see Cows. L. Lacker, purple, see Alkanet. Lake, see Madder. Lamp, see Bitumens. Land, exhausted, how to recruit, see Arable Lands. Lawns, how to make, see Grass. Laxatives, see Daffodil; Dock ; Flax ; Fumitory ; Manna ; Night- shade ; Peach-tree ; Rose, the Da- mask ; Violet. Laxity, remedies for, see Betony; Cardamom ; Cassia ; Catechu. Lead, relief for the poison of, see Antidotes. Leather, Iioav to make water- proof, see Boot. [Leather-wood, DircaPalustris.] Leaves, how to rear trees from, see Propagation. Leeches, see Kidney. Legs, crooked, to remedy, see Bandy-legs ;—pains in, removed by Blisters. Lemons, a substitute for, see Berberries. Leprosy, remedy for, see Elm- tree. Libraries, how to preserve from Insects, see Book. Lice, to destroy, see Buttenvort. Light, new method of obtaining, see Air. Lightning, Iioav to secure beds from, see Bed-room. Lilies, effects of keeping them in bed-chambers, see Apoplexy. Limbs, deformed, Iioav produce see Distortion. Lime, substitutes for, see Oys- ter-shells ; Infection ;—Water, its use in clarifying Malt-liquors, see Beer. Liqueur, a delicious one, Iioav made, see Quince-tree. Liquid for restoring sour beer, and directions for preparing, see Beer. Liquors, hot, cautions respect- ing them ; see Epilepsy. Lobsters, to preserve, see In- sects. Locked-Jaw relieved by Castor Oil; see also JaAV ; Opium. Locust, how to destroy, see Ca- terpillar. Longevity, hoAV to promote, see Life. Lozenges, see Mint. [Lucerne, see grasses.] M. Magnesia, its use as an antidote, see Copper. Mahogany, hoAV to imitate, see Wood. Maize, sec Paper. Malt, substitute for, see Maize ; —hoAV to know the best kind of, see Brewing ;—liquors, their phy- sical properties, see Beer. GENERAL INDEX Manna, see Bile. Manures, see Arsenic ; Ashes ; Blood; Bones ; Chalk-lands; Coal; Faggots ; Gypsum ; Horn ; In- sects ; Leaves; Malt; Marie; [Peat ;] Pigeon ; Privies ; Reed ; Saw-dust; Sea-sludge; Sea-waure ; Stickle-back, Sec. Manuscripts, Sec. directions for preserving, see Deeds ;—to copy, see Writing, and Letter. Marble, to clean, see Alabas- ter. Mats, material for making, see Bull-rush. Mattresses, a valuable material for stuffing, see Moss. Maturation, how promoted, see Fig-tree. [Mazagan beans, to raise early in summer ; see also Beans.] Meadow-Land, to increase its fertility, see Ashes. Mice, to destroy in Granaries, see Corn ; Knee-holly ; Mullein. Milk, see Air ; Anise ; Burnet, the Upland ; Cabbage ; Salep ;— skimmed, useful for preserving animal food, see Flesh-meat. Milking, proper times of, see Cow. Millet, substitute for, see Blite. Mites, in grain, how to eradi- cate, see Corn. Mock-Turtle Soup, how to make, see Turtle. Moles, to disperse, see Garlic. Mordore-dye, see Bistort the Great. Mortar, composition for mak- ing, see building; [Cement.] Mortifications, a specific for, see Antiseptics ;—checked by the use of the Cautery. Moths, see Arvenusly ; Chris- topher the Herb; Insects; Laven- der. Mow-burnt, see Barley. Mugwort, see Paper. Mushrooms, substitutes for, see ■'.•• OF REFERENCE. 29 Arvenusly ;—may be raised from the Poplar. Musk, substitute for, see Mos- chatel. N. Nervous diseases, remedies for, see Balm ; Blisters; Celery ; Sage. Nephritic disorders, relief for, see Birch-Avine; Cyper-grass; Raisin-Avine. Nettle-seeds, their use in im- proving animal-hair, see Horse. Night-air, its noxious influence, see Bed-time. Night-caps, thick, consequences of wearing, see Head. Nipples; chapped, cure for, see Borax. O. Oak bark, substitutes for, see Tanning. Obstructions, see Madder ; Sea- water. Oil, how purified, see Charcoal; Sand ;—afforded by the Angelica ; Bay-tree ; Beech-mast; Celery • Charlock; Cherry ; Gale ; Lilac • Orange; Privet; Rape; Ray. fish ; Acacia ; Sanders ; Stickle- back ; Sun-flower ; Acorns ; Blad- der-nut-tree ; Cornel-live; Net- tle ; Nettle-Hemp ;—of Olives, a preventive of infection, see Plague. Oil-paint, substitutes for, see Paint. Opium, substitutes for, see Hemp; Herb-Paris ;—safe method of taking, see Acids ;—its violent effects on the brain, see Anodyne ; —externally good for wounds, rheumatisms, Sec. see Anodyne ; Mortification. Orange, see Colour-making ;— dyes, vegetables which yield, Sas- safras ; Bay-tree; Rhubarb; Li- verwort. ^ OF REFERENCE. 30 GENERAL INDEX Owls, use of, see Mouse. Oxen, directions for the choice of, see Black Cattle ;—for fatten- ing, see Bullocks ;—and Horses, comparative advantages of, in agri- culture, see Horse. P. Packing, material for, see Moss. Pain, violent, remedies for, see Anodyne. Paintings, how to clean, see Picture. Palsy, relieved by Opium, see Anodyne ; Bay-trees ; Blisters ; Fir-tree ; Phosphorus ; Rosemary. Paper, materials for, see Aloe ; Bark ; Bull-rush ; Burdock ; Cab- bage Palm ; Cotton ; Cyper-grass; Nettle ; Traveller's-Joy ; MalloAv; Tree-Mallow ; Willow ; Broom : Hop-bines ; [Gunny-bag,] Sec. ; see also Book. Papier-mache, see Amber. Paste, for book-binders, to pre- vent worms, see Books ;—substi- tute for, see Asphodel; Ches" nuts. Peach-colour dye, see Rose. Pearl-Avhite, Colour-making. Pears, dwarf, method of produc- ing, see Dwarf-trees. Perfume, see Orange. Perspiration, how to promote, see Bathing; Bath ; Consump- tion ;—profuse, how checked, see Soda. Phlebotomy, see Blood-letting. Phlegm, to attenuate, see Birth- wort. Pica, or longing, remedy for, see Sea-wrack. . Pickles, new, see Buck-bean ; Caraway. Pigeons, food for, see Vetch. Pine-tree, the Scotch, its uses, and method of culture, see Fir. Plants, treatment of, see Irrita- bility ;—proper for moist ground, see Draining ;—best method of packing, see Exotics ,—how to preserve with their natural fresh- ness, see Herbal. Plant-louse, see Hot-house. Plasters, see Fir-tree; Olive- tree. Plethoric individuals, rules for, see Diet. Pleurisy, medicine for, see Milkwort. Plough, the drill, see Drilling. Poisons, antidotes for vegetable, see Acids ;—for mineral, see An- tidotes. Ponds, how to stock, see Carp and Fish. Pork, best method of salting, see Beef. Posts, best substance for mak- ing, see Acacia ; Larch-tree, Sec. Pot-ash, see Alkali, vegetable. Potatoes, most economical me- thod of cooking, see Steam ;— utility of, as food, see Diet. Pottage, recipe for making, see Diet. Poultry, vegetables, Sec. Avhich fatten, see Acacia; BuckAvheat; Chafer ; Duck's-meat ; Millet ; Nettle ; [Bignonia.] Prints, see Bleaching. Pruning, see Apple-tree. Puddings, ingredient for, see Fescue-grass ;—to improve, see Panada ;—best method of dress- ing, see Steam. Purgatives, see Bindweed ; Buckthorn ; Fox-glove ; Jalap ; Liverwort; Mandrake ; Plum- tree ; Scammony ; Senna ; Stone- crop. Purple-dye, see Heath ; Linen ; Cornel-tree ; pigments, vegetables which afford, see Bilberry, eec. Putrefaction, how prevented, see Charcoal. Putrid Diseases, see Fever. i* GENERAL INDEX OF REFERENCE. 31 Quinsy, remedies for, see Aca- cia ; Anise ; Cudweed. R. Rabbits, food for, see Milk- Thistle. Rats, how to disperse, see Gar- lic ; Granaries ; Valerian. Ravens, singular efficacy of their gastric juice, see Cancer. Red Dyes, vegetables Avhich af- ford, see Birch-tree ; Bloodwort; Cheese-rennet; Goose-grass; Rhu- barb ; Sloe-tree ; Sumach-tree ; Madder ; Marjoram ; Mordants; [Gallium.] Red-Avater, in Sheep, to re- move, see Parsley. [R. frigerator.] Rennet, substances for, see But- ter-wort ; Cheese-rennet. Resin, see Poplar. Rheumatism, relievedbyOpium; see also Anodyne ; Bagnio; Blis- ters ; Bryony ; Cajeput-oil; Cam- phor ; Dock; Electricity; Fir- tree ; Flax ; Lac; Mineral Waters ; Mustard ; Pitch ; Sec. Rice, substitute for, see Millet. Rickets, remedy for, see Mad- der. Ripple, see Clover. Rock-salt, its advantage in pick- ling, Sec. see Beef. Roofs, fire-proof, how to make, see Reed. Rope, materials for, see Aloe ; Birch-tree. Rose-pink, see colour-making. Rot, in sheep, by Avhat occa- sioned, and method of cure, see Cattle ; SundeAv ; remedies for, see Buck-bean ; Parsley ; Salt ; Sec. S. Salad, vegetables Avhich may be eaten as, see Avens ; Bell-flower; Brook-lime ; Burdock ; Burnet; the Upland ; Lungwort ; improve- ment in, see Borage ; Ox-eye. Salt, see Beef; hoAV to recover from Pickle, see Bacon ; method of purifying, see Basket-salt; of Lemons, substitute for, see Sorrel; springs, indication of, see Star- wort ; water, improved method of distilling, see Air. Sap-green, how prepared, see Green. Saponaceous Plants, Avhich may be substituted for soap, see Bur- dock ; Horse-chesnut; Orache; Soap-wort; Wake-Robin. Sassafras, its use in brewing and distilling, see Bay-tree. Scab, in Sheep, see Dock ; Ele- campane ; Parsley. Scald-head, remedy for, see Ele- campane. [Melia.] Scarlet Dye, see Liverwort. Sciatica, see Rue. Scouring, in cattle, see Calf. Scurvy, remedies for, see Agri- mony ; Alum ; Angelica ; Anise ; Cheese-rennet ; Citron ; Coffee ; Colt's-foot; Garlic ; Goose-grass ; Lac ; Salep ; Sea-waure, Sec. Sea, to prevent its encroach- mentp, see Lime-grass. Secretions, to promote, see Sa- vin ; Scurvy-grass ; Senna ; This- tle. [Seneka root, see Polygala Seneka.] Sheep food for, see Acacia Arrow-grass ; Bell-floAver ; Bird- cherry ; Bistort; Borecole ; Buck- thorn ; Burnet; CatcliAveed ; Cat- mint ; Cheese-rennet; Cherry ; Christopher the Herb; Cinquefoil; Colt's-foot ; Corn-cockle ; Cornel- tree ; Corn-salad ; Cow-wheat; Cress ; Dodder ; Dog's.tail-grass; Dropwort ; Dyer's-green-Aveed ; Eye-bright ; Fescue-grass ; Fever- few ; Furze ; Germander ; Gold- 32 GENERAL INDEX OF REFERENCE of-Pleasure ; Goose-foot; Goose- grass ; Goufweed ; Hop ; Horse- beans ; House-leek ; John's-wort; Juniper; Ivy ; Knawell ; Ladies Mantle ; Ladies Smock; Lark- spur ; Lentil ; Lily ; Lovage ; Lungwort; Marjoram ; Meadow- grass ; Medick ; Motherwort ; Nightshade; Oat; Ox-Eye; Parsley ; Parsnep ; Pea; Plan- tain the Ribwort; Primrose ; Quaking-grass ; Rupture-wort ; Rye; SatVlovver; Salt-Avort; Sca- bious, the field, and small ; Sloe- tree ; Snake-weed ; SneezeAvort ; Solomon's-Seal ; Sow-thistle ; Speedwell; Spindle-tree ; Spur- rey ; Star-wort ; Woodroof, Yar- row. Shrubs, method of conveying from a distance, see Plant. Silk-A\orms, food for, see Cow- slip ; Elm-tree. Smoke of lamps, Sec. how to collect, see Smoking. Smut, how to cure, see Arsenic ; Barley ; Corn. Snake, remedy for the bite of; see Ammonia. [Serpent. Potash.] Soap, substitutes for, see Ful- ler's-Earth; Saw-dust. [Horse chesnut.] Soporifics ; see Dog's- Mercury. Sore-throat, remedies for, see Abstinence; Elder tree ; Fixed air. Soups, ingredient for, see Fes- cue-grass; their injurious effects on invalids, see Beef-tea. Spanish-flies, caution against the indiscriminate use of, see Blisters ; —substitutes for, see Butter-cup ; Crow-foot. Spasmodics, see Opium. Spinach, substitutes for, see Elite; Daisy. Spine, see Distortion. Spirits how to correct, see Charcoal ;—afforded bv the fruit of the Dog-rose ; Guinea-corn ; Hawthorn ; Quicken-tree, Sec. Splinters, to promote the extrac- tion of, see Needle, the Shep- herd's. Sprains, see Liniment; Spirit of Wine. Spur in grain, remedy for, see Corn. Stables, Sec. how to purify, see Fumigation. Staggers, in horses, to prevent, see Goats. Starch, plants Avhich afford, see Arrow-head ; Arrow-root; Bry- ony, the White ; Burdock ; Com- frey ; Pile-wort; Snow-drop ; Solomon's-seal ; Wake-robin, Sec. [Indian Turnip ; Horse-chesnut.] Sternutatory ; see ?Justard, the Hedge. Stings of insects, remedy for, see Bee ; Gnat ; Tar. Stomachic, see MugAvort. Strangury, see Gum-arabic. StraAv, see Thatching. Styptics, see Agaric ; Bistort ; Gall ; Puff-ball; Sheperd's-Purse ; Sponge ; Sumach-tree ; Tourni- quet, Sec. Sudorifics, see Diaphoretics. Suffocation by vapour, treat- ment for, see Charcoal. Sugar, substitute for, see Mo- lasses. Sulphur, see Lead. Surfeit in horses, see Parsley. SwalloAving, difficulty of, how relieved, see Mezereon. SAveet-meat, see Lemon. Swellings, remedies for, see Fenugreek ; Goose-grass ; Holly ; Nightshade, the Deadly ; Ox-eye ; Sea-water ; Sponge. Sympathetic-Ink, see Bismuth. T. Table-beer, recipe for making, see Beer. GENERAL INDEX OF REFERENCE, 33 Tanning, substitutes for Oak- bark in, see Angelica ; Avens ; Berberries; Birch-tree; Bistort the Great; Briar ; Broom ; Bur- net the Great ; Bur weed ; Clary ; Dock ; FeverfeAV ; Horehound, the White ; Larch-tree ; La- vender-Thrift; Loose-strife ; Myr- tle ; Silver-weed ; Sloe-tree ; Tor- mentil; Trefoil; YarroAV ; [See Vegetable Substances.] Tapioca, substitute for, see Or- chis. Tea, substitutes for, see Ash ; Betony ; Bilberry ;—to make from Beef; see Beef-tea. Teeth, purifier of, see Dock. Test-stones, see Basaltes. Thatch, how to render Fire- proof, see Moss. Thistle, its use, see Paper. Timber, to preserve from de- cay, see Beech-tree. Tippling, see Clover. Tobacco, substitutes for, see Buck-bean ; Cudweed ; Milk- Aveed ; Pea, the Heath ; Sumach- tree ;—to improve, see Larkspur. Tonics, see Bitters ; Buckthorn, Sec. Tooth-ach, relieved, and cured by ^Ether ; Agitation ; Anemone; Cajeput-oil; Marjoram; Opium; Thyme, Sec. Touch-stones, see Basaltes. Trees, best method of rooting up, see Berne-machine ;—to de- fend from the injuries of Animals, see Diseases of Plants ;—frost-bit- ten, how to recover, see Frost;— blasted, see Lightning ;—injured, composition for, see Blight. Trout, Sec. how to carry alive to a considerable distance, see Fish. Tulips, Iioav to preserve, see Flower. Tumors, see Swellings ;—in horses, to discuss, see Poll-Evil. VOL. v. Turf, guide in digging for, see Sundew. Turnip-fly, how to extirpate, see Cabbage, and Fly. U. V. Vapours, mephitic, to disperse, see Vinegar. Varnish,see Eggs;—vegetables, Sec. which yield, see Aloe ; Am- ber ; Bitumens ; Copal. Veal and Lamb, hoAV preserved in Germany, see Flesh-meat. Vegetables, to keep ; see Pre- servation ; how to protect from cold, see Frost;—poisonous, how to deprive of their injurious qua- lity, see Cassava ;—when putrid, to correct, see Charcoal ;—proper time of Avatering, see Cold. Veneering, materials for, see Broom, the Common; Traveller's- Joy. Venison, its properties as food, and best method of preparing, see Deer. Vermifuges, substances proper for, see Fern ; Gamboge ; Liver- wort, the green-ground ; Mulber- ry-tree ; Sugar; Spurge-laurel ; Tansy ; Timothy-grass ; [Melia, Tobacco.] Vermin, to prevent their depre- dations, see Aloe ; Oil;—in Cat- tle, remedy for, see Meadow Saf- fron. Vigogne dye, see Bell-flower, Mezereon, Sec. Vinegar, vegetables whence it may be prepared, see Bramble ; Citron ; Quicken-tree ;—an excel- lent article for making, see Grains. Violet dye, see Rose. Vulneraries, see Anemone ; Daisy ; Leadvvort. Ulcers, remedies for, see Ane- mone ; Arsenic; Basilicon; Birlh- 4 £ 34 GENERAL INDEX OF REFERENCE. Avort; Buckthorn ; Cock-roach ; Euphorbium; Louse-wort; Night- shade, the Deadly ; Sorrel; Ver- digrease ;—how checked, see Cau- tery ;—of the throat, remedies for, see Mustard, the Hedge. Ultramarine, substitutes for, see Smalt. Urine, discharge of, to prevent, see Squill ;—retention of, effica- cious remedies for, see Gourd; Ice ; [Saw-wort; Polygonum.] W. Walls, cheap plaster for, see Cement. Warm-Bathing, directions for, see Bath. Warts, to destroy, see Ammo- nia ; Poppy, the Horned. Waste-Land, how to improve, see Moor. Water, its utility to debilitated persons, when impregnated with ferruginous particles, see Baths;— to purify, see Alum ;—salt, how to make fresh, see Sea-water;— its advantage as a beverage, see Drinking ;—Colours, how to pre- pare, see Colour-making ;—Level, see Irrigation. [Water-proof, see Boot, Lea- ther, Shoe.] Wax, vegetables from which it is collected, see Bees. Weights, and ponderous bodies, machine for raising, see Jack. Wells, how to purify, see Air ;—bad consequences of the present mode of lining them, see Bricks. Wheat, best method of preserv- ing, see Corn ; Granary ;—Ger- man method of blanching, see Barley ;—sprouted, how to reme- dy, see Corn. Wheel-drag, an useful one de- scribed, see Drag. White-lead, substitutes for, see Paint, and Zinc. Wicks for Candles, see Cotton- grass. Wigs, pernicious consequences of Wearing, see Hair-powder. Wine, to clarify, see Albumen ; Alum; Common Burnet Saxi- frage ;—to improve its flavour, see Burnet, the Upland ;-—Vegetables which yield, see Alder-tree; Birch- tree ; Bird-cherry ; Bramble ; Bil- berries ; Sycamore-tree ; Quince- tree, Sec.—bottles, see Bottle. Wood, composition for preserv- ing, see Board ;—hoAV to stain, see Mahogany ;—to silver, see Bis- muth ;—to prevent the combustion of, see Alum. Wood-caterpillars, how destroy- ed, see Caterpillar. Wool, undressed, its use, see Moth ;—best method of preserv- ine, see Cloth ;—substitute for, see Willow. Wounds, of Horses, how to treat, see Horses ;—remedies for, see Basilicon ; Carolina-Poplar ; Fir-tree; Needle, the Common Shepherd's ; Opium. Worms, to destroy, see Aloe ; Box ; Loose-strife ; Mustard, the Hedge ; [Calomel ; Melia, Sec] Writings, easy mode of Copy- ing, see Letter. Y. Yarn, materials for, see Duck's- meat; Woundwort. YaAvs, see Limes. Yeast, experiments to make ar- tificial, see Fermentation. Yellow-dyes, substances which GENERAL INDEX OF REFERENCE.. 35 yield, see Acacia ; Agrimony, the Gale; Golden-Rod; Herb-Robert; Common ; Agrimony, the Hemp ; Balsamine ; Berberries ; Birch- tree ; Alder Buckthorn ; Purging Buckthorn; Buck-wheat; Burdock, the Lesser ; Chamomile ; Crab- tree J Feverfew ; Furze ; Fustic ; Horn-beam; John's-wort; Mari- gold ; Moss ; Mugwort; Nettle ; Plum-tree ; Poplar ; Ragwort. [Hydrastis Canadensis, Oak, (Quercitron.] or *m* The reader is requested to supply the occasional deficiencies, omissions, by reverting either to the primary articles, or by con- sulting the Indices of Synonyms, See. Volume. which are prefixed to each THE END. PRINTED BY ROBERT CARK, NO. 10, CHURCH-STREET. BOOKS PUBLISHED BY WM. YOUNG BIRCH AND ABRAHAM SMALL: Dr. RUSSELL's HISTORY OF MODERN EUROPE. THE great applause which this excellent book has received, is a sure proof of its merits.....The vast sale which it has had for several years, is a fair crite- rion by which the public opinion of its worth can be known......During the life ofthe learned author, it went through the annual sale of a very large impression. Every succeeding edition received some improvement, the result of his deep re- searches and great judgment......he lived to make it as perfect as in the nature of things it could be........The plan ofthe work is copious, but by an happy ar- rangement, the reader is at once presented with the cotemporary history of •very part of Europe. The book now offered to the public is from the last and most correct copy, and contains The Rise of Modern Kingdoms, generally: A particular History of the French Monarchy: Of Spain from the Dominions of the Visigoths : Italy..... with the Rise and Progress of the Temporal Power of the Popes: Britain..... from its relinquishment by the Romans : Ireland : The German Empire....from Charlemagne : The Empire of Constantinople...to its overthrow : Empire ofthe Arabs: Rise and Progress of the Turks, and Fall of the Greek Empire : His- tory of Portugal.....view ofthe Progress of Navigation.....Conquests in the East and West Indies.....Discovery of America, &c.: History of Sweden, Denmark, Norway, Russia, Poland, and Prussia: North America. ..as connnected with European History: And a very comprehensive and highly useful Chronology, IN FIVE VOLUMES OCTAVO, ALSO, THE HISTORY OF ANCIENT EUROPE, WITH A VIEW OF THE REVOLUTIONS IN ASIA AND AFRICA. IX A SERIES OF LETTERS TO A YOUNG NOBLEMAN. (In Two Volumes Octavo.) BY WILLIAM RUSSELL, LL D. AN AMERICAN EDITION OF BLACKSTONE'S COMMENTARIES : WITH NOTES OF REFERENCE TO THE CONSTITUTION AND LAWS OF THE FEDERAL GOVERNMENT OF THE UNITED STATES, AND OF TIIE COMMONWEALTH OF VIRGINIA: With an Appendix to each volume, containing Tracts upon such subjects as appeared necessary to form a Systematic View of the Laws of Virginia, as a member of the Federal Union. BY St. GEORGE TUCKER, Professor of Law in the University of William and Mart, and Chief Judge ofthe Court of Errors and Appeal in Virginia. THIS EDITION CONTAINS, I. An Introduction, or Preface. II. Notes on such parts of the Commentaries as treat on subjects which relate to correlative powers, delegated by the constitution and laws ofthe federal govern- ment, or ofthe state of Virginia; shewing in what instances the principles of the British constitution, the maxims of that government, the general customs, or com- mon law of England, acts of the British parliament, and particular customs, or prescriptions, have been adopted or confirmed; altered and amended, or wholly changed and repealed, by local circumstances, political considerations, or the ex« press provisions contained in our constitutions and statute law- III. To each volume of the Commentaries, there is an appendix; into which is introduced notes of a more considerable length, which cannot conveniently be in- serted in the body of the work, and short tracts upon some subjects arising out of our own constitution and laws. IV. The appendix to the first volume contains, 1. A discourse on govern- ment ; 2. An inquiry into the obligation and authority of the common law and statutes of England, in the United States respectively; and whether the same be the law of the federal government of the United States or not. 3. A view of the writ- ten law of the commonwealth of Virginia as partaking of the «onstitution and r laws of the federal government, and treaties made thereby ; as well as of its own particular constitution, and acts of its legislature; together with such acts of the parliament of Great-Britain, as may be still supposed to have any force or obliga- tion therein. 4. A view of the constitution of the United States; its relation and connection with the state constitutions; a brief examination of their respective powers; a short parallel between it and that of Great Britain; an examination of some of its defects ; and a view of the amendments thereto proposed by the several state conventions; and of such as may still be proper to be taken into further con- sideration. 5. A short view of the constitution of Virginia; an examination of some of Mr. Jefferson's positions respecting it; some hints with regard to an amendment of it, &c. 6. Observations on the right of conscience and the freedom of the press, in the United Stares of America. 7- A view of the origin, progress, and present state of slavery in Virginia, with a plan for its gradual abolition. 8. View ofthe laws respecting glebes and churches in Virginia. V. The appendix to the second volume contains a short abstract of the land laws in Virginia, with a reference to such as are not to be found in any general code. 2. A discourse on the law of descents in Virginia. 3. An engraved cop- perplate table of descents according thereto. 4. A table shewing the manner in which estates in parcenary shall be divided pursuant thereto. 5. A view ofthe laws respecting escheats and forfeitures, passed during the revolutionary war, and of the rights of foreigners to hold lands in Virginia. 6. A view of the laws res- pecting slaves as property. 7- A discourse on the subject of the laws restraining usury. VI. The appendix to the third volume contains a short view ofthe courts of the United States, and of the Commonwealth of Virginia, with an abstract of the laws by which the practice therein is regulated: stricture on the trial by jury in Virginia, under the existing laws, and a plan for their amendment. VII. The appendix of the fourth volume contains an abstract ofthe criminal jurisdiction ofthe federal government, and ofthe commonwealth of Virginia; and a short discourse on treason. VIII. The tracts mentioned in the fourth section, together with the Editor's preface and the Commentator's introduction, being all attached to the first volume of Blackstone; is, in this edition, divided into two volumes. The preface and introductions; and the five tracts first mentioned in the fourth section, is attached to the first volume, and the other three tracts mentioned in the same section, make the appendix to the second volume. (ryY The notes dispersed throughout the work amount to fourteen or fifteen hundred. Those which refer to the constitution and laws of the United States arc very numerous. The work is printed with a new type on superfine paper, and in five very large octavo volumes; and bound in neat law binding. Hi The Domestic Encyclopaedia Volumes 2-5. Willich, A.F.M. Philadelphia: William Young Birch..., 1804. National Library of Medicine Bcthcsda, MD CONDITION ON RECEIPT: The full leather bindings with leather spine labels were worn, particularly at the corners, edges, endcaps, and joints, and were deteriorated. The leather was powdery. A few labels were lifting or detached. The joints and internal hinges were broken, and the board attachment was very weak. 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